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PROCERDINGS AND TRANSACTIONS

LDR
NEW YORK
BOTANICAL

. GARDEN

OF THE

ove vn Sorin Institute of Aatucal Science

OF

HALIFAX, NOVA SCOTIA.

Z.

I ac mere ae a AT

VoL. a a “1866-7.

CONTENTS

PROGERDINGS 4
DIGNAELONS oo oe mae oes 4
Tse OF: MeMBERS

AN BANSAGTIONS a

Av, W—On: the’ Mammalia of Nova Scotia. By oJ, Bernard Gilpin, M.D,
: porter tae Oy eh) death 22
TJ--On the Beaver in Nova Scotia. By Captain Hardy, R.A
Tii.—Remarks on the Minerals prepared | for the Paris Exhibition. Henry
How. D’ CO. %:.;. Professor of 0 thenasiry and Natural: History, t hiversity
of King’s Colleye, Windsor, N.S.
Iv =-On the ‘Tides of the Bay of Fundy. By Bus. ‘Hamilton, {
“V.—-On Trichina Spiralis. “By George Lawson, Pa. D,, L.L. D., Professor
of Chemistry and Mineralogy, Dalhousie Coileye. NEOs Mone is See
Vi.- —A, Formight in the Sackwoods of Shelburne and Weymonth. By
Di Matthew Jonesy oh Tas iets Ease tere A AP Ree es
vo Notes on ithe Weather at Halifax, iowa Scotia, during 1866). By.
‘ Sen oan CLC dh reste OY IMB) Beta a A te eee han Ly
-(Mliservations on the Fishing Grounds anil Fish of St. Margaret ‘sBay,
OM SA SPREM aoe Sayan Sa Rev, sholane Acie sO: IMEC eer ta US eas Ogi
K-On the: Geology of Gaye s River, Gold Wields: ae Rev. sa Horeynian, Die
Hay : 5B gon Se Pans GH As dae aC ee (
~& Phe Conl Vrade of the New. Cerin
ST CAE ats Cie IR aa ee
XL. aa lorations: in the P
; 2 SANG Pe LAA! Nesuee MR ar ER UB ADR TO eo HY
>. IL See ns Food Fishes of Nova Seoria. Part 5. By Die dian ‘
Sa ROC UW ean roe eae ;
CELL. On the Geological ig eatures of the Londonderry fron Mines. oe
D. Honeyman, 1). Se L., _ G. Rae Sr oe nana aoa

SIX: os : : aa
a | Mistract of Wessel cute eeKs Habeas, 1866. ae Canna ne

umrestions en, the importance of continuous’ Meteoro Optical Ones
vations. i SHEA Chev lier, ead Dat

sed de we Gt Gia a) soph sails

fea

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

Nova-Seotian Hnstitute of Batural Science.

VOLUME II, PART 1.

ANNIVERSARY MEETING, OcTOBER, 3, 1866.

In accordance with the Bye-Laws of the Institute, the Anniversary Meeting was
held on Wednesday, October 3, 1866, at 8 p.m., when the following gentlemen were
elected office bearers for the ensuing year :—,

President.—J. M. Jonus, F. L. S.

Vice-Presidents.—Lieut.-Col. C. Harpy, R. A., J. BeRNARD Giupin, M. D.

Treasurer.—Capt. LY TTLETON.

Secretary.—Wiiiiam Gossip.

Council— Colonel W. J. Myers, F. M.S., J. R. DeWo tr, M. D., Edin., Jos.
Beri, J. H. Duvar, W. C. Sirver, P. 8. Hamiiton, Capt. Kine, Royal Artillery,
Professor Lawson, L. L. D.

Orpinary Mprtine, Nov. 5, 1866.
J. M. Jones, President, in the Chair.

Dr. J. B. Ginpin, ( Vice-President), exhibited a very carefully prepared drawing of a
large sized specimen of the Brook Trout (Salmo fontinalis) in nuptial tint of bright
vermillion beneath, and sides spotted of the same colour. The specimen from which
the sketch was taken, had been procured at River Bank, Preston, by W. C. SILVER,
Esq.

Dr. G1LPIN next read a paper “ On Nova Scotian Mammals—Part 8,” which treated
of the JMustelide known to the Province. Several lifelike drawings illustrating the
figure and habits of the different species, accompanied the paper. (See Transactions. )

The PresipenT read a paper by EpG¢cumB Curvauiinr, Esq., of H. M. Naval
Yard, Pembroke, entitled, ‘‘ Suggestions on the importance of continuous Meteorological
Observations.” (See Appendix.)

Mr. J. D. Nasu, exhibited a specimen of Sulphur Ore from Cape Breton, the purity
of which was tested and proved by experiments. ;

Mr. J. R. Witiis exhibited two phials containing samples of chalky mud brought
up by the lead from a depth of two miles, during the sounding process for the laying of
the Atlantic Cable. The substance partook somewhat of the character of the Bermuda
chalk mud, though of darker colour, and appeared to be perfectly free from siliceous
matter.

oe ve

bo

PROCEEDINGS.

Orpinary Meerine, Dec. 3, 1866.
J. M. Jonns, President, in the Chair.

Lieut.-Col. Harpy, R. A., read a paper “On the Beaver in Nova Scotia.” (See
Transactions.) A model of a beaver bouse and drawings of: beaver dams, tended to
illustrate this very interesting paper. The model and drawings, at the request of the
Nova Scotian Commissioners, were allowed by Colonel Hardy to form part of the
collection forwarded by the Colony to the Paris Exhibition, where they attracted
considerable attention.

A piece of wood of large diameter, cut through by Beavers, which had been procured
in Shelburne Co., by R. G. Hatrpurton, Esq., F. S. A., was exhibited.

The Rev'd. D. HonryMan, F. G. S., read a paper “ On the Geology of Gay’s River
Gold Fields.” (See Transactions. )

The PresiDEnT exhibited several species of Nova Scotian and Bermudian sponges,
and explained the mode of growth of this interesting class, particularly those of the
Bermudian waters.

te

grins

ORDINARY MEETING, JAN. 7, 1867.
J. M. Jones, President, in the Chair.

The Rev’d. D. Honeyman, F. G.S., read a paper “ On the Geologicil Features of
the Londonderry Iron Mines.” (See Transactions. )

The conversation which followed the reading of this paper, had reference to the
various kinds of iron ores found in Nova Scotia, and several localities were mentioned
where they existed in large quantities.

Dr. How, Professor of Chemistry, King’s College, Windsor, read a paper onsitedl |
“A Descriptive Catalogue of the Mineralogical Collection forwarded to the Paris Exnibition.”’ |
(See Transactions. )

Orpinary MErETING, Fes. 4, 1867.

Mr. P. S. Haminron, Chief Commissioner of Mines, read a paper “ On the Tides
of the Bay of Fundy.” (See Transactions.)

In the discussion which followed several members alluded to the gradual filling up of
harbours and inlets by sand or alluvial mud, in different parts of the Province.

Professor Lawson, of Dalhousie College, read a paper ‘‘ On the Trichina,” and
exhibited specimens of internal parasites. (See Transactions. )

A member instanced the case of the Porcupine of Nova Scotia, (Hystrix dorsata,
Lin.) which he had opened and found to have its stomach filled with a large sized species
of Tenia. ;

The Presipunr read a paper entitled “A Fortnight in the Backwoods of Shelburne
and Weymouth.” (See Transactions.)

OrpinaRry Mretinc, Marca 4, 1867.
J. M. Jones, President, in the Chair.

Colonel W. J. Myers, I’. M.S., read a paper entitled ‘ Notes on the Weather at
Halifar, Nova Scotia, during 1866.” (See Transactions. )

In the discussion which ensued, the PresipenT remarked the scarcity of some
kinds of insects, particularly grasshoppers, during the past summer, and attributed the
circumstance to the severity of the preceding winter. The various species of butter-
flies and moths which in ordinary seasons were generally abundant, had been extremely

PROCEEDINGS. 3

rare. The different warblers and other insectivorous migratory birds had also been
scarce.

Professor Lawson had also noticed the absence of grasshoppers last summer, about
his residence at Sackville, and stated that during the previous summer, (1865, ) they
were so numerous in one of his wheat fields that he had to put in a flock of turkeys to
destroy the pests, which they did effectually.

Mr. W. C. Strver considered that some other cause than that of severe cold, must
have affected the insects, for in New Brunswick and Canada, where the cold was much
greater than ours every year, the insects named were always abundant.

The Secrerary, believed that severe cold might affect some insects more than
others, and although many insects of various kinds had been killed during the last
winter, some had evidently escaped, for his crop of beans, as well as those of others
in the city, had been entirely destroyed by a species of small caterpillar.

The PRESIDENT in answer to Mr. Sitver’s query stated tkat he observed it was
only in severe winters when little snow fell, that the great mortality amongst insects
occurred. It was not so much the severe frost, as the absence of snow to cover the
earth to a depth suffcient to protect from its influence the larve of certain species, that
caused their destruction. In Canada and New Brunswick much more snow fell, and
remained a longer time than in Nova Scotia, and therefore the insects, although the
cold was much greater in the former Provinces, would have greater protection.

The Rey’d. Jonn Ampross, Rector of St. Margaret’s Bay, read a paper entitled,
“Some Observations on the Mishing Grounds and Fish of St. Margaret's Bay. (See
Transactions. )

Several Members took part in the discussion which ensued, especial refercnce being
made to the change of colour in fish, which colours were stated generally to harmonize
with those of surrounding objects. hey were considered by some to emanate from the
nervous system. Allusion was also made to a kind of natural photography which
took place at times when fish rested perfectly still, and the rays of the sun reflected
some contiguous object upon their sides.

Capt. L’Esrrance, R. A., had observed that large animals, even such as the
Cariboo (TYarandus hastalis, Lin.) partook at times of the colour of the rocks and
ground they frequent; while at the Mauritius he had frequently noticed that the
tropical fishes partook of the gaudy colours of the animal and vegetable habitants of
the coral reefs.

Mr. W. C. Sitver had noticed that Brook Trout, when dying, would take the colour
of the object on which they rested.

Mr. P. S. Hamrziron, (Chief Commissioner of Mines.) read a paper ‘“‘ On supposed
submerged Forests in Cumberland Basin.”

Mr. CaMPBELL mentioned some interesting facts in connection with the locality
reviewed by Mr. Hamilton, more especially referable to the glacial period.

VICE-PRESIDENT GILPIN stated that an extensive land slip took p!ace several years
ago, near Annapolis, which presented a similar appearance to those mentioned by Mr.
Hamilton.

The Srcrerary considered that changes were evidently taking place on our
Atlantic coast, for the Eastern Passage had of late years rapidly filled up with sand.
So had Cole Harbour, but whether the land was being submerged, or the sea forcing
fresh matter to the land, it was hard to say. Oysters, judging from the quantity
of shells found in the Ajoekkenmoedding on the shore, had been abundant in Cole
Harbour in remote times, but for the last eighty years or more, not one had been known

ta

4 PROCEEDINGS.

about the place, which proved that some change must have taken place, rendering the
shores unsuitable to the propagation of those mollusks.

Mr. W. D. O’Brien, who was introduced by Professor Lawson, described his
impression of animal life at high altitudes on European mountains, from which it
appeare] that an almost total absence of all kinds of animals, birds and insects,
occurred above a certain height.

OrpinaRy Meetine, APRIL 1, 1867.
J. M. Jonrs, President, in the Chair.
Mr. J. Ourram read a paper “‘ On Sugar, its chemical composition, combinations, and

products.”
After the rea“ing of the paper, Dr. Jennines made some remarks upon the disease ——
ealled Diabetes, in connection with the production of sugar in the human system.
Vice-PRESIDENT GILPIN read a paper “ On the Food Wishes of Nova Scotia.—No.
TV.” (See Transactions. )

Orpinary Murtine, May 6, 1867.
J. B. Gitpin, Vice-President, in the Chair.
R. G. Haripurton, F. S. A., read a paper entitled “ Notes on the Pictou Coal Fields,’
which was accompanied by a chart of the district. (See Transactions.)

?

DONATIONS TO THE INSTITUTE.

Sept. 1, 1866, ro Aue. 31, 1867.

remeron Crate Wepis] Atunes. striate ete sfetleleiolars eel steel polelekevallodoverate ole) cl slayisteys $200 00
Reva examp. DD resident of Acadia Collexe serra steric |a)-)-icleleretele\ojal= 2 00

LIBRARY.

IN EXCHANGE.
Boston.—Boston Society of Natural History Memoirs—Vol. I. Parts 1 and 2.
s a oh “Proceedings. Vol. X., pp. 353-418. Vol.
XT., pp. 1-208.
London.—Victoria Institute, Journal of Transactions; Vol. I, No. 1, Vol. I, No. 2,
Vol. I, No. 3.
Montreal.—Canadian Naturalist, Feb. 1866—Dec. 1866.
New York.—Lyceum of Natural History—July, Aug., Sept., Oct., Nov., Dec., 1866.
American Journal of Mining—March 16, 30; April 13, 20,27; May 4,
11, 25; June 1; Ang. 17, 24, 31; Sept. 7, 14.
Philadeiphia.—Franklin Institute—Journal Sept., Oct., Nov-, Dec., 1866. Jan., Feb.,
March, April, May, June, July, Aug., 1867.
Salem.—Essex Institute—Proceedings, April, May, June, July, Aug., Sept., 1867.
Toronto.—Canadian Journal, July, 1866.

PRESENTED.

Geological Survey of Canada—Atlas of Maps and Sections. Roy. 8vo., cloth, 1865.
The Canadian Government.

On the Condition of the Deposition of Coal, &c., by Professor Dawson, F. A. S. The
Author.

Abhandlungen herausgageben vom naturwissenschaftlichen vereine zu Bremen, 1866.
The Smithsonian Institute.

Victoria Institute—Foundation list of Members. 4 copies

Geological Survey of Canada—Report of Progress, 1863-66.

a lee

Date of Admission.
1863.

1865.
1864.
1863.
1864.
1865.
1865.
1863.
1866.

1863.
1863.

1863.
1864.
1865.
1866.
1863.
1863.

1863.
1863.
1863.
1863.
1863.
1863.
1863.

1867.
1863.
1866.

1864.
1867.

1864.

1867.
1865.
1863.
1866.

1865.

June 24.
Dec! 7.
April 3.
Jan. 8&8.
Mar. 1.
Oct. 6:
Aug. 25.
May 13.
May 4.
Oct. 26.
Dec. 7
Feb. 2
Oct. 26

Och:
Feb. 1
Jan. 24
Janes
June 15
Feb. 2
Jan. 26
Oct. 26
Jan. 26
June 27
Mar. 11

April 1
Jan. 5
Feb. 1

Oct. 12
anew 7

Mar. 7
Feb. 4.
Nov. 9.
day, Se
Feb. 3.
Nov. 17.

(8)

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Almon, Hon. M. B., Hollis Strect, Halifax.

Anderson, Lieut. Arch., Royal Artillery, Artillery Park.

Bell, Joseph, Granville Street, Halifax.

Belt, Thomas, F. G. S., Newcastle-on-Tyne, England.

Campbell, W., Hollis Street, Halifax.

Chambers, A. P., Argyle Street, Halifax.

Clifford, Lieut. Col., Royal Artillery, Artillery Park.

Cramp, Rev'd. J. M., D.D., President of Acadia College, Wolfville.

DeMill, James, M. A., Professor of Modern Languages, Dalhousie
College, Halifax.

DeWolf, James R., M.D., Edin., L. R. C. S. E., Dartmouth.

Downs, Andrew, Cor. Mem. Zool. Soc., London. Walton Cottage,
W. Halifax.

Duvar, J. Hunter, Bedford Row, Halifax.

Finnie, 4. S., Bank of B. N. A., Hollis Street, Halifax.

Fleming, Sandford, C. E., Chief Engineer of Railways, Halifax.

Forman, James, Thornfield, Halifax.

Fraser, R. G., Spring Garden Road, Halifax.

Gilpin, J. Bernard, M. D., M. R. C. S., Barrington Street, Halifax,
VICE-PRESIDENT.

Gilpin, Rev. Canon, D. D., Spring Garden Road, Halifax.

Gossip, William, Granville Street, Halifax, SecreTary.

Haliburton, R. G., F. S.A., Halifax.

Hamilton, P. S., Granville Street, Halifax.

Hardy, Lieut. Col., Royal Artillery, Artillery Park, Vicr-PRESIDENT.

Hill, P. Carteret, D. C. L., Morris Street, Halifax.

How, Henry, D. C. L., Professor of Chemistry and Natural History,
King’s College, Windsor.

Jennings, Edward, M. D., Halifax.

Jones, J. Matthew, F. L. S., Ashbourne, near Halifax, PRESIDENT.

Kelly, John, Deputy Commissioner of Mines, Province Building,
Halifax.

King, Capt. J. R., Royal Artillery, Artillery Park.

Knight, Thos. F., Receiver General’s Office, Province Building,
Halifax.

Lawson, George, Ph. D., L.L.D., Professor of Chemistry and Miner-
alogy, Dalhousie College, Halifax.

L’Estrange, Capt. C., Royal Artillery, Artillery Park.

Lordly, E. J., George Street, Halifax.

Lyttleton, Capt. W., Hollis Street, Halifax, TREASURER.

Morrow, James B., Brunswick Street, Halifax.

Nash, J. D., Dresden Row, Halifax.

1865.
1867.
1867.
1863.
1866.
1866.

1864.
1865.
1865.
1867.
1867.
1866.
1864.
1864.
1863.
1866.

1863.
1866.
1864.
1865.

1866.
1866.

Aug. 29.
April 1.
Mar. 1.
dente ae
July 28.
Jan. 8.
Mar. 7
Jan. 9
April 20
April I
Aug. 16
Hebel
Wecks5
June 1
April 15
Mar. 18

Oct. 26.

Dee.

3.
July 1.
8

(7)

Nova Scotia, The Right Rey. Hibbert Binney, D.D., Lord Bishop of

O’Brien, W. D., Manager of Street Railways, Halifax.

Outram, Joseph, junr., Bedford Row, Halifax.

Poole, Henry, Glace Bay Mines, Cape Breton.

Reeks, Henry, Manor Hall, Thruxton, Hampshire, England.

Rutherford, John, Chief Inspector of Mines, Province Building,
Halifax.

Silver, W. C., Hollis Street, Halifax.

Sinclair, Lieut. Col. R. B., A.G.M., Dartmouth.

Smithers, George, Granville Street, Halifax.

Telfer, Lieut., 4th Regt., Wellington Barracks, Halifax.

Tobin, Stephen, South Street, Halifax.

Townsend, W. T., Argyle Street, Halifax.

Webber, Lieut. H. H., Royal Artillery, Artillery Park.

Whytal, John, North West Arm, near Halifax.

Willis, J. R., Cor. Mem. Bost. Nat Hist. Soc., et Liverp. Micros. Soc.

Young, Hon. William, Chief Justice of Nova Scotia, South Street,
Halifax.

ASSOCIATE MEMBERS.

Ambrose, Rev. John, M.A., the Rectory, St. Margaret’s Bay.
Honeyman, Rey. D., F.G.S., Antigonishe.

Marett, Elias, St. John’s, Newfoundland.

Morton, Rey. John, Bridgewater.

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.

Chevallier, Edgeumb, BH. M. Naval Yard, Pembroke, England.
Hurdis, J. L., Lower Chamberlayne Place, Southampton, England.

Br

TRANS ACE ONS

. OF THE

ova-Seotian Fnstitute of Matural Science.

Art. I. On THe Mammatia or Nova Scorrm. By J.
BrernargD Gitein, A.B., M.D., M.R.C.S.

No. IIL.
(Read, November 1866.)

Tn the two former papers I had the honour to read on the
mammalia of this Province, I enumerated and described the
several families of bats and shrews,—the two very marked
representatives of the cat family—our lynxes; and the wolf and
fox, with their varieties, representing the dog family. With the
exception of the southern family of bats, feebly represented, we
found our shrews, our lynxes, and our foxes, numerous and
vigorous, beautiful in colour and strong to resist our Arctic
winters.

The paper this evening will be upon the representatives of
the weasel family in our Province, a true boreal fauna, and
numerous, beautiful and vigorous. We find them contained in
two genera and seven species. Formerly the genus Mustela
contained the whole. But whilst all have common habits, long
vermicular bodies, and lustrous fur, two species have thirty-eight
teeth, four more than the rest, have bushy tails, and longer fur,
attain to a larger size, and are arboreal in habits. Whilst the
others have thirty-four teeth, slender tails, shorter fur, and
attain a less size.

MustrLa,—or Tree-Martins.

MustrLta Pennanti,—fisher.
Musteva AmEricana,—Wartin.

GILPIN—-ON NOVA SCOTIAN MAMMALS. 9

Putorius,— Weasels.

Putorius VIsoNn, Mink.

Purorius NIGRESCENS, : Little Mink.
Putrorius CIcoGNANw,

Purorius RIcHARDSONI, Hrimine Weasels.
Puroritus NOVEBORACENSIS,

MUSTELA.

Musrera Pennanti.—(Hraleben) Fisher.

Of two skins examined by me at Halifax, 1863, the following is the
description :—They were both in the finest condition of winter pelage. End
of nose black, face brown, but grizzled with short white hair, ears with short
rim of cream coloured hair. General colour of back, shoulders, flanks, light
brown, with an indistinct brindling of black about the neck, which runs into a
dorsal line and ends at tip of tail. These black shining dorsal hairs are
longer than the brown ones, and terminate in a beautiful pencil of hair at the
point of the tail. Colour beneath very much lighter than above, —a broad
medial line, and all the legs black, toes well covered, nails conspicuous and
white, a large white spot in one, a few white hairs in the other on the iower
belly and vent.

These skins presented the unusual appearance of an animal very much
darker below than above, and were terminated by a bushy, well pointed and
handsome tail. Length of the larger skin 48 inches, length of tail 17 inches.
A mounted specimen belonging to the late Joseph Robinson, Hsq,, Halifax,
measured from tip of nose to tip of tail 423 inches, and tail 19 inches; the
head and forehead rounded, nose sharp, ear round and close, with a light
border, legs robust and well furred, claws white, the thighs muscular, and
with the tail covered by:much longer hairs than the upper portions of the
body. 1 have examinéd many hundred skins but never have seen the
animal alive.

This, the largest weasel in the world, requires a thick cover
for its protection. It lives continually in trees, where it pursues
its prey, sometimes squirrels; at other times it is seen hunting
the martin. It feeds upon small birds and their eggs.
Descending to the ground it hunts mice and weasels, surprises
the ruffed grouse or alpine hare, and will not disdain frogs or
dead fish cast upon the lake shores. It is accused of stealing
the hunter’s bait; and it is the only animal that attacks with
impunity and devours the porcupine. Writers say it throws it
over and bites it upon the belly. Mr. Andrew Downs informs
me, that in skinning them, he often finds porcupine quills in
their stomachs. Though timid and always evading pursuit, when
brought to bay it fights desperately, and is a match for several
dogs. That very accurate observer, Hearne, says they are

10 GILPIN—ON NOVA SCOTIAN MAMMALS.

easily tamed, and show marks of great affection; whilst
Audubon says of those kept by him, they were surly and
morose, feeding greedily and skulking away in their cages.
It brings forth three or four young at a birth, for which it con-
structs a nest in the hollow of a tree. Never very plenty, they
are rapidly becoming extinct in our Province; from a hundred
and fifty to two hundred are the very utmost now taken yearly ;
these chiefly come from the high wild region of the Cobequid
hills in Cumberland. Dr. Richardson gives to this weasel the
specific name of ‘* Canadensis,” quoting Schreber, whilst Dr.
Baird (Smithsonian listitute) gives “* Pennant?,” from Erxleben,
Schreber, dating 1778, Erxleben, 1777, and the doubt is further
increased by Schrebers’s great work having been many years in
publishing—the title page being published previously to much
of the text. One is pleased that the doubt is thrown in favour
of the great Welch naturalist, whose name is thus justly retained
for this large and magnificent arboreal weasel.

MosreLva Ampricana.—(Turton,) American Martin.

Of seven hunters’ skins obtamed from Mr. Thomas, fur merchant,
Halifax, the following is a description: —No. 1 and 2 are dark mahogany
brown, almost black, from the nose to the tail, the brown showing a little more
on the sides, the tails are black at the root, a brown ring about the middle,
then black at the tip. The faces of both are black, the ears dusky inside
and out, but with a conspicuous white rim of very fine hair ; beneath, the
chins of each are blackish brown, a broad orange spot mixed in with black
hairs, upon the throat, runs down between the fore legs ; all the legs brownish
black, and the belly and flanks, similar to, but rather brighter than back. The
hair is coarse and shining, and very long at tip of tail.

No. 8 may be classed with No 1 and 2, but with less black on the back,
but face pale greyish, orange spot on throat, much less vivid.

No. 4, 5, 6,7. The same as regards size of ears, tail and legs, but the
black on the back has faded into a dusky streak, the faces light ash with a
brown wash, and a rich orange wash pervading the whole skin. The orange
spot beneath the throat, very bright, almost fulvous, and running into the
belly and lower side of the tail.

In another, the tail was bright brownish yellow, with black tip.

Thus we find two dark brown with dark faces, and five with more or less
erey faces. The tail, legs, and rim of ears, coinciding in all. The orange
throat accompanying the pale faces. J have never seen the animal in life, but
from a mounted specimen belonging to Mr. C, Kaizer, Halifax, we have a
high rounded back, triangular head, and very robust and well-covered limbs
and tail. Entire length to tip of tail 243 ins. length of tail 8 inches.

re,

GILPIN—ON NOVA SCOTIAN MAMMALS. fet:

When we begin to study this species, we soon find a very
great variety in colour, not only between summer and winter
specimens, but between winter skins themselves, that are all in
the highest condition. Whilst they all coincide in what may be
called typical marks, such as co!our of legs, tail, and especially
ears, all of which have a very pale but conspicuous rim or
border, they vary much in colour of face, some having black,
others faces so pale as to be nearly white, and the pale faces
have a lighter brown colour, and the orange throat much more
vivid. These marks are important, as they point to avery
intimate connection, if not identity, with the true Russian sable,
which has a pale face. Till within a few years, it has been
confounded with the pine martin of Europe, (/. Maries.)
DeKay, Audubon, and even Sir John Richardson, describe it as
such. Turton is the first, in his edition of Linneus, to show
its specific differences, and to give it the specific Americanus.
Subsequently Dr. Brant, a Russian naturalist, in a monograph
of the genus Mustela, calls it Americanus, shews its specific
differences, but considers it identical in its white faced variety,
with M. Zabellina, the Russian sable. In figure this animal
resembles its congener, the fisher, though smaller—it has the
same round ear, with a light border, round head, nose not so
pointed, an arched back, and comparatively long and very muscu-
lar thighs and legs. The figure is set off by a handsome bushy
tail, and glittering eyes. In its habits it is a true tree weasel,
keeping in the densest pine forests, its food is small birds and
their eggs, the smaller mammals, shrews, and wood-mice,
squirrels and hares. It also preys upon frogs, lizards, and
beetles, takes bait from the hunter’s trap, and according to some
writers, feeds also upon berries. It shows great cunning and
boldness in defending itself, or attacking its prey, and has been
seen winding a hare with tail erect, and nose to ground, like a
small hound. It never approaches the open, but keeps to the
thick pine cover, where it makes its nest within a hollow tree,
beneath a rock, or even in an underground cave. It has six or
eight ata litter. About one thousand skins from Nova Scotia are
annually exported. Those from Newfoundland and Labrador

2 GILPIN—ON NOVA SCOTIAN MAMMALS.

are much finer, darker in colour, and more lustrous in pelage than
ourown. ‘They have pale faces.

We come now to the Putorit or true weasels. These, as
before stated, have thirty-four teeth, have longer bodies, shorter
legs and fur, thinner tails, and never take to trees. They are
represented with us by two species of mink, and three species of
ermine weasels.

PUTORIUS.
Purorius Vison,—(Lichardson,) Mink.
Purorius Nigrescens,—(Audubon,) Little Black Mink.

Following Audubon and Baird, I have made two species of
mink, founded rather in a very marked difference in size, than
in any thing else, as they both coincide in general and typical
marks and habits. I have never had a specimen in the flesh to
examine, but the following description of skins taken from the
Halifax market, will show their relative size :—

The largest mink skins measure from the tip of the fore-finger (the arm
being extended) to the ear of a man ; the smaller to the bend of the arm.
The hunters readily allow two kinds.

The largest measured was total length to tip of tail 322 inches, tail 93
inches ; the smallest measured 23 inches total, tail 63 inches. These skins
may be somewhat stretched, the tails contracted. The colour varies from
nearly fawn to brown, brownish black, black, and finally, when in the highest
condition of winter pelage, to an indescribable shining bluish black, with a
glorious lustre. The lower parts are lighter than the back. The tip of chin
is often white, the throat and between the fore- Jeos always white, with
frequently a white line down the belly. I have seen two or three specimens
with white tips to the tail, the smaller species is usually the darker. The feet
are half webbed, very large, and have the soles naked. The head is round
and truncated, the eyes very near the nose, ear round and short, back high,
and hairy tail. The bair much finer and shorter than the martins.

These two species are common in the Province, and by no
means decrease in numbers. Unlike the martins, their habits
are familiar, and they approach out-houses and farm-yards,
where they make great havoc among the poultry. They are
good swimmers, and have been seen diving after trout. Their food
is birds and their eggs, mice or shrews; but he is preeminently
the fisherman of his family, and frequents the rocky brooks and
the sea side. Along the borders of the forest lake, his tracks,
and the pile of clam shells attest his industry. Many an unlucky

i rtenet a

GILPIN—ON NOVA SCOTIAN MAMMALS. 13

frog is picked off in his hurried journeys from lake to lake, by
this bright eyed fisherman.

This fur once valueless has steadily increased in price, till last
winter not seldom five dollars was paid for a single skin. Our
Indians trap but very little now. The idle boys about the
villages take many. The farmer indignant at his slaughtered
fowl yard, adds a few more skins. In every land and every
village, there is a social gypsey who loves sport and hates work ;
who fishes, and fowls, and traps, eats his own trout, or poached
salmon or moose meat, taken out of season, and exchanges his
little pile of fur for tea and tobacco at the country store. Many
come from this source. Thus a gathering pile collects and
dangles at the country store. The owner packs and sends them
to the Halifax market, where of late years it has become the -
habit for the fur dealers to tender in writing for them. About
six thousand are annually exported from Nova Scotia proper.

Purorius Cicocnanu, (Bonaparte,) Small Brown Weasel.
Under this head I put the common weasel or ermine weasel of
the Province. From my notes its size and colour will be studied.

Wm. Dargie, at Annapolis Royal, gave me 10th Nov. 1860, a weasel,
total length to end of tail, 11 5-10 inch, length of tail 49-10 inch. It was
in summer pelage, with short fur —in colour it was brown, with upper lip,
cheeks, inside of legs, side of belly two-thirds to back, front of hind legs and
belly beneath white, genitals white, the poenis with a bone, a deep sulphur,
stain along the belly.

25 Nov., 1860, Mr. Melville, Hammond’s Plains, near Halifax, gave me
one, total length to end of tail 11 1-10 inch, length of tail 8 6-10 inch, this
was in full winter pelage—fur thick, ears nearly hidden, feet well furred
and colour white, with black tip to the tail, a pale sulphur tinge on flanks and
belly. Thus I had two specimens within 10 days, one winter, one summer
pelage.

28 Jan., 1861, Set. Kavanagh, Desertion Post, St. Margaret's Bay,
gave me the smallest specimen I have seen—total length to end of tail,
10 1-2 inches, length of tail 3 1-10 inch. It was in winter pelage

21 Feb., 1861, he sent me the largest specimen I have seen, from the
same out post—total length to tip of tail 14 4-10 inches, total length of tail
4 8-10 inches. It was in full winter pelage—fur very thick, and limbs very
robust. Both white with a yellow tinge on flanks, tip of tail black.

Thus it appears that the ordinary weasel of the Province
may be referred to P. Cicognanti, (Bonaparte,) P. Fusca,
(Audubon, DeKay.) That he attains a larger size here than the
southern species, but preserves the relative proportion of tail

14 GILPIN—ON NOVA SCOTIAN MAMMALS.

always. The largest tail obtained, 4 8-10 inch, being less than
P. Richardsonii, and the shortest obtained, 3 1-10 too long for
P. Pusillus. This species so abounds, that perhaps in 1000
skins, 20 or 30 might be referred to Richardsonii, and [ have
only obtained one skin that I could refer to ‘* Woveboracensis,”
whilst I have never obtained, though so common in New
England, a single specimen of Pusz/llus, or common weasel.
The almost insular position of the Province may account for
this very limited range of species. My remarks refer to this
species alone, as the others are so very rare that I have only got
their skins. He is very numerous, though unseen, and is i
some degree a nocturnal hunter—he clears the trap not only of
bait, but also of the hare or grouse that lies entrapped. The
forest or the sterile hills are his usual home, yet he often comes
into the open, and frequents stone walls or the cellars of out-
houses. Sitting motionless for a while in the forest, the hunter
not unfrequently perceives the rustle of a leaf, and then a pair
of glittering eyes peering out from it, and presently the daring
little robber advancing and boldly tugging at his boot. At
certain seasons, numbers congregate by the side of brooks, and
will boldly attack intruders upon them. ‘This happened to a
gentleman at Aylesford, Nova Scotia, where he came upon a
party ata brook side, which there crossed the post road. Their
attitude was so hostile, that he was feign to retreat. It is
recorded that a man was only rescued from death in Scotland,
from an attack of this kind. It is all but impossible for a single
man to long resist simultaneous attacks in front and back,
leg, and arm, and throat, from a number of these bold sharp-
teethed and nimble little creatures. It is interesting to record
that the American species retain the habit of their European
congeners. Mr. Melville, of Hammond’s Plains, informed me that
a weasel became gradually familiarized about his house, at first
about the farm-yard, then picking up bits of meat thrown to it,
and at last it made its nest beneath the porch, lining it with the
fur of wood mice. It retained these quarters for two or three
years, bringing up several litters, which it allowed him to
observe, and finally was drowned in a harness cask. His

_

———

GILPIN—-ON NOVA SCOTIA MAMMALS. 15

children lamented this wild pet, whose annual changes from
white to brown and from brown to white they had so often seen.
Of this change, which, according to Audubon, takes place
suddenly (in large patches during one night,) and is completed in

twenty days, I have had no opportunities of observing; I have

had svhite specimens as early as middle of November, and perfect
brown ones as early as April. Perhaps both these dates are early
for the great body of them to change. Personally I have
noticed in this little animal a bold and courageous figure,
glittering eyes set low ina very triangular head, and glancing
every where, a bounding gait when pursued, but when hunting
quick mincing steps, and head carried high on an arched neck,
turning from side to side incessantly. An arched back, and tail
well-up, complete the figure of as high spirited, bold little fellow
as haunts the forest.

Purorius Ricuarpsoni (Sonaparie).

In examining many hunters’ skins I found several in winter and summer
pelage whose tails were about five inches in length ; the summer specimens
all retained the white upper lip, which by some naturalists has been made a
typical mark. Dr. Baird referred these skins to this species. They are very
rare in the Province.

Putorius NoveBoracensis (Defay.)

Mr. James Thomas, Halifax, gave me a skin obtained at Antigonish, Nova
Scotia, which I refer to this species. It was in winter pelage—white, but
with a brown patch on the forehead, and a light brown indistinct dorsal line,
the belly and tail had a bright sulphur mark through the white, the latter
tipped with black. Total length to tip of tail 21 inches, length of tail
7 2-10 inches, length of black tip 1 6-8 inch.

Our Province thus is represented almost solely by P.
Cicognanti, which appears to have spread itself thoroughly in
its limits.

The entire absence of Pustilus so common in New England,
and the very great scarcity of Aichardsonit and Noveboracensis
may appear singular to those unacquainted with the very limited
range many species have, and the small fauna, islands, and
extremities of continents have, compared with central countries.
The raccoon has but lately appeared amongst us, and in the
Annapolis Valley has yet only penetrated the north mountain—
being unknown on the south side of the valley. Our list of

16 GILPIN—ON NOVA SCOTIAN MAMMALS.

reptilia is scarcely half that of New England, and batrachians
are unknown at Newfoundland. It remains to make a few
remarks on the adaptation of this beautiful boreal family
to the country in which it lives—cn the harmony of its strong
life, fed on flesh, and wrapt in fur, with the stern winter in
which it rejoices. Our hills glaciated to their summits by ancient
ice, and our valleys cut out by the same invisible forces, have
long since risen from their submergence, and been clothed by
dense evergreen forests, our dark pines and firs. <A winter,
the counterpart of Norway, covers the whole in its mantle of
snow. The bear and the marmot, each in his fat sleep, have
left the scene ; the mice have disappeared to their winter hoards ;
the ground squirrel is asleep, and the red squirrel is lying by in his
nest for days. Beaver and muskrat are fast in their rushy
mounds. Yet now this boreal group come forth, the colder the
clime the more lustrous their fur, the more vigorous their
movements. The great tree martins, with soft mufiled silent
tread, and furred foot, are hunting the feather-legged grouse,
in common with the snow owl, the winter falcon, and the lynx,
all feathered or furred to their toes. The mink is pursuing his
prey along the half frozen water-courses; whilst on the snow
clad hills, with breast as snowy, the fur-footed ermine is
steadily winding the varying hare, whose foot is equally furred,
coat as white and thick, but whose feeble heart will soon
surrender to his cruel pursuer. Everywhere, the slant wintry
sun throws his scant rays athwart dark pine and glistening snow.
Everywhere, through the short silent wintry day, the furred and
noiseless pursuer tracks the furred and noiseless pursued.

ee, eee

HARDY—ON THE BEAVER IN NOVA SCOTIA. 17

Arr. I]. On THE Beaver in Nova Soorra. By Caprain
Harpy.
(Read December 3, 1866.)

THE Beavers, both of Europe and America, have been so often
and so accurately described scientifically by modern naturalists,
that a recapitulation of their characteristics would be a useless
insertion in the proceedings of this Society. With regard to
the Castor Canadensis, the only and widely distributed species
of the American continent, the remarks of Professor Baird of
the Smithsonian Institute, in his report of the mammals of the
Pacific railroad routes, summing up the evidence of naturalists
on the comparative anatomy of the Castors of the old and new
worlds, appear worthy of note as establishing a satisfactory
distinction. ‘The question has been elaborately discussed, and
the results of many comparisons shew considerable difference
of arrangement of bones of the skull, a slight difference as
regards size and colour, and an important one as regards both
the form of the castoreum glands, and the composition of the
castoreum itself; Professor Owen, Bach, and others, agreeing
on a separation of species. Hence, instead of being termed
Castor Fiber ( Var. Americanus,) the American Beaver now,
(and but recently,) is designated as Castor Canadensis, so
termed rather than C’. Americanus, from the prior nomenclature

of Kuhl.

From its former wide distribution in America, co-extensive
with the whole northern continent, it may be readily inferred
that a country like Nova Scotia, abounding in all the conditions
necessary to its existence—rivers, brooks, and swampy lakes—
should have been thickly populated by this interesting animal
—a fact borne out by the prevalence of such names as Beaver-
bank, Beaver-harbour, and the numerous Beaver-lakes and
Beaver-rivers scattered round the Province; but so persecuted
was it a short time since, for its fur for the hat-making trade—
the market so near, and its haunts so accessible and so easy of
observation, that it is strange to find the beaver still living in
Nova Scotia, and, since the change of fashion from the use of its

fur, to that of silk in hat-making, rapidly multiplying.
3

18 HARDY—ON THE BEAVER IN NOVA SCOTIA.

Its eastern limitation in this Province, is the Port Medway
river, on which, and its tributary brooks, it is found sparsely.
On the Liverpool river, six miles further to the westward, and
throughout its parent lakes and waters, from Milton to within
a few miles south of Annapolis, it occurs more abundantly, and
is very numerous on the upper waters of the Sable river, the
Jordan, the Roseway, and the Clyde, in Shelburne county. It
is no doubt owing to the breadth of the Province here, at its
western extremity, and the great extent of wild country left
uninterrupted, with innumerable chains of lakes and brooks,
that the beaver has been preserved, for it may be safely asserted
that to the eastward of Port Medway, not one exists to the
furthest cape of Cape Breton.”

The following observations on the Beaver are from notes
taken during a recent canoe excursion on Lake Rossignol and
its tributary waters, which discharge into the Liverpool river in
Queen’s county.

Our canoes were placed on a chain of small lakes and con-
necting runs, called the Sixteen Mile Brook, which, easily
reached by a short portage from the post road between
Annapolis and Liverpool, communicates with the great lakes ;
and here I first saw the works of beaver. Passing through a
picturesque brook between two of the lakes, completely shaded
over by maples. and its banks covered with rank masses of
king-fern, and the twining tendrils of the Indian potatoe,
(Apios tuberosa,) now in flower, we came on a large dome of
sticks rising from the water’s edge, the Indians at the same time
exclaiming ‘‘ there beaver house.” It was apparently (for we
could not stop to examine it from the swiftness of the current)
about four feet high, and about nine or ten in diameter at the
base, evidently partly built in the water and partly on shore.
So rough looking and loosely constructed did it appear, that I
could not repress a feeling of disappointment from all that I
had heard of the marvellous construction of a beaver house.

*They were formerly numerous throughout the Province. Sir C. Lyle mentions
Beaver cuttings dug up in a peat bog, near the Shubenacadie, which the workmen had
supposed to have owed their origin to Indian tools. A few years since the remains of
a beaver dam were discovered in the brook running into the North West Arm, by the
road to the Dutch village

HARDY—ON THE BEAVER IN NOVA SCOTIA. 19

Shortly afterwards we passed a slight obstruction in the stream,
formed of a quantity of poles and brush-wood, which proved to
be an old beaver-dam, partially carried away. Two days after-
wards, on the Tobiaduc river, which we ascended after crossing
lake Rossignol, we had a better opportunity of examining a
dam, as we camped in its neighbourhood for two nights. We
had arrived nearly at the head waters of the stream, and were
paddling up the narrow channel, enjoying the exquisite scenery
presented as we turned the frequent bends, when our progress
was suddenly opposed by what appeared an artificially constructed
waterfall, about three feet in height. It was a perfect beaver-
dam, over which the water poured in an even sheet. The
clumps of king-fern on either side were much beaten down by
the paths of the animals, whose recent works were fully attested
by some fresh bushes with the leaves quite bright, which had
been thrown on the top of the dam. The water above, as far
as we could see, was still, with a strip of wild meadow grass on
either side. Their houses, as the Indians said, were at some
distance above. ‘The difficulty experienced in removing a por-
tion of the dam, to allow of the canoes being dragged over, gave
evidence to the solidity of its construction, which appeared to
be as follows :—poles of poplar, willow, and alder, 8 to 15 feet
in length, laid and woven together across the stream, formed
the frame, which was stuffed and plastered, especially on the
side supporting the water, with mud, grass tufts, stones and
leaves. ‘Phe breadth at the top was three feet, and appeared to
increase considerably towards the bottom. ‘The front of the
dam was supported by stakes and bushes leaning against it, their
ends planted in the bottom of the stream. The whole structure
was a model of solidity and strength, capable of supporting as
many men as could stand together on the top, and adapted to
resist the heaviest freshet. It was apparently kept in constant
repair; piles of old decayed poles lay on the bank, which had
evidently been removed and replaced ; the fresh bushes laid on
the top had been cut but a few days. This dam, and one or two
others which I had an opportunity of observing, was built
straight across the stream; but it is a well-authenticated fact

20 HARDY——-ON THE BEAVER IN NOVA SCOTIA.

that in larger works, where the channel is broader, and liable to
heavy water, the dam is made convex to the current.

As the beaver residing on the lakes does not build a dam in
the vicinity of his dwelling, the reason of the strong instinct
implanted in this animal to produce these marvellous construe-
tions under other circumstances becomes apparent. Whenever
from the situation or nature of the water, there is a probability
of the supply becoming shortened by drought, and to ensure
sufficient water to enter his dwelling from beneath the ice in
winter, the beaver constructs a dam below to maintain the
supply of water necessary to meet either of these contingencies.
In former years, when beaver abounded in all parts of the
Provinee, it is evident from the numerous beaver meadows now
left dry, that they took advantage not only of valleys traversed
by small brooks, but even of swampy lands occasionally
inundated by heavy rains.*

Thus doubtless were formed those numerous savannahs,
termed wild meadow lands by the settlers, which abound in the
interior. A young pair of beavers, driven from some colony to
seek a fresh home through scarcity of food, chose some virgin
brook, and built their dam. Large spaces in the woods thus
became inundated, and heavy rains and freshets continually
brought accessions of fine soil from the surrounding hills. At
length the beaver was exterminated, and though all traces of his
home and defences disappeared, an enduring monument of his
industry still survives him, and is eagerly sought by his thankless
destroyers, for the rich waving field of willl grass which grows
on the site of his former aquatic territory.

With respect to the houses—we had opportunities during the
excursion alluded to, to examine several, and in every variety
of situation—by the lake shore, on the edge of swampy
meadows fringing sluggish waters, far back up some small forest
brook, or when built on the brink of a rapid river. They all
presented a similar appearance, all equally rough on the exterior

*Crossing a small grassy meadow in a yalley in the woods near Liverpool River
during the past fall (1866), we found the water standing nearly as high as the knee, and
as the depth was not to be accounted for by the recent rains, we passed round to the
foot, where a newly constructed beaver dam stl! unfinished explained the occurrence.

HARDY—ON THE BEAVER IN NOVA SCOTIA. 21

as the first one alluded to, as seen on the sixteen mile brook,
and all similarly constructed in the interior; wherefore the
following description of one which we unroofed, will suffice to
show the general construction of the edifice of the beaver in
Nova Scotia.

It is a large and rather rudely constructed pile of sticks,
mud, stones, and grass tufts, containing a chamber, and sloping
passage or passages leading into the latter from below the sur-
face of the water. The house has a very large diameter at the
base in comparison with its height, and instead of the regular
conical dome, smoothly plastered over with mud, which we see
so frequently drawn in works of natural history as representing
beaver houses, it presents the appearance of a great pile of
barked sticks, the shape of the mass far nearer resembling an
inverted saucer than acup. The sticks, some of which are of
great length, are, on the top and exterior, thrown on rather
loosely. As you unpile them, however, and examine further
into the building, the work will be found better, and the sticks
laid horizontally, firmly bound in with mud-plaster, stones and
grass being interwoven throughout. The bed on which they
lie is at the back of the chamber, raised above the level of the
hall, as it may be termed. The sticks projecting towards
the interior are smoothly gnawed off, particularly round the
bed, the bottom of which is covered with dry grass, or, where
this cannot be procured, with fibres of wood split with their
teeth into fine shreds. The chamber, and passage leading into
it, have a gentle slope upwards; the bed is never under water
though the hall may be flooded. The dimensions of the houses
we observed were varied. A diameter of seventeen feet at the
base would entail a height of the dome above the water line of
four feet six inches, an interior diameter of about nine feet for
the chamber, the height of which was about three feet. In all
the houses there was but one chamber, though this was con-
nected with the water in some instances by several tunnels and
at different levels, evidently intended to suit the level of the
water at different seasons, the lowest probably to be used when
the thickness of ice should debar entrance to the others. At

22 HARDY—ON THE BEAVER IN NOVA SCOTIA.

the time of year when we inspected these works, the beaver
were beginning to repair damages both to houses and dams.
The house is approached from the water by long trenches,
hollowed out to a considerable depth in the bottom of the lake
or brook. In these are piled their winter stock of food, short
lengths of willow and poplar, which if left sticking in the mud
at the ordinary level of the bottom below the surface, would
become impacted in the ice. The beaver travels a long distance
from his house in search of materials, both for building and
food. I saw the stumps of small trees, which had been felled
at least three-quarters of a mile from the house. Their towing
power in the waters, and that of dragging on dry land is aston-
ishing. The following is rather a good story of their coolness
and enterprise told me by a friend, who was a witness to the fact.
It occurred at a little lake near the head waters of Roseway
river. Having constructed a raft for the purpose of poling
round the edge of the lake, to get at the houses of the beaver,
which were built in a swampy savannah otherwise inaccessible,
it had been left in the evening moored at the edge of the lake
nearest the camps, and about a quarter of a mile from the
nearest beaver house, the poles lying on it. Next morning, on
going down to the raft the poles were missing, so, cutting fresh
ones, he started with the Indians towards the houses. There
to his astonishment was one of the poles, coolly deposited on
the top of a house.*

The work of building or repairing houses and dams is
invariably carried on during the night. The following is the
modus operandi :—Repairing to the thickets and groves skirting
the lake, the beaver, squatting on his hams, rapidly gnaws
through the stems of trees of six or even twelve inches
diameter, with its powerful incisors. These are again divided,
and dragged away to the house or dam. The beaver now

*The food of the beaver consists of the bark of several varieties of willow, of poplar,
and birch; they also feed constantly during summer on the roots and tendrils of the
yellow pond lily, nuphar luteum. They feed in the evening and throughout the night.
For winter supplies the saplings of the above mentioned trees are cut into lengths two
and three feet, and planted in the mud outside the house. Lengths are brought in and
the bark devoured in the hall, never on the couch, and when peeled, the sticks are
towed outside and used in the spring to repair the house.

HARDY—ON THE BEAVER IN NOVA SCOTIA. 23

plunges into the water, and brings up the mud and small stones
from the bottom to the work in progress, carrying them closely
under the chin in its fore-paws. The vulgar opinion that the
broad tail was used to plaster down the mud in its work, has
long since been pronounced as erroneous. Its real use is
evidently to counterpoise, by an action against the water in an
upward direction, the tendency to sink head foremost (which
the animal would otherwise have) when propelling itself by its
powerful webbed hind feet, at the same time supporting the
load of mud or stones in its fore-paws under the chin.

We had but two opportunities of seeing these animals at
Lake Rossignol; once, when passing a steep bank covered with
rank ferns and foliage, a rush through the bushes and a splash
proclaimed that we had suddenly disturbed beaver—a rare
thing during the day-time. The Indians traced his wake to
another position on the opposite bank, where we perceived an
old house, whence we again heard him plunge into the water
as we approached in the canoes.

Another and more interesting sight was afforded us one calm
summer evening, on silently paddling up a picturesque cove
filled with lilies, at the head of which was a beaver house built
at the foot of a large maple. Ensconcing the canoes in the tall
ferns which overhung the water, we remained motionless for
some time, during which the twilight so deepened that I began
to despair of seeing the animals. Presently, however, the
Indian’s paddle was quietly pointed out on the lake, and follow-
ing the direction we saw a beaver’s head circling round amongst
the lilies, and then the back rolling round like that of the por-
poise, as he noiselessly dived to the bottom to feed on the lily
roots. Then we started with strong though quiet sweeps
towards the spot, and again resting motionless saw the animal
re-appear and dive without having discovered us. Two or three
times was this repeated, until within range, and I fired. * Too
low,” said the Indian, quickly, to our disappointment, and as it
proved. The daylight was too far gone.

One of the principal causes which have nearly led to the
extermination of the Beaver,* was the demand for the castoreum,

*The primary cause was doubtiess the demand for the fur for hat-making by the
Parisians.

24 HARDY—ON THE BEAVER IN NOVA SCOTIA.

and the discovery that it could be used as an unfailing bait for
the animal itself. This substance is contained in two small
sacs near the root of the tail, in which it is deposited, of an
orange colour. Now seldom used in pharmacology for its
medicinal properties, (stimulant and anti-spasmodic,) being
superseded by more modern discoveries, it is still used in
trapping the animal, as the most certain bait in existence. It is
said to be likewise efficacious in trapping the wild cat, which is
excessively fond of the odour. Mr. Thompson, a Canadian
writer, thus speaks of it: ‘‘A few years ago the Indians of
Canada and New Brunswick, on seeing the steel trap so
successful in catching foxes and other animals, thought of
applying it to the beaver, instead of the awkward wooden traps
they made, which often failed; at first they were set in the
landing paths of the beaver, with about four inches cf water
over them, and apiece of green aspen for a bait, that would allure
the beaver to the trap. Various things and mixtures of
ingredients were tried without success; but chance made some
try if the male could not be caught by adding the castoreum,
beat up with the green buds of the aspen. A piece of willow
about eight inches in length, beat and bruised fine, was dipped
in this mixture; it was placed at the water edge about a foot
from the steel trap, so that the beaver should pass direct over
it and be caught; this trap proved successful, but, to the
surprise of the Indians, the females were caught as well as the
males. The secret of this bait was soon spread—every Indian
procured from the trader four to six steel traps; all labour was
now at an end—the hunter moved about with pleasure, with his
traps and infallible bait of castoreum. Of the infatuation of
this animal for castoreum, I saw severa! instances. A trap was
negligently fastened by its small chain to the stake, to prevent
the beaver taking away the trap when caught; it slipped, and
the beaver swam away with the trap, and it was looked upon as
lost. Two nights after he was taken in a trap, with the other
trap fast on his thigh. Another time a beaver passing over a
trap to get the castoreum, had his hind leg broken; with his
teeth he cut the broken leg off and went away. We concluded
that he would not come again, but two nights afterwards he was

HOW—ON MINERALS FOR THE PARIS EXHIBITION. 25

found fast in a trap, in every case tempted by the castoreum.
The stick was always licked or sucked clean, and it seemed to
act as a soporific, as they always remained more than a day
without coming out of their houses.”

_ Such being the ease with which this much persecuted animal
was formerly taken, with a prodigious demand for its skin, it
would seem a special interposition in its behalf, when a change
of fashion in Paris suddenly substituted silk for beaver hats—
‘¢ thereby,” as a writer has said, ‘‘ possibly altering the physical
conditions of a continent.” Though from its extreme shyness
it retires fast from the neighbourhood of civilization, yet, per-
secution having in a great measure ceased, it will still exist in
those remoter forest districts, which, from their nature, will
probably never be cleared by the settler’s axe. May they long
remain in undisturbed possession of these their last strongholds,
and reward the search of the friendly naturalist by the sight of
those wonderful architectural labours and displays of foresight,
for which the beaver is so justly celebrated.

ArT. II]. Remarks ON THE MINERALS PREPARED FOR THE
Paris Exuipition. By Pror. How, D. C. L., University
of King’s College, Windsor.

(Read Jan. 7, 1867.)

In making a few remarks on the minerals to be sent to the
Paris Exhibition, | may say in the first place, that comparing
the present collection with the specimens sent to the last two
exhibitions, there is in some directions a decided improvement.
This is particularly seen in those minerals which are commercially
most important, viz., in gold, coal, and iron; but it is true also
as regards some other minerals which may hereafter be found to
admit of application; and there are interesting novelties, also,
in those minerals which are solely of scientific interest.

The collections made on the present occasion will no doubt
interest in a high degree men of science—men whose business
is mining or metallurgy—really educated men, and the intelli-
gent of those classes which have not had time or opportunity

to make their acquaintance with these objects extensive.
4

26 HOW—ON MINERALS FOR THE PARIS EXHIBITION.

The plan on which the mineral collections now to be sent,
are arranged, is this :—

lst. There are shewn by different exhibitors, specimens of

large size, illustrating the nature of economic minerals,
such as coals, iron ore, manganese ore, paint and cement
stones, building stones, and marbles.

2nd. There is exhibited by the Provincial Government, a

collection of gold specimens.

3rd. There is a collection selected from the minerals of the

late Dr. Webster, and arranged by myself.

4th. There is a collection arranged by myself, intended to

shew generally the nature of the minerals found in Nova
Scotia, and, therefore, to contain as far as practicable, an
illustration of every class of minerals, and of their most
striking varieties met with in the Province. This
collection is to return to find a place in the Provincial
Museum, for which a room of 70 ft. by 30, is set apart
in the Provincial Building now in course of erection.

As it has been found necessary to send away some of the
larger specimens of minerals, what is shewn at the local
exhibition forms but a part of the whole collection. The
specimens which have been forwarded under the head of class
40, ** Mining and Metallurgy,” are these :—

COALS.

1. A column of coal from Little Glace Bay, C. b., in the name
of Edwd. P. Archbold, Esq. Dimensions when cut,
9 ft. 6 ins., by 2 ft. 10 ins.

2. A column of coal from Caledonia Mine, Little Glace Bay, in
name of Henry Poole, Esq. Dimensions, 8 ft. thickness.

3. A column of coal from Gowrie Mines, C. B., in the name of
Hon. T. D. Archibald. Dimensions, 5 ft. in thickness.

4. A column of coal from Cow Bay Mine, C. B., in the name
of Robt. Belloni, Esq. Dimensions, probably 9 ft. in
thickness.

5. A column of coal from Sydney Mines, Cape Breton, in the
name of G. M. A., (R. H. Brown, Agent.) Dimensions,
probably 5 ft. thickness.

HOW—ON MINERALS FOR THE PARIS EXHIBITION. DE.

6. A column of coal from Albion Mines, Pictou Co., in the
name of G. M. A., (— Hudson, Agent.) Dimensions,
37ft. 10 inches in height.

7. Oil coal (and oil) from Albion Coal-Fields, in the name of
J. W. Jackson, Esq.

It is needless to say that a display of such massive samples
of coal, which are accompanied in some cases by plans of work-
ings and statements as to quality, must produce a very striking
effect.

IRON ORES, OR PRODUCTS.

Ores, pig iron, bars, and cutlery, by the Acadia Charcoal
Iron Co., Londonderry.

Brown hematite iron ore, from Brookfield, by W. Barnes,
isq.

Brown hematite and specular iron ore, by J. B. Oxley, Esq.

I am not acquainted with the last named iron ores, but the
others are very similar in appearance and no doubt in quality.
They are very pure and rich ores. The quality of the iron and
steel afforded has been proved with the Acadia ores, and is
well known to be of.a very high order. The Brookfield ore I
have analysed for the proprietors, and it gave—

Water, 11.36
Silica and gangue, ao
Phosphoric acid, trace
Magnesia, trace

Peroxide of iron and a very little alumina, 87.10

100.00
results which show it to be a very pure and rich ore.

MANGANESE ORES.

Pyrolusite, from Teny Cape, by J. D. Nash & Co.

Pyrolusite, from East Mt. Onslow, by Robert Murray, Esq.
The Teny Cape manganese ores are now well known as

among the richest and purest yet found in the world. The

average per centage of manganese, in the best samples, will

probably be at least 90 per cent. The Onslow ore looks very

good, and will no doubt give a high per centage of manganese.

28 HOW—ON MINERALS FOR THE PARIS EXHIBITION.

Like the Teny Cape ore, it is in clean samples, very free of
iron.
PAINT STONE.

Umber forming rock, from East Mt. Onslow, by Robert
Murray, Esq.

Paint and cement stone, from Chester Basin, by W. Suther-
land, Esq.

These paint stones are very interesting rocks. The Chester
stone I have found to consist of lime-stone, impregnated with
carbonates of iron and manganese, which, by exposure to
weather, becomes changed to hydrated oxides, and afford
umbers of characteristic colours, which form admirable paints.
The Onslow umber has no doubt a similar origin to that from
Chester Basin. The Chester stone has been found to yield
excellent cement. Specimens of this are to be seen at the local
exhibition.

Large samples of red, white and variegated Plaster, from
Antigonish Harbour.

Tn addition to these there has been sent
A collection of rocks, minerals, ores and fossils, with maps

and sections illustrating the Geology of Nova Scotia,
by Dr. Honeyman.

In this collection the minerals will be shown in their relation
to the rocks in which they are found, so that their mode of
occurrence will be illustrated, and a most interesting study will
be afforded to geologists and mineralogists. In speaking now of
the minerals which remain and will be on view here, I will pre-
serve the order in which they will be seen by visitors. In the
first place will be observed the ‘collection of gold nuggets,
and auriferous quartz from the various gold fields of Nova
Scotia, prepared by P. S. Hamilton, Esq., Chief Commissioner
of Mines. It is accompanied by a gilt pyramid, representing
the bulk of the gold extracted in N.S. from Jan’y. Ist, 1862,
to Sept. 30th, 1866, as per official returns. The weight of
this bulk of gold is 84,706 oz., 14 dwt., 10 grs.; value

fe 99 94-7 80
$1,632,315 100°

HOW—ON MINERALS FOR THE PARIS EXHIBITION. 29

The specimens of quartz and gold are from eleven districts,
viz :—Sherbrooke, Oldham, Tangier, the Ovens Lunenburg,
Waverly, Renfrew, Uniacke, Lawrencetown, Montague, Wine
Harbour, and Gay’s River. Many of these are of exceeding
richness, and the collection illustrates beautifully the mode in
which gold occurs in the Province, andthe characters of the
metal found. The total value of the specimens is very roughly
estimated at not less than $1500.

Leaving these glittering specimens, whose value is likely to
meet with ready appreciation, we come to

Buitpinc Stones: Here we have three fine granites, and
three freestones, furnished by H. Peters, Esq., and some free-
stones from Hants Co., by J. Wood, Jr., which do not bear so
good a character as their neighbours. There is also a ‘ firestone
from Falmouth,” which is much used in building fireplaces, and
is said to stand very well, it has been approved of by judges in
Halifax. A very interesting addition to these rocks is made
by H. Webster, Esq., of Kentville, who furnishes an ‘* oven-
stone” from the red sandstone of Cornwa!lis, which is cut to
any shape with the greatest ease with an axe, and answers an
admirable purpose in making ovens. Side by side with this are
remarkably fine specimens of barytes or heavy spar from Five
Islands. Though not very bulky, the two probably weigh
200 Ibs; they give the idea that the mineral is found in quantity ,
and they are pretty free from copper pyrites, which appears to
be the only impurity present. I have little doubt these speci-
mens will be much coveted for museums when they reach Paris.
Close to these specimens are the

Marewes: Here we find a specimen of the white marble, from
Five Islands, which unfortunately has turned out not so good
as the sample exhibited in 1862; it is of course a surface
specimen, and has no doubt been affected by frost. There are
also two or three specimens of the very remarkable and beauti-
ful wave-lined grey marble from New Glasgow: these would,
I have little doubt, be made to go a great way in inlaid work
in the hands of an old-country lapidary. I have no hesitation
In saying that this is likely to attract considerable attention.
There is also a beautiful green marble from Five Islands, and

Q

30 HOW—ON MINERALS FOR THE PARIS EXHIBITION.

some handsome white and red specimens from Cape Breton.
Leaving these we pass to

THe Wepster CoLuection: Here we have a truly attractive
display of those minerals which are useful for study, and as
illustrations of the manifold beauty with which our earth is
adorned, but are not, with one or two exceptions, of economic
value. These specimens have been selected from those col-
lected by that zealous and indefatigable student of nature, the
late Dr. Webster, of Kentville, and most generously placed at
the service of the Province by his widow, on condition that they
be kept distinct from other minerals, as the Webster collection
in the Provincial Museum. It is not necessary for me to say
more than that of a special class of minerals for which this
Province is well-known in the best informed scientific circles,
the collection forms a very good set of illustrations. Especially
admired will be the group of amethysts,* which contrast so
well with the neighbouring more brilliant and colourless
apophyllite, which is here represented in the finest specimens
IT ever saw here. The singular and varied forms of stilbite will
certainly attract the eye of the general observer, and charm the
mineralogist. Fine specimens of needlestone, some in crystals
so thin as to show why it receives this name, and some in
thicker prisms forming natrolite, are side by side with very
different looking chabazite of various tints. Here is also a
very beautiful ‘* slate,” which is very easily cut with a knife, and
exhibits a charming variety of patterns executed in lines of
different colours: this might no doubt be placed among econo-
mic minerals, as it would form attractive surfaces not liable to
be scratched. J am under the impression that there is abun-
danee of the rock. The infusorial earth here shewn is valuable
as a polishing material. Immediately beyond the Webster case
is a group illustrating the gypsum of Hants Co. In these
specimens we have shewn the leading varieties of those rocks
which are employed for agricultural purposes, and for making
plaster for walls and ceilings. Close to these we have a fine

*While speaking of amethysts, I may say, that there is a tradition that a Nova
Scotia amethyst adorned the Royal Crown of Louis XIV, of France. If such a stone
did find such a place, it may have been transferred to the Imperial Crown.

HOW—ON MINERALS FOR THE PARIS EXHIBITION. al

illustration of the oil coal from Pictou Co., which is known to
yield a considerable amount of oil by distillation; the oil pro-
duced is also shewn in two specimens, distilled by the exhibitor,
Mr. Jackson, one of which represents the crude oil, and the other
the oil refined by a second distillation. We then come to the
GENERAL COLLECTIONS OF Minerats.—The first case we
come to contains duplicate specimens of minerals of which finer
specimens are in the other cases, along with some clays and a
few other species. In the other three cases are specimens too
numerous to describe in full: among them I may mention as
specially interesting, minerals of the same name as some in the
Webster collection, but exhibiting very interesting variations
from the most common forms. Here are very fine specimens
of analcime alone, and most exquisite groups of analcime and
natrolite, fine examples of apophyllite, and the most beautiful
specimen I ever saw of that form of chabazite which from
being found only in Nova Scotia is called acadiolite. It is in
rich red crystals nearly cubical in shape, the common form being
white or nearly colourless. Here too are a few minerals which
will be especially interesting to the mineralogist as being entirely
new to him, from not being found out of Nova Scotia, or as
being found in very few localities, namely, centrallasite, morde-
nite and faréelite. Among these minerals may be mentioned one
which if found in quantity would have the additional interest of
being very valuable in a commercial sense. I speak of a
mineral I found several years ago, in the gypsum of Windsor,
called natroboro calcite. It is known to occur only in a few
other localities. It is rich in boracic acid, and on this account is
very much valued in forming glazes on pottery, for which
purpose it is exported from Peru, where alone so far it has been
found in quantity. When I first described this mineral as met
with here, the attention of an English pottery maker was drawn to
it by some newspaper account of what I had found, and he wrote
to me asking for some of it to try in glazing pottery. I sent a
sample and in return received a piece of pottery glazed with the
mineral I had forwarded used alone, accompanied by the state-
ment that used in this way the Nova Scotia mineral formed an
excellent glaze, while the custom was to use borates along with

32 HOW—ON MINERALS FOR THE PARIS EXHIBITION.

other substances. The value of such mineral was stated as
probably £20 stg. a ton, delivered in Liverpool. (Since
this paper was read I have found this borate in plaster
from two other places in Hants Co., which have also furnished
me with an entirely new borate soon to be described.) Here
may be seen also a specimen of the ‘* pencil-stone ” discovered
by Dr. Honeyman, and of a pencil cut from it with a knife.
This mineral is found over a considerable tract of country.
The pencils from it are very soft, and much prized in Antigonish
for writing on a slate. In the same case is a specimen of
magnesia alum, which I described a few years ago as being
found in Newport, where it occurs in a shale which appears to
be constantly producing it by action of the weather. If there
were a demand at a remunerative price, alum might he made
from this rock. I found small quantities of nickel and cobalt,
both valuable metals, in the alum: hence they may exist in the
neighbourhood in useful amount.

In these cases are to be seen illustrations of all the ores of
manganese found here—specimens of wad or earthy manganese,
one of which contains cobalt, are shewn from two localities,
this ore is used as a mineral paint; manganite, used for some
purpose in the States, is also there ; and the best ore, pyrolusite,
is shewn in several varieties from Onslow, Teny Cape, Walton
and other localities. Of iron ores there are a good many
specimens,—magnetic iron from Annapolis and Cornwallis, and
the hematite ores from Brookfield, Pictou and Londonderry,
shew the richest kind of ores known to exist; to these may be
added various samples of titaniferous ores. Of mineral paints
which consist largely of hydrous oxide of iron, generally
with more or less oxide manganese, there are several specimens
of various colours. The umbers from the Chester and Onslow
paint stones before spoken of, and the fine ochres from Folly
River, and Antigonishe, and others, shew that of these most
useful materials there isa considerable variety. As for quantity,
it is known that there are large supplies to be drawn from. A
few coals are exhibited here, not as rivals to the large specimens,
but as rendering the collection a complete illustration of the
kind of minerals found in the Province, and among them are

HOW—ON MINERALS FOR THE PARIS EXHIBITION. 33

varieties quite interesting to the Mineralogist, some of which I
owe to R. G. Haliburton, Esq.; allied to these is a very
valuable addition to the class of combustible minerals dis-
covered by W. Barnes, Esq., namely, mineral pitch or bitumen,
which is shewn in most perfect globular masses and in other
forms in crystallized calcite and limestone. ‘There is a good
deal of scientific interest attached to this specimen, which I
propose describing fully hereafter ;* in the mean time I may
say that it may turn out to be closely allied to the famous
albertite of New Brunswick. A few specimens of clays are
shewn from which common bricks, ftrebricks and pottery are
made in the Province.

Copper is shewn in the native state from three adjacent
localities in the Bay of Fundy, and copper ores from several
parts of the Province. The ore from Polson’s lake, of which
it is reported that the long sought vein has just been found, and
the rich ore of Tatamagouche are among these; there is also
the beautiful chrysocella or green silicate of copper from Cheti-
camp, and grey copper from several localities: the curious
cupriferous oxide of iron from Five islands is well represented.
Attention may be drawn also to the magnetic iron pyrites which
I have found to contain nickel, to the arsenical pyrites contain-
ing gold, and the ores of molybdenum, as interesting and
possibly hereafter commercially valuable ores.

A pretty complete set of specimens shews the great variety
of forms in which gypsum or plaster occurs; we have it red,
pink, black, white, opaque, and clear as glass, and perfectly
crystallized, in one specimen most curiously imbedded in a clear
crystal of glauber salt; it is also shewn in the compact form
adapted for carving, as shewn in the specimen neatly executed
by C. Harding, Esq., of Windsor. The mass of selenite is
very good and will probably be much admired. Close by these
are a set of specimens shewing some of the varieties of hard
plaster. Very fine cabinet specimens of barytes are shewn, and
some very curious forms of calcite or calespar, one of which in
the nail-head form of crystals, which looks like heads of nails
which seem to take their form from three blows with a hammer,

*Described in Phil. Mag., May, 1867.
5

oA HOW——ON MINERALS FOR THE PARIS EXHIBITION.

is especially attractive, while the others are hardly less so front
the beautiful contrast of the snow-white calcite with the black
lustrous pyrolusite on which it lies. Near these are shewn
several forms of limestone and allied minerals suitable for fluxes,
lime-making, and the manufacture of cements.

I need hardly point out the cornelian—as the four specimens
of this are sure to attract attention by their brilliant red colour
and high polish; close to these is a fine group of amethysts, and
near them several varieties of jasper of different colours, one
of which is not unlike the jasper of Arthur’s Seat, Edinburgh,
and was found far away from its native place, which no doubt
was the shore of the Bay of Fundy, in a field in Hants county,
among other drift materials. Here too are curious crystals of
smoky quartz, eaten away as it were by chlorite, and nearly
black quartz from Blomidon, chalcedony also and cacholong.
Among the lead ores is a specimen in fine crystals from the
Joggins, and one rich in silver from Victoria County; a few
specimens of gold quartz and sand are shewn for the sake of
having the collection more complete, and finally I may mention
a piece of plumbago or blacklead, not however of good quality.

Beyond the cases we have a group of specimens of hard
plaster, four in number, which have already attracted a good
deal of attention, and one has been much admired as a material
which, if it will only maintainits present appearance, will be
valuable for making mantle-pieces, jambs of fire places, and such
internal decorations as are not subject to being scratched. One
sample is in the form of a table top, one, the most admired, is
in the form of a pedestal, and two others are dressed and
polished in angular blocks. They differ from each other and
represent only some of the forms under which the rock is found.
We then find tolerably large pieces of magnetic iron ore from
Cornwallis, of hard manganese from Cheverie, copper ore from
Five Islands. Then we have a complete and instructive set of
specimens showing the way in which the rich copper is found
with coaly vegetable remains in sandstone at Tatamagouche.
A very beautiful incrustation of the rich green carbonate of
copper adds much to the appearance of some pieces. Very fine
specimens of Londonderry iron ore follow, and next we have a

HAMILTON—ON TIDES OF THE BAY OF FUNDY. 35

set of specimens illustrating the character of sands used for
making of bricks, and for moulding in brass and iron: of one
of these (Mr. Pellow’s from Windsor) a cargo of 250 tons was
lately shipped to Boston for brass tube casting. Then we have
a set of specimens from Springville, East River, Pictou, show-
Ing the character of the rich specular and brown iron ores
found there, the latter I found to contain nearly sixty per cent.
metallic iron, and there is a specimen of the East River lime-
stone from which lime is largely made and exported : very much
esteemed in the neighbourhood of New Glasgow.

I am afraid my remarks are somewhat crude and imperfect,
but I must plead want of time to produce any thing more
complete, and I hope such as they are they will be of service
in marking the most important features in a collection of
minerals which I think will be found very useful in illustrating
the mineralogy of the Province, and of great interest to all who
have devoted any attention to the subject.

Art. IV. Qn rae Tipes or THE Bay or Funpy. By P.
S. Hamiuron.
(Read Feb. 4, 1867.)

THe general outlines of the Bay of Fundy are well known.
Its width, by a direct line from Brier island, the most western
point of Nova Scotia, skirting the south-western point of Grand
Manan island, to the coast of Maine, a short distance west of
Quoddy Head, may be called in round numbers, fifty statute
miles. From its mouth, it extends in a course as nearly as
possible, due north-east, with nearly straight shores but a gradu-
ally decreasing width, for about one hundred and ten miles,
when its waters separate into two arms known as the Minas
channel and Chiegnecto channel. A line drawn directly from the
northern to the southern shore in the immediate vicinity of cape
Chiegnecto, the point of bifurcation, will show its breadth to be
there about thirty miles. Following the more northern or
Chiegnecto channel a further distance of about thirty miles, we
find its waters again nearly equally divided. One—Shepody
bay—extends in a northerly direction into New Brunswick, and

36 HAMILTON—ON TIDES OF THE BAY OF FUNDY.

at its head receives the waters of the Petitcodiac and Memram-
cook: the other continues the original north-east course, and
eventually forms Beau basin, or Cumberland basin. The dis-
tance from the mouth of Chiegnecto channel to the head of
Cumberland basin may be called in round numbers fifty miles.
Returning to the southern or Minas channel, we find that its
general course from the mouth is nearly due east, a distance of
about eighty miles, to the head of navigation at Truro. A glance
at the chart will show that the contrasts in the conformation and
position of these two arms of the Bay are very great, and I
shall presently shew that the character of their respective tides
is materially affected by these differences.

_ The northern shore of the Bay is a rugged ‘‘ iron-bound” one,
composed of a hard metamorphic rock, from its mouth nearly up
to Shepody bay. The margin of this northern shore is more
indented, and the outline of the hills which compose it is more
uneven, than on the south side of the Bay. Towards the west
these hills are of moderate elevation, but as a rule, they increase
in altitude as we proceed eastward, until in Shepody mountain,
near the bay of the same name, they attain a height of 1050
feet. The south shore exhibits a wall-like ridge of trap rock,
associated with new red sandstone, from three to five miles in
width, and from four hundred to seven hundred feet in height,
stretching from Brier island to Cape Blomidon, and broken only
by the deep narrow gorges of Grand passage, Petite passage,
and Digby gut. The lofty isolated, or semi-isolated masses of
rock known as Cape d’Or, Spencer’s island, Cape Sharp, Partridge
island, the Two islands, Five islands, Gerrish mountain, ‘and
some others of less note on the north side of Minas channel,
belong to the same formation. As these latter headlands are
within the range of parallel of three submarine ledges running
parallel with the present south shore, and at the respective
distances of three, five, and nine miles therefrom, it is probable
that all were once parts of the same trappean range. Cape
Chiegnecto, the western termination of the metamorphic Cobequid
hills, rises almost perpendicularly from the water for eight
hundred and fifty feet; anda short distance back attains a height
of nine hundred feet. The remaining shores of Cumberland basin

HAMILTON—ON TIDES OF THE BAY OF FUNDY, 37

consist of broad expanses of marine alluvium and low cliffs of
carboniferous sandstones and shales; those of Minas basin, of
marine alluvium and low cliffs of new red sandstone.

The tides of the Bay of Fundy have attained an almost world
wide celebrity. This is no matter for surprise, for some of the
phenomena pertaining to them are of a very striking and im-
pressive character, and yet no more striking than singular.
Without pausing to discuss the theory of the tides generally, I
will proceed at once to describe some of the more noteworthy of
these phenomena.

The great volume of water which sets into the Bay with the
flood, comes from the south. ‘The tidal current on entering the
mouth of the Bay, is much accelerated, owing to the gradual
narrowing of the bed which confines it, and rushes over the
basalt ledges of Brier island, and through the Grand passage
and Petite passage, with great velocity. Were this tide an
ordinary ocean current, produced—say by a trade wind, on
entering the Bay of Fundy from the direction from which it
does come, it would strike almost directly across the Bay, and
would spend its greatest force on the New Brunswick shore
between Point LePreau and the mouth of the St. John. Being
broken on that shore, the main portion of the current, now much
weakened, would set to the eastward, but close along the north
shore of the Bay, whilst a slender stream from it would be
directed to the westward and eddy about Passamaquoddy bay.
We find the very reverse to be the case in fact. The tide, being
in its original and simplest manifestation, a vertical uprising of
the surface of the ocean, has a tendency to seek in every direc-
tion its original level. Consequently, when the flood begins to
«¢make” off Brier island, in the mouth of the Bay, the current
sets alike in every direction, northwardly and eastwardly. But
this being the case, by the time it has reached the New Bruns-
wick shore, it will already have extended up along the south
shore, far above the point directly opposite to which it first
became perceptible on the north side of the Bay. Thus the tide,
both flood and ebb, on the south shore of the Bay of Fundy is
always in advance of that along the north shore. It is high
water at the entrance to Digby gut twenty-one minutes before it

QE =

38 HAMILTON—ON TIDES OF THE BAY OF FUNDY.

is high water at the mouth of the St. John, directly opposite.
This simple fact explains several curious phenomena of the Bay
of Fundy tides.

From the essential nature of a tidal current, it is obvious.
that the volume of water composing it is cumulative. It is not
like a single huge ocean wave which rolls in upon the shore and
then retreats. Rather it is like a rapid succession of such waves
piling one upon another. In fact it is a cumulation of such
waves, following so close upon each other that the intervals
between are indiscernible. We have seen that the head of the
flood—or ebb—on the south shore is always in advance of that
on the north. Owing, then, to this cumulative property, it must
always happen that at any given point on the south shore, there
must pass over any given breadth, a greater volume of water
than will, within the same time, pass over a like space along the
north shore of the Bay. This greater cumulation in the volume
of water in motion must, other things being equal, cause an
increase in its velocity. Accordingly, we find that the velocity
of the current on the south side of the Bay of Fundy is always
greater than on the north side. On the north side of the bay,
from the mouth of the St. John, eastward, the tide runs at the
rate of from one and a quarter to one and a half knots. At the
same time, along the opposite shore, it runs at the rate of from
two to two and a half knots.

This difference in the force of the tidal current between the
north and south longitudinal sections of the Bay, continues, but
is still more marked in the prolongations of those sections—that
is, in the Chiegnecto and Minas arms of the Bay. The increase
in the velocity of the Chiegnecto current is very gradual. Just
off of Apple river the flood has attained one and three-fourth
knots. By the time it has reached cape Enrage, owing to the
narrowing of the channel, this has increased to two. Above
this, as already mentioned, the Chiegnecto channel is again
divided into Cumberland bay and Shepody bay, the channels of
both of which gradually contract above cape Merangouin, the
point of bifurcation. Consequently, above this point the current
in both these smaller bays soon increases to three and eventually
to four knots.

WAMILTON—ON TIDES OF THE BAY OF FUNDY. 39

We find a very different state of affairs in the Minas arm of
the Bay. At the very entrance of the Minas channel the flood
has attained a rate of three knots. Its velocity now rapidly
increases. It passes cape D’Or and hence on to the much
contracted Minas strait, at the rate of six knots. This portion
of the Minas channel about corresponds with that part of the
Chiegnecto arm where there is a one and three-fourth knot
current. Here, about cape D’Or, is the place where a stranger,
floating up with the flood, first begins to appreciate the tides of
the Bay of Fundy. This six knot current, roaring and foaming
in what are called ‘tide rips ” over a submarine ledge extending
directly out towards the middle of the Bay, from the base of a
magnificent, perpendicular trap cliff five hundred feet in height,
forms a picture which, once seen in any kind of weather, is not
likely soon to be forgotten. As already stated, this six knot
current continues to about the entrance of the extraordinary
gorge known as Minas strait. Here, owing to the great and
sudden contraction of the channel, its velocity receives another
great tmpetus. About mid-channel and between that and the
mural cliffs of the Blomidon shore, the tide runs at the extraordi-
nary rate of eight knots, and, under specially favouring circum-
stances, has attained even ten knots. In the calmest of wea-
ther, the waters here seethe, and boil, and whirl along, as if they
were in a gigantic cauldron. From the top of Partridge Island,
a headland two hundred and forty feet in height, at its eastern
termination, [ have on a perfectly calm summer morning, seen
a number of vessels drifting up the strait with all sails set,
performing most singular gyrations, as if the vessels themselves
had either become bereft of their senses, or, seeing that there
was no wind to enable them to ‘* move on” about their business,
had determined to put in the time by indulging in a solemn
waltz. But the expanse of waters to be seen from this same
point of view often presents a much wilder scene. The name
Blomidon is an attempted modern refinement for Blow-me-
down, by which this cape was always known in former times,
and by which it is still called by old baymen, owing to the
prevalence of squalls in its vicinity. For the same reason the
water around its base is locally known as ‘‘ white waters.” Off

40 HAMILTON—ON TIDES OF THE BAY OF FUNDY.

cape Split there is another fine exhibition of ‘ tide rips” caused
by a submarine ledge of trap extending far out into the channel.
When there is a high wind and the waves are in motion every
where, these ‘tide rips” are not so discernible as at other
times. Their appearance in calm weather bears a striking
resemblance to that of some of the most impetuous of the
rapids on the St. Lawrence and Ottawa.

There are few visitors to Minas strait who, in order to gaze
upon its beauties, would not willingly make their passage
through it more lingeringly than the velocity of its tide will
permit. On the one hand stretches for ten miles in length, the
unbroken range of lofty, wood-crowned, frowning cliffs collee-
tively called Blomidon. At its north-western termination it
becomes thinned to a narrow promontory—a bold rock four
hundred feet high, cleft from its summit to its base. This split,
from which the cape derives its name, being clearly defined, is
discernible from as great a distance in either direction as the
rock itself can be seen, however faintly. Beyond this a succes-
sion of shattered basaltic pillars and lofty pinnacles extend far
out into the—here ever-foaming—tide, and terminate in the
submarine ledge already mentioned. At the eastern termination
of this vast wall, cape Blomidon frowns down from a height of
five hundred and seventy feet, with its basaltic parapet wall and
its scarp of red sandstone, like an immense bastion placed for
the defence of this watery pass. On the other hand there is the
bold, semi-circular sweep of Greville Bay, with its warm-
tinted, sandstone cliffs, terminating away to the westward, in the
hemispherical shaped Spencer’s island, and the lofty table of
eape D’Or. Carrying the eye eastwardly, it next falls upon
cape Sharp, a wedge of trap some three hundred and fifty to
four hundred feet high, jutting far out into the strait. Then
comes the semi-isolated headland, called Partridge island,
already mentioned, and its two cozy, placid little harbours, one
above and the other below, with their broad, clean, shelving
beach, and the pretty village of Parrsboro’ clustering on its
further margin. If from this point we complete the circle
of vision, it will be to look upon as beautiful a sheet of water
as ever tide flowed in, fading away, on the right, into the rich

HAMILTON—ON TIDES OF THE BAY OF FUNDY. 4}

alluvium of Cornwallis and the Grand Pre, embellished on the
left with the exceedingly picturesque group of the Five Islands,
and having the distant blue hills of Hants and Colchester for a
background directly in front. Tastes differ in such matters ;
but [I doubt if any bit of scenery about the Atlantic coast of
North America can be found, which combines so much of the
grand with such a charming diversity, as this Minas strait and
its vicinity.

A glance at the map will show that the flood tide is poured
into the basin of Minas at its north-western corner; and that
2 prolongation of the northern shore of Minas strait would be
almost identical with the actual northern shore of that basin
and of Cobequid bay. Hence a perfect repetition of the pheno-
menon which took place when the flood entered the main bay
at Brier Island. But here it is, of course, the north shore along
which the current takes the lead. Immediately on its entering
the basin, there is a diminution in the velocity of the tide in
every direction. Its greatest rapidity drops from eight to four
knots. All along the north side of the basin it keeps up this
latter rate; whilst further south the current setting in the same
direction only attains a rate of from two and a-half to three
knots. This continues up into Cobequid bay until the channel
becomes too narrow for the difference to be observable. It
must be observed, however, that on getting up into Cobequid
bay, where the bed of the tide is already much contracted and
is constantly narrowing as we proceed farther east, we shall
find the velocity of the current gradually, but very mate-
rially, increased, and exhibiting too, in calm weather, that
seething, whirling commotion in the water, already men-
tioned in speaking of the Minas strait. My own impression
from frequent personal observation, although I have no defi-
nite proof of the fact, is that, until retarded by the great
breadths of sand and mud flats which it encounters near the
head of the Bay, the velocity of the tidal current is as great in
Cobequid bay as in Minas strait, or very nearly so. On the
other hand, in the estuaries of the rivers of East Hants and
King’s counties, which empty into the southern bight of the

Basin of Minas, the tide flows and ebbs in a very leisurely kind
6

42 HAMILTON—ON TIDES OF THE BAY OF FUNDY.

of way, and for reasons which will be obvious from what has
been already stated.

I have endeavoured to point out the principal causes which
direct the courses and regulate the velocity of tidal currents m
the Bay of Fundy, and have briefly described some of their
effects. The comparative height to which the tides rise in
various parts of the Bay and its inlets, may, in a great measure,
be accounted for by the same causes, but not wholly so. A vast
deal depends upon the conformation of the channel in which the
tide runs. Where the retaining shores converge in such a way
as to form a prolonged, straight, and funnel-shaped channel, the
flood, rushing up such a channel, acquires an enormous mo-
mentum, which piles up its waters, we may say, towards the
termination of the funnel, to an extent that could not be possible
under other circumstances. We find this formation in a marked
degree in Cobequid bay. Again in Shepody bay with its
prolongation of Petitcodiac river; and again, but in a much less
degree, at the head of Cumberland basin. These localities,
but more especially the first named, are noted for the extraordi-
nary height of their tides in comparison with other parts of the
Bay of Fundy and its branches.

As to what really is the maximum rise of tide at any one
point in this Bay, that is a matter upon which authorities differ.
Indeed scarcely any two of the Admiralty hydographers agree
uponit. The results of all my enquiries and examinations amount
to about this: In St. John harbour and Digby gut, ordinary spring
tides do not exceed from twenty-seven to thirty feet. Asa rule,
the vertical rise and fall of the tide increases as we proceed from
the mouth of the Bay eastward, towards its head; but the ratio
according to which it increases is irregular, being much affected
by the width and formation of the channel. From what has
been already said, it will appear obvious that in the Bay of
Fundy proper, from the mouth up to the point of its bifurcation
at cape Chiegnecto, the height of the tide will increase in a
more regular, but much less rapid ratio, than we shall find it to
do as we proceed up Cobequid, Cumberland, or Shepody bay. It

is admitted on every hand that the point where the greatest rise

of tide takes place in the whole Bay of Fundy, is at the mouth

HAMILTON—ON TIDES OF THE BAY OF FUNDY. 43

of Shubenacadie river, near the head of Cobequid bay. An
impression has gone abroad and is popularly taken for granted,
that here the tide attains the extraordinary maximum rise of
seventy-five feet, a greater vertical rise of tide than is known
anywhere else in the world. All the old shipmasters and pilots
about the Bay—many of them men of great experience and keen
and acute observation—used formerly to declare that this was
the case. Ido not know what those of their class say now.
I find that, taking as a basis of calculation the vertical rise of
spring tides at various other points about the bay and basin, as
recorded on the latest Admiralty chart, and applying the rule
which seems to apply to the tides of Cobequid bay, we are led
to the conclusion that the rise of ordinary springs must, at the
mouth of Shubenacadie river, considerably exceed sixty feet.
I see no reason to doubt that during those exceptionally high
spring tides, which take place occasionally under the combined
influence of more than one of the heavenly bodies, the maximum
rise, at the junction of the Shubenacadie and Truro channels,
justifies the popular belief, and does attain to seventy-five feet.

I furthermore think it not improbable that the vertical distance
between high water and low water mark was formerly much
greater than it is now; and that formerly, at ordinary springs,
there was always a rise and fall of seventy-five feet at the mouth
of the Shubenacadie. The low water level is being gradually
raised owing to the fact that the channel is filling up. This
applies to all the channels of the head waters of the Bay of Fundy.
For instance, not more than twenty-five years since, vessels of
from fifty te one hundred and fifty tons used, almost daily, to
sail up this Cobequid bay to receive and discharge cargo at
the place where it is now bridged, a short distance below the
village of Truro. Now nobody ever attempts to take any sort
of a craft above the class of an open boat, further up the
hay than Yuill’s island, which is about six miles below the
Dridge. The channel is obviously narrowing and becoming
more shallow every year. The rapidity with which this is
possible, may be imagined from the fact that during springs,
one tide flowing over a level space, will deposit a layer of
mud a quarter of an inch thick. On the other hand, the

44 HAMILTON—ON TIDES OF THE BAY OF FUNDY.

volume of clean river water which used in former times to
wash the marine alluvium out of these channels, is every year
becoming less, owing to the removal of the forest and the conse-
quent desiccation of the country generally. Upwards of eighty
thousand acres of fertile marine alluvium have already been
made up by the tides of the Bay of Fundy.

Minas strait, of which mention has already been so frequently
made, is about ten miles in length, by from four to six in
width. In the very narrowest part, just at cape Sharp, it is
less than four miles wide. It seems almost incredible that, in
six hours time, a quantity of water can be poured through this
narrow gorge equal to a depth of fifty feet over an area of four
hundred square miles. Yet this is a not immoderate estimate
of what actually does take place four times in every twenty-four
hours, during spring tides. It can only be explained by the
great comparative depth of this strait. It is a chasm much
deeper than the basin above, or the channel below it. The low
water soundings, even in the middle of the basin of Minas, only
show a depth of from fifteen to twenty fathoms. A series of
like soundings through the strait, near mid-channel, show a
depth of from forty to fifty-seven fathoms. I can find no record
of any such depth elsewhere in the Bay, until we get down to
about the longitude of Digby. Whether then we are to attribute
it to the eroding action of the water itself, or to that great conveni-
ence in cases of difficult explanation, a ‘‘ convulsion of nature,”
certain it is that the bed of this strait is a great chasm from
three hundred to three hundred and fifty feet deep below low
water tide level, or more than double the depth of the basin of
Minas; and that, were it not for this fact, the tides in this basin,
instead of being greater, would be less than they are in Cum-
berland basin.

Everybody who has heard of the tides of the Bay of Fundy,
has doubtless heard something of that tidal phenomenon locally
known as ‘* the Bore.” In the Cobequid and Cumberland bays,
and in the estuaries of the streams emptying into them, the tide
at its ebb leaves exposed immense ‘ flats” of sand and mud,
amounting in the aggregate to many thousands of acres in each
of these inlets. The more extensive of these flats are composed

HAMILTON—ON TIDES OF THE BAY OF FUNDY. 45

almost exclusively of sand; and when they are not separated
from the firm land by a channel, or gully, of open water, always
have instead thereof a margin of soft, unctuous mud. These
sands are always shifting and changing their position, to some
extent with every tide; but within a very short time after they
are left bare, they become dry and firm—so much so that in
yvalking over them one’s boots scarcely leave a discernible track.
As they are often miles in extent and as smooth and level as a
floor, they would serve admirably for race-courses and for
grounds on which to play bass ball, golf, and cricket, were it
not for their comparative inaccessibility. There are indeed
quicksands in some places; but these are easily discerned and
avoided by the initiated. A quicksand is never dangerous if
the pedestrian walks smartly over it. I never knew of but one
serious accident caused by quicksands. Some years since, a
schooner loaded with stone was going down Maccan river, but,
being late in the tide, grounded upon Amherst point flat, just
opposite the village of Minudie. It happened that the vessel
grounded in a quicksand, and sank deeply into it as the tide ran
out; but it was taken for granted that she would float again
with the flood tide. She did not, however, but remained
stationary, filled, and became hopelessly immovable. That
doomed schooner continued to sink deeper and deeper, until she
totally disappeared, spars and all, and ** left not a rack behind.”

When the very first of the flood, running with such great
velocity as it does, meets with an obstruction in the shape of
these flats and the shallowness of the water in the neighbouring
channel, an instantaneous ripple is produced. The still advan-
cing and ever accumulating waters in the rear, whose velocity is
always greater than that of the first of the flood, having as yet
no obstruction, are hurled vehemently forward upon this ripple,
which, in a second or two of time, becomes a moving wall of foam-
ing, hissing water. ‘This is called *‘ the bore.” The perpendicular
height of this advancing tidal wave depends upon the volume of
the driving force behind, and the extent and nature of the
obstructions in front of it. To the spectator facing the moving
mass at right angles, the slope of the surface of the water, from
the brow of the wave, upwards and backwards, is plainly per-

46 HAMILTON—ON TIDES OF THE BAY OF FUNDY-

ceptible. To ascertain with accuracy the height of what I may
call the face of ‘‘ the bore” seems next to impossible. J have
never seen it exceed, according to my own estimation, five or
six feet, but it may have been greater; during neap tides it is
very much less.

A few minutes after ‘‘ the bore” has passed, there may be
witnessed another phenomenon of the rising tide scarcely less
staitling and grand than ‘‘the bore” itself. I allude to the
‘* tide vips;” for there are tide rips upon these sands as well as
upon the ledges farther down the Bay. They result from the
same cause as ‘the bore” does. The advancing tide has
acquired greater volume and greater velocity; but yet meets
with shallows which impede its progress. The surface breaks
into tumultuous waves which continue until, partly from tearing
up the sands in the bottom and partly from the rising of the tide,
the shallow is overcome. Suppose a spectator, unaccustomed
to such scenes, to be ona calm day watching the coming tide
from a good position. ‘* The bore,” has just roared and foamed
past him, and its noise is now thrown off in another direction.
There is silence except for the slight gurgling sound of the after
current pressing on with tremendous rapidity. Suddenly he is
startled with a roaring of waters as loud as that of ‘‘ the bore”
itself was a few minutes since. Looking for the cause of it, he
perceives that where only two or three seconds ago the surface of
the water was as smooth as glass, it is now, to an extent of many
acres, a mass of tawney foam, tossing in the wildest commotion,
as if a submarine volcano was about to emerge from the spot.
Then it breaks into regular, but terribly energetic waves, the
crests of which almost touch each other. Whilst he is admiring,
or wondering at this strange phenomenon, his attention is
attracted to a similar commotion in another direction; then
another, and another. Jn each instance, after a lapse of from
five to fifteen minutes, the turbulence of the waters subsides
just as suddenly as it arose, and the flood sweeps on as smoothly
as a torrent of oil.

Tourists cross the Atlantic to see the Falls of Niagara and the
Rapids of the St. Lawrence. J cannot but think that the tides
of the Bay of Fundy are scarcely less worthy of their attention.

HAMILTON—ON TIDES OF THE BAY OF FUNDY. 47

But to see these tides in their true grandeur and beauty, the
spectator must be in their midst. About the full or change of
the moon he must get on board a vessel, drop down with the
ebb, and get aground upon some of the broad flats about the
middle, or lower part of Cobequid bay, and wait there for the
coming flood. I have endeavoured to describe the scene as it
would appear to him in daylight. Perhaps the occasion is even
more impressive in a still summer’s night. In the dead silence
of the night you hear a low, prolonged whisper. What can it ~
be? You listen intently. It grows louder. It is the ‘* solemu
roar” of the tide, miles and miles away. Every minute you are
conscious of the tumult away out in the darkness yonder, grow-
ing louder and approaching nearer. It is difficult to prevent the
Imagination getting excited and the mind being deeply impressed
with awe. On it comes like a Fate, and still you know of its
approach only through the organ of hearing. At length, in the
dim light you see a white streak, reaching from shore to shore,
or from the gloom on the one hand to the gloom on the other. It
is ‘*the bore.” It rushes and roars on, striking the as yet firmly
embedded vessel in which you are luckily safe from its embraces,
with a thud which makes its timbers quiver; and is past. Then,
after a breathing space, the tide rips begin to make. Here,
perhaps, near at hand, you can see their foam leaping up under
the starlight, but you can certainly hear their fitful roaring out
in the darkness in every direction. Where not many minutes
since the silence was, it may be, so intense that you could hear
yourself breathing, you now find yourself in the midst of 2
chaos of angry waters.

The momentum of this ** bore” is no doubt enormous, but
many stories that are told of its achievements, and indeed of the
Bay of Fundy tides generally, are quite apocryphal. So many
strange reports have gone abroad about this Bay, that to many
strangers it is a name of terror. Yet to those acquainted with
the place its navigation is comparatively safe and easy, and these
very tides are what conduce so much to the facilities of its
navigation. Many of nature’s moods and changes there are
known, can be calculated upon before hand, and taken advantage
of. I have myself gone all around and over the basin of Minas

|

48 LAWSON—ON TRICHINA SPIRALIS.

and Cobequid bay in a little open sail boat. I have seen mez
from twenty miles up the Shubenacadie river, away down the
bay nearly to Economy point, in log canoes, fishing. And I
have seen Indian bark canoes crossing the bay near cape D’Or.
Still it must be admitted that the Bay of Fundy is no place for
a stranger to be without a good pilot. Finally—as to the
dangers of navigation there—I will hazard the assertion that the
number of marine disasters in the Bay of Fundy is less than on
the same extent of coast in any other part of Nova Scotia.

Art. VY. On Tricnuina Sprrauis. By Grorce Lawson,
Pu. D., LL.D., Professor of Chemistry and Mineralogy,
Dalhousie College.

(Read Feb. 4, 1867.)

In this paper the author described the structure and develope~
ment of Trichina Spiralis, drawings of which, and specimens
under the microscope from the human subject were exhibited.
It was stated that although careful search had been made, no
trichinee had been found in pork exposed for sale in the Halifax
markets.

Several other Hntozoa were referred to, and a description
given of Tenia pectinata, which occurs in the intestines of the
porcupine in great quantity, both in Canada and Nova Scotia.
Specimens were shown.

Arr. VI. A Forrnicur IN THE BAacKWoops OF SHELBURNE
AND WeymouTH. By J. Marrnew Jonss, F. L. 5.
(Read Feb. 4, 1867.)

A FORTNIGHT seems but a brief space, yet much may be done
and seen in that time. Some few years ago, on my first arrival
from England, I had the good fortune to join an expedition sent
to report upon the state of the timber on the admiralty reserves
in the western part of this Province, and I was introduced for
the first time to the pleasures of a forest life in a snug little
camp, pitched in a charming nook beside the limpid waters of
the ever winding Roseway, a short distance to the northward of
Shelburne. It would be useless for me to dilate upon the feel-

JONES—ON THE BACKWOODS. 49

ines of one, who fresh from the cultivated vales of old England,
finds himself suddenly placed in the midst of the ‘ forest
primeval,” with no sounds of civilization to mar the sweet
stillness which reigns amid these western wilds; and especially
upon those of a naturalist, who loves to look upon nature in her
pristine garb; to see the land untouched, and the trees and
shrubs in every stage of life and decay, just as they have lived
and died through succeeding ages; to listen to the unknown
sounds and cries proceeding from animals and birds, and _parti-
cipate in the many other events hourly taking place as he
journeys on through these trackless solitudes; for it may be
truly said that his cup of pleasure is filled to overflowing, and
every moment of his time occupied in marking and studying the
changing scenes which at every step burst fresh and enchantingly
upon his wondering view.

It was on a fine summer’s day towards the close of the month
of August, a date which will ever remain stamped on memory’s
pleasant page, that, accompanied by two worthy representatives
of Her Majesty’s forces, naval and military, I was ushered into
the camp ef which I have spoken. We stood upon the bank ot
a rippling stream, and the first object that caught the eye was
the stalwart form of the camp steward, wielding an axe with
such power and effect as to make the huge log he was splitting
for the night’s fire shiver under the strokes, and cause the sur-
rounding forest to ring with their echoes; while near a fire
burning briskly between two granite rocks, stood the form of a
veritable Indian, reclining in indolent ease over the burning
brands, above which hung the steck pot from which the steam
was puiiing, sending around a goodly smell which made the
appetite sharpen as we thought of the eatables within. And
then the camp itself; a rough afiair it looked—two slender poles
some ten feet or so apart, placed upright, a cross pole lashed to
them a few feet above the ground, then with their buts resting
on this cross pole, and sloping back to the ground, were laid
other poles and branches of trees, fern, &c., strewed all over
the whole, forming a roof, which, although not waterproof,
helped to keep off the falling dew at night. The sides were

filled in with twigs and brushwood, while the floor of this primi-
G

50 JONES—ON THE BACKWOODS.

tive domicile was covered with a thick layer of spruce branches,
the smaller sprays on top to render the couch more comfortable,
and then the occupant had to spread his blanket and make him-
self as much at ease as circumstances would permit. So we
commenced our forest life.

From Roseway river camp we journeyed to the northward,
and camped again on a small point of land which jutted out into
a large lake called ‘‘ Long island lake,” and a prettier spot could
scarce be conceived. Before us lay the lake whose mirror-like
surface scarce ruffled by the breeze, was dotted over with small
islands, clothed with spruce and pine, while the evening sun, hot
and powerful, reflected their shadows far down in the depths
below, and as the shades of evening drew around, and the orb
of day sank in majestic splendour behind the dark mass of forest
to the westward, the camp fire began to cast a ruddy gleam of
light upon the surrounding objects. The fog now rising from
the lake, caused a chilly feeling to creep over us, and more
wood heaped upon the burning brands, caused the sparks to fly
up like miniature rockets in space, while massy flames poured
out from our pile of bulky logs, until bursting up in one grand
sheet of blazing light, it dazzled with lurid glare the neighbour-
ing forest, and our company all seated around the seething mass
busily consuming the evening meal.

From this camp we one day made an excursion to the east-
ward, in the neighborhood of Jordan river, and found the whole
district to be densely wooded with hemlock, spruce, and pine.
Indeed of these species of conifers, the forest in the vicinity of
Shelburne appears to be almost wholly composed, and it is not
until you arrive some fifteen miles up the country, that groves of
maple and oak are seen. The country around Shelburne bears
evidence of the ravages of fire several years ago, the present
growth of timber being but small.

An island of an acre or two in extent, stands about the centre
of Long island lake, and is known as ‘ Indian island,” from the
fact that in years gone by, the Indians, who had a stationary
camp above this lake, buried their dead here. And surely no
fitter resting place could have been found for those children of
nature, than here beneath the sombre shade of pine or spruce,

JONES—ON THE BACKWOODS. 51

to take their last long sleep, in the full hope of awaking in the
happy, yet visionary hunting grounds they suppose to lie in
a brighter and better world beyond the sky. It would appear
that the Indians have almost entirely left this part of the Pro-
vince, for only two or three live in the district, one of whom,
named Peter Paul, accompanied our party the whole way to
Weymouth, and proved himself as generous, noble hearted a
fellow as ever smoked the calumet of peace. To the absence of
Indians may no doubt be attributed, in a great measure, the
large number of bears, and the presence of beaver in the
vicinity of the granite hills, mid way across the country, called by
some the Blue mountains; but more of these presently. From
this camping ground we journeyed along the road which led to
the district of Sugar Loaf hill, a fine grove of hardwoods, birch,
beech, oak, and maple. It was on the further side of this hill
that we bade adieu for a while to civilization. Embarking in a
rather frail boat upon a lake, we pulled, not without sundry
misgivings as to the probable termination of the voyage, for
some low marshy ground on its northern shore, and happily
succeeded in reaching the mouth of a small river, up which we
had to go: but we had not gone very far before we found that
our bark must be lightened, and all jumped out and pushed her
up the shallows, until we came to a large open savannah of
considerable size, on which grew luxuriant grass. Few trees
were to be seen about here, and those of a very stunted growth,
the most common being the alder. Leaving our boat about
mid-way through the plain, we shouldered our packs, which
were far too heavy, and made for the north-west end of it, where
we entered the thick forest again. Peter Paul having called a
halt, addressed us in a very fatherly manner to the effect that we
had better look to our weapons, for as he said, ‘‘ you don’t know
what be about where we are going.” Having complied with his
request, we started afresh, and after some pretty bad travelling.
arrived about sundown at a small lake at the southern base of
the granite plateau. Here we found an old log hut which had
been erected some time back by lumberers, and made it our
home for two or three days, while we surveyed the country
around. This lake from the quantity of small flat stones around

52 JONES

ON THE BACKWOODS.

its margin, was called ‘* Whetstone lake.” ‘The southern shores
of this lake are clothed with a heavy growth of timber, which
appears to have escaped the extensive fire that raged over the
whole extent of the Blue mountain range. The timber is
composed of hemlock, spruce, maple, and bireh, with an under-
wood of withrod, and near the water an abundance of fern of
two species, the larger being the well known Osmunda regalis.

We may here remark in passing that our Provincial maps are in
fault in regard to the route we took, for not a lake or river is
marked upon any of them in that quarter, whereas the country
abounds with lakes and streams, some of good size. We
travelled as near as we could north-west from Shelburne, but
owing to the swamps and lakes we had to deviate at intervals.
The land from the district of Long island lake is very level, and
from what I could judge, is capable, when cleared, of extensive
cultivation, particularly that portion in which is comprised the
open savannah [I have mentioned.

Our first excursion from the camp at Whetstone lake led us
to the rocky slope of the Blue mountains, which lay in full view
before us, and on reaching the elevated ground, one of the
Indians sighted a bear which was quietly ambling along among
the blueberry bushes, regaling himself on the ripe and luscious
fruit. It was at once decided to stalk him true highland fashion,
and off we set. The Indian, arriving within range first, sent
a bullet through one of his feet, as we afterwards found.
Turning round, the fellow made right at C——— and myself,
standing together some forty yards below. On he came with a
growling noise, and when close to us showed a fine array of
teeth, which we would have preferred viewing after his decease.
There was nothing for it, however, but to stand our ground,
when ‘crack’ went my friend’s ponderous Lancaster, and with
it the massive conical ball which caused poor bruin to change
his course, for with a bound he swerved to the right and was
lost in a thicket of birch and alder. Proceeding cautiously
along, we found him at last stretched out in a little hollow, and
a huge beast he was, measuring from tip to tip seven feet two
inches. We must here mention a curious fact which we consi-
der worthy of note. On running hurriedly along from boulder

JONES—ON THE BACKWOODS. 53

to boulder, we slipped and fell through a hole, with the knee cap
against a rock. The knee instantly swelied up and gave great
pain, and we could barely drag along, when one of the Indians
said if rubbed with bear fat it would soon be right again.
When skinning the animal he cut off a piece, and we rubbed the
part well, and singular enough in a quarter of an hour the
swelling subsided almost as quickly as it had risen, and we were
enabled to walk back to camp. The Indians have a very ready
way of transporting bear meat—cutting it up in small pieces
they fold up the bear skin neatly with the pieces within, and
then tie the whole with bands of withrod (viburnum,) and with
the same bands secure it across their shoulders as a pack,
leaving the arms free for action. Bears were numerous at this
spot, and were no doubt attracted by the vast quantities of ripe
berries, particularly the huckleberry and blueberry, the
(Gaylussachia resinora) and ( Vaccinium Canadense,) the for-
mer in astonishing abundance. The trees and shrubs which
clothe the sides of this rocky range are principally dwarf birch,
(Betula nigra, and B. papyracea,) alder, (Alnus viridis,)
interspersed with spruce (Adzes alba and rubra) and dead pine
(Pinus strobus.) Under stones in Whetstone lake I found
several small leeches, (Hirudo,) one of which was of a white
colour. The larve cases of a caddis-fly, (Phryganea,) were
abundant composed of pieces of weed and granite sand. We
noticed that the bird droppings, which were upon almost every
boulder on this range, were of a dark blue colour, caused no
doubt by their feeding at this season almost wholly upon the
berries of the blueberry and huckleberry. The shores of
Whetstone lake were covered with a beautiful granite sand,
nearly white.

As we are now in the most famous district in the Province
for bears, perhaps it will be well to make a few remarks upon
the natural history of the black bear, ( Ursus Americanus.) The
bear comes out of his winter den as soon as the snow disappears,
generally about the end of April. The he bear dens by him-
self. The she bear cubs about the first week in February, and
the young are at first about the size of a common squirrel,
( Seiurus Hudsonius.) They obtain nourishment from the mother —

54 JONES—-ON THE BACKWOODS. ?

until about the latter end of June, and den with her through the
next winter; remaining with her till two years old, and leave her
for good when she leaves her den the second spring after birth.
Bears are fat when they leave their dens in spring, but soon get
poor, finding but little food at that time of year. It is at this
time that they are apt to commit forays upon the flocks of the
back settlers. These animals are known to sit and watch at the
falls of streams for fish passing up in spring. Their principal
food, however, consists of the wild fruits of the forest, ants,
hornets and wasps and bees, whose nests they invade for the
purpose of securing the larve, wax, or honey within. They
care nothing for the stings of the infuriated hornets and wasps,
but the cubs cry out when stung, but nevertheless keep fast
hold of the comb. Cubs will not fight with the mother when
she attacks any one, but run up trees. Rutting time is m
June when the he bears are very savage, sometimes going in
gangs of twenty or more, and when they come near a she bear
they commence fighting among themselves furiously, making
the most hideous roarings all the time, and if one gets killed in
the fray the rest fall upon him and eat him. They fight by first
rising on their hind legs and rushing at each other, hugging,
biting and scratching, endeavouring to rip their antagonists’
stomachs open with their hind claws. Bears shed their coats
about July. They stalk young moose by creeping upon them,
and when close to make a great spring. Having killed the
moose they skin him just as clean as a man would, and begin to
eat the chest first, tearing out the paunch which they throw
away. They dislike wet weather, and take shelter where they
can keep dry under rocks, &c., and other places. When the
old bears go into dens in the fall, they take plenty of dead leaves
and fern, and make a good bed of them, and the she bear makes
no further provision at cubbing time. They always return, if
alive, to the same den each fall, but if a porcupine takes posses-
sion while they are away in summer, and leaves droppings
about, the bear will not return to that den again. A large size
bear will weigh over six hundred pounds, and give one hundred
pounds of grease, for which one shilling sterling per pound is
given at Shelburne, while at Halifax a wine bottle full sells for

we
we)

JONES—ON THE BACKWOODS.

four shillings. The meat of the bear is excellent eating, tasting
something like mutton. It is best boiled to render it tender,
and then fried with pieces of the fat. The tongue is very
similar to a calfs tongue when boiled. The Indians cure bear
meat by cutting it up into long strips and placing it on a frame
work of poles, lighting a fire underneath so as to dry it in the
smoke, which process takes about two days, and if kept dry
afterwards in a proper place will keep for a year or more.
They never make use of the inside portions of the animal, viz. :
heart, liver, &. When they cook fresh meat they cut it up
into small pieces and fry it. The meat when partially smoked
we found much better boiled than fried, frying making it too
hard. The bones of the bear are salted down and used to put
into soup. The gall of the bear the Indians use for sprains
and wounds.

The Indians appear to be a very superstitious race of beings,
and the most trivial events cause anxiety. For instance, one
night the light of our fire attracted a little Acadian owl, (Séria
Acadica,) which perched on a branch close by, making its curious
noise. One of the Indians at once predicted that bad luck would
attend our expedition, and begged us to level a gun at the untor-
tunate bird, whose death alone could cast away the spell that
rested upon us.

One day we started with Peter Paul in a westerly direction
from the camp, and after travelling about two miles through
thick forest and swamps, we arrived on the borders of a good
sized lake with an outlet at its western end. On walking round,
we came upon a large beaver house, situate on the lake edge,
where the water was deep. The house appeared as if two cart
loads of faggots had been thrown down in a heap and flattened
above. Having no implements to enable us to take it asunder,
we were obliged to leave it as it was. Going still further down
the lake side we arrived at the outlet, which we found dammed
across by the beavers. It was constructed of sticks and mud,
overgrown with grass and weeds, the sticks laid over each other
ina line of lace work, almost entirely stopping the escape of the
lake water down the brook. There was an older dam below
this one about fifteen yards lower down the brook. The smaller

Ce ——

Ov JONES—ON THE BACKWOODS.

alders, poplars, and other trees near the dam, were cut short off
near the ground. This lake on its west side is muddy, with a
vigorous growth of rushes, sedges, &c. An island of about half
un acre, covered with spruce and pine, divided from the south
shore by a narrow passage, has upon its eastern side a very large
beaver house upon the shore, extending into the water. ‘The
house, or rather stack of sticks, is very large, built of larger sticks
than usual. In this great pile there must be several cart loads of
sticks and small logs, from the small twig up to pieces four inches
in diameter. Some pieces are several feet in length, while others
are only three or four inches long. The beaver pups early in
spring, having two cubs, but they are sometimes known to have
young in August. When the cubs are two years old they pair
and go off to another place. Leaver skins sell about Shelburne
now for four shillings sterling per pound, while some years ago
they sold for eighteen shillings per pound. A good skin will
weigh four pounds.

About Whetstone lake the robin, (Turdus migratorius,) was
very common, flocking together in large numbers at sundown on
the shore, picking up insect food. The hermit thrush, (7.
solitarius, ) well named so from its retired habits, occurred there
also, treating us as the shades of evening drew around, to its
plaintive note; and the spotted snake, ( Coluber sirtalis,) was
fond of sunning itself on the granite boulders by the lake side,
about mid-day. These boulders had been carried up from the
lake to their present position by the action of ice, for the course
they had travelled was clearly perceptible in the deep channel
which led from each of them to the bed of the lake.

After three days spent in this locality, we made a move to the
north-west, but had not proceeded far before some of our party
shot another bear, and we had to call a halt in order to skin him.
We had now arrived on the upper ridge of the granite plateau,
from which we had a magnificent view of the country around
for many miles on every side. And a wild and curious scene it
was. Allaround us lay a perfect wilderness of granite boulders,
from among which rose a dense growth of the blueberry and
huckleberry, and interspersed with thickets of dwarf spruce,
birch, and alder. The Labrador tea, (Ledum latifolium,) and

JONES—ON THE BACKWOODS: 57

a species of Myrica, were also abundant. Sthall lakes were
seen in every direction, and the shrill ery of the loon ( Colymbus
glacialis,) marked the breeding place of that shy and solitary
bird. Our camp here was an exceedingly primitive one—a few
small poles stuck against the side of an overhanging boulder,
-and covered with brushwood, was all that gave us shelter, but
the day’s toil sufficed to send us into a sound sleep, which was
only broken by the sharp frost of the early morning. On
awaking early I went out to survey the scene, which was indeed
lovely in the extreme. ‘The sun was just rising, illuminating
the eastern sky with glowing colours ; a flock of waxwings (Bom-
bycala Carolinensis;) sat preening their feathers on the bleached
branches of a blasted pine hard by, in company with a few
migratory thrushes, while a keen north-west wind was blowing,
bracing up the ‘nerves, and the whole country round became
gradually lit up to the life of another day.

We now travelled still upon the elevated table land, passing
here and there through some terribly swampy ground, covered
with moss, which sunk at every step, letting us up to the knees.
We were freighted with our heavy packs, and above all the
heavy green bear skins, and the work told upon all. Sometimes
our route lay over spots where, in addition to the mossy swamps.
fallen spruce and pine lay beneath with their dead sharp-pointed
spikes of branches sticking up, on which we occasionally got a
painful reminder ; but after all our trouble, about noon we gained
the summit of a high point of land, on which rested a huge
granite boulder, split into two pieces, under which was a large
well of delicious water. We gave this the name of ‘Split
Rock well.” Leaving this place, we arrived a little before sun-
down, near a stream which joined two large lakes. The stream
was deep and about twenty feet wide, and presenting a good
site we camped here. But at dusk three of us started for the
upper lake to see the beaver which Peter Paul told us he had
seen there some time back, when in company with an old Indian
he had visited it. We came cautiously upon its banks, and lay
down, looking and listening for the animals. In a short time,
at some distance, we could see in the twilight, ripple marks on
the surface, and presently a head or two moving about swimming

58 JONES—ON THE BACK WOODS..

in the direction of the opposite shore. We watched then eare-
fully and observed that the beavers coasted along shore, engaged
now and then in looking.for food, just as we have often seen the
water rat of HKugland do in a pond. After watching them for
some short time, we heard on our right where Peter Paul had
gone, a loud flap on the water, just as if a paddle had been
struck on the lake, and all signs of beaver vanished at once.
This we considered came from a sentinel beaver who, having
heard Paul coming in the direction of their head quarters, had
sounded this tocsin of alarm. Although we waited for some
time after this not a beaver could be seen.

The next day we travelled also along the table land in a
north-west direction, passing over much the same kind of land,
the spruce woods getting larger. I chased a porcupine for
about a hundred yards, when he took to a spruce tree some
twenty feet high and was killed. I noticed that the Indians
shaved the porcupine of his quills before carrying him. The
process is as follows :—taking a sharp knife, they shave from
tip of tail to head, and are extremely careful not to get any of
the small quills in their hands, as the puncture is very painful.
The old woman’s tale of a porcupine throwing its quills at a
person chasing it is untrue; the truth of the matter being, that
if a stick be presented to it, or any one attempts to handle it,
it immediately strikes the offender with its tail, driving the
smaller quills with such force as even to stick them firmly into
a piece of wood. The flesh of the porcupine is delicious, tender
and sweet, the tail when fried nicely being the choicest morsel.
We camped this night in dense woods by the side of a stream,
and having exhausted all our provisions, began to feel somewhat
alarmed that if we did not reach the settlement on the west or
Weymouth coast before long we should fare badly. I may say
that we fully expected to have struck some marks of civilization
at noon of the first day according to our reckoning, but on send-
ing an Indian up the highest trees, during the afternoon, he
only gave us the unwelcome intelligence, ‘* no sign clearing,
big woods all along.” The next morning early, we were deter-
mined to try our best to get out of our dilemma, and so it was:
decided that we should stow away all our goods and chattels,

JONES—ON THE BACKWOODS. a9

and leave them covered up with brauches, so that if we got out all
safe we might send in for them afterwards, there being but little
fear of robbery in such a situation. We therefore took with
us only a blanket and our guns, and being thus lightly burdened
we made good way. But after a long and tedious march until
anid-day we could strike no blaze, (7. e., the marks placed upon
trees by surveyors inthe back settlements, ) and we sat down to
rest and devour our last scrap of biscuit and a small tin of
chocolate among six, with anxious thoughts as to what would
constitute the next meal—off again, we traversed through thick
woods, descending all the time, and in a valley first discovered
an old blaze, which gave us fresh courage, and we contrived to
follow it for some distance, until to our horror we arrived on the
shore of a large lake, about midway from its extremities, so
there was nothing for it but to trudge, wearied as we were, all
round its lower end, which having been accomplished, we struck
out through the forest again by compass, no blaze being seen.
It was getting dark, and we had given up all hope of getting
out that night, when Peter Paul, who was some distance ahead,
called out, ‘‘road, road!” and on arriving at the spot, sure
enough there lay an old track, which following to the southward
till dark we came to an open spot surrounded by woods, in
which was a field of turnips and potatoes. We may be excused
when we say that we dispensed at this time with the ordinary
courtesies of society and allowed every one to help himself, and
a ludicrous sight it was to see six hungry individuals sitting in
the midst of a turnip patch refreshing themselves on the vege-
table esculents. An old shed, with large holes in the roof, stood
in one corner, and we adjourned to this, and making a fire,
roasted potatoes and made ourselves as comfortable as we could,
but the rain began to pour in torrents, and drenched and light-
less we passed a weary night. The morning, however, no
sooner dawned than we trudged down the road, and hearing the
sound of an axe we directed our course that way, and soon found
ourselves in the presence of a worthy settler, whose snug farm
house lay close by on the banks of the Sissiboo river, Digby
©o. A forlorn looking group indeed we must have appeared,
all tattered and torn as we were. after our hard travel over

lait ania

60 MYERS—ON METEOROLOGY.

mountain and swampy barren; but the heart of the worthy
Nova Scotian warmed towards us as he hurried us along to his
dwelling, and soon with his table groaning under the weight of
good fare, he bade us welcome to civilized life once more, and it
is almost needless to add, that while enjoying such welcome
hospitality, we soon forgot the weary tramp we had had during
that ever memorable ‘* Fortnight in the Backwoods of Shelburne
and Weymouth.”

Art. VII]. Nores on THe Weatuer aT Harirax, Nova
Scotia, DURING 1866. By CoLoneL Myers.
(Read March 4, 1867.)

January. The four first days of this month were mild, but
dull and rainy. On the 5th a sharp frost set in, which lasted
till the 9th, the thermometer standing during the night of the
6th, 7th, at 15° below zero. The remainder of the month was
in general fine and moderate. Mean temperature 20° being 2°
lower than that of the same month last year, and 5° below the
average of the three preceding years.

February began with very cold weather. On the night of
the 6th, 7th, the thermometer indicated 7° below zero, and on
the 8th the harbour was sufficiently frozen to admit of persons
crossing over on fhe ice, the ferry boats being unable to ply.
On the 11th a rapid thaw occurred, and the ice broke up on the
following day. The weather to the end of the month continued
mild for the season, with some high winds from the southward, and
rain. Mean temperature 25°, being 1° above that of 1865, and
of the average of three preceding years.

March was ushered in with a strong gale from the north-east,
but of short continuance. The month was generally cold and
disagreeable, and towards the end of it very stormy, with snow
and rain. Mean temperature 29°, 5° below that of 1865, but
corresponding exactly with the average of three preceding years.

April. Some stormy weather at the commencement of this
month, and a heavy gale from south-west on the morning of the
25th, but the month generally fine. Mean temperature 40o, the
same as last year, but in excess of the average of three preceding
years by 2°,

MYERS—ON METEOROLOGY. 6]

May. This month was characterized by cold and backward
weather, with much rain and occasional snow squalls. On the
ith the North-west Arm was skimmed over with ice. Mean
temperature 47°, was 7° below that of the same month last year,
and 1° below the average of the three preceding years.

June. Rain fell on twelve days during this month, but for
the most part in light showers, and the weather was in general
fine and warm. Mean temperature 56°, being 2° below last
year, but exactly agreeing with the average of the three preced-
ing years.

July. Calm fine weather prevailed during this month. It
was remarkable in the United States by long continuance, as
well as for intensity of heat. Within a period of eleven days
the thermometer rose five times to 95° and upwards, reaching at
New Haven, on the 13th, to 1033° in the shade; the highest
temperature known to have been observed at that place for
eighty-nine years. Here the highest noted was 87° on the 13th,
the mean temperature being 61°, 1° in excess of 1865, and 1°
below the average of three preceding years.

August had more rain than usual, but there was some beauti-
ful weather during the month. Mean temperature 62°, 1° below
1865, and two below the average of the three preceding years.

September. Much unsettled weather this month, with heavy
rains, but remarkably free from the high winds which often
prevail at this period of the year. Mean temperature 58°, 1°
above that of last year, and the average of the three preceding.

October. A beautiful month, clear and dry during three
weeks, very favorable to farm work. The fine weather began
to break up in the last week, when it became cold and stormy,
with rain and sleet. Mean temperature 45°, 1° above 1865, 2°
below the three years average.

November. Generally fine, and free from stormy weather
till towards the end of the month, when gales occurred. Mean
temperature 38°, being 1° below that of 1865, and the three
years average.

December. The ordinary winter weather prevailed this
month, with more snow than usual. We were visited by a sharp
gale from the south-west on the 28rd, and a still heavier one

————— ee

62 MYERS—ON METEOROLOGY.

from the south-east, on the 27th. Our neighbours in New
Brunswick and United States, appeared, from newspaper reports, -
to have suffered more severely from these gales, than ourselves.
Mean temperature 28°, 4° above 1865, and 2° above the three
years average.

The highest temperature noted in the shade was 89°, on 26th
June.

The lowest temperature noted in the shade was 15°, night of
6th, 7th, January.

The highest monthly range, 59° in February.

The lowest monthly range, 31°, in August.

The range for the year, 104°.

The hottest month was August. The coldest January.

The mean temperature of the year 42°.

The highest reading of the barometer during the year was
30.36, on 17th February.

The lowest reading of the barometer during the year was
28.79, on 2nd May.

The mean for the year 29.62.

The highest monthly range was 1.24, in April.

The lowest monthly range was .32, in February.

The yearly range 1.57.

The most prevalent winds during the year were north-west
and south-west.

The least prevalent winds during the year were east.

Rain fell on 134 days.

Snow fell on 52 days.

Hail fell on 3 days.

Fog prevalent on 61 days.

Aurore Boreales were observed on 33 nights.

Solar halos were observed on 8 days.

Lunar halos were observed on 12 nights.

Thunder storms occurred on 22d April, 28th June, 4th, and
night of 23d, 24th, August, and 23d November.

Lightning was seen, but no thunder heard on 6th July.

Thunder heard but no lightning seen 20th June, 8th, 10th,
13th August, and 22d September.

A fine Parhelion was visible for about an hour, from 5 o’clock,
p- m., on the 9th June.

MYERS—ON METEOROLOGY. 63

The latest snow in the Spring, fell on 15th May. The earliest
seen in the Autumn, was on the 14th October.

The mean temperature of the winter of 1865
1866, deduced from three daily observations, was
23°, with a range of 67° from 15° below, to 52°
above zero.
Winter The mean pressure of the atmosphere was 29.66,
with a range of 1.85 from 28.51 to 30.36.
ie Rain fell on 23 days—three in excess of the aver-
age of the three preceding years. Snow fell on
26 days—three less than the average of three preced-
ing years.

The mean temperature of the spring of 1866 was
39°, with a range of 60° from 10° to 70°.

The mean pressure of the atmosphere was 29.52,
with a range of 1.45 from 28.79 to 30.24.

Rain fell on 37 days—three in excess of the aver-
age of three preceding years. Snow fell on 17 days
—six in excess of average of three preceding years-

| Hail fell on 1 day.
( The mean temperature of the Summer. was 60°,
| with a range of 50° from 39° to 89°.

The mean pressure of the atmosphere 29.61, with
a range of 76 from 29.13 to 29.89.

Rain fell on 38 days—exceeding the average of

three preceding years by five.

The mean temperature of the Autumn was 47°,
with a range of 51° from 23° to 74°.

The mean pressure of the atmosphere was 29.69,

Autumn.< with a range of .84 from 29.24 to 30.08.
Rain fell on 37 days—one in excess of the average
of the three preceding years. Snow fell on 5 5 days
—one less than average of three preceding years.

An examination of the table (to be found in the Appendix, )
of the mean temperature and atmospheric pressure of the several
seasons during the past four years, together with what has just
been stated, will at once show how very little each season varies
year by year. The winter is seldom too rigorously cold;
the unpleasant weather, which sometimes occurs in spring, is not
of long continuance, while the summer and early months of the
autumn are, with rare exceptions, invariably delightful. Indeed
Halifax with its fine healthy climate—with ‘its facilities for the

Spring.

Summer.

64 MYERS—ON METEOROLOGY.

erection of bathing establishments, so much needed,—and witts
the many inducements it already has, or might be made to
possess, cannot fail, by and by, when the extension of railroads
will render it more easy of access by land, to attract not a few
of the many excursionists; who annually flock to the north to
escape from the extreme heat of their southern residence.

On reviewing the past year it appears that part of the winter
of 1865-1866 was of more than ordinary severity. On the
night of 6th-7th January the thermonieter fell to 15° below zero,
not having reached a lower degree than 10° below zero during
three preceding years; but the mean temperature was only
1° below that of the same period. It is remarkable, with regard
to the freezing over of the harbour, as noted in February, that
what a temperature of 15° below zero in January failed to
accomplish, was afterwards, in February, effected when the
thermometer indicated only 7° below zero; but it must be borne
in mind that the combination of two conditions of the weather
is required, viz: a perfect calm with a certain low state of the
temperature, without which the harbour does not freeze ; and to
this may perhaps be attributed the infrequency of what was
witnessed last winter; such an event completely interrupting the
navigation of the harbour, not having, as far as I can ascertain,
occurred oftener than five times during the past 55 years, viz: in
February, 1866, 1859, 1839, 1854, 1821.

The Spring, though cold and backward, was not altogether
unfavourable to the farmer. The summer was remarkable for
its intense heat in some parts of this continent lying to the
westward of Halifax, especially the month of July, as previously
noted, but here the mean temperature did not exceed that of
three preceding years. There was more rain thari usual. The
hay harvest, to those who were fortunate enough to house it
early, was good; but the weather proved unfavourable to the
later crops, and much was got in ina bad condition, and much
entirely lost—other crops promised well at the end of summer ;
but there was a change at the commencement of autumn, and
the very unsettled rainy weather of September, seemed for
a time to endanger them. A fine dry October, however,
removed all anxiety, and the generally good harvest was at last

MYERS—-ON METEOROLOGY. 65
the subject of much thankfulness. The days of rain in 1866
were two less than 1865, but the quantity that fell must have
been greatly in excess, though not possessing nor having had
access to an ombrometer or rain-guage, I cannot speak with
accuracy. There were some heavy freshets which did much
damage throughout the Province. There were twenty gules of
wind during the past year, for the most part moderate, and
lasting but a few hours. Aurore boreales were of less frequency
than usual, and deficient in brilliancy and beauty. The few
thunder storms that’ occurred were neither violent nor of long
endurance. There were also fewer halos than recorded. in
former years.

The following periodic phenomena were observed during the
year. March 13th, small ‘‘ song sparrow” heard to sing,—
14th, lilac buds beginning to develope themselves in gardens in
town,—17th, huckleberry in bud,—18th, full blown mayflower
plucked in the Tower woods,—25th, flock of seven wild geese
observed going south-east,—31st, lilac in bud at the Dutch
village.

April 7th, robin first heard singing,—9th, frog (Rana fon-
tinalis) first heard to croak at 2 p. m.—14th, blue hawk seen
about poultry yards, and water spider on ponds,—15th, clover
in leaf,—16th, swallows first seen at the Dutch village,—18th,
golden-winged woodpecker chuckles,—19th, first peep of the
frog (Hylodes pickeringti) heard,—22nd, hermit thrush first
heard,—29th, scutch grass five inches high; crowfoot, dande-
lion, dock and strawberry in full leaf.

May 1st, hacmatac and withrod bursting into leaf; humble-
bees about,—érd, king-fisher at Downs’ pond; white violet in
flower,—6th, wild rose coming into leaf,—10th, black flies
appear and very troublesome on the 12th,—13th, strawberries
in bloom,—25th, French willow in leaf and flower,—27th, spider
webs shew on dewy mornings,—28th, balsam poplar in full leaf ;
dandelion in seed,—29th, wild cherry coming into blossom.

June 21st, white weed in flower. ;

October 6th, ash and birch leaves killed by frost; maple
leaves begin to turn in moist spots,—18th, black birch leaves

begin to turn,—24th, leaves of the beech all turned brown,—
ae Daag

66 MYERS—ON METEOROLOGY.

25th, shore lark in flocks about Halifax; all the leaves of the
red maple off,—27th, beeches stripped of leaves.

Nov’r. Ist, leaves of apple trees still green,—8rd, hacmatac
leaves all turned yellow.

I cannot close these remarks without adverting to the grand
meteoric display which was the object of such universal expec-
tation last November, unhappily to be disappointed here by the
prevalence of cloudy weather at that interesting period. The
night of the 11th November was hazy ; that of the 12th overeast,
with heavy rain, which encouraged a hope that it would clear
off before the next night,—the eventful 13th, 14th,—but no; for
cloudy and overcast weather was continuous till the 17th.
Judging from my personal observations, the atniosphere on the
night of the 13th, 14th was densely opaque, not affording the
slightest glimpse of what was going on above. The local news-
papers reported a few meteors having been seen through
occasional breaks in the clouds, but nothing worthy of note. From
accounts received from places more fortunate, we were made
keenly sensible of what we lost in not having been permitted to
view the wondrous display. At the Royal Observatory, Green-
wich, no less than seven thousand meteors were counted between
11 p. m. of the 13th, and 5 a. m. of the 14th—of which four
thousand occurred between one and two o’clock a. m. of the 14th.
The London ‘‘ Times” of 15th November noticed that an ob-
server at Highgate, from a window of circumscribed view facing
north-north-east, counted one hundred meteors in the four
minutes between 12.32 and 12.37, and two hundred in the two
minutes between 12.57 and one o’clock a. m. of the 14th. The
meteors were of various colours, orange, green, &c., their trails
of a bluish cast; their paths of divergence apparently from a
point within the constellation ‘‘ Leo.” Their course generally
irregular; those which shot from east to west seemingly larger
and more brilliant than the others.

It would be foreign to this unpretending paper to discuss the
various theories concerning meteors which have from time to
time been advanced and discarded—of their origin and nature,
and of the laws by which they are governed, much has yet to be
learned; but of the accuracy of the prediction of the return of

AMBROSE—ON ST. MARGARET'S BAY FISHING GROUNDS. 67

showers of meteors every thirty-three years little doubt can now
be entertained. The confirmation of these forecast last Novem-
ber, with the fine opportunity afforded in England for observing
the phenomenon, will, it may be hoped, assist science in further
unravelling the mystery in which these erratic bodies have been
shrouded, from the ages of ignorance and superstition when they
were locked upon with terror as portents of coming evil, to the
present day, in which they are better understood ; but whatever
may be the addition to the knowledge already possessed of these
wonderful bodies to be obtained from the numerous simultaneous
observations taken on the night of the 13th—14th Nov. last,
man will find himself still, as it were, only at the very threshold
of the Great Creator’s sublime works, the amazing profundity
of which time itself will prove too short, and the most powerful
human intellect too feeble, entirely to fathom.

Art. VIII. OpsERvaTIoNS ON THE FisHING GROUNDS AND
Fish or St. Maraaret’s Bay, N. S.,—Continued. By
Rev. JOHN AMBROSE.

(Read March 4, 1867.)

In resuming my account of the Fishes of St. Margaret’s Bay, I
shall commence with the pollack. These fish—the full grown
ones—strike into the Bay in June, and leave about the last of
November. The young ones come much earlier. Their food is
the same as that of the cod, but the most taking bait is some-
thing white and shining, such as a strip cut from the belly of the
herring or mackerel. In the summer months they delight in the
rough shoal water off the points or promontories where different
currents meet. In such places a dexterous angler with strong
salmon-gear and a whitish fly, may in the month of July kill
many more fish in a given time, and enjoy very nearly as good
sport, as among the salmon in our best streams. There is one of
these ‘‘ pollack-rips ”—as they are called—within a mile of my
residence, and in passing in my boat I often rest on my oars or
lay-to to watch the gambols of those lively fish, as on all sides
they leap out of water in pursuit of their insect prey. In row-
ing down through a narrow channel between Dover and Blind

68 AMBROSE

ON ST. MARGARET'S BAY FISHING GROUNDS.

Bay, on one occasion, I saw a middle-sized pollack chasing a
whiting whose air-bladder was filled and could not be discharged,
so that the poor fish—(as is often the case with this species in
the month of September)—was obliged to skim along the sur-
face with its head partially out of water. It made wonderful
progress, however, in its endeavours to escape from its would-be
murderer, but all in vain, for despite the shouting of my little
boys who sympathised with the weaker party, the pollack at
length made a vigorous jump at the fugitive, and all was over.

In all the coves and harbours around the lower parts of this
Bay, where much garbage is thrown into the water, large num-
bers of young pollack are always to be found throughout the
fishing season, varying from one to three or four pounds in
weight. They are very voracious,—always ready for the bait
thrown to them by the boys, and not at all squeamish at the sight
of hook or line. Numbers of them are caught by the children
and boiled for the pigs. These small pollack are famous sca-
vengers, and with the help of the sea-fleas (a minute kind of
shrimp) rid the coves of much offensive matter which would
otherwise prove detrimental to the health of the fishermen. He
who ‘‘ openeth His hand and filleth all things living with plen-
teousness ” is, as of old, careful that nothing be lost, providing at
once for the health and sustenance of all His creatures.

There are ‘‘ logy ” fish among pollack, but as they are always
full-grown and show no signs of organic disease, it may be pre-
sumed that old age is the cause of their sluggishness.

Pollack are caught here for the West India market, but—
although very palatable when fresh and properly cooked—they
are, like the spotted codling and haddock, very little used
as food by our people. The mode of curing them adopted
here is the same as that for cod, haddock, &e. They spawn in
this Bay in October. The liver of the pollack is large and fat.

The lordly halibut next claims our attention, though he can
scarcely be said any longer to belong to this Bay. Within the
memory of our oldest fishermen, halibut were caught on the
«< oravelly ground” off the settlement of ‘* sandy beaches,” now
called Bayswater,—as also off Peggy’s Cove,—but for many
years they have been but very rarely taken anywhere near the

AMBROSE—ON ST. MARGARET’S BAY FISHING FROUNDS. 69

mouth of the Bay. The ‘ bank,” thirty miles broad off Aspo-
togan, is now the ground where our people seek the halibut,
Here—on clear, sandy bottom, in deep water, he lives and fattens
by minding his own business and avoiding society ; for except
when the company of his species is a necessity, he is by no means

gregarious in his habits. He feeds as well by night as by day,

and haddock is his favourite food when he can get it. His inter-
ested friend, the fisherman, having discovered his weakness on
this point, suspends the coveted tit-bit as near the bottom as pos-
sible, for like all flat fishes the halibut seeks the lowest levels.

There are logies among halibut, both old and young, but these
are mostly wounded fish. The liver in this, as in all other sick
fishes, shrinks and turns of a dark colour.

Halibut nine feet in length have been taken by our fishermen.

Whiting come into the Bay about the first of September, and
are then in fine condition. Last year they were more plentiful
than for a long time before, and came into the Bay in June.
They are not very plenty here, and are becoming more scarce.
No special endeavour is made to catch them, as our people have
a prejudice against them, fancying them unfit for food. They
mesh in the mackerel and herring nets,—sometimes as many as
adozeninanet. Mr. James 8. Kizer caught one with a hook,
when fishing for cod, as have also several others. As they are
frequently cast back into the water when taken half-strangled
out of the nets, this may account for the numbers of them which
are seen skimming along on the top of the water, unable to
descend to more agreeable depths.

As my design is to give our edible fishes the first place, I must
now pass by a large class of interesting fishes of a larger size,
and take up the king of our barrel-fish. |

THe Mackeren. This fish is caught, more or less, in all the
harbours and coves in and around the Bay,—7. e., when it is
caught at all, for of late years mackerel fishing here has proved
very disastrous to all connected with it. In days gone by,
fortunes were rapidly made by the seining of these fish, and our
people, especially those of French descent, can scarcely be
persuaded to enter upon the more slow but sure net and line
fisheries. Various reasons are alleged for the very irregular

70 AMBROSE—ON ST. MARGARET’S BAY FISHING GROUNDS.

and scanty visits of the mackerel to these, their old haunts.
One is the practice of catching them with the hook until late in
the autumn in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. There thousands of
barrels of choice bait are daily thrown to the expectant
schools of mackerel by the many crews of American and other
fishermen, and thus like flocks or herds of shore animals, the
immense schools of these fish are detained by choice and plenti-
ful fare until very far beyond the old time in autumn, when
their custom was to leave the Gulf of St. Lawrence and trim
along these shores on their western course. When they do
come now, their arrival is so late, that the frequent storms of
autumn, in many cases, prevent the seining of them at the outer
and more favourable stations. In support of this theory our
fishermen affirm that in the year 1856, when H. M.S. Styx
prevented the Americans from fishing in the Gulf of St.
Lawrence, the mackerel ran out of the strait of Canseau and
along these shores at their old season, a much earlier period
than usual, trimmed the shores much closer, and were
caught in far larger quantities and of a better quality than
common, all owing to the earlier and therefore calmer season
at which their visit to this Bay occurred. At all events, I am
credibly informed that in that autumn mackerel were taken
here with their mouths torn by the hook before the Styx inter-
fered with their would-be captors.

The first run of mackerel strike in here about the 15th of
May, and in one night will strike the shore for over a hundred
miles in extent, where not one was seen the day before. From
this fact some of our fishermen infer, that this first run comes in
directly from sea, and not coast-wise from the westward. After
striking the shore, they run eastwardly in immense schools, and
for several days in calm weather the whole surface of the ocean
outside of the mouth of the Bay, as far as the eye can reach, is
blue with the ‘‘break” of them, running with the mouth open and
partially out of water, in pursuit of ‘< britt,” a semi-transparent
fish, about an inch long, with eyes very large in proportion to
the size of its body, and thence called ‘* eye-bait ” by most of
our fishermen. At this season those britt swim along the sur-
face of the water. This first run of mackerel, which are No. 3's.

ied

ST. MARGARET'S BAY FISHING GROUNDS. 7i

has of late years never struck in very plentifully, and in the
needy time of spring, when with their winter stores spent, our
fishermen with hungry eyes watch these swarming millions
sweeping past their shores, I have often stood on the cliffs at
Peggy’s Cove and Dover and thought that some sort of net, with
widely stretched arms and a net-work floor, might be moored off
by our people in calm weather. Into this the fish might un-
warily enter, like the wild animals of Africa, into a gradually
contracting enclosure, where a dexterous manceuvre on the part
of the watchers suddenly shuts them in. In consequence of
running open-mouthed at this season, the fish will not mesh in
a net. |

The second run of mackerel strike in about the middle of
June or first of July, still running eastwardly. They are No.
3’s, and trim the shore when the wind is southerly. June and
July are their spawning months, and it is not unlikely that their
old spawning grounds are the smooth bottoms along these shores,
whence, like the herring, they may have been driven by the
sweeping of the seines. But as the wanderings of fish are large-
ly influenced by the movements of food, and as the food of one
sort seek for an entirely different food for themselves, it may be
discovered that causes little suspected may in a remote but sure
way influence the run of our sea fish. It may eventually appear
that it is not the salmon, the cod, the hake, the haddock and the
pollack alone that are suffering diminution, or are kept from
their old haunts by the damming of our streams. It is not, in
the end, profitable to disturb the arrangements of a beneficent
and -all-wise Providence.

The third run of mackerel takes place about the first of Au-
gust. These have no spawn in them and are running westward-
ly. It is the opinion of many that these are not returning from
the Gulf of St. Lawrence but from sea, and it may be vilen a
portion of the immense schools passing eastwardly in spring
strikes off to some favourite bank outside, to deposit the spawn.
Or there may be a sort that never go as far east or west as the
others, but winter. along our shores, for mackerel have been
brought up from the muddy bottoms of some of our outer coves
by persons spearing for eels through holes in the ice. Or again,

72 AMBROSE—ON ST. MARGARET’S BAY FISHING GROUNDS:

as there are exceptions to all rules, and as there are many indi-
viduals among migratory birds which separate from the main
flocks and remain here for the winter, so it may be with their
cousins* the fishes. There is yet much to be learned by careful
observation,—and a record of apparently trifling circumstances,
such as is often found in the transactions of Natural History
Societies, may in the end lead to discoveries of great value to
commerce.

Many mackerel in August are found to have a strong coppery
taste, and to produce symptoms of poisoning in those who eat
them. Our fishermen attempt to account for this by the suppo-
sition, that somewhere off at sea the fish have been feeding on the
sides of submarine hills containing copper ore. This reminds
me of an anecdote in the London Guardian of January 17;
1866. <«* In the aquarium of the Liverpool Museum are several
live soles. The bottom is covered with an abundance of the
pretty little variously coloured pebbles found in the Isle of
Wight, the forms and parti-colours of which those soles have so
completely adopted, that when one is lying quite flat and still upon
the surface, it is with the utmost difficulty the mere looker-on can
distinguish the back of the creature from the strata on which he
is reposing. He is, in fact, spotted all over with the colour and
form of the pebbles.” So far the Guardian. Cod and many
other fish are also well known to be dark, light, or parti-coloured
according to the deep, shoal, or rock and sand bottom to which
they resort. It is not, therefore, altogether improbable that
either from their situation or their food, mackerel at times obtain
this peculiar coppery taste. They are at any time unwholesome
for pigs if eaten raw, and in this they differ from the common
sort of fish. . Fishermen attribute this unwholesome quality when —
eaten raw to the blood of the fish.

The third run of mackerel are mostly No. 2 fat, with some
No. 1’s among them. They trim close to the shore when the
wind is north-west or north, and sometimes run up as far as
Mill Cove, thence running out along the west side of the Bay.

About the first of October the large, fat No. 1 mackerel
begin to arrive, heading westwardly, coming from the Gulf of

* Gen, i. 20.

AMBROSE-——ON ST. MARGARET'S BAY FISHING GROUNDS. 73

St. Lawrence. The first arrivals are generally but small de-
tachments cf the main body, which passes along from the first to
the last of November. As the mode of capturing these fish is
vividly described by Dr. Gilpin in the last year’s Transactions of
this Society, I need not dwell upon this part of the subject fur-
ther than to remark, that attempts are very seldom made here to
catch mackerel with the hook. When this system is tried it is
only with No. 3 fish in June and July. The best bait is a piece
of the belly of the mackerel, for these fish are terrible cannibals,
and will in a moment tear to pieces and devour an unfortunate
wounded companion. When in a seine for any length of time,
all that mesh are eaten by the rest. Here also another pecu-
liarity is observed. During and immediately after a heavy
shower—unless frightened by thunder—the mackerel in a seine
will rise to the surface to drink and bask in the fresh water,
which, of course, for a little time, remains on top. For the
same reasor these fish sometimes ‘‘ show” or break water better
in rainy than in fine weather.

It is also observed by our fishermen, that in time of drought
in the early part of the summer, mackerel trim the shore better
than in a rainy season, and from this they infer that they are
seeking the fresh water of the brooks and rivers.

The food of these fish is sea-fleas, young herring and
alewives, britt, or eye-bait, &c. As young alewives are a
favourite bait for them, the damming of our rivers, by which
the propagation of these fishes is prevented, is no doubt one
cause of the scarcity of mackerel in our bays of late years.

The possibility of making large hauls and speedy gains in-
vests mackerel fishing with a charm, which like an ignis-fatuus
leads many a fisherman to his ruin. Many have already left
the Bay, deprived of house and home by their creditors; but
others remain, encouraged by an occasional instance of great
success, like that which a few years ago befel one of my parish-
ioners. Year after year had this man been sinking deeper and
deeper in debt, until one autumn his merchant in Halifax,
wearied out, refused to credit him with winter supplies for his
family. Bursting into tears, the poor man turned homewards

to meet his needy and helpless wife and children, but on his
10

ee ee

74 AMBROSE—-ON ST. MARGARET'S BAY FISHING GROUNDS.

way called at Dover to superintend the storing of his fishing-
gear for the winter. Casting his desponding eyes over the
Cove in front of his stage, he was delighted to see a large school
of mackerel entering the passage. An eager crew sprang into
the seine-boat, and in a few minutes our poor fisherman found
himself the owner of eight thousand dollars worth of prime
No. 1’s. In a few days he presented himself again to his mer-
chant, again craved supplies, was again refused, and then
suddenly changing his tone demanded his bill, paid the aston-
ished merchant in full, and ordered and paid for a plentiful
supply for the winter. One of the prettiest cottages in the
parish is pretty much all that remains to him now of that famous
haul, succeeded as it has been by many years of failure.

A very considerable proportion of the catch of mackerel is
annually lost to the Province, by the very careless method of
curing and packing too frequently followed on our shores. In
the first place they are often left too long exposed to the sun and
the air, before salting, and for this cause many barrels of Nova
Scotia mackerel are every year condemned in foreign markets.
Another evil is the insufficiency of the barrels used by too many
fishermen. ‘Two hundred pounds of No. 1. fish, worth from $12
to $15, and sometimes even $20, are too often packed into a
barrel costing twenty-five or thirty cents, made of knotty and

-unseasoned stuff, and therefore dear even at that price. These

barrels bear no rough handling, soon shrink and lose the
pickle, the contents are spoiled, and the character.of our fish
is depreciated in comparison with those of other countries.

But time urges me on, and I must close with a few notes on
the Herring.

Of these there are several varieties. The first run in the
spring after the fishing commences, are called the ‘ Bank
herring.” They are large and fat, and occasionally come in
shore, but are generally caught on the banks and shoals off the
coast, about the first of May. These are thought by some of
our fishermen to be the sort called Labrador herring, as they
come in large bodies from the westward, and are always at this
season heading eastwardly, as if returning to their north-eastern
home. They are full of ‘ britt” or ‘‘ eye-bait,” and when the

re

é
AMBROSE-—ON ST. MARGARET’S BAY FISHING GROUNDS. 7)

wind sets in southerly, and drives these little bait-fish towards
the shore, the herring always follow them. Several years some-
times pass by without a visit shorewards from these bank herring,
but they are sometimes plenty, as many as twenty barrels being
taken in a single night by a ‘fleet of nets,”—7. e., two nets
fastened together, and making a total length of forty fathoms,
with a depth of one hundred and fifty meshes. The north wind
causes these fish to seek bottom, and move off the coast. When
shrimp are driven on shore by the winds and currents, these
herring strike in in large schools. The tide and currents exercise
a stronger influence over the shrimp bait than the wind. About
the latter part of May, immense quantities of shrimps are some-
times driven ashore in our outer coves.

The next run comes in July, and consists of what are called
‘¢shore herring.” They are of smaller size than the ‘‘ bank
herring,” and are fat. This run heads westwardly. They trim
the shore, and a west wind is the most favourable for their visits.
In calm weather they generally keep to bottom, depositing their
spawn on the smooth sand, but when the weather is rough, they
run nearer the surface. By the first or middle of September,
their spawning season is over, and the fish are poor. Scattering
fish are found all through the year, with spawn in them. In
November, about the last of the month, they leave the Bay for
a time, but revisit it during the winter. Considerable numbers
are taken in nets during winter, in coves with muddy bottoms.
In the latter part of January, and throughout February of this
year, herring were observed schooling in the bay, and grampuses
in considerable numbers, gave sure evidence of the presence of
their favourite food.

But in summer the dog-fish appears to be the principal dis-
turber of the herring’s designs. These voracious creatures are
very gregarious, and are mostly found in a well-arranged host,
either inside or outside of the school of herring. Fishermen
say that the north wind is poison to a dog-fish. If, therefore,
the dog-fish are between the herring and the shore, the north
wind will cause both hosts to leave for deep water. And so, on
the other hand, if the dog-fish be outside of their prey, a south-
erly wind will bring both in shore.

76 HONEYMAN—ON GEOLOGY OF GAY’S RIVER GOLD FIELD.

It will be unnecessary for me to say anything on the relative
modes of dressing the herring, as practiced here where they are
frequently spoiled, and in Holland, where the very superior mode
of treatment gives them a delicious flavour. This has been
fully explained by T. F. Knight, Esq., in his valuable pamphlet.
One remark, however, I may venture with reference to the bar-
rels in which our Nova Scotia herrings are too frequently packed.
They are not only defective in material, but faulty in size, for
many of them are too large, so that the fish working loose, be-
come softened and spoil in long voyages to warm climates.

A good system of inspection of both fish and packages, is a
great desideratum in this Province. A Chief Inspector,
thoroughly competent to teach our fishermen the best and most
improved systems of catching and curing fish, would prove a
very valuable officer, if possessed of zeal and tact. His salary
should be paid out of the public revenue, and not by the fisher-
men, who would also be expected to pay the deputy inspectors.
I am very glad to see that Mr. Knight’s pamphlet strongly
recommends the encouragement of Fishing Societies by the
Government, in the same way as Agricultural Societies, and for
similar ends, viz.: the improvement of implements and modes
of labour. By such wise and generous means as these shall a
great branch of industry be fostered, which shall not only add
vastly to the material wealth and naval importance of this
country, but will impart a tinge of manliness, hardihood, and
enterprise, which will ennoble its national character for all time.

Art. IX. Tur Grotocy or Gay’s River GoLp FIELp.

By Rev. D. Honeyman, D.C. L., F. G.S.

(Read Dec. 3, 1866.)

Tuts peculiarly interesting Gold Field is situate on either
side of the old Gay’s river road, and about four miles from
Gay’s river and Stewiacke river, or intermediate between those
two rivers. Approaching it from the west, my attention was
first specially attracted by an outerop of lower carboniferous lime-
stone, containing the fossils characteristic of this horizon. This
occurs on the roadside. Advancing, I observed argillite strata

HONEYMAN—ON GEOLOGY OF GAY’S RIVER GOLD FIELD. 77

crossing the road in numerous outcrops, shewing that we had
passed from the lower carboniferous into the horizon of our
gold fields. At a short distance to the left of the road, gold
diggings are observed.

Passing onward we still meet with outcrops of argillite, and
other diggings appear nearer the road and on the same side of
it, and then on the right side: and at a little distance from the
road there is a brook with a saw-mill, where other diggings are
to be seen. Farther on we still find an outcrop of argillite, and
then we evidently pass again into the lower carboniferous, as I
observed, about two miles distance from the last argillite out-.
crop, plaster pits on either side of the road, and succeeding
these at some distance, an outcrop of sandstone. We have thus.
on this road a geological section, showing a lower silurian:
centre, succeeded on either side by lower carboniferous rocks.
My attention was chiefly directed to the first of the diggings
referred to. In the examination of these I received valuable:
aid from Mr. Gay, to whom I am indebted for much of the
information which I am now to communicate. On examining
the excavations made, I found an extension of the argillite, which
I have referred to as outcropping on the road, unconformably
overlaid by a thick stratum of conglomerate of undoubted lower
carboniferous age, and the latter in turn overlaid by a thick
accumulation of drift material. The argillite underlying the
conglomerate exactly resembles the slates of many of our pro--
ductive gold fields, being of a greenish hue and greasy touch..
It is inclined at the usual high angle. The conglomerate
reposes on the edges of argillite, appearing to dip slightly
in a direction opposite to the dip of the former strata. This
conglomerate is of variable coarseness, and a slight examination
of its composition is sufficient to show that this locality was, so
to speak, an ‘‘ Ovens” in the lower carboniferous era,—that it
was a beach on which the shingle of the period accumulated,
derived from the argillites, quartzites, quartz, and granites of
the lower silurian period,—that the shingle was cemented by
the ferruginous constituents of the same rock, decomposed by
the chemical action of the salts of this ancient sea. The con-
glomerate is composed of slate, quartzites, quartz, mica, felspar

ee ee ee ee

78 HONEYMAN—ON GEOLOGY OF GAY'S RIVER GOLD FIELD.

(?) and oxide of iron and gold. The pieces of slate imbedded
in this conglomerate are often large and angular; the quartzite
and quartz sometimes occur in boulders; the mica is grey and

glistening; the oxide of iron gives to the mass a rusty hue,

which is now and then varied by the lustre of the precious
metal.

In illustration of the cementing process to which I have al-
ready referred, I may observe that a modern example may be seen
at Sydney Mines, Cape Breton. In 1861, when examining the
section of carboniferous rocks on the shore, my attention was
attracted to a conglomerate on the beach, at the mouth of a level
belonging to one of the mines. The water flowing from this
level is highly ferruginous; it flows into the gravel which is
also washed by the sea, and a cementation of the gravel and
sand is the result, and the conglomerate referred to is being
formed. I would now direct attention to the position of the
gold. It is found in the argillite, according to Mr. Gay’s state-
ment, and in the drift, and it is found in the conglomerate, as
the specimens before us strikingly indicate. When it occurs in
the argillite it is embedded in debris inserted in former openings
of the strata in the line of strike, or at right angles to it; the
debris in the latter being generally the more productive.
Auriferous quartz leads have not yet been found in the slate,
although there can be little doubt that the gold has been derived
from such a source.

The gold found here is generally connected with the con-

glomerate. This conglomerate is said to be in some places
about thirty feet in thickness, but while it is considered that

gold may be found throughout the mass, it is found occurring
chiefly at the bottom of the conglomerate, or where it rests on
the argillite. This is easily accounted for: when the original
gravel was washed by the sea, the superior density of the gold
would cause it to settle at and towards the bottom. In speci-
men 1, the gold appears on the edges of the argillite upon which
the conglomerate has rested. In 2, 3, it is on the smooth side
of the conglomerate, which was originally in contact with the
argillite ; and in 4, it was also near the argillite. I was informed
that gold is also found in the drift. This is not at all unlikely,

HONEYMAN—ON GEOLOGY OF GAY’S RIVER GOLD FIELD. 7%

as this is mainly derived {from the underlying and associated
rocks.

The degree of richness of the conglomerate described is
likely soon to be thoroughly tested, as a crushing mill, in course:
of erection in the locality, is expected soon to be in operation.

_ These observations conclusively show that the great upheaval
of the granite, quartzite, argillite and auriferous quartz, was an
event prior to the formation of even the lowest member of our
carboniferous system. This fact is established by the evidence:
of composition of the lower carboniferous conglomerate, and
its unconformability with the underlying argillite. Now the
geological age of the former is established by the fossiliferous
limestone of the section. What, may be asked, is the geologi-
cal age of the argillite? Does it belong to the age immediately
preceding the lower carboniferous, or is there here a break in
succession? We are accustomed ever since Dr. Dawson wrote
his classical work, Acadia. Geology, to style the argillite in
question, and its associate quartzite, as lower silurian. Is this
incontrovertibly the age of these sedimentary strata? Compara-
tive lithology has hitherto been the only method of determination
available, and Dr. Dawson has certainly very ingeniously applied
the method. On examining Prof. Ramsay’s admirable catalogue
of the rocks of Great Britain, in the Museum of Practical
Geology, Jermyn St., London, and comparing our own with the
descriptions there given, I have for some time arrived at the
conclusion that as far as mineral structure is concerned, our
rocks in question, may either be devonian or lower silurian. If,
however, Prof. Jukes has succeeded in his recent attempt to
demonstrate that the so called devonian rocks of England, which
have given the term to geology, are after all silurian, Dr. Daw-
son’s comparison may be considered as legitimate and conclusive,
I would adduce another argument in confirmation of the opinion
that the formation in question is lower silurian. Being persuaded
of the correctness of the opinion expressed, I took occasion in
the month of February, 1861, when advocating the establishment
of a geological survey of the Province, before a Committee of
the House of Assembly, to quote from Murchison’s Stluria, the
confidently expressed opinion, that the metamorphic lower

80 HONEYMAN—ON GEOLOGY OF GAY’S RIVER GOLD FIELD.

silurian was the formation in which gold was chiefly found in
workable quantities—assuming that this was the geological
character of the Nova Scotia rocks under consideration. I
argued from the discovery of gold at Tangier, that a proper
examination might prove these rocks to be extensively auriferous.
The discovery of gold the second time at another locality in
Tangier; the numerous discoveries made in rapid succession of
auriferous deposits in other localities ; and the productiveness of
these gold fields, shew that the inference was a legitimate one.
These results corresponding so strikingly with Sir Roderick
Murchison’s observations, may therefore be adopted as a vice
versa argument in establishing the age of the geological forma-
tion in question.

The aid of paleontology is much desiderated for the purpose
of aconclusive decision of the question. A few years ago I met
with a piece of dark shale containing a reticulated organism,
which, at the time, I considered as derived from the dark slates
which had been quarried in the region. I submitted the speci-
men to a distinguished naturalist, Prof. Wyville Thomson, of
Belfast, and it was considered to be a leaf, imbedded in black
carboniferous shale. As the specimen was not found zn sétu, I
am persuaded that this opinion is correct.

Another desideratum is regularity of succession. After a
lengthened and extensive investigation, I have not found these
rocks overlaid conformably with rocks of a more recent period.
When in contact, or nearly so, it is invariably with carbonifer-
ous strata unconformable in position,—yet another is relative
inter-position. I give an example in explanation. It is an
example already referred to in my paper on the Geology of
Antigonish County. In Lochaber we find devonian strata,
metalliferous, &c., to a certain extent metamorphic, owing to the
influence of trap-eruption. As far as I have yet examined them,
they are destitute of fossils, and isolated would be of doubtful
age. These rocks, however, are found perfectly conformable,
with strata containing organisms equivalent to D of Arisaig,
i. e€., equivalent to the Lower Helderberg, United States, or to
the Upper Ludlow of England, and also they are succeeded by
lower carboniferous sandstone and limestene. 1 therefore con-

HALIBURTON——-ON COAL TRADE OF THE NEW DOMINION. 81

sider that I am warranted in assigning to these strata a devonian
age. Our auriferous quartzites and argillites over-lie the
granite of uncertain age, and, as I have already observed in
the Gay’s River Gold Field, the argillite is overlaid unconform-
ably with the lower carboniferous conglomerate. So that the
age of argillite, &c., cannot be determined by interposition.
The stratitied rocks of our gold fields have marked peculiari-
ties, by which they are easily distinguishable from the stratified
rocks of the interior of whatever age; and no one can hesitate
on leaving the one and entering upon the other—in maintaining
that the formations are altogether different. I have already at
considerable length, directed attention to these formations as
they exist in Antigonish county, and I consider that an inser-
tion of the Arisaig silurian series and the Lochaber division is
sufficient to fill up the breach in succession between the lower
silurian argillite and the lower carboniterous conglomerate.

Arr. X. THe Coan TRADE oF THE NEw Dominion. By
R. G. Hauipurron, F. 8. A.,. F.R.S.N. A. Secretary of
the Nova Scotia Coal-Owners’ Association.

On glancing at the map of the world, the eye rests on three
points as peculiarly adapted to be the great centres of commer-
cial and maritime activity. The first is situated on the eastern,
and the second on the western shores of the Atlantic, and the
third is to be found on the Pacific coast of America. All of
them lying sufficiently far from the tropics to be the homes of a
healthy and industrious race, form portions of the British
Empire. England, placed between the German ocean and the
Atlantic, seems to guard the highway of commerce from the
North of Europe with the rest of the world. Nova Scotia,
standing far out into the ocean, looks like some vast pier which
nature has raised up to intercept the trade of the New and of
the Old World, while Vancouver’s Island more nearly recalls to
us, by its climate and its insular position, the geographical
features of the mother country. Yet valuable as a favourable
position is to enable a country to lead the van of commerce,

there are other scarcely less important elements of national
17)

82 HALIBURTON—ON COAL TRADE OF THE NEW DOMINION.

greatness. A people possessing abundance of coal and iron
must in time become a capitalist among nations; but combine
geographical advantages such as I have described with the
possession of these essential elements of national wealth, and
you constitute a country whose greatness is simply a question of
time, and is inevitable.

All of these peculiar advantages we find combined in Great
Britain and in Nova Scotia and Vancouver’s Island.* Along
the shores of the Atlantic, from the Orkneys to the Cape of
Good Hope, there is only one country, Great Britain, which
possesses extensive coal fields that are adjacent to the seaboard.
Spain has a large carboniferous tract, but it is undeveloped,
and its capabilities are still unknown. On the western shores
of the Atlantic, from Cape North to Cape Horn, the only
accessible coal fields of any importance are those of Nova
Scotia; while on the Pacific coast, from Behring Straits to the
Straits of Magellan, there is nothing to compete with Vancou-
yer’s Island, which, with its coal seams cropping cut on the shores
of excellent harbours, is destined to be the future coal depot
for the steam fleets of the Atlantic, and the home of manufac-
tures and commerce. That the eastern and western portals of
British America should be so favoured by nature, augurs well for
the New Dominion, which possessing a vast tract of magnificent
agricultural country between these extreme limits, only requires
an energetic, self-reliant people, worthy of such a home, to raise
it to a high position among nations. Nova Scotia and Vancou-
ver’s Island, however, find to their cost that these advantages,
great as they are, require the aid of capital and labour, while
Great Britain has discovered to her dismay that her coal fields,
like all things earthly, must have an end, and are liable to
exhaustion. The theory advanced with great ability by Mr.
Jevons in his well known work on the coal question, that within
a century this truth will be sensibly felt by Great Britain, has
excited much interest and no little alarm. Mr. Hull, a previous
writer, remarks :—** I can conceive the coal fields of this coun-
try so far exhausted that the daughter in her maturity shall be

*I am not aware whether iron mines exist in Vancouver’s Island, but we may infer
that this is the case, judging by the other coal fields of North America,

HALIBURTON—-ON COAL TRADE OF THE NEW DOMINION. 83

able to pay back to her mother more than she herself received.
May we not look forward to a time when those ‘ water lanes’
which both dissever and unite the old and new world, shall be
trod by keels laden with the coal produce of America for the
ports of Britain ?” By the term exhaustion is meant, not the
working out of all the coal in Britain, but of that portion which
is at such a moderate depth that it can be worked profitably and
can compete with the product of foreign coal fields. The Quar-
terly Journal of Science for October, 1866, has an interesting
article on the subject, which while opposing Mr. Jevons’ theory to
a certain extent, admits that the price of British coal must, before
many years elapse, increase to such an amount as to render the ex-
portation of coal for ballast no longer practicable, and to transfer
the smelting of iron and the heavier branches of iron manufac-
ture to foreign countries; and it points to Pennsylvania as the
future inheritor of the present profitable branches of industry
connected with the coal fields of Great Britain. It supposes
that the lighter and more elaborate manufactures requiring little
fuel will engross her industrial energies, and supply the loss that
the supposed advantages enjoyed by American coal and iron
will entail on her. A map of the coal fields of the world, that
accompanies the article in question* suggests some important
views as to the future of Nova Scotia, and may lead us to hope
that the mantle of British industrial wealth connected with the
use of cheap iron and coal will descend, not upon our American
cousins, but upon Nova Scotia. In point of position her mines
compare favourably with those of Britain. The Belgian and
French coal fields are not very far removed from the sea coast,
and might, if not exhausted as soon as those of Britain, compete
with her collieries at some future day when the price of British
coal increases as has been anticipated. But Nova Scotia need

fear no competition on this side of the Atlantic. No ingenuity.

can overcome the difficulty of a long land transport. Railways
are expensive luxuries. The freight over every mile of railway
represents so much outlay actually lost to the nation—so much
deducted from the value of its products. The manufactures of

*The map accompanying this paper is, with some slight additions, copied from
portions of the map in question.

|

{
}
}
.
:

84 HALIBURTON—ON COAL TRADE OF THE NEW DOMINION.

New England are dependent for their existence on obtaining
cheap coal, either from England or Nova Scotia. The former
is a supply contingent on the other branches of trade, for
English coal unless sent as ballast could not possibly compete
with Nova Scotian coal on the Atlantic seaboard. The imposi-
tion of a heavy duty on imported coal is as clearly fatal to
manufactures in Massachusetts as draining the life blood is
fatal to vitality. This might not be so if there were no coal
mines in the interior ; but with the vast coal and iron regions of
Pennsylvania to invite manufacturers to their vicinity, it is clear
that every cent paid by the New England manufacturer for
railway freight on his coal brought from Pennsylvania is a tax
on his industry and a protection to the Pennsylvania manufac-
turer. But if the heavy freight on coal from Pennsylvania
prevents its coming into competition with Nova Scotian coal on
the sea board, unless protected by a prohibitory tariff, if the
Americans cannot place their coal on the wharves at Boston and
New York as cheaply as we can, it is manifest that American
coal can never fulfil one of the main ends to which the export
of coal has so eminently conduced in Great Britain. Mr.
Jevons has shown in his very interesting and valuable work that
the commerce of England is immensely benefited by one
branch, and that the smallest department of the coal trade—the
export as ballast to foreign countries. By this means the out-
ward voyage, if it brings no profit, though this it often does, is
not a dead loss to the shipper, to be made up by increased
freight of the raw materials brought back on the return voyage,
and by the enhanced cost of the article imported to be paid by
the manufacturer, and ultimately by the consumer.

If Nova Scotia were part of the United States, the manufac-
factures of Massachusetts would be compelled to emigrate to
this province, for it would be impossible for them to compete
with the productions of Nova Scotian industry, protected as

‘they would be by that tariff which no legislature can repeal,

which nature itself has favoured us with, and which consists in
having our coal and iron near good harbours, and in our pos-
sessing what tradesmen so well appreciate the value of, ‘‘ a good
stand for business.” If the day should ever come when the two

TRANSACTIONS OF THE NOVA SCOTIA INSTITUTE OF NATURAL SCIENCE ( HALIBURTON ON THE Coal TRADE OF THE NEW Dominion.)

p= - 7

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REFERENCE.

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2 Scotlanc UW kast™é West? Russia
3 Ireland l2 Central Ttusswa

| 4 Mpance d Belgium 13. Southern . . . Denet,
I Saarbrich. Prussia Tf Brit Tos.N America
6 Hanover é Westphalra 15_ United States
i. Bhi) Wika 16. Vancouver Is
& Foland 7 Braxl
9 Turkey Z

18. Afria
Letension of toal Deposits
Lugrate

Toawes of Stamens.

HALIBURTON—ON COAL TRADE OF THE NEW DOMINION. 80

great families of the Anglo-Saxon race in the New World should
find it to their interest to abolish the formidable barriers of hostile
tariffs which are growing up between them, to level the frown-
ing fortifications which scowl defiance at each other, and which
even in peace give us a “ lively sense of benefits to come” in
the shape of towns burned down, commerce paralyzed and valu-
able lives destroyed, the most prosperous portion of the repub-
lic, and of the new world will be that which combines everything
to make it the entrepot of trade and commerce. That day is
farther distant than philanthropists might hope. The heavy
taxes in the United States, the violent party storms that
threaten to uproot what even the whirlwind of civil war has left
standing, Fenian raids, and the incessant abuse of England, put
off the day when our ministers of war will be useless luxuries,
and when a union of North America under one government will
be hoped for, or desirable. Although such a union would in six
years quadruple the value of mineral property in this province,
at present it would be a ruinous or at best a hazardous experi-
ment. It will take years before peace can efface from the sword
the stains of a bloody contest, and we are not likely to wish to.
tread upon the ashes that conceal the burning embers of civil
war. Let us then look at what is practicable, not at what may
be a question for our children and for posterity.

Within the past year the map of the world has been altered
to admit a new Dominion among the nations, and a large portion
of the continent has changed its name, if not its destinies. We
cannot shut our eyes to the fact that its position is, to say the
least, inconvenient. The Americans through accident and our
bungling diplomacy seem, at first glance, to have monopolized all
except the outskirts of the cultivable portions of the continent,
and to have left us not much more than the selvage of an empire,
and the casual observer might infer that England having long
ago entailed the bulk of her possessions in America upon her
first born, could only spare us the limited allowance of a younger
son. Scant and attenuated as it may seem, however, when
compared with the compactness and immensity of the United
States, it is vast enough to be the home of a great people, if
they are only united by national feeling, and by the bonds of

86 HALIBURTON—-ON COAL TRADE OF THE NEW DOMINION.

commerce and trade. Neither of these yet exist, nor is it easy
to-create them suddenly in the face of geographical barriers.
True it is that we might imitate our neighbours and ‘‘ make
history,” by having some of our towns burned by an enemy and
our people cut off on the battle-field, and our minister of war
might in time become a famous personage; but it is far better
with our small population, that we should reap oats rather than
glory, and it is probable that, until we have a surplus popula-
tion, our people can be more profitably employed in cultivating
than in fertilizing the soil. Our bond of union, then, must
depend on a community of interests, on an interchange of com-
modities between the East and West. How is this to be attained?
We must not shut our eyes to the fact that our commercial
system must be adapted to the geographical difficulties of the
Dominion. Nature would seem to have intended Ontario to
trade with New York, Ohio and Vermont, and has placed Nova
Scotia and New Brunswick at the doors of Massachusetts, that
intercourse might spring up between us. But the natural course
of events has been retarded by artificial obstructions. A hostile
tariff cuts off the eastern part of the Dominion from the natural
outlet for its productions, and the question arises whether this
very policy on the part of our neighbours may not be turned
to good account in a national point of view, and be made the
means of building up an intercolonial trade, and of uniting these
provinces by common interests.

When the repeal of the reciprocity treaty was notified to our
Government, Mr. Buchanan, in an able pamphlet, showed that
immediate steps must be taken to open up the Lower Provinces
as a home market for the flour of Western Canada, for even a
limited mart near at hand is far more profitable than a more
distant one however extensive, and he gave some curious
statistics to show how, previous to the treaty, a barrel of flour
was worth one-fifth more on the American, than on the
Canadian side of Niagara. The American had his home
market to fall back on, as well as his foreign market; whereas
the Canadian wheat grower, having only a distant market open
to him, found his wheat depreciated in value. With these facts
My. Buchanan argued, that unless this home market could be

HALIBURTON—ON COAL TRADE OF THE NEW DOMINION. 87

added to the foreign market for flour, the Canadian grain growers
would be ‘* starved into annexation.” He says :—

-¢To me it seems self-evident that now we must either be
drifted by industrial necessity into Annexation, even in the ab-
sence of any disloyalty in these provinces, or must find markets for
our industry, and an outlet for our trade through means of an
intimate and indissoluble union of all the provinces comprising
British North America.

‘¢T believe, let me repeat, that the Provinces of British Am-
erica have within them the elements of independent greatness
and prosperity, but that these can only be reduced from chaos by
a certain most energetic policy immediately gone into, in respect
to our Provincial industry. Such a policy, I believe, would
have the effect of saving to British America the advantages of
the continuance of the Reciprocity Treaty with the United
States, in the only way this can be done, viz :—by rendering us
independent of it. Such a policy would at all events save these
North American Provinces to Britain; while, without a homely
and patriotic policy, the loss of them to the Empire will be more
than likely, especially if the Reciprocity Treaty with the United
States is withdrawn. My great object, therefore, is to impress
others with my own strong convictions that a 7s Vital that the
Canadian Farmer should immediately have in the Markets of
the Maritime Provinces a substitute for the Markets we may lose
in the United States; and that it is equally vital that the
Maritime Provinces should immediately have in the Canadas a
substitute for the Trade they are now carrying on with the
United States, under the Reciprocity Treaty.”

A home market has been opened up in New Brunswick, and
Nova Scotia, which imposed a duty on American flour, so as to
create a trade with Ontario and Quebec. But the same ordeal,
or rather a more serious one, is awaiting Nova Scotia as respects
its staple product—Coal; for we have hitherto had no home
market, and have had even our foreign market suddenly restricted.
So far the pressure has been borne without a muimur ; but this
cannot last forever, nor is there any reason why it should. The
Canadian wheat-grower’s loyalty has been preserved by us from
the test of starvation, and the time for ‘‘ reciprocated duties ”
has arrived.

‘‘Under no circumstances,” says Mr. Buchanan, “can I
anticipate any great disagreement of views among the parties
who are to form the British American Confederacy. That they

88 HALIBURTON—ON COAL TRADE OF THE NEW DOMINION.

have a common interest, will very soon come to be understood.
And in the meantime I have no doubt that the other sections
will join it with the same determination as Canadians do, to
respect the views and experience of their new friends, a senti-
ment well expressed in the old lines :

‘‘ Who seeks a friend must come disposed,
t’” exhibit, in full bloom disclosed,
The graces and the beauties
That form the character he seeks,
Por “tis a union that bespeaks
fieciprocated duties ”

While Nova Scotia, which shipped coal and fish to the
United States and received flour in return, had every reason
to hesitate in taxing American flour for the purpose of
buying it from Canadians who wanted none of our produc-
tions, the people of Ontario and Quebec now stand in a
very different position from what we then did. Our trade
is theirs; our resources add to the general revenue. Every
ton of coal sent back to the lakes is so much freight saved on
thes flour exported. Hence the grain grower, by a peculiar
feature in the coal trade, consisting in its being the feeder and
the complement of other branches of commerce, is jointly inter-
ested with the Nova Scotian coal owner in the return cargo of
coal. Nor should the market be regarded as a limited one.
Every barrel of flour used in the West Indies should come from
western Canada to Nova Scotia, the Canadian ship returning
from this province with a cargo of coal and West Indian produce,
while the flour could be forwarded from Halifax with other
articles to its destination, the Halifax merchant procuring West
Indian produce in return. This is a natural and profitable
channel of trade, which if developed and opened up, must be-
come an important outlet for our respective staples.

Nor would the exports from Nova Scotia to the western
portions of the Dominion be limited to coal. Salt and pottery,
being bulky in their nature, in some British ports supply
outward freights from England, and occupy the place which is
generally assigned to coal. Salt works have been already
commenced here with every prospect of success, and the

existence in Pictou county (for my own personal experience of
*

HALIBURTON—ON COAL TRADE OF THE NEW DOMINION. 89

the Nova Scotian coal fields is mainly confined to them) of
superior clays for fire brick and pottery, immediately underlying
workable seams of coal, point to a period when ‘ the Black
Country” of the New Dominion will centre in the neighbour-
hood of our coal mines, and the potteries of Staffordshire will
find a colonial rival in Nova Scotia. The quality of the clays
has been pronounced by parties in Staffordshire unsurpassed by
anything that has been discovered in the mother country,* The
enormous amount of coal used in the potteries of Staffordshire
will give us some idea of the home consumption that may
be created hereafter for our coal. But in addition to all
these sources of demand for coal, we have our iron near
excellent limestone within a few miles of the collieries now
opened. What its quality is can be best judged by referring to
Fairburn’s eulogistic notice of it in his work on the manufacture
of iron.

Along the northern and southern flanks of the Cobequid
mountains, which seem to form the backbone of the country,
we have immense deposits of hematite and specular ores. At
East River a large bed of remarkably good hematite has been
found, and on the line of railway I have discovered and tested
a workable deposit of very rich specular ore, such as is in ported
at a laige price into England from Sweden for certain purposes,
for which very pure and refractory ores are required. Little
doubt can exist that it would pay handsomely, if we were to
compete with our Swedish rivals. The Acadia Charcoal Iron
Works in Colchester county turn out an article equal to the best
Swedish brands, but as they are far from the coal mines, they
ale unable to produce anything except the most expensive iron,
for which the demand, even in England, is somewhat limited.
But we may look forward to the day when the vicinity of cheap
coal to abundant ore of excellent quality in Pictou county, will
give rise to extensive iron works which will consume a large

*The Eastern Chronicle of New Glasgow shortly before the publication of the
‘Transactions, made the following statement in a notice of the Crown Brick and Pottery
works :—‘‘ There is abundance of suitable clay for the purposes on the spot, while the
coal for burning purposes is within fifty yards of the kiln. There is also an extensive

seam of fire clay alongside the coal pit, which has been pronounced to be of a very —

superior quality. We have been shown a small dish made from a quantity of the elay
sent home to Britain, which takes a polish as fine as porcelain.”

12

90 HALIBURTON—ON COAL TRADE OF THE NEW DOMINION.

amount of our coal. What will be the growth of our coal trade
in the next twenty years it is difficult to foresee. As respects
the capabilities for supplying an extensive demand, Nova
Scotian colleries now opened or in preparation, would raise in
five years five or six millions of tons annually, and the supply
could be gradually increased to meet any demand, however
great.

That our coal trade will be very large, unless it is paralyzed
by foreign legislation or domestic differences, is perfectly clear.
In a few years not less than two millions of tons will be required
for domestic purposes alone in British America, for even in the
mild climate of Britain a ton per head is consumed for house-
hold purposes, and our long winters will render at least three
times as much necessary. Every day ‘ the wood age ” is be-
coming a thing of the past, like the ‘* stone age” of archzolo-
gists. Wood suitable for fuel gradually becomes more remote
from roads and ports, and rises in price, so that even in Toronto
coal is used for household purposes. In parts of the lower pro-
vinces the forests have been so wastefully and so effectually
destroyed, that the farmers have to use coal for house purposes ;
and the scarcity of wood and the demand for coal are daily
rapidly increasing. Mr. McCulloch estimated the yield of coal
in Great Britain in 1840 to be thirty millions of tons; last year
the consumption was one hundred millions of tons. As this
progress has upset the calculations even of the most careful and
experienced judges, how can we suppose that the future will
not dwarf the present by the enormous development of manu-
facturing and commercial industry that is destined to take place.
But the British American coal trade has elements of develop-
ment which do not exist in Britain. We have the increase of
population through immigration to count upon, and the increase
of the domestic consumption of coal through our rapidly pass-
ing out of ‘the wood age.” It will be a bold man who will
venture to predict the limits of our coal trade in a few years,
if it is encouraged in its infancy by wise legislation, and is
developed by capital and industry. At present the mines of
Nova Scotia are gradually passing into the hands of the Ameri-

cans, there being more Nova Scotia coal stock owned in New

HALIBURTON—ON COAL TRADE OF THE NEW DOMINION. 91

York and Boston than in the whole province of Nova Scotia.
English capitalists will go to Mexico, South America, heaven
only knows where, to risk their money in mines that, at the best,
are but a lottery, while a province, the nearest part of America
to England, with excellent harbours, a healthy climate, and un-
limited mines of gold, coal, and iron, is left neglected, to become
_ the property of American capitalists.

English capital, it is true, has found its way here, but the
causes which led to this flattering result, are somewhat like those
to which Prince Edward’s Island is indebted for a solitary Irish
emigrant having selected it as his home. He was shipwrecked
on the Island, and never could earn money enough to enable
him to leave it. The Duke of York having become deeply in
debt to his jewellers, was saved from their importunities by the
liberality of the British Government, which generously made
them a present of our mines and minerals, the lease of
which issued to’ the Duke, and was by him assigned to
them. Our ‘ black diamonds’ proved, however, a somewhat
puzzling windfall to his Grace’s jewellers, who sold them to the
General Mining Association of London, an enterprising and
wealthy English Company which had sunk a large amount of
capital in foreign mines. The striking fact that the Nova
Scotian mines, in spite of the heavy outlay necessary to
develope them, and of the funds that were sunk in foreign
mines, have at least quadrupled the value of the Association’s
shares, is a sufficient proof of the importance of these vast
mineral resources which the British Government so recklessly
threw away on a spendthrift and his favourites. This monopoly,
which was partially restricted by an act of the Legislature,
expires in 1886, when every trace of its exclusive rights will no
doubt be swept away for ever. In the meantime large tracts
are tied up by the lease. That so large an amount of valuable
mineral property is now held by other companies, is due, not to
the generosity of the General Mining Association, but to their
fortunate ignorance of the extent of the resources which they
had so long monopolized. The extensive areas reserved at
Sydney, Lingan, Bridgeport, the Albion Mines, Springhill, and
the Joggins, were supposed by them to include all the mines

="
NS

2 EE SS

92 HALIBURTON—ON COAL TRADE OF THE NEW DOMINION.

that were worth having. Since then new carboniferous districts
have been discovered in Cape Breton and in Nova Scotia, while
in Pictou a far more valvable coal field than that reserved by the
Association, has been found near Middle River. These new
mines have been explored and are being opened up by
foreigners, for though there is abundance of capital here, there
is a slight want of enterprise among us. If, however, mining
rights are only carefully preserved from being endangered by
changes of Government, and by the claims of political partizans,
we may rely upon strangers for the speedy development of our
mines. In a material point of view it may matter little from
whence capital comes, so long as our mines are opened up.
But as the Americans are daily becoming the owners of our
gold and coal mines, the political effect must in time be apparent.
If we are to form part of the British Empire, it is desirable
that we should be connected with it by something more than
hereditary ties, and the grateful reminiscenees of history. If
the most important sources of provincial wealth are owned and
developed by foreigners, the people must in time learn to look
up with a filial feeling to those, whoever they may be, to whom
they are indebted for the welfare and prosperity of the pro-
vince. Fortunately, however, the capitalists of Ontario and
Quebec are slowly turning their attention to our mines, and we
may look forward to the day when, within the Dominion, we shall
find the enterprise and the capital which alone are required. A
future of manufacturing and mineral wealth is simply a question
of time, and must necessarily result from the position and
resources of Nova Scotia.

Of all the numerous Colonies of Britain, Nova Scotia, the
oldest, the nearest, and the most neglected, presents the
strongest family likeness to its mother country, in the singular
variety and excellence of its resources, combined with its being
near the markets of the world. A province, which ranks as one
of the first fruit growing countries in the world, which has such
a genial climate* that its grapes grown in the open air can rival]

* No country can hope to be a centre of manufacturing or commercial activity,
which possesses a rigorous or unhealthy climate. The following extracts may serve to
remove some wide-spread prejudices as to the climate of Nova Scotia. The Gardener's
Chronicle says, “ Our readers and the visitors to the Fruit Shows of the Reyal Hortieul-

HALIBURTON—-ON EXPLORATIONS IN PICTOU COAL FIELD. 9&

those of Italy, which possesses iron equai to that of Sweden,
and gold which excels that of Australia and California in purity,
which has unequalled fisheries, safe harbours, extensive coal
fields near the waters edge, and above all a position almost
midway on the very highway of nations between the Old and
the New World, may hope, at some future day, to inherit a full
share of that greatness, which Britain must, in her old age,
resign to her children or to strangers.

Arr. XI. ExpLorations ix: THE Pictou. Coan FEL.
bye 1.) G.. -PLALIBURTON,),B) iS.) .A-,u8 oR SayNe A.

From the discovery by Mr. French, in 1865, of the Albion
Mines main seam several miles further west than it was sup-
posed to exist, I was led to take up extensive mining rights in
the vicinity of the Pictou Coal Mines. My. French, to whom
this province is under great obligations, had proved that com-
paratively little was known of the extent of the productive
measures, and that similar discoveries must soon be made in
other directions. The explorations, which are the subject of
this paper, were personally superintended by myself, and were
conducted by the aid of a mining engineer on the following
properties :—No. 1., situated on the south western side of the
coal basin, on an area known as “ the Culton property,” and
adjoining the colliery of the Intercolonial Company; No. 2,
on the south eastern extremity of the basin, on the west flank
of McLennan’s Mountain. No. 3, at the eastern end of the
basin near the waters of Merigomish, on a property called the
St. Lawrence area. No. 4, on a property on the northern side
of the basin purchased from Messrs. McDonald, McKay and

tural Society cannot have forgotten the surpassing beauty and equal excellence of the
apples communicated by the great Colony of Nova Scotia. Certainly nothing like them
had been previously seen at any Public Exhibition in this country.” ‘“ What gives this
collection especial interest is the example it affords of the excellence of the climate of a
Colony which half the world believes to be dismally dreary.” The London Times also
says, “The beauty of the apple beats anything we have ever seen;” and the Royal
Horticultural Society, in its proceedings, states, ‘‘ The only other country except Turin,
which exhibited grapes grown in the open air, was Nova Scotia, and several! of these
were of the same kinds as those from Lombardy, but they seemed to have agreed better
with this new habitat on the other side of the Atlantic, and to have beaten their old country
cousins both in size and flavour.” The explanation for this may be found in the fact
that Nova Scotia is situated in the same latitude as Nice, and that its autumns are pro--
longed by its proximity to the Gulf stream.

as A edt Bind

94 HALIBURTON—ON EXPLORATIONS IN PICTOU COAL FIELD.

Known, on the East River colliery. No. 5, on an adjoin-
ing property, purchased from Messrs. Beal and How, and
now belonging to the Montreal and Pictou Coal Company.
These explorations, therefore, are the most extensive that have
hitherto been conducted in that county, and though undertaken
for the practical purpose of discovering and developing coal
mines, have incidentally thrown some light on the Pictou coal
field, which may be interesting to geologists and to the public.
I shall tirst select those explorations on the northern side of the
basin, on the East River and Montreal and Pictou properties, as
they are in the immediate vicinity of New Glasgow, and ina
district which had been previously fully described and some-
what misunderstood.

Dr. Dawson, whose investigations have thrown so much light
on the structure and formation of coal, and whose geological
labours have reflected so much credit on his native province,
has been for many years almost the only authority on the Pictou
coal field, and his inferences were based on the limited infor-
mation that was derived from the works of the General Mining
Association, which were confined to the southern crop of the
basin. Mr. Richard Smith, a former superintendent of that
colliery, suspected, as I am informed, that there was a coal basin
between New Glasgow and the Albion Mines pits, but this
impression seemed to have been lost sight of, and the conclusion
was, Many years ago, somewhat hastily arrived at, that New
Glasgow was situated on the southern rise of the basin, and that
the coal which was supposed to be at an immense depth, was
thrown down by a great down throw fault; the large seams not
re-appearing to the northward. It was evidently assumed that
the town of Pictou was situated on the northern rise of the
basin, which would make it from ten to fifteen miles in breadth.
Dr. Dawson, in his examination before the Mines’ Committee of
the House of Assembly, states as follows :—

‘« The outcrop of this bed is four miles in length. It is
broken by a fault at New Glasgow where zt falls down several
thousand feet. It has not been found again in the county of
Pictou. The other outcrop is about a mile to the S. E. of the
mines.

S —-

WALIBURTON—ON EXPLORATIONS IN PICTOU COAL FIELD. 95

‘¢ At New Glasgow the coal ts half a mile. deep at least below
the surface.” Journ. H. A., 1845, App. 49.

This view, as to the mmense depth of the seams at New
Glasgow, was adopted by the General Mining Association and
by the public generally, and all the explorations at New Glas-
gow were considered as useless. In his Acadian Geology Dr.
Dawson still partially adhered to his previous views, though he
was evidently somewhat doubtful on the subject, which is evi-
dent from the vagueness of his language. The southerly dip
near New Glasgow, which he had supposed was caused by a
downthrow fault, he still attributes to a line of disturbance, and
he speaks of the coal being ‘‘ cut off” by a fault. Explorers
and miners have been a good deal puzzled to ascertain whether
he meant an ‘¢ upthrow” or a ‘‘ downthrow fault,” as he does
not state which it is, but the extract from his previous statement
before the Mines’ Committee shows what his views on this point
were. Assuming them to be correct, the thickness of the
Pictou coal measures would be immense, as we should have a
succession of coal measures overlying the Albion Mines seams,
dipping at a heavy angle northerly for several miles until we
reach the northern rise as we approach the town of Pictou.

In the section given by Dr. Dawson (p. 244) he commences
with the limestones and gypsums of Springville and the lower
carboniferous strata overlying, proceeding, in ascending order,
until he comes to the Albion Mines seams dipping nearly due
north. He here reaches the southern crop or basset edge of the
Fictou coal basin. He adds in his description of these mea-
sures, ‘* the main seam has been very extensively worked, and
its outcrop has been traced for several miles ; but it is remarkable
that it preserves its character as a good seam only for a limited
distance. both in the north-west and south-east extension it
becomes very impure and intermixed with slate, indicating that
though great in thickness it is very limited in horizontal extent.
The measures also are cut off to the northward by a line of
disturbance running along the south side of an enormous bed of
conglomerate which succeeds these rocks in ascending order,
or” he prudently adds with probably some misgiving, ‘‘ appa-
rently so.”

;
;

,

96 HALIBURTON—ON EXPLORATIONS IN PICTOU COAL FIELD.

His section is consistent with his previous statement before
the Mines Committee, that the coal seams are half a mile deep
at New Glasgow ; and there can be no doubt that if they become
still deeper beyond New Glasgow through a downthrow fault, the
conglomerate must not only overlie them half a mile, but even
more, according to the extent of the supposed downthrow fault,
which he assumes runs along its southern edge. Practical
explorations have entirely disproved this assumption, and have
established that the Pictou coal measures are not more than one
third as thick as Dr. Dawson infers, and that a pit twelve hun-
dred feet deep would reach the lower seams in the very centre
of the basin. They have also proved that the so called Pictou
coal basin really coustitutes two distinct basins, the one, which
I may call the southern or Albion basin, lying to the southward,
and the other to the northward of the conglomerate which
underlies the productive measures. It is manifest that if the
conglomerate were an upheaval since the coal was formed, we
should have the Albion Mines recurring to the northward unless
they had been affected by subsequent denudation. But so far
we have no equivalents of the southern coal measures in the
northern basin, and must assume that they were always distinct
basins, and now differ, from their measures having been formed
under different circumstances.

In October 1865 operations were commenced on the East
River colliery, which was purchased for the purpose of working
some upper seams of excellent quality which had already been
tested. Finding while I was proving a small seam knewn as
‘‘ the Richardson seam,” near New Glasgow, that it dipped
almost the reverse way to those of the Albion Mines, and that
its underlying strata rested on the conglomerate, and that the
conglomerate itself near New Glasgow dipped to the southward,
and various dips on the west side of Kast River having indicated
that the coal measures must come to the surface or crop near
New Glasgow, I prepared the plan now exhibited, showing the
supposed course of the northern crop of the main seam at the
town of New Glasgow, and also on the west side of the river.
We felt so assured of the fact that the Albion seams, instead
of being half a mile deep at New Glasgow, must come to the

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surface, that we purchased the bed of the river and the property
to the westward, and commenced explorations on the supposed
line of crop. The first trial pit on the edge of the river was
successful, as it struck the crop of the main seam, which was
found lying at a heavy angle. Following the course indicated
by the plan, we sunk a trial pit nearly half a mile to the south-
westward, where we again struck the same outcrop. A working
shaft was then sunk, and the results are thus described in the
official report of the government Inspector of Mines :—

«¢ A company has been formed with the title of the Montreal
and Pictou Company, to work the seam which has recently been
opened by R. G. Haliburton, Esq., on the west side of East
river, and adjoining the Albion mines on the north. A shaft
has been sunk through several beds of coal, varying in thick-
ness from 2!.6" to 15'.6" , and separated by beds of fire clay from
7 to 10 feet thick. They dip to the south-east at an angle 65°.
Although these beds are so far apart as to be practically distinct
seams, there are points of resemblance and other circumstances,
which lead to the belief that they represent the main seam of
the Albion mines, and that this colliery is on the northern crop
of that seam. The shaft has been sunk 180 feet, and drifting
commenced at a depth of 165 feet.*

‘¢ The discovery of coal on this area has added to the i impor-
tance of the Pictou coal field in a remarkable degree. It has
given to it a conformation which appears to have been entirely
unsuspected, and by which a large quantity of coal is placed
within easy reach. The same seam has been discovered by Mr.
Kirby on the east side of East river, and to the north-east of
New Glasgow. ‘This extension of the knowledge of this portion
of the coal field will doubtless lead to further explorations, the
progress of which will be watched with interest.”

CuLton ArREA.—Explorations were commenced on this pro-
perty in 1865, with a view to discovering the Campbell seam,
which had beem identified by Mr. Poole with the Culton seam
found on this property, and worked by Mr. Culton. The adit
driven by him is situated on Bear brook, about a mile and a

quarter from the Provincial railway. Explorations were com-

*Since the publication of this report a level has been driven 100 “yards to the west-
ward on the upper bench, which has increased to 25 ft. from roof to floor. The partings
haye apparently been only local, and caused by a bend in the strata, and have given out,
leaying the seam without any partings. On the northern side of ‘the basin ‘therefore,
the main seam more nearly resembles the same seam at Middle river, than at the Albion
Mines. The coal was found to improve rapidly in quality to the west, and the measures
to be undisturbed in our west level.

EXPLORATIONS IN PICTOU COAL FIELD. 97

98 HALIBURTON—ON EXPLORATIONS IN PICTOU COAL FIELD.

menced from a point near the centre of the Intercolonial com-
pany’s property, known as the Campbell area—and not less than
sixty bore holes and trial pits were sunk. A small overlying seam
was discovered with a strike S.12° W. It lay ata heavy angle,
indicating either that the measures turn there rapidly to the
west, or that there are traces there of the series of downthrows
to the south-west, which the Acadia company found on the
Fraser area, as they approached the eastern boundaries of the
Carmichael and Campbell areas, our pit on the small seam being
in the line of disturbance which the direction of those down-
throws would take. From this point a series of bore holes and
trial pits were sunk to the Culton pit, over nearly three quarters
of a mile of country, and wherever the strata were reached, we
found the same metals, which consisted of shales. The surface
drift, which was very deep, contained particles of coal. The
search was unsuccessful, as the explorations were evidently in
the centre of the basin.

The Albion mines shales are a distinguishing feature of the
Basin. Their enormous thickness is without a parallel, and as
they overlie the large seams, they are a sure indication that the
crops of the seams must be sought * to the rise.’ These shales
serve to identify the Campbell or Culton seams with ‘ the main
seam’ of the Albion mines. ‘To the south-west of the Culton
pit the measures were found to assume a north-westerly dip,
while near Oliver’s mill, a mile farther west, the measures were
found to dip in the reverse way, showing that the coal basin
must sweep off in that direction and between the two points in
question. More than a mile to the south of the Campbell area
coal and fire-clays have been found by us, while the existence of
the light sandstones of the Pictou coal fields still farther south,
established the fact that the coal basin must turn in that direc-
tion. For two: seasons this property has been explored by us,
and as we are the only persons by whom it has been examined,
the results of our explorations will have more weight than theo-
ries, however ingenious, by others who have never examined the
locality. The extension of the coal field in this direction is
most important, not only from the very superior quality of the
eoal, but also because it is found at so short a distance from the

‘AALIBURTON—ON EXPLORATIONS IN PICTOU COAL FIELD. 99

provincial railway. A level was driven by us a short distance
on this seam, which was found to lie at an easy angle, the mea-
sures on this area being flatter than in any other part of the
Pictou basin, excepting where the upper seams occur, which
generally lie at a slight angle, and are consequently as to their
angle of dip and their out-crop, unconformable with the larger
and lower seams. The seam, when followed in from the out-
crop, increased, in a few yards distance, from two feet to between
three and four feet, and a bere hole a few feet farther to the dip
went through six feet of coal. Showing that at a moderate depth
we may expect to find it assume its full size. It was overlaid by
oil shales similar to those over the main seam near Middle and
Kast rivers, and in the overlying shales were found fossils similar
to those above the main seam near Middle river.

Sr. Lawrence AREA.—On this area which is near Merigomish
harbour, and is the eastern extremity of the basin, explorations
were carried on from February 1866 until February 1867, under
the charge of a mining engineer and of a very competent
oreman. The outcrop of the seam had been first struck by
others ; a pit was sunk one hundred feet deep, and levels driven
from it. There appeared to be what miners €all a ‘ saddle-back ’
where we sank. The dip was over 60°, but flattened greatly at
a few hundred feet distance to the dip, and varied from S. W.
to S. E. To the eastward the measures dip in a south-easterly
direction, and lie at avery easy angle. The seam first found
proved at a depth of one hundred feet to be fourteen feet from
roof to floor, though near the outcrop it had not been as many
imches thick. It was intended to have opened a colliery at this
pit, as it is some miles nearer deep water than any other, but
the disturbance at the spot selected will render it necessary to
sink a new working shaft. The one now sunk will answer fora
ventilating shaft. Numerous pits and bore holes have been swak
on the property in order to prepare for opening a colliery. A
few feet from the last named seam another was found eight feet
thick of very good coal. It has not been tested to the dip,
and probably will prove to be an underlying bench of the
other seam.

The explorations on the McBean area adjacent, show that
fhe seams found on it must be found also on the St. Lawrence

100 HALIBURTON—ON EXPLORATIONS IN PICTOU COAL FIELD.

area, which is probably on the northern side of the basin. <A large
amount of shales was found to overlie the seam proved by us.
A few yards from the pit we found a reddish sandstone which
occurs in great abundance along Sutherland’s river, and dips
generally at a very slight angle. It is probable that reddish
sandstones on the Culton area are identical with those found on
this area. The occurrence of sandstones in different localities
cannot be counted upon, as the Albion mines, in sinking their
Dalhousie pit passed through nothing but an immense mass of
Shales, while further west to their surprise they came down
upon a light sandstone in sinking a shaft, and for a time at least
abandoned it, supposing that the coal must have run out, and
that the sandstone belonged to measures underlying the main
seam. The same sandstone has been found in the overlying
shales at New Glasgow and at Middle river.

IT am disposed to think that the lower measures at Sutherland’s
river bridge are the equivalent of the New Glasgow conglome-
rate, and like it, are the boundary between the southern and
northern basins, or as I have termed them, the Albion and the
Pictou basins. The southern basin narrows and terminates ¢
short distance to the eastward of Sutherland’s river. I have
found coal at its eastern extremity, and also have seen cannel
coal discovered there. The explorations east of the river were
merely superficial, being confined to examining exposures of
strata and indications of coal. I speak therefore with some
hesitation as to the country east of Sutherland’s river. That
there is coal there, may be safely assumed ; but the extent of it
must be settled by the miner’s pick, and borerod. No intuition
can dispense with the drudgery and expense of practical explo-
rations,. which require a very small amount of science, and a
very liberal expenditure of money.

The accompanying map of the Pictou coal district gives the
boundaries of leases, &c., according to maps of the Mines

Office.

GILPIN—-ON THE COD FISH. 101

Art. XII. On rar Foop Fisues or Nova Scotia. No. ¥.
By J. Bernarp Gitrin, A. B., M. D:, M. BR. C. S.
(Read May, 1867.)

THE Cop FamMILy.

Gadus Morhua, (Lin., Gunther, Gill.) C
Morhua Americanus, (DeKay, Storer. ) Tae aut
Gadus Géglefinus, (in., Gunther. )
Morhua Giglefinus, (DeKay, Storer.) ¢ Tue Happock.
Melanogrammus Gglefinus, (Gitl.)

Gadus Virens, (Lin., Gunther.)

y aemaRicharde |

Gadus Carbonarius, (Richardson. ) ani POReaens
Merlangus Carbonarius, (DeKay, Storer.)

*Pollachius Carbonarius, (Gill. )

Phyris Americanus, (DeKay, Storer, Gunther). a
ysis Chuss, (Gill, Son {Tae see
In my last papers which I have had the honour to read before
you, you will recollect that I gave you all the facts I could
collect on the herring, the gaspereaux, the mackerel, and the
salmon and trout family. There remains now, the cod family,
the halibut, and the shad, (which last is a congener of the
gaspereaux,) to complete the food fishes of Nova Scotia. The
subject of the present paper, will be the cod family—or the
Gadide. Of this family we have four species, under two
genera, which from their abundance in our waters may be con-
sidered as food fishes. One or two other species occur, but not
in sufficient numbers to entitle them to this epithet. The com-
mon cod, the haddock, the hake and the pollack. Of all fish,
this family has played the most important part in the world’s
history. The great northern sea kingdoms of Europe, the Eng-
lish, the French, and the Dutch, have from time immemorial pur-
sued this fishery, which, commencing at their own door, and done
in fishing boats, has extended successively to Greenland, and the
North Sea,—to the Grand Bank of Newfoundland, and to our
own shores. The fishing flats, have yielded to a vast mercantile
navy, riding out the roughest gales in mid ocean, and filling our
harbours with a forest of masts. Wars have been waged in this

* Dr. Gili considers this fish identical with M. Perpureus of Storer, (see synopsis fishes
Bay of Fundy, &c.) If Storer’s and DeKay’s description are accurate, it cannot be
so, I have never met with it myself.

TOD) GILPIN—-ON THE COD FISH.

cause—continents discovered and named from it. CapeCod, cape
Baccaro, the Magdaline penny with its obverse of a stock-fish,
and the three diamond port, common at Newfoundland, all attest
the estimation which the learned geographer, the wealthy banker,
or the poor peasant in Portugal, who toils over his arid vines that
he may exchange them for fish to keep the fasts of the church he
loves so well, have held for centuries this fish in. More strange
is it, to think that poised upon his ever fanning fins, fathoms below
the ocean, he has been the unwitting agent in so many changes
moral, material, and religious, on this earth’s surface. But it is
rather as he concerns our own Province that he is the subject of
this night’s paper, Our people, dwelling many of them on the
sea-board, and none of them a day’s journey from it—find in
him an inexhaustible supply of food. The salt provision used
of necessity except by the inhabitants of towns, is thus healthily
varied, and the surplus easily cured, finds its way to the city
in single quintals, in tens, or in hundreds, there to be exchanged
for tea and molasses, or various clothing for the winter’s cold.
All along our seaboard dwells a marine population, half
farmer half fisher, or << navigator” in provincial idiom, who
steadily pursue this employment. As we have seen that the
herring, the mackerel, and the gaspereaux, are surface feeders,

and are thus dependent upon the winds and the various currents,

which sometimes spread their food in acres, close beside our door,
and again waft it away seaward for miles, and at all events spread
it only in summer, and are thus uncertain in their movements
and unconstant in their frequenting certain shores, and disappear
always in winter,—so this family are bottom feeders, are certain
in their feeding grounds, and always to be found both summer
and winter. Thus the employment is certain and the supply
regular. Following, as we have noticed before, the sun in his
vernal path, these bottom feeders approach the shore in spring,
from the deep soundings of sixty or seventy fathoms to which
they had retired in early fall. It must be that the land and
shallow waters warmed by the summer heats are now swarming
with creatures which they hunt for food, and that in this pursuit
they approach the Jand. During summer and early fall, cod are
caught in various sizes, from the face of the rock to five or six

GILPIN—-ON THE COD FISH. 103:

miles seaward. As the winter approaches he retires, until our
fishermen have to put thirty miles of sea between them and
their homes, and to pull him two lines and a half, or eighty
fathoms, from his feeding grounds. No doubt these migrations
are partial and that there always are fish on the banks that never
migrate, and others that never leave our shores. Indeed one
must believe that the fish on the grand banks of Newfoundland
never migrate. We learn from Mr. Ambrose’s very valuable
paper that there are a succession of reefs or ledges parallel with

our coast and running north-east and south-west, and that on
’ these summits of submarine hills the cod resort,—the sickly fish
resorting to the inshore ledges, whilst the finer and healthy ones
with longer superior jaws and more prominent eyes, are taken
in the mail steamers’ track, and from whence Aspotagen, the
highest land in the Province, is thrown upon the horizon, about
thirty miles from the coast. The pursuit of food causes these
migrations. Now, as regards food, it may be said of the cod
as of most fish, nothing comes amiss, he opens his jaws and
every thing slips down. To satiate a craving appetite is his
perpetual instinct, and yet he has some discriminating tastes,
he loves squid, he will not take salt bait on shore, though taking
it greedily on the banks, among mollusks the glycemeris is very
sweet to him. The stomachs of those taken on the banks are
usually filled with herring, young cod fish, Norway haddock, young
eat fish small mackerel, various mollusks, the glycemeris, and a
large black coquog, and star fishes. Should he have indulged in
fish spawn, it has probably been digested. This may be called
his usual fare. Near in shore he picks up crabs and lobsters,
and the mollusks, or sea shells, are much more numerous and
varied. Of his casual fare may be enumerated grouse heads.
and entrails thrown over by some passmg steamer, sea ducks,
which he must have picked up floating near the surface, various.
stones dropped over by ballast boats or adherent to muscles
which he has swallowed, (one of six pounds weight was long
kept in the Halifax fish market as being taken from a cod’s.
stomach). In Newfoundland he is said to follow the capelin
and feed upon them. In New Brunswick, Perley says he fol-
lows the herring to feed upon their spawn and young fry.

}

104 GILPIN—-ON THE COD FISH.

I have never found a fisherman who had seen cod spawning,
or seen their spawn floating like herring spawn on the water.
According to the most intelligent, the female fish is heaviest, the
spawn the largest, and escaping from her body when dead in
greatest quantities during May and June. I therefore suppose
they spawn in deep soundings, in greatest numbers, somewhat
later than mid summer; others say later, perhaps both accounts
are right; and as in studying the herring we found that there
were two or more distinct spawns during the year, so it may
hold true as regards the cod. During fall the young fry are
abundant about our shores, and from analogy of other fishes,
one would suppose a codling of six inches, was a first year’s fish,
and at that period six weeks or two month’s old.

Description of a Cod taken from the Halifax market, 1867.

From a rather obtuse snout, the outline of head rises gently to the first
dorsal fin, which has its anterior edge slightly posterior to insertion of
pectoral, from thence declines gently to the tail, the body here is smali and
tapering. ‘The lower outline descends from the tail quickly to a point just
below the first dorsal fin, thence rising rapidly to the snout, forms a very stout
bellied fish that tapers off to the tail ; there are three dorsal and two anal fins,
and the ventral fins are inserted anterior to the pectoral. Fish of this order
have the pelvic bones, or those upon which the ventral and pectoral fins are
based, joined by a hooked process to the bones of the head, instead of hanging
unattached. The caudal fin is square, eye large, diameter one inch, irides
brownish bronze; eye two diameters from tip of nose, nostril double, nearly
half way between eyes and nose. Intermaxillary bones forming the upper
jaw, which is longer than the lower, the lips are fleshy, the free end of the
intermaxillary is square, and fits into a narrow pouch when the mouth is closed,
—a deep sulcus through both intermaxillaries running beneath the snout.
A small barbel about an inch long beneath the chin. The shape of the first
dorsal pointed, higher than long third, ray longest, of the second roundish,
and of the third rhomboidal. The pectoral is ovate, and the ventral is narrow
with the fins and second rays prolonged into soft filiments. The colour of the
head and back dark greenish ash, becoming lighter upon sides, a square spot
of lighter green behind the eye. The chin, throat, belly, and lower parts
white, with very minute black dots. This whole green colour forms a back
ground for numerous yellowish bronze spots. In this specimen these spots are
square, but in others they are ovate or circular, or like broken links of a chain,
yarying in character, but always present. The colour of the pectoral fins was
light transparent green, the ventral with a border and two rays white, the
dorsal, anal and caudal dark transparent green, with faint spots. Lateral line
pure white and running in an arch to middle of second dorsal, then straight.
In the upper jaw the teeth are contained in a lunated band passing round
inside of the intermaxillaries, the mesial line being bare. An irregular row
of small and larger teeth in lower jaw, the symphasis bare. A crescent
of teeth on palatine arch and inside the mouth, above and in front of swallow,
two roundish knobs of osseous substance, resembling the teeth of the sea-wolf.

GILPIN—-ON THE COD FISH. 105

Branchiostegal rays, 7, lst D, 14, 2d D, 19, 3d D, 19, C about 45, Ist
Ae nbAc Lov G2 be 19,

On opening this fish, the small single heart presented in front, a large
light colored yellow liver covered the stomach and intestine running down the
right side. Removing this the stomach appeared, with its pyloric end
encircled with a fringe of numerous cceca, A short intestine was reflected
upwards over the stomach and then descended to the vent, the gall bladder
was filled with bile, the spleen was small and dark brown. Removing these,
the sound or air bladder presented, strongly attached to the spinal columa
and its transverse processes; externally smoky white—internally, when cut
into, pure white, but showing marks of extravasations of red blood in many
parts. The membrane was firm and apparently fibrous, and lined by appar-
ently serous membrane. Jibrous filiments seemed to run to each tranverse
process of the back bone, as if the fish should have the power of compressing
the bladder. This bladder extended from an inch below the vent, nearly to
the gills, where it presented a wide front, from either corner of which there
proceeded two tubes, which, arching rapidly &t first, passed towards the gills,
where the free end seemed to remain embedded in the muscle. These tubes
were hollow, and easily traced by a wire from within the bladder to the free
end, which was a closed sack. ‘This specimen was about two feet long and
weighed about three pounds. ‘They vary in our markets from one pound up
to eighty. There is a tradition of a fish being sold by Mr. Lisle, a merchant of
Halifax, weighing, when dried, one hundred and fourteen pounds. When
taken from the sea it must have been one hundred and fifty weight.

In speaking of the colour of the cod, I have described the
individual specimen before me, but on examining many hun-
dreds, or I may say thousands, exposed for sale in the Halifax
fish markets, we find that this greenish ash runs through every
shade, from dark blue green, to the lightest yellow ash, in
different individuals. Some are so dark that the spots are
scarcely discernible. The spots, themselves, vary in shape, in
size, and arrangement, in different individuals. They are
square, oval, in rings and in broken links, in different fish, and
sometimes one fish has every kind upon him at once. They
usually are bronze, but when first taken out of the sea, almost
golden. There is a variety called rock-cod, with a brilliant
red wash, and another with a bright yellow, superseding
the green. There are others that have black blotches on the
sides, called pine-trees by the fishermen, from a fancied resem-
blance. I consider them to be the Greenland variety called
“© Qgack” by Dr. Gunther.

In comparing our fish with DeKay’s figure of the American
cod, it agrees well with it in colour. It does not agree so well

14

106 GILPIN—ON THE COD FISH.

with Couch’s figure of the English cod, in colour, and the term
‘‘mottled” on the sides is scarcely a good description of the
very defined spots which our cod has over his back and sides.
Yet Dr. Gunther in his catalogue of fishes, (B. Museum,) con-
siders the English and American cod identical, and is followed
by Sir John Richardson. The American authors, except Gill,
though admitting the English and Newfoundland fish identical,
assert there is a distinct American variety. Unfortunately they
do not give the exact differences in each. I have never suc-
ceeded in finding but one species in the many thousands I have
examined, and this species tallies exactly with DeKay’s descrip-
tion of the American variety, except a very slight variation of
the number of fin rays, which is too variable a mark to be
considered typical. I consider our fish identical with European,
with Newfoundland, and the American variety of DeKay. I
have little more to add of the habits of the cod. That following
the surface feeders, the herring, gaspereaux, mackerel, shad, and
capelin, he migrates from the deep soundings in spring, and
returns in winter—that we are ignorant of his spawning time
and grounds, (some Danish authorities have lately reported he
sheds his spawn in mid ocean, at various depths,) that he is a
bottom feeder and voracious eater, and that he attains above one
hundred pounds in weight. I beg to refer you to the very
curious, exact, and graphic paper by the Rev. Mr. Ambrose,
(see Transactions Inst. Nat. Science, N. S., 1865 and 66,) on
this subject.

A description of the catching of this valuable fish, divided
into the shore and deep sea fisheries, merits a separate paper.
The various materials used—the vessels, the boats, lines, seines
and nets,—the moral, intellectual, and religious influences in
exerts upon the homes, the habits, and character of those em-
ployed in its pursuits,—the political questions with foreign
powers, arising out of it,—the questions of protections and of
bounties,—the alleged increasing scarcity of fish, and the
admitted increasing distances of the fishing grounds, and
diminishing supply of bait, are all subjects of the highest impor-
tance to the Maritime Provinces. Twenty thousand of our
fellow subjects, upon whom depend one hundred thousand

‘GILPIN—-ON THE HADDOCK. 107

swomen and children, ply the oar, or whiten the ocean with their
sails, or spread their nets upon the surface, or rake the bottom
with their hooks and lines of that narrow neutral ground of
banks and bars, bounded on the right by the great gulf stream,
flowing north-east, and on the left by the cold arctic current,
flowing south-west. Its opposite fiowing surfaces teem with
moving masses of life, its floor is paved with stationary mollusks.
Here a great Providence spreads a daily banquet. Here is
perpetually solved the great problems of consumption and
supply, of reproduction and destruction. Whales, porpoises,
and seals; innumerable birds, either on the wing, or nimble
divers in hordes that darkened the air, once thinned the excessive
reproduction of these marine hosts. Man has stepped unto the
scene, and they have all vanished, and it is for our Legislatures
to determine his vicarious. position, to amend it by severe laws
and restrictions, if his waste or wants are in excess of reproduc-
tion; or, on the contrary, if with all his powers, he but healthily
keeps alive over production, then it is for them to take off every
restriction founded in ignorance, and to foster by bounties our
toiling fellow subjects, who follow the sea for their living.

THe Happock.
Description of a haddock taken in Halifax harbour, Decem-
ben. Loo -—

Length, 20 inches, of head 5 inches, a small fish. Outline more elegant
than cod, the profile slightly concave, and head carinated. The whole head
more bony, the lips fleshy. upper lip longest, lower with a slight barbel, scales
over the cheeks and side of head, nose pointed, nostrils double, small, with the
eye placed high in the head, eye large, diameter 1 1-10 inch, nearly two
diameters from tip of nose, irides silvery, with bronze spots, upper lips formed
of the intermaxillary bones, the free end of maxillary fitting into a side
pouch when mouth closed, teeth small and in irregular bands or rows in upper
and lower jaws, none in palatine arch, two round osseous masses in upper jaw, 2
third in lower jaw fitting to the inside of throat, in front of swallow. The first
dorsal triangular with the third and fourth rays prolonged to sharp points,
posterior edge concave. ‘The second and third dorsal one half height of first,
triangular, one half as high as long. Caudal forked, ventral subjugular,
white, rays prolonged to filiments, pectoral ovate, reaching opposite insertion of
second dorsal. First and second anal triangular, generally inserted opposite
second and third dorsal.

Fin rays, 1 D. 15,2 D. 28, 3 D. 18, .C..35 or 40, P. 18-19, V. 6,
A’*A. 24, 2A. 21.

On being opened it presented the same appearance as the cod, large and
thin lobed liver, numerous c@ea, air bladder smaller, the two appendixes yer?

108 GILPIN—ON THE POLLACE.

much smaller. The stomach was filled with sea urebins, star fish, shrimps, @
small clam, and a pultaceous mass. Colour when fresh from the sea, bluish
ash, with purple and golden reflections, becoming darker when stale, below
silvery with minute black dots, scales larger than cod, colour of fins transpa-
reut, light purple, with light yellow edges, a black oblong spot above pectoral
fin, halfway from insertion reaching to lateral line, lateral line black, arehing
from above the opercles, nearly to back of second dorsal, then straight to tail.

In studying the haddock, we find him a weaker fish than the
cod, coming nearer the shore in summer, and retiring to a less
distance in winter, choosing rather mollusks, and star fishes, and
sea urchins, for his food,—migrating often in large shoals, and
often seen grubbing with nose downward, on the bottom. He
will take a fly from the surface, at times. He never attains a
size above eight or ten pounds. As a merchantable fish, he has
half the value of cod, not having thickness enough for drying,
and is only taken when cod are scarce, except for supplying the
fresh fish-market, or for curing as ‘‘ Finnie haddies.” When fresh,
the superior fiakiness of his flesh causes him to be preferred to
cod. His spawning time is uncertain, or, perhaps, extended.
In August females are taken filled with spawn in Digby basin.
In the fish taken in December, the ovaries were about three
inches long. With a rare want of natural history, fishermen
consider him the fish St. Peter took the silver tribute from, the
black spot upon his side being the mark of the Saint’s fingers.
Unlike the cod, he varies but little in his colour.

Tue AmeERIcAN PoLtuack or Coa FIsuH.

Deseription of a Pollack taken in Halifax harbour, December,
1867 :—

Length 2 feet 11 inches, head 8} inches, weight about ten pounds. The
form of the fish is strait; the back line ascending but slightly from nose to
top of back. The whole figure is round, and tapers to a small, handsome,
and deeply forked tail, which is about the breadth of the fish opposite first
anal’s, anterior edge. The line of belly not prominent, and the fins propor-
tionally small. The mouth is small, the lower lip longer than the upper, the
eye large, nostrils double, and both sit well up in the head. Diameter of
eye 1 1-19 inch, and about 33 inches from tip of jaw. The upper lips are
formed entirely of the intermaxillaries, and the free end of the maxillaries
enter a cheek pouch when the mouth is close@. There are three small dorsal,
and two small anal fins, the pectoral fan shaped, and ventral reduced to a few
filiments. The first dorsal is triangular, nearly as high as long, fourth ray

highest ; the second dorsal begins more than an inch from the first, is double

its length, and about its height, third ray longest ; the third begins nearly
two inches from the second, it is a little longer and not so high as first, the

GILPIN—ON THE POLLACK. 109

fourth ray longest. The tail is handsomely forked and about the breadth of
the fish opposite beginning of first anal. The first anal opposite third dorsal,

about its length and half its height. Second anal reaching from Onpaste
insertion of second dorsal to a little beyond posterior edge of first dorsal, vent
one inch and one line anterior to it, and opposite last third of first dorsal.
Colour, head and upper parts, to a little below lateral line, dark blackish blue;
-below, silvery dotted with minute spots, lips black, a little brownish on cheeks,
chin and branchiostegal rays blue, pectoral, caudal, and dorsal fins dark
blue, anal light blue, with white base, ventral white, lateral line white,
nearly straight, narrow at first, it becomes broader and further from line of
back as it approaches the tail, scales moderate, oval slightly striated, covered
with nacre, and but asinall part exposed. They cover the cheeks and side
of head, and run up the base of tail. Numerous small teeth contained in an
irregular band extending round the symphasis of upper jaw, a small notch in
band at symphasis, a similar band extending round lower jaw, a small
triangle of teeth on palate bones,—irides silvery with greyish lines.

On opening the fish the heart has three cavities, the first pearl color ; liver
with three lobes, right longest, middle short, numerous cceca, and air-bladder
extending from gills to beyond middle of the first anal, firmly adherent
to spine, with two large anterior pouches with a small filiment attached to
each. I could discover no communication with gills. There were the same
osseous tub@rcles in front of swallow as in end.

Branchiostegal rays, 7, 17D 12, 27D 1S, 3’D 19, © not counted, 1’A
23, 2?A 18, P 19—29, V 7—8.

In studying this fish we find a greater divergence from the
type of Gadus. A small and fine head to which the small
snout and projecting lower jaw give a less powerful appear-
ance. We find a round tapering body, set off with a very
beautiful tail and strikingly coloured with its white lateral line
and dark sides. It is lively in its motions, especially the young.
who keep in shore and in shallow waters doubtless for protec-
tion. ‘They take the fiy very readily at that age. They fre-
quent the North West Arm at Halifax in numbers, and are seen
in solid masses in thousands going in and returning on the tide
at Digby basin. As far as the eye will reach a dense moving
mass is scen slowly passing the pier head at Digby for hours, a
few feet below the surface. Apparently as they become older
they become bettom feeders, not approaching the surface.
Their flesh when fresh is inferior to haddock or cod, wanting
their firm flakiness, yet very superior to the fresh water trouts
and lake salmons. When cured it brings a less price in the
market. Ihave never seen but one species on our coast. DeKay
mentions two, which Gill by his reference to Perley considers
identical.

——

|

110 ‘GILPIN—ON THE HAKE.

THe Haxe.
Description of a hake taken in Halifax harbour, December,
1867 :—

Length two feet six inches, length of head seven inches. The out-
line rising from a moderately pointed snout runs gently upward te
insertion of first dersal, then tapers toa very small tail. The lower outline
descends from tail to nearly the middle of pectoral fin, then rises rapidly te
nose. A large bellied fish, with projecting upper jaws, thick shoulders, and
very tapering tail. The eye large, set well up in the head, one inch diameter,
two and one-half inches to tip of nose, nostril double, very close to upper
edge of orbit, mouth large, upper lip formed of intermaxillary bones, free
end of maxillary fitting into a side pouch, profile slightly concave, lip not so
fleshy as cod, a band of at least five rows of small teeth pointing inwards
lines the intermaxillaries, the symphasis bare, the lower jaw the same, with

‘symvhasis bare, teeth on palate arch in a triangle, all pointing downwards.

The scales are moderate, ovate, slightly striated and cover the opercles and

‘greater part of head, the opercles with a sharp point on posterior edge. First
‘dorsal very small, rising about nine inches from nose, fourth iay prolonged

into a long filiment, second dorsal about.an inch behind first and extending

to within an inch of tail, tail very small and ovate. The anal fin extends
from opposite posterior insertion of second dorsal to opposite*three inches
posterior to its anterior insertions. Pectoral long ovate, ventral very far for-
‘ward and reduced to a single filiment five inches long and with a double termi-
mation. Colour, light reddish brown on back and sides, head and cheeks
‘white with minute brown dots. The dorsal, caudal, and pectoral fins follow the
general colour, but lighter. The anal has the base white, edged black, and the
‘ventral filiment is white. The lateral line is black and follows generally the
‘outline of back, but always keeping near to the back. ‘The scales are ovate,
‘striated, and of medium size. The inside of mouth is black. There isa
‘most minute barbel on lower jaw. The upper jaw the longest.

Rays 1 D. 10, 2 D. 55, C. 24, A. 47, P. 14. V. a single filiment.
The intestines of this fish are similar to the Gadide, except

the sound or air bladder; this lies unattached to the spine,

loosely adherent to the lower side of the intestines; its edges

are beautifully fimbriated by a series of trifoliated processes.

It is highly vascular, turning light pink when exposed. As in

-all the other members of this family, there are anterior processes
as in the pollack, and anterior sacks as in the haddock and cod,

projecting from the front, so, too, here the analogy is preserved
by the anterior fimbriz being double those of the sides. _What-

ever reason for supposing the other members of this family can

compress their air bladders exists, it can not be the case in
this, it being impossible to compress a loosely attached bag,
resting on no firm base. The air within must be the product of
secretion, as there is in none of them any external communica-

ee

GILPIN—ON THE HAKE. lift

tion. In all I have examined, I have found what seemed.
difficult to determine, whether it was extravasated blood, or a
reticulated plexus inside of the bladder. In every part of a fish
one meets with quantities. of extravasated blood, answering to-
the terrible convulsions and flappings of dying fish.

In studying the hake we find that he departs still more
widely from the type of the family. His fins runs into a eon-
tinuous range, his tail is very small, and as in the pollack, we
found a lengthened lower jaw, giving a less powerful, or less
rapacious look, so we cannot but admit that in the hake the large
head, concave profile, projecting upper jaw, and bands of teeth
all projecting downwards, give him a shark-like look. Hake
are repeatedly drawn to the surface by their hold upon a hooked
fish, and not seldom seem loth to quit their prey. A hake was.
eaught by a set-line in Digby basin, having swallowed a haddock
previously hooked, and thus entangling himself on the already
occupied hook. Among fishermen he enjoys the character of a
lively, saucy fish. He prefers muddy bottoms, and takes. bait
best at night. He also takes refuge in fresh ponds having out-
lets to the sea, and is said to winter there. He is caught during
winter, in deep soundings on the banks, but not in such numbers:
as the cod. His flesh, either fresh or salted, is much less palat—
able than the others of this family.

In this paper I have used the nomenclature of the Britisk
Museum (Dr. Gunther), though giving the synonymes of the
American writers, wherever I could obtain them. These last

have followed Cuvier and Vallencennes with the exception of

Dr. Gill, (Smithsonian Institute), who has reclassed the whole
subject, whilst the former has returned to the old Linnean names,
superseded apparently for no cause or for better generic terms,
by Cuvier.

Norre.—lI have spoken of the maxillaries and intermaxillaries as being received’
into a side pouch when the mouth is closed. Anatomically speaking, both maxillaries-
and intermaxillaries are received into a side pouch, in all this family. This arrangement
has its widest divergence in the ground Shark (S. Borealis Yarrell,) where the
maxillaries become cartilaginous, and covered with red mucous membrane—in fact a gum
is received into a pouch lined also with red mucous membrane, which is in fact a secon—
dary mouth.

112 RONEYMAN—ON THE LONDONDERRY IRON MINES.

Arr. XIII. Ox THE GEOLOGICAL FEATURES OF THE

LonponprerRy Iron Miyes. By Rev. D. Honeyman,

TD, Cots; Bey Ge (S. |

(Read January 7, 1867.)

THESE mines are situate on Great Village river on the south
side of the Cobequid mountains. Their history, previous to
1855, and the opinions until then entertained by the geologist
as to the character, age and origin of the iron deposits, are fully
given in Dr. Dawson’s Acadian Geology. The following
observations may be regarded as a sequel to the history just
referred to. They are the result of two visits which [ made to
those mines in preparing illustrations of the resources of the
Provinee for the London International Exhibition of 1862, and
Paris Universal Exhibition of 1867. On my first visit [ found
in operation one blast furnace and several puddling furnaces.
The ores employed were brown hematite and specular. The
flux used was a limestone derived from a lower carboniferous
deposit, existing about three miles west of the mines, and the
fuel used was charcoal made from the hardwood of the neigh-
bouring forest. A massive Nasmyth hammer was constantly at
work forming bars of charcoal iron, which were chiefly exported
to England. The specular ore was derived from a bed about
three feet thick, and the hematite from a bed of variable thickness
and of unknown depth. In order to ascertain the depth pits
had been sunk, but without any definite result. My last visit
was of a much more satisfactory character, and the information
acquired is of the most interesting and singular description. I
found the works considerably extended by an increase of the
number of puddling furnaces, and by the addition of rollers for
the manufacture of bars and rods of iron. An attempt had also
been made to manufacture cast steel, with the most satisfactory
result. So that now there are here manufactured,—

Pig iron of the finest quality,
Charcoal iron,

Puddled steel,

Cast steel.

Dr. Percy’s analysis shows the character of the Pig iron.

HONEYMAN—ON THE LONDONDERRY IRON MINES. 113

A suite of specimens, forwarded for the Paris Exhibition
consist of :—

Pig iron,
Charcoal iron,
Puddled steel,
Cast steel,

Which satisfactorily illustrate the variety and completeness of
production of the Acadian iron works. I have no doubt that they
will confirm in Paris the character that has been gained in the
Exhibitions of London 1851-1862, and Dublin, 1865.

The brown hematite is now the only ore available for the
production of iron, the specular ore, already referred to, having
been apparently exhausted. The supply of ore, however, has
not been affected by the failure of the specular ore, as another
great bed of hematite has been discovered of dimensions nearly
equal to the bed already referred to. These two beds are now
distinguished respectively as the north and south. The strike of
the beds is east and west, their dip is 80° south. At Martin
brook, they appear about thirty feet apatt. The maximum
thickness of each of the beds is twénty feet, and the average of
the north is five feet and of the south four. Very often the
beds are interrupted and disappear. The unequal thicknesg of
the deposit and interruptions are marked by the inequality of
excavation at Martin brook. Their length has been ascertained
as at least twelve miles.

In the vicinity of Martin brook, where the hematite has been
chiefly extracted, the course of the beds was found to be west by
south. The cause of this deviation was a subject of conjecture.
A level was driven obliquely to the strike for drainage in the
meantime, and ultimately for the extraction of the ore. When
this level reached the hematite beds at about one hundred feet
below the surface, it was found that a great slip had occurred,
that the beds had been cut off, that during the process a stratum
of clay had been formed between the upper and lower part, the
inclination of this stratum being about 20° south-west. This
interesting revelation explains the mystery of the deviatior
already referred to, and at the same time shews that the deposits

extend downward to the extent indicated by the level. As thr
15

114 HONEYMAN-——ON THE LONDONDERRY IRON MINES.

beds at the point of section have not degenerated in thickuess
or quality, they may be regarded as only an interruption.

Another level is being formed some feet under the other, and
at right angles to the strike of the strata. This is expected to
reveal the existence, or non-existence of the hematite beds, and
it is reasonably expected that if they shall be recovered, they
will be found in regular position, and more advantageously
situated for mining purposes. It was supposed that the hematite
was an altered ankerite, and that it would only be found in the
top of the vein. Whatever may have been the original charac-
ter of the ore when deposited, it is certain that the hematite
extends to a depth of at least one hundred feet, and that its
character in the level is precisely the same as it is in the excava-
tions near the surface. I found cavities with butryoidal crystal-
izations of hematite in the roof of the level, as well as in the
excavations above. The hematite of these beds is chiefly
amorphous and friable, with numerous masses porous and com-
pact, and mamillary butryoidal, and stalactitic crystalizations
of striking variety of form.

Often the ore has an unmistakeable cokelike aspect, being
specular and intermixed with slate, reminding me of the coke
made from the fine coal, with intermixed slate, at the Acadia
coal mines. This, and numerous other appearances in the ore,
can only be satisfactorily accounted for by the supposition of
metamorphism, by igneous agency. If, again, we are to sup-
pose that the hematite is metamorphosed ankerite, the rarity of
the occurrence of this mineral in the excavations at Martin
brook, shew that the metamorphism has been complete. I
shall now direct attention to the geological relations of these
hematite beds.

The section represents the several geological formations
existing in the Cobequid mountains, and also to the south of
these, from the centre of the Cobequid mountains, to the Cobe-
quid bay. In ascending order, the formations are silurian,
devonian, carboniferous, and triassic. These are severally
included in the ten miles represented in the section. The line.
of section is along a portion of the new Amherst road, the
Great. village river, and the shore from Great Village to

HONEYMAN—-ON THE LONDONDERRY IRON MINES. 115

the Cobequid bay, one and a half miles. The north of the
section represents the rocks from the centre to the bridge
above the mines, a distance of one and a half miles. The
extreme rock is syenitic, and is situate about three miles
west of what is called the sugar loaf, which is considered to be
the highest mountain of the range. In this part of the section
we have altered strata, which bear a striking resemblance to the
altered silurian near Arisaig pier, county of Antigonish. These
are quartzite ore, with slaty cleavage, breaking readily into
rhomboidal forms. These are sometimes divided by true
granite. I was astonished at finding granite associated with
these rocks, as I have not met with it elsewhere similarly
associated. On referring to the Acadian Geology, I find that
granite occurs elsewhere in the Cobequids, and in the same
geological position. I was equally surprised about five years
ago in finding granite in the Baddeck mountains, Cape Breton,
where I had expected to find syenite, as in the Antigonish and
Cobequid mountains. Still I believe the two cases are not
analogous, and that the geological relations are different. I
consider the Baddeck granite as identical with that of our lower
silurian of Guysboro’ county, &c., and I regard the auriferous
slates of Wagamatcook, associated with the granite, as also of
lower silurian age. The granite of our section has also con-
nected with it as intrusive rocks, several dykes of dark
pyritous trap, which have forced themselves up between the
siliceous silurian strata, converting them, as at Arisaig, into por-
celaneous jasper, obscuring the stratification. This trap
appears in one case crowned with these strata, having failed to
force its way to the surface.

I have assigned to these strata a silurian age, in consequence
of their resemblance to the strata of Arisaig, of which the
Frenchman’s barn is a part. They also bear the same relation
to the argillite here, as the supposed equivalent do to the
argillite of the Antigonish, Ohio, and Merigomish mountains. I
consider that it is not at all likely that we shall have any
evidence more satisfactory than this to determine the geological
age of the strata in question, at least in this locality, as the
proximity of the trap must have destroyed organic remains as

;
.
)
.
)

hos
y

116 HONEYMAN—ON THE LONDONDERRY IRON MINES.

in the case of Arisaig pier and the Frenchman’s barn. It is pos~
sible, however, that an examination of the Arisaig equivalents at
Karltown, on the north side of the Cobequid range, with their
fossils, may enable us to determine the precise age of the strata
under examination. Succeeding these, and toward the south,
we have a thick series of strata, which in the line of section
form a mountain of considerable elevation. These are readily
distinguishable from those already described, and are divisible
into three members. Members 1 and 2 are separated by the
beds of hematite already referred to—1 being the underlying
and 2 the overlying rocks. It has ever been supposed that
these are the first tokens of the different geological periods—
1 being supposed to be silurian, and 2 and 3 devonian—1 is
found to be much harder than 2 and 3. The miners distinguish
1 and 2 by their difference in hardness. The thickness of the
series may admit of a separation into periods, which may not be
admissible on lithological grounds so slightly distinctive. 3 is
more readily distinguished from the two preceding, by its dark-
ness of colour and softness. The latter property gives depres-
sion to the surtace of the ground which these last strata underlie,
as the superior hardness of the former gives a corresponding
elevation. Succeeding the devonian strata are conglomerates and
sandstones of the carboniferous period. Preceding the forma-
tion there must have been an elevation of the strata already
described, and that, too, at the same period as the corresponding
strata elsewhere—that is, at the close of the devonian period.
It is probable that the rocks then formed had not undergone the
metamorphosing process by which they assumed their present
character. I consider that in the manner of their deposition
and in the time of upheaval, the sedimentary rocks resem-
ble their Lochaber equivalent.— Vide Geology of Antigonish
County. On the shore formed the shallow seas of the earboni-
ferous period accumulated the shingles which now constitute the
conglomerate, and afterward the series of sand stones, shales
and clays, which are found reposing on these. The limestones

are not found resting on the conglomerate as in Antigonish —

county, but limestones are found elsewhere in their usual posi-
tion on the side of the Cobequids; and I have already mentioned

i

HONEY MAN—ON THE LONDONDERRY {RON MINES. eles

the limestones used in the manufacture of iron, occurring about
three miles west of the mines. I was informed by Mr. Jones
that these limestones succeed the devonian slates without the
intervention of the conglomerate. This lower carboniferous
conglomerate of our section now occupies én elevated position,
more so indeed than the 3 members of the devonian series and
a part of the sandstones resting on these conglomerates dips in
the same general direction as the older rocks. I consider that
the upheaval of these lower carboniferous strata and the meta-
morphorsis of the silurian and devonian formations were simul-
taneous, and that both were caused with similar operations at
Polson’s Lake. Vide Geology of Antigonish. The upheaving
and altering agency appears to have been the trap which I have
already referred to as in connection with the silurian strata of
our section. To this period and agency I may therefore ascribe
the metamorphic and igneous phenomena of the iron beds to
which I have already alluded, and to the disturbing influence of
the trap eruption I would attribute the great slip by which the
rocks and iron beds at Martin brook have been divided.
Sueceeding these silurian, devonian and lower carboniferous
strata, we have a broad band of carboniferous strata in the
opposite direction, or synclinal to those already described. Suc-~
ceeding these again we have another broad band of strata of
triassic age, dipping in a direction opposite to those immediately
preceding, the anticlinal axis being situate between the two
formations. This triassic series is composed of a coarse conglom-
erate of considerable thickness, with interstratified sandstone
which had been formed of and deposited on the carboniferous sand-
stone on the shores of the triassic sea. ‘These again are succeeded
by coarse red sandstone of the same period. This conglomerate
and its sandstone now rise, with the strata immediately beneath,
to a considerable elevation, and dip with a high angle in the
same proportion as do the ecarboniferous strata of which they
form the anticline. I have not been able to ascertain the nature
of the elevating cause. There can be little doubt that it is trap,
apparent or concealed, such as is to be met with at Two Islands,
Five Islands, &c.

The new line of railway being constructed between Truro

118 HONEYMAN—ON THE LONDONDERRY IRON MINES.

and New Glasgow, furnishes a noble section of the band of

strata which we are now considering. Leaving the West river

‘station, on the way to Truro, we see on either side of the road

fine specimens of argillite which fiank Mount Tom on the west,
succeeding the basal felspathic rocks. These exposures continue
for several miles. The argillite of these cuttings appear to be
very little, if in any degree, altered, and it it quite possible
that fauna might be found in them which may more directly
indicate the age of the altered or unaltered pre-carboniferous
strata of the band, than even the Earltown group, already re-
ferred to. When we leave the section of argillite strata on the
Truro side of Georgetown, there appeared to be some obscurity
for some distance, and then succeeding are magnificent cuttings
of carboniferous strata, showing a dip apparently synclinal to
that of the older strata. ‘Somewhere in these strata must be
situate the manganese limestones of Salmon river. Succeeding
these carboniferous strata cuttings are cuttings equally imposing
of triassic sandstone, which reach nearly to the town of Truro. -

I would observe, in conclusion, that the lines of railway from
Halifax to Windsor, and from Halifax to Truro, now reveal ahd
make accessible to the observer the great geological features of
the Province. Proceeding from Windsor to Mount Uniacke,
we pass through the granite which may be regarded as the basal
rock of the Province ; passing on to the junction of the Windsor
and Truro lines we rise into the quartzite and argillite of the
metamorphic lower silurian, which includes Mount Uniacke
gold field. Proceeding from the junction to Truro, we pass
from quartzite through argillite and quartzite, all lower silurian.
Leaving Elmsdale, and approaching Shubenacadie, we reach the
lower carboniferous limestones with their gypsum. Leaving
Truro for Pictou, we pass through the series that I have already
described, descending geologically through triassic, carbonifer-
ous, devonian and upper silurian, this last being, in all proba-
bility, the immediate successor of the auriferous lower silurian.
From West river station to Pictou harbour we probably ascend
through the extension of the silurian series of Springville, Hast
river, through the lower carboniferous of Hopewell, then the
middle and upper carboniferous. In various localities we pass
through drift and alluvium, and thus we have a synoptical
representation of the Geology of Nova Scotia.

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VI ‘VILOOS VAON ‘XVAITVH ‘AULSIOGA TVOIDOTONOALAW AO LOVULSAV

Mean Temperature and Atmospheric Pressure of the Different Seasons, from 1863 to 1866, enclusive.

MEANS OF 4
SEASON. 1863. 1864. 1865. 1866. YEARS.
° Oo io) o (o) o [o} o ° ©
& g | I = I € g g E
o 2 o 2 oO © o = 5 2
oS} Cs} ce 3 pet bs Sf Gs} lo) oS
WINTER. Sa = ES) 5 aa ee BS = pare <i ees
IMieannee= se ree ee 0O | 20: 7.0 B5e | 29°71 Q4° | 29-58 230 | 29°66 94° | 29-66
IMAG) oororct ote ort *62 #160 54. 1°83 54 1-78 67 1-85
SPRING.
MWeaiess <.rses aes on 29-66 37 29°58 4l 29:73 39 29°52 39 29°62
IRS Gorm conc 81 1235 35 1:38 67 1:23 60 1:45
SuMMER.
Micanteecce che 61 29°73 61 | 29-70 60 29-67 60 29-61 61 29 68
ANCCR aacoap 49 0.98 55 1:00 49 0.76 50 "76
AUTUMN.
Miganiea nessa 50 29°76 47 29°65 47 29-60 47 29°69 48 29: 67
Range. Sees pea 69 1.21 51 1:09 65 1°45 51 “84
Yearly Means...| 44° | 29.71 | 480 | 29°66 43° | 29°65 42° | 29:62 43 | 29 46

* Two months only, January and February, 1863,

er

-

APPENDIX. NOL

SUGGESTIONS ON THE IMPORTANCE OF CONTINUOUS
METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS.

(Read Nov. 5, 1867.)

TypIcaTIons so unmistakably exist of great changes in the physical condition of the
surface of the earth, that it becomes an interesting and not unimportant enquiry, whether
the existing physical condition of the countries we inhabit are likely to be permanent,

and if not, at what rate, and in what direction change is likely to occur.

The materials for such an enquiry can be obtained only by a careful registration of
continuous observations for a long series of years, and comparison of the mean results.

There can be little doubt that the habits, feelings and characteristics of the varions
races of men who differ so widely from each other, have, to a considerable extent, been
produced by the nature of the countries they inhabit ; and that a change of locality, or a
change of physical condition, must tend to modify the character of any given race
of men.

That the Arctic lands—now the desolate region of perpetual ice—once enjoyed a
climate suited to the growth of forest trees, is no less certain than that the warm, wine-
producing districts of Southern Europe, were at one time a rugged waste surface of
ice andsnow. The period occupied by such great changes can hardly be estimated, but it
seems probable that some of them have taken place since the first appearance of man
on this earth.

Tt seems also probable that the causes of these changes are stillin operation, and
that variations in the temperature and physical condition of many parts of the world,
are now in progress.

To watch for the signs of such changes, to discover in what direction they tend, and
to attempt to estimate the influence they may exercise on the habits and character of our
descendants, cannot but be both an interesting and important subject for consideration.

It will be easy, for instance, to imagine how serious an effect would be produced by
a change of a few degrees in the mean temperature of the winter months in Nova Scotia.

If the temperature were lowered, the harbour of Halifax would probably be closed,
or nearly so, for some months, and the commerce of that city seriously impeded. Most
of the smaller harbours would be rendered entirely inaccessible except during the short
summer. The commencement of all agricultural operations would be deferred for some
weeks, and the autumn season abridged to the same extent. The increased length of
winter would enhance the trouble and cost of keeping live stock, and no doubt many
species of wild flora and fauna would become extinct. The effect too, which severe
frost has on the rocks and surface soil would be so increased and extended as, in the
course of a few years, to alter the appearance of the country and modify the relative
proportions of land and water.

If on the. other hand, the change were in the other direction, it would bring direct
and substantial benefits to all the inhabitants ef the country. The harbours would
remain permanently open, and all farming operations would be facilitated and lessened
in cost. It is however probable that increased temperature might, by diminishing the
rainfall, and increasing evaporation, so decrease the aepth of water in the lakes and the
volume of the rivers and streams, as to lead to important changes of the surface of the
country, and perhaps ultimately to exercise a prejudicial effect on agricultural operations.

It might even be possible to estimate approximately the amount of pecuniary loss or
gain which change of temperature would cause to the country, and to reduce degrees
Fahrenheit to an equivalent in dollars !

In addition however to these merely theoretical considerations, there are practical
adyantages of great importance to be obtained from meteorological observations.

Mey APPENDIX.

The state of the weather has immense influence on all our operations even on land,
but to all engaged in maritime pursuits the weather has an importance which cannot be
over-estimated. And if it be possible te foresee the approach of good or bad weather,
and to warn the farmer to save his crops and the seaman to make for or remain in port,
such a faculty will enable us to prevent the loss of immense wealth and invaluable
human life.

That the state of the weather depends (as do all other operations of nature) on
invariable and ascertainable laws, is certain and incontrovertible. But it is equally
certain that these laws are as yet unknown or very partially known to us, and that they
can become known only by the accumulation and generalization of an immense body of
facts.

To contribute even in a small degree to bring on the day when the weather ean be
predicted with tolerable certainty a week or so in advance, is an object worthy of the
attention of a Scientific Institution.

In England as in the United States, this subject continues to oceupy the earetul
attention of scientific men, and though much remains to do, very valuable results have
already been attained.

I need only point to the weather “ forecasts” of the late lamented Admiral Fitz Roy
as an example. Receiving by telegraph each morning the state of the Barometric
column at many parts of the coasts of the United Kingdom and of the continent of
Europe. the Admiral communicated his expectations as to the weather to most of the
ports frequented by shipping, and a simple system of signals indicated the probable
approach of a gale and the point from which it might be expected.

Although not in every instance correct, there is no doubt that these signals have
been the means of saving life and property to a large extent.

With these few remarks I venture to urge on the Institute of Natural Science the
importance of promoting careful and continuous records of the meteorology of the
country, and to submit for consideration a few suggestions as to the mode of taking
observations.

The instruments should be by the best makers, and all carefully compared with
a standard instrument, either at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, or at one of the
United States Observatories.

All the instruments (not self-registering) should be read at stated times—say at
9 a.M.and 3 p. M., and oftener if possible ; but if by any accident the observation
cannot be taken within a few minutes of the prescribed time, the reading should be
omitted altovether.

Observations, as to the correctness of which there is any doubt, are worse than
uscless.

At least six thermometers should be used, four of them self-registering ; one to give the
maximum temperature in the shade, and one in the sun; one to give the minimum tempe-
rature, about four feet from the ground, and one on the surface (if possible) of grass. A
pair of thermometers, onc with a wet and the other with a dry bulb, should also be
suspended ubout four feet from. the ground, and from these instruments all the obser-
yatious necessary for calculating, the bhygrometric condition of the atmosphere may be
obtained.

There is, I believe, an efficient aurmometer fixed in ai admirable position at Halifax,
and I have no doubt that the results obtained from that instrument would be placed, by
the courtesy of the Royal Engineers, at the service of the Institution of Natural
Science. The estimate of the amount of rain-fall in the year would be attended with
some difficulty, owing to the low temperature of the winter months and the consequent

ae

APPENDIX. 123

necessity for melting the snow and ice collected in the guage ; but the results, if care-
fully obtained, would, for that very reason, be peculiarly interesting and useful, and
would fully repay the trouble of obtaining them. I have no doubt that the ingenuity of
members of the Institute would devise an apparatus for this purpose, suited to the
difficulties of the climate.

Careful and regular readings of the barometer have a peculiar value and utility.
The time may not, perhaps, have yet arrived when a regular system of “forecasts,”
such as was introduced by Admiral Fitz Roy, can be adopted in Nova Scotia. But I
venture to point out how admirably Halifax is situated for such a purpose, as the state
of the Barometer could be known by telegraph from Newfoundland, Cape Breton
Island, Boston and New York, as well as from other points, and the direction and force
of air currents thus ascertained. If it be premature to attempt at present so extensive
an arrangement, I would suggest that in a port so much frequented as Halifax is, it
would be of great use to shipping to indicate daily, bya simple semaphore placed in a
conspicuous position, the height of the barometric column, and whether it be rising
or falling.

I beg to subjoin a table giving the means of a number of observations of temperature
taken in the Naval Yard, Halifax, during the years 1863, 764, ’65, 66.

I am not disposed to place much value on these results as it is probable that the
instruments were faulty, nor can I be sure that the observations were taken with care,
but I lay them before the Institute, as I presume no other observations are in existence
for the same period.

EpGECUMB CHEYVALLIER.

Number of Days on which Rain, Snow, and Hail fell in the different Seasons, for four years.

oe ila = = == ee = =

1863. 1864. 1865. 1866. TOTAL OF 4 YEARS.
SEASON. a : = = ; = = ae | =

PB bh goalie [SB |g | ge | Bo pele ee Se ee

aja; mola @ |e | a) |e | a |e fe eee

Vinita. 5 oo Rca oneal onl RSS |S IE 5 18 26 me 29, 89 1 23 26 ae 76+) 102 1
SHS aps Gamo noel te || 1 VA Ieee bey ys f= Wo} ai83 8 ee eon ele pe Oe 3
St Cogan nowecst lal oc Sate [oe QQ veltae. cree eee oul ee aS ae Reale). aoc 1
INMMUIN 6a nao eno ol Oko) 3 ae 32 3 2 39 8 1 37 6 ce (ples! 20 3
Motalivise ise LOS 26 so. {tabi} 43 4 | 135 55 | IBY) 49 1 499s 73 8

t

* Two months only, January and February, 1863.

ES ES ET a Le Te a " - - ae

or

eae HALIFAX, NOVA SOOTIA.

i

Ea RAE aS
——_

VOL. 1. 1867-8. PART It.

ae ee

CON TENTS.
Page.

PROOPEDINGS. «000000 seeseeseeseineytetecee teeta ie tte itt ee eee eae to $
rer rer reese tens Th Meant ate tau ARN ay 4
PABEROM: MEMBERS go. foo. ety vent Gide leu cso t wagroene hmnen se 9 ee 5 Bose

TRANSACTIONS :—

Art. L—Contributions. to the Natural, | History of the Homandas By. J:
Matrurw Jonss, F. Lb. S. 2 GaGa chien Seer gi hese ft aia Sh Re
II.—On ‘the Food Fishes of Nova Scotia. ‘No. Vi. By J. Bernarp
GA LPEN; YA TDM. Dg MAUR oC viet cs ones seed gisbe eee LT
TIi.—-Notes on the Economic M ineralogy of Noya Scotia, By Prof. How,
D.C. L., University of King’s. College, Windsor, N.S. Part 4.
Gypsum and Anhiydrite, and the Borates, and other Minerals they
GUC AD SN we heen eco soals sane id MUP OG Rew eum oh hi ohehas cca els > sass Sr AEN 26
1V.—Magnetism, and its Connection\ with the Telegraph. By THomas R.
ERASUR ES VEO so rosia 0h) a owen) ncn: awietd view oie meee ne mae eB
V.—Oyster Culture in France. By|T. EF. Kwigut....... 2. ieee 42
VI.—On the Meteorology of: the Caledonia Coal Mine, faittle Glace Bay,
Cape Breton, in 1867. By laitey Bootes. is. 0 3c 51 isn
VII—On hie ‘Mammalia of Nova Scotia. By J. Bernarp Ginein, A. B., é
MaDe Mo ais SING: FSR ery sae hae oaks Bente ae feos
VAIL. --On some of the Rarer Birds of Nova Seotia. By J. Marraw. JONES, he

ar

" KF, Ll. SSH sg hy SP ers Be) JM hating SE Neel Ma ee rec ye keg vs 70
: “1X.—Nows on the Weather at Halifax, NN. 5., during the year 1867. By ‘ei
) st UBEDERTOK (ALLISON $2100) 314 ats oo bee Vives Paes acl Te oe TS
; X.—On the Fishes of St. Margaret’s Bay... By Rev. Joux Aubin Era ig
xi On Submerged Forest Trees in Cumberland Basin. By P. 8. ES
Ch

EM CMON eee aL ISS LSS SE ey | Re oS

Avrwxprx: — é * :

EDRRIC Autos ee oe 100
ian, mew to the Province........,....- LOIS
Note them. By J. L. Hurpis,

desse esd ence ia deerneeeetenes 103°"

Meearolediont Record. By |
On Hyla Squirella—a Batrae
Crude Notes on Stofms, and how to
fees Mem Wh of the earl

a,

ray

Kg

Sey

Vas!

PROCKEDINGS

OF THE

Aova-Seotinn Sustitute of Natural Science.

YOLUME II. PART II.

ANNIVERSARY MEETING, OcTOBER 9, 1867.

In accordance with the Bye-Laws of the Institute, the Anniversary Meeting was held

on Wednesday, October 9, 1867, at 8 p.m., when the following gentlemen were elected

office-bearers for the ensuing year :—
President—J. Matrupnw Jonss, EF. L. S.
Vice- Presidents—J. Bernarp Gitpin, M.D, J. R. DeWotrs, M. D.
Treasurer—W. C. SILVER.
Secretary—W. Gossip.
Councii—J. Hunter Duvar, P. S. Hamitton, Josera Bet, Capt. Kine, R. A.,
J. RUTHERFORD, Capt. L’Esrranes, R. A., T. F. Kyrcut, J. CAMPBELL.

OrpINARY Merrtine, NOVEMBER 4, 1867.
J. M. Jones, President, in the Chair.

Professer Lawson (Dalhousie College) read a paper by Professor How, of King’s
College, Windsor, which was a continuation of his former “ Notes on the Economic Min-
eralogy of Nova Scotia.” (See Transactions. )

The PeusipEnt read a paper entitled, ‘‘ Contributions to the Natural History of the
Bermudas— Corals and their allies.” Specimens of every species described were exhib-
ited, including a singularly formed Mycedium fragile. (See Transactions. )

OrpinaRY Meptinc, DECEMBER 2, 1867.
J. M. Jones, President, in the Chair.

Dr. J. B. Giuprn read a paper on “ The Food Fishes of Nova Scotia,” being the fifth
and concluding part of a series delivered under that title. (See Transactions.)

Dr. Sterry Hunt, F. R. S., stated that the Shad was taken as far up the St. Law-
rence as Montreal. :

A Member, in alluding to the taking of the different kinds of edible fish on the north-
east coast of America, remarked upon the local fishery laws at St. John, New Bruns-
wick, which apportioned the harbour in lots to fishermen, a measure found to work
well, as the whole harbour was thereby kept in a state of strict preservation ag

_- regards its fisheries.

ea

Oa

2 PROCEEDINGS.

The PresIpEnT read a short note “ On Hyla squirella, » batrachtan new to the Pro.
vince.” (See Appendix.) It was discovered by Mr. ARTHUR SILVER on his father’s
estate at Preston.

OrDINARY MEETING, JANUARY 6, 1868.
J. M. Jones, President, in the Chair.
Dr. Fraser read a paper ‘“ On the Magnetic Telegraph.” (See Transactions. )
Dr. J. B. Ginn read a paper “ On some of the Fishes of the Coast.” (See Transac-
tions. )
The Pollack (Gadus virens, Gunth.), and the Hake (Phycis Americanus, Gunth.) were
described, and very carefully prepared drawings of each exhibited

OrpDINARY MBETING, FepruarRyY 3, 1868.
Dr. J. B. Griupin, Vice-President, in the Chair.

Mr. T. F. Knigurt read a paper “ On Oyster culture.” (See Transactions.)

Mr. J. H. Duvar stated that an attempt had been made at Prince Edward Island to
form oyster beds, but the result had not yet been ascertained. The oyster was found at
various places on the Atlantic coast of Nova Scotia, but chiefly on the northern shores,
within the Gulf of St. Lawrence, viz., at Pictou, Tetamagouche, Merigomish, Wallace,
Pugwash, &c. They did not exist on the Bay of Fundy shore of Nova Scotia.

Mr. Henry Pootr’s paper “ On the Meteorology of the Caledonian Coal Mines, Cape
Breton, in 1867,” was read by the Secretary. (See Transactions.)

Orpinary Meetine, Marcu 3, 1868.
J. M. Jonus, President, in the Chair.

The following Resolution having been duly moved and seconded, was carried by the
vote of a majority of the members present :—

“That for the future the Ordinary Meetings of the Institute, for the reading of
papers, be held on the second Monday of each month, instead of the first, as formerly.”

The PRESIDENT read an extract of a letter from Dr. A. Guntuer, F. R.S.,
(British Museum,) relating to his recent discovery as to the Whitebait of England
( Clupea alba, Yar.) being merely the young of the commen Herring (Clupea harengus,
Gunth. )

The Presipent also read a communication from Mr. Hurpis, of Southampton,
England, (Cor. Memb.), embracing his views upon revolving storms, particularly those
of the North Atlantic. (See Appendix. )

OrpInARY Mernrine, AprRit 138, 1868.
J. M. Jonns, President, in the Chair.

Dr. J. B. Gizrin read a paper “ On the Mammalia of Nove Scotia,” being the fourth
part of a series read before the Institute, and published in former numbers of the Trans-
actions. (See Transactions. )

The author illustrated his paper with life-like drawings of each species.

The PRESIDENT alluded to the “slides” made by otters on the margins of lakes
and streams, a fact mentioned by the doctor, and stated that he had seen such slides on
the sloping margin of a lake frequented by otters at the base of the Blue Mountains,
Shelburne Co.

Mr. W. C. Sriver stated that the otter, which was plentiful some thirty or forty years
ago in the neighborhood of Halifax, was extremely scarce now, and might, indeed, be
considered rare all over the Province.

|
|

\
)

~ rendered uneatable, and he and his friends had to fast in consequence.

PROCEEDINGS. 3

Dr. Reip mentioned that the Skunk (Mephitis chinga) was very numerous in the
Red River and Lake Winnipeg valleys, and in the vicinity of the town of Winnipeg.
The Indians used it as food, and the camps smelt strongly of the animal, as the skins
were hung about the wigwams, and the meat often boiling in the pots. He related an
incident in connection with the habits of the Skuak, which took place at an encamp-
ment where he was staying. One of these animals, during night, came into the camp,
and being suddenly surprised, voided its offensive fluid into one of the cooking pots in
which was a mess of pork and beans ready for the next day’s meal, which was thereby
The Indians
did not consider the fluid poisonous. The skunk frequented the traps set for minks,
and ate the bait. He had not observed the Raccoon in the Red River or Winnipeg dis-
tricts, and thought its existence there was doubtful.

The PresipEnT read a short paper “‘ On some of the rarer birds of Nova Scotia,”
giving notices of the occurrence of the Great American White Egret (Ardea alba), King
Hider (Anas spectabilis), Curlew Sandpiper (Z'ringa subarquata), Pectoral Sandpiper (7’.
pectoralis), Schinzs Sandpiper (Z. Schinzi), and others. (See Transactions.)

Dr. Rerp remarked that from observations he had made in regard to the migration
of birds in North America, he was inclined to believe that the birds arriving from the
south in Spring followed the receding snow to the northward, and so worked their way
up to their usual breeding places. He considered that currents of wind in mid-air, in
which migratory birds were occasionally caught, conveyed them with a rapidity far
greater than that of their usual flight, and instanced the case of a balloon voyage that
had been made a few years ago between St. Louis, on the Mississippi, and Canada,
when, although there was no gale on the surface of the country, the voyagers had been
blown on a current at the rate of 60 miles an hour.

Mr. W.C. Sitver had noticed, at the time of the autumnal migration, that at least
three or four distinct species of birds intermixed and travelled in company.

Orpinary Merxrinec, May 11, 1868.
J. M. Jonus, President, in the Chair.

Mr. F. Auiison read a paper entitled ‘ Meteorological Observations and Periodic
Phenomena for 1867.” (See Transactions. )

The Rey. J. AMBROSE read a paper, which was a continuation of his “ Observations
on the Fishes of St. Margaret’s Bay.’ (See Transactions.)

At the close of the proceedings, Dr. J. B. Ginern moved a Resolution expressive of
the regret of the members of the Institute generally at the departure from the Province
of Mr. ANpREw Downs, whose name as an ornithologist was not only familiar to all
Nova Scotians, but likewise favorably known to science abroad. It was seconded by
the PresiDENT, who, in congratulating Mr. Downs upon his well-deserved and suit-
able appointment in the United States, expressed a hope, that although the Province
and the Institute would greatly feel his loss, he would gain in his new home that respect
and esteem to which his well-known talent as a naturalist, and his kindly disposition as
a man, so well entitled him.

(4)

DONATIONS TO THE INSTITUTE.

Sept. 1, 1867, to Aug. 31, 1868.

“hey Provincial\ Wwerrslature: cssn 1-14. - + Meee ee ee eee ne Eee eee $100 08

LIBRARY.
IN EXCHANGE.

Boston.—Boston Society of Natural History—Memoirs. Vol. I. Part 3.
¢ a vs Proceedings. Vol. XI., pp. 209-486.
se se ss oe Conditions and Doings of, 1867-8.
London.—Linnean Society : Journal—Zoological Section. Vols. VIL, VIIL, IX.
Vol. X., Parts 41, 42.
6 iS of Botanical Section. Vols. Vil, VIII, IX., X.
Se es ce Proceedings 1866-7.
Montreal.—Canadian Naturalist. May 1867.
New York.—Lyceum of Natural History—Annals. April, May, 1867.

American Journal of Mining. Sept- to Dec. 1867—Jan. to Aug. 1868.
Philadelphia.—F ranklin Institute—Journal. Sept. to Dec. 1867—Jan. to Aug. 1868.
Salem.—Hssex Institute—Proceedings. Vol. V., Nos. 4, 5, 6, 7.

St. Lowis—Academy of Science—Transactions. Vol. II., 1861-8.
Toronto.—Canadian Journal. Sept., Dec., 1867.
‘ Canadian Entomologist. Vol. I., Nos. 1, 2-

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Date of Admission.

1863. June 24. Almon, Hon. M. B., Hollis Street, Halifax.

1868. Mar. 3. Allison, Frederick.

1868. Feb. 1. Belmore, Dr., Staff.

1864. April 3. Bell, Joseph, Hollis Street, Halifax.

1863. Jan. 8. Belt, Thomas, F. G. S., Newcastle-on-Tyne, England.

1864. Nov. 7. Brown, C. KE.

1864. Mar. 1. Campbell, W., Hollis Street, Halifax.

1867. Oct. 8. Cogswell, Dr. A. C., Hollis Street, Halifax.

1868. Oct. 15. Collins, Brenton, Gorsebrook, near Halifax.

1863. May 13. Cramp, Rev. J. M., D. D., President of Acadia College, Wolfville.

1866. May 4. DeMill, James, M. INS, Pr ofessor of Modern Languages, \)alhousié
College, Halifax.

1863. Oct. 26. DeWolf, James R., M. D., Edin., L. R. C.S. E., Vick Pecan

1863. Dec. 7. Downs, Andrew, Cor. Mem. Zool. Soc., London, Central Park, New
York.

1863, Feb. 2. Duvar, J. Hunter, Prince Edward Island.

1864. Oct. 26. Finnie, A. S., Bank of B. N, A., Halifax.

1865. Oct. 4. Fleming, Sandford, C. E., Chief Engineer of Railways, Halifax.

1866. Feb. 1. Forman, James, Thornfield, Halifax.

1868. July 23. Foord, A. §., Bank of B. N. A., Halifax.

1863. Jan. 24. Fraser, R. G., Spring Garden Road, Halifax.

1863. Jan. 5. Gilpin, J. Bernard, M. D., M. R. C.S., Vicu-PresipEnt, Bar-
rington Street, Halifax.

1863. June ld. Gilpin, Rev. Canon, D. D., Ualifax,

1863. Feb. 2. Gossip, William, Granviile Street, Halifax, SecreTary.

1868. Mar. 3. Grove, W., Halifax.

1863. Jan. 26. Haliburton, R. G., F.S. A., Halifax.

1863. Oct. 26. Hamilton, P. S., Granville Street, Halifax.

1863. Jan. 26. Hardy, Capt. R. A., Chatham, England.

1863. June 27. Hill, P. Carteret, D. C. L., Morris Street, Halifax.

1863. Mar.11. How, Henry, D. C. L., Professor of Chemistry, King’s College,
Windsor.

1867. April 1. Jennings, Edward, M. D., Halifax.

1863. Jan. 5. Jones, J. Matthew, F. L. S., Halifax, PresiDENT.

1866. Feb. 1. Kelly, John, Deputy Commissioner of Mines, Province Building,
Halifax.

1864. Oct. 12. King, Capt. J. R., R. A., Artillery Park.

1867. Jan. 7. Knight, Thomas F., Receiver General’s Office, Province Building,
Halifax.

1864.

1867.
1865.
1863.
1866.
1865.
1865.
1867.
1867.
1867.
1863.
1868.
1866.
1866.

1868.
1864.
1868.
1865.
1865.
1868.
1867.
1868.
164,
1863.
1866.

1863.
1866.
1864.
1865.

1866.
1866.

Mar: 7.
Feb. 4

Nov. 9.
Jan, - 8:
Feb. 3.
Noy. 17.
Aug. 29.
April 1.
Mar. 1.
Sept. 25.
Jan. 5.
Mar. 3.

July 28.
Jap. 8

Jan. 6

Mar. 7

Oct. 14

Jan. 9

April 20
May. 7
Aug. 16.
Oct. 14.
June 1.
April 15.
Mar. 18.
Oct. 26.
Dec. 3.
July 1.
Dec. 28.
Sept. 29.
Feb. 5.

(6)

Lawson, George, Ph. D., LL.D., Professor of Chemistry and Mine-
ralogy, Dalhousie College, Halifax.

L’Estrange, Capt. C., R. A., Artillery Park.

Lordly, E. J., George Street, Halifax.

Lyttleton, Capt. W., Hollis Street, Halifax.

Morrow, J. B., Brunswick Street, Halifax.

Nash, J. D., Dresden Row, Halifax.

Nova Scotia, The Right Rev. Hibbert Binney, D.D., Lord Bishop of

O’Brien, W. D., Manager of Street Railways, Halifax.

Outram, Joseph, junr., Bedford Row, Halifax.

Parker, Van Ess, M.D., Halifax.

Poole, Henry, Glace Bay Mines, Cape Breton.

Pottinger, D.

Reeks, Henry, F.L.S., Manor Hall, Thruxton, Hampshire, England.

Rutherford, John, Chief Inspector of Mines, Province Building,
Halifax.

Rule, Lieut. R. A., Artillery Park.

Silver, W. C., Queen Street, Halifax, TREASURER.

Scholfield, J.

Sinclair, Lieut. Col. R. B., A.G.M., Halifax.

Smithers, George, Granville Street, Halifax.

Stockley, Capt. R.E., Halifax.

Tobin, Stephen, Mayor of Halifax, South Street.

Weeks, W.S., M.D., Dartmouth.

Whytal, John, North West Arm, near Halifax.

Willis, J. R., Cor. Mem. Bost. Nat. His. Soc., et. Liverp. Micros. Soc.

Young, Honble. William, Chief Justice of Nova Scotia, Halifax.

ASSOCIATE MEMBERS.
Ambrose, Rey. John, M.A. The Rectory, St. Margaret’s Bay.
Honeyman, Rey. D., F.G.S., Antigonishe.
Marett, Elias, St. John’s, Newfoundland.
Morton, Rev. John, Trinidad, West Indies.

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.

Chevallier, Edgecumb, H. M. Naval Yard, Pembroke, England.
Hurdis, J. L., Lower Chamberlayne Place, Southampton, England.

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

Rova-Seotian Hustitute of Batuval Science,

' Art. I. ConrTrisuTions TO THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE
Bermupas. By J. MartHew Jones, F.L.S.

(Read November 4, 1867.)

CORALLIARIA.

THe Bermudas afford the naturalist an opportunity of specu-
lating upon the effects of ocean currents, and the influence they
possess in changing the character of an island group, to one
almost distinct from that natural to it; because, if uninfluenced
by the warm waters of the Gulf Stream, there is no doubt that
the marine fauna cf these islands would, in a great measure,
coincide with that of the coast of Carolina, lying in the same
latitude; but how different is the case. Here, in latitude
32° 15’ N., at a distance of about six hundred nautical miles
from the American coast, lie a few little islands, begirt by coral
reefs, which extend out to sea even to a distance of ten or
twelve miles in some directions, and the various species of coral
polyps raise their branched or massive forms, and thrive as
luxuriantly, as if placed in their more congenial home within
the heated waters of the tropics; while on that adjacent coast,
they are unknown above latitude 26° N.; and this phenomenon
is rendered still more remarkable when we take into considera-
tion the fact of the Bermudas being the most northerly station

8 JONES—ON NATURAL HISTORY OF THE BERMUDAS.

in the Atlantic at which the reef building polyps raise their
structures. Dana, in his valuable work on coral reefs and
islands, has shewn that the growth of coral reefs depends
particularly on the temperature of the ocean, the character
of coasts as regards depth of water, nature of the shores,
presence of streams, and other conditions, especially liability
of exposure to destructive agents.

Now, the Bermudas lying as they do on the outer or eastern
edge of the Gulf Stream, are laved by its waters highly charged
with animal life brought from the Caribbean Sea; and, as it is
to the eastern edge of the stream that all drift matter inclines,
so do the Bermudas gain no ordinary share of foreign forms,
which are rarely, if ever, observed on the adjacent coast, even
-at a much lower latitude. These islands also, protected as they
are from the influence of colder northerly currents by the vast
body of heated water which flows past, present a fruitful field
for marine organisms requiring an almost tropical heat for their
perfect development; and thus it is that we find the reef build-
ing corals growing so well in an extreme northern latitude,
where the temperature of the air during the months of January
‘and February, sometimes falls as low as twenty degrees below
the temperature of the ocean required for the growth of reef
building corals.

This question regarding the proper temperature required for
the development of reef corals, is still open for determination,
for although 64° is named as the probable mean temperature of
the seas in which such corals grow, it is by no means improbable
that the shallow tidal pools, situate between tidal marks, on the
shores of the Bermudas, which generally contain corals of the
same species as those on the reefs, have the water they contain
of a much lower temperature when cold northerly winds are
blowing for two or three days in succession; reducing the air
temperature: so low that frost occasionally occurs, although very
rarely, and ice has been observed the thickness of half a crown.
It is also generally supposed that corals of the genera Astr@a and
Meandrina grow better in the warmest waters; but on the Ber-
muda reefs members of these genera are met with of an amazing
size, especially the well known “ brainstone” (Mcandrina cere-

JONES—ON NATURAL HISTORY OF THE BERMUDAS. 9g

briformis). Again in the rock pools an astroid form Siderastrea
radians is more common than any other, and appears to thrive
well, although as before stated the temperature of the water of
these tidal pools must be low at times.

The barrier reef forms a perfect belt all around the islands,
running along the southern shore of the group at a distance of
less than half a mile; while, on the northern shore it is distant
some twelve miles. At the lowest tides this reef shows in
places above the breakers, and presents a mass of corals,
gorgonias, and sea weeds, with the exception of certain patches
grown over and rendered imperishable by incrusting serpule
and nullipores.

In regard to the growth of the Bermuda reefs I cannot
acquiesce in the opinion of some naturalists, that all coral reefs
require a very lengthened period to grow in. It is doubtless
true that some species of polyps secrete their calcareous frame-
work slowly, but there are others such as the Millepora alcicornis
and Oculina diffusa which personal observation allows me to
establish as instances of rapid growth, and as the Millepora in
question is by far the most eommon form on the Bermuda reefs,
and which in many parts are almost entirely composed of it, we
may conclude that these barrier reefs at least, present an
example of a more rapid development than is usually granted to
such formations.

The reef building corals proper may be said to comprise eight
species, yet there is another smaller form, Mycediwm fragile,
whieh is by no means uncommon, and contributes to the general
mass, and on close investigation I have little doubt but that
other minor forms may be found.

I am indebted to Professor Verrill, of Yale College, New-
haven, United States, for identifying several species.

Or. ZOANTHARIA.

Fam. ASTREIDZ.

Gen. Isophyllia.
Isophyllia dipsacea, Dana.

This may be considered the most common coral on the reefs
2

ii

10 JONES—-ON NATURAL HISTORY OF THE BBRMUDAS.

and shores of the Bermudas, occurring in all places where the
tide ebbs and flows. Cabinet specimens are easily obtained in
the little tidal pools between high and low water mark ; a long
chisel and a mallet, enabling the collector to remove them with-
out difficulty. Individual polyp cells may be obtained resting
alone before becoming enlarged by the budding process, or
masses of several adhering together. Large specimens are to
be seen in about one and a half fathoms at the south-
west corner of Harris’s Bay at low water. This coral grows
well in shoal water and is found within a foot of the surface.
It is very common about the islands of the Great Sound, and
also about Trunk Island in Harrington Sound.

Gen. Meeandrina.

Meandrina cerebriformis, Lam.
Meandrites costis latis, Gualt.
Madrepora labyrinthiformis, Linn.
OC meeandrites, Pallas.
Lapis corallinus, Seba.
Platygyra cerebriformis, Ehren.
Diploria cerebriformis, Mil. Edw.

This beautiful coral which is known to collectors as the
‘« brainstone ” is common among the Bermuda reefs, growing to
a very large size: sometimes three feet in diameter. Cabinet
specimens of six inches diameter are more easy to collect, for it
requires great leverage to detach the larger specimens from their
foundations ; without taking into consideration their weight,
which is immense. Very large, perfect, and well cleaned
specimens are highly appreciated in the English and Continental
museums, few of which really possess fine examples of this
coral. On breaking open a large specimen, the interior will be
found to be tunnelled through in places by the Lithophaga
lithophagus. It cannot be considered a shallow water species,
for I have never observed it growing at a lesser depth than
about four feet from the surface. Some fine specimens may be
seen about the centre of Harris’s Bay, and other parts of the

JONES—ON NATURAL HISTORY OF THE BERMUDAS. 11

south shore within the barrier reef. In some instances the
brainstone forms around the horny trunk of a Grorgonia, and I
have a specimen in my collection thus attached to the palmate

G. flabellum.

Gen. Siderastreea.

Siderastrea radians, Verrill.

This species exists in great abundance, and may be found in
all positions, coating the reefs or shore rock, either in large
masses, or just commencing a colony, with only a few polyp cells
collected together, not larger on the surface than an inch
diameter. It is an extremely beautiful coral when the calcare-
ous mass, having been thoroughly cleaned, is viewed under a
microscope of ordinary power, presenting a kind of tessellated
star work. The mass is not thick, and in the case of small
specimens I have collected, the coat does not exceed two-tenths
of an inch. The polyp cells are irregular in form, some being
circular, others oval, and in places prolonged cuts occur. It
grows well in shallow water, and may be seen in the tidal pools
within six inches of the surface.

Fam. OcuLINIDé.

Gen. Oculina.

Oculina diffusa, Lam.

This elegant species is very common and may be found
growing in large bushy masses on the reefs; but fine cabinet
specimens may be obtained by searching about the small cavern-
ous recesses about low water mark. It is known to the
fishermen under the name of ‘ star coral.” It varies in form
according to the position in which it grows; some specimens
having the branches wider apart, while others present quite a

12 JONES—ON WATURAL HISTORY OF THRE PERMUDAS-.

scrubby appearance. Although as a rule it is generally arbores~
cent, yet I have examples in my collection where it has assumed
the habit of incrustation both upon a piece of coal, and the

neck of a common wine bottle. This character, however, is:

clearly exceptional, for it continues but for a short space ere it
rises into the usual branched form. The polyps are in colour

of a dull greenish hue, and the appearance of a specimen of

this coral when fresh from its native element is anything but
prepossessing; and it is only when properly cleaned and
prepared for the cabinet that it presents the delicate and beau-

tiful formation, which renders it so valuable in the estimation of

collectors.

Oculina varicosa,. Les.

This splendid coral is by no means conmnon, at least not wither
the polyp cells highly protuberant. The finest specimens are
obtained on the north reef, and sometimes the handsome spoi-
dylus is found «adhering to their bases. When well cleaned
and prepared for the cabinet I know of io more delicate and
beautiful looking coral. [t is very rare in collections. The
branches of this species are much thicker and more separate
than those of the preveding species, and are frequently entwined
by the smaller serprule.

Oculinad Valenciennesii, Edw.

This form is not commion, and I have rarely found it in large
masses. The mammiform nature of the polyp cells at once
characterize it as a very marked variety from the two former
species. In some cases the cells are also depressed, and even
recedent, and these characters may be found combined on one
stem. It tapers strongly from the base to the apex of the
branches, which are unusually erect, and without lateral shoots
until within a short distance of their apical terminations.

It is a fact perhaps worthy of note that these three species of
Bermuda oculinas begin to decay at their bases as they grow

JONES—ON NATURAL HISTORY OF THE BERMUDAS. 13

tipwards. This condition probably arises from the attacks of
parasites, for I invariably find all specimens more or less coated
on the decayed parts with serpule, sponges, and minute marine
forms. Milne Edwards gives Ceylon asa habitat for this species,
so I presnme it has a wide geographical range.

Fam. Funeip&.

Gen. Mycedium.

Mycedium fragile, Dana.
Leptoseris fragilis, Edw.

This delicate aud pretty coral is net uncommon. It generally
grows in thin plates, but occasionally assumes a cup form; and
I have examples growing around the stems of other corals. It
is found under overhanging rock on the reefs and on the shore
about low water mark, and looks én situ like a fungus growing
under a log. When viewed under the microscope it presents :
series of frills, with polyp cells, situate along the line of frill.
A specimen of this coral in my collection has one of the highest
coloured spondyli growing upon it that I have ever seen. Major
General Nelson, R.E., who was quartered at Bermuda several
years ago, and is the author of a very valuable paper in the
Transactions of the Geological Society of London, upon the
formation of the group, aptly terms it the ‘* pancake coral.”

Fam. Porrri®.

Gen. Porites.

Porites clavaria, Edw.
Madreporva porites, Pallas.
Porites conglomerata, Lam.

‘This species is well known to the fishermen as ‘+ rock coral.’
{t is very common, «and forms a considerable portion of the reefs.

‘

14 JGNES—ON NATURAL HISTORY OF THE BERMUDAS.

Although usually arborescent in growth, it is nevertheless
frequently seen coating the reef in large patches like the astroid
corals. The thickness of the coat is about the same as that of
Siderastre radians. The polyp mass when 7n situ is of a
brownish yellow colour. It grows well within eighteen inches
of the surface at low water.

Fam. Min LErorip/®.

Gen. Millepora.

Millepora alccornis, Edw.

66 ramosa, Id.
Madrepora palmata, Lam.

66 muricata, var., Esper.

OG alces, Dana.

Palinipora tuberculata, Duch.

This species is so various in its growth, that naturalists who
have never had an opportunity of seeing it 7 situ, are prone to
separate the different varieties, and class them as so many
species. This is hardly to be wondered at, when we consider
the very great dissimilarity which exists between the several
varieties, as regards form of growth. It may be procured
branched like the oculinas; flattened like a board; or coating
the reef rocks; in fact, there is hardly a shape that it will not
take according to the necessities of its situation. It is of rapid
growth, and will in a short time coat over shells and firmly fix
them in the coral mass; and it is curious to observe how these
shells have managed to secure the right of opening one of their
valves, which although perfectly covered with the coral, has,
nevertheless, escaped having its opening closed by the calcareous
secretion, and lives in this prison as well as if moored to the
shore rock. It is known to the fishermen under the several
names of ‘ hen coral,” when feathery in shape ; ‘‘ finger coral,”
when digitated ; and ‘ fan coral when flattened and palmate.

JONES—ON NATURAL HISTORY OF THE BERMUDAS. 15

The following list of Gorgoniw includes all the species at
present known to inhabit the Bermuda waters :—

Or. ALCYONARIA.
Fam. GoORGONID.

Gen. Gorgonia.
Gorgonia flabellum.

This species, known to the inhabitants as the ‘‘sea fan,”
is very common on the reefs, where it may be seen at low water
waving its palmate fronds to the action of the surf. In form it
is usually rounded, ‘presenting a partially circular frame of net-~
work much compressed. Although it generally grows in one
palmate frond, with a few small fronds sprouting out from, and
at right angles with the main stem,—yet it is not uncommon to
find specimens with several flabels growing from the same root ;
and on looking down into the clear waters of the *Mudian shore
this variety presents the appearance of a large cabbage with its
leaves much expanded. The sea fan, when first taken from the
water, is of a lovely dark purple, and although it fades if ex-
posed to the sun’s rays or too great a display of light, yet if kept
in the shade, or in a darkened room, the purple remains for a
long period. In Castle Harbour this species is abundant, and
frequently does the boat of the collector brush through the
bending plumes of this curious form as it passes over the raised
coral patches which dot the shallow waters of that pretty land-
locked bay. Small portions of this gorgon, when cleared of the
external bark, are used by Bermudian cooks for skimming off
impurities when boiling food, its sieve-like meshes acting as
a strainer. These pieces are called ‘* huskers.”

——-

16 JONES—-ON NATURAL HISTORY OF THE RERMUDAS.

Gen. Plexaura.
Plexaura crassa, Lamour.

The bark of this species on being dried becomes very friable,
and falls off whenever the specimen is handled. The well-
known ‘sea rods” which are made by the colored people, and
sold for riding whips, are manufactured from the horny and
flexible stems of this species, which are laced together and
highly polished.

Plezaura fleruosa, Lx.

This handsome species which is named the ‘‘ sea feather ” or
*¢ prince’s plume” from its resemblance in situ to a plume of
feathers waving with the motion of the water, is not uucommon.

The bark when the specimen is dried is much more tenacious
than that of the latter species, as some examples which I have

had in my collection for seven years are now as firm and fresh
to all appearance, as they were when I collected them. It
makes a good barometer, becoming moist before rainy weather,
and dry when fine weather is to succeed. The footing which
all the gorgonice have upon the reef rocks must be very firm,
for the strain which takes place when the long branches are
dashed about by the waves in stormy weather is enough to tear
away every object off the reefs.

2 “NOOrO NT
Gen. Pterogorgia.
Pterogorgia Americana, Ehr.

This species is found in the same situations as the latter.
Its stems are more robust than those of the other species, and
the root is generally very firmly fixed to the reef rock. The
back in dried specimens becomes very friable.

‘CILPIN—-ON THE SHAD. 17

Spm. IL On rae Foop Fisues or Nova Scotia. No. VI.
By J. BeRNARD ‘GinpPiIn, A.B., M. D., M: Ri C.:S:

(Read December, 1867.)

THe SHAD.

-Alosa Prestabilis, (DeKay.)
Alosa Tyrannus, (Gill from Latrobe.}
Alosa Vulgaris, (Storer.)

Description of a shad from the Shubenacadie river. One of
four procured for the Paris Exposition, 1867, July 17, 1866 :—

Length of head, 3 6-10 inch.
Length to base of tail, 16 inches.
Breadth at deepest part, 5 inches.
From tip of nose to orbit, 9-10 inch.

The general outline. Head very small. The back rounding up suddenly
from the opereles and making a bold convexity to dorsal fin, from thence
‘descending to tail. The outline of belly very convex. A short thick fish.
The upper jaw notched, the lower when open seemingly longer than upper,
when closed of the same length. Colour, silvery from below to ridge of back,
with a fine light reddish bronze catehing about the sides. Top of back
bluish ash, top of head greenish horn, sides of head and opercles yellowish
and bronze with a few radiating striz ; a row of spots of dark blue, com-
mencing with one large one behind upper angle of opercle and extending along
the sides to opposite posterior edge of dorsal fin—(when covered by scales
these spots are not so distinct.) Dorsal and caudal fins bluish ash with dark
extremities, ventral and anal light yellow. Pectoral light yellow, with dark upper
edge. Rim of belly strongly serrated. Thirty-seven or eight points on edge
of belly from gills te anus, some sharp, others worn down. No raised line
of scales. Scales very large and irregularly circular. A large caudal pouch
or scale, irides silvery, eye not filling up the orbit, nostril one-third nearer tip
of nose than orbit. ‘Poothless. Brangiostegal rays square pointed 7 of aside.
D. 17, (counting the two first very short ones as rays), P.17, V.8, A. 17.
Dorsal irregularly rkomboidal, caudal deeply cleft and much frayed and worn.

Weight above four pounds. i

Nov. 14, 1868. Two shad were brought te Halifax fish market of this
date. They were taken amongst some mackerel. In colour they were dark
biue on the back, silvery on the sides, with none of that cupreous reflection in
the summer specimens. The large humeral spot was scareely to be distin-
guished, and instead of one line of small spots reaching only to posterior edge
of dorsal, two lines of spots, each reaching nearly to tail, were present. The
opercles and head were cupreous or bronzed and pointed with small black dots.
The striae on the opercle were much defined and in parallel and slanting
lines. They were lean and out of condition The double row of spots is the
more remarkable as they seem to be the typical mark of DeKay’s species, —
‘‘Matawoaca.”’ Being found so late in the season on our coast is a proof of

their not migrating southward during winter, and I fancy of very rare
occurrence.

3

18 GILPIN—ON THE SHAD.

Such is the description of this excellent fish as it appears if
our waters about the middle of June, remaining about a month.
They are seldom’ taken on the Atlantic coast, and never in:
quantities, but are brought to our market from the Avon and
Shubenacadie. They are also taken in St. Mary’s Bay, and in
fact in all the bays terminating at ebb in muddy flats that flow
into the Bay of Fundy. The Annapolis basin is seemingly too
sandy for them, as they resort in much less numbers to it.
According to DeKay, they appear at Charleston, S. C., in
January, at Norfolk, Va., in February, New York, March or
beginning of April, and Boston end of April. Perley says
they appear in the Bay of Fundy middle of May and ascend the
St. John river to spawn, and ascend the Miramichi river end of
May,—their most northern limit. From this data he infers that
the great body of fish perform an annual migration from the
south to the north, returning in the fall. I[t is much more
probable that the whole body winter in deep soundings parallel
with the entire American coast, and as the waters of the Poto-
mac, the Chesapeake, the Delaware, the Hudson, and the Con-
necticut, the St. John and the Miramichi are successively warmed
by the returning spring, that portion opposite to each enter for
the purpose of spawning, and return again to deep soundings.
Otherwise one would have to suppose that of a body of shad
near Charleston, all seized in January with the resistless instinct
of reproduction, one part sought immediate and direct relief in
the nearest rivers, the others made a long and laborious journey
to waters then frozen stiff in ice—the rivers of New Brunswick
and Nova Scotia. Such a supposition is untenable. From
Perley we learn that they spawn in the lakes communicating
with the St. John river in May, return immediately and resort
to the mud flats at the head of the Bay cf Fundy, to feed upon
shrimps and a large worm called shad worm, found burrowing
in the mud flats at the ebb-tide, and that this food gives them
that exquisite flavour for which the Bay of Fundy shad are
justly celebrated. No spawn is found in them at this season.
From Messrs. Treat & Son, we find that their eggs spawned in
June were hatched in three weeks, and in three mouths were able
to seek the ocean. Frank Forrester affirms that their flesh is

GILPIN—ON THE SHAD. 19

much preferred to turbot by fastidious epicures. It has the
quality of softness and melting in the mouth, different from the
firm flakiness of the salmon orhaddock. Coming to us by land,
and during the salmon season, perhaps it has not that attention
given it that its savouriness deserves. When salted it affords a
geod item of export. In 1860, eight thousand barrels were
exported. The exports of later years have not heen returned
separately from salmon in the blue book of Nova Scotia. As
there are few or none on the Atlantic coast of the Province,
I have not persenally studied their habits, having only seen the
drift fishing of the Avon. Here the beat, with one hundred or
one hundred and fifty fathoms of seine payed out from its stern,
drifts on the ebb and returns upon the flood, the seine held
upon the surface by its head line of floats, being about three
fathoms deep. ‘The shad are picked out, meshed at intervals
along the seine, which is twisted and knotted into a mass of
apparently hopeless and impossible confusion. Father Gavreaux,
priest missionary as he records himself, in a capital letter to
Mr. Perley, 1859, gives a pleasant account of the shad fisheries
among his French people, on the New Brunswick side of the
bay of Fundy. He also states that the finest fish are taken at
the end of the season, about the middle of September, and that
in them, a blue band along the back represents the ordinary
green or bluish green color. This is worthy of note as analo-
gous with the same change in the gaspereaux, a smaller con-
gener of the same family, upon which some naturalists have
founded a new species. This letter is filled with numerous
facts and remarks upon their food and habits, valuable as com-
ing from an intelligent, educated and zealous man, and to quote
his own words, ‘‘seen with mine own eyes, in my own boat,
my St. Peter, when attending weir fishing for dog fish on the
flood tide, and particularly enjoying myself at low water in
catching the flirting shad inside the weir.” This is language of
an educated observer of nature, and is well understood by all
who have had the privilege of loiterimg about and covering them-
selves with the mud and slime of a teeming stake net or weir.
Convinced that fishing by weirs was destructive to the fish, and
that drift fishing was more productive, this gentleman purchased

20 GILPIN

ON THE HALIBUT:

a boat of his own, with nets, worked her himself one season,
and caught two barrels. To use his own language, ‘* the
experiment spoke well by my example and exertions; in three
years twenty French boats followed me. In 1850, one hundred
fishing boats were counted drifting down the Bay, all fine fast
weatherly boats prepared for any storm.” The usual amount of
the catch of these French Acadians was 1500 bbls. Let us be
thankful that there is an Acadie still left, where an educated
gentlemen and a pious priest can take the oar and hook in his.
hand as well as the chalice and the cross, and doing both in the
sole desire of his people’s welfare, be thus followed and appre-
ciated by them.

This fish was for a long time confounded with the English or
Alice shad, Harenga alosa (Linn., Gunther), and is so given by
Storer. DeKay gives to it the name, Alosa Prestabils, taking
Cuvier’s new genus Alosa, and gives the distinctive marks from
the Alice shad. Dr. Gill (Synopsis Fishes Bay of Fundy, )
restores to it the name alosa tyrannus, from Latrobe, and in a
note to me states his reasons for supposing Latrobe referred to
shad by this specific. Dr. Gill’s authority on American fishes
will always command attention. In Gunther’s catalogue (British.
Museum) there are no Atlantic specimens of shad, i867. It
only remains for me to mention these various opinions, and to
lament the want of a good text book on the Atlantic fish brought.
down to the present day with all modern additions.

THe HaAwiput.

Pleuronictes Hypoglossus, (Linn., Gunther. )
Hypoglossus Vulgaris, (Cuvier and Valencenes, DeKay, Storer).
Hypoglossus Americanus (Gill. )

In describing this large flat fish it is usual to consider it
placed upon its lower edge with the tail towards the observer,
and to call its sides right or left as they present. In this species:
the eyes are always on the right side, which is always dark
brownish ash, and the left always white. Individuals rarely
have been seen the reverse and with both sides dark. This
description was taken from a specimen at the Halifax fish market.
about two fect and a half long, weighing about twenty pounds.

GILPIN—ON THE HALIBUT.. 21
The eyes both on the right side, irides silvery with bronze streaks, the right

orbit smaller than the left, the eye itself apparently smaller, and raised above
the orbit, being guarded by a skin on the upper edge like those in the frog,
and nearly touching the intermaxillar bones forming the lips. The left orbit
larger The left eye larger, and at least one diameter of orbit from the nose,
and sunk deeper in the orbit. The nostrils double the second tubular, the
right nearly midway between the orbit, the left in a line of posterior edge of
left eye. The upper lip is divided by a deep sulcus from the nose, and is-
formed by the intermaxillar and maxillar bones, the maxillar fitting as in the
cod into a groove. ‘The lower lips are longer than the upper, with also a deep
line passing around them ; both the upper and lower are fleshy. The line of
pre-opercle is roundish, posterior edge of opercle commencing with a round
turn, ends in a sharp point, the apex of which is opposite insertion of pectoral..
The upper and lower jaws and opercles though differing in colour will be found on.
eareful inspection symmetrical. The ventral fins inserted about their length from:
gills very small, six rayed. The left a little smaller than right- The pectoral
fins small ovate, fifteen rays, counting the first short one, the third the-
longesi, tue right pectoral about one-fourth larger tian the left. The dorsal
fin commences in line with the left eye. The first twenty-four rays when closed:
fitting im a sulcus along the back. The rays each tipped with a soft point,
commence small and gradually increase to a little beyond the half of the
length of the fish, then diminish grasually, and end nearly at insertion of”
caudal. It contains about one hundred rays. ‘The anal fin commences about
double the length of the ventral fins from gills, and has the same general
arrangement of. rays as the dorsal, and ends opposite to it, having the same~
soft tips to each ray, which are about seventy-four in number. The caudal
has seventeen and four short ones, and is erescent shaped The general shape:
of the fish is a long round angled rhomboid. The vent being in front of the-
insertion of anal, which is only double the length of the very small ventral:
from the gills ; it necessarily follows that the whole capacity for stomach and:
intestines, is scarcely a fifth of the whole fish. |The upper or right side and:
part of the head and opercles are covered by scales so minute tuat they appear”
more like marks iu the mucus thickly covering the skin ; a raised line of scales
on the right sije commences immediately behind the operele, arches rapidly:
on the pectoral and runs straight to tail in a line with the vertebra, and on the-
left side there is a faint white line corresponding toit. In the upper jaw there’
is a double irregular row of large and small sharp pointed teeth, pointing,
downwards ; in the lower jaw a single row, in this and many other SUNT
but from its irregularity I have no doubt that DeKay is right in giving a double
row in the description of his. The colour of the right or upper side is dark
brownish ash, of the lower pure white. That of the ‘dorsal, anal caudal, right
ventral and right pectoral is the same, but the left ventral and pectoral have
both sides pure white. The lower or under edge of the jaw is covered with
minute black dots. In saying the right eye protruded beyond the orbit more
than the left, I meant it as studying the dead fish only ; but having noticed
it so often I cannot forbear mentioning it In the living fish I have no doubt
both eyes protrude like those of the frog, and are protectod by a thickened
coat of the sclerotic membrane.

Branch rays 6-7,-D. 100, P: 15, V.6, A. 75, C.:173
In studying this fish we find as it were an ordinary fish,

22 GILPIN—-ON THE HALIBUT.

highly compressed, then thrown upon its. left side, and its mouth
violently twisted to the right. Thus modified it becomes a bot-
tom feeder, having no air bladder, perhaps never coming yvolun-
tarily to the surface. It must be contessed that the almost
universal law of dual symmetry, is in part violated ; but how little
in so strange an alteration is a marvel to the observer. The
ramus of either jaw is symmetrical, could we only twist it back
again, the opercles are the same, there is even an attempt of a
lateral line on the lower side. There is a slight difference in the
size of the pectoral and ventral fins, relatively to each pair, the
under ones being smaller. The right eye and orbit smaller than
the left ones. From the lip thrown back and the twist of the
mouth throwing the right eyes from the central spine, it makes the
right optic nerve longer than the left. The optic nerves do not
decausate, but join each other before entering the brain, which
is exceedingly small and resembling a series of lobes. Indeed the
spinal cord is smaller than one of the optic nerves. On turning
the fish with its lower or white side up, and opening the abdo-
men, we find all the intestines very small, but holding the saine
position relatively to it as in other fish. The heart very small
and tri-cornered. The liver lying in front of the stomach, light
yellow and small, with a gall bladder on its upper edge. The
stomach nearly circular, very muscular, and so reflected that
with the intestines they resemble a double coil of rope, no air-
bladder, one large coecum, and large venous sinuses along the
spine. ‘The ovaries were tri-cornered, with a long ovaduct.
‘The spleen was large. In observing the movements of the
smaller flat fish, I noticed they were propelled by a series of
contractions, commencing at the tail, (the term, finttering,
expresses my idea,) and passing through the body and dorsal and
anal fins. Their motions are very quick, and doubtless this huge
bottom feeder, attaining, in rare instances, six hundred weight,
must thus range along the bottom of the deep soundings where he
chiefly loves 10 dwell, his eyes protruding like a frog from the
back, and his right side slightly elevated fiom the bottom, so as to
strike the water obliquely. He must seize his living prey from
below. The upward twist of his mouth coincides with this
view. He must meet with few antagonists of equal power

GILPIN N THE HALIBUT. 23

amongst the hosts who people these many fathomed depths.
Cod, haddock, pollock, hake, cusk or ling, herring, mackerel,
eat fish, (A. Lupus) sea perch, (C. Burgal) and squid are found
in his stomach. In fact every species that inhabit our seas.
But we are less prepared for the various mollusks that are also
found there. My friend Mr. J. R. Willis, so well known as a
conchologist, has kindly given me a list of specimens, which he
has at various times taken from their stomachs.* Many of these
species must be in beds at the bottom of the ocean and must be
torn or rooted from their attachments. We can only suppose
there must be shelving banks and inequalities of the surface on
whose sides the mollusks bed themselves, and that the halibut
thus get beneath them in feeding upon them. Like all our fish
they approach the land during the summer months aud retire to
the deep soundings during winter. They spawn in June, at
least at that time the ovaries are the largest and the spawn
escaping the most readily from the female when caught. Small
fish of the size of the spread hand are taken both in our shore
weirs and also on the banks, showing they spawn in both places.
They are seen every month in our fish markets, but the best
fishing season is in early spring, on the banks about ninety miles
seaward, with sixty to eighty fathoms. The season commences
the last of February or first of March; but the seas are too
tempestuous and storms too violent for much to be done at so
early a period. ‘ihe meat when fresh is firm, white, and well
flavored, either boiled or fried in cutlets, or spiced and baked.
It does not take salt well. This is not much to be regretted on

* Norre.—tThe following I have taken from their stomachs frequently uninjured,
apparently just swallowed whole, but sometimes affected by the gastric juice, or else
in fragments.

Glycimeris, siliqua.
Astarte, eastanea.
Cyprinus Islandicus.
Leda sapolita.
Pecten, Islandicus.
Natica, triseriata.
Lunatica, heros.
Fusus, decemcostatus.
Fusus Islandicus,
Fusus pygmaeus.
Occasionally I have found the remains of cephalopods, but too much injured by
gastric juice to enable me to identify any of them with certainty.
Yours sincerely,
J. R. WILLIS.

24 GILPIN—ON THE HALIBUT.
the Atlantic coast, as it sells readily when fresh, its price often
exceeding that of fresh mutton. The easier communication by
steam with the neighbouring States has caused a large trade in
fresh halibut preserved in iced boxes. At least £2000 worth
are sent by steamers to Boston from Halifax during the season.
All the American writers, with the exception of Gill, consider
this fish identical with the European species. Gill by giving it
the specific Americanus must consider it different. As its
northern range is Greenland, it is most probable that commenc-
ing from a northern origin it has spread on both sides of the
Atlantic.

With this large and curious member of the family of Planide
I finish the Food fishes of Nova Scotia. The turning, so to
speak, perpendicular into horizontal motion, the thin upright
compressed fish into the broad flat one is effected so easily and
so naturally, and with so slight a fracture of dual symmetry, that
one wonders it has not attracted more attention, or that it has
not been a fruitful theme for Darwinism. In these papers I
have endeavoured to give all the facts at my command upon the
food, the habits, the spawning time, and upon the minute exterior
appearance and typical marks of the five families of Clupide,
Gadide, Salmonidz, Scomboide and Planide, which represent
our food fish. I have at least made a beginning, though an
imperfect one, being convinced that this is the only and proper
way to approach the subject of our fisheries,—to determine
whether they have declined or no, and the cause of that. declen-
sion provided it is proved to exist. ‘The question of food for at
least the surface feeders,—how far its supply is modified by the
winds and currents setting along the fishing grounds,—how far
by the power of man,—must also be thoroughly studied. Many
of these influences are doubtless beyond our controul; but the
very knowledge of what is beyond our controul adds much to
our capacity for holding and using what is within it. Many
supposed facts, now reasoned upon as facts, must be entirely
dropped, as for instance the Americans feeding the mackerel,
and thus drawing them away from our shores. It would take
the capacity of the Great Hastern and the national purse, to
feed for one season the millions that swarm our seas. Another

GILPIN—-ON THE HALIBUT. 95

that the bultow ur set lines are destroying the fisheries. Bultow
fishing only means that more fish are taken in a given time than:
by hand fishing. That in the inshore fishing, individuals do less
than formerly, and also find more difficulty in obtaining bait, I
believe to be true, simply because more men and boats and nets
are employed, and thus the fisheries are divided. A narrow
coast line becomes overfished, and bait become scarce in a limited
range ; but this ceases to be true on the limitless range of ocean
banks. The returns of imported fish show a steady increase
annually. Yet every individual shore fisherman will tell you,
and doubtless sincerely, that it is decreasing, thinking only of
his own smal! catch.

That fifty sail of American fishermen are at one time in some
of our out-harbours purchasing bait; that many of them carry
ice boxes, for preserving bait, to sea with them, are both signi-
ficant facts of the scarcity of bait, and of what our coast fisheries
must soon come to. With the exports of fresh fish, the fresh
fish consumed at Halifax and in the Province, and the fish oils,
we may put the annual value at about $4,000,000. This is
large for a Province not enumerating 400,000 people. We may
also state, that, as regards cod fishing, more than three-fourths
of its value arises from coast fishing. That is, each individual
hardy yeoman of the sea keeps his own rock hung cot, his boats,
his net, and makes his own pile of fish, bringing it himself to
market. The produce of this fishing is called shore caught, and
commands a higher price than the Labrador catch, on account
of the fish being brought to shore and cured immediately. The
Labrador catch being pickled on board, and cured on the return
of the voyage. It is manifest that it is in the interest of this
class of fishermen, that legislation, if at all, should be obtained,
that ice houses to preserve bait should be encouraged, perhaps
by small grants, and perhaps some prohibitory laws, against
exporting fish bait, though it must be confessed that all pro-
hibitory legislation is of dcubtful benefit, and when not founded
on exact knowledge of facts often acts injuriously. That there
is a growing deficiency of bait, and hence of fish following that
bait to the shore, I think, must be admitted, though much
exaggerated by the fishermen themselves. If this can be

4

26 HOW—ON MINERALOGY OF NOVA SCOTIA.

remedied by any means, then the coast fishing will return; if
partially remedied then the coast fisheries will only be retarded
in their gradual absorption into ocean and bank fishing. The
single men, who now each in his own boat takes his own fish,
must club into tens, build fishing smacks, and commence ocean
fishing. That is to say, capital must come to assist labour. That
more fish will be produeed, it is probable, but the individual
fisherman will suffer. From being a yeoman of the sea, and
owning his own boat, he will become the servant of the capital-
ist—or the man who puts the most value in the joint stock.
For one, I would be sorry to see the Nova Scotian fisherman
reduced to the Newfoundland fisherman. The presence of
capital has the great and good effect of tiding over temporary
searcities. It always has its accumulations. But one who is
familiar with the half-dozen fishing villages, hanging up as it
were on the rocks of our out-harbors, with their tidy kitchens,
and neat bed rooms, their well fed children, and well clothed
men, their neat boats and nets, and compares it with the state of the
oppidan laborer, mechanic or truckman, living usually in one or
two rooms of an evil smelling house in a dingy street, must look
with concern at any causes that are slowly causing them to pass
away.

Arr. III. Norgs on tun Economic Minrratocy or Nova
Scottra. By Pror. How, D.C. L., University of King’s
College, Windsor, VN. S. Part IV. Gypsum anp AN-
HYDRITE AND THE BoratTEs anD OTHER MINERALS THEY
CONTAIN.

(Read November 4th, 1867.)

In the present paper I propose to consider the immense
deposits of gypsum and anhydrite which have long been of
great economic importance to the Province, and the minerals
found in them, some of which, being useful, will add much to
the value of the plaster quarries, if abundant. The term plaster,
just used, being employed locally as the name both of gypsum
and anhydrite, I shall avail myself of it occasionally as con-
venient, and may mention that gypsum is sulphate of lime with

HOW——ON MINERALOGY OF NOVA SCOTIA. 27

water, while anhydrite is merely sulphate of lime. These sub-
stances are found here in quantity, exclusively in the lower
carboniferous rocks in close association with the lime-stones
described in the last part of these «« Notes,” (Trans. N. S. Inst.,
1866.) In small amount fibrous gypsum and selenite are
found in new red sandstone and trap. The beds of plaster are
often of great thickness; a few miles from Windsor lofty white
cliffs of it are seen on the road to Newport, and many fine
exposures are mentioned in ‘* Acadian Geology.” Although
comparatively few of the deposits have been worked to any
extent, a great deal of plaster has been quarried. ‘The follow-
ing tables convey much valuable information; it appears from
the last census returns that the amount of gypsum quarried was,
in 1850, 79,795 tons, and in 1860, 126,400 tons: the return for
the latter year shews that it was quarried in eleven out of the
eighteen counties in the following quantities and gives its
value :—

Gypsum quarried in Nova Scotia in 1860.

Counties. Tons. Value in Dollars.
Colchester, 6026 5407
Kings, 0 0
Cumberland, 259 206
Annapolis, 0 Q
Pictou, 70 46
Hants, 118215 77883
Antigonish, 10 10
Inverness, 12 21
Halifax, 58 53
Lunenburg, 300 120
Yarmouth, 0 0
Digby, 0 0
Guysboro’, 250 190
Victoria, 0 0
Queens, 0 0
Shelburne, 0 0
Richmond, 1470 1226
Cape Breton, 30 24

Total, 126700 85,186

No census having been taken since 1861 we have official
details only with regard to exportation, and I have made out
from the Trade Returns the following table, showing the

28 HOW—ON MINERALOGY OF NOVA SCOTIA.

Quantity and Value of Gypsum Exported from Nova Scotia in
years ending 30th September.

Year. Tons of 2240 lb. Value in Dollars.
Ey OCIOOES 2555 Oo ROOM iOS HS bIR mn UR Rar a 7/10
LESS) RBA alolgss hel oin ein ies aM SU Wea einer EME 3 43° 80378
JS oloo mimo ond O66 SO ccc» (PPA USA aeweribisie yn (lise:
1857 (Windsor only, 9 months,).. 83862................ 11050
1853 (Estimated amount, ) HORE. S620 oo ueiueine eee 69015
LESS ea ine 3 07 a eae (22. 5 eI eIRIeN a= t25//54)5)
SOO ee retete eae ra cic sae 10430 Ss Va eee 85936
1861 (Estimated amount,).... sero V OLS crcl ree ee eee 40811
LUST VAC eRe beetle aerate DOOD Le. a Mise sere 30425
ESOS errr eee es a ae LNG ne ems slo 2
Lely deacialen ici Hisloicec 6 Cain (AIRS DSOQTS 25 yee ners eee 43167
BS OS iicisisrcistorsh- cle mite h do eksiv Mee BOLD. cee, ee pee 45088
ABCC Arar vee aor wisioe GOON otc! et eee 63611
LCL OBA She 6 e's oka ema NOB426 5 c.aianc sc) os eae ES
Motalsisi.i.t- sis sens 1020677 812904

From the first of the foregoing tables it is obvious that Hants
was in 1860 the chief gypsum raising county, it is so still and
Windsor is its principal port of shipment. In fact by far the
largest quantity of the rock is quarried at Windsor or in its
neighbourhood, where operations have been carried on some
eighty or ninety years, and from 1833 to 1867 there were ex-
ported from Windsor not less than 1,404,376 tons of 2240 Ib.,
of the value of 1,031,154 dollars. During the late American
War the trade was much depressed, last year, however, it had
to a great extent revived, and there were

Exported from the County of Hants, N. S., of Gypsum, from
Jan. Ist to Dec. 31st, 1867, from the following

Ports. Tons of 2240 lb. Value in Dollars.
lant sporticy oi teciot eerie «sis. toe QAQ0 IS). he elaine ere 9112
Maitland (9 months)........... 5 Arend CAD S Boia bos s%c > ~ 1708
VBI aoe a SA nee am ln OR45 0.0 5s asda ee
Cheverie (chiefly hard plaster)......... VAT Oi «ier veh eee ae 8190
IWVATIUBOLA Ryo Mtoe Gio se ba a ee 63605- nie eee 54106

Total.) eer 100159 80500

As regards Windsor the quantity just given has never been
exceeded by a year’s exportation; the price of gypsum here is
on the average 90 cents a ton, shipped, at other places in the
province the yalue is different from various causes. On the

HOW—ON MINERALOGY OF NOVA SCOTIA. 29:

Grand River in Western Canada, the only locality in old Canada
where workable deposits exist, the price is about $2 per ton at
the mine. The thickest bed there is about 7 feet only and the
amount annually raised was given in 1863 as 14000 tons.
(Geol. Canada, 763.)

The produce of several quarries within a few miles of Wind-
sor are brought here for shipment. In this district the quarries
are worked on parallel beds running E. and W., the most north-
erly extending from Windsor through Wentworth and New-
port probably as far as Shubenacadie some 30 miles to the east,
where plaster is also worked. The distance across the strike
from the north at Windsor to the most southerly quarries is
about three miles: at Windsor the dip is gently to the south.
The largest quantity of plaster is raised in the Clifton Quarry,
the property of Mr. Peilow, close to the town of Windsor,
where operations have been carried on about forty years. The
principal rock is gypsum, the anhydrite or hard plaster, is found
in lenticular masses from 2 to 10 feet thick in the centre and
sometimes 50 feet long, imbedded in the soft plaster. Mr.
Pellow considers that the amount quarried here has varied for
the last thirty years from 10,000 to 30,000 tons per annum and
for the last ten or twelve years from 20,000 to 30,000 tons.
The quarry is roughly estimated to be 800 feet long, 180 broad,
and 40 deep. The rock cropped out near the surface at the
north side and on the south side a face of about 30 feet plaster
with a little limestone here and there is to be seen. Operations
in depth can now only be carried on by aid of pumps, and a
steam pump has lately been erected.

On another range to the south are extensive quarries, owned
respectively by Messrs. Wilkins, M’Letchey and Pellow, about
14% mile from Windsor. The rock found here is of good
quality, a face of from 15 to 40 feet can be got, and the beds have
been traced across the strike for 300 feet. It is estimated that
much more than 100,000 tons have been extracted.

On the last range south are the quarries of Mr. Black, south
of these are the metamorphic rocks of the Ardoise Hills. From
the Wentworth quarries about two miles from Windsor some
40,000 tons have been raised during the last two years. The

30 - HOW—ON MINERALOGY OF NOVA SCOTIA.

great distinction made in the qualities of gypsum is between
blue and white plaster. The former is chiefly used for agricul-
tural purposes, probably the greater part of that exported is so
employed ; it is sent to Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Richmond
and Baltimore. The chief consumption I understand to be in
Virginia, Maryland and Pennsylvania, where the ground plaster
is used as manure for tobacco and Indian corn; before the late
war gypsum was becoming a favourite fertilizer in cotton grow-
ing and large orders were sent, but the war interfered, and as
yet, trials have not, I believe, been further made as regards this
application. The white gypsum is sought for boiling and burn-
ing by which it is prepared for the making of plaster for walls,
ceilings, cornices, etc. Gypsum consists of—

Lime, 32.55
Sulphuric acid, 46.51
Water, 20.94

100.00

and its property of furnishing plaster depends on the fact that
its water can be expelled and afterwards taken up again.
Calcined gypsum is what remains after burning or boiling; the
burning is effected by building up lumps of the rock into heaps
with cord-word intermixed and maintaining a very moderate fire
for some hours, the burnt plaster is afterwards beaten to powder
and is fit for use: in boiling, the ground gypsum is heated in
ealdrons and the peculiar agitation caused by the escape of
water is so like that of a liquid in ebullition that the plaster is
said to boil. The burnt or boiled gypsum is mixed with water
to a paste and when left it soon hardens. The best plaster, that
which sets most quickly into a hard mass, is got by heating to
about 500° Fah., if the heat attains redness, the gypsum becomes
very dense and does not set with water. Most important pro-
perties are gained by the addition of one or two per cent. of
certain salts, such as borax and sulphate of potass. Gypsum
which has been thus treated will endure a red heat without
losing its power of setting with water; it becomes much more
dense than common plaster, sets in a few hours, becomes hard
and takes a fine polish. Keene’s, Martin’s and Keating’s

HOW—-ON MINERALOGY OF NOVA SCOTIA. 31

cements are the names under which such plasters are known.
Stucco is coloured plaster mixed with size. (Miller’s Chemis-
try, Il. 801). If gypsum is mixed with a certain amount of
water and soaked in hot pitch it parts with water and takes
up pitch and forms a substance so hard and susceptible of polish
that it could be employed in making a variety of useful and
ornamental articles. Although the foregoing cements or most
of them are well known and much valued, it is said by a recent
observer that with one exception all admixtures impair the
hardness of plaster. The exception is iron filings. When these
are mixed with plaster they rapidly oxidise, and the coherent
mass of oxide of iron formed adds its own strength to that of the
plaster making a very firm material which has also the advan—
tage of uniting itself to surfaces of iron: it is supposed that the
filings should form about one-fifth of the whole weight to give
the best result. (Chem. News, No. 436, p. 182). It is obvious
that the manufacture of such substances as those mentioned
could be carried on here with the greatest possible advantage,
the quantity of gypsum being perfectly inexhaustible, and the
varieties numerous.

Of these varieties the ‘ isinglass” of the quarrymen, selenite
of mineralogists is the purest. It is colourless and transparent
as flint-glass: it is abundant in some quarries. It has been
used in filling fire-proof safes. It cannot be used in place of mica,
with which it is often confounded under the incorrect name of
tale, in stove doors, etc., as it becomes opaque in the heat.
Fibrous gypsum is found in veins, it affords very white plaster
as well as the foregoing. Compact white opaque gypsum, called
alabaster, is met with at Antigonish and also near Windsor at
Three Mile Plains and in Falmouth. That from Antigonish is
suitable for carved work as was shewn by a small piece of work,
executed by the late C. Harding, Esq., of Windsor, sent to the —
Dublin and Paris Exhibitions: some remarks on the durability
of this material and the propriety of having illustrations in
the Provincial Museum will be found in the last Part of these
Notes. (Trans. N.S. Inst., 1866). Between the other varie-
ties of gypsum there is a difference in composition from the
admixture of variable amounts of oxide of iron, carbonates of :

32 HOW—ON MINERALOGY OF NOVA SCOTIA.

lime and magnesia, and other ingredients do not interfere with
their use as manure, but prevent their affording the best plaster.
An opinion prevails that ‘‘ rotten plaster” or that which has
been exposed to the weather and crumbied down has lost its
“strength”. I analysed such a gypsum from the property of
O. King, Esq., of Windsor, and found it to contain—

Water and trace of carbonic acid, 21.16

Lime, 33.02
Sulphuric Acid, 45.99
100.17

or almost exactly the quantities of ingredients proper to pure
gypsum: hence the rock was entirely unchanged, chemically,
by exposure, and fit for all the purposes to which it can be
applied. Unweathered gypsum varies very much in hardness
but is never so hard as anhydrite, which is called from obvious
property, ‘‘ hard plaster.”
Anhydrite is composed of—
Lime, 41.18
Sulphuric acid, 58.82
100.00
it is of various colours, as dark blue, grey, and purple ; exposed
to the weather it becomes white with a peculiarly rough surface,
hence it is often called in this condition ‘* sharkstone.” It
varies much in hardness, some samples give a clear sharp sound
under the hammer, others sound dull; hard plaster is often a
mixture of anhydrite and gypsum, and affords some water on
being heated. It is used at Windsor as a building stone for the
foundations of houses, and walls to support fences. It makes
apparently a good substitute for marble in in-door work ; a small
table-top and a pedestal were made and polished at Windsor,
by Mr. Wood, and shewn at the last Paris Exhibition; the
latter especially was much admired at the preliminary Exhibi-
tion in Halifax. How long the beauty of surface will be re-
tained remains to be seen; since blocks of almost any useful
dimensions can be obtained a trial of its qualities is well worth
making, and a very suitable place for the experiment is the

HOW—ON MINERALOGY OF NOVA SCOTIA. 33

Provincial Museum. Anhydrite does not admit of use as
plaster by burning or boiling but is equally good with gypsum
for agricultural purposes, in fact it is about 21 per cent. more
valuable so far as its ingredients are of use as it is free from
water. It is not ground in mills but crushed by stampers.
The rock from Cheverie is chiefly anhydrite, it goes mostly to
Bridgeport, near New York, where it is almost the only kind
employed. It is valued at Cheverie at 55 cents a ton.

Minerals contained in Gypsum and Anhydrite.

In the deposits just described no attention has been given
practically to foreign minerals, indeed no considerable amount
of these has been found; but small quantities of various kinds
have been met with which are very interesting from a scientific
point of view, and some of these will prove very valuable if
abundant. What the quarrymen call ‘ salts” is said to be often
found, especially at the line of junction of hard and soft plaster,
where there is often a narrow seam partly filled with it. It is
described as having strong purgative properties, and as “salts”
is the common name for sulphate of magnesia, I once thought
it might be the substance found, but I have never seen this here,
while Glauber-salt or sulphate of soda has been brought me more
than once as found in the Clifton quarry: it is said to be plenti-
ful occasionally. I have also had common salt brought from
the same quarry in small quantity.

Borates. The most important minerals of possible future
value are certain borates, the first of which made known as
occurring in the gypsum, was described by myself about ten
years ago; I have since found two others which are quite new
and peculiar to this province. The first mineral was brought
me by one of our students, and I shewed it to be natroborocal-
cite, which at that time had only been found in Peru, where it
is called Tiza, and perhaps in Tuscany, and which [I had seen
imported to Scotland from the former country: I found it to
centain when washed free from a little sulphate of soda :—

34 HOW

ON MINERALOGY OF NOVA SCOTIA-

Soda, ora
Lime, 14.20
Water. 34.49

Boracie Acid, [44.10 }

100.00

Soon after I had sent an account of the discovery of the
mineral here to a Nova Scotian newspaper, I received a
letter from Mr. George Outrim, Stoke-upon-Trent, Stafford-
shire Potteries, in which he made inquiries to which I
replied, and a correspondence ensued, the nature of which
will appear from a few abridged extracts from Mr. Out—
rim’s letters. “June 16th, 1857.—I take the liberty to ask.
what this mimeral is, as I see it contains boracic acid to the:
amount of 40 per cent. As this district, the seat of the pottery
trade, is by far the largest consumer of this article either as an
acid or as borax, and as its present price makes it an exceed-
ingly heavy article in our trade, any prospect of an additional
source will be looked to with anxious interest. I presume it is
a borate of lime, if so, it would not be so valuable for our pur-
pose, but if the acid could be separated, or it could be convert-
ed into borax on the spot, it would be doubtless very valuable ;
if the supply should prove abundant it would be a great pity
that so rare a substance should rest unused.” ‘* Sept. 21st,
1857.—Your mineral contains nearly the same amount of acid
as a specimen of the same in my possession from South America.
There has !atterly been a large importation of borates into this
district, and more of the manufacturers have been induced to
use it in this state, so that, although in the state of borax it is
more generally used, it can be now pretty readily sold in the
state of borate of lime. Of course it is not so valuable in this
latter condition, and the current price in this market has lately
been such that it should be delivered in Liverpool free of
charges at about £20. May I ask you to send me about an
ounce to make such a trial of it as will enable me to judge if it
be suitable for pottery.” The late discoveries of borax in Cali-
fornia must have materially altered the value of borates if the com-
pany working them can ‘* place borax in London cheaper than it

HOW—ON MINERALOGY OF NOVA SCOTIA. 35

can be made there, which, at the lowest estimate is five cents a
pound.” (J. Ross Browne on Resources of States West of
Rocky Mountains, 1866, p. 187). However this may be, the
borate found here is itself valuable as a glaze, as seen from the
next letter of Mr. Outrim’s. «* Nov. 23rd, 1857.—I have just
put a portion of your mineral through the tests usually employed
here, and I have the pleasure to enclose you a small bit of
pitcher to which the borate has been applied as glaze, and, as
you will see, the result is really very good; the borate was ap-
plied alone and simply passed through the potter’s oven in the
usual way—of course the glazes in ordinary use, being composed
of various other ingredients, possess more evenness and opacity,
but the fact that your borate will of itself produce such a glaze
speaks strongly in favour of its quality. In short, it is as good
as any I have seen of the same mineral.”

A short time ago I observed in a heap of gypsum, consisting
of about 300 tons, from the quarry of Mr. Black, at Brookville,
about 3 miles south of Windsor, the first that had been taken
out for some twenty years, a considerable intermixture of the
borate just spoken of. Scarcely a stone of a particular sort was
free from it, and in some specimens, in a few square inches of
surface, several lumps were present. Sometimes lumps the size
of hens’ eges were readily detached. I have found this borate
also in plaster from Newport, and from accounts received it
probably has been met with elsewhere.

The second borate found here was in very small amount, but
it bore sufficient resemblance to the first to leave no doubt that
it could be used for the same purpose. It is described (Edin.
Phil. Journ. and Silliman’s Journ., 1861,) under the name of
cryptomorphite.

The third borate, just discovered, is a most interesting addi-
tien to known mineral species as there is only one other mineral
which resembles it in chemical constituents, namely datholite,
which also contains water, lime, silica and boracic acid, the
proportions, however, are very different. 1 am about publish-
ing an account of the new species under the name of siligoboro-

36 FRASER——ON MAGNETISM.

5

calcite* in my ‘* Contributions to the Mineralogy of N. S.,” im
the «L. E. D. Phil. Magazine,” and only name it here in con—
nection with economic minerals because it contains almost
exactly the same amount of boracic acid as natroborocaleite,
and like it would no doubt give a good pottery glaze. I think
it would also be found specially adapted for glazing iron vessels,
as I find a borosilicate of soda is now preferred to silicate of
lead for this purpose, as not affording lead in culinary operations
to the contents of vessels so glazed. I found on analysis of the
mineral :-— ;

Water, 11.62
Lime, 25.04
Sulphuric acid, 80
Magnesia, trace
Silica, 15.44
Boracie acid, [44.10]
100.00

Salt from Brine Springs. Although no deposit of rock
salt of any importance has yet been found with gypsum, the
brines of the gypsiferous districts, of which some account will
be found in a former paper of mine, (Trans. N. S. Inst., 1865,)
have furnished excellent salt at R. Philip, at Springhill, and
Pictou, and a company is now making salt at Antigonish.

Arr. IV. MaGnerism AND ITs CONNECTION WITH THE
TELEGRAPH. By Tuos. R. Fraser, M. D.
(Read January 6, 1868.)

Tue object of this paper will be to give the philosophy and
practical working of the Magnetic Telegraph. The term mag-
netic is chosen in preference to electric, as commonly used,
Maguetism being the primary power or force which causes the
magnetic action. Electricity being merely an effect of that

*Since this paper was written, Prof. Dana, to whom I sent specimens of the borates
mentioned, has, in the new edition of his ‘ Mineralogy,’ given the name of ulesite to
natroborocalcite, retained the name of cryptomorphite, and giyen the name hoywlite to
the new species here called silicoborocalcite.

FRASER—ON MAGNETISM. one

power, when under certain eonditions. True there is connect-
ed with the telegraph a mechanical power and action as well,
but this is only from a secondary agency employed in its oper-
ations. The combination of these two powers, magnetic and
mechanical, in the telegraph, may remind one of the action of |
the two powers we notice in the animal organization, distin-
guished as involuntary and voluntary. So close is the resem-
Dlance that we may without impropriety term the magnetic
telegraph an artificial animal.

It will be necessary for the sake of clearness to distinguish
between the two agencies, the magnetic and mechanical, for
although they work in harmony they are nevertheless totally
different in theiz modes of action, being governed by different
laws. The mechanical or voluntary agency is well known, and
is apparent only in visible matter and through mathematical
rules. It controls all voluntary and secondary forces and
motions. But these forces and motions are induced primarily
by the involuntary power inherent in a@// matter, which power is
under the control of natural law only. And this law may be
observed in the action of all atoms visible and invisible, in al?
chemical and natural phenomena. It is only influenced by-
mechanical law through mechanical arrangement of matter, or
in other words when matter is placed in a position by which its
atoms may be free to act through their magnetic forces and
natural properties. The magnetic or primary being a subtle
invisible agency and force, can only be known as to its nature
by observing its action and law on matter in its various forms,
circumstances and positions. To this agency belongs what may
be termed the primary force and involuntary actions of the:
telegraph.

Magnetism, or that primary force noticed in metals, and its.
law, is the invisible controlling agent or power in all matter or
atoms, in either their gaseous, liquid, or solid forms. Concern-
ing this power, its law and action, there has been many conjec-
tures, particularly in reference to the nature and operation of
electricity and magnetism in the telegraph and in animals. We
have as yet had no certain theory of either, and most persons
consider such subjects too mysterious even for enquiry.

38 FRASER—-ON MAGNETISM.

I will now give a tew opinions from late writings of Profes-
sors who have made electricity their study, and then submit an
opinion of my own. Dr. E. L. Youmans, in a work published
in i865— The Co-relation and Conservation of Forces, a
series of expositions, by Prof. Grove, Prof. Helmholtz, Dr.
Mayer, Dr. Faraday, Prof. Liebeg and Dr. Carpenter,” has an
article on Electricity, and says, ‘- From the manner in which
the peculiar force called Electricity is seemingly transmitted
through certain bodies such as metallic wires, the term current
is commonly used to denote its apparent progress. It is very
dificult to present to the mind any theory which will give it a
definite conception of its modus agendi.” On Magnetism he
says, ‘* It is difficult to convey a definite notion of the force of
Magnetism, and of the mode in which it affects other forces.”

** Good Words” for January, 1867, has a paper from
Professor Thompson ‘+ On the Atlantic Telegraph.” He says,
‘‘Tt may be regarded as probable, that there is a real
electric fluid, and that this fluid really flows through the wire,
but in the present state of Electric Science we cannot tell, or even
conjecture on any grounds of possibility, whether the true, posi-
tive Electricity is that which is commonly so called, or whether
it may not be, on the contrary, that which is carried by the
oxygen to the zinc.”

An article in the Jan’y No. of Eclec. Med. Review (1867, )
‘¢Qn Electrotysis of Metals,” says: ‘* As the velocity of the
battery is a source of mystery to some persons, the following
may not be irrevelvent, &. ‘* * * * Here it is supposed
that electricity derives its origin, or, at least, its dynamic force,
from the decomposition of water.”

From the first that was noticed of electricity and magnetism
by our savans to the present time, there appears to have been
nothing more than an accumulation of facts. From that I can
find no definite opinion either of its origin, operation or nature,
further than this, that magnetism is an invisible power, the
effects of which are more particularly noticed in steel, under
certain conditions, as magnets, and generally supposed to be
confined to metals only. There is exhibited throughout all the
constituent parts of our material world an invisible power or

FRASER—ON MAGNETISM. 39

force commonty called ‘ electricity.” The effects of that force
are seen in the atmosphere and in connection with the dissolv-
ing and reforming of substances, in animals and in vegetables,
and more particularly in connection with metals. From a close
examination of the observations and experiments of others, to-
gether with those of my own, I propose to state what I believe
to be the nature and action of that force, or of magnetism, and
its application to, and operation on telegraph lines and subma-
rine cables. I find in al/ atoms an inherent power (an atomic
power), more ‘‘or” (and) less in a@// matter, which power is
brought into action only when the atoms are under certain con-
ditions, which power is similar to that noticed in steel, and
there called magnetism. All atoms can be arranged into two
separate classes—‘‘ mineral” and ‘‘ vegetable.” These classes
of atoms have properties in common, and also dissimilar pro-
perties. When these two classes of atoms are in the form of
gases or liquid, and come into contact, their atomic power is
brought into action, by which power each class attracts its like,
causing a reciprocal action, which, in combination with the dis-
similar properties of these classes of produce what is commonly
known as chemical action. This action cannot be produced
without the agency of the two classes of atoms, and then only
when they are presented under certain conditions. In solids
the magnetic or atomic power of those atoms are brought into
action through the agency of water, which holds both classes in
solution. When the two classes of atoms are in an ‘ insul-
ated ” position in the atmosphere, and then under certain
conditions, their action produces and exhibits what is called
‘« Hlectricity.” Thus the force producing electricity as exhibit-
ed by a telegraph line, is caused by that atomic, natural, mag-
netic, reciprocal, chemical action, in the battery, decomposing
the metals and the acid, through the agency of water, which
force and action converts the line into a magnet, at the will of
the operator, and only conditionally exhibits electricity. There
is no electric current except at the poles, and there only when
they are in juxta position, and where that action is insulated
from the earth. I will now explain the cause of that involuntary
atomic action by its natural law in the battery producing mag-

40 FRASER—ON MAGNETISM.

nets and electricity on a telegraph line, and how that magnetic
involuntary action harmonises with the voluntary or mechanical
agency of the operator, exhibiting life or motion in the line, and
showing the necessity for the combination of the two powers
(similar to those in an animal) for the effectual working of the
telegraph.

The first action is in the solution of acid and water, while
preparing them for the battery ; that action is caused by the acid
having an excess of mineral and the water an excess of vegeta-
able atoms in solution; when they are placed in contact, each
attracts its like material; and their reciprocal action continues
until their particles are equally distributed. Place the ends of
a piece of zinc and a piece of copper in this solution, a similar
reciprocal action is produced between the metals and the
solution. The solution having the excess of vegetable atoms
acts upen each piece of metal separately. If the upper ends of
those pieces of metal are brought into contact, the action is
increased at the lower ends, as poles, by the two pieces now
forming one magnet, and zs poles reciprocating through the
solution. There is no action or current exhibited at their
junction or middle. Any number of cups of the solution with
similar pieces of metal alternately connected to form a battery,
will thus be acted upon separately while they are disconnected.
If connected or brought into contact through any moist or
metallic substance of any length as a telegraph line, the metals
will all act together as one magnet; the force of their union
may be noticed in the battery by its increased decomposing
action, and in the line by the greatcr power of cts magnets,
when the line is in a position to exhibit its polarity, but not
otherwise. All the requirements for telegraphing with this line
are a ‘‘relay” and ‘‘ key.” The relay is a piece of soft iron in
‘<¢ horse shoe” form, covered with a small wire coated, the ends
of which are connected in the line. The ends of the iron of the
relay forming the poles of the magnet, exhibit the force of the
line from the battery by attracting another piece of soft iron
called an armature. The key is an instrument attached to the
line for the purpose of breaking the line, by the will of the
operator; when the line is thus broken the force is thrown off

nd

FRASER—ON MAGNETISM. Al

it and into each piece of metal in the battery as described ;
when the line is connected by thé kei, the force is then in the
line, and is shown in the relay magnets by their attracting the
armature. Thus the motion of the armature made by the key
of the operator, can be read at the same time by any number of
operators on any length of line, at any. number of stations having
similar arrangements. [f a person on the moist earth take the
uncovered line in his band, or place the wire of the line to his
tongue, he will be able to read the action of the operators on
the line by reason of his connection with the earth. If he form
a close connection between the line and the earth, no force can
pass him on the line, as the force is absorbed through him by
the earth, which forms a solid connection. If he is insulated
from the earth and in contact with the line, he will find no effect
from the line unless it be broken and each end in his hand, his-
body then forming a part of the line as a ** conductor.” No
current passes through him or through the line, but he feels the
sensation and action from the poles at the point of contact only,
and the Force is received in his body as ina magnet. That
action on him 18 GALVANISM, and is a result or consequence of
the action in the battery from the poles of its magnet, or the
ends of the line. If those wire ends or poles are brought into
contact by a fine point or jine wire that will concentrate their
force, their reciprocal action will exhibit a spark of fire. That
spark is ELEcTRICITY, and may be elicited under certain
conditions in all cases of ‘* decomposition.” We may thus see
electricity to be merely an exhibition or an effect of that force
or power in atoms, or where reciprocally acting when
insulated from the earth; and galvanism to be the ‘effect
of an application of the atomic or ‘* magnetic” power and action
in metals to a living animal, cawsing an increased life motion,
and when applied to a dead animal an artificial or induced life
motion. There is, therefore, no current that passes through or
over the telegraph line, nor yet can there be a “ return current,”
through the earth, (as is supposed.) The earth being a solid
moist mineral body, a battery and magnet of itself, receives a
absorbs the force from the line at itsjunction. Hence T fp

+
mnXO-)

involuntary natural agent causing the action of the telegraph li
§ ae LL

42 KNIGHT—ON OYSTER CULTURE.

to be that atomic ‘‘ magnetic” power in the battery which produ-
ces magnets at the will of the operator, by his voluntary me-
chanical agency ; and that magnetism is the primary power and
action through which the line operates. Electricity being merely
a conditional effect of the polar reciprocal action of the magnets,
both poles being positive, under different conditions, and not
one positive and the other negative, as is generally supposed,
all that is required of a telegraph line is that its wire be
‘‘solid” in length, and thoroughly insulated from the moist
earth, as the present Atlantic cables appear to be. Yet a tele-
graph cable that will gradually lose the iren may thus be of less
weight and dimensions where the water deepens, and can still
have these two: properties ; it would thus avoid all the difficul-
ties met with in the frequent attempts to lay the Atlantic cables,
that were finally surmounted by strictly mechanical force, in
preference to their being avoided by an examination of the
natural law and force of the material, and applying’ that law
to those lines before attempting to lay them. The operation of
which Jaw on such material, I am now prepared to illustrate and
explain to you by experiment, for your observation.

Art. V. Oyster CULTURE IN France. By T. F. Kyienr.
(Read February. 3, 1868.)

In the application of seience to industry France has long
afforded a distinguished example, partly through the scientific
genius of the nation, and partly through the encouragement
which is given to scientific progress by the French government ;
and in no branch of scientific industry has she more excelled
than in the art of Pisciculture. In France, it is well known,
the first successful experiments were made to revive the ancient
practice of breeding fish from the ova: taken from the living
animal; so that by a process of cultivation, from small begin-
nings, so greatly did the art of artificial propagation succeed, that
valuable fisheries that had declined, were restored to fertility,
and new localities were stocked with young, that soon teemed
with the fruits of natural increase.

KNIGHT—ON OYSTER CULTURE. 43

But science has been equally successful applied to the pro-
pagation of the most valuable of the edible mollusca— the
oyster, (ostrea edulis,) and at the present day oyster fields pre-
sent as busy an aspect, and are as skilfully managed, as a well
cultivated farm. The activity visible in one of the basins or
bays where oyster cultivation is most extensively carried on, is
thus described: ‘On all sides, the oyster banks exposed at low
tide, and the pontons dry ; over the parks, the oystermen may
be seen, with their wives and their children, covering these do-
mains, resembling groups of gleaners in a field. In reality, the
cultivation of oysters bears a close analogy to that of the soil.
A knowledge of the naost suitable soil, its preparation, the seed
from the mother oysters, their distribution over other grounds,
the destruction of enemies which have the power to injure them,
establish a striking resemblance between submarine agriculture,
and agriculture properly so called. An oyster is cultivated as a
grain of wheat.”

The paper which-I have hastily prepared for the Institute is
mainly a grouping of facts obtained from two authorities :—
1. An interesting pamphlet, in the Freneh language, by Monsieur
le Docteur J. L. Soubeiran, Secretary of the Imperial Society of
Acelimatization of France, kindly forwarded to me by the author.
2. The Harvest of the Sea, by James E. Bertram, an English
author. The former is dated 1866; the latter 1865—both recent
works. |

*« About fifteen years ago,” writes Mr. Bertram, ‘+ there was
scarcely an oyster of native growth in France.” The beds had
been so exhausted from over-dredging as to be unproductive ;

and the people were consequently in despair at the loss of their
fav ourite luxury, and had to resort to other countries for their
supply. It was under these circumstances that M. Coste insti-
tuted that plan of oyster-culture which has proved so success-
ful. To prepare the way for a reference to M. Soubeiran’s
paper on the oyster-parks of Arcachon, let me continue to con-
dense Mr. Bertram’s description of French oyster-culture. At
the instigation of the French government, M. Coste made a
voyage of exploration round the coasts of France and Italy, in
order to enquire into the condition of the sea fisheries ; and to see

44 KNIGHT—ON OYSTER CULTURE.

how these fisheries could be artificially aided, as the fresh water
fisheries had been aided through the re-discovery by Joseph Kemy

of the long forgotten art of pisciculture. It was from observing
the process of oyster-culture at Lake Fusaro in Htaly, that M.
Coste conceived the project of introducing oyster-culture into
France. The mode of oyster-breeding at this place was, to
erect artificial pyramids of stones in the water, surrounded by
sticks of wood, in order to intercept the spawn, the oyster being
Jaid down on the stones. Taggots of branches were also used
to collect the spawn.

In this place I may describe the manner in which the spawn

or ‘* spat” of the oyster is collected, and its further develop-
ment secured. Oysters do not leave their ova, like many other
marine creatures, but incubate them in the folds of their
mantles, and among the /amin@ of their iungs. There the ove
remain surrounded by mucous matter, which is necessary S
their development, and within which they pass through the
embryo state. The mass of ova, or spaé as it is familiarly
alled, undergoes various changes in its color, meanwhile losing
its fluidity. This state indicates the near termination of the
development, and the sending forth the embryo to an independ-
ent existence ; for by this time the young oyster can live without
the protection of the maternal organs. ‘The animated matter
escaping from the adults ov breeding banks (the oyster is con-
sidered to be an hermaphrodite) is neseibed as resembling a
thick mist being dispersed by the winds—the spat is so scattered
by the waves that only an imperceptible portion remains near the
parent stock. All the rest is dissipated over the sea space ; and
these myriads of animalcule, tossed by the waves, either attach
themselves to solid bodies, or fall victims to the larger animals
which prey uponthem. The spawn, as found floating on the water,
is greenish in appearance, and each little splash may be likened
to an oyster nebula, which resolves itself, when examined by :
powerful glass, into a thousand distinct animals. By the aid of
the microscope, the young animal ean be seen with its shell per-
fect, and its holding-on apparatus, which is also a kind of swim-
ming pad, ready to clutch the first solid substance that the
current may carry it against: hence the economy of artificial

c

KNIGHT——-ON OYSTER CULTURE. 45

appliances for collecting them. At the age of three months an
oyster is not much bigger than a pea; and the age at which re-

oo

production begins has never been accurately ascertained, but it
is thought to be three years. Oysters are usually four years old
before they are sent to market. - At the age of five years it is at
its prime ; and its average duration of life is said to be ten years.

To return to M. Coste and his experiments. The Lake
Fusaro system of cultivation was therefore, at the instance of
their savans, strongly recommended for imitation by the French
Government to the French people, and experiments were at
once entered upon with a view to prove whether it would be as
practicable to cultivate oysters as easily among the agitated
waves of the open sea, as in the quiet waters of Fusaro. In
order to settle this point, it was determined to renew the old
oyster-beds in the bay of St. Brienne, and notwithstanding the
fact that the water there is exceedingly deep and the winds very
violent, (situated opposite the English coast west of the old
see -port of St. Malo,) immediate and almost miraculous success
was the result. The fascines laid down soon became covered
with seed, and branches were speedily exhibited at Paris, and
other places, containing thousands of young oysters. (A half
a million is on the average the amount of spat which an oyster
can ‘* brew” in one season.) In less than six months the suc-
cess of the operation in the bay of St. Brienue was assured, the
fascines being so thickly coated with young oysters that an
estimate of 20,000 for each fascine was not thought an ex-
ageeration.

While M. Coste was, however, exploring the coasts, and study-
ing Italian oyster culture, and in giving a practical direction to
the knowledge he acquired ; a shrewd observer, a mason named
Beeuf, began simultaneously to think of oyster-culture in France.
He began by trying the experiment on a small scale, so as to
obtain a practical solution of his ‘¢idea,” and with this view he
enclosed a small portion of the foreshore of the island of Re, by
building a dyke of about eighteen inches in height. In this
park he laid down a few bushels of growing oysters, placing
amongst them a quantity of large stones; which he gathered out
of the surrounding mud. This initiatory experiment was so suc-

46 KNIGHT-——ON OYSTER CULTURE.

cessful, that in the course of a year he was able to sell £6 worth
of oysters from his stock. He continued to increase the dimen-
sions of his farm, so that by 1862 his sales had increased to £40.
Beeuf’s neighbours witnessing his good fortune, soon ceased te
ridicule his enthusiasm, and began to cultivate for themselves.
The system soon extended over the foreshore of the island, so
much so, that what were formerly a series of enormous and
unproductive mudbanks, occupying a stretch of shore of about
four leagues in length, are now so transformed, and the whole
place so changed, that it seems the work of a miracle. This
island, which may be designated the capital of French oyster-
dom, has now 4000 fish-farms upon its shores, more than
all the rest of the coast put together, and the people may be
seen as busy in their fish parks as the market gardeners in the
€nvirons of a populous city.

The marked success that had attended the efforts of these
pioneers in the art of oyster-culture, stimulated the friends of
national industry, with the aid of the government, to apply the
experiment to the restoration of the old oyster grounds, which
had seriously declined in their yield. The most important of
these were in the Basin of Arcachon en the south-west coast of
France, in the Golfe de Gascoigne or Bay of Biscay, situated
about 100 miles south of the famous Ile de Re. It is upon
the subject of the revival of the oyster fisheries in this locality,
that the pamphlet I have referred to treats. The basin of
Arcachon had produced from time immemorial considerable
quantities of oysters, greatly esteemed owing to the peculiarity
of the soil upon which they were propagated. <‘ For many
years,” remarks M. Soubeiran, ‘‘ the Basin of Arcachon was
the Hidorado of oysters. The basin contributed amply to the
wants of the country ; and numerous vessels were employed in
transporting them to neighboring countries. But by reason

of trespass during the spawning time, when dredging was

prohibited by the laws, and by reason of furnishing oysters
to all France, England, Holland, and other countries, they had
exhausted the mine which they thought to be inexhaustible ; and
in consequence, suddenly (in literal French, wn beau jour—one
fine day) they found the harvest so diminished as to become

KNIGHT—-ON OYSTER CULTURE. AT

almost insignificant. They had killed the fowl for the sake of
the golden eggs!

This basin at high tide has the appearance of a small interior
sea of about-100 Ailometres (57 miles) in circumference, partak-
ing of the flow and ebb of the ocean. It furnishes two sorts of
oyster grounds—the crassats, or exposed lands, and the chenals
(channels), which are never exposed. It appears that two pro-
minent causes of the decline of the oyster fishery in this basin,
were the accumulation of mud on the neglected banks, which is
destructive to the oysters, and the ravages from the Bigornian
borers (Nassa reticulata—(whelks) Buccinide), which are’ gg
numerous, that in a single tide of two hours, twelve sailors of the
government vessel have taken at a season when they are most
abundant, (March), 14,600: of them in a spaee of 40 hectares (20
acres). (M.Soubeiran remarks in a foot note, that the smallest
Bigorneaux, placed. upon shells garnished with 15 to 20 young
of the oyster, pierce them’ one after another, and do not quit the
shell until they have finished the last. They pierce in a half
hour an oyster of one month; they are more formidable even
than the adult Bigomeaux, which take eight hours to perforate
the shell of an oyster of three years, and which do not make war
upon oysters of a greater size.)

The oyster grounds are thus described :—‘‘ Upon the half of
this vast bay, on the eastern side, are seen about a hundred
floating habitations, above each of which rises a column of smoke
like that from the chimney of a little steamboat. These are:
(pontons) which serve for the lodging of the keepers of the:
oyster depots. Ordinarily they are located in the centre of these:
narrow but rich domains, composed of about (4 hectares) two:
acres. A buoy bearing. the number of the depoé or claim, painted
large so as to be easily seen, in white on a black ground, is
placed at one of the extremities of each proprietary, and remain
visible at high water. Stakes of branches of pine, distributed
from point to point, and deseribing either circles, or irregular
rectangular figures, fix the limits of each park.”

Towards restoring the oyster-fisheries of Arcachon to their
ancient fertility, the Government, upon the suggestion of
M. Coste, established experimental or model parks at three:

48 KNIGHT—ON OYSTER CULTURE.

points of the Basin, at Grand-Ces, Crastorbe and Lahillon, and
these model-farms have given results so wonderful that they
must soon furnish more oysters than the entire basin furnished
before, and give the assurance that the whole bay will easily be
rendered fertile. These facts are verified by the report of
M. Chaumel, the Commander of the Government vessel em-
ployed in replenishing the banks, and ovetseeing the oyster-
grounds. Two of these Jmperial parks, embracing a total sur-
face of 22 hectares, were established in 1860 upon crassats where
oysters already existed. From that time to 1866, a million of
oysters were thrown over the parks, 100 cubic metres of shells
of Sourdon (Cardium edule) were laid, and one hundred and
ninety-seven collectors distributed over the flats. These col-
lectors, besides the shells of the Sourdon, became covered with
spat, and although from 1862 to 1865 eight millions of oysters
had been removed to supply various localities near and remote,
there remained in the parks, in large and small oysters, about
sixteen millions. This result was the experience of six years,
where about one million of oysters only existed. Including the
million of oysters that were added to these, the increase in six
years was 1150 per cent., or twenty-two millions. The third
Imperial park, le parc de Lahillon, was established upon a part
of a crassat of about twenty acres in size, and occupied about
two acres. When they commenced their labour, the oysters
were so few that a premium was offered for every oyster that
could be found. During 1863 and 1864 they sowed 178,000
oysters. At the same time they placed 250 tiles and a quan-
tity of oyster shells and of Sourdon shells to serve as collectors.
In the first year the result was very satisfactory; for they
counted about sixty spat per shell, and an average of one hun-
dred per tile. In 1865, they completed the number of 500,000
oysters sown, and replaced those they had sold by the same
number taken from one of the other parks. They also laid a
large number of tiles and other collectors. The result of this
year showed—

KNIGHT—ON OYSTER CULTURE. pe

Young oysters on the tiles, 1.259.248
do. on the Hudtres meres, 2.680.000

do. on the shells and stakes, 1.246.000
5.185.248

The facts that I have adduced prove undeniably that oyster-
culture on a favourable soil, and pursued with zeal and perse-
verance, is attended with extraordinary success. It remains
now but to refer briefly to one or two special points that may
elucidate further this interesting branch of industry.

1. The Collectors.—l have already described the fascines
that were first employed; but beside these, and the oyster and
mussel shells that are used for this purpose, another kind of
collector was constructed for the Te parks. These col-
lectors were formed of eight planks of 2 metres long, 25 centi-
metres wide, and sustained 25 centimetres above the soil by
uprights with cross-pieces. These planks were covered on their
under side with bushes to collect the spat, or with shells fixed on
with resin. The tiles are also supported above the soil by cross-
pieces of wood.

2. The work of the cultivators.—There is constant employ-
ment on an oyster-park; and the diversity of the seasons only
varies the nature of the labour. It is true that the labour all the
year through is not of the same amount and importance.
Augmented at the period of sowing (April and May), and chiefly
at the harvest time (September and February), there is a period
of comparative rest in the spawning season (June, July and
August.) During these months it is the care of the ouvriers to
prevent the ground from being disturbed, and to protect the
spat from the enemies that prey upon it. But the principal labour
begins in September and is prolonged until May. A general
inspection of the whole park is the signal of the arrival of the
busy season. The soil is then purged of all useless and injurious
matter; hurtful plants are removed, and the soil is brought to a
fit state for cultivation. After the preparatory labour the barren
oysters are removed, and the remaining ones in some cases
transported to other spots. Each age has its compartment. At

about ten months old, the spat are removed from the collectors,
: |

Eee e—eE———eeeeEeEe——eeeeeeeee

50 KNIGHT—-ON ‘OYSTER CULTURE. _

and sown in squares. At this period the shells are of a con—
sistence to permit them to be detached from the collector with-
out endangering the life of the mollusc. Occupations of this
nature require many employees. The overseer surveys the
whole, directs them, and distributes to each his role. The
wives assist their husbands in all the lighter labours. Some
cleanse the collectors, others remove the debris; some sow the
seed-oysters, others sort the mass, separating those that are
merchantable, and disposing them in baskets, others carry them:
to their destination; while all wage war against the enemies of
the precious mollusc, as ducks, fishes, crabs and whelks—the
two last terrible enemies from the union of their attacks.

‘3. The productiveness of the system.—Mr. Bertram re--
marks, ‘‘A gentleman from Jersey, who explored the oyster-
beds in the bay of Arcachon, was informed by one man who had:
laid down 500,000 oysters, that they had inereased in three
years to 7,000,000. And at Ile de Re the inspectors counted
‘600 full-grown oysters to the square metre,” and he adds,
‘seeing that 630,000 square metres are now under cultivation,
it follows that the oysters in this tract of desert mud are worth
‘from six to eight millions of francs, the total crop being (at the
time spoken of ) 378,000,000 of oysters.”

4. Cost of production, and profit—Monsieur Soubeiran
gives as a short harvest ascertained from the results at Arcachon,
‘4000 francs per hectare (4 acre) at a cost of 750 franes (500:
‘per cent.) ; and Mr. Bertram gives a statement of the results at
‘Brienne in 1860 that is almost incredible, viz :—-60,000 franes
for an expenditure. of only 221 francs. This, however, must
‘have been an extraordinary spatting year.

Much ‘might be said,.and that of an instructive character, as
‘to the economic value of oyster-culture as.a branch of national
‘ndustry ; and on this subject our French author has some
‘admirable remarks, recommending this industry,.as affording
‘employment :to the maritime portion of the people, and aug-
‘menting the sources (de l’alimentation publique) of food for the
»whole population.

As ‘to the application of oyster-culture to other countries,.
much depends upon the nature of the soil. Muddy ground is.

POOLE—ON METROROLOGY. Al

excellent for the growth of oysters; they grow in such localities
very quickly, and become saleable in a comparatively short
space of time; and this is the kind of soil that is so productive
at Ile de Re and at Areachon. Dry rocky ground is not.so
suitable for the young oyster, as it does not find a sufficiency of
food upon it, and consequently languishes and dies. Marl is
the most esteemed, as the oyster finds plenty of food, constant
heat, and perfect quiet.

Whether oyster-culture may be successfully practised in
Nowa Scotia is a question that I have not treated upon, but it is
worth a trial; it has done much, very much tor the poor fisher-
men of France, having placed upon the shores of that country
7000 marine farms, affording employment to a very large. pro-
portion of the population.

Art. VI. On. THE MrrroroLocy oF THE CALEDONIA CoaL
Mine, Lirrnn Guace Bay, Care Breton, 1x 1867. By
Henry Poo.e.

(Read February 3, 1868.)

Tue Caledonia Mine is situated in the County of Cape Breton
and Province of Nova Scotia, in North America, latitude: 46° 12’
north, and longitude 59° 57’ west from Greenwich.

It is on the eastern side of the Island, about one mile distant
from the shore, and the house at which the observations have
been recorded is at an elevation of sixty feet above the sea.

The tides have an average rise and fall of four feet. There
are no high lands in the neighbourhood. ‘The land extends from
the east by south round to the north-west, whilefrom the north
and east the influences of the Atlantic storms and currents are
felt in full force. Drift ice retarding the vegetation of spring,
and the Arctic currents lowering the normal temperature of
summer and autumn; while the higher temperature of the sea,
-and perhaps a partial influence of the Gulf Stream, keeps a milder
temperature in the early part of winter, and our Bay open for
navigation much longer than I have observed at Pictou and other
places in the same latitude but further removed from the ocean’s
influence

52 POOLE—ON METEOROLOGY.

The instruments used are a barometer with fixed ivory
pointer in a glass cup, to which the surfaee of the mereury is
adjusted, made by Green, of New York, Instrument maker for
the Smithsonian Institute. Mercurial thermometers to show
the day’s temperature in Fahrenheit, and two thermometers
graduated in centigrade degrees for showing the relative
humidity and force of vapour, also made by Green. A
horizontal spirit thermometer made by Negretti, registers the
extreme temperature at night; these thermometers are placed
on the outside of the house with a N. E. aspeet, 6 feet above
the ground, and about three inches distant from the wall. The
directions of the wind are true north, &c., and not magnetic,
(the variation of the needle being N. 25° W. at the present
time). The velocity of the wind is reco:ded by one of Negretti
and Lambra’s Cup Anemometers, calcuiating 1000 revolutions
to equal a mile. The greatest velocity observed was on the
13th December, 84740 revolutions for 12 hours, equal to 58 miles
an hour, and the calmest night was 24th November, when there
were only 277 revolutions in 15 hours, equal to 3 6-10 miles av
hour. The force of the wind is also shown by a board one foot
square, made to face the wind, and acting against a spring
Salter’s balarice. It therefore shows the extreme force of any
squall; butas there is a good deal of friction the machine 1s not
acted upon by very light winds. On the 17th January, during
the night it marked 44 Ibs., being the extreme limit marked on
the machine. On the 3rd August a gale from the west marked
40 lbs. pressure on the square foot, and equalled a velocity for
6 hours of 53 miles an hour.

The rain is measured by a square zine box placed on the
ground, witha funnelled mouth ten inches above the ground.
The snow is collected in a zine pail three feet deep, hung like a
ship’s compass, at five feet from the ground, so that drifted
snow does not blow in; and when melted is included in the total
quantity of rain recorded to have fallen in each month.

A meteorological register was kept at the Albion Mines for
eleven years ; and though only one year has been kept at present
at the Caledonia Mine, I have thought it would be interesting to
compare them together.

[Ae
i ae 9) ba
POOLT==ONX METEOROLOGY. «

ings have nothing marked to distinguish
The barometrical readings have nothing marke g

ity fi ars e sane characteristic 1
the one locality from the other; and the

id ri f 7] ach other
observed here of a rapid rise or fall following each her

TON, 60F

Wind
total Revo-
lutions.

758644
802678
659698
615098
629463
619496
540656
535202
592640
665252
613918
689670

7722414

154448
Miles

OE Pleinsver, i : sess :
7s Of a iy >the Caledonia Mine,
There was fewer days of snow (52) at th

METEOROLOGICAL REGISTHR, CALEDONIA COAL MINE, LITTLE GLACE BAY, CAPE BRETON, 60rr. ABOVE SHA, LATITUDE 46° 12) N., LONGITUDE 59° 57/ W.

——_

j = T j I j j
Banometer Connecren. THERMOMETER. | 2 Rain. Snow. Hatos. ; - Winp.
a £ : 2 Ex- | Least | Greatost e: Bs Ee 2
1867, ’ j ln ag Ge | Ges |) Ba is 8 Hl | on = Miles_| treme | Revolu- [Revolutions g3| 2s ge/ 22/4 | & E % r] a
Tomp, |For holght és S a ee ge8 oe |2s|/2 | 2 S a 3 Wind | per hour /pounda |tions in 12) in 12 hra E a [28 /22| s-|ss/ se] 5 | 2 A Q 8
reduced to | 160 ft. 080 Moan | Mean 3 2 = s& £85 be | ae] & S| 4 5 % | tota} Revo- | anemo- |pr. foot/hs pr.ane-|per anemo-| 8/55 )E21 8 |Se/S8e] £ | € 3 : Z s
820, =F, of Vap.| Uighest. | Lowest, | night | Noon. = s g ae ase] 7) BS lee S | ai & a ie lutfong. | moter. |square.|mometer.| meter. | @ | 3 |a |ae|/ ec |EP|Ea| a | & a E Pa ri
January, .... | 20551 | 30235 | 28-900 | 190 | 260 -10 | 37 | 766 277 | 392 | a1 2 | 9]5:915] 9 | 44 || 758644 | 20-4 | 44 606 | 32782 | -- | .. ve ee Bho Wo 8 || 12 5 6
February 29°82 30/768 29285 167 27:0 5 50 75:0 3:02 | 454 | 26 2 | 12 |(3:395 ral 10} | 802678 23°6 20 4260 26052 1 ay 92 H on 1 56 IU hoo 8 14 4 2
March. -| 29903 | 29:849 28-791 171 | 29:5 =2 | 44 | 731 290 | 465 | 30 | 1 | 11/5965] 9 | 164] 659698 17-7 9 || 1088 | 28594 | 2 ||.. ON, 09 BN Ton. Wipe 3) ||| 12 8 8
April,........| 29'806 | 29704 29°092 | 269 | 40:3 19) ||) 57) |) 75:3 413 | 129 | 97 . | 15) 5085) 9 | 154] 615098 | 17:0 | 12 924 | 93570 | 2 |... Wn | By By BW @ Ico 7 9 a 11
Muy.... +) 29867 20/681 29°364 B70 | 49:2 24 71 74:3 626 16 5 . | 14 | 5370 1 2 629463 16°9 7 457 27299 2 ).. 3 ).. 3 5 2)... 1 iS xo 6 @
UNE con one 29°726 29°590 472 | 60:8 32 78 586 7716 e 1 6 12 } 2:010 Os G 619496 17:2 14 | 940 22575 ee ia 1 1 2 3 Won daa 11 10 7 2
Duly sis sian ota | 29:47 29:376 55 | 66:7 43 80 71-7 ‘| 10578 oa 5 . | 18 | 3-080 a « 540656 145 ’ 2174 15960 tay | pee are: 3 4 5 uae Bn 11 8 6 6
August... ++ | 81 29'644 586 | 74:7 45 85 65:3 | 13454 ae ae |e 7| 2560} « «| 535202 144 | 40 1262 21954 104, ee 7 4 Ge loo~ Ice {la 15 5 1 10
Soptember .... 53 28 676 499 | 623 | 86 75 72'6 9697 20 2 « | 11 }11°265 fe s 592640 16°4 7 626 22200, 2 lee 9 2 3 5 Lei lferte 2 12 8 4 6
October . q 36} 30500 | 29150 | 390 | 500 28 | 63 73:0 | 6001 12 7 . | 11 | 2-920 1 «665252 17'8 10 600 22615 || 2 1 1 1 3 2} a6 3 11 a 4 5
Novembor..... 29671 | 30279 | 29064 | B15 | 406 | 15 | 59 | 794 | 5095 | 195 | 14 . | 16) 4780) 3 93 | 613918 17-0 9 ie || seb) |) WM 5 WoW Sf Woo loo | ao 14 | 10 2 4
December. ,... 29°691 30'369 28'912 137 | 244 -4 43 79'5 2705 | 578 | 31 2 | 16/5745] 13 a 689670 18'5 12 2564 34740 | «+ i Il ce 1 1 1 a 250 Bis 16 5 4 6
| \- _ — —| —— — - — —— = — =
Tixtromo.... | 30768 | 28676 -10 | 85 In. 2438 [2171 172} 7 147 [58090 | 52 | Ft in.) 7729414 76 | 44 277 | 34740 | 16 | 8 | 26 | 9 | 25 | 86 | 17 | 5 | 6 | 122 | 114 | bs | 75
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— = — —— Milos —
OF THE ALBION MINES, NOVA SCOTIA, LATITUDE 45° 34/ 30!’ N. LONGITUDE 62° 42’ W.. FROM GREENWICH, 120rr. ABOVE SEA.
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x

POOLE---ON METEOROLOGY. 3

The barometrical readings have nothing marked to distinguish
the one locality from the other; and the sanie characteristic is
observed here of a rapid rise or fall following each other
within a few hours; whieh is not te case in England as recorded
by Howard’s Climate of London.

The mean temperature here 40.06 Fah. is about two degrees
colder than at the Albion Mines, 41.97. The mean difference
of the days being tive degrees colder, and the nights one degree
warmer. The most marked difierence being 6.82 in January,
and 5.75 in February, warmer at night at the Caledonia Mine;
which also accounts for the difference in the total degrees of
frost below 32, Caledonia being 2171, and Albion Mines being
2470 degrees of frost for the year. August and September are
slightly in excess of mean temperature, and also for the nights
in October and November, showing that the frosts keep off
longer, and that grains and vegetables would ripen here also,
if the farmers only paid proper attention to draining and
cultivation.

The relative humidity and ferce of vapour were not tabu-
Jated at the Albion Mines, so no comparison has been made ,
but an average per centage of 72.87 of humidity, with a force
of vapour so high as is shown in June, July, August and
September, shew very favourably for rapid vegetation.

The extremes of temperature are much greater at the Albion
Mines than at the Caledonia, the former ranging 120 degrees,
or from 98 to 22 below zero, the latter ranging only 95 degrees,
or from 85 to 10 below zero. At the Albion Mines the average
of nights below zero was 19, while at the Caledonia Mine in
1867, there were only 7. There were more rainy days (173)
at the Albion Mines, giving 44.967 inches, than at the Caledonia
(147) giving 58.090 inches; but it will be observed that the
quantity was in excess 15.123 inches at Caledonia Mine. June
was the dryest, and September the wettest month.

There was not any frost in July, August or September, while
at the Albion Mines on an average there was frost every other
year on one night in July, August, and for five nights in every
September. ee

There was fewer days of snow (52) at the Caledonia Mine,’

a4 POOLE—ON METEOROLOGY.

measuring 10 feet 5 inches, than at the Albion Mines (63 days)
measuring 9 feet 33 inches, and the snow was not so dry at
Caledonia, yielding more water, owing no doubt to the proximity
and influence of the ocean.

There is not much difference in the direction of the winds :—

Caledonia Mine—S. to W. 122, W. to N. 114, N. to E. 54,
IDE) (Se (Ble

Albion’ Mine=—S. to W. 112; W. to N. 126, N. to E> 66;
E. to S. 61. | |

No registering instrument was kept at the Albion Mines of
the daily velocity ; but I consider the wind must be above the
average velocity at the Caledonia Mine, and I should like my
register to be compared, if possible, with the one kept at the
Citadel Hill, Halifax, or other places having nearly the same
latitude.

The mean temperature of December was the coldest in 1867,
Dut that I think was exceptional, as December 1866 was four
degrees warmer. I therefore assume December, January,

February and March nearly alike, and average about 22 degrees ;_

April and November nearly correspond, and are about 12 de-
grees warmer; May and October are about the same and 9
degrees warmer; June and September are again about 11
‘degrees warmer ; July 6 degrees warmer than June ; and August
6 degrees warmer than July, and 10 degrees warmer than Sep-
tember. September has a mean of 56 degrees, which corres-
ponds with the temperature of the whole year at Vienne, in
France, in nearly the same latitude but on the opposite side of
the Atlantic.

The length of the longest day is 15 hours and 23 minutes,
and of the shortest day 8 hours and 37 minutes.

The greatest range of temperature for the whole year was
95 degrees; for one month (February) 55 degrees; the least
yvange in one month (October) 35 degrees.

As a good deal has been written about the veering of the
wind and rotation of storms, I fastened a string to the wind-
guage, and found that it made thirty-six coils turning round
with the sun, and seventeen coils turning back against the sun,

x

POOLE—ON METEOROLOGY. AY)

during the course of the year. There does not appear to:be any
regularity or uniformity either in direction or time. In Janu-
ary the wind backed on the 17th, and a gale from S. E. on the
18th marked a pressure of 44 Ibs per square foot. On the 21st
the wind went round with the sun, and a gale from E. and N.
lasted for the next three days. Another gale on the 30th was
from the N. W. In February the wind was high all the month;
the heaviest gale on the 10th and 11th began from S. W. and
S., then went to N. W., and the wind made one entire revolu-
tion with the sun during the whole month. In March there was
not any very heavy gale, only high wind on the 2nd from the S.
with rain, on the 18th from N. W. with snow, and on the 27th
from S. E. with mist, after which the wind went round against
the sun. On the 17th April the wind backed from E. N. E. to
E. 8. E. and blew for three days, with snow and sleet, produc-
ing a silver thaw. On the 2nd May a gale with rain from
S. S. W. On the L8th wind round with the sun from N. to.
E., blew a gale all the 19th from the north, and lobsters and
codfish driven on shore in large numbers. On the 4th June.a
snow storm with wind from the west; 5 feet of snow fell be-
tween Cape North and Grandance; on the 19th a gale from
W. 5S. W. with light showers of rain. In July the highest.
winds were on the lst from the west, and on the 29th from
the S. W., but neither of them amounted toa gale. On the
3rd August a gale from the 8. W. blew down trees, and the:
dry wind blasted the leaves of many plants, and withered them.
On the night of the 1st September, with high wind from S.,
rain measured from. 6 p. m. to -8.a. m. on the 2nd, or fourteen:
hours, the unusual quantity of -4.33-100 inches. On the 30tl:
a gale from S. E. all day with lightning and thunder, and con-
tinued on the 1st October from the S..W. High wind on the
6th from 8S. E. with rain, and on the 26th from north with rain.
On the 2d and 3d November with squalls of rain from W.N. W. ;-
on the 13th gale from 8. S. E.; on the 16th from the S. E. ; and
on the 30th from S. E. then S. with three quarters of an inch of
rain. On the 14th December a snow storm from the north blew
68230 revolutions in the 24 hours, equal to a velocity of 1364
miles; or ata rate of 56.8 miles per hour. There was alsa a

356 POOLE

ON METEOROLOGY.

gale from the S. KE. on the night of the 27th, accompanied with
lightning and thunder.

On the Loth February the first drift ice was seen passing to
the south.

On the 10th March very fine Aurora Borealis, showing five
lines of curtains, one above the other at 8 p. m., colored, and
extending from Corna Berenicis to Capella.

March 29th, heard blue birds singing,—28th ice left the
Bay.

April 10th, saw a small butterfly, heard robins,—12th,
first herrings caught in the Bay,—16th, frogs heard.

May 6th, saw first bee,—1sth, first snake, brown,—1L6th, first
swallows.

June 4th, heard musquito hawks ,—Sth, dandelion in bloom,—
9th, heard a loon,—12th, saw swallow tailed butterfly,—13th,
blue butterfly and Camberwell beauty.

July 8th, fireflies,—14th, bat,—19th, gathered mushrooms.

August 6th, flight of winged ants,—20th, curlew and plover
arrived.

October 22nd, saw a glowworm by side of the road.

November 5th, tide ebbed and flowed four times.

December 8th, ‘* cock-a-wies (anas glacialis) in the Bay ;
they remain here all winter, and go north in spring,—11th,
wild geese last seen in the bay,—3dlst was the coldest day in
the year, when the thermometer marked 4 below zero at night,
and only 1 degree above zero at noon. Shocks of earthquake were
felt throughout the State of New York; the barometer on the Ist
January, 1868, stood at 30.53, with thermometer attached, at 42 ;
and on the 2nd January, barometer 28.97, with thermometer
attached 50, showing a fall of 1.56 inch of pressure in 24
sours, and though occurring in 1868, I have mentioned it, as it
nay have been caused by the earthquakes which were being

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58 GILPIN—ON NOVA SCOTIAN MAMMALS.

Art. VII. On tHe Mamaia or Nova Scotia. By J. Bernarp
Giupin, A. B., M.D., M.R. C. S.
No. IV.
(Read April, 1868. )

In the last papers I have had the honour to read before you,
you may recollect I considered the very marked and_ boreal
family of weasels. Following the classification of the Smithson-
ian Institute, I shall bring to your notice this evening the
somewhat aberrant group of the otter, the skunk and the
raccoon. The otter, a boreal fauna, and allied to the mink,—the
skunk and the raccoon, almost the sole representatives of a
more southern fauna, and perhaps our latest arrivals in point of
time.” But to give to the paper a greater completiveness, I
will enumerate the whole fauna of the Province as identified by
myself. I think this list will include all, with the exception of a
shrew, or a mouse or two, yet to be added—I know of no other
list except my own, and in using the term identified by myself, I
only wish to add to it the interest of personal verification. I
shall use the classification of Dr. Baird (Smithsonian Institute),
with the synonyms of Sir John Richardson when procurable,
thus using the best American and English authorities, being
satisfied that whilst no one can be but charmed by the accu-
racy, exactness and minute description of the great English
traveller; on the other hand they must equally acknowledge the
exhaustive labour of the American naturalist, though they may
differ from him in some of his conclusions.

CHEIROPTERA,—Bats.

Vespertilio Subulatus, (Say, Richardson), Say’s-bat.

ON aia ; 3 ae
Vespertilio Cinereus, (P. D. Beanvois), 1796) t Hoary Bat.
Vespertilio Pruinosus, (Richardson), :

Dr. Allen, (Monograph American bats 1564,) puts this last species in
the new genus *‘ Lasiurus.”’ It is very rare in the Province, whilst Say’s bat is
verycommon. Capt Hardy gave me a. bat whose interfemoral resembled
‘‘evotis ”’ (Allen). Iam unwilling, however, to make it this species.

ae ie _ . Insecttvora,—Shrews.

Sorex Palustris, (Richardson,) Marsh Shrew.
Sorex Fosteri, (Richardson,) Foster’s Shrew,

GILPIN—ON NOVA SCOTIAN MAMMALS. 59

Sorex Platyrinus, (Baird,) Eared Shrew.
Soree Thomsoni, (Baird,) Thomson’s Shrew. - ee
Sorex Acadica ? (Baird,) Nova Scotia Shrew. Hs
Blarina Taipoides, (Gapper, Baird.)

blarina Brevicauda, (Say, Baird.)

Biarina Angusticeps, (Baird.)

Blarina Cinerea, (Backman, Baird.)

Condiylura Cristata, (Baird.) ct moceviole
Condylura Macvoure, (Richardson.) ‘ j

Of these species Palustris would undoubtedly be placed in Baird’s new
genus, ‘“‘ Neosorex.”’ Ihave puta mark of interrogation after ‘‘ Acadica,”’
as it isas yet undeseribed, except by myself, and may turn out ‘‘ Thomsoni,”
(see Transactions, Nova Scotian Institute, 1864). These long-tailed Shrews
are by no means uncommon. Wollowixg other authorities, [ have distinguished
«Palpoides ””? from ‘‘ Brevicauda,’’? and though there is undoubtedly great
divergence in colour and size in our ‘‘ Glarina,’’ yet all the typical marks
remain the same. I have been fortwaate in obtaining a specimen, | believe
the second one known of the very rare ‘‘ Angusticeps.’”? Of Moles [ have
never met with one in the Province. They are represented by the one
species of Condylura which is common. These Shrews brave the coldest
winter—their minute tracks are seen on snow, at least four feet above the
frozen ground, beneath which are their holes ; through this snow they must
penetrate in coming to the surface. They are seen swimming in ice mantled
streams Hunters cutting an ice hole ina frozen stream fora drink have
had them darting from below almost into their mouths, and as suddenly
plunging in again.

CaRNIVORA,—Flesh eaters. :

Lynx Rufus, (Guidensteadt, Baird,) Wild Cat.
Lynx Canadensis, (Geoff, Baird, )
Felis Canadensis, (Richardson, )
Canis Occtdentalis, (Richardson,) Wolf.

Vulpes Fulvus, (Richardson,) Americaw Fox.

iusiela Pennanti, (Erxleben,) Canadensis, (Richardson, )

¢ Loupcervier.

Fisher.
Mustela Americana, (Turton, Baird,) Martes, (Richardson,)
Marten.

Putorius Cicognanti, (Bonaparte, Baird,) Small Weasel.

Putorius Lichardsoniit, (Bonaparte, Baird,) Hrminea, (Rich-
ardson.).

Putorius Noveboracencis, (Dekay, Baird,) White Weasel.

Puiortus Vison, (Richardson, Baird,) Mink.

60 GILPIN—ON NOVA SCOTIAN MAMMALS.

Putorius Nigrescens, (Audubon, Baird,) little Mink.

Lutra Canadensis, (Sabine, Richardson,) Otter.

Mephitis Mephitica, (Shaw, 1792, Baird,) Americana, (Rich-
ardson,) Skunk.

Procyon Lotor, (Richardson, Baird,) Raccoon.

Ursus Americanus, (Pallas, Richardson, Baird,) Bear.

Of these fifteen species, we find the Loupcervier, a truly boreal lynx, with
its congener the wild cat, a more southern form, and no doubt of much ijater
appearance ; the wolf in his white or grey variety, endeavouring in vain to
re-habit the Province. During the last sixty or seventy years they have
constantly apppeared, single and in pairs, at each extremity of the Province,
and then have been unheard of for years ‘The fox, very numerous, of great
beauty and lustre of fur, but subject to nigritism and ne according to its
intensity, from the red, to the cross, the silver grey, and black. The magni-
ficent tree weasel, the fisher, its congener, the American marten, ovly lately
separated from the pine marten of Enrope, and still more recently classed as a
variety of the Russian sable, (AE Zabellina.) ‘The ermine weasels, (though
the common short tailed weasel common in New Eagiand is here unknown),
the American otter, now separated from the European species, the skunk and
raccoon both later in their arrival (almost during our own times), and cf
@ southern form, and the truly boreal form of the American black bear, per-
haps our carliest'carnivora, and destined to be the latest. His vegetable diet of
‘berries and roots, and his long winter sleep mark him the inhabitant of sterile
and frozen lands.

RODENTIA.

Sciurus Hudsonius, (Pallas, Richardson,) Red Squirrel.

Pteromys Tudsonius, (Gmelin, Baird,) Sabrinus, (Richardson,)
Flying Squirrel.

Tamias Striatus, (Linn. Baird,) Lysteri, (Richardson, ) Ground
Squirrel.

Arctomys Monaz, (Liun., Baird, Richardson,) Wood Chuck.

Castor Canadensis, (Kuhl, Baird, Ma See” American
Beaver.

Jaculus Hudsonius, (Zimm., Baird,) J. Labradena (Richard-
son,) Jumping Mouse.

Mus Decumanus, (Pallas,) Brown Rat.

Mus Musculus, (Linn,) Common Mouse.

Mus Rattus, (Linn,) Black Rat.

Hesperomys Leucopus, (Rafinesque, Baird,) White-footed Mouse.

Hesperomys Myoides, (Baird,) Hamster Mouse.

Arvicola Gapperi, (Vigors, Baird,) Gapper’s Mouse.

GILPIN—-ON NOVA SCOTIAN MAMMALS. 61

Arvicola Riparia, (Ord, Baird,) Meadow Mouse.

Fiber Zibethicus, (Baird, Richardson,) Musk Rat.

Hrethizon Dorsatus, (Linn., Baird,) H. Pilosa, (Richardson),
Porcupine.

Lepus Americanus, (Erxleben, Baird, Richardson), Hare.

Of the sixteen species here enumerated we find a tree squirrel, a fying
“squirrel, and a ground squirrel, all northern forms, two partially hybernating,
and laying up winter stores, the other totally disappearing beneath the ground
in winter. We find also a marmot peculiarly northern in his bybernation and
eross fat. I cannot but think that Pruinosus of Richardson will be found
only a northern variety of Monax. Specimens are found here so very
hoary, with the hair ou the shoulders so much longer than on rump. I have
also seen them flattening themselves on the ground, as Audubon describes,
Proinosus as doing at the Zoological Gardens, London. ‘To the historical beaver
succeeds the sub-family of mice. Of the three introduced species, the common:
mouse has penetrated every where, the brown rat chiefly on the sea-board, and
the black rat very rare ; I suspect some, if not all, come to us from the West
Indies. Our indigenous species so far identified are the very beautiful
jamping mouse—the white-footed mouse with his closely allied congener, the
hamster mouse, differing only in having a longer tail, and cheek pouches, and
two voles. 1 think another vole may be added to our list. The jumping
mouse and the voles all hybernate, the others but partially, laying up-stores
of beech mast and grain in hollow trees, and often found lively at mid winter.
The musk-rat, porcupine, and varying hare, all northern forms, close the list
of our Rodents.

RUMINANTIA.

Cervus Alces, (Linn., Richardson,)
Alces Americanus, (Jardine, Baird,) ¢ The Moose.
Alces Muswa, (Richardson,)

Rangifer Caribou, (Ham, Smith, Baird,)

: : aribou, Reindeer.
Cervus tarandus sylvestris, (Richardson,) , © ;

Our list ends with the truly noble, antlered and boreal forms of our two
species of deer. Of these the caribou supposed identical with the reindeer of
Europe though not proven, but differing from the barren ground caribou of the
Arctic circle, is becoming extinct the most rapidly. Though following Jardine
and Richardson I have given the specific ‘‘ Americana”? and ‘‘ Muswa”’ to
the moose, there can no longer be a doubt of its complete identity with the
Elk of Sweden and Norway. Captain Hardy, R. A., a member of our
Institute, (than whom there can be no more competent-authority,) fresh from
studying the moose in the Nova Scotia forest, with all his recollections,
drawings, and measurements, has compared him with two young elks from Nor-
way, the property of the Prince of Wales, and pronounces them identical. (See
‘Land and Water,” Aug. 15, 1868, with illustrations.) In Captain Hardy’s
sketch the forehead appears broader than in the moose. This is the:point
insisted upon, by Richardson :as the difference between the two skulls.

ance. ‘The few or no

52 GILPIN—ON NOVA SCOTIAN MAMMALS.

In not adding Meriones (Jaculus) Aeadica, (Edn. New Phil.
Journal, 1856,) ie the list, I owe it to so learned a naturalist as
Dawson to explain that a specimens upon which he founded
his new species, and which he obtained from Mr. Winton,
Halifax, were prepared tor myself, and deser ue as the young of
J. Hudsonius, (Zimm.,) in a lecture before the Mechanie’s Insti-
tute, Halifax, about 1850, and that noe being unwilling to
differ from him, and still more unwilling to lose a mammal
from our Province, I still retain my opinion. Of animals not
identified by myself, but sometime to be found in the Province,
I think the Vi

iroinia s Virginianus) will be found
in the Cobeqnid hills, as I personal

q

ray)

at Dorchester, N. B., near the boundary line. There is a tradi-
tion of a wolverene (Gulo luscus) having been taken in the same
wild country. A large black squirrel skin (Sciurus Carclinensis)
with nigritism, was given me from Cumberland. Of the Pinni-
pedia or seals and Ceiz or whales, I have identified none.
From the labours of Dr. Gill we unexpectedly learn that our
common seal is identical with the Eurcpean, (P. Vitulina,) and
the harp (P. Groeniandica,) and the grey eel (H. Griseus
Neilson,) are all common to each continent. us identity run-
ning through the fish, amphibious Re the sea birds, and
larger land mammals, seems a. good proof of our common glacial
period and gradual emergence. Of extinct species, rite ing
historic time, we may enumerate the walrus, with its companion
of another class, the great auk. Of prehistoric remains, I only
know the solitary cieantic thigh bones of a huge mammal found

oO ©
at Cape Breton. xf those whose early extinction, perhaps in

our own times we may reasonably expect, we may enumerate
the fisher, (M. Pennanti), now very rare, and next the marten,
(M. Rae Both these great tree weasels require dense

cover. The beaver, twenty-five years ago nearly extinct,
eal jy recruiting. The less value of his skin since velvet hats

have been patented is not sufficient to account for bis re-appear-

Indians now trapping in our forests is
perhaps another cause. With these exceptions, allowing the
same influences to exist, I see no reason why we should not
retain our present fauna for centuries, including the large

y ical W ay have been taken ~

GILPIN

ON NOVA SCOTIAN MAMMALS. 63

ruminants. Our last arrival was the wolf, endeavouring Im vain
to rehabit his old domains, to whom the skunk and the raecoon
alone give precedence. All these coming in to us from the wild
region of the Cobequid hills. Of introduced species, with the
exception of the mice, we have only the horse (KE. Caballus), and
the rabbit, (Lepus Cuniculus). Both these species have been
-allowed to assume their feral state on Sable Island, a desert
island about ninety miles south-east Nova Scotia, in the Atlantic
Ocean. Whilst the rabbits in fifty years have returned to one
common silver-grey tint with white collars, it is curious to
remark how the horse in one hundred and fifty years, the pro-
duce no doubt of the New England stock, has returned to the
habits and form of the primal stock, or wild horse of antiquity,
and reproduced all varieties of color, not only the bay, black
and chesnut, but the rarer colors of piebald, duns, isabella’s,
blue duns, and duns with striped legs and black lists down the
back.

We have so far adhered in our paper this evening to strict
classification, using the modern acceptation of genus which,
unlike the older naturalists’ usage, seems to class animals by
their differences, rather than by their similarities, (Linneus
classing the elk with the stag, considering his many points of
similarity ; H. Smith considering only his differences, classing
him by himself). Is it too much to say that the modern system
of sub-genus has become too fine and wire-drawn, and oper-
ates unfavourably to exact knowledge of the habits cf the
animals themselves, making a speciality of what should be
open to all lovers of nature. However this may be, there is
another way of studying our fauna far more agreeable, as it
connects us with geology and geography, and allows specula-
tion instead of exact measurement and minute detail. This is
to take the order of their presumed appearance on our part of the
globe. Our Province glaciated to the summits of its hills and
then slowly emerging amid towering ice-bergs, and washed by
frozen seas, must have first attracted those animals which live by
the sea, since this half frozen ocean had long before been floored
by mollusks, upon whom countless series of fish had for ages fed
and died. The Cete then, as they do now on the Arctic

—— _—— — — <<

64 GILPIN—-ON NOVA SCOTIAN MAMMALS.

Circle, nay have sported and wallowed over Blomidon or the
Cobequid. Following them, canie those fur clad fish, the seals ;
then, no doubt, the polar bear now long extinct, may have
denned on the Ardoise or trapped seals in Bedford Basin. This
accords with geological facts, the shelled mollusks are the floors
of ancient oceans. Fish appear long before air breathers in
carboniferous strata. The slowly emerging Province may now
have dried itself into bog and morass, insect life is humming ;
about the marshy pools. Our one species of bat so like the ptero-
dactyle harmonizes well with the moose, whose stilted leg and
cavernous head closely resemble the extinct fauna of ancient
time. The caribou or reindeer on whose horn pre historie man
has left his early rude carving, soon joined him; then one would
suppose the hybernating class, all those who slept out the long
Arctic winter’s night, the bear, the beaver, the musk-rat, the
marmot, the mice and squirrels, all vegetable eaters but the
bear, (and he no doubt then,) would follow ; the hare would very
early put in her appearance together with the porcupine. A
more genial clime and a warmer sun now lights our landscape.
The Arctic currents turned aside by the rising continent, have
swept away the ice bergs. The moose and cariboo browse over
the barrens, the beaver and musk-rat forin their rushy domes, the
various mice collect with the squirrel their little stores of cones
and seeds, the hare and porcupine gather their frugal meal of
grass or pine. The most of them sleeping out the long wintry
night, none preying on the other. And aow come the carnivora.
The feast has been for ages preparing, the voracious guests steal
slyly in to devour it. The shrews, those hardy imps whose
tiny limbs are ones wonder, making their needle tracks on snow
whose temperature is 18 below zero, may have been of the first
arrivals. ‘The fierce and bloody weasels now attack the mice
and the hares, on the land, the fish on the water; the corpulent
‘bear now changes his vegetable diet; the northern lynx creeps
along, followed ages afterwards by her congener the wild cat;
the crafty foxes and stealthy wolves follow, and the guest roll is
complete. These now, by natural laws, keep ata poise produc-
tion, and supply. Presently man makes his appearance, and
both guests and viands begin to disappear. By stone arrow |

GILPIN——-ON NOVA SCOTIAN MAMMALS.

head, by fish bone spear, by rude flint knife, and trap stone
axe, by bronze sword, unwieldy matchlock, clumsy musket,
Queen’s arms, or Minie rifle, as Esquimaux, Miemac, Northman,
Frenchman or trader, sporting noble or Englishman; by every
art in every nationality, by pit-fall, trap-net, or snare, man more
srafty than fox or wolf, more murderous than ermine weazel,
wars on all. The flabby Esquimaux, clothed in deer skins, no
longer drives the deer; men of the nineteenth century, clothe
themselves in broad-cloth spun from the wool of sheep, Be ue=
ing the deer on our ancient hills. It is consoling to think as
ve have seen so many of the guests out, we have client in our own
ime witnessed some late arrivals. Twenty years ago Mr.
owns informed me the skunk was so rare that he had obta: ci
gut one skin, and he had some idea of importing a few from
New Jersey, where he trapped themasa boy. |: ive in-
sreased so rapidly since, that their skins are quite common in
mur market. The raccoon has within the last twenty years
spread itself along the north side of the valley of Annapolis.
They were unknown by the Indians, a certain sign of their
strangeness. The beaver is again rapidly increasing in the
Western counties, though, as yet, unknown in the eastern.
Old hunter Hardwicke was said to have trapped the last one in
Annapolis county thirty years ago; since then forty or fifty
skins come to market from one locality during a year. It is
curious too to speculate, that almost the first arrival will be the
last seen out. The interior of our Province is divided into
several great lake basins, cach surrounded by barrens and
swamps. From the great Shelburne basin flow the Clyde, the
Tusket, the Liverpool, the LaHave into the Atlantic; and the
Leguille, the Bear, and the Sissiboo into the Bay of Fundy.
This basin is so sterile that no man can live on its borders by
the soil, the timber too is too small to tempt the lumberman,
Wide shallow lakes, dotted by innumerable islets, break the
dreary surface of the sterile bog and barren. Here is the home
of the mcose, among these islets, secure from bears she hides
her fuwns. Presse i in on all sides by advancing cultivation,
with no back ground of forest, as in Maine, New Brunswick, or

Canada, to retreat upon, she here makes her stand, having be-
!)

66 GILPIN—OWN NOVA SCOTIAN MAMMALS.

come almost: extinct in those countries. These barrens and
intricale impassable swamps will be in future ages to Nova
Seotia what the Black forest is to modern Kurope. There the
wild buil which the Imperial Roman described, still defies in
his impenetrable haunt the throng of modern men, and so in
ages. to. come our moose will hold good his feeding ground.
Men with their governments will crumble, but the same un-
utterly barren ranges will still exist ; the same countless
withered rampikes will rear their spiked heads as now; the
same dwarf and scrubby pines will clothe their bases as to-day ;
yet those whose camp fires are wreathing round these withered
spectres, will not be our worthy President, or our friend and
member Captain Hardy, whose graphic notes of these scenes we
have. just published, but perchance the young Princes Royal of
Cszrolina, who have come north with the young Dukes of New
York. to strengthen their enervated limbs by stalking a moose
with the Prince. of ae i heir of Alfred fourth King of
Canada, attended by the Harls. of Blomedon and Cobequill
Thus the moose, whose bones have been found mingled with
the. cave bear, and other mythic phantoms of prehistoric times,
may be the last survivor of ali.

Taking. up. in their specific order, each mammal, as I said in
the beginning of this paper, I will proceed with the American
otter.

Lutra Canadensis, (Sabine, Richardson,) the Otter.

Of the skins examined by me at Halifax, they were all dark
liver brown on the back, the under parts lighter. The cheeks,
chin, throat and breast were greyish white. The fur was of
two kinds, the outside long, brown and shining, the inside soft
and lighter. Sir John Richardson gives the cos lout equally dark
below as upon the back. They measured from four to five and
six feet, including the tail. They are not very numerous, per-
haps six hundred skins may be the annual catch. For so large
a mammal,.the otter keeps a very close cover, being seldom
seen during.the summer., In winter when the lakes are frozen
he. is. compelled, to. take long: journeys: through the iorest in

GILPIN—ON NOVA SCOTIAN MAMMALS. 67

search of open water. Ifthe snow is deep and no Crust, owing
to the shortness of his legs, and long low tail, he leaves one
uninterrupted trail behind him. I have tracked these for miles,
crossed and recrossed by the tracks of grouse, hares, squirrels,
shrews, moose, lynxes and bears. The stern solitude of our
short Arctic day in the forest is greatly enhanced by the marks
of a populous gathering over night. Like Baal’s priests, they
have all left their footprints behind them. The hunter loves
them not—a clear track without a cross shows the beast a few
miles ahead. In the lettered page that nature has written on
the snow for his guidance, he reads a day, two days, or a week
ago, he passed along: memories of these sylvan readings how
sweet you are! The otters that I have seen were with broad
flat heads, short ears, scarce appearing above the fur, flattened
like an angry cat, a broad naked muzzle, thick moustache and
round large upper lip, the eye cruel, but inexpressive, light in
colour, and tco near the nose for beauty ; the legs very short and
strong, the whole body round, and the tail long and compressed,
but joined to the body by a very broad base. in repose they
were fond of lying on their bellies, with the hind legs turned
up behind, as a duck’s foot inswimming. They held their fish
in their fore paws, and devoured it by a series of snarling bites.
I have no language to express their tortuous, swift and graceful
glides in and out the water, and over the ground. ‘They
resembled young furred anacondas, not as we see them half
alive in our shows, but stimulated by a glorious African sun and
burning desert sand. They are said to be fond of sliding down
the hills, (moist clay in summer, snowed in winter,) and to
continue it for hours. By the best authorities, our otter is
specifically distinct from L. Vulgaris, x the EKuropean otter,
the skull of ours is much broader and larger, and the naked
muzzle double the size.

b)

Mephitis Mephitica, (Baird, from Shaw.) | |
Mephitis Americana, (Richardson, Sabine, DeKay,) Skunk.
Mephitis Chinga, (Liedman, Wagner, Audubon.)

Of the some dozens of skins of this late arrival among our
fauna, which I have examined, they have all been of that

6S: - GILPIN—ON NOVA -SGOTIAN. MAMMALS.

variety. which Baird makes typical for the northern skunk.
Black, with white line down the forehead, yellowish white

rhomboid spot on the back of neck, from which issue from either

posterior corner two parallel white lines, soon diverging and
losing themselves on the flanks, and a white tip to the tail.
I have never examined one in the flesh. From well mounted
specimens we recall a handsome lively little animal standing
high on pretty feet, a small and arched head, ears small, a high
back, and a very fine brush carried over his back. He is bold
as well as handsome, and goes out of his path for no one. Once
or twice I have met him in the open, by evening twilight, or at
noon, trotting through the dark forest. He much resembled a
poodie dog, his long curved nails rattling as he ran. ‘The
stories of the offensive fluid which he ejects from glands on either
side of the rectum are not exaggerated. ‘Though it appears to
me that an open cultivated country is much more favourable to
its diffusion than a wooded uncultivated one. I have offensively

perecived the odour for nine miles. The main land being that dis-

tance from the island where I was, and on which none were living.
I have never known our forests tainted to so great an extent.
One can scareely believe the greenness of the gentleman who
on his wedding tour espied one of these innocents in the read,
easily captured it, as they will allow you, and presented it to
his bride sitting beside him in his carriage. Cupid loved the
soft muff and caress; but a sudden jolt of the carriage alarmed
him, and any one who knows them, will never ask what hap-
pened then. Equally incredible are the stories of the Indians
who love the odour, willingly eating the tainted meat; yet I
have heard both vouched for. The specific ‘* Mephitica” was
first given by Shaw, but using the genus Vivera. Cuvier,
separated it into the genus Mephitis, and Baird, following the
strict law of priority, still retains this specific. May I be
allowed to say this strict law of priority, allowing, as it does,
ho writer a choice or alteration of name, is the only compass
that will steer us out of that vast ocean of synonyms which
threatens to engulf the science ?

Procyon Lotor, (Richardson, Baird).

Ursus Lotor (Linn, Erxleben).

: Raecoon.

, =

GILPIN—-ON NOVA SCOTIAN MAMMALS. 6g

Of the many skins of this also late arrival amongst us which |

fT have examined, as well as living and dead specimens, they agree
generally with the description of Audubon, and Baird. I think
our raccoons are larger and darker, and among them a greater
tendency to negritism. Among many dark skins, I have seen
one that in colour resembled the best specimen of the black fox,
the rigs upon the tail being barely discernible. Usually he is
of a yellowish-grey, mixed with long black hairs, and a little
rusty thrown upon shoulders and rump. Audubon, speaking of
the black patch on either side of the face, says it ‘ passes the
eyes over the nose.” I think this must be an error of the
printer, as all our specimens have the nose very conspicuous, a
grey ridge between the spectacled eyes. He is rapidly in-
creasing in our forests, and doubtless hybernates during the
winter months. I have never met his tracks in the snow, but
have known of his having been cut out of a hollow tree im
mid-winter, in which a hog that had escaped and run wild had
also taken her temperary refuge. A fowl-house, at a farm
where I was one night, was diligently searched to discover the
reason of the discordant screams cf its inmates. The flare of
the lantern, after looking everywhere, was at last reflected by a
pair of twinkling eyes in the farthest corner of the roof-tree-
We soon had the pretty black paws and beady eyes relaxed in
death, much more, I own, to the satisfaction of the farmer than
my own. He has penetrated the whole length of the north
side of the vailey of Annapolis during the last thirty years, in
such numbers as to damage the crops of the mountain farms ;
whilst on the southern side, separated by river and basin, he is
unknown. Our Indians did not know him on his first invasion.
May we hope that he will make good his quarters, and that his
prying, mincing gait, droll frolics, and round, humpy form, com-
mingling agility with strength, may never be wanting to our piney
woods or brawling streams.

Notr.—Les Carbot, who visited Nova Scotia in 1606, speaks of small animals,
very round and fat, which had black paws like monkeys, as plenty there at that time.
These must have been raccoons. I note this as curious that they should retire before
civilization, and then return 300 years afterwards under so different cireumstances—
to cultivated fields instead of primeval forests, to corn and maize instead of wild fruita
and berries.

70 JONES—ON RARER BIRDS OF NOVA SCOTIA.

Art. VIII. On some or tHe Rarer Birps or Nova Scoru.
By J. Marinnw Jonzs, F. L. S.
(Read April 13, 1868.)

ALrHousi instinct may be considered the primary cause
of the periodical migrations of ae: yet the occurrence of
Severe gales of wind at the time of su
effect of movi ts

ch migrations, has the

ne the migrants to loca ites, in some cases, far
distant from those intended to be visited. Migratory birds ar

the

otf ad bess 5 fy otal . G - >
haturally led to visit northern oan in spring, for the
double purpose of procuring suitable breedin g-places, and the

SS
Es
iS)

proper kind of feod to nourish their y ‘oung ere they arrive at an

'

t

age when more substantial substances can be taken by them ;
while their journey south i

n autumn is a matter of positive

Wailer tari, Giants ds Rt oie Pa vs aot 7y 7

necessity, from the entire absence of insect life, and food of
:

Albee rex Tl et
Hearly ali de scriptions, While winter reigns with its accustomed
pt

severity over the more northern portions ef our western
hemisphere.

Nova Scotia being situate on the north-eastern extremity of
America, and joined by a merc neck of land to the main,

bird
I

yivds to pass over on their
course to and from their usual bre -eding haunts, in the secluded
interior of Labi

v
, Ly 4 Baie “ 5 dO
be a favourite 3 point foi

vador; and so punctual are they in their moye-
ments exch season, that unless some unusual change of weather
takes place about the time, they arrive at their casual haunts in
Nova ee almost to'a day. The Wild Goose (Anser
Canadensis) and Golden Plover
two neta ces or the kind: {The
wild goose of Ameri

Charadrius marmoratus), are
ormer, which is the common
ca, maikes its appearance in Nova Scotia
generally about the first week in March, passing in large flocks
ab a eee hei ight in the air, in a northerly direction. They
descend when a favourable resting place attracts their attention,
but soon pass onwards on their northern voyage. I am in-
formed that some of these birds do not leave the island of
Prince Edward, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, a little to the
north cf Nova Scotia, until about the first week in June; but I
imagine this occurrence takes place only when the previcus
winter has beea long protracted, and the accumulated ice in the
Gulf gives warping to the birds that the far nerth is not fit for

at

———

JONES=—ON RARER BIRDS OF NOVA SCOTIA. 71

their reception. I have known them to be as late as the Ist of
April in passing north, although this is a very unusual occur-
rence. This was in 1863. ‘They return south about the Ist of
September. The golden plover merely makes Nova Scotia
one of its resting flues during the autumnal migration, for

very few are observed in spring. It arrives very punctually,,
generally on or about the 22nd of August, and in considerable:

numbers. It stays about a week, and then passes to the south.
It is worthy of remark that the golden plover, in its progress
towards its northern breeding places, taxes the land-route,
passing over the eastern portion of the United States, while on
its passage north it takes the ocean-route. This latter course is
well authenticated by the remarks of that observant naturalist,
Mr. J. L. Hurdis, in ‘* The Naturalist in Bermuda,” who gives
the testimony of several well-known masters of merchant
vessels, in regard to the vast flights of these birds met with at
sea during their several passages we Nova Scotia to the West
Indies during the month of September, in various years.

Their arrival in the West India I ree 4 is also clearly estab-
lished by the same authority. The island of Antigua is annually
visited about the beginning of September by countless multitudes
of plover; and on one occasion they made their appearance in
such multitudes in St. John’s, the chief town of the colony, that
the inhabitants were seén in every ‘iirection shooting them from
the doors and windows; indeed, so numerous were they, that
boys destroyed them with sticks aid stones, and shooting them
soon ceased to be considered sport. They remained in the
island for ten or fifteen days o ie taking their departure south
as soon as the weather became settled. The island of Mar-
tinique is-also visited by amazing numbers of these birds. In
Barbadoes, during a south-west gale, on the morning of the 12th

September, 1846, these birds were so numerous that they were

struck down with stones, and thousands were shot. Mr.
Hurdis considers that after visiting the West India Islands, the

plover finally settle down for the winter months in Venezuela.

and Guiana, and other northern portions of South America.
I have alluded, at the commencement of this paper, to the
effect of gales of/wind upon the arrival of birds at particular

We JONES—-ON RARER BIRDS OF NOVA SCOTIA.

positions, where they otherwise are rarely, if ever, observed;
and I cannot omit to notice, in connection with this subject, the
unusual opportunities afforded me and my brother naturalists,
Major Wedderburn and Mr. Hurdis, while residing in the
Bermudas, of observing the effect of wind storms upon various
species of North American migratory birds. During the months
of September and October, particulariy the latter month, the
vast numbers of birds, of very different species, which invari-
ably made their appearance arter a heavy gale from the north
west, proved beyond a doubt, that while on their southern
passage down the eastern coast of America, they became the
sport of the tempest, and whirled hither and thither at its merey,
got at Jast happily cast upon the sunny isles of Bermuda, while
thousands of their fellows no doubt met with a watery grave.*

Over 130 species of North American birds, never known to
breed or even reside for more than a few days in these islands,
have been observed at dilierent times after heavy northern gales,
and some of them which we know to be strictly boreal forms
could not have migrated so far south of their own accord. The
Snow Bunting (Hmberiza nivalis,) and the snowy owl (Strix
nyctea) are examples that might be added to.

During my observations beth in Kurope and America, I have
found that occasionally a bird, perhaps of a different kind
altogether, will accompany a flock of other birds on their migra-
tion, and live with them on the best cf terms. Such birds,
termed * straggiers,” generally prove to be the greatest rarities,
for it must be by the merest accident that one solitary bird
manages to get separated from its kinc and travel perhaps thou-
sands of miles to a country perfectly foreign to its accustomed
habitat. . ;

Of the rarer birds of Nova Scotia, which up to the present
time have come under my observation, I may mention the fol-
lowing :—

Great AmericAN Wuite Ecrer, (Ardea alba.)—Of this
magnificent bird I only know of one specinen having been ob-

* Many birds on landing in the Bermudas are so weak that 9 person may take them
‘ with the hand.

JONES—GN RARER BIRDS OF NOVA SCOTIA. 73

served in Nova Scotia, which was shot in the summer of 1867,
on the shore of Halifax Harbour, and is now in my collection.

Snowy Heron, (Ardea candidissima.)—Although not so
rare as the former species, it may be considered uncommon, as
I believe there are few recorded instances of its capture. A
very fine specimen was shet by Mr. George Drillio, of Halifax,
some few years ago, in a marsh up the country.

Kine Eiper, (Anas spectabilis.)—This fine bird, which is
common in the far north about Hudson’s Bay and the north coast
of Labrador, occurs but rarely on our shores. The only speci-
nen that has come under my observation was shot in March,
1863, near Halifax Harbor, and was kindly presented to me by
Mr. J..R. Willis. It was a male bird.

CurLEW SanppirEr, ( Tringa subarquata.)—On the eastern
soast of America, this bird ranges from Labrador as far south
is Florida; but it appears to be but little known on the Nova
Scotian coast, and may be classed among our rarer species.
Jr. Bernard Gilpin, of Halifax, kindly forwarded me a specimen
that had been shot by his son at the mouth of Halifax Harbour,
in September, 1868.

PrecroraL SaNnpDPIPER, (7. pectoralis..\—This species may
be considered rare on our coast, although much more common
than the former species. It is found as far south as the West
Indies. Iam alse indebted to Dr. Gilpin for a specimen of this
bird.

Scuinz’s SanppiPer, (7. Schinzii.)—This northern species,
which, however, is found occasionally as far south as Florida, is
another of our rarer sandpipers. _ Like as is the case with the
former species, a few stragglers join the flocks of common
sandpipers on their migrations up and down the eastern coast
of America, and thus fall to the gun of our shore sportsman.

10

74 ALLISON—ON METEOROLOGY.

Arr. IX. Nores on THE WEATHER aT Hawirax, N. S.,
DURING THE YEAR 1867. By FREDERICK ALLISON.

In this, the first paper which I have the honour to read be-
fore this Institute, I have endeavoured to keep close-to a review
of 1867, without exploring bye-paths leading to subjects which
might tempt one beyond ordinary limit—subjects requiring more
full treatment than I could give them to-night.

The plan follcwed in observing the several features of the
weather, described below, has been this. Cloud is classed by
figures from 0 to 10, the former being a perfectly clear sky, the
latter complete cloud. The intermediate numbers being so
many tenths of the sky obscured. ‘The mean temperature of
each day is calculated from 12 observations, read from a
Negretti and Zambra Thermometer, placed five feet from the
ground. with a N. N. W. aspect, and always in the shade. This
thermometer has been satisfactorily tested in water just at the
point of freezing, and is frequently compared, to ensure its con-
tinued correctness, with two other thermometers similarly tested ;
and which, under the same conditions, mark alike. The 12
observations are read directly from the thermometer, except
those at 2.a.m. and 4a. m.; which, with the aid of the Minimum
Register, and the midnight and 6 a. m. readings, can safely be
set down at an estimated point so as to be taken into the caleu-
lation of the Mean. Some observers do, for convenience sake,
take observations at 7 a. m., 2 p. m. and 9 p. m. only, and eal-
culate the mean from these, which give, on ordinary days, a very
close approximation to a more elaborate calculation. ~ But it is
evident that on days with abnormal changes of temperature this
plan runs a great risk of being erroneous. The minimum of the
24 hours is read from a Negretti and Zambra Thermometer,
with self-acting Register in spirit, placed as above mentioned.
The Maximum read in the usual way. During the year imme-
diately under consideration this evening, I could only mark the
number of hours of rain; now, through a friend’s kindness, LT
have an accurate rain guage, of the simplest, and, as I believe,
the best kind. Wind is noted, as cloud also, at 7 a.m., 3 p.m.
and1lp.m. ‘The direction of wind is taken from an ordinary
yane, but the force I have to estimate from observation and

ALLISON—-ON METEOROLOGY. 15

practice, 0 being a calm, and rising through the regular classifi-
cation to 10, which would denote a hurricane. In absence of
an anemometer these observations of wind can only be taken as
generally correct. The barometer which I formerly used, being
out of order, I was not able last year to observe the pressure of
the atmosphere. With this instrument again, I have found these
of least complicated construction to prove the best, where you
read the pressure from the simple tube. In the clock-faced
kind, the hands of the dial are apt to get out of order, through
a rusty pivot, or other cause. For the comparisons between
Halifax and Windsor, I have been indebted to the kindness of
my good friend Dr. Heusley, who placed at my disposal the
result of the observations at King’s College, made by himself
and brother Professors between 1857 and 1864. From others
in different parts of the Province I have derived much valuable
information regarding phenomena, at diiferent periods, and
especially as to the opening of blossoms, ripening of fruit, &c.,
from year to year. But I hope to see the day, when, at least
through Nova Scotia, we may have a regular system of weather
stations, conducted on one plan; anda head station, where all
the reports may be digested, compared, and shaped in monthly
review ; and also to be in constant communication with the other
portions of this Dominion and the States of the neighbouring
Republic. The benefits of this system have been so well proved
in Great Britain, and the Continent of Europe, that from me no
remarks upon its utility is necessary. The advantages gained
from forecasts, by commerce and agriculture, have been widely
acknowledged, even while, with the data at their disposal, ob-
servers stand but at the threshold of a science, which time,
accumulating facts in its yearly course, must of itself complete.
But I was lately struck by an instance, to me a new one, of their
utility. A photographer told me that, although his business
was not very large, he could probably save from ten to fifteen
dollars for every day of the many he was now deceived by
threatening mornings, preventing him from preparing plates for
customers; or by clear mornings inducing him to prepare for a
good day’s business, and presently the cloud and rain left on his
bands his morning’s work altogether spoiled. These frequent

16 ALLISON——-ON METEOROLOGY.

mishaps could to 4 great extent be anticipated, by signals giving
the probable coming weather.

I now propose to take up 1867, month by month; always
mindful that in this country where our stock of statistics is as
yet so scanty, our first care should be to add to the mass, so as.
to form a foundation for future calculations.

January was on the whole a fine month, but we had some heavy
snow storms, and an extraordinary depth fell notably on the 6th,.
17-18th, 21-22d and 26th. I measured after the different falls
an aggregate of 40 1-4 inches, which is more than twice the
usual depth as I have noted it either here or in Windsor, in any
other January. ‘The steady cold preserved the snow, and the
sleighing, which was at least tolerable on every day in the
month, can only be equalled by 1866, when it was even better..
But 6 hours rain fell in January, viz., on the forenoon of the
22nd. The mean temperature 19°.10 was 3°.22 below the cor-
rected mean of the 5 years from 1863 inclusive, and it is worth
remarking that of these five, each succeeding Jauuary has been
colder than the one immediately preceding it. The range of
temperature was very limited and the maximum but 37°. The
minimum being 9°.3 below 0. N.W. wind, as usual prevailed,
but the mean force was excessive, rising twice to a gale, and
frequently blowing very strongly, generally with (or just aiter)
snow. Thé temperature fell below 0 four times; but the
month was more remarkable for continued than extreme cold.

February was very free from cloud, more so even than 1866,
which was clearer than ordinary. The latter part of the month
was particularly fine, and steadily cold after the 17th, which
brought down the mean temperature considerably, the weather
having been mild from Ist to that date. The mean 25°.11 varied
little from that of 1863-67 inclusive, which is 24°.24. Both the
maximum, 53°.1 and minimum 2°.4 were high, making the
range of temperature much as usual. <A great deal of rain fell
on 10 different days, while snow was very deficient; the total
being 3 1-2 inches. I notice that in 1866 there wasa like want
of snow in February. The prevailing wind, N.W., though
frequent in February is generally surpassed by S.W. The

ALLISON— METEOROLOGY. i7

force was extreme, never being equalled by any month that I ~
have recorded since May 1857, either here or in Windsor. A
beautiful display of Aurora Borealis on the night of the 8th was
followed on the 9th by a high S.W. wind, rising to a gale about
5 p-m., and continued till midnight of 10th, at times blowing
very heavily, darting from 8.W. to S. and back; finally settled
through W.to N.W., and broke on the morning of 11th, when
the temperature which had been high fell quickly to only
5°. Wehad 11 days sleighing, but mostly bad. The mercury
was below 0 on 2 days. A Lunar Halo on the 12th was followed
by mist, drizzle, and mild rain for the greater part of two days.

March 1867 was rather clearer than usual; but we had three
snow storms, besides considerable snow in other lighter falls,
reaching altogether the great depth of 27.41 inches. Rain was
very scarce. The maximum temperature, 50° 4 was low, and
the minimum high. The thermometer never marking below
6°, being a range of but 44°. However, though extraordinary
cold was absent, a steady low temperature reduced the mean of
the month to 26.94 which is over 1° below the mean of March
since 1863, and a figure seldom reached in this month. But one
day, the 27th, passed without frost. N.W. wind prevailed,
which is common in March, though scarcely more so than N. or
W. In this month the winds are very variable. The mean
force was again extreme; only being equalled by last year, but
though the winds were brisk and strong almost continually, they
never rese to gales. Gentle snow showers fell during a partial
eclipse of the moon on the night of 20th with alight W. breeze,
and during the day the wind passed slowly through N. to N.E.
There with some trifling variations, it remained till the night of
the 26th, the weather being dry during the whole period, when
rising very high from §8.E. we had on the 27th a warm rain,
followed by a long suecession of snow, and cold rain, in storms
and squalls, for many days. There was sleighing, generally
good, from 3rd to 21st, which was the last of the season.
Robins were seen near Windsor on the 23rd, but did not appear
generally in the open fields either there or here till the 5th of the
next month, or about the time that they are usually heard first.
Snow drops blossomed at Windsor on the 30th.

A)

7é ALLISON—ON METEOROLOGY.

April was a very wet month—much rain falling on many
days, interspersed with snow storms, which latter reached a
depth of 9 1-2 inches, being much more than usual. The
temperature did not exceed 61°.2, which is alow maximum, and
the minimum 17°, was extremely low, especially when we
remark that it occurred as late as the 14th. The mean temper-
ature, 37°.63, was nearly 3° below 1866, and 6 lower than
1863—7 inclusive. The customary N. wind prevailed, and the
force continued very great, rising to a gale on the 19th, driving

into drifts some four inches of snow which had fallen during the

previous afternoon and night. The weather for some days
before this had been very stormy ; a southerly raiu-storm setting
in on the 16th and continuing with scarcely any intermission

tilt the change to snow just mentioned, the wind backmg

through E. to N. Pansies blossomed in Windsor on the 5th;
and the crocus in Cornwallis on the 11th, and Windsor on the
15th, and smelt were caught in the Avon on the same day.

On the Saturday before Easter, the 20th, I picked full blown

mayflowers in the Tower woods, and on the same day they were
picked near Windsor, some 10 or 12 days later than usual.
Frogs were heard at Spa Spring, Windsor, on 21st, and 23rd
near Halifax. Dent de Leon in full leaf 26th. Thunder and
lightning were noted about midnight between the two warmest
days of the month, the 22nd and 23rd.

May was a very cloudy month, and well sustained its reputa-
tion for moisture; 20 of its days being marked as wet. No
snow fell, however; the last of the season coming here mingled
with rain on the night of 28th April. The thermometer ranged
over 48°—from 71° 2 to 23. The maximum was unusually low,
and I have no record of so low a figure as was attained on the
morning of the 5th, 23°. The mean temperature 47°.86 was 31
above the five years, 1863-67; S. E. winds prevailed, which
though often blowing at this time of year, are generally out-
numbered by north winds. The mean force was still very great,
but no gales; nothing beyond the very high wind which accom-
panied the rain-fall on the last day of the month. Daffodils
blossomed on the 3rd, and asparagus was fit to cut on the 17th.
On tho 28th the narcissus was in flower, and the cherry was no»

-&

ALLISON—-ON METEOROLOGY. 73

in full bloom till the same day, one week later than in 1866,
and two weeks later than in 1865. Pear blossoms were not so
much behindhand, being well opened on the 30th—9 days later
than tn 1865, but one day earlier than on the same tree in 1866.
Though, as mentioned above, no snow fell in Halifax during this
May, there

Le
he hi!

were squalls over the higher lands in the interior,
t s were whitened and remained so during the 19th
and 20th in various parts of the Province.

The month of June, generally one of the most dry in the
year, was in 1867 by no means so. Nain fell, and frequently
heavily, on 16 days; but there was also much bright sun,
reducing the mean cloud to a small amount. The mean tem-
perature 58°.71 was lower than the usual mean for June in
Halifax. Taken by itself, the month was on the whole, a very

e
i]

favourable one for farmers, though in conjunction with preceding
and succeeding weather, the usual dryness of June would have
been more profitable. The maximum temperature was scarcely
77°, remarkably low; and on the 11th the last frost of the season
occurred, the mercury barely touching 32°. In 1866 there was
no frost in June, but the event is by no means uncommon.
South wind was most prevalent, exceeding slightly the usual
5S. W. The mean force was great, and we had some very high
winds, but no gales. Lilies of the valley blossomed in a favour-
able spot near Windsor on the Ist, and at Gorsebrook on the
5th. Apple blossoms were fally out in Windsor on the 5th,
and here on the 9th. The double cherry in Windsor on the 7th,
in Halifax Cemetery on the 12th. The horse chesnut also in
full bloom here on the 12th; having come out in Windsor on
the 8th. The lilac flowered in Windsor on 10th, Halifax 14th.
The Kamschatka rose in Windsor on 12th, honeysuckle 13th,
and Pon Pon rose 15th; on the latter day the first shad was
taken in the Avon. On 18th the hawthorn blossomed in Wind-
sor, 23rd in Halifax. On 22nd wild strawberries were plentiful
there; here not till 29th. In Windsor the yellow rose was in
full bloom on 23rd. You will notice that these flowers and
fruits were all four or five days earlier in the valley of the Avon
than on the shores of the Atlantic; and in so far as my statistics
yet denote, they were about six days late on the whole. The

ON METEOROLOOY.

80 ALLISON:

earlier blossoms being a greater distance behindhand, and the
later ones, as the month progressed, gradually gaining up to
their usual period, and in some instances fully reaching it. The
shad seldom vary more than a day or two, and in 1867 put inan
appearance in the Avon on their usual day, the 15th.

July. I have never recorded, nor have I heard any mention
of so wet a July as that of 1867. Rain fell on 22 days, cover-
ing in all over 143 hours, and from the 15th to 31st but one
entirely dry day occurred. The 4th, 13th and 26th were very
wet days; and the violent storm of 18th, 19th, 20th and 21st
was a rare event in midsummer; during these days the wind
shifted uneasily between S.K. and N.E., dwelling at times due
E., and on the 20th it rose occasionally with the force of a gale,
and the temperature became much diminished. The whole

month was rather cold. The mean temperature 61°.92,-—maxi-

mum 87°3 and minimum 46°, the latter a very low figure. W.

winds with still great force prevailed; though E. N. EH. and

S. E. were more common than usual. Three times at night was

thunder heard and lightning seen; never were either very near.

After a light shower on 16th, a beautifully defined double rain-

bow was seen 0; posite the setting sun. It was just one week

before we saw the sun again; the storm noticed above occupy-
ing great part of the intervening time. Green peas were picked
in Windsor on 2nd, and were in market here on 4th. The
moss rose blossomed there on 9th, and cherries were ripe on
12th. New potatoes of a good size were dug in Halifax on 14th.
The raspberry ripened in Windsor on 23rd, currants on 25th,
and dahlias bloomed on 26th. Bipe blueberries picked near
Halifax on 31st. These dates agree very closely with those of
1866, but average about 10 days behind 1865, which for most
fruits was an early season.

The season still continued very moist. Though August had
not quite so many wet days as the earlier summer months, I am
sure the quantity, could I have measured it, would have proved
largely in excess of the mean fall for the month. Two bright
terms and several detached dry days kept down the average of
cloud close to the usual amount. It was a hot month, 4°.56
above the mean of 5 years; and on the 10th the temperature

re

~

oe

ALLISON-—ON METEOROLOGY. $1

reached 83°, a rare height in Halitax. This was avery warm
day, the mean being 73°.54, and with the three preceding, form-
ed the hottest pertod of the summer. ‘The minimum, 47°.2,
occurred on the Ist, and the first and the last days of the month
were the coolest two days. High winds and strong breezes
were still frequent; and the terrific gale from S., trom about

midnight on 2nd to 7 on the morning of 3rd, blew with a force

fortunately not often known in this latitude; many large trees
were uprooted throughout the Province, and damage done to
buildings, fences, &c. We had had showery weather with brisk
5. E. breezes for two days previous, and on the afternoon of the
2nd the wind veered to S. with fog; during the evening backed
to S. E., and very thick. At 11 p.m. there was a high wind,
but the real gale rose very suddenly, chopping quick from 8. E.
to S., as far as I could judge, the greatest strength seemed to
be from 2 1-2 to 6a.m. Heavy showers fell about the latter
hour, and by 7 a.m. the force had abated, though a very high
S. wind lasted nearly all day, succeeded by another foggy night
and showery forenoon, with wind from S. W. at times very high.
On the evening of the 4th this thick and stormy weather at last
ceased, and a rainbow appeared, «a herald of warm dry weather,
which set in for several days. On 8th lightning was reflected
in the West. 7th the musk melon ripened; 9th gooseberries,
and 17ib biackberries. The Madeline pear was ripe in Windsor
on 19th, and on 22nd the ordinary harvest apple, also in
Windsor. Nectarine plums were picked on 23rd, and the
Maiz or Indian Corn in Windsor on 28th, and here I heard of it
on 29th.

September was not as wet a month as in 1866, but still more
so than usual: much rain falling especially during the last week.
Many bright days, however, made about an average amount of
cloud. ‘The maximum temperature, 81e.7, was reached twice ;
viz., on 6th and 9th. The minimum was 33°.6; but thrice was
there frost on the grass; the first of the season was on morning
of 12th. The mean temperature 57°.95, was within 3-10 of the
last September and 1-10 of Seplember 1865, and very close to
the mean of five Septembers. N. W. winds were prevalent with

a mean force below that of any other month in the year. The
11

82 ALLISON—-ON METEOROLOGY.

20th, 2ist and 22nd passed with fine dry weather with cool
nights; a little rain fell on the morning of 23rd, and that even-
ing a beautiful band of auroral light more plainly seen on the
24th, was followed by much stormy weather continuing into
October. The month ended with a violent rain fail, anda N.W.
gale that evening accompanied the wintry weather which then
we were entering upon. The ‘ Maria” pear was picked in
Windsor on 9th, and the ‘‘ Bon Cretien” 13th; ‘* Washington”
plums !2th, and green gages 18th. These fruits, as those of
August, were about eight or ten days later than usual, and two
to three weeks later than in 1865.

October as a whole was neither very clear nor cloudy, but its
division of wet. and dry days was very unequal. Out of 14 wet
days 9 occurred before the 14th of the month, and many of
them were very wet. Again from the 17th to the end of the
month but 5 wet days are found, and but one storm. The rain
mentioned on 30th September changed on Ist October to suew,
and: for four hours in the morning, and nearly as long in the
afternoon, the flakes came down briskly, well whitening the
grass and house tops. In many counties from 4 to 6 inches fell,
aceording to report. The mean temperature 45°.60, though
slightly in excess of 1866 or 1865, is scarcely equal to a five
years average which I calculate at 46°.32. The range was not
great, being from 68°.8 to 25°.9. The mean force of wind was
above the average. The prevailing direction N. W., not a very
common wind in October, W., N., or S. W. being generally
more prevalent. A notable rain storm on the 11th, 12th and
13th, was accompanied on the morning of the second day by a
S. H. gale. Rain fell at that time for 37 consecutive hours.
Water was first frozen on 4th, when pools were skimmed with
ice. Capiauman and Cycle Pears thoroughly ripe in Windsor on
that same day. In 1866 Capiaumans were picked ripe from the
same: tree on September 27th, and in 1865 on September 16th.
We had thunder and lightning on afternoon of 22d, but neither
loud nor vivid.

Dry weather in Movember was very rare; but once had we
two. consecutive days without some rain or snow ; and only seven.
in the whole month, As a consequence cloud was in excess of

ALLISON—-ON METEOROLOGY. 83

the mean. Rain storms occurred on the 4th, 11th, 16th, and
30th, and 5 1-4 inches of snow fell in this month. Since 1857
I have no record of so much snow in November, except in
Windsor in 1859, when 6 3-4 inches fell. On the 20th, 21st,
22nd and 23rd, there was tolerable sleighing in the city. In
the N. E. of this Province, and the central counties of Colchester
and Hants, there was good sieighing on the 15th, and it lasted
twelve and thirteen days. A very unusual occurrence. The
mean temperature, 360.60, was very low; and a great degree of
cold for the season, 13°, was reached on the 20th, while as early
as the 7th the thermometer marked before sunrise but 14°. 59°
was the maximum, giving the wide range of 46°. This, again,
was a windy month, and some damage was done by a strong
gale on the early morning of the 3rd, swinging from N. W. to
S. W., following four showery days, and preceding a rain storm
with high S. EH. and S. winds. Another gale rose as the storm
of 30th cleared, and blew fiercely from W. during the last hours
of the month. Many ponds in the neighbourhood of Halifax
bore well on the 8th, and good skating was general on 19th.
Once more were we disappointed here ia the great meteoric
shower, which was visible generally throughout America and
Hurope. For six days before the looked-for 14th fog and thick
cloud, rain and snew had obscured our skies, and, though a partial
clearing on the very afternoon excited some hopes, night closed
in dark and wet, and the opportunity was lost.

December generally the most cloudy month of the year, was
wanting in 1867 in that characteristic. Detached showers were
most common, and though parts of many days were bright, we
escaped without rain or snow but on 6. The snow fall was most
extraordinary, 27 1-4 inches, against an average of but little
over 10. On 23 days we had sleighing; but the snow came
generally in small amounts, the only fall of any consequence
being on 20th-Zist. The maximum temperature, 43°.4, was
very low, and in every year that I have recorded has risen
above that. The minimum, —7°.9, was lower than [ have ever
observed in Halifax; but in Windsor, on Christmas Eve, 1865,
the thermometer marked —8°, and on 21st in 1862, —7°.5. But
the most remarkable result of this month’s record is the exces-

84 ALLISON—ON METEOROLOGY.

sively low mean temperature, 18°.52—9°.36 below December
1866—nearly 5° below the mean of three years in Halifax, cor=
rected to 1867, and nearly 7° below this month’s mean from
1857 to date in Halifax and Windsor; in other words a defi-
ciency of heat within a small fraction of 28 per cent. N. W.
is far the most prevalent wind in December, but this year there
was more W. wind, and generally greater force than is usual.
But once, however, it rose to a gale—S. to S. W., with warm
rain. The Dartmouth Lakes bore well on the 5th. Tempera-
ture was at or below 0 on 5 days, viz.: 9th, 12th, 20th, 30th,
31st. I have no record of its being so more than 4 times in
any previous December, and the average tor eleven years is only
twice. I never knew the temperature below 0 earlier than the
12th till this December, when it fell to 2° below on the 9th.

Review of the Year 1567.

In bringing together the results of the observations, the chief
of which we have just run over in monthly notes, the following
phenomena stand out most prominently from the year’s collec-
tion. There was less cloud than usual, although the year was a
remarkably wet one throughout, with the exception or late sum-
mer and early autumn. Rain or snow fell on 222 days. but
many stoims occurring, and showers, often clearing rapid}y, left
room for the brightness already alluded to. iuch more snow
than usual fell. In January, March, November, and December
we had a great deal; and the woodman’s work, and ail traffic
on the roads was much facilitated by the long periods of good
sleighing. Though the summer was very wet, and the rains of
July damaged much hay, the comparative dryness of August,
September, and October saved the later crops, and much fruit
was gathered in good condition, and often in abundance.

The mean temperature of the year was 41°.98—hbeing .89 be-
low 1866, and .85 below the mean of the five years including
the one under consideration. August was the only month of
remarkable warmth; and February was decidedly above the
average, but the remaining months were mostly more or less
deficient in heat; and January, March. June, November, and

\)

ALLISON—-ON METEOROLOGY: 8&5

December extraordinarily so. The thermometer marked from
88° on the 10th of August, down to —9°.3 beiow 0 on 30th and
3ist January—a range of 97°.3. High winds were frequent
throughout the whole year; and, though for lack of an
anemometer, I am obliged to estimate the force by observation,
each month would probably show an excess if measured. The
notable gale of 3rd of August I have already fully mentioned
under that month’s record. Dividing the winds, as regards their
direction, into two grand divisions of westwardly and eastwardly
we find 232 of the former to 91 of the latter to be the most pre-
valent on so many days; or in other words, westward winds
exceeded eastward winds in the proportion of rather over 2 1-2
to 1, or 155 per cent.

There were 87 days sleighing in the year. Hoar frost formed
on 32 mornings.

The Aurora Borealis was visible on 32 nights. That of the
night of 8th February was a beautiful sight. The flickering
streams of lizht now horizontally waving, and now quickly
darting upwards, shooting forth as it were coloured tongues of
pinkish, greenish, and almost yellow hue; and on the Ath of
May, besides a faint display of pale auroral light to the north, a
bright band sprang glistening from aimost west to the zenith,
varying in breadth and distinctness during the evening. While
I will not pause here to consider the different theories as to the
cause of the phenomenon which we term Aurora Borealis ; none
of which, I presume, may be called conclusive; I may state that
in looking through eleven years of almost complete observa-
tions, either here or in Windsor, I have found this luminous
appearance to be followed in winter by falls of snow or rain
within twenty-four hours, three times out of four. In spring
and in autumn dry or wet weather follows in equal proportions.
In summer, out of thirty observations twenty-one gave dry
weather, frequently continuing some time, and nine gave wet—
rather more than two to one in favour of the former. The pro-
bability is that we should refer this phenomenon to no one cause,
but to a combination producing the conditions adapted to its
appearance. This would form of itself an interesting subject of
consideration. se an ee

&6 ALLISON-——ON METEOROLOGY.

1] times the temperature fell to 0 or below.

11 gales were noted.

A remarkable Lunar Halo on evening of 12th February, as
observed in the record of that month.

But twice did thunder storms occur.

On 42 days there was fog.

On 183 days we had frost. The jongest period that it was
absent was from lith June to 12th September; the earliest four
viz: 12th, 15th and 24th September, and 1st October, read from
ground thermometer. This harbour was open throughout the
whole year. I notice that in the proceedings of the Institute,

your late esteemed and eae: member Col. Myers, reviewing

metecrologically the year 1866, says, while noting as remarkable
the fact that the harbour froze over an a temperature of 7 be-
low 0 on 7th February, but did not do so on 7th January at 15
below 0, that “* it must be borne iu mind that a combination of
wo conditions of the weather is required, viz.: a perfect calm
with a certain low state of the ten yperature, without which the
harbour does not freeze; and to this may perhaps be attributed
the eee of what was witnessed last winter.” Now, no
doubt this is true, and partially accounts for the event; but we
must also ene: ‘, that up to a certain point, before the sun
has again attained any great height, the water itself is giving off
its own heat, and later in the winter there is not the same resis-

‘tance In it to be overcome, that there is at an earlier date when

the effects of the heat of the past summer are comparatively
recent; and therefore from this cause alone, celeris paribus, a
a large body of water in motion would freeze at a higher
temperature of the atmosphere in February than in December ;
ij. e., it would then be more readily assimilated to that atmos-
phere in its own temperature. The same holds good with the
land; and is indeed the chief reason why we do not, as a matter
of course, experience our greatest heat when the sun’s rays are
most nearly vertical, in June: and the contrary in December ;
whereas we all know that our maximum of heat is most likely
to occur full a month after the longest day, and our minimum as
much after the day when the sun is lowest; so that the sun’s
rays and the earth’s surface acting together upou the atmosphere,

a

AMBROSE—ON FISHES OF sT. MARGARET'S BAY. 87

join to produce the warmest period at a scason when, by the
orders of an all-wise Creator, doubtless it is the most useful ;
nd as well to bring the greatest cold when its benefits also may

Oo

be most suitably bestowed. A marked and most interesting

instance of the efect of this reception and discharging of pene
both by land and water, may be observed in Cuba, ‘and other
trepical Islands. For months together the phenomena of sea

Cc

and land breezes oecur daily and nizhtiv. Between about 8 and

iy
dg

10 a.m. may ae noticed a dead caim; gradually (the water

being less heated than the land) as the power of the sun’s rays
increases, a breeze, at first gentle, and by noon strong, biews in

from seaward, and continues till late in the afternoon, faliing
towards sunset, and dying away completely by 6 or 7 im the
evening ; a short lull occurs, but soon puffs of wind off the shore
are felt, and night has scarce fallen ere a steady land breeze is

blowing, ceasing as the sun again rises, to the c ‘alm first men-

J ENC ry nics eR iA ee =
tioned, to be followed as before, tiil causes outside of these dis-
FOP ey oy : ape ete = (a a Seer es Cie aerate ee
turb the rotation ; as nappeus more an itly fecim midsummer

vt
tili the end of autumn. We know then that both land and water
ain amount of heat to i. overcome, and kere we see
7 = Beerreay ZL 4h 1 Me Pia acho a i
the land more sensible to the changes of the atmosphere than
7

the water, and the draft of air setting always from the cooler to
I

the warmer ; 2 us on to a cousideration of the laws which
the currents of our atmosphere follow, but which I will not at-
tempt to enter upon at this time.

Art. X. On THE Fisnes oF St. Marcarer’s Bay. By
Rev. JOHN AMBROSE.

THe TursBot.

THE mere announcement of the name of this fish will cause
the English Apicius to prick up his ears. Long has it been cast
in our teeth that our extensive list of food fishes is sadly incom-
plete, seeing that it includes neither the turbot.nor sole. In
vain do we endeavour to draw off attention from this want, by.
pointing to our luscious halibut, which could not have been cone

$5 AMRROSE-—ON FISHES OF ST. MARGARET'S BAY.

tained even by the large pot specially recommended by the
courtier Montanus, to the Emperor Domitian, for the aceommo-
dation of his extra-sized turbot. And, alas! for us, we have not
the art possessed by certain cooks of ancient times, who could
make a turbot or an ortolan out of hog’s flesh. In our earnest
desire to satisfy our British visitors, we may sigh in vain for the
wonderful skill of the cook of Nicomedes, king of Bithynia,
who when his master longed for a John Dory when he was at a
distance of three hundred miles from the sea, supplied him with
a fresh one within the hour. But. after all, better perhaps than
the lost art of counterfeiting turbot, is finding the Nova Scotian
namesake of the real Simon Pure in our own waters. There isa
fish of this name, rather plentiful! in the deep muddy ravines—
the home of the hake—off the mouth of our Bay. This fish is
considerably larger than the flounder, and readily takes the bait
thrown for.cod, when the latter fish is not at hand to drive away
his mud-loving neighbour,—and a sure sign of the scarcity of
cod at any particuler spot, is one of these turbot on the fisher-
man’s hook.

Our turbot. when full-sized, are about two feet in length.
They are always caught in deep water, say from 30 to 60

fathoms.
THe Frounper, (Platena plana,)

Abounds on our coast, and a very nice pan fish he is. He
-spends the winter in moderately decp watcr, protected from the
frost, and finding abundance ©! food in the muddy bottom.
But when the sun’s power begi:s to be felt in the spring, the
flounder—with almost all the rest of our common shore-fish—
comes into shallower water, for light and heat are both required
for his summer-life and its occupations. No fear has he of the
cruel spear which first stirs up the mud to attract his attention,
and excite his hopes of a tit-bit, and the next instant transfixes
and brings him helplessly flapping to the hand of the boy-fisher-
man, whose basket is soon filled for the clamorous swine. It is
hard to say who may be the enemies of the flounder during
winter, but one—the loon ( Colymbus glacialis) is at that season
frequently shot with flounders in his crop.

AMBROSE—ON FISHES OF ST. MARGARET’S BAY. 89

On first approaching the shore in spring these fishes are full
of spawn, but they begin to deposit it in April. By the end of
June the work of spawning is accomplished. Their food during
winter—judging by the contents of the stomachs of such as are
brought up from the mud on eel-spears—consists of eel-grass
and fine silt. Towards spring, as they become more active, they
burrow for sea-worms. But when once in shore they are ready
for the offal of the fish-stages, and assist in disposing of much
waste matter.

Tue EEL.

As is well known, spends the winterin the mud. At first, on
the approach of cold weather, they burrow pretty deeply, and
live on suction from the surrounding mud. Towards spring,
they feel the relaxing temperature, and perhaps becoming hun-
gry after their long fast, work up a little towards the looser
mud, and pick the succulent roots of the eel-grass. They
leave the mud altogether, about the first of May, and ap-
proach the light and heat of the shore. Their favourite
haunts in winter are the coves into which the fresh water
of some river or brock mingles with and renders slightly
brackish the waters of the sea. In such places, probably, the ©
silt of the bottom is charged with a larger quantity of animal
matter, besides being the proper habztat of the eel-grass.

Kels of the same species differ much in their habits. They
go up the rivers and brooks in the spring, and return to the salt
water, for warmth, probably, in autumn. But many remain in
fresh water all winter, burrowing in the muddy bottoms of the
lakes. In Hosier’s river, near my residence, in March last, two
men speared in one day fifty dozen large eels. These were not
found to be so palatable as the eels taken in salt water at the
same season. Altogether, from the same place in the river,
some eighteen hundred eels were taken, so soon as the un-
looked-for discovery of this new spot became known.

In the semi-annual migrations, many eels are taken in weirs,
in our streams. ‘This is considered rather destructive ; but one

has but little pity for a fish that devours so many of our young

salmon.
12

50 AMRROSE—ON FISHES OF ST. MARGARET’S BAY.

Our shore-people have none of that squeamishness which ex~
cludes eels from the tables of our inland population. When
once the ice has become sufficiently strong to carry a man over
the eel-beds, not a fine day in winter passes without seeing a
party of eel-spearers at almost every muddy-bettomed cove
around the Bay. ‘There, standing on two or three spruce boughs
to keep his feet off the ice, bat often regardless of coid feet,
stands the patient and laborious fis henna darting with both
hands his spear, by its long slender handle, into the mud below.
Ten or fifteen dozen cals in a day are considered good catch,
though if one does not happen to strike a good spot a man may
not catch more than two or three, as eels are gregarious, even
in their winter quarters. Many years ago eels were much more
plentiful in the in-shore mud-banks than now,—for of late years
their haunts are so torn up by the spears, that the eel-grass is

not nearly so abundant as formerly.

Eels are much more delicate in winter than ip summer, wien
they live on garbage and become very fat. In the warm days
of. July and August, they thoroughly enjoy themselves, basking
in the sun, as they lie on the bent tops of the floating eel-grass,
at half tide or low water. They also hang perpendicularly,
mostly with the tail, but occasionally with the head down-
wards. Then the keen-eyed fisherman, from his boat,
detects his prey, invisible to the uninitiated, and secures
the writhing victim between the tenacious jaws of his wooden
spear. A great many also arc caught in eel-pots of wicker-
work, into which they enter, like rats into the funnel of
a cage-trap, and—once in—cannot get out. These pots are
baited with squid, when they can be had—as this is the favourite
food of the eel,—but more frequently a crushed lobster is placed
within as the attrait. The pot is then sunk by attaching a rock
to it, and, after a reasonable time, is hauled up, often well-filled
with the squirming prey. |

Bobbing for eels is seldom practised here. One summer's
afternoon, when a boy, I caught a large number of fine fat eels

in the flood tide of the coffee-coloured Shubenac: adie, near Mait-.

land, by the very simple plan of wading into the river to my
knees, holding the bait on the muddy bottom with one hand,

AMBROSE—-ON FISHES OF ST. MARGARET'S BAY. 9]

and allowing the eels as they came, to pass their heads between
the thumb and fingers of the other, thus grasping and throwing’
them ashore as fast as they came to hand. It is a little surpris-
ing that, even if the people living on the banks of the Shuben-
aicadie cannot bring themselves te enjoy the luxury of eating
these excellent fh. they do not take the trouble to catch and
seli them to others less fastidious than themselves, and more able
toe appreciate the good gifts of a bountiful Providence.

Eels do not always couiine themselves to the rivers, bays, or
inlets, but are sometimes found outside of the shore range in the
Atlantic itself. Mr. Charles Richardson, of Indian Harbour, as
well as several others, testify to having caught them tangled in
their herring or mackerel nets, two or three at a time, at a dis-
tance of two miles from the coast line. Perhaps, as the in-shore
beds become too much disturbed by the spears, and denuded of
grass roots, eels—with the sure instinct of self-preservation—
venture out to the oozy and worm-charged gulches of the ocean,
where no spear but the trident of Britannia can bear rule.

Our fishermen greatly wonder at the secrecy of re-production
among these fish. They say that although they catch them at
all seasons of the year, they never by any chance find either
spawn or young eels in them. But, after all, there is a season
immediately after the breaking up of the ice, and also on the
point of its first formation, and before it is strong enough to
carry, when eels are not caught here. ;

I have remarked that many eels go up the river in spring,
and return to the sea in autumn. This 3 is easily proved at Mill
Cove, on the western side of this Bay, where a high mound or
dam of round beach-stones crosses the outlet of a lake at high
water mark. Here at the seasons mentioned, these fish may be
‘seen in large numbers all travelling in one direction among the
wet stones from the sea to the lake, and vice versa. Large
numbers are then taken by. hand.

Our fishermen have a high opinion of the ‘efficacy of eel-oil .
in removing the ill-effects of a sprain. For this reason they bind
the skin of an eel around the injured limb. A small quantity of
eel-oil dropped into the ear, is also one of their specifics for
a recent deafness.

92 AMBROSE—ON FISHES OF ST. MARGARET'S BAY.

EKel,—Conger, leaves the deep water and comes about the
stages and along the shores in April. They are neither su
numerous nor so highly prized as the common sort. ‘They bur-
row in the mud, in winter, like the others.

There is a sort of eel of very large size and great fatness—
not short, like the conger, but proportioned like the common
eel, which is found in a small iake on Gravelly Island, near
Aspotogan, at the western side of the mouth of this Bay. These
giants are occasionally to be seen |)ing in shallow water. At
first sight they are often mistaken for large pieces of sunken
wood, so still do they lie, but at the first touch off they dart into
the dark depths of the lake.

Mr. Richard Daubin, of Peggy’s Cove, some years ago was
with a party of seven others, whe were fortunate enough to see
two of these large eels in Gravelly Island lake. The method of
capture adopted was to fasten a strong codtish hook te a pole,
and having cautiously brought their boat as near the eel as pos-
sible, to let down the pole gently and gaff him. ‘This they did
first to one the thickness of a man’s thigh, but in a moment he
broke the hook and was out of sight. However, having re-
adjusted the gear, they were lucky enough to gaff an. ther about
the thickness of a man’s arm, and after a hard tussle to get him
into the boat. Part of his fat and strong carcass furnished all
who chose to partake with a bountiful repast, leaving the re-
mainder for another meal.

The Rock-eel is about 9 inches long, and is frequently seen
along our shores. Its name is derived from its habit of keeping
on rocky bottom—at least during summer. In winter it moves
off into deeper water, but not so far as most of the others.
Shell-drakes are often shot whilst fishing not far from shore, in
early spring, with rock-eels in their crops. The rock-eel does
not seem to burrow in the mud, like the common eel, or the
conger, as it is never taken with the spear.

Some twelve years ago, when mackerel were very abundant
along our shores, and large quantities of them were caught at
Pegey’s Cove, the water of the Cove became very offensive from
the immense quantity of garbage which was thrown off the
stages. All the rock-eels in the Cove died, and over the whole

AMBROSH

surface of the nearly putrid water, these, as well as sculpins,..
flounders and cunners or perch, were continually rising here and.
there in a dying state. Flounders would run ashore on the flat»
rocks, half way out of water, and there remain to die. The clear

sea water was but a short distance from the mouth of the little
cove; but it would seem that these fish, like the drunkard, were
not aware that they were being destroyed until it was too late to
escape. The young pollack made their exit from the lethean
pool in time, and not one of these prudent and self-denying
young fellows was found among the dead. The Teredo Navalis,
busily at work destroying the fisherman’s stages, as usual, at last
met his match. The poisonous water arrested his mischief,
and soon closed his labours forever.

The water at that time must have been in a terrible state,
seeing that any boat newly painted white, if brought into the
Cove but for one night, would in the morning be found black
below the water line, aud lead-coloured above it, and no scrub-
bing could remove the stain, or restore the original colour.

I may here observe that the Teredo Navalis requires pure
sea-water for its existence. Vessels or boats, moored in the
mouths of rivers or large brooks, do not suffer from its ravages
in this Province.

THe Perce, Cunner on Rock-FIsuH.

This fish, having spent the winter a little off shore, comes in_
about the first of May. It spawns in August. It is most use-

ful in clearing the coves of garbage, but although what might be
called a coarse feeder, it has a particular weakness for the eyes
of fresh herring. When a herring-net is moored with one end
close to shore, in summer, aimost all the herring meshed in the
in-shore end, if left any considerable time in the net, are found
to have had their eyes extracted by the perch.

Though, as | have just observed, perch are famous scaven-
gers, the super-abundant offal twelve years ago in Peggy’s Cove
was too much for them. Many died, but of all the small fish
m the Cove, they were the last affected. -

Some perch always remain in the deep water outside
feeding on the cod-grounds, in from thirty to sixty fathoms

ON FISHES OF ST. MARGARET'S BAY. 93

94 HAMILTON——-ON SUBMERGED FOREST.

of water. Many of these are of a red colour, and of a much
larger size than their in-shore brethren.

I have enumerated perch among the edible fishes, because
though used only as food for swine at St. Margaret’s Bay, they
are eaten in many other places, and are said to be very palatable
when. skinned and properly fried.

Some years ago in Portland, U. 3., I saw a large pic-nie
party: leaving the wharf ina small steamer with music and flyin
‘colours, for an excursion: down the Bay. The party, I found by
an account of their excursion, afterwards oablishell was no
other than: the ‘* Ancient: and Honourable Fraternity of Cun-

mers,” and one source of amusement for the day was anglas

for and eating their finny namesakes. Happy days were these,
,» before. the: terrible seourge of civil war fell upon that wonder-
fully prosperous country. Weil would it have been for that
people if innocent. amusements had served as a sufficient outlet
for their excitable temperament, and brotherly love had proved

too strong for ambition and political animosity. Weli will itbe’

for: us if we be warned | oy their example, and the sight of the
wreck prove stronger than the voice of the syren. ‘“* Nam tua
resaguur paries cumproximus ardet.”

Art. XI. On Susmercep Forrest Trees In. CUMBERLAND
Basin:. By, P. S.. Haminton.

Near the margins of the head waters of the Bay of Fundy
are found, in several places, certain accumulations which geolo-

gists have distinguished by the name of ‘‘ submerged forests.”
One of the. most extensive and most plainly visible of these is to

be found near the head-of Cumberland Basin, ancl has been care-
fully examined and geographically described by Prof. Dawson

in,his «* Acadian Geology,” page.32; but: similar appearances

‘

maybe. seen, elsewhere onthe shores of Chiegnecto Bay, and:

also of Cobequid Bay and of.‘some ‘estuaries of streams empty-
ing-into. Minas. Basin.. At the several: places referred to, on the

extensive slope of: the flats betweenihigh»water and low water”

HAMILTON—ON SUBMERGED FOREST. G%.

mark, there are found imbedded in the marine alluviam portions
of trunks and also stumps of trees, the latter often remaining m
their original position and resting upon the remains of upland
soil, upon which they are supposed to have originally grown.

Great importance has been attached to these remains: as
evidences of a subsidence of the land generally in that section of

the country where they are found. Dr. Dawson, with appar-
ently no hesitation, utters the cpinion that there has been a
change of sea level here, the cause of which he says must be
assigned to ‘* either the rupture of « barrier previously excluding
the sea water, or an actual sinking or subsidence of the whole
western part of the Province.” He believes that “a subsidence
has taken place over a considerable area, and to a. depth of about
forty feet;” and this subsidence he supposes to have been
gradual. Entertaining, as I most certainly do, a profound
respect for so eminent an authority, I must nevertheless take
the liberty of at least questioning this conclusion, and-of ex-
pressing the opinion that too much importance has been attached
to the appearance of these submerged tree. stumps. I shall
briefly give my reasons for doing so in this. paper.

I am not aware that any evidences of a subsidence of the
land in the Western, or Northern. part.of Nova, Seotia;.have been
discovered, except these appearances at Cumberland Basin, and
a few other similar localities. If these appearances ean. be
sufficiently accounted for through other causes of a: distinctly
local character—causes which we may now see: in. daily oper-
ation, we may reasonably conclude: that. the subsidence. is:not
proven. The action of the tides about the heads-of: the Bay of
of Fundy may easily be imagined. even. by those who have:never
witnessed them. Wherever. a-vertical surface; whether oft roex
or earth, is presented: to the tidal current. the: bank, so:exposed
is rapidly worn away by the great. force-of the-current: The
matter thus swallowed up. by. the water and. held: in:suspension
by it for a time, is eventually deposited upon the flats, or-gentle
slopes, over which the tides flow.. It sometimes happens that
the alluyial deposits thus made again undergo: the same pro=
cess. If we examine any of the. channels. intersecting: the:
marshes formed by the Bay of Fundy: tides, we-shall find that,

96 HAMILTON—-ON SUBMERGED FOREST.

throughout a large proportion of their length, there is a gradual,
change going on in the /ocus of the channel itself. On one side
of it we-shall usually find an abrupt bank of alluvial soil; on the
other, a broad expanse of recently deposited mud, sloping
gradually from high-water down to low-water mark. This bank
is being constantly sapped, and its component materials carried
away by the tide which, on the other hand, is as constantly
depositing a corresponding quantity on the opposite slope.
Thus, where artificial means are not taken to prevent it, the
older marsh land is being daily engulphed whilst new marsh is
being made; but, as of course, the upland banks and sandstone
cliffs bordering the Bay and its estuaries are constantly being
subjected to this same sapping process, the whole area of marine
alluvial deposits is steadily and rapidly enlarging. As might
be supposed from the great abrading force of the tides of the Bay
of Fundy, combined with the effect of winter frosts in this
climate, the work of disintegration and removal goes on rapidly
among even the firmest materials which go to form the shores of
the head waters of the Bay: these are the new red sandstone
of Colchester, Hants, and Kings, and the soft carbuniferous
sandstones and sliales of Cumberland Counties. Still more
rapidly does this process go on where the shore happens to con-
sist of a deep. gravelly upland soil. To the existence of such
soils at several localities on the margin of the channels of the
Bay and to their rapid washing away by the tides may, I think,
be attributed the appearances at Cumberland basin and, else-
where, which are supposed to be the remains of extensive sub-
merged forests.

We find all the broader expanses of marine alluvium, or
marsh land, about both arms of the Bay of Fundy, dotted with
isolated patches of upland. These are called islands, even where
they are not bathed by the water on any side; because of their
island-like appearance as they uprear themselves above the sea-
like level of the marsh. Some of these on the shores of Cobe-
quid Bay and Minas Basin show, where sections of them have
been made by the action of the tides, beds of new red sandstone
covered with a deep layer of soil; but, for the most part, both
there and elsewhere, after going beneath the surface soil, we

pity:

HAMILTON

ON SUBMERGED FOREST. 97

find them to consist merely of beds of gravel. Where not de-
nuded of their growing timber, its prevalent varieties, especially
where the gravelly sub-soil is found, are usually pine, oak, and
birch, and often differ from those of the neighbouring main
upland. | These so-called islands vary in area from a few roods
up to several hundreds of acres ; and in elevation from 10 or 15,
up to 60 feet above the level of the surrounding alluvium.
They abound in the marshes of Truro and Onslow. Long
Island and Boot Island, on the seaward margin of the Grand
Pre are notable examples of them; and others are to be seen of
smaller dimensions in the marshes skirting the rivers of King’s
County. We find numbers of them again in the broad alluvial
plains of Cumberland and Westmoreland. In the midst of the
great Tintamarr there is one which comprises several farm stead-
ings; and there is another of comparatively large area near the
mouth of the Missiquash, and but a short distance from the site
of the submerged stumps described by Dr. Dawson. It is no
part of my present purpose to discuss the question of how these
islands were formed. I think, however, that the supposed sub-
sidence of the western coast of Nova Scotia may be accounted
for by the disappearance of one of them in the vicinity of Fort
Lawrence ridge in Cumberland County.

I have already referred to the abrading force of the tides upon
the banks of their containing channels. The rapidity with which
the tidal current saps and removes the material forming those
banks is very remarkable. Cobequid Bay forms in part the
boundary between the townships of Truro and Onslow. Far-
mers now mow grass and make hay in Onslow on the identical -
spot where, within the memory of many persons still living, the -
same processes were carried on in Truro, the Bay having chan-
ged its bed to the extent of its whole width within so brief a
period. This is unmistakeably proved at one particular spot by-
the fact that the remains of a breakwater formerly built in Truro
have gradually become ‘‘ annexed” to Onslow. It is possible
that in other localities the tides have made equally great en-
croachments on the Onslow shore. Such being the case, where
the shore of the Bay consists of a compact, clayey alluvium, it
may easily be conceived that the abrading effect of the tide cer-

13

98 HAMILTON—-ON SUBMERGED FOREST.

tainly could nut be much less where the enclosing banks consisé
of a loose upland soil resting upon beds of gravel. If a proof of
this’ were required, it might be found at Savage’s Island, in
Truro. This is one of those many isolated patches of upland
already referred to, which lies upon the immediate southern
margin of Cobequid Bay. Inthe old times of the French domin-

ion in Acadia, the nortih-eastern and most elevated part of this

island was consecrated and used as a burial-ground; and it is
still so used by the Micnaac Indians in that part of the Province.
We may reasonably suppose that the old Acadian French would
not bury their dead very near the brow of what must have been,
even then, a steep, but no doubt wooded bank, exposed to the

destructive action of the tides. At all events, that destructive

action has been so great that so long ago as five-and-twenty

years since, or more, many of the graves on Savage’s Island had

been opened at the bottom, and human bones were occasionally

to be seen strewn down the steep bank where the undermining
tide had produced land-slides.

Now, let us suppose that, some centuries since, there existed
one of these gravelly and then wooded mounds, similar to others
now to be seen in that vicinity, on the margin of the Cumberland
Bason, at the most western extremity of the marsh which ex-
tends from the mouth of the Missiquash to the mouth of the La
Planche. A glance at the map will show that on no other part
of the shores of Chiegnecto Bay is the tidal current likely to
strike with greater force than on this very spet. What would
take place? The tide would gradually undermine the upland
bank opposed to it. All the finer particles of earth would be
carried away by the water. The coarser and more ponderous
pebbles and boulders, if any, would sink to a lower level. Mean-
while the surface soil, being above the immediate action of the
water, would still remain like a closely woven mat, held together
by the intertwined roots of growing trees and the rootlets of
grasses and other vegetable productions. Eventually this un-
dermined and mat-like surface would slide, or drop, into the
water in large flakes. The submerged turf would almost imme-
diately collect a coating of mud from the overflowing tide ; whilst
the trunks of the still standing trees would be broken or ground |

Cc
AAMILTON—ON SUBMERGED FOREST. 99

off, by the action of floating ice, the stumps and roots remaining
embedded in the bottom of the Bason. This process, which may
be witnessed on a small scale on the banks of any stream, would
be continued until the whole hillock or island disappeared.

I believe that, in fact, this is what has taken place at the spot,,
off Fort Lawrence ridge, so particularly described by Dr. Daw-
son. This is only a conjecture, it is true: but it is one which
seems to be favored by more facts than that other conjecture that
there has been a recent subsidence of the whole western or north-
ern coast of Nova Scotia. There are no evidences in confirma-
tion of the latter view—at least none that I am aware of—except
the appearance of these submerged tree-stumps and turf in Cum-
berland Bason, and in some other spots about the Bay of Fundy,
where their presence can be still more easily accounted for upon —
the former hypothesis. ‘These vegetable remains cannot be of
very great age. We have continuous records of the history of
Nova Scotia for over two hundred years. We may fairly assume
that these forest fragments became submerged within that
period. Had there been, within that period, any sudden subsi-
dence of a large tract of country to the depth of forty feet, it
would almost unquestionably have been attended with some very
striking phenomena, which the inhabitants of the country could
not have failed to observe, and of which they would have handed
down to us some written testimony. Had there been, within
that period, any subsidence, either sudden or gradual, to such
an extent, we should surely find upon the coasts of the country
numerous evidences of it which could not be explained away
upon any other hypothesis than that of there having been such a
subsidence. We have no such additional evidences. I there-
fore think that, for the present, we are justified in concluding
that there has been no such subsidence, and that the instances
of the submergence of forest trees, herein referred to, are local]
and exceptional, and are attributable simply to the action of the
tidal currents in the Bay of Fundy. |

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APPENDIX. 101

ON HYLA SQUIRELLA A BATRACHIAN,—NEW TO THE PROVINCE.
(See Proceedings, Page 2. )

In my paper on the Reptilia of Nova Scotia, read before the Institute in May, 1865,
the only species of tree frogs then known to be inhabitants of the Province were pub-
lished as Ayla versicolor and Hylodes Pickeringii. Through the assiduity of Mr. Arthur
Silver, I am now enabled to add another species to the list, viz.: the Squirrel tree Frog,
or Little Peeping Hyla (Ayla squirella). ‘

It appears tat this little frog is very widely distributed over the North American con-
tinent. It has been traced as far north as the State of Massachusetts. Storer included
it in his report upon the zoology of the State. He, however, appears never to have seen
one in a living state, and only made his remarks upon a dried specimen whieh had. been
taken at Roxbury. We should therefore consider ourse!ves fortunate in being able to add
to our number a form which would appear to be rare in the northern portion of the Uni-
ted States. It is common inthe Southern States; but Dr. Holbrook, who published some
years ago an elaborate work upon North American Herpetology, considered the north-
ern form to bea distinct species from that of the south. Dr. Gunther, the compiler of
the catalogue of Salient Batrachians in the collection of the British Museum, who is con-
sidered our most able herpetologist, places the New York and Georgian animals together.
We must therefore conclude that, if any difference exists between them, it is too slight to
allow of a separation to be made. The northern squirella, however, is somewhat smalier
in size than the southern. Le Conte states that it is generally found under logs and
bark of decaying trees, but in the case of our Nova Scotian specimen it differed in habit,
being found resting on a leaf. Le Conte, however, most probably procured specimens in
autumn, when the tree frogs were taking to winter quarters, and this may account for
his flnding his specimens under logs and bark of trees,—positions which would never be
resorted to by arboreal species possessing fingers and toes terminating in rounded viscous
pellets especially suited to a life among foliage.

The tree frogs reside habitually among the foliage of trees, among which they hop and
leap almost with the agility of the birds that tenant the groves conjointly with them. —
They are able to cling to the leaves on which they alight with exact precision, and to
walk on them in all positions, and even on their under surfaces without falling off,—just
as a fly alights on the ceiling of aroom, and rests or crawls there. Each finger and toe,
forso we will name the digits of the fore and hind feet, is dilatea at the tip with a circu-
lar pallette or pad, varying in size in different genera ; these little cushions are, it is true,
moistened with a glutinous fluid, as is the whole surface of the body; but this gluten has
been proved not to be the only means by which the frog is enabled to cling to perpendi-
cular or other singular positions ; but that the pallettes act as suckers, being sustained
in their position by the pressure of the atmosphere, a vacuum being produced beneath
them, or removed at the will of the animal.

The tree frogs differ not only in size aud general appearance from the frogs proper,
but also in the formation of their cuticle. The skin of the under surface, instead of being
smooth as in our common fgreen frog for instance, is covered with granular glands,
pierced by numerous pores, through which the dew or rain spread on the surface of the
leaves is rapidly absorbed into the system, and reserved to supply the moisture needfu!
for cutaneous respiration. In connection with this system of respiration some curious
facts have been brought to light by experiments with tree frogs kept in confinement. A
tree frog, taken from its cage and placed upon a byard sprinkled with water, has been.
seen to apply its body as close as possible to the moist parts, and from this absorption,
though in an emaciated state before, has become plump. A frog that had not been al-
lowed to enter water during the night was weighed and then immersed. After it had

102 APPENDIX.

remained half an hour in the bowl it came out, and was found to have absorbed nearly
half its owa weight in water.

The geographical distribution of tree frogs over the globe gives to America the majo-
rity of species known to exist, for of 64 species described, no less than 37 are found on
our continent,—and, of the remainder, one is found in Southern Europe ; five are pecu-
liar:o Africa ; eight to Asia, and ten to Australia and the Indian Archipelago.

The Hylodidx, of which our Pickerings Hylodes is a member, are peculiar to the Ame-
rican continent and West Indian islands, and of this family eight species are known to
science. Imay remark that the Hylodes differs from the Hyla in having the fingers free
while the latter has them more or less webbed generally, though not always. The toes
in the Hylodes are free, while in the Hyla they are, with the exception of one species,
broadly webbed. In the Hylodes also the disks are small, while in the Hyla they are
very conspicuous.

J. M. Jongs.

CRUDE NOTES ON STORMS, AND HOW TO NOTE THEM.
-By J. L. Hurpis, Cor. Member of the Institute.

if the eqit#tor be considered a region of heat and moisture, and the poles of the
earth regions of atmospheric condensation, precipitation, and frost, the 90° which sepa-
rate these partsof the ¢arth must necessarily be subject to various conditions of tempera-
ture, arising not only from change of seasons, but, in particu ar, fro mthe the direction
of the wind; for, as all winds from equatorial regions are warm winds, rarified by heat,
and charged with evaporation, so all winds proceeding from either of the poles, will be
cold winds; comparatively devoid of heat and moisture. Consequently, a Barometer,
placed in any intermediate latitude, will rise when the condensed and heavier atmosphere

-of the polar regions approaches i’, and vice versa, fall, when in contact wi h rhe rarified,

moist, and lighter atmosphere from the regions of the equator.

Thus do the:extremes of heat and cold govern the atmospheric circulation of the
globe—the superabundant heat and moistuze of the equator flowing towards the poles,
and the dry, condensed atmosphere of the frozen regions overflowing towards the
equator.

If we examine the lettering of the Barometer prepared under the instructions of the
late Admiral Fitzroy for the use of our sea-going populatin, and which we may presume
to’represent his personal ‘experience on this point, so far as the northern hemisphere is

concerned, we find all the indications for a rise to be northerly, or what may be termed

polar,—while on the opposite side the indications of a fal/ are entirely of a southern or
tropical character, and accord precisely with the principles I have now endeavored to
lay down. The lettering below this, extending to the bottom of the scale, is exceptional,
purely ‘cyclonic in character, and therefore not applicable to the ordinary currents of at-
mosphere which prevail in every quarter of the globe.

We are’still imperfectly acquainted with the nature of the cyclone or revolving
storm. That thesé storms are generated by heat, within certain parallels of latitude,
extending around the ‘entire globe; appears to be well authenticated. Inthe northern
hemisphere this region may be said to extend from the 10th to the 20th degrees of lati-
tadé, and is separated from a similar zone in the southern hemisphere by the great equa-
torial belt of calms and constant rain.

«>

1

APPENDIX. | 103

Cyclones, in the northern hemisphere, revolve round their centre from bala to left,
while those of the southern hemisphere revolve in the opposite direction.

In the northern hemisphere these storms commence in the month of August, and cer-
tainly prevail in the North Atlantic till the middle of March, and there can be little
doubt that the same rule holds good in other parts of the same hemisphere.

If a similar rule be applied south of the equator, where seasons are reversed, these
storms would then commence in February, and be occasionally experienced to the mid-
dle of September.

All revolving storms move in a curvilinear course, at rates of speed varying from

_ twenty miles an hour to ten, or even less. Those of the northern hemisphere first move
in a west or north-westerly direction—then northerly, curving at or near latitude 30°
to the north-east, and proceeding onward in that direction towards the pole, In the
southern hemisphere these storms obey a similar law of nature, first moving towards
the west and. south-west, then southerly, curving in or near latitude 30° to the south
east, and so continuing their course to the frozen regions of the Antarctic.

During the prevalence of a cyclone the barometer will be found an invaluable guide.
This wonderfully sensitive instrument will indicate by a fall of the mercurial column
the moment a storm is in contact with it, and this fall will continue until the advancing
moiety of the storm has passed by, or over, the instrument the—mercury then begins
to rise, and continues to do so while the latter portion of the storm-circle is passing,
when it will register the original atmospheric pressure, or nearly so, except it may be in
the wake of the storm, where the disturbance will be great, and require a longer pericd to
subside.

By carefully observing and noting the direction of the wind at the commencement
and termination of a cyclone, two points will be established on the circumference of the
storm-circle, and a line drawn through these points will show the position of the observer,
from point to point as the storm swept over him. Another line drawn parallel to this
chord, through the centre of the circle, will show the onward direction of the storm.

The direct speed and the diameter of a cyclone may be ascertained by noting the
exact time which the storm takes in passing from one known locality to another, and its
duration at either of these places. Thus, the cyclone which visited Turk’s Island and
New Providence in October, 1866, was 33 hours in passing from one island to the other,
the distance traversed being 405 geographical miles, which is equal to a direct speed of
12 3-11 such miles per hour. If this rate of speed be multiplied by 16 hours, the dura
tion of the cyclone at Turk’s Island and at New Providence, we have 195 4-11 geogra-
phical miles as the diameter of the storm at that period of its existence. In passing over
New Providence, the central calm of this cyclone lasted for one hour and thirty mi-~
nutes, which, calculated by the same rule, would make the diameter of that centre 18 2-5
miles. :

Should any one ask for my definition of an east or a west wind, I would answer, that
all winds from these points may be considered lateral deviations of the polar currents,
seeking, in obedience to the laws of gravitation, areas ot lesser atmospheric pressure,
and winding in their courses for thousands of miles, sometimes in one direction, and
sometimes in another, like the waters of somo great river on its jonrney to the ocean.—
They have certainly no separate, distinct, or specific character; and the Beromeice
heralds theiz approach like other winds. :

Fiala

spat)

: pe ornnin GS AND TRANSACTIONS

efted a)

my OF THE

Oe OF
v pong HALIFAX, NOVA SCOTIA.
Ti =f fe TSS Na eR LE SE ONSEN = ae a Sees ene <x ee ore eer
YOu. I. : 1864-5. PART II.
ON CONTENTS. ‘
age
PRN eae Ses Fo. c, ec tse kh tisk. Sve waded Cs Mong Cag eee heeten 1to7

TRANSACTIONS i— :
» Art. f On the Mammalia of Nova Scotia.; By J. Bexnarp Gitpin, M. D.,
MER ER A. So 5 ovata mips stain NEM. ciate OW | aia 5 Seman x 8
IL. On Provincial Apstettition: By Gap Pre TANG Re An ee oes 15
Til. Notice of the Occurrence of Heather (Calluna vulgaris) at St. Ann’s
Bay, Cape’ Breton Island. By Gro. Lawson, Ph. D., LL.D., Profes-

sor of Chemistry, Dalhousie College... 2.0... ee ee ee eee ec ees 30

TV. Note on Lemania variegata of Agardh. (By the same)............. 35

V. On the Land Birds of Nova Seotia. By As Dawns usc foie ee eeais ex 38
VI. Observations on the Sea Birds frequenting the Coast of St. Maveaoet 3

Hays aes. DY Mev MOEN AMBROSE: Q/0y isis kes vee oc kee elon 4s 51

Vil. Some Additions to the Game of Nova Scotia. By J. H. Duvar....... 59
VII. The Production and Preservation of Lakes by Ice Action. By Tuomas

PMR RD ip Se a a Qi witha Wain dc GA Wisin Sight eM n'a nial ep ¥ SMS 8 70

’ TX: On some Brine Springs of Nova Scotia. By Henry How, D.C. L.;
Professor of Chemistry and Natural History, University of King’s

College, Windsor, N.S. 20-220... teers ee ese epee ene 75

TX. Enquiry into the Antiquity of Man. By Wm. Gossip...........,.. 80
X. Notes on the Weather at Halifax, Nova Scotia, during 1864. By Colonel

Oa east Tine G ea? aps Mery a Sok Saeihintwlaebres Me ecin eh gies 102

KL On the Gaspereaux. By J. Bernarp Ginpry, A. B., M. D.,M. RB. C.8. 107
KIL. Contributions to the Natural History of Nova Scotia. Reptilia. By J.
Eee Ei ON ey tess ee ny oe ek ee rt 1

XII. Notes on the Economic Mineralogy of Nova Scotia, Part II. The Ores
of Manganese and their Uses.. By Henry How, D. C. L., Professor
- of Chemistry and Natural History, paaea of King’s ia:
_. Windsor...., TR ies Udi eae aLiciere Nn Oe oem camo. Ge Cee: it

APPENDIX; toe

ate ee Petcorological Register, Halifax, Nova Scotia. y Colonel

ee Se ee ee i ck ee ae eer ake arn ara)

act of mi Letter from Vice-Admiral Sir ALRXANDER Minne, K. (op
: _ the Presipent, concerning the Currents on the N.E. Coast of A
Gomiald tacursions A658 We ton ee eee cs ee
The Contorted Quartz at Laidlaw’s ‘ Diggins,’? Waverly. BR. B. S. ae “4
- Letter from the Right Rey. the Brsuor of Newfoundland, concerning the -
erate ands of the Great Auk (Alea impennis), found on the Funk
WEREADIOS See 6. the. aia ieaay ig, tig al aa MM Bran AR TRL SUH aN igh a

ee, “HALIFAX, NOVA SCOTIA:
ve PRINTED FOR THE INSTITUTE BY JAMES BOWES & SONS.

SOLD BY THE SECRETARY, 109 GRANVILLE ST.
; ie Os. 9d. Pia AS

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

Nova-Seotian Justitute of Natural Srience.

* VOLUME II. PART 3.

ANNIVERSARY MEETING, OcrT. 12. 1864.

Ty accordance with the Rules of the Institute, the Anniversary Meeting,
of which due notice had been previously given to all the members, was held
on Wednesday, Oct. 12, 1864, when the following gentlemen were elected
by ballot, to fill the various offices for the ensuing year :—

President.—J. M. Jonss, F. L. S.

Viee-Presidents—Capt. Harpy, R. A., Dr. B. Gririn, M. D.

Treasurer.—Capt. LYTTLETON.

Secretary. WM. Gossip.

Assistant Secretary A. S. FINNIE.

Council—Dr. DE Wotr, Professor Lawson, Dalhousie College, Colonel
Myers, W. C. Siiver, J. H. Duvar, P. 8. Hamizton, Jos. Brett, Lieut.
DEANE, 17th Regiment.

Mr. C. E. Brown, proposed at a previous meeting, was duly elected a
member of the Institute.

_ It was Resolved,—That any gentleman duly elected a member of the
Institute, and desirous of becoming a Life Member, may be admitted as such
on payment of :

[At a meeting of Council, Oct. 24, it was Resolved,—That the blank be
filled with Five Pounds. |

OrpINARY MEETING, Nov. 7, 1864.

Capt. Kine, R. A., proposed at a previous meeting, was duly elected a
member of the Institute.

Dr. B. GiLpiIn read a paper on a species of Salmo, found in some of the
Lakes of this Province. (See Transactions.)

Conversation ensued relative to the habits of the Salmo family. It was
stated that they assume, in a greater or less degree, the prevailing colour of

2 PROCEEDINGS.

the locality they frequent. The difference in colour between the fish of
warm climates and those of northern or temperate waters, was noted—the
tints of the former being warm and bright—the latter generally sombre and
subdued; it was also remarked that the colours of southern fish become modi-
fied when, as is sometimes the case, they travel northward. The species
described by Dr. Girpry were stated to weigh about 3 lbs. full grown, but
they have been taken weighing 6 lbs. The opinion of the meeting was in
favour of the fish being considered a new species. [This opinion has not
been sustained on further enquiry and research. ]

Dr. Gipry read a paper—‘On some of the Mammals of Nova Scotia”—
being a continuation of papers under his name, in the published Transactions
of the Institute. The paper described the Condylura cristata ; also the only
two species of Bat known to exist in Nova Scotia—Vespertilio subulatus, and
V. pruinosus. (See Transactions.)

In the conversation on these subjects, some doubts were expressed as to
the Condylura cristata being the only species of mole in Nova Scotia. It was
stated that V. pruinosus was found occasionally, but rarely, in Canada,—that
one had been taken in Bermuda, brought from other parts in the sail of a
ship,—that a similar instance had occured, of one being found in the sail of
a ship belonging to Mr. West, lying at his wharf in this city, which had just
arrived from the West Indies.

The President read some notes on the Great Auk, (Alca impennis,) a
very perfect skeleton of which was produced. It had been procured through
the kindness of the Bishop of Newfoundland, (the Right Rev. Dr. Frerp,)
from the Funk Islands off that coast, and was one of the only two specimens
that remained of the bird, which like the Dodo had become extinct. (See
Appendix.)

Various speculations were hazarded on the causes which may have led to
the extinction of the Great Auk, once so numerous on the coast of New-
foundland and adjacent islands—the principal of which was supposed to be
the destructive agency of man. Some doubt was also expressed as to the
total extinction of the species.

OrviInary MEETING, Dec. 5, 1864.

A note was received from His Excellency the Lieut. Governor, PATRON
of the Institute, regretting his inability to be present, owing to previous
engagements. ‘

Professor JoHuNSON, of Dalhousie College, proposed at a previous meet-
ing, was duly elected a member of the Institute.

Lieut. Wresser, R. A., proposed at a previous meeting, was duly elected
a member of the Institute.

Dr. B. Ginpin read a communication from the Essex Institute, Mass.,
calling attention to a proposal to publish a Naturalist’s Directory. It was
accompanied by a blank form to be filled up with Naturalists’ names, and
their special departments of study. [The publication has since been re-
ceived, and is a very useful book of reference. ]

PROCEEDINGS. 3

Dr. B. Gitrin read the following letter from Dr. Dawson, Principal of
McGill College, Montreal :—

Nore on a Species of Gemellaria from Sable Island.

Among some specimens from the above locality collected by Mr. J. R. Wituis,
and kindly sent to me by that gentleman, is a large tuft of a Gemellaria, which I
regard as new. In Busk’s Catalogue of the Polyzoa in the British Museum, only one
species is noticed, G. loriculata. Dr. Stimpson* has described a second from the Bay
of Fundy, under the name G. dumosa; but Mr. Wrttts’s specimen differs from both.
I have therefore prepared a detailed description of it, and desire to dedicate it to Mr.
Wiis, its discoverer, as a testimony of my appreciation of his services in the inyesti-
gation of the Marine Zoology of Nova Scotia.

GEMELLARIA Wrist, 8. N.

General Appearance.—Ceeneecium branching in dense tufts from a stout stem
(attached to a sea-weed). Height of largest specimen, 24 inches. Fibres flexible,
but somewhat brittle; membranous in texture, but effervescing strongly with an acid
and leaving a very delicate membranous skeleton. Colour brownish white or
light fawn. ;

Microscopic Characters.—Pairs of cells seen in profile have at top and bottom a
breadth of about one-fifth their length. From the top they increase in width to the
base of the aperture, which is a little above the middle of the cells, where the breadth
is equal to about one-third of the length, decreasing regularly toward the base.
Single cells seen in front are broadest at the top, where the aperture occupies nearly
the whole breadth. Aperture oval-oyate, covered with a flat membrane having a semi-
circular slit at top. In branching, the highest pair of cells give off from their sides a
pair of branches, and usually also one or two stems from their upper ends. This
gives to the Coenzecium a densely tufted character.

The species differs from G. loriculata of Britain in its narrower and less inflated
cells and longer apertures, and in its more deuse habit of growth, arising from the
mode of branching above indicated. It differs from G. dumosa of the Bay of Fundy,
in so far as can be ascertained from the short description of that species, in the form
of the aperture.

In my collections from Nova Scotia I have only the following additional species of
Polyzoa, all of them found also in the Gulf of St. Lawrence :—

Membrampora pilosa, Lepratia pertura,
Lepratia armulosa, L. variolosa.
L. trispinosa,
This very short list might no doubt be largely increased by a little attention to

the subject, and these curious and beautiful little organisms are well worthy of the
notice of collectors, especially of those who take an interest in microscopic objects.

J. W. Dawson.

Capt. Harpy read a paper on Provincial Acclimatization. (See Trans-
actions.)

Professor LAWSON read a paper entitled—“ Notice of the Occurrence of
Heather (Calluna vulgaris) at St. Ann’s, Cape Breton Island. (See Trans-
actions.)

In the after conversation it was stated by a gentleman present, that
native heather had been found on the Halitax peninsula,—[which however is
not sufficiently substantiated.] It is frequent in gardens as an exotic. Evi-
dence was adduced to prove that it had been known in Newfoundland for a
long period, and is generally supposed to be an indigenous plant. An
opinion seemed to prevail however, that the instances remarked upon, of its
being found in Massachusetts, Cape Breton, or on the Halifax peninsula,

* Marine Invertebrata of Grand Manan.

ne

4 PROCEEDINGS.

may have been propagations from plants brought to those countries by
emigrants.

Dr. Lawson also made some observations on Lemania, an aquatic plant
found in the United States, and more recently in Canada; and which he had
also met with, adhering to stones, in the Sackville River, at the head of Bed-
ford Basin. (See Transactions.)

ORDINARY MEETING, JAN. 9, 1865.

The President noticed the receipt of several donations since the last
ordinary meeting, viz. :—

1. By Capt. Harpy. Vol. V. of the Natural History of the State of
New York.

2. By Miss Witu1s. <A Collection of Nova Scotia Ferns.

The President noticed the receipt of Letters, Transactions and Publica-
tions, as follows :—

1. A letter from the Smithsonian Institute, informing that the Nova
Scotian Institute of Natural Science had been placed upon their List for
exchange of publications.

2. From the Essex Institute, Salem, Mass., acknowledging receipt of
Vols. I. and II. of Transactions of the Nova Scotian Institute, and sending
their Proceedings in return.

3. From the Academy of Science, of St. Louis, Missouri, with Part I,
Vol. IL. of their Transactions, and notifying that the Nova Scotian Institute
had been placed upen their exchange List.

4. From Sir W. Jardine. The Address of the President of the Dum-
fries and Galloway Natural History Society. Also.— The Transactions and
Journal of the Proceedings of the Dumfriesshire and Galloway Natural
History and Antiquarian Society.

5. From Dr. Dawson, Principal of McGill College, Montreal. A paper
‘On the Fossils of the genus Rusophycus.”

6. From Thomas Belt, Esq. A paper on Lake Basins, and the evi-
dence of glacial action in their excavation.

Mr. A. Downs read a paper on the Land Birds of Nova Scotia,
describing sixty-one species, of which sixteen were warblers. He purposes a
continuation of the subject. (See Transactions.)

Rev. J. Ampross, of St. Margaret’s Bay, read a paper on the Natural
History of St. Margaret’s Bay—with especial reference to the Sea Birds that
frequent its waters. (See Transactions.)

The President read a lettet from Professor Owen, relative to remains
found in the Kitchen Midden at St. Margaret’s Bay, explored by the Insti-
tute on one of their Field Excursions last summer, and described in the
Appendix of Vol. II. P. Il. of their Transactions. (See Appendix.)

Colonel SryciatR, proposed at a previous meeting, was duly elected a
member of the Institute.

Mr. Sanprorp FLemrine, proposed at a previous meeting, Was duly
elected a member of the Institute.

PROCEEDINGS. 3)

OrpInARY MerTine, Fes. 6, 1865.

Mr. Duvar read a paper entitled—‘‘ Contributions to the Game of
Nova Scotia.” (See Transactions.)

In the conversation the necessity was recognized that measures should
be taken to preserve the Game of the country, all varieties of which were
fast decreasing, owing to the wanton destruction of species on the one hand,
_and the absence of precautionary measures, especially with reference to the
river fisheries, on the other. The introduction of foreign species likely to
thrive in this climate, was also strongly advocated—of the feathered tribe
especially, which would enliven our forests and farm yards with their pre-
sence and melody.

The Secretary read a paper sent by Mr. Bett, “On the Formation of

Lake Basins by Ice action.” (See Transactions.)
* ‘Tt was urged in after conversation on the subject, that the conformation
of a country, independent of other causes, would be sufficient to account for
the formation and direction of lakes and rivers; but that there was good evi-
dence, especially on the Atlantic coast of Nova Scotia, that glacial action
must have powerfully assisted their excavation there. The metamorphosed
rocks at the bottom and on the shores of many of them, were worn smooth
and covered with striz, not by the action of the present waters or wintry ice,
but by those of perhaps thousands of ages in the past; and the course of these
Atlantic streams was generally in the direction of the glacial drift. Bedford
Basin, at the head of Halifax Harbour, was instanced as perhaps partially
formed by glacial erosion; and as probably a lake ere the icy pressure at the
Narrows forced the barrier, and opened a communication with the sea. In
connection with the subject, and in the course of explanation of lake pheno-
mena, acentre of dispersion of erratics, commencing at the heights around
Major’s Lake, a few miles from Dartmouth, and spreading in a southerly
direction towards Cole Harbour, was noticed.

OrpINARY Meetine, Marca 6, 1865.

The President acknowledged a donation to the Institute by Lieutenant
Wesser, R. A., of a Geological Cabinet, containing specimens of minerals
and fossils, including those of all formations from the Primary to the Tertiary
inclusive.

The President read a paper sent by Professor How, of King’s College,
Windsor—‘ On some of the Brine Springs of Nova Scotia.” (See Trans-
actions.

In the discussion that ensued, evidence was adduced of the occurrence of
other mineral springs in various parts of the Province, and it was stated that
the waters were used by the inhabitants in their neighbourhood for the
purpose of curing various complaints. A sulphur spring at Cranberry Cove,
Cole Harbour, was mentioned as situated near the site of a Kjoekken-
moedding.

The Secretary read a paper “On the Antiquity of Man.” (See
Transactions.)

6 PROCEEDINGS.

After the conclusion of the paper, some interesting remarks were
made concerning the aboriginal inhabitants of Nova Scotia, who formed the
Kjoekkenmoeddings of the coast, by which it appeared that the race was
almost identical in their mode of life with those of the European coasts,—
similar material being found in both; only the rude pottery of Europe
differed somewhat in the colour of the clay of which it was made, from that
found in Nova Scotia.

The President read a letter from Admiral Sir ALEXANDER MILNE,
recently Naval Commander-in-Chief on this Station, communicating interest-
ing information, the result of many years experience, on the extension of the
Gulf Stream. (See Appendix.)

The Secretary reported, that in accordance with a Resolution of the
Council of the Institute, he had forwarded to the Honble. the President of
the Legislative Council, and to His Honor the Speaker of the House of
Assembly, respectively, the invitation of the Institute to the members of both
Branches of the Legislature to attend their ordinary meetings during the
Legislative Session.

OrpINARY Mererine, Aprint 6, 1865.

Colonel Myers read a paper entitled—‘‘ Notes on the Weather at
Halifax, Nova Scotia, during 1864.” (See Transactions.)

During the discussion which followed the reading of this paper, the
President read a letter from Professor Henry, Secretary of the Smithsonian
Institute, stating that the Institution would be glad to receive a daily tele-
gram giving an account of the state of the weather, direction of wind, &c., at
Halifax. . It was the opinion of the meeting that such a request should be
complied with, and the military authorities memorialized to allow such obser-
vations to be delivered to the Institute for transmission to the Smithsonian.

Dr. B. Grzprn read a paper—‘‘ On the Gaspereau” (Alosa tyrannus).
(See Transactions.)

After the reading of Dr. Gilpin’s paper, some of the members made
remarks upon the habits of this fish; and its rare custom of rising to a fly was
placed beyond doubt by a gentleman present stating that he had caught one
while trout fishing,
Mile River.

The Secretary read the following extract from a letter he had received
from E. Marner, Esq., of St. John’s, Newfoundland, an Associate Member of
the Institute :— :

with an artificial fly, last summer, on the Nine

‘¢ Sr. Joun’s, March 21.

«‘T have not been able to do much in the way of investigation, but previous to
leaving the west coast’an arrow head of flint was viven me by Mr. LeGallois, which
he had just found in the course of one of his journeys. I have also obtained some
handsome comb shells, as well as a very fine specimen of cockle.

‘“We have had a most extraordinary winter, exceedingly mild with occasional
severe frosts. At present (March 21) there is scarcely any snow on the ground, an
unusual thing for Newfoundland.

«Contrary to my former experience, I find that Frogs do exist in Newfoundland,
and several colonies of them inhabit the ponds and lakes about St. John’s, though

u

PROCEEDINGS.

whether introduced or indigenous, or whether the same as those of Nova Scotia, I
cannot say. At all events they are not numerous.

‘J also find that snails, similar to the common English snail, exist in certain
localities.’”

OrpinaRY Meetine, May 1, 1865.

The PRESIDENT read a paper—‘ On the Reptiles of Nova Scotia”—
illustrated by preserved specimens. (See Transactions.)

In the conversation that ensued, a doubt having been expressed with
reference to the young of snakes passing for safety into the mouth of the
mother, which had been stated of the Coluber sirtalis, a gentleman present
(Mr. Nash).said that he had been a witness of the fact on more than one
occasion, in the vicinity of Truro. He could not ascertain whether it was
owing to inducement on the part of the parent, or instinct on that of the
young. Nor had he ever seen the young snakes return from such a place of
concealment or safety. [This statement by a. gentleman of unquestionable
veracity, may help to resolve the doubts of naturalists on the subject. |

The Secretary read a paper sent by Professor How, of King’s College,
Windsor, entitled—‘‘ Notes on the Economic Mineralogy of Nova Scotia.”
it treats upon the Ores of Manganese and their uses. (See Transactions.)

An interesting conversation succeeded the reading of this paper. Mr.

Nash, who is interested in the Teny Cape Manganese Mines, in Hants
County, assented to the general correctness of the details which had been
read, relative to that enterprise. He mentioned the occurrence of Manga-
nese at other places,—at Wellington Mountain, Cape Breton,—also, at
Falmouth, Hants County. He had been informed by Dr. Johnson that it
occurred on or near to his land in Pictou. Mr. Nash stated that some hun-
dreds of tons had been sold in Liverpool, England; and some also in Boston,
where it is used for a particular purpose. The working had so far paid very
well. He had in his possession Bog Manganese from Antigonishe, and some
had been sent to him from Ship Harbour. He was firmly persuaded that the
best. Manganese the world could produce, was to be found in Nova Scotia.
' The PresrpENT made some appropriate observations upon the progress
of the Institute, and its prospects for the future, and closed the ordinary
meetings for the season. He also announced that a Field Meeting of the
Institute would take place in each of the Summer and Autumn months until
October next, when the Ordinary Meetings would be again resumed.

WILLIAM GOSSIP,
Secretary.

(8 )

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

Hova-Seotian Institute of Matuval Science.

Arr. I... On THE Mammatia oF Nova Scotia. By J. Bernarp

Ginein, Me veo CaS:
NO. IL.
[Read November 6, 1864.]

HAvine in my first number given the members of the Soricine
family inhabiting this Province, as identified by myself, I now pro-
ceed, with the Mammalia, at least those that I have identified
myself,

GeENus, ConDYLURA.

Condylura cristata. — A rather large specimen from alcohol,
taken at Annapolis Royal, 1862, during summer, measured —
extreme length, 84ins.; length of tail, 34ims.; diameter of tail,
4in. Colour—dark blue-black above and below, nails flesh
colour, the tail covered with scales that are concealed by stiff hairs,
compressed at base, swelling out suddenly about two-thirds of an
inch from base and then narrowing to a fine pencil at poimt, at its
largest part at least a quarter of an inch in diameter; the nose with
twenty-two points or rays; the fore feet very broad, oval shaped,
fringed with stiff hair and covered above and below with fine scales
or scale-like points, the base of each finger excepting the outside one
with a pointed peculiar fringe of two or three points like a cock’s
comb, the nails each 4 of an inch long, the hind feet longer and nar-
rower than the fore, and covered above by the same scales, the
soles with three or four irregular tubercles; the star-like rays of
the nose, and the fringe at the base of the forefingers, seem peculiar
to this animal. It is rather common in the Province, and seems to
represent the true moles to which it is allied, and which I have
never identified here. All specimens that I have had belonged to

GILPIN—-ON THE MAMMALS OF NOVA SCOTIA. 9

one species. I think the tail swells during the sexual period, and
when the animal is fat, at other times diminishes.

Genus, Lasrurus.

Having neglected to describe the Bats, in their usual place, be-

fore the Soricine, I place them here. I have identified but two
species myself, but I have little doubt that several more species
inhabit the Province.
Lasiurus, cinereus, (Hoary Bat.)—I have seen but two speci-
mens of this bat taken here. One from Sambro, the other taken
from the foretopsail of a brigantine in Halifax harbour, and there-
fore I consider it rare. These specimens answered in every
respect V. pruinosus of Richardson, DeKay and Say. This latter
naturalist, supposing himself the discoverer of it, gave it the speci-
fie “ pruinosus,’—but Dr. Allen in his monograph of North
American bats, quotes a catalogue of Peale’s Museum, 1796, by M.
Palisot de Beauvois, who describes it under the name cinereus.

Vespertilio subulatus—Two specimens measured—total length,
3ins.; total spread, Yins.; they both agreed with DeKay’s descrip-
tion of northern specimens, their colour being darker and ears longer
than those of New York. Dark about head; dark brown olive on
back; yellow mixed white beneath; yellow down extending a
little way under rib of each wing; the ears not so hairy as DeKay’s.
They are very common.

+ Genus, Lynx.

Lynx, Canadensis, (Loupcervier.)—A very handsome but not
large skin in winter pelage, from Mr. Coleman’s, Halifax, measured
—length to tip of tail, 3ft. 2in.; length of tail, 34ins.; of pencil to
ears, ldins. Colour, dusky brindle on the back, an indistinct but
decided dark line down the centre of the back, end of tail deep
black, sides and belly yellowish rusty, inside of legs yellowish
white, no spots, but three indistinct dusky bars inside fore leg,
black tips and pencils to the ears, and a large collar yellowish
white alternating with black stripes beneath the throat—a general
hoary tint over all. The fur was very long and loose. ‘The legs
and feet very robust and well furred, with thick yellowish white
fur, and the pads covered. ‘This true boreal species, reminding us
of the alpine hare, the ptarmigan, the spruce grouse, and the

9 .

10 GILPIN—-ON THE MAMMALS OF NOVA SCOTIA.

snow owl, in his well-furred limbs, is abundant in the Province
He loves the thick covers and dense spruce-pine woods of the
midland counties of King’s and Annapolis, in which he hunts the
varying hare, and surprises the dusky grouse, and from which he
descends at night to the barns and sheepfolds in the cleared land.
He is very destructive to sheep. He rarely is found near the sea-
board, or amongst the scanty cover of the granite hills where the
red cat abounds, and never like the latter comes out in the
open, or into the town in daylight. When pursued, he runs in a
high awkward gallop, with an arched back, leaving a very broad
trail upon the snow, and soon takes refuge in a tree. About
twenty-five years ago the country about Annapolis Royal was in-
fested with them, when Mr. George Hardwicke, a young farmer,
with a love for hunting, introduced hunting them with a fox-
hound. Mounting his horse by day-break of a winter morning, he
would ride ten or twelve miles into the forest, dismount, and beat
the woods for game. In half an hour the hound would find, and
in about twenty minutes more have treed the Lynx in the fork of
a spruce-pine tree. Following at his leisure the track on the snow,
he easily tumbled her out of the tree by a charge of buckshot, as
she hissed and glared at him like an angry cat, with erect fur and
arched back. He took twenty during the winter, sometimes two
in a day, and a right pleasant sight it was to see him return home,
at the close of a short winter’s day, with one, if not two, hanging
across his croup, as he rode his mare into the settlement, his snow-
shoes, axe and gun crossing his broad shoulders, all making a
pretty woodland scene with the white snow and dark firs beyond.
Though cowardly and skulking when opposed to man, one who has
witnessed his sudden pounce upon his prey can readily understand
his ravages among sheep.

Lynx, rufus, ( Wild Cat ).—A very large male, shot by Mr.
Stayner as he was prowling about the environs of Halifax in 1861,
measured—tfrom tip of nose to end of tail, 3ft. 4ins.; to end of hind
leg, 4ft. 4in.; from tip to tip of ear, over forehead, 10ins.; tail,
Tins. ; the colour above rusty, with a general hoary tint; inside of
fore legs, belly, and beneath tail whitish; obscurely spotted with
red on flanks and outside paws, and two or three black bars inside
fore leg; ear black, with a peculiar half-moon white patch on the

GILPIN—-ON THE MAMMALS OF NOVA SCOTIA. ita

back, and a very small pencil to the tip; some very obscure dusky
lines along the top of back, and a few dark lines diverging from
the inner corner of each eye to the forehead, and each side of the
nose ; the soles of fore and hind feet nearly black, the pads naked,
and the tail with several obscure dusky annular marks around it,
the tip black above, white beneath. A small summer skin from
Mr. Thomas, Halifax, now before me, is bright reddish brown on
back and sides, a deep brown mark down centre of back, outside of
fore and hind legs light reddish; belly, throat and inside of leg
whitish, with black bars; the same markings on ears and forehead
as in winter skin; scarcely a pencil to tip of ear; the fur short and
stiff, except on the belly, where it is fine and loose. ‘This animal
is finer and more handsome in its figure and slenderer in its legs
than the Loupcervier; its head is finer and bolder, and altogether
it has less of the stealthy, awkward gait of the latter. It loves the
seaboard and the sterile granite hills. Where it abounds few or
no Loupcerviers are seen. Its food is the same, and it is equally
destructive to sheep. Its bolder nature brings it down into the
open country, and often into the small towns and villages. Perhaps
forced by hunger it then prowls about yards, seizing poultry in
open day, and is soon shot by a crowd of men and boys.

In studying and comparing our Lynxes, we find that one, the
Loupcervier, is a true boreal animal with a limited range. Its
short tail, large collar, long pencil to the ear, and furred foot, its
large pale yellow eye, (the onyx eye of the ancients,) are all typical
of the Lynx of the Old World. On the other hand, the Wild or
Red Cat has become indigenous at a far later period. Its naked
foot, pencil disappearing in summer from the ear, finer fur, smaller
collar, and its rmged and longer tail, all: give it a more southern
centre of origin, as they also approximate it to the genus ‘“ Felis.”
Baird and Audubon both give it a range from Mexico to the Rocky
Mountains, where they are smaller and redder and the pencil dis-
appears on the ear, yet all preserve the peculiar half-moon white
patch on the ear, which Baird justly considers typical. It is
curious, too, that the less boreal animal is the more abundant—the
Wild Cat skin being exported at the rate of five hundred and fifty
or more and still abundant, whilst the Loupcervier is becoming
scarce and is exported at the rate of about two hundred and fifty.

WY GILPIN——ON THE MAMMALS OF NOVA SCOTIA.

It is to be hoped they will long be spared as fit denizens of our
northern hills and pine forests.
GENus, Canis.

Canis occidentalis, (the Wolf).—I have identified this destruc-
tive animal as existing in Nova Scotia. A very large specimen,
taken at Windsor, was exhibited in Halifax. I can only mention
it to observe how very difficult it appears for some large species to
find new habitations. In Nova Scotia the cover and the game are
alike and equally abundant as in New Brunswick or Newfound-
land, yet twice within this century a voluntary migration of Wolves
has been made and both failed. About seventy years ago Wolves
made their appearance, but were soon lost sight of. About twenty-
years ago they again appeared simultaneously in every part of the
Province. The mail courier had scarcely reported one crouching
before his off leader in the gorge of the Cobequid hills, before one
was trapped at Yarmouth. They seem to have trotted through
the whole Province from north to the extreme south, and to have
retreated on their tracks with equal stealth; sce for twenty years
no word has been heard of them. ‘Their instinct taught them that
it was no place to found a race in.

GENUS, VULPES.

Vulpes fulvus, (Red Fox ).—I have identified but one species of
Fox, though subject to varieties, as we will see, by a proneness to
nigritism, on studying their skins.

A fine skin, in perfect winter condition before me, has the chin,
throat, line down the breast and belly, narrow line along hind legs
and tip of tail, white; back of ears, stripe in front of each leg,
black; the tail with more or less sooty tips to the hair, inclining to
black; a dusky spot on each side of the nose from where’ the mous-
tachial hairs spring; all the rest of the body a rich lustrous fulvus
red, with a slight dash of hoar upon the flanks.

Another skin before me has nose, face, backs of ears, chin,
throat, belly, entire legs and tail (except white tip) generally
black; shoulders and stripe down the back decided black; fore-
head, and part of shoulders and flanks, hoary grey, mixed with
yellow; the rest of the skin pale yellow. This is the Cross Fox.

In another skin before me, the yellow has entirely disappeared ;

GILPIN——-ON THE MAMMALS OF NOVA SCOTIA. 13

belly and under parts, legs and tail (white tip excepted) black; the
upper parts black with more or less white hair intermixed in a
general hoary tint. This marks the Silver Grey Fox.

In another skin, with the exception of a few grey hairs on either
flank, one lustrous jetty black relieved by the snowy tip of the tail,
pervades the whole. ‘This is the priceless Black Fox.

The hunter and the fur dealer make seven distinct varieties,—
the red, the brander, the cross, the patch, the silver and the black.
These are so many stages in the Red Fox becoming black.

In a red skin of the finest colour there are always a few scatter-
ing grey hairs upon the flanks, some sooty hairs upon the tail, and
a tendency to black upon the belly. Whilst the grey hairs of the
flanks are overrunning the whole body, the tail, (tip excepted,) the
belly, chm, breast and legs become black. ‘This is the brander,—
a red grey fox, black beneath. When the black of the tail invades
the back and shoulders, he becomes the cross-fox, or a red grey
with a cross on his back. A httle red still lingering about the back
makes hima patch. When that has entirely disappeared, he be-
comes silver grey, and when one entire nigritism has pervaded the
whole skin, except the snowy tip of the tail, he then becomes the
peerless black fox,so seldom seen that he is almost a myth. Though
I have seen one at least, which had as few as a dozen white hairs
on the flanks. This description is based upon a series of skins,
spread out and varying from red to black. Although I do not
mean to assert that these changes take place in every one living
specimen, yet it seems probable that as the cubs are born dusky,
this tendency to nigritism exists, with more or less intensity in
each individual at the birth, and prevents the red colour from ap-
pearing. At least we must accept this as a reason until we get
more certain knowledge. All I mean to advance is that there is a
general principle and order in the changes, and that in the reddest_
skin we find the germ of the blackest. This tendency to nigritism
shared by the wolves, and in a less degree by the squirrels, seems
to increase in northern latitudes—the proportion of silver and cross
foxes in the Hudson Bay Company’s list, being about one-third,
whilst in Nova Scotia the proportion runs one in ten. I saw two
that were taken when cubs at Annapolis. ‘They were kept in con-
finement for several years, the female greyer than the male, but

14 GILPIN——-ON THE MAMMALS OF NOVA SCOTIA.

they never bred. ‘They seemed slenderer than the red foxes, with
longer legs, but I haye never seen any specific difference between
them and the rest. They are found in the same litter. The white
traces on the flank and white tip of tail are common to all, and had
they power to found a race it would have been more numerous.
The hunters tell you he is a solitary animal, ranging by himself,
of a different manner and habit. But carrying twenty pounds on his
back he is invested with a romantic interest ; he is like a criminal,
with blood-money on him; he scarcely shows his brush but there
is a general commotion ; traps are set on his beat, poison, dogs and
men beset his path. The fortunate captor carries his spoils to
Halifax, and sometimes secures twenty-five pounds for a skin.
Absorbed in the stock of the London dealers, it reappears at the
great Leipsic fairs to be contended for by a Russian prince, Hun-
garian noble, or a Chinese mandarin, where they have reached
the incredible price of forty or fifty pounds. The London public
were amazed at the large prices attached to these skins at the Great
Exhibition. With their proneness to nigritism the red fox abounds
in our Province; they keep cover by day, hunting at night. When
seen on the open by daylight, he exhibits every mark of caution,
stopping, snuffing the air, crouching down, glancing on every side,

_ then advancing, waving his tail from side to side. By-times again

he allows an approach without the slightest fear. A young girl
coming down the Granville Mountain captured a fox on the road,
tied its legs with her garters, put it into her basket and fetched it
home. I know another to have been stalked in open day and shot,
without the slightest precaution. Doubtless it was this habit in
the fox that caused the ancients to say he was affected by epilepsy.

He is a bitter and untiring thief, taking the goose from her nest
one night and returning for the eggs the next. He is accused of
killing lambs, and justly, as I have known him to have been seen
pursuing sheep with full cry and breast erect like a hound. When
these imported dainties are not within his reach he contents himself
with wild eggs, small birds, hares, mice, and even shell fish and
fresh water clams, as the margins of our inland streams quartered
up in every direction by his tracks attest. Between two or three
thousand skins are annually exported still, though their numbers are

sadly diminishing. The red fox skins of Prince Edward Island,

HARDY—ON PROVINCIAL ACCLIMATIZATION. 15

compare favourably with those of Digby County. The beauty and
lustre of their skins, either red or black, with their noble brush,
xelieved by its snowy tip, must be our apology for hoping, not-
withstanding he is the prince of vermin thieves, that the day is far
off when he will be extinct in our pine-fir covers, or that a manda-
rin may not expend his fifty guineas to gratify his semi-barbarous
tastes.

Norr.—As this article is passing through the press, Capt. Harpy has given me @
bat which from its inter-femoral membrane I think may be V. evotis. This will then
give us three species.

Arr. Il. On Provincirat AcciimatizAtTion. By Carr. Harpy,
ie JX
{Read December 5, 1864.]

THE very recent and ambiguous term, Acclimatization, implying
the subjugation and domestication of wild races. of animals ; the
transplanting of the useful or ornamental amongst nature’s gifts in
the animal or vegetable kingdoms, between various portions of the
globe, for man’s benefit; and the hybridization of species,— means
but a continuation of the ceaseless efforts of civilized man to utilise
and improve all things that were in the beginning created for his
use, and placed under his dominion for that express purpose.

Accordingly we find that, in the most important branch of this
wide field of experimental research—the domestication of animals,—
nearly all the useful beasts, either of burden or for food, and in the
various spheres most suitable to their existence in such a subordin-
ate condition, have been thus turned to account from the remotest
antiquity. In this branch, medieval and even modern ages have
witnessed no important additions to the classes of animals referred
to, although the transplanting and interchange of species has taken
place from time to time, and various breeds improved by crossing
with foreign varieties. And so for a long time the civilized world
rested on the successful, perhaps long-continued efforts of past ages,
apparently content with its beasts of burden, its easily reared and
fattened cattle, sheep and swine, its domestic poultry of ancient
pedigree, and with the indigenous luxuries afforded by the game and

16 HARDY——ON PROVINCIAL ACCLIMATIZATION.

fish of its forests and waters. Variety of food has always been a
desideratum on sanitary principles, but sufficient variety appears to
have been attamed in the well-known animals of the modern farm
yard.*

On the other hand, when we turn to the vegetable world, we
find that the efforts to domesticate wild species, either for food or
ornament, have been continuous and ever-increasing. Forest trees
and shrubs, plants with esculent roots, leaves or seeds, those pos-
sessing fibres capable of utilisation by manufacture, countless hosts
of ornamental and flowering plants, have swelled the lists of modern
botanical acclimatizers; and where the all-important condition of
suitable climate did not exist, the necessary temperature for the
plant’s existence was obtained artificially. In accounting for this
it will be easily seen how great a difference lies between the cultiva-
tion of a new plant and a new animal, thus giving so great a pre-
ponderance to the acclimatizers of new species of the vegetable
kingdom, when it is remembered that the former demands but two
conditions for life and health—the soil and climate of the centre of
creation in which it was first placed, or of the natural boundaries
to which it has in course of time spontaneously radiated ; whilst
the new animal does not succeed in any great dissimilarity of these
two conditions, and imperatively demands association for the pur-
poses of subsistence, with the same or most similar forms of vege-
table life to those of the country where it is found as mdigenous.
The same argument applies to the transfer of fish to foreign waters,
either salt or fresh; and here still greater research is to be incul-
cated béfore experimental acclimatization, as thei peculiarities of
habits and diet are so much less understood.

The recent discovery of the art of artificial hatching of the ova
of fish, termed Pisciculture, the increasing frequency and popularity
of zoological collections, and the successful experiments made in the

*Well authenticated modern cases of the transmission of large mammals from
one country to another occur in the following instances: ‘‘ The Reindeer was
successfully introduced into Iceland about a century ago, while similar attempts
failed, about the, same time, in Scotland. The Cashmere or Thibet goat was
brought to France a generation since, and succeeds well. The same or an allied
species, and the Asiatic buffalo, were carried to South Carolina about the year 1850,
and the former at least is thought likely to prove of permanent value in the United
States. The Yak, or Tartar ox, seemsto thrivein France, and success has attend-
ed the recent efforts to introduce the S. American Alpaca in MUEDL SS "— Mar and
Nature ; by G. P. Marsh.

HARDY-——ON PROVINCIAL ACCLIMATIZATION. LZ
parks of wealthy individuals, in Great Britain and on the Conti-
nent, in breeding foreign deer, antelopes, &c., has given rise to
extended popular moyentents in this direction, called Acclimatiza-
tion Societies, in France, England, Germany, and the Australian
colonies. The British Society has offshoots in various parts of the
United Kingdom, in New Zealand, and in Palermo. ‘These Socie-
ties are supported in some cases by voluntary subscriptions ; others

are aided by large legislative grants of money ; whilst all receive

great assistance from government in the free transit of animals, &c.,
by men-of-war ; and in some cases grants of land for experimental
parks or farms. The followimg enunciation of the purposes of the
English Society, contained in the Rules, will afford a just conception
of the ideas and intentions by which all are animated.

It aims, Ist, at the introduction, acclimatization, and domesti-
cation of mammals, birds, fishes, insects and vegetables, whether
useful or ornamental.

2. The perfection, propagation, and hybridization, of creatures
already domesticated.

3. The spread of indigenous and naturalized animals, &c., from
parts of the United Kingdom where they are already known, to
other localities where they are not known.

4, The procuring, whether by purchase, gift, or exchange, of
animals, &c., from British colonies and foreign countries.

5. The transmission of animals, &c., from England to her
colonies and foreign parts, in exchange for others sent from thence
to the Society.

6. The holding of periodical meetings, and the publication of
Reports and Transactions, for the purpose of spreading knowledge
of acclimatization, and of inquiry into the cause of failure.

Without gomg imto minute details of the establishments, their

_ successes and failures, let us here briefly glance at what has been

accomplished by these Societies in various portions of the globe
during the past three or four years of their infancy. As might be
expected, no complete success on so large a scale as to have passed
beyond the nursing of the Society, has yet been recorded, whilst
failures and disappointments have been numerous and _ heayy ; yet
the Societies are satisfied with their progress, and learning to look
more to the necessary qualifications for successful acclimatization,
are giving greater attention to a few subjects.

2

18 HARDY-—-ON PROVINCIAL ACCLIMATIZATION.

I have before me the Fourth Annual Report of the English
Society for the year ending May 31, 1864. A most zealous mem-
ber and promoter of the Society’s objects, Lord Powerscourt, has
successfully imported from a German forest a number of magnifi-
cent red deer, much larger than those at present found in Great
Britain, and hopes by crossing to improve the breed of English red
deer, which Mr. Frank Buckland says have been sadly degenerating
in size, weight, and general appearance. Recently received speci-
mens of the Wapiti, that magnificent American stag, and of large
East Indian deer, are thriving in this nobleman’s park.

Repeated failure seems to have attended the experiment of intro-
ducing the Chinese sheep, (the same as may be seen at Mr. Downs’
establishment at the N.W.Arm). 'Theseanimals have been dissem-
inated through the country in charge of members, who have nearly
all reported unfavorably of the pure breed, though where crossing
has been tried there seems to have been more hopes of success.
Amongst the birds mentioned as having been bred in the Society’s
care, are the Honduras turkies, bronze-wing pigeons from Queens-
land, and a variety of crosses between birds of the genus Phasian-
ade have been obtained. Many other valuable birds from India,
South America, and Australia, have been lately received, but have
not yet bred. Amongst the latter are a pair of Australian emeus.

The most interesting portion of the Report, however, comes from
the Piscicultural branch, under the guidance of the indefatigable
Mr. Francis Francis. It appears that the cost of the apparatus
and working it for one year has been only £300, and the Society
has sent out amongst its members over 50,000 ova and fry.
Many of these ova have been transmitted to the distant colonies of
Australia and New Zealand, where the trout and salmon of the Old
Country are now living, watched by anxious eyes, the hopeful pio-
neers of the new races which are to colonise the mountain streams
of Tasmania and New Zealand. Of all the Societies in operation,
those established by our energetic colonists of the southern hemis-
phere seem to have been actuated by the greatest zeal, and to have
achieved the greatest amount of positive success. That of Mel-
bourne appears to be the parent and first importer of the host of
new creatures which are being diffused through the neighboring
colonies, on the continent across the water to Tasmania, and even

HARDY—ON PROVINCIAL ACCLIMATIZATION. 19

to New Zealand. ‘The last Report of this Society is so interesting,
that it is scarcely possible, in noticing the achievements therein
recorded, to refrain from giving the whole in extenso. Certainly, in
no country on the face of the globe could acclimatization be more
applicable, and hence the earnestness of its colonists in this matter.
Australia possesses no indigenous ruminant, and scarcely a game
bird beyond a variety of aquatic fowl ; and the immense success of
the introduction of sheep on its vast pasture lands, where no animal
had browsed before from the creation, thereby giving the colony its
staple product, wool, is in itself an earnest of the great advantages
of acclimatization. After noticing the introduction and successful
reproduction of the camel, a herd of which were brought from India
at the expense of £120 per head, the llamas and alpacas from South
America, Cashmere goats presented by the Paris Society, and various

breeds of sheep, the Report goes on to say :—

‘¢ While devoting this amount of attention to such animals as the camel,
the alpaca, the angora goat, and the sheep, which may be considered as
more immediately interesting to the mercantile and pastoral classes, the
sportsman has not been forgotten. The fallow deer, the Indian elk, the
beautiful spotted axis deer, have been successfully imported, bred from,
and turned loose at Wilson’s Promontory, the Wummera, the Sugarloaf,
and the Bunjip. Numerous specimens of the hog-deer of India, a beau-
tiful deer from Manilla, and another from Formosa, are still in the pos-
session of the Society, with a view to their multiplication and ultimate
release ; and fresh importations of the deer tribe are almost of weekly
occurrence.

‘‘The hare has been sent to the Society by the Zoological Society of
London, and has been turned out, and is now breeding freely on Philip
Island. Various breeds of pheasants, partridges, grouse, and quail, have
been introduced, and some have been liberated. Amongst those may be
mentioned the Californian quail, which has bred after being liberated in
the Botanical Gardens and Philip Island, and the Algerine sand-grouse,
of which a considerable number have been imported, and which, from
their hardy nature and the similarity of their original climate, may be
considered highly adapted to this country. The English wild duck has
‘been imported, has multiplied very freely, and now visits the lagoon at
the botanical gardens in nearly equal numbers to the indigenous water
fowl. The Egyptian goose has bred at the Royal Park, and promises to
be thoroughly acclimatized. The wild pea fowl of Ceylon has thriven
and bred in the charge of the Society, and can soon be set at liberty.—
The white swan has been introduced in considerable numbers, has bred
in the gardens of the Society, and is now distributed in various localities.
Various kinds of foreign doves and pigeons have been introduced and
liberated. The curassow has been obtained, and has bred in the aviaries
of the botanical gardens.”

Then comes an enumeration of the various European pond and

20 HARDY—ON PROVINCIAL ACCLIMATIZATION.

river fish, successfully brought over the great intervening wastes of
ocean by unremitting care, and including that great desideratum of
these enterprising naturalists, the noble salmon, which, however, is
expected to thrive and multiply to a far more remunerative extent
in the bright cool streams of Tasmania, than in the sluggish rivers
of the Australian continent; and lastly, a cheerful notice of the
hosts of the common field birds of Old England, now spreading
rapidly through the colony by natural means, enlivening the neigh-
borhood of the towns, and doing infinite good to the agriculturists,
by attacking the hosts of caterpillars and other insect pests which
there prove so destructive to the crops.

As may be supposed, such extended. operations could scarcely
have been performed without greater assistance than that afforded
by even a large assemblage of private subscribers. Indeed, though
these have liberally contributed, the Melbourne government, recog-
nizing the vast importance of these efforts to the future prospects of
the country, have voted munificent sums to their furtherance. It is
stated, that up to the date of the Report no less than £20,000 has
been advanced by the government. Foreign Societies of a similar
nature, seeing the zeal of the colonists and the aptitude and neces-
sities of the country, have forwarded many new creatures ;—indeed,
the Report states, that a French man-of-war was at that time
engaged in bringing the Society specimens of the yak, the ostrich,
and other animals.

There are besides, Societies on the model of that of Victoria, in
Sydney, Hobart Town, Adelaide, Brisbane, Auckland, Lyttleton,
and Dunedin. So that it may be presumed that in a quarter of a
century the strange and sparse fauna of these vast antipodal pos-
sessions, will be supplanted by all those beautiful forms of animal life
which are so essential to the prosperity and happiness of man in his
highest state of civilization, affording variety in food, gratification —
to the eye, and excitement and health in the chase.

Such then are some of the most important statistics of Acclim-
atization. That our mother country regards its advantages as far
from uncertain or insignificant, may be seen in the fact of her
having placed Her Majesty’s ships at the disposal of the colonies
for transport of specimens. Doubtless the introduction of a new
creature in such numbers as to become eventually a common deni-

HARDY—ON PROVINCIAL ACCLIMATIZATION. Di

zen of the country, either wild or in a state of domestication,
requires great forethought as regards the aptitude to dwell and
thrive in a new home, by comparing the conditions of its past
existence with those under which it is expected to live in future.
Indeed, without such proper knowledge of the minuter habits and
requirements of animals, failure is inevitable ; but more than enough
has been shown to establish it beyond cavil as a branch of science, a

practical offshoot of the interesting science of natural history.*

We now come to consider the proper subject of this paper—the
question of Provincial Acclimatization as applicable to Nova Scotia.
I have so far drawn attention to the advances made by the antipodal
colonists in this direction, to show how the objections of distance,
expense and uncertainty of results, have all been put aside for ends
thought worthy of such sacrifices. But Australia was a country
craving animal immigration, her large and wealthy population
demanding many of the absent table luxuries of the old world, and
her youth eager for the time when the boundless forests and grassy
plains should abound with the stag or roe, in place of the mon-
otonous marsupials which as yet had afforded the only material for
the chase. In Atlantic America, on the contrary, instead of hay-
ing to supplant the indigenous animals, we possess, in a state of
nature, some of the noblest forms of animal life, which no longer
called upon to supply the aboriginal Indians with their sole means
of subsistence, may be called on with that moderation which should
always characterize a civilized people, to afford both the invigorat-
ing pleasures of sport and luxuries for the markets. Every stream
and lake abounds with trout, and there are but few rivers from’
Cape Sable to the Labrador which the salmon does not annually
attempt to ascend.

What then is to be desired? Has not America, receiving from
the east all those useful animals which accompany man in his mi-
grations, and which, returning to a state of nature in the plains of
Mexico and South America, have multiplied so greatly as to afford
a staple product for exportation, given all imaginable luxuries to
the new-coming nations in the produce of her forests, prairies,
rivers, and sea coasts? Yes, but the gift has been abused. It is
sad to contemplate the wanton destruction of game and game fish

* Applied Natural History it has sometimes been termed.

22 HARDY—ON PROVINCIAL ACCLIMATIZATION.

throughout the northern continent since its first settlement by
Europeans : many animals, now on the verge of extinction, driven
off their still large domains, not primarily by the approach of civil-
ization, but by ruthless, wholesale and wanton modes of destruc-
tion. ‘One invariable peculiarity of the American people,” ‘says
the author of The Game Fish of the North, “‘is that they attack,
overturn, and annihilate, and then laboriously reconstruct. Our
first farmers chopped down the forests and shade trees, took crop
after crop of the same kind from the land, exhausted the soil, and
made bare the country; they hunted and fished, destroying first
the wild animals, then the birds, and finally the fish, till in many
places these ceased utterly from the face of the earth; and then,
when they had fished their work, that race of gentlemen moved
west to renew the same course of destruction. After them came
the restorers; they manured the land, left it fallow, put in prac-
tice the rotation of crops, planted shade and fruit trees, discovered
that birds were useful in destroying insects and worms, passed laws
to protect them where they were not utterly extinct, as with the
pimnated grouse of Pennsylvania and Long Island, and will I
predict, ere long re-stock the streams, rivers and ponds, with the
best of the fish that once inhabited them.” :

A home question for our subject would be,—In the hands of which
class of men does this Colony now find itself? And I fear the
unhesitating answer of the impartial stranger and visitor would be,
that in all regarding the preservation of our living natural re-
sources, we were in the hands of the destroyers. The course of
destruction so ably depicted by the author quoted, is being prose-
cuted throughout the length and breadth of Nova Scotia, and the
settlers of this Province blind to their own interests, careless of
their children, and utterly regardless of restramt imposed by the
laws of the country, worse than useless because not carried out. are
bringing about the final depopulation of our large wild lands and
waters. It really becomes a question as to whether late interference
shall arrest the tide of destruction ere the entire extermination of
fish and game shall bring the country to a sense of its loss, and
finally to a wish for their reproduction.

In such a’state of affairs, Provincial Acclimatization would prove
an empty speculation, for any new animal or bird introduced into

HARDY — ON PROVINCIAL ACCLIMATIZATION. 23

our woodlands requiring freedom from molestation for a term of
years, would be quickly hunted down and destroyed.

Leaving, however, these important questions of protection or
extinction of already-existing indigenous species in the hands of
those who hold the means of ordering these matters, I will now
call your attention to what might be done to increase our stock of
useful wild or domestic animals, birds or fish, could they be insured
the necessary wardship. We will consider first whether our large
woodland districts demand and would bear foreign colonization, and
for what types their physical conformation seems best adapted.

Even in its most undisturbed and wildest depths the North
American forest has always been noted for its solitude ; the meaning
being the great disproportion of the animal to the vegetable king-
dom. It seems as if nature had exhausted her energies in shading
the ground with the dense forest and the rank vegetation which
every where seizes on the rough surface beneath. It is impossible
to say to what extent animal life might have once existed in the
primeval forest; but no one who has taken a day’s walk in the
woods, either near to or far from the haunts of man, can fail being
impressed with the apparent absence of animal life. The European
visitor, in a suburban ramble through the bush, wonders at the
scarcity of game birds, rabbits, or hares, but is astonished when told
that in the deepest recesses of the wild country he will see but little
increase of their numbers. A canoe paddled through lake after
lake of our great highways of water communication, will see but a
few pairs or broods of exceedingly timid waterfowl, where in
Europe they would literally swarm. Surely then, here is room for
the work of Acclimatization, in a country where so much toil is
undergone in the often fruitless pursuit of sport.

The undergrowth of our wild forest lands, the field for Acclima-
tization which we have under immediate consideration, consists of
an immense variety of shrubs, under-shrubs, and herbs, annual or
perennial. ‘The under-shrubs generally bear the various descrip-
tions of berries, and with great profusion. ‘There are here and
there wild pastures, or intervales, by the edge of sluggish water,

but they bear but a small proportion to the woodlands; the bogs -

and barrens produce moss in abundance, and of the kind found in
every part of the world where the reindeer is indigenous, or has
been successfully introduced, as in Iceland.

°

24. HARDY—ON PROVINCIAL ACCLIMATIZATION.

We find accordingly, that our largest ruminant, the moose-deer,
is in the strictest sense of the word a wood-eater; whilst our other
animal representing this class, the American reindeer, or carriboo,
is found in those portions of the Province where large and seldom
disturbed plains and bogs afford him his favorite moss, the lichen
(range ferius). As amongst the larger animals, ruminants alone
offer a selection for introduction into a forest country with the
physical attributes of Nova Scotia, we may ask if there is any other
animal of the deer tribe which might be successfully acclimatized
here. The answer comes through careful consideration of the
fauna and flora of other regions compared with our own. ‘The
field naturally presenting itself for this research lies in the forest
districts of America further west, and in northern Europe, which,
under similar climatic influences, presents a strong analogy to this
portion of the globe, especially on its western seaboard ; the forest
trees and shrubs, the larger animals, the birds and the fish of
Norway and Sweden, are almost reproduced in British North
America ; indeed, distinction of species In many cases is far from
established.

*The red deer then, of Maine and the Canadas, and more
recently of New Brunswick, by spontaneous acclimatization, or
perhaps rather through the instrumentality of the wolf, appears to
be perfectly adapted for an existence in the Nova Scotian woods—a
graceful species, but little inferior to the red deer of Europe, afford-
ing the excellent venison with which the New York and Boston
markets are so well supplied. The climate of Nova Scotia’, allow-
ing so little snow to accumulate in the woods until the close of the
winter, would prove a great safeguard against the wholesale des-
truction with which it meets in Maine and New Brunswick, where
it is continually in a most helpless condition from the depth of snow
throughout the winter. Indeed, it is already with us, for a small
herd of healthy animals may now be seen at Mr. Downs’ gardens,
to whom the country is already indebted for many an unassisted
attempt at real practical acclimatization.

The only other ruminant on the list of this order indigenous to
climates similar to our own, is the hardy little roe-deer or roe-buck,
common in the beech woods of northern Europe. I am confident

——= — eae as oe 5 — so wi —

sk

* Cervus Virginianus.

HARDY --ON PROVINCIAL ACCLIMATIZATION. 25

that this animal would thrive in the hard woods of Cumberland ;
and as it seems to live and thrive close to civilization, it would find
ample room and food in our suburban copses and uncleared barrens.
Descending in the scale of animal classification, the next selections
for consideration of a future Acclimatization Society in this country,
as adapted to live and multiply and become profitable in the wood-
lands, seem to be offered in the prolific order Ltodentia, of which

many families are already indigenous—the squirrel, beaver, porcu-

pine and American hare, commonly known as the rabbit. ‘The
first of these might receive an interesting accession by the imtro-
duction of the black and grey squirrels of Canada and the States ;
the beaver, porcupine and woodchuck, are all prized by the hunter
as food, lacking the supply of venison, and the latter, persecuted
though it be by human, furred, and feathered foes, is still so
prolific and common, as to form a great portion of the winter
subsistence of both settlers and the poor of this city. Indeed,
when we enumerate its enemies of the animal creation, which
almost altogether live upon it, the lynx and wild cat, the foxes, the
horned owl, the marten and the weasel, and take into considera-
tion the numbers which are taken by man, by snaring them in
their easily discovered paths to and from their feeding grounds in
the swamps, it is wonderful that they still remain so plentiful. <A
great objection to the flesh of the American hare, however, is its
insipidity and toughness, except when taken young. Far more
delicate and esteemed is that of the Spanish, or domestic, and.
common wild English rabbit, (Lepus cuniculus), whilst it would
seem that both are of a sufficiently hardy constitution to stand the
rigours of our winter. ‘The former is already an acclimatized inhab-
itant of the sand banks of Sable Island, according to Dr. Griupin,,.
having been introduced by the honble. Michael Wallace, and
increased amazingly, affording the Islanders many a fresh dinner
when salt junk is plenty and fresh beef scarce. No easier exper-
iment could be made in applied Natural History, than the extensive
breeding of the common grey rabbit by some resident near town, —
whose premises bordered on uncleared bush or scrub. ‘To com-
mence, a large bank of loosely piled earth and stone might be made,
here and there perforated by a length or so of suitable tubing, such
as used for drains, the bank enclosed by wire netting, and a few
4

26 HARDY—ON PROVINCIAL ACCLIMATIZATION.

pairs of rabbits turned in. They would soon tunnel the bank in all
directions, and as the families increased they might be allowed to
escape into the neighbourhood. A fair warren once established
would be the means of a quick colonization of the surrounding
country. And the true rabbit living so constantly under ground,
would enjoy much greater security from animals and birds of prey
than his indigenous congeners.

Still keeping in view the acclimatization of creatures intended to
exist in a state of nature and not for domestication, a division of
the subject which appears to be most feasible and best adapted to
the condition of this Province, let us next turn to the birds.

We have already existing in our woods as game birds, two species
of Tetraonida, or the partridge tribe; the T. umbellus, or the ruffed
grouse ; and the 7. Canadensis, or spruce partridge—as permanent
residents; and as summer visitors the two N. American Scolopacide,
the woodcock and snipe. There is but one representative of the
Phasianide, or pheasant tribe, in North America, the only gift of
the new to the old world, whence the domestic race has sprung, and
that is the wild turkey. It certainly would appear that our large
woodland solitudes offer especial facilities for the introduction of
some new members of the grouse family, birds especially formed for
existence in cold climates. Formerly common in the Scotch pine
forests, now only to be met with in the north of Europe, in Nor-
way, Sweden, and Russia, the magnificent capercaillie or cock of the
wood, (7. wrogallus,) equalling, in the case of the male bird, the
turkey in size, presents so tempting an experiment that it should be
almost introduced regardless of expense. It appears to feed
exclusively on pine shoots. Mr. Bernard, author of a recent work
called “Sport in Norway,” says it is still common in all large forest
districts in that country. I believe this bird loves solitude, and
surely he would find it, if essential to his existence, in some of the
great expanses of coniferous forest which still prevail in most
portions of Nova Scotia. Next in size and beauty might be
selected the black game (T. Tetrix) of the wilder portions of the
British Isles, and numerous in Norway, where it is stated they not
unfrequently cross with the capercaillie. ‘This bird is known to
subsist on the buds and seeds of the alder, on the berries of the
whortleberry, and on the bog cranberry, all of which are so abun-

HARDY=—-ON PROVINCIAL AUCLIMATIZATION. P|

dant in our woods, and of almost identical species. A successful
introduction of this bold, handsome grouse, would add great
interest to the wild sports on the open barrens. The hazel hen of
northern Europe, (7. bonasia), reported to be the best fleshed bird
of the grouse tribe, is another association of a country in which
spruce woods abound. It is exceedingly like our birch partridge

in appearance—a little smaller and wanting the ruff; like the latter,
also, its flesh is white. There are many other northern grouse in
both the old and new worlds, but none that I should import as so
likely to succeed, and as such valuable acquisitions, as the caper-
caillie and the black cock.

With the fact of the introduction and breeding of the English
and gold and silver pheasants at Mr. Downs’ establishment we are
all acquainted; and the most interesting fact is the well-ascertained
capability of the Hnglish pheasant to live and find its own subsist-
ence in our woods through a rigorous winter. Why should not this
experiment be continued?

It is to be feared that those troops of little songsters with which
the fields of England abound, and which have been carefully
acclimatized in Australia for old association sake, would die on
the first near approach of the mercury to zero. Those that are
imported are closely kept within doors. Mr. Downs has two
pairs of the European jackdaw, which he hopes will increase in his
neighbourhood. ‘These interesting and garrulous little members of
the family Corvide, whose young every English boy covets to
obtain and educate te the acquisition of rudimentary speech, would
find but few ivy-mantled towers or venerable steeples in which te
build their nests; but when Gilbert White informs that for want of
church steeples they will build under ground in rabbit burrows, the
new-comers would not be long in devising a remedy for the defect.

As a second consideration in connection with this wide subject,
let us enquire whether any good purpose could be answered by an
attempt at domestication or semi-domestication of our indigenous
ruminants, the moose and the carriboo. When we consider that
these two species are found throughout the old world, under the
same conditions of climate and vegetation which attend them in the
new, it appears unaccountable that we have no historic records of
the subjugation of the carribeo for domestic purposes by the prim-

28 HARDY——-ON PROVINCIAL ACCLIMATIZATICN.

itive Indians of the northern coasts of America, as this animal has
been applied from time immemorial by the Lapps.

An eminent naturalist, Dr. Gray, in delivermg his address in
the Nat. Hist. Section at the late meeting of the British Associa-
tion at Bath, thus alludes to the latter fact : “The inhabitants of
the arctic or sub-arctic regions of Europe and Asia have partially
domesticated the reindeer; and either Asiatics have peculiar
aptitude for domesticating animals, or the ruminants of that part of
the world are peculiarly adapted for domestication ;” and he then
instances a variety of exemphiications, in their having domesticated
the yak in the mountain regions of Thibet and Siberia, the camel
and dromedary in central Asia, in southern Asia the zebra, and im
the Malayan archipelago various species of buffalo and wild cattle.
It may be stated, that modern geological discovery has placed the
original home of the reindeer in the high Alps of central Asia,
whence these animals, followed by their ever-accompanying human
associates, the Lapps, migrated to the northwest of Europe. As a
beast of burden, however, to traverse those treeless wastes answer-
ing to the snow-covered barrens of Lapland, the dog seems to have
answered all the purposes of the Esquimaux and other arctic-
American tribes, whilst in more southerly and wooded regions,
a sledge-drawing animal would have no scope or sphere of employ-
ment. And viewing the animals in this light, the horse and the
ox which have accompanied Europeans, have left no desideratum
that could be supplied by either the moose or the carriboo. There
are, however, several undoubted instances of the applicability of
the moose to draught. A few years since a settler on the
Guysboro’ road, named Carr, possessed a two-year old bull moose,
which was perfectly tractable in harness. For a wager, he has been
known to overtake and quickly distance the fastest trotting horse on
the road, drawing his master in a sleigh, the guiding reims being
fastened to a muzzle bound round the animal’s nose. Another
instance was that of a very large moose kept by a doctor in Cape
Breton, which he would invariably employ in preference to his
horse when wishing to make a distant visit to a patient, and in the
shortest time. It is very certain that im its youth the moose is
one of the most tractable of animals; but it is in the rutting season

HARDY—ON PROVINCIAL ACCLIMATIZATION. 29

of the third year that the males become unmanageable and dan-
gerous.*

The point, however, on which I wish to engage attention, is not
the domestication of either of these animals in the state im which
the ordinary domesticated animals are associated with us, but a
possible state of semi-domestication, by which the moose might be
caused to multiply on uncleared land, and regularly bred, fattened,
and turned to profit without the smallest cost to the owner, except
the expense of maintaining his enclosures in an efficient state of
security. My attention was first drawn to this by reading an
account of the successful breeding of the American elk (C. Wapiti)
by an American gentleman, a Mr. Stratton, of New York State.
I quote from a letter dated January 12, 1859:

‘“My desire to keep and breed them, without their becoming a tax
upon me, led to diligent enquiry in relation to what had been done in
the way of their domestication. I procured, as far as possible, every
paper, book, and document, which could give any light upon the subject.
I wrote to every part of the country whence any information could be
obtained, and opened a correspondence with those who had undertaken
such an enterprise. The result of my efforts was simply this: nearly
every one who had owned an elk was a gentleman amateur, and had
left the care and direction to servants ;—that the bucks, not having been
castrated at the proper age, had become unmanageable :—and when the
novelty of the attempt was over, the domestication in most cases was
abandoned. But from my own inquiries, and a close personal observa-
tion of the habits of the animal, I believed that a different course would
produce a more favorable result. The first requisite was a place to
keep them in. Now, they had always lived in the woods, summer and
winter: why not live in the forest again? Acting on this principle, I
immediately set to work and fenced in about 150 acres of hill land,
which was steep and stony, covered with brushwood and entirely
useless for agricultural purposes. Ju this lot I turned my elks, where
they have been six years. in the meantime I purchased two more does,
and have reared eight fawns. Having emasculated the older bucks as
fast as the younger ones became adults, I have now a herd so gentle,
that a visitor at my farm would hardly imagine that their ancestors, only
three generations back, were wild animals. And this has been done
simply by visiting the park two or three times a week, and always carry-
ing them an ear of corn, some little delicacy, or salt, and treating them
with unvarying kindness.

‘« The facility for extending this business may easily be conceived. -
New York alone might suppert 100,000 elks on land where our domes-
tic cattle could not subsist, furnishing an amount of venison almosé

* Formerly the elk of Europe was used in Sweden to draw sledges, but his use
for this purpose was finally prohibited by government, as criminals used it as a
means of escape.

30 LAWSON—OCCURRENCE OF HEATHER IN CAPE BRETON.

incredible ; while the adjoining State of Pennsylvania, to say nothing of
others, might sustain a still larger number without encroaching upon an
acre of land now used for stock-rearing, or any other purpose connected
with agriculture.”*

Here, then, we have a modern precedent for an experiment
which I am convinced would answer in the case of the moose,
a still larger and more profitable animal than the wapiti. What
an admirable opportunity for utilizing those barren wastes which
surround us! Take for example that large triangular piece of
waste country commencing at Dartmouth, extending along the
shores of the Basin on one side, bounded by the Dartmouth
lakes on the other, and skirted by the railroad from Bedford to
Grand Lake as its base. With the exception of a few clearings
on the shores of the Basin, the whole of this is a wilderness,
containing some 13,000 acres of wild, undulating land, with here
and there thick spruce swamps, mossy bogs, and barrens covered
with a young growth of birch, poplar, and all the food on which
the moose delights to subsist. ‘That they have an especial liking
for this small district may be gathered from the fact that I have
never known it as not containing two or three of these animals.
There is no reason why an experimental farm, conducted on the
principle followed by Mr. Stratton, should not be able to breed
and turn out into this district a very large number of moose, and
in such a state of tameness that they would be induced to remain
within enclosed portions of the wilderness, furnishing, in proper
season, a profitable supply of flesh for the market.

To the carriboo, on the other hand, these suggestions will not be
applicable, as this animal requires, as a primary condition of its
existence, a large and uninterrupted field for periodical migration.

Arr. III. Norice or tHe occurrence or Hearuer (Calluna
vulgaris) at St. Ann’s Bay, Capz Breton Isianp. By Geo.
Lawson, Pu. D., L. L. D., Professor of Chemistry, Dalhousie
College.

[Read December 5, 1864 }
Ir gives me much pleasure to bring under the notice of mem-

bers of the Institute, information and specimens which will, I trust,

*In 1862, Mr. Stratton states that he had succeeded in raising thirty-seven elk.
He had trained a pair to harness, and had sold them for $1,000. Whilst, as an
article of food he can now raise elk cheaper than sheep.

LAWSON—OCCURRENCE OF HEATHER IN CAPE BRETON. 31

be sufficient to show that Calluna vulgaris, the common heather of
Scotland, is a genuine native of our Province of Nova Scotia.
When in Cape Breton Island in August last, I obtained informa-
tion from L. Robertson, Esq., of North Sydney, which led me to
make special enquiry at St. Ann’s, in the County of Victoria. On
reaching that place I found that the Calluna was growing in a_bit
of boggy land among stumps of spruce trees, on an uncleared part
of Ulston Farm, belonging to John Robertson, Esq., President of
the St. Ann’s Agricultural Society, who proceeded with me to the
spot, and informed me that he had known the plant to have ex-
isted there for about ten years. It was originally noticed by a
highlander when mowing, who immediately ran to his master,
exclaiming: “I have found heather!” Full enquiry was made
on the spot as to the whole circumstances, and I could not ascer-
tain any fact tending in the slightest degree to indicate that the
Calluna had been planted at St. Ann’s. On the contrary, I be-
lieve it to be a genuine native. There was only a small patch of
it, not more than a yard across, and it had been pretty well eaten
down by cattle. Mr. Robertson kindly promised to have a fence
put round it to preserve it from farther mjury. The “ surround-
ings” of the heather at St. Ann’s are most appropriate. Both the
scenery and vegetation resemble those of the Scottish Highlands.
The cloudberry (Rubus chamemorus), sandew, and many other
highland plants, were abundant on the neighbouring hills. The
Calluna station is probably not more than one hundred feet above
the sea level.

Within the last few years an animated controversy has been
going on among both European and American botanists as to whe-
ther the Calluna is really indigenous to the American Continent or
to adjacent Islands. This is in reality a matter of great interest in a
strictly scientific point of view, for it has important bearings on the.
questions of distribution, age and origin of species, and therefore,
a reference to the opinions expressed and facts adduced by others,
may not be unacceptable as an appendix to my own observations.

The Calluna is very general throughout Europe, spreading over
extensive tracts of land in Britain, to which it gives the name of
‘“‘heaths,” and over the Continent generally, (not by any means

382 LAWSON—OCCURRENCE OF HEATHER IN CAPE BRETON.

confined to the North,)* and eastward to the Ural Mountains.
That is its eastern limit, for it is not known in Siberia, has been
only erroneously reported from the interior of Northern Asia, and
is not found in North West America. Humboldt,+ after detailing
the distribution of heaths and the relations of the North and
South African species to those of Europe, remarks, in reference to
Calluna vulgaris:

«The accurate knowledge which we now possess of the mean tempera-
ture of several parts of Northern Asia, as well as of the distribution of the
annual temperature into the different seasons of the yeat, affords no sort of
explanation of the cessation of heather to the east of the Ural Mountains.
Joseph Hooker, in a note to his Flora Antarctica, has treated and contrasted
with great sagacity and clearness two very different phenomena whick the
distribution of plants presents to us: on the one hand, ‘ uniformity of sur-
face accompanied by a similarity of vegetation;’ and on the other hand,
‘instances of a sudden change in the vegetation unaccompanied by any diver-
sity of geological or other features.’ * * * * No less striking is the
absence of Calluna vulgaris, and of all the species of Erica throughout all
parts of the Continent of America, while the Ca//una is found in the Azores
and in Iceland. It has not hitherto been seen in Greenland, but was dis-
covered a few years ago in Newfoundland.”

According to Professor Asa Gray, the earliest published an-
nouncement of Calluna vulgaris as an American plant, is that by
Sir William Hooker, in the Index to his Flora Boreali-Americana
(vol. ii. p. 280), issued in 1840, where it is stated that: “This
should have been inserted at page 39, as an inhabitant of New-
foundland, on the authority of De la Pylaie.” Accordingly, in the
seventh volume of De Candolle’s Prodromus, to the European ha-
bitat is added, “ Etiam in Islandia et in Terra Nova Americe
Borealis.” But Dr. Joseph Hooker, in his valuable paper on the
Distribution of Arctic Plants,t observes, “ Calluna vulgaris, L. is
mentioned in De Candolle’s ‘ Prodromus,’ on the authority of a
specimen gathered by La Pylaie, as a native of Newfoundland ; but
I find no confirmation of this habitat, nor is it found in any part
of the American Continent.”

Mr. Bentham had never seen an American specimen, and, re-
marks Prof. Gray, “he also overlooked the fact (to which Dr.

Seemann has recently called attention) that Gisecke, in Brewster's

*T have specimens from Italy.
+ Aspects of Nature. Sabine’s Translation. Vol. ii. pp. 144-147.
¢ Linn. Trans. vol. 23.

LAWSON—-OCCURRENCE OF HEATHER IN CAPE BRETON. 33

Encyclopedia, records it as a native of Greenland. No mention of
it is made by Dr. Lang, in his enumeration of the known plants
of Greenland, appended to Rink’s Geographical and Statistical ac-
count of Greenland, published in 1857,—from which we may infer
that the plant is perhaps as rare and local in Greenland as in New-

1»

foundland, or even in Massachusetts In the American Journal
- of Science for September, 1861, Professor Gray announced the un-
expected discovery, by Mr. Jackson Dawson, of a patch of heath
in Tewksbury, Massachusetts; adding the remark, that: “It may
have been introduced, unlikely as it seems; or we may have to
rank this heath with Scolopendrium officinarum, Subularia aquatica,
and Marsilea quadrifolia, as species of the Old World so sparingly
represented in the New, that they are known only at single sta-
tions,—perhaps late-lingerers rather than new-comers.” Mr.
Rand, after exploring the locality, gave a detailed account of the
case, and of the probabilities that the plant might be truly native,
Professor Gray adding a note to say that the probability very much
~depended upon the confirmation of the Newfoundland habitat. As
to that, Dr. Gray had been verbally informed, in January 1839, by
the late David Don, that he possessed specimens of Calluna col-
lected in Newfoundland by an explorer of that Island. The
Tewksbury habitat was fully described to me and interesting details
afforded by Professor Hitchcock, junr., with whom I was a fellow-
passenger through Massachusetts in November of last year. Mr.
C. J. Sprague took up the subject, and after searching in vain for
any publication of Pylaie’s containing mention of this heath in
Newfoundland, and finding that no specimen was extant in Pylaie’s
herbarium, or elsewhere that he could trace, he took a sceptical
view, and in the Proceedings of the Boston Natural History So-
ciety for February and for May, 1862, he argued plausibly from
negative evidence, against the idea that any native heath had ever
been found in Newfoundland or on the American Continent.
However, in the Natural’ History Review for April, 1864, Mr.
Hewett C. Watson supplied the following additional evidence of
the existence of Calluna in Newfoundland :—

‘Specimens of Calluna vulgaris from Newfoundland have very recently

come into my hands under circumstances which seem to warrant its reception
henceforth as a true native of that Island. At the late sale of the Linnzean

34 LAWSON—OCCURRENCE OF HEATHER IN CAPE BRETON.

Society’s Collections in London, in November, 1863, I bought a parcel of
specimens, which was endorsed outside, ‘A collection of dried plants from
Newfounsiland, collected by — McCormack, Esq., and presented-to Mr.
David Don.’ The specimens were old, and greatly damaged by insects.
Apparently, they had been left in the rough, as originally received from the
collector; being in mingled layers between a scanty supply of paper, and
almost all of them unlabelled. Among these specimens were two flowerless
branches of the true Oalluna vulgaris, about six inches long, quite identical
with the common heath of our British moors. Fortunately, a label did ac-
company these two specimens, which runs thus: ‘ Head of St. Mary’s Bay—
Trepassey Bay, also very abundant. 8S. H. of Newfoundland considerable
tracts of it.’ The name Hrica vulgaris has been added on the label in a
different handwriting. All the other species in the parcel (or nearly all)
have been recorded from Newfoundland, so that there appeared no cause for
doubt respecting the Cal/una itself. And, moreover, the collector had seem-
ingly some idea that an especial interest would attach to the Calluna, since
in this instance he gave its special locality, and also added two other localities
on the label. But there is very likely some mistake in the name of the donor
to Mr. Don. It is believed by Sir William Hooker that he was the same
Mr. W. E. Cormack, whose name is frequently cited for Newfoundland ,
plants in the Flora Boreali-Americana. This gentleman was a merchant in
Newfoundland, to which he made several voyages. We should recollect that
the Calluna advances to the extreme western limits (or out-liers) of Europe,
in Iceland, Ireland, and the Azores. The step thence to Newfoundland and
Massachusetts, though wide, is not an incredible one.”’

I hope that some gentleman in Newfoundland will be mduced
to take the trouble of instituting the necessary inquiries to elicit
some more definite information as to the Newfoundland habitat.
So many other shrubs have been mistaken for heather in Nova
Scotia and other parts of the world, that it is necessary to accom-
pany any observations with specimens from the locality.

The occurrence of this common European plant in such small
quantities in isolated localities on the American Continent, is very
instructive, and obviously points to a period when the heath was a
widely-spread social plant in North America as it still is in Europe,
where oft-recurring fires are yearly lessening its range. ‘The late
Professor Edward Forbes, Dr. Joseph Hooker and Mr. Darwin, all
agree in advocating a southern migration of northern types ‘due to
the cold epochs preceding and during the glacial,” and since Dr,
Hooker has shown that the Arctic flora is essentially a Scandina-
vian one, there is no difficulty in finding in this theory an explana-
tion of the way in which Calluna might have reached the eastern
coast of America. There are, however, other explanations. At
last meeting of the Institute, our President ever active in the cause

LAWSON——-ON LEMANIA. 35

of science, showed us an extremely interesting specimen of a bird
that is apparently fast following the Dodo, and may soon become
extinct, if not so already. In Calluna we have probably an example
of a species on the verge of extinction as an American species, while
maintaining a vigorous and abundant growth in Europe. If so,
may not Europe be indebted to America for Calluna, and not

America to Europe? But I must not open up so important a

question as the origin and history of our species, while so little is
known of the botany of the Maritime Provinces of British America.

In a letter from Professor Asa Gray, of Harvard, October 4,
1864, to whom I had sent a specimen of the Calluna from St.
Ann’s, he remarks: “I am much interested in the smallness of the
amount of the plant in your station,—just as in that in this State,
—confirming my view that it is now a mere remnant of what was
once more diffused.”

Art. IV. Nore on LeEMANIA VARIEGATA oF AGARDH. By
Grorce Lawson, L.L.D., Ph. D., Professor of Chemistry and
Natural History in the Queen’s University of Canada.

{Read December 5, 1864.]

THE correction of errors in science is a very slow process. In
the first part of the second volume of Bishop Agardh’s “Species
Algarum,” published in 1828, an alga said to have been found
‘Sin fluviis Americe borealis,’ was described under the name of Le-
mania variegata. Agardh’s original description of the plant
appears, however, to have been published in the Stockholm Trans-
actions in 1814, to which I have no means of access at the present
time. The specimen upon which the species was founded had been
given to Agardh by Olaf Swartz, his first master in Algology, who
obtained it from the collector, the Rev. Dr. Muhlenberg, of Lan-
caster, in Pennsylvania. Not having been met with by subsequent
observers, Lemania variegata has been looked upon as a long-lost
plant.

In a parcel of specimens of cryptogamic plants sent to me in

August 1862, by Mr. John Macoun, of Belleville, Canada West, a

*Read before the Botanical Society of Edinburgh, 9th April, 1863.

30 LAWSON—ON LEMANIA.

most zealous and successful explorer, I at once recognized a
Lemania, remarkable for its extremely rigid, prominently monoli-
form, curved filaments, attenuated towards the base and apex,
and regularly marked throughout by alternate bands, dark and
white,—agreeing, in fact, very well with Agardh’s description
of L. variegata. I doubted not that the Belleville plant was
conspecific with that of Agardh, and probably the identical form
described in the “Species) Algarum.” Accordingly, 1 gave a
description of the plant in the Edin. New Phil. Jour., N.S., vol.
xvii. No. 1, July 1863. My description was scarcely published
when an opportunity presented itself of my personally visiting the
habitat for the Lemania, River Trent, along with its discoverer Mr.
Macoun, and a careful examination led to a modification of my views.
The plant is indeed apparently the same as that described by
Agardh, but it is certainly not different specifically from Lemania
torulosa, with which Harvey had indicated the probable identity of
Agardh’s plant (in Nereis.)

Lemania, Bory.

Generic character.—¥ronds_ bristle-like, rising in clusters from a
common adherent base, cartilaginous or corneous, continuously
tubular, more or less nodose (brown, dull green, blackish or parti-
coloured), the tube membrane composed of two distinct closely
adherent strata of cells, those of the outer stratum minute, iregu-
larly polygonal, closely united pavement-wise in radiating groups,
those of the inner stratum rounded and not conformable, much
larger than the others. Spores (so called by authors) in seriated
stalked tufts, inside the swollen joints of the tube, and arising
either-from a central axis (according to Dr. W. J. Thomson), or
from the inner peripheral layer of cells, or from both.

This genus, named Lemania by Bory, in honour of M. Lemain
of Paris, “a modest naturalist not less learned in botany than in the
other branches of science,” embraces three species of aquatic alge
of very remarkable aspect and structure, which grow attached to
stones, rocks, wood, &c., in the bottoms. of shallow, rapid, fresh-
water streams. Unlike most fresh-water alge, they have dense,
compact tissue, giving them firm consistence; they are rich in
nitrogen, and when burned yield ammoniacal vapors. ‘The plant

LAWSON-~~ON LEMANIA. ot

usually consists of a little tuft of stiff erect or curved bristle-like
fronds, which adhere by a common discoid root to submerged
objects. The minute structure of these plants has been illustrated
very fully by authors at different times, from Vaillant (1727)
downwards, with singularly conflicting results. ‘The most recent
and perhaps most valuable contribution that has been made to the
history of Lemania, is the remarkably lucid description of Dr. W.
J. Thomson, in the Transactions of the Botanical Society of Edin-
burgh, vol. vi. page 248, to which I would refer observers as an
excellent basis for further inquiry, although I have been unable
(probably from my specimens being too matured) to confirm some
of Dr. Thomson’s results. Mr. Thwaites of Ceylon has carefully
studied the early developement of the frond, and states that the
spores at first vegetate into slender confervoid filaments, with long
joints containing spirally arranged endochroms. ‘The filaments
constitute a sort of prothallus or pro-embryo, the initial state of
the plant. After a time thick branchlets, the germs of the perfect
and permanent frond, spring from the. cells of the confervoid
filament; they are at first wholly dependent upon the cell from
which they rise, but soon acquire rootlets at their base, and, rapidly
elongating, grow into the densely cellular, opaque, cartilaginous
bristle-like tubes, so characteristic of the mature plant in this genus.

i. L. fluviatilis, internodes longer than nodes==(Confervia fluviatilis
lubrica setosa, Equiseti facie, Horse-tail River Conferva, Dillenius,
Hist. Musc., tab. vii. fig. 47. Conferva fluviatilis, Linn., Mohr,
Roth., &c. Polysperma fluviatilis, Vawch. Chantransia fluviati-
lis, DC. Lemaniacorollina, Bory. Nodularia fluviatilis, Lyngb.)
This is the more common British species which I gathered in
quantity in a stream on the Ochil Hills, near Stirling, in 1857.
It has also been recorded as growing near Bangor (Dillenius), in
Winterbourne Stream, Lewes (W. Borrer); at Hamsell, and at
the waterfall at Harrison’s rocks (H. Jenner); Aberdeen, abun-
dant (Professor Dickie, M.D.); Ireland, frequent (D. Moore);
Scandinavia, Germany, France, Corsica; Sackville river, Nova
Scotia, adhering to stones.

B. tuberculosa = (Nodularia fluviatilis ramosa, Lyngb.) Denmark.

. 7 media = (Conferva fluviatilis, Dillw., E.B., t. 1763). England.

6. fucina ="(Lemania fucina, Bory. Chantransia dichotoma, DC.)
France, chiefly in Bretagne.

#. subtilis = (Lemania subtilis, Agardh, in Act. Holm. 1814, t. 2,
f. 4, Kutzing.) Sweden, &c.

i» gob

on

38 DOWNS—-ON LAND BIRDS OF NOVA SCOTIA.

6. L. torulosa, internodes equalling the nodes = (Conferva fluviatilis
nodosa Fucum emulans, Sea Horse-tail-like Conferva, Dill. Hist.
Muse. tab. vii. fig. 48. Conferva torulosa, Roth., Mohr., Dillw.,
&c. Temania incurvata, Bory.) Recorded as occurring in
mountain streams near Ludlow, Salop (Dillenius), Anglesea
(Rev. H. Davies); also in France, Germany, Kentucky, United
States (Dr. Short in Harvey, Nereis).

7. & usneoides = (Conferva usneoides, Wallr.) Saxony.

8. L. variegata = (Hippuris fluviatilis petrea nuda Virginiensis,
Pluk.) Belleville, Canada West (J. Macoun.) United States,
Pennsylvania? (Muhlenberg).

Probably ZL, fluv, * subtilis, and L. torulosa, 6 usneoides, may be
found, on investigation, to be well-marked species. The various
forms deserve a careful examination, and I would beg to direct the
attention of British betanists te the subject.

Arr. V. On tor Lanp Brirps or Neva Scoria
By A. Downs.

[Read Jan. 9, 1865.}

To the casual visitor, Nova Scotia would appear to be very
deficient in bird life, and to a certain extent this condition is appa-
rent even to the settler, for in certain seasons of the year and
in winter, the interior districts seem altogether deserted by
members of the feathered tribe. The lumberer will tell you that
his monotonous life in the woods at the latter season, is rarely
cheered by the presence of birds, and save and except the peeping
cry of the black cap, and Hudson’s Bay tit, and the brown
creeper, with an occasional harsh note from the Canada jay, or a
“chip” from the red squirrel, no sound beside the creaking
branches of the maple, or the melancholy sough of the pine, is
heard to break the death-like silence which reigns around. An
English settler will not fail to notice the difference which exists
between the scarcity of birds around his country house here and in
the old country. Here a few blue birds or titmice are the only
specimens seen about dwellings, while in England flocks of vocifer-
ous sparrows are feeding in the yard, and many a black bird,
thrush, hedge-sparrow, and green linnet, haunt the garden and
orchard, taking their toll from the gooseberry and currant bushes.

DOWNS=-ON LAND BIRDS OF NOVA SCOTIA. 39

This scarcity of birds renders a residence in British North
America by no means so pleasing as it otherwise would be, if the
hours of early morning were enlivened by the merry chirpings of
our feathered favourites; and although some may be inclined to
think that the presence or absence of birds has little to do with our
happiness so long as prosperity attends our worldly condition, they
will surely ‘acknowledge that the song of birds, attached as it
always is to the season of summer, when the flowers exhale their
perfume and the bursting leaves give fragrance to the breeze, tends
to elevate our feelings, and make us realize the full benefit we enjoy
in the contemplation of these pleasing scenes of nature.

It may not be out of place here to consider for a moment whe-
ther we should not derive benefit from the acclimatization of some
of these household birds of England. ‘Take the common sparrow
for instance. What a treat it would be to'see these saucy fellows
preening their feathers on our roofs, and collecting in dozens round
our doors to pick up the scraps, and I would even go so far as to
say, gobbling up the cherries in our gardens; for who would not
make a sacrifice of some kind, to colonize his domain with such a
family of merry friends. It is often said that the cold of a Nova
Scotian winter would soon kill the English bird; but how is it, I
ask, that many of these birds.are found in Germany and all parts
of Northern Europe, where the cold is often as great as we have it
here. ‘Then the birds I speak of are more of a domestic type,
keeping near dwellings, and apparently preferring the society of
man. If, therefore, during the hardest weather we took care to
feed them daily, as we do the poultry, our barns and outhouses
and spruce thickets would afford them sufficient shelter at night.
I think it is worth a trial.

In the following list it will be observed that no less than eigh-
teen different species of true warblers visit us in summer. Some
of these are remarkable for the beauty of their plumage, and even
more so for their song.

To him who is blest with a desire to retire from the busy hum
of men, and amid the seclusion of the forest to study in nature’s
school, a bright sunny morning at the end of May, when the hard
woods are expanding their newly-formed leaves, presents a scene
which no pen could properly describe. Fitting about from tree to

ae

40 DOWNS—ON LAND BIRDS OF NOVA: SCOTIA.

tree, these gaudy plumaged little songsters sing their melodious
song, while the sunbeams dance in the shadowy glades, or flash
upon the varnished leaves which rustle to the balmy western
breeze. Up and down, round and round, chasing each other, dart-
ing from thicket to thicket, these merry little migrants from sun-
nier climes pursue in wanton playfulness their mates, or catch their
insect prey; while at intervals they mount the topmost branches of
birch or maple, and with distended throat and excited look pour
forth their dulcet strains. Hard must be the heart of that man
who is not moved at the scene around him, or as my worthy master
in ornithology, Mr. Waterton, truly says in his ever memorable
** «Wanderings in the South American forests’—heedless and bank-
rupt in all curiosity must he be, who cannot pause to look upon
the towering mora tree, or listen to the distant bell note of the
snow-white campanero.”’

But I fear my prefatory remarks are becoming too long and
tedious. I will therefore pass on to my notes upon sixty-one dif-
ferent species of land birds, which will occupy my first paper upon
the “‘ Birds of Nova Scotia;” and should the present list prove
interesting to the members of our Institute, I shall have great
pleasure in following it up with others, and complete, if life and
health be spared me, a perfect catalogue of all the birds that haye
been observed in the Province to the present time.

THe Gotpen Eacie—(Aquila chrysaetos).—A specimen of
this rare bird was taken in a fox trap uninjured, at Newport, in
the winter of 1856. I first became acquainted with this bird in a
garret, and he was so pugnacious, attacking Dr. Buskirk and my-
self with such fury, that I had to seize a broomstick to keep him
off. Mr. Scarfe kept him for a year or more in a back yard oppo-
site Mr. John Esson’s, but at last he made his escape.

BaLp-HEADED EaGLE—(Haliactus leucocephalus).—This bird is
pretty common on the eastern coast of this Province. At Tangier
their nests occur on the topmost branches of blasted pines and other
trees. The nests are of large size and formed of sticks, and are
always placed in an almost inaccessible position. ‘This powerful
bird when wounded throws itself upon its back on the approach of
the sportsman, and with glaring eyes dashes out its huge talons
with the utmost fury, renderimmg its capture by no means easy.

DOWNS-— ON LAND BIRDS OF NOVA SCOTIA. 4]

Some years ago, when [| lived in town, | kept a pair of these eagles
tame in my yard. One day Capt. Sir Richard Grant, R. N., came
rushing in, in a great hurry, calling out—‘ Downs, your eagles

35

are on the house and will get away,” as he didn’t know it was a
common resting place for them. I afterwards gave these eagles to
Capt. Dickson, the son of Sir Jeremiah Dickson, who many of you
will recollect, and he took them to England with him. The female
‘is extremely savage, for one in my collection when first taken at
Tangier seized a child, and had killed several cats belonging to the
miners. here is a dispute among naturalists as to whether there
be two distinct varieties of this bird. The fact is, that the young
birds do not assume the perfect plumage of white head and tail
until the third year, and this immature state has no doubt given
rise to the supposition. I am quite certam of the fact of the
plumage requiring three years to mature, having one in my posses-
sion at the present time, which is just assuming the white head.
In the month of June, some years ago, when that ardent naturalist
the Rev. Mr. Torre, Secretary to Lord Falkland, was here, in com-
pany with him I visited the Shubenacadie, collecting specimens.
We came upon the nesting place of these birds, situate on the
precipitous cliffs beyond the Grand Lake. The young were sitting
on the ledges of the rock high up, and screaming vociferously for
food, which rendered the solitude of the place doubly felt.
Thousands of night hawks were dashing over the river in chase of
their insect prey as the sun was setting behind the dense mass of
forest in the west, and as the wild notes of the birds echoed from
the surrounding rocks, we stayed our paddles to rest for a while,
and listen to this charming music of the wilderness.
OspreY—(Pandion haliactus)—This bird is very common on
our Atlantic coast, breeding im the vicinity of most harbours. I do
not think that he ever troubles the settlers by making raids upon
the poultry yards, as he appears to be a worthy inhabitant of
Nova Scotia—a pure fisherman. Poising himself for a while in
mid-air, he is suddenly seen to dash headlong to the water, and
rise immediately with a large fish in his talons. ‘This he carries to
his eyrie, generally situated on the topmost branches of a storm-
bleached rampike. If I were to state the quantity of sticks of
which the nests of this bird is composed, you would surely think

9)

42 DOWNS—-ON LAND BIRDS OF NOVA SCOTIA.

me guilty of exaggeration, for an ordinary cart would hardly hold
it. He sets a good example to commissariat officials in looking far
ahead in the furnishing of his larder, so much so that it sometimes
becomes offensive from the effluvia arising from the superabund-
ant food left unconsumed. I kept a nest of the young of this
species in my collection last year.

Ick Fatcon—(Falco Icelandicus).—I only know of one instance of
this bird occurring in Nova Scotia. This was taken at the mouth
of the harbour here in an exhausted condition on board a ship, and
died shortly after it came into my possession. This is more prop-
erly a European bird.

GosHawk—(Astur Atricapillus)—This bird is far too common—
a perfect villam among poultry. Even a few days ago he carried
off a beautiful little call duck belonging to my neighbour, Mr.
Drillio; a pet pigeon from Capt. Hugonin, and also a call duck
from me. I lost many fancy pigeons of great value last year by
one of these birds ; in fact every one, more or less, on the peninsula
and about the head of the Arm, suffers annually from his depre-
dations. [cannot inventa name bad enough for him. The young
of this bird for the first year is so different from the adult, that
many persons not well acquainted with the bird would consider
these varieties as distinct species.

Rovcu-Leccep Buzzarp—(Buteo lagopus.)—Very rare, and
only occasionally shot on his migrations to the north. It is a
handsome bird, feathered to the toes. I once possessed a splendid
specimen, which I stuffed.

ReEp-TaILeD Buzzarp—(B. borealis).—I have a living specimen
of this bird in my possession now. He was taken in the garden
at the Ordnance Yard, in the act of seizing a pet crow belonging to
Mr. Pengelley. A soldier caught him in his hands. One day the
Chief Justice brought Mr. Livesey out to my place, and on my
telling the former that I had tried and condemned my specimen for
attempted murder, Mr. Livesey said “he has evidently made a bad
use of his talents (talons).”

RED-sHOULDERED Buzzarp—(B. lineatus).—This bird is of rare
occurrence. I have only seen two specimens.

Hey, or Mars Harrrer—(Circus Hudsonicus)—This bird
appears to have the widest range of any hawk known, being found

DOWNS —ON LAND BIRDS OF NOVA SCOTIA. 48

in all parts of Europe, Asia, Africa, and America, even- to the
Equator. It is always known by the white rump, which occurs in
all changes of its plumage from youth to maturity. In habit it is
cruel, though cowardly, searching everywhere for victims, but
selecting them only from weak and helpless objects. It preys
upon moles, mice, young birds, and is very destructive to young
game: nor does it spare fish, snakes, or even worms. I once took
two green snakes from the crop of one of these birds. The
slender body and elegant shape distinguish this species from others
of the genus.

Picton Hawx—(falco columbarius.)—This species is common
in Nova Scotia, breeding in all the wooded parts of the colony.
It is not troublesome to the farmer, only feeding upon the smaller
birds. On my recent visit to Boston, while on my passage about
half way across the Bay of Fundy, while I lay sick in my berth on
board the ‘“ Delta,” I was suddenly hailed by Mr. Cunard, who
said a live bird had just come on board. Refreshed by the intelli-
gence, I jumped up on deck, and found a sailor with a_ beautiful
little pigeon-hawk in his hand, which had been taken in the rigging ;
General Doyle called for some meat, a portion of which he con-
sumed. Unfortunately, after my putting him into a box, a steward,
while feeding him, pulled one of the laths off, and just as we
made Cape Ann, our little friend flew up the gangway and hasted
ashore—thus getting his passage free, all found.

SHARP-SHINNED Hawk —(Astur fuscus).— Common. Breeds
all over the Province. Like the pigeon hawk, it does not molest
the poultry yards, being too weak and puerile to attack large prey.

Sparrow Hawk — (Falco sparverius).— Savage and bold in
habit, this little bird, swift of flight, attacks even a canary at the
cottage window. It is happily not very common. I once raised a
nest of young ones, four in number, which afterwards died. Its
plumage is very rich—black, brown, and white, deeply marked and-
distinct.

Hawk Owt—(Strix funerea).—This bird is in some years very
abundant in winter time, but may not be seen again for four or five
years. It is common in Newfoundland, where it breeds in the
cariboo districts. I have often kept living specimens in confine-
ment, taken sometimes on board the Cunard steamers off the coast.

44 DOWNS —ON LAND BIRDS OF NOVA SCOTIA.

GREAT-HORNED Own—(Bubo Virginianys).—1 have now in
my collection two of these birds, which I have had for seyeral
years. ‘The female is a very fierce bird, and has a certificate of bad
character nailed on her cage. She murdered her husband, and ate
him, and from her dignified deportment has been named by visiters
“The Lord Chancellor.” She is black with murder, treason,
sacrilege, and crime, and was presented to me by Mr. J. M. Jones.

SNowy Owi—(S. nyctea).— This bird is common here in win-
ter, and breeds in Newfoundland. It appears that in some winters
these birds traverse the North American continent in flocks. Last
winter they made their appearance in great numbers in different
parts of Canada.

Barred Own, —(Syrnium nebulosum).— This bird is a resident,
never migrating from the colony. It breeds in the woods in all
parts. It feeds on hares and ruffed and spruce grouse. ‘The eye
of this species is round and bluish-black in colour, while all the
other owls have yellow eyes. This is the bird that disturbs the
midnight slumber of the moose hunter and lumberer, coming near
the camp fire and peering into the glare, which gives it a demoniacal
appearance. Distending its throat and pushing its head forward, it
gives vent to an unearthly sound, which to the superstitious is all
but overcoming. While moose hunting some years ago, a colored
man of kindred taste, by name Cornelius Toliver, one evening
at the camp fire while listening to the hooting of this owl, related
a superstitious tale regarding the appearance of his brother’s wife
after death, a circumstance of which he seemed greatly in dread.

LonG-EARED Own

CS. otus).— Very rare in the colony, but is
flushed occasionally when sportsmen are woodcock shooting.
SHort-EARED Owi—(S. brachyotos ).—Occurs here but rarely.
I have a specimen which was taken alive on board the R. M.S.
Canada, off Cork, Ireland, about two years ago.
TENGMALMI’s Ow.

(Noctua Tengmalmi).— Not common here,
but abundant in Newfoundland. I stuffed two of these pretty little
birds for a passenger in the “Osprey,” who brought them to me
alive, having captured them on board that ship off Cape Ray.
Acaptan Ow1.—This bird is known to the Indians and settlers
as the “‘saw-weet,” from its emitting a cry somewhat like that

word. Capt. Bland, R. E., and Mr. George Piers had a living

DOWNS —ON LAND BIRDS OF NOVA SCOTIA. 45

specimen of this bird which they put into a room with a live rat.
He immediately attacked and killed the rat, but died shortly after-
wards, having apparently overtaxed his strength in his efforts,
which will not be wondered at when we consider that the weight
of this little assassin is but two ounces and a copper.

Wurp-poor- Witt—( Caprimulgus vociferus).—This bird used to
breed here regularly near Hosterman’s mill at the head of the Arm.

IT once heard one crying by my pond close to the house at mid-
night; but alas! from causes unknown, we no longer hear the
plaintiff cry of the Whip-poor-Will. Waterton, speaking of this
bird in the forests of Demerara, under the name of ‘goatsucker,”’
thus proceeds—The harmless, unoffending goatsucker, from the
time of Aristotle down to the present day, has been in disgrace
with man. Father has handed down to son, and author to author,
that this nocturnal thief subsists by milking the flocks. Poor
injured little bird of night, how sadly hast thou suffered, and how
foul a stain has inattention to fact, put upon thy character! Thou
hast never robbed man of any part of his property, nor deprived
the kid of a drop of milk.” When the moon shines bright, you
may have a fair opportunity of examining the goatsucker. You
will see it close by the cows, goats, and sheep, jumping up every
now and then under their bellies. Approach a little nearer,—he
is not shy, ‘‘he fears no danger, for he knows no sin.” See how
the nocturnal flies are tormenting the herd, and with what dexterity
he springs up and catches them as fast as they alight.on the belly,
legs, and udder of the animals. Observe how quiet they stand,
and how sensible they seem of his good offices. Were you to dis-
sect him and inspect his stomach, you would find no milk there.
It is full of the flies which have been annoying the herd.

Niegur Hawk—(C. Virginianus).— This very common bird
breeds on all blueberry barrens throughout the colony. It rarely
visits us until the warm weather of June arrives, and departs for
the south before the first frosts of autumn arrive. ‘They lay two
pretty mottled eggs on the bare ground.

SPINE-TAILED Cu1imNEY SwaLLow—(Hirundo pelasgia).—Very
common, building its nest in a chimney formed of little sticks,

glued together with a glutinous substance, somewhat like the edible
bird nests of China.

46 DOWNS—-ON LAND BIRDS OF NOVA SCOTIA.

PurreLE MaArtTIN

(H. purpurea).—This bird visits us every
summer, but does not appear to like the place, as we are perhaps
too near the sea coast. I have offered it every opportunity for
breeding, to no purpose. When our Institute visited Windsor, at its
first field meeting in the summer of 1863, I saw some of these birds
looking for a convenient place to nest in about the Clifton House;
and I am sure they would breed there if suitable boxes were
provided for them, as they appear to delight to breed about inland
hotels in the United States, where they are always provided with
martin houses. In the western States, the Indians put up hollow
gourds on poles for their accommodation.

WHuitsE-BELLIED Martrin—(H. bicole).—Breeds freely in boxes
at my house and Halifax. It is the earliest swallow we have,
arriving here about St. George’s day. It is not gregarious in habit.

Cruirr Swattow—(H. fulvus).—This bird is very different in
its habits from the latter species, building its nest of mud, while the
other uses straw and feathers. It also likes the society of its
fellows, always building in company in positions like the Dockyard,
old Barracks, Province Building, and Dartmouth church, from
which latter place I am sorry to say it has been driven away by
having its nesting places built up. What would Waterton say to
such inhospitality? I saw this bird breeding about the cliffs of the
rocks overhanging the Shubenacadie, in numbers.

Bank SwaLttow—(H. riparia).—Not found about Halifax, but
is plentiful about the shores of the Basin of Minas, where it builds
in the banks. Mr. Torre shot one for a specimen when entering
its hole to feed its young. We counted about two hundred flies in
its mouth and throat.

Barn Swattow—(H. rustica).—Is very common, breeding in
most of the barns of the country. It is a good architect, like the
cliff swallow, building a mud house for its young.

Bettev KinerisHer—(Alcedo alcyon).—This is a very common
bird all over the Province. It builds its nest in a bank, high above
the water at the end of a tunnel about two feet long. It lays six fine
pearly white eges. It pays frequent visits to my pond, sitting upon
the dead branch of a tree, from which it occasionally makes a
plunge for a fish. I think this bird might be kept in confinement,
like the Laughing Jackass of Australia, another member of the

DOWNS—ON LAND BIRDS OF NOVA-SCOTIA. 47

genus. The note of this bird is very similar to the “whir” of a
watchman’s rattle, and is more frequently emitted during the breed-
ing season.

Tyrant Fry-catcHer, or Kine-prrp—(Muscicapa tyrannus).—
Inland, but rare on the sea coast. At Londonderry, Windsor, &c.,
it is by no means a scarce bird. They are very useful on farms as
watch-birds, driving away hawks from the poultry yards. This
bird ought undoubtedly to be carefully preserved by all farmers, for
he may well be termed “the farmer’s friend.” He also feeds on
noxious insects. Poor Alexander Wilson paid a tribute to his
worth in a poem, the language of which is so touchingly beautiful,
that apart from all his other publications it is sufficient to raise him
in the estimation of all kind-hearted people.

GREEN-CRESTED Fry-catcHER—(M. Acadica).—Frequents the
woods, and is generally seen: in company with the warblers. It
builds a little hanging nest, usually suspended between the fork
of a small branch, and lays four white eggs.

American Repstart—(M. ruticilla).—This beautiful bird is
very common, arriving generally about the 10th of May. It is
called by the settlers ‘gold-finch.” By no means shy, this little
fly-catcher presents a showy appearance in our woods. Several
pairs breed every year near my house, forming nests similar to
those of the green-crested fly-catcher. Waterton found this species
in the winter season in Demerara, but never knew where it bred.

RED-EYED VirEO—( Vireo olivaceous).—Very common. It used
to breed plentifully in the hardwood groves at Purcell’s Cove, but
I grieve to say that the fishermen living there have cut down nearly
all the trees for fuel, and the poor Vireo has to seek for another
home. His note sounds like “Whip Tom Kelly,” constantly
repeated all day long.

Canapa Fry-catcHER—(Myiodioctes Canadensis).—This species
usually arrives about the 10th of May. Its colour is olive green
with a black cap. It is always found with the warblers, and
appears to be a connecting link between the warbler and fly-
catcher.

Notr.—There is another large species of fly-catcher which I cannot make
out. It frequents the barrens about Grand Lake and Lawson’s Mill. It is very
solitary in habit, and does not make its appearance until the summer is well
advanced. The coloured man Toliver, mentioned before, was generally hailed by

his children when the first note of this bird was heard, with—‘‘ Daddy, here
summer’s come.”

48 DOWNS —ON LAND BIRDS OF NOVA SCOTIA.

Great AMERICAN SHRIKE—(Lanius borealis). —This bird is
common in winter time, and is very daring, attacking even canaries
in cages at a window. I think it breeds north, as it is not observed
here in summer.

Rosty, or Micrarory THruss—(Turdus migratorius).—Of this
bird I need say but little, as all people, old and young, are
cheered by his presence and song in spring. It also. enlivens the
homes of the Newfoundlanders at the same season. Arrives here
about St. Patrick’s day ; a few stop with us all winter.

Hermir THruss — (JZ. solitarius).— Common, although not
generally observed. Its sweet yet melancholy note, given from
the top of a spruce, late in the evening, induces the settlers to
name it “the nightingale.’ It lays four eggs of a blue colour in
a nest on the ground, formed of dry grass and small roots, and is
generally placed under the shade of the ground juniper.

Outvacktous THrusH—(T. olivaceous).— This species may be
readily taken for the last. It makes a far different nest however,
building in trees; the egg is also very different in colour. Its
plumage is more of an olive green, while the former is of a rich
brown.

Car Brron—/(T. felivox ).—This is a common bird, but does not
arrive until the summer is well advanced. It breeds in the alder
swamps about the Dutch Village, and lays four blue eggs. Some
of my neighbours have several of these birds in cages at the present
time. It is the best song bird we have.

GoLDEN-CROWNED THRUSH—(T”. aurocapillus)—Very common
in the wooded districts, but hardly ever seen in the open. It
builds an oven-shaped nest, and lays four eggs. Its note is loud
and rapid and makes the woods ring with its echoes. In habit it
is shy and solitary.

Warrer THrusH—(Cinclus Americanus).—This species is found
about the margins of solitary lakes in the woods, and appears to
delight in running in the shallows, searching for water beetles and
other insects. It has long and slender white legs well suited to its
habits, which are somewhat similar to those of the water wagtails
of England.

American Piprr—(Anthus Ludovicianus ).—TVhis bird generally
arrives here on its way to the south about the 20th September, and

a

DOWNS —ON LAND BIRDS OF NOVA SCOTIA. 49°

only stays a week or ten days. It may frequently be observed
about that date on the stone walls around “ the common,” constantly
wagging its tail up and down. It feeds upon insects and small seeds.

SHorE Larx—(Alauda alpestris )—Generally arrives here from
the south about the end of March, on its way to the north. It

breeds in Newfoundland.

Rep-potL WarsLter—(Sylvicola petechia).—This is the pioneer
of the genus sylvicola, arriving here about St. George’s Day, even
while the snow remains upon the ground. It makes its nest in a
little mossy hillock in swampy places in the woods.

Yettow Rump Warsirer—(S. coronata).—This is the next
visitor, arriving about the Ist of May. It builds its nest at the top
of a pine tree, and lays four little blotched eggs. It is very com-
mon; handsomely marked with lemon yellow on the head, buts of
the wings, and rump. Many people call it a goldfinch.

Briack-pott WarsiER—(S. striata).—Rare. I have shot but
few specimens, and know nothing of its habits.

BAyY-BREASTED WaArBLER—(S. castanea).—This species is not
very common, and frequents pine woods.

CHESNUT-SIDED WarBLER—(S. tctero-cephala).—This gay little
warbler is very common in the birch groves, flitting from tree to
tree, pouring forth its love song in the breeding season.

Hemiock WarsLeER—(S. parus.).—Only one specimen of this
rare visitor has fallen under my notice, which I shot near the
“‘rocking stone” at Kidston’s.

BLACK-THROATED GREEN WARBLER—(S. vtrens.)—Abundant
in pine woods. Its note sounds like “a little bit of bread and ne
cheese.” Have never found the nest of this bird.

Carp—E May Warsier.—(S. maritima).—Very rare. I have
only seen one specimen, which I shot at Dartmouth some thirty
years ago. I still have it im my collection.

BiackBURNIAN WarBLER—(S. Blackburnia).—Observed on the
hardwood hills about Grand Lake, but never about the sea-coast
district. It is one of the handsomest of the warblers which visit us.

YELLOW-POLL WaARBLER—(S. estiva)—I have shot a few
specimens of this bird about Kidston’s, but know little of its habits.

YeLLow-BackepD WARBLER—(S. Americana ).—This is another
rare species, occurring inland in hardwood districts. I have shot

6

50 DOWNS —- ON LAND BIRDS OF NOVA SCOTIA.

several specimens; always perched on the tops of the highest
maples and other hardwood trees, over brooks of running water.

BLaAcK-THROATED BiuE WarsBLER—(S. Canadensis).—Occurs
rarely about Grand Lake. Have never shot more than two
specimens.

Brack anp YELLow WarBLER—(S. maculosa ).—Abundant in
all the wooded districts ; arriving about the 10th of May.

BuvE-EYED YELLOW WarBLER.—This familiar little warbler
breeds in the vicinity of dwellings, generally in a gooseberry or
lilac bush. It is of great service to the garden, consuming vast
quantities of green caterpillars and insects. It is very fond of
willow trees, and generally observed in such positions.

BLvuE-GREEN WaARrBLER.—This species is very rare.

Movrnine WarsLER—(Trichas Philadelphica).—Of this species
{ have only obtained one specimen, which I shot at the “rocking
stone,” near Kidston’s, four years ago.

Maryitanp YeELLow-THRoAtT—(T. Marilandica).—Vhis pert
little fellow has a good deal of the habit of the “Jenny Wren” of
England, dodging in and out of a faggot heap. During the breed-
ing season it has a habit of rising in the air singing, and drops
down again ikea stone. It generally builds at the foot of an alder,
bush, and successfully raises a large family.

NASHVILLE WARBLER—(Sylvicola rubricapilla).—I have always
observed this species singing on the very topmost branches of trees.
It is very wild and difficult to shoot, and is not very common.

Having now arrived, gentlemen, at the end of my present list, I
must state that all the facts I have given may be safely relied upon, as
they are the result of forty years’ experience in bird life. And I would
here, as it is the very first time I have ever appeared as a reader in
public, take the opportunity of counselling the young men of Halifax
to take more interest than they do in the natural history of their
country. Many an hour now passed in walking up and down
Granville Street in tight boots, might be devoted far more profit-
ably to studying the quiet scenes of nature. If I had listened to
the adyice given me by the young men of my time, I do not think
I should have had the pleasure of appearing here this evening ; and
instead of being happy, as I now am, in the presence of my brother

AMBROSE—ON BIRDS FREQUENTING ST. MARGARET'S BAY. DL

naturalists, and possessed of a cheerful home to which I can retire,
surrounded by my feathered favorites, I should most probably either
have descended to an early grave, or been the habitual frequenter
of the tobacco and dram shops. No; the country for me, before
all the grandeur and pleasure of the town. Old Waterton once
said to me, he would sooner be in the woods than in the finest
palace in Europe.

Art. VI. OBSERVATIONS ON THE SEA-BIRDS FREQUENTING THE
coast oF St. Marcaret’s Bay, N. 8S. By Rev. Joun Am-

BROSE.
[Read Jan’y 9, 1865.]

For the convenience of persons wishing to make enquiries of our
fishermen, or desirous of obtaming specimens from them, I give the
names by which they distinguish the sea-birds with which they are
familiar, together with the scientific equivalents of those names, so
far as I have been able to identify them :—

Loon—(Colymbus glacialis.)

Sra-puck—EmErR—( Anas mollissima.)

Borrie-Nos—E DrakE—KinG EIDER—(Fuligula spectabilis.)
Coor, BLACK—CoMMoN ScoTER—(Anas nigra.)

Coot, BOTTLE-NOSE—SuRF ScoTER—(A. perspicillata.)
Parrot—Purrin—( Mormon fratercula.)

Morr.

Turr.

Lorp or Imp—Har.equin puckK—(Anas histrionica.)

CocKAWEE—LonG-TAILED Duck—(A. glacialis.)

Hac-pown—Manx SHEARWATER—(Procellaria Puffinus.)
SHELL-DrakE—(Anas tadorna.)

RED-BREASTED MERGANSER—(Mergus serrator.)
Grey Dipper.

Wuitrt Drrrrr.

Brack Ducx—(Anas boschas.)

Common TEar—(Anas Crecca.)

SEA PIGEON.

Lirtt—E Aux—Rorcue—( Uria minor.)

Storm Prerrer—(Thalassidroma pelagica).
Canapa Goose—(Anser Canadensis.)

5)2 AMBROSE—ON BIRDS FREQUENTING ST. MARGARET'S BAY.

Brent GoosE—(“nser brenta.)

Common Gannet—(Sula Alba.)
SHac—Cormorant—(Phalacrocorax cristatus.)
SADDLE-BACK GuLt—(Larus Marinus.)
LARGE GREY GULL.

MackereL Guii—(L. argentatus.)

Winter Guit—(L. leucopterus.)

SEA Goose.

This list is by no means complete, as there are many birds less
frequently seen on the coast, of which I have not yet obtaimed
specimens or reliable accounts. :

The main body of these birds spend the winter far to the west-
ward of these shores; but a large number of stragglers of almost
the whole list (of the duck and gull species) remain over winter,
and furnish an agreeable variety to the larder, and a luxurious sub-
stratum as well as covering to the beds of our fishermen. On every
fine day towards spring, especially if slightly hazy, as before a
thaw, when the sea is smooth, from daylight till dusk, a continual
popping is heard all around the Bay, and the far-off dot-like boats
with their puffs of smoke add an enlivening effect to our winter
landscape. ‘Then the murr shooter is busy, for murrs at this season
of the year seldom fly, but strive to escape by diving. ‘The fowler,
provided with one or two old militia muskets, an ox-horn full of
cannon powder, and a bag of duck shot, sits amidships in his skiff,
facing the bow. Pushing the oars, he quietly approaches the murr
within thirty or forty yards, and fires. If the shot fails, the bird
dives and comes up a hundred yards or so further off, is again
approached as before, and so on until finally secured.

Our sea-birds begin to return eastwardly to the breeding places
in the following order :—eiders about the middle of March; young
coots and young eiders (2. e. birds not a year old), puffins, murrs,
turrs, long-tailed ducks, harlequin ducks, loons, sea-pigeons, and
shell-birds, about the last of March. Old coots a week or so later
than the foregoing. By the last of June all birds of the duck
species have passed.

They mostly fly with a fair wind, though not a day passes with-
out some travellers during the migrating season. The largest num-
bers keep off at distances varying from four to eight miles from the
ordinary coast line, so that the largest flocks are clear of danger,

AMBROSE—-ON BIRDS FREQUENTING ST. MARGARET'S BAY. 93

and only the smaller ones pass close by the outside capes and head-
lands. Consequently, Green Island affords the best shooting,
Tron-bound Island, off Chester Bay, the next best, then the outside
ledges at the west side of the mouth of this Bay, where many birds
stop to feed on shell-fish. The inside flocks then make a straight
course for Peggy’s Point, thence fly directly to Betty’s Island, off
Prospect,—a very few passing within shot of the islands off Dover.

The young birds, both of the eider and scoter species, viz., such
as are about pairing for the first time, do not as a general rule fly
with their seniors, but prefer going in flocks by themselves. Whe-
ther this arrangement is dictated by prudence on the part of the
old birds, or impatience of controul and a desire for congenial society
among the young, its consequences prove that the largest liberty is
not always the best thing for youth and inexperience. Urged by
the instinct of reproduction towards the sunny islands of the north,
the young birds take the shortest routes, pass within reach of the
fowlers’ shot, and many pay for their impatience with their lives.
“« Festina lente” is a lesson towards housekeeping most frequently
learned by painful experience, by men as well as birds on our
shores. Early marriages among the thriftless and unprovided lead
to much misery among our fishing population.

The food of most of the duck species seems to consist mainly of
shell-fish, principally mussels, which they obtain from the various
outlying ledges. I say most of the duck species, because some—
such as ‘“shell-birds,” murrs, and turrs,—like the gulls, live mostly
on fish. And here we observe the provident care of Him who
openeth His hand and filleth all things living with plenteousness.
Birds living on shellfish and weeds are furnished with a broad, flat,
strong bill, suitable for detaching and crushing their food. Others,
such as shell-birds, which live on both small shells and fish, have
the bill narrower and stronger, as well as sharper in the curved
edges at the sides. Others still, such as turrs, and gulls, &c., which
feed on fish alone, have the bill narrow, sharp at the sides, and
generally with a downward curve at the point, for the better seiz-
ing and securing the slippery and struggling prey.

Sea-birds, much more than land-birds, are inclined to straggle
from the main flocks and deviate from general rules. The mi-
gratory thrush is almost the only straggler among our land birds

54 AMBROSE—ON BIRDS FREQUENTING ST. MARGARET'S BAY.

that I have observed remainmg behind the main body in their
autumnal migrations. But, as I before observed, almost our
whole list of sea-birds are given to straggling habits in autumn.
And in spring, whilst the main body go far north-east to breed,
a few grey gulls, murrs and puffins, breed on our shores. - Tra-
dition would show, however, that the majority are reformers,
whilst the minority are such as hate vulgar innovations, are con-
tent to “let well-enough alone,” and stick to old systems, regard-
less of danger. Old settlers affirm that these shores formerly
abounded with sea-birds, and that our outlying islands were the
breeding places, not only of almost all the éxisting species, but
also of one which, by the description given me by the late Michael
Publicover, of Blandford, I take to have been the great auk (Alca
impennis). But as men and guns began to multiply, the birds
found it necessary to resort to less frequented places to the north-
east. So it has been also with the fish of these waters. Danger
has altered their habits, and it is only those which “learn nothing
and forget nothing,” that among our birds and fishes retain unal-
tered the institutions of more ancient times and safer circumstances.
The names given to our sea-birds by the fishermen are mostly
descriptive, as indeed all names of distinction should be. The
puffin is called the parrot, because of the similarity of its bill to
that of the latter bird. The cock-a-wee is so named from its
gabbling note, which sounds like this name. In some parts of the
Province it is called the old squaw, from the ludicrous similarity
between the gabbling of a flock of these birds and an animated
discussion of a piece of scandal in the Micmac language, between
a number of antiquated ladies of that interesting tribe. The har-
lequin duck is called a lord, on account of the gay plumage of the
drake. It is also known as the imp, because of the difficulty of shoot-
ing it. The little auk is called the bull bird, from the shape of
its head and neck. It frequents our coves in the dead of winter
and towards spring, and rarely flies, but endeavours to escape pur-
suit by diving. It is the favourite game of boys, more eager for the
pleasure of a shot than solicitous as to the cost of ammunition.
The boatswain is always found in company with his betters, the
larger kind of gulls, who by no means relish his society, but vote
him an intolerable bore. His habit is to pursue the gulls through

AMBROSE—ON BIRDS FREQUENTING ST. MARGARET'S BAY. 99

the air until they drop their excrement, which he catches and
devours ere it reaches the ground. He is consequently looked
upon with much contempt by our fowlers, but enjoys the usual
immunity of meanness, for the gulls are shot and eaten, whilst he
is suffered to escape.

The hag-down is seldom found near the shores, but lke the
sea-goose keeps off at a distance of not less than six or eight miles.
In dark and foggy weather both kinds come in occasionally, the
sea-goose particularly, about the end of June. Hag-downs, like
petrels, are very fond of scraps of fish or meat thrown overboard
by the fishermen, who thus lure the birds to their destruction, the
hag-down flying so close to the boat as to be easily knocked down
with a sprit or oar. They are very tenacious of life, and like
Irishmen may be “kilt” many times by the blow of a stick, and yet
recover. They are killed mostly for the sake of their feathers.
The bodies are generally thrown to the pigs, though some persons
manage to eat them, as they eat gulls and cormorants, by skinning
before cooking them.

The birds most highly prized for food are eiders and coots, or
scoters. These are shot in large numbers at Iron-bound and Green
Island by the help of decoys. The ingenuity displayed in the
manufacture of these decoys is very creditable to our fishermen.
They are made of pine or spruce, neatly shaped, and not unfre-
quently covered with the skins and plumage of the birds they
represent. ‘They are attached to each other by pieces of codline of
various lengths, so that on the water they are distributed by the
winds and currents, exactly in the manner and at the relative dis-
tances of their living prototypes when swimming at their leisure.
The two families on Iron-bound place these decoys in good positions
for shooting, immediately before the arrival of the first flocks of
birds. For some days not a gun is fired on the island, nor a loud
sound heard. The birds, arriving and finding everything still, and
flocks seemingly of their own kind already in possession of quiet
and desirable places for food and rest, exchange caution for emu-
lation, call a halt, and at once settle down. Then begins the work
of destruction. The decoys are quietly drawn in towards the shore
by the fowlers, who with muskets and large water dogs are carefully

concealed behind the rocks nearest the shore. The ducks follow by

56 AMBROSE—ON BIRDS FREQUENTING ST. MARGARET'S BAY.

degrees, until a large number are well in, and then, sitting and rising,
receive the deadly welcome. The water is stained with blood, and
covered with the bodies of the slain, and the air is rent with the
flapping and quacking of the survivors, and the barking of dogs
ere they muster courage to rush into the half-frozen water and
secure the floating, swimming, and sprawling game. In this man-
ner, during the easterly passage of the birds, hundreds are secured
by the people on Iron-bound alone. I am credibly informed that
during the vernal and autumnal flights something over two thousand
birds were shot on this island in 1863. The greater part of the
game is sent to Halifax, Lunenburg, and the neighboring places for
sale, whilst the feathers bring from thirty to thirty-five cents a
pound.

The people of Peggy’s Cove shoot from their boats, lying off
in a line extending seaward from Peggy’s Point. I have seen in
a morning in spring as many as fourteen or fifteen boats thus lying
off, at the distance of a little more than a gunshot apart, tossing
on a sharp “lop,” or slowly rising and falling on a southerly swell.
Two men go in each boat, one to fire and the other to keep the
boat in position by short strokes of the oar, which is called “ drum-
ming.” The wind is south-west, or west, the weather is hazy, and
the birds, seizing the opportunity of a fair wind and obscurity, fly
from headland to headland in large flocks. To our unpractised
eye, as we stand on the cliff, no bird is visible; but the urchins
around suddenly exclaim “there’s a bunch comin’!” They come
straight on; but presently discovering’ the nearest boat, sheer
slightly, rise much higher, and pass between two other boats.
Bang! bang! is the salute, and you see the disabled suddenly
tumble with hanging wing; others reel on their course, try for a
moment to keep up with the increased rapidity of their compan-
ions, but fall here and there at short distances from the boats.

From daylight until eight or nine o’clock in the morning the
firing continues, and in the height of the flying season, at inter-
vals throughout the day.

Sometimes these excursions are attended with excitement of a
different kind. Two of our fishermen, tempted by the abundance
of game, remained so long outside one squally morning, that at
length a heavy sea filled the boat, sweeping the men overboard.

«

AMBROSE—ON BIRDS FREQUENTING ST. MARGARET'S BAY. 57

They were rescued by another boat’s crew with much difficulty,
having lost everything in their own boat.

Two others were coming in, on another occasion, after a morn-
ing’s shooting, when they saw a heavy sea approaching. ‘Hold
on!” said ene, “‘and we shall get a runner.” But the sea, instead
of running them in towards the shore, broke upon their boat, and ©
washed one overboard. The other threw him an oar, leaving him-
self but one, by which the boat was unmanageable. Another boat,

however, rescued both men from their perilous situation.

A boat’s crew on these. shooting excursions will generally bring
in from two or three to twenty or thirty birds, according to the
position of the boat and the skill of the fowler. But at points
further out along the coast, such as Green Island, Horse-shoe
Ledge or Betty’s Island, as many as forty or fifty birds are not
unfrequently brought home by one boat in a morning.

At the first settlement of the shore, birds were much more
numerous than at present. As the population increased, the num-
ber of birds fell off rapidly ; but this decline was at length discov-
ered to proceed more from the club than the gun. For many
years vessels had been allowed to load with sea-birds’ eggs at the
various breeding islands between Nova Scotia and Labrador, through
the entire period of incubation, and this egg-gathering was too
frequently attended by the wanton and wholesale destruction of the
parent birds. From the beginning of the breeding season to the
end of it, these islands and rocks were continually visited, all fresh
eggs were taken away, and all stale ones broken. At length some
wholesome and necessary restrictions on the egg trade were put in
force by the Canadian legislature, since which time the birds, though
more wary, are not decreasing in numbers so rapidly as formerly.
A future generation will see the necessity of reasonable protection
for the reproduction of birds and fish, and necessity may inspire the
firmness requisite for the impartial execution of such protective
edicts.

The shooting of sea-birds is not only a source of profit to our
fishermen, and a means of providing them with an agreeable variety
at their frugal board, but it also relieves a great deal of the tedium
of their winter season of inactivity. It is surprising, however, that
accidents do not more frequently happen from their mode of charg-

~

‘

58 AMBROSE—ON BIRDS FREQUENTING ST. MARGARETS BAY.

ing their guns. Three fingers of powder and two of shot is the
smallest load for thew old militia muskets—the approved oun
here,—and in the hurry of loading in a boat much more powder is
frequently poured in. Black eyes and bloody noses are the not
uncommon penalties of a morning’s sport, and I know one fisherman
whose nose has been knocked permanently out of shape by the
frequent kicking of his gun. In several instances the gun has gone
clear overboard out of the fowler’s hands, by the recoil. But
nothing can daunt these men, or induce them to load with a lighter
hand. ‘There is one living at Nor’-west Cove, who has had his
right eye destroyed by his gun, but who is now as great a duck-
shooter as ever, firing, however, from the left shoulder.

Many of these people have a strong belief in the potency of
charms and incantations, i connection with shooting, and conse-
quently would lose all confidence in themselves, and all ability to
take aim, with a “charmed gun.” A man formerly lived at La-
Have, who enjoyed the reputation of being able, with a glance, to
pervert for a time the shooting qualities of any gun. Not unfre-
quently did this fear of his evil eye mduce other sportsmen to
withdraw, leaving him all the shooting of the occasion. The same
superstition exists among the African tribes, so far proving that the
negro is “a man and a brother.”

A singular proof of the adaptation of instinct to necessity, is
found in the manner in which sea-birds of the duck species attempt
to escape when on the water and unable to fly. They will swim
for long distances just so much below the surface of the water that
the end of the bill as far as the nostrils is the only part of the body
exposed to the air. Many in this way escape the most careful
pursuit. It seems to me more than probable that this art has been
acquired since their acquaintance with man, the only foe whose
“‘far-darting” destructive power, and inability to see the operation
from above, makes such a mode of escape at once necessary and
practicable.

Crippled birds resort to retired coves and out-of-the-way nooks,
where they remain until fully recovered. Some are wing-broken
and unable to fly, others are maimed in the leg or foot and can not
dive, but He who careth for the fowls of the air is their provider,
and very many of them get the better of their wounds. There is

DUVAR—ON ADDITIONS TO GAME OF NOVA SCOTIA. 59

favourite resort for wounded birds between Peggy’s Cove and Dover,
which is thence called the “hospital.” There is also a well-known
“hospital” for sick and wounded fish about a quarter of a mile
outside of Peggy’s Point. It is a narrow gulch or ravine with
a muddy bottom, thirty fathoms deep, bounded on each side by a
sort of rocky cliff fifteen fathoms from the surface. Healthy fish,

observing ordinary rules, are found on the rocky bottem at each

side of this ravine, but in the muddy valley itself none but the sick
and wounded are taken. ‘There they are caught of large size, but
what are called “logy fish”—many of them wounded with deep
gashes, not such as are generally made with any of man’s contriv-
ances, and all wretchedly thin. On either side of this hospital
hake will not take bait in day time, but in the “sick bay” itself—
“necessitas nullas habet leges,”—they will bite at all times. They are
hungry, and therefore likely convalescent, but not sufficiently strong
to defend themselves or take their ordinary prey at proper seasons
outside.

Arr. VII.—Some AppitTions to THE GAME OF Nova ScorTtA.
By J. H. Duvar.

(Read Feb. 6, 1865.)

«‘NaturaL History in the olden time” would be an excellent
subject for the pen of any member of this Institute, who combines
with his knowledge of Natural History a taste for dipping into
history proper. In following his liking for the latter pursuit, the
naturalist would stumble on records that would astonish the scien-
tific men of the present day. While it is impossible to withhold
our meed of admiration from the early travellers and missionaries
who, led by the spirit of adventure, or zeal for their order, made
their way into the most savage lands, and brought back not un-
faithful accounts of manners and customs, it is yet astonishing
how credulous they were in all that pertamed to natural history.
I have in my possession a tracing of a Jesuit map of Lake Supe-
rior, made in 1670, which agrees in almost every detail with the
modern chart, yet of the same date, when their topography was so
reliable, the reports of the good fathers on animated nature were

60 DUVAR—ON ADDITIONS TO GAME OF NOVA SCOTIA.

not such as have been confirmed by later investigations. In these
days of minute and exact research, it may not be uninteresting,
from the stand point to which the waves of progress have wafted
us, to pause and look back to the landmarks that indicate the
ebb and flow of the great ocean of Truth, on the shores of which
this generation and those past have alike been picking up shells.

Navarette, for mstance, describes, in the empire of China, an
alligator, three fathoms thick, in which were found three men’s
heads, with some daggers and bracelets. Nevertheless there was
an herb which enabled the possesscr to ride this formidable crea-
ture with safety, as Waterton rode the cayman. The unicorn is
described, among other qualities, as bemg “a merciful beast.”
The mermaids of the Gambia are reputed, when fried, to resemble
pork. <A singular efficacy agamst falling sickness resides in the leg
of the elk, which leg is discovered by knocking the animal down,
and observing with which foot he scratches his ear. There is a
variety of goat in Nankin, that has ears and nose, but no mouth,
and lives upon the air.. A still more extraordinary animal must
be described in the author’s own words. ‘There are two other
strange and remarkable creatures in China. The one is called
Lang; its forefeet are very long, and the hinder ones short. The
other beast is named Poe, or Poi, whose hind feet are long and
the fore feet short, whence it follows that they cannot go singly
apart from one another. Their Maker taught them how they
should go from place to place to feed and seek thei sustenance.
Two of them join, and one helps the other, so that one sets down
the long fore feet, .and the other hind feet, so they make one body
that can walk: thus they get their food and live. The Chineses
call miserable poor wretches that cannot live by themselves lang
pot, to signify that they want some assistance to get a living. ‘This
is not unlike a lame and a blind man, one finds eyes and the other
feet, and then they help one another and walk.” ‘The same or
another observer met with a fowl the size of a chicken, which laid,
a yard deep in the sand, eggs “bigger than the bird itself, so that
no man living would judge that the eggs could be contained within
it.” In the vegetable kingdom, the curate of Labaun saw a tree
whose leaves falling to the ground turned into mice. And in
Lower Germany are found on the sea shore trees whose leaves,
dropping into the water, are converted into ducks.

DUVAR—ON ADDITIONS TO GAME OF NOVA scotia. 61

These examples may suffice to mark the distinction between the
natural observers of two centuries since and those of even this little
Institute,—being, as it is, an outlying post, or rather vidette, on the
extreme edge of the intellectual field of the century.

Coming down from these worthy travellers who trustingly ac-
cepted the most incongruous appearances as merely so many man-
ifestations of the Creator’s power, through the later periods of close
observance and accurate classification, we find that the studies of
the naturalist in the present day are mainly given to utilize the mass
of facts which he and his predecessors have garnered up; hence
acclimatization, fish-culture, improvement of domestic stock, and
search for animals and plants that may contribute either to man’s
wants or luxury.

The geographical distribution of animal life does not strictly
follow the isothermic lines of the globe. Hence there is an
increased range for stocking the temperate zone with the pro-
ducts of other zones, especially of the warmer belts, which are
more prolific of varieties than the colder, and, moreover, it is well
recognized that animals adapt themselves better to change of
climate when removed from a higher to a lower degree of temper-
ature, than from a lower to a higher. This fact indicates to us
more than one inhabitant of southern latitudes, which, by a little
attention, might be induced to naturalize in our colder air ;—the
alpaca, fot instance, which, already imported into Spain, finds on
the slopes of the Pyrenees the summer and winter climate of Nova
Scotia. M. Saint Hilaire* very learnedly shows that man, who
calls himself the lord of creation, is really lord of only forty-seven
specimens, all told, of beasts, birds, fishes and insects. His list is
interesting. Here it is, omitting the dates of domestication :—

Mamaia: The Ox, Buffalo, two varieties of Camels, Goat,
Sheep, Zebu, Yak, Lama, Alpaca, Reindeer, Arnu, Joyal, Horse, Ass,
Dog, Pig, Cat, Guinea Pig, Rabbit, Ferret,—total, twenty mammals.

Birps: The Pigeon, Poultry Fowl, common Pheasant, Peacock,
Game Fowl, common Duck, Swan, Ring Turtle-Dove, Chinese
Goose, Canary, Turkey, Muscovy Duck, Golden Pheasant, Silver
Pheasant, Ring Pheasant, Canada Goose,—sixteen Birds.

Insects: The Mulberry Silkworm, Bee ‘of southern Europe,

* Acclimatation et Domestication des Animaux Utiles:

62 DUVAR—ON ADDITIONS TO GAME OF NOVA SCOTIA.

common Bee, Egyptian Bee, Cochineal, Almond Silkworm, Ail-
anthus Silkworm,—seven insects.

Fisoes: The Carp, Goldfish,—two fishes.

Reptiztes: None.

Total, 21 mammals, 16 birds, 7 insects, 2 fishes—46 in all,
instead of 47.* Of these 47, M. St. Hilaire says fifteen are want-
ing in France and thirteen in Europe;+ and he adds, “is this a
sufficient conquest of nature? Is it enough to have in our court
yards only three species so valuable as that of the gallinacee ?—
or only one of the rodentiz, so remarkable for its fecundity, the
precocity of its development, and the excellence of its flesh ?
Among the large herbivorous mammalia, is it enough to possess
only four alimentary species?” I would add, is it enough for our
sportsmen to possess, in a Province such as Nova Scotia, of which
so large a portion must ever remain in lake, moorland and forest, so
few varieties of swimming, flying, and running game?

It will be noticed that M: St. Hilaire’s catalogue of domesticated
animals is more than arbitrary, and somewhat less than complete.
Some of the animals mentioned can only, by a latitude of language,
be said to be domesticated, while others, equally under the subju-
gation of man, are omitted from the list. The immediate business
of this paper is not, however, with the domestic animals of man,
but with the semi-domesticated or “‘GamE,” which, living untended
in our wilds, supply the sportsman at once with amusement and food.
Not to trespass on time, I will do little more than indicate such as
might find in Nova Scotia the conditions of climate, covert, and food,
and by reproduction increase the number and varieties of our
objects of the chase. Of course, it would be a mistake to intro-
duce any new game until the legislature and the people at large
have found the way to preserve what we have. The Inland Fish-
eries and Game Protection Society, recently organized, have taken
the initiatory step, and it is to be hoped that their endeavours will
be seconded by the influential’ in the community, until the public

*The one omitted is probably the tench, introduced into Britain with the pond
carp and goldfish. It may be the Pike, according to the old rhyme :
‘* Turkeys, carps, hoppes, piccarel and beer,
Came into England all in one year.”’
+ Fourteen are wanting in Nova Scotia. The others, including the gold and
silver pheasant and the common English pheasant, adapt themselves well to the
climate. In lieu of the silkworm the cecrops is abundant.

DUVAR—ON ADDITIONS TO GAME OF NOVA SCOTIA. 63

mind is educated up to a proper pride in the maintenance of our
forest life.

Taking the sportsman’s definition of “fish, fur, and feathers,”
it is only among the Ruminants and Rodents that we can look for
additions to our running game. Of the wolf we have but a rare
visitor from the adjoining province of New Brunswick—and he,
gaunt, solitary, and cowardly. Our hunters always know where to
find a bear, or a loup-cervier (vulgar: lucifee). Moose and cariboo,
if let alone, and especially if the Legislature would prohibit their
being hunted for the next four years, would largely increase.
But other furs are few. Naturalists, rather than sportsmen, must
determine whether the white hare of Newfoundland, found also in
this Province, is identical with the prolific Scottish mountain hare,
or wherein either may differ from the bold and agile Irish hare
(lepus Mibernicus). Should they be of different species there yet
appears no reason why all should not thrive here. The common
English hare (/epus timidus), would manage to maintain itself in the
highly cultivated western portions of the Province, but as the
thrifty farmers of that region would not care to burden themselves
with its feed, there is not much hope of seeing it domesticated
among them. Besides, the hare, as an object of pursuit, belongs
to what may be called the advanced stage of sporting, and would
serve, mainly, as an inducement for the breeding of the grey-
hound, “the regent of dogs,”—a title which, whether applied to
his sagacity, courage, docility, and susceptibility of instruction,
extending even (contrary to general opinion) to the education of
his nose, experience of the animal amply verifies. Here let me
mention, incidentally, that where the hare will find a form the
English skylark will live, to cheer the sportsman’s heart with its
song. There is probably not one acclimation that could be more
easily made in the agricultural districts of Nova Scotia than the
songlark. The geographical range of the bird is extensive—from
Southern Europe to Siberia. Larks can be bought in quantity in
either England or Germany at triflmg cost, and would survive the
voyage hither. The grey rabbit or burrowing hare (/epus cunieulus),
is another introduction that would naturalize itself, and would,
doubtless, increase in a more rapid ratio than its enemies. Speci-
mens of the house or domesticated rabbit, have escaped from con-

64 DUVAR—ON ADDITIONS TO GAME OF NOVA SCOTIA.

finement near Halifax, and have been afterwards seen, earning
apparently a honest livelihood.

Suffering as our country is from the want of protection for its
game, it may be too sanguine to hope for any increase in the variety
of our deer. In wooded, sheltered and enclosed parks the fallow
deer might be reared as an ornament to grounds, although un-
fitted to range for itself in the woodland. But the ordinary Amer-
ican or Virginia deer (Cervus Virginianus) has its range from the
Gulf of Mexico to the borders of New Brunswick, increasing in
size and beauty as it approaches the north. There can, therefore,
be no possible hindrance to the introduction of this really valu-
able game into our coverts, where, according to the opinion of our
best sportsmen and most practical naturalists, it would multiply and
increase. The beautiful and hardy little roedeer of the Scottish
highlands (Capreolus capre) is another most desirable accession,
nor do I think it would object to make itself a habitat im the fir
copses of our secluded forests. A year or two of experimental
acclimatization within enclosures would prove its adaptability for
the woods.* Another of the deer family which would, probably,
naturalize more kindly, is the “wapiti,” or Canadian elk (EKlaphus
Canadensis—Ray,) of which Sir John Richardson gives the north-
ern range as the 56th or 57th parallel of north latitude. Previous
to the late unhappy war in the States, the Wapiti was semi-domes-
ticated in many parks in Virginia. The king of Italy has imported
a herd which are reported here to have taken kindly to the hills
of Lombardy. Beyond the ruminants named, the chances of
increase to our deer are unlikely. Attempts have been made in
the United States to extend the range of the pronghorn antelope
and Pacific blacktail deer, under climatic conditions more favorable
than ours, but without success.

In birds, there are a few likely to prove additions to our game,
all being of the sub-family of the Tetraonine or grouse. Com-
mencing with the true ptarmigan—the lagopus albus of Linneeus—
there could be little difficulty in introducing this fine although
rather sluggish bird on our higher barren grounds. A member of
the Institute states that it does exist (rare) on our hills. Indeed

*T have lain out, in Scotland, on the watch for these pretty creatures in weather
quite as cold as it is in Nova Scotia in ordinary winters.

DUVAR—-ON ADDITIONS TO GAME OF NOVA SCOTIA. 69

it ranges on the mountains from Iceland to the Alps.* Every-
where in Nova Scotia are to be found those rugged granite
wilds such as are its haunts in Scotland and Norway. The severity
of our climate is not greater than its European experience. In sum-
mer, it would find varied sustenance on the moors, and in winter
_ the birds, like other winged game, would sustain themselves with
their proper food of buds, berries and leaves of trees. As they
associate in flocks and may be taken in snares, there would be but
slight difficulty in importing a sufficient number to experiment
upon. A yet finer bird than the ptarmigan is the capercailzie
(Letrao urogallus), the very king of feathered game. This splen-
did fowl is still common in Sweden and Russia, and could be, and
ought to be, a splendid addition to our birds of the chase. As it
lays from eight to a dozen eggs, and the young are hardy as well
as active in foraging for themselves, three or four years’ protection
should suffice to form the nucleus of a preserve, especially as man
would be the chief enemy so large a bird would have to fear. An
importation from Norway could be made without extraordinary
expense. Should we ever have an acclimatization society in this
Province, or should it fall within the scope of the Society for the
Protection of Game, the capercailzie would probably be the first
importation to which they would turn their attention with hopes of
success. ‘The black grouse (Tetruo tetrix) is another pleasing game
bird, susceptible of naturalization here. The black grouse could
live on the edge of our swamps and cranberry or blueberry barrens,
and would put through the winter on juniper and beech buds and
mast. For most part of the year they are wary, and afford capital
sport. ‘The principal British bird of game has yet to be noticed—
the grouse proper (lagopus scoticus), the red grouse, locally called
the muirfowl or gorcock. There are great doubts whether it would
be possible to stock our barrens, even were its haunts as rigorously
preserved as are the moors at home. True grouse seem to
thrive nowhere but among the Scotch heather, the bells of which
form their principal food,—although I have shot these birds when
they were pilfering oats from late reaped fields on the edge of the
moorland. Considering the almost impossibility of protecting them
in a wild state, at the same time that they are quite susceptible of

*It is also found in Newfoundland.

66 DUVAR—ON ADDITIONS TO GAME IN NOVA SCOTIA.

domestication, they will not likely be ever found to multiply in
Nova Scotia except as denizens of the aviary, or among the fancies
of the poultry yard. Here let me contradict an error that is still
going the rounds of English sporting works. In the “Field Book
of the Sports and Pastimes of the British Islands,” by the author
of “Wild Sports of the West,” (a recent edition,) it is stated,
under the head of “American game,” “The American grouse is
precisely like the Scotch grouse. There is only here and there a
place where they are found; but they are in thosé places killed in
vast quantities in the fall of the year.”* Every body on this side
the water knows that the American grouse—or partridge so called
—are the bircht (Tetrao wmbellus) or ruffed grouse, and the spruce
spotted, or Canada grouse, both different from the red grouse of the
British Isles.¢

As regards the family of pheasants, much may be said in their
favour. The English pheasant (phastanus colchicus) has escaped from
confinement and survived the winter in Nova Scotia. Golden and
silver pheasants, now kept for luxury, have proved themselves
capable of enduring the severest frosts. Indeed there are many
varieties of pheasants, which, with the spread of agriculture in the
future, may become the game of the country, and supersede, im the
hedgerows and coppices, the now wilder winged ones of the woods.

One more splendid variety of game must be mentioned, which
would multiply and flourish exceedingly, but the hope to see it in
our woods is too utopian for this century. This bird is no other
than the turkey ; the half-bred bronzed being probably the best.
We read that a flock of 2,000 were kept in Richmond Park in the
time of George II., for the especial shooting of that monarch, but
as the public surreptitiously joimed in the sport, they were
destroyed. The only drawback to their being naturalized as wild
game in this Province is, that while one could be found, none of
our backwoodsmen would want for a dinner.

Proceeding to the finny tribe :—

From the greater capacity of fish for bearing extreme variations
of temperature, and from their adapting themselves so easily to

*See Field Book, &c., page 9: London.

+It is the birch partridge (male only) that ‘‘drums.’’

¢ The willow grouse of Newfoundland, and the prairie hen, or pinnated grouse,
have also been suggested to me, but I cannot speak of them from personal knowledge.

DUVAR—ON ADDITIONS TO GAME OF NOVA SCOTIA. 67

variations in the state of their natural element, whether it be rapid,
sluggish, clear, or turbid, we should probably succeed with fish
more surely than with any other game. Perhaps it is treason to
hint that Nova Scotia is not so good a fishing country as many
others. Several new varieties of fish have to be reared as stock on
our aquatic farm before we can boast of much variety for maigre
days. Omitting such of the game fishes of Europe and elsewhere
as are manifestly unsuited to the Nova Scotian element, there are
several of the salmonide that deserve passing enquiry. Thus the
salmo hucho of the Danube, attaining the length of two feet, has
attracted the attention of English fish-breeders. It can live
wholly in fresh water; but as it is the most predatory of the tribe,
the wisdom of introducing it here into our limited range of
lakes may be questioned. The sul/mo ferox, or great lake trout—
not to be confounded with the salmo erior, or bull trout—is well
adapted to our larger lakes, such as Rossignol, Grand Lake, &c, as
it reaches nearly the weight of the true salmon (salmo salar), but
does not migrate to salt water.* It is found in all the mountain lakes
of Scotland, Switzerland and Norway, and even in ponds without
running water. It is decidedly ferocious. I am unable to say
what relation the European fish bears to the great American lake
trout, found in lakes Huron and Erie, but not in Ontario. Rich-
ardson, an American naturalist, calls the cis-Atlantic fish the salmo
Naymagush (an Indian appellation), and describes its average weight
as double that of the true salmon. Another of the tribe is named
by the same authority, as the lesser lake trout, or salmo adirondacus,
of four to six pounds weight, which does not rise, but is taken by
trolling in deep water—therein differmg from the Irish gizzard
trout, or gillaroo (which answers its description), but which does
rise to the fly, although its main food is small shell-fish. Yet
another American member of the salmonide is found in New Bruns-
wick, and is called the Schoodic trout; in appearance like a
“‘grilse,” origin doubtful, being supposed by some to be a hybrid
between the salmon ‘and salmon trout.t It is permanent in the
fresh water of the St. Croix River, and in the Schoodic lakes. It
is called by Girard the salmo Gloveri. The delicate vendise or ven-

F *Col. Sinclair, A. G. M., captured a specimen which seems identical with the salmo
erox.
+A very unlikely circumstance.

68 DUVAR—ON ADDITIONS TO GAME OF NOVA SCOTIA.

gis (salmo marenula) known as the fresh-water herring in Scotland,
Switzerland and Silesia, would doubtless thrive here, as there, in
deep shaded lakes. So would the char, which inhabit the lakes of
the Tyrol. Mr. Astley Baldwin,* a pleasing writer on fish and
fishing, recently remarks : “‘a new species of salmon trout has lately
been brought to perfection on the continent (Europe). It does not
grow to a considerable size; it is, however, very palatable, and
commands a good price. The name bestowed on it is salmo salve-
linus. ‘This fish is being introduced into the Danube, one of the
best rivers for fish of all kinds in the whole of Europe.”

The Danube is at present a source from which many fine va-
rieties of fish are being drawn for propagation, among others, the
huge silurts “glanis, which reminds me that forty years since Sir
Humphrey Davy, in his “Salmonia, or Days of Fly-fishing,” speak-
ing of that river, says :—

‘The four kinds of perch, the spiegil carpfen and siluris glanis, all
good fish, and which I am sorry we have not in England, where I doubt
not they might be easily naturalized, and where they would form an
admirable addition to the table in inland counties. Since England has
become Protestant, the cultivation of fresh water fish has been much
neglected. The barbot or lotte, which already exists in some of the
streams tributary to the Trent, and which is a most admirable fish, might
be diffused without much difficulty, and nothing could be more easy than
to naturalize the spiegel carpfen and silurus; and I see no reason why
the perca lucio perca and zingil should not succeed in some of our clear
lakes and ponds, which abound in coarse fish. The new Zoological
Society, I hope, will attempt something of this kind; and it will be a
better object than introducing birds and beasts of prey.”

After this extract from Sir Humphrey, time need not be wasted
in particularizing other less important varieties of fish desirable for
our waters, such as varieties of the bass, tench, and carp, and the
most recent English suggestion of the mountain mullet from
Jamaica.~ Suffice it to say that none of the above suggested
additions to our game would be subjected’to any new climatic or
physical conditions were they imported into Nova Scotia. The
main objections are the expense and the difheulty of protection.

With permission let me conclude this paper by reference to a

* Once-a-week, Decr. 24, 1854.

+Salmonia, page 258, Lond. 1828.

¢'The yellow perch (percw flavescens) will live every where in Nova Scotia, and
wherever that useless fish is now found, the black bass (centopristens nigricans)
would flourish, as also the striped bass, which although asea-fish is said to thrive and
even to improve by being cut off from the salt water. The loch bass, another va-
riety, has found its way from Lake Champlain, through the canal, into the Hudson,
and plentifully stocked that river.

}

DUVAR-——-ON ADDITIONS TO GAME IN NOVA SCOTIA. 69

desirable importation, (a crustacean,) which though not game itself,

is nevertheless a capital addition to a game supper, the cancer pagu-
rus, or large edible crab so abundant on the shores of Britain,
especially along the east coast of Scotland. Nothing could be
easier than to stock our seaboard with this excellent shell-fish.
The writer chanced about three years ago to be the fellow-passenger
to Europe of some tubs of live lobsters, which were sent from the
shores of Maine, via Halifax, to the emperor of France; and
thought at the time it would be a good thing were the tubs re-
turned to the governor of Nova Scotia, filled with live crayfish and
edible crabs, in return for the lobster salads the French savans have
doubtless ere this enjoyed from lobsters native to the coast of
Acadia.

By the way, there is one other fish which ought to abound in
every brook and rivulet, viz., Leuciscus phoxinus, or true minnow.
They have only to be thrown into any suitable water to increase
and multiply for the angler’s use. ‘They may be drawn from several
of the streams near Halifax to stock other breeding places.

In a pleasing book by an American sportsman occurs the follow-

ing passage, not inappropriate to the subject of this paper :—*

‘“There is a very erroneous impression, encouraged too, shame to
say, that the wild creatures of the woods and waters must, in the nature
of things, disappear before man. Now, although this is a lamentable
fact, it is not a necessary consequence, and there is nothing in man’s
capturing fish and killing game, properly and reasonably, that will
seriously diminish their numbers. Fish and birds prey on one another:
for every large trout a man takes he saves a hundred small ones; for
every hawk he catches hovering over his barnyard and hills, he saves a
hundred quail, and thus, although he kills them himself, he preserves
them from vermin, from one another, and from birds of prey. If he
will add to this a very little care and protection of the young, he will
increase the supply a thousand fold.”

In conclusion, | have only to add, that an increase in the
number and variety of our game must be an object of imterest to
every one who takes pleasure in out-of-door life, and, I think and
hope, is alike veer the province of the sportsman and the
naturalist.

Let me hope that these imperfect notes may lead to more
practical investigation, and tend, in a slight degree, to show the
value, as preserves, of our forests and rivers, in which the game at
present is so mischieyously and wantonly wasted.

* Game Fish of the North : New York, 1 1862.

10 BELT—ON PRODUCTION OF LAKES BY ICE ACTION.

Arr. VIII. THe Propuction anp PRESERVATION OF LAKES BY

Ick Action. By THomas Be.r.*
[Read Feb. 6, 1865.]

Durine a residence of two years in the Province of Nova
Scotia, my attention was directed to the multitude of lakes, great
and small, that are spread over the country, sometimes in connected
chains, sometimes isolated on the tops and sides of hills, &c-
These lakes form a common feature in the northern parts of Amer-
ica, and increase in number as we proceed northwards. ‘The larger
lakes are shown in maps of the Provinces, but it requires a visit to
impress on the mind the number of small lakes and ponds that
abound in every direction. Mr. Perley, speaking of Newfound-
land, says :—

‘‘ The most remarkable feature of Newfoundland is the immense and
scarcely to be credited abundance of lakes of all sizes. * * These
are found universally over the whole country, not only in the valleys but
on the highest lands, even on the hollows of the summits of the ridges
and on the tops of the highest hills. These ponds vary in size from
pools of fifty yards in diameter, to lakes of upwards of thirty miles long
and four or five miles in width. The number of ponds which exceed @

couple of miles in extent must on the whole amount to several hundreds ;
those of smaller size are absolutely countless.”

My duties in connection with the management of some mineral
properties in Nova Scotia, took me almost daily along the line of
an important chain of lakes, which, stretching almost across the
Province, had been taken advantage of by the Shubenacadie Canal
Company to form a water communication from the Atlantic coast to
Cobequid Bay, by connecting the different lakes with short canals.
The works of the canal company exposed in many places the struc-
ture of the enclosing strata, and showed that most of the lakes were
in true rock basins; and I had opportunities whilst miming opera-
tions were being carried on on the banks of one of the lakes, of
studying the disposition of the heaps of boulder clay and gravel
piled up on its sides.

The rocks in which the lake basins lie are chiefly extremely
hard quartzites and metamorphosed schists, supposed to be of lower
silurian age, although as yet no fossils have been discovered in
them. ‘They are irregularly covered with heaps of boulder clay,
mostly unstratified. Wherever the surface of the rock is exposed,
it is found to be scratched, grooved and polished; and other marks

* Read before the Geological Society, June 22, 1864. Vine

BELT——-ON PRODUCTION OF LAKES BY ICE ACTION. Ti

of intense glaciation, such as the rounding of protuberant bosses of
rock, and the transportation of huge boulders, are of frequent
occurrence. ‘The course of the main lines of scratchings varies
from N.N.E. to N. N. W., and the lines of the major axes of the
lakes and of the chains of lakes, have the same bearings. The
Shubenacadie lakes commence at Dartmouth, near Halifax harbour,
and stretch in an irregular northerly direction to the head of the
Shubenacadie river, a distance of twenty-two miles, and with the
river they occupy a great depression or valley, running from Cobe-
quid Bay to Halifax harbour, a distance of fifty miles.

The largest of the chain, the Grand Lake, is eight miles long,
and in its deepest part its bottom lies seventy-four feet below the
mean level of the sea. The coast is indented with long, narrow, deep
bays or fiords, running in the same direction as the chains of lakes.
The glaciation of the rocks and the transportation of boulders
point to the agency of ice, and the only question undecided is,
whether we shall ascribe them to the action of glaciers or of
icebergs. Icebergs, laden with rocks and clay, and ploughing up
the bottom of the sea where they grounded, might be sufficient to
account for the scratchings and for the transportation of boulders;
but they do not furnish us with the power requisite to scoop out
deep channels and gorges, often continuous for scores of miles, in
hard rocks, which are as characteristic of a glaciated country as the
minor scratchings and groovings. In Nova Scotia, the whole coun-
try has been hugely grooved and. furrowed, and heaps, or rather
hills of gravel, piled up on the sides and in the courses of the
channels excavated. This configuration of the country is best
explained, as it has been by Agassiz and others, by supposing that
it was covered by a vast accumulation of continental ice, moving
southward from the Arctic regions, which, when at its greatest
development scooped out the larger vallies and deep fiords, and
modelled the grander features of the country; and during its retro-
gression, when continental ice enveloping the hills had wasted into
glaciers down the principal valleys, they, during their slow retreat,
left terminal moraines in their courses, and heaps of gravel and
angular blocks on their flanks.

It is readily admitted that such lakes as are formed by the dam-
ming up of channels with heaps of clay and gravel, may have been

72 BELT——ON PRODUCTION OF LAKES BY ICE ACTION.

formed by glaciers leaving terminal moraines in their retreat, and
the scooping out of long deep channels is easily understood; but
the production of deep rock-basins is not so easily explained, and
their glacial origm has been disputed by eminent geologists.
We owe the theory of the production of rock basins by ice action
to Professor Ramsay, who in 1859 showed that there was an-
intimate connection between mountain lakes and the evidences of
glacial action, and argued that the rock basins had been ground or
scooped out by ice, either in soft rocks surrounded by harder, or
more generally, in places where a greater height of ice had accu-
mulated and exerted a greater grinding pressure on the rocks
beneath. In 1862 he extended his theory to account for the pro-
duction of the great lakes of Switzerland, and even those of North
America, contending that there is such a gradation of size from the
least to the greatest that we cannot apply the theory to the one and
not to the other.

The Lake of Geneva is 984 feet deep, the Lake of Zug 1279
feet, and the Lake of Brienz more than 2000 feet, and its bottom
about 200 feet below the level of the sea. In Italy even these
depths are exceeded, and we have the Lake of Como 1929 feet
deep, and the Lake of Maggiore 2625 feet, and its bottom 1940 feet
lower than the sea level. With regard to these great depths it has
been urged by Sir Charles Lyell and others, that though the pas-
sage of prodigious masses of ice for ages over the surface would
doubtless produce depressions where the hardness of the rocks
beneath was not uniform, yet a depth would soon be reached where
the movement of the ice in the basins would be arrested, and the
discharge of the glaciers would be over and not through the ice-
filled hollows. In a glacier as in a river, the lower strata move
much more slowly than those at the surface, being impeded by the
friction on the bed of what we may call the ice river—and as in the
Lake of Maggiore the ice, on Professor Ramsay’s theory, would
have in its exit to ascend a slope of five degrees from its deepest
part. It is contended that in such a case it would be simply dam-
med up, the glacier passing over it. It is true that in Australia
there are deep hollows in the courses of the streams, in which water
is stored up during the dry season, but this is a peculiarity of inter-
mittent rivers and dependent upon the intermittent action. Again,

BELT——-ON PRODUCTION OF LAKES BY ICE ACTION. 13

in British North America, great holes are gradually worn during
winter in the sleigh tracks, commencing at first with slight depres-
sions in the hardened snow, and increased by the passage of every
sleigh, until the holes become so deep as greatly to inconvenience
travellers; but here again the action is very different from the
»steady continuous flow of glacier ice, the scooping out power de-

pending on the sudden descent of the sleighs into the hollows,
which, in the case of glaciers would be filled with ice.

Sir Charles Lyell considers that the great lake basins of Swit-
zerland have not been scooped out, but that they are all due to
unequal movements of upheaval and subsidence during the great
oscillations of level since the commencement.of the glacial period.*
But whether or not this theory is sufficient to explain the formation
of the great lakes of Switzerland and Italy, it does not apply to
those of British North America, nor of northern Europe, where we
have lakes of all sizes, increasing in number as we proceed north-
ward, and found everywhere along with and evidently part of the
glaciation of the land. It does not explain this palpable connection
of rock basins with glacial action, and in seeking for another solu-
tion we naturally turn our attention, first of all, to that agent whose
power has been so conspicuously displayed in the erosion of the
deep valleys and fiords of glaciated countries.

These considerations have lead me to endeavour to solve the
main difficulty in accepting Professor Ramsay’s theory, viz.: the
immense depths of some of the basins; and I think it may be
shown that even if the ice were dammed up at moderate depths, it
would still possess great grinding powers, which would be augmented
instead of being diminished by increased depth. In the first place
I must draw attention to a feature of all glaciers, the streams that
issue from beneath them. In Switzerland, from the bottom of
every glacier, rushes a torrent densely charged with mud. It is
the same with the great glaciers of the Himalayas—the Ganges, the
Pindur, the Kuphinee and the Thlonok, rise from beneath glaciers.
The flow of water diminishes in winter, but never entirely ceases in
glaciers of the first class. In Greenland, Dr. Rink says, that ‘in
some places mighty springs are seen to come forth from under the
outer edge of the ice, pouring out clayey water in continued quan-

* Antiquity of Man, p. 316.
9

74 BELT——-ON PRODUCTION OF LAKES BY ICE ACTION.

tity throughout the winter.” * Most of the water issuing from the
bottom of glaciers proceeds from the melting of the ice at the upper
surface of the glacier, finding its way to the bottom through
crevices and channels in the ice; but a not inconsiderable portion is
produced by the melting of the lower surface next the earth.
Professor Forbes made some careful observations on this point, and
found that in summer the glacier wasted away by melting at the
surface 3.62 inches daily, and by subsidence or wasting at the bot-
tom 1.63 inches daily. The water that issues from beneath the ice
in Greenland throughout the long and severe winter, can only pro-
ceed from land springs and from the melting of the ice next the
earth. The only example of glaciers that do not give off water
during the winter that I have been able to find, are some of those
small ones on the higher parts of the Alps that have been called
on which, from their altitude, the

’

‘glaciers of the second class,’
effect of the earth’s heat must be very small.

Let us apply these facts to the consideration of the question of
a depression in the pathway of a glacier, which has reached such a
depth that the ice is not bodily discharged from it, but simply fills
it, the glacier passing over the choked up hollow. We have seen
that at the bottom and sides of the hollow, the ice would be slowly
melted by the earth’s heat, increasing with the depth of the basin ;
as the ice at the lower end of the basin melted the whole mass
would be pushed along by the thrust of the moving glacier above
it. Into the crevice at the upper end would pour the water coming
down the bottom of the glacier from above the basin, which would
pass underneath and be forced out at the lower end, carrying with
it the mud produced by the crushing down of the ice as it melted
at the bottom, and by the grinding along its floor as it melted at
the lower end of the basm. The water coming from above would
assist in melting the ice, especially in summer, but its most import-
ant effect would be the scouring out of the bottom of the basin, so
that an ever clean face of rock would be presented to the huge tool
operating upon it. That such an action, or a somewhat similar one,
would take place at the bottom of an ice filled basin, with a glacier
passing over it, and that it would be effective in deepening it, I
cannot doubt. It would in some measure resemble the action of a

Jour. Geographical Soc. Vol. 238, p. 153.

HOW—ON BRINE SPRINGS OF NOVA SCOTIA. 6)

hollow drill that has been proposed for boring holes in rock through
which a current of water is forced to carry off the ground stone,
and still more, the production of pot holes on our coasts and in the
hard beds of many rivers, by the moving water turning a stone in
a hollow and so gradually deepening it, until through time a cylin-
-drical and deep cavity is formed. A lake basin is an immense pot
hole, in which the mass of ice that filled it took the place of the
moving stone, its grinding power vastly increased, and in great part
due to the moving glacier above it. The eroding action would be
slow, but it would be continuous, and the only limit in depth to its
power would be when the hydrostatic pressure of the water equalled
the weight of the superincumbent ice, a limit far beyond anything
with which we have to deal. The rock basins of Nova Scotia are
much shallower than those of Italy and Switzerland, because in the
one case the rocks operated on have been hard metamorphosed
schists and quartzites, in the other soft molasse, easily eroded; the
work done being proportional to the hardness of the material.

Art. IX. On some Brine Sprincs or Nova Scotia. By
Henry How, D.C. L., Proressor or CHEemistry AND Nat.
Hist., Untversiry oF Kine’s CoLtiecr, Winpsor, N. S.

[Read March 6, 1865.]}

In a former communication to the Institute,* and in another
paper,t read before the Natural History Society of Montreal, I
have given the composition of some of the mineral waters of the
Province, known or reported to possess medicinal properties.
Nearly all those analysed had for their leading ingredient sulphate
of lime, or plaster, as it is called, the exceptions being a brine from
the neighborhood of the Renfrew gold diggings, and that interest-
ing water from Bras d’Or, of which the chief constituents were
common salt and nearly as much chloride of calcium. In the
discussion which followed the reading of my paper at the Institute,
several springs were mentioned as locally famous, viz., those of
Earltown, Shubenacadie, and a place a mile and a half east of
Shelburne; but I believe no facts bearing on the composition of

*Trans, N.S. Inst., Vol. 1. + Canadian Naturalist, Oct.1863.

76 HOW —ON BRINE SPRINGS OF NOVA SCOTIA.

their waters were made known. As regards the waters yet exam-
ined, those adverted to above contain so much sulphate of lime,
and so little of other substances, that they might almost be made to
form a distinct group; and the Bras d’Or water is one of a very
remarkable class,* called strongly saline, differmg from brines in
holding an amount of earthy chlorides equal or superior to that of
common salt, which in true brines is of course the characteristic
and exceedingly preponderating ingredient. It is well known that
many of these true brines exist im the Province, but no analysis has
yet been made, or at any rate published, of any of their waters.
In the present paper, I give the results of my analysis of the
waters of two brine springs (one of which I have made the subject
of a communication to the Chemical Society of London), with
information respecting the localities in which they rise, and place
also upon record some notices of other brine springs with which I
have been favored.

Brine Springs, Walton, Hants Co. My attention was drawn to
one of these springs last May, when I was on a prospecting expe-
dition in the neighborhood, by Mr. Joseph W. Stephens, who
assisted me in collecting some of the water, and who subsequently
kindly furnished me with interesting details of information. The
spring issues on the west bank of the Petite River, a short distance
from Walton bridge. It always has a considerable flow of water,
which is clear and has no odour. ‘The water has never been known
to freeze ; its temperature was 44° Fah. on a warm day in winter
when the air was 46°. At all times in winter, even in the very
coldest weather, there is about an eighth of an acre of the ice in the
river quite soft and rotten, into which the spring water flows, and
where the water actually enters the river it is never frozen. Mr.
Stephens threw a piece of ice into the spring in January, and was
astonished to see how rapidly it melted. The water is evidently
somewhat thermal. It appears not to have been put to any medi-
cinal use. The water collected by myself, having been kept in a
well-corked bottle, was analysed in December, when it gave the
following results: the imperial gallon contains —

*Geology of Canada, p. 563, and C. News, x, 181.

fey ey

HOW--ON BRINE SPRINGS OF NOVA SCOTIA. i7

Grains.

Carbonate of ee HEY VNC NSN a Bet mW 14.73
Carbonate of Magnesia (very Snel ..undet.
Carbonate of eon sid aca re SEE ONG st traces.
Phosphoric acid, decided ...................5. traces.
Chloride of Magnesium....................45 4.48
Sulphate of Time Sarat Mla a oe 161.16
Chloride of Sodium............... WMS 787.11
967.48

There is probably a small amount of chloride of potassium
«ontained in the common salt, and it is quite possible also that
there are traces of other constituents, which were not sought for in
the small quantity of water at my command. A very interesting
feature in this brine, illustrating the differences which obtain
between the composition of waters as they issue from the earth, and
that of the ocean which exhibits the results of numerous chemical
changes, is the very large quantity of sulphate of lime present
along with the salt, which, however, is still by so much the princi-
pal ingredient that the water is a true brine. In sea water, accord-
ing to the elaborate researches of Forchhammer, extending to
several hundreds of analyses,* the maximum ratio of chlorine to
sulphuric acid and to lime in the open ocean, is—

100 chlorine to 12.09 sulphuric acid, and
100 chlorine to 3.16 lime;
in the Walton brine we have

100 chlorine to 19.7 sulphuric acid, and
100 chlorine to 15.4 lime.

This water in fact contains almost exactly as much sulphate of lime
(161 grains) as pure water would dissolve (viz., 163 grains) if
saturated. Since some of the waters of the Province, viz., those of
Wilmot and Spa Spring, Windsor, to which curative properties are
attributed, contain this substance as by far the most abundant
ingredient, experience may yet show the Walton brine to be also
valuable to invalids, although sulphate of lime has not, I believe, as
yet been recognized as a useful medicina] agent.t+

Brine Spring, Salt Springs, Pictou Co. For a quantity of water
from this spring Tam indebted to the Rev. A. McKay, who occu-

* ee of he hal Beeiery C. Nowa xe 293.

+ Mr. Stephens informs me that on the other side of a ridge of land rising just
above the Walton Spring just described, at a distance of two miles and a half, and on
the descent of the ridge, a second brine spring is said to exist.

78 HOW-—ON BRINE SPRINGS OF NOVA SCOTIA.

pies the Manse at the locality, and who kindly furnished me with
the following information :—

‘* Last spring there was a great freshet, and the river made its way
into the principal spring. I waited, expecting to have the river turned
into its wonted channel, but being from home on a mission to Cape
Breton at the time the river was lowest I did not succeed. There has
been a hole dug in the end (?) of a low bank about nine yards from this
main spring, by a company, about twenty years ago, who made salt from
the water which came up there. This hole is ten or twelve feet deep.
The water does not overflow here. From this spring I took the water
sent to you. [also sent a piece of the, rock jutting out between this
hole and the main spring. There are several small springs about this
low bank, over the length of about 150 yards. The salt water oozes out
in many places along this course, and salt is deposited in some places.

‘‘ The water is used for rheumatism, and in so far as used I believe
it has proved an effective cure. It is applied externally.”

On examining the water, | found that there was a very large
quantity of salt present, along with much sulphate of lime. When
received (September 9th) the water was without odour, but on stand-
ing for some time it smelt strongly of sulphuretted hydrogen,
from the reduction of the sulphate by organic matter. Under these
circumstances, in order to obviate considerable error, the principal
ingredients were estimated at short intervals, but of course, since
an accurate analysis could not be made of a liquid constantly
changing, I can only offer the following results as exhibiting the
approximate composition of the brme. An imperial gallon con-
tained—

Grains.
Carhonatelotmluune reese aee eee een eee SD
Carbonate of Magnesia..........00.0.200.000 2.932
Carbonate: OLulronee- concn sor scene nee cae 181
SuliGaeey Mi eAse tienes ehmnae wants EA sated ac eer .060
SulphiatelonelWaimesne sees Geese acer: 154.730
Chloride of Magnesium.................... 27.330
Chloride? of Calemm'. ye cesce eee e eee. 51.910
Chioridelof Sodimme ose eee eee 4133.500

Phosphoric Acid,

Boracie Acid, \
Bromine,
Organic matter,

Say,

4374.918
Specific Gravity at 53° Fah........ 1046.69
There was probably a small amount of chloride of potassium
contained in the common salt. With regard to the bromine, the

HOW —ON BRINE SPRINGS OF NOVA SCOTIA. 19

evidence of its presence was very decided, the quantity was quite
large enough to admit of determination, but the trouble involved in
the exact estimation of this element is really so considerable that I
contented myself with qualitative results. No doubt this valuable
substance exists in other brines of the Province, but it has not before
been proved to be present. It is from brines that most if not all
the bromine of commerce is obtained. Boracic acid was found by
evaporating somewhat less than a third of a gallon of the water,
when it was perceived to exist in distinct traces. The presence of
this acid is particularly interesting ; it is probable or at least pos-
sible, that if due search were made most if not all the brine springs
of this Province which rise in the lower carboniferous rocks would
be found to contain it. I have already shown* the existence of
boracic acid (in two minerals), and also of a small quantity of rock
salt, in the gypsum of Windsor, and now we have the same associa-
tion observed in water from rocks (most probably) of the same
formation at a distance of some 60 miles. When I detected the
borate in gypsum, the late Dr. Robb, of Fredericton, strongly ad-
vised me to search waters issuing directly from the plaster rocks for
boracic acid : the interest attaching to such an enquiry is increased
by the result now brought forward. Gypsum is often associated
with rock salt in other countries, and it is found with boracic acid
Gn the mineral boracite) in Germany.

Brine Spring, Sutherland’s River, Pictou Co. For information
respecting this spring, 1 am indebted to Rev. Dr. Honeyman ; the
water issues in the bed of the river, so that it can only be got at in
the dry season; the outlet is situated a little above the falls due
to disturbance of rocks which are probably lower carboniferous.
The spring was discovered by persons observing cattle to drink at
it, and it is now much resorted to and its waters are drunk for a
variety of diseases.

Salt Pond, Antigonish. Dr. Honeyman informs me that salt was
formerly made from this pond, and that a bathing house exists here:
the region is lower carboniferous.

Brine Springs at Whycogomagh, Cape Breton. Of-these, Dr.
Honeyman tells me there are two, of which one is medicinal and
the other is employed in the manufacture of salt. They rise in

* Silliman’s Journal, Sept. 1857, and July 1861.

80 GOSSIP ON ANTIQUITY OF MAN.

lower carboniferous rocks, and at about a mile from the medicinal
9

spring is situated the ‘salt mountain,” supposed to be so called
from a salt spring which issues from it. H. Gesner, Esq., informs
me that this spring is not strongly saline. I learn from Dr. Honey-
man that there is in this district another spring of a highly gaseous
character, which is continually sending off bubbles of gas, carrying
up a fine sand; its water is not saline but sweet to the taste.

Brine Spring, 12 miles from Bedeque. H. Gesner, Esq., in-
forms me that a very strong brine, affording one bushel of salt to
the hundred gallons of water, or six per cent. of salt, is found on
the north side of the St. Patrick’s Channel.

From what we see of the number and distribution of the brine
springs of the Province, mentioned in this paper and elsewhere, the
manufacture of salt may be expected to become a considerable
branch of industry. The composition of the brines issuing from the
lower carboniferous rocks is favourable to the manufacture, if, as
may be supposed, they all resemble those of which the analysis has
just been given, in contaiming sulphate of lime as the most abundant
ingredient next to salt. As this is a substance not readily dissolved
by water, it will separate almost entirely from the brine on boiling
down to a certain stage, and the deposit on further evaporation will
be table salt of considerable purity. Bromine of course, if present,
will be found in the fluid from which the salt has deposited.

Art. 1X. Enquiry into THE ANTIQUITY oF May.
| By Wm. Gossip.
[Read March 6, 1865.]

THE evidence relied on by geologists who endeavor to carry
back the antiquity of man to an era far beyond the historic,
is gathered from strata of the tertiary period, in which, associated
with remains of extinct animals, are flint implements and weapons,
similar to those which are known to be of the recent period; and
from cavern deposits, in which the remains of man are found,
mingled with those of other animals, the species of which it is
supposed did not come down to the chronologic or historic age.

Geology, however, reveals no data to establish positive conclu-

GOSSIP—-ON ANTIQUITY OF MAN. 81

sions on this subject. There is ample room for speculation, and
time and verge for almost every deduction that may be hazarded,
and many of these are practically mischievous. It has already
become a vexed question whether man was really created, or pro-
gressively developed from inferior forms of animal existence. Some
philosophers evidently deem the record of his creation a fable.
- Others, among whom we may quote Sir Charles Lyell, attempt to
show that man went back to, if I may so speak, or was. coeval with
the extinct animals, instead of their coming down to what we
believe to have been his era; or they would lead us far beyond the
sacred chronology to a period anterior to the glacial, and showing
us vegetation similar to that which now prevails in temperate
regions of the earth, and remains of quadrupeds which once lived
and flourished upon it, bid us seek there, as if seeking we should
find, for evidence of man’s existence also. None, however, has
been or is likely to be discovered. Nor does it seem probable, as
the result of investigation, that the truth of the sacred record will
ever be successfully disturbed.

It is to a few of these speculations, and the alleged proofs,
which may be found at large in Sir Chas. Lyell’s book “ On the
Antiquity of Man,” that I would this evening direct your attention.
I shall endeavour to show that the facts stated as evidence of human
existence are not referable to the remoter period, but may all have
been consummated in the chronologic era.

It is something gained in a cause like this, when the bias with
which an author approaches his subject can be clearly demonstrated.
If he truly believe that he can achieve a result, however distant it
may seem, he will seldom hesitate to adopt every possible inference
which he thinks may lead to it. Sir Charles Lyell has largely,
whether justifiably or not, drawn upon the material at his com-
mand, for the purpose of making a nearer approach to his object.
“It would occupy too much of our time were I to allude to every
instance; but I will quote one, which if it open up an extensive
field of investigation, is well calculated to strengthen scepticism,
and to lead astray from the legitimate area of enquiry, which as yet
is far from being thoroughly explored.

There are in England two sets of strata, of marine formation,
which seem to form a connecting link of the tertiary with the post-

01

82 GOSSIP—-ON ANTIQUITY OF MAN.

tertiary periods. One of these belongs to the older pliocene, and
is divisible into the coralline and the red crag—the coralline being
the older of the two. The other belongs to the newer pliocene,
more advanced in time as the term indicates, and is commonly
called the Norwich, and sometimes the mammaliferous crag. I
need not go into a lengthy and particular description of these
formations, any one who desires that will find it im Sir Charles
Lyell’s “Antiquity of Man,” and other works on Geology. It will
suffice to state, that in them are a number of shells of recent
species, the proportion of the recent to the extinct being greater
in the newer beds. ‘Thus, in the coralline or oldest crag, there is
found fifty-one per cent of recent, in the red crag fifty-seven, and
in the Norwich crag eighty-seven. These shells prove a progres-
sive change in the climate. That of the coralline must have been
warm, for twenty-seven southern shells are found, of species which
now inhabit the Mediterranean and West Indies, and but two
closely related to arctic fauna. Only thirteen of these southern
shells occur in the red crag, together with three new southern
species, but eight northern species are found, showing that the
climate was less fitted to support some of the testacea that lived in
the previous period, and becoming more suitable for the northern
species. All the foregoing southern species disappear from the
Norwich crag, but all the eight northern species remain, and four
arctic shells are added. Thus is represented the increasing cold,
the gradual approach to the glacial period of depression, although,
in the time of the Norwich crag, probably there was no season in
which the cold was intense.

Connected with the marine deposit of the Norwich crag, at a
place called Cromer Jetty, where it thins out, is a submerged forest,
which has been traced for more than forty miles, and which at one
time must have had a considerable elevation above the sea. ‘The
Scotch fir, spruce fir, yew, alder and oak, are among the trees that
are known to have grown in that region, and various extinct mam-
malia flourished there, of which numerous bones haye been col-
lected.

There is no doubt about the age of these respective formations.
They belong most certainly to the older and newer pliocene strata,
and the associated fauna are those which previously and probably

GOSSIP—ON ANTIQUITY OF MAN. 83

then existed, and roamed the forest now buried beneath the

waters. But had remains of man been found there, the chronolo-

gical record would not have been true. They have not been found,

therefore positive evidence against that record is wanting, and so

far the negative evidence proves its truth. Yet Sir Charles Lyell
writes, with reference to the time of the Norwich crag: —

‘Neither need we despair* of one day meeting with the signs of
man’s existence in the forest bed, or in the next overlying strata, on the
ground of any uncongeniality in the climate, or incongruity in the state
of the animate creation with the well-being of our species. lor the
present we must be content to wait, and consider that we have made no
investigations which entitle us to wonder that the bones or stone weapons
of the era of the elephas meridionalis have failed to come to light. If
any such lie hid in those strata, and should hereafter be revealed to us,
they would carry back the antiquity of man to a distance of time probably
more than twice as great as that which separates our era from that of the
most ancient of the tool-bearing gravels yet discovered in Picardy or else-
where. But even then the reader will perceive that the age of man,
though pre-glacial, would be so modern in the great geological calender,
that he would scarcely date so far back as the commencement of the
post-pliocene period.”

From this instance, which will show the scepticism, or if you
will the positive belief, of the talented new school of geologic
philosophy, you will gather the fact, that there are no evidences of
man’s existence upon the earth, in any formation or deposit, pre-
vious to the glacial period, nor have any traces of his existence that
may be depended on been discovered in Europe until a long time
after its close.

When scepticism is carried beyond the historical, chronological,
and geological evidence, it need not surprise, that conclusions based
on such scepticism are disputed. Sir Charles Lyell states in his
book, that M. Desnoyers, an observer equally well versed in —
geology and archeology, had disputed the conclusion arrived at by
other geologists (M. Tournal and Christol), that the fossil rhinoce-
ros, hyena, bear, and other lost species, had once been inhabitants
of France contemporaneously with man. ‘The flint hatchets and
arrow-heads,” he said, ‘‘and the pointed bones and coarse pottery
of many French and English caves, agree precisely in character
with those found in the tumuli and under the dolmens (rude altars
of unhewn stone) of the primitive inhabitants of Gaul, Britain, and
Germany. The human bones, therefore, in the caves, which are

= — = =

* The italics are mine.—W. G.

84 GOSSIP—-ON ANTIQUITY OF MAN.

associated with such fabricated objects, must belong, not to ante-
diluvian periods, but to a people in the same stage of civilization
as those who constructed the tumuli and altars.” “In the Gaulish
monuments,” he added, “we find, together with the objects of
industry above mentioned, the bones of wild and domestic animals,
of species now inhabiting Europe, particularly of deer, sheep, wild
boars, dogs, horses and oxen. ‘This fact has been ascertained in
Quercy and other provinces, and it is supposed by antiquarians that
the animals in question were placed beneath the Celtic altars in
memory of the sacrifices offered to the Gaulish divinity Hesus, and
in the tombs to commemorate funeral repasts, and also from a super-
stition prevalent among savage nations, which induces them to lay
up provisions for the manes of the dead in a future life. But in
none of these ancient monuments have any bones been found of the
elephant, rhinoceros, hyena, tiger, and other quadrupeds, such as are
found in caves, which might certainly have been expected had these
species continued to flourish at the time that this part of Gaul was
inhabited by man.”’

I quote this, not only to show that there is a wide difference of
opinion among geologists of eminence upon the antiquity of human
remains, but that Sir Charles himself, as he states further on,
became of opinion, from the arguments of M. Desnoyers and the
writings of Dr. Buckland on the same subject, and by visiting
several caves in Germany, that the human bones mixed with those
of extinct animals in osseous breccias and cavern mud in different
parts of Europe, were probably not coeval.

This opinion, however, he limits, for he again states, “ But of
late years we have obtained convincing proofs, as we shall see in the
sequel, that the mammoth, and many other extinct mammalian
species very common in caves, occur also in undisturbed alluvium,
imbedded in such a manner with works of art, as to leave no room
to doubt that man and the mammoth coexisted.” I am not inclined
to dispute their coexistence, but I wish to offer my reasons for
believing that it took place in the chronologic era, and not in time
so far beyond it as to make the Bible a fable, and to scatter the
foundation of our religious belief to the winds.

In the way that I am able to understand the geological evidence
on the subject, it does not conflict with the sacred chronology, and

GOSSIP —- ON ANTIQUITY OF MAN. 85

may be readily made to prove its truth; while all the argument
adduced in favor of the remoter antiquity of man, if valid, must prove
that chronology to be a falsehood. My ideas upon the subject
tally more with those of M. Desnoyers than with Sir Charles
Lyell’s, although distinct from either. I acknowledge the truth as
advanced in part by the former, but dissent altogether from the
conclusions of the latter. At the same time, my solicitude is not on
account of my own views, but lest those of Sir Charles Lyell should
have more importance than they deserve. You know what he means
—that he thinks he has good evidence in strata in which the re-
mains of man are found with those of extinct species of animals, to
prove not only the age of such strata, but also the coeval existence
of man and the extinctions with which he there seems to be asso-
ciated, and that man’s proper time en this planet will thus be tens
of thousands of years (it does not matter how many) further back
than his first appearance in the Garden of Eden. I believe that in
all this he is mistaken—that he takes things too much as he finds
them, for the purpose of establishing a foregone conclusion, and
attaches too little importance to the changes that have taken place
on the earth during the past six thousand years. He ignores alto-
gether such an event as the Noachian deluge, and the phenomena
which must have accompanied and followed it. He does not allude
to it, and his silence is more eloquent than words to show that he
does not believe in it. I do believe in it, and depend upon it as
strong evidence in disproof, and to uphold my own views, al-
though I brmg these forward with diffidence and great humility.
They may or may not be entitled to examination. It is, however,
an attempt in a safe direction, and it does not follow that some
more efficient explorer of the arcana of nature, may not be privi-
leged to reconcile the discrepancy if any, that prevails between the
conflicting testimony of geology, as held by some, and what is
generally termed revealed religion.

In the early period of man’s history, there was doubtless the
same migratory disposition as at the present day. We find it
recorded that the eldest son of the first human pair, was the first
emigrant. For the period of sixteen or seventeen hundred years
between the creation and the Noachian deluge, we may suppose
that offshoots were continually transplanting themselves, not only

86 GOSSIP — ON ANTIQUITY OF MAN.

from the parent stock, but from each other. As men separated
from their fellows, they must have become divided into families,
groups and tribes, just such as peopled the northern parts of
America when discovered by Europeans—wanderers who had lost
all trace of their origin and of the primitive civilization,—hunters
and fishers—dependant upon the prolific sea, and upon. the wild
beasts of the forest for food and clothing. It is quite possible and
probable, that before that event the northern portions of Europe,
in the order of creation, had been peopled with animals of forms
and species largely developed, fitted for a previous condition of the
earth, but becoming gradually extmct under the operations of
altered nature. ‘These fading species would have been contempo-
rary with man, have lived and died around him for ages, until he
and they were suddenly removed from the scene by destructive
agencies. It is to this buried world that I would direct your
attention. If the Noachian deluge erased from the earth by a signa}
catastrophe all human traces from certain latitudes, and all traces
of other animals that existed there, you will see that ages must
have elapsed ere traces of man would again become visible, and
that then they would be found with a greatly changed contempo-
rary fauna, and a condition of the earth different from that which
preceded it. I believe that much of the cave phenomena and of
the alluvial deposits in Europe, may be attributed to the Noachian
deluge, or catastrophes of the like nature that previously occurred,
of which there is no tradition, and that other instances quoted are
as truly antediluvian, but after the creation.

There are some remarkable facts in Sir Charles Lyell’s work,
in connection with deposits in which the remains of man occur
associated with those of the extinct animals. 1st.—These deposits
are nct simple strata—limestones or other rock formations, but
are made up of the erosion of such formations including the
glacial drift and later accumulations, a loose incoherent mass of
chalky marl, sand, gravel and clay—none of which are native
of the place where they are found—but brought there by streams
from a distance, and from higher grounds. 2ndly.—The remains
are not in the relative positions in which we might expect to
find those of man, still an inhabitant of the earth, and those of
wild animals of such huge forms and assumed fierce dispositions as

GOSSIP — ON ANTIQUITY OF MAN. 87

were the extinct species. They are just in such proximity or
association, as though the extinct monsters had held the same
relation to man as the domesticated cattle of the present day—
as though it were a millemial period—the teeth of a mammoth
being found by the skull of a young person—another skull in a breccia
in which was the tooth of a rhinoceros—another in which a perfect
flint tool was in close proximity to the leg of a cave bear; and nu-
merous other instances of fraternal position between these and other
extinctions and the human race. You of course cannot believe in
this harmony cf nature, and therefore it is necessary to account for
the position of these remains in some other way. It may puzzle
you to think hew it could have ‘occurred at all, judging from any
progressive changes that come under observation at the present day.

But there is another fact to which, in the third place, I beg to
advert, and which seems to me to be still more strange when
properly considered; but which is relied upon as the strongest
evidence of the coeval existence of man with the extinct species.
It is the finding of the remains of man and his tools and imple-
ments, in the lowest part of the lowest strata of sand, gravel, &c.,
both in the cave deposits and river alluvium. I will recite some of
these instances :—

Cave Deposits :—

1. The cavern of Pondres, in which human bones occurred in the
same mud with the bones of an extinct hyena and rhinoceros. The
cavern was in this instance filled up to the roof with mud and gravel
in which fragments of two kinds of pottery were detected—the lowest
and rudest at the Bottom of the cave, below the level of the extinct
mammalia.

2. In the caverns of Engis and Engihoul, on the Meuse.—
«Speaking generally, it may be said that human bones, where any
were met with, occurred at all depths in the cave mud and gravel,
sometimes above, and sometimes below those of the bear, elephant,
rhinoceros, hyena,” &c.

3. Lyell’s exploration in the Engihoul cavern.—<“ Bones and
teeth of the cave bear were soon found, and several other extinct
quadrupeds. " i
perseveringly for weeks after my departure, succeeded at length in
extracting from the same deposit, at the depth of two feet below

My companion continuing the work

88 GOSSIP —ON ANTIQUITY OF MAN.

the crust of stalagmite, three fragments of a human skull, and two

- perfect lower jaws with teeth, all associated in such a manner with

the bones of bears, large pachyderms and ruminants, and so
precisely resembling these in colour and state of preservation, as to
leave no doubt in his mind that man was contemporary with the
extinct animals.”

* 4. The Neanderthal cave.—A human skeleton found near the
bottom of loam which covered the floor of the cave, and the skull
near the entrance, as though it had gone into the cave head
foremost through some communication with the surface, amongst
the first matter washed in.

5. The skull of an adult individual found in the Engis cave
near Liege, associated with the elephant, rhinoceros, bear, tiger,

~ hyena—all of extinct species, but nevertheless accompanied by a

bear, stag, wolf, fox, beaver, and many other quadrupeds of species
still living—a fact which has considerable bearmg on this question,
and which it is as well to keep in remembrance in connection
therewith.

6. Caves of Gower in Glamorganshire, South Wales. — “ But
the discovery of most importance, as bearing on the subject of the
present work, is the occurrence in a newly discovered cave, called
Long Hole, by Colonel Wood, in 1861, of the remains of two
species of rhinoceros, ft. tichorinus and R. hemitechus (Falconer), m
an undisturbed deposit, im the lower part of which were some well-
shaped flint knives, evidently of human workmanship. It is clear
from their position that man was coeval with these two species.
We have elsewhere independent proofs of his coexistence with
every other species of the cave fauna of Glamorganshire ; but this is
the first well-authenticated example of the occurrence of R.
hemitechus m connection with human implements.”

River Alluvium :-—

7. M. Boucher de Perthes in the first vol. of his “ Antequites
Celtiques,” published in 1847—states that he found flint imple-
ments in the lowest beds of a series of ancient alluvial strata
bordering the valley of the Somme,—the tools were stated to occur
at various depths, often twenty or thirty feet from the surface, in
sand and gravel, especially in those strata which were nearly in
contact with the subjacent white chalk.

8. Dr. Rigollot, having inspected the collection of M. Boucher

GOSSIP—ON ANTIQUITY OF MAN. 89

de Perthes, returned home, resolved to look for himself for flint
tools in the gravel pits near Amiens. There he immediately found
abundance of similar flint implements, precisely the same in their
make and geological position, some of them in gravel nearly on a
level with the Somme, others in similar deposits resting on chalk,
at a height of about ninety feet above the river.

I need not multiply waconscious stances. These are remark-
able arrangements of strata. We have man resting on the chalk,
or nearly so, along with river and land shells of ling species.
Then come remains of contemporary animals of species which still
exist. Then are found mollusca, of species not now living in
Northern Europe, and others of living species. Then the cave
hyenas, bears, and lions. Then the hippopotamus, rhinoceros,
elephas antiquus E. primigenius, &c.,—the last first and the /irst
last. Judging from the composition of the strata, which is a
mixture and mingling of all the formations from the lowest eocene
to the superficial surface accumulations, we certainly might expect
to find, here and there, a representative of each of the extinct
mammalia. The strange fact is, that they are in reversed order,
or in such a position as would imply that a reversion was going on
when they were deposited. But if this order of superposition is
relied upon as proof that man was coeval in time with all these
extinct animals, it ought to be held equally as proof that man
existed before them, seeing that his remains are often found, almost
as a rule, beneath them. While, therefore, it is not improbable that
some of the now extinct animals may have come down to his era,
we get a much more intelligent glimpse of his true position and
time in creation, by finding his remains more intimately associated
with species which now exist, which must have been contemporary
with him, although created before him.

The geological record may, however, be read in another way—
by placing man at the head of the creations of the Tertiary period
instead of at its foot; and then following down from the recent to
the eocene, we shall have the recewwed order of superposition so far
as the strata of the embraced periods are concerned. Man would
then be found in his proper place, the associate of all existing
species, and probably of some of the extinctions, and with all living
species of land and marine mollusca, and would not be found in

11

90 GOSSIP —-ON ANTIQUITY OF MAN.

simple strata later than the recent, although it would not be extra-
ordinary if his remains should be discovered im mingled strata—
that upon which he was created with that upon which the extinct
animals roamed and existed. ‘This order does no violence to
chronology, but rather sustains it. It makes man the last created
mammal, and the cattle preceding him, and the wild beasts later
still; and still preceding them extinctions of species for which the
earth had become gradually unfitted. It goes further. It settles
the point with reference to cave deposits and river alluviums, which
are simply the mud of the erosions of surface and lower strata,
burdened with the contents of each as the floods have reached

- them consecutively, sometimes mingled in their passage, or em-

bedded successively at lower levels than the sites from which they
had been washed. And this is the reason why we sometimes find
flint implements in the lowest beds, or mingled with animal remains
in the strata next imposed.

I have thus come shortly, with due reference to the time which
reading this paper will occupy, to that stage of progress when
exemplifications are necessary to verify the positions I have
assumed. I find these, to my own satisfaction at least, in the book
to which I have so frequently referred.

Sir Charles Lyell alludes to the imyestigations made by M.
Tournal, an eminent archeologist, in 1828, in the cavern of Bize,
in the department of the Aude, South of France. M. Tournal
states that in this cavern he had found human bones and teeth,
together with fragments of rude pottery in the same mud and breccia,
cemented by stalagmite, in which land shells of living species were
imbedded, and the bones of mammalia, some of extinct, others of
recent species. The human bones were declared by his fellow
labourer, M. Marcel de Serres, to be in the same chemical condition
as those of the accompanying quadrupeds. Five years later M.
Tournal, speaking of these fossils, states that—‘‘ they could not be
referred to a diluvial catastrophe, but must have been introduced
gradually, together with the enveloping sand and gravel at succes-
sive pertods.”

If the pottery described here was in a similar position to that
described by M. Christol in the cavern of Pondres, to which I

have previously alluded, we may suppose the relics of man in the

GOSSIP — ON ANTIQUITY OF MAN. 91

cavern of Bize were near the bottom also, below the extinct mam-
malia, and this taken with M. Tournal’s assertion that they were
introduced at successive periods, enables me to draw the following
inference in support of my views :—

We have no data to determine in what condition this part of the
earth may have been at the period assigned as that of man’s crea-
tion. We know of but one spot that is said to have been altogether
pleasant. That previous to that event various species of animals
roamed here, died, and became embedded, is exceedingly probable.
Man at length came upon the scene, lived and died also. Conse-
quently his remains and his works, with those of recent species,
and those of extinctions, if some of them came down to his era,
lay at the surface. Ages elapse, oscillations occur, and there are
signs of approaching submergence of the land. Floods are fre-
quent, sweeping the surface of its contents, and precipitating them
into rents, communicating with systems of subterranean channels
and caves. They form the undermost deposits in all such caves.
Oscillations continue, lower strata are exposed and eroded, and
bones of quadrupeds, extinct even then, are washed out, and they
too are precipitated into caverns and channels, and form a super-
imposed secondary deposit. The grand submergence takes place—
the Noachian deluge prevails in these latitudes—the quick upheaval
follows, and animal relics, bones clothed with flesh, but rent and
dismembered by conflicting elements, are introduced. In process
of time stalactite drips through the roof, and stalagmite covers the
floor of the caverns, which remain in that condition until developed
by scientific research, a subject of speculation in the nineteenth
century of the Christian era.

Time will not permit me to discuss this portion of the subject at
much greater length. It may however be observed that there will
be various modifications of cave deposits; and that although the
proper place of human remains, washed from the surface and higher
levels, is underneath other remains, when so found, it may have
been that caverns were filled with relics long before man appeared ;
and in these the extinct animals and perhaps existing species may
have mingled, and the remains of man, if any, washed in at a
future period, would then be in the upper stratum. There ought
to be no mistaking the geological age of caverns like these. It

— aa ees

92 GOSSIP — ON ANTIQUITY OF MAN.

may have been also, and the case seems proved, that bones and
implements of man have been washed out from the surface, and
rolled in the beds or channels of rivers or torrents; and that lower
strata, in which reposed the remains of older animals being reached,
that both may have been mingled and further rolled and triturated
in the same streams for a long time, before communication with the
interior was made—and thus these remains would be identical “in
appearance, colour, and chemical condition,”’—then they may have
gone in a mingled mass into the cavernous passages and fissures,
and would be found, as Schmerling found his deposits in the Enjis
and Engihoul caverns before referred to—at all depths, and their
respective ages undistinguishable.

I cannot discover any good reason why man and many animals
now extinct, may not have existed together in the chronologic era,
from the creation to the deluge. On the contrary, the evidence
appears to me to favour their coexistence. ‘That the Noachian deluge
was partial or otherwise, is not now the question—that there was
such an event universal tradition would inspire the conviction, even
though the record were lost. Allowing then that it extended to
northern regions inhabited by man, some of the caverns near the
sea, those at Brixham, in Devon, for instance, in which animal bones
and flint implements are found, may be referable to such a disturb-
ance, and others to the period immediately after. There are
several circumstances connected with the Brixham caves which
favour this opinion. Some worn pebbles of hematite found in them,
could only have come from their nearest parent rock at a period
when the valleys immediately adjoining the caves were much shal-
lower than they now are. This may have been the time of the
deposition of the gravel and stones in these caves. The reddish
loam in which the bones: are imbedded, is such as may be seen on
the surface of limestone in the neighbourhood ; but the currents
which were formerly charged with such mud must have run at a
level 78 feet above that of the stream now flowing in the same
valley—and to this time we may refer the bone deposits. It
accords also with the phenomena of that event, that there is good
evidence in,the discovery in the mud at the bottom of the bone
earth and close to the flint knives, of the entire limb of a cave bear,
which must have been introduced clothed with its flesh, or with the

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GOSSIP — ON ANTIQUITY OF MAN. 93

bones bound together by their natural ligaments, of the co-existence
of man with mammals since extinct. It further appears that the
waters at first must have been propelled through these channels
with great force, and thus accumulated the stony fragments—that
succeeding this torrent there was a regular current, and that then
fine mud and bones accumulated—and that when this stayed the
stalagmite floor was gradually formed.

I might point to other instances of cavern deposits, which seem
to corroborate the received chronology with reference to the age of
man, which I find no valid reason for carrying back to remoter
periods. I shall however rest this part of the case with the facts
quoted, and proceed to examine my theory by the evidence afforded
by river deposits, containing bones of extinct mammalia and flint
implements similar to those of the caves.

It must be borne in mind that these alluvial deposits in valleys,
are made up of erosions and denudations of the surface strata, and
are similar to those which are found in caverns. We ought there-
fore to have the same phenomena—or with slight modifications—in
both ; and it is so. ‘The same inverted strata meet us here openly,
which met us in the underground passages and caves communicating
with the surface. In the diagram* before you, which is a section
across the valley of the Somme in Picardy, you will find the regu-
lar order of superposition of strata—first the chalk (1), next the
eocene strata (2), then the loam, or drift, or brick earth (3). Next
you will find the upper and lower level gravels made up of denu-
dations, which I have marked—upper (2a), and lower (3 a); then
the gravel bed (4), the peat (5), and the river Somme, as it now
runs, (6). I will read the description (with these figures) from Sir
Charles Lyell’s book, and afterwards make a short commentary
upon it, in accordance with my own views .—

“The valley of the Somme in Picardy is situated geologically
in a region of white chalk with flints, the strata of which are nearly
horizontal. ‘The chalk hills which bound the valley are almost
everywhere between 200 and 300 feet in height. On ascending to
that elevation we find ourselves on an extensive table land, in which
there are slight elevations and depressions. The white chalk itself
is scarcely ever exposed at the surface on this plateau, although

* This is copied from the section in Sir Charles Lyell’s book, and is not correct,
but will give an idea of the position of the various deposits. (See section.)

04 GOSSIP — ON ANTIQUITY OF MAN.

seen on the slopes of the hills, as at b and c. The general surface
of the upland region is covered continuously for miles in every
direction by loam or brick earth (3) about five feet thick, devoid of
fossils. To the wide extent of this loam the soil of Picardy chiefly
owes its great fertility. Here and there we also observe on the
chalk outlying patches of tertiary sand and clay, with eocene fos-
sils (2), the remnants of a formation once more extensive, and
which probably once spread in one continuous mass over the chalk,
before the present system of valleys had begun to be shaped out.
It is necessary to allude to these relics of tertiary strata, of which
the larger part is missing, because their denudation has contributed
largely to furnish the Heese of gravels in which the flint imple-
ments and bones of extinct syoyannnsstben are entombed. From this
source have been derived not only regular formed egg shaped peb-
bles, so common in the old fluviatile alluvium at all levels, but
huge masses of ‘sandstone several feet in diameter. The upland
loam also (3) has often, in no slight degree, been formed at the
expense of the same tertiary sands and clays, as is attested by its
becoming more or less sandy or argillaceous, according to the nature
of the nearest eocene outlier in the neighbourhood. The average
width of the valley of the Somme between Amiens and Abbeville
is one mile.

«Tt will be seen by the description given of the section, that
(3 a) indicates the lower level gravels, and (2 a) the higher ones,
or those rising to elevations of eighty or a hundred feet above the
river. Newer than these is the peat (5), which is from ten to
thirty feet in thickness, and which is not only of later date than
the alluvium (5 a) and (2a), but is also posterior to the denudation
of those gravels, or to the time when the valley was excavated
through them. Underneath the peat is a bed of gravel (4), from
three to fourteen feet thick, which rests on undisturbed chalk.
This gravel was probably formed, in part at least, when the valley
was scooped out to its present dein, since which time no geological
change has taken place except the growth of the peat, and aes icie
oscillations in the general level of the country. A thin layer of im-
pervious clay separates the gravel (4) from the peat (5), and seems
to have been a necessary preliminary to the growth of the peat.”

I may sum up the substance of this description in a few words.
If my theory of inversion be sufficient to account for the finding of
the remains of man in mixed strata—no violence will be done
either to the scriptural or geological record. They will fall into
their proper place in the order of creation. So also will those of
the recent animals cotemporary with man: and so also will those
of the extinct mammalia.

GOSSIP —— ON ANTIQUITY OF MAN. 95

The valley of the Somme and the hills by which it is bounded,
must at one time have been the bottom of a large cretaceous lake,
which communicated with the sea. When the elevation of this
basin into dry land occurred, the chalk arose covered continuously
with a loose and incoherent eocene formation of sand and gravel
containing contemporary moilusca. There is no evidence to show
that this eocene strata, lying directly on the chalk, was ever
inhabited, except by fresh water or land shells, up to the glacial
period. As this came on and continued, there may have been
great depression and submergence of the land—the loam and clay
being then deposited that cover the country, much thicker than
they now are, and destitute of fossils. ‘There was a corresponding
re-elevation and denudation—the surface of the country rose slowly
above the reach of the water, but the configuration of the land
caused a broad, deep, and rapid stream, perhaps ice laden, to run
where the valley of the Somme now is, sweeping away what
remained there of the superficial deposit, eroding the eocene strata,
excavating the valley down to the chalk, and also eroding its sides.
This stream, as oscillations occurred, may have run at a higher or
lower level, but remained for a long time at the upper level (2 a)
where its eddies accumulated the upper level gravels, which ex-
tended on either side the valley towards its centre. The higher
dry land would have been overspread with herbage, and have
nourished and sustained living creatures—elephas primigenius, rhino-
ceros tichorinus, equus fossilis, and other extinctions which then had
roamed from more southern latitudes subsequent to the glacial era,
and their remains became embedded. Long previous to the time
of man’s appearance on this scene, and before his creation, some of
these races became extinct.

At length man in his continued migration, from the cradle of

the human race, arrived at and roamed over the country, as wild
as civilized man found the aborigines of this continent—wearing
the skins of beasts—using stone implements and flint weapons, and
possessed of the useful art of making rude pottery. He too peopled
the country for ages—hunted, and lived and died there. Suppose
now that the Noachian deluge affected these latitudes—that another
great depression took place, and all the high hills were quietly
covered by the waters—and shortly afterwards a corresponding re-

96 GOSSIP — ON ANTIQUITY OF MAN.

elevation. What then would have been the effect upon the surface
deposits of the lands bounding the valley of the Somme? The
broad waters would have been charged, first, with the uppermost
stratum, the remains of man and his works, and those of contempo-
rary fauna. Secondly, with remains of other and older mammalia—
all which would have been deposited in their order on the chalky
shelf (2 a) in the eddies of the swift stream that ran at that height,
and have formed part of the alluvium (2 a) mingled with eocene
strata (2) and extending into the valley. Thirdly, with part of
the remaining unfossiliferous loam and drift which cap these gravels.
As the waters decreased, the stream, cutting through (2 a) would
have swept it nearly all away, depositing its sediment charged with
its material and other debris, at (3 a), which would then have been
the bottom of the valley, and in its turn, would have succumbed
to the still decreasmg downward impetuous flood; and all the finer
particles having now disappeared, would have left the rough gravel
(4) resting upon the chalk—the newest deposit except the peas,
of the valley of the Somme—and then the waters having subsided
the river would have formed its present channel or something very
like it, and the peat would have begun to grow.

This is my comment upon the geological deposits of the valley
of the Somme. If just, it rescues them from the long past ages
to which Sir Charles Lyell and other geologists have consigned
man and his works, and so far as these last are concerned, brings
them down to a period between the creation and the Noachian
deluge. It does not, however, necessarily implicate this last event
as the sole agent by which these deposits were made, for oscillations
of the land and changes of level in this region, may have caused
inundations which would have produced the same results. But it
does show that the antiquity of man, judged by the received
chronology, need no longer be a subject of dispute, or doubt,
especially by the believers of Divine revelation.

The generations immediately after the Noachian deluge, buried
their dead out of their sight. We have a record of this in the life
of Abraham, who purchased the cave and the field of Machpelah
from Ephron the Hittite, the children of Heth being witnesses; and
such burial places were held sacred, sometimes visited by survivors,
and occasionally opened to admit another tenant to the narrow

GOSSIP — ON ANTIQUITY OF MAN. 97

house. We do not for a moment suppose that Abraham originated
this custom—but it may have been an antedi/uvian one,—and we
therefore have a warranty to search for an antediluvian cave or
grotto set apart for the sacred rite of burial. Sir Charles Lyell
has found one, which he says “seems clearly to have been a
sepulchral vault of the post-pliocene! period,” near Aurignac, not
far from the foot of the Pyrenees, thus carrying back its age tens
of thousands of years probably before the assumed period of man’s
creation.

It is a grotto in the side of the hill of Fajoles, near the town
of Aurignac, in the department of the Haute-Garonne, near a spur
of the Pyrenees. ‘The discovery was made by a workman (Bonne-
maison), who observed that rabbits when chased ran to this spot to
burrow. On reaching into the hole, he laid hold of, and drew out,
much to his surprise, one of the long bones of a human skeleton.
Digging into the talus he came to a large stone slab, which formed
the closure of a grotto, the inside of which was almost filled with
bones, among which were two human skulls. He communicated
the circumstance to M. Amiel, the mayor of Aurignac, and the
discovery made a great sensation. The bones were all re-interred
in the parish cemetery, but not before M. Amiel, who was a medical
man, and had a knowledge of anatomy, ascertained that they must
have formed part of seventeen skeletons of both sexes and all ages,
some so young that the ossification of the bones was incomplete.
He also remarked that they must have been a race of small stature.
Unfortunately the skulls were injured in the transfer, and after the
lapse of eight years, when M. Lartet visited Aurignac, and a
further investigation was about to be made, the sexton was unable
to tell where the remains had been buried, and they have not been
re-discoyered to this day. :

Outside this cave, among ashes and some overlying earthy layers,
separating the ashes from the talus, were a great variety of bones
and implements—a stone of a circular form flattened on two sides,
arrows without barbs, other tools made of reindeers’ horns, and a
bodkin formed out of the more compact horn of a roe deer.
Among the cinders outside the vault were fragments of fissile sand-
stone reddened by heat, which were observed to rest on a level sur-
face of nummulitic limestone, and to have formed a hearth. here

12

FR aa Sn

98 GOSSIP — ON ANTIQUITY OF MAN.

were no human bones on the outside of the grotto, and of the
various species of animals there were extinct and living species—
among the former—ursus spelaus, felis spelea, and hyena spelea,
carniwora,—elephas primigenius, rhinoceros tichorinus, megaceros
Hibernicus, herbivora; and of the latter—badger, polecat, wildcat,
wolf, and fox, carnivora,—and the pig, stag, roebuck, reindeer, and
aurochs, herbivora.

This is a short summary of the history of the Aurignac relics.
It is, to say the least, a singular instance of human remains, not
enveloped in a preserving matrix, remaining for so long a period
undecomposed. If we give them the age assumed for them by
Sir Charles Lyell, they may have lain there hundreds of thousands
of years, a long time for traditions or customs of burial to have
been retained which descended to Abraham. But if we allow
that the extinct mammalia may have peopled this region between
the creation and the deluge, the fact of cave burial and the post-
diluvian custom or tradition will be much more intelligible. The
fossilization of the young bones in process of growth, is another
marvel. And almost equally so, after the sensation excited by the
discovery, is the total oblivion that fell upon the Aurignac sexton,
of the spot where the remains were re-interred.

The only good reason [ can discover for attributing so great an
age to these human remains, is their association with those of many
extinct animals, which are known to have existed and roamed the
earth long ages previous to the period assigned for the creation of
man. If, however, these extinctions came down to the date of the
Adamic chronology, and I believe that most of them did so, equally
with those which are still living species, this reason would not
apply—tfor we might expect to find them here, the natural enemies
and the food of man. We might then suppose this cave to bea
burial place of some small emigrant tribe of antediluyians, who in
a few generations after the first man, had found their way to this
region from the centre of the race, and had hunted, and lived and
feasted upon the animals of the chase, such as the remains are
described to be. Against this supposition is the stated fact, that
no change in the physical configuration of the district, such as a
flood would have made, has taken place since the grotto was a place
of sepulture. But if the Noachian deluge were a partial one,

GOSSIP —- ON ANTIQUITY OF MAN. 99

which is a tenet of the modern school of philosophy, if they admit
it at all, a good deal may be made out of Sir Charles Lyell’s own
argument in support of this theory of the age of the remains in
the Aurignac grotto. Thus he says— It is the normal state of
the earth’s surface to be undergoing great alterations in one place,
_ while other areas, often in close proximity, remain for ages without
any modification. In one region, rivers are deepening and widen-
ing their channels, or the waves of the sea are undermining cliffs,
or the land is sinking beneath or rising above the waters, century
after century, or the volcano is pouring forth torrents of lava, or
showers of ashes; while in tracts hard by, the ancient forest, or
extensive heath, or the splendid city, continue scatheless and
motionless.” There may then have been elevations here, and
depressions at no great distance. The floods which covered the
face of the country in other parts, and filled caves with the bones
of men, and animals now extinct, whether Noachian, or a conse-
quence of them, or otherwise, may have spared the region in which
the Aurignac grotto is situated, while they fulfilled their mission upon
the fauna at a distance, nigh or afar. The Aurignac grotto, there-
fore, while it shows that man may have existed with animals now
extinct, affords no proof that he was as old in time as they; or
even that all the monstrous existences that peopled the world at
his advent, became extinct at the great catastrophe which preserved
a large proportion of the species that now remain.

Our own country affords some remarkable instances of the
presence of man and his works on the scene, long previous to its
discovery by Europeans, and the introduction of civilization and
refinement. It is easily ascertained at the present day, that the
aboriginal race in this part of the continent, lived by hunting and
fishing, and used stone and bone weapons of offence and defence,
and implements of industry or domestic economy, precisely similar
in form and fashion to those that stretch beyond the historic period
in Europe. There has been no intervening bronze age in this part
of the American continent. The remains and relics are the veritable
weapons, utensils and pottery, m type and material, as were used
by the remotest Gaul, Briton, and Scandinavian, long before a bronze
implement was introduced among them. We are thus pointed to an
interesting fact. That the ancient people of Europe had become

100 GOSSIP —- ON ANTIQUITY OF MAN.

isolated from the centre of civilization, and. had lost all tradition of
it, except of one event; and were to it as unknown as was America,
(to which the human family had also gradually spread), until the days
of Columbus. ‘The wonderful tales of the heathen mythology may
therefore be no longer myths when taken in connection with the
subject of the antiquity of man, and the discovery, in the north of
Europe, of a new country and a strange people, and the reclama-
tion of their millions to a state of half civilization, and an exchange
of stone for the more useful and ornamental bronze and gold and
silver. The time is too far distant to enable us to judge correctly
whether the intruders supplanted, as on this continent they are
gradually doing, or amalgamated with, the aboriginal race. The
Fin, the Lap, and the Esquimaux, in the extreme north, im their
lineaments and stature, their customs and usages, seem to favour
the idea of a people retreating beyond the influence of manners
and modes of life which they could not appreciate, and were power-
less to withstand; and the ancient painted Briton, clothed in the
skins of beasts, with his fishing corracle, so like the Indian, contrasted
with the war chariots and splendour of his chiefs, and the power
of the Druidical priesthood, leads us to believe that the advent
of a superior race was attended with consequences to the
aborigines of the old world, very similar to those which have
been produced in the new. That advent was certainly post-diluvian,
although no authentic record remains that can be depended on, of
the settlement or conquest by which it was made.

One great cause of scepticism is the readiness with which man-
kind yield their belief to theories put forth with show of reason,
by those whom they regard as superior intelligences, and in whom
they repose implicit confidence. Let a man do some great thing
which will bear the test of enquiry in every possible shape,
and become famous thereby, and he may afterwards commit a
thousand vagaries, and find multitudes to uphold him. A Lyell,
a Darwin, or a Huxley, may go a long way in the path of human
knowledge, make important discoveries, and satisfy the world that
and that therefore their
theories, equally with their facts, may be received with faith

all they do is right and just and proper

equal to that which should follow plam demonstration. But there
is no reason why we should respect their speculations as we do

GOSSIP—ON ANTIQUITY OF MAN. 101

their truths, seeing that, although in their own hands, they lead to
nothing, and are nothing. Such an impotent conclusion has met
Lyell, who expects to find remains of man in the submerged forest
at Cromer, where they are not to be found. Such also has met
Darwin, who has let go his belief in creation, and adopts variation
of species instead; and such also meets Huxley, who traces back
organized being to molecules, so much alike in every species, that
all his philosophy cannot distinguish one from another, and who is
yet compelled to acknowledge that the molecule of a horse pro-
dnces a horse, that of a bear a bear, that of a camel a camel, and
that of a man—although exactly like the others—a man. We
must, therefore, be careful while giving due credit for the truths
that such men teach, not to be led away by speculation which is not
truth, and to which the test of truth cannot be applied with any
satisfactory results.

But it is time that I should bring these observations to a close.
We are all searching after truth—whether we look to find it in the
past, of the beginning and progress of which we know so little,
and which seems to our finite capacities an eternity of duration,—
or in the present, in which we have an interest for three score
years and ten, to mould it for the future,—or forward to that
future, whose duration will be infinite, and in which we expect to
be partakers of another form of existence that shall not change.
We glean here and there, with the depths of the wisdom so dearly
purchased for us by the first man with the penalty of a short life,
a few startling facts, which create in us wonder and awe at the
stupendous work of creation. We reason upon them with the aid
of science, and make a little progress in unravelling their history,
and are then brought to a stand still, or are lost in endless and
unprofitable speculation. Looking backward or forward, and inyes-
tigating as we may, we find no theory so stable as the recorded
order of creation—none with which our geological facts so well
agree ;—and as this has not been written in detail, and therefore
not so much for our learning as the exercise of our faith and for
our edification, we may rest assured that our faculties are given
us, less on account of what has been done, than for what there is
to do; and that the exploration of the earth for the past history
of man is of little consequence as it concerns his present happiness,

102 | MYERS —ON METEOROLOGY.

to say nothing of the future, while it only tends to perplex his
ideas and unsettle his reason. ‘Taking this view of the subject
Tam quite content in my belief that man was the last mammal
created. That he had his time and place assigned to him in that
sublime expression of the Will of the Almighty Creator, with
whom to will is to execute, Who said—‘* Let us make man in Our
image, after Our likeness—and let them have dominion over the
fish of the sea—and over the fowl of the air—and over the cattle—
and over all the earth—and over every creeping thing that creepeth
upon the earth.”

Art. X. Nores ox THE WEATHER AT Hatirax, Nova Scotia,
puRING 1864. By Cortonren, Myers.

[Read Monday Evening, April 6, 1865.}

THe year 1864 began with a gale of wind from 8. E., and
snow, which latter, however, soon turned to rain. ‘The remainder
of the month of January was generally fine, and, with the excep-
tion of two days, when the mercury stood a few degrees below
zero, the weather was mild for the season. ‘The mean tempera-
ture was 23°, being 7° lower than it was in 1863.

The weather in February was unsettled ; the mean temperature
26°, being 3° higher than in 1863.

March was stormy and unsettled ; mean temperature 28°, being
3° higher than 1863,

April weather variable, with high winds; mean temperature
36°, being 2° lower than in 1863.

May generally fine, though fogs were frequent ; mean temper-
ature 48°, being 10° higher than 1863.

June fine, but season backward, in consequence of the want of
rain and prevalence of cold sea fogs ; mean temperature 57°, being
3° higher than in 1863.

July very fine and dry; mean temperature 62°, being 3° lower
than 1863. :

August, though generally fine was characterized by occasional
heavy rains ; mean temperature 64°, being exactly the same as last year.

September very fine, with the exception of a few days of heavy
rain ; mean temperature 56°, being 2° lower than 1863.

MYERS —ON METEOROLOGY. 108

October for the most part lowering and rainy. Frosts occurred
towards the end of the month; mean temperature 46°, being 5°,
lower than 1863.

November generally unsettled; mean temperature 39°, being
1° lower than in 1863.

« December weather variable and stormy ; mean temperature 27°,
bemg 1° higher than in 1863. The year closed with some severe
weather.

The highest temperature in the shade recorded by me during
1864, was 92°, on the 15th June ; the lowest—d° during the nights
of 25rd and 24th of December. The highest monthly range, 55°,
in June; the lowest 33°, in July and September.

Yearly range 97°; the hottest month was August; the coldest
January; the mean temperature of the year was 43°, being 1° lower
than that of 1863.

The highest reading of the barometer was 30°.26 on the 10th
December ; the lowest, 28°.48 on 22nd December. The highest
monthly range, 1°.78 in December; the lowest, .54 in July.
Yearly range, 1°.78. ‘The mean for the year, 29°.65.

The most prevalent winds during the year were N.W. and 8.W.
The least prevalent 8S. and E.

Rain fell on 118 days; snow on 49; hail on 8; and fog was
present on 56 days.

Aurora Boreales were visible on 54 nights; there were 16 solar,
and 17 lunar halos.

Thunder storms occurred on 12th March at 8 o'clock, A. M.,
and at 1 o’clock, p. M.; on 31st May; 27th Jung, and 12th July;
on the 2nd, 11th, and 26th August; on 12th and 13th September,
and on 14th and 17th October. Lightning was seen, but thunder
not heard, on 3rd and 12th July; on 25th September, and on 8th
October. ‘Thunder was heard, but lightning not seen, on 13th,
20th, and 23rd June.

The latest fall of snow in the Spring was on the 20th April, and
in the Autumn a few flakes were observed as early as the 20th
October. Fine weather predominated during the year, and the
summer was remarkable for its dryness. In some places the want
of rain was much felt, and, even in our abundantly supplied city,
apprehensions were entertamed of a failure of water, the lakes

104 MYERS — ON METEOROLOGY.

having fallen below their usual level. There were but few heavy
gales, and I may here mention that the late Judge Srewart favored
me with a communication, only’ a few months before his death, in
which he stated that he had frequently noticed that storms, which
from time to time prevailed in the northern parts of this continent,
extending as far south as New York, and approaching as near as
Truro and Windsor in this Province, did not reach Halifax, where,
while New York, Boston, St. John, and the circumjacent country
were devastated, calm and fine weather prevailed. The Judge had
hence assumed the hypothesis that Halifax is the centre of a storm
circle, and he thought, if the attention of the government were
called to the subject by this Institute, it might be induced to regard
it as worthy of notice, and grant a small sum annually to be ex-
pended in obtaining from the telegraph company such daily infor-
mation as would enable us to ascertain whether this view is a cor-
rect one; which, if established, would be of some importance to
disabuse the world of the idea, so universally entertained, that this
is pre-eminently the land of fog and storms. If an interchange of
weather signals between the Smithsonian Institute at Washington
and Halifax, which is now under consideration, can be accomplished,
it will do much in furtherance of this object, and should the assist-
ance of the government be required in carrying out any arrange-
ment of this kind, it will no doubt be freely accorded.

Among several fine displays of aurora borealis, for which the
past year was distinguished, one, on the night of 7th—8th of June,
surpassed in magnificent beauty, extensive diffusion, and length of —
duration, anything of the kind I had ever before witnessed. At
eight o’clock, p. m., of the 7th, a violent squall of wind from the
N. W., with heavy rain, passed over the city, after which the
weather became calm and cloudless. At about nine o’clock bright
undulating sheets of light were first observed in the whole northern
part of the sky, extending upwards beyond the zenith, and, by
degrees, overspreading the heavens in the form of an immense tent,

‘making the night as light as day. At midnight its appearance was

peculiarly beautiful. Iridescent rays, darting rapidly upwards from
. .2

the north, mingled together beneath the apex of this vast canopy,
? 8 S Pp

forming large luminous masses, which, with a rolling motion, at one

time gradually faded away, only shortly to re-appear with additional

MYERS — ON METEOROLOGY. 105

splendour. Thus it continued until about one, 4. M., of the 8th,
when the whole began to subside towards the north, forming an
arch, which extended from east to west about fifteen degrees above
the northern horizon. ‘The arch was depressed at the centre, and
luminous streamers occasionally shot up from it, till it entirely dis-
appeared soon afterwards. The weather of the preceding week
had been calm and fair, with the exception of the squall on the
same evening, and two days on which there had been rain and fog.
The atmospheric pressure was 29°.73 ; the temperature 45°. ‘Two
days afterwards stormy southerly weather prevailed, which I have
often observed to follow the appearance of Aurora Borealis. I
have been led to notice this phenomenon more particularly from
having read in the Proceedings of the British Meteorological
Society of November, 1864, an interesting description, by F.
Abbott, Esq., of a rich and rare Aurora Australis he had observed
at Hobart ‘Town, on the evening of the 8th June, 1864. The
occurrence of two such unusual appearances, at nearly the same
time, in the northern and southern hemispheres, and their resem-
blance to each other in some of their features, struck me as being
very remarkable.

On the 22nd of April a fine Parhelion was visible between five
and six o’clock, P. M.

At midnight, 24th June, a bright stream of light was observed
to rise vertically from the eastern horizon, gradually spreading out
in its progress upwards, like the vast tail of a comet; a similar
appearance occurred on the 27th September, at 7 P. M.

The following periodic phenomena will not probably be un-
interesting :—

January—16th, smelts taken in Porter’s Lake full of spawn.

February—ith, black and white birch bear catkins owing to
the very mild weather; red maple and currant bushes in bud;
8th, moose bush buds bursting into leaf.

March—3rd, migratory thrush seen; dth, a silver thaw; 8th,
gnats and small flies appear in houses; 10th, blue jays seen; 11th,
wild geese going north, and pine grosbeak about; 21st, migratory
thrushes in fields; 51st, Mayflower plucked near North West Arm.

Apriui—\st, song sparrow and blue bird seen; 2nd, white
throated sparrow first heard; 5th, North West Arm frozen over

13

106 MYERS — ON METEOROLOGY.

again slightly, after having been free of ice for some days; 7th,
water spider on brooks; 22nd, “Camberwell beauty” butterfly
flying about; gnats dancing in the air; swallows first seen; migra-
tory thrush sings; 24th, hermit thrush first seen; 25th, frogs heard ;
meadows getting green, and rhubarb sprouting; 26th, poplar (2.
tremuloides) in blossom; 30th, frog spawn in ponds; pime im
new leaf.

May—2nd, red maple buds in forward state; 3rd, birch and
hacmatac in bud; blue violet in blossom; 4th, brown snake first
seen ; Oth, wild gooseberry in leaf ; 6th, gray hunting spider on stone
walls; 22nd, frost occurred; 29th, apple trees in full leaf; blue-
berry in blossom.

June—4th, clouded yellow butterfly about; 5th, birch and red
maple in full leaf; balsam poplar in leaf; dandelion in seed; 6th,
pigeon-berry in blossom; buttercup in flower; 8th, Bermudiana
in blossom; 9th, ash in young leaf; 11th, red spruce im flower;
apple in blossom; large tiger swallow-tail butterfly about; 12th,
ground juniper in flower; withrod flowers just forming; 13th,
timothy grass in flower; 14th, yellow potentella in blossom; 17th,
lilac in full bloom; 18th, white weed in full bloom; 19th, ash in
blossom; 2lst, firefly first seen; 29th, ash in full leaf; lilac blos-
soms fading.

July—6th, blackberry in full bloom; withrod in blossom; 9th,
timothy grass ripe; 10th, white acacia in bloom; 15th, strawberries
abundant; wild rose in blossom; gad-fly abound and troublesome
to cattle; 19th, brooks and watercourses dried up; cattle suffer
for want of rain; 25th, cracking locust first heard; 30th, black and
red spruce bear cones in abundance. During this and the succeed-
ing month-vast quantities of meduse were observed floating about
the harbour.

August—ith, blueberries abundant; 21st, red maple leaves turn-
ing crimson in wet places; 28th, golden rod in flower.

September—dth, Michaelmas daisy in full bloom; 9th, field cricket
sings in pastures; 21st, mackerel abundant in the harbour; 22nd,
maples, birch, and poplar turning colour rapidly im the forests;
23rd, blueberry leaves changing colour; pigeon-berry still in flower.

October-—2nd, pine sheds its leaves; 7th, grasshoppers still
about.

GILPIN —— ON. THE GASPEREAUX. 107

December —2nd, snow bunting first seen on the common; 10th,
witch hazel in blossom.

By the kindness of Judge Wilkins I have had an opportunity
of inspecting a register, in his possession, of observations, regularly
noted three times a day, of the temperature at Halifax during the
months of December and January in three successive years, from
December 1809 to January 1812. With the assistance of this
interesting document, I have been enabled to compare the mean
temperature of these winter months, upwards of fifty years ago,
with that of the same months in 1863, 1864, and 1865, and the
result is as follows :—

Date. Mean temp. Date. Mean temp. Date. Mean temp.
Dec. 1809 33° 1810 | il 1811 36°
1863> | 26° 1864 27°
Jany. 1810 21° 1811 | 27° 1812 25°
CamS63\. (80° ..|' 1864ur 1 928° 1865 22°

This tends rather to invalidate the supposition, so generally
admitted, that the winters of the present time are milder than
those of former years: but it would be premature to form a decided
opinion upon this point without a more extended investigation, the
means for pursuing which may possibly yet be found.

Art. XI. On rue Gaspereaux. By J. Brernarp GILPIN,

Ae BS DMC ss)
[Read April 6, 1865. ]
Gasperot (Mons. Deny, 1675,) Gaspereau.
Alosa Tyrannus + Spring herring........... Blue back.
HA Leyte sina). wish ia) el oorelial ne Kauack.

SHOULD any one on a warm evening of the last of April or begin-
ning of May, stand at the mouth of any of our rocky streams, pouring
their snow-swollen torrents down to join the sea, he may see, as the
last of the flood tide sweeps up to meet their turbulent waters, on
every jutting point, on every isolated rock, a figure with a bag net
on the end of a ten or fifteen foot pole, casting his net again and
again, into every little pool or whirling eddy at his feet, and
returning it as often filled with one, two, or more glittering fish,

108 GILPIN — ON THE GASPEREAUX.

which with a dexterous toss he throws upon a silvery heap, tossing
and flapping their lives away on the warm grass hard by. ‘The
warm setting sun is throwing his beams, athwart rock and tree,
and little fires lighted to drive away the black flies, are wreathing
the tree boles with scanty smoke. As we pass figure after figure
we find them mostly young men or boys, negroes, here and there
an old settler with a known love for sport, and at the day which
we write of, numerous Indians. The game is not enough to lure
the strong man from his farm or his mill; he leaves it for his boys
and his poorer neighbours. We pass the rogue who stole our
last year’s best bough apples; we pass Peter Prince’s ragged, and
white-teethed progeny, but pause, attracted, as we all are, by the
man of the forest, the man of no house, or no key to his front
door. He stands before us casting back-handed throws of his
bag-net, with true Asiatic grace, so different from the direct
Anglo-Saxon plunge of his neighbours, so resembling round hand
bowling, the last nobby dodge of the cricketer. In the days of
which we speak, he stood bare head and neck, a scarlet-seamed
blue hunting frock girt about his lois by a gay girdle, holding his
knife and tobacco pouch, scarlet edged leggings shewed fairly his
clean curved limbs, and mocassins of his own make covered his
firm foot. “Brother,” we say, “is the sport good?” ‘Too much
water, all get up before the lakes fall ;” and as he speaks he lands
two or three glittering fish at our feet. As they roll and toss on the
warm grass, their large lidless eyes filled with dust, the sun for
the first time glinting their sides of molten silver, we handle and
examine them. Fresh from the cool water they are covered with
slime ; the scales readily come off in our hands. When the scales
are entire their colour is silvery from the belly nearly to the back ;
along the back there runs a dusky greenish line, a thousand
reflections of green and violet break the surface; the head and
cheeks have a yellowish tinge with a little violet; the fins so
lately waving in water transparent are already darkening and
stiffening. As in his restless struggles the scales come off, we
find the colours of his back deepening, anda a black spot showing
near his gills. His description in our notes reads :—

Length from 10 to 124 inches, colour, when fresh from the water and
covered with scales, silvery, greenish dusky on back and about an inch

GILPIN—- ON THE GASPEREAUX. 109

down the side, green and violet reflections casting everywhere ; opercles
yellowish with violet reflections ; about ten or less faint bands, by turn-
ing the fish to the light may be observed, passing longitudinally from
gills to tail; a black spot immediately. behind the opercle, lips dusky,
fins yellowish or greenish dusky, the points, and first rays darker than
the others; the same colour in the caudal fins. The scales are so
deciduous that they fall off in handling; and then we find the colour of
the back more decided, the longitudinal bands showing as rows of
distinct spots, and the black spot behind the opercle very distinct. In
general appearance the fish is rounder and shorter than the herring—
greatest width anterior to dorsal fin—and about one fifth the length, eye
half an inch in diameter, irides silvery, a little more than its diameter
from tip of upper lip, lip notched to receive the lower lip in; nostrils
open half way between tip of nose, and eye; the head shorter and
smaller than the herring; the belly strongly serrated, about 35 points
from gill-ray te anus.

Fins—dorsal fin, 15 rays, the first very short, and joining the second
which is the highest—irregularly rhomboidal, pectoral 16 rays, second
and third the longest, ventral 9, anal 17; caudal deeply cleft almost to
the scales, having two half rays, then seven entire rays, then several more
half rays, then seven entire ones and ending with two short ones, the
caudal fin often split and fringed, the gill ray seven of a side, the last
one square pointed—no teeth.

D. 15, P. 16. V. 9, A. 17, C. 14 entire, 8 or 10 half rays.

Our specimen is now dead, and we note how fleeting the colours of
the fins are, which almost should be described when floating in water,
and covered as the whole body is with nacre, doubtless to keep the
water from penetrating the joints of the scales. We are now aware
that our fish is a true alosa, allied to the shad, the menhaden, and
many others, and that the stream before us is crowded with a mul-
titudinous marine army, coming up with the last of the flood, and
running the rivers to reach the lakes to spawn. A little further
up the stream, the river becomes deep and smooth, and is crossed
by the high read. Lying at our length on the log bridge, we watch
a continuous stream passing slowly up and up, two or three inches
apart. Farther up, and the river breaks over a smooth plane of
slate stones too shallow for his depth. Arrived at this plane, he
throws himself as far up as he can, and then commences a series
of spasmodic flaps with his tail.

Slowly and painfully he passes over and drops exhausted
into the tranquil pool above. Utterly exhausted, they lie
heads and tails in a confused mass. Presently recruiting, their
heads all pointing up stream, they again commence their march.

110 GILPIN -——ON THE GASPEREAUX.

In countless hordes they sweep through lonely still waters, the
home of the trout, cool and pellucid enough te tempt a weary way
wanderer, but on and on his irresistible instinct drives him. A
natural dam, some two or three feet elevation, and over which the

waters fall with a perpendicular rush, now arrests his progress.

He throws himself (no doubt with a vigorous sweep of tail) directly
at it. That about two and a half to three feet is his utmost range,
the many failures he makes before he drops into the pool above
attest.

He has now gained his lake, often a very small one in the heart
of the forest, and perhaps six hundred feet elevation from high
water mark. And now commences his brief courtship, for, unlike
the lordly salmon who dallies until November, our fish has but
little time for delay. Camping on the lake-side of a moonlight
night, you hear a swash in the water. ‘ What fish is that?’ you
ask your Indian; ‘‘Gaspereaux,” is his answer. The trout-fisher
by day sees the surface of the lake ruffled by a hundred fins, then
the trout break all around him. “See the Gaspereaux hunting the
trout,” he says. But these are only his harmless gambols, coloured
by the resistless imstinct of reproduction. He has even been known
to rise at a fly, and to take a bait on these waters. Although the
salmon and trout are often seen spawning, I never met any one
who has seen the Gaspereaux in the act. So I suppose he spawns
in deep water, as we know he loves the deep lakes with clear
sandy margins.

As hatching is a much shorter process than with the salmonide,
there seems tobe less need of a current of aerated water constantly
floating over the eggs, and thus the deep still waters of the lake
may be chosen. No doubt the moment spawning is over, his instinct
teaches him to return to salt water; but there seems some difficulty
in determining the exact time. This must be measured by the
power of either parent fish to retain the spawn within their bodies.
Some observers put it at twenty-one days, im which time, from
leaving the sea, the Gaspereaux has spawned and commenced his
return, allowing that he has met with no obstruction. On the other
hand, sportsmen assure me that they have met them during July
on the lakes, and others, whose powers of observation I cannot
doubt, have seen them passing down in August. But they all

GILPIN——- ON THE GASPEREAUX. LLY

agree that the young fry-go down into the sea m September and
October, at which time they are over four mches in length. Messrs.
Treat & Sons’ gaspereaux spawned about the first of June. The
date of placing them in fresh water is not given, but as they would
scarcely have been obtained before the first of May, it gives them
three weeks for their spawning period.*

From all these we learn that in three or four weeks after leaving
the salt water, his brief holiday over, our fish commences
his return. Unnerved by the exhausting toil of reproduction, by the
absence of food (their stomachs are found empty on the lakes), and
perchance by the warming summer waters, he addresses himself to
the perils and dangers of descent. Too poor for an object of capture,
he slips down unnoticcd, save by the idle or curious, where, a few
weeks before, a whole population watched his ascent. It is said
those marine wolves, the eels, follow the advancing and retreating
armies in their rear, gobbling up many a weak fish, or unlucky
little one on the march. A dry summer has emptied the lakes and
turned the foaming torrents of the spring into dusty rills. He often
gets caught in these lukewarm shallows and dies. Not unfrequent-
ly the hunter finds them in bushels in the fords; quite as often the
bear secures a rich feast—dipping his hairy paws into the shallow
pools. He may be seen approaching nervously and timidly a rapid,
then striking up stream, and returning pass down tail first. Those
which are seen in July, or passing down in August, we must con-
sider fish that have left the sea late in May, or that are caught by

* Messrs. U.S. Treat & Sons, of Eastport, Maine, placed Gaspereaux in fresh
water ponds during the spring of 1857; on the first of June they spawned, in six
weeks the eggs were hatched, in four months they were let down to the sea from three
to five inches in length.— Patent Office Report, 1857, page 280.

A gentleman who allows me to use his experience, but not his name, and who is
entitled by his position and practical knowledge to the highest consideration says,
“« My observation has led me to note that the gaspereaux having free access to their
spawning grounds, remain exactly twenty-one days in fresh water, and during the
twenty-four hours, only journey downwards to the salt water between the hours of
three and five P. M. The fry of gaspereaux leave the lake in which they spawned on
the dark nights of September, together with the eels. Any one can notice this that
choses to watch an eel weir placed upon a stream. When gaspereaux are heard and seen
at night breaking the water about the sandy margins of a lake, in my opinion they
are spawning and act in a precisely like manner to salt water herring when they seek
shoal-water in salt water for that purpose. I have never observed a gaspereau to rise at
a fly; but I know of many instances of their being hooked by fishermen, but it was what
I call a foul hook—the angler having thrown over them when the school arose to the
surface of the water. The instances that I have witnessed have invariably taken place
when a multitude of gaspereaux have been detained on their ascent by a dam.’’

112 GILPIN —ON THE GASPEREAUX.

the dry season, and go down during the August freshets. Finally,
October seems to be the last date for even the fry to be seen in
fresh water.

We have thus received the Gaspereaux from the moment he left _
salt water, conducted him through all his perils, and had him as it
were under our eye till we have returned him to deep water again,
three months out of the twelve. The other nine months he is hid
from us. They are taken in small numbers, generally with herring,
sometimes with the mackerel, as late as 24th November, on our
coast, but they are evidently only stragglers, the great body that
swarmed our rivers must leave our coast, to return in spring. ‘They
return either to deep soundings or to the south. And now a change
takes place m the colour of a few individuals, that is, so far, un-
accountable to us. After gaining the salt water the lean weak fish
rapidly recruits, becomes silvery, very fat, and a few individuals
have a deep blue band of one inch and a quarter extending along
the back. In all other respects—of fins and fin rays—they are
identical with the rest. Our fishermen call them blue-backs,
readily distinguish them, and maintain them to be a separate fish.
Whilst differmg from them, I must accord my obligation to their
intelligence and exact appreciation of minute differences, in the
form and habits of fish. On the 15th November, 1864, Martin
Harrigan gave me two blue-backs; 27th November, two more
specimens.

Co.tour.—Very brilliant ; silvery, with deep blue backs extending one
inch and a quarter down the side. Covered with nacre, and scales entire,
the longitudinal bands extending from gills to tail difficult to see,—the
black spot behind the opercle showing,—by turning them in various
lights they become apparent; the colour of all the fins yellowish white ;
the extremities dusky, in pectoral first ray dusky; the caudal light-dusky,
frayed and split on its extremities ; opercles yellowish, with reflections, and
lips yellowish-dusky. In comparing them with a gaspereaux taken at the
same date, I find fins, fin-rays identical ; the blue-back is rather shorter, but
much rounder and thicker through the sides, the scales appearing larger.

A gaspereau seen at this late date bemg very thin, “slinky”
as the fishermen call it, his scales loose, and his colour yellowish
silvery, and green dusky on the back. <A very fat fish swells out
the scales, making them larger; as he thins they slide in upon each
other. Whilst concluding that they are of one species, I still think
that the salt water is the cause of the change; but why it only

GILPIN —-ON THE GASPEREAUX. 113

affects individuals is still unknown. Blue-backs are often seen
ascending the rivers, but I have no evidence of any being’ found
descending them. ‘Their more valuable congener, the shad,* is
subject to the same change.

Of the food of gaspereaux, one would suppose from the tooth-
less jaws and wide extensive gape, so unlike the recurved teeth and
armed tongue of the genus salmo, evidently formed for seizing
living and struggling food, that he was fed by gelatinous masses
sucked into a wide mouth. Of his rising to a fly, and taking
bait in the lakes, we have proof, and Dekay asserts, the stomach of
one he examined was filled with shrimps. Dekay’s descriptions
refer to a smaller and longer proportioned fish than ours, with the
eye further from the end of nose, but otherwise it tallies with ours,
and his plate is good. From him, too, we learn that its southern range
is the Chesapeake, where he appears in April. From Perley we find
his northern range, Miramichi, which river he ascends to spawn in
the lakes from which it has its source. ‘Though doubtless it was
known from the earliest discoveries of the province,t yet Latrobe,
in the Philosophical Transactions of America, was the first to describe
it, and give it the specific name, “‘yrannus,” preceding Peck, who
calls it ‘serratus,’ in Belknap’s History of New Hampshire, I
have not the exact date to refer to, but somewhere about 1780.
As an article of food, when eaten fresh, it is not held in great
estimation in our markets. When slightly struck with salt and
smoke-dried it is called a “ Kiack,” and is very palatable. Many
are cured in this way about Lunenburg and the Atlantic seaboard.
The Indians dry them in the sun about their wigwams, but the
usual way is to salt them in barrels like herrmg, and use them in
each family for home consumption. ‘Their leanness makes them a
good export for the West Indies, as the fat herring becomes com-
pletely decomposed into oil by the climate. As is the case with all
fish which perform annual migrations to spawn in fresh water, they
eradually desert cultivated countries. |The various obstructions to

* The Rev. Ferdinand Gauvreau, P. P., Memremcook, N. B., says of the shad,
‘< the first run are green on the back, the second a pale green, and the third run
have blue backs, and are the best fish.’’— Perley’s Report, p. 144.

+ Beamish Murdoch, Esq., was kind enough to point out to me, in Mons. Deny’s
History of Acady, 1675, the word ‘‘ Gasperot.’? This gentleman, who describes what
he saw with the liveliness of an eye witness, says of them truly enough, ‘‘ they are not
equal to the herring for eating.”’

114 JONES —ON REPTILIA OF NOVA SCOTIA.

the streams, caused by mill-dams, and accumulations of saw dust,
and the passing of boats, are doubtless the reason. Their numbers
have very much diminished along our coast, and doubtless will con-
tinue so to do. By the government returns for 1861, the total
number cured is put down at 12,565 barrels, but this does not
include all used for family consumption,—the eastern portion of
the province giving by far the greater quantity. Since that date
they are not returned separately, but classed with herring. I have
not mentioned one power attributed to it, because I think it needs
further corroboration,—the power of climbing up perpendicular
heights, as mill-dams, by holding on by its sharp serrated belly.
The instinct of all fish is to lie flat in shallow places; the climbing
fish having a different apparatus. However, I mention it as a very
common belief. I would rather hazard the suggestion that their
saw points are used in spawning, as the trout uses his lower jaw,
in furrowing up the sand.

Note.—Since this article went to press, I have the most undoubted authority that
trout possess the power of running up perpendicular sheets of water at least six feet
high, and I cannot but accord the same power to the gaspereaux; in both instances by
muscular action, and not by the serrated belly. On 2nd August, 1865, the mill dam
at nine mile river was filled by young and old gaspereaux, returning to the sea, caught
there by the dry summer. Lxewis Kirpy, Esq. gave me this fact.

In both these facts, I feel pleased to corroborate the statements of our fishermen,
which I have always found correct and exact, though doubted by some.

Art. XII. Conrrisputions To tHE Natura History or Nova
Scotia. Reprinia. By J. M. Jonzs, F. L.S.
(Read May 2, 1865.)

Tuer class Repriia forms no unimportant part of the animal
kingdom, and in the present advanced state of zoological knowledge
the species known to naturalists are annually becoming more numer-
ous. In the early days of science, when natural history had few
students, and even down to a comparatively recent period, the
study of reptiles was almost totally neglected ; and m the museums
of divers countries a few stray bottles full of snakes and lizards,
unnamed and uncared for, lying in some obscure corner, and deemed
too disgusting for the eyes of visiters, were the only representatives
of this singular race of creatures. It is far different, however,
now, for in our splendid national museum we possess a collection
which for interest can hardly be surpassed by other zoological

JONES——-ON REPTILIA OF NOVA SCOTIA. 115

departments, while, both in Europe and “America, the study of
Herpetology has become a prominent branch of scientific research.

In taking a survey of the geographical distribution of reptiles
over the surface of the globe, we at once perceive that under the
influence of the greatest continued heat they appear to thrive in
the greatest abundance, and attain the largest size. The tropical
‘parts of this continent possess more reptiles than those of Asia or
Africa according to late returns; but probably when the interior of
the latter country becomes better known to naturalists, its forests
and morasses may prove the habitats of many species now unknown.
As we proceed from the equator to the poles, we find reptile life
- gradually decreasing until we arrive at the borders of arctic Europe,
Asia, and America, beyond which barrier no species have, as yet,
been found. Very few reptiles reach the north boundary of the
temperate zone, taking the isotherm of 30° for its limit, the frogs
and salamanders appearing to go the farthest north. In regard
to reptile life in elevated districts, we find that on the European
continent the common frog (Rana temporaria) has been found 8,000
feet above the sea level in the alpine districts, in the vicinity of the
snow limit; the viper (Pelias berus) five thousand three hundred
feet; the mountain lizard (Lacerta montana) at four thousand five
hundred feet; and the slow-worm (Anguis fragilis) at six thousand
feet; while on this continent, the alligator (Alligator lucius) has
been observed in the Andes, about the latitude of the equator, at
an elevation of three thousand feet, where the temperature ranges
from 63° to 73°.

With this brief introduction, I will now pass on to the reptiles
of our own Colony.

In considering the habits of our Nova Scotian reptiles, we can
not fail to observe that the ophidians are much influenced by the
temperature of the seasons; and from other causes also, which I
have not yet been able to account for, they are found some seasons
in great abundance, while during others hardly a dozen specimens
are observed in the same district. I have had ample scope for
observation during the past four years of my residence here, in the
forest and cultivated land about my home, and have paid particular
attention to the habits of this order, collecting specimens of all sizes,
from the embryo taken from the egg to the perfect example of the

F

116 JONES—-ON REPTILIA OF NOVA SCOTIA.

largest size. I have had similar opportunities of studying the
habits of the batrachians, but with the members of the order
Testudinata it has been otherwise. Nevertheless, through the kind-
ness of one of our members, I am enabled to fill this blank, and
present to you a fair account of the reptiles of our Province.

The first order in the class Reptilia is that of the Testudinata or
tortoise tribe, and of this Nova Scotia possesses three species—the
alligator terrapin, or snapping turtle (Chelydra serpentina), painted
tortoise (Emys picta), and the wood terrapin (Emys insculpta). The
second order Loricata, comprising the crocodiles and alligators, has
happily no representative in this northern clime. The third order
Sauria, including the lizards, has also no representative. The fourth
order Ophidia, to which all the serpents belong, has five well ascer-
tained species—the black snake (Coluber constrictor), the striped or
spotted snake (C. sirtalis), the green snake (C. vernalis), the rmged
snake (C. punctatus), and the spotted neck snake (C. occipito-
maculatus). We come now to the sub-class Amphibia, which con-
tains in the first order Anoura, the frogs and toads. Of these Nova
Scotia possesses seven recognized species—the bull-frog (Rana
pipiens), the spring frog (R. fontinalis), the leopard frog (R.
halecina), the wood frog (R. silvatica), the American toad (Bufo
Americanus), Pickering’s hylodes (Hylodes Pickeringii), and the
northern tree toad (Hyla versicolor). The second order of amphi-
bians Urodela, contains the salamanders, of which we have four
species—the violet coloured salamander (Salamandra sub-violacea),
the red-backed salamander (S. erythronota), the salmon coloured
salamander (S. salmonea), and the crimson spotted triton (Triton
mille-punctatus. These comprise the whole of our Nova Scotian
reptiles, at least as far as I have been able to ascertain.

Order—TESTUDINATA.
Genus—CHELONURA, Flem.
Chelonura serpentinu, DeKay......... Snapping Turtle.

Testudo serpenttna—Linn. Syst., p. 394.

Chelydra lacertina—Sch. Monog.

Emys serpentina—Gray, Synops. Rept. apud Griff.
Cuvier, vol. 9, p. 14.

Emysaurus serpentina—Dumeril & Bibson, vol. 2, p. 350.

JONES—-ON REPTILIA OF NOVA SCOTIA. EF

I am indebted to Dr. Giipry for the following information
regarding this species :—‘“‘ The snapping turtle is found in the larger
lakes of the colony, being aquatic in its habits. It has often been
observed beneath the ice during winter. It is occasionally taken
on land, while travelling from one lake to another, or when deposit-
ing its eggs. One caught im the latter position was about two feet
long, and boys of twelve years old easily rode on its back by stand-
ing on it. The shell scarcely encases the head, legs, and fail. The
tail has four or five sharp points on its upper side; the under shell very
small, a mere breast plate. In 1833, while with some Indians in a
canoe on Lake Rosignol, we came upon a snapping turtle basking
onalog. With the greatest caution we floated with a light breeze
to within twenty yards of it, when, with a heavy splash it dis-
appeared. Marking the exact spot, in a moment the canoe was
swept over it, and an Indian held the turtle to the bottom of the
lake by pressing the paddle upon his back, while another Indian
drove a stake through its body and lifted the turtle into the canoe.
After decapitation the body crawled about for some twenty-four
hours or more, and the severed head snapped at wood, and held se
tight that force was used to disengage it.

Genus—EMYS, Brong.
Emys picta—De Kay........... The Painted Tortoise.
Testudo picta—Gm. Schneid, Schildk, p. 348.
T. cunerea—Schepff, Hist. Test., p. 23, pl. 4.
Emys bellii—Gray, Synops., p. 12.

This pretty little tortoise is found in abundance about the small
lakes, ponds, and ditches of the colony, where a dozen may be seen
together basking on an old log, and when surprised going off with
an awkward yet swift plunge. It may easily be kept in confine-
ment in a tub of water, and will, when domesticated, rise to the
surface, and take a worm from the hand. In such a position it
has been known to lay an egg, which was hard and about an inch
and a half long. ‘The young of this species, about the size of a
penny piece, may be seen in the lakes resting on the point of a
water lily leaf.

118 JONES —ON REPTILIA OF NOVA SCOTIA.

Emys insculpta—DeKay..........The Wood Terrapin.
Emys pulchella—Schweig, 303.
E. scabra—Say, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sc. Phil. iv., 204.
E. speciosa—Gray, Syn. 26.
E. inseripta—Mus. Par.

This species is generally found at a distance from water in the
forest, but goes into the lakes and burrows beneath the mud
during winter.

Order—OPHIDIA..
Genus—COLUBER, Linn.
Coluber constrictor—Linn............+.- Black Snake.
C. constrictor—Shaw, Zool., p. 464.
C. flaviventris—Say, Exp. Rock. Mount., pp. 167, 337.
Bascanion constrictoyr—Baird & Girard, Cat. of Serp.,
D-.9o-
Coryphodon constrictor—Dunn & Bibr. vii. p. 183.
C. constrictor—Gunth. Cat. of Col. Snakes, p. 108.

Although this species is very rare in the neighbourhood of

Halifax, [ imagine it is common in the interior of the colony, from
information I have received. A coloured man some time ago
informed me, that one of these snakes had chased him when a boy
the whole length of a field. I thought at the time that his account
was much exaggerated, but I find from the best authorities that
this habit of chasing an enemy is fully established, and that its
force on such occasions is very great.

This snake appears to be widely distributed on this continent.
being known from Canada to Mexico. It is also found im St.
Domingo, and, according to Stedman, in Surinam.

Coluber punctatus—Linn .......... Ring-necked Snake.
C. punctatus—Lacep., i. p. 207.
C. torquatus—Shaw, Zool. i. p. 553.
| Homalosoma punctatum— Wael. Syst. Amph., p. 191.
| Spilotes punctatus—Swain’s Nat. Hist., p. 364.
r Calamaria punctata—Schleg. En. 1. p. 39.

Ablabes punctatus—Dum. & Bibr. p. 310.
Diadophis punctatus—Baird & Girard, Cat. Serp. p. 112.
A specimen of this prettily marked species given to me by Dr.
GILPIN was taken at Annapolis. Another, given me by Mr. Downs,

JONES-— ON REPTILIA OF NOVA SCOTIA. 119

captured by some men working at a drain in his grounds on the 7th
September, 1863, was marked with a bright orange band round
the neck, and the abdomen bright lemon colour. From it I made
the following description :—

Length, il} inches. Extreme breadth of head at broadest part across
base of large occipital plates, 2dlines. Breadth of body 24lines at a
distance of 3in.4lines from frontal extreme, which is not exceeded at

any other part. Head, flat. Breadth of yellow collar 2 of a line. Tail
2in.7dlines.

CoLour—Head, above, very dark steel blue; nasal scales brownish.
Irides, above, reddish. Immediately behind the head a collar of orange
yellow, margined with black, separates the head from the body. Upper
jaw edged with yellow ; deeper posteriorly. Upper parts, olive brown, fad-
ing into light steel blue at the sides. Beneath, bright yellow from neck to
base of horny tip of tail. Chin and threat very light yellow. On either
side of the yellow belly run a series of dark spots at the posterior angle
of each abdominal plate,f{very obscure and almost absent for a space of 34
lines from the collar. Under the lens the dorsal scales appear mottled
and the occipital plates of pearly lustre. Abdominal plates 156.

This snake is by no means common about Halifax, and may be

considered our rarest snake.

Coluber vernalis—De Kay...... 2.25.05. Green Snake.
C. vernalis—Hall, N. Am. Herpet. im., pl. 17.
C. cyaneus—Shaw, Zool., p. 506.
Chlorosoma vernalis—Baird & Girard, Cat. N. Am.
Serpents, p. 108.

This delicate little snake is very common about the grass fields
and cultivated spots. Specimens vary in colour, some being of a
much lighter green than others. It is very agile in its movements,
gliding through the grass when disturbed, with rapidity. Accord-
ing to Baird this snake is northern in its distribution, extending from
Maine to Wisconsin in the United States, but no further south
than Virginia on the Atlantic coast. I have observed it about as
early as the 6th May. Cats appear to delight to catch these
snakes as they run through the grass.

Dr. Gunther in his British Museum Catalogue of Colubrine
Snakes, appears to object to this species being included in the genus
Chlorosoma, as Baird & Girard have done; for he states that that
genus was established by Wagler for Philodryas viridissimus, and
that the snakes differ too much from one another.

120 JONES—ON REPTILIA OF NOVA SCOTIA.

Coluber sirtalis—Linn....... see .eeee- potted Snake.
Tropidonotus tenia—DeKay, p. 43, pl. xiii., fig. 27.
aC strtalis—Holb., N. Am. Herp., vol. iv.,
Eutema sirtalis—Baird & Girard, N. Am. Serp., p. 30.
Eutema sirtal's—Baird, Serpents of N. York, p. 15,
ple i, figsio.

This is by far the most common snake in Nova Scotia, being
abundant in all parts of the colony. Although continually observed
in the dryest positions in the forest, it nevertheless appears to pre-
fer the neighbourhood of swamps, brooks, and damp places, where
it leads a partially amphibious life during the hot season. The
largest specimens I have seen were in such places, and one which I
killed during the latter part of the summer of 1863, resting on a
log in a swampy hollow, measured two feet eight inches in extent.
It generally makes its appearance in the forest about the first week
in May, but is much more numerous some seasons than others.
During the months of June, July, and August, 1864, scarcely one
of these snakes was to be seen in my district, but in September of
that year they appeared in abundance. A sudden spell of cold
weather appears to have a great effect upon them, as they all dis-
appear at once until returning heat brings them forth again. They
shed their skims among ground juniper (Juniperus communis) and
other shelter in June, and retire to winter quarters after the first
cold days of autumn. I have observed them as early as the 4th of
May, and as late as the 7th of October. The young, some four
inches long, are seen about the beginning of September. The full
grown specimens may frequently be seen by the sides of brooks in
the forest, greatly distended with recently swallowed prey, the com-
mon toad (Bufo Americanus), probably from its sluggish habits,
forming their principal food. On the Ist September, 1864, I
witnessed the process of deglutition. A spotted snake, about twenty
inches long, had just seized a good sized toad by the right hind leg,
which it gradually drew into its maw. Then turning its head side-
ways, after some difficulty, it secured the foot of the left hind leg,

-and gradually got this down, when it gave a sudden shake and took
a firm hold of the hinder parts. Now, moving its head with the
jaws greatly distended, first to one side and then to the other, the
toad meanwhile holding with all its might by the two fore feet to

——

JONES — ON REPTILIA OF NOVA SCOTIA. WO

the ground, and the snake getting more and more into his maw, the
toad’s back covered with blood and froth, and the poor captive
panting hard. The snake then gradually drew in the distended
body of the toad until it reached the head, when, with much
apparent trouble, it managed to draw in the fore legs and head.
The whole scene occupied about twenty minutes, and was extreme-

ly disgusting to witness. The most curious part of the affair

occurred at the last, when the poor toad with open eyes gradually
receded from view down the throat of the snake.

It is apparently a good swimmer, for the Rev. Joun AMBROSE
informs me that it has been observed a mile or more from the shore
at the entrance to St. Margaret’s Bay, making for the islands
outside. .

When greatly irritated by stopping its course repeatedly with a
stick, this snake will turn about and show fight, making rapid and
repeated bites. It is however perfectly harmless, and its bite would
entail no greater suffering upon any healthy person than that of a
kitten. It is said that this snake has repeatedly been seen to swal-
low its young in time of danger, and from evidence received from
reliable authority, I have hardly a doubt but that it possesses this
curious habit. ;

This snake appears to be distributed over the greater portion of
the North American continent east of the Mississippi, and has been
found at an altitude of two thousand feet above the sea in® the
State of New York. It occurs abundantly in Canada, where it is
said to be particularly common in the rocky limestone districts.
In Massachusetts it is the most common snake, and it has been
observed as far north as Lake Winnipeg by Sir John Richardson.

Coluber occipito-maculatus—Storer ... . Spotted-neck Snake.
Ischnognathus occipito-maculatus—Guuther, Cat. of Col.
Snakes, p. 81.
4. DeKayui—Dunn & Bibr. vii., p. 509.
Coluber venustus—Hallon, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philad.
i., p. 274.
Storeria occipito-maculata—Baird & Girard, Cat. p. 137.
It appears that this small species was entirely overlooked by
North American collectors until within a comparatively recent

15

122 JONES—ON REPTILIA OF NOVA SCOTIA.

period. Storer was the first to bring it to notice. That author
states that it has three spots on the neck, but I find a smaller spot
below the two side ones, joining with the mottled margin of the
underside. I think these spots on the neck are liable to alteration,
sometimes being partially absent, and at other times confluent,
while in some cases there are no traces of the marks at all. It is
liable to considerable change of colour—for two specimens which I
took from a heap of weeds were of a bright cinnamon above and
brick red beneath. These light coloured specimens may belong to
different species, for the scales appear to me to be much wider and
shorter, and possess blunter points, than those of the true occipito-
maculatus. ‘They resemble in some respects the red snake (C.
amaenus) of DeKay, but the scales instead of being smooth, as in
that serpent, are carinated.

They are fond of lying under pieces of wood or stones, where
they can feel the sun’s warmth, and are common in old heaps of
refuse, roots, &c.

This snake is not uncommon near Halifax.

Order—ANOURA.
Genus—RANA, Linn.
Ita joy wgne— sew AS SASH cecbano5ce DoGo0S Bull-frog.
R. pipiens—Holb. N. Amer. Herpet. iv., p. 77, pl. 18.
R. catesbiana—Shaw, Zool. ii., p. 106.
R. mugiens—Gunth. Cat. Bat. Lal., p. 15.

I have had no opportunity of studying the habits of this species,
as it is unknown in the neighbourhood of Halifax, and the only
examples I have seen were those exhibited by Captain Harpy at
our conyersazione last summer in the hall of the Horticultural
Society. Captain Harpy informs me that they are common at
Grand Lake; and the Rev. Jonn Amprose states that they have
been known to swallow young ducks.

Rana fontinalis—Le Conte..... .....Lhe Spring Frog.
R. fontinalis—Holb. N. Amer. Herpet. vol. i., p. 85
pla G:

R. flavi-viridis—Harl. Am. Journ., vol. x.
This species occurs abundantly in Nova Scotia, and may be
styled the “common frog” of the country. It frequents the

JONES —ON REPTILIA OF NOVA SCOTIA. 123

swampy districts, lakes, and ponds, where its peculiar note, like a
half broken croak, is heard all day long. Sitting at the edge of a
pond, with its head only exposed, it expands its throat at intervals
and gives vent to the well known sound. If suddenly disturbed
it instantly dives beneath the surface, and if the water be shallow
buries itself beneath the mud and leaves at the bottom. It delights
to spend the warm days of summer in company with its fellows,
partially immersed in the water, but in the hottest and dryest
weather disappears entirely during the day time. I have no doubt
but that these hottest days are spent beneath the mud, for I have
seen one of my Newfoundland dogs when diving in play bring one
up alive to the surface on sucha day. I observe that this frog
croaks oftener and louder in close wet weather, and that a slight
frost has the effect of making it silent. It is rarely seen at any
distance from water, and immediately makes for that element when
disturbed. It is pretty regular in its appearance in spring, but
moves from its winter retreat sooner or later, according to the tem-
perature of the season. In 1862 I heard the first croak of this
species in my pond on April 27th; in 1863, on April 25th; in
1864, on April 25th ; and this year, 1865, on April 6th, and these
first croaks were invariably heard at night. I observed the first
spawn in the pond in 1863, on May 3d; in 1864, on April 30th;
and this year, 1865, on April 10th. Their early appearance and
deposition of spawn this year has been owing to the extreme for-
wardness of the season, vegetation being fourteen to twenty days
earlier than during the four previous years. It attaches its spawn
to small twigs or sticks at a moderate depth beneath the surface of
the water, and I have reason to believe that the act of deposition
occurs only during the hours of night. .The tadpoles of this species
hibernate in the mud like the parent, and appear about the same
time in the spring of the year, some of them full grown, but with
the umbilical cord attached.

ean halecmag Wali... ta. cece Leopard Frog.
R. halecona—Holb., N. Amer. Herpet, iv., 9, 91, t. 22.
kh. Virginiana—Lawy. Syn. Rept., p. 31.
This is by far the handsomest species of frog seen in Nova Scotia.
It is generally found in moist places, although I have occasionally
taken specimens some distance from water among standing grain.

124 JONES — ON REPTILIA OF NOVA SCOTIA.

it is extremely agile and difficult to capture, taking amazing leaps
in its endeavours to escape. The half grown young are plentiful
on the sides of ponds during the summer, but they have not the
brilliant colours of the mature specimens. I have rarely seen them
resting in the water like FR. fontinalis. I have observed them as
early as the 29th of April, sitting on the pond side, and as late as
the 4th of October in other places. The first specimens seen are
of a darker green on the back than those observed later in the
season.

The species is common in most parts of North America, and is
known from the Hudson Bay Territory as far south as Mexico.

Rana silvatica—Leconte................ Wood Frog.
R. silvatica—Holb., N. Amer. Herpet, iv., pl. 24.
R. Pennsylvanica—Hazrl. 1. c. p. 60.

The habits of this species are unknown to me, as the only speci-
men I have captured was a young one during our field excursion at
Windsor, in the summer of 1863. Iam indebted to Dr. Giiprn for
a fine specimen procured.

Dr. Gunther in his catalogue of Batrachians gives this as merely
a variety of the European Rana temporaria, the tympanum being
generally but not always rather larger in the European specimens.

This species has been observed as far north as the Great Bear

Lake in the Hudson Bay Territory.
Genus—BUFO, Linn.

Bufo Americanus—Harlan............. American Toad.
B. Americanus—Holb., N. Amer. Herpet, v. t. 4.
B. musicus—Harl. Ac. Nat. Sc., vol. v., p. 344.

This poor, despised, yet useful creature, looked upon with
horror by most people, is one of the farmer’s and gardener’s best
friends. Sallying forth from his mid-day retreat at eventide, he
searches the paths and other likely spots where slugs and worms
are wont to move, and revels in the gardens where this welcome
food is most abundant. Although nocturnal in habit it is by no
means exclusively so, for I have often taken them in the day time,
both in the forest and clearing. It is not, however, so active in the
day time as at night, and I imagine its appearance in broad daylight
is more owing to disturbance than a natural desire to seek for food

JONES—ON REPTILIA OF NOVA SCOTIA. 125

at that time. It appears to frequent the cultivated districts more
than the forest, although the largest specimen I ever obtained was
found in the day time im an uncleared spot in a hard-wood grove.
This specimen measured four inches and a half im length, including
the head, which was one inch and four lines, and three and a quarter
inches in breadth of body. About the end of May the young, about
an inch long, are often seen hopping about, and then gradually in-
creasing in growth, as the summer advances, continue about until
the first sharp frosts of October and November compel them to seek |
their winter retreats. I have never observed them about later than
the first week of November.
It appears to be common in all parts of the North American
continent, extending from Great Bear Lake in the Hudson Bay
Territory to Mexico.

Genus—HYLODES, Fitz.
Hylodes Pickeringii—Holb........ Pickering’s Hylodes.
Hi. Pickeringii—Holb. N. Am, Herpet, pl. 34.
Acris Pickeringu—Gunuth. Cat. Bat. Sal., p. 71.

For three years I laboured under a great mistake in regard to
the note of this little frog. Often had I listened at all hours of
night to its shrill piping noise, and always gave the common frog
(R. fontinalis) credit for the strange nocturnal sound ; but Capt.
Harpy informed me that the musician was no other than Hylodes
Pickeringii, several specimens of which he exhibited at our conver-
sazione last summer. It is by no means easy to collect specimens
of this species, for although I have searched and searched again
with a bright lantern on summer nights, when they piped loudest,
I have never yet been able to procure one. Capt. Harpy states
that they are seen attached to the reeds and stems of aquatic plants
a few inches above the water, and that the first object which attracts
the collector to their resting place is the movement of the throat as
each little frog continues its piping noise. The curious cruciform
rhomboid of dark lines on the back, and the triangular patch on
the occiput at once prove it to be distinct from the young of other
species frequenting the same places. In 1863, 1 heard its first pipe
in my pond on the 28th of April; in 1864, on the 25th of April ;
and this year, 1865, as early as April 7th. Ihave generally heard

126 JONES — ON REPTILIA OF NOVA SCOTIA.

the first pipe of this frog one night later than the first croak of F.
fontinalis. It is like that species very silent durmg drought.

Genus—HYLA;, Laur.
Hyla versicolor—Leconte......... Northern Tree Toad.
A. versicolor—Holb. N. Am. Herpet. iv., pl. 28.
HI. verrucosa—Dand. Rain., p. 33, pl. 4, fig. 1.
Dendrohyas versicolor—Tschudi, Batr., p. 75.

[I am enabled to add this species to the list of Nova Scotian
reptiles, through the kindness of Capt. Harpy, R. A., who informs
me that although he has never been fortunate enough to secure a
specimen, yet from the description given him by a young Indian
who collects for him, he has not the slightest doubt as to the species-
fis informant states that he has found it snugly ensconced in clefts
of maple trees, where, from its grey colour harmonizing with the
lichens growing on the bark of the tree, it was difficult to observe.
Capt. Harpy tells me that the pipe of this tree toad is similar
to that of Pickering’s Hylodes, although much louder, and that it
is more vociferous during damp foggy weather.

It is found throughout the whole extent of the North American
continent, from the Hudson Bay Territory to Mexico.

‘ Order—URODELA.
Genus—SALAMANDRA, Brong.

Salamandra subviolacea—Harl....... Violet-coloured Salamander.
S. subviolacea—Holb. N. Am. Herpet, vol. i., p. 105,
pl. 24.
S. venemosa—Barton, apud Dand. Hist. Rept., vol. vii.
p. 229.

This is a common species, and is found under large stones, in
old walls, roots of trees, &c. It is very sluggish im its habits, and
scarcely moves when handled.

It appears to be extensively distributed over this continent, being
found in the Western States, all alone the Atlantic coast, and as
far south as Maryland.

Salamandra erythronota—Holb. ....eeee Red-backed Salamander.
SS. erythronota—Harl. Med. and Phys. Researches, p. 95.
S. cinerea—Id.
Plethodon erythronota—Baird, |. c. 285.

JONES — ON REPTILIA OF NOVA SCOTIA. wT

This species is by no means common in the neighbourhood of
Halifax. It frequents damp places where it rests concealed beneath
stones and other shelter. It is known on this continent as far south
as South Carolina.

Dr. Gipin’s Red-bellied Salamander.
Dr. Gitpry informs me there is yet another salamander, having
the under parts red. This may be the Salmon-coloured Salamander
(S. salmonea) which has its sides salmon-coloured. It is known in
Massachusetts, and may therefore occur in this Province.

Genus—TRITON, Laur.

Triton millepunctatus—DeKay.....Crimson Spotted Triton.
Salamander dorsalis—Harl. Jour. Acad. Nat. Sc., vol.
vi., p. 101.

Notophthalmus viridescens—Baird, Batr. Amer., p. 284.

This species is rare in the neighbourhood of Halifax. The
only specimen I have seen being the one in my collection for which
i am indebted to Captain Harpy, who obtained it from Mr. J. R.
WILLIs.

Storer, in his Reptiles of Massachusetts, complains that Harlan,
in the Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia,
describes this species as having “a row of whitish coloured oblong
spots on each side of the dorsal line.” Now, in my specimen, although
the white spots cannot be called cblong, they are certainly clearly
defined dots of the colour Harlan mentions. It is true, as Storer
says, that preservation in spirits may make this alteration, but never-
theless we frequently find descriptions, given even by the best
authorities, from specimens of all kinds so preserved, although I
think it would be well for every describer to state the condition of
the specimen, whether long immersed in spirits or not. The speci-
men I possess has been in alcohol for about two years.

In concluding this brief account of the reptiles of this colony,
T cannot help remarking how thankful we ought to feel that no
poisonous snake is found within our borders. Even England, with
all her advantages, has a drawback in this respect, for in many
parts of that country, on the heathery moors of the north, and in
the fertile valleys of the south, the bite of the venomous adder is
too well known. Often have I started back with a shudder, when in

128 HOW-——ON ORES OF MANGANESE AND THEIR USES.

searching for birds’ nests, in some wild spot, I have suddenly come
upon an adder basking in the sun, and one half the pleasure of a
day’s wanderings in search of specimens was always sacrificed to
the fear of this serpent’s bite. In the northern States of America,
the dreaded rattlesnake swarms in some parts, the bite of which is
frequently fatal in twenty minutes; while here, in our little half-
island home, our children may ramble wherever they list, and meet
with nothing more formidable than the bite of the common striped
snake, which at the worst can only inflict a slight wound in no way
dangerous to a healthy frame. Therefore, while in other climes
which boast of the grandeur of ther scenery, the beauty of their
vegetation, or the vast area of their fertile lands, deadly foes are
ever ready to spring upon the incautious, here in our northern
home we may roam through the forests, scale our boulder ridges,
or bathe in the limpid lake, without hindrance from any reptile
form. Surely we ought, therefore, to consider how blessed we are
in this respect, and while considering the blessing let us not forget
the beneficent hand that has so blessed us; and as we roam in
security amid Nature’s pleasantest scenes, let us lift our eyes in

gratitude to Him who has spared us the horrors of the serpent’s
fang.

Arr. XIII. Norres on tHE Economic Mtyeratocy or Nova
Scotia; Parr II. THE Ores or MANGANESE AND THEIR
Usrs. By Henry How, D.C. L., Professor of Chemistry and
Natural History, University of King’s College, Windsor.

(Read May 2, 1865.)

A very interesting, and to all present appearances, valuable
addition to the mining industry of the Province, has been made
within the last three years by the working of the ores of manganese.
Having been engaged in examining and reporting on the quality of
these ores for those originally concerned, and having visited the
scenes of operation, I requested and obtained permission to include
such information I had gathered by these means in a general account
of the manganese ores of the Province at present known to me.
Having been, moreover, kindly furnished with sundry details of
interest from various sources, I propose now to continue, on this
subject, my Notes on the Economic Mineralogy of Nova Scotia, of

HOW —ON ORES OF MANGANESE AND THEIR USES. 129

which the first part was published in the last volume of the
Transactions of the Institute.

The only deposits of manganese mentioned in Dawson’s Acadian
Geology are an impure bed near Cornwallis bridge, that at Mus-
quodoboit, and those in the iron veins of Shubenacadie and in the
limestones of Walton and Cheverie, of which latter it is said (p. 239)
“<small quantities have been exported. I have no doubt that if the
limestones can be profitably quarried on a large scale, the manganese
might be separated and form a considerable additional source of
revenue ; but it seems doubtful whether mining operations for the
manganese alone can be carried on without loss.”

The ores of manganese found here in quantity are Wad or bog
ore; Manganite, which may be called hard grey ore, and Pyro-
lusite, which may be distinguished as soft black lustrous ore, and is
often mixed with psilomelane, a hard black ore not so lustrous as
the last named.

Wad.—The first of these is a black earthy substance, which ‘is
found in rounded lumps and grains. It has been sent to me from
Parrsborough, and from another locality, I believe to the east of
Halifax, where it is found in lumps mixed with stones; the sample
_I examined contained a great deal of water, and, when dried,
56 per cent. of binoxide of manganese, with the traces of cobalt
which are usually found in this species. Neither of these would
be valuable as ores of manganese, but they would probably serve
as paints. Bog manganese is often mixed with bog iron ore, and
then forms deposits of a brown or chocolate colour, called ochres
or mineral paints. ‘The paints of Bridgewater and Chester furnish
examples. In the first of these I found only 11 per cent., and in
the second about 20 per cent. of binoxide of manganese. It is said
to be useless to send to (the English) market ores containing less
than 65 per cent. binoxide.

Manganite.—This is a very hard ore which is found in compact
lumps of a steel grey colour and sub-metallic lustre, giving a red-
dish brown streak to a file. It is often found in the neighbourhood
of the next mentioned; it occurs abundantly at Walton and
Cheverie, and is met with at Douglas and Rawdon. At Walton I
have picked it out of the stoneheaps in fields near the river, and
was told that a bed of it crops out on the bank of the river near

15

—

/

130 HOW —ON ORES OF MANGANESE AND THEIR USES.

the bridge. It is found at Cheverie in nodules on the beach about
twenty rods above high water mark, and has been dug on the up-
land less than two miles from the beach; it was formerly shipped,
but to what extent does not appear to be known. As it is very
hard, and contains in its purest form only about 49 per cent. binoride,
this ore is not useful for the ordinary applications of manganese ;
but I was informed by a gentleman from Boston, dealing in these
ores, that it answers for a certain secret process better than the rich
soft ore, and that something like fifty tons were sold in the United

. States in 1865, and that it was hoped the demand would increase.

Pyrolusite.—This is the ordinary marketable ore, and is entirely
composed of binoxide of manganese. It is so soft as to be easily
scratched with a knife to a black powder, and is found in masses
which are more or less glistening, and often very beautifully crystal-
lized in black lustrous needles and prisms. It is met with near
Kentville, King’s County; near Pictou, Pictou County; near
Amherst, Cumberland County; at Musquodoboit, Halifax County ;
and at Walton, and other places, especially at Teny Cape in
the township of Kempt, in Hants County. These two latter
are the only localities at which mining operations have been
carried on, small quantities of ore having formerly been shipped
from Walton, where, on one occasion, seven barrels were got out
in cultivating a garden, and considerable returns, as will presently
appear, having been made at Teny Cape. In 1861 Nicholas
Mosher, Esq. junr., of Avondale, brought me samples from Teny
Cape which I examined for him, and when he learned what the
substance was he sought for it diligently and procured several fine
specimens, some of which he sent to the International Exhibition
of 1862. He found the ore to occur about a foot below the sur-
face, in a bed of earth about a foot thick, in separate loose masses,
generally flattened in shape, of all sizes, from that of a bean up to
that of the lump of twenty-four pounds weight, which, as being
the largest then met with, was sent to the Exhibition. In this
mode of occurrence it was traced some fifty rods; subsequently it
was found in thin veins in the rock under.this earth, the rock being
“‘ brick-like” and easily detached with a pick, so as to leave sheets
of the ore. In one place four veins were found in ten feet, the
largest vein being about one and half inch thick. Diggings were

HOW —ON ORES OF MANGANESE AND THEIR USES. 131]

made to the depth of four or five feet, and the ore became more
plentiful, but was so variable in amount that while on one occasion
two and a half barrels were got by a man in one day, the average
quantity obtained was about half a barrel per day per man. This
variation arises from the ore occurring not in regular veins but in
_ separate masses, often lenticular, in pockets of various sizes. The
first considerable collection of ore sent from the mines was landed
at Windsor in June 1863, for transmission to England. — It con-
sisted of thirty-three barrels, equal to about seven and a half tons
English ; it was picked ore and looked very rich and uniform in
quality ; the highest percentage of binoxide I know of from Teny
Cape was found ina sample I put in the hands of Mr. D. Brown,
a pupil of mine, who obtained 95 per cent., and when this lot of
ore was sent to England, it averaged on analysis in Liverpool 91:5
per cent. binoxide, and gave less than half a per cent. iron: it sold
there half for £8 10s., half for £9 sterling per ton, being disposed
of to different buyers. Messrs. Tennant of Glasgow, great con-
sumers of manganese, are reported to have said they had never
seen ore so fine. In April 1864, what appeared to be a vein of
five feet two inches thick was struck ; I visited the mine in June, and
saw many tons of ore piled up, and one huge mass of perhaps
three tons weight laid bare im situ. Mr. John Browne, the
manager of the mines, has obligingly furnished me with a report,
dated February 16th, 1865, from which I give some extracts: after
narrating the facts I had learned from Mr. Mosher, given above, he
says: ‘On the south side of the ridge a large open cutting was
brought in running nearly north and south, in which was discovered
the first large deposit at a depth of only fifteen feet from the sur-
face. It extended some twelve fathoms in length, varying in thick-
ness from fourteen feet to as little as six inches. From this pocket
we took from one hundred and twenty to one hundred and thirty
tons, leaving nothing in the bottom but a few small veins. Upon
these we sank our shaft, and at a depth of fifteen feet, making in all
thirty feet from surface, we intersected pocket No. 2 immediately
underneath the first deposit, and making in the same direction. The
manganese in the second pocket is of far superior quality to that
found nearer the surface, and we have returned from it some
hundred and eighty tons. Up to the present time we have been

}

al

132 HOW — ON ORES OF MANGANESE AND THEIR USES.

opening ground and prospecting. In conclusion, I beg to state that
our prospects are daily improving, and I firmly believe that at no
distant date the manganese mines of Teny Cape will hold a distin-
guished position in the list of buna fide and profitable mines of
Nova Scotia.”

I have omitted a number of technical mining details, allowing
the extracts to bring out the mode of occurrence, the richness and
quantity of the ore yet obtamed: it appears that upwards of three
hundred tons have been got out. ‘lwo hundred tons more have
since been taken out, and very fine ore of 93-8 per cent. has been
found at 50 feet below the surface. As regards the quality, I be-
lieve all that has been sold in England has realized from £8 5s. to
£9 stg. per ton* ; the beautiful specimens sent to the Dublin Exhi-
bition this year, are, | apprehend, mostly from the second pocket, as
I received the majority on February 4th; the large mass, however,
of about three ewt., which has so long lain at the door of the Hali-
fax Reading Room, and is, by the liberality of Messrs. Nash and
Co., also to be sent to Dublin, I imagine must be from the first
pocket.

The second mine in operation at Teny Cape, was opened up by ~

Messrs. Weeks & Co. In the spring of 1864 samples of ore were
brought to me by O. Weeks, Esq., and J. W. Ouseley, Esq., which
turned out to be sufficiently rich for working, as they gave, just as I
received them, from 88 to about 92-5 per cent. binoxide. In June
I went with Dr. Weeks, of Brooklyn, and a party, to prospect the
locality whence the samples were taken. It consisted of a consider-
able hill contiguous to the Mosher mine, and the indications of ore
in various parts were very promising. Operations were soon after
commenced, and during the year about eight tons, English, of ore
were sent to Liverpool, where they realized £8 5s. stg. per ton.t
One great advantage of this locality is, that the Basin of Minas is
only about a mile and a half distant in a direct line, and the inter-
vening country is such that a road can easily be made from the
mines to the place of shipment.

Hants County possesses a variety of manganese ores in localities
widely separate from cach other; it has been mentioned that seven

* About ten or twelve tons fetched £10 per ton.
+ A third mine has been opened by Messsrs. Hamilton & Duvar, and a good deal
of ore bas been raised.

HOW — ON ORES OF MANGANESE AND THEIR USES. 135

barrels of ore were on one occasion dug up in cultivating a garden
at Walton; of the quality of this I know nothing, but that
valuable ore is found at Walton I am certain imasmuch as a party
of which I was one extracted several pounds at a locality in the
woods about seven miles from Teny Cape; one piece of this is
sent to the Dublin Exhibition, and is quite as rich to all appear-
ances as that from Teny Cape.* About twelve miles south of these
places Mr. Mosher has met with large detached pieces of ore, one
weighing thirty-five pounds was sent to the Exhibition of 1862
and remains in England; it consisted of pyrolusite and psilomelane ;
it gave to Mr. Poole, one of my pupils, about 84:5 per cent. bin-
oxide; another large mass found in the same regicn weighed one
hundred and eighty-four pounds. I do not know of what kind of ore
it consisted. The rock holding the manganese at [ery Cape is a lime-
stone containing a good deal of magnesia, and coloured either grey
or red by oxide of iron; it is soft and easily detached from the ore;
barytes is frequentiy seen crystallized through the ore, and carbon-
ate of lime (calcite) is sometimes found beautifully crystallized in
various forms encrusting the ore. At Walten the manganese is
sometimes associated with iron ore (Jimonite), and occurs in lime-
stone. Since nearly all the localities mentioned in a previous page
as affording manganese are of lower carboniferous age, it is not
improbable that many others may yet be found in the Province,
where rocks of this age are so abundantly distributed. It is not,
however, in such rocks only that manganese may be expected,
since it appears by the Report on Mines and Minerals of New
Brunswick, by Prof. Bailey, issued in 1864, that the deposits of
manganese, with one exception, in that Province, are met with
either in lower silurian or cambrian rocks (p. 71); the exception is
a bed said to be alluvial (p. 33). As regards the mode of occurrence
it is stated (p.72), that manganese is generally found in quartz or
barytes, especially the latter, the country-rock being slates; at one
locality (p. 45) the slates enclose a bed of limestone, three or four
feet thick, which contains the manganese; the alluvial locality is
also said to have the manganese in limestone; in all cases the

* Five tons were dorweards! taken out here by Mr. J. Browne.

+ In a report issued in 1865, and received since this paper was read, I find that
Professor Bailey places the manganese localities in New Brunswick at the base of the.
lower carboniferous series.

134 HOW —ON ORES OF MANGANESE AND THEIR USES.

geological situation is different from that prevailing here. I may
mention that the report gives twelve hundred and fifty tons as the
amount of ore taken account of as raised and mostly sold; a large
but unknown quantity besides is mentioned as having been raised
and shipped, and much must have been used in the Province, since
there were at one time large chemical works at the Hopewell man-
ganese mines in Shepody mountain.

Canada, it appears, has not yet been found to possess manganese
ores in sufficient purity or abundance to be of economic importance
—( Geology of Canadu, p. 751.) The chief supplies of these ores
were till lately derived from Germany, but mines have been opened
not only here and in New Brunswick, but in Spain and Vermont ;
and it was from Spain, according to a Report read before the British
Association in 1863, that the richest ores were at that time mostly
imported into England. A short extract from this report will pro-
bably be interesting as showing that Nova Scotia has richer and
more accessible ores than Spain :—

‘‘ Manganese is imported from Germany and Spain; but it is chiefly
from the latter country that the richest ores are now obtained, which are
found in hills consisting of schistose rock, which sometimes rise to a
height of eight hundred feet above the level of the plain; but it is also
found in ** pockets,” and, in the latter case, it is quarried by picks, and
oceasionally gunpowder is used. The quality of the ore varies from
40 to 90 per cent. peroxide, and to obtain the richer ore men and boys
are employed to break and sort it, which is then put into sacks and car-
ried a distance of twenty to thirty-five miles, on mules’ backs, to the
ports of shipment in the Mediterranean. The richest ores are at
Calanas, thirty miles north of the ancient Roman fishing town of Huelva.
We are indebted to Mr. Gething for this information, “who also informs
us that he imported to the Tyne, in 1857, the first cargo of Spanish
manganese.”

As regards Vermont, it appears from Dana’s Mineralogy that
the ores are abundant at several places; whether they are worked
at more than one I have not learned. The locality at which mining
is prosecuted is Brandon ; and from the following interesting infor-
mation, communicated to me by Dr. W. H. Weeks, of Dartmouth,
it appears that the mode of occurrence of the ore is very different
from that at Teny Cape, and by no means so favourable for opera-
tions on a large scale :-—

‘* My visit to Brandon, Vermont, was of very short duration ; I spent

puly a few hours at the works, consequently had not time to study the
locality. The manganese is taken out of a gravel bank; it exists in

HOW — ON ORES OF MANGANESE AND THEIR USES. 135

very small pieces, varying in size from that of a pea to a small onion;
it is compact, very black, and does not show the crystal as ours does.
There is iron ore, said to be very pure, taken out of the deposit, and an
ochre largely charged with oxide of iron. The process of obtaining and
cleaning the manganese is slow and must be expensive; they wash it in
pans by a process something similar to that adopted here for the separa-
tion of gold from powdered quartz. The quantity of manganese at the
Brandon mines is very small in proportion to the amouat of material
operated on compared with ours. ‘The Brandon manganese is very pure
when thoroughly cleansed, but this is a difficult matter as the oxide of
iron adheres tenaciously.”

Uses of Manganese Ores.—These ores are empleyed for a variety
of purposes in certain manufactures of purely chemical character,
or in which the aid of chemistry is necessary, and according to the
application to be made of them they are required of different
degrees of purity: in most cases a tolerably high percentage of
the particular oxide of manganese, called the binoxide, peroxide,
or available oxide, is necessary, and for certain uses there must be
little else in the ore, and especially iron must be either absent or
present in extremely small proportion. The manufactures in which
the ores are used are principally those of bleaching powder, glass,
pottery, iron, some brown colours used in dyeing, and manganates
and permanganates for certain oxidizing processes (as bleaching fats)
and for disinfecting. The native oxide is used for making boiled
oil, and has also been recommended as a deodorizer and purifier of
water, and a cheap agent for extracting gold from quartz.

It is perhaps impossible to learn the total consumption of the
ore for these purposes; we know, however, that Great Britain is
the great seat of the chemical manufactures, and we have some
facts to guide us to an estimate of the amount used there in the
processes requiring the largest quantity; these I will now give,
together with a rough estimate of the consumption in the United
States. The most extensive use of the ore is in the making of
bleaching powders (chiefly chloride of lime). According to the
report previously quoted, the amount of manganese imported into
the Tyne district alone for this purpose was then (1863) given as
11,400 tons per annum, at £4 stg. per ton. Although this district
is a very considerable seat of chemical manufactures, there are
other parts of the Kingdom where very large quantities of manga-
nese are required, among which, the most important are Liverpool,

«

136 HOW —— ON ORES OF MANGANESE AND THEIR USES.

the seat of Messrs. Muspratt’s, and Glasgow, of Messrs. Tennant’s
works. Accordingly, we find in the “ Statistics of the Alkali
Trade of the United Kingdom for 1862,” that the annual con-
sumption of manganese was then 35,000 tons for the manufactures
depending on the products of the alkali trade, viz.: soap, glass,
paper, cotton, woollen, linen, colour making, and all chemical
manufactures of any magnitude. This estimate, however, takes no
account of the ore used in making iron, and the demand for bleach-
ing powder has been increasing of late years, partly owmeg to the
use of grass, and perhaps of other materials, in the making of paper.
The quantity of manganese ores used in the United States was, a
year ago, estimated by a gentleman dealing in them in Boston, at
about 500 tons per annum, by another gentleman, this year, at
1000 tons.

With regard to the quality of the ore required im certain cases,
it is found that in making bleaching powder, the ordinary ores, con-
taining perhaps from 65 to 75 per cent. binoxide along with water,
oxide of iron, carbonate of lime, barytes, etc., answer so good a
purpose, that the rich pure ores, such as that from Teny Cape, are
not bought for this use, unless at a price far below that given by
those who require only such ores. One of the firm of Tennant Co.
(makers of bleaching powder), said, for example, that he
could not afford to use Teny Cape ore, meaning, I suppose, at the
high price it would fetch from glass makers, for, as J. Outram, Esq-
junr., informed me, the Spanish ore of from 70 to 75 per cent.
binoxide, sells for fifty-five to sixty shillmgs sterling per ton, and
therefore the bleaching powder makers will give only about £5 10s.
for ‘leny Cape ore, containing upwards of 90 per cent., while, as we
have seen, this actually brought as much as £9 and even £10 stg. per
ton. This high price was given by glass and pottery makers who
require an ore as free as possible of iron; this at any rate is the case
with the former who employ it to remove the stain of iron from the
finest kinds of glass. Mr. Outram said that he thought even two
or three per cent. of iron would interfere with the sale of ore at
93 per cent. binoxide for this purpose, and it was because the
Teny Cape ore gave less than a half per cent. of iron, with 91-5
per cent. binoxide of manganese, that it brought the high prices

obtained. The demand for these pure rich ores is comparatively

HOW —ON ORES OF MANGANESE AND THEIR USES. 137

limited, perhaps a few hundred tons a year are fully as much as
would find sale at the highest prices named. ‘That there is always
a steady demand for ore useful for making bleaching powder, is
shown by the efforts made to restore to its original state the oxide
employed: patents have been taken out for this purpose, and
one is recommended by its owner as restoring the material to
52 per cent. and as being capable of bringing it up to 70 per
cent. binoxide, which, as we have seen, is a very moderate per-
centage in the ores.

With regard to the other applications of manganese, the making
of iron and steel is the most important. Manganese renders iron
tough and steel better and more durable, in the latter case it acts
by removing sulphur and silicon. Although the quantity of man-
ganese actually imparted to the iron and steel is very small, ma
manufacture of such enormous proportions the consumption must
be large if continued. The making of manganates and per-manga-
nates, which are used as oxidizing agents and in disinfecting, must
also be extensive, a prize medal having been given to Mr. Condy
in 1862 for the manufacture of such salts on the large scale.

As an illustration of the way in which the ores are sometimes
treated in practice, | may mention the mode adopted by Mr. Hobbs,
of Boston, who has had a great deal to do with the Upham and
Shepody ores of New Brunswick. The ore is washed clean at the
mines, boxed up, and sent to Boston, when it is selected into three
good qualities and refuse ; the three good sorts are ground in three
mills till fine as flour, put up in barrels papered inside, and the
contents of each barrel are assayed and sold according to assay.

The first quality free (?) of iron and containing about 98 per
cent. of peroxide of manganese, is used for making the finest (flint)
glass. The second quality (also no doubt pretty free of iron), con-
taining from 75 to 80 per cent. peroxide, is used for making white
phials. The third, containing about 70 per cent. peroxide, is em-
ployed for making common glass bottles; while the refuse, contain-
ing perhaps 25 or 30 per cent. iron, is used either in making clear
amber coloured bottles for brandy, etc., or for carboys.

In conclusion I state together the quantities of binoxide of
manganese contained in some of the Nova Scotian ores, as found
by the experiments of my pupils or myself :—

16

—— SSS

138 HOW —ON ORES OF MANGANESE AND THEIR USES.

Manganite, from Cheverie, Hants Co., air-dry,
Wad, from Halifax Co. (?), dried at 212°, gave
Pyrolusite and
Psilomelane

co)

Pyrolusite, Teny Cape, Hants Co., No. 1, air-dry, gave...
66 66

66 No. 2, 66 66

iC oe ce INoy a, dried: at 2a
Pyrolusite, from Cumberland Co., dried at 212°, gave...

DAVE cece

see eer sesee

; from Douglas, Hants Co., air-dry, gave...

per cent. binoxide.
47°73
56°00
84°62
88°01
92-69
95:00
97.04

These results relate to the most important character of the ores;
in the rich samples the amount of iron was generally very small;
other analytical details are omitted, as this paper is perhaps long
enough already. It is apparent, I think, that the ores of manga-
nese are likely to prove of considerable importance in the economic

mineralogy of the Province.

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140 APPENDIX.

Exrract of a letter from Vice-Admiral Sir ALEXANDER MILNE,
K. C. B., to the President, concerning the currents on the
N. E. coast of America.

‘‘T am much interested in the question of the currents, and during many
years that I navigated the coast of Nova Scotia, and between Halifax and
Bermuda, had invariably attended to the set of the Gulf Stream. The best
information, however, which has been published of its strength, &c. off the
coast of the United States, will be found in Blunt’s American Coast Pilot,
from the survey and report of the Government Surveyors. My own observa-
tions extend more to the north, and give the northern limit, or rather a
north west limit, of which I will give you an abstract from my notes. I con-
ceive this limit is caused by the deep current coming in contact with the
shoals or soundings in some two or three hundred fathoms water extending
from the shore of Nova Scotia, after passing over this limit, or from the line
of the warm water into the cold, the currents become uncertain, and this is
the case all along the coast of Nova Scotia up te the latitude of Scatterie.
The other great current is the one from the Polar Regions, along the east
coast of Newfoundland, extending down to the latitude of Cape Race, whena
western part of it runs round it into the Bay of St. Mary’s; but the eastern
part becomes lost; it is probably checked by a northern limit of the Gulf
Stream and turns it more into a north east direction. In the admiralty there
is no single volume specially devoted to these various currents; but in Bay-
field’s St. Lawrence, and the Nova Scotia Pilot, Rennells’ currents, you will
find various extracts from the surveyor’s report, but the outer currents, that.
is, those distant from the shore, are but little known. % *

““T have no doubt that tropical seeds, fish, crustacea, &c., are carried up to
northern latitudes and deposited by the Gulf Stream. Very much to my
surprise I saw a shoal of flying fish in Lat. 37° 50’ N. Long. 64° 50’ W., the
temperature of the water being 73°, air 71°. I never expected to have seen
them so far from a West Indian ‘sea, although some few exist at Bermuda of
a small size, but those in the Stream were of a larger description of the West
Indian fish. They were very lively and rose in numbers. There is no record
of soundings on the north edge of the Gulf Stream, and I cannot find that
any sand &c. has ever been brought up by the lead; no doubt it would be an
interesting source of investigation, but I see no prospect of its ever being
carried out by government, unless a special surveying vessel was employed to
trace the line of sounding from the eastward of Sable Island round to the
St. George’s Shoals.”

‘*P. §.—The mean northern limit of the Gulf Stream between Halifax
and Bermuda from fourteen voyages was found to be in Lat. 40° 56‘ N.,
Long. 63° 45’ W.”

&

APPENDIX. 14]

FIELD EXCURSION, 1865.

THE Institute held a Field Day at the Waverly Gold Mines, on Satur-
day the 1st July.

The members assembled at the Steamboat wharf, Dartmouth, where
carriages waited to convey them to the Mines, about twelve miles distant.

The village of Waverly is one of those new places in Nova Scotia, which
owe their existence to the discovery of gold. It comprises a cluster of houses
at the head of Lake William, which is there connected with Lake Thomas by
a drawbridge; there are also a number of scattered dwellings and shanties
in the vicinity of the various shafts, and within a circuit of about five miles.
The country around is hilly and rocky, wild and desolate, much broken by
mining operations, the debris ef which is seen on all sides, and especially
where shafts have been sunk, or excavations made. The scenery, however,
has some redeeming features. It has all the components of natural beauty,
and is rich in hill and valley, wood and water. It is also recommended by
the charm of novelty; and is besides a prolific study to the geologist and
botanist, and to naturalists generally.

The party first visited the “barrel quartz,” so called, a few rods east of
the village, near the summit of Laidlaw’s hill. Let the reader suppose a
series of trunks of willow trees some eighteen inches in diameter, unstripped
of bark, laid side by side, close to but independent of each other, and he will
have some idea of the appearance which the “barrel quartz’ formation
would present if fairly exposed; but the barrels or trunks are pure quartz,
encased in ‘ whin” rock, which is a highly indurated quartzite, and very
different in appearance from the clay slate walls which in general enclose
the quartz found in other districts. When first worked the “ barrels”
proved rich in gold, and led to much speculation, the hopes of which have
not been realized, and the work is for the present suspended.

Various opinions have been hazarded as to the origin of this curious
formation. It has been thought to be the summit of an anticlinal which has
been greatly eroded and denuded of the overlying rock. There is ground
for the supposition, inasmuch as the rock covering the quartz is plainly mark-
ed with glacial striz which follow the usual N. W. and S. E. course, a fact
which proves also, that here as well asevery other part of Nova Scotia, there
has been no geological change since the glacial era. Others suppose the
quartz to have been deposited from super-silicated rocks, acted upon by
chemical solvents. The containing rock, named ‘“ whin” by the miners, is of
a grey colour inclining to light blue, and is usually compact and hard. The
igneous theory is also brought to bear upon this peculiar formation; and
hypotheses in connection therewith are hazarded, in an excellent paper by
Colonel SincLair, which was read in the afternoon, and will be found in its
proper place further on.

Several shafts were visited. At one a ventilator was in use, the air in
the pit being impure. The Taylor Company had sunk a shaft 150 feet, from
which much valuable quartz had been extracted, and had then driven a con-

142 APPENDIX.

siderable distance to Mud Lake, underneath and across which they were
preparing to tunnel.

Returning a short distance, and then proceeding onward southward of this
small lake, by a road passable with care for a carriage, the shafts sunk by the
German Companies, (so called,) and successfully worked, are seen. This
part of the village of Waverly has been named Germantown; and some
distance further on, the building containing the Crushers, and other processes
for extracting the gold, come into view. The superintendent of this
establishment, L. BuRKNER, Esq., and another gentleman connected therewith,
very obligingly accompanied the party, and explained practically the various
processes .of crushing the quartz and washing it, and amalgamating and
retorting the gold. A large quantity of quartz, in lumps weighing from one
to thirty pounds, in nearly all of which gold was conspicuous, lay around,
ready for the crushers. The quartz then being worked was white, but with
a perceptible and peculiar blush tinge. It occurs in veins of six inches thick,
more or less, the gold disseminated throughout in small grains, which the
miners designate as “sights.” Galena frequently occurs in the quartz, and it
has been remarked here, that the gold appears to be more plentiful when in
contact with it. This was said to be contrary to the experience at Hammond

' Plains, a few miles west of this locality, where zine blende is more prevalent,

and with reference to the yield of gold appeared to take the place of the
galena. Mr. BuRKNER, in the most courteous manner, selected a handsome
specimen of auriferous quartz from the heap, and presented it to the Presi-
dent for the Museum of the Institute. There were sixteen stampers at work,
and more were to be added. The party were hardly prepared for the
extensive operations they witnessed, and were deeply impressed with the
industrial occupation of gold mining, and its importance as an aid to the pro-
gress of the country. It is chiefly from the. works of this Company that every
now and then an ingot of pure gold, as large and thick as a stock brick,
delights the eyes of the people of Halifax, and convinces them that Nova
Scotia is able to maintain its place among the gold producing regions of the
earth. The last ingot brought into Halifax, was worth $80,000 and was the
product of a month’s labour of the operatives of the Company.

After resting awhile at the office of the obliging superintendent, the party
left the Mines, and were conveyed to Marshall’s Inn, where they sat down,
in number fourteen, to a substantial repast. When this had been fairly dis-
cussed, the President called upon the Members present to communicate the
result of their observations, and an interesting desultory conversation ensued.
The Secretary then asked permission to read a paper entrusted to him by
Colonel SincLAIR, a member of the Institute, who had been unable to attend,
on the subject of the “barrel quartz” formation, before alluded to, which is
as follows :—

THE CONTORTED QUARTZ LODE AT LAIDLAW’S “DIGGINS,” WAVERLY.

Tus extraordinary quartz lode conclusively proves that it and similar
formations were once in a molten and plastic state.

’

APPENDIX. 143

This has been, exceptionally, controverted; it has been held that the
mineral seams, variously denominated according to their thickness, were
originally cracks, subsequently filled by a process of deposition, for which
present experience and hypothetical science fail satisfactorily to account.

The lode in question conclusively prostrates Mr. Evan Hopkin’s theory
that auriferous quartz in situ, and its contained gold, is the result of electrical
action, or that in common with magnetic agency.

Remote hypothesis may postulate as an objection, rather than really con-
ceive, that the electrical or magnetic formation of the Laidlaw lode may
have been antecedent to its plastic state.

But no one would credit or advocate such a notion unless he were intent
on establishing a favourite theory.

Natural philosophers have natural feelings; no one likes to be wrong in
a matter to which he is committed in writing.

Quartz is crystalline, sometimes perfectly so, in common with volcanic
obsidian, and factitious glass, which it resembles. It is a flux of silica more
pure than glass or obsidian, which contain more alkaline fluxes, such as lime,
potash and soda; but auriferous quartz, imperfectly crystallized, invariably
contains iron, which can be drawn from.the pulverized mineral with a
magnet.

The arrangement of crystalline particles is an illustration of a certain
kind of attraction; but this attraction or affinity resides in the substance itself;
it is only analogous to magnetic attraction; it has no peculiar sympathy with
external polar influence; it seems to have far more connection with chemical
affinity than atmospheric or terrestrial electricity.

Were crystallization more than merely analogous to polar magnetism, in
the formation of ice we should observe that the arrangement of successive
atoms would foliow or pursue some particular direction, but it is not the case }
the acicular radiations from the point first congealed shoot out in all direc-
tions, and by interweaving eventually form a solid uniform mass of equal
thickness ;—a lake or pond, does not as a rule, freeze from one quarter of
the compass to another.

Still less can electricity or magnetism account for the presence of metals
m ores; rare specimens of crystallized gold have been produced in nature—
in art crystals are produced by allowing substances to take their own form
after fusion or solution, and electricity, to produce the same result, must
either fuse or solve.

If by this or other means electricity can accelerate the formation of a
crystal, it is merely as a local laboratory agent that it acts ; its use and action
in this respect as a natural agent, has neither been traced nor proved.

An attempt to account for the presence of gold in the lode, seems to be
fraught with the same difficulties which would attend a similar investigation
with respect to other metals, and the minerals with which they are usually
associated.

Most of them have affinities in themselves, and with one another. The pecu-
liar affinity which quartz has with gold has never been displayed or explained

144 APPENDIX.

—but until experiment and observation can very clearly establish the con-
trary, we must be content to assume that there is some aflinity between them
in se,—and if there be any peculiar operative external agency instrumental
in associating them, it is rather an agent than a prime cause.

The presence of the metal and the material for its matrix, in a certain
degree of proximity, must be pre-supposed as a normal condition — fusion by
heat as a prime cause of the arrangement of mineral lodes ; at any rate until
we are in a position to establish a better theory, we must accept this.

Silica, the base of quartz, pure or impure, is the most universally distri-
buted mineral; it enters into fully two-thirds of the earthy minerals known.

Gold can be extracted by the expert chemist, tending to show that in very
minute proportions it is as universally present as iron or the commoner metals
—the analysis has been carried to such an extent, that it is alleged to have
been found in a flower !

So that in nearly every metamorphic fusion which has taken place, silica
and gold must have participated. ;

Where the subsequent crystalline arrangement on cooling has resulted in
the formation of paying lodes, veins or seams of any metal useful in the arts,
it is natural to conclude the pre-existence of the metal contained in unusual
local proportions.

Notwithstanding the obvious simplicity of this theory, which really more
resembles a natural postulate than a hypothesis, the Barrel lode at Laidlaw’s
is valuable evidence confirmatory of a once controverted question which it is
eminently calculated to set at rest, somuch so, that it is hardly to be regretted
if its bad yield has saved it from entire destruction.

It is evident that when in a true plastic state contortion took place, which
could not have resulted had the quartz been in either a solid or a perfectly
fluid state.

The lode is, or was, nearly horizontal, had very little dip, its contortions
may have been partly attributable to the nature of the ground, but I dont
think so; I believe the whole, killas and all, were in a state of fusion flowing
against an obstacle at a lower level, the lower portion becoming stiffer from
cooling, whilst the succeeding on-flow of a less viscid mass overlapped and
cooled in its turn.

The contortions were very singular from their regularity ; when the backs
were bared they presented an appearance aptly described as resembling
trunks of trees laid from two to four feet apart, parallel to one another; the
undulations were so remarkable, that it is questionable whether any other
mineral lode has ever been found of a similar character, and it is worth
notice—perhaps record.

Irrespective of scientific value, a report on this lode may be of practical
use, for in shafting to intercept a known lode, in a contorted “country,”
unless bends be observed, in mining on a large scale calculations may be a
very great number of fathoms out on the wrong side of the estimate, causing
serious additional expense and delay.

As according to Mr. Campbell’s opinion, as I understand it in his first

ee ieee

145 APPENDIX.

report, the whole metamorphic series of the Province consists of a number of
anticlinal axes, caused by the protrusion of granite, with more or less con-
torted killas, or slate and bluestone, with quartz lodes between the axes, the

matter is not unworthy of attention in an economic point of view.
R. BS.

Conversation ensued upon the subject matter, which was all the more
interesting, that the formation alluded to had just come under the observation
of gentlemen present. The thanks of the meeting were then voted to
Colonel Sincuairr for his excellent Paper.

The party soon afterward returned to Dartmouth, and crossed to the
city, highly pleased with their excursion. We'G:

Lerrer from the Right Rev. THE BisHop or NEWFOUNDLAND,

concerning the Mummy of the Great Auk, (Alca impennis,)
found on the Funk Islands.

“St. Joun’s, N. F., Aug. 10, 1864.
“ My Dear Sir,—

‘“‘T am much pleased that the mummy arrived in a good state of preserva-
tion. How long it has been embalmed or entombed in the ice I eannot of
course tell, but I understand the different specimens were found several feet
(at least four) below the surface, and under ice which never melts. They
were all found on the Funk Islands, but on which side I am not able now to
discover, as the person who dug them up is not at present, I believe, in St.
John’s. He was sent, or went there to gather the guano or bird manure on
speculation, with strict injunctions to procure, if possible, the bones, or
skeletons, of the extinct bird. In this he succeeded better than in his own
business, and probably if he had known the value attached to these specimens
by naturalists he might have turned them to better account than the guano.
One specimen I sent to Mr. Newton, and you saw by his letter how highly it
was prized. Another was sent to Agassiz, and the third I have been enabled
through the kindness of our Governor to forward to you. And this is the
most perfect of the three, or certainly more perfect than the one I sent to
Mr. Newton,—the other I did not see.

“T think it very likely more specimens might be found, as no persons are
living on the island, and it is only lately that any attempt has been made to
discover and preserve the skeleton.

“Yours faithfully,

1a “ Kp. NEWFOUNDLAND.”

ihe!

me
Ona

COUNCIL, 1865.

J. M. Jonzs, Esq., F. L. S., President.

Capt. Harpy, R. A.,
ihe, J. Bernarp Giri, M. D.M. R. C. 85
Capt. LyrrLeton, Treasurer. ~~
WiiiiAm Goss, Esq., Bree:

Dr. PeWors, M. D. oer ae Dovak E
Prof. Lawson, Dalhousie Callas | Pp. S. Hamitron,
Colonel Myurs, me Josmpa Brruz, tik
Ww. OF has Te: : Teg ane

PT. PROCEEDINGS AND TRANSACTIONS
OF THE Lon at LM Oe

Doba Beotinn Institute of Datural an | |

OF

HARIPAX, NOVA SCOPTA:

;
VOL. I. 1865-6. 4
OCONTHNTS.
Page
LB ALGNO PRON Seen arene treret ss cee oa IS cinta lee seater Upsccraeeh tic wo eh Suoum tees hie wise ane eee a 1to 7
WON AMTONS CEO PHEW TBR AY 02.4 cio 5 ces etek Wisi aie a's aie(nse naval were leas olde atnigne: bees 8 :
ETRE ep VIESMIBERS 20.00 yr eer aie ecena cone mycie tice: aunts |e aghiniaimes mevabatens y semison Mets Cae 9 J
Art. l.—Or the Food Fishes of Nova Scotia. No. Ill. By J. Bernard Gilpin, :
IVES VIGO See ions sta ie cantebnec lua ernmrs Sar Ree bee a ie ohes 11 i
If.—On the Geological Features of the Bermudas. By J. Math. Jones,F.L.8.. 18
IfL.—On Pisciculture. By Lieut.-Col. R.B. Sinclair, A.G.M................ 26
IV.—Some Observations on the Fishing Grounds and Fish of St. Margaret’s
AVN Os aby ev. hoon Ambrose: MUA 1s ie ae a Sa 33 é
V.—The Auriferous Deposits of Nova Scotia. By P.S. Hamilton, Chief ;
POT MASSTOMET. 2 OfcnMEUNOS a ties seek mace aM aie a Pato tiene ove ta 43
VI.—Notes on the Weather at Halifax, Nova Scotia, during 1865. By Colonel
VVC IRA By IQR OR Baik DS meee Sere Paar ree ra teh cea 51
VII.-—Notes on the Econemic Miner:logy of Nova Scotia. Part Ii. Lime-
stones and Marbie. By Henry How, D.C.L., Professor of Chemistry,
§ : Ca Gas COUleges VWVLMNUSOR Mon sie sok Rok ee otis 8a TNS ws ees San 58
* VII.—Remarks on the Pitch Lakeof Trinidad. By Rev. John Morton, LaHave. 66 |
a TX.—On sonie recent improvements inthe Amalgamation process fur extracting :
a Gold from Quartz. By George Lawson, , Pu. D., L. L. D., Professor of j
a : Chemistry, Dalhousie College, Hulifaa BLA URED eric aie cts cea 71
gt i X.—On the Food Fishes of Nova Scotia. No. LV. The Trout and Salmon.
: 4 By Je Bernard Gilpin, M° Da-M. RB. ©. S102 ee 76
ae _ Xi.—The Glacial Period in North America. By Thos. Belt, F.G.S........ 91
ae XII.—Geology of ar County, Nova Scotia. By Rev. D. Honeyman, D.
C. L., F. G.8., Member of the Geol. Soc. of Fr hess Hon. Memb. of
Geol. Alssoc. Pandan: CRORE Sotho an eee eee RUE Ok Nae Oana Be 105
XIII.—Nova Scotian Conifers. PartI. By Colonel Hardy.................. 120
XIV.—On the Land Birds of Nova Scotia. By A. Downs, Cor. Memb. Zool.
NOE OF EE ONG ON 27> era oc Sonesta Saka as) Seley) eis Wiehe e wets saad Oe ad eae 130

APPENDIX :—
Abstract of Meteorological Register, Halifax, 1865. By Colonel Myers.. 186
Some remarks upon the Red Indians of Newfoundland. By Mr. Elias

Marrett. [Communicated by the President.].............-....... 139
On North Atlantic Storms. By J. L. Hurdis..........0.... 0000.0... 140
Notice of Field Meeting at Ashbourne, June 26, 1866. By W.G...... 147
Some account of the Life of Titus Smith. By William Smith. [Com—

municated by the PresidentolsSie vex uuae sore mit ees ens :-. 150

HALIFAX, NOVA SCOTIA : i

PRINTED. FOR THE INSTITUTE BY JAMES BOWES & SONS.

SOLD BY THE SECRETARY, 109 GRANVILLE ST.
Price 3s. 9d.

es
LIBRARY
: NEW YORE
, ie j BOT Ani CAL
i po ORS A, : sae GARDEN

Proceedings any Cransactions

NOVA SCOTIAN

INSTITUTE OF NATURAL SCIENCE,

1863, 1864, 1865, 1866.

VOLUME I.

HALIFAX:
PRINTED BY JAMES BOWES & SONS,
1867.

Errata.—For * Vol. II.” printed on each of the two preceding parts

ie

the Transactions, read Vol. I. The present part completes Vol. I.

ia
Pa

pect i i aaaegs copia.
i rhaus |

Paes ha +
ie i EAS TaN Pal ;
= anos asd Ot eM ey er
ees WAS penne ei
ao ioc eit Gaisnnte i

7
a

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

Nova-Seotian Mnstitute of Natural Science.
VOLUME I. PART 4.

ANNIVERSARY MEETING, Oct. 9, 1865.

In accordance with the Bye-Laws of the Institute, the Anniversary Meet-
ing, was held on Wednesday, Oct. 9, 1865, at 8 p.m. when the following
gentlemen were elected office bearers for the ensuing year :—

President.—J. M. Jonzs, F. L. S.

Vice-Presidents—J. B. Gitpin, M.D., Lt. Col. C. Harpy, R. A.

Treasurer.—Capt. LYTTLETON.

Secretary.— WM. GossIP. °

Council—Colonel W. J. Myers, F.R. M.S., J. R. DEWotrs, M.D.,
Edin., Professor Lawson, L.L.D., Jos. Betx, J. H. Duvar, P. S. Hamit-
ton, W. C. Sitver, Lt. Col. Ciirrorp, Royal Artillery.

The PRESIDENT in a brief address regretted that the state of the weather
had prevented alarger attendance. He entered upon various topics connected
with the welfare of the Institute, and alluded especially to the difficulty that
had been experienced in carrying out the intentions of the Institute with ref-
erence to the summer Field Meetings, which he considered useful, not only in
attracting attention to the natural products of the localities visited, but also
in engendering a taste for enquiry into matters pertaining to the physical
history of the Province. The Chief Commissioner of Railways had very kindly
offered free passage over the lines to members attending Field Meetings, and
every inducement was therefore offered to those who desired to participate in
such meetings ; but he was very sorry to say that but a very small proportion
of the members took part in these excursions.

The TREASURER’S account was examined and found correct, showing a
balance credit of $81.874.

Orpinary Meetine, Nov. 6, 1865.

J. M. Jonzs, President, in the Chair.
Dr. J. B. Grupin read a paper on the Mackerel (Scomber vernalis, Mitch.)

Q PROCEEDINGS.

illustrated with coloured drawings of two varieties of that species. (See
Transactions.)

During the conversation that ensued, it was stated that the Mackerel was
a much more valuable fish than the herring for commercial purposes. They
did not taint so quick when in bulk. The present method of salting was
described by Capt. W. T. TownsEenp. It appeared to differ from that form-
erly practised, the fish being now packed with the back upwards, which
prevented the saline sediment sinking into the flesh. A different species or
variety of Scomber, which came upon the coast about eighteen years ago, none
of which had been seen of late years, was alluded to. The upper jaw at the
point was curved over the lower, and the fish was much larger and fatter than
those now taken. Formerly in the spring the mackerel were all small, and in
autumn all large, now they always varied in size at all seasons, large and
small ran together.

With reference to the mackerel hybernating in shore mud during winter,
the PRESIDENT mentioned a curious circumstance which had come to his
knowledge, where a fisherman of Prospect Harbour, had taken one of these
fish while eel-spearing through the ice of the harbour, the eyes of which were
covered with a thick film. He considered that the supply of the fish on our
shores depended very much on that of their particular food, which, if not
abundant in the localities generally visited by them, would be sought for and
found in other places, causing failure to the fisheries in some parts, while
unprecedented luck would be had in others.

Capt. TowNsEnpD also stated that the mackerel appeared very regularly
on the Atlantic coast, nearly to a day, viz. on the 26th May. They were
frequent around the Magdalen Islands all summer, and were found further
north, even as far asthe north-west coast of Newfoundland, but they had not
been seen on the east coast for twenty-one years.

The PresrpEenT read a paper—“ On the Geological Features of the Ber-
mudas.”—(See Transactions.)

In the discussion which ensued, the probability of those Islands having been
once connected with the mainland, was mentioned by a member.

EXTRAORDINARY MEETING, Nov. 16, 1865.

The members met pursuant to notice, in the room at the Province Building,
and proceeded to Government House to wait upon His Excellency Sir F. W.
Wiuuiams, Bart., (of Kars,) the Lieut. Governor, who had graciously assented
to the request of the Council of the Institute that he would become its Patron,
vice Sir R. G. Mac DonneE Lt, the late Governor.

On being received by His Excellency, the PRESIDENT stated that owing
to a rule of the Bye-Laws, all Lieut. Governors of the Province were to be
requested to become Patrons of the Institute during their tenure of office, and
that the Society would gladly enrol His Excellency’s name in the place of his
predecessor, expressing a hope that His Excellency would give his coun-
tenance and encouragement to their proceedings for the advancement of
science and the benefit of the country.

PROCEEDINGS. 3

His ExcreLLENCyY in reply said it would give him great pleasure to become
the Patron of an Institution that was doing so much good in the Province, and
that he would endeavour to further its objects as far as lay in his power.

OrpiInNARY MeeErTING, Dro. 4, 1866.

J. M. Jones, President, in the Chair.

RicBy Wason, Esq., 16th Reet., and Lieut. ANDERSON, Royal sss ullley,
were elected members at the previous Council Meeting.

The SEcRETARY read a paper by Lieut. Col. R. B. Srncrarr, A.G.M.
“ On Pisciculture,’ (See Transactions.)

The PRESIDENT read a paper by Mr. Erras Marertt, Associate Member,
of St. John’s, Newfoundland, “ On Bone and other Implements found in a Cairn
of stones which covered the remains of a Beeothick or Red Indian, on an island
of the Lower Burgeo group, Newfoundland.” (See Appendiz.)

The paper was illustrated by carefully drawn fac similes of the relics, from
which it appeared that the aborigines who possessed them must have had some
knowledge of the christian religion, or of its observance, and also of modern
weapons of warfare, for on some of the implements were depicted rude crosses
and cutlasses.

From the remarks made by several members it appeared that the Red or
Copper Indians of Newfoundland, were sometimes met with as late as the
year 1819. On March 5th, of that year, a Mr. Peyton, who carried on con-
siderable salmon fisheries at the north of the island, having for some years
been greatly annoyed and having suffered extensive injury at the hands of
these natives, determined to go into the interior to have a meeting with the
tribe, to endeavour to commence their civilization; but the expedition ended
disastrously, for one of the Indians, at the first meeting having seized Mr.
Peyton’s father with the intention of killing him, was shot, and the rest ran
away, with the exception of a woman who was brought back to St. John’s,
and became civilized, but her death occurred soon after on Jan. 8, 1820. In
the spring of 1823, a fur hunter and his companions fell in with an Indian
man and an old woman. The former fled, but the other approached and
joined the party, whom she led to a place where her two daughters were. One
was about 20, the other 18 years of age. The women were brought to St.
John’s, but the daughters being attacked with consumptive symptoms, were
hurried back into the interior. The mother lived for some years at St. John’s,
dying at last of consumption. Nothing appeared to have been heard of this
singular race from that date.

J. B. Gitpin, M. D., Vice President, read a paper on Salmo Gloverii,
called by the country people Grayling. (See Transactions.)

An excellent coloured drawing of the fish accompanied the paper, and
sketches of other members of the Salmonide were also exhibited.

In the conversation which ensued, it was stated that an eminent authority
had given as his opinion that the Nova Scotian S. fontinalis was a char. Dr.
Gilpin believed that fontinalis went down to the sea and returned. The

4 PROCEEDINGS.

remarks of different members, however, only tended to prove that the
Salmonide of the Province required more attention at the hands of ichthy-
ologists.

The President, on behalf of the members, thanked the Lord Bishop of
Newfoundland, Dr. F1ELD, (who was present as a visitor,) for his kindness in
forwarding a specimen of the Great Auk (Alca impennis,) from Newfound-
land, which had enabled them to become acquainted with the anatomy of a
bird which was now extinct.

His Lordship in reply stated that he was glad to find that the specimen
4n question had proved interesting to the members. It had been taken with
two others from a guano bed on one of the Funk Islands, lying off the N. E.
coast of Newfoundland, and was by far the most perfect of the three. He
should always be happy to render any assistance in his power to further the
object of the Institute, in gaining a knowledge of the Natural History of
Newfoundland.

ORDINARY MEETING, JAN. 8, 1866.

J. M. Jonus, President, in the Chair.

The Rev. Joun Morton, Bridgewater, was elected an Associate member
at the previous Council Meeting.

Professor JAs. DEMItt, Dalhousie College, and J. RurHERFORD, were
elected members at the previous Council Meeting.

The Rey. Joun AMBROSE read a paper entitled, “‘ Observations on the
Fishes and Fishing Grounds of St. Margaret's Bay.” (See Transactions.)

In connection with the observations of Mr. Ambrose, Capt. HARDY men-
tioned a curious circumstance which occurred last summer. A friend who
was fishing in the North West Arm, hooked a hake (Merlucius vulgaris), and
bringing it to the surface it was gaffed by a companion. The gaff, however,
broke off at the socket, and the fish made its escape with the instrument
sticking in it. After a short time they commenced fishing again, and hooked
and gaffed a second time securely, the very same hake with the old gaff fast
in its back.

The PRESIDENT read some “ Notes on Hurricanes and Revolving Gales of the
North Atlantic,” by J.S. Hurnpis, of Southampton, England. (See Appendix.)

Capt. W. T. TOWNSEND stated his recollections of the Bermuda Hurricane
of 1839, he having been on board a vessel off the coast of Newfoundland at
the time when the gale reached that latitude. He described the unusual
violence which characterized it, and the quarter from which it.came, which
differed from that of more southern points on its route.

Mr. R. Morrow exhibited some very curious rounded masses of vege-
table origin, which he had procured from the shores of a lake in the forest
some distance to the eastward of Halifax, and which had puzzled the minds of
several naturalists, as to their method of formation.

Mr. C. Farrsanks, by request, laid upon the table a fine series of celts,
spear and arrow heads, and several weapons and ornaments which he had
procured in different parts of the colony.

PROCEEDINGS. 5

ORDINARY MEETING, FEB. 5, 1866.

J. M. Jones, President, in the Chair.

Messrs. J. R. MItLeER, JAMES FoRMAN, JAMES B. Morrow, and JOHN
KELLY, were elected members, and Mr. J. L. Hurpis, of Southampton,
England, a corresponding member, at the previous Council Meeting.

Mr. P. S. Hamirton, Chief Commissioner of Mines, read a paper “ On
Auriferous Deposits in Nova Scotia.”

Professor LAwson made some remarks upon the different methods at
present practised in the crushing of gold quartz.

Capt. W. T. TownsENnp exhibited a very curiously formed “nugget” of
large size in the form of a cross, which had been obtained at one of the mines.

The PRESIDENT read a continuation of Mr. J. L. Hurpis’s ‘“ Notes, on
Hurricanes and Revolving Gales of the North Atlantic.’ After its conclusion
he called attention to the almost perfect calm which had prevailed at Halifax
during the last month or two, when the Atlantic, at a distance of a few hun-
dred miles, had been the theatre of a series of storms of unparalleled violence.
He considered that as the Gulf Stream was undoubtedly the great course
over which the tropical gales swept their way, those gales were to some
extent influenced by the colder atmosphere which rested over the course of
the cold ocean current, which at that season of the year came with additional
force from the north, filling the intervening space between the western con-
fine of the gulf stream and the shores of Nova Scotia. This cold atmosphere
might act as a barrier against the westerly extension of such tropical storms,
and turn them in an easterly or north-easterly direction, which would point
them to the shores of Europe. He contended that the currents of the ocean
might have more influence upon the course of storms than was generally
imagined, and considered that it only required time and a proper system of
observation to prove the supposition.

Vice President GILPIN read a short paper describing a species of Blarina,

recently taken near Halifax, which appeared to be entirely new to the Nova
Scotian fauna.

ORDINARY MEETING, Marcu 5. 1866.

J.M. Jones, President, in the Chair.

Colonel W. J. Myers, read a paper entitled ‘“ Notes on the Weather during
1865.” (See Transactions.)

The President read a paper by Professor How, of King’s College, Wind-
sor, ‘‘ Notes on the Economic Mineralogy of Nova Scotia ;—Limestones and
Marbles.” (See Transactions.)

The Commissioner of Mines made some observations relative to the white
marble that had been noticed in the paper, which was stated to have been full
of flaws. He happened a short time ago to be at the quarry, and heard from
a person there that the parties who had been at work had actually blasted the
marble with gunpowder. He thought this, without reference to other causes,
might well account for the shattered state of the specimen taken to England.

6 PROCEEDINGS.

At a short distance from this quarry another kind of marble occurred, which
came as near to the description of verd antique as he considered possible.
These marbles were not more than two miles from a shipping place.*

The Secretary read a paper by the Rev. Joun Morron, of Bridgewater,
entitled—‘ Remarks on the Pitch Lake of Trinidad.” (See Transactions.)

Colonel Myers and Mr. F. WAINwRIGHT, who had resided on the island,
gave some interesting descriptions of its natural history.

Capt. LyrTLEToN gave an interesting verbal account of his recent visit
to the Oil Springs of Canada, and referred to their great commercial value.

ORDINARY MEETING, APRIL 2, 1866.

J. M. Jones, President, in the Chair.

Professor Lawson, Dalhousie College, read a paper—‘‘ On Sodium as an
Amalgam,” accompanied with interestingexperiments. (See Transactions.)

The Hon. the ATTORNEY GENERAL had his attention called to the metal
when in England lately, where he had visited the laboratory of Mr. Crooks,
and had witnessed a series of experiments by that gentleman, having for their
object its introduction into gold producing countries. He deemed the experi-
ments quite conclusive and satisfactory, and they were such as Dr. Lawson
had exhibited before them that evening.

Dr. DEWOLFE alluded to a communication which had been published by
Mr. Tuos. BELT upon the same subject. Mr. Belt’s design was to procure a
patent for a mode he had discovered of applying sodium as a flux of gold. He
thought it would be well to ascertain if Mr. Belt’s patent was in existence,
and also its merits in comparison with the other process.

Capt. Harpy, R. A., (Vice-President) made some observations on the
chlorides as disinfectants and their mode of preparation.

Vice President G1ILPIn read a paper “ On the Food Fishes of Nova Scotia.”

‘(See Transactions.)

The Presipen’ referred to the identity of species in regard to several
marine fishes of N. E. America, and N. Europe, and instanced the Cod,
Mackerel, Herring and others, as presenting no marked difference from those
of the British coast.

Professor LAwson remarked that the White Fish mentioned in Dr.
Gilpin’s paper he had always considered peculiar to the large Canadian lakes.
Dr. GiLPin, in reply said they were frequent in the rivers of New Brunswick,
especially in the Madawaska, and were also taken in Lake Temisquata.

OrpinaRy Merertine, May 8, 1866.
J. M. Jonzs, President, in the Chair.

The Secretary read a paper by Tuos. Bet, F. G. S.,—“‘ On the Glacial
Period in Nova Scotia.”—(See Transactions.)

Rev. Dr. HonEYMAN, F. G.S., read a paper—“ On the Geology of Antigo-

alt is the intention of the Nova Scotian Commissioners to send a fine series of these
marbles to the Paris Exhibition of 1867.

PROCEEDINGS. 7

nish.” —(See Transactions.) The paper was accompanied by a carefully
executed geological map of the district.

Lieut. Col. Harpy read a paper—‘‘ On Nova Scotian Conifere.” (See
Transactions.)

A series of photographs illustrating each species exhibited the foliage in
minute detail.

Mr. ANDREW Downs read a paper on— The Birds of Nova Scotia.”
(See Transactions.)

AS)
SE

(8)

DONATIONS TO THE LIBRARY.
Noy. 20, 1865, to Aue. 31, 1866.

IN EXCHANGE.

Boston.—Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History, Sept. and Oct.
1865. 1866, pp. 49-80. 81-144. 145-176. 177-224. 225-288. 289-320. 321-352. ~»
Dumfries.—Transactions and Proceedings of the Dumfries and Galloway Natural
History and Antiquarian Society, Session, 1863-4.
Montreal.—Canadian Naturalist, 1864, Feb.; 1865, April, June; 1866, Feb.
New York.—Annals of the Lyceum of Natural History, vol. 8; Nos. 6, 7, 8, 9,
and 10.
Philadelphia.—Journal of the Franklin Institute, 3d series ; vol. 50, Nos. 5 and 6:
vol. 51, Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4,5 and 6: vol. 52, Nos. 1 and 2.
Salem.—Proceedings of the Essex Institute, 1865, July, Aug., Sept., Oct., Nov.
and Dec.: 1866, Jan., Feb., March.
Toronto.—Canadian Journal, 1865, Nov.: 1866, Jan., April. Seg

PRESENTED.

Condition and Doings of the Boston Society of Natural History, May, 1865. The
Society.
Result of Observations on the Drift Phenomena of Labrador, by A. S. Packard, jr.,

M.D. The Author.
Hints on Meteorology, with summaries of observations made at St. John, New

Brunswick, between the years 1850 and 1862, by G. Murdoch. The Author.
Preliminary Report on the Geology of New Brunswick, by H. T. Hind. Natural
History Society of New Brunswick. ; '
Observational Astronomy and Guide to the use of the Telescope, by J. T. Slugg.
Physical Geography of the Sea, by Lieut. Maury. A Geographical and Com-
parative List of the Birds of Europe and North America, by C.S Buonaparte.
Handbook of the Law of Storms, by W. R. Birt. Lieut. Col. Austen, Jersey.
Historical Notice of the Essex Institute. The Institute
The Gold of Nova Scotia. Description of the Remains of a New Enaliosaurian
from the coal formation of Nova Scotia. Catalogue of Mineral localities in
New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and Newfoundland. On the Science of the In-
ternational Exhibition. Description of an Ancient Sepulchral Mound, near
Newark, Ohio, by O. C. Marsh, M. A.,F.G.S. The Author.
On Fucoides in the Coal Formation, by Leo Lesquereux. The Author.
Erster Jahresbericht des naturwissen schaftlichen Vereines zu Bremen. Fur das .
Gesellschafts jahr vom Nov., 1864 bis ende Marz,1866. Smithsonian Institute.

Date of Admission.

1863.

1865.

1864.

1863.
1864.
1865.
1865.
1863.

1866.

1863.
1863.
18638.

1863.

18638.

1863.
1863.

1863.
1866.
1864.

1864.

1865.

1863.
1866.

1863.
1865.

1865.

1863.

June 24.
Wes te
April 4
Jan.

May 4.

iss)
oO
©
~I

So
oS s8 5
i)
= o bOD

Cy
r)
B
bo
AS

Cy
oe
=]
Or

June 15.
Feb. 2.
June 30.
Jan. 26.
Oct. 26.
Jan. 26.

June 27.

Mar. 11.

8.
Oct. 12.
6
5
3

(2)

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Almon, Hon. M. B., Hollis Street, Halifax.

Anderson, Lieut. Archd., Royal Artillery, Artillery Park.

Bell, Joseph, Granville Street, Halifax.

Belt, Thomas, F. G. S., Newcastle on Tyne, England.

Brown, C. E. Granville Street, Halifax.

Chambers, A. P., Argyle Street, Halifax.

Clifford, Lieut. Col., Royal Artillery, Artillery Park.

Cramp, Rev. J. M., D. D., President of Acadia College, Wolfville.

De Mill, James, M. A., Professor of Modern Languages, Dalhousie
College, Halifax.

De Wolfe, James R., M. D., Edin., L. R. C. 8. E., President of the
Medical Society of Nova Scotia, Dartmouth.

Downs, Andrew, Cor. Mem. Zool. Soc., London, Walton Cottage,
North-west Arm.

Duvar, J. Hunter, Bedford Row, Halifax.

Finnie, A. 8., Bank of B. N. A., Hollis Street, Halifax.

Fleming, Sandford, C. E., Chief Engineer of Railways, Halifax.

Forman, James, Bank of Nova Scotia, Halifax.

Fraser, R. G., Spring Garden Road, Halifax.

Gilpin, J. Bernard, M. D., M. R. C.S., Barrington Street, Halifax,
Vicn-PRESIDENT.

Gilpin, Rev. Canon, D. D., Spring Garden Road, Halifax.

Gossip, William, Granville Street, Halifax, Secrerary.

Gray, Hon. 8. Brownlow, Attorney General, Bermuda.

Haliburton, R. G., F.S. A., Barrington Street, Halifax.

Hamilton, P. S. Chief Commissioner of Mines, Province Building,

Hardy, Lieut. Col. Royal Artillery, Artill@ty Park, Vice-PRESIDENT.

Hill, P. Carteret, D. C. L., Morris Street, Halifax.

How, Henry, D. C. L., Professor of Chemistry and Natural History.
King’s College, Windsor.

Jones, J. Matthew, F. L. 8., Ashbourne, near Halifax, PResIDENT.

Kelly, John, Deputy Commissioner of Mines, Province Building.

King, Capt. J. R., Royal Artillery, Artillery Park.

Lawson, George, Pu. D., LL. D., Professor of Chemistry and Min-
eralogy, Dalhousie College, Halifax.

Lordly, E. J., George Street, Halifax.

Lyttleton, Capt., Hollis Street, Halifax, Treasurer.

Morrow, James B., Brunswick Street, Halifax.

Myers, Col. W. J., F.R.M.S., Dresden Row, Halifax.

Nash, J. D., Dresden Row, Halifax.

Nova Scorra, The Right Rev. Hibbert Binney, D. D., Lord Bishop of

Poole, Henry, Glace Bay, Cape Breton.

July 28.
Jan. 8.
Mar. 7.
Jan. 9.
April 20.
Feb. 1.
Dec. 5.
June 1.
April 16.
Mar. 15.
Oct. 26.
July 1.
Dec. 28.
Feb. 6.

(10)

Reeks, Henry, F. L. 8., Hampshire, England.

Rutherford, John, Inspector of Mines, Nova Scotia.

Silver, W. C., Hollis Street, Halifax.

Sinclair, Lt. . ColR. B., A. G.M., Dartmouth.

Smithers, George, Granville Street, Halifax.

Townsend, W. T. Argyle Street, Halifax.

Webber, Lieut. H. H., Royal Artillery, Artillery Park.

Whytal, John, North Wste Arm, near Halifax.

Willis, J. R., Cor. Mem. Bos. Wat. His. Soc., et Liverp. Micros
Soc. National School, Halifax.

Young, Hon. William, Chief Justice of Nova Scotia.

ASSOCIATE MEMBERS.
Ambrose. Rey. John, M. A., the Rectory, St. Margaret’s Bay.
Marett, Elias, St. John’s, Newfoundland.
Morton, Rev. John, Bridgewater.
CORRESPONDING MEMBER.
Hurdis, J. L., Southampton, England.

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

Nova-Seotian Hustitute of Natural Science.

Ann i. On THE -Foop \FisuEs) or Nowa, Scorta.):) By J
Bernarp Ginpin, A.B., M.D.., M.R.C.S.
No. III.
(Read November 6th, 1865.)
THe MackEREL.
ScoMBER—ScoMBER—( Gunther, Catalogue B. Museum.)
ScoMBER—VERNALIS—(Dekay, Storer.)
ScoMBER—GREx—( Mitchell.)
Dr. Gunther, from actual comparison of English and American specimens,
considers them identical. The American authorities consider them different. Dr.
Gill, Smithsonian Institute, 1865, gives as typical ‘‘finlets, 5—6.” This is not

true as regards any Scomber I have identified in Nova Scotia as Vernalis or Grea,
and must refer to some southern species.

In my two former papers, I have endeavoured to give to the
Society all the facts I could collect, relating to the common Herring
and to the Gaspereaux, and their habits. I shall this evening, still
following up the subject, read a paper upon the Mackerel. ‘Thus
in time we shall have the natural history of all what I may term the
Food Fish of Nova Scotia. A true knowledge of the nature,
habits, food, spawning time, and localities of our fish, has been a
long desideratum in our Province, as the success of our fisheries must
be based upon it.

The description of a fresh Mackerel, bought in the Halifax fish
market on the 27th October, 1865, is as follows :—

Length 17 inches; girth in front first dorsal 74 inches, head one-
fourth of body to root of tail, diameter of eye five-eighths of an inch,
about two diameters from tip of nose. As the fish lies dead, a membrane
from the posterior part of the orbit half closes the eye. The lines of the
opercle and preopercle are nearly at right angles with the line of body
ihe margins of sub and interopercle like a V, with its apex pointing for-

es GILPIN-- ON THE FOOD FISHES OF NOVA SCOTIA.
ward, the gill rays are entirely covered by the lower edge of the opercle,
and the upper labials concealed within the jaw. Very minute teeth
upon upper and lower labials, and in this specimen on palatine arch,
though wanting in others.

The shape of the fish is long for its breadth, and very round, tapering
gradually to the root of a very small deeply cleft tail. Two dorsal fins,
the rays of the first hard, and five finlets, adorn the back. The pectoral
fins commencing one-third of an inch from opercle, and ventral opposite
posterior edge of pectoral, anal opposite anterior insertion of second
dorsal, with sharp ray or prick in front, and fine finlets below. Two

fleshy keel-like processes nearly parellel, are on either side of the root of

the tail. Both caudal and all the fins are very small for the size of the
body. Colour—top of head and ridge alone the back, dark blue; sides,
to an inch, below the lateral line, when just from the water a deep green
with about 27 to 30 deep blue horizontal zig-zag bars or stripes “from
opercles to tail; a little below the lateral line a number of indefinite
dark spots or lines, extending from pectoral fin nearly to tail, below
yellowish white, with opalescent reflections; tips of both jaws black,
tongue and inside mouth black, cheeks green above, yellowish white
below, with pink and opal reflections, and covered with numerous
purple spots; sides silvery; fins, dorsals and finlets dusky, rays showing
black ; caudal greenish dusky, base and tips dark; pectoral dusky, base
dark; ventral tips dusky with reddish tinge ; anal white with a reddish
tinge; and finlets below white. These colours are very fleeting, the green
turning to blue on the sides very soon; scales very minute, gill-ray 5,
D. 11, 2nd 11, P. 17 or 18, V. 7, A. 10 or 11, C. not counted ; finlets V.

above and below.*
In studying this fish we have a very large round body, a thin

and compressed head, labials and gill-rays compressed and covered,
and we are impressed with a certain inflexibility or stiffness in him.
He is evidently formed to give little opposition in passing through
the water, but the propelling power, the tail and fins, is very small.
It is doubtful if the sharp anterior dorsal is not used for defence, as
unless excited the fish usually carries it flat. He cannot be called
a swift fish. Like all gregarious fish which feed in large numbers,
the food must be ready spread in quantities for their use. ‘Thus no
individual instinct is called out in each fish to pursue or capture its
prey. Moving in large masses also, the whole must blindly follow
a few leaders. We are not disappointed then if we find our fish
low in the order of intelligence, if we find in his pouty and greedy
mouth a certain resemblance to the batrachians or frogs. His as-
serted torpidity during winter, and blindness, both w hich conditions

*A very rare variety is found perhaps two or three times duri ing. the season at
Halifax These have the zig-zag bars one-half the size and double the number.
In sore the bars are reduced down almost to lines and spots, and resemble a

figured variety in Couch’s British Fishes, 1865.

GILPIN--ON THE FOOD FISHES OF NOVA SCOTIA. 13

happen to the batrachians, favour these views, though I do not think
we have yet sufficient proof to assert them as facts.

The membrane half covering the eye is asserted by the fishermen
in early spring to cover the whole eye, hence perhaps the story of
his blindness. His small and numerous fins, according to the Agas-
sian theory, inasmuch as he resembles the embryo of all fishes, which
have the fins in one narrow continued band from head to tail, also
prove him low in the scale of intelligence.

He appears on our coast in early spring, according to Martin
Harrigan, Halifax fish market, about May 15; they are then very
thin and lean, and are going eastward, the fishermen observing them
passing the harbour. ‘The great body are supposed to spawn some-
where to the eastward, but they are never seen like herring during
the operation. Itis probable they spawnall along our coast, butin deep
soundings. During July another run make their appearance, and
these the fishermen say are some who have not joined the great
spawning schools. About the middle of September they again ap-
pear, coming westward ; their spawning now over, they rapidly be-
come fat and recruited and remain till the middle of November,
when they disappear. ‘Thus from the middle of May to the middle
of November they are upon the surface. For the remainder of the
year they are hid from us.

Our coast trending north-east and south-west, the terms east-
ward and westward, must be taken as meaning north and south.
Thus the spring opens earlier to the westward, the season is ad-
vanced, and the rivers westward are open and free from ice before
the eastern. Salmon, herring and gaspereaux make their appear-
ance in the Bay of Fundy—at Annapolis first, then at Yarmouth,
Gold River, Chester, and are taken earlier at Halifax than at Cape
Breton and Canseau. It would seem that as the sun leaves his
winter quarters and low circle on the southern horizon and com-
mences to form his great northern round, he is followed north by
the great marine armies surrounding our coast, which ascend to the
surface to luxuriate in the calm and warming waters, and to approach
our shores. Of the cod family alone we know the winter quarters.
All winter long they are taken 10 to 15 miles seaward in about 80
fathoms sounding. Of the rest, with the exception of the herring,
which winter in the deep land-locked bays of Newfoundland, and

a :

ee ee Te

14 GILPIN—ON THE FOOD FISHES OF NOVA SCOTIA

sometimes make unaccountable winter migrations, we know little.
The mackerel are no exception to this rule; whilst on the surface
they are very susceptible to stormy weather ; a rough November
sending them off, whilst they linger on the surface during the whole
of a mild Indian summer till December.

Although our fishermen maintain that they ae biannual
migrations east and west, that they set their nets facing the 7 weet in
spring and facing east in fall, that they watch them passing from
head point to head point, and doubtless those seen at rare intervals
on the Labrador must have migrated there, yet | still think these
migrations are but very partial, and that the great body of our
mackerel retire to deep soundings, as it were. on our coasts,
perhaps to bury themselves in the mud and ooze, in a semi torpid
condition. Our fishermen affirm that their stomachs are found
empty, very late in November, and the fatter the fish the emptier
the stomach, as if they were preparing for hyberzation, as our bears

and marmots do under very different circumstances. ‘The stomach
of the mackerel from which I made my description for this paper,
27th October, was filled with about a table-spoontful of green pulta-

ceous matter in which was a fish scale. But the later im the year
the fatter the fish ; no No. l’s are ever branded in sprmg or early
fall. Thus they disappear in November very fat, and re-appear very
lean in May. I am still of the opinion that our fshermen’s views
are in the main: correct, and would again bear testimony to their
accuracy. When we consider the immense quantities of food con-

sumed by the large schools around our shores, we must at once
perceive that a perpetual migration is necessary. ‘hey must con-
tinually seek new hunting ground. ‘The various tides, currents and
eddies, along our coast, must incessantly influence their motions,
since these currents sweep down acres and acres of surface food for
them ; therefore we are prepared to hear of their appearing at
uncertain intervals, of their leaving a coast for years, and then
returning unexpectedly to it. There is no doubt that by patient
observation of all the facts passing around us, and by comparing
them with meteorological tables of past years, one might come to
predict a good or bad fishing season, but that we co oul ever control
one, would be beyond our highest expectations. or the two last

seasons the catch has been very abundant on our coast. For

GILPINS+ON THE FOOD FISHES OF NOVA SCOTIA. 1S

several seasons before it was very deficient. One reason advanced
with some plausibility is, that they range about the mouths of our
rivers to feed upon the young gaspereaux, just emerging into their
salt water life, and as the dams and obstructions of our rivers ar

daily cutting them off their spawning grounds, this supply is rapidly

‘diminishing, and therefore they are rapidly leaving us. But we are

ng,
met with the fact that there are more mackerel than gaspereaux,

that the supply is too limited. There is a small crustacean that
covers the beaches in winrows, like a shrimp, in July and August.
These the fishermen call mackerel bait, and by their quantity or
scarcity predict a good ora bad season. One cannot but think
the myriads of medusze which fll our autumnal waters, must serve
as food for them. Of their voracity and willingness to take arti-
ficial baits, the common saying, “a mackerel will bite at a red rag,”
is a strong but a true expression; but as this invariably leads us to a
history of the mackerel fisheries, we will sum up in a few words our
present knowledge of this fish. . He appears in May lean and with
spawn, and is seen passing eastward, and northward; some few
remain passing up and down our shores ; he reappears again from the
north and eastward, (having spawned in deep soundings,) in Septem:
ber, very lean, rapidly recruits, and disappears during November
very fat, to reappear lean again in early spring; that he is uncertain
in the place of appearing, and that we need some exact practical
facts as regards his food. Mr. Thomas Brackett, Halifax fish
market, assured me that he had opened many mackerel this day,
November Ist, 1865, and the stomachs of all were empty. He
states that he often finds small fish in them eazlier in the season.
This valuable fish, though low in the scale of organized beings,
is much prized as an article of food, and is deservedly considered
our most valuable export. His capture forms the most exciting
work of all the wet, toil, and hardships our fishermen endure.
There is chance in it—luck as they would express it. By one
dexterous cast of net, he may make more than a month’s work at the
hook and line. Set nets, that is, nets about 30 fathoms long, and 4
deep, are stretched by their head lines between two buoys at the
mouth of some inlet, and facing westward, about the middle of May.
Many are thus taken. In early spring they are lean and filled with

16 GILPIN=-ON THE FOOD FISHES OF NOVA SCOTIA.

spawn, but are readily sold in the fish market, or make good No.
2’s, or second quality pickled fish.

It is very obvious that no creature should be harrassed during
the spawning period, and one would at once say there should be a
closed period during the spring for mackerel fishing, and that this
is the principal reason for the decline of the fishery. Making
rash laws, however, are to be deprecated, and our Legislature
should first gain an intimate knowledge of the subject of sea
and river fisheries, with all its bearings of food, of habits, migra-
tions of fish, their mutual relations upon each other, and on
the currents and tides that sweep our coasts, before they legis-
late away the summer living of men, often too poor to wait
the fall supply.

Extricating himself from the nets and toils strewing his path
eastward and westward for many a mile, but leaving many a poor
fellow behind, branded prime No. 1, our fish now leaves our
coasts, disappearing eastward. By the middle of September, especi-
ally if the nights are calm and warm, he comes to us again. Now
is the grand sea harvest. The fishermen, those hardy reapers of
the sea, are in picturesque groups on every headland or far
jutting out point, with practised eye scanning the waters for the
wake of the coming school. Inside of a deep bay they have their
seine set, (a seine being 10 nets or 100 fathoms of head lne,
and 9 fathoms deep.) With one end attached to the shore it
runs off at right angles, about 30 fathoms, where it is fastened to a
buoy, it then makes an angle or L of about 30 more fathoms length,
the foot ropes lying upon the bettom. At the end of the L a boat
lies with the remainder of the seine, all ready to throw out. The
look-out man now gives the word. The school is coming. With
their eyes and heads just peeping out of water, their stiff inflexible
bodies at an angle of 45, and a long train or wake curling back in
the smooth water, there come a thousand greedy mouths and glit-
tering eyes, slowly peering about for food, and following the inden-
tations of the shore. Noiselessly and breathlessly the reapers of
this sea corn do their work, for so wary is the fish, that a glint of
light, a clap of the hand, or the swash of a rope overboard, or even
the thud of an oar falling upon the boat, and the whole school is
gone, to break water again far to seaward, and perhaps the $500,

GILPIN—ON THE FOOD FISHES OF NOVA SCOTIA. IU 7

so nearly bagged, goes with them. In profound silence they watch
their prey till it runs quite up far within the bight or elbow of the
eme. And then a few rapid strokes of the oars, and as many dex-
terous tosses of the remaining nets as the boat is rowed to land, and
they have secured their prey. Thisis technically called making a
stop. For 36 hours the fish swim in frantic circles, breaking the
water every where, they then apparently sulk down to the bottom,
and never come up again. These stops are made all around us,and
within sight of our crowded streets. Our beautiful Basin is often
alive with them, and then in addition, a smart schooner, the float-
ing home of the fishermen now far from the rock hung cottages,
adds her tall masts, spread alow and aloft with drying nets, to
the pretty confusion of glittering fish, dotted head floats, smart
whalers and busy men around.

So close do land and water, the dusty traveller, and the drip-
ping fisher meet in these sweet spots, that I once saw a stop
made on the very verge of the rail, and the puffing engine making a
back ground to the group, as glittermg fish were tossed up and
shining dollars cast down, and the farmer returning with the price
of the harvest he had watched and toiled over many a weary hour,
or of the stock he had fed and folded through many a winter day,
was exchanging it with the hardy sea farmer who ploughs no fur-
rows but with his keel, who gives of herds he has never fed, and
of harvests that nature has sown broad cast on a thousand rolling
hills for him to garner with boat hook and sweep net, rather than
reaping knife or bullock-wain.

These stops are made on many parts of our seaboard, in St.
Mary’s Bay, and Digby Basin, where fish weirs are substituted for
nets, and all along the Atlantic coast, and find their way to Halifax
markets in lots varying from ten barrels to one or two hundred. As
they are included with the deep sea mackerel returns, it is impossi-
ble to ascertain the exact number of barrels taken annually by shore
fishing; but the whole amount of both shore and sea mackerel
fisheries for the year 1865, was somewhat above $1,000.000.

{18 JONES—GEOLOGICAL FEATURES OF THE BERMUDAS.

Arr. Il. On trae GzotocicaL Fratures or THE BrErmupas.
By, Sc ME JONES ie lass:
[ Reud Nov. 6, 1865.]

Tre geological features of the Bermudas are at once interesting
and peculiar. The group may be styled a series of sandy islets,
more or less covered with cedar trees; for wherever you traverse,
either along the shore or on the more elevated land, sand lies
beneath your feet, and the cedar tree is rarely absent.

It does not require much stretch of the imagination to conceive
the origin of this group, as formations always in progress in
different parts of the islands give a clue to what has otherwise
proved a mystery.

I have already given an opinion as regards the original formation
of these islands in the “ Canadian Naturalist” for February, 1864.
Granting a primitive foundation, most probably the result of
volcanic action, at no great depth below the ocean surface, the
current of the Gulf stream would supply ample material to form a
basis on which the gradual process of islandic formation would be
slowly perhaps, but surely developed.

. Itis to the coral zoophyte, however, that minim in Nature’s
chain, that the Bermudas owe their existence as a settlement fit for
the human race to dwell in. Without its presence the massive
barrier reefs which lie around far in advance of the main land
acting as walls of defence against the encroachments of the
tremendous seas which break upon them, would not exist; and the
Inhabited districts, where now the neat white dwellings stand
snugly ensconced in groves of cedars, would soon be changed to
scenes of desolation; for lke the locality known as the ‘“ Sand
Hills” in Paget’s parish, the sand would be thrown on shore by the
violence of the waves, and the driving gale would hurry it along,
burying houses and cedar groves in its course, as it has done in the
locality I have alluded to.

Speaking of sand it may be well in the first place to consider
the composition of the Bermuda sand. ‘Take it as it lies upon the
beach, and you will perceive, without the aid of the lens, that broken
coral and shell are the principal ingredicnts. Pink coloured sub-
stances are also seen intermixed. They are fragments of nullipores
which coat the reefs and shore rock in abundance. The nullipore

JONES— GEOLOGICAL FEATURES OF THE BERMUDAS. 19

fragments, however, are about in the sand, which is found at a dis-
tance from the shore, and this hill sand is much smaller in grain and
of a dull white colour; probably owing to the same process which
according to Darwin takes place at St. Helena, viz., the drifting up
of the sea sand to heights above, and the winnowing occurring during
the transit. *

In traversing the islands from one end to the other, and ascend-
ing the highest positions, the hills are found to be rounded at their
tops. This state arises from the action of the wind upon the masses
of sand; and from sections of hill sides laid bare by excavation for
road and other purposes, it appears that the same kind of formation
has taken place in olden time, the shape of the former hills being
clearly defined by the hardened mass which covers the underlying
formation, and separates it from the recent one above.

From a general survey of the Islands I take it that they rest
mainly on a series of caverns, partly and wholly in some cases filled
with red earth; but near the shores of the islands these caverns are
kept clear of contents by the waters of the ocean, which every flow-
ing tide, find entrance through channels in the sandstone rock. There
are some parts, however, which from observation I am led to believe
are not so honeycombed by caverns, and these le on the south shore
of the main island, in Paget, Warwick and Sandy’s parishes, where
the sandstone has become hardened by some particular process into
a very compact and close-grained stone. Of this stone lime is made,
and when large houses and public buildings are erected, the contract
generally specifies that this south side stone shall be used, it being
far more durable than any other found on the Islands. Some per-
sons imagine that the locality where this description of stone is
found is the oldest land in the group, but it would be rash
to concur in this theory where so many cases of recent forma-
tions having the appearance of age occur, and especially when we
take into consideration the fact, that calcareous deposits soon become
compact under the influence of exposure to the elements. Close
observation made by residents on the Islands can alone set at rest

*When I last visited the Paget Sand Hills, a house at the summit of the hills
Some distance from the shore was almost totally buried, the chimney top being the
only portion of the dwelling seen. The sand was still slowly but steadily working
its way, and a few years more will no doubt cause adjoining properties to fall a prey
to its encroachments.

eis

20 JONES —GEOLOGICAL FEATURES OF THE BERMUDAS.

this interesting question. ‘The cavernous condition of the founda-
tion of the group has often led ignorant minds to suppose that the
islands rest upon no secure basis, and the circumstance of brackish
water always making its appearance wherever holes are dug to the
level of the sea, has given more credit to the statement.

In speaking of the cavernous foundation of the Bermuda group,
I must not omit to mention a phenomena which may or may not
exist m consequence of cavernous communication with the outer
sea. Near the eastern end of the main island there is an
extensive basin some six miles in circumference, called Harrington
Sound. It connects with the sea by a narrow passage at its western
end, over which a bridge is placed called “ Flatt’s Bridge.” When
the tide without flows, it is carried with great force into the sound
through this passage, and likewise when it ebbs, it runs out again
with the same degree of force. Now, it would be imagined that

with such an increase of water as a flowing tide pours into this lake*

a rise of a few inches at least would occur: but such is not the case.
Not an inch does the sound rise, and when the ebb begins, the
waters rush out again to sea with the same impetuosity ; yet not an
inch has it fallen. Now where does the mcoming water at flowing
tide go to? And where does the water come from, that replaces the
amount lost by the ebb? For there must be some outlet to account
for such a singular occurrence. It must be borne in mind that this
passage through which the tide ebbs and flows, 1s the only connection
the lake has with the sea so far as can be ascertamed. Many rea-
sons have been given, endeavouring to account for this curious
phenomenon, but as yet | am not aware of any definite conclusion
having been arrived at.

The neck of land which divides this Sound from Castle Harbour
is filled with caverns, and presents above ground an uneyen and
picturesque appearance. Miniature valleys surrounded by rocky
ridges, honeycombed into caverns large and small, in the lower
parts of which may be seen the clear waters of azure tint, through
which the tropic fishes of rainbow hues may be seen floating about ;
and shrubs and plants of many kinds jutting out of the holes and
crannies of the sandstone, while overhead the sage and coffee
bushes, cedars and palmettos grow im wild profusion. ‘This is the
far famed Walsingham, immortalized by Tom Moore, in his ode to

JONES ——-GEOLOGICAL FEATURES OF THE BERMUDAS. on

the Calabash tree, which in his time afforded a cool shade, as it does
at the present day, to numerous pic-nic parties.

In this locality, IT have noticed a curious circumstance, which
lends a clue to the formation of certain cylindrical masses existing
on the shore at Harris Bay and other places. My. Richard Wood,
the owner of this lovely estate, showed me certain trees growing out
of the solid rock. ‘The stem of one tree,a palmetto, was closely
surrounded by the stone, and fitted as tightly as a stove-pipe does
into the stonein achimney. Now when this tree dies there will of
course be left a cylindrical hole, and were the rock it exists in within
reach of the waves of the sea, this hole which has had its walls hard-
ened by the water which has during many seasons trickled down the
stem of the tree, would become a cylindrical mass standing by itself,
while the more friable rock around would be worn away. ‘This
condition would exactly account for the curious circumstance I have
alluded to as occurring at Harris Bay. At that position and close
to high water mark, stands acollection of cylindrical masses hollowed
within and marked with rust, which I think may be owing to the
decomposition of the tree, which once grew in this cylinder when it
was part of the surrounding rock, which has been worn away by the
action of the waves or spray, which at this point falls heavily during
southerly gales. ‘From appearances I should say that these cylinders
contained palmettos from their rounded shape at the bottom, which
is characteristic of the tree’s growth.

i have at the commencement of this paper alluded to the pre-
sence of red earth in the caverns. This red earth exists very
gencrally over the surface of the island, and mixed with sand is
the common soil of the islands. I have every reason to believe that
itis composed of decayed vegetable matter, and this theory is borne
out by an analysis which was kindly made for me by Dr. Albert
Bernays, the analytical chemist to St. Thomas’ Hospital. Colonel
Nelson has expressed his belief that the red earth found in caverns
was of animal origin, most probably accumulated masses of guano;
but as Dr. Bernays has stated that no animal matter whatever can
be traced, I think a vegetable character can only be assigned to it,
for | see no difference between the cavern red earth and the surface
soil, beyond a more compact appearance m regard to the former.

In observing road cuttings in different parts, we see at once how

3

ae JONES GEOLOGICAL FEATURES OF THE BERMUDAS.

these islands have become raised to their present height, Look at
a cutting side. Above all you see some few inches of red soil on
which trees and shrubs are growing, then two feet of loose sand,
gradually hardening as it descends, the whole filled more or less
with semi-fossil shells of Helix Bermudensis and other land shells.
Vhirdly we perceive a large cavern partly filled with red earth, an
undoubted cavern deposit, then a smaller deposit, and then a regular
bed of red earth again—the whole intervening space filled with
hardened calcareous rock.

The lowest layer of red earth was once the surface soil, then
drift sand came over it, cavernous holes occurred in the drifting
sand, perhaps where a dense vegetation grew, the decomposition of
which left the small mass of red earth at the bottom. A second
drift again takes place, and then we have red soil and vegetation
growing again—and so the land rises; but having attained a particu-
lar height, and becoming well clothed with a dense vegetation, it is a
question whether under existing circumstances a higher elevation
will be attained, unless some change should take place in the current
of the Gulf Stream, when the Bermudas would most assuredly
suffer in no slight degree, and the sand of the shore would make
similar encroachments to those taking place in Paget’s Parish at
the present day.

To show the gradual! formation of the Bermuda shores, we have
only to take a walk along the sandy beaches, where we see large
masses of sand, intermixed with gulf weed and debris of all kinds,
in the form of a low wall above high water mark. These masses
have been placed there by the action of the waves during
storms. ‘They are gradually hardening, and in process of time
will become sandstone rock. On these masses again at intervals
are thrown drift matter and tree trunks, some of large size, as I
have seen myself. Among the roots of these trees are fre-
quently seen pieces of stone of far different composition to any
found on the Islands. These stones have undoubtedly been carried
within the entwined roots of those drift trees from the continent of
America. ‘They are generally pieces of hard trap, at least all those
[have been able to procure are so according to Professor Dawson.

I was not aware of the real origin of these foreign fragments
when | hammered them out of the shore rock, about high water

JONES — GEOLOGICAL FEATURES OF THE BERMUDAS. 23,

mark, until Mr. Belt drew my attention to Darwin’s statement in
regard to similar occurrences on the shores of Pacific Islands.
These foreign stones may be seen 2m situ at Point Shares in the
shore rock. Pieces of decomposed iron are also found imbedded in
the shore rock, brought there no doubt by wreck materials.

In considering the geological structure of the Bermudas, we
cannot help noticing the similarity that exists in many instances
between the accumulations occurring in the sandstone, near shore,
and those on the shores of Pacific islands, and other places. where
calcareous deposits occur. On the south shore of the main island
of Bermuda, I found in the friable cliffs some curious tubular bodies,
hard and compact, which left a cast in the sand on removal. I
thought they might be fossilized roots of trees. However, on com-
paring notes with Darwin’s account of Pacific calcareous deposits,
i found that the same substances had been found at King George’s
Sound, on the S. W. coast. of Australia, and at the Cape of Good
Hope. He styles them “branched bodies.” <‘‘These branches,”
he says, ‘ are absolutely undistinguishable in shape from the broken
and upright stumps of a thicket; their roots are often uncovered,
and are seen to diverge on all sides; here and there a branch lies
prostrate. The branches generally consist of the sandstone, rather
firmer than the surrounding matter, with the central parts filled
either with a friable calcareous matter, or with a sub-stalagmitic
variety ; this central part is also frequently penetrated by linear
crevices, sometimes, though rarely, contaming a trace of woody
matter. ‘These calcareous branching bodies appear to have been
formed, by fine calcareous matter being washed into the casts or
cavities, left by the decay of branches and roots of thickets buried
under drifted sand. ‘The whole surface of the hill is now under-
going disintegration, and hence the casts which are compact and
hard are left projecting. In calcareous sand at the Cape of Good
Hope, I find the casts quite similar to those at King George’s Sound ;
but their centres are often filled with black carbonaceous matter, not
yet removed. It is not surprising that the woody matter should
have been almost entirely removed from the casts on Bald Head,
for it is certain that many centuries must have elapsed since the
thickets were buried.” In concluding his observations on these
branched bodies, Darwin says: “‘ Reflecting on the stratification of

24 JONES—GEOLOGICAL FEATURES OF THE BERMUDAS.

the deposit on Bald Head—on the irregularly alternating layers of
sub-stalagmitic rocks—on the uniformly sized and rounded patches,
apparently of sea shells and corals—on the abundance of land shells
throughout the mass—and finally on the absolute resemblance of
the calcareous casts to the stumps, roots, and branches of that kind
of vegetation which would grow on sand hillocks, I think there can
be no reasonable doubt, notwithstanding the different opinion of
some authors, that a true view of their origin has been given here.”

Now, I have every reason to believe that these branched bodies
found in sandstone cliffs at Bermuda, have originated in the drift
sand covering shrubs or trees, when in a living state; but from
observations I have made I consider their formation to have differed
from that of Darwin’s specimens. Rain water coursing’ down the
opening made by the protruding stems and branches, would cause
the sandy particles around to cement together, and form a hardened
erust, which, like the cylinder of the palmetto I have spoken of,
would, when the surrounding friable sandstone around was cleared
away, stand firm. Iam led to suppose this course of formation,
on looking at ® specimen which is hollowed at its centre, presenting
as it does an appearance that would mdicate sucha course. On the
rocky shore immediately beneath the cliffs from whence I obtained
these specimens, large masses of sandstone rock lie detached from
the cliffs, and these detached rocks as well as the clifts, are perforated
with holes, doubtless the casts of branched bodies which have shaken
out from their original positions.

Not far from where f procured these branched bodies, at the 8.
KE. corner of the Paget Sand Hills, cedar and other trees are now
being gradually buried under drifting sand; and in years to come
when the mass around them has hardened into rock, their stems and
branches haying wasted away, will doubtless leave behind branched
bodies similar to those I found in another position, and also to those
found by Darwin at King George’s Sound, and the Cape of Good
Hope. In some cases the branches may have been formed
according to Darwin’s hypothesis, by the entire decay of the whole
branch, root or stem, and the refilling of the cayity left by sand ;
but as I said before, from observing that in some cases the centre of
these Bermuda branches are hollowed, I must repeat again that I
‘ consider a gradual hardening of the sandy particles immediately

JONES — GEOLOGICAL FEATURES OF THE BERMUDAS. 295

around the vegetable matter, first takes place, and when the decay
becomes perfect the vacuum is filled by the same material.

Another circumstance | will now relate, which tends in some
measure to shew the similarity of the Bermuda phenomena to those
of the Pacific. Below the Paget Sand Hills, and on the shelving
beach between high and low water mark, stand some remarkable
‘rocks of the same consistency as the shore rock. One in particular
stands perfectly isolated from the rest, and by the action of the
waves has its base worn away, making it look lkea large head upon
ashort neck. Although these rocks present a curious appearance, 1
should not have paid particular attention to them had [not found the
occurrence of similar shaped rocks recorded in Dana’s work, as exist-
ing at Waterland, one of the Rawehe Islands, in the Pacific. The rocks
instanced by Dana, however, differ somewhat in consistency, being
almost wholly composed of large fragments of corals of the genera
Astrea and Madrepora, and imbedded shells, whereas the Bermuda
examples were composed of the usual comminuted shell and coral,
with imbedded shells. They nevertheless assimilate in many par-
ticulars, and afford evidence of similar agencies at work in coral
groups, in the northern as well as the southern hemisphere.

From soundings taken along the outer reefs, it has been found
that the Bermudas rest upon a partially columnar structure, for
immediately outside these outer reefs the descent is precipitous,
more especially on the southern side. ‘To the westward, however,
the column appears to be continuous for a space of thirty miles, for
in that distance occur three or four masses of rock at a depth of
about thirty fathoms. ‘These are well known to the fishermen, who
reap rich harvests when they visit them, fish appearing always to
congregate in greater numbers wherever rocks lie.

It may be well to notice, that this extension of the Bermuda
column is directly towards that point of the main land of America,
which juts out for a considerable distance eastwardly towards the
Bermuda extension, viz., Cape Hatteras. I mention this in order
to point out a probability that in ages past the Bermuda column
may have been attached to the main; for although I conceive,
without conclusive evidence to the contrary, that the Bermuda
column owes its origin to volcanic action, yet still as it at present
remains a mystery, it will be well to consider the question of origin

26 SINCLAIR — ON PISCICULTURE.

in every light. Viewing the Bermudas as formerly a portion of the
American Continent, let us consider whether there be sufficient
ground on which to base our supposition. The Islands are formed,
as I have before stated, of sandstone composed of comminuted shell
and coral; but the particular stone which I have instanced as forming
part of the southern shore, is so compact as to have the appearance
of solid sandstone, or, indeed, I may say limestone. Now if we are to
identify the Islands as forming part of that main land which juts
out in their direction, we must first ascertain if that extension of the
main be of similar formation. Speaking to Mr. Hill, the obliging
mate of the R. M.S. “Delta,” on my return from the Islands in
1860, I found that he was well acquainted with the American coast ;
and upon enquiry he informed me that the geological character of
Cape Hatteras was decidedly a white sandstone or limestone, very
similar in appearance to Bermuda stone.

I am sorry I have no specimen of the Hatteras stone, to com-
pare with that of Bermuda, and I also regret that I have not had
an opportunity of consulting any work upon the geology of that
locality, whereby I could clearly ascertain the real nature of its
structure. However, as I merely mention the connection of the
Bermuda group with the main as a probability, and nothing more,
and as my views are decidedly in favour of volcanic origin, we may
leave the consideration of the question for future investigation, as I
beg to do other subjects connected with the geology of the Bermu-
das, which, I hope, if life and health be spared me, to treat of in
another paper.

Art. III. On Piscicutrurz. By Lieut. Con. SrncLair.
[Read Dec. 4, 1865.]

Viz. : Ombre or Grayling Most varieties of the fresh-water fish

Ge Gee proper of Great Britain are exotics, and

Ape Tench—doubt- were introduced by the learned monks of
Ul. 5 .
America could introduce the ancient monastic orders.
S. Fontinalis, Pike, Perch,
Gasperseux, Striped Bass, : aft
Black Bass, Cat Fish, Sun jin preparing artificial lakes and ponds,
Fish, S. Confinis, and two 5 : . ‘

other varieties ofLakeTrout, Which now exist, and still contain the

one not yet determined.

These ecclesiastics expended much labour

scaly descendants of the old stock.

‘

ON PISCICULTURE. 2

7

SINCLAIR

In those days, the transportation of live fish across the Channel
or German Ocean, must have been a difficult undertaking. ‘There
is no account on record, showing that our ancestors were possessed
of the knowledge that fish could be cultivated by means of milted
spawn.

The Province of Nova Scotia should not be the last country to
take advantage of, and reciprocate, the benefits which are likely to
accrue from the late advancement made in piscicultural science.
Her fresh-water lakes are of every conceivable size and kind; no
country in the world offers superior natural advantages for a com-
paratively inexpensive introduction of many of the fish of the
temperate latitudes.

The atmospheric isotherm of Nova Scotia corresponds with the
south of Sweden; but her fresh water isotherm will approximate
to that of central Germany, where the summers are warmer than
ours, and the lake waters are frozen for two or three months
during winter.

With one or two exceptions, the fresh water fish of temperate
climes (indigenous or imported) cannot endure tepid waters; those
few which can, do not suffer from hard winters, for the physical
reason that the mean temperature of all waters is the same under
a frozen surface.

The interchange of different varieties of fish by the agency of
man, seems to be peculiarly indicated. In agriculture, the cultiva-
tion of exotic plants has much more to contend with: the same
zones of latitude will not, as a rule, produce the same crops. For
instance: Nova Scotia lies in the same latitude as the south of
France, but will not ripen the finer sorts of wine grapes, the olive,
and the fig. But the Province is somewhat nearer this condition
than Great Britain, where the cucumber and maize will not ripen
in the open air. The thermal condition of our lakes is higher in
summer than that of the British lacustrine waters, and for a longer
period; with reference to the hybernation of fish, for the reason
already given, they may be ranked with lakes only frozen occa-
sionally in winter elsewhere.

Aquatic plants give a good indication for comparing the waters
of different countries, with the object of ascertaining whether they
will sustain similar species of organic creatures.

28 SINCLAIR — ON PISCICULTURE.

The white and yellow water lily, the pickerel, and other lake
weeds of this Province, are identical with those of Great Britain.
‘There is a far greater diversity in the land plants and shrubs, which
are indigenous in the two countries, proving that the thermal condi-
tion of their waters approximate much nearer than their atmosphere.

It is probably owing to higher temperature in summer, that
many of our lakes have few or no trout in them. For this reason,
they would be all the better reservoirs for other kinds of fish.

For instance: no one would now take the trouble to wet a fly in
that fine sheet of water, the lower lake at Dartmouth ; but were it
stocked with fish, perhaps less esteemed than trout, it would afford
healthy amusement to many who may not be adepts in the more
scientific branches of angling. Enjoyment is only relative, and
there are not a few who take as much interest in the bobbing of a
cockney float, as in the rise of a pound trout; and even the ex-
perts might condescend to enjoy surer, though slower sport in the
summer evenings, at a season when the trout, sickened with heat,
refuse to take. As for the rising generation, they would be happier
and better spending their spare time dibbing for roach, dace, tench,
carp, and bream, than idling at home, or in city or town.

It would require a naturalist of practical experience to decide
whether the white perch of America is the same as the British
perch. It is not likely. The British perch, in all considerable
lakes, grows to a very large size, and would probably do so here,
where the native perch rarely attains the weight of two pounds.

Without pretending complete exactness, suggestive lists of fish
are appended to this paper.

Possibly a correspondence with the Acclimatization Society in
Great Brita, might lead to some results in an interchange of fish
or spawn. As the delicate salmon roe has been transported and
hatched successfully in the Antipodes, there could not be any diffi-
culty or much expense, attending experiments of the same sort with
other fish, by means of the mail steamers. ‘The gaspereau would
almost certainly thrive in Loch Awe and similar lakes, accessible to
and from sea, and fed by a diversity of rivers and streams ; and
our trout, salmo fontinalis, would be no mean acquisition to the
British lakes.

It is remarkable tliat the lithographic history of the ancient
world reveals the fact, that there was then a difference of the fish

+

SINCLAIR ——- ON PISCICULTURE. 29

of the European and American continents, although they were less
Some
of the ganoid fishes had a vertebrated neck, and were thus able to
look about them.

dissimilar from one another than either from modern fish.

when man is
glanis of the

The same similarity prevails im the present day,
present to take advantage of it. The great siluris
caused atten-
tion, is undoubtedly one of the types of the large Channel cat fish
The
sturgeon of the Danube is most likely the same as the St. Law-

Danube, whose introduction into Great Britain has
of America, probably distinguished by some local peculiarity.

rence sturgeon, with a difference.

Many of the European fish, if introduced here, might deteriorate
in size and quality ; but, considering the extent, purity, and varied
conditions of our lakes, on the average, quite a contrary result may
be confidently anticipated.

LIST OF BRITISH FRESH WATER FISH NOT FOUND IN NOVA SCOTIAN WATERS.

British Trout inhabits
both lakes and rivers, as
well as small streams, in
which he will attain a good
weight. Maximum weight,
10 Ib.

Thames, and Colne,
Driffield Brook, Waltham
Tarn.

Affects deep holes in streams, and shal-
low gravel banks in lakes, and does not
roam except near spawning time; runs
very greedily at the minnow, particularly
in rivers or streamlets discolored by recent
rains ; his habits are much more stationary
and solitary than those of the “salmo fontinalis,’ or American
trout ; he also grows much larger in some waters than the /fonti-
nalis, which rarely, if ever, exceeds six pounds ; seeks cover under
roots and rocks.

Peay Regu = Mace There are several varieties — three or
mum weight, 15 lb.; ex-
ceptional weight, one from
Loch Awe taken five and

twenty years ago, 30 lb.

four, at least : —
1. The gillaroo trout, of Loch Neagh,

Lochs Awe, Scotland ;
Neagh, Ireland; and other
Scotch and Ivish lakes.
The Lake Trout of Cum-
berland is only an over-
grown River Trout, over
fed with minnows, found
in Crummock Water and
other lakes in North Eng-
land.

which has a gizzard, and feeds partly on
clams.

2. The great gray lake trout, of Loch
Awe, is distinct from the gillaroo, unless
the gizzard story be a myth.

3. The bull trout.

Norse. — Naturalists are more obscure about .

the varieties of lake trout than about any other fish. It is impossible for a
lay brother to form ideas from reading or catching.

A

=

-

30 SINCLAIR —— ON PISCICULTURE.
aon Roat =sTana Decidedly different from our sea trout ;
mum weight, 9 Ib. has no round white spots, or more obscure ;

scaled more like a salmon, larger size, and cuts red just like a
salmon.

B. Grayling — Maximum A delicate, very tender fish, excelent
weight, 4 Ib.

Itchen near Winches-
ter, Derwent, Wharfe, likes a stream not too rapid, alternating
Done, and other rivers; E A Si
varies much in size ac- With long clay bottomed glides, and gra-
cording to waters; is sup-
posed not to be a “cold
water” fish, but has lately this continent; Back’s grayling in the Arc-
been introduced into Scot-

land. tic regions; the grayling, so miscalled, of

Grand Lake, N. S., is a lake trout.

Well known as a voracious fish, not to be

eating, taken almost always with the fly ;

velly streams ; only one variety found on

B. Pike— Maxm. weight,
40 Ib. trusted as an import ; it is difficult to confine

him, and he eats all before him, even his own species—frogs, young
ducks, and any swimming thing less than his swallow.

Carp — Average weight, A tolerable fish for the table, but of no
2 1b., but will grow to 8 : ipico eee! EARS Ten
or 101b. invery favorable Very Superior quality; breeds prodigiously ;
waters. Chinese by origin, but will live in temper-
ate or even frigid climes ; likes gravelly ground, in still waters.

Tench —3 Ib. Pond and lake fish of very excellent
quality ; likes muddy or weedy places ; stillwater fish.

Bream — 4 Ib, A fine deep-bellied fish, better than carp;

he is a stillwater fish, and would most likely attain a large size in
those of our lakes where trout are scarce; he gives good sport
during summer, when few other fish will take—sport for float
anglers, and a well-grown, good fish.

Bt Pache™ Muchilarser A desirable fish to have as an experi-
than the Provincial Perch. ment; might either improve or deteriorate

in weight — would probably increase in weight.

B. Barbel and Chub. Uneatable, and destructive of the spawn
of other fish ; they are the curse of English waters, and not fit for
anything.

Roach and Dace—14 Ib. Sport for young anglers; tolerable “pan”
(Isaac Walton, 2 \b., minus
1 oz., Roach.) sh.

Minnow. Breeds in yast quantities, and useful in

streams and lakes as food for trout and other predaceous fish, and

a good bait.

ae

SINCLAIR —GN _ PISCICULTURE. onl

Bullhead, loach, ruff, bleak, and a rare fish-burbot (a séluris),
are not worth consideration; also, fresh water cray-fish, gud-
geon, &c.

Charr— Small Herring Of the cold deep lakes of the north of
Sie England ; a very delicate fish, schooling in
the autumn, when they are netted and potted fer consumption and
‘sale; difficult to transport, the fish being very tender, and their
spawning habits obscure. The charr, if introduced, would be of
great value. The fontinalis has been called a charr, but he is not
the same fish at all. The lake charr has his seasons, and disap-
pears and schools again just like the herring, not being seen but in
his season.

PRINCIPAL NOVA SCOTIAN FISH NOT KNOWN IN GREAT BRITAIN.

Common Trout, Fontt- Colonel Drummond, a very acute ichthy-
nalis —Sea Trout, maxi- : a ;
mum weight, 6 lb. ologist, was of opinion that this fish and

the N.S. sea trout are the same; that the fonéialis runs to the
sea when able to get access to it, returning well grown, with a
white scale. ‘The fontinalis in our lakes is erratic, being constantly
on the move in schools like mackerel.

Great Striped Bass — Would probably succeed in Loch Awe,
6 Udo eo 0 Tes and in the larger British rivers, where the
shad is found, such as Severn, Ouse or Trent; also in rivers accessible
from sea, flowing through lakes into estuaries, provided access
be available; they would run up Shannon, but the Queen’s gaps,
lochs, weirs, or weir shoots are too steep; they are a large game
fish, heavier than salmon.

Gaspereaux. Do., of high economic value.

Sino confinis = Max. A lake trout of considerable size; would

imum weight not known. make a good exchange with the British
lake trout.
Grayling (so called)— A handsome white lake trout, not unlike

3 Ib. a large salmon smolt fresh from sea.
White and yellow perch, small varieties of roach (shiners),
suckers not included, being inconsequential.

ENUMERATION OF SOME OF THE AMERICAN FISH NOT FOUND IN NOVA SCOTIA.

Maskelunge, or Ameri- Similar to the British pike, and that of

ean Pike. Lake Erie, Rice ; - s sein
TRA al Grhee Canadian Norway and the European continent.— See

waters. 10 Ib. to 30 lb. notes in British list.

32 SINCLAIR -— ON PISCICULTURE.

BAR IIR. (Onae A superior fish, habitat lakes with deep
adian rivers and lakes. rocky rivers, debouching into, or flowing
out of them; he 1s allied to the perch, but will not breed in lakes
without rocky rivers or. runs.

Pike Perch — Habitat - A handsome lake fish, more voracious
Canadian lakes and Conti- than the perch, less so:'than pike; he does
nental American waters. %

Lakes Erie, Champlain, St. not exceed 10lb. weight, but averages 4tb. ;
John, Can. Richelieu Ri- h th 0 b k fi h ract {e ti {
ver, and New Brunswick a8 the spinous back fin characteristic o

lakes; not found in Nova the perch tribe; is yellow, with a forked
Scotia, but very much dis-_ : naa : é

tributed in other American tail, finely tapered; his introduction is
Meer questionable. The pike is less actively
formed, yet finds its way into apparently inaccessible waters. The
pike perch would certainly thrive in our waters, also in the lakes
and rivers of England.

Sun fish, cat, shiners, some smaller fry, and the fish peculiar to
the great lakes, omitted ; the large cat fish and szluris glunis might
do in St. John River, New Brunswick.

APPENDIX — SUBJECT TO EMENDATION.

SEA FISH OF GREAT BRITAIN NOT FOUND ON THE AMERICAN COASTS.
SUBJECT TO CORRECTION.

The Sole. Desirable, if the water be not too cold
on the outer Banks.

Turbot.

Large Crab. Desirable.

John Doree. Probably would not thrive, as he is a

Mediterranean fish, requiring warmer waters than the Arctic cur-
rent prevalent on these coasts.

Sea Bass of the South Desirable, but water possibly too cold,
ee ea on account of the Arctic current which covers

Shrimp. the Banks of ‘Newfoundland, and flows
down our coasts as far as Florida.

The American sea fish non-existent in British waters, would not
thrive on the British coasts and banks. ‘The porgee, hog fish,
red bass, drum, &c., are inhabitants of Southern waters.

Notr. — The sheepshead, white fish, and fresh water herring, of the great
lakes; also, the Mackinau trout, are the principal fishes omitted, as manifestly not
adapted to our waters or those of Great Britain; two or three other fish are
omitted for the same reason, but the lists can be amended. Controversy will be
declined. — R. B.S.

AMBROSE-—ON ST. MARGARET'S BAY FISHING GROUNDS. 33

Art. [V. Some OsservatTions oN THE FisHine GRrouNDS AND
Fiso or Str. Marearet’s Bay, N.S. By Joun AmsBroseE:
[Reid Jan. 8, 1866.]

As a list of the fishes of St. Margaret’s Bay, is a lengthy one,
T shall confine myself in this paper to an account of some of those
salt water fishes, which form the staple export from this parish.

In the first place it will perhaps be necessary to give a general
idea of the fishing grounds, especially off the mouth of the Bay.
This I have obtained, and as far as possible, verified from the
accounts of some of the most experienced and successful line-fisher-
men of Pegey’s Cove and Dover.

Leaving Peggy’s Cove on a 8.5.W. course, we first pass over a
“hard,” 7. e., rocky, sandy, and gravelly bottom, for a distance
of nearly half a mile, with a depth of fifteen fathoms, until we find
ourselves over a depth of thirty fathoms, with soft black muddy
bottom. This gulch extends in a line parallel with the coast, and
opens into a similar one running up the Bay. It is about fifty yards
wide, bounded on both sides by hard bottom, at an average depth
of thirty fathoms. This muddy ravine is the celebrated “‘ Hospital,”
where diseased codfish are found. Since my last account of this
place, I find on further enquiry, that hake in a healthy state fre-
quent it, as muddy bottom is the favourite feeding ground of that
fish. But cod abhor the mud bottoms, and are only found in such
localities when unable to go elsewhere. Healthy cod are caught at
each side of this gulch, but within it the cod are found to be “ lo-
gies,” (2. €., sick,) and wounded fish. As codfish will attack and
devour the helpless of their own kind, from the spawn up, a muddy
gulch not frequented by their strong and rapacious brethren, is
plainly a place of safety for the disabled, where by the simple and
monopathic method of giving a wide berth to all interested parties,
they hope for peace and convalescence, and wait patiently and hum-
bly for such food as chance or a passing fisherman may throw in
their way.*

Crossing the smiling waters, over this dark abode of sickness,
want and pain, and finding our depth, from fifteen at the further
side gradually increasing to thirty fathoms, at the distance of about

*There is another *‘ Hospital” with muddy bottom, well-known as the haunt of
sick cod, a short distance outside of Billing’s Island, off Prospect.

34 AMBROSE—ON ST. MARGARET'S BAY FISHING GROUNDS.

a mile from Peggy’s Point, we approach what at the fishers’ point of
view would be called a hill, rismg from the plain to a height of
nearly 130 feet, and having a sort of broken level at top, of some
three or four hundred square feet, and at a depth of nine fathoms
from the surface of the water. ‘This is called ‘‘Quidi Vidi,” and
often affords excellent cod-fishing, as the rocky bottom on and
around it, is the resort of such fish as the cod seek for their prey.
After another space of deep soundings, we pass over a rocky shoal
called the “‘ Big Shoal,” lying at a depth of ten fathoms, and afford-
ing good cod-fishing. We next pass over the ‘‘ Nubbock,” twenty
fathoms deep. Other rocky shoals lie in different directions out
here, having an average depth of about thirty-five fathoms around
them, but the summits of all lying at a safe distance below the keels of
commerce. At the distance of some eight miles from Peggy’s Cove,
we cross the “ Ridge,” a long hill extending from abreast of-Pollock
Cove to Green Island, some eight or nine miles. The east end of
this lies at a depth of about 60 fathoms, but the west end shoals off
to about 30 fathoms. ‘The east or deep end consists of clay and
rock—a favourite bottom for cod; the west end is rocky, also afford-
ing fair fishing. Next comes the ‘“ Inner Gulch” of black mud,
about 60 fathoms deep and a mile wide,—then level bottom of
sand and gravel, about 45 fathoms deep and two miles wide. We
now pass the “ Outer Gulch” of black mud, 60 fathoms deep and a
mile and a half wide. Here are few or no fish, but a sort of large
flounder or turbot, which is good eating; but for some unaccountable
reason is known among our fishermen as the “Skunk.” Next we
pass “ Cross Island Ridge,” running parallel with the coast line, and
like the former “‘ Ridge,” deepening towards the east end. ‘This
Ridge extends for a length of some ten or twelve miles. Next
comes a gulch of black mud, 65 fathoms deep, and nearly
three miles wide. Next are the “ Shore{Soundings,” a sort of ridge
extending like all the rest in a line parallel with the shore, shoal at
the west and deep at the east end. ‘The shoal part here, however,
is sixty fathoms deep. Bottom, rocks and clay at the east end,—
rocks at the west. Next we have the “ Big Gulch” with a bottom
of black and fetid mud, so soft that the lead buries itself in it. The
depth here is about one hundred fathoms, and the width about three
miles. Then comes a ridge, lying deep and narrow at the east end

AMBROSE—ON ST. MARGARET'S BAY FISHING GROUNDS, 39

and wider and shoaler at the west. The east end,i.e., as far as
our men go, is composed of yellow clay, shells and small blue
stones, and affords better cod-fishing than the west end, which is
rocky, without the favourite mixture of clay and shells. The course
from Peggy’s Cove Point to the middle of this Bank is $.S.W., and
here, looking back towards Aspotogan, we find the top of that well-
known hill (a height, by the aneroid, of 410 feet,) just simking below
is our watery horizon. This ridge, extends along the coast from
White Point at the Strait of Canseau to Cape LaHave, nearly
approaching both these headlands. It is composed—at least that
part of it which lies $.S.W. of St. Margaret’s Bay,—of slate and
quartz. Can it in any way form a sort of connection between the
slate and auriferous quartz of Guysboro’ and the similar geological
formation at the “‘ Ovens,” and thus account for the gold washings
on the shore at the latter place, which are known to wash in from
outside, and become more productive after the heavy storms of
winter ?

But to return. On this Bank is found the best cod, ling and
halibut fishing off our shore. Here lie at anchor, often for three
or four days at a time, our venturesome open fishing boats, directly
in the track of steamers and large ships, bound to the United States.
A light is kept burning in the rigging all night, but not unfrequently

all hands,—two or three in number—retire to their little cuddy,
and having put a few sticks of wood into the stove, “turn in” for
the night and sleep soundly till daylight, regardless of the steamers
or ships, which in the darkness of the night often rush close past the
little craft with her spark of a light,—so close, that one Schlagint-
weit of Turn’s Bay, lying on this Bank, found after his comfortable
’ night’s sleep, that some large craft had passed him so closely and
rapidly during the night, as to carry away his schooner’s bowsprit,
without awakening himself or any of his unconscious crew.

Here, one of ourmen, more vigilant, saw a brig in the night
bearing down before the wind, right towards his little craft, and it
was only by frantically shouting, snapping percussion caps on a
musket, and waving fire-brands, that the notice of the brig’s crew
was attracted, and our poor fellows saved from sudden destruction.
Here Tom Tomline, a fat and easy-going La Have skipper, having
anchored his ‘“ Banker,” hoisted a light in the fore-riggine, and

56 AMBROSE—-ON ST. MARGARET'S BAY FISHING GROUNDS.

ordered all hands to turn in. All, nothing loth, were soon fast
locked in the embraces of Morpheus, whilst the lantern, haying
burst, set fire to the fore-rigging, burnt up the fore-sail and that
part of the hempen cable which lay coiled on deck, so that the
schooner slipped her moorings, and drifted off, blazing, until a
neighbouring craft sent a boat and awakened Tom and his snoring
crew, just as the cinders were beginning to drop down among them
from the burning deck over head. Here our open boats lie for
three or four days at a time, riding like ducks on a sea which often
obliges schooners to heave up and run in, owing to the superior
buoyancy of clinker over carvel built vessels. The sea is heaviest
in these off-shore soundmgs, when wind and currents contend
against each other, for at times durmg summer the current sets so
strong westwardly, that the fishing leads will not take bottom, but
trail off at an acute angle. At other times there is little or no cur-
rent. In spring this current sets southwardly, during summer
westwardly, and in autumn in a south-easterly direction. Coasting
vessels bound west often take advantage of this ocean current in the
summer season, during calm weather or high head winds, by stand-
ing well off shore.

Here is the home of the large cod, ling and halibut, and here
are abundance of bank-clams, scallops, and other shell-fish, which
their admirers root out of the clayey valleys, on the sides of this
submarine hill. Here is no end of star-fish of all sorts, as well as
herrings, John Dorees, small cod, cat-fish and the other deep sea
food of the more valuable fish. Here the cod are of a different
kind from thew brethren in-shore, being what are called “ bull-
eyed” fish, i.e., having their eyes very prominent, and covered
with a thicker skin than ordinary. Both of these peculiarities are
no doubt required for the great depths for which an all-wise and
kind Providence has fitted them. Here a crew of three men will,
in the course of two or three days fishing, catch from twenty to
thirty quintals of cod, with perhaps a quintal or more of ling, and
occasionally two or three, or even half-a-dozen fine fat halibut.
Cod, generally, but cusk invariably, evert the stomach in being
rapidly hauled up from deep water. After the stomach has thus
been turned inside out, so as to project beyond the mouth, the fish,
even if it break from the hook, will float to the surface, and

AMBROSE—ON ST. MARGARET'S BAY FISHING GROUNDS. 37
there die. Here, if the lines happen to drop in a good spot, such
as a little ravine with a bottom of clay, sand and shells, the fish are
very frequently caught in pairs, and as fast as the bait can be sent
to the bottom.

My informants do not remember catching spawning fish of the
cod kind out here, though at the proper season they frequently
catch milters with the milts running out. Of the cusk spawners
are found in October on this Bank, with ripe spawn in them. In
the months of April and May, both cod and cusk bite best in day
time, but from the beginning of June to the end of the fishing sea-
gon, i. e., the last of November, they take bait most greedily during
the night. Both also bite best in southerly and easterly weather,
but when the wind is north-east they do net take bait readily, so
far, as well as in their time of spawning, resembling the lake trout.

Cod and ling do not run together, but in separate schools, each
kind by themselves, as indeed is the habit with most sea-fish. Ling
are increasing on our outside fishing grounds, whilst halibut which
formerly were plentiful and taken close in shore, are now scarce,
even on the outer banks. The oil from the liver of the ling is much
prized among our people as an outward application to sprains and
bruises. The ling caught in deep soundings differ from the others,
like the cod taken in similar localities, by having the eyes more
prominent and covered with a thicker skin or film. The back skin
of those deep water codfish too, is of a darker, bluer cast, than that
of the in-shore fish, and the snout is longer and apparently better
suited for digging shell-fish out of the clay. In all depths of water
the colour of these fish in some degree resembles, that of the bottom
on which they feed.

The in-shore codfish come into the Bay to spawn in October.
These are not so long as the deep-water fish, but more junky.
Some of the very large and long fish, also, come in at the same time
for the same purpose. An immense one was caught last October,
near Dover, but was so much mutilated in the splitting, that I was
unable to get the accurate measurements of it. There is a tradition
of one having been caught off Prospect many years ago, which
when dried weighed one pound over a quintal.*

*Mr. Saml. Croucher caught a codfish, which when dried weighed 50 Ibs. Mr.
Benjamin Smeltzer caught one on a trawl this year, which measured 5 feet 10
inches long.

B)

38 AMBROSE—ON ST. MARGARET'S BAY FISHING GROUNDS.

The in-shore cod, are what are known as school-fish, such as
those taken at Labrador, (but slightly larger,) as they run in larger
schools than the deep water fish. They spawn all around the Bay
on gravelly and sandy bottoms. ‘They will eat their own spawn,
but have a great partiality for that of the lump-fish. When these
dainties are not at hand, however, the cod is not at all particular
about his diet. With “ hunger-sauce” he will swallow almost any-
thing. A jackknife was found in the stomach of one of these fish at
Peggy’s Cove. Another was found to have swallowed a “nipper,”
—i. e., a sort of woollen mitten, used by fishermen to prevent the
chafing of their hands with the line. Some twenty-five years ago,
a Mr. Weeks, of St. John, N.B., informed me that he found a man’s
ear in the stomach of a cod, which he had bought in the fish mar-
ket of that city. When I was at Economy, N.S., in the month of
March, 1846, a cod was caught near that place with a toad in its
stomach. ‘This unfortunate toad had, no doubt, on the approach of
cold weather buried himself in some suitable place, but too near
the edge of one of those sandy cliffs which overhang the rushing
tides of the Basin of Minas, and this falling off at the commg out
of the frost had carried with it the semi-conscious toad, to serve as
a meal for the hungry cod prowling below. Unexpected reversal

of confident hope at inhumation !

‘*The best laid schemes of toads and men
Gang aft aglee.”

Mr. James 8. Keizer, of Peggy’s Cove, shot three murrs, on
one occasion, off at sea, about eight miles S.W. of Peggy’s Point.
He immediately cut off the heads, which, with the intestines, he
threw overboard, preparatory to cooking the birds. He then sailed
on, with a moderate breeze, about six miles from the spot where
the heads were left, to “Cross Island Ridge,” threw over the
grapnel, and beginning to fish, very soon hauled up a cod with a
murr’s head (quite fresh) in his stomach. He feels confident that
this was one of the heads so recently thrown overboard by himself,
at the spot six miles distant, as blood still remained on the
feathers.

Codfish, like too many among mankind, will often by the indul-
gence of a depraved appetite, ensure their own destruction. The
Maine-law or sea-regulation, confines them to a safe species of drink,

AMBROSE—ON ST. MARGARET'S BAY FISHING GROUNDS. 39

but their food is a snare to many of them. They greedily eat gar-
bage, even of their own kind, and find backbiting at sea to be even
more dangerous than the like-named amusement on shore, for the
sound-bone of fish is too much for their digestion. Cod are fre-
quently caught with a sound-bone, or even the whole undigested
skeleton of a cod, cat-fish, or sculpin, in their stomachs, and part of
the bony structure protruding through among the intestines.
Others have diseased liver, that evidence of a disordered or weak
stomach. ‘The sick fish are called “ logies” from the heavy lifeless
feel of them on the line as they are drawn up from the bottom.
The livers of logy cod are always more or less diseased. They are
destitute of oil, and of a dark colour, and not unfrequently contain
abscesses filled with pus. The liver always shrinks away to far
less than the ordinary size, and the fish is found, though of large
frame, to be wasted to mere skin and bone. Young fish are very
rarely found to be inwardly diseased, so that perhaps, after all, the
logies are aged individuals whose vital organs are impaired by the
gradual decay of nature.

The livers of all our codfish are of a dark colour and destitute
of oil, and the fish is watery in the early part of the spring; but as
summer advances, and the herring strike in, the cod livers soon
give evidence of the good effect of generous fare. Then the tail
becomes round, firm and fleshy,—a sure sign of a healthy fish.

Having already given some idea of the cusk, in connection with
the codfish, I shall not at present dwell upon the peculiarities of
this excellent fish, which although increasing in numbers on our
Banks, are still not thoroughly well known by our fishermen. Like
the albicore, they appear to be of comparatively recent introduction
here. They are caught on the Banks with ripe spawn in them, by
which it would appear that they spawn in deep water; but I do not
hear of codfish, those irrepressible egg-eaters, being caught on the
Banks with spawn in their stomachs. Further investigation will
no doubt in some degree clear up the matter.

There appear to be no logies among cusk,—a singular ae (af it
be a fact), which piques the curiosity of the student in Natural
History.

Leaving this interesting fish for the present, we come. to the
Hake or “‘ Goat,’* as he is called by our fishermen, on account of the

*More properly the ‘‘Spotted Codling.”

40 AMBROSE—ON ST. MARGARET'S BAY FISHING GROUNDS.

long tentacles which, beardlike, hang from his chin, and which—as
he feeds on muddy ground, like the monk-fish (Lophius American-
us), may be intended to act like the tentacule of that sea-monster,
to entice and deceive such unwary fish as go half burrowing along
the oozy bottom in search of sea-worms. Hake are found im the
muddy gulches, whither, except in sickness, cod never resort. Here
in deep water hake are to be found in the early part of summer ;
but they strike in shore about the first of August, for the purpose
of spawning, and remain, for all that is known to the contrary,
until spring. Indeed, there is a small lagoon about three miles this
side of Chester, across the neck or outlet of which the mail coach on
its way from Halifax passes, by means of a small bridge. It is
called “ Frail’s Pond,” and is brackish, as the fresh water coming
into it from the land side is mingled with the salt water which fills
it at every tide. Here, throughout the winter, considerable num-
bers of good sized hake are taken in day-time, by hooks dropped
through holes cut in the ice. These are, by our fishermen, jokingly
called “tame goats.” It is quite possible, and indeed probable,
that this fish may also be found during winter in many other such
brackish ponds, which are so numerous along the shore, between
this Bay and Shelburne. I should also expect to find cod in such
places, or in the mouths of the rivers along our coast in winter,
for they are very frequently caught by the hand in the land-wash
in this Bay, and in New Brunswick, in the Kennebeckasis river, off
Clifton, and not far from Gondola Point, (where even at high tide
the water must be but slightly impregnated with salt, and at low
water must be very nearly fresh). Justus Wetmore, Esq., last sum-
mer informed me, that in the winter of 1864, large codfish were
caught through holes in the ice. Indeed, the winter habits of our
sea fish are as yet but little known, owing to the present habit of
closing up the shore fishing from the middle of November, to the
middle of May.

Hake take the same bait as the cod, and will freely take fish of
its own kind, herein differing from cod, which after a few nibbles
will desert the hook that is baited with codfish, though they will
frequently devour small members of their own tribe. It may here
be observed that every bait seems to have its own proper season,—

AMBROSE—ON ST. MARGARET'S BAY FISHING GROUNDS. 41

cod, for instance, rayenously seeking squid in the squid season, but
showing rather an indifference to it at other times.

Hake are nocturnal in their habits, never taking the hook in
day time at the outer ground; but when in the Bay and on rocky
bottom in the spawning season, in the latter part of summer, and in
autumn, on the dark days, they will occasionally take bait. Just
before sunset during the night fishing, or ‘ goating season,” 1. e., in
autumn, the boats are all at anchor on the hake grounds, and as soon
as the sun is below the horizon the work begins. If a seventeen feet
whale boat with two men happen to hit on a good spot, she will
load before midnight. Seven or eight quintals are frequently taken
in a night by two hands, but it is very cold and disagreeable work
in the frosty nights, about the last of October and during the month
of November.

In the spring, though the liver of this fish contains no oil, it is
white, and herein differs from that of the cod. In summer, as the
herring begin to strike in, the hake liver soon becomes very fat and
yields more oil than the cod liver.

When hake and codfish are salted in the same puncheon, the
latter fish are made much tougher by the contact than they would
otherwise be, and are therefore less prized for home consumption.
Our fishermen always take good care to salt the cod separately, when
intended to be used in their own families, or sold to such as are
particular in such matters. Hake are very seldom used here, but
are shipped to Halifax for the West India market.

There are but few logies among hake, and even these show no
symptoms of organic disease. They are also full-grown fish, which
would seem to indicate that old age is the principal cause of their
sluggishness.

Haddock come next on our list. These lively little fish do not,
like cod, ling, hake and halibut, keep always near bottom, but are
found at all depths and bite greedily. When feeding on the bottom
they are—like our worthy President and our patient and energetic
brother Willis—great collectors of shells ; and many rare specimens
now adorning the cabinets of these enthusiastic naturalists, were
brought from mysterious depths by the haddock. “The dark
unfathomed caves of ocean bear” in our vicinity, but little which
has not been inspected by the prying eyes and vigorous nose of the

42 AMBROSE—ON ST. MARGARET'S BAY FISHING GROUNDS.

haddock. They feed by day, and take readily any bait offered to
the codfish. They also eat sea- Meduse or “ sea-squalls” as they are
called here, and in this resemble the mackerel, which also feed on
these jelly-like creatures. .

Haddock keep outside in winter, leaving the Bay about the
middle of December, and returning about the first of May. The
best fishing within the Bay is from the middle of May to the end of
June. At this season two hands in a boat will take seven or eight
hundred, (equal to six quintals), in a day. It is of no use to
attempt to catch codfish from among a school of haddock, as the
latter give the larger fish no chance to take the bait. They feed
on all sorts of bottom, muddy as well as hard, and are very gregari-
ous in their habits. There are logies among them in spring and
summer, but never in autumn. The logy fish are almost mvariably
afflicted with a sore under the sound-bone, full of pus, and in this
case the liver is shrunken and contains no oil, and the stomach is
empty. Haddock make a sort of whistling or squeaking noise after
being caught.

These fish are salted and dried, like cod and hake, and no
attempt has yet been made among us, to imitate the celebrated
Finnan Haddies.

I must now draw towards a conclusion, having as yet only
begun the enumeration of our fishes. I have had time to read but
little on the art of catchivg and curing fish, but one cannot fail to
see that a great deal remains to be done among us, in the way of
developing and improving our fisheries, and preparing the fish for
the most profitable markets. If the proposed negociations with
Brazil and other Roman Catholic countries should open up new
markets to our staple product, a great deal has yet to be learned by
our shore and Labrador fishermen in the way of curing fish for such
markets, for that which has been tolerated among the negroes of the
Southern States and the West Indies, will not tempt the fastidious
palates of the more civilized people, with whom we hope soon to
trade. Time forbids my entering on the superior mode of curing
cod, hake, haddock, and pollock, practised by the leading Jersey
houses, which gives them a decided advantage over us in the fish
trade. This point was touched upon by the late M. H. Perley, in
his interesting work on the Fish of British North America.

AMBROSE—ON ST. MARGARET’S BAY FISHING GROUNDS. 43

But I may venture one more observation. I see that the motto
of this City is “.E Mari Merces.” 'This being the case, one would
naturally expect that some little attention and encouragement would
be bestowed by the citizens on one great source of this wealth, viz:
—the Fisheries. Exhibitions of fruit and flowers are annually held
in this city, and liberal rewards bestowed on successful competitors.

-This is all very well, and no doubt encourages horticulture and
increases the number of conservatories. But when did we ever hear
of a fish-show, or of prizes being offered for the best specimens of
fresh and well-cured fish? Fishermen are expected to go on,
hazarding their lives and eking out a mere subsistence in hopeless
poverty and self-denial, almost unthought of by their superiors,
whilst they keep up the most lucrative branch of industry in the
Province ; and though Agricultural Societies are gotten up, and
fostered by Government, in order to encourage and teach the
farmer, and supply him with the best stock and implements, we
have yet to hear of the very first effort to teach or encourage the
poor fisherman. But if we are to see our fish-trade expand under
the contemplated treaties, this indifference must be shaken off, and
a vigorous effort made to develope a great source of wealth which
as yet is only in its infancy.

Arr. V. THe Avurirerous Deposits or Nova Scotia. By P.
S. Hamitton, CuHrer Commissioner oF MInEs.
(Read Feb. 6, 1866.)

Iy coming before the Institute this evening, with a few remarks
upon the “ Auriferous Deposits of Nova Scotia,” I must say that my
selection of a topic has been rather an acquiescence in the expressed
wishes of others, than a deliberate choice of my own. I say this
because of the difficulties which, according to what knowledge I
have been able to gather, beset the scientific aspects of the subject ;
and which utterly preclude my producing a paper satisfactory to
myself. I will therefore be brief and confine myself to the state-
ment of a few facts upon the extent of the Nova Scotian Gold
Fields, and the distribution of gold therein, and upon some geologi-
eal and mineralogical phenomena connected with their deposits,

AA HAMILTON——AURIFEROUS DEPOSITS OF NOYA SCOTIA.

hoping that these facts, may be some slight aid to others in pursuing
further researches into the subject.

The outlines of the well marked geological districts, which com-
prise the Gold Fields of Nova Scotia, are already pretty generally
known. I will only briefly state that they consist of two distinct
districts, of different geological ages. We have upon the Atlantic
Coast the Lower Silurian rocks, forming a band which extends the
whole length of the Nova Scotian peninsula. ‘This district is not
less than fifty miles in width at its western extremity, gradually
narrowing as it proceeds eastward, and finally coming almost to a
point at Cape Canso. The other district—the Devonian, and Upper
Silurian—forms several comparatively lofty and isolated ridges.
One of these extends from Digby County, along the south side of
the Annapolis valley, to the vicinity of Windsor. Another com-
mences at Cape Chiegnecto, forms the Cobequid Hills, and, with a
slight divergence from its original course, proceeds eastward to the
Strait of Canso, throwing off spurs north-eastward to the Gulf of St.
Lawrence, and south-westward on both sides of the Stewiacke
River. In the Island of Cape Breton, nearly the whole of Victoria
County, a large portion of Inverness, and several detached eminen-
ces in Cape Breton and Richmond Counties, belong to the same
formation. Among the gold bearing formations of this Province,
I might also include the Trap ridges, considerable as to extent ;
for auriferous quartz has been discovered and to some slight extent
mined, in the Trappean headlands of Partridge Island, and Cape
D’Or; but I will leave this geological district out of further
consideration.

The extent of the two larger districts which I have indicated,
comprises, in the aggregate, a large proportion of the surface of
Nova Scotia. I would roughly estimate the area of the Lower
Silurian district, at 7,000 square miles, and of the several tracts
of the more recent formation at 3,000, in all 10,000 square miles.
The whole area of the Province of Nova Scotia, amounts to about
18,600 square miles. It must not be assumed that this large
area is throughout auriferous. I will observe, parenthetically,
that judging from what is already known, there is every reason
to believe-that future explorations will prove the greater part
of this area to be rich in metalliferous deposits of some kind.

HAMiLTON—-AURIFEROUS DEPOSITS OF NOVA SCOTIA. 403

As to gold, I will begin with the Devonian district. The
several ridges ef high lands which come under this denomination
have, as yet, been but little explered for gold ; nor is it probable
that they will be, to any great extent, for some time to come.
These hills are, for the most part, in the interior of the country ;
their rocks are rarely exposed, being covered with a pretty deep
soil, from which has arisen a heavy growth of timber. Gold has
been found in the alluvium, brought down by many streams which
take their rise in these hills. It has seldom been discovered, as yet,
in quartz in situ; but, fer the reasons just referred to, quartz im
situ has seldom been seen in this geological district. In Wagamat-
kook, which is a proclaimed gold district, about the head waters of
the river of the same name, in Victoria County, quartz has been
mined to some small extent. ‘he little done here in this way did
not afford as good promise of profit, as has been met with in quartz
mining elsewhere in the Province; but it cannot be considered a
fair test of the productions of the district. Most of the gold obtained
at Wagamatkoek, has been taken from the beds of the streams
which flow dewn from the hills; and the quantity thus procured
indicates the presence of numerous auriferous quartz veins in the
vicinity. Gold has been discovered in the sands of nearly all, if not
all, the streams of Victoria and Inverness which take their rise in
these metamorphic hills. It has also been found in the same forma-
tion at Cape Porcupine, near the head waters of the Musquodoboit
and the Stewiacke, and, I believe, at Five Islands and elsewhere ; so
that gold may ve sought for, with not unreasonable expectations of
success, in any part of this geological district.

We have mere reliable duta as to the auriferous character of the
better known Lower Silurian coast band; but even with respect to
this, they are as yet very incomplete. We know that in the Lower
Silurian district there are found bands of quartzite, seemingly nearly
parallel with each other, alternating with various slates, extending
in a general easterly and westerly direction. ‘These bands are
intersected by various masses of granite, in some places extending
quite across the whole formation, but more frequently forming
detached masses protruding through and surrounded by the strati-
fied rocks just named. In this quartzite, and in a less degree, in

some of the slates, we find numerous veins of quartz; and these
6

46 HAMILTON—-AURIFEROUS DEPOSITS OF NOVA SCOTIA.

veins—especially those of the quartzite—we find to be euri’erous.
Of the number of the quartzite bands and of the latitudinal extent
of each, littleis yet known. 1t has indeed been stated that, between
the Atlantic coast and the northern confines of this metamorphic
district, there are six of these bands; that these represent six lines
of upheaval, or east and west anticlinal axes; and that the slates
found alternating with the quartzite are, in fact, superimposed upon
it. This may be correct; yet I cannot but entertain doubts as to
some of the particulars. First, a transverse section quite across the
rocks of this metamorphic district has never yet been exposed to
the eye of any man. Secondly, the supposed continuation of these
quartzite bands from one known gold-bearing tract to another, as
represented by the authority just referred to, is now seen to be not
borne out by the facts—at least, not in every instance. Lastly, in
one at least of these bands represented as embracing a single anti-
clinal axis, I have found several of such axes. From a general
acquaintance with the country and not from actual survey, I am
inclined to the belief that these quartzite bands are much more
numerous than they have been represented ; and that in the aggre-
gate they form the largest portion of the width superficially of this
metamorphic district, skirting the Atlantic.

Longitudinally, this quartzite, with its auriferous quartz veins,
ean, except when interruptions are caused by the granite dykes
already mentioned, be traced the whole length of the Nova Scotian
peninsula. Gold has been taken from quartz veins at Yarmouth,
and on the shore of Chedabucto Bay, and, I might add, at every
intermediate point where diligent search has been made for it in
the proper formation. ‘The quantity of quartz embraced in this
great length and breadth of quartzite vein-stone, must be something
enormous. I speak of it in comparison with the bulk of the enclos-
ing rock. Of course we have no sufficient data from which to
estimate this quantity. The opinion I have just hazarded is based
upon observations of the few cross cuttings in the rock yet made, in
the few localities of this Province where gold minimg is yet carried
on; and these openings have in many—I believe I might say, in
most instances, been made at mere hap-hazard. On one occasion I
myself removed carefully the drift, so as to expose a cross section
of the surface merely of the hed rock, for a distance of about one

-HAMILTON—-AURIFEROUS DEPOSITS OF NOVA SCOTIA. 47

hundred and sixty feet. Within that distance, I discovered over
thirty quartz veins, ranging from an inch to fifteen inches in thick-
ness. ‘The whole number of veins would average not less than six
inches, or say fifteen feet in all, thickness of quartz, to one hundred
and sixty feet of enclosing rock, the dip being here nearly vertical.
In another instance after counting and measuring the quartz veins
exposed within a distance of two hundred and fifty feet, I estimated
their aggregate thickness at twenty-five feet; and yet, as within a
part of the distance of two hundred and fifty feet, there was no
exposure of the bed rock, the actual thickness of this quartz may
have been considerably greater than what I have stated. In both
of these cases, the quartz veins exposed, or the greater number of
them, were known to be auriferous from examination made at the
several spots where laid bare. In other localities, quartz veins of
five, ten, and even up to thirty feet in thickness, are found. But I
will not multiply instances. ‘Those which I have specified do not,
I think, exhibit a much greater thickness of quartz in proportion to
that of the enclosing rock, than will be found generally throughout
these quartzite bands. As already intimated, I thus judge solely
from what is shown in excavations already made, and in Gold
Districts of many miles apart. The surface of the gold-bearing
rock of Nova Scotia, is for the most part concealed by a thin cover-
ing of drift and vegetable matter. Consequently it is an incident
of no unfrequent occurrence for a miner, by some accident, or lucky
blunder, to stumble-upon a quartz vein of exceeding richness, the
existence of which he never suspected, but which had lain almost
within arm’s lenzth of where he and others have been toiling,
perhaps with indifferent success, for months or years previously.
There is good reason to believe, then, that this quantity of
quartz within easy reach of the miner, in Nova Scotia, is immense.
The great economic question to be considered is: to what extent is
it auriferous? It would be a sweeping and perhaps incredible
statement to aver, that all of these quartz veins bear gold; and yet,
so’ far as one can venture to hold any opinion at all, upon a subject
upon which it is so difficult and dangerous to generalize, I rather
incline to the belief that they all are more or less auriferous.
Certainly the result of my own observations tends to that conclu-
sion. have seen and gathered: some facts, concerning a great

43 HAMILTON-—-AURIFEROUS DEPOSITS OF NOVA SCOTIA.

number of these quartz veins that had been opened for the purpose
of mining, or at least “prospecting.” As to the results, mdtvidu-
ally, of these exanminations, [ must admit that I do not speak fron
notes taken on the several occasions ; but speaking from memory L
ean recal no instance where J have seen a quartz lode fairly tested,
which did not prove to be auriferous. I have seen a shaft sunk
upon a previously untried lode, to a depth of sixty feet without a
“sight” being discovered; and then the quartz has become exceed-
ingly rich. In many instances very rich quartz lodes have been
temporarily abandoned as non-auriferous, because the miner has
happened to commence operations upon a poor section of the outcrop
of the vein. It is possible that there are many other abandoned
lodes, which will hereafter prove to be highly auriferous. Many
quartz veins worked in Nova Scotia, have proved to be very rich in
gold. The statistics of the Department of Mines show that, for
four years past, the average yield of gold per ton of quartz has
exceeded that of any other gold-quartz miming country.

The phenomena observable in connection with these auriferous
deposits are almost wondrously various, and are oftentimes very
puzzling to the man ef science, as well as to the practical miner.
These seekers after truth—and something more—are virtually in
accord upon one point. Both wish to know the law of Nature by
which gold has been deposited in quartz; for that law once being
known, gold can be found without any waste of time, capital, or
labour. But the miner, ef course, looks solely to the end: the man
of science, we must assume, regards only the means. I will briefly
mention some of these phenomena, many of which are seeming
inconsistencies of Nature.

Most of the auriferous quartz lodes which have yet been opened
and mined upon in Nova Scotia, have the same strike and dip
generally as the rock enclosing them. ‘They are what some minera-
logists call ‘‘ beds,” in contradistinction to “true veins,” which cut
the enclosing strata transversely. Yet these “true veins,” or
‘cross leads” as the miners here call them, are found in all the
mining districts. As arule, they are considered unproductive and
are not worked. Yet, m the Ovens Gold District, most of the gold
obtained from quartz has been out of these cross leads; and in
Oldham, a cross lead was accidentally struck, two years since,

o> oa eyeeay Mes i anja eS ce -
>

HAMILTON—AURIFEROUS DEPOSITS OF NOVA SCOTIA. 49

which proved exceedingly rich, being in this respect, an exception
to all other such veins in that district. Again, there are localities
where little gold can be found, except at the point of intersection of
the “main” and * cross leads”; whilst at that point, the expectation
of a rich nest is not usually disappointed. ‘There are A veins, the
ridged tops of which are found beneath the surface of the enclosing
"quartzite, and which rapidly widen as they descend; there are V
veins, which are wide at the outcrop, and as rapidly narrow doyn
to nothing as they descend ; and there are veins which extend with
nearly parallel sides for a long distance, both vertically and longi-
tudinally. ‘There are also the beds of what is called “barrel
quartz,” which, when laid bare, exhibit a striking resemblance to
great piles of prolonged trunks of spruce trees, from ten to fifteen
inches in diameter, with the bark still on,—the corrugations of
these quartz beds, and of the compact enclosing rock fitting into
each other, as closely and accurately as the thread and groove of a
male and female screw. Veins are found to be segregated—that
is, they thin out to nothing in every direction. I am strongly of
the opinion that they are all segregated veins. In some veins the
quartz is of almost snowy whiteness, relieved only by the glitter of
the golden nuggets it encloses. Such is the case with some at
Tangier, whence beautiful specimens for ornamental purposes have
been obtained. In other veins, foreign substances largely prevail.
The rather celebrated ‘blue lead” of Sherbrooke, consists in great
part of a blue slate, thoroughly pervaded—I may say—by a vitreous
looking quartz; hence the name of the lode. Other veins exhibit
a variety of metallic substances. Among them mispickel, or arsenical
pyrites, usually predominates. It is often found in large masses,
and sometimes the lode is more mispickel than quartz. This sub-
stance has been ascertained. to be largely impregnated with gold ;
and considerable quantities of it are now carefully saved and sent
abroad for more economical treatment than can be given to it here.
The rich and well known “ Hattie Lead” of Wine Harbour, like -
some others, is enclosed in a comparatively soft friable rock—so
much so that a large portion of the miners’ work has there been
done by the pick-axe and crowbar, without the aid of blasting pow-
der. ‘The quartz itself partakes somewhat of the same character ;
and I have seen large specimens taken from this yein in which the

50 HAMILTON—AURIFEROUS DEPOSITS OF NOVA SCOTIA.

apparently shattered quartz was literally held together by clamps ef
gold. But this lode is erratic in its course, and does not seem to
extend far longitudinally. On the other hand, at Old ‘Tangier, the
veinstone, where it has been operated upon, is of unusual hardness ;
whilst there the quartz veins are very regular and of long continua-
tion, and the gold seems to be pretty equally distributed through
them. The same contrast has been observed in Australia, between
quartz lodes enclosed in hard, and those enclosed in soft rock.

What part of the quartz lode is most rich in gold? To answer
this, as far as I can, is to point cut some more of the vagaries of
Nature. Early in the history of Nova Scotian Gold mining, I
observed this fact.—Upon a quartz lode on and along which three
or four mining companies were at work, their properties being
contiguous, | had an opportunity of noticing operations daily for
some months. ‘This was a rich lode upon the whole; but the dis-
tribution of gold throughout the quartz was very uneven, and this
in amanner most bewildering to the miner. I at length found that
there were pretty distinctly marked sections of the lode which were
much more rich than the intervening sections. These richer
“«streaks,” as they have been called, did not run horizontally, nor
vertically, as the miners first supposed when they found that there
was an inequality in the distribution of gold, but ob/iquely. Upon
a subsequent examination of several other auriferous quartz veims—
some of them among the most noted in the Province,—I found that
precisely the same rule applied to them. I supposed and am still
inclined to suppose, that I had established a theory; but I
would not venture to insist upon the universality of the
application of this theory. In some veins, the greater portion of
the gold is found in ‘“ nests,” or ‘“ pockets” ; and these pockets
seem to be distributed, without regard to any rule whatever. In
others, the gold is, with less extremes of variation, distributed
throughout the vein, both longitudinally and vertically.

If we take cross sections of auriferous quartz veins and
examine them, we shall. find almost as great a diversity in
the distribution of gold. In one case, we shall: find the
gold nearly all upon-one’side of the’ vein. Another lode, precisely
similarly circumstanced, will show it upon the opposite side. Ina

e - ee o- wee se ‘ = ~ os ‘wee - Sere

MYERS—-ON METEOROLOGY. By

third—these cases are more rare—it forms a plane, or leaf, in the
middle of the lode. Again, it will be mostly found in the slate
“‘casing”’ of the vein, and not in the quartz itself. In most cases
which have come under my notice, however, the gold is scattered
throughout the thickness of the quartz and casing ; and is sometimes
quite invisible to the naked eye. Until very recently, it has almost
invariably been found that quartz lodes became richer in gold as
they descended. Facts have lately come under my notice which
tend to show either that this rule docs not apply to all lodes, or
that at least it does not apply to all beyond a certain depth.

I would like to conclude with some remarks upon the theories,
which have been offered to the world as to the origin of gold in
quartz; but to do so with any justice to the subject at all, would
extend this paper to unreasonable limits.* I will only now say,
with some hesitation indeed, and with all deference to the opinions
of the many learned men who have discussed the subject, that the
quartz veins of Nova Scotia, on a careful examination of them, seem
to me to present serious difficulties, to the adoption of the theory
that gold was deposited there from aqueous solution; and also to
the adoption of the opposing theory, that its presence there is the
result of igneous action. I suspect, perhaps with improper incredu-
lity—that the secret of the formation of auriferous quartz deposits,
yet remains to be divulged.

Art. VI. Nores on rHe WEATHER AT Harirax, Nova Scotra,
puRING 1865. By ContoneL Myers.
[Read Dec. 4, 1865.]

TuE cold of the winter of 1864-5, seems for the most part to
have expended itself during the latter part of December, 1864;
and January, 1855, began, and continued throughout, mild and
serene. ‘lhe mean temperature was 22°, one degree less than that
recorded on the same month of the previous year.

High winds prevailed during February, but the weather gener-
ally fine and mild for that month. Mean temperature 24°, being
2° less than in 1864.

- *Perhaps I may, in some future paper, recur to this arenen of the subject,

which must be by far the most interesting to the scientiféc mind; but itis the most
perplexirg to deal with.

a2 MYERS——ON METEOROLOGY.

March generally fine, with an almost entire absence of the
stormy weather which frequently attends the vernal equinox.
Mean temperature 34°, being 6° higher than in 1864.

April was for the most part calm and fine, with indications of
an early spring. Mean temperature 40°, exceeding that in 1824,
by 4°.

The rainy, foggy, and unsettled weather of May, caused a seri-
ous interruption to agricultural operations, compensated, however,
to some extent by the impulse given to the grass crop by the warm
moisture. Mean temperature 49°, one degree higher than in 18¢4.

In June the weather was very fine and calm; but frosts, which
occurred in some parts of the Province, did much injury to fruit
trees and gardens. Mean temperature 58°, one degree higher than
in 1864.

July was also a very fine month, most favourable to hay- making,
which, in the neighbourhood of Halifax, began about a fortnight
earlier than usual; and generally through the country the crop was
safely housed. Mean temperature 60°, being 2° below that in 1854.

August generally fine, with the exception of some unsettled
fogey weather towards the end of the month. Mean temperature
63°, one degree below that in 1°64.

September very fine throughout. The autumnal, like the vernal
equinox, was remarkably free from gales of wind. Mean tempera-
ture 07°, one degree higher than in 1864.

October, much unsettled weather during this month, with
some gales towards the end of it. Mean temperature 44°, being 2°
below that of 1864.

November unsettled, with much rain. The month ended with
a heavy gale from S.E. Mean temperature 39°, the same as last
year.

December generally fine for the season. A sharp, though short,
gale occurred on the 2ist, when the barometer fell to 28.51; and
the 22nd, 23rd, and 24th, were very cold days. Mean temperature
24°, being 5° lower than in 1864.

The highest temperature in the shade recorded during the year,
was 85°, on the 3rd August; the lowest—6° on 23rd December.
The highest monthly range was 49° in May; the lowest 35° in July.
The yearly range was 91°.

MYERS—ON METEOROLOGY. 53

The hottest month was August: the coldest J anuary. ‘The
mean temperature was the same as last year, viz: 48.

The highest reading of the barometer during the year was 30.
35, on the 14th March; the lowest 28.51, on 21st December.
The highest monthly range was 1.59 in December; the lowest .59
In July and September. The yearly range was 1.84. The mean
for the year 29.65.

The annexed table (see appendix), gives the monthly and yearly
means and range of the temperature, and atmospheric pressure for
the years 1863, 1864 and 1865, deduced from three daily obset'va-
tions. The comparison of these three years, one with the other,
exhibits a remarkable equability as well in the monthly, as in the
annual results.

The most prevalent winds during the year wete N.W. and S.
W.; the least prevalent E.

Rain fell on 156 days; snow on 52; hail on 3; fog occurred
on 60 days.

Aurore Boreales were observed on 55 nights; solar halos on 5
days; lunar halos on 12 nights; thunder storms occurred on 4th
March ; 25th May; 29th July; and 23rd October. Lightning was
seen, but thunder not heard, on 23rd June; and Ist September.
Thunder was heard, but no lightning seen, on 9th and 17th May.

The latest snow in the Spring fell during the night of 6th, 7th
May ; and its earliest appearance in the autumn was observed on
the forenoon of 21st October. July was the only month entirely
free from frost.

The weather during the year was generally fine. The winter
of 1864-5 was remarkably mild, and broke up early. A humid
spring was succeeded by an extremely dry summer, occasioning
ndeed inconvenience in some localities, but favourable to the hay
crop, which throughout the country was abundant and of excellent
quality!; nor does it appear that other crops suffered to any great
extent from the dryness of the season.

Drought, with the temperature above the average, seems to
have been, in the past two summers, the abnormal climatic condition
of many parts, not only of the American, but also of the European
Continent ; followed this year by great atmospheric disturbance in

7

54. MYERS—ON METEOROLOGY.

the North Atlantic, and, in this Province, by a winter of unusual
severity.

The storms, which, in the autumn and early part of the winter,
swept with such destructive violence over the Atlantic, did not visit
Halifax, whose exemption during another year from any remarkably
stormy weather, tends to support the hypothesis of the late Judge
SrewartT, that it is the centre of a storm circle. Another idea,
broached by the President at our last meeting, in connection with
Mr. Hurdis’ paper on the recent storms on the English Coast, is
worthy of consideration, viz: ‘That tropical hurricanes take the
course of the Gulf stream, and, repelled from this coast by the cold
barrier caused by the Arctic current, pass to the eastward of
Halifax, and are thrown upon the western coasts of Europe.” Yet
supposing this to be the case, it remains to be accounted for, why
gales, which prevail in many of the neighbouring countries,
approaching, in our own Province, as near as ‘Truro and Windsor, so
seldom reach Halifax. It may be, that storms, travelling from the
south along the eastern .coast of America, pursue their course up
the Bay of Fundy, and, leaving Halifax to the eastward, pass on to
the Gulf of St. Lawrence; but all that can at present be said is
mere conjecture, nor are we expected to arrive at any satisfactory
solution of the many difficulties which surround a question of such
importance to our maritime and fishing interests, till stations shall
have been established in different parts of the country, from which
reliable reports of the course and strength of the winds at each
place may be received daily. Extracts from the log-books of ves-
sels, which, on approaching this Port, encounter stormy weather,
would be of valuable assistance in the investigation of this interest-
ing subject. Let the cause, however, be what it may, there is the
fact, that Halifax is rarely visited by destructive storms. Its noble
harbour too affords a safe refuge from the tempests without, and an
easy access, at all seasons, to a country possessing a climate as fine
and healthy as any in the world, with abundant resources, in its
minerals, fisheries, and agricultural capabilities, the development of
which opens to the capitalist a productive field for operations, and
to the enterprizing and industrious of all classes, a fair prospect of
independence and prosperity. That Nova Scotia affords advantages
such as these, ought to be widely published abroad, for, once known.

MYERS——-ON METEOROLOGY. 02

they will hardly fail to attract the tide of European emigration
towards the Province. °
Among the Aurore Boreales observed during the year, two of
very singular appearance, which occurred i in the month of February,
seem worthy of particular notice.
On the night of the 21st February, a fine el Arch was,
seen to span the northern sky, from east to west, at about fifteen
degrees above the horizon. At 9 p.m. the eastern extremity of.
the arch began to double under the other part, till it assumed
the form of an oval, with the circumference nearly completed.
Occupying the space in the sky from which the arch had_
receded, there then appeared a dark mass, resembling a huge
rock, having the distorted arch to the westward, while from its
eastern side bright streamers shot forth. The whole shortly after-
wards broke up into luminous patches which spread themselves over.
the sky, even beyond the zenith ; a belt of light remaining on the
northern horizon till midnight. ‘The second of these remarkable
appearances was on the 25th February, when at 10 p.m. an arch was
observed in about the same position as that last described, studded |
on the upper surface with luminous balls, if I may so term them,.
each having a halo of bright rays, presenting altogether a most
. magnificent object. Streamers were at the same time floating over
other parts of the heavens. The arch, after having apparently.
absorbed its curious appendages, remained gradually decreasing in
brilliancy, till about midnight, when it disappeared.
The following periodic phenomena were observed for the most
part, at the Dutch Village:— sehr Bey.
March—11th, flocks of wild geese passed over Halifax; 26th,
Mayflowers picked in the woods near the tower; 29th, butterfly
seen, and house flies make their appearance, a honey bee flying
about, and ‘ water boatman,” beetle stirring in ponds ; ous grass
sprouting in meadows.
April—Ist, a cowslip, unprotected during the winter in a gar-
den, in bloom; young leaves of clover fally formed ; 3rd, young
ants lively under stones; 4th, “Camberwell beauty,” butterfly
about; 8th, lilac in forward bud, and frogs pipe at night ; 9th,
water spider in ponds; 10th, frog spawn in ponds; 11th, honey-.

56 MYERS—ON METEOROLOGY.

suckle in bud; 14th, aspen bursting into flower; 16th, migratory
thrush sings at early morning ; 18th, a swallow seen by Mr. Gossip,
at Hoosier’s River. I am not aware that an earlier appearance in
this Province has ever been recorded. 26th, hacmatac, withrod
alder, and blue berry in bud ; large copper butterfly about; 27th,
small blue butterfly appears; 28th, Mayflowers abundant, ants
busy about their hillocks; 29th, white violet m flower; garden
currant, and wild rose bursting into leaf; 30th, meadow crow-foot
well up, swallows appear.

May—2nd, dandelion in flower; 30th, withrod bursting into
leaf; 4th, dock in full leaf; 5th, blue violet in flower, lily of valley
in full leaf, hermit thrush sings, black flies appear; 6th, leaves of
white birch unfolding ; 11th, blackberry and elderberry in leaf;
12th, wild strawberry in bloom; 14th, spotted snake first seen, red
maple leaves bursting out ; 20th, mountain ash, white birch, beech,
blackberry, red maple, and wild cherry in leaf; timothy grass, pi-
geon-berry, and moose bush in flower; 21st, azalea flowers just
opening, blueberry and wild cherry m blossom, balm of Gilead
poplar im leaf; American toad about; 26th, apple, pear, and plum
trees begin to blossom, buttercup in flower; 28th, aspen in full
leaf; 31st, ‘‘ painted lady” butterfly about.

June—lst, swallow-tailed butterfly first observed ; 10th, white
weed in blossom ; 11th, wild strawberries ripe ; 135th, small copper
butterfly about; 22nd, brown cockchafer very abundant.

July—18th, pigeon berry in fruit ; 28th, wild raspberries ripe.

August—10th, blackberries ripe and abundant.

September—2nd, leaves of white birch turn yellow, and begin to
fall; 3rd, several maples turn colour in the Dutch Village woods.

October—l1th, maple leaves falling fast.

December—2nd, snow birds seen on the common.

Wild fruits of the field and forest, were extremely abundant in
the autumn, especially blackberries and huckleberries.

Before bringing this paper to a close, | would briefly advert to
the progress Meteorology is making in the world. In England, the
“British Meteorological Society,” an institution of not many years
standing, publishes every quarter its proceedings, containing a large
amount of information, useful and important, not only to the scien-
tific, but to almost every class of society. ‘The system of storm

MYERS —-ON METEOROLOGY, ah

signals too, has been brought to that state of perfection, that the indi-
cations they give of approaching gales are rarely incorrect. Yet it
is difficult to persuade men, especially sailors long accustomed to
rely upon their own judgement with regard to the weather, to place
that confidence in this practical application of science which it
deserves. How different might have been the fate of the hapless
steamship ‘‘ London,” had the storm signals, hoisted at Plymouth,
when she was leaving that Port, been attended to: but it was prob-
ably the undaunted courage of the captain, so conspicuous through-
out the subsequent trying scenes, and too great reliance on the
powers of the fine ship he commanded, which caused him to disre-
gard the warning ; the deplorable result of which carried desolation
and woe to many a bereaved household, and a thrill of ,horror to
the hearts of all who heard the piteous tale of the foundering of
that vessel, with upwards of two hundred souls on board.

From the governments of almost all the great nations of Europe,
this branch of science is obtaining the attention it merits; and in
Russia especially, measures are being adopted for its application to
the foretelling of approaching storms, for the use of sailors and agri-
culturists, on a scale commensurate with the vast extent of that
Empire. On the seaboard and inland, upwards of one hundred
meteorological observatories, furnished with complete sets of instru-
ments, have already been established, from which communications by
telegraph are received daily at a central station. Nor are opera-
tions confined to the land, but are carried on extensively at sea
under the directions of the government. Arrangements are also in
progress with France, Prussia, Italy, Austria, and Holland, for a
gratuitous interchange of meteorological observations between these
countries.

Nearer home, there is in the neighbouring Republic the Smith-
sonian Institute, doing a vast amount of good in developing this
and other sciences, encouraged by, though, I believe, independent,
in a pecuniary point of view, of the aid of the government.

But leaving these old and well established countries, we find
the governments of many of our own colonies becoming alive to the
advantages to be derived from the cultivation of science among their
people: Australia and Canada, not to mention others, liberally assist
all efiorts to that end. In the latter are several observatories, each

58 HOW—ON LIMESTONES AND MARBLE.

of which, if I am correctly informed, receives a Provincial grant for
its support.

With such examples before us, we may surely venture to hope,
that Nova Scotia never backward in promoting whatever has a
beneficial tendency, will not refuse to extend a helping hand to this
Institute, whose publication of its transactions every year is diffus-—
ing, at home and abroad, much valuable information respecting the
resources and capabilities of this fine Province, but whose endeav-_
ours to become of more extended practical utility, are paralysed by
the want of the pecuniary means, requisite to enable it to carry out
effectually the objects it has in view.

a

Art. VII. Norres on THE Economic Mrxeratocy or Nova
ScotrA: Part III.; Limesronr anp Marpie. By Pror. How,
D.C. L., University of King’s College, Windsor.

(Read Feb. 6, 1866.)

LimestonEs.—These are found im practically inexhaustible
quantities in the Province, where there is estimated to be a thick-
ness of thirteen thousand feet of the various strata comprising the
carboniferous system, among which limestones are frequent, especi-
ally in the lower carboniferous beds, which in fact consist largely of
them and measure six thousand feet in thickness. This system is
developed almost exclusively to the north and north-east of the cap-
ital, in which part of the Province upwards of eighty beds of lime-
stone are indicated in Dawson’s geological map; the rest of Nova
Scotia, including the whole western portion and the southern shore,’
has but two small patches of carboniferous rocks. The limestones
have sometimes been thrown by metamorphic action into the crystal-
line state, and frequently converted under these circumstances into
marble, so that many varieties of this material are met with. Geo-
logical details respecting this deposit are given in Dawson’s Acadian
Geology.

The economic value of the limestones will probably always be
found in the,making of lime for washes, mortar and cement, and for
manuring, and in their use as fluxes in iron smelting, since the great
abundance of excellent freestone will almost preclude their use as a
building material except in rubble work and making foundations. As

HOW —-ON LIMESTONE AND MARBLE. See)

regards the use in manuring, a considerable portion of the agricultura
districts in the Province lies in the formation affording limestones, and
except. for special and occasional purposes lime will not be required
in their cultivation—but it must find profitable application by the far-
mers in the rest of the Province where lime rocks are altogether
absent or but scantily developed. In recent years stone bridges
have been constructed for railways, and wooden buildings have been
replaced in the capital by those of brick and stone; before this
change there could have been little demand for lime, which must
have been used chiefly for building foundations and chimneys, be-
cause the walls and ceilings would be almost everywhere of the
plaster made from the gypsum, which is found as the very frequent
associate of the limestone.

On comparing the census returns of 1851 and 1861, we find, of
course, that with the progress of the country there is increased use
of lime. In the former year there were burned in the Province
28,603 casks; taking four bushels to the-cask, which is St. John
measure, the amount will be

Lime burned in Nova Scotia in 1851, 114,412 bushels.
By the late census we find there was of
Lime burned in Nova Scotia in 1861, 136,848 bushels.

And no doubt, for the reason just given, the next census will
show as great an increase as the latter numbers do over the former.

As regards the amount of lime employed, Mr. Lang thinks tha
for the last five years not less than eight to ten thousand barrels o
lime have been used per annum in the city of Halifax, and that there
will be wanted from seven to eight thousand pounds worth of lime
during the ensuing summer.

The details of the census returns are interesting: they show that
five counties only burned no lime and that the rest of the eighteen
gave very different quantities :

Crnsus Rerurns For 1861.

Counties. Bushels of Lime Burned.
@olehesters § sos. jo ssieca alas ad ee eee sees alict bs . 4,860
LQHaeM eA ten ane nin tamanctira ss cin s delay oic
Cumberland de dec. os oth gaa ocr een 10,635
SENSORY NO) NS ios ene ae REIS Siciren tes ah tee Seago Padecteh ee
IETCONM ag suid Senate acer Be vcisal a aaRe et eel ner eee STORES 35.990

Hiamtos a:G0n! fase RG Mpr nob 5 yo oo be cie nc) wooll fod! We!

60 HOW —ON LIMESTONE AND MARBLE.

Counties. Bushels of lime burned.
Puy cites tik ha) ARAM ELC AES OE REN ARG rete Sees 2) AA 3,232
bnverness} 50) SIP PPPR Ee peel ee ae eek OE GABE
Hig lsteee Pits i: AIG BOSS AA ee 26,050
Lenenbuteys.: adh roel: . aaiead (sans oe et 3,100
Yarmouth,...... Jyhe gee ois deem das cay eas 3,000
DIS DN ee Nari bias Bi nsnsnnd Boge Sistas theta poke reesdedepos oes
Guysborough! \.): 2 sr bo sae dey aad of tiwiele Hake 320
WAL CLON Airc. or cisvevsesioh, aeetes eee, ROMs. 4,730
Qieenray Asc. a eka SP Ne ARS Nae eK, (ec cles E SNS cate
SWelburnes: «fsses siaters teetofenh hee ae isibunciszele then, foes ee
RICHINO MG, site tore tre see cists tees cere Poe eee AL 406
Cape Bretons: a 6 pela at ies Aik Be 20,092

Votitkets: Mate os scau ciers, Sekessheeecietoeane 136,848

It is perhaps remarkable that, notwithstanding the vast profusion
of limestone in the Province, a good deal of limestone is imported
from the West Indies, and much lime from New Brunswick. There
is no doubt that the native rocks yield with careful burning excellent
lime, and the cost of it is probably less than that from the foreign
rocks. At Windsor lime will sell at the kiln at three and sixpence
the barrel, and the price would be lower if there were more demand ;
as it is I am told the New Brunswick lime costs more money: for
some reason however, the latter often obtains the preference, as was
the case in building the new library at King’s College, Windsor, in
the neighbourhood of rocks affording excellent lime, as will appear
by an analysis in a subsequent page. ‘This is not, however, an in-
variable rule, and the Nova Scotian stone has been used and found
to give excellent lime: in the construction of the railway bridges on
the line between Halifax and Windsor, lime from the neighbourhood
of the latter place was employed and gave great satisfaction to the
engineer, who pronouziced it to be a very “strong” lime. A lime-
stone found at Indian Point, Chester, of a deep blue colour, yields a
lime which becomes as hard and lasting as a cement : the rock is
much valued in Halifax for building up the arches of kilns, a situa-
tion in which poor limestone crumbles away while this remains quite
hard. ‘The lime prepared from this rock was preferred to that from
New Brunswick in building the Wellington Barracks, in Halifax.

*The greater part of the lime burnt in the city, Mr. Lang thinks, is from foreign
limestone.

HOW —ON LIMESTONE AND MARBLE. 61

Mr. Peters, the builder of the barracks, is my authority for this
character of the Chester rock and he tells me that the lime from it
is the only one yet found to his knowledge fit to use in making con-
crete. A black limestone is found at St. Peter’s, Cape Breton, which
is said to afford most excellent lime.

Hypravuiic Liwestones.—these are limestones which contain a
certain proportion of clay and sometimes magnesia and have in con-
sequence the valuable property of settmg under water after being
burned to the proper degree.* These important minerals should
receive careful attention ; they are reported to exist in several parts
of the Province. Mr. G. Lang informed me last year that Shuben-
acadie affords a limestone the lime from which was used twelve
years ago in building a chimney for a steam-engine and that the
work under water cannot now be separated. He says now that this
lime takes the first place in the family of limestones on this continent
as affording a lime for mason work and for all exterior work. The
lime from it slacks with unusually little water and takes as much
sand again as any other used in the country, and makes a mortar
which is better than any cement except the Portland, made in Eng-
land, resisting the severe frosts and sudden thaws much better than
that made with lime from St. John or West Indian limestone. He
has burned about 300 tons and now has his kiln ready to burn about
2,000 tons. Hydraulic limestones are also reported from Windsor,
and from St. Peter’s, Cape Breton.

Cement-stones are limestones containing foreign ingredients, which
when burned and ground can be made into cement. Mr. Handley,
of Halifax, showed me a cement he had used in putting together fire-
bricks, which he had made from a stone found near St. Peter’s,
Cape Breton, by careful burning, grinding and mixing with sand in
certain proportions: he assured me it was a very strong cement.
Such stones are very valuable : during the construction of railways
and other public works in Canada one manufacturer made on the
average 80,000 bushels of cement annually. The limestones of
Walton and Teny Cape, in Hants Co., often contain magnesia, but
in what quantity is not known, nor have they been examined as to
their hydraulicity. A good deal of work on this subject awaits a

*An excellent account of these is given in Weale’s Series on ‘‘ Limes and Ce-
ments.” See also Chem. News, xii p. 287, and xiii p. 86, and Geology of Canada,
1863, p. 805.

62 HOW —oON LIMESTONE AND MARBLE.

geological survey. Limestones fit for making lime for manure are
those which are nearly pure carbonate of lime. I have heard it ob-
jected to the use of Windsor lime as a manure that it contains mag-
nesia in large quantity; this is certainly not the case with that
obtained from the rock on the property of O. King, Esq., for when
T made an analysis of a specimen of that found on the bank of the
Avon behind his house, it gave me:
Carbonate of Lime, 97.64

Carbonate of Magnesia, 1.10

Oxide of [ron, OT
Clay, sand and silica, 0,68
Phosphoric Acid, traces

99.49

results which show that there is but little magnesia in it, even for
an ordinary lime; for the sake of comparison I may state that im
Professor Anderson’s ‘‘Klements of Agricultural Chemistry,” the
analyses of two common limestones are given as examples of the
composition of these rocks, and 1.61 and 7.45 are the respective
percentages of carbonate of magnesia.

As many limestones of the Province, like that of which the ana-
lysis has just been given, are chiefly made up of the shells of mol/usca
it will not be out of place here to give an unpublished analysis* of a
recent shell made many years ago; the cleaned shell of the Pert-
winkle (Litorina litorea), gave

Carbonate of Lime, 97.175
Sulphate of Lime, AT9
Organic Matter, 2.010
Phosphoric Acid, 0.001
Silica and Sand 0.164

99.829

whence it appears that there is not a great difference between the
composition of the recent shell and the rock which, many hundreds
of thousands of years ago probably, was to a great extent made of
the remains of the shells of allied animals.

*Published with others since this paper was read, in Silliman’s Journal of
Science, May, 1866.

HOW — ON LIMESTONE AND MARBLE. 63

The presence of phosphoric acid ina manure is valuable in most
cases, and there are limestones in which this acid exists in consider-
able proportion, as Dr. Dawson mentions in speaking of those found
at the Joggins: I have examined one of these, of a black colour,
which I obtained from a bed on the beach and can fully confirm his
statements ; 1 found in it a notable amount of phosphoric acid; he
justly says that such would be worth about three times the price of
ordinary limestones, and that the richest of the beds found would
possibly be sufficiently appreciated on trial to allow them to be
profitably worked.

(1 may mention here that a deposit consisting in small part of
carbonate of lime, but made up mostly of clay and sand found near
Mill Village, Parrsboro’, was examined by me some time ago at the
request of Rev. W. King, and found to be so rich in phosphoric
acid that it ought to prove a good manure).

LimEsTONE As A FLUX.—-At the only iron works now carried on in
the Province, viz: the Acadia Iron Works, Londonderry, limestone
from the neighbourhood is employed. When the Nictaux works
were in operation limestone was imported from New Bruns-
wick to a port on the Bay of Fundy and thence conveyed by land
carriage some eleven miles to the furnace. The importance of hav-
ing a supply of this rock near the works is seen by observing the
amount employed. In 1861 the quantity of iron made at London-
derry was 1,200 tons, and Mr. Jones, the manager, stated (see these
Notes, Part 1), that 200 bushels of limestone were required to smelt
one ton of ore, so at that time there was a consumption of 240,000
bushels of limestone, a quantity more than two-thirds greater than
that of all the lime burned in the same year throughout the Province,

MarsuiEs.—These have been long known to exist in various lo-
calities but none of them have been worked, an attempt having been
made at one place only to make use of a deposit. A fair represen-
tation of the varieties best known was made at the International
Exhibition of 1862*, when there were shown thirteen specimens
from eleven localities.

Parrsboro’ yields a purplish coloured marble with green spots of
serpentine. Onslow mountains furnish a chocolate and a red var-
iety, Cheverie a reddish brown with red bands. Pictou Co., affords

*W ant of time prevented as good a representation at the Dublin Exhibition.

64 HOW

ON LIMESTONE AND MARBLE.

several kinds: one of a greenish hue, and among the rest one which
is very remarkable. It is of a grey colour and when polished shows
concentric waved bands covering the entire surface in beautiful mark-
ings. The specimen exhibited had perhaps a square foot of surface
and was due to the liberality of Messrs. Wesley & Sanford, who
also polished some of the other marbles shown. So far as I know
this marble is unique and if it should be. found in large slabs of the
same character as that which was shewn and excited so much admira-
tion there can be no doubt it would be very profitable. Even in small
slabs it would be probably prized for laying. Cape Breton has
large deposits, there are known a white marble with blackish veins, a
black with white veins, and a white and deep green variety, which
is very handsome. All the specimens at present met with are from
the surface. The deposit of marble which is best known is that at
Five Islands, in the Basin of Mines, where it forms large beds in the
metamorphic rocks ; the marble is of excellent grain and of a fine
white colour, surpassing in beauty, when polished, according to
Messrs. Wesley and Sanford, the Italian Marble. It is this which
has been to some extent tried as to its value. About 1852a gentle-
man was sent from England with two quarrymen to get out a block.
He remained for some months and finally shipped a block of con-
siderable size at an expense, it is said, of about £1,000. The ex-
plorer is reported to have stated that the marble was superior to any
he had seen from Carrara, but on the arrival of the block in England
it was pronounced unserviceable from being shattered. This condi-
tion of the specimen is considered to have been due, at all events in
part, to the block having been got out by blasting, so that this trial
may not have determined the real value of the deposit, and I have
also heard from a resident in the neighbourhood at the time of
quarrying, that more might have been done at the same expense.
Even if larger and better conducted operations do not show that
large masses can be got out, at least it 1s probable that smaller blocks
suitable for busts and statuettes may be obtained.

A material may be mentioned here which may prove, under cer-
tain circumstances, a useful substitute for marble, viz: the hard
plaster or anhydrite, which is found abundantly, and could probably
be obtained in blocks of any useful dimensions. It occurs at Fal-
mouth and St. Croix of a white colour, at Windsor of a bluish tint

HOW —ON LIMESTONE AND MARBLE. 69

and also a mottled white ; at Parrsboro’ a purple rock is met with
and no doubt it presents other varieties elsewhere. Its greatly supe-
rior hardness at once distinguishes it from the ordinary plaster, It
is used in this neighborhood (Windsor), in building the foundations
of houses. At the International Exhibition two specimens of the
Windsor hard plaster were shown cut and polished: one gavea
finely clouded surface and the other was rather uniformly spotted;
both were grey, and one showed in some lights a slightly bluish
tint: the edges of both at the meeting of the polished surfaces were
remarkably sharp and perfect. Since sulphate of lime (the chemi-
cal name of plaster) is not insoluble in water, polished surfaces of
hard plaster would lose their lustre in the open air, and the mate-
rial can only be used when cut and polished in in-door work ; under
these circumstances it may prove more durable than marble, which
is said to be so subject to change from variations of temperature that
the mantle of a chimney piece immediately over the fire is invariably
in a crumbling condition long before the sides or those parts which
are not so exposed to heat. ‘This statement is given in Hunt’s Hand-
Book to the International Exhibition (Vol. I, p. 325), and we find
there also (p. 332) in a very interesting passage, that some alabaster,
a variety of soft plaster, is more durable than Purbeck marble. The
author says “notwithstanding alabaster is decidedly so soft a sub-
stance that it may be easily cut with a pocket-knife, or abraded
with the nail, it is nevertheless an extremely durable material, if
not openly exposed to the weather. In most of the large churches
in the south of England, especially in Westminster Abbey, there are
instances of monuments constructed with Purbeck marble, and orna-
mented with alabaster tracery, niches, canopies, and little figures,
which are almost without exception perfectly free from decay ; an-
gles sharp, surface smooth, colour scarcely altered; while the
Purbeck, a harder material, upon which the alabaster is fixed, has
scarcely any of the original surface left: although these two sub-
stances are close together, equally exposed to the same atmospheric
influences of damp and dry, summer and winter, from the fifteenth
or sixteenth century, to the present time, yet one is apparently un-
altered, while the other is certainly perishing, disintegrating, and
gradually mouldering away.”

Having been led to the subject of alabaster, I may state that the

66 MORTON—-ON THE PITCH LAKE OF TRINIDAD.

compact gypsum of Antigonish has quite the character of alabaster.
I have only seen small pieces but probably larger ones are to be got.
The quality of this as a material for carving was shown at the
Dublin Exhibition, it proved excellent. A small piece was
carved to represent a bunch of grapes and some leaves by Mr. C.
Harding,
of fine art, viz: pen and ink drawing, have contributed materially
to the adornment of the Nova Scotian Courts in beth the late
Exhibitions. It came under my own notice that both the carving

of Windsor, whose skill and taste in another department

and the material, attracted the attention of a wood-carver and called
forth the expression of his favourable opinion.

In the Provincial Building now being erected, an opportunity
offers for testing the value of native materials in internal decoration,
and perhaps the public voice will be heard in favor of embracing it
as the matter is surely one of Provincial interest.

Art. VIII. Remarks on tHe Prron Lake or Trrnipap. By
Rev Joun Morton, LaHave.
[Re1td March 8, 1866.]

Tur Pitch Lake of Trinidad lies on the western side of the
island and about a mile from the Gulf of Paria. It is nearly circu-
lar, and about three-fourths of a mile across. There is no pomt
from which a view of the whole lake may be obtained, as it is
broken in upon by islands and obtruding points. ‘These lie princi-
pally about 400 yards from the western side of the lake ; and from
these the view easterly is very striking, and relieves the disappoint-
ment which is generally felt upon the first view of the lake. The ex-
pression luke is apt at first to mislead. The pitch is not in a fluid
state, except in a very small spot, and may be safely walked upon
over all the rest of the lake. Indeed teams might be driven over a
great part of it, although any heavy weight left on it would gradu-
ally sink. The pitch, which from the heat of the sun and probably
also from subterranean fire, is hot all over the lake, becomes hotter as
you approach a point near the centre, where it is simmering and
boiling over very gently. You can safely advance to the very edge

MORTON=—-ON THE PITCH LAKE OF TRINIDAD. 67

of this spring and obtain a specimen, care being taken not to burn
the fingers.

The surface of the lake is intersected by little canals, particu-
larly on the western side. Some of these are shallow and narrow,
others are three or four yards wide and from three to five feet deep.
The edges of these canals are rounded like the lips of an ancient
urn. And they seem to have been formed by the pitch, which had
boiled over from different springs, having met and cooled. Where
the springs have been near each other the overflowings have run
together, so that their meeting can scarcely be traced. But where
they have been more distant the pitch waves have had time to cool
somewhat before meeting, and thus hardened have met at the bottom
without running into each other, and the interval between their
edges forms a deep canal, wide at the surface and rounding down te
acrack at the bottom, where the overflowings have met. Lips
more or less gently closed may serve to illustrate the shape and
varieties of these canals. They are always full of water. "We
enjoyed a tepid bath in some of the deepest and found them of the
same shape as the others. None of these canals intersect each
other; but where overflowimgs from three different springs have
met, three canals are formed, deepening in their course until they
converge into a deep triangular poo]. The pitch does not always
boil at the same part of the lake, nor always with the same activity.
And these overflowings point to a time when the pitch sprmes have
been near the western side of the lake, and perhaps more than one
of them active at the same time.

The western side has a shore or border of pitch, sloping more
or less gently towards the lake, indicating a depression in its level.
The castern side presents a different appearance. Here the soil
covered with grass and bushes comes close to the lake. The lake
itself is smooth, and the canals on its surface few and small, indicat-
ing a greater internal heat. At the edge of the lake the soil is only
a few inches deep, and the land is very level, and seems really a
continuation of the lake with a superjacent shallow layer of earth.
This is confirmed by appearances further inland, where the forma-
tion can be traced for about six miles. If, as we conjecture, the
land here rests, for some little distance, upon the pitch in a soft
and but little mspissated condition, it 1s easily seen that on a subsi-

68 MORTON—ON THE PITCH LAKE OF TRINIDAD.

dence of the lake, the land floating upon it would subside with it,
without altering the appearance on the surface. Whereas on the
western side, the solid formation adjoining the lake would hold its
position, and thus indicate the subsidence of the lake in a shore
such as that to which we have referred.

From the western side of the lake, the land descends without
interruption to the Gulf of Paria. In this slope there is a very
gentle depression, beginning where the shore of the lake is least
elevated, and where it appears even now almost ready to overflow,
and traceable to the Gulf, where the pitch is found exposed along
the shore, and forms a point that stretches into the Gulf about 400
yards. Here the appearances are of a nature not to be misunderstood,
The pitch is exposed for about a quarter of a mile along the shore,
and in some places for several rods above high water mark. And it
is clear that it has not been thrown up by the tide, as some have
asserted, but has flowed from inland. ‘The flowings are as distinctly
marked as if they had occurred but yesterday. ‘The manner in
which they have been turned aside by obstructions and their uniform
slant, together with the clearly marked edge where the flowing
has cooled, admit of no doubt in this matter. In the bight formed
by the point of pitch which juts out into the Gulf, the beach is
wholly of pitch; it is very steep and has the rounded contour of the
edge of a large pitch wave, as if it had been here arrested in its
progress and cooled by the tide. Southerly from the point of pitch
the beach becomes more level, and is covered with black pebbles, in
some places to the depth of a foot. ‘These on examination prove
to be pitch and scoria rounded by the action of the tide,
Passing on we find a well defined flowing that seems to have hard-
ened before it reached the tide. Here the land rises abruptly, the
beach becomes sandy, and we lose all traces of the pitch.

A public road enables us to trace the formation up the depression
of which we have spoken, the whole way to the lake. In some
places several feet of soil overlie it, but as you approach the lake
the soil becomes shallow and has been washed from the road
by summer rains, leaving the pitch quite exposed for a considerable
distance. All along the road and particularly where the pitch is
thus extensively exposed, the hardened overflowings are as well de-
fined as on the shore. ‘Their appearance is well illustrated by what

MORTON—ON THE PITCH LAKE OF TRINIDAD. 69

may be seen on many hill sides during our Nova Seotian winter,
where water has congealed in successive overflowings. The conclu-
sion is inevitable, that the Pitch Lake has been, and is still to some
extent, an immense Pitch spring or series of springs, and that the
depression from the western side of it to the shore of the Gulf of
Paria, is the bed down which the products of this vast spring has at
one time flowed, causing the appearances on the road and on the
shore, and pressing out into the Gulf has formed the point of pitch
above referred to.

I have not been in a position to consult any standard geological
works on the subject except Sir Charles Lyell’s. And as my object
was not to compose a scientific essay, but merely to accompany the
specimens with a few remarks, I have confined myself to the result
of my own observations.

Sir Charles’ works contain little on the subject. In his ‘ Prin-
ciples” (p. 2650, 9th ed.) he says:

‘¢ Fluid bitumen is seen to ooze from the bottom of the sea, on
both sides of the island of Trinidad, and to rise up to the surface of
the water. Near Cape La Braye there is a vortex which, in stormy
weather, according to Capt. Mallet, gushes out, raising the water
five or six feet, and covers the surface for a considerable space with
petroleum, or tar ; and the same author quotes Gumilla as stating
in his ‘ Description of the Orinoco,’ that about seventy years ago, a
spot of land on the western side of ‘Trinidad, near half-way between
the capital and an Indian village, sank suddenly and was immediately
replaced by a small lake of pitch, to the great terror of the inhabi-
tants.”

‘“It is probable,” says Sir Charles in continuation, “ that the
great pitch lake of Trinidad owes its origin to a similar cause.”

When on the spot I was not aware that such statements had been
published, and consequently made no special enquiry about them.
But I never heard anything corroborative of them, except that bitu-
men was sometimes seen in small quantities floating near La Brea.
Such a vortex as Capt. Mallet speaks of would be too notorious to
be overlooked by persons living there, when answering the enquiries
of strangers respecting the wonders of the place. Nor did I ever
hear of a small pitch lake, such as Gumilla speaks of. His location

9

70 MORTON—ON THE PITCH LAKE OF TRINIDAD.

of it is very indefinite, and points as much to the great pitch lake,
as to any place on the whole western coast.

The town of San Fernando, is about twenty miles N. of LaBrea.
A hill rises abruptly, behind the town, to the height of upwards of
1000 feet. The cutting of a road, across a spur at the north side
of this hill, lays bare a surface of pitch. It is very hard and has
the appearance of having been thrown out of place by some conyul-
sion. The valley of the Naparima, extending inland some nine
miles and about four miles in breadth, is well cultivated, and a
tramway runs up through it, m laying which several considerable
cuttings have been made, but no pitch has been any where dis-
covered. From this and from the fact that there are decided indi-
cations of volcanic action on the hill, it seems probable, that the
pitch has been here thrown up from a considerable depth, by volca-
nic action; and that the formation extends over a considerable part
of the W. side of the island, from the middle to the southern ranges
of mountains, flowing out at LaBrea, underlying the surface further
north, and thrown up by volcanic action at San Fernando Hill.
All this part of the island is subject to volcanic action. At Pointa
Pierre six miles N. of San Fernando, there are hot springs; and in
the forest twelve miles east, I visited some small but very interest-
ing and active mud volcanoes.

Near the southern range of mountains, sulphur has been found
almost in a pure state, reminding one of a similar connection of
pitch and brimstone at the Lacus Asphaltides, under which the
slime pits, or bitumen wells, of the Valley of Siddim, continue to
throw up their products, and on whose shore brimstone is found in
large quantities.

The pitch of Trinidad is manufactured on the Island, with com-
mon coal, and then used for raising steam. M. Stollmeyer, is
largely engaged in manufacturing it for paving, or flooring stores ;
it being preferable to wood where insects are so troublesome and
destructive. But it is scarcely hard enough for paving streets in so
hot a climate. It is largely shipped to France and Hamburg, for
paving. The pitch for shipment, is raised at the point that runs
out into the Gulfof Paria, whence it is conveyed in boats to vessels
anchored a few hundred yards off. ‘The pitch here, being more in-
spissated than at the lake, is better adapted for conveyance in large

LAWSON—ON THE IMPROVEMENTS IN AMALGAMATION. 41

quantities. Much of the pitch manufactured on the island is taken’
from the lake. When thrown into heaps it runs together into a
solid mass. And the place from which it is taken, although near
the side of the lake where the pitch is hardest, gradually fills up.
again by the pressing in of the surrounding mass. ‘he supply
being so large and so easily attainable, it must continue for ages of

vast economic importance.

Art. IX. On some Recent Improvements IN THE AMALGAMA-
TION ProcEss For Exrractine Gotp FRom Quartz. By
Grorce Lawson, Ph. D., L. L. D., Professor of Chemistry,
Dalhousie College.

[Read March 8, 1866.]

Tue paper was chiefly occupied with a discussion of the proper-
ties of the metal Soprum, (Na.) and of the Sodium Amalgams, aad
of the use of the latter im promoting the amalgamation of Gold.

The metal sodium, a discovery of Sir Humphrey Davy, was
particularly described, and the method of removing it from its com--
bination with oxygen. It was prepared by decomposing carbonate
of soda by means of charcoal, at a high temperature, this last having
a greater affinity for oxygen than sodium. ‘The use of sodium in
the arts has so diminished its price that it can now be obtained at
6s. stg. perlb. Specimens of large size, contained in naphtha, were
exhibited. Its colour is silver white, sp. gr. 0.972—it is as soft as
butter at the ordinary temperature of the atmosphere, fuses at 194°,
and oxidizes rapidly inair. It,burns on a slight increase of tempera-
ture. Several interesting experiments of its fusion and burning
were exhibited. It decomposes water rapidly, uniting with the
oxygen it contains, and liberating the hydrogen. The Doctor
illustrated its action on water by some beautiful experiments,—
amongst others, by the preparation in course of a few minutes of a
large jar of hydrogen gas, by the action of sodium upon water; the
hydrogen was afterwards exploded to show the converse of the
experiment. The property of sodium in promoting the action of
mercury and amalgams upon other metals had been known for many
years. Recently, however, Mr. Crooke, F.R.S., a distinguished
chemist, who had discovered the metal thallium, has applied. sodium

72 LAWSON—ON THE IMPROVEMENTS IN AMALGAMATION.

to the purpose of gold amalgamation. The Doctor here explained
the ordinary process of separating the gold from the quartz, by
using mercury alone, a process which was often inefficient, owing to
the presence of sulphides, which, coating the gold, prevented the
action of the mercury upon it. It was found by Mr. Crooke, that
by combining the sodium with mercury, an amalgam was formed that
had much greater power of taking up gold than mercury alone. By
means of a sand bath and a glass vessel, the experiment of combin-
ing the mercury and sodium was shown to the meeting, and a con-
siderable piece of amalgam made with the requisite proportions of
mercury and sodium; and the action of the amalgam so made was
shown on thin ships of gold freshly annealed, from the Waverley
mines. It was shown that these slips of gold were not at all affected
when drawn through ordinary mercury; but the moment they
came into contact, however slight with mercury to which some of
the sodium amalgam had been added, they were completely and
permanently coated with mercury. ‘The following was the account
given of Mr. Crooke’s process, which had been fully imvestigated
by an extensive series of experiments in Professor Lawson’s labor-
atory, and so favourably reported upon that a patent has been
granted :—

‘This invention relates to certain improvements in the method
of treating the ores or substances containing gold and silver by amal-
gamation, and whereby those metals can be more perfectly and
- completely extracted and separated therefrom, than by the processes
hitherto adopted. <A solid amalgam of sodium is in the first place
formed by combining about one part of sodium with about thirty
parts by weight of mercury. The solid amalgam thus formed is
then added to the mercury employed for the purposes of amalgama-
tion, the proportions varying according to the quantity of metal
eontained and the state in which it occurs in the ore or matrix. If
however, the proportion of the alkali metal exceeds that of one part
to from 120 to 150 parts of mercury, the amalgam becomes viscid
and its manipulation inconvenient. ‘The effect of thus combining
the sodium with the mercury, is to impart to the latter a greater
affinity for or power of adhesion to the metal under treatment, than
it possesses in its simple and uncombined condition. Instead of
using the solid amalgam as herembefore mentioned, the sodium may

LAWSON— ON THE IMPROVEMENTS IN AMALGAMATION. 73

be combined directly with the mercury employed, the proportions
varying according to the requirements of the case.

«This invention can be used in conjunction with any machine or
apparatus for performing the amalgamating process, and in cases
where amalgamating vessels or receptacles constructed of iron are
employed, an additional advantage arises from the fact that mercury
combined as before mentioned with sodium forms a thin film over
the surface of the iron, thus collecting very minute quantities of the
metal under treatment, and which may be removed by the ordinary
process, and subjected to the subsequent treatment usually employed.

«<The mode of treatment employed is as follows :—An amalgam
of sodium is in the first place formed by combining sodium with
mercury. ‘The proportions may be varied within wide limits, that is
to say, from less than three to more than thirty parts of sodium to
one hundred parts by weight of mercury. ‘The sodium and mer-
cury must be caused to unite, and the amalgam prepared. with the
customary precautions well known to and understood by chemists.
The last mentioned method of forming the sodium amalgam is that
which the inventor usually prefers in actual practice ; but, if desired,
the amalgam may be prepared electro-chemically, as described by
Becquerel and other chemical authors, or by any other suitable means.
The amalgam is then added to the mercury employed for the
purposes of amalgamation, the proportions varying according to the
quantities of precious metal contained, and the state in which it oc-
curs in the ore or matrix ; but asin the process the beneficial effects
of the sodium are gradually removed, the action should be
maintained, if needed, by occasionally introducing fresh supplies of
the amalgam into the charge of mercury contamed in the machine
employed. ‘The quantity must, however, be regulated and deter-
mined by the skill and judgment of the operator, as no definite and
absolute proportion can be laid down as necessary. If, however,
the proportion of the alkali metal exceeds that of one part. to from
120 to 150 parts of mercury, the amalgam becomes viscid, and its
manipulation may be inconvenient. The effect of thus combining
the sodium with the mercury is to impart to the latter a greater
affinity for or power of adhesion to the precious metal under treat-
ment than it possesses in its simple and uncombined condition, so
that it will readily amalgamate with the gold or silver, even when

74 LAWSON—ON THE IMPROVEMENTS IN AMALGAMATION.

the latter metals are soiled by grease or other extraneous matter.
Although he prefers that the amalgamation shall be conducted in
the presence of water, as in the usual processes, the operation, if
desirable, may be performed in a dry manner. The amalgam above
mentioned should be stored in air-tight vessels, or under naphtha,
such as metallic scdium is usually kept in. Instead of using the
amalgam as hereinbefore mentioned, the sodium may be combined
directly with the mercury employed, care being taken that the pro-
portions shall remain substantially as already indicated.

<< This invention can be used in conjunction with any machine or
apparatus for performing the amalgamating process, and, in cases
where amalgamating vessels, or receptacles or places constructed of
iron or other metal are employed, an additional advantage arises
from the fact that the mercury combined as before mentioned with
sodium forms a thin film over the surface of the iron or other
metal, thus aiding in the collection of any minute quantities of the
precious metal under treatment. ‘The subsequent extraction of the
gold or silver from the mercury may be conducted in any desira-
ble manner. It is not found in actual practice that a small quan-
tity of sodium, if accidentally allowed to remain in the mixture
with the gold or silver and mercury, affects the subsequent treat-
ment in any appreciable degree. In cases where, from the nature
of the ores or substances under treatment, the mercury used for
amalgamation becomes divided into minute globules, technically
known as ‘ flouring” or “ granulating,” there is frequently a diffi-
culty in separating the globules from the heavy particles of the
powdered ore or substances containing the precious metal; the
addition of the sodium amalgam to such a mixture is found to
induce the coalescence of the liquid or viscid metallic particles, so
that a mechanical separation of the gold or silver amalgam from
the gangue may be readily effected. The employment of sodium
in combination with mercury will especially be found beneficial in
cases where gold or silver occurs with pyrites, sulphurets or minerals
containing arsenic, antimony, tellurium, or bismuth. The process
of amalgamation with ordinary mercury is difficult to perform in
the presence of such minerals without great loss both of mercury
and of the precious metal under treatment, owing to the surfaces of
the latter being in such a tarnished or soiled state that mercury

LAWSON-—ON THE IMPROVEMENTS IN AMALGAMATION. 79

alone will not touch them (as, for instance, when gold exists in
pyrites). and also owing to the mercury becoming what is techni-
cally termed “sick” or “floured,” in which state its power of
uniting with the precious metals is much diminished ; in these cases
the addition of sodium amalgam will be found highly advantageous ;
whenever the mercury has become “ floured” or powdered by the
result of distillation, or from any other cause, it is readily restored
to the liquid or bright metallic state by the addition thereto of sod-
ium, either in its simple metallic condition, or as an amalgam with
mercury.

«« Although sodium is mentioned as used in the processes above
described, other alkali metals, such as potassium and lithium and
other metals strictly analogous thereto in their chemical and phy-
sical characters, may be employed in lieu thereof in combination
with mercury for the purposes of this invention.

‘«‘ Having thus fully declared and ascertained the nature of his
invention, and the manner in which it is to be performed, Mr.
Crooke claims that what he considers novel and original, and
therefore as constituting his said invention, is, the employment of
an amalgam of sodium, or such other alkali metal as aforesaid, in
treating ores or substances containing gold or silver for the extrac-
tion and separation therefrom of the precious metals, as hereinbefore
substantially set forth and described.”

Dr. Lawson, then explained the simplest methods by which
chlorine and hypochlorous acid might be generated for sanitary
purposes; and Mr. Outram described the process of manufacture of
chloride of lime as conducted in the great works at Glasgow.

6th SEPTEMBER, 1866.

P.S.—Professor Lawson has requested the Secretary of the
Institute, to insert the following memorandum of some further
results in regard to Mr. Crooke’s Process, which is now coming
into use in our Gold Mines :—

«Experiments have lately been undertaken at the Lake Major
Company’s Mines, Waverley, with the view of testing in a practical
manner the value, or otherwise, of Crooke’s new process of amalga-
mation by means of sodium-amalgam. The crusher and other
machinery of these mines being much superior to those of any simi-

16 GILPIN—ON THE TROUT AND SALMON.

lar establishment in the Province, the best opportunities have been
afforded for a fair trial. The experiments have been carried out by
Dr. Krackowizer, the manager of the mines, in conjunction with
Prof. Lawson of Dalhousie College, whose laboratory investigations
of the process were detailed sometime ago to the Institute of
Natural Science. ‘The results are highly satisfactory, and fully con-
firm the favourable opinion that has been formed of Crooke’s process,
and of its adaptability to Nova Scotian ores. One great advantage
of the process is the action of the sodium amalgam upon pyrites,
which material abounds in our quartz veins and is known to contain
gold, but has hitherto been accumulating around the mines in enor-
mous quantities as a waste material. A portion of this material
operated upon by the new process gave at the rate of 5 ounces of
gold per ton of pyrites. ‘This is regarded as a remarkable result, and
one that will certainly lead to the profitable extraction of gold from
pyrites, especially as no extra apparatus is needed such as would be
necessary for the chlorine process.”

No. X. On tHE Foop FisHes or Nova Scotia. No. 1V. THe
Trouts anp Satmons. By J. Bernarp Gipin, A. B., M. D.,

Mei Cre,
[Read April 2, 1866.]

I HAVE identified five species of the genus Salmo, as inhabiting
the fresh and sea waters of this Province. ‘They all closely resem-
ble each other, in their powerful tail, and strong muscular back,
their armature of numerous and recurved teeth, their tendency in
the young to vertical markings, and the most of them to spots,—
by all having the false or internal opercle as noticed by Muller,—by
all spawning in November,—and all requiring highly erated water
in which to deposit their ova, thus seeking shallow streams of swift
running water,—by hunting for their food singly, or in small num-
bers,—by a common voracity, and boldness, all with one exception
having the power of throwing themselves several feet above the
surface of the water,—by all seemingly enjoying life, and parting
with it by fierce struggles—this last making them game-fish,—and
lastly, by all of them bemg marked by a fatty fin, without rays,
a typical mark whose use we cannot explain, and which they share
with the very kindred gemi of Corregonus, and Thymallus.

GILPIN —- ON THE TROUT AND SALMON. We

In identifying S. Salvr, (Lin.), S. Fontinalis, (Mitch.), S. Cana-
densis, (Ham. Smith), S. Gloveri7, (Girard), S. Confinis, (DeKay),
and attributing them to thei rightful first describers, I have met
with much difficulty. ‘The principal writers seem to have had no
personal knowledge themselves of the fish in question, whilst the
best observers seem to have wanted what the first gentleman had,
a scientific tact and skill of observation. ‘Thus Perley, followed by
Frank Forrester, has confounded S. Canadensis with S. Trutta of
Europe, and S. Gloverit and S. Confinis, with S. Feroz, also
European. Ineed scarcely say how soon Yarrel, or ‘‘ Couch’s British
Fishes” would correct this error. In the present paper I have only
given facts that I have identified myself, or that have been told me by
local observers. The works I have referred to are those of
tichardson, Dekay, Storer, Gill, Norris, Frank Forrester, ‘‘ Game
ish of the North,” Perley, and manuscript correspondence of F.W.
Putnam, Esq., Salem, U. S.

Sulmo Salaur—VuE Saumon.

The description of a fresh run fish from the ocean, as they appear in
spring in our market, would be — weight from six pounds up to twenty,
head small, body very ‘deep, and at the same time round or thick through ;
back very muscular, and tail large and strongly based ; the opercle 1 is acne
on its outside edge, in this a very marked contrast aaa the trout, in which it
is angular ; the free edge of the labial is rounded, whilst the same part in the
trout | 1s sharp ; the eye ‘rather small and about two and a half diameters from
tip of nose ; the nostril double, like all the venus; the outline of back rounds
up from the head, then runs in nearly a straight he to the first dorsal, which
has twelve rays. the first very thick and short, and of an irregular rhomboidal
shape ; the anterior edge of the second dorsal or adipose fin is opposite the
fifth ray of the anal, its posterior edge opposite the last ray; the tail very
strong, rays twenty. the anal ten, first very thick, and ventral nine, the pectoral
fin rises close to the margin of opercle; the colour fresh from the sea is black
along the back, unui gradually into steel blue, with green reflections to the
line of raised scales, all below of the brightest silver; the head and opercles
are, upper half dark blue, lower silvery; the fins, dorsal pale lavender with
ureguiar spots, raysdark blue, adipose blue, caudal base and edges dark,
middle pale yellowish white, anal pale yellow ; ventral with large accessary fins
yellowish ; rays and anterior edge dark, pectoral pee bluish white, anterior
edge and rays dark blue; on the pre-opercle and opercle are one or two black
irregular spots ; a number of black blotches occur at irregular intervals along
the sides and side of the belly. ‘Teeth on intermasillary, upper and lence
maxillary, palatine bones, in vomer, but not more than two or three, and on
ayers about rine or ten around the edges; scales very large Fin rays—D.

ive > Pit A 9, C. 20, a large axillary scale to V. Gill rays—11 on

4ihh si Posterior edge of operele round, free end of maxillary round.

10

78 GILPIN — ON THE TROUT AND SALMON.

Such is a description of this king of fish, as he appears from the
ocean. But it gives but a faint conception of the flashing lights
thrown back from his sides of molten silver, upon the tender blue
of his back, or of the dying but fair lavender of his fins. Filled
with the only food upon which he thrives, the ova of various echino
dermata, or the flesh of the sand eels, his huge back is swelled out
and rounded like a race horse. ‘The flesh itself is tinted red, and
fat flakes lie thick in the fibres of every muscle. His courage and
and he has need of them

strength are equal to his form and colour,
all. A long and weary journey is before him, with scant food and
hard toil. He enters our rivers, beginning in March at the most
southerly and westward ones, to ascend the lakes to his spawning
grounds. ‘Towards the end of June the run at Halifax is over. He
buries himself now in our lakes, and for a time nothing is seen of
him. On his passage up he takes the fly, and is seen leaping over
the natural obstacles or artificial barriers that arrest his progress.
From six to eight feet is his utmost perpendicular height. He is
often seen lingering in the deep holes of the streams which he is
ascending. He becomes lean and thin almost immediately on en-
tering the fresh waters. His flesh loses the lively red tint and
exquisite flavor, his silvery sides turn yellow, and his steel blue
back a dingy black, reddish diffused patches stain his sides and
head and cheek. In the male, changes much more characteristic
are stealing over him, the upper jaw lengthens, teeth both more
numerous and larger appear; an eagle-like hook is formed; the
lower jaw lengthens, curves up, is armed with supplementary teeth,
and a nob or hook of gelatinous substance sprouts out of its end,
which fits into a hollow of the upper jaw.

On the 10th July, 1865, I noticed many large salmon taken from
the fresh water river, Shubenacadie. They had been some time in
fresh water, had lost their blue and silver hue, and pink flesh tint,
and had also lost their teeth, some of them almost entirely, others
partially. Their jaws were arched, the bone evidently absorbed. I
was much puzzled to account for so many old fish being taken at
once, and only in fresh water, since such fish were never known
from the sca. On the 26th November, 1865, M. Brown, Esq.,
Halifax, sent me a salmon, a male fish, weighing perhaps sixteen
pounds, whose head and jaws were so peculiar as to need an exact

GILPIN -—- ON THE TROUT AND SALMON. 719

description. The intermaxillary articulation was very loose and
much enlarged. The intermaxillary bone itself had grown at least
two inches in length, formed into a beak like an eagle’s, and filled
with very large teeth. The lower jaw had also grown to correspond
in length, and was also armed with large teeth. A cartilaginous
knob projected upwards from the lip, which fitted into a groove above
in the intermaxillaries. The new jaws were so arched that it was
impossible for them to close in the centre, and the teeth were much
larger and with wider bases than the usual teeth. I am now of the
opinion that the toothless fish I saw in July were preparing, by
losing their original teeth, for this spawning growth, soon to sprout
from their denuded jaws, of not only increased osseous matter, but
of an entirely new set of teeth, and that the whole of the huge structure
in a few months, broken down or worn away by conflicts and by
furrowing up the sand and gravel, becomes totally absorbed on reach-
ing the ocean, and is again replaced by the ordinary teeth, thus each
male salmon having two sets of teeth during the year.

Towards the latter part of November he is seen frequenting the
shallow, sandy bottomed running streams. He is busy furrowing
up the gravelly bottom with his lower jaw, in water so shallow that
his tail flaps upon the surface. The loitering sportsman often over-
look him working up stream so as not to foul his water, and
sedulously conducting his mate into the furrow where he im pregnates
the ova streaming from her teeming sides, or rushing out upon the
shoals of young males in clouds about him, each a miniature salmon
with hook and bill, though barely six or seven inches long.* The
lumberman too-is sometimes tempted from his toil by suddenly
coming upon a shallow lake literally covered by hundreds if not
thousands.t Serious encounters are sometimes instanced between
two rival males, the wounds taken and given are often frightful.
At the end of the season, an old male thoroughly emaciated, lean,
dingy yellow, his jaws literally worn to the bone or hanging in
fragments, his body torn into gaping wounds, with his pale blue
gleaming eyes, is truly a ghastly form, flitting dark and dull and

*Charles Anderson, Esq., Magistrate, Musquodoboit.

tMr. John Duncan, Ingraham River, told me that he once with a party of lum-
bermen, came upon at least a thousand salmon, spawning upon Snake Lake,
Halitax County. For every man and teamster to desert his work, and rush into the
shallow waters, with axe, or pole, or ox goad, or young sapling, was the work of
an instant. Some eight or ten were the only spoils that rewarded their cupidity.

SO GILPIN —ON THE TROUT AND SALMON,

half seen through his watery home. They are now said to return
to the sea, principally because we find them there in early spring.
This part of his return journey has not so many landmarks about it
as I could wish. Indeed some say they remain all winter in the
lakes, and no doubt many do. ‘Thus it may be said that the salmon
in Nova Scotia have their principal run from the ocean to the lakes
in April, May and June—that they spawn in November and imme-
diately return. But this is only generally true. From a number
of facts I am led to conclude there is a perpetual passing up and
down during the whole summer. On the 20th of May, 1865, I pro-
cured from the tide way at Bedford Bridge, five young salmon from
six to eight inches long, these I suppose were fry of the ast year,
fifteen or sixteen months old, going to the sea for the first time.
With the exception of a few vermillion spots upon them, and that
the nose was rounded and short, they were true salmon, teeth per-
fect and some with ova. It is now admitted (from the numerous
and conclusive experiments of marking fish) that they visit the ocean
and return in a few weeks weighing six to seven pounds, and spawn
in November. Successive runs of these fish must be perpetually pass-
jng up and down our rivers. In September, female spawning fish,
entirely discoloured, and filled with spawn of the size of buck shot,
which escapes readily, are exposed in market from the Shubenacadie
river, and ene would never think they could retain their spawn till
November. ‘The year just past was unusually dry and the lakes and
streams low. ‘Thus Bedford river, near Halifax, was thronged with
fish unable to get up. In November thirty were counted from Flat
rock in one deep hole. Our markets have always a run of Novem-
ber salmon taken outside on the ocean, in the highest condition, and
which according to Col. Hardy, have the ova very small and unde-
veloped. ‘Thus at one point of time we have three sets of fish, one
spawning or spawned in the lakes, one running up, anda third
ranging the ocean unimpregnated. From these facts we must deduce
that there are modifications perpetually occurring to vary within cer-
tain limits any general law. On his passage he readily takes the fly,
during his sojourn in the lakes not; though of these facts I am
not quite certain. In the ocean we find him a deep feeder, his food
being said to be the spawn of various fish, and he is often taken by
bait fishing on our coast some distance from shore, and at ahout sixty

GILPIN—-ON THE TROUT AND SALMON. a]

or seventy fathoms. ‘There can be little doubt that he also feeds
upon smaller living fishes as well as flies and larva.

One must witness a score or two of these fine fish for sale in the
Halifax fish market dripping fresh from the ocean, before they can
truly appreciate their magnificent proportions, their great depth and
thickness, and great round backs swelling into so massive a foundation
for their huge tails,—the clear silver laced with blue of the sides,
the opal tints flickering around their bellies, or the fleeting lavender
of their fast stiffening fins. Those figured by Yarrelland Couch, by
Dekay, and even Agassiz, a Halifax fisherman would not allow upon
his stall. The extreme length and want of depth would condemn
it at once as a spent fish. Of the many stories of marvellous cap-
tures of these fish, the best and certainly the truest is the following,
which h Baillie,

grandson of the ‘Old Frontier Missionary,” was fishing the “ Gen-

eral Bridge river” up stream for trout, standing above his knees in
water with an old negro named Peter Prince at his elbow. In the
very act of casting a trout fly, he saw, as is very usual for them, a
large salmon lingering in a deep hole a few yards from him. The
sun favored him, throwing his shadow behind. To remain motion-
less, to pull out a spare hook and pen knife, and with a bit of his
old hat, and some of the grey old negro’s wool to make a salmon
fly, then and there, he and tne negro standing in the running stream
like statues, and présently to land a fine salmon was the work
of but a few moments. ‘This fly must have been the original of
Norris’s killing “ silver gray.”

Salmo Fontinalis—Mirceett—Broox Trout.

The description of this fish as usually seen in the lakes about Halifax, would
be—in length from ten to eighteen inches, and weight from half a pound to
two pounds—though these ene arcments are often oxnantenl or lessened. The
outline of back starting from a rather round and blant nose rises gradually to
the insertion of the dorsal fin, about two lengths of the head from the nose ; it
then gradually declines to the adipose fin, about a length and a half from that
runs straight to form a strong base for the tail. The breadth of the tail is
about equal to the length of the head. Below, the outline runs nearly straight
from the tail to the anal fin, from thence it falls rapidly to form a line more or
less convex (as the fish is in or out of season), and returns to the head. _ The
itermaxillary very short, the maxillary long with the free end sharp poe
the posterior end of the opercle is more angular than in the the S. Salar, th
lower jaw shorter than upper when closed, appearing longer when open.

82 GILPIN—-ON THE TROUT AND SALMON,

The eye large, about two diameters from tip of nose; nostrils double, nearer
the snout than the eye Of the fins, the dorsal has ten or eleven rays, not
counting the rudimentary oues, in shape irregularly rhomboid but the free

edge rounded or curved outward, the adipose fin varies, some sickle shaped
with free end very long, others having it very straight and short. The caudal
fin gently curved rather than cleft, but differing in individuals. Of the lower
fins, they all have the first ray very thick and flat, and « always faced white with
a black edge, the other rays more or less red. The head is blunt and back
rounded when looked down upon. The teeth are upon the intermaxillary
bone, maxillary bones. the palatine, and about nine on the tongue. There
are none so called vomerine teeth, though now and then we find one tooth behind
the arch of the palate, where they are sometimes irregularly bunched together.
The colour varies but through all the variations there are forms of colour that
always persistent must be regarded as typical. There are always vermillion
spots on the sides, there are always other spots, sometimes decided in outline,
in others diffused into dapples—but always present. The caudal and dorsal
fins are always spotted and of the prevailing hue of the body. The lower fins
have always broad white edges lined with black and colored, with some modi-
fication of red. The chin and upper part of the belly is always white. With
these permanent markings, the body colour varies from born colour, greenish,
grey, blue grey running into azure, black, and black with warm red on the
lower parts, dark green with bright yellow lower parts, and lastly in young fish,
vertical bands of dusky black. The spots are very bright and distinct when
in high condition or spawning, faint, diffused and running into dapples when in
poor condition. Of four trout purchased from a negro woman at Halifax,
Oct. 28, 1864, during the spawning season, three were dark green, bright
yellow spots, bright yellow bellies, dorsal fin spotted black on yellow g eround,
caudal spotted black on scarlet ground ; lower fins scarlet with white “facings
lined with black. The fourth was nearly black above washed with red, the
red becoming exceedingly vivid on the belly, all the fins bright scarlet marked
as the others, spots bright scarlet—all had white chins, and stripe on the belly
white, spots in all very small and vermillion specs in all, all the hues were
most vivid and heightened by profuse nacre. This may be considered the colour
in the highest condition. In others, the spots are very pale yellowish white
and running on the back into vermicular lines, the irides in all dark brown. I
have seen the rose or red eoloured ones at all times of the year. The young
of the first year are green horn colour, with brown vertical stripes and bright
scarlet fins, and tail “already showing the typical markings and spots, and also
the vermillion specs. Fin rays D. 13, Pa 3e Vie8 ALOR Gill rays ete:
Scales very small; dorsal has two rudimentary rays, ten or eleven long ones,
varying in different fish. ‘Typical marks, axillary plate nearly obsolete—free
end of maxillary sharp, barsin young, vermillion specs, both young and adult
lower fins red with white and black edge.

Unlike the salmon who is always a stranger, this beautiful fish is
a favorite with all. He is with us the whole year, in large lakes, in
brooks, in tiny rills were the young lurk for security, and eyen m
the tide waters, to which he will always resort if in his power. In
June, 1866, I saw some of exceeding beauty and colouring taken
from the tide waters of Digby basin. .At the outlet or let of some

GILPIN-—ON THE TROUT AND SALMON. 83

still water is his favorite resort, where poised on ever fanning fin he
awaits his food. Whoever has had the privilege of lying at full
length on a mossy bank and watching him in his lair

an old root
or a tiny cave washed from the overhanging clay banks of the swift
running waters, will agree with Agassiz*—‘‘that a true figure of

him has yet to be done.”

Head elevated at a slight angle, his capa-
cious gills opening and closing, round mouth half open, and great
round head and speckled and spotted back, overhung by the spotted
dorsal hanging athwart, and throwing wavy circles off from every
point, his gaudy scarlet tail and lower fins all tremulous, there he
awaits his prey, be it an idle fly touching the surface, a larva coming
down stream, or a venturous young perch. No spotted pard makes
a fiercer rush than this marine tiger, on his quarry. The perch, if
he is an ender (coming towards him), disappears. at once, or the fly
is snapped with an unerring precision.. The true figure which yet
has to be drawn must make him with a luminous brown eye, round
in head and hack, the dorsal hanging loose across his back and half
elevated and floating watery circles from every point. ‘The pectoral
and ventral extended in parallel lines at nearly a right angle from
the body and ever fanning—a double pair of propellers, the anal
trembling through all its line, and the huge tail vibrating, every ray
loose and every membrane floating. ‘The ordinary plates make every
fin stretched and rigid, and the pectoral always thrown back upon
the side. In October and November he leaves the deep waters for
the spawning shallows. In winter he is taken by bait through the
ice. Of his muscular power in runningup rapids, Dr. Fisk, of St.
John, N.B., an accomplished sportsman, informed me that once
fishing the upper waters of the Miramichi he saw trout repeatedly
rush up a perpendicular fall of water about six feet, then pause,
tremble violently all over, and in a moment throw themselves clear
of the stream and fall into the basin above, about four more fect.
Many assert this is done by bringing head and tail together, but in the
simple terms of an eye witness, a “ trembling ” was all he could per-
ceive, which no doubt was all that was to be observed.

Six pounds is the largest weight of any trout taken in this
Province to my knowledge, two and three pound fish always attract
attention. J have never seen one myself four pounds. ‘The colour

*Fishes of Lake Superior, 1850

84 GILPIN-—- ON THE TROUT AND SALMON,

of his flesh varies from red to pink, and pale yellowish white. In-
ferior in taste to salmon, it is only prized by those who cannot get
the sea-board fish, yet it tastes very savoury roasted and eaten ten
minutes after swimming in the cool waters, from a sharp pointed
stick stuck around a camp-fire.

Salmo Canadensis—Hamitron Siri.

In early spring there is taken by gill nets or by fly fishing
about Halifax, a sea trout. ‘The tide water mouths of the various
rivers are its favorite resort. In these waters he remains till August,
sometimes running up the rivers with the tide a few miles, then
again running sea-ward. A very gaudy fly will tempt him out of
cover, in the thick tangled kelpy marine forests. Again he is found
lurking in the up river deep holes of our turbulent streams. After
August he is never found. ‘his is the Trutta of Perley and Frank
Forrester, confounding it with the Enelish species. his is the
salmon trout of “ The Game Fish of the North,” whose author identifies
it with S. Fontinalis; and also this is the S. Canadensis of Hamilton
Smith, in Grifhth’s Cuvier, as given in Dekay and Norris’s American
Angler. The question has been still more complicated by the brook
trout running to sea, which they are always fond of, and thus being
classed as sea trout.

On 26th May, 1864, Mr. John Butler, Bedford Hotel, gave me
two taken from tide water. June 18th, J. Willis, Esq., gave me
one from Cole Harbour, and during July I examined some dozen
from Musquodoboit, and finally Wm. Silver, Esq., Halifax, gave me
one in Sept. from the fresh water, the rest were from the tide water.

The description of these fish would be thus: of those from the tide way,
length from twelve to fourteen inches, deepest breadth, something more than
one quarter from tip of nose to insertion of tail. The outline rounds up rather
suddenly from a small and arched head to insertion of dorsal, slopes quickly
but gently to adipose fin, then runs straight to insertion of caudal, tail gently
curved rather than cleft, lower line straight to anal, then falling rather rapidly
to make a very convex line for belly and ending at the gills. The body deeper
and more compressed than the brook trout. The dorsal is quadrangular, the

Nore. —wm. ¢. Silv er, Lisq., eave me a trout Sept. 29, 1866, t taken on his own
prounds, weighing about two pounds, fifteen and a halfinches Jong, entire depth
five anda halfinches. This was a male fish, milt well developed. The intermax-
illary enlarged and armed with larger teeth having a notch in it to receive the
lower jaw, also lengthened and hooked. These changes altered the profile of the
fish giving him a pointed nose. The colour was most brilliant, the belly tints car-
mine and the sides of the tenderest azure. The lower fins and lower edge of tail
had the broad white and black anterior rays very well developed.

GILPINN- ON THE TROUT AND SALMON. 8)

free edge convex, the lower fins having the first rays in eaeh thicker and flatter
like the brock trout. The adipose fin varies , some with very long and arched
free end, in others small and straight. The specimen from the fresh water was
very ach longer and thinner, and head proportionally larger. The colour of
those from the tideway was more or less dark greenish blue on back
shading to ash blue and white below, lips edged with “dusky. They all had
faint cream coloured spots, both above and below the lateral line, with one
exception they all had vermillion specks, but some only one of a side, others
two or three. ‘he head in all oreenish horn colour. The colour of the fins
‘in pectoral, ventral and anal, “varied from pale white, blueish white to pale
orange, with a dusky streak on different individuals. Dorsal dusky with faint
spots, id caudal with dusky tips, on some a little orange wash. The lower
fins had the first ray flat and white and edged with dusky. In two specimens
the entire fish was spotted with minute black spots on every part, save the
fins where the spots were red, but I considered these to be diseased fish.
T leave it to better pens than my own to describe the glorious colouring of this
fish dripping from the ocean. The fair green vying with the tender blue of
the head and back, the silver of the sides, the lovely pink flesh showing through
the silver of the belly, and the catching reflections crossing everywhere. In the
specimen taken 10th Sept. from the fresh water, the blue and silver had dis-
appeared, and dingy ash colour had spread down below the lateral line ; the
greenish horn colour had spread itself over the whole gills except the chin,
which was white. The silvery reflections were all gone, “the cream coloured
dapples were much more decided in colour and shape, and the vermillion specks
very numerous. ‘The fins, the caudal and all the lower fins had an orange
wash, the dorsal dusky yellow with black spots, the lower fins retaining the
white flat ray with a dusky edging—and the caudal a few spots.

The teeth of all were upon ‘the mbemmasallary, maxillaries, palatine and
on the tongue, none cn vomer except now and then one tooth behind the arch
of palate.

Fin rays, D. 13, P..13, V. & A. 10. Gill rays 12. Axillary scale
very small. Dorsal with two He es rays, ten or eleven long ones, free
edge convex, first ray lower fins flat, scales very small but rather larger than
brook trout.

The weight of this fish goes as high as seven pounds, their gen-
eral average is about two pounds. ‘The flavor of their flesh exceeds
salmon when fresh, salted or pickled it is very dry. I have said
before that from May till August he is taken in our tide waters, both
im the Bay of Fundy and along our Atlantic sea board and at Cape
Breton. After August he is found im the lakes and streams. C.
Anderson, Esq., magistrate, informs me he has taken them during win-
ter through the ice by bait, from one to twenty miles from the salt
water, and that he has often seen them returning to the sea in March.
Mr. John Duncan, St. Margaret’s Bay, is of the same opinion. Wm.
C. Silver, Esq., of Halifax, who has studied their habits for years,
and in waters running through his own lands, and almost past his

11

86 GILPIN —ON THE TROUT AND SALMON.

own door, is of opinion that they remain all winter in the fresh
water, leaving the tideway in August, that they rapidly change their
colour and shape in fresh water, approximate to the brook trout in
both, but are always distinguishable.

Tn classing this fish we must acknowledge it exceedingly closely
allied to Fontinalis, that it has the teeth, shape of fins, axillary
plate, tail, dapples, vermillion specks, spotted dorsal, alike ; that
when it runs to fresh water, it changes its colour, and in doing this
approximates to its red fin and dingy green, and more numerous
vermillion specks still more closely. Whilst on the other hand, we
find it living apart from Fontinalis, pursuing its own laws, attaining
a greater size, and returning year after year tothe sea. That Fonti-
nalis is often found unchanged under the same circumstances. ‘That
it always preserves its more arched head, deeper and more com-
pressed body, and perhaps shorter fins. That this has been so for
certainly a hundred years, and most probably for thousands, nor
have we any evidence that it was at any time not so, except by
analogy. In giving it a specific name therefore, and using the
appropriate one given it by Col. Hamilton Smith, so far as I can
discover, the first describer, I think I will be borne out by all
naturalists.

Salmo Gloverti—Girarv.

Under the misnomer of Grayling, a very handsome dark brown
trout has long been known to sportsmen as being killed in the lakes
about Halifax. The largest were about seventeen to twenty inches
long, and weighed two to four pounds. But it was more celebrated
for its courage and game qualities, one of half-pouna weight giving
better sport than a salmon of six or eight pounds; they are often
known to spring six feet out of water, three or four times in succes-
sion, when struck; they are taken by bait also, being greedy feeders.
That they approach the shallow water, and spawn in November, and
at other seasons, may be taken the whole year in the deep waters,

being lake trout, and that their young are taken during summer,

larger pre-opercle, is not to be confounded with this species. It is a more Northern
species, and not taker in our waters. The dorsal is concave instead of convex. |
have examined hundreds, but they were all pickled and from Labrador, ‘The very
large ones had no spots of vermil, but the smaller ones all had. In other respects
Storer is correct. His description is based on one specimen,

GILPIN=—-ON THE TROUT AND SALMON. 87

vertical bars of the Genus Salmo,—is all that I have obtained of its
habits. Their flesh is deep yellow in some cases, in others white
and of no great flavor. I am indebted to F. W. Putnam, Esq.,
Salem, for directing my attention to a description of this fish by
Girard, in the proceedings of the Philadelphia Institute Natural
Sciences, May, 1854, the only notice I believe extant, and thus pre-
venting me noticing it as an undescribed species. I here beg to
acknowledge his courtesy as well as the scientific knowledge so kindly
given to anentire stranger. The following description is taken from
specimens given me by Lt. Col. Hardy, the late Archdeacon Willis,
and Canon Gilpin.

Length, about seventeen inches; breadth of widest part. from first dorsal,
two and a half inches; length of head, nearly two and a half inches ; the shape
of head fine and small, the back rising rather suddenly, from posterior to head,
sloping very gradually upward to insertion of dorsal, thence downward to in-
sertion of tail, lower line corresponding with line of back; a long elegant
shaped fish with a strong base to a powerful tail; eye large nearly half an inch
in diameter and two diameters from end of nose ; opercles rounded, and with
the pre-opercles marked with numerous concentric streaks ; the lower line of
inter-opercle parailel with line of the body, labials both upper rand lower arched,
line of pre-opercle not so rounded as opercle ; the pectoral fins coming out very
far forward almost touching the gill rays, doceal commencing about ia lengths
of head from tip of nose, sub-quadrangular, free edge concave, ventral about
opposite sixth ray of dorsal, adipose fin opposite posterior edge of anal, and
caudal deeply cleft, and very nearly the length of head in depth. In one in-
stance the tail was square, intermaxillaries, maxillaries, palatines, vomer and
tongue armed with sharp and recurved teeth, the teeth on the vomer extending
half an inch down the roof of mouth, a fleshy line extending from them to the
gullet, the upper jaw votched to receive the lower. In two specimens a pro-
longed hook in lower jaw advancing beyond the teeth. Girard says the male fish
has adipose fins opposite anterior edge of anal, the female opposite posterior
edge. Whilst in the following description taken from a female fish I have
verified his remarks, I have added, in the male the adipose fin is very much
larger, which is almost the same thing. Colour black above shading down
to sepia brown at the lateral line, the brown being the back ground to numerous
black spots, some round, some lunated extending from opercles to tail. The
opercles partake of the same general colour with yellow reflections and blue
tints, but also marked with spots extending to the pre-opercles, beautifully
round and distinct ; sides yellowish and belly white with pearly tints, the
whole covered with bright scales larger about the sides than beneath. The
colours vary much by the reflected lights made by turning the fish. The
colour of the fins fresh out of water, caudal brown, dorsal brownish black and
spotted, lower fins dark brown, edges and tips dark, a very fleeting lavender
wash on dorsal, sides yellowish. In one adult specimen I noticed a few red
spots on sides, thm in the young fish they are very marked and beautiful.
Some seen by myself in July had vertical bars, red spots, were very silvery on
sides and all even the smallest had the typical opercular spots very distinct.

88 GILPIN — ON THE TROUT AND SALMON.

They were exceedingly beautiful and might have readily been taken for a dif
ferent species. On opening the fish, from gills to tail the heart with its single
auricle and ventricle first presented, the liver overlapping the stomach and pale
yellow, the stomach descended about one-half the length of the fish, was then
reflected suddenly upon itself where it was covered by numerous cwca (about
thirty), these are the pyloric ceca of authors. It then turned down again and
soon was lost in small intestine ending at the vent. The spawn were each of
the size of currants and bright scarlet, about a thousand in number, and
encased in a very thin bilobular ovary, the left lobe occupying the left side.
being a little over three inches, and only one-half the length of right lobe oc-
cupying right side ; a second fish gave the same placing of ovary. Both these
fish were taken on the 2nd and 4th November at Grand Lake, Halifax, and
evidently near spawning. Fins, D. 12 or 13, P. 14, V. 9, A. 9, €. 20.
Axillary scale small. The first dorsal ray in some instances contains two in
others three small rays. Typical marks, spots on opercles.

The Loch Lomond trout near St. John, N. B. are identical with
these fish; I saw some at Stubb’s Hotel, taken by H. Gilbert,
Esq.; Perley confounds them with S. Feror. With the exception
of Girard I believe this species has not been noticed by naturalists
or sportsmen, yet it is worthy of notice from both, by one for its
game qualities, and by the other for its most resembling the European
trout, in its teeth down the vomer and brown colouring and spots.

Salmo Confinis—Duxay. Salmo Adirondicus—Norris.

For some years reports have been made of a large black fish
seen in our interior lakes, principally from Chester. They were
generally considered spent salmon. One gentleman about twenty
years ago, built a boat, and camped for some time on the lakes, but
was not successful. About two years ago Col. Sinclair sent two
specimens to J. M. Jones, Esq., who identified them as the lesser
lake trout, the Salmo Confinis of Dekay, common to most of the
small lakes of the Northern States. Subsequently Col. Chearnley
sent some to town taken by the Indians. From these and other
specimens taken from great Pock Wock lake near Halifax, the fol-
lowing description is taken. he first, of one weighing about three
pounds, and evidently a young fish.

Length eighteen and a half inches. Length of head one fourth of length
to insertion of tail. In some others the head was rather longer. Insertion of
first dorsal two lengths of head from tip of nose. The outline commencing
from a round obtuse snout, rose almost immediately and suddenly, owing to the
large orbit of a very large eye placed very high in the head, and ran gently
upward to insertion of dorsal, then straight to adipose fin, then rather suddenly
depressed to insertion of a very strong and deeply curved rather than forked
tail. The outline of belly much more convex than that of back. The greatest

GILPIN — ON THE TROUT AND SALMON, 89

girth in front of dorsal and about one-quarter of length to insertion of tail. The
labials arched, the eye very prominent and set high in the head, about two
diameters from tip of nose, not quite four to outer edge of opercle, pre-opercle
very thick and puffy. its outline at right angles with line of body, and subcir-
cular. Interior edge of inter-opercle parallel with line of body. Colour
fresh from water, black on back running to dusky below lateral line, where it
assumes a yellowish wash and ending in white on the belly (one was mottled
or obscurely spotted with white on sides, another had vertical bars of dusky).
Head of the same colour as body. a little bronze on opercle and pre-opercle,
tip and edges of chin blackish and below white. The dusky hue was caused
by minute dots, the dots taking the form of scales on the belly. The colour of
fins was—dorsal dusky yellow, spotted with three irregular rows of spots, rays
lighter than webs, adipose blackish, pectoral and ventral yellowish dusky, when
folded tips dark, a slight orange wash on tips, anal and caudal yellowish
dusky, a slight orange wash on tips in anal. Teeth on palatines, vomer,
upper and lower maxillarics, intermaxillaries and tongue, in one a few teeth
down the centre of tongue as well as on the sides, upper lip notched to receive
lower. D. 10, P. 14, V. 9, A. 8. Gill rays, 12. The first dorsal ray very
thiek, containing perhaps a rudimentary ray, the first rays of all the lower fins
flat and thick, caudal cleft about one-half a length but outline rounded. Irides
salmon yellow, scales minute, typical marks very large head, one-fourth length,
fleshy pre-opercle and teeth down the middle of tongue.

These young fish resembled in outline, the plate of S. Srscowitz
(Agassiz), the fins differing. ‘They also resembled Norris’s figure
‘(American Angler) of S. Adirondacus, but in comparing them with
other specimens weighing from seven to ten pounds, I found these
last comcided with Dekay’s figure, except that it is feebly drawn and
not giving the strong characteristics of the adult fish, and that both,
although the young fish was slender and elongated, and the older
thick and stout, preserve the strong typical marks of the species.
The large eyes set high inthe head, and projecting orbit, the very
fleshy pre-opercle, the short distance between posterior end of anal
and caudal fins, the same colour and teeth, both having the very
peculiar triple row on tongue, and the very large head. As the
fish becomes larger all these typical marks become stronger, till one
weighing twenty pounds or upwards, in his huge and fleshy jaws,
thick back and tail and great girth, resembles more a cod than a
salmon. Of the half dozen I examined, one, evidently an old fish,
had an irregularity of caudal fins, the lower lobe much the longer.
I attributed it to an injury, but Col. Hardy noticed the same irregu-
larity, and Mr. T. Mackie, who has fished numbers of them, assured
me it was quite common. I have no explanation for these facts.

As regards colour, when taken immediately out of the water, the

\

90 GILPIN — ON THE TROUT AND SALMON.

heads are a dark greenish horn colour, the backs black, sides yellow-
ish with spots and belly white. ‘These colours are varied and
heightened by the thick nacre and reflected lights of the scales. As
the fish becomes stale, the nacre dries, and a light purplish or ame-
thystine colour pervades the whole. ‘The tip of caudal and lower fins
faint orange or yellowish. The third row of teeth on the tongue so
peculiar to this salmon alone, is not always to be found, even some
adult fish have it not. Dekay and Perley give them, Frank Forres-
ter not, yet each from actual inspection. I have examined specimens
both with and without them. They are taken with a whole line, as
fishermen call thirty fathoms. Our alpine lake basins having this
great depth. ‘The flesh is coarse. ‘hey are usually bottom feeders,
though the Indians assert they will rise to a red rag, and perhaps
never exceed twenty-two pounds, although there are many accounts
of their huge size attaimed in lakes where there are no weighing
scales. ,

In concluding, all what I could procure either personally or from
reliable sources of this very interesting genus, a very few general
remarks will suffice. In regard to teeth, we find as typical marks
they are not so reliable as in the Mammalia. It is all but certain
that S. Sular renews his teeth in the male twice a year. One species
has a triple row on the tongue, and that not constant, the others
having a double row. As regards vomerine teeth or rather teeth
down the roof of the mouth, two, Fontinalis and Canadensis have
none, or at best one tooth and that not constant, the Salar has two
or three, and Gloverit and Confinis a strong row. I say teeth down
the roof of mouth, for strictly speaking they all have vomerine teeth,
for the palatine bones being each side of an arch of which the vomer
is the keystone, and the palatine teeth being an uninterrupted circle
round the arch, it follows that the head of thé vomer always has
teeth but not always down the bone. ‘The author of that very
pleasant book, “ Game Fish of the North,” should remember this
when he asserts that Fontinalis has no vomerine teeth. When he
indulges in sneers against naturalists, and smart writing about marine
dentists, he should at lcast be correct, especially as only a scholar,
a naturalist and sportsman combined, could have written as he has
done of rock and flood. We have one species common to both
worlds, another Fontinalis, in its teeth, red spots, rose belly, and

BELT — ON THE GLACIAL PERIOD IN NORTH AMERICA. 91

broad plated white edged orange fins, is the true analogue to the
Char of Europe. Whilst Gloverii, in its brown colour and teeth
resembles Furio of Europe and Confinis, the great lake trout of
Scotland’s lakes. So far I have never heard of Corregonus
the analogue to the Vendace of England, but may find it
at any time; not so with the splended analogue to the Grayling
of Europe, the Signifer of Sir John Richardson. His range is too
northern, and his great beauty and typical dorsal would have betrayed
his whereabouts long since.

Arr. XI. Tur GuactaL PErRtop 1x Norra America. By
Tuomas Bett, F. G. S.

[Read May 8, 1866.]

I. Inrropeucrion. Il. Gractarep Rocks anp Drirt-Beps or Nova Scorta.
1. Hroded valleys and scratched rocks. .2. Drift-beds. 3. Gold in the Drift. 4.
Marine beds of the St. Lawrence. VII. Orntcin oF THB GuLaAcIAL PERIOD. 1.
Theories of Origin. 2. Recent changes of level of the land in northern hemisphere
greatest towards the pole. 3. Effect of shutting off warm currents from the Polar
Basin. JV. Action oF THE Icz. 1. Statement of the question. 2. Accumula-
tion of the Ice. 3. Culmination. 4. Retreat. WV. APPLICATION OF THE THEORY
TO SOME OF THE PHENOMENA OF THE Drirr. 1. Local character of the Drift.
2. Transported Blocks of Berkshire, Massachusetts. 3. Drift of the St. Lawrence.
Terraces and Stratified Deposits. V1. Conciusion.

I.—INTRODUCTION.

Unt the last few years most geologists have taught that the glacial
period was one of a great submergence of northern land, over which
floated icebergs bearing from more arctic regions, stones, gravel and
clay. Agassiz had long ago argued that land and not floating ice
had been the effective agent in the glaciation of countries, but his
theory met with little support, until the investigations of Norweg-
ian and Swedish geologists proved that the glaciation of the Scandi-
navian peninsula had radiated from the central mountains, and could
not have been produced by currents driftimg icebergs from the
north. ‘The same result has been worked out in Scotland by Mr.
Jamieson, and:in North Wales by Prof. Ramsay, and now geologists
are agreed that at the time of the greatest developement of the
ice in Europe, the land was elevated above its present level and
covered with ice, which descending from the higher ranges, deepened
and widened the valleys down which it flowed.

The continent of North America is more glaciated than that of

92 BELT—ON THE GLACIAL PERIOD IN NORTH AMERICA.

Europe, but there is not the same evidence of the radiation of the
transported blocks from central heights ; and whilst Agassiz, Dana
and other eminent geologists have adopted the theory of land ice,
Lyell and Dawson have advanced many arguments in favour of
that of icebergs. ‘The question is therefore an open one, and no
where can it be more appropriately discussed than before this In-
stitute ; for Halifax stands on ice-moulded hills, on an ice-cut har-
bour, and is surrounded by glaciated rocks and ice-carried drift.
During the progress of the exploratory works of the Nova Scotia
Gold Company, carried on under my direction, I obtained what
appeared to me conclusive evidence, that neither durimg nor since
the glacial period has the southern coast of Nova Scotia been cov-
ered by the waters of the ocean. I purpose in the present paper to
describe these facts, prefacing them with a short sketch of the gla-
ciated rocks and superficial deposits of the Atlantic coast of the
Province, and afterwards to discuss the question of the glacial period
in North America, of which these phenomena are the monuments.

Il-—GLACIATED ROCKS AND DRIFT-BEDS OF NOVA SCOTIA.

1. Evoded valleys and scratched rocks —The Atlantic coast of
Nova Scotia is cut into by long, narrow deep bays or fiords. The
direction of the bays is roughly north and south. ‘The hard rocks
that bound them exhibit everywhere glacial scratchings and groov-
ings in an excellent state of preservation and with a similar north and
south direction. Going farther from the coast the long bays give
place to deep and often narrow lakes, also pointing north and south.
Chains of lakes sometimes reaching across the country have the same
direction.

The whole country is hugely cut into irregular meridional ridges
and furrows, which are as much part of the glaciation of the land as
the scratchings and groovings. ‘The valleys are scooped out of ex-
tremely hard quartzites and other metamorphosed rocks. ‘These are
highly inclined, and their strike is north-east and south-west. The
valleys have been excavated across their upturned edges, transversely
to their strike. Scratches and grooves might be caused by icebergs
grinding along the bottom of a shallow sea, but the glaciation of a
continent and especially the scooping out of long valleys, requires
the uniform action of a more powerful agency.

BELT —ON THE GLACIAL PERIOD IN NORTH AMERICA. 935

2. Drift-beds.—It is, however, in the composition and distribution
of the drift-beds that we find the most convincing evidence of the
supra-marine character of the glaciating agent. In Nova Scotia
the hollows are comparatively free from drift excepting where
mounds across valleys mark the position of old terminal moraines. It
has generally been pushed into recesses in the ranges, or to the south
end of hills where it was sheltered from the ice moving southward.

Thus Lake Thomas near Waverly is bounded to the west by a
rather steep range running north and south parallel to the lake,
down to and into which it rapidly slopes. ‘The structure of this hill
has been well exposed by cuttings made in search of auriferous
quartz veins. ‘The northern end and the side next the lake has a
thin covering of clay, gravel and boulders. The bed-rock is rounded,
scored and grooved. Masses of quartz have been broken oif from the
lode and carried southwards. The southern end of the hill is com-
posed entirely of clay, gravel and large angular stones. <A tunnel
was driven into it for about two hundred feet and no solid rock
could be found, nothing but huge stones and other drift pushed in
under the lee of the rocky beds to the north.

The transported blocks and the direction of the scratchings show
that the glaciating agent moved from the north. If it had been
floating ice and the hill at the time a submerged rock, the icebergs
ought to have stranded on and deposited their freight at the north-
ern, and not at the southern end. If on the contrary it was glacier
ice the phenomena are just such as we might expect to find.

Again, if this drift had been dropped from icebergs floating over
a submerged land, and we could imagine any possible means by
which it could be arranged as we find it, we have still to account for the
greater difficulty, that whilst the land slowly rose again from beneath
the waters of the supposed glacial sea, and was exposed to the action
of the wayes on the spreading coast line, these ridges of incoherent
drift were left unlevelled, and these bare hollows were left unfilled.

3. Gold in the Drift. — Through much of the drift grain gold is
sparingly disseminated, and its distribution affords another argu-
ment in favour of the supra-marine theory. In Australia all the
most important deposits of alluvial gold have been found in valleys
lying immediately above the bed rock, beneath beds of gravel and
clay ; wherever surface washings have been discovered much richer

12

94 BELT—ON THE GLACIAL PERIOD IN NORTH AMERICA.

deep sinkings have been found in the vicinity. ‘This indeed seems
to be a necessary result of the sorting arrangement of water.

But in Nova Scotia, though denuded auriferous quartz lodes are
abundant, no similar deposits have been found with one exception,
to the consideration of which I will return. The gold instead of
being concentrated at the bottom of the superficial deposits, is either
distributed throughout them, or occurs in greater abundance at the
surface than below.

At Lawrencetown extensive washings were projected, in conse-
quence of the discovery of spangles and grains of gold in the surface
soil. It was expected that it would be found in larger quantities
in the lower parts of the beds of gravel, as in other gold producing
countries; but these expectations were not realized. <A. little gold
was found throughout the gravel, but nowhere so abundantly as at
the surface. Probably the gold had been originally distributed
throughout the drift, and its partial concentration at the surface had
been caused by suberial denudation. The process of denudation
may be seen in operation on every hill side. During the severe
winter the ground freezes to about two feet from the surface; when
the spring thaws set in this is completely disintegrated, and much of
the finer soil is carried off into the rivers by the water from the
melting ice and falling rains. The heavier stones and the gold are
left behind, and thus are produced the surface gold washings, and
the surface accumulations of stones culminating in the well known
barrens of the Province. Since these gravels were deposited, they
cannot have been rearranged by water ; its sorting action would have
carried the heavier gold to the bottom of the deposits, as in other
gold producing countries.

The great richness of the gold washings in Australia and their
scarcity and poverty in Nova Scotia, notwithstanding the abundance
of auriferous lodes that have been denuded, may be thus explained :
In Australia the denuding agent was water. which carried off the
ground up rocks but left behind the gold—so that in the gravel beds
nearly all the gold but only a small proportion of the original rock
mass is left. In Nova Scotia the denuding agent was glacier ice>
which carried off alike the stony masses and their metallic contents.
The drift-beds left contain only the same proportion of gold as ex-

BELT — ON THE GLACIAL PERIOD IN NORTH AMERICA. 95

isted in the original rock mass, excepting where suberial denudation
has concentrated it on the surface.

Perhaps in sediments older than the glacial period and which
have escaped destruction during it, or in the beds of existing streams,
or on the present sea coast, deposits of grain gold may be found, but
they will be only the exceptions to the general rule. 1 have men-
tioned one exception. It belongs to the third class: it has been
‘produced by the waves of the sea on the existing coast line. I refer
to the gold washings at the Ovens, near Lunenburgh, which, though
limited in extent and soon exhausted, for a time largely remunerated
some of those employed upon them. From the side of a rocky
promontory, traversed by numerous small auriferous quartz veins,
spreads out a bed of glacial drift, throughout which grain gold is
sparingly disseminated. The sea is slowly eating into this bed and
rearranging its materials. It grinds up the stones to shingle and
finally to sand and mud, which it carries off to deeper water, leaving
behind the tough heavy gold. This is found at the bottom of the
shingle between tide marks, on the surface and in the crevices of
the bed rock, where the gold formerly distributed throughout a large
mass of drift has been concentrated. Now if the country had been
submerged during the deposition of the glacial drift, every part of it,
during its subsequent elevation, would at some time have formed a
portion of its ever advancing coast line, and been subjected to the
action of the waves; and such deposits as those of Lunenburgh in-
stead of being confined to the present shore would have been formed
all over the emerging land.

4. Marine Beds of the St. Lawrence.—In the valley of the St.
Lawrence marine beds with sea shells are found at various elevations,
up to five hundred feet above the sea near Montreal. ‘These beds
lie above the glacial drifts, and prove that subsequently to the depo-
sition of the latter, the country was submerged to at least the height
at which the marine beds are found. From a consideration of the
facts stated above, I am convinced that the Atlantic coast of Nova
Scotia did not participate in this depression, and a study of the marine
deposits themselves leads to the same conclusion. At Montreal sea
shells have been found up to a height of five hundred feet above the
sea, but lower down the St. Lawrence they do not occur excepting
at a lower level. Thus on the Metis river they are found at a height

9&8 BELT —ON THE GLACIAL PERIOD IN NORTH AMERICA.

of two hundred and forty-five feet, and lower down still at Matan
river they have not been found much higher than fifty feet above the
sea. I do not suppose that these shells mark the extreme heights
to which the sea has reached at the different places, but so far as the
observations go, they show a decrease of the submergence towards
the mouth of the Gulf. Iam not acquainted with the drift-beds
of the Province of New Brunswick, but I have no doubt that they
will be found to bear out the same inference, namely, that going
eastward from Montreal the elevation of the marine beds marking
the former submergence of the land gradually decreases, until in
Nova Scotia it reaches zero.

The gold washings of the valley of the Chaudiere within the area
that we know, which from the evidence of sea shells was submerged
after the glacial period, show us what would have been found im the
auriferous districts of Nova Scotia, if that Province had also been
submerged. ‘The absence of gold washings in Nova Scctia and their
presence in Lower Canada, are strictly in unison with the absence
of marine deposits with sea shells in the one district and their pre-
sence in the other.

Ii.—ORIGIN OF THE GLACIAL PERIOD.

1. Theories of origin.—lt is far beyond the scope of this paper to
enter upon the discussion, or even to give an account of the yarious
theories that have been advanced in explanation of the origin of the
glacial period. It is less necessary for me to do so as the whole
question is quite a modern one, and the views of Croll, Frankland
and others have been so recently made public, that the scientific
world is well acquainted with them and with the objections that
have been urged against them. I will therefore confine myself to
the consideration of the one that seems to me the most satisfactory

Sir Chas. Lyell in his admirable Principles of Geology long ago
showed that the extremes of heat and cold might be produced by
the grouping of the land ; in the one case, about the equator, and
in the other, about the poles. ‘There can be no doubt that a rise of
polar and a submergence of tropical and sub-tropical lands, would
greatly lower the temperature of the arctic and temperate zones.

That during the glacial period or part of it, the land now glaci-
ated stood somewhat higher than at present, has been inferred from

BELT — ON THE GLACIAL PERIOD IN NORTH AMERICA. 97

the depths to which fiords have been excavated, and from the fact of
littoral shells having been dredged many miles from existing coasts.
With regard to the submergence of tropical and sub-tropical lands,
it is new well established that at the same period the African Sahara
was covered by the waters of the ocean, so that we have an approach
towards the conditions required for the production of extreme celd.
That the conditions were all fulfilled is very improbable, indeed that
they were not is proved by the ice having extended much farther
south in North America than in Europe.

2. Recent changes of level of the land in northern hemisphere
greatest towards the pole-—In a paper on some movements of the
carth’s surface in recent times,* | have remarked that in two instances
in the northern hemisphere, one of depression, the other of elevation,
the movement is greatest towards the pole. This matter is so im-
portant in dealing with the question of the probability of a rise of
Arctic lands in the glacial epoch that I may be permitted to refer to
it again, and to supplement the argument with some additional facts
bearing upon it.

It has long been known that parts of the coasts of Sweden and
Norway were slowly rising, and in the time of Linneus marks were
made on the rocks by which the rate of elevation at different points
has been determined. It appears that at Gottenberg in the south,
the land is only being raised about four inches in a century, but that
the rate of motion gradually increases northwards, until at Cape Cod,
the extreme point where it has been measured, the land is being
raised about four feet in a century.

Opposite to this area of elevation, on the other side of the At-
lantic, there is a corresponding area of depression. It appears to be
well established that the Atlantic sea board of North America is
slowly sinking. In New England the subsidence is scarcely
perceptible, but it gradually increases as we proceed northwards.
In Nova Scotia the submergence of marsh lands and of rocks has
been generally remarked by the residents on the coast, and Cobe-
quid bay and Cumberland basin submarine forests attest the long
continuance of the downward motion. ‘This subsidence attains its
maximum on the west coast of Greenland, where the land is so rapidly
sinking that in quite recent times the settlers have had to move

*These Transactions, vol. I, Part I, p. 24.

98 BELT — ON THE GLACIAL PERIOD IN NORTH AMERICA.

inland more than once the poles on which their large boats are
placed. Here again the rate of motion is greatest towards the pole.

The present period of subsidence was preceded in part of east-
ern North America by one of elevation, which brought up the marine
deposits of the Champlain period; to which the Montreal beds
already mentioned belong. On the southern borders of New Eneg-
land these marine beds are only found up to about forty feet above
the sea. As we proceed north they are found higher and higher.
At Montreal they reach to five hundred feet above the sea, and in
the extreme north, on Cornwallis and Beechey Islands in Barrow
Straits, they have been found at an elevation of over one thousand
feet. Here again the elevation is greatest towards the pole and
gradually decreases southwards. ‘To produce extreme cold accord-
ing to Sir Chas. Lyell’s theory, we only require a similar movement
on a larger scale, and these smaller oscillations with their vertices
towards the pole, may point to some general law governing the up-
heaval and subsidence of the earth’s crust which would, if it could
be deduced, explain the elevation of the land towards the north and
its depression towards the south during the glacial period.

3. Effect of shutting off warm currents from the Polar Basin.—We
do not know how small a change in the distribution of land and
water might again produce a glacial clmate. The effect of a change
in the direction of the Gulf Stream, has been discussed by Mr. Hop-
kins and other writers, but I do not think that it has been noticed
that a much greater change of climate would be produced, if all
warm currents were shut off from the polar basin. ‘Sir John Her-
schel has indeed stated that if Behrig’s Straits, which are only thirty
miles broad, were closed so as to prevent the water circulating from
a warmer region, finding its way into the polar basin, there would
probably be a continual accretion of ice which might rise to a moun-
tainous height.*

But if, besides the closing of Behring’s Straits, there were a
partial emergence of land from bencath the ocean, connecting Kurope
through Iceland and Newfoundland with America, we can scarcely
appreciate the effect it would have in altering the climate of the
northern hemisphere. There would not only be a great lowering
of temperature through the increase of land around the poles, but

*Herschel’s Physical Geography, page At.

BELT — ON THE GLACIAL PERIOD IN NORTH AMERICA. 99

the heat of the Gulf Stream and other warm currents that is now
expended in tempering Arctic seasons and melting polar ice, would
then be spent in evaporation; and greater evaporation would give
greater precipitation on the frozen lands of the north. The forma-
tion of continental ice requires both a low mean temperature and an
abundance of moisture. The rise of northern lands, and the closing
of the Arctic basin to southern waters, would give the one, and the
- greater warmth of tropical and sub-tropical seas, into which no polar
currents ran and from which no warm waters flowed, would give
the other.
IV.—ACTION OF THE ICE.

1. Statement of the question.—Turning our attention now to the
possibility of land ice having glaciated the whole of eastern North
America, we encounter the difficulty that has prevented many from
accepting the theory of continental ice, who are fully impressed with
the satisfactory solution it affords of the distribution of the drift-beds
and the erosion of valleys. It is that whilst the rock scratchings
and transported blocks prove that the glaciating agent moved from
the north, there are no mountains in that direction from which it
could have descended, and that any elevation of Arctic regions suf-
ficient to give a slope that would bring the ice southwards like a
great glacier is utterly improbable, if not physically impossible.
With this opinion I fully coimcide, but so far from considering it
fatal to the theory of land ice, I believe that no such slope was
necessary, and that the theory better explains the phenomena of
the drift, on the supposition that there was no great elevation of
northern lands than by a contrary hypothesis.

The subject may be best understood by tracing in imagination
the accumulation of the ice and its progress southwards, its cul-
mination and subsequent retreat, and noting whether or not its pro-
bable mode of action will account for the facts to be explained. It
will be convenient to limit the discussion to one great area such as
that of eastern North America, where the glaciation though on a
grander scale than elsewhere, is more uniform from the very vastness
of the agent that effected it.

2. Accumulation of the ice—As the glacial period, from whatever
cause, came on, snow and ice would gradually spread from the arc-
tic circle southwards. | Wherever there was not inclination of the

100 BELT — ON THE GLACIAL PERIOD IN NORTH AMERICA.

surface sufficient to carry it off bodily, as a glacier it would accumu-
late and be piled up until the higher portions slipped over the
lower.

It has been suggested above that one of the most powerful causes
that brought on the glacial period, was the shutting off the gulf stream
and other warm currents from the arctic area, where at the present
time they are ceaselessly employed in ameliorating the climate and
melting up the ice at its source. They now eat into the very vitals
of the icy foe, which attacked and routed in the rear draws in its
forces to its inmost citadel. In the glacial period the breaches that
now let in the mvading waters from the south, were closed, and the
icy hosts gathering in the north, pushed out their legions south-
wards, and drew their very sustenance from the forces that now beat
them back to their arctic fortress.

Piled up then in the north the ice and snow would spread south-
wards. Where it encountered a high range running transversely
to its flow, it would at first be diverted from its course, but it would
gradually accumulate behind the obstacle until it overtopped it, at
first flowing through passes in the range and ultimately overwhelm-
ing the whole ridge. In advance of the great mass, streams of ice
would flow down pre-existing valleys and through passes in opposing
ranges, deepening, widening and glaciating them, like pioneers cut-
ting out roads for the main body. In some cases, passes through
chains of hills would determine the erosion of valleys in front of
them, by the ice that poured through from behind.

This moying margin of the advancing ice would be the effective
tool in glaciating the country. ‘To its action every portion of the
surface would be exposed, whether its slope conformed to the course
of the ice flow or was opposed to it; just as every part of a coast
between tide marks is washed by the rising flood. And as the
waves run forward on the shore and retire, to again advance, and
again retreat, although the whole body of water is steadily rising, so
we may suppose that the ice margin might greatly advance during
a series of cold seasons, and retreat during warmer ones, to be again
thrust forward and again drawn back, although during a great num-
ber of years the advance of the main body of ice would carry the
fluctuating margin far forward and subject a new zone to its action.
Thus the whole continent from the arctic circle to as far south as

BELT — ON THE GLACIAL PERIOD IN NORTH AMERICA. 101

Baltimore and Ohio was slowly and successively worked over.
Many of its old valleys would be deepened and many new ones
excavated. Lines of faults, of fractured or of softer strata, would
be worn into valleys and lake basins. Everywhere the ice would
find out the weakest points of the rock masses and work deepest there.

The moving margin of the ice flow and especially the glaciers
thrown out in advance, would be the great producers and carriers of
drift. The stones borne along upon a glacier are from the cliffs and
peaks that rise above it and not from the rocks beneath, over which
it passes. The latter are only smoothed and rounded, but the cliffs
that bound a glacier are eaten into like a river bank. Masses of
rock are undermined and fall down upon and are carried away on
the ice, to be deposited in terminal and lateral moraines.

3. Culmination—At last the ice reaches its limits. Mount
Washington is glaciated nearly to its summit, and at the time when
there was most ice only its top could have stood out—a desolate
island in a frozen sea. To the north the whole continent must have
been covered without a single peak rising above the universal pall.

It is probable that during the greatest development of the ice,
most of the drift that had been produced would be destroyed by
being ground to powder under the mighty moving mass, and carried
away in the water which we know flows turbid from beneath every
elaciér. The time of thickest ice was not that of the production of
drift, but of the rounding, polishing and grooving of mountain masses.
Could the icy covering have been lifted the rocky skeleton of the
country would have been exposed, with scarcely a patch of gravel
or soil upon its bare, scarred frame.

The scratchings on the highest peaks show that the main body
of the ice moved south-easterly. Here we see the action of two
forces—one, from the north, was the accumulation of ice in that
direction ; the other, from the west, was the slope of the continent
towards its eastern sea board.

4. fetreat.—If then drift was not formed when the ice was at
its height, and that which had been produced during its advance was
then destroyed; whence the heaps of gravel and the transported
blocks that now cover the face of the country? They were dis-
tributed during the slow retreat of the ice, when again every part of
the country was subjected to the action of the moying margin. Just

13

102 BELT—ON THE GLACIAL PERIOD IN NORTH AMERICA.

as the whole of a sandy beach is rippled between high and low water
marks by the retiring tide, so during the gradual retrogression of the
continental ice, every portion of the country that had been covered,
—from the valleys of the Ohio and the Missouri to the Arctic hills,
and from the summits of the hills to the bottoms of the deepest
valleys,—became again for a time, as they had been during the ad-
vance of the ice, the shore of an ice sea, or the boundary of an ice
stream. Again the ice wore into its rising banks and carried off
stones and gravel and formed terminal and lateral moraines.

The transportation of drift from any region began as soon as any
of its mountain tops emerged above the subsiding ice. The highest
peaks would send the farthest carried fragments, and lower and
lower as the ice flow ebbed, so nearer and nearer to their source
would its burdens be deposited.

Like its advance, the retreat of the ice was probably slow and
fluctuating. During some seasons it would diminish greatly ; durmg
others advance again, but taking a number of years together there
would be a decided retreat. ‘The ice would act on the rocks durmg
its subsidence as it had done during its rise, but the drift formed
and deposited instead of being destroyed by the advancing mass,
was left in the valleys and on the hills as we now find it. The only
differences on the southern coast of Nova Scotia that we can detect
are, that the moraines in the valleys have often been cut through
either by the streams that issued from beneath the retiring glaciers, or
by those that now run through them, and that large stones and grain
gold have been concentrated on the surfaces of drift-beds on the
hill sides. i
V.—APPLICATION OF THE THEORY TO SOME OF THE PHENOMENA

OF THE DRIFT.

1. Local character of the drift.—Having thus sketched out the
probable action of the ice during its advance, culmination and
retreat, and explained the general distribution of the drift, it only
remains to apply the theory to a few of its more striking features.
The local character of most of the drift stones in Nova Scotia is one
of these. Here and there afew blocks of granite are found, that
have been brought two, four, or even eight miles, but the great
majority of fragments belong to the rock formation over which they
lie. Boulders of slate occur where bands of slate cross the country,

BELT -— ON THE GLACIAL PERIOD IN NORTH AMERICA. 103

and boulders of quartzite where the bed rock is quartzite. Frag-
ments of quartz sometimes containing gold are easily traced to the
lodes (invariably to the north of them) from which they have been
detached, and thus many auriferous lodes have been discovered.

The local character of the stones in the drift 1s opposed to the
supposition that to the north the land was so elevated that the ice
moved over the country like a great glacier, and is in favor of the
theory that it was formed by the retreating margin of a great accu-
mulation of ice. If there had been during the glacial period, high
mountains to the north of Nova Scotia, far travelled blocks would
have been of frequent occurrence. But without high ranges north-
wards and with its own hills only of moderate elevation, we find as
we might expect, that the blocks are easily traced to their parent
rock. Some boulders of granite have been carried farther, because
here and there granite hills rise above the general elevation of the
country.

2. Transported blocks of Berkshire, Massachusetts—Sir Chas.
Lyell has described some long trains of large blocks that in Berkshire,
Massachusetts run, in nearly straight line, for distances of five, ten
and twenty miles, across hill and dale alike.* The direction of the
trains is N. W. and S. E., and they cross three chains of hills with
intervening valleys running N. N. E.,and 8.8. W. The blocks,
starting from the most north-westerly ridge, pass in long lines across
the valley to the next, and on to and in like manner through gaps
in the third range.

It is argued that these blocks could not have been carried by
glaciers, as they would have followed the slope of the valleys and not
have crossed them ; and that it is more likely that they were dropped
by icebergs when the country was submerged, so that the tops of the
hills became islands and the passes straits, through which the icebergs
floated driven by a current from the north-west. ‘The argument is
a valid one against a theory of local glaciers, but not against that of
continental ice. I have already shown how the advancing ice would
act when it encountered ranges running transversely to its flow. This
is an example, only I suppose the blocks were left by the retiring
ice when the same process was repeated. At its greatest height the’
ice covered the ranges and rounded them. When during its subsi-

*Lyell’s Antiquity of Man, page 356.

104 BELT—ON THE GLACIAL PERIOD IN NORTH AMERICA.

dence the highest points rose above the ice, rocks would be under-
mined and carried away. As the ice diminished and the ranges
emerged, a time would arrive when the passes would become icy
straits through which flowed ice from behind. It could not move
down the valleys, for at that time the great north and south valleys
of the Hudson and the Connecticut must have been filled with the
ice that dammed up the lateral valleys.

The first stage in the formation of the trains began when the
two valleys were filled with ice, and glaciers streamed through the
passes in the most southern range bearing blocks from those behind.
As the glaciers wasted the boulders would be left in lines marking
the retrogressive points to which they reached. When the passes
of the third range were free from ice it would still flow through those
of the second, and as it receded it would leave step by step the
monuments that now mark the direction it took. The resemblance
of many of the phenomena of the drift to those that might have been
produced by floating ice, proceeds from this,—that the valleys were
filled with ice as they would have been by water in the former case,
and that glaciers flowing through the gorges in the hills took the
place of the suppositious icebergs.

3. Drift of the St. Lawrence-—Dr. Dawson of Montreal, has
pointed out that the drift of the valley of the St. Lawrence has been
carried up the valley. He argues that it ought to have been carried
down it if the transporting agent had been land and not floating ice.

This objection is again rather against a theory of local glaciers
conforming tothe slope of the valleys, than that of continental ice.

The great valley runs from south west to north east, and the ice
coming from the north must have flowed up it, if it was influenced
by it at all. The general direction of the ice flow was from N. N.
W. to S. 8. E., but it could scarcely fail to be somewhat influenced
by such a wide and deep valley running obliquely to its course.
The valley must have filled from the bottom upwards, and drift
would be carried from the high grounds on the sides to the bottom
of the valley farther up, even if the ice was not pushed up by the weight
of the mass behind. Again, when the ice from the north reached
the bottom of the valley of the St. Lawrence, it would dam it up, and
a great inland fresh water sea might be formed, up which would float

BELT — ON THE GLACIAL PERIOD IN NORTH AMERICA. 105

icebergs. Thus all the phenomena might be produced that charac-
terise a submerged country, excepting remains of marine life.

The accumulation of ice in the region of Lake Champlain,
caused by the valley of the St. Lawrence diverting in that direc-
tion that which would otherwise have flowed to the south-east,
might furnish the advocates of the excavation of lake basins by ice,
with an argument in favour of their theory.

4. Terraces and stratified deposits —In Nova Scotia, terraces and
stratified beds of sand and gravel are not uncommon. I have
noticed a very conspicuous terrace running at the same height on
both sides of a valley running into Cole Harbour, and which is cross-
ed by the Lawrence-town road. Stratified beds of sand are found in
many of the valleys tributary to the Shubenacadie lakes. These
undoubtedly point to the action of water, but the entire absence of
marine remains might make us pause before we came to the conclu-
sion that they were formed by the sea. All the examples that
have come under my notice occurred in lateral valleys, such as for
instance those running into Cole Harbour, and into the Shuben-
acadie lakes. I believe that they were formed on the shores of
lakes, caused by the damming up of the lateral valleys by the great
glaciers that flowed down the principal ones.

VI.—CONCLUSION.

The question that I have discussed in this paper is so extensive
that it would require a volume to discuss it fully and in detail.
This I have not attempted to do, as not only was it far beyond
the limits of this paper, but already the glacial period both m Ku-
rope and America, has received great attention from eminent geolo-
gists, and its leading facts are well known. I have therefore confined
myself to original observations made in Nova Scotia, and to deduc-
tions therefrom ; and in the discussion of the general question have
only given prominence to what I believe to be new or modified
views respecting the origin of the ice of the glacial period and its
mode of action. I will briefly recapitulate the conclusions arrived at.
1. The arrangement of the heaps of gravel on the flanks of hills,
and the distribution in them of grain gold, in Nova Scotia, are
opposed to the theory of the submergence of the country
either during or since the glacial period.

106 HONEYMAN — GEOLOGY OF ANTIGONISH COUNTY.

2

The submergence of part of eastern North America, during
which the marine beds of the Champlain period were formed,
was not participated in by the southern coast of Nova Scotia.

3. To explain the movement of land ice from the Arctic regions
southwards, it is not necessary to suppose that the continent
to the north must have been greatly elevated, nor do the facts
connected with the distribution of the drift agree with such a
supposition.

4. That there was some elevation of northern lands during the
glacial period is, however, probable: Firstly, because all the
oscillations of level of the lands in the northern hemisphere
since the glacial period, with which we are acquainted, have
been greatest’ towards the pole; and secondly, because a rise
of land sufficient to prevent the entrance of heated currents to
the polar basin, would occasion a great accumulation of ice in
the circumpolar regions, by the heat of the tropical and sub-
tropical waters being spent in evaporation instead of, as at
present, in melting the ice within the Arctic circle.

5. The drift-beds were formed during the retreat of the ice, and
not during its greatest development.

6. Terraces and stratified beds in lateral valleys, were formed

when these were filled with water, dammed back by the glaciers

that still flowed down the main valleys.

Art. XII.—Gronocy or AxticonisH County, N: 8S. By Rev.
D. Honryman, D.C. L., F. G.S., Memser or THE GEOL. Soc.
or France, Hon. Meme. or Grou. Assoc. Lonpon, &e.

[Resid May 8, 1866.]

THis county, known until lately as the county of Sydney, is the
north-east county of Nova Scotia proper. It is bounded on the north
by Northumberland strait, which separates it from Prince Edward
Island,—on the east by St. George’s Bay,—on the south by the
county of Guysboro’,—and on the west by the county of Pictou. It
is somewhat mountainous, and contains numerous small lakes and
streams. The principal mountains are the Antigonish mountains,
whose corner nearest to the town of Antigonish is about three miles
to the north-west. Considering this range as sub-triangular, one

HONEYMAN — GEOLOGY OF ANTIGONISH couNTY. 107

side stretches in a westerly direction into the county of Pictou, its
length being about thirteen miles, terminating in the Marshy Hope,
and in its progress forming one of the lofty walls of this beautiful
valley ; the eastern side stretches northerly, terminating near Malig-
nant cove, and extending about eight miles; the remaining side
begins with the sub-conical mountain which terminates the side just
described, and extending in a general south-west direction until it
unites the Pictou termination of the first side. The Arisaig mountains,
of my Geology of Arisaig, form the Antigonish part of this side of
the triangle. Another range commences about two miles south-east of
Malignant cove, and runs parallel to the shore of Northumberland
Strait, until it reaches about two miles from the north side of Cape
St. George. The Sugar Loaf mountain, which rises a mile and a
half from the town, begins another range, which extends in a north-
erly direction to Morristown, a distance of about seven miles. The -
last range is the Ohio mountains, which this county has in common
with Pictou county. These nearly meet the Antigonish mountains
at the Marshy Hope, and form its other wall. The eastern side of
this range, beginning at the Beaver Meadow about two miles from
the entrance of the Marshy Hope and about eight miles west of
Antigonish, trends im a southerly direction about nine miles, sending
off a spur towards Lochabar lake. ‘This lake is about twelve miles
south-west of the town; it is five miles in length, reaching a little
beyond the county line imto Guysboro’ county. About three or
four miles east of this lake we have Polson’s lake and South River
lake. Besides these there are Gaspereaux lake, about four miles
south-west of Antigonish, and the North and South lakes of Morris-
town. ‘The streams are the South River, which rises in South River
lake, is fed by Polson’s lake, winds through fertile intervales re-
ceiving numerous small streams, and at length flows into Antigonish
harbour. Ohio River rises in the Ohio mountains, flows through
beautiful and fertile meadows, and unites with James’ River, which
rises in the Antigonish mountains, in West River. This last
after flowing and winding through fertile meadows, receives at the
town the tributaries of Rights River and Braley Brook, which also
rise in the Antigonish mountains, and then it flows into the harbour.
Besides these-there is North River, which flows into the north side

x SRI

i

108 HONEYMAN — GEOLOGY OF ANTIGONISH COUNTY.

of the harbour. In the north of the county there are Malignant
brook, Doctor’s brook, Arisaig brook and McAra’s brook.

As a field for the practical geologist this county is of the highest
importance. Here we have all the geological formations that are
known to exist between the old silurian of our gold fields and our
Bay of Fundy triassic, and situated in a line connecting distinguished
representatives of both. We appear to have in this county the
lineal and direct descendants of the formation, which extending
through Guysboro’ on the south, has the gold fields of Sherbrooke,
Wine harbour and Isaac’s harbour—as we have the direct predecessors
of Prince Edward Island triassic on the north. The greater number
of the formations in the county are represented in Arisaig on Nor-
thumberland Strait. In my paper on the Geology of Arisaig I have
already explained the character of the group, designating the lowest
member of the series A, and the others in ascending order B, B’, c, D.
By comparing a large collection of the fossils of p with the figures
of the Upper Ludlow fauna in Nicholson’s Siluria, I was convinced
that Dp was equivalent to the Upper Ludlow. Dr. Dawson simul-
taneously designated it Lower Helderberg, of which the other is the
British equivalent. ‘This was the first step in the proper designation
of the Arisaig series, this opinion being subsequently confirmed by
Mr. Salter on an examination of my specimens in the exhibition of
1862. Dr. Dawson and Prof. Hall had given it as their opinion,
that B’ was equal to the Clinton, as a characteristic of this is a grap-
tolithus not distinguishable from the G. Clintenensis (Hall). Mr.
Salter regarding the specimens in the exhibition as G. Ludensis con-
sidered B as Ludlow, while he considered the specimens from ¢ as
equivalent to the Aymestry limestene. The fossils of » were not
discovered until I made the minute examination of the district of
which my Arisaig paper is the record. ‘lhe bed of graptolites found
in Bled me to regard it as of age prior co» the Upper Ludlow.
Shut up by Mr. Salter’s opinion on a, which he was led to consider
from the few specimens then collected as equivalent to the May
Hill sandstone, I was induced to regard B as the equivalent of the
Lower Ludlow. I had thus come to the conclusion, that the Arisaig
group was wholly Upper Silurian.

Hall’s noble work on the Canadian Graptolites, has led me to
consider that there is yet something to be done in the correct deter-

HONEYMAN — GEOLOGY OF ANTIGONISH COUNTY. 109

amination of the equivalency of the Arisaig group, as the graptolites
of B appear to have the facies of the graptolites of the Hudson River
group, so that A and B may be the Arisaig equivalent of this group.
Instead therefore of beginning with the upper silurian age, it may
begin with part of the lower silurian, so that in Arisaig
A and B are probably equivalent to the Hudson River Group
—Lower Silurian
B = the Clinton, |
C = the Niagara Limestone, ¢ Upper Silurian.
D = the Lower Helderberg, 4
It may be interesting to observe that graptolite life m Nova
Scotia appears to range higher than in the United States, as accord-
ing to Hall and Dana, Grapiolithus Clintonensis existed alone there,
and was the last of its race, while w ith us Gr aptolithus Olentenensis
is associated with several other monoprionideans, and in 1864 I
found in c, associated with crioids, in shale interbedded among
strata containing noble cephalopeda, a diprionidean graptolite of sin-
gular size and form. ‘This graptolite is being examined by Prof.
Wyville Thomson, and is to be described and figured in his work on
Graptolites. Since I wrote the paper on the Geology of Arisaig
referred to, 1 have had occasion to make a more particular examina-
tion than I had before made of the junction of the silurian with the
carboniferous, at McAra’s brook, and I am led to believe, by com-
parison with other localities, especially with Lochaber, which we
shall shortly examine, that the apparent uncomformability is not real,
and that the strata exposed on the shore and up the brook, are a
formation intermediate between pb, the equivalent of the upper
Ludlow or lower Helderberg, and the lower carboniferous that
forms the adjacent mountain west of the brook, in other ‘words that
the strata in question are Devonian. From these observations it
would appear that in Arisaig we have a series ascending from the
Hudson River age into the lower carboniferous, without any break
in succession. These observations tend to modify the opinion ex-
pressed by Prof. Leslie, quoted by Dr. Bigsby in his paper read
before the Geological Society—“ On Missing Sedimentary Forma-
tions.” It appears from this that Prof. Leslie is of opmion that the
lower carboniferous at Arisaig lies unconformably on the Clinton
equivalent. At Lochaber lake, which was mentioned in an introduc-

14

110 HONEYMAN — GEOLOGY OF ANTIGONISH COUNTY.

tion as in the extreme south of the county, while Arisaig is on its
northern boundary, we have a group of strata of Arisaig age. My at-
tention was first directed to this locality by finding a beautiful cast of a
Petraia Forresteri—Salter. Subsequent examination of the rocks on
the west side of the lake disclosed a set of strata with organisms of
a peculiar kind and different from any of our former acquaintance.
I found the Petraia in abundance and evidently characteristic, asso-
ciated with casts of strange orihes and rhynconelle, and a trumpet
shaped cornulite. The containing strata rest on the syenitic rocks
of the spur of the Ohio mountain already referred to. Similar
Petraia \ed to the discovery and identification of the same formation
at Arisaig, Marshy Hope, James river, and at Barney’s river, French
river and East river in the county of Pictou, all occupying the
same position in relation to the syenitic, except at Arisaig, where
the strata in question are synclinal. These strata, which I designated
in the Arisaig group, 4, are at Lochaber associated with other strata,
which appear lithologically identical, but are distinguishable into
Arisaig A, c, D, by the fossils which we find in the loose rocks.
In these we find the Homalonaius of c, the Dalmania Logani, Crama
Acadiensis of D, and in situ at the side of the lake I have found
Nova Scotia Chonetcs of p. Succeeding the strata containing the
Chonetes and occupying the same relative position as the strata which
I consider as Devonian at Arisaig, is a very broad band of reddish
brown and grey argillaceous slates, which form an island in the lake
extending to Polson’s lake and beyond it. In their strike they
extend to the west of Lochaber lake in the one direction, and
through South River lake and the river itself in the other direction ;
and at right angles to the strike they pass into Guysboro’. On the

estern side of Lochaber lake there are magnificent exposures of
the brownish red strata, in the course of a small brook that enters
the lake. To the south of the brook there is a thick band of lami-
nated limestone, altered and contorted, containing blue fluor spar.
Between Lochaber lake and Polson’s lake these slates contain veins
of quartz of considerable thickness, interspersed with plates of specular
iron ore, and at one of the streams that flow into South river grey
and brownish red slate is associated with quartzite, which con-:
tain crystals of colourless quartz of considerable size and beauty.
We also find garnets at Polson’s lake and rhombic duodecahedral

HONEYMAN — GEOLOGY OF ANTIGONISH COUNTY. La

crystals of iron pyrites to the west of Lochaber lake, but these are
not found in situ. ‘The upper part of this band of Devonian slates
at Polson’s lake, is of a darker hue than the others. In these are
found a vein of specular iron ore of considerable thickness, highly
micaceous, and among the drift are masses of oxide of iron with
cupriferous iron pyrites. Attached slate show decisively that these
have been derived from the underlying slate, and it is probable that
the massive oxide of iron was originally a carbonate of iron. Small
veins of carbonate of iron with copper pyrites have been found in
the slates exposed by mining. I would observe that these strata in
this locality have been complicated by trap dykes, and considerably
eroded and obscured. I have been unable to discover fossils in this
extensive formation. In the Marshy Hope which is intermediate
between Arisaig and Lochaber, there are certain hard slaty rocks
outcropping about ten and eleven miles from the town, where
the Antigonish mountains come near to the highway. After
the discovery of the Petraia (A) rocks of Lochaber, I observed
those of Marshy Hope, and was struck with the resemblance
between the two, and on examination I found that they were
identical. In the latter locality I discovered Lingule, then Petraia
Forrestert, Orthoceres, Orthes, Cornulites, and Cornulites (trumpet-
shaped), &c. Subsequently I found, although not zn situ, still nearer
to the town, near the Antigonish mountain road and near a small
tributary of James’ river, other fossils of the same age. ‘These dis-
coveries led to the conclusion that the one is the extension of the other,
and that they do exist or have existed as a band skirting the Anti-
gonish mountains. ‘This opinion was confirmed by a still farther
discovery of similar rocks containing similar organisms at the western
extremity of these mountains, on the side of the road at the western
entrance of the Marshy Hope. I have not yet succeeded in ascertain-
ing their eastern termination. In the place where I first discovered
the strata in question in the Marshy Hope, I also found a specimen
of the Avicula Honeymani (Hall). This fossil is one of the charac-
teristics of Arisaig p. It is found in abundance in this position,
both at Arisaig and East River, Pictou, and in this position only.
[ am persuaded that we have here Arisaig A and p, or the equiva-
lents of the Hudson (?) and lower Helderberg in contact, while z,
B and c are missing. We have seyeral out-crops of rocks from this

112 HONEYMAN — GEOLOGY OF ANTIGONISH COUNTY.

onward to the town of Antigonish for a distance of about five miles,
—which furnish a section of the sedimentary rocks of this side of
these mountains. In the first mile the order is descending, as in
the next outcrop we haye only a. About a mile nearer the town
we have a large outcrop of quartzite, which I regard as Devonian.
One mile nearer we have outcrops of lower carboniferous con-
glomerate, succeeded by limestone, and then six miles from Anti-
gonish we pass between gypsum pits. The Devonian quartzite
which is of greenish hue, appears to be of considerable thickness.
It is exposed in various places on the fianks of the Antigonish
mountains. There is a grand exposure at the falls of James’ river.
These rocks form an elevated peak which rises abruptly above the
falls. The water flows in great volume over precipitous rocks, and
from a height of about one hundred feet into a capacious basin, the
whole presenting a scene of impressive grandeur. ‘These strata
appear also to constitute, to a great extent, “the mountain,” at the
south-east angle of the range, and after a break of about two miles
they appear outcropping near the top of the Sugar Loaf mountain.

I have thus directed attention to the earlier sedimentary forma-
tions existing in this county—the Silurian and Devonian. It will
have been observed that there has been considerable irregularity in
the deposition of the strata that have passed under review. Com-
paring as I have done, the respective localities with the Arisaig type,
we find that B and B’ are missing at Lochabar, and that B, B’ and ¢
are missing at the Marshy Hope, while in both of these localities
there is a greater development of the Devonian than we find at
Arisaig, so that it is impossible to lay down any trustworthy rule
in regard to the occurrence of any member of the series, where we
have no outcrop or other superficial indications ; in other words we
may have Silurian, and no Devonian underlying more recent forma-
tions, and vice versa. As to origin, the strata are marine—a, the
lowest of the series having been deposited in comparatively shallow
water, possibly about seventy fathoms, while B, B’ manifest deposi-
tion at a greater depth, and the aggregate thickness of the Silurian
and Devonian would appear to require still greater depth of water
for their deposition. ‘This shows that in the process of their formation
there was subsidence as well as deposition. Their present superficial
position, their great elevation, especially at Lochaber, above the sea

HONEYMAN — GEOLOGY OF ANTIGONISH counTy. 115
level, and the vertical position into which they have been thrown,
show that they have been subjected to a great elevating process.

‘he conformability in these respects of the Devonian and Silurian
in this representative district, shows that the elevation took place after
the deposition of the Devonian, while the unconformability of the
succeeding formation, the lower carboniferous, and other considera-
tions to which we shall yet allude, show that the elevation took place
prior to the latter period. In the Marshy Hope we find a similar
order of things, showing that the elevation of Silurian and Devonian,
and the formation of the mountains of this county, was post Devon-
ian, and generally pre-carboniferous. The Silurias and Devonias
of Arisaig with their synclinal arrangement (vide Geology of Arisaig )
show the effects of a later upheaval, to which I shall yet refer. These
formations which I have just examined are only a skirting of the
mountains of the county. These mountains are mainly composed of
metamorphic felspathic rocks of uncertain age and origin, or syenite
and diorite, &c. Whatever may be their age and origin, I believe
that as regards both they resemble the granite of the Nova Scotia
auriferous zone. I also believe that while it is probable that the
latter was elevated prior to the deposition of A, it may not have
been exempt from subsidence coeval with that to which I have
already referred. Be this as it may there can be little doubt that
the felspathic rocks under examination, formed the bottom of the
shallow sea in which strata 4 were deposited. That the metamorph-
ism of the one was antecedent to the deposition of the other is evident,
from the fact that organisms of A in closest proximity to the rocks in
question remain unaltered, while at Arisaig the typical strata a in
contact with trap of a subsequent period, are altered into a jaspideous
rock, stratification and organisms being thoroughly obliterated
(vide Geology of Arisaig.) Succeeding the sedimentary rocks already
examined in the localities so often referred to, we find a certain
amount of obscurity, and then sedimentary rocks of coarser
material, which cannot be confounded with those preceding.
Dr. Dawson has named these lower carboniferous; so far as I
have observed in this county, they may be called sub-carboniferous.
In these there are three degrees of coarseness observed. ‘The finest
strata occur at upper South river, succeeding the Devonian of the
Lochaber series. Here the carboniferous approximate nearest in

114 HONEYMAN — GEOLOGY OF ANTIGONISH COUNTY.

fineness and colour to the preceding Devonian. Still, however, the
difference between them is obvious, as the carboniferous is arenace-
ous, and the difference of inclination manifests unconformability. At
Arisaig near McAra’s brook, the carboniferous strata are much
coarser than at upper South river, but of the same brownish red
colour. Here we find the carboniferous sandstones forming moun-
tains equal in elevation to the Silurian, having been upheaved by
the trap which appears between the supposed Devonian up Mc-
Ara’s brook and the sandstone of the mountain. But the conglom-
erate is by far the most extensively distributed. We find it on the
north-east side of Arisaig, and largely developed at Cape St. George.
Tt is found at the south-east side of South river lake, occupying the
same position in relation to Devonian here, as the fine brownish red.
sandstones to the Devonian at upper South river. It occurs on
the south side of the Sugar Loaf north of the town, filling up the
great break between this range and the Antigonish mountains-
Here its width, or north and south extension, is about five miles.
About six miles from the town it attains toa mountain elevation. It
runs along the foot of the Antigonish mountains, and terminates
apparently where it outcrops near the entrance to the Marshy Hope.
{ have already noticed this outcrop as succeeding the Devonian.
This conglomerate unmistakably declares its age and origin. It was
accumulated on the shores of the post Devonian sea, and formed
from the felspathic rocks and slates of the mountains. Oxide of
iron is its colouring matter, and streaks of green show the existence
of thinly distributed carbonate of copper, while carbonate of lime
largely ageglutinates. The malachite is seen chiefly in the Sugar
Loaf and Antigonish mountain conglomerate. Succeeding the upper
South river lower carboniferous sandstones we have a thick bed
of limestone, which probably owes its existence to organic agency,
although it has not yet been found to contain organisms. On the
road to Lochaber I found what appears to be a continuation of the
same limestone, containing a deposit of beautiful brown ochre, and
on the banks of the Ohio river the limestone continues ; this is ex-
posed in the bed and on the lofty banks of a small brook which runs
into the river. Here the limestone is black and shaly, and contains
numerous fossils, among which are spurifert sp.? producta spinosa,
and the pygidium of a Phillipsia. ‘This is now the second locality

HONEYMAN — GEOLOGY OF ANTIGONISH COUNTY. 115

in the Province where the lower carboniferous limestone is found
to contain the trilobite, the Phillipsia Howi having been found by
Dr. How in the Kennetcook limestone in 1862. These limestones
in the possession of this genus of trilobite, correspond with the
mountain limestone of the British Isles, so that the one and the
other are undoubtedly approximately contemporaneous. Succeed-
ing the conglomerates of the Antigonish mountains and reposing
directly upon them, we have limestone of considerable thickness ;
this can easily be traced continuously from the Marshy Hope to
Morristown, a distance of about sixteen miles. In several places
where it is quarried for building stone, large deposits of brown
ochre are found, and the slabs are often coloured with films of car-
bonate of copper, and in one quarry where Braley brook issues
from the mountains, I found some years ago imbedded in ochre
several pieces of copper pyrites of considerable size.

Succeeding these limestones of the Antigonish mountains, we
have an enormous bed of gypsum; its length is nearly equal to
that of its associated limestone. It appears at the forks of James’
river and the Ohio river; it passes over nearly in the course of
James river until it reaches within one hundred paces of the lime-
stones ; its mountain side runs parallel with the limestones, Braley
brook running between and along the bottom of the abrupt and
lofty gypseous wall for about three miles. After parting with the
brook the gypsum pursues its course until it reaches Right’s river,
nearly amile north of the town. After an apparent break of
two miles it again appears on the east side of the Sugar Loaf and
, proceeds onwards into St. George’s bay, its land terminus being

Ogden’s lofty cliff.

Dr. Dawson shows this cliff in a plate in his Acadian Geology,
where he examines very fully and satisfactorily the gypseous forma-
tion from Right’s river to St. George’s bay, so that in examining
this part we traverse the ground which he has already rendered
so familiar to the geologist. The breadth of this great gypsum
deposit is duly proportioned to its length. It stretches from the
mountains at North river, through the harbour and up the west side
of South river, presenting at its southern terminus as well as on either
side of the harbour and elsewhere in its course, a striking conical
aspect. The southern terminus is seen by the traveller on the

116 HONEYMAN — GEOLOGY OF ANTIGONISH COUNTY.

right and left of the road to the Strait of Canso, about three and a
half miles from the town. Again, beginning with the outcrop at
Right’s river, the pits in Trotter’s pasture, and the great conical
outcrop on the road to Braley brook settlement in front of the
mountain break, the gypsum beyond a doubt passes under the town
and to the south of it, until it outcrops on the banks of West
river. Some years ago an attempt at sinking a well in the immedi-
ate vicinity in the west of the town disclosed the gypsum bed, and
I there obtained specimens of fibrous gypsum of surpassing beauty.
Associated with this bed of gypsum and apparently above it, we find
limestones with lower carboniferous limestone, brachiopoda. Jn
addition to this there are also nugage@us saltgpripgs rising from this
deposit ; it therefore gears to be?Somewhat analogous to the sub-.
carboniferous of Michigan; and the Nova Scotia Salt Company,
have thereby been induced to engage in boring operations, with
the hope of discovermg brine. Besides these beds of limestones
there are also limestones of the same age at Doctor’s brook in
the Arisaig district, and in the trough between the Sugar
Loaf range of mountains and the range between Malignant cove
and Cape St. George. I have not yet been able to determine
whether the latter belong to the north side of this trough or the
south side. They appear to me to belong to the north side, like
the gypsum which occurs at Ballantine’s cove on the 8. E. side of
Cape St. George. At the side of the cape we have an interesting
small section exposing sandstone strata having casts of shrinkage
cracks, and others containing paleoniscus scales, and other strata
containing carboniferous flora, calamites, and lepidodendria. These
strata appear to be the equivalents of the strata on the south side
of the same trough, some of which have attracted attention on
account of their highly bituminous character. ‘These also contain
scales of palzoniscus and carboniferous flora, lepidodendria, cardai-
tes. I expect to investigate this part of the country more rigidly
if opportunity presents at some future time. I have yet to examine
properly the remaining carboniferous or S8.E. district of the county.
fn the meantime I have nothing to add to the observations which
Dr. Dawson has already made on that district—(vide Acadian
Geology.)

The questions now occur, by what agency have. these post

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HONEYMAN — GEOLOGY OF ANTIGONISH COUNTY. je Li,

Devonian strata been elevated, fractured and distorted? and when
did this event happen? We have no difficulty whatever in ascer-
taining the cause by which the effects referred to were produced, and
we seem to have no difficulty in determining that the event did not
happen until after such and such a period; but the question of
time remains unanswered. About the geological base of the car-
boniferous system we find trap rocks, intervening between these
basal strata and the strata of a preceding age. These rocks appear
in enormous mass in contiguity with the lower carboniferous
conglomerates on the eastern side of South river lake, and they
extend backwards to Polson’s lake, disturbing the Devonian strata
in that locality, as we have elsewhere observed. At McAra’s
brook, at Arisaig, we have already observed their occurrence
between the Devonian and the lower carboniferous sandstones,
elevating the latter to the altitude of lofty mountains. As we
approach Malignant cove and near it, we observe on the road and
either side, trap in closest contact with lower carboniferous
conglomerate, the latter being metamorphosed into a hard jaspid-
eous rock by the original contact with its igneous associate. These
are seen in the same connection in Malignant brook, and crossing
it in such a manner as to form the foundations of two mill seats,
and the opposite abutments of a bridge; and in the same relation
extending westward to Doctor’s brook, forming an elevated ridge
which runs between the older sedimentary or Silurian strata and
the metamorphic mountains—(vide Geology of Arisaig.) In that
paper it was shewn that this trap also bounded the other side of
this silurian series from their eastern terminus, east of Doctor’s
brook, extending along the shore, and much altering strata a, as far
as Arisaig pier, and being in the space intervening obscured by the
sea, it reappears at the shore at McAra’s brook, and up the brook
as already indicated. From this it would appear that the upheaval
of the Arisaig silurian group took place at the period of this trappean
eruption, and that it was still in depths of the sea after the others of
the same geological age were subaerial. I know not how we can
otherwise account for the occurrence of the lower carboniferous
limestones and associated strata of the same age at Doctor’s brook,
as indicated in my map and section,—(vide Geology of Arisuig.) It
seems that this upheaval of sedimentary strata was at least post
15

118 | HONEYMAN — GEOLOGY OF ANTIGONISH COUNTY.

lower carboniferous, but how long after this period it is difficult to
determine. On the opposite coast of Cape Breton an interesting
shore section at the new coal mines of Mabou, north of Mabou har-
bour, seems to illustrate the subject I am now investigating. We
find in this section the lower carboniferous conglomerate of immense
thickness, succeeded by a thick bed of rose coloured gypsum, suc-
ceeded by sandstones, with flora, a thick seam of coal, modiola shale,
shale with calamites, clays with bands of clay iron stone, thick sand-
stones with flora, impure coal, clays and shales. The whole of these
strata have been thrown into their present highly inclined position
at the same time, and that too doubtless at the period of the trap
eruptions in Antigonish county. I consider that the Mabou section
represents geological time at least equivalent to that of the whole
carboniferous formation of Antigonish county, and therefore conclude
that all the carboniferous rocks of the county and the silurian of
Arisaig assumed their present position at one and the same time.
The formations in this county which we have thus examined, having
become subaerial, continued so while deposition was in progress in
the north of what is now the county of Antigonish. I have already
brought under your notice lower carboniferous conglomerate, sand-
stone and limestone, with associated trap, at Malignant cove, Doctor’s
brook and McAra’s brook. These undoubtedly are a part of a
carboniferous series, which extending into Northumberland Strait
and into the Gulf of St Lawrence, constitute part of the foundation
on which Prince Edward Island triassic sandstone rests. In an age
long posterior to the formation of the rocks of Prince Edward Island
and their elevation, another very characteristic feature of the geology
of the county was formed. I refer to the great deposits of drift which
occur in every direction, obscuring the subjacent rocks and render-
ing the work of exploration often difficult and perplexing. The
more prominent accumulations are the hills that occur in the break
between the Antigonish mountains and the Malignant cove and
Cape St. George range. At the north about one mile from the
Malignant cove there are low mounds; gradually they increase in
size and number, until at the distance of three miles south of the
cove or at the south entrance of the break, the last of the series
forms the elevated site of a Catholic chapel, which is conspicudus for
several miles. On the banks of the Ohio river are numerous mounds

HONEYMAN — GEOLOGY OF ANTIGONISH COUNTY. 119

of the same character, and in and around the town of Antigonish
are similar elevations of peculiar interest. My attention was specially
directed to these about three years ago by the sinking of a well on the
side of the one on which the old court house stands. After passing
through several feet of gravel a bed of clay was struck which was
peculiarly dry, compact and light in colour, containing imbedded
fossil wood in abundance, well preserved, in the centre of which was
phosphate of iron of a beautiful blue colour, which might be used
as a pigment. On examining other mounds on the bank of Right’s
river [ discovered sections of these exhibiting the same structure, and
also having the same fossil. A great part of this superficial deposit
is evidently derived from the subjacent rocks of the particular locality
in which the deposit is found, and hence we naturally look at these
deposits for information regarding the character of the prevailing
rocks of the locality, especially im regard to the existence or proba-
ble extent of the distribution of these rocks. Ofcourse great caution
is to be observed in the application of this principle, owing to the
fact that a part of this deposit and that possibly the larger, may con-
sist of transported material which has been so triturated and rolled
as to leave the question of its source open to all sorts of conjecture.
In regard to the transportation of these I am disposed to consider
that it was the effect of glacial agency. I have not yet been fortu-
nate enough to discover so satisfactory indications in the region in
question as we have elsewhere, of the existence of the glaciers. It
will appear not at all astonishing that such a deposit derived largely
from felspathic and calcareous rocks, and so extensively distributed,
should give the county a character for agriculture. To a great ex-
tent, however, this character has arisen from a partial redistribution
of the deposit, which I have just described, with the addition of or-
ganic matter, and in some instances with an addition of lime, gypsum,
salt and felspathic constituents. This new deposit forms flats on
the sides of rivers, past or present, and a great delta at their conflu-
ence. ‘These are commonly called intervales. We have thus tke
rich and extensive intervale of the Ohio river and the Beaver meadow
—the great intervales of West river and South river, and the smaller
ones of Right’s river, James’ river and Braley brook, and what is by
the old inhabitant often called the “great intervale,” or the delta
on which the town of Antigonish is chiefly built. These intervales,

120 HARDY ——ON NOVA SCOTIAN CONIFERS.

although comparatively recent, are still doubtless of high antiquity,
and were probably the haunts of the mastodon and his confreres, as
the deposits are doubtless coeval with the intervale of Middle river,
Cape Breton, which produced, upwards of thirty years ago, the thigh
bone of Mastodon Ofioticus, now in the Provincial museum, and the
flats of Baddeck, C. B., in which was found about seven years ago,
the tooth of Mastodon Ohioticus, now in my own collection. It is
the confidently expressed opinion of intelligent inhabitants who have
been in the habit of observing landmarks for upwards of half a cen-
tury, that the land is slowly subsiding. I have not yet ascertained
precisely the grounds upon which this opinion rests. This point
and others already indicated, may be the subject of notes on a future
occasion.

Art. XII. Nova Scotian Contrers. By Cotonen Harpy;
Parr I.
[Read May 3, 1866.]

A GLANCE at a physical map of North America, will shew how
the great prairies, extending diagonally through the continent, from
the Gulf of Mexico to the shores of the great Slave Lake in the
North-West, at this latter point appear to divide into two streams
the evergreen forest, here composed solely of conifere, which forms
a broad and continuous belt from the eastern shores of Labrador to
the Pacific.

These fir forests in their northern extension, ever growing more
stunted, gloomy and monotonous, at last merge into the treeless and
snow-covered barren, where the small Arctic cariboo and musk ox
obtain a scanty living on the lichens of the rocks, and grass-tufts of
the valleys. Their character is sombre in the extreme; their
growth and appearance indicate the severity and hardships of the
climate ; the twisted trunk, the bare and bent top, and the profuse-
ness of the moss-beards clinging to the limbs of the spruce and scrub
pine, the almost exclusive trees of the region, shew how slow has
been their growth, and with what difficulty it has been attained.
Dr. Richardson states that, on the borders of the Great Slave Lake,

HARDY — ON NOVA SCOTIAN CONIFERS. Dt

four hundred years are required to bring the stem of the white
spruce to the thickness of a man’s wrist.

Leaving these desolate scenes, and tracing the influence of
decreasing latitude and more genial climate upon the great belt of
conifere where, skirting the prairies, it enters the lake districts of
Canada, we find that at about the neighbourhood of Lake ‘Winnipeg
the forest is diversified by the accession of several species of deciduous
trees, the elm and the ash; further south, by the various descrip-
tions of maples, oaks, and beeches ; and, at length, by the shores
of Superior, the character of the Canadian forest becomes fully
developed, exhibiting that beautiful admixture of deciduous trees
with the various pines and spruces, which constitutes its picturesque
grandeur.

Embracing the Canadian Lakes and the shores of the St. Law-
rence, this woodland district stretches away to the Atlantic sea-
board, and covers the provinces of New Brunswick, Nova Scotia,
and Prince Edward Island, including a large portion of the North-
ern States. ‘This large tract of forest has been termed by Dr.
Cooper in his admirable monograph on the North American forest-
trees, the Lacustrian Province, from the number of its great lakes,
and is chiefly characterized by the predominance of evergreen
conifere.

The consideration of this family, extending over so large a por-
tion of our North American colonies, involves many subjects of
great importance as to the physical aspects and climate of the country,
the infiuence of its forests on rainfall and springs, on the vegeta-
tion and on the health of its inhabitants, which cannot be discussed
this evening. Nor can we notice, more than briefly, another inter-
esting topic in connection with our subject—the extreme geological
antiquity represented by the fir-tree. Hugh Miller states, that he
found a fossil of coniferous lignite in the Lower Old Red Sandstone,
and that Pine forests existed, and there was dry land, where it had
been previously thought that all was covered by the ocean.

Conifers formed a leading feature of the coal formation ; and,
though all the ancient species, up to the Post Tertiary period, have
perished, the type is still continued in all its low state of organization.

The animals characterizing the North American fir forest are
all, likewise, of most ancient type; especially the musk ox, the

122 HARDY — ON NOVA SCOTIAN CONIFERS.

reindeer and the moose, whose ancestors have doubtless lived con-
temporaries with the mammoth in the earlier period of the Post
Tertiary.—‘“‘ America” says Hugh Miller, “‘ though emphatically the
New World in relation to its discovery by civilized man, is, at least
in these regions, an old world in relation to geological type, and it
is the so called old world that is in reality the new one. |

A. Nigra (Poir), Buack Spruce, DousLe Spruce.
Bi 9 :

Leaves short ($ in. by 3 in. lone) rigid, dark green ; cones ovate or ovate

oblong (1—1 in. long) the scale with a thin and wavy eroded edge. A.
rubra, a northern form.

The Black Spruce is one of the most conspicuous-and character-
istic forest trees of North Eastern America, forming a large portion
of the coniferous forest growth and found in almost every variety of
circumstance. Sometimes it appears in mixed woods of beautiful
growth, of great height and its numerous branches drooping in
graceful curves from its apex towards the ground, which they some-
times sweep to a distance of twenty to thirty feet from the stem,
the summit terminating in a dense arrow head, on the short sprays
of which are crowded heavy masses of cones. At others it is found
almost the sole growth, covering large tracts of country, the trees
standing thick with straight clean stems and but little foliage except
at the summit. ‘Then there is the black spruce swamp where the
tree shows by its contortions, unhealthy foliage and stem and limbs
shagey with usnea, the hardships of its existence. Again on the
open bog* grows the black spruce, scarcely higher than a cabbage
sprout—the light olive green foliage living alone on the compressed
summit, whilst the grey dead twigs below are crowded with pendu-
lous moss; yet even here, amidst the cold sphagnum, Indian cups,
and cotton grass, the tree lives to an age which would have given
it a proud position in the dry forest.t Lastly in the fissure of a

*The Black Spruce assumes a singular appearance in these swamps. The
tree, seldom exceeding 30 feet in height, throws out its arms in the most tortuous
shapes, suddenly terminating in a dense mass of innumerable branchlets of a
rounded contour like a beehive, displaying short, thick, light green foliage. The
summit of the tree generally terminates in another bunch. The stem and arms
are profusely covered with lichens and usnea.

+Indeed these groves of miniature trees in bogs where the sphagnum perpetu-
ally bathes their roots with chilling moisture, have a very similar appearance to
Brussels sprouts on a large scale. The water held in the moss is always cold: on
May 5th, 1866, the tussacs of sphagnum were frozen solidly within two or three

HARDY —ON NOVA SCOTIAN CONIFERS. 123

granite boulder is to be seen its hardy seedling, and the little
plant has a far better chance of becoming a tree than its brother
in the swamp; for one day, as frost and increasing soil open the
fissure, its roots will creep out and fasten on the earth beneath.

Asa valuable timber tree the Black Spruce ranks next to the
Pine, attaining a height of 70 to 100 or even 150 feet, it forms
excellent material, strong and elastic, for spars and yards of vessels,
and is converted into all descriptions of sawed lumber—deals,
boards, and scantlings. From the young sprays of the Black Spruce
is prepared the decoction, fermented with molasses, which is the
celebrated spruce beer of the American settler, a cask of which is
always kept by the good farmer’s wife in the hot, thirsty days of
haymaking.* To the Indian, the roots of this tree which shoot out
under the moss toa great distance, are his rope, string and thread :
with them he ties his bundle, fastens the birch-bark coverings to
the poles of his wigwam, or sews the broad sheets of the same
material over the ashen ribs of his canoe.

As an ornamental tree in the open and cultivated glebe, the
Black Spruce is very appropriate: the numerous and gracefully
curved branches, the regular and acute cone shape of the mass, the
clear purplish-grey stem and the beautiful bloom which the abund-
ant cones assume in June, all enhance the picturesqueness of a tree
which is long-lived, and, moreover, never outgrows its ornamental
appearance unless confined in dense woodland groves.

The bark of the Black Spruce is scaly, of various shades of
purplish-grey, sometimes approaching to a reddish hue, hence
doubtless, suggesting a variety under the name of Red Spruce, which
is in reality a form depending on situation. In the latter, the foli-
age being frequently of a lighter tinge of green, strengthens the
supposition. No specific differences have, however, been detected
between the trees.

inches of the surface. The centre of these bogs, often called cariboo bogs by rea-
son of this deer frequenting them in search of the lichen, cladonia rangiferinus is
generally quite bare of spruce clumps, which fringe the edge of the surrounding
for the trees increasing in height as they recede from the open bog.

_ *Essence of spruce is obtained by evaporating the decoction of young shoots
in water mixed with sugar and molasses, to the consistence of honey.

—S

124 HARDY —ON NOVA SCOTIAN CONIFERS.

A. alba, Mich. (White Spruce.)

The White Spruce, or Sea Spruce of the Indians, is, as has been
already stated, a conifer of an essentially boreal character. Indeed
in its extension into our own woodlands it appears to prefer bleak
and exposed situations. It thrives on our rugged Atlantic shores,
and grows on exposed and brine-washed sands where no other vege-
tation appears, and hence is very useful, both as a shelter to the
land, and as holding it against the encroachment of the sea. Its
dark glaucous foliage assumes an almost inpenetrable aspect under
these circumstances. _ On the sandy shores near the entrance of
Musquodoboit harbour there is a grove’of White Spruce, which,
constantly exposed to S. W. gales, have become so compressed and
flattened at the tops, which lean inland from the sea at scarcely ten
feet elevation, that a man can easily walk over them as on a plat-
form, and the shelter beneath is complete.*

The Balsam Fir growing in these situations assumes a very simi-
lar appearance in the density and colour of its foliage and trunk to
the White Spruce, from which, however, it can be quickly distin-
guished, on inspection, by the pustules on the bark and its erect
cones. In the forest the White Spruce is rare in comparison with
the Black, whose place it however altogether usurps on the sand hills
bordering the limit of vegetation in the far north-west. ‘The former
tree prefers humid and rocky woods. ‘The timber is used in frame
work. I know of no peculiar properties of this tree in an economi-
cal point of view, except, that the Indians affirm that the inner bark
or liber is useful to chew as a demulcent in the case of colds.

GenxeraL Duscription.—Leaves pale or glaucous ; cones cylindrical,
about 2 inches long, the scales with an entire edge. Leaves $ to 3 inch in
jength placed on all sides of the branches. The cones are first of all light
ee afterwards tinged with pink, and on ripening change to a very pale

rewn.

A. Canadensis, Mich. (HEMLocKk SPRUCE.)
Leaves linear, flat, obtuse 4 inch long; cones oval, of few scales, little
larger than the leaves, # inch long.
The Hemlock Spruce has a wide range in the coniferous wood-
lands of North America, extending from the Hudson Bay territory
to the mountains of Georgia. ‘This great southerly extension of the

* The White Spruce is in frequent groves on the slopes of Point Pleasant.
There are some trees of this species nearly 60 feet in height on McNab’s Island.

EE EEE LCT

HARDY —ON NOVA SCOTIAN CONIFERS. 125

northern forms of trees on the south-east coast, is due to the direc-
tion of the Alleghanian range, which, commencing in our own
Province of vegetation, carries its flora as far south as 35° north
latitude, elevation affording the same conditions of growth as dis-
tance from the equator.

The Hemlock is found as a common tree throughout Nova
Scotia, loving rich mossy hill sides in the neighbourhood of lakes,
though generally mixing with other evergreens in all situations.
It is found, however, of heaviest growth (70-100 feet), and in large
groves, principally in the former situation, and here vies with the
White Pine in the gigantic proportion of its trunk, which grows
like a mosaic column, throwing out its first branches gnarled and
contorted at a height of 60 feet from the ground. The foliage is
light and feathery, resembling that of the yew, and in the old forest
tree clings round the summit above in dense masses, from which
protrude the twisted limb by which the column is abruptly termin-
ated.

Perched high up im its branches may often be seen, in winter
time, the sluggish porcupine, whose presence aloft is first detected
by the keen eye of the Indian through the scratches of its claws on
the trunk, in ascending its favourite tree to feed on the bark and
eaves of the younger shoots.

Large groves of Hemlock growing together in the sloping wood-
side present a noble appearance ; their tall straight stems resemble
the pillars in the aisle of an old abbey ; the ground beneath is gener-
ally free from undergrowth, and deeply covered with a soft carpet-
ing of moss, and affords great ease to the foot-sore hunter. One
can see far through the far shady grove of giants, and the softened
light, entering through the thick foliage above, gives an air of pleas-
ing mystery to the interior of these vast forest cathedrals.

The timber of the Hemlock is lightly appreciated for building
purposes, being brittle and shakey, and coarse-grained. It is used
extensively for wharf and fence posts, being able to resist the action
of water a long time, and also has come into demand for railway
sleepers. The late Dr. Gesner states, that granaries and grain bins
made of Hemlock are not attacked by mice. The bark, which pos-
sesses highly astringent properties, is much used in America for
tanning, almost entirely superseding that of the oak. It is very

16

126 HARDY — ON NOVA SCOTIAN CONIFERS.

scaly, and, though light grey outside, shews a rich red-brown tint
when chipped. ‘The sojourner in the woods seeks the dry and easily
detached bark which clings to an old dead Hemlock, as a great
auxiliary to his stock of fuel for the camp-fire ; it burns readily,
long, and emits an intense heat; and so fond are the old Indians
of sitting round a small conical pile of the ignited bark in their
wigwams, that it bears in their language the sobriquet of “ the old
Grannie”’.

The Hemlock, as a shrub, is perhaps the most ornamental of all
the North American evergreens. It has none of that tight, stiff,
old-fashioned appearance so generally seen in other spruces :
the graceful foliage droops loosely and irregularly, hiding the stem,
and, when each spray is tipped with the new season’s shoot of the
brightest sea-green imaginable, the appearance is very beautiful.
The young cones are likewise of a delicate green.

The spray of the Hemlock is often used by the woodsman in
hard times as a decoction in water in lieu of tea, as also is the
ground Hemlock. The bark is very ornamental for decorating
garden flower baskets in a rustic style.

A. balsamea—Marshall—(Batsam Fir). Canapa BatsaM oR
Baum or GineaD Fir,

Leaves narrowly linear; cones cylindrical, large, violet-coloured ; the
bracts obovate, serrulate, tipped with abrupt and slender point, slightly pro-
jecting upwards. Leaves 1 in. or less in length, narrower and lighter-green
than those of European or Silver Fir. Cones 3 to 4in. long, lin. broad,
the scale very broad and rounded.

So very similar is the American species to the Silver Fir (Picea)
of Europe, that, when visiting England, I have had to search the
stem for the characteristic pustules of balsam, found on our fir,
before assuring myself of the difference. The general appearance
of the trees is very analogous: the same silvery lines on each side
of the midrib under the leaf, which glistening in the sun as the
branches are blown upwards by the wind, gives the tree its name.
The leaves, however, of the American species are neither so broad
nor so dark in colour as those of Picea. Dr. Cooper assigns the
range of the Silver Fir, N.E. $.W, between the Labrador and the
mountains of Penn. It inhabits moist woods and, though growing
to a large size, is a short lived tree—often falling before a heavy
gale, and shewing a rotten heart. This Province and New Bruns-

HARDY — ON NOVA SCOTIAN CONIFERS. 24

wick, perhaps, afford the finest specimens of this tree. Here I have
seen it growing to the height of 60 feet.

The large, erect, sessile cones of the Balsam Fir are very beau-
tiful in the end of May, when they are of a light sea-green colour,
which, changing in June to pale lavender, in August assumes a dark
slaty tint. They ripen in the fall, and the scale being easily
detached, the seeds are soon scattered by the Autumnal gales* leav-
ing the axis bare and persistent on the branch for many years. In
June each strobile is surmounted with a large mass of balsam
exudation.

The summer of 1864 was marked as a most fructiferous season
amongst all species of conifere on the American continent. The
casual observer passing along the roads could not help observing the
masses of brown cones which everywhere burdened the tops of the
pines and spruces, and from which the Indians augured an unusually
hard winter, through much the same process of reasoning that the
English countryman prophecies a rigorous season from an abundant
crop of haws and other autumnal hedge fruits. The hard season
did not arrive, but the immense crop of cones killed a large number
of trees, especially of the species under consideration. If not actually
killed, many instances of the Silver Fir with a dead leading shoot, °
or with one just recovering its vitality may be constantly seen by
any roadside observer. In the former case, a new leader, elected
from the nearest tier of branchlets, is already lifting its head to
continue the growth of the tree, and the latter instance, in which
all the surrounding shoots and foliage have been vitally drained by
the exhausting cone-crops, may be supposed to account for the long
spaces or intermissions between the lateral branches of firs, at cer-
tain intervals up the main stem which are often to be observed.

The Silver Fir is remarkable for the horizontal regularity of its
branches, and the general exact conical formation of the whole tree.
An irregularity in the growth of the foliage, similar to that occur-
ring in the black spruce, is frequently to be found in the fir. A
contorted branch, generally half-way up the stem, terminates in a
multitude of interlaced sprays which are, every summer, clothed
with very delicate, flaccid, light-green leaves, forming a beehive

* The cones of other species of Ashes and Pines generally do not ripen until
the 2nd year, whilst the expanded strobile remains attached to the tree for long
after.

ee

128 HARDY —- ON NOVA SCOTIAN CONIFERS.

growth like that of the spruce. It may be always noticed, however,
that whilst the spruce growth of this nature is persistent in its foli-
age, that of the fir is annually decidyous.

The Silver Fir is a graceful shrub up to a certain age, and its
sprays, soft and flattened, form the best couch in the woodman’s
camp. ‘The bark of the tree readily peels in summer, and is used
in sheets to cover the lumberer’s shanty, which is now built in pros-
pect of the winter’s campaign. The resinous fluid contained in the
pustules is the Canada Balsam of commerce.

I am not aware that any exportation of balsam, or, indeed, of
any resins is made from Nova Scotia. All such productions might
be made profitable, as prices have recently been high in consequence
of the American war, commerce having been plentifully supplied
with tar, pitch, resin and turpentine from North Carolina and other
states of the Confederacy. It must be noticed however, that the
pines of the Southern States are not found in these Northern lati-
tudes. They are the long-leaved or yellow pine (P. Palustris), and
the loblolly or old field pine (P. taeda). Our common P. strobus
affords but little resin. P. resinosa and P. Stigidsa or pitch pine
are both resinous woods, as is also the larch. It is much to be
regretted that so many thousand acres of these woods are yearly
disappearing by fire and through wanton waste, whilst a source of
profit like the above is still allowed to slip by unnoticed.

In conclusion [I will append a few remarks on the transplanting
and acclimatization of evergreens, a subject which I am glad to
observe has been very practically studied of late years. It is patent to
every one, resident in Halifax, that we are now compelled to suffer
everywhere on this bleak peninsula for the wholesale destruction of
trees on the part of the earlier mhabitants. The bitter winds
experienced on a winter’s drive over the common, and the roads to
the N. West Arm and Three Mile House, oftentimes denuded of
snow, which is at others piled in drifts, whilst the sleighing is
excellent in both town and country, point, as a cause, to the cutting
away of the road-side fringe of sheltering trees; and now the slow
remedy of replanting must needs be applied. As a winter shelter
the evergreen tree is naturally adopted, though in former times its
association with the rigor of the climate doubtless resulted in its
wholesale downfall at the hands of the early settlers, and there is

HARDY ——- ON NOVA SCOTIAN CONIFERS. 129

still a strong tendency about us to obliterate the evergreen vegetation.

Such however, happily, is not the exclusive spirit of our age,
and I cannot refrain from adducing, as an example, the following
letter which appeared recently in the local press, headed *<«« Nova
Scotia Evergreens ”’:—

To the Editor of the Sun.

Sir,—To my fancy, there is not a tree that grows in the woods of Nova
Scotia, that looks so graceful and becoming as evergreens near a dwelling:
house in winter. They refresh the eye, protect the building and small shrub-
bery, and give the homestead a snug, social aspect. They also bring up
pleasant memories of summer and green fields, and, almost unconsciously to
the beholder, promote healthful imagination and a refreshing qaiet and repose.

Those who have tried to beautify their houses with Nova Scotia ever-
greens, mostly confess that they have failed in their object. There is not a
tree that grows in our forest that is so hard to raise by transplanting as the
Black and Red Spruce and the Balsam Fir; and yet, if properly treated, they
will grow as freely as any plant of the forest.

I would say to those who love to see their own native evergreens growing
around their dwellings, be not discouraged by any past attempts; success will
be attained if they perform the work according to my plan and treatment.

Cultivated soil will not answer for evergreens, unless it is poor, and the
subsoil clay or gravel is near the surface. The best soil for black or red
spruce is the common light yellow clay or gravel, free from iron rust, and well
mixed with greywacke rock and whinstone. If the clay should be mixed
with fragments of iron-stone and blue slate, the White Pine, the Hemlock,
and the Balsam Fir should be planted. The limestone soil is more suitable
for White Cedar. Peaty or vegetable soil is best for the Larch.

The last week of April, and the first week of May, is the best time to
remove evergreens for transplanting ; then the scil is very soft, and the young
trees easily taken out without fear of bruising their tender roots. Strong
young plants can always be found on the outskirts of the woods. The aver-
age height of the plants should range from a half to two and a half feet, thick-
ly set, with close branches and. free from white moss. The plants should be
removed on a dull day ;—put them into bundles of one dozen each, and tie
them with a soft string. and if a trench is already prepared, place the trees in
just as they are, in bundles, close together, and cover the roots well with the
clay ; let them remain there until the tender feeders of the roots grow white.
About the Ist of June you can remove the string and transplant them for a
hedge or clump around the dwelling house, or elsewhere. They must be well
protected from the high winds; the north-east and easterly winds are more
injurious than any other.

The Balsam Fir or Silver Fir should be planted by themselves. No
pruuing is required for ten or twelve years, and then sparingly.

No other class of trees should be planted near the Evergreens, for they
always grow more rapid when they are some distance from any other trees.
It is labour in vain to transplant Evergreens in the fall of the year.

Halifax, Nov. 27, 1865. F. McKay.
Our writer recommends transplanting evergreens in the spring,

—=

130 pDowNsS—ON THE LAND BIRDS OF NOVA SCOTIA.

saying it is useless to attempt it in the fall. On this point, how-
ever, the evidence which I have collected from most local authori-
ties on the subject tends to reverse his conlusion ; as it is generally
admitted that the very best time for transplanting these trees is in
the end’of May or beginning of June—just when the young shoots,
having broken their capsules, are conspicuous by their new bright-
green colour. The plant now seems to be full of energy, and will
adapt itself to circumstances in order to continue its efforts more
quickly then when partially dormant. Very early in the season is
perilous, as the Fir having so large an amount of evaporating sur-
face is more apt to receive injury from the cold drying wind of early
spring. than deciduous trees. Spruces should be placed in the
ground with their long diverging roots as near the surface as possi-
ble, merely placing around them the upturned sod.

Planting by seed is the usual plan for growing evergreens in
the English and Scotch nurserics. The young plants have excel-
lent roots, and are much more easily removed. ‘The success of the
Fir plants which have come over to this country is very noticeable.
and the Norway Spruces on the Common, the Scotch Firs and
Larches in the Cemetery and Horticultural Gardens, are much more
forward than any of our indignious transplants. These trees
appears to thrive admirably in this country: the English Larch is
now everywhere in blossom, (May 7th.) with budding fohage,
whilst our own species still seems wrapped in its winter sleep;
the leading shoots of last season’s growth on the Norway Spruce
are nearly a yard in length, when the indigenous transplant rises
but a few inches.

Arr. XIII. On roe Lanp Birps or Nova Seoria. By A.
Downs, Cor. Memb. Zool. Soc. of London.
[Read May 3, 1866.]

Havine in my last paper completed the list of the Birds of
Nova Scotia as far as the warblers, I now proceed with the wrens,
creepers, sparrows, &c; but as our Institute has an abundance of
matter for Insertion in the next number of Transactions, I will not
trespass too much by making this paper a lengthy one, but will
reserve my additional remarks for next session, when, if life and
health be spared me, I hope to complete the whole of the land birds.

DOWNS — ON THE LAND BIRDS OF NOVA ScoTIA. - 131

I wish to remark, however, in regard to my last paper, that as
_ European naturalists have been misled by my having given our barn
swallow as Hirundo rustica, it would probably be better to insert
Wilson’s specific name Americana instead. Most of the European
and American birds are perfectly distinct, although some authors
have given them a similar name, and without thought I repeated
‘the error.

Buack anpD WuitE CrEEPER—(Cerihia varia).—This pretty
little bird with its black and white streaked plumage so clearly
defined, is somewhat abundant, and generally observed in company
with the warblers and arriving about the same time. Its nest is
very difficult to find.

Brown CrEEPER—(Certhia familiaris.)\—This bird which is
considered to be identical with the European Brown Creeper is by
no means abundant. I have shot specimens in the vicinity of Grand
Lake, that famous locality for birds of all kinds, and have also seen
it once on my own property in the village. I think it breeds about
Grand Lake.

Winter Wren—(Troglodytes hyemalis).—Nearly always found
inland. I have seen it about Grand Lake, and in the neighbour-
hood of Kentville, but never about Halifax. This bird has a very
powerful song taking into consideration its small size, and at times
makes the forest ring with its pleasing note, It is solitary in habit,
and, unlike some of the wrens which court the society of man,
appears to shun it. You may see it in some secluded part of the
forest, hopping about old fallen tree trunks and endeavouring to
screen itself from observation.

Rusy CrownEep WREN:

(Regulus calendulu).—This is not a
common bird, and partakes of the habits of the former species in
keeping away from cultivation, and in power of song. I have shot a
specimen in Byer’s swamp in the village.

American Gop Crrst—(Regulus satrapa).—This nimble little
bird is a constant resident in the Province. It breeds in the denser
parts of the forest. In winter time when all nature appears to be
in a deep sleep the gold-crest and the black-cap-tit flit from tree to
tree in search of insect life, scanning the cracks and crevices, from
which they appear to obtain enough for their support.

Brack-Cap-rit—(Parus atricapillus..\—Very common, in win-

132 DOWNS—ON THE LAND BIRDS OF NOVA SCOTIA.

ter time. It breeds in the Province in holes of trees. I once
observed one in the act of taking some sheep’s wool for its nest.
The wool was beneath a stick on the highroad, and the bird was
endeavouring to collect all the wool, which it did by carding it out
and surrounding its whole head with a perfect ball of the fuzzy
material. Country people say, that when he cries ‘‘ sweet weather,

’ astorm is brewing. It is commonly known as the

sweet weather,’
*- chick-a-dee” from its oft repeated note, which sounds like the
words ‘chick a dee dee dee”. It delights to feast on fat of any
kind, and I saw it ight upon candle moulds set out to cool and
pick out the grease. [I once saw one enter a good sized marrow
bone and disappear entirely in the hollow withm. It becomes very
tame when fed from a window, and during the past hard winter
Mrs. R. G. Fraser, had a perfect flock of black-cap-tits and other
birds, which regularly came to be fed night and morning.

Hupson’s Bay Tir—(P. Hudsonicus.)—Although similar in
habit to the preceding species it is not so common, but may occa-
sionally be seen in company with it. It breeds in Nova Scotia.

Sotitary Vireo—( Vireo solitartus.)—TVhis rare bird is almost
unknown to me, although I believe it breeds in some parts of the
Proyince.

Warsuinc Virgo—(V. Gilvus..—Common. It breeds about
the village, generally on the slopes of the hills among the birch
groves.

Brivut Brrp—(Gialia Wilsonu.)—This handsome bird is only
occasionally seen here, being out of its usual latitude so far north.
IT once saw four on a willow tree near Kidston’s house, and got a
box and fixed it up hke they do in the United States, but they
never took possession.

Crepar Birp, or Waxwinc—(Bombycilla Carolinensis.)— Gener-
ally appears here about the first day of June when the apple blos-
soms are out. It feeds upon fruit and insects, and is a fearless bird
allowing a person to come close to it. It breeds in the village, a
boy having brought me a nest taken near the church school house.

Bounemian Waxwine.—This bird occurred here in the winter
of 1864-5. <A flock was seen near the Three Mile House, and
Mr. Bellis shot some specimens. ‘This is the only instance on
record of its appearance in the Province so far as I know.

DOWNS — ON THE LAND BIRDS OF NOVA SCOTIA. t33

Sona Sparrow—(f. mélodia.)—This is the most common
species we have. It breeds about clearings, making a nest on the
ground, in which it lays four blotched eggs. In habit it resembles
the wren, hopping about faggot heaps and jerking its tail up and
down: indeed I may say it supplies the place of the English wren
in Nova Scotia. A few stop all winter, and I have heard them
singing in February, in the Hon. Edward Kenny’s garden in the

city. Some I have in confinement sing at night. Boys call it
‘Spring Bird.” Its note sounds like “chink, chink, chol vo ree:
old Bill Pickett sha’nt have me.”

WHITE-THROATED Sparrow—(f. Pennslyvanica.)—Its_ wel-
come note to the fisherman on the lakes is first heard about the end
of April. It builds its nest in tufts of ground juniper in low spots,
and lays four eggs. I once heard the cry of this bird in distress
making a pitiful noise, and on arriving at the spot saw a red squir-
rel with a young sparrow in his mouth. I threw a stone at him
and he let go his prize, when I found that he had eaten its head off.
This squirrel will also rob the nests of the migratory thrush, taking
eggs and young. This bird from its note is called ‘‘ Poor Kennedy’s
Bird.”

Bay-wincep Sparrow—(Emberiza graminea.)—This is a very
rare species. Capt. Blakiston and I had great work trying to geta
specimen.

Cuippinc Sparrow—(.socialis.)—This bird appears to become
more common every year as the country becomes cleared. In the
United States it is very common, hopping about the roads in the
city parks and other frequented places, almost under the feet of
passers by. It breeds in this Province in evergreen trees, a pair
or so at my place; in the States it builds in the cedar; it is only
of late years I have seen this bird about Halifax.

TrEE Sparrow—(L. Canadensis.)\—This is one of the birds
which visit us only in winter, when it may be seen on the snowy
roads picking at horse droppings. As spring advances it leaves us
_for the far north, where removed from danger it builds its nest and
rears its young in security.

SAVANNAH Sparrow—(LE. Savannah.)—Not a common bird
here. It is evidently a ground species, as I have never observed it
ina tree. A few breed in the province every year.

Wb)

134 DOWNS — ON THE LAND BIRDS OF NOVA SCOTIA.

Swamp Sparrow—(Fringilla Palustris.)—This is a very rare
species, observed but seldom, and I know nothing of its habits.

Snow Birp—(Junco hyernalis.)—Yhis is probably with the
exception of the robin, the most familiar bird in Nova Scotia, being
the only one that is seen in our yards and gardens at all times.
Some call it the “ blue bird” from its slate coloured back. A few
stay all winter and come into out-houses to search for food. Some
years ago, a pair of these birds made their nest on a beam in an
unfinished house, in Lockman street, where a carpenter was contin-
ually at work, but his labour did not appear to interfere with their
incubation. When a stranger, however, came in, they at once flew
off and remained until his departure. ‘They finally hatched their
four young ones and took them away. ‘Their usual nest is on the
ground, a situation frequently taken advantage of by the spotted
snake, (Coluber sirtalis,) which frequently makes a meal of the
young. I have some in confinement.

Sxyow Buntinc—(E. nivalis.)—This well known bird arrives
with the first snowstorms of winter, and leaves about the beginning
of March. The citadel hillis a favourite resort of this northern
species, and it appears to prefer the most exposed situations. It
has always been a mystery to me where these birds shelter them-
selves at night, or during a heavy snow storm.

PureLe Fincu—(FPringilla purpurea.)—Very common. It is
easily trapped ; its appearance and song causing it to be kept in
cages. It loses the red plumage in confinement and becomes
yellowish. The young birds are grey until the second year, when
they assume the mature red plumage. ‘This is the bird called by
bird fanciers red linnet and the grey linnet—they are the same.

Nortuern ReppoLE—(Linaria borealis.)—In former years this
bird was more abundant than it is now. It visits us in flocks m
winter. Mr. J. M. Jones informs me that he has shot this north-
ern bird in winter time in the Bermudas. All go north in spring.

Privé Fincu—(L. Pinus.)—A constant resident all the year,
plenty in winter. It is a very familiar bird allowing a person to
come close to it without showing any fear. One I have in confine-
ment will come and sit on my finger. It feeds principally on the
seeds of the conifere, but in confinement takes common bird seed.
W. Winton found a nest in March some years ago with eggs in it,
the high winds blew the eggs out of the nest.

DOWNS—ON THE LAND BIRDS OF NOVA SCOTIA. 135

Inpico Brrvp—(Fringilla cyanea.)—Very rare, only a straggler
occurring now and then.

American Go.iprixcu—(Carduelis tristis.)—This bird is com-
mon inland, especially about Truro and Windsor, but is rare in the
vicinity of Halifax. It breeds here and a few remain during winter,
changing at that season to an clive colour. Its call note is pretty

_and something like that of a canary.

Pixzt Grospeak—(Corythus enucleator.)—Common during the
winter, attracting attention by the rose coloured plumage of the
male bird. It is very tame, sitting on a bough on the road side
while a passenger goes by. Some years ago I shot one of these
birds behind Mr. James Forman’s house, a female. No sooner
had the lifeless body fallen to the ground than the male bird flew
down and began to protect it by placing dead leaves around. The
scene was so touching that I would never wish to cause its enact-
ment again. Mr. Foreman tells me several of these birds have
frequented his garden during the past hard winter. All leave here
in spring for the North. I am told it breeds in Newfoundland.

RosE-BREASTED GrosBeak—(Coccovorus ludovicianus.)—This is
a summer bird with us, and both for plumage and song is kept in
cages. It is to be found about Mount Thom, near Truro, and also
at Pictou, and I am told equally so at Prince Edward Island. We
rarely see it about Halifax. It usually frequents hardwood hills,
and breeds about Grand Lake, and other parts of the Province that
abound with large hard wood trees.

WuitE-wincED CrosspiLL—(Lozia leucoptera.)—During some
years it is abundant, while at other times it is rare. It breeds in
the Province and feeds on the seeds of the Conzfere. Mr. Henry
Piers assures me that he has found a nest of this bird with young
in it in midwinter, it was in a hollow tree that was chopped down
for fire wood.

Common CrossBILL

(L. curvirostra.)—The same description
will answer for this species. I may add that it has always been a
puzzle to naturalists in what position these birds breed, it is sup-
posed to be identical with the European.

In conclusion, I wish to make a few brief remarks pertaining
to the arrival and departure on their migrations, of the various birds
which visit our Province.

136 DOWNS — ON THE LAND BIRDS OF NOVA SCOTIA.

Nova Scotia is very favourably placed for observers, and I feel
confident that if a more extended scries of observations in this res-
pect were made, we should become possessed of valuable informa-
tion now unknown to us. Vast flights of wild fowl pass and repass
over this peninsula in spring and autumn, to and from the coasts of
Labrador and Newfoundland, and even still farther north; and it
would be extremely interesting to ascertain with what precision
such arrivals take place each year, and whether an early spring or
a late autumn have any particular mfiuence upon such movements.
In my humble opinion I am inclined to think that such casual
occurrences have little effect upon the feathered tribe, but that they
move north at the close of winter and south at its commence-
ment, with great regularity, guided alone by that wonderful instinct
which is implanted within them by their Allwise Creator.

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APPENDIX. 139

Tue following remarks upon the Red Indians of Newfoundland,
by Mr. Ex1as Maretr, are contained in a letter to the Presi-
DENT :

“213 GoweEr-sT., St. Joun’s, N. F.,
October 15, 1865.

“(My Dear Sir,—

‘Sometime back on my meeting with you at Halifax, I had occasion to

mention the discovery of a grave of one of the aborigines of Newfoundland,
and also that I had visited the place and had withdrawn several of the relics,
which I then described to you from memory, but which I had long before parted
with. Since that time I recently met with an old friend, the Rev. M. Black-
more, Rural Dean of Conception Bay, who was the first visitor to the place,
and who retains in his possession a number of curiosities collected by himself
at the last resting place of the solitary Beothick, or Red Man of Newfound-
land.

“JT will now give you his own statement, and in his own words :—‘ They
were found in the year 1847, on one of the Islands forming the Lower Burgeo
group, called “Rencontre.” This Island is uninhabited, and considerably
elevated—difficult also of access in rough weather. It is in a great measure
covered with broken fragments of rocks which have fallen from the heights.
About half way up the mountain (if I may so termit), and in a hollow formed
by a large piece of fallen rock, with every opening carefully closed by small
pieces of the broken rock, we, that is I, and the men who had the evening pre-
vious discovered the cavity but who would not search into its contents until I
came with them, found the bones of a human being wrapped closely round
with birch rinds; on removing these rinds a quantity of gravel mixed with red
ochre became visible, and on removing this we found the oblong pieces of car-
ved bone, together with the flat circular stones, some glass beads, two iron
hatchet heads, so rusty that we could pick them to pieces, a bone spear head,
the handle of a knife with part of the blade still in it, also some flints designed
for arrow heads—all these articles were together and had been placed appar-
ently under or just before the head of the individual buried—all carefully
enclosed in the rinds. The skull was that of a full grown male adult with a
very flat crown and large projection behind; the place of interment was
singularly wild, high up in a cliff overlooking a little cove facing the open
sea, and only acessible on this side in very smooth water. It was discovered
by a boy while gathering brushwood. ‘This boy seeing a piece of wood pro-
jecting from the rock pulled at it to add it to his store, and so loosened the
smaller rocks and found the cavity with its contents. He left the stick being
too much frightened to take it home. The head of this stick which was about
four inches in diameter was ornamented. There were four fragments of
sticks, and they must I imagine, have formed a kind of canopy over the body.
These relics certainly do not belong to the tribes of Indians at present sojourn-
ing in Newfoundland, for on shewing them to some Mic-Macs they at once
gave me to understand that they belonged to one of the aborigines of the

140 APPENDIX.

Island, and that the owner must have beena great ‘“ witch,” the word used by
the Indian—who also informed me that by use of these oblong pieces of bone,
the man could kill his enemies—their use from this it would appear was not
ornament only, but acharm also.’

‘“‘ Such is the account of my friend the Rev. Martin Blackmore, and as I
was the next person to visit the place though some four years later, I must say
that his report tallies in every respect with my own observation. The Indi-
an’s account also agrees perfectly with what was told me by Indians to whom I
shewed some of the bones and arrows that I myself had collected in the same
place. The presence of iron weapons is easily accounted for, as since the
reign of Henry VII. the shores of Newfoundland have been visited by British
seamen in pursuit of the cod-fishery, and collisions occasionally took place
between the natives and the crews of the fishing-vessels—the fishermen, though
not allowed to form settlements or raise buildings in the colony, except such
as were absolutely necessary for the pursuit and curing of the fish, customari-
ly left such things behind them as could not easily be transported at the
close of each season, and the natives watching for the departure of the whites,
invariably plundered their depots. The disappearance of the Red Indian of
Newfoundland is only of recant date, and many persons now living have come
into personal contact with members of the race. They are now all extinct,
and the last representative of them (Mary March as she was named,) died
some 35 or 40 years ago. She had been taken when a child and brought up in
her captor’s family as a servant, but had escaped at different times to visit the
haunts of her departed race. Through the kindness of my friend Mr. Black-
more, Iam enabled to send you the accompanying sketches which I have
made from his collection. The lance or spear head of jasper is one found by
myself.

“As I know you are much interested in the antiquities of North America,
IT hope the sketches will not be without interest to you. I must remark in con-
clusion that several of the bones are much decayed. An extra amount of
work has interrupted the travelling which I had mapped out for myself, and
my principal having been seriously indisposed has, kept me almost a close
prisoner,

“T remain dear Sir,
‘Yours very faithfully
“Eras MaRert.”

ON NORTH ATLANTIC STORMS.
BY J. L. HURDIS.

Many years ago, when Redfield and Reid were only beginning their obser-
yations on storms, I happened to be a passenger on board a sailing ship, bound
in the autumn of the year, from England to British North America. Weary
with contending against westerly winds, in mid-Atlantic we were cheered by
a fine breeze and promising clouds springing up in the S.E., and speculating
on keeping the fair wind for some days at the least, when the skipper, a sea-
man of experience in those latitudes, chilled our hopes by stating that no
reliance could be placed in these easterly winds, which were sure to veer to

APPENDIX. 141

to the South and S,W. blowing very hard with rain at the latter point, then
“jumping” into the N.W., there ended, leaving you once more to the vexation
of a head wind and blue sky—all this, too, it was prophesied, was to happen in
the brief space of three or four hours. The skipper was marvellously correct.
Several of those minor revolving gales, all alike, passed over us in succession,
convincing me that there must be some law of nature regulating these
things. After years found me in the Bermudas, a region, I may say of
revolving gales, and now I have spent ten years in this country ; and when I

connect my experience of former years with recent observations, 1 cannot
avoid the conclusion that all the revolving storms of this country, and they
are very many, come to us from the tropics of the Western World.

Tar following notice occurred in the ‘ Bermudian Royal Gazette,” of Septem-

ber 12th, 1865.

““ Yesterday was the anniversary of the dreadful hurricane with which
Bermuda was visited in 1839. The wind on the 11th September, 1839, as on
yesterday, was from the Eastward. It subsequently, however, during the
continuance of the hurricane, went to E.S.E.—S.—then §.W. and eventually
to W. Though the appearance of the sky yesterday was very unsettled, it
did not bear any thing approaching the copper coloured hue which it presen-
ted on the eventful day above alluded to.

“The hurricane of 1839 commenced at about 7.p.m.,and the storm did not
subside till about noon on the 12th. The Barometer fell to 28-3, and soon
after the storm subsided, itrose to 30:1. The Thermometer ranged from 85-
81, and went down to 71 soon after the weather moderated.

“The melancholy appearance of the Island on the 12th from the destruction
which the gale had caused, can never be forgotten by those who witnessed it.
Scarcely a house escaped injury; some were levelled, others unroofed and
side-walks split to the foundation; trees broker and prostrated, and a num-
ber of vessels and boats driven on shore.

“A distressing drought of nearly six months’ continuance preceded the
hurricane.”

This Hurricane of the 11th September, 1839, reached Charlottetown, in
Prince Edward Island, 46 N. lat., on the 13th September, at 2 p.m, the wind
blowing from the N.E., and freshening rapidly.

I was at that time stationed in the Island, and, at the commencement
of the gale, watched the two ferry-boats as they crossed the Hillsborough.
At 3 p.m., I returned to my own residence on the north side of Charlottetown,
the storm then blowing with sufficient force to hurl sundry loosened bricks
from the top of one of my chimneys.

This hurricane was, therefore, forty-three hours in traversing the 983
English miles between the Bermudas and Charlottetown; being at the rate
of 22-86, or nearly 23 English miles per hour. The time occupied in passing
over the Bermudas was seventeen hours, which, measured by the speed above

18

142 APPENDIX.

mentioned, gives a diameter to the storm of 388 English miles, at that particu-
lar period of its existence. Reduce this diameter 28 miles in order to be
within bounds, and it will then be 360 Eng. milesin breadth. Now, suppose the
extreme height of this hurricane from the surface of the earth, to be two such
miles, which is probably beyond the reality, and we shall have a whirling
mass of atmosphere and cloud, representing a flattened disk, the width of
which would be equal to 180 times its own thickness, or, resembling, in diame-
ter and thickness, the proportions of an ordinary dinner plate. This immense
circle would cover an area of 101,787 square miles, and would be quite flat if
the surface of the earth presented a dead level; but, moving over a rounded
or globular form—the segment of a sphere—the under side of the hurricane
would necessarily be concave, and the upper surface convex, to correspond.

In this form, I conceive, did the hurricane of 1839 advance from the
Bermudas towards the N. and N.E., revolving upon its centre (which centre
passed immediately over those islands) from right to left, if viewed from a stand-
ing point in the centre; with what velocity we know not, but if estimated at
five times the rate of direct progress, it would give 120 miles per hour.
During the prevalence of this hurricane in Prince Edward Island, the wind
veered from N.E. to S.E. S.W. and N.W., where it terminated sometime
before daybreak on the 14th. A few old buildings were levelled to the ground,
and sundry trees of thirty years growth blown down, but, with these excep-
tions, little material damage was sustained. The outer margin of the gale
extended to Bay Chaleur, where H.M.S. ‘“ Andromache ” was then riding at
anchor. In that locality, however, it was not severe.

In Keith Johnston’s Physical Geography for Schools, it is stated that the
West India hurricanes commence near the Leeward Islands, travel to the
W.N.W., and then round the shores of the Gulf of Mexico, following the Gulf
Stream, and are lost between the Bermudas and Halifax. Other writers
terminate such storms south of the Island of St. Pierre, Newfoundland.

The hurricane of September 11th, 1839, took a more easterly course, and
was certainly not Jost in the longitude of Bermuda, or St. Pierre, Miquelon.

It is aremarkable fact that in the ten degrees of latitude north of the equa-
tor, in the Atlantic, hurricanes are unknown, and that the same exemption
extends to every part of the South Atlantic. It is, then, between the 10th and
20th parallels of north latitude that we must look for the commencement of
these storms, so ably described by Mr. Redfield and the late Sir William Reid.

The greater number of the so-called West India hurricanes pass to the
north, between the Bermudas and the shores of the United States, sometimes
in close proximity with the former, and on other occasions sweeping over the
seaboard of those States. The hurricane of September 11th, 1839, passed,
however, directly over the Bermudas, eastward of the usual track, and we
know that it was not lost in the longitude of Halifax, N.S., but continued its
course into the Atlantic with fearful violence.

A revolving tropical tempest of this enormous extent, high rate of speed,
and power, with a wide ocean before it, free from islands, mountains, and other
physical obstructions, must, under the circumstances, continue its onward and

APPENDIX. 143

irresistible course for hundreds of miles, and thus be found on the European
side of the ocean, without exhibiting any material symptoms of exhaustion.
Expansion, and a corresponding loss of speed and power, are, I believe,
characteristic of these storms, and for this due allowance must be made, to
render it possible for opposing winds to offer resistance to its progress. Ifa
north or south wind of less velocity or power than the revolving gale, comes
in contact with it, at this period of its career, such a wind would be compelled
to give way; not, however, without infringing uponand disturbing the outer
circumference of the hurricane, and causing portions of whirling matter to be
separated from it. These minor portions of the cyclone would, I conceive,
retain their revolving character, and continue their easterly course, some-
what diverging from that of the present storm. |

I think it probable that many of our West India hurricanes are broken up
by repeated collisions. of this nature, and that, from this cause, arise those
minor revolving gales which sweep over the British Isles and the coast of
France in rapid succession, during the autumn months of the year.

It is likewise evident to my mind that revolving gales of greater diameter
and force than these miniature cyclones, occasionally cross the Atlantic and
reach the shores of Europe. The gale in which the unfortunate ‘“ Royal
Charter” was wrecked on the Welch coast, in October, 1859, may be cited as
a case in point. The warm temperature of that gale was alone sufficient to
distinguish it from a cold straight blowing easterly wind.

Valuable information regarding these mighty storms might assuredly be
found in the log books of ships which constantly cross and recross the Atlan-
tic in the latitudes of their occurrence. The steam packets of the Cunard
line, on their outward and homeward voyages must have encountered these
gales again and again; must have steamed into them and through them, or
gallantly held their course as the storm swept over them in its N. E. course.

Now, in regard to the late storms of December 1865, and Jan. 1866, there
is no room for doubt; one and all have shewn the same tropical characteris-
tics ; revolving and proceeding in a N.E. direction. As to their destructive
tendency, the published accounts sufficiently speak. Was the storm in
which the ‘‘ London” foundered, a revolving one or not ?

The “Amalia” sailed from Liverpool on the same day the London left
Plymouth, following in her track. The Amalia’s published account says the
storm set in on the 10th January, at noon, with a fresh breeze from S.W.

4 p.m. Gale increasing.
6 p.m. Blowing a hurricane.
8 p.m. Violent hurricane.
9,45 p.m. (Barely 10 hours) Engines stopped, and ship unmanageable.

January 11. Similar weather.

2am. Deck pumps rigged.

9 a.m. Set canvas on ship.
3,30 p.m. Sighted S. Sh. ‘ Laconia.”
Midnight. Squally, and high sea.

All this time the ship was sinking—January 12th, 9 a.m., ‘ Laconia’s”
boats came alongside, crew saved.

144 APPENDIX.

I think it most likely she first encountered the storm from the S. then
S.W., and so on. The shipsunk in Lat. 46° 31’ N. and Long. 8° 40’ W.

The Royal Mail Steam Ship “ Rhone”, Captain R. Woolward, Comman-
der, on her way from Southampton to Lisbon, fell in with the same gale.
The Captain says, in a letter to the Secretary of his Company :—‘‘ We encoun-
tered a severe cyclone on the 11th instant, wind from S.E., veering eastward
to north, in which I am sorry to say the two life-boats on the port side, and
the cutter were lost, the starboard cutter and mail boat damaged, the rails
and deck furniture much injured, two horses killed, and one of the crew had
his leg broken. I have never before experienced such a gale. The barome-
ter fell an inch and 11-100 in 12 hours, going as low as 28-34, and although
the wind was fair, we were obliged to lie to for ten hours.”

This is valuable information, and with that supplied by the crew of the
“« Amalia,” we gain a fair insight into the character of the storm.

Again on the 14th January, the P. & O. Company’s Steam Packet “ Tan-
jore,” arrived from the Mediterranean, having experienced very heavy
weather in the Bay of Biscay, during which “ phosphoric balls,” as my inform-
ant called them, appeared on the extremities of her yard arms. This may,
or may not be a characteristic of tropical storms, but whether it be so or not,
I mention the fact as one worth recording.

With such evidence before us, I hardly think any one will be disposed to
question the revolving character of the late Bay of Biscay storms.

The next consideration is, whether there have been any great tropical
storm, or storms, in the centre of the Atlantic, which might be connected with
the storms recently experienced on the coast of England and France.

Of this I think there can be little doubt. The “ Palinurus,”’ from Liver-
pool, and the American Ship “ Christiana,” from London, both bound to New
York, found themselves, at half passage involved in a furious hurricane, which
crippled the first, and made acomplete wreck ofthe second. Unfortunately, I can |
obtain no reliable data whereby to fix the locality of this storm upon the map,
or to trace it in its progress to England. Allmy calculations, so far, have
failed in any useful result, beyond an impression that the storm was much
slower in direct progress than such storms on the western side of the Atlantic.

Thus the Christiana had the storm on the 19th and 20th December—no
latitude and longitude given. The Palinurus in longitude 39° 20—no date
stated.

Mariners, in describing the storms that have recently passed over this part
of the world, almost invariably allude to the presence of a heavy cross sea, as
one of the great difficulties they had to contend with.

A gale, blowing in a straight line, will cause the ocean swell to roll in one
direction only ; and, if two straight gales should meet from opposite points, or
at right angles, a cross sea would be the result.

These cross seas are very perplexing if not dangerous. In my December
voyage across the Atlantic, the vessel I sailed in, was unfortunately becalmed
in a very heavy cross sea, and the awful wildness of the extraordinary scene
I shall never forget. Huge waves were rolling in different directions and

APPENDIX. 145

coming into collision with each other, the two united sometimes rising toa peak,
and representing what our skipper was pleased to terma ‘church steeple.”
Great attention was paid to the compass during this commotion of the sea, and
the astonishment of the skipper, and of an old sea captain who was a passenger,
is still fresh upon my memory; as a mighty wave upon the starboard beam
swung the ship half round the compass, and a cross sea, or seas, from the oppo-
site direction, completed the circle, the passenger captain exclaiming, “ zounds,
why she has gone completely round the compass on her heel, never saw such
a thing before in my life.” It was not pleasant to be knocked about for two
hours in such a cauldron, and I was heartily thankful when a fine fair wind
set in and enabled us to extricate the ship from her dangerous position. Cross
seas had certainly much to do with the destruction of the London and Amalia,
flooding the between decks, quenching the engine fires, and ultimately causing
both these overloaded ships to founder.

With regard to the “ phosphoric balls,’ seen on board the ‘‘ Tanjore,” let
me observe that the phenomena is by no means a common one, many an old
seaman never having seen it. I believe it is called “St. Llmo’s fire”»—‘ Cor-
pus sanctum,’—and a variety of names which appear to be corruptions of the
latter. Iam happy to say I once witnessed this concentration of the electricity
of the atmosphere upon the rigging of a ship. It was on the same December
voyage from Prince Edward Island, our little brig, the ‘ Eliza,” not quite two
hundred tons register, was making her debut upon the ocean, and had been
scudding before a severe gale during the eight hours of daylight which we en-
joyed at that late season ef the year. The darkness of night had come upon
us, but with two good men at the wheel, and our skipper, a superb seaman,
conning the ship and steering by the stars, all proceeded well. Wearied in
body by watching the progress of the storm all day, I seated myself upon the
cabin floor, in front of a bright fire in the stove, placing one arm round the
leg of the cabin table to secure my position, and here I was rocked to and fro
to the hoarse music of the winds and waves, until half asleep, when a seaman
entered to say the captain wanted me on deck immediately. The mandate
was instantly obeyed. Pointing to the main-top-gallant-mast head, the captain
called my attention to a bright light upon the copper vane spindle. It was
like a brilliant star in the dark heavens, and was mistaken for one by the
skipper before sending for me; a heavy lurch bearing the light with it con-
vinced him of his error. This light, during my presence on deck, was brilliant
for a full minute or perhaps longer, when it disappeared altogether.

Some weeks later I happened to mention this circumstance to a relation
residing at Abbeville, in France, when he related to me, as a singular coinci-
denee, that two French gentlemen of his acquaintance, had recently travelled
together, on horseback, from Amiens, and night having overtaken them
upon the open plains, they were quietly proceeding along the road, in conver-
sation with each other, when one of them exclaimed with surprise, ‘‘do you
see that light upon my horse’s ears!” Hardly had the observation been made
than the light also appeared upon the eartips of his companion’s horse.

St. Elmo’s fire, old mariners affirm, usually appears on the extremities of

146 APPENDIX.

the lower yard arms, first, then removes to the top-sail yards, and so on till it
reaches the mast head. An old officer of the ci-devant East India Company,
tells me, that on one of his voyages the look-out man proclaimed, “a light
ahead,” and on some officers proceeding to ascertain whence it emanated,
they were astonished to find this electric light in possession of both ends of the
spritsail yard.

Reverting to the subject of Atlantic revolving storms, let me add in con-
clusion, that I consider their usual course, indeed their never varying course,
is from the West Indies northwards between the Bermudas and the North
American coast to latitude 30, where they head to the north-east, and passing
Nova Scotia and Newfoundland, rush onwards towards Europe. Bermuda
thus represents a sort of turning point, round which these storms describe their
course, but at such a distance as most frequently to avoid coming into collision
with the spot. Exceptions of course take place, especially in the winter season,
when Bermuda gets a full share of these revolving gales. Now, from Nova
Scotia to the meridian of 30 west, these gales must have prevailed during
December and January, for in that longitude their violence was something ter-
rible to contemplate—witness the wreck of the “ Christiana,” the ‘‘ Jane Low-
den,” and a host of other ships, all crumpled up in the open sea, in a manner
truly marvellous. These storms were moving to the north-east, and most as-
suredly did not commence their motion in that longitude, but far away in the
tropics; generated by that great motive power, heat, the source of all motion,
if I mistake not. Well, from longitude 30 to our own shores, the track of these
storms is only too distinctly marked out by the dismal amount of ships and
cargoes that have been strewed in fragments upon the surface of the sea, and
to which brave men have too often clung in the vain attempt of saving their
lives. The rest we know and will pass over for the present.

Bear in mind that in the Indian Ocean, north of the equator, where no cold
Arctic current is known, its revolving storms move in the same direction, turn
in the same latitude, and obey the same laws as those of the Atlantic. Also,
that none but straight winds belong to the temperate regions of the earth;
that the coast of Africa lies almost entirely within the tropics, where trade
winds always prevail; and that whenever a revolving storm appears in the
north, we may safely set it down as a tropical wanderer. I cannot for a
moment entertain the idea that revolving storms can be generated to the north
of the tropics.

Fourteen years of isolation in the Bermudas made me somewhat familiar
with the winds of the Atlantic, and I can confidently assert that no hurricane
or revolving gale, great or small, ever came upon us there except from the
south or south-west. Taking all these circumstances into consideration, could
we otherwise conclude than that the revolving storms which annually speed
on their destructive course over the wide waters of the North Atlantic, origi-

nate in the region of the tropics.

APPENDIX. 147

FIELD MEETING AT ASHBOURNE, JUNE 26, 1866.

By invitation of the PRESIDENT, a Field Meeting of the Institute was held
at his residence at Ashbourne, North West Arm, and vicinity, on Tuesday the
26th June.

The programme contemplated,—1. a visit to Downs’ Zoological collection,
head of the North West Arm, and thence to Ashbourne. 2. A visit to the
grave of the late Tirus Smiru, eminent in Nova Scotia as a Naturalist,
where the President would read a short sketch of the life of that person;
thence to proceed to Geizer’s hill, where a splendid panorama of the sur-
rounding country is presented, and where the party could study the botany
and geology of the district. 3. An excursion from Geizer’s hill to Byers’ lake.
4. The return to Ashbourne to dine, and afterwards to visit the President’s
private museum.

The party assembled at the Province building, where conveyances were in
waiting to take them to Downs’ cottage. The day was beautifully fine but
intensely hot, the thermometer ranging 84° Fah. On arriving they were re-
ceived with a hearty welcome from Mr. Downs, who very politely escorted them
over his grounds, and showed them all the curiosities. Amongst these the
principal and more imposing are a splendid young polar bear, a seal, and
several deer and antelopes from southern America. The collection consists
otherwise of foreign, British and native animals, birds and beasts, of rare and
interesting species, all well worthy the inspection of naturalists, and of stran-
gers visiting Halifax. After passing an hour delightfully, the party next pro-
ceeded to Ashbourne, the mansion of the President, where they were hospit-
ably entertained, and rested for a while previously to entering upon the further
business of the day.

Ashbourne is prettily situated, at an easy distance from the city, and just
beyond its taxation, an advantage not to be despised even by men of science.
The grounds are tastefully cultivated, and on either side, within a neighbourly
distance, are neat suburban residences, and progressive improvements, which
at no distant day will make the “‘ Dutch Village,” so called, one of the most
delightful spots in Nova Scotia. The scenery embraces northward, a view of
Bedford basin, bounded by the sombre pine-clad hills ;, eastward, the well
cultivated fields and farm houses of the peninsula, and beyond, the citadel
and the upper portion of the city of Halifax ; southward is the North West
Arm, the harbour of Halifax, and a grand ocean distanee. The soil, which is
susceptible of the highest cultivation, rests on the metamorphosed slate of the
peninsula, and here and there on the surface are scattered granite boulders,
large and small, derived from the glacial action of which the district has largely
partaken. There can be little doubt that here as elsewhere in the metamorphic
coast band, gold is present in the numerous quartz veins that make their ap-
pearance wherever the rock is exposed. Westward, and at a short distance,
are the chain of lakes which help to furnish the city with a copious supply of
water. These, as well as-the valley of the Dutch village, have evidently

148 APPENDIX.

been scooped by glaciers, which have also formed the North West Arm, and
largely denuded the rocks and excavated the depths along the western shore
of the harbour.

From Ashbourne a walk of half a mile through the forest led to the Natur-
alist’s grave. It is a quiet spot on a rising ground in view of the surrounding
landscape, covered with a young growth of birch and other deciduous
trees—just such a place as a philosopher might be expected to select for his
last repose. Here all around “ the rude forefathers of the hamlet sleep,’—the
Dutch and German emigrants, who more than a century ago, settled at this
place, which was called after their name. A wooden railing, fast going to
decay, marks the grave of the ‘“‘ Philosopher of the Dutch village.” The party
encircled it, and with bared heads listened to the interesting recital by the
President, of the biography with which he had been furnished. At its close,
anecdotes and reminiscences of the departed were conjured out of the past,
and related by those who had known him and admired his talents and unob-
trusive virtues. It would be an act of grace, while the remembrance of the
man lingers among the present generation, to erect a more befitting monument
to one who may be truly regarded as a pioneer of civilization and science in
Nova Scotia.

This tribute rendered to departed worth, the journey was made to
the top of Geizer’s hill, the highest ground in the vicinity, from which
there is an extended view of the country that amply compensates the fatigue
of the ascent. Geizer’s hill is nearly of the same elevation as that on which
the citadel stands, and which it pretty well commands. It is composed of
metamorphosed slate and quartzite, much disturbed, with granite boulders inter-
spersed—the compactness of the rock, and probably its elevation, preventing
the erosion which has evidently befallen the land for some distance on either
side. The retreat of the glaciers however, must have left a considerable deposit
of clay and drift, and this impregnated in the lapse of time with granitic and
slaty detritus and decomposed vegetation, has in some places produced a fertile
soil, which at this height appears to reward the labour of its cultivators.

The Jand at a short distance from the hill inclines with a gradual descent
to the chain of lakes which skirt the Margaret’s bay road. Byers’ lake, the
next requirement of the programme, is about a mile distant in a north-westerly
direction. Just however as it came in sight, after a hard scramble through
bushes and over interminable boulders, it became the unanimous opinion,—
taking into consideration the intense heat, and the exertion required to over-
come the difficulty of the way, and the little of interest that might be expected
when the goal was reached,—that it would be wise to retrace the route. The
main body accordingly returned to Ashbourne, where they were soon after
joined by stragglers who had taken another direction, but eventually had ar-
rived at asimilar conclusion. The extreme heat and toil had told more or less
upon all, but all were in excellent humour, and in half an hour were well pre-
pared, with sharpened appetites, to discuss the ample repast prepared by their
worthy entertainer.

An excellent dinner was served under the trees, in a hardwood grove a

APPENDIX. 149

little distance from the mansion. Mr. Parish the photographer was on the
ground, and attempted a sketch of the scene, but owing to the broken light
among the trees, was but partially successful. A pleasant hour quickly pas-
sed, after which a visit was paid to the PRESIDENT’s private museum, which
is contained in a building erected for that purpose.

The collection of specimens gathered together in this building is varied and
interesting, comprising many rare and curious forms in every branch of z00-
logy, brought at much trouble and expense from various parts of the globe, and
exhibited either in the drawers of cabinets, or in table cases which extends
down the centre of the room. The foreign entomological collection, principally
from the East Indies and South America; the conchological collection con-
taining some rare land shells from New Guinea, Arroo and other Pacific islands;
and especially the beautiful specimens of corals from the Bermudas—attracted
the notice of the members. But perhaps the most interesting portion of the
whole lay in the series of madrepore and asteroid corals, illustrating the
growth of the Bermuda reefs, which is considered by Mr. Jones to be far more
rapid than is generally supposed. Coal, glass bottles, recent shells, contain-
ing their inhabitants; roots of trees, &c., were here to be seen coated with a
vigorous growth of coral, affording facts suflicient to prove beyond a doubt
that some polyps are able to secrete their calcareous forms very rapidly in
the Bermuda waters, in comparison with similar or allied species in other ,
parts of the world, which according to some naturalists are supposed to take
thousands of years to form a few feet of calcareous matter. The collection of
Nova Scotian reptiles was also worthy of notice, as it possessed nearly every
species known to the country, and in some cases species were exhibited in all
stages, from the embryo to the adult. he whole collection comprises from
seven to eight thousand specimens.

This ended the first Field Day of the Nova Scotian Institute, for 1866. A
subsequent half hour was spent on the green sward amid the quiet beauties of
nature and in merry social converse, under the influence of a delightful summer
evening. Carriages then arrived to take back to the city the Members and
their friends—and the party broke up, after kind adieus to the worthy PReEs1-
penT, by whom they had been so agreeably entertained.

W.G.

Some Account or THE Lire oF Titus Smiru. By WiLLiaAmM SMITH.
(CoOMMUNICATED BY THE PRESIDENT. )

Ata Field Meeting of the Institute held at Ashbourne, near Halifax, the
residence of the Presipent, June 26,1866, one of the places of interest visited was
the grave of Tirus Smira. Mr. Smiru resided at the commencement of the present
century for several years in the vicinity of Halifax, leading a retired life and
devoting nearly his whole time to the study of nature. He was one of the first
observers who paid attention to the Natural History of Nova Scotia, and his manu-
script notes contained in the archives of the Province, bear testimony to the care-
ful manner in which he registered all facts, especially those relating to the botany
of the country. . Being’employed in different Provincial surveys in the interior he —
had ample opportunity of pursuing his favourite study, and made such good use of
his time while in the forest on these expeditions, that he was enabled to write a

19

150 APPENDIX.

concise history in manuscript of Nova Scotian Forest Trees, and Shrubs, which
contains much valuable information. He retained a vigorous intellect even to
extreme age and by a kindly disposition manifested to those around him gained
the good will of all. He died at his residence in the Dutch Village, a small-farm
house on the borders of the forest, which had been for many years his home, and
according to his wish was buried in a picturesque spot in the pine woods overlook-
ing the calm waters of Bedford Basin.

The following letter was written by his brother, resident in the United States,
in answer to enquiries made respecting his early life :—

‘‘ WATERTOWN, JEFFERSON COUNTY,
March 10, 1850.
**Dear Sir,

“Yours of the 4th ult., came duly to hand, in whick you inform me that the friends
of my late brother are making arrangements to publish his writings, and ask me
for such facts as memory can furnish relative to his parentage, the character and
standing of his father, his motives for leaving the United States and adopting Nova
Scotia as his final residence, and his position during the American Revolution. Also,
indications of character, and predominating attachment to particular branches of
science manifested by my brother in early life; also for his correspondence with me.
The latter has been wholly of a very domestic character, and very few of his letters
remain in my possession, having been transmitted to a sister of his and mine,
residing at a distance, and who now like him is numbered with the dead. On the
general subject of your enquiry, the information must necessarily be limited,
about fifty-four years having passed away since I last saw my brother; but such
information as I have here to give, obtained from my father and some of his early
friends, added to what memory can supply on the subject of your enquiry, will be
most cheerfully communicated, Indeed it is a source of gratification that the
gentlemen you name, should give so distinguished a mark of consideration to the
memory of one so very dear to me, the constant companion of my childhood, and
to whom I feel indebted, for the early inculcation of the principle ‘ that knowledge
is better than fine gold.’

‘“‘T shall speak in the first person in naming recollections of our ancestors, who
at an early day emigrated from England and settled on the Connecticut River, in
South Hadley, county of Hampshire, and now state of Massachusetts. The first
of whom I have any knowledge, was my grandfather, generally known as Deacon
John Smith, who was born about the year 1690, and was by occupation a farmer.
During much of his life theological considerations engrossed almost the entire
public mind. The settlements too were surrounded with tribes of hostile Indians,
so that procuring the necessaries and comforts of life, and guarding the frontier
against the inroads of the savages, left little time for literary pursuits. Neither
have I any knowledge of his tastes. He held the rank of a captain in the Frontier
Guards, and occupied for most of his life the position of Select-man; (three officers
bearing thattitle being elected by the inhabitants of the town, to whose hands was
committed the public concerns of the town); he was considered a man of strong
common sense. My father whowas his fourth son, was born June4,1734. Ofhis
early history I know but little. His constitution was not strong, and haying an
ardent desire to study, he fitted for college; but the war with France of 1756 coming
on, and the French having brought many of the Indian tribes into their interest,
the utmost vigilance was required to protect the inhabitants of the frontier. My

APPENDIX. 151

father on that occasion was a volunteer. After that danger subsided he entered
Yale College, and I think in 1765, having given much of his mind to theology, he
went after leaving college as a missionary, and spent I think, two or more years
with the Six Nation Indians, now Central New York. On his return in 1768 he
married a Miss Nash, to whom he had been engaged seven years. My brother
Titus was the first child by this marriage; he was born in 1769. After my father’s
return from the Indian country he followed preaching for a time as an itinerant,
often in the open field, and to audiences of many thousands. Finding his health
giving way, yet thinking he might attend to the duties necessary in a small parish,
he settled in West Suffield in Connecticut, but was soon driven from the pulpit by
bleeding at the lungs and a diseased liver. Onretiring from this field of labour he
commenced the study of medicine, which he pursued with all the energy that his
low state of health would permit. About this time his attention was attracted by
a theological treatise written by Dr. Glass, of Scotland, and also a work entitled
‘Theron and Aspasio,” written by Mr. Robert Sandeman. His mind was forcibly
struck by what he deemed the unanswerable truth contained in these works. He
opened a correspondence with Mr. Sandeman, which resulted in the removal of
that gentleman to America. A church was soon after formed at Dunbury in
Connecticut, called a Sandemanian Church, to which place my father removed.
Mr. Sandeman after forming several churches finally died at my father’s house in
Dunbury. My father had fully imbibed the theological opinions of Mr. Sande-
man, and had accepted an appointment of a presiding elder over one of these
churches. This religious sect was remarkable for putting literal constructions on
the bible. Although my father entered deeply into the feelings that produced that
revolution that resulted in a separation of the colonies from the mother country,
yet believing as he did that duty required him to render obedience to existing
powers as being ordained by God, he declined taking an active part in the revolu-
tion, and sought for and obtained leave from Congress to remain neutral, on his
word of honour to do no act to aid or assist the enemies of his country; but nothing
is more vividly impressed on my mind than the great energy with which I have
heard him undertake to foretell that the American Revolution would under Provi-
dence raise up a people and nation that would afford a refuge for the oppressed
and distressed of every nation; that by the disconnection of church and state
religion would be left free, and the volition of the mind being untrammelled would
open a new era in the world. About the year 1779 my mother died leaving four
living children, of whom I was the youngest having been born in Feb., 1777. In
1785 my father was called by a church formed at Halifax to preside over them as
an elder. He located himself on a farm in Preston. In the month of Oct. 1795,
I left home for the United States, and have not since visited that country. My
brother Titus became an early reader under the teaching of his father. At four
years old he read English books with facility. He had at a very early age the
advantage of agood private school kept by a Mr. Daniel Humphrey, a graduate of
Yale College. At seven he had made considerable proficiency in Latin, and at
twelve could translate the most difficult Latin authors, and had also made good
progress in the Greek.

‘<In early youth he evinced no desire to mingle in the amusements of children,
but always sought the society of those from whom he could derive knowledge.
His earliest desires appeared to be to perfect himself in a knowledge of languages,
Latin, Greek, German, and French. He was move attached to biographical his-
tory than any other reading.

ey APPENDIX.

“ As itwas the constant practice in my father’s family that one should read and
the rest hear,—when the book was in a foreign language, it fell to his lot always
to be the reader. Often have I listened with pleasure to hear him “read the Com-
mentaries of Cesar from the Latin text, which he did with great facility. He
became early attached to mathematics and astronomy, in which he had early made
some proficiency, owing perhaps to a constant cause always operating with him—
that was an entire absence of desire to engage the mind in the ordinary amuse-
ments that too often draw the mind from the matter in hand. I think it may with
literal truth be said of him, that from two years of age he was never known to ery
and seldom to laugh. J never saw him angry, and seldom much elated. With an
even temperament he pursued whatever he undertook until it was accomplished.
About the year 1790 or 1791 my father was furnished by Governor Wentworth with
a complete set of the botanical works of Linnzus.

“From this time until I left home, much of the flowering season of the year
was devoted to botanical studies, of which his father also was passionately fond

““From that period onwards for more than half a century I have no personal
knowledge of his progress ; but what may not the mind of man accomplish when
the key to knowledge is obtained and the storehouse unlocked, and nature’s works
are placed in view of an eye that is not diverted or drawn aside by the countless
trifles that beset us on every side. Titus had in early childhood lived a few years
in the City of Newhaven; while in that city the most of thosé who visited his
father’s house were men of letters, and disputations on religious subjects were
common.

‘‘From this place his father removed to Long Island on the Sound, nearly
opposite the city of New York, and soon after into the city. You enquire as to
scenery, -and the habits of those with whom his early life was passed. There is
nothing remarkable in the surrounding scenery of either of the places of his early
residence, neither was he made for a painter or poet.

‘¢Matters of fact—things ofreal life, and not of imaginary, claimed the greatest
share of his attention.

‘‘Tfe was always liberal, setting no very great value on wealth, except so much
as was necessary to supply the ordinary wants of life. He thought but little of
high birth or titles of honour; I think he only valued men by their knowledge and
goodness. I regret that it is not in my powerto give you more information, and
yu will also perceive that much that I have written is from imperfect memory.
Only my dates may be wrong, but the story is near the truth. Should anything
else occur to you in which I can render service, you have but to make your wishes
known. Bepleased to present my kind regards to the family.

‘‘T am, Sir, very respectfully,

*¢your obedient servant,

‘¢ WiL~t14mM SMITH.”

PING Dn xe:

Part I.
ART. Page
I.—Inaugural Address. By P. C. Hill, President.............0eeee eee sees 1
II.—On the Common Herring (Clupea elongata). By J. Bernard Gilpin, A.B..
WILDS MIR OUSh ons bcenoe bbododeodeUOonooDacdKORepoOUoBOOUdKoOS 4
I1l.—Nocturnal Life of Animals in the Forest. By Capt. C. Hardy, Repal
AMUN AS cob cvobaDOSOObaoHooU GAs Dob Goode e DOS Do ONoCdcaCab OHS 11
IV.—Some recent movements of the Earth’s surface. By Thos. Belt.......... 19
V.—On the Characteristic Fossils of different Coal Seams in Nova Scotia. By
enya Boole ys tey vega cits eusk sy eyahene) sualeqeuecpec epetepoley opauer soled hep sensresonehey ed siislogs 30
VI.— Contributions to the Ichthyology of Nova Scotia. By J. Matthew Jones,
WHMIS role zaler exe tetany seek eyatsronats evece rite atccte vector aUy esac ate ietetauatal ston ceaensdexere) sie 45
VII.—Gold and its separation from other Minerals. By Abraham Gesner, M. D.
1d, CaSithins a MeL EME TAC OM eNe MoMme Rae sta e memo t concedes one md bo 54
VIII.—The Festival of the Dead. By R. G. Halivur WN WISHAB Gob oa obooOURe oS 61
1X.—On Magnesia-Alum, or Pickeringite. By Professor How, D.C.L., King’s
Collcce, MWalulored so acca hcsoNoe. GounooGdod OH Ooo Ee OdouoCoOSbDE.S 85
X.—Occurrence of a Trilobite in the Lower Carboniferous Limestone of Hants
Co. By Professor How, D.C.L., King’s College, Windsor............. 87
XI.—On the Occurrence of Littorina littorea on the coastof Nova Scotia. By
Jaa) IRA AUISS Saino Aen Aeminas Saad OUaE AU AESe nu moos oe hoo DooS 88
Parr II.
I.—On the Soricine of Nova Scotia. By J. Bernard Gilpin, A. B., M.D.,
IVER CS 8 SSeS RUDE TAT Serial eure nal leu setiig al ae caravlev ave ct oe ay SAA ty eo 1
II.—On the Caplin, (Mallotus villosus.) By Capt. C. Hardy, R.A......... 4
TI.—Contributions to the Natural History of the Bermudas, Part I. Mollusca.
By, JaMatthewadoness tll Semi yey. ci senate ae etal eiale arenes erate aan 14
IV.—On the Waters of the Mineral Springs of Wilmot, Nova Scotia. By Profes-
FSTo saa) 8 Noh eeu DK O15) ipa eean eaIC G INGIT) T eO aieeeUe Ut e a SUEDE 2 eG bicsiis 26
V.—Some account of the Storm Petrel—Sea Serpent—Albicere, §c., as observed
abst.) Margaret’s| Bay, Nova Scotianimes sci s-crr een teeta 34
Vi.—The Rocks in the Vicinity. By William Gossip................ -...--- 44
VII.—On Introduced Species of Nova Scotia. By J. Bernard Gilpin, A.B., M.D.
Geta OS TSM eC iN at SoHE ANS re ne nie cab SED odo ees Uc aAGROm UGS 60
VIII.—Notes on the Weather at Halifax, Nova Scotia, during 1863. By Colonel
Aree TB echd rte) ASIA petee Ue eI ENP Us COR aM AT 32) 6 cl a habe nL AN rl 8 68
IX.—On the Floraof Canada. By George Lawson, Pu.D., L.L.D............ 75
X.—Notes on the Economic Mineralogy of Nova Scotia. By Henry How, D.C.L. 78
x OnitherPerrl sy Biy) Ja) Hun teruacatvaseels) ge Meee cea eee 86
XII.—List of Butterflies observed in the neighbourhood of Halifax, Nova Scotia,
Biyy ER 6 sy BS STi ses peta ce og Sie spear came aoe ge aera ae a Re 87
XITI.—Meteorological Register for 1868. By Col. Myers.............---.---- 93

XIV.—On the Occurrence of the Kjoekkenmoedding on the shores of Nova Scotia.
DB Wee Gain ie arise. aol acer SVapos cenobel eestor nay RE Ae nye Se eee 94

154 INDEX.
Parr III.
ART. ;

I.—Note on a species of Gemellaria from Sable Island. By J. W. Dawson,
IPRA IS Sie cee aret arctan eras owen a acne cha sre avete ae arate etna
I1.—On the Mammalia of Nova Scotia. By J.Bernard Gilpin, M.D.,M.R.C.S.
III.—On Provincial Acclimatization. By Capt. Hardy, R. A...............
IV.—Notice of the Occurrence of Heather—(Calluna vulgaris,) at St. Ann’s
Bay, Cape Breton Island. By Geo. Lawson, Pa.D., L.L.D..........
_ V.—Note on Lemania variegata of Agardh. By Geo. Lawson, Pu.D.,L.L.D.
VI.—On the Land Birds of Nova Scotia. By A. Downs.........-..2... é
Vil.—Observations on the Sea Birds frequenting St. Margaret’s Bay, Nova
Scotia: 1 BypReva JohnpAmbrose st jereterclret reteset ele) sre) te levee eee eee
VIII.—Some Additions to the Game of Nova Scotia. By J. H. Duvar........
IX.—The Production and Preservation of Lakes by [ee Action. By Thos. Bett.
X.—On some Brine Springs of Nova Scotia. By Henry How, D.C.L........
X1.—Enquiry into the Antiquity of Man. By W. Gossip..................
XU.—Notes on the Weather at Halifax, Nova Scotia, during 1864. By Colonel
IW OR EIVEV OTSae)aiears hraztovevelcter Pete este ciatvereie cbeishsucte coarelera ak tere aera

XJII.—On the Gaspereaux. By J. Bernard Gilpin, A.B.,M.D.,M.R.C.S......
XTV.—Contributions to the Natural History of NovaScotia. REPTILIA. By

J- Matthew! Jones, P.D:S sox toh Seed bk. aioe hale shoe Ree
XV.—Notes on the Economic Mineralogy of Nova Scotia ; Part II. The Ores
of Manganese, and their uses. By Henry How, D.C.L..............
XVI.—Meteorological Register for 1864. By Col. Myers............-....4..

XVH.—Note on the Currents on the North East Coast of Niet. By Rear
Admiral Sir Alexander Milne, K.C.B., &c. [Communicated by the
Presidential yt) riechs miracle ciel leer sich siare kerr lolciecie ere eters

XVIII.—Notice of Field Meeting at the Waverly Gold Mines. July 1, 1865. W.G.

XIX.—On the Contorted Quartz Lode at Waverly. By Lieut. Col. R. B. Sinclair,

XX.—Note concerning the Mummy of the Great Auk—(alca impennis), found
on the Funk Islands. By the Right Rev. the Lord Bishop of New-

foundland. [Communicated by the President.]...................
RARE Vi:

1.—On the Food Fishes of Nova Scotia. No. If]. By J. Bernard Gilpin,
WinID bs MIGIACUSS cos odeeocsodsesuusnOcCODoDOGdcODOBOODNSODDOBS DS
II.—On the Geclogical Features of the Bermudas. By J. Math. Jones,F.L.S..
IiI.— On Pisciculture. By Lieut.-Col. R.B. Sinclair, A.G.M................
IV.—Some observations on the Fishing Grounds and Fish of St. Margaret’s
Bay, Nova Scotia. By Rev. John Ambrose, M.A................---
V.—The Auriferous Deposits of No a Scotia. By P.S. Hamilton, Chief
COMMESIORE? OF AMGBRococovoccacdsdo90s000 BIGQD0SOSGODGDESS
IV.—Notes on the Weather at Halifax, Nova Scotia, during 1865. By Colonel
Wo de Wikyatisy IG ldSio co Ob aw oc dodlaTod HonQUsHOOOODODOOS COON GSS

VII.-—Notes on the Econcmic Mineralogy of Nova Scotia ; Part III. Lime-
stones and Marble. By Henry How, D.C.L., Professor of Chemistry,
KG ORS RO OLLI CMV YAUIEL SO Iactoletatel- tel atetatetele stelersielelcter=telol = ekeietetseeteteteltetetene
VIII.— Remarks on the Pitch Lake of Trinidad. By Rev. John Morton, La Have.

140
142

142

145

11
18
26

INDEX. 155

ARv. Page
I1X.—Gn some recent improvements in the Amalgamation process for extract-
ing Gold from Quartz. By George Lawson, Pu.D., L.L.D., Profes-
sor of Chemistry, Dalhousie College, Halifar.......c.e.ceeeeeeee 71
X.—On the Food Fishes of Nova Scotia. No. IV. The Trouts and Salmons.
By) Jey bernard) Gilpin, MoD A MUR Cis erica rele sioisyeraletcloielaptalaysvetelofel sys 76
XI.~-The Glacial Period in North America. By Thos. Belt, F.G.S.......... 91

XII.—Geology of Antigonish County, Nova Scotia. By Rev. D. Honeyman,
D.C.L., F.G.8S., Member of the Geol. Soc. of France, Hon. Memb.

Ofen Geol Asso mL Ong On G.Clareivevcreveie cine ketene ise eet 105
XTII.—Nova Scotian Conifers. Part I. By Colonel Hardy.................. 120
XIV.—On the Land Birds of Nova Scotia. By A. Downs, Cor. Memb. Zool.

IS OCHO /frlZO7.0 Oftiseveranetcrel aria ay cieney Velotetarsieicnten set clstorsestetalsteierere talorekel alot 130

XV.—Meteorological Register for 1865. By Col. Myers................2.. 1386
XVI.—Some remarks upon the Red Indians of Newfoundland. By Mr. Elias
Marrett. [Communicated by the President.].................-.--- 139
XVIL.—On North Atlantic Storms. By J. L.Hurdis.......................- 140
SVILI.— Notice of Field Meeting at Ashbourne, June 26, 1866. By W.G........ 147

X1X.—Some account of the Life of Titus Smith. By William Smith. [Com-
municated) bythe) Bresident. iis ci. ..f sl oiea syseine lala eretayercliay ene ele eseale ane 150

NOVA SCOTIAN INSTITUTE OF NATURAL SCIENCE,
HALIFAX, NOVA SCOTIA.

Patron—His Excellency the Lizurenant Governor.

COUNCIL, 1866.

J. Matrnew Jones, F. L. §8., President.
J. Bernarkp Giuprn, M. D., M. R.C.S.,
Lieut.-Colonel C. Harpy, R. A.

Captain Lyrrieton, Zreasurer.

Wiuram Gossip, Secretary.

Jas. R. DeWo tre, M. D., | J. Hunrer Dovar.
Gro. Lawson, Pu. D., L.L. D. P. .S| Hamirron.

Col. W. J. Myers, F. R. M.S. W. C. Sirver.

JosePH BELL. | Lieut.-Colonel Cirrrorp. R.A.

Presidents.

The Anniversary Meeting of the Institute is held on the second Wed-
nesday in October, of every year.

The Monthly Ordinary Meetings of the Institute, when Papers are
read, are held on the first Monday evening in every month, commenc-
ing in November and ending in May.

ee

Pah ee

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