THE OF THE $oba .Scotian Institute of (Science HALIFAX, NOVA SCOTIA. VOLUME XIII PART 4 SESSION OF 1913-1914 HALIFAX Printed for the Institute by the Royal Print and Litho, Limited Date of Publication: 24th July, 1915. Price to Non-Members: One Half-Dollar CONTENTS Proceedings of Nova Scotian Institute of Science, Year 1913-1914: Page Annual Meeting . . . ; cxiii Presidential Address — Fergusson cxiii Deceased Members during the year cxiv Biological Chemistry cxvi Present Trend and Suggestions cxxi Treasurer’s Report cxxii Librarian’s Report cxxiii Election of Officers cxxiii First Ordinary Meeting cxxiv Second and Third Ordinary Meeting cxxv Fourth and Fifth Ordinary Meeting cxxvi Sixth Ordinary Meeting cxxvii Transactions of Nova Scotian Institute of Science, Year, 1913-1914: On the existence of a reducing endo e izyme in animal tissue. By D. Fraser Harris 259 Senecin J acobaea and Callimorpha J acobaea. By Henry S'. Poole 279 Remarks. By A. H. MacKay .' 284 The Geology oft a rortion of Shelburne Co., South Western Nova Scotia. By Sidney Powers 289 Coloured thinking and allied conditions. By D. Fraser Harris 308 Analyses of Nova Scotian soils. By L. C. Harlow 332 The Phenology of Nova Scotia, 19 13. By A. H. MacKay 347 Appendix iii: List of members ix List of Presidents since foundation, 31st December, 1862 xii ^HpHE attention of members of the Institute is directed to A the following recommendations of the British Association Committee on Zoological Bibliography and Publications: — “That authors7 separate copies should not be distributed privately before the paper has been published in the regular manner. “That it is desirable to express the subject of one’s paper in its title, while keeping the title as concise as possible. “ That new species should be properly diagnosed and figured when possible. “ That new names should not be proposed in irrelevant footnotes, or anonymous paragraphs. “ That references to previous publications should be made fully and correctly, if possible in accordance with one of the recognized sets of rules of quotations, such as that recently adopted by the French Zoological Society.” I PROCEEDINGS OF THE Jfoba (Scotian Institute of Science, SESSION OF 1913-1914. Annual Business Meeting. Civil Engineering Lecture Room , Technical College, Halifax; 8th October, 1913. The President, Donald M. Fergusson, in the chair. Others members present: Dr. A. H. MacKay, Dr. H. L. Bronson, Maynard Bowman, Dr. E. Mackay, Alexander McKay, Dr. D. Fraser Harris, Donald S. McIntosh, Carleton B. Nickerson, W. McKerron, J. H. L. Johnstone, and Harry Piers. Presidential Address: (1) Deceased Members; (2) Prob- lems in Biochemistry .-By Donald M. Fergusson, F.C.S., Halifax. I take this opportunity of thanking the members of this Society for the honor conferred in electing me as President, an honor the more appreciated as during this term we have reached our jubilee as a society. Proc & Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci., Vol. XIII. (cxiii) Proc. I. CX1V PROCEEDINGS. Deceased Members. During the past year we suffered the loss of two members who have passed from this life. George Ufham Hay, Ph. B., M. A., D. Sc., F. R. S. C., corresponding member of this society, was born at Norton, N. B., June 18th, 1843. Starting as a journalist he became an educationist and was a power for advancement in our sister province. With Dr. A. H. MacKay, he established the Educational Review, which he managed and edited; and latterly he published several historical works. It was as a botanist that we knew him. He was a president of the Natural History Society, St. John, president of the Botanical Club of Canada, and member of the New England Botanical Club. In 1904 he was president of Section IV of the Royal Society of Canada. In 1902 he was elected a corresponding member of this Institute. His contributions to botany were many and varied and are found in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada, Bulletin of the Natural History Society, N. B., and Educational Review. He also contributed papers on educa- tion and natural science to the Proceedings of the Dominion Education Association, Educational Institute of N. B., and Educational Review. James Gordon MacGregor, M. A., D. Sc., LL. D., F. R. S., F. R. S. C., F. R. S. E., was a native of Halifax, N. S., being born March 31st, 1852. Educated here he obtained his B. A. at Dalhousie University in 1871 and M. A. in 1874. From hence he proceeded to Edinburgh University and to Leipzic and obtained the D. Sc. degree from London Uni- versity in 1876. In the same year he became lecturer on phy- sics at Dalhousie, changing to a like position at Clifton College, England, a year later. Coming back to Dalhousie University to take the Munro professorship of physics in 1879, he re- mained there until 1901 when he left to become professor of natural philosophy in Edinburgh University, succeeding his PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS — FERGUSSON. CXV old teacher Prof. P. G. Tait, and occupying that post until his death. As a student at Dalhousie University he had a career unsurpassed in the history of that institution, the calendar of 1871 showing his name opposite every prize open to him, and his subsequent life was but a continuance of that appetite and capactiy for work which distinguished his early days. While holding the position of Munro Professor of Physics at Dalhousie, he for several summers during his vacations, returned to Edinburgh to work in the larger laboratories there, and thus when Edinburgh University called him, he was no stranger, but one whose worth and value were known. At Dalhousie University he acted as Secretary of the Faculty of Arts, and later as Secretary to the Senate, and there as in his laboratory and class rooms he was a source of inspir- ation to those with whom he came in contact. The same may be said of him in relation to our society which he joined in January, 1887. He was our President 1888-91, and for the work he did in this connection I must refer you to the paper on Past Presidents given at the beginning of this last session by our able Secretary, Mr. Piers. At Edinburgh, he, during the twelve years there, developed and extended the Department of Natural Philosophy, chang- ing the old Infirmary in Drummond Street into a well equipped physical laboratory, and his energies in that direction were only limited by lack of funds. A foundation F. R. S. C., he was President of the mathe- matical and physical section of that body in 1892, was a Fellow and Councillor of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and in 1900 was elected a F. R. S. He contributed papers to our Society, to the Trans. Roy. Soc’y, Canada, Philosophical Magazine and the Physical Review, and was author of “Kinematics and Dynamics’’ (1887-1902) and “Physical Laws and Observations.” CXV1 PROCEEDINGS. Taken suddenly ill on the morning of May 21st, 1913, he had time to call his son and died almost immediately after- wards. We deeply feel his loss, for to many of us he was a true friend. A man of unselfsh character and lovable, he devoted himself entirely to those around him, to his students, his fellow scientists and his family. Cognizant of our own loss, we can extend our sympathies to those bound by family ties, whose loss is not only that of the man but of husband and father. Biological Chemistry. The chief event, this session, in our society, has been the passing of the fiftieth milestone, and although a review would naturally suggest itself, yet any fair summary of our work would exceed the usual limit of the annual address. I have chosen rather to speak of a branch of chemistry that is now beginning, or rather has well begun, and that bids fair to be foremost in the field during the next half century. Fifty years ago in 1863 Duvaine first established a connec- tion between bacteria and disease, identifying a bacillus as the cause of anthrax. Down through the years intervening has research continued; bacteriology has grown to be one of the most important of the biological sciences, and one whose applications have immensely benefited humanity. One by one the bacteria, pathogenic and nonpathogenic, were isolated, and there followed methods of growing, staining and identification. From inoculations of filtrates from culture growths of pathogenic - bacteria, physiological disturbances identical with those in the disease were observed. Immunity in varying degree had been known as a result of disease, and it was found that immunity could be obtained by inoculation of the artificial growth filtrate. Thus arrived the ideas of toxins and antitoxins which form the basis of the modern immunity theory. Other bodies formed by bacterial infection were noted, such as lysins and agglutinins, the formation of the latter PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS — FERGUSSON. CXV11 being taken advantage of in the Widal test for typhoid in- fection. A vast amount of work was done on the effect of introducing into the blood stream foreign elements such as blood corpuscles of other species, albuminous bodies, e.g., serums, extract of muscle, etc. These developed antibodies, and we have now the biological blood test, precipitin test for flesh, and many others. Here we have evidence of a large number of reactions — - chemical reactions — between bodies of whose composition and properties little is known. To investigate such is the work of a new individual, the biolog- ical chemist. There lies open to him a new and immense field in the chemistry and physics of life, in the science of the cell, with its protoplasmic contents and their activities. The biochemist is a new specialist who must have a long and varied training, for so co-related are the sciences that he who would interpret aright the phenomena he observes must have the broadest foundation on which to build. With some point of kinship to the toxins we have as cell products the Enzymes. The enzmyes of digestion and fer- mentation have long been known and investigated, and a host of enzymes are classed as catalysers, and much work has been done on the dynamics of reaction and the effect of activating and inhibiting agents. Being catalysers, accelerators of reaction, they need only be, and are, present in small quantities, but they have a most important part in synthesis and degradation of organic matter in the life cycle. Up to the present it cannot be said that any enzyme has been obtained in a state of purity. Methods of purification employed destroy activity for some reason or other, so that little is known of their constitution beyond a general analysis. Work is being done on the physics of the cell, on surface tension, osmotic pressure, etc. About two years ago Prof. MacCallum by means of a microchemical stain was able under the microscope to show the distribution of Potassium in cells, CXV111 PROCEEDINGS. and connecting the distribution of electrolyte with surface tension gave an explanation of muscle contraction and the associated nerve impulse. He also showed that a concentra- tion of electrolyte, or ions, at one point in the living cell would explain why is was that cellular membranes acted differently in the organism from the way in which they act as dead membranes in the laboratory during osmotic experiments. Last year Czapek published results on higher plant cells, which have a bearing on secretion and excretion. He found that these cells did not part with their soluble constituents in osmosis until the surrounding media had its tension lowered to .65 (water air surface-1). Red blood corpuscles and yeast cells did not give up haemoglobins and invertase respectively until the surface tension was reduced to .5. One line of biological research that is going on at the pre- * sent time, one on which much time and money has been spent, and the research which appeals most to the world at large, is the endeavor to find the cause and cure of cancer. The cell of abnormal growth presents a difficult biological problem. Here is a cell which breaks away from the mechanism controll- ing growth, and starts on a career of its own, like a semi- independent organism. Proliferating with increased rapidity it departs from its type also in division, showing varying ab- normality in karyokinesis. After the physical chemistry of the normal cell is known, the abnormal cell will still present itself. Two new and important methods of technique have recently been announced which may aid in the solution of the problem. One is Dr Carrel’s method of tissue growing in vitro, and the other is the method of intra vitarn staining as shown by Prof. Goldmann before the Royal Society last year. Let us hope the cure will be discovered long before the biochemist arrives at the scientific explanation of the cell of abnormal growth. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS — FERGUSSON. Cxix The rediscovery of Mendel's work in 1900 gave an impetus to scientific breeding experiments with animals and with plants Results of economic importance and scientific value have followed. Cambridge has given the English farmer cereals increased in strength and yield and immune to rust, heredi- tary qualities capable of being transmitted in accordance with Mendel's law of segregation. As the chemist now looks to the physicist for the constitution of his unit, the atom; so the biologist appeals for the exploration of his unit, the cell, to the biochemist. With the union of gametes we have the cell in which the problem of heredity is wrapped up; and as Dr. Schafer has said, we must not be blind to the possibility that these transmitted qualities may be connected with specific chemical characters of the transmitted elements: in other words, that heredity is one of the questions the eventual solution of which we must look to the chemist to provide. Miss Wheldale has recently done work on the coloring of flowers, finding chromogens supposedly derived from gluc- osides by hydrolysis, in which the color is developed by enzyme oxidases and peroxidases. White flowers may be of two kinds, one in which chromogens are absent and the other in which they are present, but unacted on by the enzymes. Prof. Keeble and Dr. Armstrong have investigated this subject and developed chemical tests to distinguish the two kinds of white flowers, to do which previously, breeding experiments would have been required. The significance of this is, that here we have the beginning of the chemists' work on heredity, color being a Mendelian unit-character. Examination of the bacterial content of soils has shown their intimate connection with plant growth, and the parts played by some of these organisms have been worked out. Re- cent work on partial sterilisation of soils, after which the bacterial growth is much enlarged with consequent increase in crops suggests the destruction of protozoan enemies of the bacteria as the cause of increased bacterial content. cxx PROCEEDINGS. The term catalytic fertilizers has been applied to com- pounds of manganese, boron, zinc, etc., which when added to the soil in small doses have in cerain cases caused remarkable yields of crops. The U. S. Dept, of Agriculture has given us a soil poison- ing theory, finding di-hydroxystearic acid present in impover- ished soils. Experiments at Rothampstead, England, have failed to confirm this. All these problems are still under investigation as are those of soil solutions, capillarity of soils, water level, etc., in relation to plant growth. I have mentioned only a few of the subjects which the biological chemist is investigating, for the field of research is large indeed. To show the growth of this new science, I may mention that Chemical Abstracts (published by American Chem. Society) for August 1908 contained 52 references to articles on biological chemistry whilst the August numbers for this year contained over 600 abstracts. In the future the biochemist must simplify the language of immunity, replacing the present word-pictures by definite molecular formulae and equations. We look to him to isolate, find the composition of and eventually synthesize the enzy- mes, secretins, hormones, antitoxins and a host of other bodies. He must find out nature’s secret when she manu- factures in her laboratory by means of enzyme and chloroph- yll the countless substances found in plant life, and must give us the enzyme pr other catalyst to work at ordinary temperatures and utilise the sun’s radiations going to waste around us. In short, he must solve the problem of photosyn- thesis. Ciamician, in his address before the International Congress of Applied Science last year, has given us a picture of the future, thus: “On the arid lands there will spring up industrial colonies without smoke and without smoke-stacks; forests of glass tubes will extend over the plains and glass buildings will rise every- where; inside of these will take place PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS — FERGUSSON. CXX1 the photo-chemical processes that hitherto have been the guarded secrets of the plants, but that will have been mastered by human industry which will know how to make them bear eveu more abundant fruit than nature, for nature is not in a hurry and mankind is.” After the physics and chemistry of the life processes are laid bare, after metabolism and its derangements are understood, then may come some idea of life and its origin. Present ideas of origin may be summed: (1) that life is originating even now around us, but beyond our powers of observation, (2) that life had its origin in finite time, and (3), the view of Arrhenius, that life had no origin in finite time but was coeval with matter and energy at infinite time. If the physicist destroy our notion of matter there will remain but life and energy; and it may be that tha,t dualism is more apparent than real, for we only know life by energy change. The Present Trend and Suggestions. The solution of these problems necessitates long and con- tinued research and that means time and money. I should like to see our provincial colleges so endowed as to give much more opportunity for research than at present. Sir .J. J- Thompson, regarding students, has said: “I have always been struck by the quite remarkable improvement in judgment, independence of thought and maturity produced by a year’s research. Research develops qualities that are apt to atrophy when the student is preparing for examination and quite apart from the addition of new knowledge to our store it is of the greatest importance as a means of education.” Not only could we have more research for our students but our professors should be so situated as to be able to engage in research, and not be tied down attending to all the small details of college work. A feature of our day has been the appointment of national commissions on Conservation of National Resources. The CXX11 PROCEEDINGS. powers of these bodies could be vastly extended to providing endowment for research and founding establishments like the Kaiser Whilhelm Institut in Germany. If civilised nations could see the absurdity of settling ethical issues by destruc- tion of cellular tissues, large sums of money would be available for research into conserving the national resources which we use at present, and tapping those going to waste around us. We might then feel less ashamed of what future generations will think of the manner in which we squander their birthright of mine, field and forest. We have passed our fiftieth year and some of our younger members may see the centenary of our society. Then many present researches will have been finished but we can assure ourselves that the field ahead will be more expanded than we dream of. Tonight we have reports fromMuseum and Science Library. Fifty years after this, I hope that commensurate with the large increase of population we see looming ahead the reports will show that each of these institutions will occupy as much space as the whole of the buildings in part of which they are now housed. The growth of such institutions but reflects the vi- tality of that phase of intellectual development which it is our pleasure and duty as a society, to advance, and which must be carefully fostered if we in this Province would keep pace with other peoples in deriving pleasure and profit from the search into Nature’s secrets. The Treasurer, M. Bowman, presented his annual report, showing that the receipts for the year ending 31st September, 1913, were $1,042.43; the expenditures, $914.17; and the balance in current account, $128.26; while the reserve fund was $300.00, and the permanent endowment fund, $939.49. The report was received and adopted. Attention was drawn to the desirability of raising the permanent endowment fund to one thousand dollars, and then investing it in suitable bonds. This was referred to the Council for consideration. REPORTS — ELECTION OF OFFICERS. CXX111 The Librarian’s report was presented by H. Piers, showing that 1,763 books and pamphlets had been received by the Institute through its exchange list during the year 1912; and 1,298 have been received during the first eight months of the present year (1913). The total number of books and pamphlets received by the Provincial Science Library (with which those of the Institute are incorporated) during the year 1912, was 3,385. The total number in the Science Library on 31st December, 1912, was 48,882. Of these, 35,848 (about 73 per cent.) belong to the Institute, and 13,034 to the Science Library proper. The number of books borrowed was 440, besides those consulted in the library. No binding or purchasing was done by the library, directly, during the year, there being no regular grant for the library’s support. The report was received and adopted. D. S. McIntosh, M. Sc., instructor in geology, Dalhousie University, delegate appointed to represent the Institute, read a report on the work of the Twelfth Session of the International Geological Congress, which was held at Toronto, Canada, from 7th to 14th August, 1913, there being 950 members enrolled and 433 in attendance. The Nova Scotian excursion, 20th to 29th July, was one of the most interesting of those held. The report was received and adopted. It was reported that Horace Greeley Perry, M. A., professor of biology, Acadia University, Wolfville, N. S., had been elected an associate member on 12th May last. The following were elected officers for the ensuing year (1913-14): President, — Donald MacEachern Fergusson, F. C. S., ex officio F. R. M. S. First Vice-President, — President Arthur Stanley Mac- kenzie, Ph. D., F. It. S. C. Second Vice-President, — Alexander Howard MacKay, LL. D., F. R. S. C. €XX1V PROCEEDINGS. Treasurer, — Maynard Bowman, B. A. Corresponding Secretary , — Professor Ebenezer Mackay, Ph. D. Recording Secretary and Librarian, — Harry Piers. Councillors without office, — Professor Clarence Leander Moore, M. A., F. R. S. C.; Alexander McKay, M. A.; Professor David Fraser Harris, M. D., C. M., D. Sc., F. R. S. E.; Donald Sutherland McIntosh, B. A., M. Sc.; Carleton Bell Nicker- son, M. A.; Professor Howard Logan Bronson, Ph. D.; and William Harrop Hattie, M. D. Auditors, — Watson Lenley Bishop and William Mc- Kerron. First Ordinary Meeting. 'Civil Engineering Lecture Room, Technical College, Halifax; 10th November, 19 IS. The President, D. M. Fergusson, in the chair. David Fraser Harris, M. B., C. M., M. D., D. Sc., F. R. S. E., professor of physiology and histology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, read a paper “On the Existence of a Reducing Endo-Enzyme in Animal Tissues”. (See Trans- actions, p. 259). The subject was discussed by the Presi- dent, Dr. A. H. MacKay, Prof. Moore, C. B. Nickerson, and Prof. E. Mackay. A paper by Henry S. Poole, D. Sc., F. R. S. C., Guild- ford, Surrey, Eng., on “ Senecio jacobcea and its parasite, Callimorpha jacobcea: the Ragwort and the Cinnabar Moth,” with additional remarks thereon by the reader, was read by Dr. A. H. MacKay. (See Transactions, p. 279). The subject was discussed by Dr. E. Mackay, C. B. Nickerson, W. MacKerron, and others; and it was agreed that some steps should be taken to suppress such a noxious weed as the Ragwort. The matter was referred to the Council. ORDINARY MEETINGS. CXXV Second Ordinary Meeting. Civil Engineering Lecture Room , Technical College, Halifax; 19th January, 1914. The President, D. M. Fergusson, in the chair. It was reported that on 28th November, Stanley New- lands Graham, B. Sc., professor of mining, N. S. Technical College, Halifax, had been elected an ordinary member, and E. Chesley Allen, Yarmouth, N. S., an associate member. Herbert Bradford Vickery, Dalhousie University, read a paper entitled “Notes on the Analysis of ‘Ironstone’ from the King’s Quarry, North West Arm, Halifax”. (See Transactions, p. 209). The subject was discussed by the President, Dr. E. Mackay, C. B. Nickerson, Dr. Bron- son, Dr. A. H. MacKay, and H. Piers; and a vote of thanks was presented to Mr. Vickery. Third Ordinary Meeting. Civil Engineering Lecture Room, Technical College, Halifax; 16th February, 1914- The President, D. M. Fergusson, in the chair. A paper by Sidney Powers, Geological Museum, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass., on “The Geology of a Portion of Shelburne County, Southwestern Nova Scotia,” was read by Prof. McIntosh. (See Transactions, p. 289). The subject was discussed by Prof. McIntosh, the Presi- dent, H. Piers, and others. A paper by Frank W. Dodd, C. E., of the Whitehead Torpedo Works, Weymouth, Eng., entitled, “Additional Notes on ‘Integral Atomic Weights/ ” was read by Prof. E. Mackay, (See Transactions, p. 223). The discussion which CXXV1 PROCEEDINGS. followed, was taken part in by the President, Dr. A. H. MacKay, Prof. E. Mackay, and C. B. Nickerson. Votes of thanks were passed to the authors of these two papers, Messrs. Powers and Dodd. Fourth Ordinary Meeting. Civil Engineering Lecture Room, Technical College, Halifax; 9th March, 1914- The President, D. M. Fergusson, in the chair. John H. L. Johnstone, B. Sc., demonstrator of physics, Dalhousie University, Halifax, read a paper, “On the Elec- trical Properties of Acetic Acid in the Solid and Liquid Phases”. (See Transactions, p. 191). The subject was discussed by Dr. Bronson and President A. S. Mac- kenzie. Professor David Fraser Harris, M. D., D. Sc., F. R. S. E., Dalhousie University, read a paper on “Coloured Thinking”. (See Transactions, p. 308). The subject was discussed by the President, Dr. E. Mackay, President Mackenzie, H. Piers, Dr. A. H. MacKay, and others. Fifth Ordinary Meeting. Civil Engineering Lecture Room, Technical College, Halifax ; 20th April, 191 4 . The Vice-President, Dr. A. H. MacKay, in the chair. Professor L. C. Harlow, B. Sc., Provincial Normal College, Truro, read a paper on “Analyses of Nova Scotian Soils”. (See Transactions, p. 322). The subject was dis- cussed by the Chairman, G. F. Murphy, Prof. D. S. Mc- Intosh, W. McKerron, and H. Piers. ORDINARY MEETINGS. CXXY11 Sixth Ordinary Meeting. Provincial Museum, Technical College, Halifax; 18th May , 1914- The President, D. M. Fergusson, in the chair. A paper by A. H. MacKay, LL. D., F. R. S. C., on “PhenO- logical Observations in Nova Scotia, 1913”, was read by title. (See Transactions, page 347). Harry Piers, Recording Secretary. TRANSACTIONS OF THE Ho\m ^cotkii Institute of ^Science, SESSION OF 1913-1914. On the Existence of a Reducing Endo-Enzyme in Animal Tissues. — By D. Fraser Harris, M. B., C. M., M D., B. Sc., (Lond.); D. Sc., (Birm.); F. R. S. E., Professor of Physiology and Histology in the Dalhousie University , Halifax, Nova Scotia. (Read 10 November 1913) I. Historical. It has for many years been recognized that both living and “surviving” animal tissues possess deoxidizing or re- ducing powers. Hoppe-Seyler(1)in 1883 was the first to draw attention to the presence of powerful reducing processes in living tissues. He suggested that, through reduction, molecular oxygen was rendered active by conversion into nascent oxygen and thus enabled to oxidize certain constituents of tissues after the manner in which hydrogen-saturated pal- ladium-foil can oxidize indigo. Paul Ehrhch(2)two years later published his researches on the reducing powers of tissues during life and at the moment of death. Proc. & Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci , Vol. XIII. (259) Trans. 18. 260 EXISTENCE OF A REDUCING ENDO-ENZYME He classified tissues as regards their oxygen-avidity as follow: — 1. Those in which indo-phenol blue remains unchanged : these he regarded as saturated with oxygen. Examples; heart, renal cortex and the grey matter of the central nervous system. 2. Those which reduce indo-phenol blue to indo-phenol white, but not alizarine blue to alizarine white; Examples: striated and non-striated muscle, gland parenchyma. 3. Those which reduce alizarine blue to alizarine white, that is those with the greatest oxygen-avidity. Examples; lung, liver, fat-cells and the gastric mucosa. Ehrlich injected the pigments subcutaneously intra vitam ; he noticed that a certain degree of heat arrested the reducing-power, but he did not suggest that tissue-reduction was due to an enzyme. Between 1888 and 1909 J. de Rey-Pailhade(3) wrote on a substance he called philothion which he regarded as one of the mercaptans and indistinguishable from cysteine. To this substance he attributed great importance in the fixation of oxygen by tissues. Spitzer (4) in 1894 noticed that after the death of the animal, while the reducing powers of the tissues increased, the oxidizing capacity rapidly disappeared. He also noticed that the temperature of 100° C might not always destroy the reducing power, whereas it always destro3red the oxidizing. In 1895 Sir Victor Horsley and A. Butler Harris(6)made a report to the Scientific Grants Committee of the British Medical Association on the appearance of tissues of animals injected subcutaneously intra vitam with methylene blue. In the milk and in the urine a leuco form was found. On faradization of the living cortex cerebri these workers demon- strated a state of reduction around the stimulated spot at a time when the blue coloration elsewhere was at its height. The IN ANIMAL TISSUES. — HARRIS. 261 decoloration was not due to ionized hydrogen at the kathode, for when the cortical excitability had disappeared, the re- duction of the pigment at a stimulated spot could no longer be obtained. These workers therefore recognized the simultaneous activity of two processes oxidation and reduction, the precise colour at any moment being the result of the relative pre- dominance of the one process over the other. Frequently they found that oxidation prevailed over reduction. In 1896 I(5)*found that living tissues of cat and rabbit, —kidney, liver, heart, glands — -reduced the blue pot- assio-ferric ferrocyanide in the Prussian blue and gelatine injection mixture to the green or white leuco state of the di- potassio-ferrous ferrocyanide which ou exposure to air slowly, or by treatment with hydrogen dioxide rapidly, became blue again. The pigment was reduced only in the washed out smaller vessels and capillaries; in presence of blood not washed out of the larger vessels, the Prussian blue remained unreduced. The colour of the blood was therefore a purple. In 1899 the ternTTeductase” as indicating a tissue- ferment, capable of effecting reduction processes seems to have been first used by Abelous and Gerard. (7) Pozzi-EscoT(8)in 1902 published the results of work onthe reducing action of vegetable and animal tissues on solutions of indigo, litmus and Prussian blue out of contact with air. He confirmed Rey-Pailhade in finding that the tissues could form hydrogen sulphide from sulphur and could reduce potassium iodide when out of contact with air. He held that a reductase might be suspected when a living tissue decomposes H2 02, but does not affect a mixture of guaiacum and H2 02. *At this date I had seen only Ehrlich’s paper on oxygen avidity. 262 EXISTENCE OF A REDUCING ENDO-ENZYME C. A. HERTER(9)in 1904 and 1905 published two papers on the reducing powers of living tissues. He injected methylene blue intra vitam.. He stated that “the liver usually retains a high grade of reducing activity for several hours after death.’ ’ He found lung, suprarenal capsule and grey matter of central nervous system all reduced the blue to the leuco state. An animal which was chilled by wet cloths or ice “exhibited the powers of reduction much diminished by cold”. Herter showed that, conversely, the reducing power of the tissues of -an animal injected with the micro-organisms of a specific fever was increased. * Underhill and Closson (10) in 1905 confirmed Herter’s views and came to the conclusion that their experiments demonstrated the simultaneous action of both oxidative and reducing processes in the animal organism. In 1906 Professor J. C. Irvine and I(u)showed that the intra vitam reduction of Prussian blue was not a deoxidation, but the removal of an ionic charge. By perfusing the surviving kidney of a sheep with the Prussian blue mixture, I obtained from the ureter an abso- lutely colourless artificial urine which was blued immediately on treatment with H2 02. Authors with increasing frequency are recognizing the existence of reductase. Oppenheimer (12), for instance in his large work on “Fer- ments” does so: most of the authors of text-books mention the reducing power of tissues even when they do not recognize “reductase”. Some, however, frankly postulate a reducing ferment; thus, G. P. Mudge(13) writes, “If an albino does carry a chromogenous body which only needs the influence of an oxidizing or reducing ferment to cause it to produce pigment” > etc. IN ANIMAL TISSUES. — HARRIS. 263 II. Materials used in Judging of Reduction by Tissues. These may be classified as: — 1. (a)Those containing, and (b)those not containing oxygen. II. (c)Those which are and (d)those which are not pigments. A. Pigments : 1. Containing oxygen: haemoglobin; methaemoglobin ; sodium-indigo-disulphonate. 2. Not containing oxygen: methylene bine; Prussian blue. B. Non-pigments: 1. Those with oxygen, e. g., sodium nitrate. 2. Those without oxygen, e. g., ferric chloride. III. Methods of Studying the Reducing Powers of Tissues. All the following methods of bringing the pigments and other substances into contact with the tissues or tissue-juices, or other preparations of tissues have been tried: (a) immer- sing pieces of surviving organs in the test substances; (b) mixing the liquids with aqueous, saline or dilute glycerol so-called “solutions” of reductase; (d) injecting surviving organs with the Prussian blue and gelatine mixture; (e) perfusing this injection mass or, for instance, ferric chloride, through the vascular system of a surviving organ; (f) perfusing the blood-vessels, and obtaining in the case of the kidney, artificial urine, in the case of the liver, artificial bile. As might be expected, the method merely of immersing pieces of tissue was by far the least satisfactory. No good results comparable with those got by Dr. Vernon (14) in the case of oxidase were obtained, but in this respect reductase resembles glycogenase, an undoubted endo-enzyme. The routine method followed was to use the press-juice from a Klein’s press. This was kept sterile under toluene. Its reducing power gradually declined in energy, until at the end of three months it had vanished. 264 EXISTENCE OF A REDUCING ENDO-ENZYME Various extracts of organs were made — aqueous, saline and glycerol — but as their reducing power was considerably weaker than that of press-juice, these were not extensively used in examining the properties of reductase. Injection of the Prussian blue and gelatine mixture into the blood-vessels of organs was not used on many occasions. It was, however, originally by this method that my attention was drawn to tissue reduction, as I suspected that the “fading” of the mixture in the capillaries of the parenchyma of liver and kidney was chemically of the nature of a reduction. This does not constitute a convenient method owing to the liabil- ity of the gelatine to “set” if the proper temperature is not maintained. The revival of the blue colour in an injected and almost colorless kidney or liver cut open and exposed to the air or to the action of H2 02, is striking when seen for the first time. The vessels on the cut surface begin to show up like letters written in “sympathetic” ink. It was by this method that I obtained an artificial, gelatinous, leuco urine from the sheep’s ureter: it became blue on treatment with H2 02. The method of injecting ferric chloride through the portal system and examining both the hepatic emergent fluid and the contents of the gall-bladder for ferrous chloride, in both of which it was found, proved a satisfactory method. IV. Preparation of the Juice. The following may be taken as typical of the technique. A liver removed from the animal (rabbit, cat, dog, pig) before the heat has left it, is perfused through the portal vein with tap water at 40° C or with 0.75% NaCl until the water from the hepatic vein is colorless. The organ is then rapidly cut into largish pieces from which a good deal of water is allowed to drain away. The pieces are then cut up into much smaller bits and forced into the juice-press in which they are crushed IN ANIMAL TISSUES. HARRIS. 265 under considerable pressure. A fawn coloured, viscid liquid drips out and is received under toluene. This juice is sub- sequently ground up with powered glass and filtered through two layers of cheese cloth to free it from connective-tissue and the debris of blood-vessels, etc. Some preventative of putre- faction must be used although any such substance reduces the energy of tissue-respiration. V. Description of a Typical Observation. Three cubic centimeters of absolutely fresh press-juice prepared as just described, were shaken in a test-tube with 10 c.c. of 0.05% solution of soluble Prussian blue at room temperature (about 17° C). The blue colour began to disap- pear immediately, and in less than a minute after passing through light blue, light green and greenish grey, the mixture became light grey in colour. No trace^of pigment remained. When the same volume of boiled juice was used, no decrease in the intensity of the blue colour of the solution was observed at the end of several hours. The reducing activity of the juice was found to diminish somewhat rapidly with time. With a mixture containing 3 c.c. of the press-juice 24 hours old, and 10 c.c. of 0.05% Prussian blue solution, it was found that ten minutes elapsed before its colour became green grey, and two hours before it became completely colorless, (grey). VI. Examination of Possible Fallacies. Since the change from the coloured to the leuco condition is the sign of reduction having taken place, one must guard against confusing the fading of pigments through reduction with fading from causes other than bio-chemical reduction. (a) The earliest criticism offered was that the fading of the Prussian blue was due to the presence of “alkaline salts”. Now free alkali, which undoubtedly fades Prussian blue, does not exist in the tissues or their juices. The inorganic salts of tissues and tissue-juices do not bring about any fading of soluble Prussian blue. 266 EXISTENCE OF A REDUCING ENDO-ENZYME Ringer’s solution added warm to Prussian blue produces no change of colour beyond that due to a corresponding dilution with water. None of the salts of the tissues, NaCl, KC1, Na2C03, Ca3 2 (P04), Na3P04 in strengths under 1% solution added warm singly or in any kind of combination, caused any fading to the green or to the leuco condition, whereas the subsequent addition of such a reducer as pyrogallol at once caused fading through green to white. When the gelatine and Prussian blue mixture is used to inject organs still living, the pigment is reduced, as I believe, by the agency of the living tissues; and histologists aware of this fading, attribute it to“contact with the alkaline salts of the tissues.” Thus Rawitz(16)recommends that a little acetic acid be added to the injection-mass to prevent the “fading” by alkaline tissues. Naturally, this criticism applies only to pigmentary substances, and has no applicability to non-pigmentary salts used to demonstrate bio-chemical reduction. (b) The next source of fallacy one must bear in mind is the possible putrefaction of the proteins of press-juice in in specimens of juice kept for more than a few days. Toluene was the antiseptic used for all press-juices; some kind of antiseptic is absolutely necessary, although Battelli(23) has emphasized the inhibitory effect of antiseptics on the enzymic and respiratory powers of tissues. The antiseptic used had obviously to be one which would not of itself bleach or reduce the pigments or other substances and would not act as an activator or inhibitant of the enzyme. Sodium fluoride and many other substances had to be rejected on some of those grounds. Toluene apparently prevented putrefaction in the press-juices used. Had the reductions in old juice (two to six weeks old) been due to putrefaction or autolytic substances, then the reducing power should have IN ANINAL TISSUES. FRASER. 267 steadily increased with the age of the juice. But exactly the opposite was. found, the longen the juice was kept under toluene the less it reduced until afrer ten weeks or so it did not reduce at all. But putrefaction would have been progressive, and therefore reduction due to putrefaction would have been more marked as time went on. I had, however, positive evidence of the absence of putrefactive micro-organisms in a specimen of liver juice three months under toluene, which was examined for me by Dr. Sholto Douglas of the University of Birmingham and pronounced sterile. It seems clear, then, that the reductions studied were not brought about by the products of putrefaction or autolysis. (c) As regards fallacies, another point to be remembered is that the substances employed — Prussian blue, ferric chloride, etc., are all more or less poisonous. We cannot, therefore, ex- pect the living tissue to reduce unlimited quantities of such substances whether pigmentary or not. Thus only the earlier portions of liquids emerging from perfused organs or being excreted into the gall-bladder or ureter should be examined for reduced material. Because a kidney perfused indefinitely long with ferric chloride does not continue to produce unlimited quantities of ferrous chloride is no evidence that it was not originally able to reduce some of it, for such substances, even in dilute solution, are more or less toxic to living protoplasm, especially in experiments in which that protoplasm is receiving no blood. (d) The last criticism is that of A. Heffter (17) which is directed not so much against the methods of judging of re- duction by the fading of pigments, as against the whole conception of tissue-reduction being enzymic in nature. Heffter holds that the labile H of colloids in such a grouping as cysteine is able to effect all the reductions observed. He says that crystallized egg-albumen can bring about many reduc- 268 EXISTENCE OF A REDUCING ENDO-ENZYME tions. Heffter’s contention is that proteins apart from life can actively reduce. Confining ourselves first of all to Prussian blue, it is certain that all proteins do not cause this pigment to fade, at least within times measured by hours and at room-temperature. For one thing, gelatine itself without acid does not cause soluble Prussian blue to fade even before it is injected into an organ and even when heated. It is well known that this injection-mass mixed with the blood-proteins in the large vessels of mammals at body temp- erature is not reduced or caused to fade. Neither is methylene blue; those pigments remaining blue produce along with the red of the blood a purple colour. If Heffter be correct, we should expect the blood-proteins to reduce these pigments to a pale green or leuco condition, this they certainly do not do. If one mixes a saline solution of pure serum-albumen or serum-globulin with Prussian blue, no fading takes place at room temperature within 24 hours. In 1912 my co-worker at that time, Dr. H. J. M.Creigh- ton(18)of the Dalhousie University, Halifax, N. S., investigated this subject with very great care and published his results in the Transactions of the Nova Scotian Institute of Science. Dr. Creighton showed that if one mixes 10 c.c. of a 15% solution of egg-white in dilute NaCl with 10 c.c. of a 0.05% solution of soluble Prussian blue (potassium ferric ferrocyan_ ide) and keeps the mixture at 60° C the colour will have faded at the end of an hour. The fading is gradual. Dr. Creighton writes, “With pure white-of-egg at a higher temperature, the decoloration of the soluble Prussian blue was found to proceed with greater rapidity”. On the other hand, white-of-egg solution and 0.05% Prussian blue mixed and kept at room temperature , showed no fading or change of colour at the end of six hours. Dr. Creighton further showed that the iron ion originally trivalent in the soluble Prussian blue is divalent in the IN ANIMAL TISSUES. HARRIS. 269 colloidal complex of albumen and the pigment. There has therefore" been reduction. Further, this colorless colloidal complexTcan be boiled for a short time without its coagulating. For convenience, I call these phenomena, “the Creighton effects”. Now there is one significant difference as regards the interaction between proteins and soluble Prussian blue and the interaction between press-juice and that pigment, namely, that whereas there is no fading of the blue in the presence of protein at the end of many hours, the blue in contact with fresh juice fades at once. These are clearly not the same phenomenon; for one thing, in the case of the protein mix- ture the concentration of protein is very much greater than it is in press-juice, but its effect is very much slower. Further, if the fading of the pigments is due to protein, then the juice kept for three months, in which the protein is well preserved and is sterile, should reduce as well or almost as well as fresh juice; but this is noticeably not so. Again, the rapid falling off in potency as regards reduction within the first day would have no meaning as a phenomenon due to molecular groupings and labile hydrogen, whereas it has a meaning with reference to the deterioration of the bio- chemical activity of a ferment. The fact that glycerol extracts of dried liver and of dried kidney possess some reducing power, is more in accord with the conception of that reduction being due to an enzyme than to a protein, for the glycerol extract of dried liver had some cognizable reducing power, and it could have taken up very little protein in “solution”. Glycerol by itself has no reducing power. Again, glycerol extracts deteriorate in potency with time for which there is no particular reason, if protein be the ac- tive substance. Blood at 40° C does not reduce ferric chloride, but liver-juice at -this temperature reduces it to ferrous chloride. There are proteins in both. While giving due weight to Heffter’s contentions, and indeed recognizing certain 270 EXISTENCE OF A REDUCING ENDO-ENZYME phenomena of the fading of pigments in contact with proteins which I have called “the Creighton effects, ” I still believe that vital reduction is something distinct from these and is probably enzymic. VII. Indications That a Tissue Endo-Enzyme exists 1. The first consideration regarding reduction being due to an enzyme is that, whereas quite fresh juice vigorously and older juice more gradually reduces several different kinds of chemical substances, boiled controls do not do so at all. 2. The behaviour of the juice in regard to temperature is the next point indicating the presence of an enzyme. Its optimum is between 42° C and 46° C. Thus Herter found reduction processes were accelerated in the experi- mentally induced fever of hog cholera. As the temperature falls, the rate of reduction is diminished until at zero reduction is entirely inhibited. But at a temperature as low as minus 14°C, the reducing power is not destroyed; it is merely kept in check. I have kept under observation a mixture of absolutely fresh liver-juice and Prussian blue, surrounded by a freezing mixture for 24 hours, without noticing the least degree of fading of the deep blue colour. On removing the tube from the freezing mixture., the colour was completely discharged by the time the juice had reached room-temperature (17°C). Herter found in the intact animal that “the power of reduction was much diminished by cold.” A typical experiment may be quoted in connexion with temperatures. Three water baths were brought to (a) between 40° and 41°C; (b) between 42°C and 43°C; and (c) between 44° and 45° C respectively. In each bath a tube was placed containing 3 c.c. of 24 hours old hepatic juice shaken up with 20 c.c. of Prussian blue all under toluene. In 6 hours the tube in (a) was green, that in (b) was green-white, the one in (c) was / IN ANIMAL TISSUES. HARRIS. 271 quite white; twenty four hours later the tube in (b) was white. The behaviour of tissue-juice is compatible with its active constituent being an enzyme. 3. As judged by the Pozzi-Escot test, a reducing ferment is present in certain tissues; for pieces of tissue, but better their juices, decompose pure H202without affecting a mixture of guaiacum and H202. That the press juice, for instance of liver, is more active than pieces of liver is in accordance with the findings of other workers on ferments. J. J. R. MacLeod(20)noticed this in the case of glycogenase, an undoubted endo-enzyme. 4. The reducing action is accelerated or augumented by the presence of alkaline salts of the tissues, which behave as adjuvants. Professor Irvine and I (u) concluded that reduc- tase acted after the manner of pyrogallol, an organic reducer r in an alkaline medium. 5. In my recent work(21)on the action of protoplasmic poisons on reductase, I found that the acidity (concentration of H ions) was a more profound inhibitant of the reducing power than was toxicity. Concentration of H ions is well known as an inhibitant of the activity of certain enzymes; to this reductase would not form any exception. The fact that reductase is not totally inactivated by certain virulent protoplasmic poisons — chloroform, sodium fluoride, nitrobenzene, formalin — makes reductase comparable with the ferment in the laurel leaf studied by Dr. Waller(24). Chloroform was found to kill the leaf, but to set free an enzyme which liberated HCN. 6. As a ferment, reductase is pretty easily inactivated by drying the juice in vacuo at 15°C and by precipitation from juice by alsolute alcohol. As might be expected, drying and -alcohol injure it less in tissues than in press-juice. It clings with considerable tenacity to the cell-proteins, which evidently guard it from inactivation by heat, by drying and by alcohol. 272 EXISTENCE OF A REDUCING ENDO-ENZYME In regard to its sensitiveness towards alcohol, reductase is in marked contrast with glycogenase, which can be obtained in an active state even from livers which have been for months under alcohol. This power that colloids have of protecting enzymes is a well-known property of the relationship between these two classes of bodies. As judged by the criterion of solubility, reductase is comparatively insoluble; it will not, for instance, dialyze away from the cell-proteins. But in that it can in some measure pass into solution in dilute glycerol, it cannot be regarded as entirely of an insoluble nature The insoluble endo-enzyme is now fully recognized. Professor Adrian Brown tells me that phyto-enzymes of a non- soluble order exist, and according to Vernon(22)the oxidase of the liver is insoluble. He adds that its insolubility does not preclude its enzymic nature, as there is a good deal of evidence pointing to a similar property in some lipolytic enzymes. VIII. Remarks on Tissue Respiratory Ferments. Besides reductase, at least two other types of respiratory enzyme exist in the liver, to confine our attention only to the liver in the meantime, namely a catalase and an oxidase or a number of oxidases. A catalase has long been recognised in the blood and tissues; Creighton and I(25)recently wrote: — “The existence of a catalytic enzyme in the mammalian liver is fully confirmed. The decomposition of H202is effected by this enzyme, and is not due to the presence of proteins or other organic matter in the press-juice.” Boiled juice gives rise to no decomposition of H202; and the amount of H202 decomposed bears no relation at all to the amount of protein in the juice, for a few drops of a very dilute juice reduced 97.2% of H202 in the first five minutes. No doubt it is possible that the two enzymes, catalase and reduc- tase, may co-operate in hepatic reductions. IN ANIMAL TISSUES. HARRIS. 273 The presence of an oxidase, more probably of oxidases, must be remembered when one is working with the reducing ferment. As Dr. Vernon has shown, there are oxidases in the liver which must of necessity work in the direction opposite to that taken by the reductase. Hence when we obtain a less distinct reduction than we expect, we have to remember that the oxidase may have been active. We have, in fact, the converse of the difficulty to which Dr. Vernon(14) alluded when, investigating “The quantitative estimation of the indophenol oxidase of animal tissues”, he wrote; “The unavoidable presence of reducing substances, some of which are possibly enzymes or reductases which act in direct antagonism to the oxidases, and under certain conditions entirely overpower them. Hence the ab- sence of an oxidizing action cannot be held to indicate the absence of oxidase unless the conditions are so chosen to give the oxidase the best possible chance of exerting its activity.” At an early stage I had noticed that in a tube in which the Prussian blue had been completely reduced to the leuco state, a re-establishing of the colour was evident from about the end of the first week onwards. A mixture of fresh liver-juice shaken up with pigment of suitable strength would begin to become blue again in spite of the fact that the mixture was covered by a layer either of toluene or of oil to the depth of an inch. In the routine observations, I made no attempt to elimin- ate the oxidase of press juice, but in one experiment Dr. Lovatt Evans and I definitely arranged to exclude the physiol- ogical activity of that ferment. Accordingly we kept a sealed up mixture of liver-juice and Prussian blue at room tempera- ture under an atmosphere of pure hydrogen in a completely reduced state for three and a half months. It never showed the slightest re-blueing; on breaking open the tube and adding H2O2 the contents immediately became bright blue. Exposure to the air produced the same result more slowly. Evidently the activity of the oxidase was prevented expressing itself owing to there being no oxygen for it to deal with. 274 EXISTENCE OF A REDUCING ENDO-ENZYME According to Spitzer, the vigour of oxidase declines post mortem, whereas that of reductase increases for a time, but it is possible that the former phenomenon is the cause of the latter, the increase in the energy of the reductase being only apparent and due to the diminution of that of the oxidase working in the opposite direction. Dr. Vernon, (14) fixing his attention on the tissue-oxidases, regards reducing ferments as troublesome intruders into his experiments. I, however, am forced to recognzie oxidases as forming as much a part of the cellular, respiratory, enzymic mechanism as are reductases. It is in this connexion significant that> the Cannizzaro reaction— the simultaneous oxidation and reduction of aldehydes — -has been observed most frequently with liver tissue in the presence of dilute sodium bicarbonate and oxygen. Possibly the “aldehydemutase” of Painas is not one enzyme but a mixture of oxidase and reductase (2S). In some manner with which we are far from being fully acquainted, catalase, oxidase and reductase are all acting simultaneously in the living cells, carrying on the work of tissue-respiration. I have eliminated the activity of the oxidase for a sufficiently long time to allow the reductase untramelled activity; and conversely Dr. Vernon in his studies on oxidase has had to make due allowance for the presence of reducing substances. Dr. Vernon and also Prof. B. Moore(25)have pointed out several respects in which oxidase differs from reductase. It is perhaps too soon to formulate any theory of tissue respiration, but when the scheme is outlined it must be one taking cognizance of all the three respiratory types of enzymes and not a scheme framed in terms of oxidase alone. Provisionally one might say that by reductase, oxygen is abstracted from tissue-lymph (more remotely from oxyhaemog- lobin) and brought within the sphere of the activity of the oxidase which applies to it the oxidation of the carbon, hydro- IN ANIMAL TISSUES.— HARRIS. 275 gen, sulphur, phosphorus, etc., in, or in the neighbourhood of, the living protoplasm. With regard to haemoglobin, I have direct evidence that liver-juice can reduce this pigment from the fully oxidized two-banded condition to the fully reduced one-banded within a few minutes at 41°C. The quantities used were a test-tube full of solution of oxy-haemoglobin from freshly drawn defibrin- ated rabbit’s blood, and three grams of freshly disinte- grated liver squeezed before the animal heat had left it. This mixture was shaken up from time to time to distribute the juice, and within a minute or two, the solution had begun to lose its brightness which it steadily continued to do. The two bands in the spectrum became progressively hazier until at within ten minutes they had disappeared and been re- placed by the single band of haemoglobin; shaking this pigment at once made the two bands re-appear; it was, therefore, reduced but still oxidizable. A control , similar in all respects except that the juice was boiled for five minutes, showed no signs of being reduced at the end of 72 hours. This solution never did become reduced, but passed normally into the state of methaem- oglobin. A period of ten minutes may seem a long one in which to have to wait for reduction to haemoglobin, but we must re- member that in vitro we have the entire mass of the solution finally fully reduced, while in vivo we never have the oxy- haemoglobin fully reduced in consequence of contact with the living tissues during only one transit of the blood. The blood is fully reduced only after the many transits in asphyxia. I think, then, that we are justified in regarding the reduc- tase as the respiratory ferment of the living tissues, the endo- enzyme, through whose reducing power oxygen is split off from the oxyhaemoglobin in the several capillary districts Proc. & Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci., Vol. XIII. Trans. 19. 276 EXISTENCE OF A REDUCING ENDO-ENZYME It would seem to be the ferment which starts the process of internal respiration, oxidase that which continues and completes it. IX. The Chemical Powers of Reductase. In conclusion I should like to point out the true reducing character of the reductase of animal tissues. (a) In the first place it is a typical deoxidizer in that it removes oxygen from osmium tetroxide and from such sub- stances as oxyhaemoglobin, which is fully reduced, and methaemoglobin, which is reduced to the oxy condition. (b) Substances containing oxygen, but not in a form wholly removable, can be reduced from the higher to the lower state, as when sodium nitrate is reduced to sodium nitrite, (25) or when sodium indigo-disulphonate and sodium alizarine-sulphonate are respectively reduced to their pale chromogens. (c) The reductase can also reduce metallic salts con- taining no oxygen from their higher to their lower forms, as when ferric chloride is reduced to ferrous chloride(15). Here the change involved is the removal of an ionic charge from the trivalent ferri-ion which becomes the di-valent ferro-ion. (d) Finally, certain pigments containing no oxygen such as soluble Prussian blue and methylene blue are reduced to the pale or white chromogenic conditions of the di-potassio- ferrous-ferrocyanide and methylene white respectively. In all these reductions, the endo-enzyme is behaving after the manner of an inorganic reducing agent in an alkaline medium. [The expenses of this research were met by a grant from the Government Grants Committee of the Royal Society, which is hereby gratefully acknowledged.] IN ANIMAL TISSUES. — HARRIS. 277 Bibliography. 7. Abelous and Gerard, Comp. Rend. Vol. CXXIX, p. 164, 1899. 23. Battelli Comp. Rend. Vol. CXXXVII, p. 1079, 1903. Do. Journ. de Phys., Vol. IX pp. 1,34,328,410,1907. 10. Closson, O. E. and Underhill F. P. Amer. Journ. Phys. Vol. XIII No. V., p. 358, 1905. 18. Creighton, H. J. M., Trans. Nova Scotia. Instit. Sc. Vol. XIII Pt. 2, 1912. 23. Dakin, H. D. Oxidations and reductions in the an- imal body. London Longmans, 1912. 2. Ehrlich, Paul. Das Sauerstoff-Bedurfniss des Org- niamus, Berlin, 1885. 6. Harris, D. Fraser, Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin. Vol. XXI p. 383. 6. Harris, D. Fraser, Jrl. Anat. and Phys. Vol. XXXI, p 381. 19. Harris, D. Fraser, Science Progress, No. 4, April, 1907. 21. do. Bio-Chem. Jrl. Vol. VI Pt. 2, p 200. 1912. 11. Harris, D. Fraser and Irvine, J. C., Bio-Chem. Jrl. Vol. I nos. 8 and 9, p. 355. 15. Harris, D. Fraser and H. J. M. Creighton, Bio- Chem. Jrl. Vol. VI, Pt. 4. 25. Harris, D. Fraser and H. J. M. Creighton, Proc. Roy. Soc. B. Vol. 85, 1912. 17. Heffter, A. Medizinisch-Naturwissenschaftliches Archiv. Bd. I. Heft. I. p. 81. do. Archiv f. expr. Path, and Pharm. Fest- chrift. f. O, Schmiedeberg, p. 253, 1908. 1. Hoppe-Seyler, Berichte. d. deut. chem. Ges. Vol. CXVII, p. 1917, 1883. 5. Horsley, V and Harris, A. B. Brit. Med. Journ. Vol. II. p. 205, 1895. 9. Herter, C.A. Amer. Journ. Phys. Vol. XII. p. 128, 1904. do. do. Amer. Journ. Phys. Vol. XII.p. 457,1905. do. do. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. Vol. II, 1905. 278 EXISTENCE OF A REDUCING ENDO-ENZYME. HARRIS. 9 Herter, C. A. and Richards, A. N., Amer. Journ. Phys. Yol. XII, p. 207, 1904. 11. Irvine J. C. and Harris D. Fraser, Bio-Chem. Jrl. Vol. I Nos. 8 and 9, p, 355. 20. MacLeod, J. J. R. Amer. Journ. Phys. Vol. XXV. No. 5., 1910. 26. Moore, B and Whitely, E., Bio-Chem. Jrl., Vol. IV, nos. 3 and 4, p, 136, 1909. 13. Mudge, G.P. Proc. Phys. Soc. Vol. XXXVIII. p, 67. 12. Oppenheimer, C. Die Fermente und ihre Wirkung. Leipzig. Vogel. 1909. 8. Pozzi-Escot, Ann. Chem. Anal. Vol. VII, p. 260, 1902. 3 Rey-Pailhade J. de, Comp. Rend. Feb. June and July 1889. Rey-Pailhade J. de, Bull, de la Soc; fr. de chim; pp. 165, 523, 1051, 1907. Rey-Pailhade J. de, pp. 159, 568, 1908; p. 133, 1909. 16. Rawitz quoted in Physiological Histology, G. Mann, Oxford, p. 160, 1902. 4. Spitzer, Berlin, Klin. Woch. p, 949, 1894. 23. Stern and Battelli, Journ. de Phys., Vol. LX, pp., 1, 34, 228, 410, 1907. 10. Underhill, F. P. and Closson O. E. Amer. Journ. Phys. Vol. XIII No. 5, p. 358, 1905. 14. Vernon, H. M. Intracellular enzymes, pp. 135-144, London, Murray, 1908. Vernon,, H. M. Jrl. phys. Vol. XLII. Nos. 5 and 6, 1911. 24. Waller A. D. Proc. Phys., Soc. June 18, 1910. Jrl. Phys. Vol. XL. 22. Vernon H. M. Jrl. Phys. Vol. XLIV. No. 3, 1912. Senecio Jacobaea and Callimorpha Jacobaea ( the Cattle Killing Ragwort and the Cinnabar Moth ) By Henry S. Poole, D. Sc., Guildford, Surrey, England. (Read 10th November 1913.) Some sixty or more years ago a plant strange to Nova Scotia, known as St. James Ragwort, Ragwort, Baughlan, Staggerwort, and Stinking Willie, was noticed growing at Merigomish and to be spreading over the neighborhood. Its seeds were supposed to have come in the ballast of timber ships. The speculations as to its origin when first noticed gave place in the course of time to invidious references more and more pronounced as the plant spread and invaded pas- tures and hayfields, scattering its seed freely in the Fall in total disregard of the spasmodic endeavors of farmers to extirpate it. It is included in the “Farm Weeds of Canada” by G. H. Clark and James Fletcher of Ottawa, 1902, and is spoken of as a noxious weed imported into Pictou county, Nova Scotia, whence it has spread in the course of years to other parts of the Province. Dr. A. H. MacKay in the Journal of Education for Nova Scotia, 1908, dwelt at length in his earnest endeavors to incite through the public schools, the farmers and their children in thh infested districts, to a crusade against the plant. Prizes were given and he says millions of the seed were destroyed. The effort to extermin- ate it by this means, was, however, found ineffectual and consequently abandoned. Any steps that have since been taken to check the spread of the plant have been those of individuals on their own lands only. The roadsides, the burnt lands and the unenclosed woodlands have been left to the undisturbed possession of Stinking Willie. (279) 280 SENECTO JACOB AE A & CALLIMORPHAJA COBAEA POOLE. In England, Ragwort is referred to in “Common Weeds of the Farm and Garden” by Harold C. Long, and in Weeds of the Farm and Garden” by Pommel. In these works and in ordinary life any reference to the plant is in mild terms. It is spoken of merely as one of the many weeds of the roadside, as a common weed and nothing more. It has been left to Nova Scotia to single it out for notoriety by a specially opprobrious name and for reference to its noxious character on the floors of the local parliament. To botanists it is an interesting member of the Compositae with discal florets of thirteen rays. To me, a native and long a resident of Pictou county, thoroughly familiar with its luxuriant growth and its ob- jectionable characteristics, it came as a surprise to meet with Ragwort comporting itself as a modest weed on the commons and heaths of Surrey in small communities and ’often solitary. I met it first in company of a botanist, Mr. H. E. Lee, and to him I contrasted its unobtrusive deportment in England with its assertiveness in Nova Scotia where it takes more than its fair share of place in the sun and in the waste places of Pictou county. I aroused Mr. Lee’s interest by telling him of the burnt lands and the fence rows yellow with its golden blossom in Autumn and of the ineffectual attempts through the public school teachers to root it out and exterminate it, or at least to check its spread to other parts of the Province. I mentioned also, that, however, effective might be a rotation of crops in the cultivated ground and the indiscriminate grazing of sheep in the pastures, the unenclosed deforested land was so large that all hope of extirpation by the hand of man and the teeth of sheep had to be abandoned. It was then he told me Ragwort had a natural and special enemy in the Cinnabar moth whose showy colouring had previously attracted my attention. This information at once suggested that if the Iact as stated to me was sustained on further inquiry and the SENECIO JACOBAEA & CALLIMORPHA JACOB AE A POOLE. 281 knowledge proved to be as new to the Canadian agricultural authorities as it was to myself, then it would be worthy of further investigation. To this end I spoke to the Director of the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew, Sir. E. D. Prain, and to officials in rooms four and eight of the Department of Agriculture and Fisheries, Whitehall Place, and also to Mr. R. South, F. E. S. of the Natural History Museum, South Kensington. In the mean- time I had made . acquaintance with Mr. I. W. Walton, the botanist, at Folkestone, who confirmed from local observation the statement made by Mr. Lee. Any lingering doubt I may have had was removed on visiting the Natural History Museum and reading the slip attached to the specimens of Callimorpha Jacobaea, the Cinnabar moth of the order Heterocera. Seeing that none of the works on weeds already quoted made reference to the Cinnabar moth, attention was turned to Barret’s Lepidoptera of the British Isles, a standard work, and on page 246 the moth is spoken of as common in England and as having boen taken as far North as Perth. It was also mentioned that while the moth is generally met with on Ragwort, it has occasionally been found feeding on the Coltsfoot. At this stage of my inquiry several questions presented themselves: among them first, was the Cinnabar moth known in any part of North America? Inquiry of the Bureau of Entomology, Department of Agriculture, Washington, U. S. A., brought a courteous reply from Dr. F. H. Chittenden to the effect that he has never found Callimorpha Jacobaea to occur in the United States at all; and he further wrote that on referring the matter to Dr. H. D. Dyar a specialist on Lepidoptera in that group, he stated that he has never known of its being taken in the United States. 282 SENECIO JACOBAEA & CALLIMORPHA JACOBAEA POOLE. This reply suggested in turn a second question — might the Cinnabar moth if introduced into Canada become as disastrous an importation as the gypsy and brown-tailed moths had proved to be? I referred this question to Mr. South of the Natural History Museum, and he had no hesi- tation in saying he saw no reason to dread the introduction of the Cinnabar moth. It was not of a class to become a pest as the narcissus fly or the larch saw-fly. He further permits me to quote him and to refer to him if need be. A third question that presents itself is — what are the prospects that the Cinnabar moth will, if introduced into Nova Scotia, to establish itself there? To this, all that can be said without actual trial is, that the moth survives in the climate of Perth in a latitude far to the north of Pictou. Then it may be asked if the moth should be found to stand the climate of Nova Scotia, is there a probability of its aban- doning its European predilection for Ragwort and taking to feeding on other allied species of plants ? About the time that Ragwort established itself at Meri- gomish, cases of hepatic cirrhosis occured among cattle of the same district. This was a new disease, entirely local, that yielded to no known treatment. Current belief imputed the disease to the weed but up to the end of the last century investigations had failed to establish a connexion. As the weed spread and flourished in new ground so did the disease range over a widening area from new centres of virulence. These new centres were in some cases places where the weed had been growing for very many years without an occurrence of the disease, or if there was a case, it was a solitary one, which inquiry showed had lately come from an infected locality. Since the present century came in the spread of the disease seems to have been more rapid, and in remote districts beyond the height of land that isolated, as it might be said, the primarily infected area. Ragwort being a biennial has no chance of flowering and seeding in the pastures grazed over by sheep which are clos^ SENECIO JACOBAEA & CALLIMORPHA JACOBAEA POOLE. 283 croppers, and are in consequence a check on the spread of the weed in enclosed lands. Horses too, are not known to be affected by it for they not only avoid it in the field but also where they find it in the hay. Cattle, on the other hand? while more discriminating in their feeding than sheep, are careful to avoid eating it in the open but they have not the same opportunity for rejecting it when it is dried and mixed with hay in the byre. It is then they suffer, and it is now stated on page 161 of “The Farm Weeds of Canada” that Dr. Pethick of Antigonish has proved that Ragwort is the cause of the Pictou County Cattle Disease. This being so it is all the more apparent that trial should be made of any means that may reasonably be expected to further check the spread of so noxious a weed in Canada. When commenting to me on the relation of Ragwort with the Pictou County cattle disease Sir. E. D. Prain related an Indian experience that was apposite to the matter. Speaking of the use of sorghum as forage when the plant was fully grown and cut down, he remarked that care was necessary to keep cattle from the fields while the plant was still young as it then contained hydrocyani c acid in poisonous quantity. Not so when the sorghum was well grown, but it sometimes happened that the season was wet after the harvest and then instead of drying, the plant sent up fresh shoots which were as poisonous to cattle as the young plant. It would have been superfluous and presumptuous on my part to dwell on the relation between the Cinnabar moth and Senecio when so great an authority as the Natural History Department of the British Museum accepts it without reser- vation. Mr. C. W. Brachen, B. A., F. E. S., of Plymouth writes me as follows: “I have met the larvae of the Cinnabar moth, when sweeping, for years, but only on Ragwort and Groundsel ( S . vulgaris). I have never seen it on Coltsfoot. It can be 284 SENECIO JACOBAEA & CALLIMORPHA JACOBAEA POOLE. found in hundreds in Turnchapel Quarries, Plymouth, at Newton Ferrars, Hessenford, everywhere round here prob- ably. I have found it more common near Ragwort though I have made no special comparisons.” Larvae of Cinnabar Moth ( Callimorpha Jacobaea). Food Plant: Commonly, the Ragwort ( Senecio Jacobaea). The larvae usually attack the lower leaves first and work upwards towards the flower. They frequently strip the lower portion of the plant completely, and in a very short time. Large colonies are often seen on one plant; and the striking colouring of the larvae make them conspicuous even at a little distance. Remarks by Dr. A. H. MacKay. Senecio Jacobaea L. (St. James Ragwort), was probably introduced into Pictou, Nova Scotia, not far from 1850. Shortly after, the Cattle Disease appeared. But it did not follow the presence of the weed until after it became well established in the pastures and hayfields. About 1882 there was an attempt made by the Dominion Government to as- certain the character, cause and best method of dealing with the disease which was recognized as a peculiar and almost specific cirrhosis of the liver. It was, however, suspected to be contagious; and .the policy of slaughter and compensation was adopted. Drs. William Osier, Adami, Wyatt Johnson, McEachran and other pathologists took part in the earlier investigations. In 1906 Dr. J. G. Rutherford as Veterinary Director General, reports Dr. W. H. Pethick’s experiments on a 200 acre farm at Cloverville in Antigonish county. He also notes that Dr. Gilruth of New Zealand devoted considerable atten- tion to a peculiar hepatic cirrhosis known as the Winton Dis- ease, from which horses as well as cattle and sheep suffered due to the ingestion of Ragwort. In Cape Colony, South SENECIO JACOBAEA & CALLIMORPHA JACOB AEA POOLE. 285 Africa, Senecio Burchelli appeared to produce similar effects. Last year another species, Senecio latifolius, in South Africa appeared to have poisonous properties according to the kind of soil in which it grew. Dr. Pethick’s experiments appeared to prove that the disease is not contagious, and is due to the ingestion of the Ragwort with hay eaten. Professor Arthur R. Cushney of the Pharmacological Laboratory, University College, London, England, lately experimented with the Senecio alkaloids and makes the following statements in two papers published in 1911. 1. “On the Action of Senecio Alkaloids and the causation of Hepatic Cirrhosis in Cattle (Preliminary Note)” Read 15 June, Proceedings Royal Society B. Yol. 84; and 2. “On the Action of Senecio Alkaloids and the causation of the Hepatic Cirrhosis of Cattle (Pictou, Molteno, or Winton Disease), published 10 June, in the Jour, of Pharmacology and experimental Thearapeutics, Yol. II, No. 6. July, 1911. (1) . “The various species of Senecio in this country are generally regarded as harmless, the chief of them being the common ragwort and the common groundsel. In Nova Scotia, New Zealand, and South Africa they have, however, been associated with hepatic cirrhosis in cattle, which is 'known as respectively Pictou, Winton, and Molteno disease in these countries. The species which induces this condition in Canada and New Zealand is apparently identical botanically with the common ragwort of this country, Senecio Jacohea, while in South Africa the Molteno disease is associated with the Senecio Burchellii and the Senecio latifolius. The symptoms of the disease are practically identical in these locations.” (2) . “With regard to the chemistry of the Senecio genus, Grandval and Sejour found two alkaloids in the common groundsel which they term senecionine and senecine, and Watt found two others in the Senecio latifolius of Cape Colony, 286 SENECIO JACOB AE A & CALLIMORPHA JACOB AE A POOLE. and has named them senecifoline and senecifolidine. These alkaloids amounted to 1.72 per cent, of the plants in the crude state before flowering, and 0.76 per cent after flowering. These two bases were sent to me for pharmacological examin- ation by Prof. W. R. Dunstan, and I have done a number of experiments with them, chiefly upon cats.” (3). “The symptoms and post mortem findings in animals poisoned with these alkaloids resemble so closely those described by Gilruth, Chase, Pethick and others, in cattle and horses, that there can be no question that the cause is the same in each and that the Pictou, Winton or Molteno disease is really more or less chronic poisoning with the Senecio alkaloids.” ,(4). “The experiments hitherto detailed were performed with the alkaloids of Senecio latifolius , which, as has been said, is held responsible for some of the epidemics in South Africa; and my results indicate that these alkaloids are capable of inducing the symptoms and lesions characteristic of the disease. The Senecio Jacobcea which has been shown to be responsible for the disease in New Zealand and Canada, grows in profusion in England and Scotland, but inquiries made in various parts of the country indicate that poisoning with this plant and hepatic cirrhosis are unknown here.” (5). “These results would therefore seem to indicate that the S. jacobaea is devoid of the toxic properties of S. lati- folius, whether the plant is grown in England or in Canada. This is however incompatible with the results of Gilruth and Pethick, who showed definitely that the disease in Canada and New Zealand is due to this species. The discrepancy between these results and mine may probably arise either from the plant from which my preparations were made having been collected at the wrong season, or possibly from the poisonous principle having undergone change into some inert form in the course of preparation or drying.” SENECIO JACOB AE A & CALLIMORPHA JACOB AE A POOLE. 287 (6) . “Senecio sylvaticus collected in Yorkshire in August proved equally inactive. Senecio vulgaris or common ground- sel collected in England and prepared in the same way proved poisonous,” (7) . “I hope to investigate further the toxicity of S. jacobaea with the hope of elucidating the curious discrep- ancies between my results and those of Gilruth and Pethick.” (8) . The following statement has just been made by Professor Cushney in an autograph note on one of the said printed papers in October, 1913. “Later experiments with the alkaloids derived from the S. Jacobaea grown in Canada have shown that they are quite as poisonous as those obtained from S. latifolius” (Oct. 1913). The weed is rapidly spreading throughout the Province, and the appeals to municipal councillors have not yet incited any effective action. Sheep are not so seriously affected by the plant; but there is evidence that it is injurious to them. The plant grows luxuriantly and, although it is popularly known as “Stinking Willie”, it is one of the most beautiful of our weeds, the abundant pretty green foliage being surmounted by a brilliantly yellow flat-topped cluster of compound flowers. If the Cinnabar moth could repress the luxurious growth of S. Jacobaea in Nova Scotia, it would require to multiply rapidly and feed ravenously. But, what if the larvae of Callimorpha Jacoboea should take to feeding upon the plants of economic value? What if they should develop here as the Gypsy Moth and the Brown Tail? The English Sparrow first introduced about 1850 has long become too vigorous for America. The European rabbit introduced into Australia in 186 4 for sport, increased so rapidly as to require legislation in 1879 for its destruction. The Mongoose of India introduced into Jamaica in 1872, 288 SENECIO JACOB AEA & CALLIMC)RPHA JACOB AE A POOLE. by 1890 became a pest. The European Starling introduced into New Zealand in 1867 in a few years began to show itself as an undesirable. The skylark, the linnet and the blackbird of England, have in the antipodes developed new food habits, and instead of being insect destroyers as at home, are becoming fruit pests. Can we therefore venture to invite the Cinnabar Moth to Nova Scotia? Test the new conditions might develop a taste for something more than the succulent foliage of St. James Ragwort. The Geology of a Portion of Shelburne Co., South western Nova Scotia. — By Sidney Powers, Geological Museum, Cambridge, Mass. Read 16 February 1914. TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction Igneous rocks Physiography and glacial Dynamic geology geology Economic geology Sedimentary rocks Summary Introduction. This paper represents the results of a brief geological re- connoissance along the shore of Southwestern Nova Scotia from Jordan Bay to Barrington Passage, made during June 1913. The object of this reconnoissance was to study the structural geology, but outcrops were found to be few in number, and to be practically confined to the wave-beaten ends of the peninsulas, and therefore the work was not ex- tended farther. As the only detailed previous examination of the region was made by Dr. L. W. Bailey in 1891 to 1896*, it is thought that this paper may form a contribution to the knowledge of the region. The structural details and the petrography of the igneous rocks were not considered in Dr. Bailey’s report The general geologic features of the region consist in a series of pre-Cambrian metamorphic quartzites and schists intruded by Devonian granites which have produced extensive con- tact metamorphism in the already regionally metamorphosed and folded sediments. Glacial deposits now cover the sur- face allowing the geologist only an occasional glimpse at bed rock. * Report on the Geology of Southwestern Nova Scotia; Canadian Geological Survey, Ann. Rept. Vol. 9, Pt. M. 1898. (289) Physiography and Glacial Geology. Southwestern Nova Scotia is a low, rolling country in- dented by an embayed shoreline. Numerous lakes, often of large size, and more numerous peat bogs representing former lakes cover the low-lying areas. Where these are absent, boulders characteristically cover the land, representing the ground moraine. Such a topography determines the occu- pation of the inhabitants of the country, preventing agri- culture and promoting fishing and boat-building. The low hills are covered by a dense, but low, forest of spruces and balsams which effectually conceal the view. Frequent forest fires, due to the carelessness and wilfulness of the inhabitants? SOUTH WESTERN NOVA SCOTIA. POWERS. 291 prevent the growth of mature forests and leave in their wake a scene of desolation — burned villages and square miles of charred tree trunks laying bare the boulder-strewn ground moraine. The present topography of the region is due to the dissec- tion and drowning of the Cretaceous peneplain and to glac- iation. The peneplain was uplifted probably toward the mid- dle of the Tertiary and suffered erosion throughout the re- mainder of the Tertiary. The land during this period ap- pears to have stood higher than at present, long valleys being formed which are now drowned. These valleys were formed without respect to geological structure because the rocks have about a uniform hardness and have been sufficiently metamor- phosed to obliterate the primary structure and yet not to produce pronounced cleavage. The submergence of the land to its present level took place at about the time when the Pleistocene ice sheet advanced over Nova Scotia. The sub- mergence did not go below present sea level because there are no marine beaches or wave-cut terraces above those being formed at present. In the Bay of Fundy region there is evidence of a recent uplift as is shown by the presence of marine fossils in beaches 200 feet above water level. It is therefore evident that there has been a differential uplift of the land in the latter region. This tilting must have been at least as great as two feet to the 'mile, as it is 108 miles from Shelburne to St. John where the elevated beaches are found. The effect of glaciation has been to modify the topography. Glacial erosion can be measured in at least tens of feet, for everywhere the pre-Glacially weathered rock has been re- moved, and the bed rock scoured and channeled. Roches moutonnees are very frequent where wave action has re- moved the glacial deposits. These rounded knobs are es- pecially noticeable at Port La Tour, forming islands at the entrance to the harbour. Proc. & Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci., Vol. XIII. Trans. 20 292 GEOLOGY OF A PORTION OF SHELBURNE CO. Glacial deposits, other than the ground moraine, are large- ly of stratified drift. Eskers are the most striking phenomen- on, but kames are also present. The character of the deposits must depend upon the kind of material with which the ice has to work. In the peninsula of Nova Scotia are soft Triassic sandstones and hard traps, developed only in a narrow band; fossiliferous Lower Devonian shales; and pre-Cambrian quart- zites, slates and schists; the latter two series being invaded by< the micaceous granitic rocks which form the central axis. The Triassic and Lower Devonian sediments would not fur- nish material for distant transportion and the traps would suffer little from glacial erosion Therefore, for Shelburne County there was available a large quanity of sand derived from the granite and quartzite, and some sand and clay from the schist and slate, as well as massive material of each of these rocks. Hence, the ground moraine in this region is composed almost entirely of sand and boulders, drumlins being absent. Large deposits of sand are found at Village- dale, south-east of Barrington, forming numerous sand dunes 30 feet in height. The grains of sand consist largely of quartz with some pink feldspar, muscovite, and biotite, showing that they were derived from the granite nearby. Sandplains do not occur. Eskers were observed at Shelburne, Roseway, Cape Negro and Port Clyde. The esker in Shelburne extends from near the Shelburne House in a N 10° E direction for about 1,000 feet. Its height varies from five to fifteen feet. Boulders and gravel appear on top of the ridge, the boulders having a length of two to three and a half feet. Near Roseway there are several eskers running nearly due south, the most prominent one being near the shore. This esker is about one-quarter of a mile long, 25 feet high and 75 to 100 feet wide. It forks at the south into two ridges. On the top of the esker are boulders 4 feet long, 3 feet wide and 3 feet thick. North of Port Clyde are abundant eskers, some of which have an east- PLATE 1. View of Shelburne Harbor and Sand Point taken from Fort Point. In the distance, on the left, is the lighthouse on Sand Point and beyond it is Shelburne. The peneplained hills in the distance rise to an elevation of 200 feet. In the foreground is a glaciated ledge of staurolite schist whose bed- ding strikes toward Sand Point. The two erratics on the roche moutonn£e are Shelburne granite. One has been ataost quarried away — the usual fate of erratics in this country. Trams. N. S. Inst. Sci., Vol. XIII. — Pt. 4, opp. p. 293. SOUTH WESTERN NOYA SCOTIA.— POWERS. 293 west elongation. North of Cape Negro is Sn esker two miles long with the main highway running on the crest. It runs across a swamp in a north-south direction, turning S 10° W at the southern end. In one place the ridge disappears for 50 feet, and in another it divides to pass around a kettle hole 100 feet long and 60 feet wide. At the south end it apparently expands into a poorly defined gravel plain. Another esker connects Cape Negro with the Blanche peninsula. Here again the road follows the esker ridge for three-quarters of a mile. The esker is 5 to 25 feet high and 50 to 100 feet broad. Northwest of Baccaro Point is an esker crossing a marsh, with a road on its top. This esker runs in a southerly direc- tion for half a mile with a height of 20 feet and a width of 60 feet. Everywhere in Shelburne County boulders are to be found.1 The largest are west of Shelburne. At the side of the railroad here, may be seen granite boulders 35 feet long, 25 feet broad and 20 feet high. This size of boulder is not infrequent, but more abundant are somewhat smaller ones. 10 to 25 feet long, lying not far apart, yet not forming a boulder moraine. To emphasize the size of the boulders, it may be stated that all the granite for the two story granite post-office building in Shelburne was quarried from a single one. In the region between Barrington and Rose way, which was burned over in August 1911, boulders about two feet in length are everywhere scattered over the surface, as abund- antly on the eskers as elsewhere. They are composed prin- cipally of the kind of rock found nearby. It is everywhere characteristic of these boulders to have rounded surfaces, and yet not to evidence distant transportation. Only one boulder was found of a rock not represented in the area by a closely allied type. This was a diorite found north of Gun- ning Cove. The direction of ice movement in the region was, judging from the striae, in a S 10° E direction in general. The striae I 294 GEOLOGY OF A PORTION OF SHELBURNE CO., noted are: in the vicinity of Sand Point and Fort Point (op- posite Sand Point) N-S to N 5° W; a mile east of Greenwood N 5° W; at Black Point N 15° W; Negro Island N 8° W with an apparently earlier set of striations in one place of N 40° W; a mile north of Blanche N 10° W; near Port La Tour N 27° W; near Baccaro N 12° W to N 27° W; near Bac- caro Point N 25° W and one outcrop N 40° W ; at Barrington N 12° W. Sedimentary Rocks The southern and western portions of Nova Scotia are largely underlain by a series of quartzites, slates and schists, called the Meguma or Goldbearing Series. The age of these rocks is pre-Cambrian. The series has been divided litholo- gically into two conformable formations, the quartzite divis- ion at the base being called the Goldenville formation, and the slate above, the Halifax formation. The thickness of the former has been found by Faribault to exceed 23,700 feet, and the thickness of the latter is 11,700 feet, giving a total thickness to the series of nearly 7 miles with no base exposed. In Shelburne County these two formations are represented by quartzites, some of which show the effects of contact metamorphism, and by schists, all of which are filled with metamorphic minerals. The exposures are so few and the faults so numerous that it is impossible to measure the thick- ness of the series. Their general distribution may be seen on the accompanying map. The first exposure of the metamorphic rocks south of Shel- burne is found on the shore halfway to Sand Point. Very fine-grained grey mica schist cut by aplite veins occurs here within a short distance of the granite. Approaching Sand Point, staurolites and large mica crystals begin to appear in the rock. At the point are large ledges and roches mouton- nees of a lustrous schist containing numerous staurolite prisms a quarter of an inch in length, very abundant smaller biotite crystals all orientated parallel to the schistosity, and very SOUTH WESTERN NOVA SCOTIA. — POWERS. 295 small garnets. Certain harder places in the surface of the rock stand up as small rectangular pinnacles one inch in diam- eter and three to four inches high, undercut below the hard capping which is only one quarter of an inch thick. The top of these caps are remnants of the smooth surface left by the ice. Such deep post-Glacial erosion is favored in this locality by the soft nature of the sericitic ground mass of the schist. The strike of these rocks averages N 25° E with a dip of 75° S. A half mile east of Sand Point the schist is replaced by quartzite of light grey color and fine grain in which are oc- casional quadrangular biotite crystals about one quarter of an inch on a side (perhaps secondary after hornblende), staurolite crystals one half inch long, and occasional pink andalusites one inch long. The dip of the beds changes from 70°-85° S to vertical. For a mile to the south much of the quartzite does not show large metacrysts*, though small biotites still persist. At one locality a mile and a half south of Sand Point, staurolite- biotite quartzite reappears. The staurolites are of usual size, but few in number. The biotite metacrysts are about one- sixteenth of an inch in length. Under the microscope the rock shows a fine ground-mass of quartz and sericite, meta- crystals of biotite free from quartz inclusions, a few garnet crystals, and accessory chlorite, apatite and iron ore. The sericite is more abundant near the biotite than elsewhere. The strike of these rocks is N 15° E, the dip 75° N. From the outcrop just described to the end of Eastern Point, the rock is everywhere a dense grey quartzite free from metacrysts. Interbedded in the quartzite are a few bands of mica schist one to three feet wide. The structure here is anticlinal, the dip of the bedding being vertical near the “Tea Chest”, a mile and a quarter north of Eastern Point with a dip of about 75° N on the north, as above stated, and *A term introduced by Lane to designate the phenocrysts of metamorphic rocks which are formed after the groundmass. See the Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. Vol. 14, 1903, p. 369. 296 GEOLOGY OF A PORTION OF SHELBURNE CO., a dip of about 80° S on the south. The strike is persistently N 15° E. The southern limb of this fold has been traced on ;the southwest through McNutt’s Island and on the northwest through the towns of Lower Jordan Bay and Jordan Bay, but north of here a fault apparently cuts off the beds, as the strike changes to N 70° W and the dip to 40° N. The structure of the peninsula is interpreted as a synclme in the schists on the north and an anticline in the quartzites on the south as shown in the section, Fig. 1. The pitch of the axis of the syncline is about 70° S. The syncline is cut off on the north by the granite, and the southern flank of the anticline disappears under the sea. On the opposite side of the Jordan fiord, Bailey found a few outcrops which indicate an anticlinal axis running in a N 60° E direction and starting about a mile north of Patterson Point. This anticline is separated from the one at Eastern Point by a northwest- Otwnion Cfranit* fr&~ I ^(AitrTs itc southeast fault, and between these two large segments, on the north, there appears to be a block about two miles wide with a monoclinal' dip at a rather low angle in a N 20° E direction. It is worthy of notice that at Western Head, 63^ miles east of Eastern Point, Bailey found a quartz pebble conglomerate and ripple marks in the quartzite (op. cit. p. 56). On the west side of Shelburne Harbor, the first outcrop south of Birchtown is of quartzite, free from metacrysts, at Gunning Cove. The strike is N 10° E, dip 55° S, indicating that this quartzite is folded up on the north limb of the syn- SOUTH WESTERN NOVA SCOTIA.— POWERS. 297 cline seen on the other side of the bay. It is noteworthy that this outcrop is within two miles of the granite, but shows no development of contact metamorphic minerals, owing prob- ably to the dense texture and low alumina content of the rock. From Gunning Cove to Red Head (south of Round Bay)^ staurolite schist occurs in which the staurolites are of large size (one inch long), but not very abundant. The strike re- * mains about the same, the dip being at a high angle toward the south until it changes to 75° N, east of Round Bay, on the southern limb of the syncline. At Red Head staurolite schist outcrops, the staurolites being more abundant and of larger size than anywhere else in the region. Abundant biotites and small garnets are as- sociated with the staurolites, and bands of the rock contain only biotite metacrysts. The strike is due E-W, and the dip at 3° N. indicating an east-west fault north of here. The same strike and a 10° N dip of the bedding is found at Black Point, three miles to the south. Here, also, the staurolites are abundant. Negro Island consists of two islands joined by a sand bar. On the north shore of the eastern island staurolite schist ap- pears on the west, near the lighthouse, and quartzite free from metacrysts on the east. The strike is about N 30° E with a variable dip of 15°-40° N. On the western island quartzites, locally containing a few staurolites, outcrop with a strike N 15° E, dip 70°-85° N. There is evidently a fault between the islands with a downthrow on the east, and also an east- west fault between the islands and the mainland. On the mainland near Betsy Ann Point (separating North- east and Northwest Harbors), a spotted grey ottrelite schist appears, with a strike of N 25° E, dip 30° N. It is a continua- tion of the southern flank of the syncline which has been traced from Sand Point. A fine-grained garnetiferous schist occurs a mile to the northeast and micaceous quartzite a mile and a half to the northwest. The same structure probably 298 GEOLOOY OF A PORTION OF SHELBURNE CO., continues into the Blanche peninsula, where mica schists with small garnets and occasional staurolites outcrop at Blanche and on the western side of the peninsula. In both places the strike was within a few degrees of due N-S, and the dip in the latter case 33° E. It is probable that the axis of an open syncline underlies Blanche as shown in the section, Fig. 2. (Fig. 2.) Section through Cape Qwcl Camtbnot* John Island, west of the Blanche peninsula, is underlain by staurolite schists striking N 30° E and dipping 40° S. At Port Clyde dark mica schist interbedded with micaceous quartzite forms an anticline with its axis striking N 20° E. Near Villagedale, on the western side of the Baccaro Penin- sula, highly micaceous quartzite reappears striking N 15° E to N 15° W and dipping at a very high angle eastward. This is probably the same quartzite as at Port Clyde, appearing on the limb of a syncline. At Villagedale the quartzite is highly contorted by the granite which outcrops a short dis- tance to the north. The large amount of muscovite and bibtite and the small garnets in the rock were formed by re- crystallization at the time of the granitic intrusion. Similar quartzite is reported by Dr. Bailey on the south eastern end of Cape Sable Island, indicating that part of that island con- sists of granite. Near Port LaTour quartzite outcrops in several places but does not show any bedding. On the islands to the south, a number of roches moutonn^es are found in which staurolite schist is exposed. The staurolites are about an inch in length /_;TVW GJ Yanife Schist" I PLATE II. The barren boulder-covered land north of Roseway, laid bare by the destructive fire of August, 1911. The boulders of this ground moraine con- sist of Shelburne granite, but the region is underlain by staurolite schist. Many square miles in Shelburne County consist of such land which is only good for forests. Trans. N. S. Inst. Sct., Vol., XIII. — Pt. 4, opp. p. 298. PLATE III. A detailed view of the staurolite schist at Crows Neck, south of Port LaTour. The staurolite prisms are mostly one to two inches long. At the base of the picture may be seen rounded masses of chlorite. The extent of post-glacial weathering is shown by the relief of the staurolites. Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci., Vol. XIII. — Pt. 4, opp. p. 299. SOUTH WESTERN NOVA SCOTIA. POWERS. 299 and quite numerous. The peculiarity of the rock hereabouts is the abundance of large patches of chlorite three to four inches in diameter, with rounded or quadrangular outlines. They have probably been formed as a replacement of horn- blende, but no trace of the original mineral was discovered. A thin section of the rock from one of the islands shows a fine groundmass of quartz and sericite in which are large metacrysts of staurolite which enclose numerous quartz grains, large crystals of biotite which enclose small grains of quartz and titanite, metacrysts of garnet, some pennine and small amounts of iron ore and apatite. The strike of the rocks is due E-W with a dip of 20° S. The same staurolite schist continues around Baccaro Point, but quartzite appears on the Barrington Bay shore a mile west of Port LaTour. Igneous Rocks Micaceous granitic rocks occupy the central part of the peninsula of Nova Scotia, smaller masses appearing in numer- ous places from Halifax northeastward to Cape Canso, and also south of the main area. Two of the latter enter the area under consideration, at Shelburne and at Barrington. These batholiths consist respectively of biotite-muscovite granite and of quartz (biotite) diorite, with some pink aplitic granite in the immediate vicinity of Barrington. The age of these granites is Middle Devonian; they cut the fossiliferous Lower Devonian slates of Clementsvale and of Torbrook-Nicteau, and the arkose derived from the wea- thering of these granites at Horton Bluff is found abundantly in the Horton Series which is of basal Mississippian age (Pocono, according to David White). The granites were intruded at the time of the Middle Devonian revolution which folded the Canadian Appalachian geosyncline and the region now embraced in the Maritime Provinces. The folding was not completed at the time of the intrusion of the granite because the latter shows the effect of a moderate amount of shearing. 300 GEOLOGY OF A PORTION OF SHELBURNE CO., Concerning the character of the granite in the neighborhood of the gold mines in Lunenburg and Halifax counties, where it has been studied the most, Mr. EE. Faribault writes*: “The composition and texture of the granite varies much with the locality and mode of occurrence. The rock consists for the most part of a light grey or reddish grey coarse por- phyritic biotite granite, generally studded with large pheno- crysts of white or pink-white feldspar. In the west, a light pearl-grey or pinkish-white fine-grained muscovite granite occupies small areas penetrating the biotite granite as well as the sediments. With the muscovite granite are associated dikes of coarse pegmatite often passing to quartz, and bear- ing a large variety of minerals.’’ The Shelburne granite was observed in outcrops three miles south of the town, just south of the first outcrops of schist on the shore. The granite is porphyritic and includes frag- ments of schist. The schist is micaceous, a feature common to the sediments whenever near a granite contact, and it is cut by aplite veins one to three inches wide. Frequent out- cropsof granite are found in railroad cuts southwest of Shelburne and at a quarry near Hart Point. The granite in the railroad cuts is cut by pegmatite dikes, the largest of which is three feet wide. Numerous pegmatite dikes are also found in boulders in this vicinity. The pegmatite consists of large pink ortho- clase crystals (4 inches long, 3 inches wide and thick), masses of quartz in smaller quantities than the feldspar, plates of muscovite one inch in diameter, less abundant biotite crys- tals, a white feldspar showing albite twinning (probably oligoclase), garnets one-quarter of an inch in diameter, and occasional masses of tourmaline. One crystal of beryl, one and one half inches in width and length, was found. The Shelburne granite is a light grey, fine-grained, mica- ceous granite with biotite generally predominating over * International Geological Congress, Guide Book, 1, pt. 1, p. 168, 1913. SOUTH WESTERN NOVA SCOTIA. POWERS. 301 muscovite. When the mica, especially the muscovite, be- comes more abundant, the rock has a slightly yellow tinge. The feldspar and quartz both occur in small grains, the form- er being white, and hence less conspicuous than the flakes of mica. Under the microscope the rock is seen to consist prin- cipally of xenomorphic crystals of feldspar and quartz, the latter showing undulating extinctions due to shearing, biotite in very numerous shreds and flakes between the other grains, accessory muscovite in occasional shreds both inside and outside the feldspars, and a few apatite crystals inside feld- spars and muscovite crystals. The feldspar consists largely of oligoclase, with some albite-oligoclase (Ab9 AnO and albite- microcline microperthite. The results of a Rosiwal measure- ment of the rock will be found below. One slide shows a number of mermycitic intergrowths of the quartz and oligo- clase feldspar. Some of the latter show zonal growths and occasionally undulating extinctions. The muscovite appears to be largely secondary, probably being developed by pneu- matolytic action. In some cases it shows the same amount of shearing as the remainder of the rock and is therefore thought to be primary. The Barrington batholithic area contains two kinds of rock? a pink aplitic granite at Barrington, and a biotite quartz diorite elsewhere. The relation of these two rocks is not known, only two exposures of the former being found, andfa few of the latter. It is to be inferred from the relation of similar rocks elsewhere, as shown by the quotation given above, that the aplitic granite is the younger, yet probably intruded during the same diastrophic period. The aplitic granite outcrops an eighth of a mile northeast of the Barrington railroad station. The same granite cuts micaceous quartzite at the crossing of the railroad and the road north from Villagedale. Between this outcrop and Vil- lagedale, at Solid Bock and also for a mile south of Solid Rock, micaceous quartzite is cut by numerous stringers of aplite, 302 GEOLOGY OF A PORTION OF SHELBURNE CO., belonging to this granitic intrusion. The quartzite is highly contorted and the mica is a phase of the exomorphic metamor- phism. In a hand specimen the rock is seen to be a pinkish, very fine-grained granite, minutely porphyritic. The feldspar shows albite twinning in the larger crystals. Mica is dis- tributed unevenly through the rock in small quantities, both muscovite and biotite being present. The quartz lies between the feldspar and is less conspicuous. In thin section the rock is seen to consist of feldspar in hypidiomorphic crystals, a much smaller amount of quartz, rather abundant secondary muscovite, an occasional biotite flake, and some chlorite and titanite. The feldspar is largely a microcline microperthite with smaller amounts of oligoclase. The centers of many if the feldspar crystals are filled with specks of sericite. The quartz diorite appears to form the remainder of the igneous rock of the area. Outcrops were noted a half mile west of Barrington, at Barrington Passage and to the south- ward in railroad cuts, and at Shag Harbor. It is a light grey, fine grained rock and shows the effect of shearing, the biotite flakes being orientated into parallelism. Albite-twinned white feldspar and colorless quartz in small amount majr be seen in the rock. The grain of the rock is fine, but a few feldspar phenocrysts one-half inch in length may be seen. Under the microscope the constituents are found to be hypidiomorphic crystals of feldspar, a small amount of brecciated quartz showing undulating extinctions, large plates of biotite often clustered in the more brecciated places, accessory titanite in small granular aggregations, quite numerous long rods of apatite occurring in association with the biotite, and a very small amount of iron ore, zircon and muscovite. The feldspar is principally oligoclase twinned after the albite and pericline laws, with smaller amounts of microcline microperthite and albite-oligoclase. The more acid feldspars do not Appear in SOUTH WESTERN NOVA SCOTIA. POWERS. 303 sufficient abundance for the rock to be called a quartz mon- zonite. Rosiwal measurements of the mineral composition by weight of this quartz diorite and of the Shelburne granite are given for comparison: Barrington quartz diorite Shelburne granite Oligoclase . 54.6 Oligoclase . . 35.2 Albite-oligoclase. . . .8 Microperthite. . . . . 3.1 Quartz .21.2 Albite-oligoclase. . . 17.1 Biotite .23.1 Quartz .33.6 Muscovite .3 Biotite. . 7.8 — Muscovite . 3.1 100.0 Apatite .1 100.0 From these measurements the chemical composition been calculated: Barrington Shelburne quartz diorite granite Si 02 63.6 72.3 Ab O3 16.8 15.2 Fe2 O3 2.0 .6 FeO 3.0 1.1 Mg O 3.1 1.0 CaO 3.3 2.5 Na2 O 4.8 5.0 K2 O 2.1 1.5 Rest 1.3 .8 — — 100.0 100 0 The most important characteristic of the granite and quartz diorite is the high soda content. The two rocks are petro- graphically related, the feldspar being of the same composition and differing only in amounts as do the other constituents. 304 GEOLOGY OF A PORTION OF SHELBURNE CO., Dynamic Geology. The first question which arises in considering the dynamical history of the region is the date of the folding and faulting of the pre-Cambrian sediments. The folding probably took place in pre-Cambrian times, and the faulting in the Devonian diastrophism. The goldbearing series is unconformably over- lain by Silurian and by Lower Devonian sediments. The effect of the folding of the Goldbearing series, was to produce a series of closely folded anticlines and synclines. The axes of these folds are parallel. In Queens County northeast of Shelburne County, the axes trend in a N 45° E to a N 55° E direction, and this direction is characteristic of axes of folds in Lunenburg and Halifax counties to the east. In Yar- mouth County, on the west of Shelburne, the trend is N 20°- 30° E. In Shelburne County, however, the main axes, ac- cording to Dr. Bailey’s map, turn toward the Atlantic Ocean in a N 15°-20° E direction. The major axes of the batholiths as shown on the same map, are about N 5° E. In the coastal region considered in this paper, the principal folds are ob- scured by block faulting*, but the axial direction is N 20° E. It is therefore evident that these axes of mountain-building turn from a S 45° W direction to one of S 20° W, which is toward the Atlantic Ocean and not parallel to the coast line of North America. In “La Face de la Terre” Vol. 1 (fig. 103) Suess and de Margerie plot the tectonic axes of eastern North America, and show the axis of southwestern Nova Scotia turn- ing from a S 65° W direction to one of S 15° E. In view of the above data, it is clear that a turn as great as »0° does not exist. The existing turn is comparable to that of the axis of the Canadian Appalachians into the axis of the Taconic Mount- ains. The Goldbearing series throughout Nova Scotia has under- gone extensive metamorphism which appears to be entirely *The faulting is dated, from evidence found elsewhere, as later than the batholithic intrusion, and therefore does not concern the question at hand. SOUTH WESTERN NOVA SCOTIA. POWERS. 305 dynamic and contact metamorphism. The former, as shown in Lunenburg and Halifax counties, produced thick-bedded compact quartzite, usually showing minute flakes of mica, and siliceous slates, usually of a grey-green color and very fine grain with no metacrysts. The metamorphism of these beds was not quite completed when the granitic intrusions of Middle Devonian age took place, for the igneous rock is everywhere more or less sheared. The contact metamor- phism near the granite has produced recrystallized schist and quartzite, and farther away has caused the formation of metacrystals of staurolite, andalusite, biotite, hornblende, garnet and sillimanite. In the southern portion of Shelburne County, the contact metamorphism has been so extensive as to be almost regional. On Negro Island, which is 10 miles fron the nearest granite outcrop, the staurolites still persist in the schist although the quartzite is free from metacrysts. The characteristic fea- tures of the metamorphism are the development of either staurolite or mica or both in the schist everywhere, the re- crystallization of the quartzite near the granite with the de- velopment of the muscovite in large quantities and some biotite, and the lack of alteration of the quartzite elsewhere, except near Sand Point where within three miles of the gran- ite some metacrysts appear. The date of the block faulting, which is shown on the map, is probably late Carboniferous. This diastrophic period did not develop intense folding in the Maritime Provinces, but it was accompanied by faulting. In Kings County the fault- ing is later than the intrusion of igneous rocks of Devonian age. The details concerning these faults have been sufficiently discussed above. Faults are characteristic of the Goldbear- ing series throughout its extent, but this block faulting is uncommon in the districts near the gold mines. 306 GEOLOGY OF A PORTION OF SHELBURNE CO., Economic Geology. The most valuable economic resource of the district is granite. West of Shelburne near Hart Point and not over a mile from the Halifax and South-Western Railroad is a gran- ite quarry in bed rock. This quarry has been worked for a number of years, the activity fluctuating with the demand for the product. The granite was loaded on boats within a short distance of the quarry. Also, an extensive quarry business has been carried on in granite boulders here as well as in other parts of the County. At present, granite is being quarried from boulders near the railroad track and trans- ported by rail. The granite appears to split easily and should be very good for building purposes Ochre is reported at Upper Port LaTour. It occurs on the north side of a hill west of the town. Ochre has also been found a mile and a half south of this town, at the bottom of a well hole 10 feet deep. Neither occurrence was investigated. Although quartz veins occur in this vicinity, no gold mines have been opened. The saddle reefs of quartz, from which most of the gold is secured in the Halifax district, could not have been formed in a region so highly metamorphosed as the one here considered. Summary. The pre-Cambrian Meguma or Goldbearing series was fold- ed into a number of parallel anticlines and synclines and dynamically metamorphosed in the Middle Devonian dias- trophism. Granites, quartz diorites and aplitic granites were intruded at this time, being caught in the last of the mountain building movements. These intrusions produced extensive contact metamorphism, staurolite schist being developed ten miles from the nearest granite outcrop. Later, and probably in late Carboniferous time, extensive block faulting took place. PLATE IV. A view of Cape Sable Island showing the dissected and downwarped Cretaceous peneplain. This latge island is completely covered by glacial deposits, only one bed rock outcrop being found by Dr. L. W. Bailey. A large fire was burning on the island at the time this picture was taken. Thanh. N. S. Inst. Sci., Vol. XIII. — Pt. 4, opp. p. 307. SOUTH WESTERN NOVA SCOTIA. — POWERS. 307 The trend of the axes of mountain building, which have determined the outlines of Nova Scotia, turns in Shelburne County from about S 45° W to S 20° W. The axes therefore point away from the land as they dip under the sea, but not at such an angle as given by Suess and de Margerie. Probably since the end of the pre-Cambrian at least part of the rocks of the Goldbearing series has been exposed to denudation. At the time the ice sheet advanced over the region in the Pleistocene, long valleys had been formed in the Cretaceous peneplain. The land was depressed at about this time to its present level, drowning the ends of the valleys and making the fiords and islands which now characterize the coast line. The action of the ice' was to bevel off the rock, but also to leave a thick veneer of sandy ground moraine and boulders over the entire country. Many islands and penin- sulas consist, above the present sea level, almost wholly of glacial deposits. Along the depressed shore line the sea is re- working these deposits with the formation of abundant beach- es and bars, and in only a few places has the sea cut through the thick veneer and attacked the bed rock. Proc. & Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci., Vol. XIII. Trans. 21. Coloured Thinking and Allied Conditions. — By D. Fraser Harris, M. D., D. Sc., F. R. S. E., Professor of Physiology in Dalhousie University, Halifax, N. S. (Read 9 March, 1914.) There are certain persons in whom sounds are invariably and inevitably associated with colours. Whether these sounds are those of the human voice or the notes of various musical instruments, they are all heard as coloured. This kind of thing is known as coloured hearing; in French, audi- tion color ee; in German, farbigts Horen. The linking together of any two kinds of sensation is called synsesthesia; of all the possible synaesthesise, the linking of colour and sound is the commonest. A larger number of persons than might be supposed are the subjects of coloured hearing. As long ago as 1864, the chromatic associations of one of these coloured hearers were described by Benjamin Lumley(2). “I know a person, ” he wrote, “with whom music and colours are so intimately associated that whenever this person listens to a singer, a colour corresponding to his voice becomes visible to his eyes, the greater the volume of the voice the more distinct is the colour.” This person heard Mario’s voice as violet, Sims Reeves’ as gold-brown, GrisPs as primrose, and so on. But there is also a small number of persons who, whether they hear in colours or not, always think in colours. These persons, called coloured thinkers, do not have any sensation of colour when voices or notes are heard, but they invariably associate some kind of colour with such things as the names of the days of the week, the hours of the day, the months of the year, the vowels, the consonants, etc. This faculty is coloured thinking or chromatic conception and has been called psychochromaesthesia. A typical coloured thinker ' (308) COLOURED THINKING AND ALLIED CONDITIONS. — HARRIS. 309 who will tell you, for instance, that Sunday is yellow, Wed- nesday brown, Friday black, may not experience any sensa- tion of colour on hearing the organ played or a song sung. Certain persons are indeed coloured hearers as well as coloured thinkers; but we should distinguish the person who has linked sensations, a synsesthete, from the person whose thoughts are coloured, whose mentation is chromatic, who is, in fact, a psychochromsesthete. The literature of synsesthesia is much more extensive than any one would be inclined to think who had not made it a special study. Nor is the condition described only in tech- nical publications; there is an increasing tendency to recog- nize it in current fiction. Thus in “Dorian Grey” we have — ■ “her voice was exquisite, but from the point of view of tone it was absolutely false. It was wrong in colour”. Musicians, it would appear, are particularly liable to hear in colours— “The aria in A sharp (Schubert) is of so sunny a warmth, and of so delicate a green that it seems to me when I hear it that I breathe the scent of young fir-trees”. The musical critic of the “Birmingham Daily Post” thus once complained of a lady’s singing; “Her voice should have been luscious like purple grapes”. Punch has, of course, not failed to notice this tendency in musical criticism. A writer in the “Daily Telegraph” had thus expressed himself — “To a rather dark coloured, deep, mezzo-soprano voice, the singer joins a splendid temperament”; Punch remarked, “We, ourselves, prefer a plum-coloured voice with blue stripes or else something of a tartan timbre”. Monsieur Peillaube(53), editor of the Revue Philosphique, has reported on four persons who have well marked coloured hearing for organ notes, and he calls attention to the numerous cases amongst musicians of definite associations between notes and musical instruments on the one hand, and colours on the other as well as between whole pieces of music and colours. Thus Gounod, endeavouring to express the dif- 310 COLOURED THINKING ference between the French and Italian languages and giving his preference to the former, used terms relating to colours: “Elle est moins rich de coloris, soit, mais elle est plus variee et plus fins de tintes”. Theoretically, any two sensations may be linked, so that coloured hearing is only one particular variety of synsesthesia (coupled sensations, secondary or dual sensations, second- arempfindungen). No doubt the linking of colour with sound is the commonest of these dual sensations which, following Bleuler(31), might be called sound-photisms. When a taste produces light or colours we have a taste-photism; similarly, there are odour-photisms, touch-photisms, tem- perature-photisms, and pain-photisms recorded in the annals of abnormal psychology. A good example of pain-photism, occurs in a recent novel, “The Dream Ship”(66). The whole passage is so appropriate to our subject that it may be quoted in full: — “Bran” (a boy) “decided all his likes and dislikes by colour and smell. His favourite colours were yellow, red, green, and wet-black. The last was very different to (sfc) ordinary black which was the colour of toothache. Little rheumatic pains, which he sometimes got in his knees, were grey. The worst pain you could get was a purply-red one which came when you were sad and gave you the stomach ache. He had once solemnly stated that the only colour he hated was yellow-pink, but as he always called yellow pink and pink yellow, no one had been able to solve the riddle of this hated colour.” The black colours of toothache and the grey of rheumatism were this boy’s pain-photisms. Something of the reverse order is indicated where a dis- agreeable colour is described as producing a pain in the stomach. When Baudelaire said that musk reminded him of scarlet and gold, he had an odour-photism. When the reverse linking occurs, we have an analogous series as follows, — If light or colour produces a sound, it is AND ALLIED CONDITIONS. HARRIS. 311 a light- or colour-phonism. When a taste is coupled with a sound, we have a taste-phonism and there may exist odour-, touch-, temperature- or pain-phonisms respectively. Sometimes the second sensation linked is of a more vague character, as when screeching sounds produce disagreeable general sensations very difficult to describe. They have been called secondary sensations of general feeling, and they may be akin to those unpleasant sensations evidently experienced by dogs and other animals when they hear music. The late Mr. Grant Allen was evidently alluding to this kind of thing when he wrote in an article on “Scales and Colours,” that “ Chaos was in dark and gloomy colours, whereas light was treated in white” in such a work as Hadyn’s “Creation.” Bleuler(31) believes that phonisms of high pitch are pro- duced by bright lights, well defined outlines, small and pointed forms, whereas phonisms of low pitch are produced by the opposite conditions. An interesting point may be mentioned in connexion with the difference in colour aroused by spoken words and by whispering. Dr. Helene Stelzner(5) tells us that in her own case full-toned speech appears as a coloured picture, whereas whispering, with its much less resonant vowels, appears like a copper-plate engraving, that is, as non-chromatic. Quite apart from all these things — synsesthesia — is coloured thinking or chromatic mentation. Here it is not a question of a sensation being present at all, it is that cer- tain persons who have this power, faculty or disability cannot visualize any concept without seeing it in “the mind’s eye” as coloured in some way or other. Indeed, the majority of the coloured thinkers questioned by the author do not experience colours when they hear sounds or musical tones, but they cannot think of anything definitely, the month, the day, the hour, without its being thought of as red or yellow or black or white or brown or green or blue. There 312 COLOURED THINKING is no approach towards unanimity in the colours thought of in association with any one concept or word; for instance, for Saturday the colours selected at random from records in my possession are white, yellow, steel-grey, white-grey, crimson, brown. The coloured thought may be called a psychochrome, and persons who think in colours psycho- chromsesthetes, the faculty or disposition to think in colours being psychochromsesthesia. Something analogous to this is the case of the blind man alluded to by Locke(1) to whom scarlet was “like the sound of a trumpet.” Apparently the concepts to be most commonly coloured are those for the vowels, the consonants, the months, the days, dnd the hours of the day. Thus the vowel “a” as in “fame” is mentally coloured in the following five ways in five different persons — red, black, green, white-grey, and white respectively. Or take the vowel “u” as in “usual”, we find it psychically coloured as grey-white, yellow, black, brown, blue, and green in six different coloured thinkers. Similarly whole words are associated with colours in the minds of this class of thinkers. One person says he divides all words into two great classes, the dark and the light. Random examples of dark words are man, hill, night, horse, Rome, London, and of light, sea, child, silver, year, day, and Cairo. Or again, another coloured thinker divides up the numerals into those associated with cold colours, grey, black, blue, green; and those with warm, red, yellow, orange, brown, purple, and pink. The odd numbers have the cold colours; the even, the warm. In some cases, as might be expected, the coloured concepts are appropriate or natural as when the word scarlet is scarlet; black, black; and white, white. But an examination of psychochromes shows us that this reasonableness does not necessarily always occur. Thus, the word “apple” is to one coloured thinker a slate grey, which is*not[the colour of any real apple; and the word “cucumber” to the same person is white; now only the inside of the vegetable itself is white. AND ALLIED CONDITIONS. HARRIS. 313 Some kind of method, however, may be traced in this chromatic madness, for, according to Bleuler (31) high-pitched notes produce the lighter tints of colour, but low-pitched the darker shades. According to this authority, the colours oftenest aroused in the synsesthesia, sound-photism, are dark brown, dark red, yellow, and white, which is not at all the statement of the frequency of occurrence of colours in coloured thinking. From the records of the psychochromes of two brothers, the relative order of frequency of the colours is white or grey, brown, black, yellow, red, green, and blue; violet and indigo not occurring. Dr. Helene Stelzner(5) says that green is the colour least commonly thought of. But individual differences are extreme: thus bdth purple and violet are such favourites with some coloured thinkers that they hardly ever think in terms of any other colours. The present writer(55) has examined the psychochromes of two men, one woman, and one child, with the result that the relative order of frequency of occurrence comes out as white, brown, black, yellow, green, blue, red, pink, cream, orange, and purple. It is thus clear that the colours thought of are not exclusively the pure or spectral ones, for certain non-spectral colours like brown, pink, cream, white, and black are quite commonly reported. The novelist, Ellen Thorny- croft Fowler, in a private communication to the author, wrote — “The colour which I always associate with myself, for no earthly reason that I can discover, is blue. Therefore, “E”, my initial letter is blue; April, the month of my birth- day is blue, and 9, the date of my birthday, is blue.” This is known as “colour individuation”, and has been made a special study of by Paul Sokolov(47) in his paper “L’individua- tion coloree” read before the fourth international congress of Psychology held at Paris, 1900. Some people, in short, have their favourite colours, and with these they invest their pleasant thoughts, while their unpleasant thoughts they find coloured by the tints they are not fond of. 314 COLOURED THINKING Apart, however, from whether certain colours are fav- ourites or not, some few persons have the consciousness of a colour more or less present with them. Thus, R. L. Steven- son had, so he tells us, a feeling of brown which, during his attacks of fever, was unusually distinct. It was “a peculiar shade of brown, something like sealskin”. As might be expected, so acute an observer as Mr. Rudyard Kipling has not failed to notice coloured thinking. In his very curious story “They”,(52) he describes the colour concepts experienced by a blind old lady who opens an interview by complaining that certain colours— purple and black — hurt her. Her visitor asks, “And what are the colours at the top of whatever you see?” “I see them so,” she replies, “white, green, yellow, red, purple; and when people are very bad, black across the red, as you were just now.” The old lady goes on to say that ever since she was quite a child some colours hurt her, and some made her happy. “I only found out afterwards that other people did not see the colours.” So unfamiliar is coloured thinking to the ordinary person that a critic wrote {The Academy and Literature, October 8th, 1904) “Such tales as ‘They’ are sheer conundrums.” Another writer asked more pertinently, “Are the colours the blind woman described, the colours of different thoughts?” In Mrs. Felkin's novel, In subjection (43) (1900), the heroine, Isabel Seton, is evidently a coloured thinker. Some of her colour associations are given on page 149. The novelist, in a letter to the writer, was good enough to explain that these experiences of her heroine are based on those of an actual prototype, some of whose additional psychochromes she has kindly mentioned. Isabel Seton has synsesthesia also, for the actual sounds of voices call up colours. Thus, soprano voices are to her pale blue or green or yellow or white; contraltos are pink or red or violet; tenors are dif- ferent shades of brown; while basses are black or dark green or navy blue. AND ALLIED CONDITIONS. HARRIS. 315 In the novel Christopher by Richard Pryce, (61) there is an interesting allusion to a boy who is described as not morbid although he is evidently a synsesthete and a coloured thinker. He talks of playing the sunset on the piano (a eolour-phonism), and of smelling moonlight (a light-olfac- tion). In a novel, Youth’s Encounter , (64) published in the year 1913 we are told that to one of the characters, “Monday was dull red, Tuesday was cream-coloured, Thurs- day was dingy purple, Friday was a harsh scarlet, but Wed- nesday was vivid apple-green, or was it a clear, cool blue?” It is difficult to express the character of these coloured concepts to persons — and they are the majority of people — who never experience this sort of thing at any time. The colours are not present so vividly as to constitute hallucina- tions. Coloured visualizings never become hallucinatory, possibly because they are of the nature of thoughts, rather than of subjective sensations. Chromatic conception belongs to the physiology not to the pathology of mind. Coloured thinkers are not continually plagued with phantasmagoria. Mental colourings do not obtrude themselves into one’s mental life, they are habitual, natural, chromatic tincturings of one’s concepts, and have been so long present to consciousness that they have long ago become part of one’s mental belongings. They are invariable and definite with- out being disturbing. One coloured thinker has thus expressed himself: “When I think at all definitely about the month of January, the name or word appears to me reddish, whereas April is white, May yellow, the vowel ‘i’ is always black, the letter ‘o’ white, and ‘w’ indigo-blue. Only by a determined effort can I think of ‘b’ as green or blue, for me it always has been and must be black; to imagine August as anything but white seems to me an impossiblity, an altering of the in- herent nature of things.” There is thus an inherent definite- ness, finality, and constancy about each thinker’s psycho- 316 COLOURED THINKING chromes that is very striking. But it is not alone letters and words that are habitually thought of as coloured, certain coloured thinkers always associate a particular colour with their thoughts about a particular person. The author of “The Corner of Harley Street” (62) remarks (p. 251) “If only we could use colours now to express our deeper attitude on these occasions, as some of your fellow clergy wear stoles at certain seasons, with what pleasant impunity could we write to one another in yellow or purple or red, leaving black for the editor of the Times or the plumber whose bill we are disputing.” “Our alphabet is not rich enough for the notation of the cockney dialect”, writes Mr. Richard Whiting in No. 5 John Street, “I can but indicate his speech system by a stray word which, if there is anything in the theory of the correspondence between sounds and colours, should have the effect of a stain of London mud.” This is evidently an allusion to coloured thinking. There is, unfortunately, no theory at all as yet, but there is the fact of chromatic conception. Quite recently (1913) there was in the “British Review” (65)a vivacious article dealing with coloured thinking from the popular standpoint. The literature that contains the most systematic discussion of coloured thinking is that of the decadent poets of France, the symbolists, as they are called. Some account of their psychochromes is given in Lombroso’s “Man of Genius”(30). The eccentric poet, Paul Verlaine, belonged to this school. It evidently includes synsesthetes as well as coloured thinkers for, for them, the organ is black, the harp white, the violin blue, the trumpet red, and the flute yellow. But they think of the vowel “a” as black, “e” as, white, “i” blue, “o” red, and “u” yellow. One of them, St6phane Mallarm6, has explained in his pamphlet Traite du Verhe how these things have come to be. AND ALLIED CONDITIONS. HARRIS. 317 The following verses — for I hesitate to call them poetry — seem to be an attempt to express the associations of emotions symbolized by the mental colourings of the vowels: VOYELLES A noir, E blanc, I rouge, U vert, O bleu, voyelles, Je dirai quelque jour vos naissances latentes; A, noir corset velu des mouches eclatantes Qui bombillent autour des puanteurs cruelles. Golfes d’ombre, E, candeur des vapeurs et des tentes, Lances des guerriers fiers, rois blancs, frissons d’ombelles, I, pourpres, sang crache, rire des levres belles Dans la colere ou les ivresses penitentes. U, cycles vibrement divins des mers virides, Paix des patis semes d’animaux, paix des rides Que l’alchemie imprime aux grands fronts studieux. O, supreme clairon plein de strideurs etranges, Silence traversee des Mondes et des Anges, 0, l’omega, rayon violet des ses yeux. J. A. Rimbaud. We are now perhaps in a position to make some inquiry into the characteristic features of coloured thinking. The first point that strikes one is the very early age at which these associations are fixed. This was a feature recognized by Galton in his classic examination of the subject in 1883 (10) The present author’s observations fully confirm this point; he has in his possession many letters from coloured thinkers in which the details of their psychochromes differ in the widest possible manner, but all agree in that they testify to the very early age at which the associations were formed. After the publication of the writer’s article in the “Scotsman,” December 29th, 1908, (59) he received a number of letters spontaneously sent, all emphasising this feature in such 318 COLOURED THINKING phrases as, “ever since I can remember”, “ever since child- hood I have always had it”, “I do not remember the time when I had not”, etc. A writer in “Nature” in 1891, (29) reports on the psychochromes of his daughter when seven years old, at which age she had specifically different colours for the days of the week, namely: blue, pink, brown or grey, brown or grey, white, white, and black. The months of the year were coloured in' the following way by a girl of ten who had so thought of them ever since she could remember: brown, olive-green, “art” blue, green-yellow, pink, pale green, pale mauve, orange, orange-brown, grey, grey out- lined in black and finally red. A boy ten years old is reported in the article on Colour Hearing in the “British Review”, (65) to have “noticed that the number eight invariably provoked in him the sensation of apricot-yellow, and the number fifteen that, of peacock blue”. There seems not the slightest doubt that these colour associations are amongst the earliest that are formed in the child mind of the coloured thinker. The second characteristic of coloured thinking is the unchangeableness of the colour thought of. Middle-aged people will tell you that there has been no alteration in the colours or even in the tints and shades of colour which, for many years, they have associated with their various concepts. Galton remarked on this in his original monograph: “They are very. little altered,” he said, “ by the accidents of educa- tion.” Galton’s phrase was they result from “Nature not nurture”. Just as their origination is not due to the in- fluence of the environment, so the environment exercises no modifying influence on them even during a long life. The third characteristic of psychochromes is the extreme definiteness in the minds of their possessors. Contrary to what might reasonably be expected, the precise colours attached to concepts are by no means vague or incapable of accurate verbal description. A coloured thinker is most AND ALLIED CONDITIONS. HARRIS. 319 fastidious in the choice of terms to give adequate expression to his Chromatic imagery. One of these is not content, for instance, with speaking of September as grey, he must call it steel-grey; another speaks of a dull white, of a silvery white, of “the colour of white watered silk,” and so on. One child speaks of March as “art blue,” whatever that is; an- other of 6 p. m. as pinkish. The degree of chromatic pre- cision which can be given by coloured thinkers to their visualizing is as extraordinary as any of the other extraordinary things connected with this curious subject. The fourth characteristic is the complete non-agreement between the various colours attached to the same concept in the minds of coloured thinkers. Thus, nine different persons think of Tuesday in terms of the following colours: brown, purple, dark purple, brown, blue, white, black, pink, and blue. Again, September is thought of as pale yellow, steel-grey, and orange by three different coloured thinkers respectively. Once more, the vowel “i” is thought of as black, red-violet, yellow, white, and red respectively by five persons gifted with chromatic mentation. Unanimity seems hopeless, agreement quite impossible; the colours are essentially individualistic. The fifth characteristic of psychochromes is their un- accountableness. No coloured thinker seems to be able to say how he came by his associations; “I cannot account for them in any way” is the invariable remark one finds in letters from persons describing their coloured thoughts. The sixth characteristic is the hereditary or at least inborn nature of the condition. Galton’s phrase was “very hereditary”. The extremely early age at which coloured thinking reveals itself would of itself indicate that the ten- dency was either hereditary or congenital. The details of a case of heredity from father to son have been reported for coloured hearing by Lauret and Duchassoy; a case of coloured thinking reported by the present writer was one 320 COLOURED THINKING of heredity also from father to son. But these related coloured hearers did not see the same colours for the same sound, nor did the two coloured thinkers think in the same colours. From the writer’s inquiries, coloured thinking is certainly congenital even when it cannot be proved to be hereditary. This point will come up again in connexion with the origin of the condition, but we may at present note that those who have studied the subject are unanimous in denying that at any rate coloured thinking is due to environ- mental influences. It may be now asked whafc manner of people are they who are coloured hearers or coloured thinkers or both. The late Mr. Galton told us that they are rather above than below the average intelligence. The writer’s observation would, in the main, confirm this; they are at least invariably well educated persons who confess to being coloured thinkers. In his book, Mr. Galton gave a few names of distinguished persons of his acquaintance, and his list might be brought up to date by the addition of some names quite as distinguished. But all persons who have coloured hearing or coloured think- ing are not necessarily distinguished — -a large number, as we have seen, are yet children — but they are all probably more or less sensitive. Possibly they are more given to introspection than is the ordinary person. At any rate, what is quite certain is that both synaesthetes and psycho- chromsesthetes belong to the group of strong visuals or “seers” as Galton called them. Seers are persons who visual- ize or exteriorize their concepts either as uncoloured forms or as coloured in some way or other. The uncoloured thought- forms are very curious, some of which Galton gave as examples in the appendix to his work. One distinguished neurologist always sees the numerals 1 to 100 in the form of a ladder sloping upwards from left to right into the sky. As this concept is not coloured, it cannot be called a psychochrome, but it might be called a psychogram. A psychogram is, AND ALLIED CONDITIONS. HARRIS. 321 then, the uncoloured thought-form of a concept, and people who have psychograms must be strong visualizers. The school of symbolist poets in France to which Ghil, Malarme, Rimbaud, and Verlaine belong, appears to lay a great deal of stress on the so-called meaning of colours. The school evidently includes both coloured hearers and coloured thinkers; but, whereas, the majority of coloured thinkers derive no particular meaning from their psycho- chromes, the symbolists attach considerable significance to the colours which happen to be associated with their thoughts. The different vowels, for instance, mean to them or represent for them particular emotions or states of mind not in virtue of the sound of the vowel but entirely through the related colour. The particular emotion symbolized by any given colour seems to the ordinary person rather arbitrary if we judge by the details in Rimbaud’s poem; but we are aware that there has always been a tendency to represent emotional states in terms of the language of colour. Homer spoke of “black pains”; we constantly speak of a black outlook, a black lie, a white lie, a black record, a grey life, a colourless life, . and so on. There is, in fact, growing up in England a school of musicians who hold that it should be pos- sible and pleasurable to represent music chromatically. Whether the general public will ever enjoy silent music seems very doubtful, but it is notorious that most people derive a great deal of pleasure from the display of coloured lights, illuminated vapours, coloured steam, “fairy foun- tains”, Bengal lights, a house on fire, and similar exhibitions in the open air. People undoubtedly do like to see great surfaces or masses vividly coloured as in the rainbow, the sunrise or sunset, the afterglow on snowy mountains, the streamers of the northern lights, and so forth. But whether they would care to have audible music suppressed and to have offered them a succession of coloured surfaces or patches of colour even following one another in the se- 322 COLOURED THINKING quence or rythm required by music, is open to serious question. Such, however, is the intention of Mr. A. W. Rimington, as explained in his book, “Colour in Music”/63) in which there is much that is true and interesting. “It is undeniable,” he writes, “that as a nation our colour sense is practically dormant . . . Compare our colour sense with that possessed by the Japanese, the Indians, or even the Bulgarians and Spaniards. . . To my mind, a wide-spread, refined colour-sense is more important than a musical one.” Long before Mr. Rimington’s work was published, there appeared a little book privately printed at Leith in Scotland called “Chromography or tone-colour music” (23). The author assigned a colour to each of the notes of the scale thus — do = red, re = orange; mi = yellow; fa = green; sol = blue; la = violet-purple; ti = red-purple. Many persons have synsesthesia in connexion with musical tones (sound-photisms) ; two cases reported by Albertoni(24) associated blue with the sound of Do (C); yellow with Mi (E); and red with Sol (G). But it was discovered that they were colour-blind for red (Daltonism). Now, whereas, they could recognize and name the other notes, they could not name G, a disability which Albertoni thinks was related to the Daltonism; he has accordingly called it Auditory Daltonism ( (Daltonismus auditivus), a psychical deafness depending on the red-blindness since the note to which they were psychically deaf was the one which called up mentally the particular colour, red, to which they were actually blind. It might be now asked whether we have any explanation of the causes or causal conditions of coloured thinking; why may thoughts be coloured at all; and why should par- ticular thoughts come to be associated with particular colours? Why should only a few persons, about 12 per cent, in fact, be found to be coloured thinkers? The answers, if answers they can be called, are disappointing in the extreme, AND ALLIED CONDITIONS. HARRIS. 323 for we have no satisfactory explanations of any of these matters. The very arbitrariness of the associations defies theoretical analysis. If it is the function of science merely to describe, then our work is done; but in a subject such as this, to make no attempt to account for the abstruse phenomena observed would be a distinctly feeble conclusion of our studies. It has been suggested that the case of coloured thinking is no more recondite than the influence of some picture-book or paint-box, which in early life determined for us ever afterwards the colours of certain concepts. Now, though many people do regard their coloured thinking as a childish survival, the picture-books will account for very few of the best established psychochromes. In some few cases, environ- mental influences do seem to have been casual. Thus, in one case known to the writer, the colour of February as white was accounted for by the influence of the surroundings. The earliest February remembered was snowy, and through the whiteness of the snow the concept of February came to be and ever afterwards remained white. But it is clear that if environmental influences are operative in anything like a large number of cases, the colours for such concepts as the months of the year ought to be far more uniform than they are. No common origin of external source can make one person think of August as white, another as brown and yet another as crimson. If August is white to one person be- cause it is the month of white harvest, then it ought to be white to all persons capable of receiving any impressions as to the colours of harvest. But to the vast majority of people it is perfectly absurd to talk of August having any ■colour at all; and to the few who think it coloured, it has not by any means the same colour; all seems confusion. Monsieur Peillaube(54) has made a suggestion of a different kind as likely to explain some of these colour associations. Proc. & Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci., Vol. XIII. Trans. 22. 324 COLOURED THINKING . Monsieur Peillaube became acquainted with a Monsieur Ch who had audition coloree as well as colored thinking. Monsieur Ch had an excellent memory and was able to submit his conceptions to searching introspection with the result that he seems to have discovered what may be called the missing link in the associational chain of mental chromatic events. To this coloured thinker the lower notes of the organ were of a violet colour. This seems to have been brought about in the following way: low notes of any kind were sweet and deep (douces et profondes), the colour violet is sweet and deep, therefore it came to pass that the low notes were associated with violet. Similarly, to Monsieur Ch the vowel sound of “i” was suggestive of something “vive et gaie,” the colour green had always been associated with liveliness and gaiety, therefore he thought the vowel “i” was green. These conclusions were reached only after considerable introspection, for it must be understood that the link between the low notes and the colour violet was by no means an explicit or definite presen- tation in this person’s mind, at the time that Monsieur Peillaube suggested the enquiry. Peillaube’s theory, then, is, that these apparently arbitrary and instantaneous linkings of sounds (x) to colours (y) or of thoughts to colours, are really, after all, cases of association of two terms through the intermediation of a third factor an emotional link (1) now subconscious but revivable. The sequence was x-l-y, but in course of time the “1” had dropped out of conscious- ness leaving the “x” and the “y” apparently indissolubly joined together. Finally it may be asked, would the capability of coloured thinking cause its possessor to be classed as mentally ab- normal. The answer is in the negative. Coloured thinkers may not conform to the usual or most commonly met with mental type, but they deviate from that type only in the same way that geniuses deviate from it. Inasmuch as they 325 AND ALLIED CONDITIONS. HARRIS. deviate from the normal, coloured thinkers are, of course, abnormal, but there is nothing in them allied to instability of mental balance. Some coloured thinkers may, no doubt, belong to families in which some degree of mental instability is present, or, on the other hand, some relatives of coloured thinkers may possess a high degree of artistic or musical ability, of scientific or philosophical insight, that quality in fact, of genius so exceedingly difficult to define. Genius is something notoriously not conferred by training or educa- tion, if not inborn it cannot be acquired; exactly the same may be said of coloured thinking. Our studies have at least shown us this, that it is not in the ordinary type of mental constitution but in the recesses of the slightly supernormal that this recondite problem of psychology presents itself for analysis and explanation. Appendix Being the psychochromes in an actual case. a. — blue- white (like a dead tadpole). b. — dark brown-red. c. — brighter red. d. — pea-green. e. — fawn-yellow. f. — a yellow, brighter than e. g. — dark brown, nearly black. h. — black. i. — chocolate brown. j. — a dull red (not the same shade as the other reds). k. — bright brick-red. l. — black. m. — bright yellow. n. — dark brown (nearly black). o. — white. p. — white with just a tinge of blue. q. — pale blue-green. r. — black (nearer to h than to 1). 326 COLOURED THINKING s. — white. t. — mustard colour (ugly). u. — brown-yellow. V.- — olive green. w. — red (like c). x. — green. y. — an ugly yellow. z. — very bright scarlet. Sunday. — red. Monday.— pea-green. Tuesday. — fawn yellow. Wednesday.— black. Thursday. — fawn (not as bright as Tuesday). Friday. — green (a very ugly bile colour). Saturday. — white. January. — dull red. February. — fawn. March. — a green mustard colour. April. — blue white. May. — sunshine colour June. — dull red. July. — a slightly darker red. August. — olive green (more yellow than n). September. — white. October. — green. November. — black brown. December. — a blue shot with green. Christmas. — white. Whitsun. — nearly a rose pink. Easter. — black with something white in the middle. One. — black. Two. — blue-white. Three. — fawn. AND ALLIED CONDITIONS. HARRIS. 327 Four. — dark red. Five. — white. Six. — bright yellow. Seven. — black. Eight. — white. Nine. — green. Ten. — mustard-green. Eleven. — brown-yellow-green. Twelve. — pale brown. 1. 1690 2. 1864 3. 1873 4. 1879 5. 1880 6. 1880 7. 1881 8. 1881 9. 1882 10. 1883 11. 1883 12. 1883 Bibliography. Locke, John; Philosophical Works; Bohn, London, 1868; Yol. II, p. 26. Lumley, B.; Reminiscences of the Opera; London, 1864, pp. 98-99. Bruhl, Wien. med. Wochenschr, nos. 1-3. Lewes, G. EL; Problems of Life and Mind; Third Series, London 1879. Galton, F.; Nature, London; 1880, Vol. XXI., p. 252. Galton, F.; Ibid, p. 494. Bleuler, E. und Lehmann, K.; Zwangmassige Lichtempfindungen durch Schall und verwandte Erscheinungen; Leipzig, 1881. Steinbriigge; Ueber secondare Sinnesempfindun- gen; Wiesbaden, 1881. Mayerhausen; Uber Association der Klange speciell der Worte mit Farben; Klin. Monatsbl. f. Augenheilk, 1882. Galton, F. ; Inquiries into human faculty and its development; Macmillan, London 1883, p. 145-177. Lussana; Sur Eaudition coloree; Arch. Ital. de Biol. 88. Pedrono; De l’audition coloree; Annal d’Oculiste, 1883. 328 13. 1883 14. 1884 15. 1885 16. 1885 17. 1887 18. 1887 19. 1887 20. 1887 21. 1887 22. 1888 23. 1888 24. 1889 25. 1889 26. 1889 27. 1890 28. 1891 28. 1891 30. 1891 COLOURED THINKING Schenkl; Ueber Association der Worte mit Farben; Prager Medic. Wochenschr, 1883. Hilbert; Klin. Monatsbl. f. Augenheilk. DeRochas A.; Audition coloree; La Nature, April, May, September, 1885. Girandeau; De l’audition coloree; L’Encephale, No. 5, p. 589,' 1885. Baratoux; Audition coloree; Progres Medicale, 1887. Fere, C.; La vision coloree et l’equivalence des excitations sensorielles; Soc. de Biol., Paris, 1887. Pick; Mendel's Neurolg, Centralbl, p. 536, 1887. Urbantschitsch; Sitzungsbericht d Gesellsch; d. Aertze in Wien, October 1, 1887. Ditto; Munch. med.Woch, October 25, 1887, p. 845. Lauret et Duchassoy; Bull. Soc. de psychol. physiol; Paris, Tome III, p. 11; Abstract in Centralbl, fur Physiol, Leipzig und Wien, 1888, s. 125. Watt, William; Chromography or tone-colour music; Leith, 1888. Albertoni; (abstract) Centralbl. f. Physiol., Leip- zig und Wien, 1889, s. 345. Kaiser; Association der Worte mit Farben; Arch, f. Augenheilk, 1889. Raymond, P.; Une observation d’audition coloree; Gzette des Hopitaux, 1889. De Mendoza, Suarez; L'audition coloree; Paris, 1890. Delstauch; Une observation d’audition coloree; Annal des maladies de l’oreille, 1891. Holden; Nature; London, 1891, Vol. NLIV, p.223.' Lombroso; The man of genius; London, W. Scott, 1891, p. 231. AND ALLIED CONDITIONS. HARRIS. 329 31. 1892 Bleuler; Article, Secondary sensations (pseudo- chromsesthesia) Diet, psych, med.; Edited by Tuke, London, Churchill, 1892. 32. 1892 Calkins, Mary W.; Amer. Jrl. Psych.; Yol. V., no. 2, Nov.. 1892. 33. 1892 Gruber; L’audition coloree; Proc. Intern. Cong. Exper. Psych., London, 1892. 34. 1892 Krohn; Pseudochronrsesthesia; Amer. Jrl. Psych., Oct. 1892. 35. 1893 Calkins, Mary W.; Statistical Study of pseudo- chromsesthesia and of mental forms; Amer. Jrl. Psych., July, 1893. 36. 1895 Mirto, G.; Contributo al Fenomeno di Sinestesia visuale, Palermo, 1895. 37. 1895 Robertson, W. J.; A century of French verse, London, 1895. (For transaltion of Arthur Rimbaud’s poem “Les Voyelles”.) 38. 1897 Zehender; Ein Fall von Geschmaksphotismus; Klin. Monatsbl., f. Augenheilk, 1897. 39. 1899 Symons, A. ; The symbolist movement in literature, 1899. 40. 1899 Claviere, J.; L’audition coloree; Ann. Psychol., Vol. V, 1899, p. 161-178. 41. 1899 Ditto; Ann. de Soc. Psych., Vol. IX, p. 257-271, 1899. 42. 1900 Daubresse; Audition Coloree, Rev. Philosoph, 1900. 43. 1900 Fowler, E. T.; In Subjection, London, Hutchin- son, 1900, p. 149. 44. 1901 Laigneland Lavastine; Audition coloree familiale, Rev. Neurolog., 1901. 45. 1901 Lemaitre; Audition coloree et phenomenes con- nexes observes chez des ecoliers, Geneve, 1901. 1901 Sokolov, P.; LTndividuation coloree, Rev. Philo- soph, 1901. 46. 330 COLOURED THINKING 47. 1901 Sokolov, P.; L’individuation coloree, Trans. IV Cong, intern, de psychol. tenu a Paris, 1900, Paris, 1901, pp. 189-193. 48. 1902 Romby; L’Hysterie de Ste Therese, Arch, de Neurol, Vol. 14, 1902. 49. 1903 Dressier; L’audition coloree, evolue-t-elle, L’ An- nee biol., Vol. VIII, 1903, p. 406. 50. 1903 Lemaitre; Cas d’audition coloree hallucinatoire, cas hereditaire, L’Annee Biol. Vol. VIII, 1903, p. 421. 51. 1903 Stelzner, Helene; Fall von akustisch-optischer Synaesthesie, Graefe’s Arch. Ophth., Leipzig, Vol. 55, 1903, p. 549-563. 52. 1904 Kipling, R.; Traffics and Discoveries, London, 1904. 53. 1904 Peillaube; Rev. Phil., Paris, 1904, Nov., p. 675. 54. 1904 Peillaube; Communication to the VI International Congress of Physiology, Brussels, Setpember, 1904. 55. 1905 Harris, D. Fraser; Psychochromaesthesia and certain synaethesiae. Edin. Med. Jourl., Dec. 1905. 56. 1905 Lomer, G.; Farbiges Horen (Auditio Colorata) Arch. f. Psychiat., Berlin, 1905, Vol. 40, p. 593-601. 57. 1905 Colville, W. J.; The human aura and the signi- ficance of colour, London, 1905. 58. 1908 Harris, D. Fraser; Coloured Thinking, Jrl. Abn. Psychol., Boston, June-July, 1908, p. 97. 59. 1908 Ibid; Coloured Thinking, Scotsman, December 29, 1908. 60. 1908 Ibid; Coloured Thinking, Rev. Neurol, and Psych. Edin. September, 1908. 61. 1911 Price, R.; Christopher, London, Hutchinson & Co., 1911, p. 81. AND ALLIED CONDITIONS. 331 62. 1911 The Corner of Harley Street, London, Con- stable, 1911, p. 251. 63. 1912 Rimington,A. W.; Colour in Music, London, 1912, 64. 1913 MacKenzie, C.; Youth’s Encounter Toronto, Bell & Cockburn, 1913. 65. 1913 Martindale, C. C.; Colour hearing, British Review April 1913, Vol. II, No. 1. 66. 1913 Stockley, C.; The Dream Ship, London, Con- stable & Co., 1913, p. 229. Analyses of Nova Scotian Soils. — By Prof. L. C. Harlow, B. Sc., B. S. A., Provincial Normal College, Truro, N. S. (Read 20 April 1914) “The soil is so complex in its relation to crops that it has been and still is one of Nature’s greatest puzzles.” What intricate actions, physical and chemical, are those which take place when the rain descends upon, or the salt tide water spreads over the marsh lands of our Province! Pages are written upon the action between two substances in a test tube; it is only natural then that much is afforded for investi- gation in one of Nature’s great test tubes, the Bay of Fundy, where the fine residues carried by streams from the various geological formations are mechanically stirred by the ceaseless tide. An analysis of the ebb tide water at the mouth of the Shubenacadie shows .622 grams of silt suspended in every lOOOcc of water. Now this silt is the result of the breaking down, the weathering and transportation of the rocks of the Province. Of what is it composed mineralogic- ally and chemically? A number of investigators as Delage, Bonsteel and Hies, who have labored to determine the minerals in the soil have come to the conclusion that it has all the minerals unaltered which are present in the rocks. The commonest are quartz, limonite, hematite, kaolin, feldspar, micas, apatite, hornblendes, pyroxenes, chlorite, tourmaline, rutile, calcite, dolomite, selenite, zeolites. Again the rocks as sandstone, shales, limestones, of one group, have the same mineral constituents as the granites, gneisses and schists of another group; but differ first, in the varying proportion of these minerals, and secondly in that the first group are water formed, the second heat formed. (332) ANALYSES OF NOVA SCOTIAN SOILS. — HARLOW. 333 Hence, a soil, whether artifically made by powdering a rock, or taken from a lately deposited marsh area, from a leached hillside or from a field worn out by cropping, will give the essential elements as shown by the analysis of the following: A. New tide deposit from Gaspereau River Insoluble in acid of 1.11 sp. gr. 83.66 Potash 72 Soda (Na20) . .82 Lime 9 Magnesia 1.39 Sulphuric acid . . Ferric oxide Alumina ...... Phosphoric acid .19 7.7 .1 Volatile at red heat 3.57 1.1 .06 B. A “worn out” hillside field from Upper Stew- iacke, Col. Co. 80.02 .42 .09 .55 .63 .11 3.25 5.68 .12 8.51 1.28 1.8 Water at 100° Nitrogen Further analysis of the same ebb tide water shows in lOOOcc 29.95gm. of dissolved solid made up as follows: — Sodium chloride 24.24 Potassium chloride .38 Magnesium chloride . 2.47 Magnesium bromide .036 Magnesium sulphate 1.63 Calcium sulphate 1.18 In addition to these, Ditmar gives about 30 other ele- ments which are easily proven in salt water. That rock residue may become available to plants has been proven by Wohler, who, in a classical experiment, found the zeolite apophyllite to be sufficiently physically soluble in pure water to be recrystallized from it. F. W. Clarke found muscovite, orthoclase, albite, and othei micas, feldspars and zeolites to be soluble in pure water. 334 ANALYSES OF NOVA SCOTIAN SOILS. HARLOW. Again, Lemberg found that leucite, KAlSi206 in NaCs 10% solution gave NaAlSLOe and KC1; also that feldspar with ordinary soluble salts gave similar exchange of basic elements. These are the changes which must be taking place in our Bay of Fundy waters, and of which Cameron of the U. S. Bureau of Soils says “It is to be regretted that there are not more precise data available as to the stability of the various rock forming mineral species in contact with solutions of the more common and readily soluble salts at ordinary temperatures since such data would be of great value for geological, mineralogical and soil studies/ ’ If the tide water with its dissolved matter acting on the newly brought down rock debris presents a wide range of possible new substances, how much more complex will be the action in a field, marsh or upland where we have organic matter, more or less decomposed; soil atmosphere, living plant organisms as bacteria, molds, ferments; animal forms as protozoa, in addition to the rock residues bathed in the soil moisture which is a solution of products yielded by many components and in equilibrium or nearly so with the solids or gases with which it is in contact. Scientific Agriculture is the handling of this hetero- geneous mixture so as to give, with a minimum of labor, the greatest crop return, and yet be able to pass it over to the next generation, not in an exhausted condition, but per- manently improved. It is based on knowledge which is far from complete. Our marsh soils in some places are “run out,” giving one half ton of hay per acre. Why is this? We usually say that the available plant food is used up; on the other hand the Bureau of Soils at Washington has, within the last ten years, advanced the Toxin theory which is, that plants in exhausted soils are like human beings in a room, the air of which is polluted by excreted substances, disagree- able and sickening; that the growing plant excretes poisons which, if allowed to accumulate in the soil, kill the plant; ANALYSES OF NOVA SCOTIAN SOILS. HARLOW. 335 that fertilizers by chemical action destroy these poisons, rendering the soil healthful for growing plants. Some of these toxins, as picoline carboxylic acid, dihy- droxystearic acid and agroceric acid, have been isolated from the soil and their deleterious effects shown on seedlings. These two views have led to a long discussion between the soil men at Washington and another group represented by Hall, of England, and Hopkins, of Illinois. One writer says “The practice of Agriculture has suffered and is suffering today from an insufficient accumulation of facts and data and from an overproduction of theories and conclusions”. It is the purpose of this work to provide some data regarding the ultimate composition of the rock debris found in the soils of this Province. To this end 125 samples of soil have been collected, 86 of which have been studied with particular emphasis on the chemical analyses and the rela- tionship of the soil to the surrounding rock, both native and drift. This work has been my pastime during vacation seasons since 1908. Samples were taken as follows: — 24 Marsh soils from various points between Kingsport and Windsor, along the Cobequid Bay and from the Amherst areas. 25 at various places along a line extending across the county from Tatamagouche to Middle Musquodoboit. 12 from the central part of Lunenburg county. 8 from the Annapolis valley. 10 from the Wentworth valley. 2 from the Government farm, Truro. 2 near Antigonish town. 1 from Guysboro county. 1 from Digby county. 1 from Clifton, Colchester county. 336 ANALYSES OF NOVA SCOTIAN SOILS. — HARLOW. This article will present results of the analyses with tentative deductions therefrom. It is expected that this work will be continued so as to include soils from all parts of the Province and special study of certain problems which at present can only be suggested. While good soils differ in the amounts of the essential elements, yet the following standard from Professor Snyder, Minnesota Exp. Station might be taken for comparison:— Potash soluble in acid Phospho- ric acid Lime Nitrogen Good soil 3-6% .15% if neutral .3 to .5% •2% or alka- if partly line. limestone Poor soil T% .05% •07% The following table gives the composition of typical soils from various geological areas of the Province. TABLE I. ANALYSES OF NOVA SCOTIAN SOILS. — HARLOW. oo to 00 to •O' to rH i> CO CO CO CO to CM 00 SO CO £3 CM CO CM CO o' so’ Th r_o I>- 1-1 cj CO to CO rH 8 CM rH co rH O rH CO (M <3 CO o o rH so 05 rH CM rH tO rH H CO 8 o oo CM CM GO rH O CM 00 05 CM rH CM <35 rH rH a r-H 00 CM CO SO CO rH rH 8 o CO CM 00 m SO CO CO o rH CO CM CM rH o rH CO rH o SH 00 H 00 so to 00 rH CM 05 to 05 t-H CM rH CM CM rH CM o CO CM CM CM to rH 00 rH 05 CO 00 to CO 05 oo so CO GO o CO tH CM CM o rH r- rH to o CM 00 CO to 05 CM J> CO rH 05 05 to 00 05 SO SO ~ rH _ 05 to O to rH o o 00 CM SO rH CM rn CM CO to rH rH o t- 1-1 Sh oo to CM rH CO <35 oo rH rH oo fa ]> CO o rH 05 rH so 00 rH CO 05 S3 to CM co CO e- O 00 8 CO' 00 CM to o to to GO SO CM o rH o rH to o rH o 00 O 05 co CM CM 00 r_4 CM T— 05 05 o o to ,H rH CO cc H CM CM o rH 00 o lO rH so co CM to tH 00 rH rH 05 CM !>. o CM 8 to CO 00 CM rH o co !> o 00 I- SO tH o S3* !>• CM CM rH oo i CM to to rH 00 to CM 00 SO iO V. 05 o CO tH o SO o CM H H O fin rH to CM CM 1> rH 00 00 SO SO CM to 00 TjH 00 00 SO 00 rH CO o CO rH o CM rH o oo rH Si] SO SO CO rH CM t> rH rH CM CO oo CO oo to rH H SO <35 rH rH o CO CM C0 rH CO G bfl to SO CO CO CM CO HH 1> 1-1 to 05 to SO to CO 00 O CO o 05 05 CM CM to o so CM CM o CM <3 <35 CM CM to 1> ZJ '3 c3 0 'O bC a? S3 s cj O vs GO S3 o O Insoluble . Potash . . . Soda . . . Lime . . . Magnesia .2 "Sh o "3 m Iron oxide Alumina . Phos. acid Sh O ju ’•+3 Ah > Moisture . Nitrogen . 337 338 ANALYSES OF NOVA SCOTIAN SOILS. HARLOW. EXPLANATION OF TABLE I. A. — Average of 200 United States fertile surface soils. Snyder, Minnesota Exp. station. No. 5 — From the head of Wentworth valley, Cumber- land county, would be made up of debris from the igneous rock of the Cobequids; organic matter is due to the field being used as pasture for a long time. No. 5 — The Silurian rock area in Nova Scotia is small; this sample from near Wentworth Station is a mixture of decayed igneous rock, Silurian sandstone and Drift. Nos. 1 and 2 — are typical of the large Permian areas north of the Cobequids. No. 1 is a very productive hay field. No. 2 is virgin soil. No. 3 — is a fairly productive soil from Wentworth Center, Millstone Grit area. No. 4 — is a subsoil from a model orchard at Aspen, Guysboro county. No. 5a — is an average of 5 soils from the Limestone areas Stewiacke and Musquodobit valleys. No. 7 — is a well cultivated and productive field at Antigonish on the Carboniferous limestone. No. 8 — is from the same geological formation at Went- worth, Cumberland county. No. 9 is a surface virgin soil from Government farm, Truro. No. 10 — is an upland soil on the Midland railway about eight miles from Truro. No. 11 — Erom Atlanta, Kings county; an orchard soil. No. 12 — A surface, virgin soil from central Lunenburg. No. 13 — A soil from Hectanooga, Digby county, farm of Father Broque. TABLE 2— MARSH SOILS. ANALYSES OF NOVA SCOTIAN SOILS. HARLOW. 339 CO r-H 75.31 03 02 .4 1.17 .61 4.1 5.5 .19 10.43 1.86 .26 78.33 .99 .36 .65 I. 58 .09 II. 2 .16 5.75 1.43 .14 m 77.23 .62 1.08 .3 1.65 .11 jl3.1 .16 3.98 1.6 .05 M 75.6 .75 1.14 .3 .4 .8 5.3 5 4 .25 8.12 2 12 35 t-H 83.04 .27 .57 .6 .13 .17 2.90 4.54 .21 4.89 1.89 .13 S 76.24 .48 88 .6 78 .96 4.5 6.9 .19 5.75 2 62 .24 N M CO CO 050^ H 05 OcOt^COOO t>- • TjH iO oo iO cd CO rH 00 05 AO CM CM o CM Ttl tH TtH rH AO AO 12n o CM H »o 1 CM 05 AO 1—1 00 cd CM CM CO f«i t—| 00 ao 05 AO AO ' CO AO T— | CO o 0 i CO CM CO tH CO CO CO CO CO CM CM rH CM CO l> CM 1—1 CO 05 CO o AO 00 CO 1—| CO o d CM CO CO rH CM CM 05 CM CO AO 00 CM CM rH CM CO 05 CO o ]> CO O rH 05 oo rH t'- AO o CO rH CO o o o CO y-i CM tH 05 CO * 00 CO o *0 CO 'cH CM r- CO CO o CO o rH CO AO rH 05 d cd 00 rH CM 1> CM CM 05 AO CO T— | AO 00 CM oo 00 o o AO CO CM co AO CM I> 02 • H d CO AO 00 T— | CM 1—1 00 05 CO AO o CO r— | r-H O 05 AO CM AO m CO CO CM b- o iCM CM CM CO cd CM 00 ,_i CM oo CO CM AO CM 1—1 CM i—4 AO 05 r— | AO 02 ao CO o rH CO 00 CO CM (M AO CO tH 05 d oo CM i> 05 00 AO o 1— \ 05 CM ■"cH CO O 02 uo CM o CM o AO 05 1 AO CO CM CM AO 00 rH CM CO CO rs TO "S ’o o3 <1 o 1 Insoluble Potash . . . Soda . . . Lime . . . Magnesia O ‘SS 0 rO a 3 m Iron oxide Alumina ‘fl o 43 Oh oa o 43 CU Organic . Moisture . Nitrogen . Humus . 342 ANALYSES^ OF NOVA SCOTIAN SOILS.— HARLOW. EXPLANATION OF TABLE III. No. 22s— From worn out hillside, Campbell Brothers, Stewiacke. No. 16s — Mr. D. W. Reid, Middle Musquodobit; model orchard giving good returns for 25 years; mostly barn manure. No. 6s — Property of Dr. Reynolds, Otter brook, Stew- * iacke; old field near river intervale. No. 11s — Worn out hillside at Mr. E. Hamilton’s, Springside, Colchester county. No. 17s — Middle Musquodobit; the Layton farm, giving fair hay crop with no cultivation. No. 7n — Pasture, newly broken up and given little bone meal. Mr. J. Cunningham, Bayhead, Colchester county. No. 13n- — Turnip field giving good yield; previously in hay for several years; 40 tons barn manure per acre. Mr. A. P Semple, Brule. No. 12n — Mr. Jas. Kennedy, Brule; upland not ploughed for 8 years; top dressed once with barn yard manure; yield 2 tons per acre. No. 2n — McCallum’s Settlement;* old field. No. 9n — Run out upland; farm of Wm. Charlton, Stake Road, Cumberland county. Averaging up these analyses we have: — TABLE IV. Acid Sol. Potash P2 Os Lime Org. Nit- rogen 16 Marsh soils .75 .15 .75 6.7 .18 10 Upland .34 .16 .3 10. .25 14 of Table I .2 .14 .25 10.3 .17 Average of 200 fertile sur- face American . soils — Snyder .29 .24 2.16 7. .29 ANALYSES OF NOVA SCOTIAN SOILS. HARLOW. 343 What is the availability of the plant food in Nova Scotia soils? Four samples collected by the writer and analyzed at Ottawa under the direction of Professor Shutt gave as follows : Lime Potash Phosphoric acid Ac'd soluble Avail- able Acid soluble Avail- able Acid soluble Avail- able 1 — Good soil 1.64 .99 .27 .048 .23 .087 2 — Virgin soil .... .04 0 .145 .105 .026 Oil 3— .36 .15 .37 .019 .11 .023 4— .11 .02 .42 .018 064 .023 Of the important plant foods nitrogen, lime, phosphoric acid, and potash, consider first potash. We regard it as existing in the soil in the easily soluble or available form; the more difficult soluble or acid soluble and the insoluble part; for example a soil analyzed: POTASH Insoluble in acid 737%, Acid soluble 149% [ '886 % unavailable Available 02 % That is, there are 45 times as much insoluble potash as available. Dyer, in Proc. Royal Society, 1901, says that less than .01 to .03 per cent of available phosphoric acid in a soil indicates the need of phosphate manures and that soils with ,01 per cent of available potash probably require no applica- tion of potash manures. Hence, from Dyer's statement and the analyses in Tables 1-5 we can say that our soils have a good supply of potash but available to a limited extent. Comparing soil No. 1, which has a good supply of lime and organic matter, with Nos. 2, 3, and 4, low in these components, one may account for the greater proportion of available potash in No. 1. 344 ANALYSES OF NOVA SCOTIAN SOILS — HARLOW. Phosphoric Acid. The total phosphoric acid of the soil exists in a much more easily soluble form than the total potash; the acid soluble phosphoric acid is the total and is found in our soils as shown in the summary, Table 4. The phosphoric acid is, as shown in Table 5, about one-fourth available and there- fore soon used either by the plant, or washed away as a sediment. Lime and Acid Soils. Comparing the percentage of the important constituents with standards given, one notices the deficiency of lime. The lime, CaO, shown in the hydrochloric acid extract may come from dissolving the limestone or the lime silicates; since lime- stone cannot exist in the presence of acids we are led to test soils for acidity. Acid Soils. A simple test for an acid soil is: Place a lump of damp soil on a piece of moistened blue litmus; a reddening shows the presence of acid. Out of sixty-eight soils from upland, intervale, and marsh so tested, only ten showed no acid reaction and of these, six were new marsh deposits; the four only, cultivated soils showing no acid reaction were from areas giving good crops, in one case four tons of hay per acre. Many of the acid soils were from unused fields and some from geological areas showing much limestone rock. Now lime and limestone are the substances which will correct the acidity so we are, from this test, led to infer that our soils need additions of lime. The action of this substance in the soil is very complex and but imperfectly understood. Since Nova Scotia has many limestone areas, one might expect the soil to be well provided with lime, but such is not the case; it being a land of hills and valleys, of brooks and rivers, the limestone is carried away especially from the light soils of the limestone areas. From the limestone soils of ANALYSES OF NOVA SCOTIAN SOILS.— HARLOW. 345 England, 1429 pounds per acre to the depth of nine inches were carried away in the drainage water per year, or in the forty years of the experiment, about 28 tons per acre. Limestone has the following uses in the soil: — (1) To supply calcium, a necessary element of plant food; 4 tons of clover per crop, for 30 crops would require 3,510 pounds of Calcium. (2) To neutralize the acids resulting from the decay of or- ganic material or the decomposition of such fertilizers as ammonium sulphate. Very often the soils with the least organic matter show the least lime and vice versa; e. g., a muck soil at Truro shows at the surface: — Inorganic Volatile Lime matter. matter. At surface ... 7% 85.90% 3.20% 1st ft. of subsoil. . . . . . ' 79% 15.73% 1.40% (3) To effect a chemical dissolving of potash silicates and to set free phosphoric acid from iron and aluminum phosphates. (4) For its flocculating effect on the clay soils. Caustic Lime, CaO, has an antiseptic effect on the soil. Hutchinson of Rothamsted Exp. station, England, in June, 1913, says: “Caustic lime is a valuable antiseptic and when applied to the soil, even in the presence of large quantities of carbonate of lime, disturbs or destroys the state of equi- librium existing between the micro-flora and micro-fauna of the soil; it kills many bacteria and destroys the larger protozoa which exert a depressing effect on bacterial growth; the inhibitory action of caustic lime on soil bacteria persists until all the oxide is changed to the carbonate; this is followed by a period of active bacterial growth. Organic Matter and Nitrogen. Table 4 gives averages of the organic matter and nitro- gen in the three groups of soil studied: these indicate organic 346 ANALYSES OF NOVA SCOTIAN SOILS. HARLOW. matter deficient in nitrogen, just as we have in the peat soils much organic matter with little nitrogen; we must say then, that while the organic matter averages fairly well, the nitrogen content is low, there being too much cropping for the amount of nitrogen returned. Again, these soils are, as a rule, acid; consequently, the bacteria, which break up the organic matter and form nitrates and which cannot work in the presence of acids, are rendered inactive; this brings into question the availability of the nitrogen and suggests the use of a base like lime. The great problem in Nova Scotia seems to be to increase and maintain the amount of available nitrogen. The analyses thus far show: — ■ (1) That our soils have a good supply of potash but that it is only slightly available. (2) That phosphoric acid in many soils is in small amounts, is about one third available and hence soon used. (3) That, while volatile matter is quite high, it is deficient in nitrogen. (4) That lime is very deficient in many soils. Hopkins of Illinois, in speaking of the average soils of the United States says “Phosphorus is the key to permanent agriculture on these lands.” The recommendation from this study is, if the soil is in fair condition, supply (1) limestone in the powdered form, 2 tons per acre every four years; (2) a mineral phosphate as basic slag, or if obtainable, ground rock phosphate, 600 lbs. per acre every three or four years; this will put the land in condition for growing legumes which, if ploughed under or fed and the manure returned to the land, will increase the store of nitrogen and organic matter. This organic matter will help to dissolve the potash which is present, locked up in the soil. -The Phenology of No\a Scotia, 1913 — By A. H. MacKay, Ll.D. (Read by title 12 May 1914) These phenological observations were made in the schools of the province of Nova Scotia as a part of the Nature Study work prescribed. The pupils report or bring in the flowering or other specimens to the teachers when they are first observed. The teachers record the first observation and observer, and vouch for the accurate naming of the species. The schedules from 200 of the best schools form the material of the following system of average dates (phenochrons) for the ten biological regions of the Province, and the phenochrons of the Province as a whole. The compilation of the 200 schedules was done by H. R. Shinner, B. A. The Province is divided into its main climate slopes or regions not always coterminous with the boundaries of counties. Slopes, especially those to the coast, are^ sub- divided into belts, such as (a) the coast belt, (b) the low inland belt, and (c) the high inland belt, as below: — No. Regions or Slopes. Belts. I. Yarmouth and Digby Counties, (a) Coast, (b) Low Inlands, (c) High Inlands. II. Shelburne, Queens & Lunenburg Co’s. ” ” V III. Annapolis and Kings Couties, (a) Coast, (b) North Mt., (c) Anapolis Valley, (d) Corn- wallis Valley, (e) South Mt. IV. Hants and Colchester Counties, (a) Coast, (b) Low Inlands, (c) High Inlands. V. Halifax and Guysboro Counties, ” ” ■ ” VI.A.Cobequid Slope (to the south), “ “ “ VI.B.Chignecto Slope (to the northwest), “ “ “ VII. Northumberland Sts Slope (to the n’h) “ “ “ VIII. Richmond & Cape Breton Co’s., “ “■ “ IX. Bras d’Or Slope (to the southeast), “ “ - “ X. Inqerness Slope (to Gulf, N. W.), “ “ “ The ten regions are indicated on the outline map on the next page. (347) PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS IN THE TEN PHENOLOGICAL REGIONS OF NOVA SCOTIA, [Compiled from over 200 local observation schedules.] When Becoming Common. ^ O Observation Regions. ►> SCOTIA, 1913. — I dnD OX OdOJg SS9UJ9AUJ -01 tfACKAY. 344 O © CO 00 00 CO 00 CO O *-l ^ -Tt*C5»-' -1 00 CO O i-< uo^aig 9dB;q puR puouiqorg g 00'-<00CO>C'CO'TiO qsraoSixuy puR no^oij'pb ‘qumQ-M i -uino-g) ‘adoig pmboqoQ -g '9 05 * lO 00 OI CO 05 • O 1-H C0'-i^^'-lO sSuiji puR sqodRuuy '2 COI>C5«OiOCOCOCOi-l05>-H|>OOr-<ooioir^o^|Oco^jco Sjnquaunq puR suaanO ‘aumq^aqg -g HNfNOJOOfOCOCDiOOCC^CDiOO OHQHCO(N^H(N(NN(MiO(N(NN AqSiQ puR q^nouiiRj^ \ • cr rH -coco • (N 10 co oc 10 0 • -ICOOOCDC0C0 OHONMHNMNHONcoeqcqeo JlnD ox edojg ssouaoAuj ox OCOOCOOOOJ^OOHricON -OOC ^C^rH(NLOr-^C^cq-ICOce qsraoSixuy puR noxoigqoQ ‘qranO‘N Z 00 05I>05001>OCO0COiO'^C000t-H05 ©OhhhhNhh(NON(N(N(N« (TO V >0 CO CO •iCCOiO'^OCOiOt^-tOCi(N 2222 ,22222221°°12c0 j9;s9qo]OQ qxnog puR sxurh 'f OlO-^rHlOOJCqcOT-IOSCOlO-^OO'^CO O522222222220;ii:'<1<:':,<:^c'1 sSarg pnR sqodRuuy •£ HOOOONONC30COH05H1010COC , 2GiC:>222222222222cr; Sanquaunq puR su9en0 ‘ournqjoqg 7 COlN-OOI>OiGiiOCO OJOOhcOhhhinhiOh^hwin' AqSiQ pnR qxnouiJR^ q ^ -icio -oiTf •r^cooo-'tfoooo • oo 05 -00j-« 'HH • t-H i — 1 LC0 i—l i—l i — 1 • i> »o *> i> co co t*- i> ucqgig 9dBQ puB puouiqoig '8 00 -OOOONCOOOOOIONCOOH^HNCOCOOINCOCOW TtH • LQ CO CO CO LQ CO CO O *0 CO 1> l> l> CO CO CO t> CO l> l> t> qsiuoSrpiy puB noioia‘Too ‘quinO'N[ 'L t^OOO • CO CO !> Tt< O HIO -HNOOO^CO^COiOfMOOO CO Tf • tH CO lO CO ^ lo in •lOiOCCOcOOiOOcDONNN CTO Y uino -g) ‘9d°Ig pmbgqoo -g -g t> -co -tjh -coi>t^a>io'-^T-H -oo-!on>ooio^(N(N • CO • tF • rtj • iO lO ^ tJH iO • *0 CO • lO CD O lO lO CO O CO N • oioqsAnQ puB xBjqBjq -g INCOkO -CO • CO rM CO TjH CO t-H l> CO 00 kO CO kO CO © 1-H SO >-1 CO . rH • 10 CO 10 lO kO CO k<0 CO kO CD CO I> kO CO CO I> l> l> CO i — li — 1 i— l *i — 1 • r- 1 rH H t— It— ( i — !i — It— I i — 1. — It — IHHHHHHHH •ia^saqojOQ qyiog puB s^ubjj q CDOlO •^OOGOHONCOCO^CO(NIO(N(N‘0(NCOCOGOGO CO CO • Tt< ^ LO CO lO LO 1C lo CO CO CO CD l> LO co CO CO l> CO sSutjj pnB sqodBuuy -g tH -a •CDI>rtJ‘OCOiOCOiOiOCOO^CC^^OOOOO^HCOrHLO CO -CO • CO CO lO lO ^ rlH t> 1C lO l> lO to co Tji LO lO CO CO l> to Smquaunq puB SU99R5 ‘aujnqjeqg ‘z CO © k.O -CN(NC^OOCO^IOO(N CO -co -CO •lOTf'cOCOlO -^tio . CO CO CO CO iO CO CO CO co S9^BQ 9§BJ9Ay OOOO^OO^OOCOCiCOO)^^(Na5iO^»O^OiCOCOrt<00(Mt^ COCO'^'^t''^t|GOlOiOiO'^iOGCiOLOCOCOCOcO|-OcOcOCOCOl>-CO Year 1913. Day of the year corresponding to the last day of each month. Jan 31 July 212 Feb 59 Aug 243 March 90 Sept 273 April 120 Oct 304 May 151 Nov 334 June 181 Dec 365 For leap year add one to each except January. 17 Amelanchier Canadensis 18 “ fruit ripe 19 Prunus Pennsylvanica 20 “ fruit ripe 21 Yaceinium Can. and Penn 22 “ fruit ripe 23 Ranunculus acris 24 R. repens 25 Trill, erythrocarpum 26 Rhododendron Rhodora 27 Cornus Canadensis 28 “ fruit ripe 29 Trientalis Americana 30 Clintonia borealis 31 Calla palustris 32 Cypripedium acaule 33 Sisyrinchium angustif olium 34 Linnaea borealis 35 Kalmia glauca 36 Kalmia augustifolia 37 Crataegus oxyacantha 38 Crataegus coccinea, etc 39 Iris versicolor 40 Chrysanthemum Leucanthmum . . 41 Nuphar advena Observation Regions. S9^BQ 9§BI9Ay T-M3505iNr-OOOfOt^'^COCOI>eOOC»000(NOOOO'^,f^'-i coioeo'^ic-^-^'^i>'^io?C’io>ccoio>occ?o«ocoi© HnO O^ OdOJg SS9UI9AU J 01 LO *00 • CO • CO GO 00 t-h CO • • -^(NHHOONOtOO CO • rJH • lo • lo »C LO lO rf • • . co CO LO O CO CO CO CO CO BUCqOl^ puB •AUj‘9dOlg JQ.P SBJta ‘6 lO • 00 *C0 -COOOOOt-icO • • TTj((NHHO)ONOiiCO CO -Tt< T»0 • lO 1C lO to Tj< -Tf • •COCO‘OCOtO?OCCcCt'-CQ uo^9ia 9dBQ puB puouiqoia "8 • COCO CD CD O 1C t> t-I .HdHCIHHHHT-IHHHHHrtHHHHrtrtHH qsiuoSquy puB nopia‘TO ‘qumO’N l COCOtJ* •■r^kOOOCO 00 50 05 'iCOONOJO^NOOlOCOCOC !N co • w 2 S 12 2 >h 12 52 2 2 2 2 iTOY’^TO’S) ‘edotg pinbeqoQ -g -g o -ko -kO -C0«0 • HOONNNNNOi • CO -CO -CO •-tfkOCO-^TH -TtkkO .kOkOCOTjkiOkOCOkOCO • oioqsAnQ puB XBjqBJJ * (N 00 Tjk O 00 00 CO O CO 05 00 00 CO CO t}< l> "C#( o O CO Tf in -co .(NcoTHTtkcoeocot^'e-TjkcoTjkkoccTjkkOkocococokO Sinquaunq puB saeanO ‘aumqioqg -g OOTtU^ •kQT)kO‘OC0(NkO00b>Ok0(NC0<3i00O00C00005C0 (NOCO •.Nt^TH-^-^CO^O-^iOkOiO»OiO-^OCO HNH .HHHHHHHINHHHHHHHHHHWHH ^qSiQ puB q^nouiaB^ q h- .CO -CO •OSOSO’-HOS -T-HIN ■ CO CO 05 -kt T-H T-H Tf< N ■ IN • N "COCOkOCOCO .TfikO .lOkOkOkO^kOkOCOkOCO NOVA SCOTIA, 1913. — MACKAY. 351 iot^ocr^b-i-Hiocoi-eoooooooooo •cocdco-^th CD(NI>COCOI>l>t~i>iOLOTi<©iO’-HlO ■ CO CO t> l> l> • IN 00 i-i CO CO O CO • IN cc COt~t>eOTt 1> CO .-I • io -no • co to i> to to to to in co oo tji to Tt< oo ■ T-l • i-l -i-Hi-Ii-Hi-Ii-IiMi-Ii-Ji-I^H^i-IININ IHHHH • CO CO i-h oo c .-h ' HNi I rtH )COt- < IN IN lCCOTjrHT-HTtCO»0»OOt^fOTjCOi-ll>l>t>l>CO^TtlOTtOiDCOCOCOt^t'- S ii X .S,ft d ^ 3 p 5 Pitf d £ d ro e 5^ -g C w> 3 S L C 03 be s § c'o 2 t- o > ££ ft d- , CS 03 (H- > vu dt^.g •£ g d S’d £ g e+“‘ 3 ro 2 ° q 0 M O-P . ijififli dy>SSftc!Ci d m 73 h ifj. b£ p p c$ bp. o§ P'_o & 5 l-st t i • ilb C3 t5^ w c’E Mg bC d tb-g W £ c *.E3. 03 d ,S £ bo' g d 08 C d “ Kfflpj gSo® 8.S ££ d fe H"Sfcwfig .ft33 5 f s.2.2 S Mi

, ^’E’CpC! iOHC^CO^iOcDN h LO LO LO LO IO io i-O IO V b.n tuo o - E** g- PS*?*4-$$r * s 111! fill l 2 CSX 03,0 03© e3_Q 00 03©T-lOLOcOcOCOCOCOCDCCCOCOCDl>l>I>l>I>.l>t-~l>t>t'-l> f5 1. ■s S B- g. o . _ .x d© t> 00 00 C3 03 nnnnnn X cS i-H IN 00 00 oo 0C-iNC'-lt^iOOC003'^00>-i'-3C0O'tt'-i'^03a3'-i00 00l>N'^iOTjHTdC0L0 03t>C'^c0 lDOOt>COC3COI>it^CDCOC'i'WOrHOOTflOTfT*I>00 !>• 00 rfl -IO K3 lO n n i_\ UJ ^ 00 00 00 Tflio LO o I 03 03 1-1 )tHCOI> MNHH i©OOt'~ • CO G3N CO to OO N 03 CO IN OO ^ 1 >t^I>t>CQ • H IN i-l IN tH lO 03 03 N OO tH t>- < .^^H^H^cqiNIN HHHHi 00 IO Tt< 03 O N N 00 LO c 03 H 00 00 0*0^03000 eococo oo l«HnH iCC3iH03l>03^00O(N00i-liO00>-lrH00O idiocococOi-i>C3 00 03 O IN 00 IO CO -03 • O O CO tH 00 ■ t> hhhhhhhhhhhhOIN i— i h i— i h i— i -IN • 00 00 00 OO • 00 io io 03 N 03 00 t> IO -t> -Tjlio •OCC33t>OOi-HN^lOOO -00 -OO •INN i-iHHH -IN -OOCO • ect- ■ oo co ■ N N CO O LO LO 03 O N • -03l>i-i NOOOHHtHOO • -lOt^CO HHHH • • IN N OO LOiOt ICO! 1-HINt • 1> re 00 1— 1 1 It^i— !1>03 03|>1>03CO(NIOO'^ looo^HNiootoioooono • 00 03 • oooo • oooo THE PHENOLOGY OP NOVA SCOTIA, 1913.— Continued. 352 PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS IN NOVA SCOTIA, 1913. — MACKAY. 353 Thunderstorms — Phenological Observations, Nova Scotia, 1913. The indices indicate the number of stations from which the Thunderstorms were reported on the day of the year specified. Observation Regions. 1. Yarmouth and Digby. 2. Shelburne, Queens and Lunenburg. 3. Annapohs and Kings. 4. Hants and South Colchester. 5. Halifax and Guysboro. 6. S. Cobequid Slope (S. Cum. and Col.) 7. North Cum., Col., Pictou and Antig. 8. Richmond and Cape Breton. 9. Bras d’Or Slope (Inv. & Victoria). | 10. Inverness Slope to Gulf. j Total Year 1913. 3 3 7 7 82 86 8 8® 12 12 122 132 I32 14 14 18 18 18 18 184 19 19 192 26 26 26s 272 27 273 31 31 39 39 50 50 532 53 533 63 63 632 64 64 65 65 656 65 65 6510 70 70 702 73 73 742 745 742 749 75 75 754 75 753 75 75u 78 78 84 842 843 87 87 88 88 90 90 95 '953 95 955 96 96 102 102 105 105 106 106 107 1073 1074 108 108 1095 10919 109 109 10926 110 110 no2 111 111 115 115 115 115 115* 116 116 1173 1175 1176 1172 1174 U72o 354 PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS IN Thunderstorms — Phenological Observations, Nova Scotia, 1913. The indices indicate the number of stations from which the Thunderstorms were reported on the day of the year specified. Observation Regions. 1. Yarmouth and Digby. 2. Shelburne, Queens and Lunenburg. 3. Annapolis and Kings. 4. Hants and South Colchester. 5. Hahfax and Guysboro. 6. S. Cobequid Slope (S. Cum. and Col.) 7. North Cum., Col., Pictou and Antig. 8. Richmond and Cape Breton. 9. Bras d’Or Slope (Inv. & Victoria). 10. Inverness slope to Gulf. Total Year 1913. 11812 1185 1186 1184 11827 H9 119 1192 1196 11910 121 121 1212 127 127 h- 1 to I273 128 128 129 129 133 133 134 1342 134 1344 1352 135 1353 138 138 139 13912 1394 1399 139 1394 1394 13935 1402 140 140 1404 146 146 1462 147 147 1482 1482 1495 1497 1495 14917 153 1535 1532 153 153 15310 1533 1543 15510 1553 1553 1555 155 155 1 5523 156 1562 . 156s 157 i 157 158 1582 1582 158 1586 159 159 159 1593 160 160 164 164 1652 165 1653 1674 16722 1677 1677 168 1676 168 167 167 167 167 167 16750 1682 1695 1695 17010 170 1707 1703 170 1702 1702 17026 171 171 172 172 1732 173 17310 1732 1732 17317 176 176 1788 1782 1782 178 1782 178 17816 179 179 181 181 185 185 195 195 NOVA SCOTIA, 1913. — MACKAY 355 Thunderstorms— Phenologi cal Observations, N.S., 1913. — Continued. The indices indicate the number of stations from which the Thunderstorms were reported on the day of the year specified. Observation Regions. 1. Yarmouth and Digby. 2. Shelburne, Queens and Lunenburg. 3. Annapolis and Kings. 4. Hants and South Colchester. 5. Halifax and Guysboro. 6. S. Cobequid Slope (S. Cum. and Col.) 7. North Cum., Col., Pictou and Antig. 8. Richmond and Cape Breton. 9. Bras d’Or Slope (Inv. & Victoria). 10. Inverness slope to Gulf. i Total Year 1913. i 201 201 2022 2022 216 216 221 221 2222 2222 231 231 2392 2392 2394 240 240 2403 240 2406 242 242 246 246 2462 247 247 2512 251 - 2513 255 255s 2554 270 270 274 274 275 275 275 275 2754 276. . 276 2772 277 2773 281. . 281 286 286 2892 289 189 2894 290 290 294 294 300 300 301 301 301 2 304 304 308 308 311 311 314 314 315 315 344 344 Proc. & Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci., Vol. XIII. Trans. 24 ^:E=:F:E:isr:Di:K: in LIST OF MEMBERS, 1913-14 ORDINARY MEMBERS Date of Qdmission Bancroft, George R., County Academy, Halifax. .Jan. 7, 1908 Barnes, Albert Johnstoue, b. sc., service inspector Maritime Telephone & Telegraph Co., Halifax May 13, 1912 Bishop, Watson L., Dartmouth, N. S .Jan. 6, 1890 Bowman, Maynard, b. a., Public Analyst, Halifax Mar. 13, 1884 Bronson, Prof Howard Logan, pa. d., Dalhousie College, Halifax Mar. 9, 1911 Brown, Richard H., Halifax Feb. 2, 1903 ♦Campbell, Donald A., m. d., Halifax Jan. 31, 1890 Campbell, George Murray, m. d., Halifax Nov. 10, 1884 Colpitt, Parker R., City Electrician, Halifax Feb. 2, 1903 Creighton, Prof. Henry Jermain Maude, m. a., m. sc., dr. sc., f. c. s., Swarth- more College, Swarthmore, Penn., U. S. A Jan. 7, 1908 ♦Davis, Charles Henry, c. e., New York City, U. S. A Dec. 5, 1900 Doane, Francis William Whitney, City Engineer, Halifax Nov. 3, 1886 Donkin, Hiram, m. e., Deputy Com. of Mines, Halifax Nov. 30, 1892 Fergusson, Donald M., chemist, Acadia Sugar Ref. Co., Halifax Jan. 5, 1909 ♦Forbes, John, Halifax Mar. 14, 1883 ♦Fraser, C. Frederick, ll. p., Principal School for the Blind, Halifax Mar. 31, 1890 Freeman, Philip A., Hx. Elect. Tramway Co., Halifax Nov. 6, 1906 Graham, Prof. Stanley Newlands, b. sc., N. S. Technical College, Halifax Nov. 28, 1913 Harlow, A. C., Montreal Jan. 7, 1908 Harris, Prof. David Fraser, m. d., d. sc., f. r. s. e., Dalhousie College, Halifax. .Feb. 29, 1912 Hattie, William Harrop, m. d., Supt. N. S. Hospital, Dartmouth Nov. 12, 1892 Irving, G. W. T., Education Dept., Halifax Jan. 4, 1892 Johnstone, J. H. L., Demonstrator of Physics, Dalhousie University, Halifax. .Dec. 2, 1912 ♦Laing, Rev. Robert, Halifax Jan. 11, 1885 McCallum, A. L., b. sc., analyst, Halifax Jan. 7, 1908 McCarthy, Prof. J. B., b. a., m. sc., King’s College, Windsor, N. S Dec. 4, 1901 McColl, Roderick, c. e., Halifax Jan. 4, 1892 ♦MacGregor, Prof. James Gordon, m. a., d. sc., f. r. s., f. r. s. c., Edinburgh University, Edinburgh, Scotland (Died May, 1913) Jan. 11, 1877 Mclnnes, Hector, ll. b., Halifax Nov. 27, 1889 Macintosh, Donald Sutherland, b. a., m. sc., Dalhousie College, Halifax Mar. 9, 1911 ♦McKay, Alexander, m. a., Supervisor of Schools, Halifax Feb. 5, 1872 ♦MacKay, Alexander Howard, b. a., b. sc., ll. d., f. r. s. c., Superintendent of Education, Halifax Oct. 11, 1885 Mackay, Prof. Ebenezer, ph. d., Dalhousie College, Halifax Nov. 27, 1889 ♦MacKay, George M. Johnstone, Schenectady, N. Y., U. S. A Dec. 28, 1903 MacKenzie, Prof. Arthur Stanley, ph. d., f. r.s.c., Dalhousie College, Halifax..Nov. 7, 1905 ♦McKerron, William, Halifax Nov. 30, 1891 Moore, Prof. Clarence L., m. a., f. r. s. c., Dalhousie College, Halifax Jan. 7, 1908 Morton, S. A., m. a., County Academy, Halifax Jan. 27, 1893 Murray, Prof. Daniel Alexander, ph. d., Montreal Dec. 18, 1903 Nickerson, Carleton Bell, m. a., Dalhousie College, Halifax Mar. 9, 1911 ♦Life Members. Proc. & Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci., Vol. XIII. App. III. X LIST OF MEMBERS, Date of Admission Piers, Harry, Curator Provincial Museum and Librarian Provincial Science Library, Halifax . .Nov. 2, 1888 ♦Poole, Henry Skeffington, a. m., assoc, b. s. m., f. g. s., f. k. s. c., can. soc. c. e., hon. mem. inst. m. e., Guildford, Surrey, England Nov. 11, 1872 ♦Robb, D. W., Amherst, N. S Mar. 4, 1890 Sexton, Prof. Frederic H., b. sc., Director of Technical Education, Halifax. . . .Dec. 18, 1903 ♦Smith, Prof. H. W., b. sc., Agricultural College, Truro, N. S.; Assoc. Memb. Jan. 6, 1890 Dec. 1900 ♦Stewart, John, m. b. c. m., Halifax Jan. 12, 1885 Winfield, James H., Manager Mar. Tel. & Tel. Co., Halifax Dec. 18, 1903 ♦Yorston, W. G., c. e., Assistant Road Commissioner, Halifax Nov. 12, 1892 I ASSOCIATE MEMBERS Allen, E. Chesley, Yarmouth, N. S Nov. 28, 1913 ♦Caie, Robert, Yarmouth, N. S Jan. 31, 1890 Connolly, Prof. J. C., ph. d., St. Francis Xavier, Antigonish, N. S Nov. 5, 1911 Haley, Prof. Frank R., A.cadia College, Wolfville, N. S". Nov. 5, 1901 Harlow, L. C., b. sc., Prov. Normal School, Truro, N. S Mar. 23, 1905 Haycock, Prof. Ernest, Acadia College, Wolfville, N. S May 17, 1899 James, C. C., ll. d., c. m. g., Deputy Min. of Agriculture, Toronto, Ontario. . .Dec. 3, 1896 Jennison, W. F., Truro, N. S May 5, 1903 ♦Johns, Thomas W., Yarmouth, N. S Nov. 27, 1889 ♦MacKay, Hector H., m. d., New Glasgow, N. S .Feb. 4, 1902 Payzant, E. N., M. d., Wolfville, N. S Apr. 8, 1902 Perry, Prof. Horace Greeley, m. a., Acadia University, Wolfville, N. S May 12, 1913 Pineo, Avard V., ll. b., Kentville, N. S Nov. 5, 1901 ♦Reid, A. P., m. d., l. r. c. s., Middleton, Annapolis, N. S Jan. 31, 1890 ♦Robinson, C. B., ph. d., New York Botanical Garden, New York, U. S. A. (Died 1913) Dec. 3,1902 ♦Rosborough, Rev. James, Musquodoboit Harbour, N. S Nov. 29, 1894 ♦Life Members. LIST OF MEMBERS, XI CORRESPONDING MEMBERS Date of Admission Ami, Henry M., d. sc., f. g. s., f. r. s. o., Geological Survey, Ottawa, Ontario. .Jan. 2, 1892 Bailey, Prof. L. W., ph. d., ll. d., f. r. s. c., Fredericton, N. B Jan. 6, 1890 Ball, Rev. E. H., Tangier, N. S Nov. 29, 1871 Barbour, Capt. J. H., r. a. m. c., f. l. s.f Nowgong, Bundelkhand, Central India. Dec. 28, 1911 Bethune, Rev. Charles J. S., m. a., d. c. l., f. r. s. c., Ontario Agricultural College, Guelph, Ontorio Dec. 29, 1868 Cox, Prof. Philip, h. sc., ph. d., Fredericton, N. B Dec. 3, 1902 Dobie, W. Henry, m. d., Chester, England Dec. 3, 1897 Faribault, E. Rodolphe, b. a., b. sc., Geological Survey of Canada, Ottawa; Assoc. Memb. March 6, 1888 Dec. 3, 1902 Ganong, Prof. W. F., b. a., ph. d., Smith College, Northampton, Mass. U.S.A. Jan. 6, 1890 Hardy, Maj-General Campbell, R. A., Dover, England. (Sole surviving Foundation Member; originally elected Dec. 26, 1862, and admitted Jan. 26, 1862.) Oct. 30, 1903 Hay, George U., d. sc., f. r.as. c., St. John, N. B. (Died 1913) Dec. 3, 1902 Matthew, G. F., m. a., d. sc., ll. d., f. r. s. c., St. John, N. B Jan. 6, 1890 Mowbray, Louis L., Hamilton, Bermuda May 3, 1907 Peter, Rev. Brother Junian Dec. 12, 1898 Prest, Walter Henry, M. e., Bedford, N. S.; Assoc. Memb., Nov. 29, 1894 Nov. 2, 1900 Prichard, Arthur H. Cooper. Librarian Numismatic Museum, New York, USA. Dec. 4, 1901 Prince, Prof. E. E., Commissioner and General Inspector of Fisheries, Ottawa. Jan. 5, 1897 XII LIST OF PRESIDENTS, LIST OF PRESIDENTS of The Nova Scotian Institute of Natural Science, afterwards the Nova Scotia Institute of Science, since its FOUNDATION ON 31ST DECEMBER, 1862. Term of Office. Hon. Philip Carteret Hill, d. c. l 31 Dec. 1862 to 26 Oct. 1863 John Matthew Jones, f. l. s., f. r. s. c 26 Oct. 1863 “ 8 Oct. 1873 John Bernard Gilpin, m. a., m. d., m. r. c. s 8 Oct. 1873 “ 9 Oct. 1878 William Gossip 9 Oct. 1878 “ 13 Oct. 1880 John Somers, m. d 13 Oct. 1880 “ 26 Oct. 1883 Robert Morrow 26 Oct. 1883 “ 21 Oct. 1885 John Somers, m. d 21 Oct. 1885 “ 10 Oct. 1888 Prof. James Gordon MacGregor, m.a., d.sc., f.r.s., f.r.s.c 10 Oct. 1888 “ 9 Nov. 1891 Martin Murphy, c.e., d.sc., o.s.i 9 Nov. 1891 “ 8 Nov. -1893 Prof. George Lawson, ph.d., ll.d., f.i.c., f.r.s.c 8 Nov. 1893 “ 10 Nov. 1895 Edwin Gilpin, Jr., m.a., ll.d., d.sc., f.g.s., f.r.s.c., i.s.o 18 Nov. 1895 “ 8 Nov. 1897 Alexander McKay, m.a 8 Nov. 1897 “ 20 Nov. 1899 Alexander Howard MacKay, b.a., b. sc., ll.d., f.r.s.c 20 Nov. 1899 “ 24 Nov. 1902 Henry Skeffington Poole, m.a., d.sc., a.r.s.m., f.g.s., f.r.s.c. . . .24 Nov. 1902 “ 18 Oct. 1905 Francis William Whitney Doane, c.e 18 Oct. 1905 “11 Nov. 1907 Prof. Ebenezer Maekay, ph.d 11 Nov. 1907 “ 12 Dec. 1910 Watson Lenley Bishop 12 Dec. 1910 “ 11 Nov. 1912 Donald MacEachern Fergusson, f.c.s 11 Nov. 1912 “ Note— Since 1879 the presidents of the Institute have been ex-officio Fellows of the Royal Microscopical Society. The first general meeting of the Nova Scotian Institute of Natural Science was held at Halifax, on 31st December, 1862. On 24th March, 1890, the name of the society was changed to the Nova Scotian Institute of Science, and it was incorporated by an act of the legislature in the same year. The foundation of the Halifax Mechanics’ Institute on 27th December, 1831, and of the Nova Scotian Literary and Scientific Society about 1859 (the latter published its Transactions from 4th January to 3rd December, 1859) had led up to the establishment of the N. S. Institute of Natural Science in December, 1862. ihidieii VOL. XIII {Roman numerals refer to the Proceedings ; Arabic numerals to the pages of the Transactions .) PAGE Allison, Augustus. By Harry Piers cv Allison, Frederick. By Harry Piers civ Ambrose, Rev. John. By Harry Piers lxxxix Analyses of Nova Scotian Soils. By L. C. Harlow 332 Anthropological work in Nova Scotia, a suggestion for. By Walter H. Prest 35 Barbour, J. H. — Sacred Plants of India xxvii Belt, Thomas. By Harry Piers xcii Biological chemistry. By Donald M. Fergusson cxvi Bishop, Watson L. — Presidential Address: (a) The Institute, (b). Obituary of Dr. W. R. Ells xxiii Curious lightning freak 240 Brown, Richard. By Harry Piers lvii Canada Grouse in captivity. By Watson L. Bishop 150 Cattle-killing ragwort and its parasite. Remarks by A. H. MacKay. . 284 Cave examinations in Hants County, N. S., report on. By Walter Henry Prest 87 Coloured thinking and allied conditions. By D. Fraser Harris 308 Commemoration meeting — 50th anniversary of organization of the Institute xlviii Conductivity of rosaniline hydrochloride in water and certain organic solvents. By Harold S. Davis 40 Cramp, John Mocket. By Harry Piers c Creighton, Henry Jermain Maude. — A few measurements on the electrical conductivity of acetophenone solutions of certain organic bases and acids 154 On the behaviour of iron salts in the presence of albumens and other organic substances towards certain reagents 61 Optical activation of racemic bromcamphor carboxylic acid by means of catalysts 1 Davis, Harold S. — The conductivity of rosaniline hydrochloride in water and certain organic solvents 40 Dawson, John William. By Harry Piers lviii Doane, F. W. W. — Recent meteorological notes 53 (xiii) XIV INDEX. PAGE Dodd, Frank William. — Integral atomic weights, Part 1 216 Dodd, Frank William. — Integral Atomic weights, Part 2 223 Downs, Andrew. By Harry Piers xcvii Duncan, Francis. By Harry Piers c Duvar, John Hunter. By Harry Piers xcix Election of Officers. — 1910, xix; 1911, xxvii; 1912, xlvii; 1913, cxxiii Electrical conductivity of acetophenone solutions of certain organic bases and acids, A few measurements on. By H. Jer- main Maude Creighton 154 Electrical. resistance and temperature coefficient of ice. By J. H. L. Johnstone 126 Ells, R. W. — Obituary notice xxiii European birds in Nova Scotia, The occurrence of. By Harry piers. . 228 European birds incorrectly reported in Nova Scotia. By Harry Piers. 238 Fergusson, Donald M. Presidential address, 1913 cxiii (a) Deceased members; (b) Biological chemistry cxvi Fletcher, Hugh. By Harry Piers cviii Fox, John James. By Harry Piers , . . cvii Gastrolith found in a moose, Note on a. By D. Fraser Harris 242 Geological age of Prince Edward Island. By Lawrence W. Watson. . 145 Geology of a portion of Shelburne County. By Sidney Powers ...... 289 Gesner, Abram. By Harry Piers lv Gilpin, Edwin. By Harry Piers lxxxviii Gilpin, John Bernard. By Harry Piers lxxxii Gossip, William. By Harry Piers lxxxiv Granite contact zone near Halifax, Notes on a. By D. S. McIntosh. . 244 Grouse, Canada, in captivity. By Watson L. Bishop _ 150 Haliburton, Robert Grant. By Harry Piers xc Hamilton, Pierce Stevens. By Harry Piers ci Harlow, L. C. — Analyses of Nova Scotian so81s 332 Harris, David Fraser. — Coloured thinking and allied conditions 308 On the intimate associations of inorganic ions with native and derived proteins 76 Note on a gastrolith found in a moose 242 On the existence of a reducing endo-enzyme in animal tissue . . . 250 Hay, George Upham, Biographical sketch. By Donald M. Fergusson. cxiv Hill, Philip Carteret. By Harry Piers lxxxi Hind, Henry Youle. By Harry Piers cv Historical account of the Nova Scotia Institute of Science for half a century. By Harry Piers liii Honey man, David. By Harry Piers cii How, Henry. By Harry Piers xciv Ice, electrical resistance and temperature coefficient of. By J. H. L. Johnstone 126 Inorganic ions, intimate associations of, with native and derived proteins. By David Fraser Harris 76 INDEX XV PAGE Integral atomic weights, Part 1. By Frank William Dodd 216 Integral atomic weights, Part 2. By Frank William Dodd. . . 223 Internationa] Geological Congress, report on, By D. S. McIntosh cxxiii Iron salts, Behavior of, in the presence of albumens and other organic substances, towards certain reagents. By Henry Jermain Maude Creighton 61 ‘‘Iron-stone,” Note on the analysis of. By Hubert Bradford Vickery. 209 Johnstone, J. H. L. — The electrical resistance and temperature co- efficient of ice . .... 126 On the electrical resistance of acetic acid in the solid and liquid phases 191 Jones, John Matthew. By Harry Piers lxxxi Lawson, George. By Harry Piers lxxxvii Librarian’s Annual report. — 1910, xviii; 1911, xxvi; 1912, xlv; 1913, cxxiii Lightning freak, Curious. By Watson L. Bishop 240 Logan, Sir William E, By Harry Piers lix MacKay, A. H. — Cattle-killing ragwort and its parasite. — Remarks 284 Phenological observations, 1911 175 Phenology of Nova Scotia, 1912 250 Phenology of Nova Scotia, 1913 347 McCulloch, Thomas. By Harry Piers lv MacGregor, James Gordon. — Biographical sketch. By D. M. Fer- gusson cxiv Mackay, E. — Presidential address, 1910 (a) the Institute ii (b) some achievements of chemical synthesis viii Mastodon remains in Nova Scotia. By Harry Piers 163 McIntosh, D. S. — Notes on a granite contact zone near Halifax 244 Members, list of. — 1910, App. I; 1911, App. II; 1913, App. Ill Meteorological notes, recent. By F. W. W. Doane 53 Meteorological statistics. — Summary for 20 years to 1911 188 Micmac Indians of Nova Scotia and their remains, Brief account of. By Harry Piers 99 Morris, Miss Maria. By Harry Piers . Hy Morrow, Robert. By Harry Piers lxxxv Myers, William James. By Harry Piers xci Nickerson, Carleton Bell. — A rearrangement of proceedure for the removal of phosphate ions from the iron and alkaline earth groups 95 Obituary notices. — Dr. R. W. Ells, xxv; Geo. U. Hay and James Gordon MacGregor, cxiv. Officers. — 1910, xix; 1911, xxvii; 1912, xlvii; 1913, cxxiii On the existence of a reducing endo-enzyme in animal tissues. By D. Fraser Harris 259 Optical activation of racemic bromcamphor carboxylic acid by means of catalysts. By Henry Jermain Maude Creighton .... 1 XVI INDEX PAGE Patterson, George. By Harry Piers cvi Phenological observations in Nova Scotia, 1911. By A. H. MacKay. . 175 Phenology of Nova Scotia, 1912. By A. H. MacKay 250 Phenology of Nova Scotia, 1913. By A. H. MacKay 347 Phosphate ions, A rearrangement of proceedure for the removal from the iron and alkaline earth groups. By Carleton Bell Nickerson 95 Piers, Harry. — Brief account of the Micmac Indians of Nova Scotia and their remains 99 Historical account of Nova Scotian Institute of Science, 1862 to December, 1912 liii Pioneer Naturilasts liii Halifax Mechanics’ Institute lix N. S. Unstitute of Natural Science lxi The Library of the Institute lxxv The Provincial Museum lxxvii Biographical sketches. — Deceased Presidents Ixxx Other prominent deceased members lxxxix Classification of members according to origins cix List of Officers, 1862 — 1912 cx Mastodon remains in Nova Scotia 163 Occurrence of European birds in Nova Scotia 228 Plants of India, Sacred. By Captain J. H. Barbour xxviii Poole, Henry S. — Comparison of monthly mean temperatures, Halifax, Nova Scotia, and Plymouth England 52 Senedo Jacobaea and Callimorpha Jacobaea (The Cattle-killing Ragwort and the Cinnabar Moth) 279 Presidential Address: — 1910, E. MacKay, ii; 1911, W. L. Bishop; xxiii; 1913, Donald M. Fergusson, cxiii. Prest, Walter H. — A suggestion for anthropological work in Nova Scotia 35 Report on cave examination in Hants County, Nova Scotia. ... 87 Prince Edward Island, The geological age of. By Lawrence W. Watson 145 Rearrangement of proceedure for the removal of phosphate ions from the iron and alkaline earth groups. By Carleton Bell Nickerson 95 Reducing endo-enzyme in animal tissues, On the existence of. By D. Fraser Harris 259 Remains of Micmac Indians of Nova Scotia, Brief account of. By Harry Piers 99 Sacred plants of India. By J. H. Barbour xxviii Senecio Jacobaea and Callimorpha Jacobaea. By Henry S. Poole 279 Sidney Powers. — Geology of a portion of Shelburne County 289 Silver, Arthur Peter. By Harry Piers cvii Silver, William Chamberlain. By Harry Piers ci INDEX. XVII PAGE Soils, Analyses of Nova Scotian. By L. C. Harlow 322 Somers, John. By Harry Piers lxxxiv Temperatures, Comparison of monthly mean in Halifax, Nova Scotia, and Plymouth, England. By Henry S. Poole 52 Titus, Smith, biographical sketch of. By Harry Piers liii Treasurer’s Annual Report. — 1910, xviii; 1911, xxvi; 1912, xlv; 1913, cxxii Vickery, Hubert Bradford. — Notes on the analysis of “iron-stone” .... 20g Watson, Lawrence W. — The geological age of Prince Edward Island. . 145 Webster, William Bennet. By Harry Piers lvi Willis, John Robert. By Harry Piers xciii Young, John Brookin. By Harry Piers xcix THE Proceedings and Transactions OF THE