VOLUME XIV

PART 1

SESSION OF I9t4-I916

HALIFAX

Printed for the Institute by the Royal Print and Litho, Limited
Date of Publication: 14th October, 1915.

Price to Non-Members: One Half-Dollar

OOISTTEInTTS

(Vol. xiv, Pt. i.)

Proceedings of Nova Scotian Institute of Science, Year 1914-1915: Page

Annual Meeting i

Presidential Address — Fergusson i

Review of Work of the year ii

Remarks on Valency ii

General Remarks iv

Treasurer’s Report v

Librarian’s Report v

Election of Officers vi

First and Second Ordinary Meeting vii

Third, Fourth and Fifth Ordinary Meetings viii

Sixth Ordinary Meeting . ix

Transactions of Nova Scotian Institute of Science, Year 1914-1915:

The Distribution of the Active Deposit of Thorium in an Electric Field. ByG.II.

Henderson 1

A Physical Measurement by X-Rays. By Howard L. Bronson 17

An Investigation of the “Chromate Method” for Separating the Alkaline Earths.

By Hubert Bradford Vickery 30

Not§s on an Abnormal Wave Occurrence on the Northern Cape Breton Coast.

By D. S. McIntosh 41

Accidental Electrical Stimulation of the Human Retina in Situ. By D. Fraser

Harris 47

Additions to the Catalogue of Butterflies and Moths collected in the Neighbourhood

of Halifax, etc., Nova Scotia. By Joseph Perrin 49

The Phenology of Nova Scotia, 1914. By A. H. Mackay 57

Appendix I:

List of Members i

/~T~VHE attention of members of the Institute is directed to
^ the following recommendations of the British
Association Committee on Zoological Bibliography and
Publications: —

‘‘ That authors’ separate copies should not be distributed
privately before the paper has been published in the regular
manner.

“That it is desirable to express the subject of one’s paper
in its title, while keeping the title as concise as possible.

“That new species should be properly diagnosed and
figured when possible.

“That new names should not be pioposed in irrelevant
footnotes, or anonymous paragraphs.

“That references to previous publications should be made

*

fully and correctly, if possible in accordance with one of the
recognized sets of rules of quotations, such as that recently
adopted by the French Zoological Society.”

%

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

Jfoba ^cotian Institute of ^Science.

SESSION OF 1914-15.

(VOLUME XIV, PART 1.)

Annual Business Meeting.

Civil Engineering Lecture Room, Technical College, Halifax .
21st October, 1914.

The President, Donald M. Fergusson, F. C. S., in the
chair.

Other members present: Dr. A. H. Mac Kay, Prof. E.
Mackay, Dr. D. Fraser Harris, M. Bowman, Prof.
H. L. Bronson, Prof. D. S. McIntosh, W. McKerron, and
H. Piers.

Presidential Address: (1) Review of the Institute’s Work
during the Year, (2) Remarks on Valency, (3) General
Remarks. — By Donald M. Fergusson, F. C. S.

It is the duty of your president at the annual meeting
to speak of members deceased. That, on this occasion, is
unnecessary, for, so far as I know, we have suffered no loss
by death this session.

Proc. & Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci., Vol. XIV, Pt. 1.

Proc.— A.

11

PROCEEDINGS.

Review of Year's Work.

During the year we have had ten papers presented at
our meetings, and the subject matter contained contributions
in the botanical, chemical, physical, geological and physio-
logical sciences, so that the papers read, though not above
our average in number, were varied and represented different
fields of research; and I may say that all the papers embody
the results of much patient work and are valuable stepping
stones in the path of scientific progress.

The paper that evoked the most animated discussion
was that of Dr. Fraser Harris on “Coloured Thinking. ”
Much of our recent work has been in the physical sciences,
and this departure into mental science met with a hearty
welcome.

Of especial practical value to the Province is the series
of analyses of Nova Scotian soils contributed by Prof. Harlow.
Last year we had a paper from Prof. McIntosh on the geology
of the contact zone at the North West Arm; this year Mr.
Vickery gives us the analysis of the contact rock locally known
as ironstone. This term is somewhat of a misnomer, as
“ironstone” is usually applied to an impure iron ore, but
the term is used locally on account either of hardness or of
the colour of the weathered rock. To contact-metamorphosed
rock the general term hornstone or hornfels has been applied.
We should have for this local rock of commercial utility some
name for common use that would be lithologically correct.

I cannot refer to all the year’s work, but I would mention
the paper by Mr. J. H. L. Johnstone “On the Electrical Pro-
perties of Acetic Acid in the Solid and Liquid Phases.” This,
following one last year by the same author on the “Con-
ductivity of Ice” shews one trend of present chemical research.

Remarks on Valency.

For many years past our Institute, like other scientific
societies, has received papers on measurements of the dis-

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

iii

sociation of various electrolytes. This field has been well
explored, and the dissociation constants of nearly all elec-
trolytes in water solution are known. Much attention is
now being given to solvents other than water, and to organic
substances, and, as in these papers, to matter in the solid state.

The general acceptance of Arrhenius’ theory of electrolytic
dissociation has led to our text books of inorganic chemistry
and analyses being re-written in ionic terms. According to
this, when a molecule of an electrolyte like NaCl is dissociated
in solution we have a positive Na ion and a negative Cl ion.
A number of years ago Sir J. J. Thomson, in his hypothesis
of the electrical nature of matter, suggested that valency and
cause of chemical combination consisted in the transfer of
electrons between the reacting atoms. On this basis we have
as positive atom one which has lost one or more electrons,
and as negative atom one which has gained one or more
electrons, the valency of the atom depending on the number
of electrons transferred. The valency question is one of the
fundamental problems of chemistry and the electronic theory
has in many forms been applied as a solution. Electrolytic
dissociation tells us nothing of the solid state or the gaseous.
In dissociation we find H as a positive ion and Cl as a negative.
What is the state of the atoms in the electrically neutral
molecule of Cl? In the majority of reactions there seems
to be no difference between the two halves of the molecule,,
but some evidence has been found that the Cl atom may
act positively. On the assumption that the diatomic gas
molecule consists of one atom positive and the other negative,
we have theories of valency, one of which applied to the
formula of the benzene ring I shew on the blackboard. Any
conception of valency must pass the test of the benzene ring
and explain certain peculiarities in the formation of ortho,
meta, and para compounds.

In general terms of the electronic theory, the loss of
electrons corresponds to oxidation, and a gain of electrons

IV

PROCEEDINGS.

to reduction. Many reactions are classed as oxidizing with-
out reference to oxygen, and the term “adduction” has been
proposed as the opposite to reduction: adduction means the
adding of positive charges, and reduction the withdrawal of
the same.

Many different electronic hypotheses have been put for-
ward, some not involving transfer of electrons; but the final
solution will come from the physicists who gave us the
electron. Sir J. J. Thomson, who at one time stated that
atoms of one and the same kind may be positive and negative
and combine to form a diatomic molecule, in his recent work
on Positive Rays, considers that for a union of atoms it is
not necessary that one be positive and the other negative,
but that a displacement of positive and negative electricity
in each atom takes place.

It has recently been shown that if electrons are transferred
in oxidation and reduction they are not the same as the beta
particles evolved in radioactive changes.

Within this last two years there has been discovered a
valuable method of exploring into the region of molecules
and atoms. I refer to the discovery of reflection of X-rays
from crystal surfaces. Interesting results are being given
and, though one cannot anticipate the final outcome, we may
soon have established the structure of the atom and the
solution of the valency problem. Recent theories give us an
atom consisting of a central positive nucleus surrounded by
negative electrons. The central nucleus may not all consist
of positive charges, but the net positive charge gives an
atomic number corresponding to the place occupied by the
element in the periodic table. In fact we are promised a
periodic table containing all possible elements.

General Remarks.

As a scientific society we cannot but regret that the present
war means great curtailment of research, especially on the

treasurer’s and librarian’s reports.

V

continent of Europe. It is hard to say what it will mean
having supplies from Germany cut off, for from that country
alone have come many of our necessary chemicals. On this
continent it is evident that research is increasing in quantity
and quality, coming not only from the universities but from
governmental and endowed research laboratories and from
those of private corporations, such as the General Electric
Co., from the research laboratory of which I noticed recently
a publication of which one of our life members was a co-author.

You will have reports presented to you from our Librarian
and Treasurer, and from these you will see that we may have
serious financial difficulties ahead of us. We must endeavor,
however, to continue publishing the Transactions, not only
for the sake of the Institute and the work of our members,
but to act (as we have acted in the past) as the stimulus
to scientific work in this Province by publishing the first
research paper of many a student, who, receiving encourage-
ment in the atmosphere of the Institute, leaves to make
research his life work in the larger world of opportunity
outside our shores.

The Treasurer, M. Bowman, presented his annual report,
showing that the receipts for the year ending 21st October,
1914, were $1,742.28; the expenditures, $1,588.28; the balance
in current account, $154.00; the reserve fund, $311.90; and
the permanent endowment fund, $1,000, the latter being now
invested in Maritime Telephone Co. 6 per cent, bonds. The
report, having been audited, was received and adopted.

Dr. A. H. MacKay reported that he had interviewed the
Government, and urged the restoration of the money grant
which had been received by the society for many years, and
he felt there was a disposition to assist in some way.

The Librarian’s report was presented by H. Piers, showing
that 1,766 books and pamphlets had been received by the
Institute through its exchange list during the year 1913;

VI

PROCEEDINGS.

and 1,424 during the past nine months of the present year,
1914, viz. January to September inclusive. The total
number of books and pamphlets received by the Provincial
Science Library (with which that of the Institute is incor-
porated) during the year 1913, was 2,928. The total number
in the Science Library on 31st December, 1913, was 51,810.
Of these, 37,614 (about 72 per cent.) belong to the Institute,
and 14,196 to the Science Library proper. Four hundred
books were borrowed, besides those consulted in the library.
No binding or direct purchasing 'has been done during the
year. The report was received and adopted.

The following gentlemen were elected officers for the
ensuing year (1914-15):

President — Donald MacEachern Fergusson, F. C. S.,
ex officio F. R. M. S.

1st Vice-President, — Professor David Fraser Harris,
M. D., C. M., D. Sc., F. R. S. E.

2nd Vice-President, — President Arthur Stanley Mac-
kenzie, PhD., F. R. S. C.

Treasurer, — Maynard Bowman, B. A.

Corresponding Secretary, — Professor Ebenezer Mackay,
Ph. D.

Recording Secretary and Librarian, — Harry Piers.
Councillors without office, — Alexander Howard MacKay,
Ll. D., F. R. S. C.; Professor Clarence L. Moore,
M. A., F. R. S. C.; Alexander McKay, M. A.;
Professor Donald Sutherland McIntosh, M. Sc.;
Carleton Bell Nickerson, M. A.; Professor
Howard Logan Bronson, Ph. D.; and William
Harrop Hattie, M. D.

Auditors,— Watson Lenley Bishop and William McKerron.

On motion, the President, the two Vice-Presidents,
Prof. Bronson, Prof. Sexton, and Dr. Hattie were
appointed a committee to interview the Government in
regard to the restoration of the financial grant to the Institute.

ORDINARY MEETINGS.

Vll

First Ordinary Meeting.

Civil Engineering Lecture Room , N. S. Technical College.
Halifax, N. S.; 9th November, 191 4.

The President, D. M. Fergusson, in the chair.

George H. Henderson, B. A., B. Sc., instructor in
physics, Dalhousie University, Halifax, read a paper on
“The Distribution of the Active Deposit of Thorium in an
Electric Field.” (See Transactions, page 1). The subject
was discussed by the President, Dr. A. S. Mackenzie,
Dr. Bronson, and Dr. E. Mackay.

Second Ordinary Meeting.

Civil Engineering Lecture Room, N. S. Technical College,
Halifax, N. S.; lJjih December, 191 1+.

The President, D. M. Fergusson, in the chair.

It was reported that Professor Alfred G. Hatcher
and Lorne N. Richardson, instructor in physics and mathe-
matics, both of the Royal Naval College of Canada, H. M.
Dockyard, Halifax, had been duly elected ordinary members
on the 9th inst.

Professor David Fraser Harris, M. D., C. M., D. Sc.,
F. R. S. E., Dalhousie University, Halifax, read a paper
entitled, “Neuro-muscular Rhythms and the Tremor of
Tonus.” The subject was discussed by the President,
Dr. A. H. MacKay, Dr. Bronson, President Mac-
kenzie, amUDR. E. Mackay.

Vlll

PROCEEDINGS.

Third Ordinary Meeting.

Civil Engineering Lecture Room , N. S. Technical College ,
Halifax, N. S., 11th January, 1915.

The President, D. M. Fergusson, in the chair.

Herbert Bradford Vickery, Dalhousie University,
Halifax, read a paper entitled, “An Investigation of the
‘Chromate Method’ of Separating the Alkaline Earths.”
(See Transactions, page 30). The subject was discussed
by the President, Dr. E. Mackay, C. B. Nickerson,
C. L. McCallum, and Dr. Fraser Harris. A vote of
thanks was presented to Mr. Vickery.

Fourth Ordinary Meeting.

Civil Engineering Lecture Room, N . S. Technical College,
Halifax, N. S., 15th March, 1915.

The First Vice-President, Dr. D. Fraser Harris, in
the chair.

Professor Howard Logan Bronson, Ph. D., Dalhousie
University, Halifax, read a paper entitled, “A Physical
Measurement of X-Rays,” (See Transactions, page 17).
The subject was discussed by Dr. A. S. Mackenzie, Dr.
A. H. MacKay, Dr. Fraser Harris, and others.

Fifth Ordinary Meeting.

Civil Engineering Lecture Room, N. S. Technical College,
Halifax, N. S., 12th April, 1915.

The President, D. M. Fergusson, in the chair.

Professor Donald S. McIntosh, M. Sc., Dalhousie
University, Halifax, read a paper entitled, “Notes on an
Abnormal Wave Occurrence on the Northern Cape Breton

ORDINARY MEETINGS.

IX

Coast in June, 1914.” (See Transactions, page 41). The
subject was discussed by the President, Dr. A. S. Mac-
kenzie, Dr. H. L. Bronson, Dr. E. Mackay, H. Piers,
and others.

A paper by Joseph Perrin, MacNab’s Island, Halifax,
entitled, “Additions to the Catalogue of Butterflies and
Moths collected in the Neighbourhood of Halifax, etc.,”
was read by title, and a vote of thanks passed to the writer.

Sixth Ordinary Meeting.

Civil Engineering Lecture Room, N. S, Technical College ,
Halifax, N. S., 10th May, 1915.

The President, D. M. Fergusson, in the chair.

Professor D. Fraser Harris, M. D., D. Sc., F. R. S. E.,
Dalhousie University, Halifax, read a paper entitled, “Acci-
dental Electrical Stimulation of the Human Retina in situ.’ 7
(See Transactions, page 47). The subject was discussed by
Prof. E. Mackay, C. B. Nickerson, Dr. Frank Woodbury,
Dr. F. W. Ryan, Dr. A. H. MacKay, and the President.

Dr. A. H. MacKay presented a paper on “Phonological
Observations in Nova Scotia, 1914.” (See Transactions,
page 57). The subject was discussed by H. Piers.

Harry Piers,

Recording Secretary .

TRANSACTIONS

OB' The

^oba Scotian Institute of (Science.

SESSION OF 1914-1915.

The Distribution of the Active Deposit of Thorium
in an Electric Field. — By G. H. Henderson, B.A.,
B. Sc., Instructor in Physics , Dalhousie University,*
Halifax.

(Read November 9th, 1914.)

The problem of the distribution of the active deposits of
radio-active substances in electric fields is an old one and was
early investigated by Rutherford* 1, Russ2, Kennedy3, and oth-
ers. In much of this early work no attempt at precision was
made and a considerable part of it was rendered of doubtful
value by faulty experimental arrangements. The problem
in the case of radium was more recently taken up by Wellisch
and ronson4 and by Wellisch5 and in the case of actinium
by Walmsley.6

It was felt that a similar investigation of the active de-
posit of thorium was timely and might throw further light
on the mechanism producing tbe charged condition of the
active deposit particles and on the conditions which affect
their distribution in electric fields.

* Contributions from the Science Laboratories of Dalhousie University — [Physics].

1. Rutherford, Phil. Mag., Feb. 1900, Jan. 1903. v

2. Russ, Phil. Mag, June , 1908.

3. Kennedy, Phil. Mag., Nov. 1909.

4. Wellisch and Bronson, Am. Journ. Sei. XXXIII, May 1912.

5. Wellisch, Am. Journ. Sci. XXXVI., Oct. 1913.

6. Walmsley, Phil. Mag., Sept. 1913.

Pboo. & Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci., Vol. XIV.

Trans. 1.

2 DISTRIBUTION OF THE ACTIVE DEPOSIT OF

Practically all the testing vessels used in the above re-
searches were cylindrical cases having an insulated rod in
the centre. These vessels have the disadvantages of having an
ununiform field and of presenting surfaces of unequal area to
the active deposits. Therefore it was decided to try vessels
having parallel plate electrodes. It is important that the
testing vessel be so constructed that the active deposit
particles or “rest atoms” would be deposited only on the elec-
trodes and none on other parts of the vessel where they would
remain unmeasured. To accomplish this several types of
vessels were used; only two of which need be described. The
construction of the first type is shown in Figs. 1 and 2. The
electrodes were cut out of zinc as shown in Fig. 1. The flaps

Fig. 1.

THORIUM IN AN ELECTRIC FIELD. — HENDERSON. 3

were folded over on the dotted lines forming a shallow box
one end of which was missing. Two of these electrodes, their
hollow sides facing one another, were slipped open ends down-
wards into a wooden case. The electrodes and case set up
ready for an exposure are shown in cross section in Fig. 2.
A A are the electrodes, B B is the case, C C are wooden pegs
fixed in the sides of the case to separate the electrodes The
edges of these were .3 cm. apart making the main parts of
the plates 2.8 cm. apart. D is the bottom on which the case
rests. It projects up a short distance inside B. The top of
this projection is slightl r hollow id out, formin ; a shallow
trough G on which lay the thorium hydroxide, which was
used as source of the thorium emanation. The plates rest
on the rim of the trough. E E are leads and F is the cover
of the box. All the wooden parts of the apparatus were
boiled in paraffin to secure good insulation. Owing to the
long period of thorium B (10.6 hours) the experiments neces-
sarily proceeded with some slowness. Exposures varying
from 6 to 36 hours were made, about 24 hours being usual.
The plates were then removed from the vessel and their
activities measured. As the decay curve for thorium active
deposit of long exposure is practically flat for the first half
hour, no correction for decay during the time of measure-
ment was needed, and even with exposures as short as 6
hours only a small correction was required. This has been
applied when necessary. The activity of the plates was
measured by an a ray electroscope, similar to that described
by Rutherford.1 Che earthed case of the electroscope was
surrounded by a second case of cardboard with glass windows,
to protect the instrument from extraneous effects of air
currents and temperature. A water filter was als used to
eliminate the heating effect of the lamp. The gold leaf was
charged to 200 volts and its rate of fall was observed through
a tele-microscope. The time required to pass over a certain

1. Rutherford, Radio-Active Substances, p. 90, fig. 12.

4

DISTRIBUTION OF THE ACTIVE DEPOSIT OF

number of scale divisions was measured with a stop watch.
This range of scale was kept the same for any given experi-
ment. A correction for the natural leak of the instrument
was always applied. This correction was usuall j a small
fraction of th anode activity.

A typical set of measurements is given below:

Box 8 Plates 10 Voltage = 40.4. Dry air over H2 SO4. Set
up 2:15 P.M. Oct. 25, 1914.

Plates removed 9: 01 A.M., Oct. 26, 1914.

Plates.

Period.

Divisions.

Time.

Rate.

Cor. Rate.

10-

25.6"

60-50

9 : 05 A.M.

.3906

.3880

10+

9' 55.0"

60-50

9 : 16 A.M.

.0168

.0142

Percentage cathode activity = 96.5.

THORIUM IN AN ELECTRIC FIELD. — HENDERSON. 5

The first line gives the conditions under which the ex-
posure took place. The first column shows the electrode
measured. Che column marked “Period” gives the time
taken by the gold leaf in moving over the scale divisions in-
dicated in the next column. The column marked “Time”
shows the time of conclusion of each measurement. The
next column shows the rate of fall of the needle, while the
last column shows this rate corrected for natural leak, and
the decay when necessary. The corrected rate is a measure
of the activity of the plate. The percentage cathode act-
ivity *

_ Cathode activity X 100.

Cathode activity + anode activity.

The error in the values of the percentage cathode activity
was mainly that made in measuring the anode activity. This
error was seldom as much as 2 per cent. ?he readings were
usually repeated several times and the mean taken.

An objection to these vessels might be raised, namely,
that the plates are very close together at the edges, and that
this distorted field was the determining part of the field.
That this was not the case was shown as follows:

An exposure was taken as usual. The activities of the
plates were measured as usual. Then the plates were covered
with a zinc screen neatly covering the whole of the plates
except a part in the flat portion of the plate where the screen
was cut out, and which could expose a portion of either the
top or bottom half of the plate. The size of this opening
was 5.8 x 2.8 cm.

The activities of the plates were then measured with the
lower and upper portions exposed. he results follow: Box
6. Plates 15. Volts 2.1. Laboratory air.

6

DISTRIBUTION OF THE ACTIVE DEPOSIT OF

Whole Plates.

Activity on cathode = .604.*

“ “ anode = .294.

Percentage cathode activity = 67.3

Total activity on two plates = .89

L over Portion Exposed.

Activity on cathode = .228.

“ “ anode = .114.

Percentage cathode activity = 66.7

Total activity = .33.

Upper Portion Exposed.

Activity on cathode = .157.

“ “ anode = .076.

Percentage cathode activity = 67.3.

Total activity = .23.

The size of the opening was about 22% of the total area
of the plates including the sides. The relative total activities
would show that the density of active deposit on the edges
was less than that on the flat portion of the plates.

In general, fairly satisfactory results were obtained with this
type of vessel. However, some discordant results were obtained
which were hard to explain, but it was thought that the large
amount of insulating material surrounding the electrodes
might be the cause of these irregularities.

A second type of vessel was therefore constructed which
avoided this difficulty as far as possible. End and side views
of this vessel are shown in Fig. 3. The plates, which were of
zinc, were made on the guard ring principle. The main
plates, A, 5.8 cpi. square, were slipped into place and held
there by short lugs which engaged with clips on the back of
the guard plate, B. The guard plates were 13 cm. square
with an opening of 5.9 cm. square in the centre to receive the

♦Arbitrary units.

THORIUM IN AN ELECTRIC FIELD. — HENDERSON.

7

Side View— Fig. 3. Fig. 3. End View — Fig.

8 DISTRIBUTION OF THE ACTIVE DEPOSIT OF

plates, A. The guard plates were kept 3.0 cm. apart by wood-
en blocks C and D at top, and bottom. The latter were
supported on glass legs, E. The apparatus was set in a
shallow glass dish and was covered by a rect-
angular glass jar. Control of the atmospheric conditions o^
the exposure was obtained by sealing the bell jar with a layer
of liquid in the shallow glass dish. To secure dry air, con-
centrated sulphuric acid was the liquid used. In experi-
ments on the effect of water vapor, water replaced the acid.
For other gases a mercury seal was used to keep the desired
vapor in the vessel. The thorium hydroxide was placed in a
shallow wooden box G, under the plates and supported by
the glass legs E. Connections with the plates were made by
wires passing through glass tubes, F F, bent to pass under the
bell jar through the liquid.

A number of advantages can be claimed for this type of
vessel in studying the distribution of the active deposits.

The field is practically uniform over the plates A, any
distortion of the field at the edges being eliminated by the
guard plate.

No insulating material is near the electrodes.

Equal areas of electrodes are presented to the active
deposit.

The activities of the two plates are measured under iden-
tically the same conditions, in the most simple manner, by a
gold leaf electroscope.

Good control of gaseous conditions can be secured.

A series of observations was made with applied potentials
varying from 6 to 12,000 volts. The highest voltage was
obtained by the use of a Wimshurst machine run by an electric
motor. The length of the spark gap was .35 cm. and the
diameters of the knobs 3.0 cm. and 1.5 cm., giving an estimated
voltage of 12,000. The air was dried by standing over con-
centrated sulphuric acid. The results obtained are shown in
Table 1 and plotted in curve A, Fig. 4.

Percentage Cathode Activity.

THORIUM IN AN ELECTRIC FIELD. — HENDERSON.

9

Volts.
Fig. 4.

Table 1.

Volts.

Percentage cathode
activity.

6.4

82.9

14.1

91.4

14.0

92.0

14.1

91.0

20.4

94.7

32.0

95.9

40.4

96.5

120.0

98.6

12,000.0

99.8

It will be seen that this curve has the general shape of the
ionization saturation curve. The percentage cathode act-
ivity at 12,000 volts is the mean of three observations, in one
of which the activity of the anode measured less than the nat-
ural leak. As this value differs from 100 by less than the
observational error, there is no evidence to show that initial-
ly any fraction of the rest atoms is neutral. It must be under-
stood that the use of the word initially, as in this instance,

10 DISTRIBUTION OF THE ACTIVE DEPOSIT OF

El

refers only to a time after that ^infinitesimal fraction of a
second during which recoil is operative. This curve differs
in two respects from that found by .Wellisch and Bronson
for radium. (1) It reaches approximate saturation at much
lower voltages. (2) There seems to be no evidence that any
fraction of the rest atoms is initially unchanged. Experi-
ments showed that the dimensions and form of the testing
vessel and the concentration of the j*est -atoms are largely
responsible for (1), and that approximate saturation in air is
reached with about the same potential gradient for thorium
as for radium.

Thus the evidence in the case of dry air would indicate
that initially all the rest atoms of thorium are positively charg-
ed and that all the activity on the an ode at low voltages is due to
these rest atoms losing their charge by recombination with
negative ions in the air.

It was found by Wellisch and Bronson that 10.4 per cent,
of radium rest atoms were initially uncharged in dry air.
Experiments were made to test whether this difference be-
tween radium and thorium was due to the type of vessel used.

The percentage cathode activity in the case of radium
was measured with parallel plate vessels. The source of
radium emanation used was a layer of radium chloride de-
posited on a sheet of aluminum. Preliminary measurements
with the first type of vessel described, showed that this frac-
tion was of the same order as that found by Wellisch and
Bronson for cylindrical vessels. Later the experiment was
repeated using the second type of vessel and a potential of
about 12,000 volts supplied by the Wimshurst machine. The
percentage cathode activity was found to be 5.2. This would
make the total fraction unaffected by the electric field 10.4
per cent, in good agreement with the latest value (11.8) found
by Wellisch1.

1. Wellisch, Phil. Mag. Oct. 1914.

THORIUM IN AN ELECTRIC FIELD. — HENDERSON. 11

The distribution of the thorium active deposit was also
measured in cylindrical vessels. The vessels were of the
usual type. Air dried by passing over phosphorus pentoxide
was passed over thorium hydroxide, and then through the
testing vessel at a slow enough rate so that practically all
the emanation would decay in the vessel. The activities of
the rod and case, the rod being used as cathode, were measured
by means of a Dolezalek electrometer. The activity of the
rod was measured in a cylindrical vessel, free from active
deposit, of the same dimensions as the anode case; while
the latter was tested with a clean rod similar in dimensions
to that used as cathode. The same general results were ob-
tained as with the parallel plate vessels although the voltage
necessary to bring over a given fraction of the rest atoms on
to the cathode was higher owing to the difference in shape of
the vessels. A similar rise of percentage cathode activity
with voltage was found. With 280 volts (the highest used),
the percentage cathode activity was 95.3.

From these experiments it will be seen that parallel plates
and cylindrical vessels give concordant results.

To test if the variations between thorium and radium
might be due to a surface effect of the electrodes, experi-
ments were made to see if the surface conditions of the elec-
trodes had any effect on the distribution of the rest atoms.

Experiments with copper and lead electrodes gave results
similar to those obtained with zinc plates. The state of polish
of the electrodes also had no effect on the distribution. These
results are in accordance with those found for radium by
Wellisch1 and by Walmsley2.

An interesting result found by Godlewski3 might be re-
ferred to here. He found that on electrolyzing a solution of
actinium, the active deposit was transported to the cathode,
only when the cathode plate had previously been used as

1. Wellisch, Am. Journ. Sci. Oct. 13.

A Walmsley Phil. Mag. Oct. 14.

3. Godlewski, Bull. Acad. Sci. de Cracovie, June 1913.

12

DISTRIBUTION OF THE ACTIVE DEPOSIT OF

anode, and hence was electrolytically saturated with hydrogen.
To test if a similar effect took place with thorium in air, ex-
periments were made, using as cathodes plates previously
used as anodes, and vice versa. No effect was detected within
the limits of observational error.

It was found by Wellisch and Bronson that in the case of
radium a much greater proportion of the rest atoms were
uncharged in an atmosphere containing water vapor than in
dry air. The effect of water vapor on the distribution of
the rest atoms of thorium was accordingly tried. In order to
obtain the maximum effect possible with water vapor ex-
periments were made with air saturated with water vapor
at room temperatures. This was accomplished by substitut-
ing water for the sulphuric acid of the previous experiments
so that the plates stood over water. As the temperature of
the laboratory varied from day to day the conditions under
which the different results were obtained were not identical.
The general effect however is seen in table 2, and is plotted
in curve B, Fig. 4.

Table 2.

Volts.

Percentage
cathode activity.

6.4

66.5

14.1

73.7

20.3

78.8

40.0

84.8

99.7

93.4

196.

96.0

313.

97.2

The effect of water vapor is evidently to greatly increase
the rate of recombination. The question of its effect on the
initial charged condition of the rest atoms will be referred to
after the effects of ether vapor have been discussed.

THORIUM IN AN ELECTRIC FIELD. — HENDERSON. 13

It was found by Wellisch1 that in an atmosphere of 8 cm.
of ether vapor all the radium rest atoms were uncharged.
The effect of adding ether vapor to the air was found to be
very marked in the case of thorium. The apparatus was
placed under a bell jar from which the air was then exhausted.
Ether vapor in different quantities was added, air was then
allowed to enter till atmospheric pressure was reached. The
results obtained are shown in table 3 and graphically in fig. 5.
The potential employed was 40 volts and old type vessels
were used.

Table 3.

Ether added in
cm. mercury.

Percentage
cathode activity.

•0

96.5

3.8

83.8

9.9

68.0

15.7

60.6

37. 22

54.5

The effect of different potentials in the case of ether vapor
is shown in table 4. The ether vapor was saturated at room
temperatures and the results therefore are not strictly com-
parable. The general effect however is seen. Old type ves-
sels were used.

Table 4.

Volts.

Percentage
cathode activity.

13.9

51.1

40.0

54.5

292.0

62.3

1. Wellisch, Phil. Mag, Oct. 1914.

2. Estimated, air saturated.

Percentage Cathode Activity.

14 DISTRIBUTION OF THE ACTIVE DEPOSIT OF

Fig. 5.

Two conclusions are suggested from these tables. 1st.
With a given voltage the percentage cathode activity de-
pends on the quantity of ether vapor present. 2nd. There
is no evidence that with high potentials a value at all near
100 exists for the percentage cathode activity. This evidence
points to the conclusion that part of the rest atoms are initial-
ly charged and part uncharged, and that the relative amounts
of charged and uncharged rest atoms depend on the relative
quantities of ether and air.

THORIUM IN AN ELECTRIC FIELD. HENDERSON. 15

To further test this point, the following experiments were
tried, the voltage in both cases being 313.

1st. The testing vessel was placed under a bell jar, the
air exhausted and 10.2 cm. of ether vapor allowed to enter.
Then air was admitted till atmospheric pressure was reached.
The percentage cathode activity was 63.8.

2nd. The testing vessel was set up under a bell jar as
before and the air exhausted to 0.7 cm. Then 10.2 cm. ether
vapor were added and the exposure taken under a total pres-
sure of 10.9 cm. The percentage cathode activity was 50.8.

A similar effect in the case of water vapor was sought.
The bell jar containing a dish of water in addition to the
testing vessel was exhausted to 1.6 cm. and an exposure taken
using a potential of 312 volts. Owing to leakage the final
pressure was 2.3 cm. The percentage cathode activity was
79.9. The exact proportions of water vapor and air in the
bell jar were hard to determine but at least half the pressure
was due to water vapor.

At such low pressures the percentage of the active deposit
on the anode is increased due to recoil of the rest atoms. In
order to test whether recoil could wholly account for the low
value of the percentage cathode activity with water vapor,
an exposure was taken using dry air at initial and final pres-
sures of 1.35 and 1.55 cm. respectively. The percentage
cathode activity was 94.6.

Thus we see that in an atmosphere of pure ether all the
rest atoms are uncharged, which further strengthens the con-
clusions drawn from tables 3 and 4. The results with water
vapor point towards similar conclusions, notwithstanding the
experimental difficulty; the pressure of the water vapor being
necessarily small, and there being a considerable fraction of
air present.

Experiments tried in atmospheres of various other sub-
stances gave no evidence that in any pure atmosphere the

16 THORIUM IN AN ELECTRIC FIELD. — HENDERSON.

rest atoms were initially partly charged and partly uncharged.
In this respect thorium seems to differ from radium. It was
shown by Wellisch that, in hydrogen and in carbon dioxide,
the rest atoms of the latter are partly charged and partly
uncharged. The case of air is peculiar as it is a mixture.
Further investigation along these lines is in progress.

Summary.

A new type of vessel for this kind of work has been de-
veloped and its advantages noted.

It has been shown that in dry air all the thorium rest
atoms are initially positively charged.

In pure ether vapor all the thorium rest atoms are initially
uncharged and in a mixture of ether vapor and air the charged
condition of the rest atoms depends on the relative amounts
of ether vapor and air present. A similar state of affairs
appears to be true with water vapor.

In conclusion I wish to express my best thanks to Dr.
Bronson, who suggested the work and without whose con-
tinued interest this work would not have been possible.

A Physical Measurement of X-Rays. — By Howard L.

Bronson, Ph. D., Projessor oj Physics in Dalhousie

University.

(Read 15 March 1915)

Introduction.

The use of Roentgen rays by the medical profession has
increased very rapidly during the past few years, but, as yet,
no method of measurement has been generally accepted.
At present a large variety of instruments, methods, and units
are used. For adding another method to the number already
too large, the writer finds his justification in the fact that he
not only employs a physical measurement of some accuracy,
but also that is it not too complicated for practical use. All
the physical principles used are old and have been used
before.

The problem was suggested to the writer several years
ago by Dr. G. P. Girdwood of Montreal, but a satisfactory
galvanometer was not available at that time. The galvano-
meter needed for this work should be of the D’Arsonval
type with a sensitiveness of at least 5 x 10~10 amperes per
scale division, but should not be delicate mechanically.
The resistance of the galvanometer is unimportant, but it
should have as short a period as possible and at the same time
be critically damped on open circuit. Dr. Edward Weston
has recently developed an instrument which just meets these
requirements. One of these he very kindly loaned for this
work. The other things essential for satisfactorily carrying
out this work were supplied by Dr. W. H. Eagar of Halifax,
who was kind enough to place his office and most excellent
X-Ray equipment at my disposal. In addition to this,
experiments were carried on at Dalhousie University and at
the Nova Scotia Technical College with the apparatus belong-
ing to these institutions.

Proc. & Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci., Vol. XIV.

(17)

Trans. 2.

18 PHYSICAL MEASUREMENT OF X-RAYS. — BRONSON.

Roentgen rays are commonly used for two distinct
purposes:

(1) For diagnostic work by means of fluoroscope and
radiograph;

(2) For their therapeutic action.

In each case it is important to know both the quantity
or intensity and the quality or hardness of the rays furnished
by the tube. There are two general methods of measurement:

(1) The electric energy delivered to the bulb is measured
and it is assumed that all or a constant fraction of this leaves
the bulb as X-rays. A recent article by Dr. G. W. Holmes*
shows that experience would seem to justify this assumption.
This method does not distinguish directly between the quan-
tity and quality of the rays, but the applied potential is taken
as a measure of the hardness;

(2) The quantity and quality of the rays themselves
may be directly measured; the quality by some form of
penetrometer, which involves the comparison of the intensity
of illumination of two surfaces; the quantity by the change
produced in the color of some substance, such as barium
platino-cyanide, in which case a color comparison is involved.

In a few cases the ionization produced in air has been
used as a means of measuring the strength of the rays. Ex-
cept for experimental difficulties, this should be the ideal
method as practically all the evidence indicates that the
various effects of Roentgen rays are directly related to their
ionizing action. A. simple direct 'reading instrument, making
use of this principle, has been recently described by Dr. B.
Szilardj. For some purposes this instrument should prove
very useful, but for others the length of time necessary to
get a reading would be objectionable. The instrument is
calibrated to give directly the total number of ions formed in
1 c.c. of the air exposed to X-rays during the time of an
exposure.

*The American Journal of Roentgenology, May, 1914.
i Archives of the Roentgen Ray, June, 1914.

PHYSICAL MEASUREMENT OF X-RAYS. BRONSON. 19

The writer also makes use of the ionizing action of X-rays,
hut employs quite a different method for measuring it. He is
able in a few seconds to determine with considerable accuracy
the intensity and hardness of the rays, as well as the time
of exposure necessary to obtain radiographs of proper density,
even under very unfavorable conditions.

Apparatus.

Figure 1 shows a section of the testing vessel drawn
approximately to scale and gives a diagram of connexions.
The galvanometer was a Weston Model 89, having a tripod
base, and was very easily adjusted by means of an attached
spirit level. It was mounted on a window-stool, shelf or
mantel according to circumstances, and its deflection was
read by means of a lamp and scale. With the scale at a
distance of one meter, it gave a deflection of 1mm. for a
current of 3 x 10— 10 amperes. The high resistance R, of about
106 ohms, was made by a pencil line on ground glass and was
used merely to protect the galvanometer. The resistance of

20 PHYSICAL MEASUREMENT OF X-RAYS. — BRONSON.

the testing vessel was so high in comparison that R can be
neglected in the calculations. M may be any fairly steady
source of potential, high enough to produce practical satura-
tion. It should be at least 100 volts and was about 200 in
the present experiments. Sometimes it was obtained from
storage cells and sometimes from a small 220 volt D. C.
motor used as a dynamo and driven by a small A. C. motor.

One potential terminal was connected to the outside
lead covering of the testing vessel and the other to the insu-
lated aluminum foil E. The foil F was used to protect E
from possible electrostatic action, and both were too thin
to produce appreciable absorption of the X-rays. The
aluminum plate C was very carefully insulated on sealing
wax so that the galvanometer would be sure to measure the
current due to the X-ray ionization between the plates E
and C. The wire leading from C to the galvanometer was a
small lead covered cable. The lead cover was connected
through the high resistance R to one terminal of the galvano-
meter and to the lead case of the testing vessel, thus com-
pleting the circuit.

The X-ray tube was mounted at any desired distance
directly above the opening F. The size of the bundle of
rays entering the vessel was determined by placing on top
of the vessel a lead sheet with suitable opening. Six tubes
of various makes and construction were used and similar
results were obtained with all. The smallest tube was
about 13cm. in diameter and had a light platinum target,
and the largest was about 18cm. in diameter and had a
heavy tungsten target.

The different sources of power used included a large and
a small induction coil with both Wehnelt and mechanical
interrupters and a high tension transformer and commutator
(Waite and Bartlett Mfg. Co.), giving an interrupterless
current. The current through the tube was measured by
a milliammeter, but the spark gap was the only means at

PHYSICAL MEASUREMENT OF X-RAYS.— BRONSON 21

my disposal of estimating the potential on the tube. In
the various experiments the currents used varied from 5
to 0.3 milliamperes and the spark gap from 8 to 18cm.

Experimental Methods and Results.

The present investigation may be divided into three
distinct parts:

(1) To discover whether the , action of Roentgen
rays on a photographic plate is proportional to the
ionization in the air near the plate, and thus to be able
to determine the proper length of time for an exposure;

(2) To compare the action of the rays on a Sabour-
aud pastille with their ionizing action;

(3) To find an accurate method of comparing the
hardness or penetrating power of the rays.

(i)

In order to test the first point the ionization current was
measured with some object, for example several sheets of
glass, aluminum or lead, covering the opening F of the
testing vessel. Then a photographic plate, covered by the
same object, was exposed to the action of the rays, produced
under the same conditions as before. The X-ray plates
used were either Ilford or Wellington, the developer was
carefully prepared according to the maker’s directions, and
great pa' ns was taken to always use the same quantity of
fresh developer at the same temperature and to develop for
the same length of time.

It was discovered by preliminary experiments that an
exposure of 5 sec. gave a satisfactory negative, when the
deflection of the galvanometer was 40mm. with a bundle
of rays 100 sq. cm. in area. Thereafter the time of exposure
of any plate was adjusted to be inversely proportional to the
current through the galvanometer, that is, the product of the

22 PHYSICAL MEASUREMENT OF X-RAYS. — BRONSON.

time of exposure and the deflection of the galvanometer
was always 200.

The procedure in a particular case where six sheets of
lead foil, each .026mm. in thickness, was to be the subject
radiographed, was as follows: The six sheets of foil were

first placed over the opening F, the tube was started up and
the galvanometer deflection was 30mm. The foil was then
removed from F and a small photographic plate was placed
at C. Upon this there were placed, side by side, three
strips of lead containing respectively 4, 6 and 8 thicknessess
of the above foil. The strips with 4 and 8 thicknesses each
were used merely to have some contrast on the negative.
The plate was then exposed for =7 sec., with the tube
working under as nearly as possible the same conditions
as previously.

Over one hundred radiographs were taken as described.
Various thicknesses of glass, aluminum and lead were used
as the subjects for the radiographs and the rays in the different
experiments differed widely in their characteristics, but the
negatives showed practically the same photographic action
on those portions covered by the materials under examina-
tion. Table I gives a record of six plates, all having lead
foil for the subjecUof the radiograph, but taken with rays
which were very different for the different plates. The
first three were taken with a 17cm. tube having a tungsten
target and using an interrupterless current and the last
three with a 13cm. tube having a platinum target and operated
by a small induction coil and a mechanical interrupter.
The density of the negatives appeared to be alike within
the limits of accuracy of the various measurements..

PHYSICAL MEASUREMENT OF X-RAYS. — BRONSON. 23

Table I.

Plate

No/

Milliam-

meter.

Spark Gap.

Lead.

Gal. Defl.

Exposure.

91

1.1

unknown

.104mm.

23

9 sec.

95

4.1

unknown

.208mm.

16

12.5 sec.

96

3.1

unknown

.208mm.

29

7 sec.

10

0.38

18cm

.104mm.

7

29 sec.

10

9.38

18cm

.156mm.

5.5

36 sec.

107

0.50

9cm

.104mm.

5

40 sec.

A comparison of the currents through the tube with the
galvanometer deflections, in the cases of 95 and 96 and of
105 and 107, shows how unsafe it is to judge the intensity of
the X-rays by the milliammeter alone. In both cases the
current through the tube increased, but the galvanometer
reading decreased, and the radiographs showed that the
desired results were obtained by increasing the time of ex-
posure, as was actually done. We must conclude then that
the relative action of Roentgen rays on a photographic
plate and in ionizing the air near the plate remains practi-
cally constant, however the rays themselves may be altered.-
In order to compare the absorbing power of various
parts of the body with various thicknesses of lead foil, radio-
graphs of the knee, the thigh and the chest were taken with
lead foil of varying thicknesses on the same plates. The
results were rather unsatisfactory, because somewhat dif-
ferent results were obtained with rays of different hardness,
and in practice it would be better to use aluminum sheet
in place of lead foil for this purpose. However, the negatives
showed about the same density for the following when the
penetration was 8 or 9 Benoist:

Knee joint and 8 thicknesses of foil each .026mm.
Thigh bone and 10 “ “

Flesh of thigh and 8 “ “

Ribs and 10 or 12 “ ‘

24

PHYSICAL MEASUREMENT OF X-RAYS.

By making such a comparison once for all, and using
aluminum instead of lead, it would be possible in a few
seconds by a single reading of the galvanometer, with proper
thickness of aluminum over the testing vessel, to determine
the time of exposure necessary to obtain a satisfactory
radiograph of any part of the body. Of course, this would
be of no practical value for powerful installations, where
exposures are for only a second or two, but might be of great
value where exposures for a considerable time have to be
made.

(2)

In order to investigate the second point, a Sabouraud
pastille was placed on the aluminum foil at F and exposed,
sometimes to the direct action of the X-rays and sometimes
with slight aluminum screening. During the time of exposure
the deflection of the galvanometer was read at regular intervals
The average of these readings multiplied by the time of
exposure and by the galvanometer constant gave the charge
that passed through the galvanometer, and this divided by
the volume of air ionized and by the number representing
the change in color of the pastille, as measured by Dr. Hamp-
son’s radiometer, should give a constant K, if the effect
on the pastille is proportional to the ionization produced in
the testing vessel. The last nine comparisons gave the
following values for K: 2.4, 2.6, 2.7, 2.4, 2.5, 2.6, 2. 4, 2. 4, and
2.6, all multiplied by 108 Thus, we see that this method
furnishes an accurate and quick method of testing the thera-
peutic action of any tube. In these experiments only the
interrupterless current was used, but hard and soft tubes
were tried with currents varying from 1 to 5 milliamperes.

(3)

Less attention was paid to the measurement of hardness
than to the previous parts of the work, but a number of
experiments were tried to see how the ionization current

PHYSICAL MEASUREMENT OF X-RAYS. — BRONSON 25

through the testing vessel is changed by various thicknesses
of lead or aluminum placed over the opening F, and in each
case the hardness was measured by a Benoist penetrometer.
Table II shows the nature of the results obtained in a single
experiment.

Table II.

Hardness.

Sheets of Lead Foil,
each .26mm thick.

Gal. Defl.

% of Max. Defl.

( 0

178

100

1

83

47

9 Benoist

1 2

51

29

1 4

25

14

l 6

15

8

Table III gives a summary of the results obtained with
different tubes of various degrees of hardness. Columns 3
and 4 give the thickness of lead and aluminum necessary to
reduce the ionization to half value. Column 5 gives the
ratio of the ionization when there are two and when there is
only one sheet of lead foil over F, and column 6 gives a
similar ratio of the ionization for 4mm and 2mm of aluminum.

Table III.

Tube.

Hardness.

3

4

5

6

No. 1........

9 Benoist

.036mm

4.4mm

62%

73%

No. 2

7 Benoist

3.5mm

64%

No. 2

6 Benoist

,023mm

45%

No. 2

5 Benoist

.018mm

1.7mm

28%

43%

No. 4

7 or 8 Benoist

.030mm

3.6mm

55%

68%

In practice it would be much easier and quicker to
obtain the hardness of a tube from the data of column 5
or 6 than from 3 or 4. It is a well known fact, which is also
clearly shown in Table III, that X-rays become less and

26 PHYSICAL MEASUREMENT OF X-RAYS. — BRONSON

less easily absorbed the more lead they pass through. It
is for this reason that the figures in columns 3 and 4 have been
made to apply to rays which have already passed through
.026mm of lead or 2.0mm of aluminum respectively.

Table III shows that the apparatus is well suited to
make comparisons of the hardness of X-rays. It is only
necessary to take two readings of the galvanometer, first
with one sheet of foil and then with two sheets. The ratio
of the readings may then be used as a measure of the hardness.
By obtaining foil of the right thickness, it would be possible
to arrange a simple scale which would correspond with any
of the various penetrometers now in use.

Discussion of Results.

The experiments above described show how a single
instrument may be very simply used to determine both
the quantity and quality of the Roentgen rays from any
tube, as well as the length of time of exposure needed to
produce radiograms of proper density. In each case the
ionizing action of the rays is made use of and the measure-
ments are all made with a galvanometer, which avoids the
uncertainty and difficulty of comparing the color or the
equality of illumination of two surfaces.

The physical explanation would seem to be that the
magnitude of the effect produced by the rays on the photo-
graphic plate, the pastille and in ionizing the air depends
on the energy used up in each case, and that the relative
amounts absorbed in the three processes remain practically
constant for rays differing widely in their characteristics.

The nature of the apparatus makes it comparatively
easy to calculate the number of ions produced per c.c. near
the photographic plate during the time of exposure or near
the pastille during the time of some definite change in color.
Let V = volume of testing vessel exposed to the ionizing
action of the rays.

t = time of exposure in seconds of either plate or pastille.

PHYSICAL MEASUREMENT OF X-RAYS.— -BRONSON. 27

N = total number of ions per c.c. produced in the testing
vessel during time t.

e = charge on an ion — 4.7 X 10~ 10 E. S. units.

k = galvanometer constant — 3.0X10- 10 amperes per mm.
deflection.

d = deflection of galvanometer.

q = charge passing through the galvanometer in time t.

Then q = NeV E. S. units (if there is no recombination),
also q = kdt coulombs
and NeV= (kdt) 3X109.

In the experiments with the photographic plates, as
has been stated, t was so chosen that dt = 200, and V was
100 x 4.5 = 450c. c.

3 X10~10X 200X3X109
450X4.7 X 10— 10

8.5 X108

Of course the value of N necessary to produce a satis-
factory radiograph depends on the plate used and upon the
method and time of development.

The average value of the constant K = found in the

v

experiments with the Sabouraud pastille was 2.5 X10-8.

As above

N =

kdt 3X109
Ve

2.5X10“8X3X109

4.7 X 10~

-10

= 1.6 X 1011.

This, then, gives the number of ions per c.c. formed in
the air immediately surrounding the pastille during a change
in tint corresponding to one number on Hampson’s radio-
meter. Now the normal or epilation dose is determined by
tint B, as it is called, and corresponds to a change equivalent
to four numbers. Therefore, the number of ions per c.c.

28 PHYSICAL MEASUREMENT OF X-RAYS. — BRONSON.

produced in air surrounding the pastille during normal dose
is 4N or about 6.4 X1011. In measuring this dose the pastille
is ordinarily placed half way between the anticathode and
the skin. Therefore the number of ions per c.c. produced
near the surface of the skin during an epilation dose would
be 1.6 X1011. This value is apparently very much smaller
than that obtained by Dr. Szilard (loc. cit.), although there
is some confusion in the part of his paper dealing with this
calculation. A small part of this difference is due to the
small value, 3.4X10- 10 which he used for e, but the chief
difference is due to the nature of the testing vessels used in
the two experiments.

The vessel used by Dr. Szilard had a volume of 1 c.c.
and was lined with lead. In a vessel of this kind the ioniza-
tion due to secondary rays would be very large. Some
of the secondary rays are very easily absorbed, but produce
an intense ionization for a millimeter or two in air, so that
their relative effect is especially great in a small vessel.
The effect is also much greater with a lead than an aluminum
vessel. Even in the large vessel used in the present investi-
gation, the ionization was doubled by covering the plate C
with lead foil. In the smaller vessel the ionization caused
by the secondary rays might be several times as large as that
due to the X-rays themselves. That the effect of the second-
ary rays from the aluminum plate C was small, was shown
by covering C with a sheet of wet tissue paper, which reduced
the ionization current less than 10%.

There is a still greater objection to using lead instead of
aluminum for the interior of the testing vessel; namely the
fact that the relative amount of secondary ionization depends
on the hardness of the rays. The extra ionization in the
testing vessel also requires the use of a higher voltage in
order to prevent recombination.

Summary.

1. It has been shown that the action of Roentgen rays
on a photographic plate and on a Sabouraud pastille is

PHYSICAL MEASUREMENT OF X-RAYS. BRONSON. 29

proportional to the ionization produced in the air immediately
surrounding them.

2. A simple apparatus, making use of this principle, has
been devised for measuring the intensity and hardness of
the rays.

3. It has also been shown that this same apparatus
can be easily used to determine the length of time of exposure
needed to produce radiographs of suitable density.

In conclusion, I desire to express my indebtedness to
Dr. Edward Weston for his kindness in fitting up and loaning
me a galvanometer suitable for this work; to Principal
Sexton and Professor Ayars of the Nova Scotia Technical
College for the use of their X-ray apparatus, and especially
to Dr. W. H. Eagar for his many helpful suggestions and for
the use of his office and equipment.

Dalhousie University, Halifax, N. S.

March 15, 1915.

An Investigation of the “Chromate Method” for

SEPARATING THE ALKALINE EARTHS.* By HUBERT

Bradford Vickery, Dalhousie University, Halifax.

(Read 11 January 1915)

This investigation was undertaken with the twofold
object of discovering the degree of sensitiveness of which
the ordinary “chromate method” for the separation of the
alkaline earths is capable, and also under what conditions
this sensitiveness may be increased. Incidentally a con-
siderable improvement was made in the procedure.

Throughout the experimental work the idea was kept
constantly in mind to have the conditions of working as
nearly as possible those which obtain in the manipulation
of the average student of qualitative analysis, and where
these have been changed, to make them very easily attainable,
so that the final quantitative results might fairly represent
the degree of accuracy obtainable in ordinary work.

While several methods exist for the separation of the
alkaline earths which are extremely delicate, f they depend
largely upon the use of alcohol and ether to decrease the
solubility of the various precipitates, and hence are scarcely
suitable for class use. The chromate method, on the con-
trary, uses water solutions alone and obviates the necessity
for inconveniently long waits for complete precipitations,
thus greatly decreasing the time required for a single analysis
and making this method eminently suitable for use in class.
The procedure ordinarily followed t consisted in precipitating
the carbonate in strongly alkaline solution, magnesium being
held in solution by means of ammonium chloride. The

* Contributions from the Science Laboratories of Dalhousie University (Chemistry).

t J. Am. Chem. Soc., 30, 611. (1903).

I G. S. Newth: Manual of Chemical Analysis, p. 35.

(30)

“chromate method” for separating earths — VICKERY. 31

carbonates were then dissolved in the least possible quantity
of acetic acid, the solution diluted, barium removed as
chromate, and ammonium sulphate added to the filtrate.
This was supposed to throw down the insoluble strontium
sulphate, but retain the calcium by its solvent action upon
calcium sulphate.

It was at this point that difficulty was usually encountered
as the calcium almost invariably came down in some quantity,
especially if present in large amounts, rendering a complete
separation impossible and obscuring the confirmatory flame
tests. However, sufficient calcium was retained to give the
confirmatory oxalate test, and by again bringing the precipi-
tate into solution and treating with a solution of calcium
sulphate, the strontium was confirmed even in the presence
of a large amount of calcium. This method, resulting as
it does in only an approximate separation, is unsatisfactory,
and attempts were made to improve it.

Solutions of barium, strontium and calcium as chlorides
were made up and carefully standardized gravimetrically,
the first two by precipitating a known volume with silver
nitrate, and the last with ammonium oxalate. Appropriate
volumes of these solutions were run from burettes into flasks
and made up so that each solution should contain a milligram
of the metal per cubic centimeter. These standard solutions
were used for the analysis.

The first step was to investigate quantitatively each
precipitation occuring throughout the procedure and record
its delicacy under the conditions normally occuring in the
course of an analysis. The method followed was to run
various quantities of the standard solutions into a series of
beakers, dilute them with hot water, and add the cold reagents
in the order given. This resulted in the precipitation taking
place at a temperature of 65°-70°. By watching the row of
beakers it was easy to compare the amounts of precipitate
occurring and to find that one which yielded no precipitate,

32 AN INVESTIGATION OF THE “ CHROMATE METHOD ”

thus fixing a lower limit to the sensitiveness of the particular
precipitation, and ensuring uniform conditions.

The reagents used were: — Ammonia sp. gr. .90 (equival-
ent to three times the volume of sp. gr. .96).

Ammonium Chloride 10%

Ammonium Carbonate 25%

Potassium Chromate 5%

Ammonium Sulphate 10%

Ammonium Oxalate 5%

Acetic Acid 50^

BARIUM CARBONATE

The precipitating reagents were 3cc NH4OH, lOcc
NH4C1, lOcc (NH4)2C03. The total volume of the solution
was lOOcc.

0.5 mg. of barium gave no precipitate.

1.0 mg. gave no precipitate.

2.0 mg. gave no precipitate.

3.00 mg. gave very slight deposit on lines of rubbing

with glass rod.

5.0 mg. gave slight deposit.

7.0 mg. gave very slight precipitate.

10.0 mg. gave feathery crystalline precipitate in few

moments.

25.0 mg. gave feathery precipitate almost at once.

STRONTIUM CARBONATE

Conditions same as above.

0.5 mg. of stronium gave no precipitate.

1.0 mg. gave very slight precipitate in 5 minutes.

2.0 mg. gave slight precipitate in four minutes.

4.0 mg. gave decided precipitate in few monents.

10.0 mg. gave fairly heavy precipitate, but not coming

down instantly.

25.0 mg. gave heavy precipitate at once.

FOR SEPARATING THE ALKALINE EARTHS. VICKERY. 33

CALCIUM CARBONATE

Conditions same as above.

0.3 mg. of calcium gave no precipitate.

0.5 mg. gave no precipitate.

0.6 mg. gave very slight precipitate.

0.8 mg. gave slight precipitate.

1.0 mg. gave slight precipitate in 4 minutes.

5.0 mg. gave precipitate almost at once.

10.0 mg. gave heavy crystalline precipitate at once.

It was found that a temperature much in excess of 70°
caused an interaction of the carbonate with the ammonium
chloride, giving an evolution of carbon dioxide and resulting
in the solution of the precipitate or complete failure to form
a precipitate.

In each case completeness of precipitation of a solution
containing 25 mg. of the metal was tested by filtering after
ten minutes and allowing to stand over night. Only in the
case of barium did any deposit form and even in this case
it was in very small quantity. The precipitates were ex-
amined microscopically, but it was found that although the
crystals when falling from very dilute solutions were quite
easily differentiated, from more concentrated solutions
they were almost indistinguishable, especially since calcium,
and to a lesser extent barium, show a tendency to come down
as gelatinous masses from cool solutions.

BARIUM CHROMATE

Precipitating reagent, 3cc K2Cr04. Total volume of solu-
tion, lOOcc.

In neutral solution, even one tenth of a milligram of
barium gave a cloudiness in five minutes, but in a solution
containing l-2cc acetic acid 2 mg. failed to give a precipi-
tate, while 2.5 mg. gave a slight one on standing a few

Proc. & Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci.. Vol. XIV.

Trans. 3

34 AN INVESTIGATION OF THE “ CHROMATE METHOD ”

minutes. 5 mg. gave a precipitate almost at once. Boiling
temperature was used.

STRONTIUM CHROMATE

Precipitating reagent, 15cc K2Cr04. Total volume of
solution, 200cc.

In neutral solution 200 mg. of strontium gave a very
slight deposit in beaker in ten minutes. 400 mg. gave a
heavy precipitate in a few moments. In solution containing
acetic acid, 500 mg. failed to give a precipitate over night.

CALCIUM CHROMATE

Conditions same as in precipation of strontium chromate.

In neutral solution 500 mg. of calcium gave a barely
perceptible precipitate in fifteen minutes, while in acid solu-
tion none formed at all.

The barium chromate when suddenly thrown down is
very fine and scarcely crystalline, but boiling for a few
minutes causes it to crystallize. Under the conditions of
ordinary work there is little risk of obtaining a precipitate
of strontium chromate, while the barium is almost completely
removed.

STRONTIUM SULPHATE

Precipitating reagent, lOcc (NH4)2 S04.

2 mg. failed to give a precipitate on boiling while 2.5 mg.
gave a scarcely perceptible one. 4 mg. gave very slight
precipitate on standing. lOmg. gave a precipitate in a few
moments. The experiments were repeated with both neutral
and acetic acid solutions, with practically identical results.

CALCIUM SULPHATE

Precipitating reagents, 2cc acetic acid, lOcc (NH4)2S04.
Temperature, 70°C.

200 mg. gave heavy feathery precipitate at once.

100 mg. gave small precipitate in one minute, which
rapidly increased in size.

FOR SEPARATING THE ALKALINE EARTHS. VICKERY. 35

90 mg. gave small precipitate on standing an hour.

75 mg. gave no precipitate on standing.

Thus, under the conditions of ordinary work, calcium
when present in excess of 90 mg. is precipitated along with
the strontium. 200 mg. of calcium, and 40cc of (NH4)2 S04
gave a heavy precipitate on warming, but no solvent action
was noticeable on boiling; 40cc more were added and boiled
and a slight solvent action took place. On adding 40cc of
ammonium chloride to this solution it was observed that
the greater part of the precipitate went into solution on
boiling for a few moments. As this action appeared import-
ant, it was determined to investigate it further.

To try the effect of the addition of ammonium chloride
before precipitating the sulphate, two solutions of 400 mg.
of calcium each were prepared. To No. 1 were added
40cc NH4C1 and to each lee of acetic acid. Both were
brought to 70° and lOcc (NH4)2 S04 added. The effect of
the ammonium chloride was very noticeable, for in five
minutes only a very few crystals had appeared in No. 1,
and very little deposit had formed on the bottom of the
beaker, while in the second beaker the precipitation had
been heavy and was nearly complete. Other experiments
were tried, and it was found that 80cc of ammonium chloride
solution were sufficient to prevent completely the precipita-
tion of 200 mg. of calcium, while 50cc failed to do so, as a
slight deposit formed on boiling. 160cc were sufficient to
hold up 400 mg. of calcium, showing that there should be
80cc of ammonium chloride present for each 200 mg. of
calcium. It was found that the total volume should be
not less than 150cc as a smaller volume rendered the precipi-
tation of the calcium more likely. The effect of the am-
monium chloride upon the strontium was investigated, and
it was found that in the presence of a large excess, 4 mg. gave
a precipitate on boiling, while 3mg. gave a very slight t\ir-
bidity. Thus the effect is scarcely appreciable. The amount

36 AN INVESTIGATION OF THE “ CHROMATE METHOD ”

of ammonium chloride is perhaps somewhat excessive, but
it was found that when much smaller quantities were used,
the calcium was liable to fall when the solution was boiled
or digested on the water-bath. It is quite easy to tell from
the character of the precipitate at this point if the calcium
is precipitating. The strontium precipitate is very fine
grained and falls immediately. The calcium sulphate pre-
cipitate, especially if ammonium chloride is present, is
feathery, crystalline and forms slowly. It usually forms
first at the surface, and is particularly liable to come down
on boiling.

CALCIUM OXALATE

0.1 mg. of calcium gave a perceptible precipitate on
standing for a few minutes. The effect of ammonium
chloride in considerable quantities, seemed to be to make the
precipitation rather slower, but 0.1 mg. could still be easily
detected.

SENSITIVENESS OF METHOD

The next step in the investigation was to carry out a
series of analyses under normal conditions, using large excess
of two of the metals and varying small quantities of the
third until it could no longer be detected by the methods
used. In this way the limit of detectability for each metal
in the presence of excess of the others was found when the
complete analysis is carried through.

A solution containing 4 mg. of barium and 200 mg. each
of calcium and strontium was made up. The carbonates
were precipitated and allowed to digest at 70° for 15 minutes,
and then filtered and dissolved as usual. A slight precipitate
formed in 5 minutes after adding 5cc of the chromate and
on boiling and filtering a distinct yellow deposit was left
on the filter after washing the potassium chromate out.
4. similar solution, but containing only 3 mg. of barium

FOR SEPARATING THE ALKALINE EARTHS. VICKERY. 37

as chloride, failed to form a precipitate in 15 minutes, or
to leave a deposit on the filter. Hence the limit of detection
of barium using the ordinary procedure is 4 mg. when excess
of the others is present.

A solution containing 15 mg. of strontium and 200 mg.
•each of calcium and barium was treated by the ordinary
procedure and the barium removed. Insufficient ammonium
chloride was added and a considerable precipitate formed
with the ammonium sulphate. This was boiled with am-
monium carbonate and dissolved in acetic acid and calcium
sulphate added. A very fine precipitate formed in the
course of a few hours. A similar solution was taken and
sufficient ammonium chloride (i.e. 80cc) was added, after
removing the barium, to hold up the calcium. A very fine
granular precipitate was obtained with ammonium sulphate
in a few minutes, and no trace of the typical calcium crystals.
Its identity was easily established. A solution with 13 mg.
of strontium failed to give a precipitate, hence the limit
•of detectability of strontium is 15 mg. when an excess of
barium and calcium is present.

A solution containing 1 mg. of calcium, 200 mg. of barium
and 500 mg. of strontium was treated as before, and the
barium and strontium removed as chromate and sulphate
respectively. A fine white precipitate appeared in a few
moments on making alkaline and adding ammonium oxalate,
A solution containing 0.5 mg. gave no precipitate on boiling
15 minutes, but gave a very fine deposit on standing over
night. Hence, the limit of detectability of calcium is 1 mg.
or somewhat under, when excess of barium and strontium are
present.

PROPOSED PROCEDURE

The results of the investigation can best be summarized
by giving a procedure with notes for the separation of the
alkaline earths by the improved chromate process.

38 AN INVESTIGATION OF THE “ CHROMATE METHOD,,

Procedure I. Precipitation of group (after ridding of sulphur).

To solution after removal of iron and zinc group, (60cc),
add lOcc NH4 OH, 20cc NH4 Cl and 20cc (NH4)2 C03 at a
temperature of 70°, and let stand several minutes. Filter
and wash with little cold water.

Notes — 1. At temperature much above 70° the carbonates
react with the ammonium chloride forming the soluble
chloride with evolution of carbon dioxide.

2. At temperature much lower calcium comes down
as a gelatinous mass and barium also has this tendency.
Warming on the water bath will cause them to crystallize.

3. Precipitation of strontium and calcium is com-
plete in 10 minutes and of barium very nearly so.

Procedure II. Precipitation of Barium.

Pour a 5cc portion of acetic acid through the filter a few
drops at a time, and pour through repeatedly until it
runs through clear. Then wash thoroughly with hot water.
Make up to 80cc and heat to boiling. Add 5cc of K2Cr04
solution a few drops at a time with constant stirring and
boil a few moments. Filter and wash with cold water.
(Yellow precipitate shows presence of barium)

Notes — 1. The 5cc of 50% acid should be diluted somewhat
and used hot.

2. 500 mg. of calcium and strontium fail to pre-
cipitate under these conditions while 4 mg. of barium give
a distinct test.

3. The filtrate should be yellow rather than red, but
should be tested with another drop of chromate.

Procedure III. Confirmatory test for Barium.

Pour a little hot HC1 through the filter repeatedly and
evaporate almost to dryness. Test in flame on platinum
wire. Green color confirms barium.

FOR SEPARATING THE ALKALINE EARTHS. VICKERY. 39

Procedure IV. Precipitation of Strontium

Evaporate to about 80cc and add 80cc of NH4 Cl for
every 200 mg. of barium present; in no case less than 80cc.
Add 10-15cc (NH4)2 S04 solution. Fine granular white pre-
cipitate indicates strontium. Heat to boiling and let digest
a few moments. Filter and wash with hot water.

Notes — 1. Calcium, if present to the extent of 100 mg.,
will precipitate at this point unless held in solution by a
large quantity of NH4C1. If a feathery precipitate in quite
large crystals appears on heating, it is probably calcium.

2. Ammonium chloride inhibits the precipitate of
strontium to only a very slight extent.

3. 15 mg. of strontium can be easily detected in
the presence of large amounts of barium.

3. The confirmatory test should always be tried.

Procedure V. Confirmatory test for Strontium.

Boil the precipitated sulphate with ammonium carbonate
and neutralize with acetic acid. Concentrate to 10-20cc and
filter if necessary. Add saturated solution of Ca S04 and
boil. Fine white precipitate confirms strontium.

Note — 1. The strontium sulphate is converted to carbonate
by the ammonium carbonate and brought into solution by
the acid. The calcium is likewise converted but calcium
acetate cannot give a precipitate with calcium sulphate, while
the less soluble strontium sulphate separates at once on
heating.

Procedure VI. Precipitation of Calcium.

To the hot filtrate add NH4OH to strongly alkaline
reaction and then lOcc more. Add 20cc hot (NH4)2 C204
solution and stir. White precipitate indicates barium.

Note — 1. 1 mg. of calcium can be easily detected in the

presence of^400 mg. of barium and strontium.

40 “CHROMATE method” FOR SEPARATING EARTHS. VICKERY.

Summary

1. Each precipitation occurring in the chromate process
for the separation of the alkaline earths has been quantitatively
investigated.

2. The chromate process has been found not to effect
an exact separation of the three metals.

3. An improvement has been suggested by which the
separation is practically complete, and a procedure for-
mulated.

4. The limit of detectability for each metal by this
procedure has been determined.

Notes on an Abnormal Wave Occurrence on the North-
ern Cape Breton Coast. — By D. S. McIntosh,
B. A., M. Sc., Professor of Geology, Dalhousie Uni-
versity, Halifax, N. S.

(Read 12 April 1915)

The occurrence which formed the basis of this paper,
while relatively of little importance, is thought by the writer
to be of sufficient interest to be recorded in the Transactions
of the Institute.

In a small indentation on the northern coast line of Cape
Breton Island between Cape St. Lawrence and Bay St.
Lawrence, is situated the little settlement of Meat Cove.
It has no harbor, and the boats of the fishermen, after
each trip, are hauled up on the beach beyond reach of the
waves..

From correspondence with Mr. Joseph O’Brien, of Ding-
wall, Aspy Bay, supplemented by personal observation,
Mr. A. H. McIntosh, of Pleasant Bay, furnished the writer
with the following description of the wave phenomenon:

The monthly bulletin issued by the Department of
Marine and Fisheries, Ottawa, gives the total catch of fish
for Canada, also the kinds of fish, quantities and values.
It also aims at giving such information as weather conditions
during the month, loss of life, boats and gear among the
fishermen.

In the copy for June 1914, we find this entry: “Nine
boats were lost at Meat Cove, Victoria County.” Had the
facts connected with this loss been given they would have
interested the readers of the publication. The following
statement is given as what occurred. “On the evening of
the night on which the boats were lost, the fishermen had

(41)

42

NOTES ON AN ABNORMAL WAVE OCCURRENCE

hauled them up on the beach to a place where they were
considered to be in safety. A light wind began to draw from
the land, and all the usual signs in which fishermen believe
promised a fine night. Judge of the surprise of those men
when on coming to the beach in the very early morning not
only were their boats gone, but they were not even in sight
on the sea. Eventually, one or two were found along the
shore, but others were found only after some days had elapsed,
picked up at great distances from the starting-place. The
marks on the beach showed plainly that the tide had come
up very much higher than usual, and while at this place, it
seemed to have been the highest, it was also noted as an
unusually high tide at Pleasant Bay on the west, and Bay
St. Lawrence and Aspy Bay to the eastward. One man
near Bay St. Lawrence, at about eleven o’clock, saw it
come in the form of two large seas succeeding each other,
and rushing on shore. A fishing schooner lying some two
miles off shore also reports several heavy seas striking the
vessel about the hour mentioned; otherwise the night was
calm. Some six years before, this same vicinity was visited
by something of the same nature, but as it came in the day, it
occasioned no loss.”

The above account shows plainly that the disturbance
was abnormal. That it falls outside the category of tide
phenomena is evident. It occurred on a calm night and
consisted of a succession of high waves which continued
for a brief period of time. Tidal waves of the nature of a
bore or as the result of conflicting currents are in the highest
degree improbable as an explanation. In searching about
for a probable cause, one recalls some well-known and strik-
ingly disastrous effects of great abnormal sea-waves.

In 1755, Lisbon was laid in ruins by an earthquake which
had its origin about 50 miles off the coast. About half an
hour after the shock, a succession of high waves, one of
which had a height of 60 feet, reached the city and added

ON THE NORTHERN CAPE BRETON COAST. MCINTOSH. 43

to the destruction wrought by the earthquake. The waves
were felt with diminishing effects at great distances, even
north as far as Norway, south beyond the Madeira Islands,
and west in the West Indies.

Japan was visited by a severe earthquake in 1854. Its
focus was also evidently off the coast, for about a half hour
after the shock, a series of waves thirty feet high struck the
shore and destroyed the town of Simoda. From this spot
the waves radiated with diminishing force, travelling the
whole breadth of the Pacific to California.

The Coast of Peru was devastated by a great earthquake
in 1868. The seat of disturbance was likewise off shore, for
in less than half an hour a succession of waves fifty or sixty
feet high rushed in and increased the work of destruction
of the earth-waves. These waves were felt thousands of
miles from the seat of origin, even as far as the coast of
Japan, 10,000 miles away.

Many other cases of such waves have been observed and
recorded by tidal gauges, such as that of 1877 at Iquique in
Northern Chile, and that of 1885 around Krakatoa. The
great disturbance of 1896 in the North Pacific will be recalled
by many, where 175 miles of the Japan Coast were laid
waste. A great amount of shipping was destroyed and
27,000 people lost their lives.

These waves are caused by a dislocation of the earth’s
crust beneath the sea. The break occurs most often where
the water deepens rapidly, as in the case of the western coast
of South America where a few miles off shore the water
suddenly plunges from the edge of the continental shelf to
the ocean abyss. Similarly, off the Japan Islands the descent
from the land platform to the Tuscorora Deep is very abrupt.
The evidence is abundant and strong that such a condition
of land and sea makes a line of weakness in the earth’s crust
and here may, and does, occur faulting or slipping. As

44

NOTES ON AN ABNORMAL WAVE OCCURRENCE

observed from the shore, the sea, during a disturbance of
this kind withdraws from the land, and then returns with
great speed and height causing great destruction.

In the opinion of the writer, the cause of the disturbance
in Northern Cape Breton was a slipping of the rock, either
solid or unconsolidated material, off the coast of Meat Cove.
The accompanying map shows the locality where the dis-
turbance was greatest, and the adjoining areas.

It is seen that a short distance east of St. Paul's Island the
water deepens very rapidly. Here is the western margin
of the submerged channel of the old St. Lawrence river.
The 100-fathom line approaches to within about a mile of
the island. Here, where there is a declivity of steep grade,
a slipping or break in the bottom might be looked for. No

ON THE NORTHERN CAPE BRETON COAST. MCINTOSH 45

record of the disturbance, however, is obtained from St.
Paul’s Island, and, moreover, the description of the phenom-
enon localizes it rather between the island and the adjoining
Cape Breton coast. The isobathic lines constructed from
the chart show the 50-fathom line about two miles off
Meat Cove, with the 80-fathom line about an equal distance
beyond that. Here, in all probability, was the seat of the
disturbance. A deepening of 80 fathoms in about 4 miles
gives a gradient of about 1 foot in 44 feet or a 2J^% grade.
The depths as given on the chart within the area bounded
by the 80-fathom line suggest an uneven bottom where may
be found steep slopes. Doubtless a large thickness of un-
consolidated material has accumulated on the sea bottom.

A sliding of this along the slope or a break in the solid rock
would give the necessary impetus to the water to produce 1
the waves.

When weather indications point to a calm night, boats
are hauled up by the fishermen just beyond the range of
high tides. The average difference between high and low
water at Meat Cove, we may take as about four feet. To
sweep the boats away would require an additional height
of water of, say, three or four feet. Waves, therefore, of
six or eight feet must have rolled in upon the shore to accom-
plish the work recorded. If the ordinary proportion between
height and length of wave were preserved, the length of
"these waves must have been sixty or eighty feet. A slip of
a belt of rock a hundred or so feet in width on the sea bottom
near the 80-fathom line, or within the area bounded by this
line would cause a gravitational movement to the water from
the landward direction, followed by a return of the water,
in the form of a succession of high waves. These waves
would diminish in force as they radiated from the place of
origin, as was observed to the eastward and westward of
Meat Cove. Did the dislocation produce a rise in the sea

46 NOTES ON ABNORMAL WAVE OCCURRENCE. MCINTOSH.

flow, the water would be lifted and the accompanying phenom-
ena would be of the same nature as those that would occur
in the case of the downward movement.

From the occurrence of a similar wave disturbance at
Bay St. Lawrence some years before, as reported, it would
be inferred that the surface of the sea bottom is unstable
off the coast of Northern Cape Breton, and that such dis-
turbances may recur until the area has arrived at a state
of stability.

Accidental Electrical Stimulation of the Human
Retina in Situ. — By D. Fraser Harris, M. D.,
D. Sc., F. R. S. E., Professor of Physiology in Dal-
housie University, Halifax.

(Read 10 May 1915)

In the summer of 1912 I had a lower left molar tooth filled
with a temporary stopping consisting of an amalgam of at
least three metals, silver, mercury, and tin. Within half
an hour of having this inserted I noticed that each time I
clenched the jaws at all forcibly, there appeared a bright
flash of light in the left eye; all through the rest of the day
flashes of light, getting fainter and fainter, kept recurring.
I noticed that the tooth in the upper jaw which touched the
amalgam in the lower was gold-capped. The light exper-
ienced was of a canary yellow and more like the sensation of
a vivid lightning flash (forked lightning) than of any mere
luminosity or diffusion of light. So vivid were these sub-
jective flashes that my first thought was that there had
been lightning, but on the day in question there was no
lightning, thunder or rain.

The first explanation that occurred to me was that this
was a case of “contact electricity” (Kelvin), that the dis-
similar metals — the gold of the upper tooth and the amalgam
of the lower — having been in contact in the liquid saliva, pro-
duced sufficient current to stimulate the retina heterologously.
But the following experiment seemed to be against this; I
held between the teeth a copper rod in contact with a silver
rod, but no flash of light was experienced when these metals
were pressed together.

The next explanation which occurred to me was that the
crystallization of the amalgam could give rise to currents
sufficiently intense to be the cause of physiological stimula-
tion. Dr. Frank Woodbury kindly told me that he had

147)

48 STIMULATION OF THE HUMAN RETINA IN SITU. HARRIS.

known of currents caused in this way being sufficiently intense
to give pain in the upper gold-covered tooth when that tooth
had an unduly sensitive nerve. I therefore suggest that
the electric current thus produced was conducted through
the bones and tissues of the head and, encountering the
retina en route, stimulated it to give rise to the subjective
sensations of light. The possibility of stimulating the
retina in situ by electric current was discovered by Ritter
in 1800; a constant current passed either transversely across
the head in the temporal regions or from the eyelid to the
neck will, both at make and break, stimulate the retina
causing flashes of light to be perceived. I renewed my
acquaintance with these effects by passing the constant
current from one dry cell through the eyes transversely across
the head; at the make and break the flashes due to this
current were slightly less vivid than the flashes due to the
tooth-current. On using two dry cells, I obtained flashes
closely resembling those from the tooth-current. I am
assured that the current from two dry cells would be painful
to the inflamed nerve of a tooth.

It is well known that pressure on the eye-ball produces the
sensation of light — the phosphene. I noticed that the
subjective flashes from two dry cells were not quite so vivid
as the phosphene from moderate (non-painful) pressure
on the eye-ball. The electrically produced flashes are more
diffuse than the phosphene which has a circular outline; the
sensations from dry cells or the tooth-current are more
truly flashes.

Based on these considerations, I make an attempt to
estimate the amount of the tooth-current, say, during the first
few seconds of its production. Assuming that the resistance
of the head is about 3000 ohms, and that each dry cell can
develop 1.5 volts; then, for two cells, we have

n 1.5X2 1

C = — = -n.-— of an ampere or one milliampere.

oUUU JLUUU

Additions to the Catalogue of Butterflies and Moths

COLLECTED IN THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF HALIFAX,

etc., Nova Scotia. — By Joseph Perrin, McNab’s

Island, Halifax.

(Read 12 April 1915)

In the Transactions of this Institute, volume xii, part 3
(for 1908-09), Halifax, 1912, pages 258-290, there was pub-
lished a Catalogue of Butterflies and Moths mostly collected
in the neighbourhood of Halifax and Digby, by the present
writer and Mr. John Russell, then of the latter place. Since
1909 the writer has continued collecting these insects, and
has also received specimens and records of captures from
Mr. George E. Sanders, field officer of the Department of
Agriculture, entomological laboratory, Bridgetown, Annapolis
County, N. S., and from Mr. E. Chesley Allen of Yarmouth,
N. S. To those two gentlemen I wish to express my thanks.

In the present supplementary paper there is presented
a list of two Butterflies and sixty Moths which were not
previously reported; with additional remarks on species
before listed, and on such as have been taken at Halifax for
the first time. These notes are arranged in two groups:
(a) species not hitherto reported from Nova Scotia, and (b)
additional notes on species previously reported.

Our previous catalogue contained 60 nominal species
and varieties of Butterflies, and 480 of Moths; total 540.
The present supplement brings the number up to 62 Butter-
flies and 540 Moths, total 602.

The nomenclature and arrangement is that of Dr. Harrison
G. Dyar’s List of North American Lepidoptera (Bulletin
U. S. National Museum, No. 52; Washington, 1902), and his
numbers are prefixed.

(49)

Proc. & Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci., Vol. XIV.

Trans. 4.

50 ADDITIONS TO CATALOGUE OF BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS

All the specimens from McNab’s Island (which is situated
in the mouth of Halifax Harbour) were taken by myself;
other localities have attached the names of those responsible
for the records for those places. As before, doubtful speci-
mens have been referred, as far as possible, to specialists for
their opinion.

Species not hitherto reported from Nova Scotia.

Order Lepidoptera.

Rhopalocera (Butterflies).

Superfamily Papilionoidea.

Family Pierid^b .

65. Eurymas eurytheme Bois. MacNab’s Is., Halifax;

Sept. 4, 1910, female; Sept. 12, 1913, male. (Perrin).

Family Lyc^enid.®.

432. Rusticus scudderi Edw. South East Passage, Halifax
County; July 3, 1911, one male; and August 9;
1914, one male and one female. (Perrin).

Heterocera (Moths).

Superfamily Sphingoidea.

Family Sphingida: .

706. Sphinx chersis Hiibner. Digby, N. S.; July 26, 1907.
(Russell).

721. Ceratomia amyntor Geyer. Bridgetown; June 16, 1913.
(Sanders).

.Superfamily Bombycoidea.

Family Lithosiid.®.

808. Hypoprepia fucosa Hiibner. Yarmouth; July 27, 1913.
(Allen).

Family ArctiidjE.

828. Eubaphe Iceta Guerin. Deerfield, Yarmouth Co.; July
28, 1913. (Allen).

853. Estigmene prima Slosson. South East Passage, Halifax
Co.; June 9, 1912. (Perrin).

COLLECTED IN NEIGHBOURHOOD OF HALIFAX, N. S. PERRIN. 51

Family N o CTUim® .

Subfamily Noctuinse.

960. Panthea acronyctoides Walker. MacNab’s Is.; June
15, 1912.

1158. Hadena modica Guenee. MacNab’s Is.; August 20,
1909, at light.

1418. Platagrotis pressa Grote. MacNab’s Is.; July 15,
1912, at light.

1455. Agrotis geniculata Grote & Robinson. Deerfield,
Yarmouth Co., August 16, 1911. (Allen).

1788.

2060.

Mamestra liquida Grote. MacNab’s Is.; July 14,
1911, at light.

Tricholita signata Walker. MacNab’s Is.; August 6,
1911.

2078. Xylina disposita Morrison. MacNab’s Is.; Sept. 26,

1913, at light.

2079. X. petulca Grote. MacNab’s Is.; Oct. 21, 1912.
2090. X. antennata Walker. Bridgetown; Sept. 17, 1913.

(Sanders).

2092. X. grotei Riley. (X. cinerosa Grote.) Bridgetown;
Oct. 11, 1913. (Sanders).

2095. X. innominata Smith. Bridgetown. (Sanders).
2102. X. georgii Grote. Bridgetown; Sept. 24, 1913.
(Sanders).

2106. X. unimoda Lintner. Bridgetown; Oct. 17, 1913.
(Sanders).

. Hydroecia micacea Esp. Bridgetown; Oct. 10, 1912.

(Sanders).

2244. Scopelosoma devia Grote. Yarmouth; May 17, 1913.
(Allen).

52 ADDITIONS TO CATALOGUE OF BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS

Subfamily Catocalinae.

2905. Catocala gracilis Edw. MacNab’s Is.; Aug. 21, 1914.

3006. Erebus odora Linn. Yarmouth; about June 20, 1906.
(Allen).

Subfamily Hypenin^e.

3039. Chytolita morbidatis Guenee. MacNab’s Is.; July 8,
1912, at light.

Family Nycteolid^e.

3083. Nycteola revayana Scopoli. MacNab’s Is.; Sept. 19,
1914.

Family Lasiocampid.®.

3221c. Malacosoma disstria erosa Stretch. MacNab’s Is.;

July 8, 1911, at light (Perrin); common at Bridge-
town (Sanders).

Family Geometrid^e.

Subfamily Hydriomeninae.

3352. Eustroma triangulata. Deerfield, Yarmouth Co.; July
28, 1913 (Allen)

Subfamily Sterrhinse.

3551. Eois anticaria Walker. MacNab’s Is.; July 7, 1910.

Subfamily Geometrinse.

3578. Synchlora cerata Fab. MacNab’s Is.; July 9, 1912, at
light.

Subfamily Ennominae.

3881. Phigalia titea Cramer. MacNab’s Is. ; April 27, 1914.

3898. Anagoga pulveraria Linn. MacNab’s Is.; July 14,
1907.

3931. Plagodis phlogosaria Guenee. MacNab’s Is.; July
14, 1914. There is some uncertainty as to the
determination of this specimen. It was at first
named Plagodis altruaria by Dr. Henry Skinner of
the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia,
after inspection of the specimen itself. This name
does not appear in Dyar’s List and possibly is a

COLLECTED IN NEIGHBOURHOOD OF HALIFAX, N. S. PERRIN. 53

new one. Subsequently it was determined as
Plagodis phlogosaria, Guenee, by Mr. Albert F.
Winn of Westmount, Montreal, from a drawing
of the specimen.

3947. Gonodontis obfirmaria Hubner. South East Passage,
Hx. Co.; June 8, 1912. (Perrin).

3956. Euchlcena obtusaria Hubner. Deerfield, Yar. Co.;
July 8, 1913. (Allen).

3960. E. johnsonaria Fitch. Deerfield, Yar. Co.; July 6,
1913. (Allen).

4028a. Abbotana clemataria transducens Walker. Dartmouth,
Hx. Co.; June, 1907. (Perrin).

Family Epiplbmid^b.

4043. Callizzia amorata Packard. Digby; July 16, 1908.
(John Bussell).

Superfamily Tineoidea.

Family Pyramid,®.

Subfamliy Pyraustinae.

4410. Phlyctcenia terrealis Treitschke. MacNab’s Is.; July
16, 1912.

4451. Pyrausta rubricalis Hubner. MaeNab’s Is.; June 10,

1910.

Subfamily Scopariinse.

4510. Scoparia centuriella Denis & Schiffermuller. Digby;

June 23, 1908 (Russell). MacNab’s Is.; July 8,
1911 (Perrin).

Subfamily Pyralinae.

4511. Aglossa cuprealis Hubner. MacNab’s Is.; June 20,

1911.

Subfamily Schcenobinse.

4547. Schoenobias forficellus Thunberg. MacNab’s Is.; July
14, 1911.

54 ADDITIONS TO CATALOGUE OF BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS

4560.

4566.

4574.

4579.

4580.

4583.

4585.

4587.

4874.

4981.

5031.

5142.

5143.
5237.

Subfamily Crambinse.

Crambus hamellus Thunberg. Yarmouth. (Allen).

C. unistriatellus Packard. Yarmouth, July 30, 1912.
(Allen).

C. alboclavellus Zeller. Yarmouth. (Allen).

C. hortuellus Hubner. Yarmouth. (Allen).

C . perlellus Scopoli. Yarmouth; August 14, 1911.

(Allen).

C. myellus Hubner. Yarmouth. (Allen).

C. vulgivagellus Clemens. MacNab’s Is. ; Aug. 10,
1909.

C . ruricolellus Zeller. Yarmouth. (Allen).

Subfamily Phycitinse.

Ephestia kuehniella Zeller. MacNab’s Is.; Jan. 8,
1915. This pest has only lately been imported
into the Island in one of the cereals for family
use (Perrin).

Family Pterophorid®.

Pterophorus monodactylus Linn. MacNab's Is. (Per-
rin). Yarmouth, Sept. 20, 1913 (Allen).

Family Tortricid®.

Subfamily Olethreutinae.

Olethr eutes nimbatana Clemens. Bridgetown; Aug.
9, 1912. (Sanders).

Eucosma otiosana Clemens. Bridgetown; Aug. 8,
1912. (Sanders).

E. similana Hubner. Bridgetown; Sept. 2, 1912.
(Sanders).

Tmetocera ocellana Schiffermiiller. Bridgetown; Aug.
13, 1913. (Sanders).

COLLECTED IN NEIGHBOURHOOD OF HALIFAX, N. S. PERRIN. 55

Subfamily Tortricinae.

5335. Cenopis reticulatana Glemens. Bridgetown; Aug. 16,
1912. (Sanders).

5382. Platynota flavedana Clemens. MacNab’s Is.; July 7,

1911.

5391. Pandemis limitata Robinson. Bridgetown; Aug. 15,

1912. (Sanders).

5406. Tortrix fumiferana Clemens. MacNab’s Is.; July 7,
1911; at light.

Family (Ecophohid^b.

5894. Simioscopsis allenella Walsingham. MacNab’s Is.;
July. 19, 1911.

Additional notes on species previously reported.

Family Noctuid^j.

975. Apatela dactylina Grote. MacNab’s Is.; June 26,
1908.

1053. Harrisimemna trisignata Walk. One specimen, Mac-
Nab’s Is.; July 9. 1912.

1067. Chytonix palliatricula Guenee. Reported by J. Rus-
sell as very common at Digby; but only one
specimen has been taken at MacNab’s Is., July
11, 1911, in sixteen years of collecting.

Family Geometrid,®.

3331. Venusia comptaria Walk. Only four specimens of this
pretty little moth were taken by J. Russell at
Digby, the last being captured on July 20, 1908.
Four years later one specimen was collected at
MacNab’s Is.; July 18, 1912.

3370. Percnoptilota fluviata Hubn. Several forms were taken
at light on MacNab’s Is., in July, 1912.

56 ADDITIONS TO CATALOGUE OF BUTTERFLIES, ETC.- — PERRIN.

3390. Hydriomena tceniata Stephens. The moth so named
by us has been redetermined Larentia [ Hydrio-
mena] basaliata Walk., by Mr. A. F. Winn of
Montreal from a specimen taken by me at Mac-
Nab’s Is., August 14, 1914. Mr. Winn says that
H. tceniata is European, and has not as yet been
taken on this side. Dyer considered H. basaliata
Walk., as a synonymn of H. tceniata Stephens. It
is merely a question as to the two forms being
distinct.

3909. Therina athasiaria Walk. MacNab’s Is.; May 26,
1910.

Family Sesiid^e.

4191. Bembecia marginata Harris. This species has also
been taken at Yarmouth by Mr. E. C. Allen,
August 29, 1912.

The Phenology of Noya Scotia, 1914 — By A. H.
MacKay, Ll.D.

(Read by title 12 May 1915)

These phenological observations were made in the schools
of the province of Nova Scotia as a part of the Nature Study
work prescribed. The pupils report or bring in the flowering
or other specimens to the teachers when they are first observed.
The teachers record the first observation and observer, and
vouch for the accurate naming of the species. The schedules
from 350 of the best schools form the material of the following
system of average dates (phenochrons) for the ten biological
regions of the Province, and the phenochrons of the Province
as a whole. The averaging of these schedules was done
by H. R. Shinner, B. A. The * marks dates not averaged.

The Province is divided into its main climate slopes or
regions not always coterminous with the boundaries of
counties. Slopes, especially those to the coast, are sub-
divided into belts, such as (a) the coast belt, (b) the low
inland belt, and (c) the high inland belt, as below: —

No. Regions or Slopes. Belts.

I. Yarmouth and Digby Counties, (a) Coast, (b) Low Inlands,

(c) High Inlands.

II. Shelburne, Queens & Lunenburg Co’s. ” ” ”

III. Annapolis and Kings Counties, (a) Coast, (b) North Mt., (c)

Annapolis Valley, (d)Corn-
wallis Valley, (e) South
Mt.

IV. Hants and Colchester Counties, (a) Coast, (b) Low Inlands,

(c) High Inlands.

V. Halifax and Guysboro Counties, ” ” ”

VI.A.Cobequid Slope (to the south), “ “ “

VI.B.Chignecto Slope (to the northwest), “ “ “

VII. Northumberland Sts Slope (to the n’h) “ “ “

VIII. Richmond & Cape Breton Co’s., “ “ “

IX. Bras d’Or Slope (to the southeast), “ “ “

X. Inverness Slope (to Gulf. N. W.), “ “ “

The ten regions are indicated on the outline map on the next page.

(57)

THE TEN PHENOLOGICAL REGIONS OF NOVA SCOTIA.

[Compiled from over 350 local observation schedules.]

NOVA SCOTIA, 1S14.— MACKAY. I 59

When Becoming Common.

Observation Regions.

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For leap year add one to each
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1 Alnus incana, Wild. .

’2 Populus tremuloides

3 Epigea repens, L

4 Equisetum arvense

5 Sanguinaria Canadensis

6 Viola blanda . .

7 Viola palmata, cuculata

8 Hepatiea triloba, etc.

9 Acer rubrum

10 Fragaria Virginiana

11 “ fruit ripe ....

12 Taraxacum officinale

13 Erythronium Americanum

14 Coptis trifolia

15 Claytonia Caroliniana .

16 Nepeta Glechoma. .

When First Seen.

Observation Regions.

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THE PHENOLOGY OF NOVA SCOTIA, 1914.— Continued.

I

60 PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS IN

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26 Rhododendron Rhodora

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32 Cypripedium acaule

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62

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS IN

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NOVA SCOTIA, 1914, — MACKAY,

63

Thunderstorms — Phenological Observations, Nova Scotia, 1914.

The indices indicate the number of stations from which the Thunderstorms
were reported on the day of the year specified.

Observation Regions.

1. Yarmouth and
Digby.

2. Shelburne, Queens and
Lunenburg.

3. Annapolis and
Kings.

4. Hants and South
Colchester.

5. Halifax and
Guysboro.

6. S. Cobequid Slope
(S. Cum. and Col.)

7. North Cum., Col.,
Pictou and Antig.

8. Richmond and
Cape Breton.

9. Bras d’Or Slope

(Inv. & Victoria).

10. Inverness Slope
to Gulf.

Total Year 1914.

10

j

10

56

56

59

59

62

62

63

63

652

652

6613

662

6615

68

68

702

702

714

714

74

74

75

75

76

76

773

77u

774

777

773

77

7729

789

782

7812

7823

83

83

95

95

97

97

102

102

1022

105

105

1052

1Q92

1Q94

109

1092

1099

110

110

113. .

113

118

118

119

119

128

128

129

1295

12913

1293

12922

130

130

1302

131

1313

131

1315

132

132

133

133

1332

134

134

1356

13510

135

13517

136

136

136

1362

1365

138

138

1382

141

1419

144

144

145

145

145

,

146

1462

147

147

147

1472

1473

147

147 9

64

PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS IN

Thunderstorms — Phenological Observations, Nova Scotia, 1914.

The indices indicate the number of stations from which the Thunderstorms
were reported on the day of the year specified.

Observation Regions.

11. Yarmouth and
Digby.

2. Shelburne, Queens and
Lunenburg.

3. Annapolis and
Kings.

4. Hants and South
Colchester.

5. Halifax and
Guysboro.

6. S. Cobequid Slope
(S. Cum. and Col.)

7. North Cum., Col.,
Pictou and Antig.

8. Richmond and
Cape Breton.

9. Bras d’Or Slope
(Inv. & Victoria).

10. Inverness slope
to Gulf.

Total Year 1913.

1483

14814

1483

14810

148s

1482

14816

14813

1483

14872

150

1502

150

150

1505

1513

1512

1512

1515

1514

151

15112

151

1513C

1523

1528

152

1524

1523

152

1524

1525

152

1523(>

153

153

153

153

153

153

153

1537

1542

1542

155

155

1552

156

156

157

157

1572

158

158

159

159

160

160

160

1603

161

1612

1612

1614

161

16110

1635

1634

1634

1632

163

163

1634

163

16322

164

164

164

1645

164s

165

165

166

166

1662

1672

167

167

167

167

1676

168

168

168

168

1684

171

!

171

1732

173

173

1734

1752

1753

1752

1757

1764

1769

1767

176s

1763

1765

176

17637

177

177

179

179

180

180

181

181

199

199

201

201

207

207

208

208

215

215

227

2272

2273

233

233

2332

35

235

240

240

2422

2422

244

244

245 |

254

NOVA SCOTIA, 1914. — MACKAY

65

Thunderstorms — Phenological Observations, Nova Scotia, 1914.

The indices indicate the number of stations from which the Thunderstorms
were reported on the day of the year specified.

Observation Regions.

1. Yarmouth and
Digby.

2. Shelburne, Queens and
Lunenburg.

3. Annapolis and
Kings.

4. Hants and South
Colchester.

5. Halifax and
Guysboro.

6. S. Cobequid Slope
(S. Cum. and Col.)

7. North Cum., Col.,
Pictou and Antig.

8. Richmond and
Cape Breton.

9. Bras d’Or Slope

(Inv. & Victoria). |

10. Inverness slope
to Gulf.

Total Year 1913,

246

246

246

2463

247

247

247

2472

247

247

2477

249

249

250

250

2502

250

2506

251

251

253

253

254

254

267

267

273

273

274

274

276

276

278

278

294

294

<N

C

ec

302

304

304

308

308

3082

309

309

315

315

3152

316

316

3162

3172

317

317

3174

318

318

319

319

345

345

346

34b

348

348

JLPPENDIX X

LIST OF MEMBERS, 1914-15

ORDINARY MEMBERS

Date of Admission

Barnes, Albert Johnstone, b. sc., service inspector, Maritime Telephone &

Telegraph Co., Halifax . . May 13, 1912

Bishop, Watson L., Dartmouth, N. S Jan. 6, 1890

Bowman, Maynard, b. a., Public Analyst, Halifax Mar. 13, 1884

Bronson, Prof. Howard Logan, ph. d., Dalhousie College, Halifax Mar. 9, 1911

Brown, Richard H., Halifax Feb. 2, 1903

*Campbell, Donald A., m. d., Halifax Jan 31, 1890

Campbell, George Murray, m. d., Halifax Nov. 10, 1884

Colpitt, Parker R., City Electrician, Halifax Feb. 2, 1903

Creighton, Prof. Henry Jeiemain Maude, m. a., m. sc., dr. sc., f. c. s., Swarth-

more College, Swarthmore, Penn., U. S. A Jan. 7, 1908

*Davis, Charles Henry, c. e., New York City, U. S. A Dec. 5, 1900

Doane, Francis William Whitney, City Engineer, Halifax Nov. 3, 1886

Donkin, Hiram, m. e., Deputy Com. of Mines, Halifax Nov. 30, 1892

Fergusson, Donald M., f. c. s., Chemist, Acadia Sugar Ref. Co.. Dartmouth. .Jan. 5, 1909

*Fraser, Sir C. Frederick, ll. d., Principal, School for the Blind, Halifax Mar. 31, 1890

Freeman, Phillip A., Hx., Elect. Tramway Co., Halifax Nov. 6, 1906

Graham, Prof. Stanley Newlands, b. sc. . N. S. Technical College, Halifax Nov. 28, 1913

Harlow, A. C., Montreal Jan. 7, 1908

Harris, Prof. David Fraser, m. d., d. sc., f. r. s. e., Dalhousie College, Halifax . . Feb. 29, 1912

Hatcher, Prof. Alfred G.. Royal Naval College of Canada, Halifax Dec. 9, 1914

Hattie, William Harrop, m. d., Dartmouth Nov. 12, 1892

Irving, G. W. T., Education Dept., Halifax Jan. 4, 1892

Johnstone, J. H. L., Demonstrator of Physics, Dalhousie University, Halifax. . . . Dec. 2, 1912

*Laing, Rev. Robert, Halifax Jan. 11, 1885

McCallum, A. L., b. 'sc., anatyst, Halifax Jan. 7, 1908

McCarthy, Prof. J. B., b. a., m. sc., King’s College, Windsor, N. S Dec. 4, 1901

McColl, Roderick, c. e., Halifax Jan. 4, 1892

Mclnnes, Hector, k. c., Halifax Nov. 27, 1889

Macintosh, Prof. Donald Sutherland, b. a., m. sc., Dalhousie College, Halifax. Mar. 9, 1911

*McKay, Alexander, m. a., Supervisor of Schools, Halifax Feb. 5, 1872

*MacKay, Alexander Howard, b. a., b. sc., ll. d., f. r. s. c., Superintendent of

Education, Halifax Oct. 11,1885

Mackay, Prof. Ebenezer, ph. d., Dalhousie College, Halifax Nov. 27, 1889

*MacKay, George M. Johnstone, Schenectady, N. Y., U. S. A Dec. 28, 1903

Mackenzie, Prof. Arthur Stanley, ph. d., f. r. s. c., Dalhousie College, Halifax . . Nov. 7, 1905

Moore, Prof. Clarence L., m. a., f. h. s. c., Dalhousie College, Halifax Jan. 7, 1908

Murphy, Martin, d. sc., i. s. o., Moncton, N. B Jan. 15, 1870

Murray, Prof. Daniel Alexander, ph. d., Montreal Dec. 18, 1903

Nickerson, Carleton Bell, m. a., Dalhousie College, Halifax Mar. 9, 1911

*Life Members.

Proc. & Trans. N. S. Inst. Sci., Vol. XIV.

App. I.

LIST OF MEMBERS

ii

Date of Admission

Piers, Harry, Curator Provincial Museum and Librarian Provincial Science

Library, Halifax \ \ . Nov. 2, 1888

*Poole, Henry Skeffington, a. m., assoc., r. s. m., f. g. s., f. r. s. c., can. soc.

c. e., hon. mem. inst. m. e., Guildford, Surrey, England Nov. 11 , 1872

Richardson, Prof. Lome N., Royal Naval College of Cnnada, Halifax Dec. 9, 1914

*Robb, D. W., Amherst, N. S Mar. 4, 1890

Sexton, Prof. Frederic H., s. b., Director of Technical Education, Halifax Dec. 18, 1903

*Smith, Prof. H. W., b. sc., Agricultural College, Truro, N. S.; Assoc. Memb.

Jan. 6,1890. Dec. 1900

*Stewart, John, m. b., c. m., Halifax Jan. 12, 1885

Winfield, James H., Manager Mar. Tel. & Tel. Co., Halifax Dec. 18, 1903

*Yorston, W. G., c. e., Assistant Road Commissioner, Halifax Nov. 12, 1892

ASSOCIATE MEMBERS

Allen, E. Chesley, Yarmouth, N. S Nov. 28, 1913

*Caie, Robert, Yarmouth, N. S Jan. 31, 189o

Connolly, Prof. C. J., ph. d., Univ. of St. Francis Xavier, Antigonish, N. S Nov. 5, 1911

Haley, Prof. Frank R., Acadia College, Wolfville, N. S Nov. 5, 1901

Harlow, L. C., b. sc., Prov. Agricultural College, Truro, N. S Mar. 23, 1905

Haycock, Prof. Ernest, Acadia College, Wolfville, N. S May. 17, 1899

James, C. C., ll. d., c. m. g., Toronto, Ontario Dec. 3,1896

Jennison, W. F., Truro, N. S . .May 5, 1903

*Johns, Thomas W., Yarmouth, N. S Nov. 27, 1889

*MacKay, Hector H-, m. d., New Glasgow, N. S Feb. 4, 1902

Payzant, E. N., m. d., Wolfville, N. S Apr. 8, 1902

Perry; Prof. Horace Greeley, m. a., Acadia University, Wolfville, N. S May 12, 1913

Pineo, Avard V., ll. b., Kentville, N. S Nov. 5, 1901

*Reid, A. P., m. d., l. r. c. s., Middleton, Annapolis, N. S Jan. 31, 1890

*Life Members.

LIST OF MEMBERS

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS

Date of

Ami, Henry M., d. sc., f. g. s., f. r. s. c., Geological Survey, Ottawa, Ontario .... Jan.

Bailey, Prof. L. W., ph. d., ll, d., f. r. s. c., Fredericton, N. B Jan.

Ball, Rev. E. H., Tangier, N. S Nov.

Barbour, Capt. J. H., r. a. m. c., f. l. s., care of Holt & Co., 3, Whitehall

Place, London, S. W., England Dec.

Bethune, Rev. Charles J. S., m. a., d. c. l., f. r. s. c., Ontario Agricultural

College, Guelph, Ontario Dec.

Cox, Prof. Philip, b. sc., ph. d., Fredericton, N. B Dec.

Dobie, W. Henry, m. d., Chester, England Dec.

Fairbault, E. Rodolphe, b. a., b. sc.. Geological Survey of Canada, Ottawa;

Assoc. Memb. March 6, 1888 Dec.

Ganong, Prof. W. F., b. a., ph. d., Smith College., Northampton, Mass., U. S. A. .Jan.
Hardy, Maj-General Campbell, R. A., Dover, England, (Sole surviving
Foundation Member; originally elected Dec. 26th, 1862, and admitted

Jan. 26, 1862) Oct.

Matthew, G. F., m. a., d. sc., ll. d., f. r. s. c., St. John, N. B Jan.

Mowbray, Louis L., Hamilton, Bermuda May

Peter, Rev. Brother Junian Dec.

Prest, Walter Henry, m. e., Bedford, N. S.; Assoc. Memb. Nov. 29, 1894 Nov.

Prichard, Arthur H. Cooper, Librarian Numismatic Museum, New York, U.S.A. Dec.
Prince, Prof. E. E., Commissioner and General Inspector of Fisheries, Ottawa . . . Jan.

Admission

2, 1892
6, 1890

29, 1871

28, 1911

29, 1868

3, 1902
3, 1897

3, 1902
6, 1890

30, 1903
6, 1890

3, 1907
12, 1898

2, 1900

4, 1901

5, 1897