s crdhant Pibrary of the Museum OF ‘COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY, | AT HARVARD COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE, MASS. The gift of - oe dertion ee SUIMER . No. b253- Hag. i 1994 Nev.23, a 2 J k f *> THE PROCEEDINGS AND TRANSACTIONS Mova Scotian Hustitute of Science, HALIFAX, NOVA SCOTIA: 1890-94. VOLUME VIII, BEING VOLUME I OF THE SECOND SERIES. WITH NENE PLATES. “HALIFAX, N. 8S. PRINTED FOR THE INSTITUTE BY Wm. Macnap, 3 PRINCE STREET. 1895. y A ee ae 7 Mu ; : AY eee ah via ee “i Pie call A se hinry ‘ ay "vie ae ‘ . a i ‘ . »é \ i Pi 4 7 : ; ] ; ‘ ‘ rs ; z * ' : ‘ n . , CON TE ND S:. PROCEEDINGS. Session oF 1890-91 :— PAGE Presidential Address, by Pror. J. G. MAacGREGOR.......... ..--.---- i As Gr lho KORN NG oop emodebeaaeaceewauDe. Hocconpoosoena ooomoen v Experiments on Nova Scotian Building Stone, by H. G. C, Krtcuum... vil Occurrence of Paraffin Tallow and Petroleum in Nova Scotia, by R. B. BROWN Sb iea cde bee epee CSO AMA Dee Se Sobaanumes mo oocoooodle peor vii The Magdalene Islands, by A. H. Mackay, B. A., B. Sc., F. R. S.C... viii Specific Gravity and Absorption of Building Stone from Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, by H. G. ©: Kmrcmum.......-.---..-...+.---- xi Lis Git MGM Nate ene osegooeoaAvecs aoppeeouou ove cGadddoodeurameucod xil List of Institutions to which copies of Transactions have been sent...... XV SESSION OF 1891-92 :— Presidential Address, by Pror. J. G. MACGREGOR...........-+.---+-:> XXXI Onitieates ioe IRIE) Fe oeuo boc soOdoooe Tuo EO nOAMODoO Sponbudu Lact uouD XXXV The Fletcher Stone and other inscribed stones in Yarmouth Co., by R. B. IRON, MEIBENOUUNS bs ocnonieb udon Som UMn Upmonaer cous HoDodcdo XXXv1 Nova Scotia Gold Districts, their geological formation, as proved by borings in the Killag Gold District, by H. Squaresrics McKay...... XXXiX A suggestion as to the cause of the differences of colour in Granite rocks, by Rey. Mi MAURY, 0. Ds, Waltham, Mass: «0010, 26 ce: Saou) Sabin Additions to List of Members during 1890-91.........-......--------- xlv Institutions to which copies of the Transactions have been sent........ xlv SEss1on oF 1892-93 :— Presidential Address, by M. Murpny, D. Sc., Provincial Kngineer . ... xlvii Opriuary Notice ok Dr, JB GarPiny yjoje, .stecceis cepoieleicialae. cle. © « otsialete ate xlvil Oliimaay ICUS Gi Why, glo IDA ooo4 onbocodoudasadndsbo0 oooObOUNE xl viii Ovit@eloeaas wor ECP CRIs 5 coeanebauaooauapancscsovoounodbobouyeodT hi Adlohinrorne (wo Isis Git Milena, UEKPECB: 5 aeuocccpooedsuuecoogoad000005 liv Institutions to which copies of the Transactions have been sent........ liv Session oF 1893-94 :— Dine peabere lou Ons N ec ar. <21cjcrs alaies elo aele 6. cieclpl aptasies sia eeie cuele ce es ie lvi Prin. G. R. MARSHALL on ‘‘ A supposed Shower of Worms” .......... lvi Mr. D. M. Buss on ‘‘The Coming Development of Artificial Illumination”. — lvii Mr. JoHN Fores on ‘‘Some Modern Methods in Manufacturing with certain Analogies suggested by a Partial Study of the Evolution and Nature of some of the Processes Employed”’...............- Ix Additions to List of Members... 2.2.0. occ ccccsce ceceeniscersnnieccces lxix Additions, fo. xchange List. 25-5 ew is echine as cee scem siya cess. lxix IV CONTENTS. TRANSACTIONS. Srssion oF 1890-91 :— I.—Notes on the Surface Geology of South-Western Nova Scotia, by PRror, L. WeBatny, Ms Al Pho Ds... cn ee nee II.—Steam Boiler Tests as a means of determining the calorific value of Fuels; by DW Rope, Mo Ho icaccm octet eee III.—Analyses of Nova Scotia Coals and other Minerals, by K. GILPIN, Jie, AaME PG. Bosses sce aes eee se ce Oped eee TV. Remarks upon the coating of Iron with magnetic oxide, and a suggestion of a probably new method of producing it, by JoHN FORBES: fe Passos steue aco) lees ere? © SIR oa V.—The Magéalene Islands, by Rev. G. PATTERSON, D. D., Bans: VI.—Notes on some explosions in Nova Scotia Coal Mines, by E. G1L- PIN; JR.5 AIMS BGS). aot ecs tesreseo orci cee see VII.—On some Lecture Experiments illustrating Properties of Saline Solutions, by Pror.J..G. MAcGREGOR:.......5.-000sc0 eee VIIT.—Pictou Island, by A. H. Mackay, B. A., B. Sc., F.R.S.C...... IX.—Notes for a Flora of Nova Scotia, Part I, by Pror. G. Lawson, Ph Ds, Lib. Whine vole tists e Bovd ae oad oye ee ee een X.—Notes on Railroad Location and Construction in Eastern Canada, by Wits B MeKinnzrmy Cr Wi. 2). satiies ae cerisiele nite ee eee XI.—Fertilizers on Sandy Soils, by Pror, H. W. Smita, B.Sc........ XII.—On the variation of density with concentration in weak aqueous solutions of Cobalt and Nickel Sulphates, by A. M. Morrt- SLO) NIptel BOs Wea: ot A tO AACR rE RAR oo oo ood SESSION OF 1891-92 :-— I.-—Notes on concretionary structure in various rock formations in Canada, by T. C. Weston, Geological Survey of Canada..... II.—Evidence of the post-glacial extension of the southern coast of Nova Scotia, by W.-H. PRESTo..05.)./.0es eles = eee III.—On the Visibility of Venus to the naked eye, by Princrp\u A. CAMERON; Yarmouth o220, cece sco ccc cn se terete IV.—List of localities for Trap minerals in Nova Scotio, by the late Rev.) Laos: (McCurmmoce, Ds Digqe.. cree. {ie eee eee V.—The Geology of Cape Breton,—The Lower Silurian, by E. GILPIN, DBs. GLAD) Hera. Ortes eerie cece ice ora e ae VI.—Notes on Nova Scotian Zoology, No. 2, by HARRY PIERS........ VII.—Catalogue of Silurian Fossils from Arisaig, Nova Scotia, by HENRY IMIS Aone MI AT SES (Gist: co lraie tsiorecactanys lene eaters sukee oie are VIII.— On the graphical treatment of the inertia of the connecting-rod, by PROF WJ). Gi MACGREGOR Dish eeine aeite -emeneeeee IX. —On the nidification of the Winter Wren in Nova Scotia, by HARRY POS)... i.05 Ge F eels sieea' ie ia: Gieje Sor skeleiey. es) eli eee X.—The Fletcher Stone, by K. G. T. Wrezster, B.A., Yarmouth, N.S. XI.—Supplementary notes on the destroyers of submerged wood in Nova Scotia, by M. Murpuy, D. Sc., Provincial Engineer... PAGE. 71 CONTENTS. SEssion oF 1892-93 :— I.—Notes on the Miocene Tertiary Rocks of the Cypress Hills, North- West Territory of Canada, by T. C. WESTON............... II.—The Pictou Coal Field,—a Geological Revision, by HENRY S. Boormn HG S-, withiseveniplatesian.-cm eee cit III.—Venus in Daylight to Eye and to Opera-glass, by A. CAMERON .. IV.—The Flora of Newfoundland, Labrador, and St. Pierre et Mique- lon pbypthe: Riv. cA, CH VVAGHORNB preys ccsisl tie ecier- cfc ecterelaere V.—Explosive Gas generated within the Hot Water Pipes of House- heating Apparatus, by A. H. Mackay, Lu. D., F. R. 8. C.... VI.—Natural History Observations, made at several Stations in Nova Scotia, during the year, 1892, compiled by A. H. Mackay, DD ed ipl ei ory Cnn aeicaah sae en te-to bao Acne ss Baers asian SEssion or 1893-94 .— I.—On the Measurement of the Resistance of Electrolytes, by F. J. ZN IME RR VOSS 2 «4s orev shel tsi et tae a Raters Ps oem anche Astana (ar = iolelees II.—Note on Venus,—Morning Star and Evening Star at the Same hime, Rebriary,. U8Ot by Any CAMERON | cctdieretseclom «210.6 0 6 - III.—Notes on Nova Scotian Zoology, No. 3, by Harry Pirrs....... IV.—Notes on a Collection of Silurian Fossils from Cape George, Antigonish Co., N. S., with Descriptions of Four New Species, by Hanmy Me Amn) DiScr RiGiSrewacanceameect oc ose aint V.—Notes on Recent Sedimentary Formations on the Bay of Fundy Const; by R,. W.Euis, LaDy RG. SaA7, BoRIS.0..3.°5:- <. VI.—Deep Mining in Nova Scotia, by W. H. Prest.. .............. VII.— Notes on the Sydney Coal Field, by E. Grupin, Lu.D., F.G.S.... VIII.—List of Plants collected in and around the Town of Shelburne, INGE S VAG MORGH ME. COX. wba Atyrtpecischsiaciisrne ciel ls) -sorell-relalele IX.-——Operation of the Kennedy Scraper and Cause of Recent Teale, by F. W. W. Doane, M. Can. Soc. C. E., City Engineer, Te EMIS eM Sis 5 Wee Oe TNA eI 3:20 6 0 A CERES dine: bie choles dates X.—Phenological Observations made at several Stations in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick during the year 1893, compiled DyscAvp EMAC KtAy: icin Daan lalita xara eeck riser ace sii: XI.—Notice of a Shower of Fibrous Substance at Gainsville, Florida, yA GHORGHPILAW SONG lal rien sicteryeri ties serrate rel-iensieielaiciiere XIJI.—On the Definition of Work Done, by Pror. J. G. MAcGREGOR... 378 381 391 395 ‘al Page 170, line 13; “183, «933, “985, ce “ce “938, «940, © 941, “943. 36 tal. “960, “ 961, “963, “968, ee ee «973, “979, © 999, “316, ‘6 324, “© 380, fo 831 oe oe «335, “© 336, 337, “© 338, “© 340, ce 21; 12; 19; ike 21; Ls 32; 748) © 3; ERRATA. ERRATA. for only, read on. insert a comma after right side. read—but a secondary. ** — that was cut by. ** —the wpper division of, ; delete whole paragraph. ; delete words—‘‘ possibly lower carboniferous.” ; read—1520 feet. ** _downthrow ; line 24—read names ; line 32, read—the western 7s ; line 35, read—carboniferous near Waters hill. “* __after—south fault west of McLellan’s brook. ; for the read and. ; delete whole paragraph. for assured, read asswmed. read—undoubtédly. “* —mark. “* __Sir W. Dawson, it is understood, strongly objects. “ light angles. for for, read from. read —overlie. 16, 21 ; read—bitumznous. 04 ; 3; 36; ZG 23; 23 ; 12; les read—120. for at read of. read — something less, about. “¢ _measures of the great Hast fault. *¢ _where occurs the coal wash. “¢ rocks on the line of the great South fault. ** —to connect them. “* — was at first. Facing p. 316--Section, McLellan’s Brook ; read, —d. Silurian. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ustitute of Science. @ Alova Scotian SESSION OF 169079". ANNUAL Business MEETING. Halifax, 8th October, 1890. Pror. J. G. MacGrecor, President, in the chair. The minutes of the last annual meeting were read and approved. The PRESIDENT addressed the Institute as follows :— Gentlemen,—I rejoice that one of the duties which is laid upon me by the regu- lations of the Institute to be performed at this meeting, viz, to give asketch of the life and scientific work of members deceased during the year, is this year so very light. We have lost none of our members by death since last annual meeting. The Institute has not only retained all its old members. It has also had an unusually large number of accessions. An addition of nine has been made to the list of our corresponding members, and there have been proposed and approved as ordinary members or associate members, thirty-four. A comparatively small num- ber of the latter, not many more than half, have qualified for membership by pay- ment of the annual fee. ButI believe that is due to their not having received notice of the approval of their proposed membership by the council, through some defect in our arrangements. I am happy to say that among the new members there are quite a number who are likely to add very materially to the working strength of the Institute. Though thus somewhat increased, our membership is nevertheless but little if any greater than it was in 1864, and it should be our aim to add to it to a very large extent. We ought to have on our list the name of every man in Nova Scotia who has the ability to make additions to our knowledge, andthe names of ali those besides, who, though they may not have the opportunity or the requi- site preparatory training to enable them to advance science themselves, are willing to encourage others in their efforts by their interest and their annual fees. ll PROCEEDINGS. So far as numbers of scientific communications are concerned, the past session has been a very successful one. Sixteen papers were submitted to the Institute, some of them of much interest and value. They were distributed as follows, four in the department of Geology, three in Zoology, one in Botany, one in Chemistry, four in Physics, one in Engineering and two of a biographical character. It will thus be seen that the scope of the Institute’s work has got beyond the range of the departments of science indicated by its name. And this fact applies to other recent sessions as well as that which terminates to-night. Thus in 1889- 90 the following papers were communicated :—three in Geology, four in Zoology, two in Physics, and two in Archzeology. This tendency in our work to widen in its subject-matter has led us to consider the desirability of modifying our name so as to make it indicate the full scope of the Institute’s exertions. The old name Institute of Natural Science had given rise to the impression that the society was intended to be a society of naturalists, and tended to repress the interest which men engaged in other departments of work might have taken in it. At the same time it was found to hamper us in our endeavour to secure by exchange the publications of other societies, societies of naturalists being always ready to exchange with us, but those devoted to depart: ments not usually included under the term Natural Science requiring usually to have it specially explained to them that our work was wider than our name indi- cated. It was felt that as there was no other society in the Province of a scien- tific kind, our Institute ought to extend its field to all departments of science, pure and applied, and thus both encourage research in all such departments and build up, by exchange, a library for the use of those engaged in them. And, therefore, at a special meeting of the Institute, called for the purpose, during the past session, we resolved that onr society should henceforth be known as the Nova Scotian Institute of Science. And we hope that while in the future those departments of natural science which we have cultivated in the past most assidu- ously, may be studied to a still greater extent, other departments for which we have so far done little or nothing, may also receive earnest attention. The num- ber of our scientific workers in all departments is but small, and it cannot but be beneficial that we should be banded together and be enabled thereby to secure the stimulus which springs from a sympathetic, even though not a wholly intelli- gent, interest. While we have been enlarging our membership and providing for the extension of the region of our activity, we have also been making exertions during the past year to provide our members with one of the most necessary means of research, viz., books. Since our last annual meeting, besides sending copies of our last issue of Transactions to the societies already on our exchange list, we have sent them to 800 other societies, museums, and other institutions, accompanied by circulars and letters, stating the nature and circumstances of our Institute and proposing an exchange of publications. In the case of the societies already on our list we have asked them to complete our sets of their publications, in order that we might bind them up and make them more readily available. And in the case of many of the other societies we have proposed an interchange of earlier publications as well as of those issued in future. This effort to add to our library a large portion of the most valuable part of scientific literature, the Transactions PROCEEDINGS. 111 of learned societies, has been exceedingly successful. Many of the societies which have been corresponding with us for many years have done what they could to complete our sets of their publications ; so that we now possess many whole series of such publications, in some cases entirely, and in many practically per- fect. Of the 300 new institutions requested to exchange with us, a large number have already complied, and additional acceptances of our proposal are being re- ceived by every foreign mail. Only three have refused, two being societies devo- ted to subjects which our former name seemed to exclude from the range of our activity, and one a society having no publications available for exchange. Many of these societies have sent us their publications for several years back as well ag those for the current year, we, of course, sending them our back publications in exchange. The influx of publications has been so large that our bills for book- cases during the past year have been as great as in the whole past history of the Institute, and the work of receiving, registering and arranging has been a severe tax on the time of the members of the Council who have volunteered to do it. The additions thus made to our library vary of course in value, but all are of some value, and some are of the very highest value as works of reference for the use of men engaged in research in the subjects of which they treat. The subjects are for the most part restricted to the natural and physical sciences, for we have not thought it wise to ask societies to exchange with us, which were devoted to subjects not represented in our Transactions. But already we have on our list societies devoted to such applied sciences as mining, engineering, mechanical arts generally, medicine and agriculture. I am glad to have this opportunity of expressing our appreciation of the generosity with which British and foreign societies, but especially foreign societies, have responded to our appeal. Our own publication is a very modest one, but in exchange for it we receive, in a great many cases, works of far greater magni- tude and cost and scientific value. They might fairly have replied that the exchange we proposed was an unfair one, that we could not give a quid pro quo, but with true liberality they send us their weighty volumes in the hope that they may aid in stimulating scientific research in our Province. Encouraged by the success which has attended our eiforts to build up a scien- tific library, we have become more ambitious during the year, and when the time came to make arrangements for the publication of the Proceedings and Transactiong of the past session, the council decided to strike off 1000 copies, and to endeavour to effect exchange relations with all important societies everywhere. To carry out this scheme, however, our income was not sufficient. We accordingly laid our plans before the local government, pointing out the great importance of a scientific library to the development of the resources of the country, and asked an increase of our annual grant. We were met in the most liberal spirit. The mem- bers of the government shewed a keen appreciation of the importance of what we aimed at, and an addition of $100 was made to our usual grant. Thus increased, we hope our income will be sufficient to enable us to make our own Transactions more valuable by the provision of lithographed plates when they are necessary for illustration, and to cover the cost of transmitting our publications tc corres- ponding societies, and of binding up and rendering otherwise available for use what we may receive in return. lV PROCEEDINGS. With our library thus rapidly growing, the unsatisfactory character of our present quarters has become more and more apparent. As we are at present situated it is impossible to make our library available for public use, and even our own members have great difficulty im gaining access to it. Accordingly, by resolu- tion of the Institute, a number of its members have co-operated with the Direc- tors of the School of Art and Design and other leading citizens, in an effort to ‘secure a building to afford accommodation for the collections of the Provincial Museum, the class-rooms and collections of the Art School and the libraries of the Legislature, the city, and local societies. It is to be hoped that the effort may be successful. For the increased utility of our libraries which would result from their consolidation, the immense benefit which the museum, if properly arranged, would confer upon the public, and the enlarged efficiency which the Art School would derive from suitable class-rooms, all make this effort one to which all good citizens should lend a helping hand. But whether this scheme be carried out or not, it is certain that our library cannot remain where it is very munch longer at its present rate of growth. We must very soon obtain accommoda- tion for it somewhere else, unless, indeed, the books are to be packed away as they arrive to await a more convenient season for beiug used. Even if that had to be done it would be well for us to continue in our present course and secure them now when they may be had. But how much better it would be if we could de- posit them on arrival where they would at once be available for the use both of our members and of the public generally. In addressing you on a former occasion I pointed out the advisability of our organizing some forms of collective scientific work, which would be rendered pos- sible, were we able to extend our membership to a sufficient extent and secure a corps of competent observers scattered over the Province, who would make ob- servations on various matters to which their attention would be drawn by printed circulars, and would transmit their observations to our Secretary, to form the material for reports. It was my intention to address you this evening on the methods by which such forms of work are carried on in other societies, but as the subjects which may be investigated in this way, such as the migration of birds, the geographical distribution of species in the Province, &c., lie to a large extent outside the only department of science of which I have any knowledge, I concluded that it was wiser not to attempt to discuss any such subject myself. Accordingly I brought the matter to the notice of the Royal Society of Canada at its last meeting and secured the appointment of a Committee of Biologists and Geologists, with instructions to report on the subject, and to draw up schedules of questions to serve as guides in the making of observaticns of the kind referred to. This course has the manifest advantage that it secures uniformity of action on the part of our local societies throughout Canada. If the scheme is systema- tically carried out it will probably lead to the accumulation of a large mass of valuable information, which, when systematizedand condensed, may lead to re- sults of scientific importance. While we are waiting for the report of this Com- mittee, we ought to be preparing to carrying out its recommendations by extend- ing our membership so that we may have on our list all persons throughout the Province who are able and willing to make such simple observations as would be required. If our present members would send me the addresses of such persons PROCEEDINGS. Vi with whom they may be acquainted, I would gladly forward them copies of our Laws and endeavour to induce them to join our Institute. At the meeting of the Institute, during the last session, at which we decided to change our name, we resolved further to take steps to secure an Act of Incorpora- tion. The Council accordingly had such an Act drawn up, and through the kind- ness of Dr. A. Haley, M. P. P., Chairman of the Committee on Private Bills, it was passed through the Legislature without expense to the Institute. According to that Act the members of the Institute are incorporated under the name of the Nova Scotian Institute of Science, and the incorporated Society is to hold its first meeting at the termination of the present meeting of the unincorporated Society. According to the Act it will be necessary for the unincorporated Institute to resolve formally to transfer all its property to the incorporated Institute; and a resolution to that effect will be submitted to you after the adoption of the usual reports. As this Act enables us to hold property in due legal form, let us hope that some of our public-spirited citizens may give us the opportunity of exercising our new powers, by establishing a Prize Fund to stimulate researches which would assist in devcloping the resources of the Province, or a Library Fund to enable us to purchase scientific works necessary for research which cannot be secured by exchange, or an Apparatus Fund to provide our observers with instruments which are too costly for individual workers to purchase for themselves. If we had even small funds for these purposes we might very much increase the working power of the Institute. Even without them, however, we may hope that the present session will not lag behind its predecessors in the amount of the Institute’s contribution to scientific knowledge. By doing what we can without such funds we shall establish our right to be entrusted with them. The Treasurer submitted his report which was adopted. On motion of Mr. A. McKay and Dr. Murphy the following resolution was passed :— Resolved, That all the property and assets of the Nova Scotian Institute of Science, unincorporated, be transferred to the Nova Scotian Institute of Science, incorporated, and that all right and title to said property and assets be hereafter vested in said Nova Scotian Institute of Science, incorporated. The Institute then adjourned sine die. Hapirax, 8th Oct., 1891. The first meeting of the corporators of the Nova Scotian Institute of Science was held to-day, according to the provision of the Act of Incorporation. Prof. MacGregor was called to the chair and Mr. A, McKay appointed Secretary. The chairman read the Act of Incorporation as follows :— AN ACT TO INCORPORATE THE NOVA SCOTIAN INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE. (Passed the 15th day of April, A. D. 1890.) Whereas, the society formerly known as the Nova Scotian Institute of Natural Science was organized in the year 1862 ; vi PROCEEDINGS. And whereas, said society did in the present year, 1890, change its name to ** The Nova Scotian Institute of Science ;” And whereas, the members of said society are desirous of becoming incorporated under said name ; Be it enacted by the Governor, Council, and Assembly, as follows : 1. The president and members of the society now known as the Nova Scotian Institute of Science, their successors and assigns, are created a body corporate by the name of ‘‘ The Nova Scotian Institute of Science.” 2. The object of said body shall be the promotion of scientific research, and it shall have power to buy, hold, lease or sell real estate to the value of $50,000, and may borrow or lend money. 3. It shall also have power to make by-laws regulating its membership, officers, and the management of its business generally, provided such by-laws are not contrary to any general law of the province. 4. All the property of the society known as ‘‘ The Nova Scotian Institute of Science,” shall become the property of the body hereby incorporated, so soon as said society, at a meeting called for that purpose shall, by a two-thirds vote of its members present, pass a resolution approving of such transfer of its property. 5. The said corporators may hold their first meeting on the second Wednesday of October, 1890, on which day this Act shall come into force, and may transact at such meeting any business arising under the powers hereby conferred on them. On motion of Messrs. A. McKay and M. Bowman, the Laws of the Nova Scotian Institute of Science (unincorporated) were adopted as the laws of this Institute. The following were then elected members of Council for the ensuing year :— President—Pror. J. G. MAcGREGor, D. Sc. Vice-Presidents—MartIn Murpuy, D. Sc., C. E., and J. Somsrs, M. D. Corresponding Secretary—A. H. MacKay, B. A., B. Se. Recording Secretary—ALEXANDER McKay. Treasurer—Wmn. C. SILVER. Librarian—M. BowMan. Councillors without office: — Prof. G. Lawson, LL. D., E. Gilpin, Jr., A. M., F. G. S., F. W. W. Doane, C. E., R. J. Wilson, Augustus Allison, D. A. Camp- bell, M. D., and Principal O’Hearn. OrpINARY MEETING, Province Building, Halifax, 10th November, 1890. The PRESIDENT in the Chair. Inter alia. The President read a paper by Prof. L. W. Bailey, Ph. D., entitled : Notes on the Surface Geology of South Western Nova Scotia. (See Transactions, p. 1.) Rev. M. Maury, D. D., of Waltham, Mass., called attention to a new process in telegraphy and explained the nature of it. PROCEEDINGS. Vil OrpINARY MEETING, Province Building, 8th Dec., 1890. The PRESIDENT in the Chair. Inter alia. Mr. E. Gilpin, Jr., communicated a memorandum of Experiments on Building Stone from Nova Scotia, made for Mr. H. G. C. Ketchum, of the Chignecto Ship Railway, by Mr. N. E. Cooper. The specimens of stone experimented on were two (Nos. 1 and 2) from Grindstone Quarry, near Joggins in Chignecto Bay, intended for use at Amherst Dock, and two (Nos. 3 and 4) from Gulf Shore, near Pugwash, Northumberland Strait, 6 to 8 miles from Port Philip, intended for use at Tidnish Dock, and being used at the 30 ft. arched bridge at Tidnish River. Nos. 1 and 2 had been rubbed with sand ; Nos. 3 and 4 finished with the fine chisel only. «The first piece of stone experimented upon was No. 3 from Gulf Shore Quarry. It was placed between pitch pine boards 1 inch thick, and the pressure in the large ram put on; when it had reached 34 tons per foot the stone cracked verti- cally 14 inches from theedge. Thinking that it might not have been put upon its natural bed, it was again put in with the face at right angles to the former upper- most, and, on applying the pressure of 34 tons per foot, it cracked on both sides parallel to the vertical faces at about the same distance from them as in the first case. **Tn order to test whether there was any unequal strain upon the specimen a half brick was tested under precisely similar conditions. This cracked with a pressure of 53 tons per square foot and crushed at 150 tons per square foot. ‘“The appearance of the pitch pine board seemed to indicate unequal pressure, Similar pieces of yellow pine were then procured. ‘The specimen No, 1 from Grindstone Quarry was then tried, with the result that at a pressure of 600 tons per sq. foot the corners began to chip, the yellow deal packing being reduced in thickness to about + inch. The specimen was then removed as it appeared to be subject now to unequal strains. ‘“The companion specimen No. 4 to No. 3, from Gulf Shore first experimented upon was then tried between yellow pine boards, and failed by splintering on the edge, the pressure being 228 tons per sq. foot. **Specimen No. 2, the companion to No. 1, was not tested.” The President read a paper by Mr. D. W. Robb, of Amherst, N. S., on “*Steam Boiler Tests as a means of determining the Calorific Value of Fuels.” (See Transactions, p. 9.) The President read extracts from a letter received from Mr. R. Balfour Brown, of Yarmouth, as follows :— ““T send you two small boxes containing samples of ores from Port Gilbert, in Digby Co. ‘* Among the samples you will find some pieces of pudding stone, well spotted, and indeed saturated with paraffin tallow. A piece of the tallow, on having a blaze from a blowpipe applied to it, burned like a squib until it was consumed ; it soon, however, loses its gaseous element and becomes much less inflammable. “*T presume sulphuric ether would decompose this substance, but I have at- tempted no test of itself or the gangue. Vili PROCEEDINGS. ‘* Not having seen any mention made in any of the annual reports from Mr. Gilpin, I thought it might interest you should it prove to be rare. “* Thave added to the above a sample or two from a sedimentary deposit of manganese, and a red sienna from a 12 inch vein running into the solid ledge at Gilbert’s Point. ; ““The black oxide of manganese is covered by about three inches of soil, and in itself forms ¢wo strata with an inter-stratwm about 4 inches thick of the yellow deposit, of which I send youa sample. The whole bed is nearly 3 ft. in thick- ness. By rubbing these substances between the finger and thumb, first moisten- ing them, until the water evaporates, you will observe that they are completely saturated with a natural oil; and this I have little doubt is petroleum. ‘* While stopping a few days in August last at this locality I noticed that some of the wells were impregnated with this gaseous substance, and, indeed, under certain atmospheric conditions, the very air was tainted with the unmistakable odour of kerosene.” The specimens referred to were exhibited. OrpinaRy Meetine, Province Building, 19th January, 1891. The PRESIDENT 77 the Chair. Inter alia. Rey. G. Patterson, D. D., read a paper on ‘‘The Magdalene Islands.” (See Transactions, p. 31.) In the discussion on this paper, Principal A. H. MacKay referred toa holiday natural history exploration of the Magdalene Islands made in July and August, 1878, by himself and his brother, the late John H. MacKay, with geological hammer and knapsack, botanical vasculum and gun. Nearly all the coast line of the islands, Amherst, Grindstone, Alright, Coffin, Old Harry Head, Northeast Cape, North Cape, Grosse, and Wolf, with most of their connecting sand bars were tramped on foot ; and several excursions were taken through the interiors. He recognised the graphic word pictures of Dr. Patterson, and referred to a few additional interesting points. About one hundred and seventy phznogamous, with a large number of cryptogamous plants, were observed. Among interesting ones, Rubus chamemorus, on a transformed sand bar, near Wolf Island, Par- nassia, on a rocky islet near Coffin Land, Habenaria orbiculata, in a fair hill- sidewood, might be mentioned—perhaps chiefly on account of the dramatic inter- est of the occasions of the discoveries. Geographically, these islands were practically in three groups, forming a chain running northeasterly as was described. The southern, Amherst, running east and west about nine miles, south to north, three or four miles, was apparently on a due east and west anticlinal of gypsiferous rock, through which ridges and coni- cal elevations of igneous (doleritic) rocks rose, forming Demoiselle Hill abutting on the coast nearly 300 feet high, and rising in the interior to nearly double that altitude. These were considered to be of lower carboniferous age. On each side of this anticlinal the dip was respectively north and south, first reddish and grayish strata of various sandstones, then on the south and north coast a redder sand- PROCEEDINGS. 1x stone like the Permian or Triassic. Near the Demoiselle hills we saw splendid demonstrations of the manner in which pits are produced in gypsum regions. Veins were found running out to the coast. By the solution of these in water, cavities were formed, and eventually the superincumbent earth fellin. We saw natural trenches thus made, apparently showing each spring’s work, and we in- vestigated some quite fresh falls, on lines going pretty far inland. At this fine exposure of the igneous rocks the jointed and crumbling rocks show in many places coatings of small crystals of silica, but some were nearly an inch long and a half inch in diameter, perfectly hexagonal, but more or less ferruginous. The erystals were commonly mingled with or replaced by beautiful glistening crystals of specular iron. In the same region also fragments of stone with manganese de- posits were noticed. Gypsum was found sometimes crystallized as pure selenite, often as white, orange, grey, banded and party-colored gypsum ; but most often as fibrous gypsum, the fibres running from one wall of the vein to the other. Amherst island sends out northeasterly two huge armlike sand bars seven or eight miles long, enclosing a salt lagoon three or four miles broad in some places, which clasp Grindstone island by its two southern red sand stone ears. Through this island a similar anticlinal runs nearly parallel to the former, but nearer the northern coast than the southern. The doleritic knolls and ridges rise in the interior to over 600 feet probably. The gypsum bearing rocks are closely associa- ted, then the coarse and variegated sandstones, and farther off still, red soft sand stone rises in perpendicular and picturesquely scored cliffs over the sea, in some places perhaps a hundred feet high. Towards the anticlinal some impure lime- stone bands were observed, and crops of calcite crystals were knocked off some rocks. Grindstone island, like its southern neighbor Amherst, tried to ex- tend its two arms of sand bars 20 or 25 miles to the northern group. but the eastern arm is broken at the beginning by the entrance to House Harbor, and the part cut off is a respectable island—Alright, with high sandstone cliffs to the sea, with the doleritic knolls and gypsiferous surroundings which form a part of the system of the neighboring island. From Alright the arm extends to the northern entrance to the long, shallow, bar-bounded sea, and ends opposite Coffin island. The western bar extends in a straight line for nearly twelve miles to the red-sandstone cliffed Wolfe’s islet, which is like a sesamoid bone in the middle of a muscle of sand nearly 24 miles long—connecting Grindstone with Grosse Isle, and the chain similarly connected sweeping around the north to Coffin’s Land. In this northern group, the higher red sandstone was observed, and the lower sandstones, and at one place signs of gypsum deposits ; and at the northern capes strata of some impure limestones which were not higher than the gypsum beds probably were observed. Between Old Harry Point, where Neptune often raises the old man in columns of thundering spray spouting up the channeled sandstone cliffs, and East Cape, the ocean in full swing falls upon a regular bay- like curve of several miles, where the beach is of the most beautiful sand, sloping up gently and evenly from the pounding surf-for about 80 yards. Then there is a nearly perpendicular wall of sand averaging perhaps 20 feet in height, then a second rampart 5 or more feet high, from which there is a rapid slope inland to a low region of undulating sand hills covered with Hmpetrum, Vaccinium, Hud- sonia, Spartina, &c., and stunted bushes. This wall, extending for miles, looked x PROCEEDINGS. as distinctly mural and regular as if it were the work of man. Here was a great Chinese wall of sand, with the proof before us that the builders were known only to the sea, the wind, and the rush-like grasses. A. P. Reid, M. D., Superintendent of the N.S. Hospital for the Insane, read a paper entitled: ‘‘ Poverty Superseded, or a new Political Economy.” ORDINARY MerEtTING, Province Building, 9th Feb., 1891. The PRESIDENT in the Chair. Inter alia. Prof. G. Lawson read a paper entitled : Notes for a Flora of Nova Scotia, Part I. (See Transactions, p, 84.) Mr. John Forbes read a paper entitled: Remarks upon the coating of iron with magnetic oxide, and a suggestion of a probably new method of producing it. (See Transactions, p. 27.) ORDINARY MEETING, Province Building, 9th March, 1891. The PRESIDENT in the Chair. Inter alia. The President read a paper by Mr. E. Gilpin, Jr., entitled: Analyses of Nova Scotia Coals and other minerals. (See Transactions, p. 19.) The President read a paper by Mr. W. B. McKenzie, C. E., entitled : Notes on Railroad Location and Construction in Kastern Canada. (See Transactions, p. 111.) On motion of Principal MacKay and Mr. M. Bowman, the following resolution was passed : Whereas, we learn that the Geological Survey of the counties of Antigonish and Pictou has been completed in such detail as cannot be adequately represented on maps drawn to the proposed scale of four miles to an inch ; Resolved, that the Council be instructed to petition the Government to publish the maps of these counties as soon as possible, and on a scale of not less than one mile to an inch, the scale on which the survey of the Cape Breton counties has been published. ORDINARY MEETING, Provincial Museum, 13th April, 1891. The PRESIDENT 2n the Chair. Inter alia. Prof. H. W. Smith read a paper entitled: Fertilizers on Sandy Soil. (See Transactions, p. 122.) The President communicated a paper by Mr. A. M. Morrison, entitled : On the variation with concentration of the donsity of dilute solutions of Cobalt and Nickel Sulphates. (See Transactions, p. 132.) The President rea 1 a paper entitled : On some lecture experiments illustrating properties of saline solutions. (See Transactions, p. 71.) PROCEEDINGS. Xi OrpDINARY MEETING, Provincial Museum, 18th May, 1891. The PRESIDENT in the Chair. Inter alia. Principal A. H. MacKay read a paper entitled : Pictou Island. (See Trans- actions, p. 76.) The President read a paper entitled : A simple proof of the completeness of the differential, dH/T, in thermodynamics. Mr. E. Gilpin, Jr., read a paper entitled: Notes on some explosions in Nova Scotian Coal Mines. (See Transactions, p 58.) Mr. E. Gilpin also communicated a memorandum by Mr. H. G. C. Ketchum, of the specific gravities and percentages of absorption of specimens of building stone supplied to the Chignecto Ship Railway, as follows :— CHIGNECTO MARINE TRANSPORT RAILWAY. Specific Gravities, &c., of Building Stone. ; Z 2 2 3 = < ea aes ene ee ee NAME OF STONE. a q on as % = 2 2 28 fg o iv 2 ,o 3 aS = S Ry ae 2 2 UGE ITI, BINS iaptyeia. oe a o)ye- "sia via jo) oa 540 324 2.50 562 4.07 Seaman, Joggins, N. S.......... 644 383 2.47 673 4.50 A. E. Beaton, 6 m. from Tidnish.. 254 155 2.56 263 3.54 McKelvey, Dorchester, N. B..... 598 366 2.58 617 3.16 Hagun’s Cape, Maranquin, N. B.. 955 564 2.44 972 1.80 Rortsebilips NGS... ec < 2. oe acter 870 525 2.60 889 2.18 SM Rens. aistea.a Hee 750, 450 2.50 768 2.4 ijaillacenmNet Sires ssl sos cucis set §05 478 2.46 834 3.60 Joggins (High) N.S............. 832 493 2.45 866 4.09 Sprm ohn Ni Ses. 2. nde ser ar 753 446 2.45 785 4.25 “Chismnin, JN Ib SEP, oe cnieae et enor 844 500 2.45 883 4.62 ALEXANDER McKay, Recording Secretary. Xil LIST OF MEMBERS. bisi-OF oNbE MS iuies ORDINARY MEMBERS. Allison=pAUMeustus, Ela litax eine seem en iaeeatie eerie Feb 15, 1869. - Bayerss Ristus>, alitancs 5 sanise,. irs oic/tensscre techs aresaie aus eis ese ete March 4, 1890. ‘Bennevt,. Joseph. .2.4c4 teed eos aot «ony ee eee fae Nov. 3, 1886. Blissss Ds Vinskilectrician: eAminerstim ch seeeneia erties anes Jan. ale eso: Bowman, Maynard, Public Analyst, Halifax ................. March, 13, 1884. IB rowan a abr bval litanxe ae coset eee nes Lohse eye eer ..Dee 20, 1864. 1EIREN MI Let Seed AEN AIOWISne eae oot A SHS tomatoe 7 a aaMoG BOG Jan 10, 1891. Butler; Prof. W. R;, King’s College, Windsor. .......5.----4.5NOveuee ieee. Campbell De AG. MDs. blelitase Tai 5 rc ckela cide oh ee ane eee Jan 31, 1890. Campbell Game Mi Di wttalitax a... ct. Saas ioe eeeeit eae Noy. 10, 1884. @oabess (Col Sx Feo. ss ragyesy disieceys stare 161 Fem) s arcverens =) eke Setbenctor peter omicue eres April) > ES S887. Clements phish eval OG DE. creron ceeteecee oie eet crete erence Jan, 10; 1891. Mem GO PAP Dice cioreys ie ees de vais be ceucliciia ai oj staiiseavs yey sae ors age cere elete Gere P ND el nt aS Se DeWiolle Je Rew Me Dewi Re Cs Seb. Dartmouth) esse Oct 26, 1865. Doane. Ey We We. Cityakinoimeer:, Halitaxes oases eer Nov 3, 1886. Drarcane, Agha WL A. Sy Wen EMME 56 odo paeedso Secu sdcnae Feb. 5, 1863. Higa Lewis, Malika Sepa cco. - facie sie ete eiels) vere se) sw oieret ot opaye yee Jan. 6, S90. Borbess Johnie Hallataxcirer cus t+ ae [eins 24 GS die. capped ven ee cee Mca ae aL ae 1 25 VN IS Oo | *¢The kind of rock with its width between the quartz lodes, will be of the greatest importance to us in our future work, as we will be able to estimate very closely, what the cost will be to cross-cut from one lode to another. And another important matter, is to be sure what will be reached by going in any given direc- tion. Jt is uot known how many lodes are outside of those given above, as that is the extent of the borings. I thought these enough to keep a mine running for a great many years, sodid not go to theexpense of boring further. Another im- portant thing, in connection with the geological examinations, is the fact that in boring south, across the lode we were working, to see if it continued on, straight east, it was found it had shifted south 21 feet at a point three hundred feet east of the old Stuart shaft. This indicated a fault in the whole formation of the country. so I changed the diamond drill and bored at an angle of 90 degrees with the south boring and parallel with the lode, and strata, and discovered a quartz lode three feet wide, about 52 feet from the point of beginning. The strata were found to have been very much broken in the vicinity of this fault, showing the PROCEEDIGNS. xhii tremendous strain that had been brought to bear, to fault the entire formation, and shatter the rock on either side of it. The core from the diamond drill showed all the base metals to be present in this cross lode, and every indication of its being a finely mineralized lode and one that can be expected to be a large pro- ducer of the precious metal. This cross lode is lying on a very flat dip east. About all the 52 lodes found, showed good base metal in the drill core, but as the -core was only % of an inch in diameter, there was not much chance of striking gold. A paper entitled :—Notes on Nova Scotia Zoology, Part II, was read by Mr. Harry Piers. (See Transactions, p. 175.) OrpINARY MEETING, Provincial Museum, 11th April, 1892. The PEESIDENT in the chair. Inter alia. A paper entitled :—On the Graphic treatment of the Inertia of the Connecting Rod, was read by Prof. J. G. MacGregor. (See Transactions, p. 193.) A paper entitled :-—On the Nidification of the Winter Wren in Nova Scotia, was read by Mr. H. Piers. (See Transactions, p. 203.) A paper by Henry M. Ami, M. A., entitled :—A Catalogue of Silurian Fossils of Arisaig, N. S,, was read by the Corresponding Secretary. (See Transactions, p. 185. ) A paper by Rev. A. C. Waghorne, entitled :—The Flora of Newfoundland, St. Pierre and Miquelon, was read by the Corresponding Secretary. The Recording Secretary read a letter from Rev. M. Maury, D. D., of Walt- ham, Mass., Corresponding Member of the Institute, containing a suggestion as to the cause of the differences of colour in Granite rocks, as follows :— ‘* Visiting a pottery in the town of Keene, N.H., I was told of an establishment in which granite is moulded and made into tiles, building stones, ornamental pieces, &c., &c. The moulding of granite appearing to involve an incongruity, I wended my way toward the ‘ Keene Granite Terra Cotta and Tile Works’ where I saw the mystery satisfactorily solved. “ An objection to granite as a building stone is the fact that it will not stand heat. Subjected to heat it loses its tenacity and becomes brittle. Of this property advantage is taken in the manufacture of moulded granite. Ten tons of the crude stone are placed at once in a kiln and heated with a wood fire—the process being altogether similar to the burning of lime. When taken from the kiln the granite will crumble. It is easily reduced to the condition of sand, The next features of the process are identical with those of the manufacture of tiles. The sand-like granite is intimately mixed in water with clay, pulverized ‘elspar and silica, forming what the tilemaker knows as ‘ paste,’ which closely resembles in xliv PROCEEDINGS. appearance a grey-colored mud. In this condition it can of course be passed into moulds, subjected to pressure and forced to assume the shape of any design. The moulds like those employed in the making of pottery are of plaster of Paris. ‘* At this stage in the process the scientific interest properly begins. If a portion of the moulded mixture is allowed to dry it is as brittle as a cake of oatmeal. Placed, however, in a kiln it becomes not only as hard as natural granite but a great deal more tenacious. It is difficult to break it with a hammer. If the mass be as thick as an ordinary brick it will resist many heavy blows. The pressure which it will sustain is enormous. In addition to this it is stated that the appli- cation of water to the baked granite when hot will not cause it to crack. The chief owner of the works told me he had had one tile heated to redness on 14 successive days and placed while red hot in water. It was not cracked by any or all of these tests. ‘* But the process of making artificial granite does not simply illustrate the power of heat as a rock-making agency. It does this admirably. But there is another point of even greater interest, because I do not think it has ever before been sug- gested, though here I may of course be in error. What makes the difference between red granite and grey? The ‘ charges’ drawn from the kilns of the Keene Artificial Granite Works answer this question. A difficulty not uncommon in the ‘ firing’ of pottery and tiles has very naturally been encountered in the granite making process. It is not easy to secure uniformity of temperature in every part of the kiln. Hence arises lack of uniformity in the color of the bricks. and blocks of artificial granite. The majority are, as they should be, grey, pre- cisely resembling the natural granite, and to be distinguished from the natural stone only by close inspection; but some are pink and some are red. These colors are produced where the heat of the kiln has been most intense. I should like to offer to the Nova Scotian Institute for their consideration and discussion the suggestion based upon this fact—that the color of pink and red granites is to be referred to the greater intensity of heat to which in the unequally heated kilns of nature, they have been subjected—in other words that they are superheated grey granites.” ORDINARY MEETING, Province Building, 9th May, 1892. The PRESIDENT in the Chair. Inter alia. A paper by Mr. A. Cameron, Principal of Yarmouth Academy, entitled :—On the visibility of Venus to the naked eye, was read by Prof. J. G. MacGregor. (See Transactions, p. 148.) A paper entitled :—The Geology of Cape Breton :--the Lower Silurian, was read by E, Gilpin, Jr., A. M., F. G. 8S. (See Transactions, p. 167.) ALEXANDER McKay, Recording Secretary. ADDITIONS TO LIST OF MEMBERS. xlv LIST OF MEMBERS ADMITTED TO THE INSTITUTE DURING THE SESSION OF 1891-92. (For former list, see p. x1I., Part 1.) ORDINARY MEMBERS. DATE OF ADMISSION. Wess risa Ay bens. iy, delat axe wean ya cere sexe 2 ost ope eee seus «ays Jan. 4, 1891. Donkinmien Ch. eomnt uppers Cs Bessey = cone 5,5 oor oe Nov. 30, 1892. EVO AM cree EL DUA 552.25 oo etcyeieyste eave the ematsiera © eucieane tie tales ¢ Jan. 4, 1892. irgupirt rong Cem Wires OPT GITEX x crete staat, no oo tanshacrgevsl» speliualeraaes goto Sas Jane 4.) Lele Thaaveleays, “I Asay tale d Bao BIE Di 5 epee a te ae na De Jan. 4, 1892. NieGollsehodentckas Gibiws aba liane ie crane tee Seis ee oles ones aes Jane 4s 1892: NielXerinorn, WWattb a Lae Nhe eos seen ee peerAnte DIOROls CISD Oty cenomenence Nov. 30 1891. Merckurtoshpeicenneths, Halttax. 5. v4.0 s cna nels gaa cagcis + a0 38 Jan, 4, 1392; CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. Litton, Robt. T., F. G. S., ete, Sec. Geol..Soc. Aust., Mel- bourne, Australia ...... A SEL ee We pe a Bey et, May 5, 1892. Maony;lvev. M.D: D.,. Waltham,» Mase, 22)... .55 2. we va ase. oe Nov. 30, 1891. Waghorne, Rev. A. C., New Harbour, N. F. L..... 5... .02.0%.5% May, 9/5, 1892: LIST OF INSTITUTIONS TO WHICH COPIES OF PARTiI OF VOL. I OF SERIES 2 OF THE PROCEEDINGS AND TRANSACTIONS HAVE BEEN SENT. The Intitutions mentioned on pp. XV.—xxx. (Part 1), together with the fol- lowing: — Bath, G. B.—Natural History and Antiquarian Field Club. Belgrade. Servia.—Acadeinie Royale de Serbie. Berlin, Germany.—Zeitschrift fiir den physikalischen und chemischen Unterricht. Berne, Switzerland. —Société Geographique de Berne. Besancon, France.—Société d’ Horticulture du Doubs. Boston, Mass.—Appalachian Mountain Club. Boston. Mass.—New England Historic Genealogical Society. xlvi ADDITIONS TO EXCHANGE LIST. Bournemouth, G. B.—Bournemouth Society of Natural Science. Brisbane, Queensland.—The Queensland Museum. Brisbane, Queensland.—Royal Geographical Society of Australia. Brussels, Belgium.—Société Royale Belge de Geographie. Buda-Pest, Austria-Hungary. —Société Hongroise de Geographie. Centre Co., Pa.—Pennsylvania Experiment Station, State College. Champaign, Ill.—Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station. Columbus, Ohio.—Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station. Demerara, British Guiana. —Royal Agricultural and Commercial Society. Douai, France.—Union Geographique du Nord de la France. Edinburgh, G. B. —Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society. Eugene, Oregon.—The Oregon Naturalist. Giessen, Germany.—Jabresbericht tiber die Fort schritte der Chemie. Gotha, Germany.—Petermann’s Mittheilungen. Halifax, N. S.—Office of Superintendent of Education. Hamburg, Germany—Geographische Gesellschaft. Hannover, Germany.—Geographische Gesellschaft. Heidelberg, Germany.—Universitat. Ithaca, N. Y.—Agricultural Experimental Station, Cornell University. Kingston, Jamaica—The Botanical Department. London, G. B.—-Nature. London, G. B.—Royal Agricultural Society of England. London, G. B.—Royal Geographical Society. London, G. B—Chemical News. New Haven, Conn.—American Journal of Science. Newport, Orleans Co., Vt.—Orleans County Society of Natural History. New York, U. S. A.—Science. New York, U. S. A.—Commissioners of Fisheries for the State of New York. Paris, France.—Société de Geographie. Rochester, N. Y.—Academy of Science. Rochester, N. Y.—Geological Society of America. Rouen, France.-—Academie des Sciences et Belles Lettres. St. Anthony Park, Minn.—Experiment Station of the College of Agriculture, University of Minnesota. St. Petersburg, Russia.—Société Imperiale de Geographie. Sydney, N. S. W.—Geographical Society of Australia. Vienna, Austria-Hungary.—K. K. Geographische Gesellschaft. Washington, D. C.—American Geographical Society. Zurich, Switzerland.—Schweizerisches Polytechnikum. PROCEEDINGS OF THE Mova Scotian Austitute of Science. SESSION OF 1892-3. ANNUAL Business MEETING. Halifax, 21st November, 1892. Dr. M. Mureny, President, in the chair. The minutes of the last annual meeting were read and approved. The PRESIDENT addressed the Institute as follows :— Gentlemen,—Twenty-two years of association with the Nova Scotian Institute of Natural Science, or with the Nova Scotian Institute of Science, its new name, as a member, and for the greater portion of that time as a member of Council, have not lessened the sense of appreciation I have from the first entertained, of the honor that you have conferred by my appointment as President. On the con- trary, this long connection has served to intensify my present feeling of obligation to the Council and the members for having elected me to that office. Many of the active members of that date (1870) have since passed away, leaving handsome records of scientific thought and research on the pages of the Pro- ceedings and Transactions of the Institute ; and whilst we have had from time to time to mourn their loss, it is gratifying to be able to remark that others still remain with us, and are no less active in contributing to the progressive knowledge that time and experience are daily revealing. Moreover, new life and vigor is being imparted, for at no time in its past history was our Institute of Science more assiduously cultivated than during the term of office of the late President ; nor does his zeal end here: he is ever active for the promotion of its interests. During the past year we have lost two of our oldest and best members, Dr. J. B. Gilpin and Mr. A. Downs. JOHN BERNARD GILPIN, A. M., M, D., M. R. C. S., Who died on the 12th March, 1892, was born in Newport, Rhode Island, on September 4th, 1810. He was a son of J. Bernard Gilpin, of Vicar’s Hill, Hants, England, who was for many xlviili PROCEEDINGS. years British Consul at Newport, and finally retired on his pension to Annapolis Royal. Doctor Gilpin graduated at Trinity College, Providence, Rhode Island, and turning his attention to the practice of medicine completed his education in Eng- land. He practised his profession for some time at Annapolis, and was in the habit of spending his leisure time in the study of the wild animals of the western part of the Province. His frequent excursions carried him into all parts of the central district at the head of the Atlantic coast waters, ground at that time almost untrodden, and a safe harbor for the moose, beaver, etc. He removed to Halifax about the yew 1846, and practised his profession during forty years. He then removed to Annapolis, died there Mar. 12, 1892, and lies buried with many of his family in the shadow of the old fort, and at the end of the trench marking the advanced line of the siege which finally vested the town in the English. He was one of the original founders of the Nova Scotian Institute of Natural Science, and his date of election, January 5th, 1863, marks the inauguration of the Institute. His paper, the first read before the Institute, on the Common Herring, was the opening paper of the long series of Transactions that now num- ber seven volumes, and the first of an interesting series of thirty-four contribu- tions from him to our Proceedings. At the anniversary meeting October 12th, 1864, he was elected Vice-President ; in 1873, he was made President; and he retired from that office in 1878. He however continued to serve on the Council and in every way to promote the interests of the Institute he had been so instru- mental in founding. His longer and more elaborated papers read before this Institute are about thirty in number, and would, if collected, form a very inter- esting and valuable work on the Natural History of the Province. Certainly, the naturalist of the younger generation who essays the task will find prepared for him many faithful and exact facts. Among the more noteworthy of his papers may be mentioned those on the food fishes of Nova Scotia, the Indians, eagles, wild fowl, the mammals of the Province, Sable Island, etc. His services were always at the disposal of those seeking information in the paths he had devoted himself to. Doctor Baird of the Smithsonian Institute, who may be called the father of the great business of replanting the fisheries of the North Atlantic, frequently called on his services to assist him in the determina- tion of new or doubtful species of fish, their migrations in the involved ocean rivers of the Northern fisheries, ete. The museum has been served by his brush as well as by his pen, for he possessed the unusual accomplishment of an accurate and artistic reproduction in colors of any subject being treated of in his papers. ANDREW Downs, who died on the 26th April, 1892, was born in New Jersey, on the 27th September, 1811. He acquired very early in life a love of animals and a delight in studying their habits, and having taken up his residence in this city, he started a zoological garden here in 1847, at the head of the North-west Arm. It was the first zoological garden on the continent of America ; for the col- lection of the Central Park, New York, was not opened till 1863, and the Phila- delphia garden not until 1874. His garden at first covered five acres, but it was PROCEEDINGS. xlix gradually extended until in 1863 it had become an estate of one hundred acres ; and including in its bounds hills, lakes, brooks, ravines and wooded land, it pro- vided the variety of surroundings necessary to make his collection of animals of all kinds feel thoroughly at home. Mr. C. Hallock gives in the New York Nature, Vol. 1, p. 150, an interesting description of the garden as it was at this date, and many of us will doubtless remember the very large collection of animals which it contained, and the careful provisions made by their loving guardian for their comfort. In 1867 he disposed of his estate at Halifax and went to New York, having been assured of his appointment as Superintendent of the Central Park Menagerie. For some reason or other, however, the appointment was not confirmed, and he returned to Halifax, where a few years later he purchased a new property at the North-west Arm and started a new zoological garden, which he continued to develop for about six years. During his active life he did an immense amount of work in acquiring knowl- edge of the American fauna, and in desseminating that knowledge not through the publication of scientific papers so much as by individual correspondence with other naturalists and by sending abroad stuffed and living specimens of our animals. There is probably hardly an important museum anywhere which does not contain specimens obtained from him. Mr. Downs joined this Institute during its first session, on the 5th February, 1863, and was for many years a regular attender at its meetings. He contributed four papers to our Transactions,—all on the subject of Ornithology, the subject in which he was most interested. He was a man of a quiet and retiring disposition, and his work was probably better known abroad than at home, his correspondents having secured his election as fellow or corresponding member of many Natural History Societies in America and Europe. This is the thirtieth year of the existence of our Institute, and we have no reason to complain of its record, of its financial position, or of its general progress, Many papers possessing considerable interest have been read during our last year’s meetings, and as they will appear in the Transactions it is only necessary to allude to them briefly here. On November 9th, 1891, Mr. T. C. Weston, of the Geological Survey of Canada, communicated, by permission of the Director of the Survey, a paper on concretionary structure in various rock formations in Canada. The paper referred to certain concretionary forms found in the gold-bearing rocks of Nova Scotia, supposed to be fossils, and assigned to the Lower Silurian age ; but under microscopic examination, the result proved to be precisely the same as for those examined thirty years ago, 1860-1870, by Dr. Selwyn. Dolomitic concretions in gold-bearing rocks of Nova Scotia, concretions found in the Huronian rocks of Newfoundland, and tree-like concretions found at King- ston, Ontario, in the Cambrian sandstone (Potsdam) were treated of and illustrated. The notes will be interesting to mining engineers as it has been a vexed question whether these forms are concretionary or organic. The next paper by W. H. Prest on the evidence of the post-glacial extension of the southern coast of Nova Scotia quotes evidences of the subsidence of the land along our shores at Cumberland County, at Black Point, Liverpool River, at Black Rock south of Lunenburg, at Broad River, at Catherine River, east of Port Joli l PROCEEDINGS, in Queens County, and at Port Mouton. Similar phenomena are also referred to relating to evidences of subsidence along the sea coast of Prince Edward Island, where peat bogs and forests are being slowly engulfed by the ever-advancing sea. The visibility of Venus to the naked eye is the subject of a paper contributed by Prmcipal A. Cameron, of Yarmouth. If one has no telescope nor any other optical instrument, except the naked eye, on how many days of the year can he see Venus? is the question which forms the subject of the paper. The author points out that while her elongation is changing, her brilliancy is changing also, and that at her greatest elongation she is three times as bright as at superior con- junction ; but this does not mean that it is only three times as easy to see her in the former position as in the latter, as it is much more easy to do so. No eye can see her in one case, and no eye can fail to see her in the other. A standard is selected for convenience in terms of which to express her different brilliancies. He takes for this her greatest brilliancy, as it always would be if both she and the earth were always at their mean distance, and if the reflective powers of all parts of the surface of Venus were equal and constant, and he uses the number 100 as the value of this greatest brilliancy. The actual brilliancy at any moment depends on several conditions, some physical and others geometrical. Of the physical conditions, too little is known to be able to make them the subjects of calculation, but from the geometrical conditions, can be calculated the relative theoretical brilliancy for any position in her orbit. These geometrical conditions are three in number,—the distance of the planet from the earth and the phase of the planet; that is, the illuminated part of its dise. To get a general idea of the changes in Venus’s brilliancy he supposed her to be always at her mean distance from the sun, and then the changes will depend only on her distance from the earth and her phase. The paper will be found interesting to others as well as the star gazers throughout, and is given in a pleasant readable manner. It is to be hoped that Principal Cameron will give us the second part of his paper which he speaks of in his closing remarks, viz. :—The visibility of Venus to the naked eye in daylight. The fourth paper, read at the December meeting, gives a list of localities for trap minerals in Nova Scotia by the late Revd. Thomas McCulloch, D. D., President and Professor of Moral Philosophy and Rhetoric in Dalhousie University. A note attached by Professor George Lawson, Ph. D., L.L. D., will explain its history. It is as follows :—‘‘ This is a very old list, and was found recently among the Museum specimens of the McCulloch collection, presented to Dalhousie College by the Revd. William McCulloch, D. D., of Truro, The original manuscript bears neither date nor author’s name, but, on its being forwarded to Revd. Dr. W. McCulloch to ascertain if it was in his father’s handwriting, he replied: ‘ You are right about the document enclosed. [had given it up as lost. It is in my father’s hand though the work was the joint Jabour of my father and brother, Thomas, running over years.’” Although this paper is from an old manu- script it is no less interesting. It embraces lists of the principal trap minerals which may be collected along the North Mountain from Little River, St. Mary’s Bay, to Five Islands, and must have been the result of much labor and diligent research. The next contribution is by the President on the destruction of piles at the PROCEEDINGS. li Narrows, head of Halifax Harbor, by the Limnoria, read at the March meeting. It is given as supplementary to a paper read in 1882 on the ravages of the Teredo Navalis and Limnoria Lignorum in Nova Scotia. Mr. Hugh McKenzie, Civil Engineer, Moncton, has contributed a photograph of the piles removed from the Narrows Railway Bridge, shewing the extent of their workings. This photo- graph is reproduced to illustrate the paper. Notes on Nova Scotian Zoology by Mr. Harry Piers is the second contribution from this gentleman on such new and rare interesting occurrences as came within his observation. It treats of birds, reptiles, and fishes captured or found in Nova Scotia. It will be read with much interest. We are indebted to Mr. Henry M. Ami, M. A., F. G. S., for a catalogue of Sil- urian fossils from Arisaig, Nova Scotia. During the season of 1886, Mr. T. C. Weston, accompanied by Mr. J. A. Robert, made important collections of fossils in the rocks constituting the stratigraphical series at Arisaig along the coast in connection with the geological work entrusted to Mr. Hugh Fletcher, B. A., of the Geological Survey of Canada, and amongst them were several new and _ hitherto unrecorded forms. **On the graphical treatment of the inertia of the connecting rod,” is the title of a paper read by Professor J. G. MacGregor, at the June meeting of the Insti- tute, in which the author points out that in slow-speed steam engines no great error is introduced in calculating the effort of the connecting rod on the crank- pin, on the assumption that the connecting rod is without mass. In high-speed engines, however, a considerable error ‘is thus introduced ; and it is therefore desirable to have a method of determining the actual effort. The domonstrations are based on certain technical principles that are concise and practical, of geometrical application, and will be found useful to every student studying practical mechanics. ** The Geology of Nova Scotia—the Lower Silurian”—is the title of a paper read at the May meeting of this Jnstitute by Edwin Gilpin, Jr., Lu. D., Inspector of Mines. In the continuance of Dr. Gilpin’s work of previous years he follows up his contribution on the Devonian Measures of Cape Breton, with his paper on the Lower Silurian Rocks, He says that between the basal conglomerates of the Carboniferous and the Pre-Cambrian there intervene but a few limited areas referred to the Devonian and Lower Silurian. The extent of these Silurian strata is obscured at many points by the overlying Carboniferous conglomerates, and they rest frequently on the Laurentian. They are not found in the counties of Richmond or Inverness. ‘« The Geology of Nova Scotia,” by Sir William Dawson, can be largely sup- plemented from the Proceedings of this Institute. The contributions from the late Dr. Honeyman and from Dr. Gilpin cover a large field, and until we have a coinplete geological survey of Nova Scotia they will be found to embody the best and most reliable information regarding the mineral resources of the Province. In making these observations this evening I have endeavored to point out some of the work that is being done by the Nova Scotian Institute of Science. It would not be difficult to mention other papers, but doubtless they are familiar to all present, and I am afraid I have only been going over old ground, which has already been more ably trodden by others, I will not, therefore, detain you lil PROCEEDINGS. longer, but will conclude by asking you all to assist the Institute and its Presi- dent by introducing new members, by contributing papers and by your presence at the meetings ; and hoping the future of the Institute will be as beneficial to science and as prosperous as has been the past, I will conclude my remarks. The TREASURER presented his annual report, showing the Institute to be ina satisfactory financial condition. The Curator of the Library presented his annual report shewing the rapid growth of the Library, and the great necessity for making better provision for its accommodation. The following were elected oftice-bearers for the ensuing year :— President— M. Murpuy, D. Sc., C. E. Vice-Presidents—H. S. Poor, F. G. S., and Prorressor Lawson, Lu. D. Treasurer—Wwm. C. SILVER. Corresponding Secretary—A. H. MacKay, LL. D. Recording Secretary—ALEXANDER McKay. Curator of the Library—MayNarvD BowMaAN. Councillors without office :—Professor J. G. MacGregor, E. Gilpin, Jr., A. M., F. G. S., Lu. D., F. W. W. Doane, C. E., Harry Piers, John Forbes, Roderick McColl, Revd. John Ambrose, D. D. ORDINARY MEETING, Province Building, 21st Nov., 1892. The PRESIDENT in the Chair. Inter alia, Dr. MacKay, Superintendent of Education, read and illustrated by experiments a paper entitled: ‘‘ Explosive gas generated within the [lot Water Pipes of house heating Apparatus.’’ (See Transactions, p. 374.) ORDINARY MEETING, Province Building, 12th Dec., 1892. The PRESIDENT zn the Chair. Inter alia, A paper by T.C. Weston of the Geological Survey of Canada, entitled : ‘* Notes on the Miocene Tertiary Rocks of the Cypress Hills, North West Territory of Canada,” was read by Dr. A. H. MacKay, Superintendent of Education, who, as an introduction to the paper, gave an outline of historical geology. (See Trans actions, p. 223.) ORDINARY MEETING, Province Building, 9th Jan., 1893. The PrestprENnT in the Chair. Inter alia, Dr. MacKay, Superintendent of Education, read a paper entitled: ‘‘ Natural History Observations made at several Stations in Nova Scotia during the year 1892.” (See Transactions, p. 378.) PROCEEDINGS. lini Orpinary Meetinc, Church of England Institute, Halifax, 13th Feb., 1893. The PRESIDENT wn the Chair. Inter alia, H. S. Poole, F. G. S., read a paper entitled: ‘‘The Pictou Coal Field—A Geological Revision.” (See Transactions, p. 228.) ORDINARY MEETING, Provincial Museum, Halifax, 10th April, 1893. The PRESIDENT in the Chair. Inter alia, Professor J. G. MacGregor read a paper entitled: ‘‘On the Definition of nergy.” Dr. MacKay, Superintendent of Education, read a paper prepared by the Rev. A. C. Waghorne of Newfoundland and entitled: ‘‘ The Flora of Newfoundland, Labrador, and St. Pierre et Miquelon.” (See Transactions, p. 359.) OrpDINARY MEETING, Province Building, Halifax, 8th May, 1893. Dr. MacKay, in the Chair. Inter alia, The President, Dr. M. Murphy, read a paper entitled :—‘‘ Crossing the Strait of Canso by a Submarine Tube.” Dr. Murphy read also a paper entitled :—‘* Bridge Sub-structures and Founda- tions in Nova Scotia.” (At the request of the American Society of Civil Engineers, New York, this paper was subsequently read, by permission of the Council, before the Civil Engineering Division of the International Congress of Engineers held at Chicago in connection with the World’s Columbian Exposi- tion ; and it has been published in the Transactions of the above Society, Vol. XXIX (1893), page 620.) Professor G. Lawson read papers entitled :—‘‘ A Shower of Cotton-like Sub- stance in Florida”; ‘‘On a recent Whaling Expedition from Dundee” ; and ‘‘ On Hybrid Grafts.” The following papers were read by title :— “Parasitic Fungi affecting the Apple and other Pome, with Suggestions as to their Destruction,” by Dr. J. Somers. ** Notes on Nova Scotian Zoology,” by Harry Piers. “‘ Venus by Daylight to Eye and to Opera-glass,” by Aeneas Cameron, Principal of Yarmouth Academy. (See Transactions, p. 345.) Dr. A. H. MacKay was appointed a Delegate to the Royal Society of Canada. liv ADDITIONS ‘fo LIST OF MEMBERS AND EXCHANGE LIST. LIST OF MEMBERS ADMITTED TO THE INSTITUTE DURING THE SESSION OF 1892-3. (For former list, see p. x11, Part 1, and p. xiv, Part 2.) ORDINARY MEMBERS. DATE OF ADMISSION, (laraiey Ny dng Nile D Barly Ie (Oboe IDE ISIE <. vores nodloneadcocd tous Jan. 27, 1893. Greens LaAce Meas, sis. cease halifax vierueces ere eioreo cr ererereene Apr. 7, 1893. Hattie, W. H., M. D., Hospital for Insane, Dartmouth ........... Nov. 12, 1892. Morton, SvAss b-pAa.) alitaxceA Cademny mer. semicttticiertscr-nsertetaioe Jan. 27, 1893. Newman Cals. arbmouthracy serene criteracn cence ee eaee Jan. 27, 1893. Wayans Wo (Gey Ue 105, Waites cS aaonoc PENSETA SAcie ae rae okie ace Noy. 12, 1892. CORRESPONDING MEMBER. Waghorne; Rev. A.°C.,'New Harbor, N. Wo. o. oon nme ee May 5, 1892. LIST OF INSTITUTIONS TO WHICH COPIES OF PART 2 OF VOL. I OF SERIES 2 OF THE PROCEEDINGS AND TRANSACTIONS HAVE BEEN SENT. The Institutions mentioned on pp. xv-xxx (Part I), and xlv-xlvi (Part 2), to- gether with the following : Aberdeen, G. B.—Dun Echt Observatory. Armagh, Ireland.—The Observatory. Boston, Mass.—The Public Library. Cambridge, Mass.—Observatory of Harvard College. Chicago, Ill.—Association of Engineering Societies. Chicago Astronomical Society and Dearborn Observatory. Dublin, Ireland. — Royal Historical and Archeological Association. Edinburgh, G. B.—Society of Antiquaries of Scotland. Edinburgh Mathematical Society. Greenwich, @. B.—The Royal Observatory. Halifax, N. S.—The Mining Society of Nova Scotia. Liverpool, G. B.—The Liverpool Astronomical Society. London, G. B.—The Imperial Institute. o3 The Canadian Gazette. Manchester, G. B.—Association of Employers, Foremen and Draughtsmen of the Mechanical ‘'rades of Great Britain. Madison, Wis.--The Washburne Observatory. Mt. Hamilton, Col.—The Lick Observatory. Melbourne, Australia.—-The Observatory. ef The Department of Agriculture. New York, U. 8S. A.—'lhe New York Mathematical Society. New Haven, Conn.—Yale College Observatory. Northfield, Minn.—Carleton College Observatory. Ottawa, Ont.—Canadian Patent Office. Paris, France.---Société Nationale des Antiquaires de France. Rochester, U. 8S. A.—The Warner Observatory. St. John’s, Nfld. —Athenzeum Library. Trencsin, Austria-Hungary.—Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein des Trencsiner Comitates. Villefranche-sur-Mer, France.—Laboratoire de Zoologie. Worcester, Mass.—American Antiquarian Society. NOY 23 1895 PROCEEDINGS OF THE Aova Scotian Hustitute of Science. SESSION OF 1893-4. ANNUAL Business MEETING. Province Building, Halifax, 8th November, 1893. M. Murpny, D. Sc., C. E., President, in the Chair. The minutes of the last annual meeting were read and approved. The PrestpENnT addressed the Institute, reviewing the progress of the past year. On motion of Dr. J. Somers and Principal P. O’Hearn a vote of thanks was tendered to Dr. Murphy for his services as President during the last three years, The TREASURER presented his annual report, shewing the Institute to be in a satisfactory financial condition. The Curator of the Library presented his annual report, shewing a coutinua- tion of the rapid growth of the last few years. The following were elected office-bearers for the ensuing year :— President—PROFESSOR GEORGE Lawson, Lu. D. Vice-Presidents—H. S. Pooiz, F. G.8., and A. H. MacKay, Lt. D. Treasurer—W. C. SILVER. Corresponding Secretary—PROFEsSSoR J. G. MacGrecor. Recording Secretary—A. McKay. Librarian—MayNarpD BowMAN. Councillors without office :—M. Murpuy, D.Sc., E. Guiry, Lu. D., A. P. Rem, NES D.; J. ‘Somers, MoD: H. Puss, Fo W:) W. Doane, CC. El, and’ A. ALLISON. Auditors—S. A. Morton, M. A., and M. Surne, lvi PROCEEDINGS. First Orpinary MEETING, Province Building, Halifax, 8th November, 1893. Dr. MacKay, VICE-PRESIDENT, in the Chair. Inter alia, Professor J. G. MacGregor read a paper entitled: ‘‘ On the Isothermal and Adiabatic Expansion of Gases.” SrconpD ORDINARY MEETING, Province Building, Walifax, 11th December, 1893. The PRESIDENT in the Chair. Inter alia, Dr. J. Somers read a paper entitled: ‘Notes on Native Forms of Juniperus and Lanius Borealis.” Principal Marshall, of Richmond, N. S., made a statement of facts with regard to what appeared to be a shower of worms. Ile said :— In the spring of 1890, while residing in Middleton, Annapolis Co., I observed one morning after a shower of rain with high wind from the south-east, that there were abuut two dozen earth worms in a molasses cask which was standing so as to catch the water from a spout that was connected with a trough placed under the eaves of the barn. I had been to the cask for water several times the day before and had not noticed them there, and I felt sure that they could not have crawled in over the side of the cask, for it was 3 ft. 8 in. high. I gota ladder and climbed to the roof to see if there was any dirt in the trough in which they might have lived until brought down by the rain. I did not find any earth in which they might have lived, but 1 found more than a dozen worms sticking to the roof with one end dried fast to the shingles as if they had struck against it with some force and had been partly crushed and killed. When I came down from the roof I examined the wall and found several worms crushed against it. They were on the middle and western part of the wall and roof. I could not dis- cover any on the eastern end, nor on other buildings standing on that side of the barn. There were no buildings at the western end, so I could not determine where, in that direction the limit would have been, if there had been a wall to receive them. As it was they were scattered over a wall about fourteen feet square, and over the side of a roof fourteen feet long and twelve wide. The soil to the south of the barn is sandy and nearly all covered with a grass sod. There were no large trees near the building. The PRESIDENT, Prof. G. Lawson, read a paper entitled: ‘‘ Remarks on Some Features of the Kentucky Flora.” On motion of Prof. J. G. MacGregor and Dr. A. H. MacKay the following resolution was passed :—Resolved, That the Council be instructed to address a memorial to the Dominion Government setting forth the advantages of low postal rates on natural history specimens, both in facilitating the progress of the vari- ious departments of natural history and in making known the natural resources of the country, and praying the said Government to take steps to secure throughout Canada and the postal nnion the same rate of postage on scientific specimens as is at present provided for in the case of samples of merchandise. PROCEEDINGS. lvii TaiRD ORDINARY MEETING, Provincial Museum, Halifax, 8th January, 1894. The PRESIDENT in the Chair. Inter alia, Dr. E. Gilpin, Deputy Commissioner of Mines, read a paper entitled: ‘ On the Nictaux lron Ore Field.” F. W. W. Doane, C. E., read a paper entitled: ‘On the Operation of the Kennedy Scraper, and the Cause of Recent Failure.” FourtH Orpinary MEETING, Provincial Museum, Halifax, 12th February, 1894. The PRESIDENT in the Chair. Inter alia, The PRESIDENT, Prof. G. Lawson, read a paper entitled: ‘‘ On the Botanical and Commercial History of Nova Scotia Foxberries.” A paper by G. H. Cox, B. A., entitled: ‘‘ List of Plants Collected in and aronnd the Town of Shelburne, 1890-93,” was read by the President. FirtH ORDINARY MEETING, Province Building, Halifax, 12th March, 1894. The PRESIDENT in the Chair. Inter alia, A paper by Principal A. Cameron, of Yarmouth, N. §., entitled: ‘‘ Notes on Venus,—Morning and Evening Star at the same time,” was read by the Sec- retary. A paper by Mr. F. J. A. McKittrick, of Kentville, N. S., entitled: ‘*On the Measurement of the Resistance of Electrolytes,”—and containing the results of a series of experimental observations made in the Physical Laboratory of Dal- housie College, was read by the Secretary. A paper by Mr. D. M. Bliss, Am. Inst. Elec. Eng., entitled: ‘* The Coming Development of Artificial lumination,” was read by the Secretary. The fol- lowing is an extract from this paper :— ‘While a great advance in artificial illumination has been made in the direc- tion of convenience, brilliancy and flexibility, yet it would be hard to find a branch of applied science in which so little improvement in efficiency has been made. And no process is so wasteful of precious energy as tunis we are now con- sidering. To the unreflecting mind it would seem that the principle involved in the pro- duction of light by the wavering flame of the tallow dip is very different from that brought into action in the electric light, arc or incandescent ; but a little thought will serve to convince one that the principles involved in both cases are the same, and indeed the first rays that burst on the astonished gaze of some an- cient investigator as he lit the first torch, proceeded from the same source as lvili PROCEEDINGS. those in the less unsteady but more expensive illumination of the “ fin de siécle age. In the tallow dip we have acrude retort, producing hydrogen which while burning raises to a white heat, the minute particles of carbon set free in the action of combustion, and by far the greater part of the potential energy present is wasted in producing carbonic acid and water or in the form of heat waves, leaving but a small portion of energy to be converted into light waves. The same action of ‘course takes place in the oil or gas light, the advantage in the latter, from an economic point of view being the production of the carbon-charged Hydrogen at a central point (the gas house) where a given amount of gas can be produced under much better conditions than can be obtained in the numerous and tiny individual gas retorts of the candle or oil lamp. In an electric light whether arc or incandescent, the principle remains the same and it is not the electric current we see but highly heated carbon, and the energy necessary to heat the carbon points or filament to the proper illuminating point is obtained from the coal under the boilers of the electric light station through the medium of the rapidly revolving wires in the dynamo cutting the unseen but all powerful lines of force of the magnetic field, and not from a direct chemical process as in the other examples of light. ) Now the modern dynamo, as a machine for the conversion of mechanical into electrical energy, is a most efficient apparatus, and usually returns in the form of electricity, 90 to 95 per cent. of the mechanical energy put into it, a result we may well be proud of when it is considered that with the most efficient steam plant not more than 5 per cent. of the energy possessed by the burning coal is con- verted into mechanical energy in the engine ; and as regards the systems of distri- tribution, the loss is not, or need not be, more than 5 to 10 per cent. in transmitting the electrical energy to the points of conversion. And so we find that here at the point of conversion into light (or the lamps) the greater part of the waste takes place ; and as there is not the same chemical action in this light as in the oil or gas flame, we do not find this waste in the form of carbonic acid or water, but almost wholly in heat waves or invisible and therefore useless radiation. Now so long as we utilize carbon as the source from which to obtain light so long will we have this waste of energy in heat, as heat alone, whether it be furnished by the gas flame or electricity, will produce (in carbon) the necessary molecular action resulting in light waves. So it seems probable that we shall employ other processes and proceed on new lines before any great advance can be made in illumination. In the light of the future, energy (probably electrical) will be converted into luminous waves with a loss not exceeding, say, 5 to 10 per cent. in heat ; the light will be practically cold ; and the power now required for one 16 c.p. lamp will give us twenty. In looking for an example of a light of this character we naturally think of the fire-fly and glow-worm, both of which may be said to be good examples of a perfect light, at least as far as efficiency goes. Careful tests have been made on the light emitted by the fire-fly, and the results show that it is practically heatless, less than 2 per cent. of the total radiation being in the form of heat waves. It is true that the secret of its production has not yielded to our tests, but we hope that, like many of nature’s formule, it will be solved, and the PROCEEDINGS lix result attained after careful and persistent investigation ; and the fortunate individual who succeeds in penetrating her laboratory and secures the formula for heatless light will win fortune and undying fame. Another line of investigation which looks inviting is that of phosphorescence and storage of light waves as exhibited by calcium sulphide or luminous paints ; and it is within the range of probability to suppose that a luminous compound will be discovered that will store up the rays of the sun and return them to us when needed at night. not in the feeble glow of the luminous match safe, but with a brilliancy sufficient for all purposes of illumination. Those who have witnessed Tesla’s experiments at the World’s Fair will remem- ber the particularly brilliant effect produced when the talented experimenter held in his hand a large glass tube containing but a trace of air and which, thongh totally disconnected from any visible circuit, glowed with a soft pulsating light of considerable intensity but practically heatless, and we have been told that in the near future we shall light our houses by placing metalic plates on the walls of our rooms and connecting them with a source of a high potential and fre- quency, and our lamp being simply an exhausted bulb or globe will glow in any part of the room and will need no connection, the light being produced by the rapidly changing electrostatic stress between the walls of the room or plates. Unfortunately, however, in this method which uses such extremely high poten- tials and frequencies the ordinary methods of transmission or wiring fail and the effect nore nearly approaches the rapidly alternating discharge of lightning in that a metalic circuit is practically opaque, so to speak, to a current of say 1,000,000 volts and the same number of alternations. The self-induction of such a circuit with currents of moderate potential and frequency would be practically nothing, but is something enormous with the above pressure and frequency, and so far as we can see this system if it attains to any degree of perfection will have a very limited field from this effect alone, to say nothing of the severe dielectric stresses. Whether electricity will play an important part in the light of the future or not is a matter of speculation, and it would not be strange if the coming system were largely a chemical one, though electricity will no doubt be the form of energy used to the points of conversion. However, in any case our present elec- tric light plants will not go out of existance, but will fully occupy the field they are only now entering, for the distribution of power and heat for all purposes. In conclusion, it may be said that no field is so rich and none so pregnant with good possibilities, but the problem must be worked out on new lines, bearing in mind that any light that depends on carbon as the source of illumination will inevitably consume 90 per cent. of the energy put into the process, in the form of heat, and it matters not whether this energy is supplied by burning gas or the electric current, the results are practically the same, and no great improvement can be obtained till we find out how to separate heat and light, or produce either form of radiation at will.” Ix PROCEEDINGS. Mr. John Forbes, of Halifax, addressed the Institute on ‘‘Some Modern Methods in Manufacturing with certain Analogies suggested by a Partial Study of the Evolution and Nature of some of the Processes Employed,” as follows :— ‘¢The question as to what constitutes raw material is one which has frequently been written about and discussed in its relation to political questions of the day, but our mention of the question at this time is not intended or calculated to excite either sympathy or prejudice in any one on account of its political signifi- cance. It is sufficient for us now to suggest that no material used in the arts is qualified to serve any very large useful purpose until it has passed through: the hands or machines of some of the numerous classes of manufacture. In this, however, we are met by the reflection that man cannot lay claim to exclusiveness in the manipulation (if the use of the word is permissible) of raw materials in order to fashion them into such shapes and conditions as to subserve his comfort or convenienoe. Perhaps the most that man can elaim is the superior ingenuity which enables him to observe the results, defective or otherwise, of past efforts, and improve upon them, or to profit by his observation of results, as the product of what he may thereafter learn to regard as natural laws. Amongst the first considerations to which we are led by the line of thought now reached is, the great variety of materials which nian has thus brought into use- fulness, and made available for his comfort and convenience. Some of these materials he is enabled to use in the state in which nature sup- plies them to his hand, but far the greater number he has to obtain at the expenditure of a large amount of labor and by the aid of processes, the under- standing of which comes very slowly, and to the understanding of which he has to bring large powers of observation, reasoning and experiment. Several reflections resulting from a desultory consideration of the subject have induced the writer to observe certain seeming analogies between the older and crude methods employed and the refined modern methods now in use, and to regard with interest the seeming inductiveness of the processes and operations which have resulted in our present condition of refinement in some of the branches involved. I feel, however, that some apology is due to the Institute for trespassing upon its time by presenting a paper which is so retrospective and so historical in its character, but which, if time and opportunity permitted, I have thought might, if the council approved, be with profit divided into several papers, the prepara- tion and presentation of which would probably be both interesting and profitable, Pre-eminently above all other materials which man has turned to useful account and rendered by his multifarious adaptations, indispensable is the metal iron. Man’s acquaintance, in a measure at least, with some of the uses of this metal may with reasonable assurance be conceded as antedating authentic history, yet its adaptations were unquestionably restricted to articles of small character, con- sisting very probably of articles of personal adornment and of tools for the working and fashioning of other and softer metals and materials, and weapons of war and of the chase. It is not difficult to frame an interesting and fairly warrantable theory as to the manner of its discovery. The facility with which small masses of iron can be obtained from some of its ores by simply digging a PROCEEDINGS. lxi hole in a bank of earth suitably situated, charging the same with ore and fuel and permitting the wind to blow favorably upon the arrangement so as to fan the fuel to the requisite heat, suggests the accidental production of the metal as the result of forest fires ; and the discovery of small lumps which might be found upon the ground,--after the conflagration—would naturally suggest the inference that the metal was the product of the action of the fire upon certain masses of brown earth or ore which might be found upon the ground in the vicinity. Job 28th and 2nd: ‘‘ Iron is taken out of the earth, and brass is melted out of the stone.” Deuteronomy 8th and 9th: ‘‘ A land whose stones are iron, and out of whose hills thou mayest dig brass.” The iron rocks of Elba, Styria and Spain, and the processes employed for the reduction of the metal, are described by writers before the Christian era, the product being exported to other countries, notably to Italy, to be used in the production of tools ; but the methodsemployed were evidently not very reliable and the product not uniform, as historians of the second century complained that the knives, although very hard, were so brittle that the cutting edge splintered off, which was probably due to the inferior quality of the steel of which they were made and imperfect knowledge as to the working of it. I should remark that I can not claim any originality in this paper, not even to researches at first hand from the old writers themselves, but am indebted to well known treatises upon the subject by able writers and investigators. It seems probable that the grade of the metal, which we know as steel, was known and utilized by the ancients about as early as the purer metal ; in fact, we think it not improbable that the different qualities of the ore obtained from different localities governed the uses which were made of the several products. It would seem also that the rude processes employed for the extraction of the metal rendered the resulting material a somewhat uncertain matter, a large part of the metal in the shape of pig metal or cast iron being thrown away with the slag as a product for which, for a very long period, and in fact up to a compara- tiveiy recentera, no use wasfound. Egyptianssculptures antedating the christian era by 1500 years or more, represent workmen or smiths, operating bellows for blowing the fire used in the production of the metal from the ore, or in the sub- sequent operations of fashioning it into the articles for which it was found to be adapted, and we think it very reasonable to conceive that this recognized means of urging the fire by a forced blast of atmospheric air, directed upon and amongst the molten mass was the initial discovery which might be established as the link, which has connected the crude processes of the ancients with the magnificent achievements of chemistry in its application to modern metallurgy, the analogy being found in the different effects, which were evidently known to the ancients, of so manipulating the tuyeres and blasts of air, at certain stages of the operation as to produce the desired result, at times intensifying the heat and reducing the metal and then if metal of a steely character were wanted enabling the metal, after its extraction from its earthy oxides, to become impreguated with carbon from the fuel. The processes were without doubt only experimental, and not understood, some lxii PROCEEDINGS. workmen probably operating successfully with some ores and other workmen re- alizing success from other ores, as their experience had taught them. But in modern times the Bessemer and the Siemens-Martin processes bring about the desired results in a similar although in a more refined manner and with a know ledge of the rationale of the processes involved. It seems rather surprising that the extraction and use of the metal in its malleable character was known for so long a period before its usefulness in the molten and fluid state were recoguized. It would seem from the records that among the first uses for which cast iron was found suitable was in the production of cannons, which is stated to have been accomplished in the thirteenth century. But it seems to have been much later than this before it was learned that the best way to obtain the metal in its malleable condition was to first arrange for its combination with carbon and run it out of the furnace in the shape of pig or cast iron, and then get the purer metal by burning off the carbon by a plentiful supply of oxygen under a forced blast of atmospheric air, and it is, we think, an interesting reflection that for probably thousands of years those engaged in the operations of iron extraction had been frustrated in their efforts by the accidental couversion of the metal into a state which was useless to them, but which really formed part of the correct process for its economic recovery. Perhaps it may be well quite briefly to re-state some facts in connection with the matter, viz.: There are two general processes by which the metal may be revived from its ores; one is called the direct process, and consists in subjecting the ore to the action of incandescent fuel in connection with a free supply of air, the air being forced in and among the mass by some meaas for maintaining a continued blast under pressure. This direct process requires that it is shall be discontinued as soon as the ore has given up its oxygen to the carbon of the fuel, at which stage the particles of the metal cohere in a pasty mass of malleable iron. If now, instead of stopping the operation at this stage, the process is continued, a result will follow which constitutes the first stage in what may be termed the second or indirect process. This result is, that the metal takes up a portion of carbon from the fuel and becomes more easily fusible and thus passes to a molten state, and becomes what is known as pig iron. If now, a further continuation of the process is maintained, and a constant stream of air is forced over and amongst the mass of molten metal, the oxygen from the air will combine with the carbon in the iron and the metal will again assume the plastic condition of a highly heated mass of malleable or decarbonized iron. The ancients, as before stated, were only acquainted with the uses of the metal in its malleable condition and so of course aimed at its production by the direct process, but, doubtless accidents at times occurred when their aims were frustrated either by too much fuel or too prolonged a continuance of the operation, and so cast or pig metal was the result; but, although probably things were taken for granted with greater readiness than now, yet it is not, we think, attributing too much intelligence to the smiths and metallurgists of old to imagine them as asking themselves how such and such a result could come about, and when, as probably occurred, it was found that the fuel becoming exhausted and the supply of air being kept up the pasty condition of the metal again PROCEEDINGS. lxiit ensued, we think it not too much to assume that the chemistry of the subject became a matter of consideration and study. It will of course be borne in wind that many impurities exist in the ore, and are to be got rid of besides the oxygen which seems to be its most intimate friend, but it was not our wish to take the chemistry of the process into consideration, and we propose only to speak of the principal causes of the difference in the constitution of the metal in the three principal characters under which it is known, viz. : as wrought iron, cast iron, and steel. Now, barring the different qualities of ore—that is, the different combinations of the metal with other matters than oxygen as found in different ores—and hence the different qualities of metal obtainable; the only difference in the three phases of the metal named consists in the different proportions of carbon with which it becomes impregnated either designedly or by accident. It is proper to remark that the fuel used by the ancients, and indeed down to the close of the 16th or commencement of the 17th century was wood charcoal. This gave the early producers a great advantage, as the use of so pure a carbon pre- vented in a great measure the introduction of other impurities, except as they might exist in the ore itself, to some of which, notably sulphur and phosphorous, the metal exhibits great affinity and great reluctance to separate from. We are here met by the reflection that if no other means of obtaining iron had been discovered except the old method, and the employment exclusively of wood char- coal as fuel, the advance of the world in the magnificent strides of the present century would have been simply impossible, for the forests would not have suf- ficed to supply the amount of charcoal needed for the purpose. In consequence of the lack of knowledge of the uses of mineral coal the demand upon the forests of England for the supply of wood charcoal for iron making was so great that in Queen Elizabeth’s reign a law was passed prohibiting the exten- sion of the iron manufacture in certain districts. In consequence of which law efforts were made to use the mine coal, which was then coming into use as a fuel. These efforts were however strenuously resisted by the manufacturers operating with the wood charcoal, and it was only in the early part of the 18th century that full success in the use of mineral fuel in the production of iron was realized. We must now again revert to the statement already made that the ancients only practised the production of iron by the direct process, but they also at a. very early period learned to produce steel, as Aristotle is said to have described the process of making steel in India, and it was without doubt known that ores. found in certain localities were adapted to the more ductile requirements of the producers, and other ores to the requirements of the steel makers. However, from the very long time which seems to have elapsed before the production of steel from iron itself, after its reduction from the ore, it would seem to be a fair inference that the rationale of the process was not at all comprehended. The production of steel by the process known as cementation is based upon the readiness with which the metal in a heated state combines with carbon. Now, while it would have been known that certain different conditions of the metal were produced by different manipulations of the fire in which it was produced, yet ignorance of the chemical constituents of fuel and air prevented the compre- lxiv PROCEEDINGS. hension of the processes. But we think the process of cementation for convert- ing the soft iron into steel was not very dittcult to evolve. The reasoning was comparatively easy, that the iron was in some way affected by the presence of the charcoal when both iron and charcoal were red hot, and the experiment would, we think, be naturally suggested, to try the effect of the combination after the iron had been obtained, had become cold and had again been heated. The process of cementation for producing steel consists in placing bars of soft iron in contact with charcoal in a suitable vessel and luting the joints of the vessel well with a suitable clay to prevent the access of air, the wasting effect of the action of the air upon the metallic iron when red hot, being known by those who were engaged in such occupations as to afford them the opportunity for observation, the effect of air combining with the heated charcoal and thus preventing the carbon from combining with the iron, by its greater preference for combination with the carbon, would have been a lesson upon which a long previous experience would have afforded unquestionable instruction. After being thus properly luted and prepared, the pots or chests containing the alternating layers of iron and charcoal are subjected to a strong heat from furnaces suitably arranged, and the heat being kept up for a sufficient length of time (some four to eight days) the whole is then allowed to cool, and after being taken out of the pots or boxes, the carbon (from the charcoal‘and other carbon- izing materials) is found to have entered in combination with the iron, which is also found to be covered with small blisters resulting from the expanding etfects of the gases evolved in the process of combination. The iron which has been thus treated is now known as blistered (or blister) steel, and for a long time (or until the middle of the 18th century) this material made from different qualities of bar iron was used for various purposes in which steel was required. It was also learned that steel thus made could be welded to its more ductile cousin, decarbonized iron, and thus tools could be prepared which, in consequence of their combined qualities, could be made hard by tem- pering the steel part, while the softer backing afforded by the iron to which it was thus united permitted the cutting part to be made harder with less tendency to break or twist out of shape in the process of hardening. Also, as the steel part was more expensive than the iron part, economy was effected in thus not having to make the entire article of the more expensive material. But as time passed on and the required uses for steel became more numerous, and more exacting as to the character of the steel required, it was found that a more uniform and stronger steel was needed, and as the reasoning powers of man acquired a greater strength for wrestling with the problems afforded by the necessities of the case, and the artizan and the investigator realized that we are ‘* the heirs of all the ages in the foremost files of time,” so we think the reason- ing became not so very profound which enabled Huntsman to conclude that as iron when combined with carbon fuses at a much lower heat than the purer iron, and, as might be easily reasoned, the blister steel could thus be melted, (an ex- periment would demonstrate the fact), and as it had been required to exclude the air while making the blister steel, so also it would be needed to exclude, at any rate in a measure, the air from the blister steel when so fused, and also that PROCEEDINGS. Ixv this fusing and blending, so to speak, of the mass by mixing it well while in a ‘state of fusion would materialJly assist in rendering the metal much more uniform. This seems to have been the way in which the change from blistered steel to its more uniform and denser relative cast steel was effected. This improvement is said to have been effected by Benjamin Huntsman about 1740 in a little town near Sheffield. It is said that Huntsman and his family enjoyed an enviable success as steel makers, and as the process employed by them was kept a pro- found secret their success naturally aroused the cupidity of his less fortunate competitors who were engaged in the productions of those articles, for which this improved steel was especially adapted, and, as the story goes, on a very stormy night when Huntsman and his workmen in an apartment brightly lighted by the fires were employed in these metallurgical operations, a traveller besought permission to enter and escape for a while the inclemency of the weather, and admission having been obtained the stranger lay down upon the floor and soon feigned sleep, but during the operation of melting and pouring the molten steel he *‘ kept his weather eye open” and became acquainted with the secrets of the process. It is reasonable to assume that a part of the secret lay in mixing with the molten steel fragments of a more highly carbonized metal, such as had been pro- duced by the direct process, and so, from that time on, various improvements were from time to time effected in the composition, adapting it ultimately for the great variety of purposes for which this most indispensable combination of iron and carbon is so eminently useful. But while these several processes were being developed for the productien of steel, and of different kinds or qualities of steel, adapted to the various purposes for which steel was necessary, the demands for malleable iron in much greater ‘quantities than previously, stimulated continued efforts to cheapen zfs production and improve its quality. One of the most important advances in this direction was made towards the latter part of the 18th century when it was learned that more energetic mechanical agitation of the metal while in a molten state, in the presence of a blast of air, facilitated the decarbonizing process from the condition of cast iron to that of malleable iron, and the operation of puddling was perfected. In this process the molten metal is continually stirred and agitated by the work- men with the aid of a kind of hook or ‘‘ rabble” so called, and by this means new surfaces and portions of the molten iron are successively exposad to the decar- bonizing effects of the stream of air thrown into the furnace while the process goes on. After a while the refined portions of the metal begin to stick together and the workman, with the aid of his rabble, collects together enough to consti- tute a ball which he pushes to one part of the furnace while he continues the process and gathers together successively ball after ball until as much as possible of the metal has been recovered from the mass of molten slag and scoria which remains in the furnace, this is then drawn off at suitably prepared orifices and the furnace prepared for another charge. These balls or spongy masses of malle- able or decarbonized iron, glowing with a brilliant white heat, and dripping with fluid slag or scoria which is contained in their numerous cracks and fissures, are then taken and subjected to the action of powerful squeezers, or sometimes steam Ixvi PROCEEDINGS. hammers, which acting upon the balls while in the soft and plastic state in which they are taken from the furnace, squeeze out as much as possible of the impurities which are contained in their mass, and they are then passed through heavy roughing rollers and reduced to the shape of a rude bar of a flattened form, say from 6 to 10 inches wide by some 1 inch to 14 inches thick, called muck bars. These bars, after being allowed to cool, are then cut up into pieces some two feet long and piled one upon another forming a pile some 8 inches deep. A number of these piles are then taken and placed in a furnace where they are again heated to a welding heat, and are then again passed successively through a number of suitably shaped rolls, and so fashioned into bars and adapted for sundry purposes. It must now be noticed that the operation just described and the forming of the mass into bars depended entirely for its success upon the quality possessed by iron, of being plastic at a certain high tem- perature, and also that at this temperature, called a welding heat, its particles when brought together will cohere, and may, by being pressed forcibly together while at this heat, be formed into a solid mass, but there are sundry exceptions to this result, for instance if some of the liquid slag or other impurities remains between the particles of the metal, or between the surfaces to be united, then the union will not be a perfect one, and a condition of the metal known as ‘““seamy” will result. This seamy condition rendered the metal quite unfit for many purposes, and although very fine results were obtained in course of time by careful management and by refining, as well as by compacting the mass by very powerful mechanicai appliance, yet there were some features in the structure of the material which suggested the need of efforts to obtain a metal possessing greater homogeneity. The constantly increasing demands made upon the metal by very numerous new uses which were found for it also stimulated the thoughts and investigations of the ablest minds. Physics and chemistry joined hands in endeavouring to realize what seemed within the bounds of practicability, viz., to evolve some means of producing an iron which should meet the exacting demands of new inventions, and their application in enterprises of an importance and magnitude theretofore almost undreamed of. We have noted the difficulty which occurs when impurities, such as are always: present in some degree with malleable iron, are contained between the numerous fissures in the spongy mass. It is almost impossible to get rid of them, and the result is they get rolled or hammered into the mass of the metal in the succeed- ing processes to which it is subjected in the course of its preparation for the market. In the process of rolling, these impurities become drawn out into fine longitu- dinal defects, sometimes involving an entire lamina, and sometimes in defects of less extent. As the masses of metal turned out from the furnaces increased in size, so the hammers and rolls required to deal with these masses had to be also increased in size and power, but yet these improvements did not meet the case in furnishing a metal free from the troubles named. Very much ingenuity how- ever was displayed in efforts to improve these tools so as to give a greater economy in the production and also greater freedom from the imperfections com- plained of. PROCEEDINGS. Ixvii As it is but a few years, not more than from 30 to 50 years, or less, since some of the more important of these inventions came intousefulness, it is diticult for us to realize how much they have contributed to possibilities that now seem tobe so easy of accomplishment. For a number of years after the art of rolling became known, only two rolls arranged one above the other were used, and in consequence the bar or sheet of metal, after passing through the rolls in one direction, had to be transferred again to the side from which it had passed through, in order to make another pass. This objectionable loss of time was overcome by arranging three rolls superposed, one above another, called three high rolls, and this permitted the passage of the bar or sheet of metal from either side between one pair of the three, no matter on which side the sheet or bar might happen to be. This arrangement not only saved time but caused the metal acted upon to be elonga- ted alternately frem each end instead of being acted upon always in one direc- tion. Another improvement was also made upon the rolls by which while the metal was receiving the effect of one pair of rolls in one direction another pair of rolls was at the same time acting upon it in a direction perpendicular to the plane of action of the initial pair. This principle was only applicable to the rolling of quarilateral or rectangular forms of cross section. But there was one serious defect which existed in and was absolutely insepar- able from all malleable iron which was fashioned into merchantable shapes by the rolling process, and that was the effect produced by the process of rolling upon iron which had been welded up in its mass in the process of production. The effect was, that there was organized and maintained by the rolling process a well defined fibrous structure of the metal, which, while it did not diminish its resistance in a direction parallel to the fibre, yet it very materially interfered with its strength in a direction at right angles to the fibre, and although for many purposes this did not so much matter, yet tnere were other uses in which this feature was a serious difficulty. This led to investigations with a view to obtain a homogenous metal, and it was easily comprelended, at this stage in the metal’s history, that this condition required that sucha metal should be produced by a process of fusion and pouring instead of by the method of welding thereto- fore practised. Several processes were devised with a view to obtain this much desired homogeneity: some proposed to decarbonize the molten pig iron by mixing with it as it poured from the furnace, powdered and highly oxidized ore, to operate in reducing the portion of carbon to such a small degree that its presence would not be objectionable, a proportion of one quarter of one per cent. having been found to be no serious objection unless the iron is required for smithing or welding purposes. At this stage it was proposed by Mr. Bessemer to put the mclten metal into a suitable vessel and blow air under pressure through the mass in order to burn up the carbon by admixture with oxygen ; other processes were made passible by the discovery by Mr. afterwards Sir Wm. Siemens, of a means of obtaining much more intense heat in furnaces by using the waste heat of a present conduct of operations to heat up a nest of refractory brickwork, through which in turn the Ixvill PROCEEDINGS. air for a continuation of the processes of the furnace is in succession drawn. The intense heat thus obtainable would have rendered possible the fusion of even the malleable iron, but in the progress of experimenting it was found that with this furnace a charge of metal could be kept in a state of fusion while tests of the constitution of its charge were being made, and the correct or desired result. having been thus reached, the whole charge could then be drawn off into ingots to be shaped into the desired shapes as required. This, with the further improve- ments in the method of Bessemer, principally the invention of Mr. Mushet, whereby the charge was suitably mixed with a certain kind of steely ore, very soon solved the problem of how to produce a homogenous iron, and the result is that today metal of the iron family can be obtained of every conceivable quality and capable of supplying the needs of the most exacting purposes. The value of this feature of homogeneity is one which it is scarcely possible to over estimate, and, having arrived at this most satisfactory stage of the history of the iron manufacture, we are now enabled to solve problems in the application of the metal to various uses, and the production of articles from it in ways that up to a comparatively recent period, would have been simply impossible.” SrxtH OrpivARyY MEETING, Church of England Institute, Halifax, 9th April, 1894. The PRESIDENT in the Chair. Inter alia, A paper was read by Dr. D. A. Campbell, entitled: ‘‘ General Considerations concerning Bacteria, with Notes on the Bacteriological Analysis of Water.” SEVENTH ORDINARY MEETING, Province Building, Halifax, 14th May, 1894. The PRESIDENT zn the Chair. Inter alia, The following papers were read :— “‘ Notice of a New Test for Antipyrine,’ by the President, Professor G. Lawson, Lu. D. “« Phenological Observations made at several Stations in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick during the year 1893,” compiled by A. H. McKay, Lu. D., Halifax. “¢ Note on a Sponge from Herring Cove,” by J. Somers, M. D. “‘ Notes on Nova Scotia Zoology, No. 3,” by Harry Piers. The following papers were read by title :— “‘ Notes on a Collection of Silurian Fossils from Cape George, Antigonish Co., N. S., with descriptions of three new species,” by Henry M. Ami, D. Sc., F. G.S. “‘ Notes on Sedimentary Formations on the Bay of Fundy Coast,” by R. W. Ells, Lu. D., &e. ‘« Additions to the Flora of Truro,” by Percy J. Smith. ‘Deep Mining in Nova Scotia,” by W. H. Prest. A. McKAY, Recording Secretary. Halifax, 19th May, 1894. ADDITIONS TO LIST OF MEMBERS AND EXCHANGE LIST. ]xix LIST OF MEMBERS ADMITTED TO THE INSTITUTE DURING THE SESSION, 1893-4. (For full list see p. xii of Part 1, p. xlv of Part 2, and p. liv of Part 3). ORDINARY MEMBERS. DATE OF ADMISSION. PANG ELSON is a) SULVCV OL sible Wiaixe mips crevtueuiel eve ts oroih, cele a) aisievele Seis Jan. 2, 1894. Austen, J. H., Deputy Crown Lands Commissioner, Halifax ...... Jan. 2, 1894. Fearon, J., Principal Deaf and Dumb Institution, Halifax........ May 8, 1894. NCCES Eee Sewn) SEN AUTEN: Sire csyeva1s = (cjeste siete a ran sreey exci steve Groeelieds May 8, 1894. Marshall, G. R., Principal Richmond School, Halifax ............/ April 4, 1894. Shawl, (Os doe fle WOU ib dt sete Aeeiinns tesla ean Oneran sc ACC eer ee eee May 8, 1894. Mremamer ens Oseb., Architects ilalitaxnrei. ccs cc. « ie cele oe eclee Jan. 2, 1894. CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. AMM, Jol, IMI, 1DS Stebs Uo (ein Shy Omeiwe, Wit ogaccanocouaobous soc Jan. 2, 1894, IOUS, TR, Wop Wit, IDSS 185 (CR Ss 2NGg 1S Tee Sh Cbs Ole, Ome Seno occ Jans ee OSA: LIST OF INSTITUTIONS TO WHICH COPIES OF PART 3 OF VOL. I OF SERIES 2 OF THE PROCEEDINGS AND TRANSACTIONS HAVE BEEN SENT. The Institutions mentioned on pp. xv-xxx of Part 1, xlv-xlvi of Part 2, and liv of Part 3, together with the following : Boston, Mass.—The Society of Arts, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Berkeley, Cal.—The General Library of tne University of California. Chicago, Il].—Western Society of Engineers. Cardiff, G. B.—South Wales Institute of Engineers. Cincinnatti, O.—The Observatory, University of Cincinnatti. Denver, Col.—International Mining and Industrial Exposition. Geelong, Australia—The Museum, Gordon Technical College. Hampton, Va.—The Hampton Agricultural Institute. Helena, Montana.— Montana Society of Civil Engineers. Kingston, Ont.—The Library, Queens University. Ii) | ta] | id Wo) 5 y 4 = | oe | oe aes |S = et f= = a ea ee) ra le et | wo1yetodvaa Jo yvel] [V}OL, ec C= | ca et re Cl tol cc ce al a Cal i: re | iy = Lael * : iF iv 2) 4 c . (va) en} tl iis} a ive) H t~ D Yer} for) fen) ~ = > We} toa ito nN i (oS |= Jk Soop esopoeoanon f 1D % =H + Slo] ad | m nq a | & = S|] Ss > | od D ainypesed Way, oF oo | oD | of Gey || Ge || Gels || Ge) or) Ber |) Ge) co oo | co | oD nN aN | N CZI |OZI |STI |O1l | GOI | O01 | SG} 06 | gg | 08} gL | OL GO| S00 80" 1095). GR OR Ne ee a a ne anUns Aq wroejs jo ornssoalg IIT —ANALYSES OF Nova Scotia CoALS AND OTHER MINERALS. —By E. GIbpin, Jr., A.M., F.G.S., Inspector oF MINES, Etc. (Read March 9th, 1891.) The following analyses, for the most part hitherto unpublished, may be interesting for comparison. They have been made by the writer, and may be considered as representing fair averages. The value of proximate analyses for commercial purposes has certain limits. By its means, in a properly averaged sample representing a bed of coal, the amount of moisture, of ash, and of sulphur, can be determined. The estimations of the amounts of volatile matter, and of fixed carbon, vary with the time of heating, amount of heat, bulk of sample, etc., so that they can be regarded only as approximate. For the same reasons, the gas values of coals are not satisfactorily determined in the laboratory by this method of analysis. The quality of the coke as left in the crucible after determination of volatile combustible matter, is not always found to correspond with that obtained in practice. The time and cost of ultimate analyses of coal have prevented their adoption for general commercial purposes, and their value may be based principally upon the view, that as they give the total percentage of carbon present in the coals, they are in accord with the idea that the ultimate evaporative power of a coal is in direct proportion to the amount of carbon it contains. The determinations of sulphur and ash by proximate analysis are equally valuable for ordinary purposes. It is remarkable that more attention is not paid by purchasers to the composition and comparative values of the fuels offered to them. The slight differences in prices which are sometimes allowed for coals generally acknowledged to be of lower grade are in many cases disproportionate to the differences really existing. To manufacturers, and other large consumers, the study of this matter would prove a considerable item of profit in balancing cost sheets. (19) 20 NOVA SCOTIA COALS AND OTHER MINERALS—GILPIN. In every metallurgical business ores are bought by the per- centage of metal they contain, limits are fixed for the impurities, and within these limits the amount to be deducted from the value of the metal varies. Thus, two coals, showing respectively Combustible matters. (4.4% - 92.00 92.00 Water 72 ee ee 50 2.50 Sulphiee ae TE THE ae We 50 50 Ash Se OT Math. RE Ea 7.00 5.00 will not have the same values as fuels, nor equal adaptability for many metallurgical purposes. Now, assuming the amount of combustible matter to be suited to the purposes of the purchaser, and he wishes to make gas for lighting, the first fuel is worth more to him than the second; while to the purchaser for domes- tic purposes, the lessened amount of ash in the second coal would outweigh the amount of moisture he would have to purchase with it. 1. Coal from the Victoria Colliery of the Low Point, Barasois, and Lingan Mining Company. Coal bright and compact, breaking into elongated blocks, and blocks having a cubical fracture. The deposition planes are well marked, and carry a good deal of mineral charcoal, and some of the primary planes have films of calespar. Pyrites is sometimes visible in the deposition planes, and occasionally is presented in small nodules. The average specific gravity of the coal is about 1.3. Composition : Slow Coking. Fast Coking. Moisture tay Acie @ is WOT eI A vp Volat. Comb. matter..... Pathe 26.85 S25 Fixed taxoon ¢, BYVIG 8 . EPP IUNosHS 62.85 Aah, PINE OF, HOUR Si liaddad 4.27 100.00 100.00 Sulphurstismieies soa: bfx 1.286 Theoretical evaporative power .. 9.3 8.6 NOVA SCOTIA COALS AND OTHER MINERALS—GILPIN. Pall From the above figures the coal is evidently of excellent quality, and should be found a good steam coal. Its per- centage of volatile matter and moisture are lower than is usual in coals from this district, and approach those characterising the typical steam coals of the United States. The coal yielded during analysis a bright and fairly compact coke, and in prac- tice would probably yield a merchantable article of good quality. 2. Coal from the Sydney main seam of the General Mining Association (Sydney Mines.) This seam is considered the equivalent of the Victoria seam, referred to in Analysis No.1. The actual connection has not yet been proved, although the levels of the Sydney Mines are being rapidly extended toward it under the harbor. The coal is bright, and fairly compact, breaking irregularly. It shows little visible pyrites and spar. By fast and by slow coking the following results were obtained :— Slow Coking. Fast Coking.. MOIS Maes = chovan ia ots ove br. 420 ‘420. Volatile combustible matter.... 34°962 a1 LO owed Carpi cca. scene es See Oe 57°845 / 3S ng amines 2 ROR A Ao Bate ainda aR a te AGG A625 100-000 ~ 100-000 Ub UP terete. te witless ai tarptete, =i 95 95 As compared with the analysis from the Victoria seam coal, it is decidedly more bituminous, and contains less sulphur. From its behaviour under analysis it should in practice yield a good volume of illuminating gas, of a fair candle power. The coals are alike in their moisture and ash contents. The coal yielded a bright and coherent coke. In practice, small amounts of coke are burned at this mine in beehive ovens, and the article produced is of good quality, which would be improved if its manufacture were carried on continuously. I put here, side by side, two analyses of the ash of these coals, 22 NOVA SCOTIA COALS AND OTHER MINERALS—GILPIN. one made by me some years ago, the other made by the late Dr. How: Victoria. Sydney. tron peroxide jaca. ssa es A Ea i LOLS By heats: ATUIMING, 2 davsys « picasa caer orcas ee OO 4.84 Insoluble-mesidue..«a.r.e aeneiee 27.500 29.50 Manpamese ini os be ets; cence ey SOOO sips 5 MB ONCSIA iors sa cna hee eyes te) Ue) .23 Pi ieee Set SNS Seti aa eels) 3.05 Time Sulphate sige afyo opis, tteyen: 10.98 SHU MUIIC NCIC oar a a ech ee) 3st OU =aters Phosphorie: Acid) o.. «a.tes = eS en oe) Trace. FRINGES Faia ape ge 0h jess aga caliente ihe ee) Trace. Wilorine sg. sae niche cys eto, = erglone Bis Trace. 99.693 100.00 3. Coal from Mabou, Inverness County. This coal was regarded as an Anthracite. I am not aware of the age of the rocks it occurs in. Color black, and lustrous. Breaks with uneven fracture into irregular shaped pieces. In the fire kindles slowly, and burns without flame, yielding a fair heat. The ashes left is white, and retains the shape of the orig- inal piece as put on the fire. On analysis, it yielded: Volatile matter... 002 oe6s OG Roa ee 2.73 Fixed Carbon:....... Rares ee ae so 43. Tal Ash andar. eet. anv. titles gelpciticed —beaae SOLU: eel BIL ere bnige: Beier neta: stave bEaee 100.00 From its composition and its behaviour in the fire, it may be classified as a highly carbonaceous shale. A similar mineral found at Lepreaux, near St. John, New Brunswick, was analysed by me some years ago, and proved to contain an amount of ash nearly equal to that of the Mabou sample. As the percentage of ash in an ordinary commercial NOVA SCOTIA COALS AND OTHER MINERALS—GILPIN. 25 Anthracite of fair quality should not exceed 10 per centum, it will be seen that these deposits are far below the standard. Cumberland County Coals. The following analyses are of samples of coal from seams opened out recently by Mr. E. Sharp, and others, of Amherst, at Stanley, a short distance east of the Styles’ mine. The samples were all from the crop, and more or less covered with clay. 4. Sample No. 1, marked from “North” Seam. Hard and compact, breaking with a cubical fracture; color black, with a bright lustre; no visible pyrites, and no mineral charcoal on deposition planes. Its composition was: J: OST EEN IR Cees eit ae ee rs a a Herne 2.35 Volatie combustible matter..:.......... 35.56 BUEMEO NCAT AOI ec ovis, ate apn bie eye See he LShasa soeoO PNG rae hoe ssn te Re Ce SS Men eel geass 8.43 100.00 SUING Starter olse AR eee tehamret ¢ 52 Coke moderately compact by fast coking. Sample kindled readily, and burned with a long white flame, and gave a moderate amount of smoke. 5. Sample No. 2. Marked “ Bottle-Glass” Seam. Coal fairly compact, hard, and breaking with a conchoidal fracture ; color black and lustrous, with a few thin, dull layers ; streak black. A few visible crystals of pyrites and a little min- eral charcoal. The partings held a few films of rusted calcic carbonate. Composition : MiGisinaner 7 Patties. Vidic MAUR ere rary cals ert 3.82 Volatile combustible matter...:2.........- 30.15 PECAN WMI Riki zo ore acacs oA eis ti eter.es aus sca 56.13 7ST URES 2 iho REN PORTS 1 be vee RS 9.90 100.00 SUMING oasis han ove ase iat Seed Lier 15 Coke slightly coherent by fast coking; sample ignited readily and burned with a moderate amount of smoke. 24. NOVA SCOTIA COALS AND OTHER MINERALS—GILPIN. 6. Sample No.3. Marked “Canneloid Coal from upper part of Eight-feet Seam.” Coal hard and compact, with cubical fracture; color dull black, with brownish-black streak. Burned with clear white flame, and left an ash equal in bulk to the original fuel. It yielded : Volatile matter, fost acco aes ees Reena 36.50 J aerial te lan cee dite. Senet oto Se Rigen 63.50 100.00 This composition represents a moderate amount of volatile combustible matter. 7. Sample No. 4, marked “Bench of Eight Feet Seam.” Coal fairly bright and compact, fracture uneven; a little mineral charcoal and a little visible pyrites. Composition : INNO RS GUE, «c).ushaicls vans Geom Ase eceeeee ed eee 4.10 Volatile combustible matters)..4.3).0:.% 29.85 Fisedscar bonyyifos: tacts ok. doaeaelaaees 59.13 INGO: 5: taatte baritone caerat aches aie oped Sere acer 6.92 100.00 Sulphur le oe%.,. Rel. OAS 7, aed 1.25 Coal burned readily with good flame. 8. Jogems Main Seam. Coal bright and lustrous, breaking with little dust and a cubical fracture. The planes hold a few films of calespar and pyrites. A sample representing both benches yielded : Slow Coking. Fast Coking. IMIGISUBOR A COLI s9 yeh nn tee, Ma ntenche 1.115 I eg i WS, Volatile combustible matter..... 32.582 34.050 Fixed! carbon i... Se. ware ce 2 oe 60013 58565 Ashe. eee pel che sl eee es Oe 6.290 100.000 100.000 Sulphur: . AG. 1 Ta aes 1.25 1.25 NOVA SCOTIA COALS AND OTHER MINERALS—GILPIN. 25 Some years ago, in a paper read before the Montreal meeting of the British Association for the advancement of Scienée, I gave the average composition of the coals of the Cumberland coal field as folllows: Moisture is..2 2. oh Fixed carbon ..... INGE ak ty eons casnayt 8 8) 0 se .0 Cech Sy tay ec ee ee ee oe e ee ee 1.46 33.69 59.35 5.50 100.00 From this it will be seen that the seams of coal represented by the analyses given in this paper compare favorably with the average. 9. Magnetic Iron Ore, from Kemptville. Miletele Ol. a: Boe Ae oo beh eehets oe Silicious matter... ore ee ee Sulphur and Phosphorus .. The ore is said to occur in a vein three feet wide. eee ee ee ove) 6 @ 6 58.20 11.50 Traces. 10. Sample of Red Hematite from Greener Mine, George’s River, Cape Breton County. Vein said to be from six to nine feet wide, and is situated on high ground, near deep water on the Bras D’or Lake. As will be seen from this analysis, the ore is of excellent quality. The rock in which it is found is, I believe, of Lower The slates, ete., composing this horizon are in this full of finely disseminated peroxide of iron. 1) Cone 9 ey ae eo irontomide...... °.. Silicious and clayey matter | LIONS eae ene Siena Miomesia.. 2... 2. Phosphoric Acid... SuiljohT 3. --07,< 050,6 Silurian age. locality very 1.10 89.30 7.82 67 .20 Trace. DEES 26 NOVA SCOTIA COALS AND OTHER MINERALS—GILPIN. Metallic Irony ..2:. 8. a Risvece Glows ied hep t veges 62.50 PROS PN OTUS acc cost aiatk> aratueule em We 09 STUD gh ya sph araie ining hago atic devel nheys ouated Trace. 11. Manganese Ores, Walton. Soft Black Ore. Manganese (available oxide)......-....«.- . 90.15 Iron Oxidesss 2.28% Te eA ee ere, § ‘yen BB ATNSCER ya ars foe Sea et ieee ee Sine Gene sl eae 1.12 Ministre’... 63.55 65, cn oboe SE ee Ue My (U5. SINGS gt yieg Sees es eee ET Re 2.80 Phosphoric gscrds 7. Lua fec sence ge tee aes 5, pele Lime Carbonate ....... ee DARD Ses sgvecue areal 99.69 Hard Brown Ore. Manganese Oxides..... he afisc ce Blea ona arene 85.54 Tron, OxiGG". 2s 22 as Mae eae 5.6 oy situa ie: od amen IDGVGCS eras aces cdae te eal eset ee So 89 rill KG eee practi ee ae Sb sas 0600S Phosphoric yAeid -,c...ch preys? atidedee ht eee ‘ies beeen Moisture ../:.. ehalbie eee Bite ce Aang cede etl ase 99.76 12. Sample of Limestone, Pictou County. Warboudbe Or tMe., 2. cat cain ater 85.25 SU CLOUS Maer a5.20.4nai a © s se ehas rae hers 60 Re SU on wena arson de 5 te bude Jaks elated eet nee 95 SID 9) 01s hearer oe aie oot a cgheapcucaiet mars Trace. Phosphorus’ ..t 0.8" "seen nett ta eee Bets 2) 5 20) 1 ctl aA PRE SRS Be EOLA: al Mati canes t.020c87t nutes fee ees eee wee enced ee Afionesia Se ei yar SAO AUR Bcc nee Aone: Yee. ee at Prater ate L753 | 100.00 The limestone may be considered as of fair quality, and adapted for use in the process of iron smelting. TV.—REMARKS UPON THE COATING OF IRON WITH MAGNETIC OXIDE, AND A SUGGESTION OF A PROBABLY NEw METHOD OF PRODUCING IT—By JOHN FORBES. (Read February 9th, 1891.) In the production of articles of metal, it is frequently desirable ‘that the condition or color of the surface be changed, sometimes -as a matter of taste, the natural color of the metal not comport- ing with its associations, or with its purposed use; sometimes -as a protection of the article from deterioration by natural oxi- dation, and, in some eases, with both of these aims in view. Often the surfaces of such articles are intentionally oxidized, and a more uniform and more durable, as well as a more beauti- ful, oxidation, produced by the artificial means, than that which would result if Nature were left to do the work herself in the ordinary course of wear or of exposure. Silver articles are frequently artificially coated with a film of sulphuret of silver, which, while being of a more even character both in constitution and color, is also more tasteful and probably more durable than a natural result would produce. Tin and zine articles frequently have their surfaces treated in ‘such a manner as to produce a crystalline effect, which is pre- ‘served by a thin covering of lacquer, giving a better and more durable effect than if left to the natural action of the atmosphere -or other causes. Copper, after being polished, is made darker, and the natural metallic lustre and redness changed to a dark chocolate color, the ‘surface being thus improved and made more durable. Iron is frequently covered with tin or zinc, by being dipped ‘(after proper preparation of its surface) into a melted bath of “one of those metals. Steel and iron articles are also frequently treated in such a manner as to produce upon them a thin scale or film of magnetic oxide, Fe,O,, which, being a different degree of oxidation than (27) 28 COATING OF IRON OR STEEL—FORBES. would naturally occur, and not much (if at all) acted upon by a damp atmosphere, makes a fairly durable finish for such articles, and resists natural changes in a generally satisfactory manner. Sometimes the artizan, wishing to produce this kind of surface in an expeditious manner, upon an article of steel or iron, will heat the article to a proper degree, and then smear upon it some heavy oil or fat, after which he will continue the heating for a while longer, and thus in a sort of impromptu manner obtain a surface which will resist natural oxidation from exposure to the weather, for a moderate length of time, fairly well. The exact effect of this rough-and-ready process is, probably, that a very thin film of superoxidation by heat is obtained, and, in addition to that, a shght carbonization of the surface, by the burning thereon of the greasy matter with which it had been smeared, and also a filling up of the minute surface-cells-of the metal, by the same agent, which becomes hardened by the heat into a more or less durable varnish. Contrasts in color between different parts of imstruments or machines, of iron and steel, and giving very tasteful effects, are produced by simply carrying the oxidation and resulting dis- coloration to different degrees in the several parts treated. The ranges of color obtainable by proper manipulation and treatment being all the way between that of the brilliancy of the natural and polished surface, through the several tints of pale straw, light, dark, and reddish brown, and purple, to blue, of a very beautiful and agreeable tint, and this without sacrificing much of the brilhancy of the originally finished or polished surface. The extremely thin films of oxidation thus produced do not, however, possess much durability, and a moderate amount of rubbing, or wear, suffices to remove it, and exposes anew the natural color and surface of the metal. But if, instead of stopping the operation at this stage just named, we continue the treatment, increasing the heat, with a free access of a suitable oxidizing agent, a considerable coating of the superoxidation may be obtained, and the utility of the treatment as a means of protecting the article from natural deterioration greatly improved. bo COATING OF IRON OR STEEL—FORBES. 9 The treatment thus extended results in a much darker color, approaching very nearly to a black, and where it is intended to produce this kind of a finish, the surface need not be carefully polished beforehand, a smooth and even surface, (with, however, a full exposure of the clear metal), being all that is needed, as the surface after treatment presents a fine granular character, quite pleasing to the eye, but without polish, even though it may have been polished previous to treatinent. It is, however, necessary in order to obtain good results, that the suface be made clean, so that free action of the oxidizing agent may not be interfered with. The extent of the treatment, and consequent depth of the scale formed, must of course be modified to suit the purposes for which the articles treated are intended to be used. This kind of coating, as a preventive from further oxida- tion, has engaged the attention of scientific men, and several methods have been proposed for producing it. About fourteen years ago, Prof. Barff, of some part of England, devised a method of submitting the articles to be treated to the action of steam, the articles having been raised to a suitable de- gree of heat in a muffle, the steam was then admitted, and becoming decomposed, the oxygen combined with the iron, and the hydrogen was enabled to escape by a suitable exit pipe. At first this method was not quite successful, because although the desired oxidation was obtained, yet it was not satisfactory because it did not stick to the iron, but was formed in minute scales that were easily detached. This was afterwards remedied by using superheated steam and quite satisfactory results were then obtained, and the articles so treated present a very nice ap- pearance. The method, however, requires a properly erected apparatus, at a considerable outlay, for its accomplishment. A short time after Prof. Barff’s method was introduced, another method of accomplishing the result was invented by a Mr. Bower, of England. Mr. Bower’s method consisted in subjecting the suitably heated articles, they being also enclosed, to the action of hot air—the supply of air being renewed from time to time as it became deoxidized, and fresh supplies introduced into the cham- 9 50 COATING OF IRON OR STEEL—FORBES. ber until the desired depth of coating was obtained. This method. also requires considerable preparation in the way of suitably arranged facilities for its execution. T now beg to explain a method which I have had occasion to: use, Which I have not found suggested by any authority with which I am acquainted, and which may have a field of adapta- bility in cases where an expeditious or rough and ready way of producing such a coating upon iron and steel articles is desirable, The method consists in enclosing the articles in a sheet iron box, imbedding them in some suitable supporting material which will not absorb oxygen, say blacksmith’s scale, or gravel, or sand, and mixing with the contents of the box some substance which will give off oxygen when heated. After some consideration I conjectured that Black Oxide of Manganese, MnO: would be a suitable agent, and upon experi- menting was pleased to find my anticipation correct, and after a few trials succeeded in obtaining results which for the desired purpose seemed fairly satisfactory. We found that the thickness of the coating may be increased to an appreciable degree; the colour is quite good and uniform, and the adherent qualities generally satisfactory. We discovered that the quality of the peroxide of manganese was important, and suffered disappointment in endeavoring to use some that was not adapted to the purpose. It should be of a good, deep black color, aad decidedly granular. That which disappolnted us was of a somewhat brown tinge, and dusty. It may be interesting to state, that after finding our plan to succeed, we thought we would try the mixing of some other agent with the MnO,, and so mixed a little chlorate of potash with the oxide of manganese. The result was quite unsatisfac- tory,—in some cases sticking to the surface, and in others causing the resulting oxidation to be non-adherent, and dropping off in large plates as soon as handled. It is probable that the process as we have hitherto practised it may be improved, as we have only made use of the same applances, furnaces, etc., that we have used for other purposes in connection with our business. It is, however, in this ready-to-hand feature that the chief utility of the method probably consists. V.—THE MAGDALENE ISLANDS—BY THE REV. GEORGE PATTER- Sone De (hv R Ss: C: (Read January 19th, 1891.) The Magdalene Islands are situated nearly in the centre of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. They stretch irregularly in a north- east and southwest direction between lat. 47° 12’ and 47° 51’ N., and between long. 61° 11’ and 62°15’ W., thus extending a distance of about 57 miles at their greatest length, and about 14 at their greatest breadth. The most southern point lies about 50 miles from the east point of P. E. Island, about 60 from Cape North in Cape Breton, and 150 from Gaspe, while the most northeast- wardly is only 70 miles from Cape Anguille in Newfoundland, and 85 from the east cape of Anticosti. They thus lie in the very track of the commerce of the gulf and river St. Lawrence. It will thus be seen that they are in the same latitude as the southern parts of Newfoundland, the northern counties of New Brunswick, or those counties of the Province of Quebec below the city. But their climate is cooler in summer, and milder and more variable in winter, than that of the two last, and on the other hand, more severe in winter, and drier and milder in sum- mer, than that of the first. It is comparatively free from the fogs so prevalent on our Atlantic coast. My experience of the summer is that the climate at that season is delightful, the fiercest heat of a July sun being tempered by an air from the surrounding waters. A medical gentleman whom I met on the islands, who had spent part of two summers there, spoke in the highest terms of their summer climate, and recommended them as just the place for those who wished to rest and recuperate. In winter the thermometer does not fall as low as in the Pro- vince of Quebec, but from the dampness, the cold will be felt as keenly. Then all the harbors and bays are frozen over, and the islanders with their hardy ponies can easily pass from one island to another, the whole length of the group (except it may be to (31) 32 THE MAGDALENE ISLANDS—PATTERSON. the outlying islets), while from the shore the ice extends for miles, sometimes in level fields, at other times piled in irregular masses. This presents one of the principal inconveniences of the inhabitants. For nearly five months of the year they are shut out from all intercourse with the world except by telegraph. On approaching the islands from any direction the first ap- pearance they present is that of a range of rounded hills. As we draw nearer the outline becomes more distinct. They are generally hummocky in shape, sometimes forming sharp cones, at others being rounded or flattened on top, or somewhat of a beehive shape. Approaching still closer, we see steep cliffs of red, grey, or brown freestone, and pleased with their variety of hue and shape, we may be impressed almost to awe by their grandeur as we realize their height of one, two, three, or in one instance, four hundred feet, while at their feet the waves beat with ceaseless roar and untiring energy. Then, first as a dim haze on the horizon, but afterward more distinctly, the voyager may trace some sand beach (one is twenty-two miles long), with its dunes of blown sand, forty, sixty, and sometimes, I thought, a hundred feet high. Finally, as one draws near the land, there are seen on the slopes of the hills, toward the shore, clusters of small white cottages, with other buildings, forming the centre of a fishing industry. These buildings are not placed so close to- gether as to form a village, as that term is understood among us, but they are nearer than is usual in our farming settlements. Wherever a voyager lands, his attention will be arrested stages by the various appliances for conducting the fishery for drying fish, and a vat for trying out seal blubber, perhaps nets spread out to dry, lobster traps, with many sights, and, we must add, smells, which we must pass over for the present. But leave the shore, and almost anywhere the beauty of the scenery will arrest attention. If the day is fine, ascend to higher ground, and at almost any point you can scarcely fail to behold a scene, in the contemplation of which, if you are a lover of nature, you will for the time fairly revel, and of which you will carry away delighted remembrances. Before you, and from some positions on either side, stretches the mighty ocean, its surface THE MAGDALENE ISLANDS—PATTERSON. 53 unbroken, except by some passing sail, looking in the distance “like wing of wild bird,” as we saw it, calm and resplendent under a July sun, even then, however, giving you the idea of a quiet consciousness of reserved power—but soon it may be roused by the tempest to display its awful majesty and irresistible might, In the nearer view the land stretches out in cliffs of varied hue, which are said to resemble those of the Channel Islands, or in long ranges of sand dunes, while often the tints on sea and sky are so beautiful, that travellers have pronounced them such as they have only seen among the islands of the Egean or in the fairest spots of the sunny south. Below you lies some cove or bay, on whose surface may be seen small vessels and boats, in whicn the hardy fishermen pursue their avocations; around you are many sunny slopes or verdant valleys, thickly dotted with the homes of the inhabitants, suggestive of all the scenes of rural life, while in the rear the view is bounded by a higher range of hills of a rich dark green from the stunted spruce and fir, which are now almost the only trees upon the islands. And all so quiet, perhaps no sound being heard, unless you are near enough to catch the low melancholy murmur of the waves in their ceaseless beat upon the shore. Such is the scene which in the long sum- mer day may be seen at any point in the Magdalene Islands, as is so often seen in God’s works, the same in general features, endlessly diversified in details. If, however, you are of a more practical turn. and have come with the idea commonly entertained regarding these islands, you will be delighted and surprised to fiud them possessing a soil un- surpassed in fertility in these Eastern Provinces. It is a deep, sandy loam, free from stones, easily worked, and under any proper system of agriculture it would yield abundantly all the cereals, grasses and vegetables of the temperate zone. But any observer of the works of God in nature cannot pass among these islands, without being struck by the exhibition here seen of the working of those agencies, by which the land is covered by the sea, and again the sea turned into dry land. Westward the rocks are a dark red sandstone, as I judge the continuation of the new red sandstone of P. E. Island. These 3 34 THE MAGDALENE ISLANDS—PATTERSON. are very soft. So easily are they disintegrated by the influence of air and water that 1 have scraped two inches in thickness off the seaward side of them. The sea is thus rapidly wearing them away, but not them only. On the western side of Grind- stone Island they are succeeded by harder rocks of the carboni- ferous formation, which extend eastward and northward the whole length of the group. These, which are mostly sandstones, varying in hue from a light grey to a dark umbery brown, pre- sent little more resistance to the power of the disintegrating agencies at work. One cannot walk along the shore without seeing how the cliffs are fallmg down, and how the fragments are being rolled and rubbed together and ground by the waves. On the land one observes how it has become necessary that the road along the bank should be removed farther imland, or how fields are being gradually diminished. Of the same process a sadder evidence is to be found in the reefs and shoals, which ex- tend from the shore in various directions, once the foundation of the land, but now having the soil and so much of the rock removed by the power of the waves that they form shallows dangerous to navigation. On the other hand from material thus removed fiom the shore or brought down by the rain, bogs and saline marshes are being formed, and lagoons and bays filled up, slowly if we reckon by human life, rapidly if we reckon by geo- logical eras. Men not very old will show where they saw brigs built and loaded, where now you could easily wade across. And your own eye can see how the sea is forming and broadening beaches of gravel or sand, or the wind blowing it into hills. As you walk along these beaches you see how soil is being gradually formed upon them, and how they are becoming occupied by var- ious kinds of vegetation. In this way in the inner reaches among the islands are formed along their shores extensive tracts of marsh and swamp, inter- sected by lagoons or shallow lakes, the larger of which it is said once admitted vessels by channels which have since closed up. Much of these marshes could, with a little effort, be converted into valuable meadow. They, as well as the sand beaches, are covered with coarse grass which the inhabitants cut for feeding THE MAGDALENE ISLANDS—PATTERSON. 35 their cattle, or on which they pasture them in summer. Other portions at present cannot be reclaimed or rendered tillable, but yield large quantities of berries, particularly cranberries, which are quite an article of export. From the situation of these islands, as deseribed, it will be seen that they are right in the track of the trade of the Gulf and the River St. Lawrence, and from their structure as now indicated, but in addition from currents unexpectedly encoun- tered, and of which the causes are scarcely understood, they have been noted as the scene of shipwrecks. Even vessels going by the Straits of Belle Isle have been driven upon them, while those on board imagined themselves at quite a safe distance. If Sable Island has been known as the Graveyard of the Atlantic, with equal, if not greater propriety, may the Magdalenes be called the Graveyard of the St. Lawrence. Not only have such sad events been more numerous; they have, as a general rule, been more destructive of human life. On Sable Island, as I am informed by one who resided on it for seven years, vessels when they strike usually become embedded in the sand, and generally do not break up for two or three days, so that if those on board would remain they might escape, when by attempting to leave they are lost. But at the Magdalenes, vessels may strike upon the rocks and rapidly go to pieces, or may strike on a reef at some distance from the shore, and after being battered upon it, be carried over it to be engulfed in deep water, while in either cases, a few fragments driven to land may be all that remains to tell the tale. Often have vessels left Quebec in the fall and some wreckage found on these shores give the only hint ever received of their fate. They also often prove fatal to the small vessels of the inhabi- tants or that are engaged in fishing or trading among them. In rough weather the sea rises very quickly and the waves are very dangerous, not because they are so high, but because they are short and steep. As they approach the shore in huge combers, owing to the shallowness of the water and the under- tow, they break on the reefs which in so many places encircle it, or beat upon the sand dunes or cliffs with irresistible force. 36 THE MAGDALENE ISLANDS—PATTERSON. ‘Then, there is no good harbor in the whole group, and vessels dodge round for shelter under the land. But a sudden change of wind may convert a safe lee into the means of their destruction. Thus, in the great gale of August, 1873, a number of American fishing vessels had taken refuge in Pleasant Bay, when the wind veered round to the eastward, and in an hour thirty- three of them were ashore, it might be said on top of one another, and all were totally wrecked. Of such events one sees memorials wherever he goes among these islands. Walk along the beaches, and you will see here pieces of ship plank or timber, or it may be part of a gallant mast, there the remains of some old hull, or again, what seems more wierd and ghastly, a row of the ends of ship timbers, like ribs of a skeleton, projecting above the sand, which has closed round the lower parts of the hull; or, enter the dwellings of the inhabitants, and perhaps you will find pieces of furniture which had belonged to a ship’s cabin, or articles that on enquiry you will be told came from some wreck; and in the construction of their buildings you may see old ship’s timbers or deals of their cargo. More touching is it still to see the monuments erected by friends in far away lands to mark the resting place of loved ones who had been east lifeless upon these shores, or the untended graves of the unknown strangers, each somebody’s son, and leaving we know not what friends to mourn the loss of those whose fate they will never learn in this world. Provision is made against the occurrence of such disasters, by lighthouses at the most prominent points, and by a telegraph line the whole length of the islands. But still shipwrecks are occurring. The autumn after my visit an Italian barque went ashore in Pleasant Bay, when those on board supposed they were twenty miles distant from the islands; and the summer following, a vessel from Rio Janeiro, bound for Bay Chaleur, struck on Bryon island and became a total wreck. It must be observed, however, that there is no lifeboat system here, such as is established on the exposed places of the coasts of Britain and the United States. Whether such, if introduced here, could be THE MAGDALENE ISLANDS—PATTERSON. 37 made available to avert such disasters, I cannot undertake to determine. These islands were first discovered by Jacque Cartier on his first voyage in 1534, On the 24th June, leaving a cape in New- foundland, which he had named Cape St. John, but now known as Cape Anguille, he sailed north-westwardly, and the next day came to two small islands, from the description the Bird Rocks of to-day. Five leagues farther to the west he found another island five leagues in length, by half as much in breadth, which he named Bryon Island, a name which it still retains, though sometimes written Byron Island. He continued his course south-westwardly among the islands, and was much pleased with their fertility. He describes them as full of beautiful trees, woods, pleasant meadows covered with spring flowers, and hav- ing large fertile tracts of lands interspersed with great swamps. This description would almost seem to indicate that there had been already cultivation. He says that along the shores were many sea monsters, with two large tusks in the mouth, like ele- phants. This would seem to show that up to this time he was unacquainted with the walrus. No mention is made of inhabitants, and none of the Indian tribes seemed to have permanently occupied them, though the Micmacs had a name for them, showing their acquaintance with them, and that they probably sometimes visited them in summer. Probably, however, even before this, and certainly from that time forward, they were visited by the hardy Breton and Basque fishermen in the prosecution of their industry. But we find no particular mention of them in the narratives of the time, and there seems to have been no attempt at settlement upon them till the year 1663, when the company of New France granted the islands to Sieur Francois Doublet, a ship captain of Honfleur. In the following years he associated with him. for the purpose of carrying on a fishing and trading speculation, Francois Gon de (Juimee and Claude de Landemare, to whom he transferred one- fourth of his rights. But still there does not seem to have been any attempt at settlement. Fishermen came from France in spring, and after spending the summer in the prosecution of their 38 THE MAGDALENE ISLANDS—PATTERSON. industry, returned home with the produce of their labor. And the islands seem to have reverted to the French government, for Charlevoix states that in 1719 the king, at the instance of the Duchess of Orleans, ceded them to the Compte de St. Pierre. The first settlement is said to have been made in the year 1757 by four families named Boudreault, Chaisson, LaPierre and Cormier, who came from St. Peter’s Bay in Prince Edward Island. In the year 1763 the islands passed with the rest of New France under the British government. At that time they were said to have had but ten families resident upon them, who were engaged in walrus and seal hunting, and toa small extent in the herring and cod fishery. About this time Mr. Gridley, described in one place as an English retired officer, in another as an Ameri- can skipper, formed an establishment at Amherst Island for the purposes of trading, and especially of carrying on upon a large scale the hunting of the walrus and the seal. He encouraged others of the Acadians to remove hither, so that the population received a number of accessions from this source, and their descendants now form the large majority of the inhabitants, and retain the language, habits and religion of the parent country: But it may be observed that, though they have always been under the government of the Province of Canada or Quebec, their associations are all with their brethren in the maritime provinces. At this time the hunting of the walrus was considered as second in importance only to that of the whale. The oil brought a good price, the skin was valued as forming an exceedingly tough leather, and the tusks were of the very best ivory. McGregor in his history of British America says: “These animals are fond of being in herds, and their affection for each other is very apparent. The form of the body and of the head, with the exception of the nose being broader, and having two tusks from fifteen inches to two feet long in the lower jaw, is not very unlike that of a seal. A full grown walrus will weigh at least 4,000 pounds. The skins are valuable, being about an inch in thick- ness, astonishingly tough, and the Acadian French used to cut THE MAGDALENE ISLANDS—PATTERSON. 39 them into strips for traces and other purposes. The flesh is tough, hard and greasy, and not much relished even by the Eskimos. They will attack a small boat merely through wanton- ness; and as they generally attempt to stave it are extremely dangerous. Their blazing eyes and their tusks give them a for- midable appearance, but unless wounded or one of their number be killed, they do not seem ever to intend hurting the men. About forty years ago,* a crew of Acadian Frenchmen, in a schooner from Prince Edward Island, caught and killed a young walrus in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. A little time after, as one of the men was skinning it in the boat along side the vessel, an old walrus rose, and got hold of the man between the tusks and forefins, or flippers, and plunged down under water with him, and afterward showed itself three or four times with the unfor- tunate man in the same position before it disappeared altogether.” Mr. McGregor says that the last incident was well known, and was several times related to him by a brother of the unfortunate man, who was on board the schooner at the time. I had more than once read the story, and when I mentioned it at my board- ing-house on the Magdalene Islands, mine host at once replied, “O yes, it’s quite true; the man was my grandfather’s brother. He had killed the calf, and she singled him out from the rest of the crew.” ee There was thus some danger in pursuing them in the open sea. But they were in the habit of coming in herds upon the beach or of passing over into the shallow lagoons inside. Their order of march was in single file, and they were said at times to enter some distance into the woods. Even yet a place is known as the Sea-cow’s (vache de marine) Path. The first effort of the hunters was to get them on shore, and then to urge them forward till they got them a sufficient distance from the water. It is said that for this purpose they would get behind them on a dark night and give the hindmost a prod with a sharp pole. This urged him forward, but, it is said, led him to give his immediate predecessor a similar stimulus, who passed the compliment to the * Written about 1834. 40 THE MAGDALENE ISLANDS—PATTERSON. next, till it reached the end of the line. Away from the water they were comparatively helpless, and fell an easy prey. From the number of tusks that have been found, I am inclined to believe that for some time they were not valued as an article of trade. Some time ago a trader on the islands offered to pur- chase from the people all that they could bring to him. The result was that he collected quantities, it is said some tons, which he exported. They are still occasionally found, as the beaches are moved by sea and storm, and are used by the inhabitants as inarlingspikes, or cut up for various purposes about their houses or their vessels. During the American revolutionary war, the property of Mr- Gridley and his associates was destroyed by American privateers. From the slaughter of the walrus it was almost driven from the vicinity, though a few continued to be taken till sometime in the present century. The seals, too, did not come in such large num- bers, nor were they so easily captured, though the taking of them has continued to be one of the resources of the people to the present day. These pursuits having decreased in importance, the people were led to give more attention to the taking of cod and herring, which then came in enormous quantities, and also to attend to the cultivation of the soil, which, as I have said, is of excellent quality. In the year 1798 the whole islands, with the exception of one- seventh reserved for the support of the clergy, were granted to Admiral Sir Isaac Coffin, in free and common soccage, as a re- ward for his services in the American war. The story is that on his voyage homeward, when passing these islands, he requested of Lord Dorchester, who was a fellow passenger, a grant of these islands, some say indeed all the islands in the gulf. At all events he obtained a grant not only of these, but of our own Pictou Island. On the latter his rights were sold out to the settlers, but the Magdalene Islands are still held in the family ; having descended to his nephew, Admiral John Townshend Coffin, whose son, Isaac Tristram Coffin, is now the proprietor. They have refused to sell, but grant leases, of two kinds, long leases on fixed terms not exceeding 99 years, and leases without THE MAGDALENE ISLANDS—PATTERSON. 41 any fixed term, at a perpetual and unredeemable ground rent. The rents vary from 5s. to 30s. per annum a lot, which may be a few feet of beach overflowed by the sea. Before Coffin’s grant was issued much of the land was occupied without title, and the parties claimed their lots by possession. It was only after 1839 that a considerable number accepted leases. These leases were loosely drawn and rents were irregularly paid. So that much contention arose between the settlers and the agents of the pro- prietors. The result was a large amount of discontent in conse- quence of which, a few years ago, two or three colonies left. owing largely to dissatisfaction with the system. It is said that, as many as 600 souls removed, most of them to the northern shore of the St. Lawrence, where the land was much inferior and fisheries no better, but they were attracted by the idea of having their land in full ownership. This is the only part of the Dominion where the system lingers, and it is desirable that it should be swept away. Attempts have been made to buy out. the rights of the proprietor. It is admitted that with the ex- pense of agency and the various expenditures upon the islands, the property has never really been of any profit to him. But it would seem that such is the grandeur associated with being lord of so many broad acres, that he has always refused to sell, at least on any reasonable terms. I humbly think that, as the Government has compelled the landlords in P. E. Island to sell and has extinguished the seignorial rights in Quebec without asking the consent of the seigneurs, they should close this ques- tion by taking the rights of the proprietor on just and reason- able terms. The whole area, we may observe, is estimated at 100,000 acres, of which one-seventh was reserved for the clergy. This has fallen into the hands of the Government, and is being sold by it. At the time of the granting these islands, it was estimated that there were 100 families upon them, but this is probably an exaggeration. In 1821 Bouchette estimated the number at 188. In 1831 they were estimated at 153, numbering 1,000 souls, though Coffin, in 1839, states that there were only 600 on the whole seven islands. By the census of 1850 they numbered 42 THE MAGDALENE ISLANDS—PATTERSON. 2,202, and in 1860 had increased to 2,651. By the last census they numbered 4,316 and may now be estimated at 5,000. Dur- ing the present century a number of English-speaking and Pro- testant settlers have taken up their abode here. These were principally from P. E. Island and the counties of Pictou and Shelburne in Nova Scotia. From time to time persons wrecked here have chosen to make it the place of their permanent abode. Of such I found English, Scotch, Welsh and Jerseymen. In these ways there has been formed an English-speaking popula- tion of over 500 souls. Before, however, referring more particularly to the people and their industries, we must give a particular account of the islands. The first which meets the eye of the voyager approaching either from the south or east is Entry, so named because it stands as a sentinel at the entrance of Pleasant Bay. Its appearance as you draw near is somewhat striking. On the north-eastern side conical hills rise high above the surrounding waters, one being 580 feet high, and the highest point on the group, while another known as Pig Hill is only 50 feet lower. On this side the sea has so cut in upon it that the cliffs are of a height of 300 and 350 and in one place 400 feet in height. Curiously enough they actually overhang the sea, which has undermined them, and will continue to do so, till the weight of the overhanging mass brings it down with a crash. Toward the south-west, however, the land slopes to the shore. This island is about two miles long, being pentagonal or somewhat circular in shape, but seldom can as much variety of scenery be found in the same space. These hills, and they are but hills, rising abruptly from so small an area, and from their steepness looking higher than they are, give the impression of a rugged and mountainous region. From these radiate miniature gorges and dells, thickly overgrown with bushes, mostly of scrubby spruce, and terminating except on the land-ward side in the magnificent cliffs mentioned, which we now see to be secarped and sculptured into various fantastic shapes. In one place the rocks stand in the form of huge rugged columns, to which have been given the name of the Old Man and Old Woman. At another a portion of about an acre in ex- THE MAGDALENE ISLANDS—PATTERSON. 43 tent has been nearly severed from the rest of the island, and is known as Devil’s Island. Ascend to the top of the highest hill and the prospect is one of rare beauty. Southward you gaze upon the ocean, and in the distance you can in suitable weather discern St. Paul’s Island and Cape North, in Cape Breton, fifty miles away. To your right and left are the red and grey cliffs of the neighbouring islands, while at your feet to the south-west the island slopes away to the sea, forming beautiful meadows or fertile fields, yielding rich crops of potatoes, grass or grain, rendered still more picturesque by bits of woodland intermixed. There are ten families on the island. With its rich soil they enjoy to the full the ordinary comforts of life, and without excessive toil. One sees in proportion to its size abundance of live stock, troops of their ponies, droves of pigs wandering at their sweet will, flocks of sheep sometimes grazing on the tops of the highest hills, and plentiful herds of cattle. But beside farming, fishing and lobster canning are carried on. There is no harbor on the island, and it is only at certain places that boats can land, and in stormy weather all intercourse with it is cut off. There is a passage on either side. That to the north-east is seven miles wide and separates it from Alright Island, that on the south-west is three miles wide and separates it from a sand beach four miles along, known as Sandy Hook, which makes out from the south-east point of Amherst Island. Inside you are in a beautiful bay nine miles wide, known as Pleasant Bay. In summer it dos not belie its name. Its water appeared to me of a lighter greenish hue, and more pellucid than we see in the waters around our Nova Scotia shores. This bay forms a safe and commodious roadstead, except in easterly winds, and there are many pleasant sights around. But it, too, has its tales of sor- row. Dr. How. Halifax, Dr. Somers. Pictou, A. H. Mackay. SPERGULARIA RUBRA, Presl. Sandy and gravelly places. Not rare about Halifax. Old Windsor Road, Sackville. North Sydney, Cape Breton, Macoun. Windsor, Hants, Dr. How. SPERGULARIA SALINA, Presi. Pictou, A. H. Mackay. North Sydney, Cape Breton, and Pictou, Macoun. Annapolis, Prof. Fowler, Macoun’s Cat. PORTULACACE. PORTULACA OLERACEA, Linn. Purslane. In cultivated lands, Cornwallis, King’s County, an abundant and troublesome weed, introduced from Europe, and now widely spread over America, especially in the South and West. In France used as a salad, see Report of Secretary for Agriculture, N. S., for 1890. CLAYTONIA CAROLINIANA, Michaux. Debert Mills, Colchester County, Dr. G. C. Campbell. Pictou, A. H. Mackay. Hall’s Harbour, King’s County, and Sherbrooke, Guysborough, Dr. How. Port Mulgrave, Rev. E. H. Ball. CLAYTONIA VirRGINICA, Linn. Pictou, A. H. Mackay. Near Truro, Drs. D. A. Campbell and Lindsay. MONTIA FONTANA, Linn. Blinks. Named for J. de Monti, an Italian botanist, a small, annual, glabrous herb, 1 to 5 inches high, flowers minute. In a meadow a little above the first fish- ing stage after crossing the North-West Arm, Halifax, Macoun and Burgess. HY PERICACE. HYPERICUM ELLIPTICUM, Hooker. Wilmot, Annapolis, Dr. How. On the borders of ditches in Truro Marsh, Colchester, Dr. G. C. Campbell. HYPERICUM PERFORATUM, Linn. Bushy places around Bedford Basin, originally introduced from England, and liable to FLORA OF NOVA SCOTIA—LAWSON. 105 become a noxious weed in pastures, the juice being acrid, and the secretion of the glands said to be injurious to the eyes of cattle pasturing. Truro, in damp fields, introduced, Dr. G. C. Campbell. Hyrericum macutatum, Walter. H. corymbosum, Muhl. Halifax, Dr. Lindsay. Hypericum mutizum, Linn. Truro, in wet woods, back of Terrace Hill Cemetery, Dr. G. C. Campbell. Windsor, Dr. How. Dartmouth, Halifax County, Dr. Lindsay. HyprricuM CANADENSE, Linn. Windsor, Dr. How. Halifax, Drs. Lindsay and Somers. Truro, sandy spots in the Marsh, common, Dr. G. C. Campbell. ELODES CAMPANULATA, Pursh. EL. Virginica, Nuttall. Abun- dant around the boggy margins of lakes, as Sandy Lake, Halifax County. Windsor, Dr. How. Pictou, A. H. Mackay. Truro, common in swamps; Smith’s Island, ete, Dr. G. C. Campbell. MALVACEA.* MALVA ROTUNDIFOLIA, Linn. Common Mallow. Windsor and Kentville, Dr. How. Matva moscuHata, Linn. By roadsides near Paradise, Annapo- lis County, probably escaped from gardens, (flowers rose-coloured). Sackville Mills, Halifax County, (flowers white). Pictou, A. H. Mackay. Cape Breton, H. Poole, in How’s list. MaLva crispa, Linn. Pictou, rare, A. H. Mackay. MALVA SYLVESTRIS, Linn. Ballast heaps at Pictou. I do not know whether it is permanently established. The record of Sackville as a station for Malva borealis, in Catalogue, in Proceedings of the Institute, Vol IV 4p. ESé, .is erroneous, and was printed without my knowledge ; the error is repeated in Macoun’s Catalogue, Part I, p. 86. Hreiscus Trionum, Linn. Escaped from gardens, rare, A. H. Mackay. *See Baker’s recent papers in the London Journal of Botany. 106 FLORA OF NOVA SCOTIA LAWSON. TILIACE. TILIA PARVIFOLIA, Hayne, Arzneigewachse, III, t. 46 or 47, (1834). DC. Prod., XVII, p. 317. The common Lime Tree, or Linden. A common street tree in the city of Halifax and the country towns. Windsor, Hants, planted, Dr. How. This species, commonly called by the aggregate (and therefore objectionable) Linnzean name, 7. Hwropeea, is our best shade tree for planting in the city of Halifax. It forms a compact head, stands pruning to any shape, and the roots form a ball so that the tree can be removed even after it has attained considerable age. In dry situations inland, the foliage is liable to be scorched in the hot season, but this rarely occurs near the seashore. LINACE. LINuM USITATISSIMUM, Zinn. Common Flax. Spontaneous in fields where flax has been grown, but not permanent; fre- quently found by waysides and along railroad tracks, where the seed has escaped in transit. Linum cATHARTICUM, Linn. On waste ground along the sea- shore at Pictou, Macoun and Burgess. GERANIACE. GERANIUM MACULATUM, Linn. Windsor, Hants, Dr. How. In fields, Halifax, Dr. Lindsay. GERANIUM CAROLINIANUM, Linn. Windsor, Hants County, Rev. J. B. Uniacke, (How’s List). Elmsdale, A. H. Mackay. GERANIUM ROBERTIANUM, Linn. Blomidon, amongst rocky debris fallen from the cliffs. Spencer's Island, Cumberland County, and Marble Island, Cape Breton; also near Windsor, Dr. How. Pictou, A. H. Mackay. Manchester, Guysborough County, Rev. E. H. Ball. Whycoco- magh, Cape Breton, and Pictou, Dr. Lindsay. FLORA OF NOVA SCOTIA—LAWSON. 107 Several commen European species of Geraniwm occur occa- sionally, and have been observed in fences and by roadsides at Pictou and elsewhere, but it is not known whether they are per- manent. OXALIS ACETOSELLA, Linn. Wood Sorrel. Common in the woods in moist places. Halifax and Sackville, North Mountain, Kings, &e. Windsor, Hants, Dr. How. Scot’s Bay, King’s County, E. A. Thompson. Truro, damp woods at the Falls; also ravine back of Terrace Hill Cemetery, Dr. G.C. Campbell. Pictou, A. H. Mackay. Strait of Canso, Guysborough County, Rev. E. H. Ball. OXALIS CORNICULATA, var. STRICTA, Savi. Common, especially in clearings in the woods. Halifax Peninsula, Bedford Basin, Sackville, ete. Truro, in cultivated ground, common, Dr. G. C. Campbell. Windsor, Hants, Dr. How. Pictou, A. H. Mackay. Strait of Canso, Guysborough, Rev. E. H. Ball. _ ImpaTIENs FULVA, Nuttall. Moist ground, and stony places, not uncommon about Halifax, as near Wellington Barracks, Dutch Village, etc.; Beaver Bank Railway station; Lucyfield, Middle Sackville. Windsor; near Digby ; Moose River, Digby County, Dr. How. Truro, in swamps around Smith’s Island, Dr. G. C. Campbell. Pictou, A. H. Mackay. Whycocomagh, Cape Breton, Dr. Lind- say. Oyster Ponds, Guysborough, Rev. E. H. Ball. Halifax, Drs. Somers and Lindsay. ILICINEA. ILEX VERTICILLATA, Gray. Hollyberry Bush. Margins of Sackville River near Sackville Mills, and on hill top at Lucyftield, Halifax County. Truro, McClure’s Island, growing in wet ground, bordering on the Marsh, Dr. G. C. Campbell. ILEX GLABRA. Gray. Inkberry. In low grounds along the river courses, Caledonia, Queen’s County, abundant. 108 FLORA OF NOVA SCOTIA—LAWSON. North-West Arm, Halifax, Col. Hardy, R. E., (How’s List, 1876.) Near Shelburne, P. Jack. Near an old mill pond, North- West Arm, Halifax, Macoun and Burgess. NEMOPANTHES FASCICULARIS, Rafinesque. Mountain Holly. N. Canadensis, DC. Halifax County and Pictou, A. H. Mackay, in Macoun’s Cat. CELASTRACE. CELASTRUS SCANDENS, Linn. Wax-Work. Introduced by Hon. Justice Ritchie, and now grown as an ornamental creeper in Halifax City and other parts of the Province. EvonymMus AMERICANUS, Linn. Windsor, Hants, cultivated, Dr. How. VITACE. Vitis RipartA, Michaux. Northern Grape. The evidence in favor of the former and present existence of grape vines, pre- sumably of this species, in Nova Scotia, is given and discussed in a paper published in the Proceedings of the Institute. It is very desirable that further inquiries should be made, and speci- mens obtained. AMPELOPSIS QUINQUEFOLIA, Michaux. Virginian Creeper. American Ivy, Not indigenous in Nova Scotia, so far as known, but a common creeper on the walls and verandas of dwellings. Common in Halifax, especially in the older parts of the city, in the “north end.” Windsor, Hants, cultivated, Dr. How. SAPINDACE. AEscuLus Hrppocastanum, Linn. Horse-Chestnut. An Asiatic tree, long cultivated in western Europe and America. In deep, porous, well-drained soils, it thrives remarkably well, but on heavy land it is not so vigorous, and is apt to be killed off in dry seasons. There are some fine old trees at Donaldson’s, Birch Cove, on the western shore of Bedford Basin, near Halifax, at Windsor, and other places. FLORA OF NOVA SCOTIA—LAWSON. 109 Pictou and Annapolis, A. H. Mackay. Commonly planted, Dr. Lindsay. Windsor, Hants, planted, Dr. How. Acer PENNSYLVANIcUM, Linn. Striped Maple. Snake Maple. Moosewood. Striped Dogwood. These names refer to the green glossy bark striped with dark blotchy lines. In wet woods, not rare in Halifax County; abundant around Sandy Lake. Truro, ravine back of Terrace Hill Cemetery ; the Falls, etce., common, in flower June 11th, 1884, Dr. G. C. Campbell. Wind- sor, Dr. How.. Pictou, A. H. Mackay. Acer spicatum, Lamarck. Spike-flowered Maple. Bush Maple. Rockingham, near Halifax, on the bank between the road and salt pond near St. Ehno Hotel, and at other points around Bedford Basin, as near Prince’s Lodge, and on the Dart- mouth side, but usually as single examples, and not common. Truro, wooded banks at Bible Hill, Dr. G. C. Campbell. Windsor, Dr. How. Pictou, A.H. Mackay. Halifax, Drs. Somers and Lindsay. ACER SACCHARINUM, Wang. Sugar Maple. Rock Maple. In the drier woods, rather scarce in Halifax County. Windsor, Dr. How. Halifax and Cape Breton, Dr. Lindsay. Pictou, A. H. Mackay. AcER RUBRUM, Linn. Common Maple. Red Maple. ‘(Twigs reddish, flowers bright red, leaves changing to bright red tints in autumn.) Very general and abundant, especially along the courses of streams, and on the banks of lakes, in Halifax County. Truro, on borders of swamps, and in wet woods, common, Dr. G. C. Campbell. Windsor, Dr. How. Pictou, A. H. Mackay. AceR Psrupo-PLatTanus, Linn. Plane Tree. Sycamore. Planted for ornament in Halifax city. Canning, King’s Co., E. A. Thompson, 1873. NEGUNDO ACEROIDES, Manch. Not indigenous in Nova Scotia, but occasionally planted as an ornamental tree. In Public Gar- dens, and elsewhere in the City of Halifax. 110 FLORA OF NOVA SCOTIA—LAWSON. At Lucyfield, the form NV. Hectori, Hort. Edin., raised from seeds collected by Sir James Hector, during the Pallisher expe- dition, is very hardy, and never suffers from severe winters, as the ordinary form of the tree does. STAPHYLEA PINNATA, Linn., which grows in shrubberies in England, is recorded by Dr. How as found at Windsor, cultivated. ANACARDIACE, RHUS TYPHINA, Linn. Quite common along the banks of Bedford Basin, by the road from Halifax to Bedford, indi- genous. Not recorded from any inland localities. Cultivated at Windsor, Dr. How. Pictou, A. H. Mackay. Ruaus TOXICODENDRON, Jinn. Poison Ivy. Plentiful in stony land, a few miles above Dartmouth town, belonging to the Admiralty, on the Dartmouth side of Bedford Basin; also near the shore to the westward of Bedford village, at the head of the Basin. In wild rocky lands, between Windsor Junction and Salmon Hole, Windsor Road, Halifax County. North-West Arm, Halifax. Close by the salt spring, Whycocomagh, Cape Breton, 1864. Abundant among stones, at the base of the cliff at Look Out, on the North Mountain, King’s County, below the stations for Woodsia Ilvensis and Asplenium Trichomanes. Cumberland, A. H. Mackay. Stations should be carefully recorded, as some persons suffer severely from handling the plant, in ignorance of the injurious effects of its exhalations, or of the more sensitive parts of the skin coming in contact with it. TX.— NorEs ON RAILROAD LOCATION AND CONSTRUCTION IN EASTERN CAanapDA.—By Wm. B. MackENZzIz£, Assistant Engineer I. C. Railway, Moncton, N. B., Canada. Reconnaissance.—It has been said that the engineer who can conduct a reconnaissance properly, is born, not made. He must have an eye for country, and depend mainly on his own natural tact and a judgment matured by experience. Provided with the best available map of the country—the geological maps are the best so far published—one or more baro- meters, and a pocket-compass, the engineer notes the governing points and takes their height with the barometer. Two should be used, the readings being taken simultaneously at a series of intervals previously agreed upon. While serving as a general guide, only approx. heights can be obtained by the barometer. One instrument alone should never be depended upon. Sometimes when following a stream it is scarcely possible to go far astray, but when the waters run about at right angles to the line, the difficulties are much increased. Then the lowest points on the ridges and the highest banks at stream-crossings must be sought. Several routes are examined, that promising the greatest ultimate economy being generally selected, although, sometimes, for political and other equally reprehensible reasons, the best line is adorned with “ curves of beauty,” to the eventual discredit of the locating engineer, although he may be in no wise responsible for the mischief. There is always one best line between any two points, and, generally speaking, not one-quarter enough money is spent in seeking it. The extra cost of the construction of the one not the best, like the sea-captain’s mule-hire, “is there, but you can’t see it.” Some expert, standing on the platform of a Pullman car, 50 years after, may see it, when the country will have been cleared of wood, and the eye takes in miles at a glance. Ginny, 112 RAILROAD LOCATION AND CONSTRUCTION—MACKENZIE. Preliminary.—Next comes the preliminary survey, where the transit and level are employed. If location is at all likely to follow, an ordinary compass should not be used. The transit should be provided with a gradienter and a level on the telescope. The gradienter is very useful when running to a maximum grade, The preliminary should be run with such care that it will not deviate from the final location more than 200 or 300 feet at any point. I will here give a description of the running of both prelimin- ary and location simultaneously, by the writer. After the general reconnaissance had been made, and certain ruling points tixed, and when the preliminary party had been at work for one day, a location party was started. The engineer in charge pro- vided himself with a wooden box 21”x28” and 1%” thick, holding about 20 sheets of common drawing-paper, a brass ruler, protrac- tor, 12" scale, and a pair of 6” compasses. On the front edge of the box were fastened a pair of leather handles, and a pair of brass hinges on the other edge. When this box was opened out and set up on four pegs, under the grateful shade of some wide- spreading tree by the boy who carried it, the engineer’s office was located there for the time. The engineer was almost constantly with the preliminary party, and gave directions to the location party from his own general notes and the results of the preliminary work. The sheets already referred to were 20’x27” in size, numbered from 0 up- wards. Every evening the transit-man of the preliminary party plotted his notes on these sheets, to a scale of 200 ft. to an inch. As the sheets were finished they were handed to the topographer, who recorded on both sides the line, the rise or fall above or below each station, or at distances two or three stations apart as the case might be, according to the roughness of the ground. These notes generally extended 100 to 300 ft. on each side of the line. While this was bemg done, the leveler had plotted up his profile, The engineer, then, with the help of the plan and profile, and a fine silk thread, laid down roughly the best grades possible between the most abrupt points on profile, and dotted on the plan the line which would give the least cut or fill for this grade. RAILROAD LOCATION AND CONSTRUCTION—MACKENZIE. 1138 Next the location was plotted on the plan, keeping as near to the dotted line as the limiting curves and grades would allow. Notes were then written on a slip of paper and sent back by the boy to the chief of the locating party. They would read somewhat as follows: “ From Sta. 40 measure at right angles to the right, 36 ft. and fix a point. Then go to Sta. 45, measure 50 feet to the right, at right angles, and set up the transit here. Sight back to first point, run tangent to Sta. 65 of location. Then put ina 5° curve to right, to Sta. 75+50. Then run tangent to 80740, and put in a 4° curve to left, ete. By this means the engineer kept both parties hard at work, and, with the help of a saddle-horse, the box and the boy, did the necessary exploratory work ahead of the preliminary party, as well as making an occasional visit to the locating party. Field-8ooks.—Both transit and level-books should begin at the bottom of the page, so that the topographical notes may be entered on the right-hand page, opposite the stations to which they refer. Both transit-man and leveler notes down crossings of streams and roads, and as much other topography as he has time for, without delaying his principal work, although the topographer is supposed to note everything necessary on pre- liminary work. On location, however, the transit-man takes all the topography, excepting land-lnes and proprietors’ names, which is best done by a land-surveyor. Plans, Profiles, and Estimates.—Plans, profiles, and estimates of the located line are now made. The preliminary sheets are completed by laying down thereon the widths required for right- of-way, taking from the profile the widths of the widest banks and cuttings, and extra land for snow-fences, ballast-pits, ete. This, with the determining of the sizes and positions of culverts, bridge-spans, foundations, etc., calls for a special visit of the chief engineer, or an experienced assistant, to the ground, with plan and profile in hand. This is a point often neglected, or left to incompetent persons, and the results are unsuitable founda- tions and structures and an insufficiency of culvert-openings. Plan.—The plan shows the stations at every 1000 ft., the plus stations at every land-line, change of width in right-of-way, stream and road-crossings, and cultivated or wooded land. 8 ’ 114 RAILROAD LOCATION AND CONSTRUCTION—MACKENZIE. Profile—The profile shows the cut or fill at every station in figures, the number of cubic yards in every cutting and embank- ment, and whether of rock or earth, the rates and changes of grades, the land-lines and the proprietors’ names, kind of country— whether wooded or cultivated—names of roads and streams, together with every bridge, culvert, cattle-guard, ete., all in their proper places. Estimates—An estimate of cost is now made, and just here judgment and experience are much needed; an inexperienced man will estimate too low, and a timid or conservative man too high. Contracts are generally given to the lowest tenderer, although the engineer often knows he cannot but fail to complete the work. Construction generally.—In an ordinary rolling country, rail- ways can be built having stone culverts, steel bridges and 56- pound steel rails, ready for traffic, for about $16,000 per mile, exclusive of right-of-way. Before the clearing is done, a plug is driven at every station, so that if the stakes are burned the plugs may still be found. After the burning is done, the stakes at the end of all curves, and also a few on the tangents, are referenced by carefully measuring to other stakes set outside the road-bed. From these latter, the original points are found after the stakes and plugs have been dug up by the workmen. Every foundation for bridge or culvert is staked out, and the depths of excavation marked on the stakes. Each foundation is a special study, and should be tested with a boring apparatus before deciding upon the character of the foundation. If the bottom is gravel, or rock, nothing more is required. If, on the contrary, it is soft, then loose stone, concrete, a wooden platform or piles may be necessary. In no part of railway work is ex- perience more needed than here. EHarth-work.—Shallow embankments are made up by scrapers from the sides, and shallow cuts are ploughed and scraped off from the top. Deeper cuttings are removed by trollies drawn by horses. RAILROAD LOCATION AND CONSTRUCTION—MACKENZI E. 115 Sometimes, in a heavy cutting, the track is laid over the top of the hill, and some distance to one side, if it can be done with- out exceeding a grade of 3 or 4 ft. per 100, and steam-shovels are put to work at both ends, while the material is hauled away by locomotives and cars to make embankments at a distance. For this purpose temporary trestles are built over unfinished culverts and over depressions near which no material is obtain- able for embankments. These trestles are finally left in place when banks are completed. Ballasting—Gravel ballast is generally brought by train. It is loaded on the cars by a steam-shovel, and unloaded by a plow, or by side-dump cars. The track is lifted twice, and the ballast packed under the ties with shovels, to a depth of 12 or 14 inches. Approximate cost of grading the Road-bed :— Kind of material. Price per cubic yard Bare Matta CULUIN ES , 2h suey clarphoinss “esse egikstonacton 22¢. to 28¢ LINAC EASTON EET Cl | Eee ene RP ene ae Ca 3le. additional. Percoll CHIE AUTOS 9 ont icy 2 ay by thonel 2 RIBf> ay ttabreycl tied oie ioe 50¢. BAS AG ASage be ops (54s pedal «ie byapeay syeyets torn mire ps 55e. to 70c. Riou GOOSE)h RAR poeta hie - Like Stina bye Ae cetister 55e. to 70ce. ear ae SOLIT) 9. ge hese -orescle tes ab arsie tyaael saek bh» oe $1.15 to $1.50. Ebccavetion in wateta.c-(Kec. ales Sane 80e, plus dry price. Extra haul over 1000 ft......... #c. per c. yd. over 1000 ft. Filling by train from borrow-pit 1000 ft. from centre of eames 2... oat Glin® ac bafta mak ae otic: o Safe moran 55¢. do. do. (8 mile haul)...... 40c¢. [SETS ci ree RON oo RA eel Dasa ERIE I Mad A Ree ER 30¢. Box Culverts.—Dry stone work for box culverts has had its day, and it is not probable that in future it will be used to any great extent in this country. Culverts are now laid in lime and cement mortar, designed to vent water under a head, as an iron pipe would; no dry stone culvert can do this, and the attempt generally results in a washout. The side walls of box culverts are extended out beyond the end, or head walls, equal to height of culvert, so that in freshets, the opening cannot be obstructed by 116 RAILROAD LOCATION AND CONSTRUCTION—MACKENZIE. ‘drift-wood, for the water will rise, flow over, and fall into the “opening between the obstruction and the head or end wall of the culvert. Fixing the sizes of culvert-openings is a matter requiring great care. If possible, the engineer in charge should personally ex- amine the ground and the character of the country drained by the stream, whether rough, rolling or flat. If county or geolo- gical maps exist, the drainage area can be gotten approximately. Then as a rough approximation we use Major E. T. D. Myers’ formula : A=C YM A= Area of opening in square feet. M= Drainage area in acres. C=Variable coefficient=1 for flat ground, and 1;; for hilly compact ground. Highway-bridges and openings over the same stream are examined, and the highest freshet-level obtained from “the oldest inhabitant.” With this information, Myers’ formula, and some brains, the openings will not be far wrong. Culverts are seldom made less than 2$x23 ft., so that a man can get through to clean them out, and their fall not less than 3ins. per 100 ft. The head walls of box culverts are carried down 4 ft. below paving, and the side walls 3 ft., to prevent frost from acting on them. Where they are over 3 ft. span, the two upper courses are corbeled out to reduce the span of the covers. Pro- portions and quantities are about as follows : Area Se ae g B ui ae ahrenee it Mascnry in | Paving per | Paving at ye Fe % 2 3 ce Be ; Danian ane chibie wants |Cunine aa Cutie rae si | BE | | a 4) 2x2 24; 12; 5 0.963 | 10.963) 0.074 3.12 5) ae ea AA ahh) 1.053 | 11.660} 0.074 3.12 8| 2x4 24; 12}; 5 1.340 | 13.920} 0.080 6.80 9| 3x3 24; 16] 6 1.225 | 14.000! 0.080 | 6.80 10} 2x4; 24; 12) 53) 1.380 | 14.200; 0.100 | 8.00 V2 ceo ox A Pea Oo 1.410 | 14.540) 0.110 8.40 RAILROAD LOCATION AND CONSTRUCTION—MACKENZIE. 117 Double box culverts are now rarely used; the middle wall collects driftwood and may cause trouble. Arches are used in- stead. The cost of box culvert masonry may be estimated as follows :— Coursed masonry laid in lime and pointed with cement, $8.00 p.c.y. Eamonn bottom and atvends 2: 5.5......:.2..-66- 500)“ iniprapean ends (hand-laid)in:. 2. 20k). ene a 2.00" Hracaneidonsinnearuh, «2 4rot CSE Nae. . b ER oS: 0.30 “ Arch Culverts—Arch culverts should be built, generally, with splayed and stepped wings deflecting 30 degrees from the longi- tudinal line of the culvert. Right-angled wings, with buttresses, for upper end, and straight stepped wings for lower end, have been much used in Canada, but splayed wings are now considered the best practice. There should be no recess or shoulder where the wings join the head wall, to collect drift-wood and cause scour. When the ends are funnel-shaped, as above described, the discharge is increased 100% over the square-end culvert, when discharging under a head. The following dimensions may be used for arch culverts : : Thickness of Culvert Bhickness a Wall at Upper | Thickness of Remark Opening. seis Surface of Arch Stones, fase Springing. isinereeaes g. 4 ft. 24 ft. Se tb: 15 ins. Circular Arch. 5 (73 3 “ ae “ce 18 “ cc 22 6 Ce 31 “ce 32 «ec 18 “cc 1 “ S “ 4 “ 5 “ Dili “ « 10 “ 41 “cc 5t cc Dall « (1 12 (74 44 [74 6 (13 D4, “ a4 ngeo'| 5} 64 « 24 « ‘ Ors Tots dhe Se Segmental brick arch Rad. 124 ft., Rise 5 ft. 118 RAILROAD LOCATION AND CONSTRUCTION—MACKENZIE Iron Pipes for Culverts—When iron pipes are used the fol- lowing sizes will be sufficient for the given area, in places where water can be backed up to discharge under a head : Area drained oe Iron pipe. Embankment eae NUS: 2: a ee Death, aia. " 2 ei a dare, aa Q1 ST amma ieee -. 5 " SO Te Ne Bete 9 en Ce Se 1" 90 « See ea ‘ 1 Ue ads sree pooh Mle hee | ose " The dimensions given in the foregoing tables have been extensively used on first-class work in this part of the country. Arch culvert stone masonry costs about as follows: Cost of Labor Freight Total DESCRIPTION. Stone per | per cubic per cubic per cubic cubic yard. yard. yard. yard. | pails | Abutment. wallsi 22.24 $5.00') $4.13) $. 0.205 ee . ANT RG] OWE ORY ene Mie cea 5.00 DLS) | te.stacs cea Cement concrete ........ 5.00 |to 8.00 | per cubic | yard Retaining- Walls.—For retaining earth, the mean thickness of stone walls are usually made one-third of the height, the top, middle, and bottom thicknesses varying, as 3, 5, and 7. Walls should be calculated to resist overturning, and also sliding at the base, using the following : Co-efficient of friction of rubble masonry on wet clay, 0:2 to 0°33 f ‘a moist clay, 0°33 4 + dry clay, 051 es dry earth, 0:50 to 0°66 4 e sand, 0:66 to 0°75 : 3 gravel, 0°66 to 0°75 dry wooden platform, 0°60 wet O75 ce RAILROAD LOCATION AND CONSTRUCTION—MACKENZIE. 119 The ground in front of the wall should not be counted upon to assist in the support of the wall, and a factor of safety of not less than 3 should be used. Safe pressures on foundations under walls.— Safe pressure on Gravel.......... 2 to 3 tons per sq. ft. “ . Sande! paste Sepak: . i i s . PLGA coppers. 13 : ; fj + Silt and Alluvium! ton . z rf Clay, tabla denyd ¢ 1 to 24 tons ; Bridge-Piers and their foundations.—Masonry piers for bridges will cost from $8 to $15 per cubic yard, exclusive of the foundations on which they rest. For 50 ft. span, make piers 4 ft. thick under coping. cc 100 “ “ 5 “6 6 “ 150 “ce : c. 6 “ 7 « 200 “ cs 7 4 Ts “ 250 ty 74 to § for piers 80 ft. high. Sides and ends of piers batter half inch or three-quarter ich per ft. Abutments batter one inch per ft. Where sloping ice-breakers are not required, a round-ended pier is the best shape. Grouting should not be used in first-class work, but flush up fully with cement mortar as built. Foundation piles driven and cut off with a saw, under 12 to 14 ft. of water, will cost 35 cents per lineal ft. of part remaining in the work (say 17 ft.) The best formula for pile driving is— y= 2.WH s+ 1 in which L = safe load in lbs. W = weight of hammer in lbs. H = fall of hammer in feet. S = penetration in inches under last blow. 120 RAILROAD LOCATION AND CONSTRUCTION—MACKENZIE. Where piles are driven under abutments on land, 12 inches of concrete is placed around pile-heads, 12”x12” caps are then put on, and a course of timber laid close, to carry the masonry. In calculating the weight on the earth under the abutment, draw lines from outer edges of bed-plates on an angle of 30 degrees with the vertical, down to the foundation, and assume that the live and dead loads, and also the weight of the masonry within those lines are all concentrated on the space between the pots where these lines meet the foundation. This length mul- tiplied by the thickness of the wall, or width of grillage, etc., gives the number of square feet over which the whole weight is sup- posed to be distributed. The weight of rolling-stock has so increased in the last twenty years that iron bridges are now being removed and replaced by heavier steel structures, all over the country. The designer has now to ask himself: “Am I designing for five, ten, or for fifty years?’ Ifa thoughtful man, he will not sail too close to the wind in proportioning his bridges, but provide a margin to meet future increased weight of rolling-stock. Types.—For spans up to 15 ft., use rolled beams. ‘ from 15 to 80 ft., use plate-girders ft. ¢. to ¢. from 80 to 100 ft., riveted Warren girders. from 100 to 150 ft., smgle intersection pin- connected Pratt trusses, with parallel or arched top chord, 14 ft. to 16 ft. clear width inside. from 150 to 550 ft., double intersection pin- connected Pratt trusses, with parallel or ce ce arched top chord. Up to 225 ft., 14 ft. clear width min. Max. 16 ft. 225 to 320 ft., 18 ft. center to center. 320 to 420 ft., 21 ft. 3 420 to 550 ft., 25 ft. i RAILROAD LOCATION AND CONSTRUCTION—MACKENZIE. 121 Cost, etc., of Steel Bridges (metal only), designed for Typical Consolidation Locomotives. Compiled from formulas by G. H. Pegram, C. E. (Trans. A. 8. C. Engrs., Feb. 1886.) Ss, a a us = a 'S) ay oO (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) . | (7) (8) (9) | 30| Deck. Plate | Steel | 425] 12,750) 4 cts. $17 00) $510 00 girders | 35] “ eet \ AGON1G, 100) 4. "| 18° 40) 644.00 40; “ ‘ « | 525) 21,000) 4 “ | 21°00! 840 00 Apiaat z « | 550/24,750| 4 “ | 22 00) 990 00 5O) loi‘ ‘ « |} 580] 29,000) 4 « | 23 20) 1160 00 ER ed ee ate «. | 620] 34,100] 4 “ | 24 80| 1364 00 Goris es ¢ 650| 39,000 4 “ | 26 00) 1560 00 6a) Z Gta to ae 2 OOF l74a200 TOE & fe «| 715] 50,050) 4 “ | 28 60) 2002 00 C5 nee é « | 750] 56,250) 4 “ | 30 00] 2250 00 80| Thro’ |Warren| “ | 775] 62,000) 44 “ | 34 88) 2790 00 riveted | Soles ey Sle : 800| 68,000 44 “ | 36 00) 3060 00 Ona te c ( 830] '74,700| 44 “ | 37 35] 3361 50 Sora, 0 “| 860] 81,700| 44 “ | 38 70] 3676 -50 100 * a a 900! 90,000, 44 “ | 40 50) 4050 00 For double track add 90 °/.—Cols. 7, 8 and 9 will vary with the market price of steel. Bridge-Erection on Railways in operation.—Plate-girders up to 75 feet span are usually riveted up complete, run into place on ears, and lowered on to the masonry by four screws working through overhead caps, supported on two posts at each end of bridge. Deck bridges from 75 feet to 100 feet are riveted up complete, run into place on cars, jacked up, and the weight taken on blocks hung from overhead gallows-frames. The cars are then run out and the old bridge removed, when the new bridge is lowered to its place on the masonry by means of the blocks. Through bridges may be placed the same as Decks, by spread- ing the old trusses far enough to let the new bridge in between X.—FERTILIZERS ON Sanpy Sor.—By Pror. H. W. Sirs, B. Sc., Provincial Agricultural School, Truro, N. 8. The soil of the farm for the Provincial School of Agriculture possesses a very fine texture and is of the same constant char- acter throughout the entire farm. It is formed from the red sandstone and was evidently made up in the same way as any sand bank at the side of the mouth of a river opening into the Bay of Fundy. The soil varies from five to thirty feet deep and has underlying it at least one hundred feet of red sandstone rock. How much more is not known. The sub-soil is of the same character as the soil. This sandy soil is very fine, almost an impalpable powder. It is easily tilled, fairly fertile, yielding about twenty bushels of barley cr two hundred and twenty-nine of potatoes per acre, in each case without manure. We propose to make a careful investigation of this soil and its relations to plant growth. These investigations will be conduct- ed by some of the students of the School under my directions. At present they are pursued as follows: the analysis of the soil and the effects of fertilizers upon it, by Mr. Trueman, and the relations of plants to the soilby Mr. Moore. It is hoped that by the next session of the Institute a report of progress in this work can be made. In the present paper we will try to point out lines along which our work will lie and some experiments which will enable us to work more intelligently. Many experiments have been conducted by investigators upon the characters of soils and their relations to fertilizers and plants. But our conditions are so different that they afford us only general information and on many points none. With a climate approaching that of England in rain-fall but very much colder, the valuable experiments of Lawes and Gilbert are scarcely applicable here. Again their experiments were conducted on very fertile soil. Most of our soil would not compare with it. In the same manner, it could be shown that other experiments are not applicable for similar reasons. This paper then will form a preface to further contributions. . (122 . FERTILIZERS ON SANDY SOIL—SMITH. 23 PART 1. THE PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF THE SoiL—Its RELATION TO MANURE. Johnson classifies the physical properties of the soil as follows : 1. Weight of soil; 2. State of division ; 3. Hygroscopic capacity ; 4. Power of condensing gases; 5. Power of fixing solids from solution; 6. Capillary power; 7. Change of bulk on drying; 8. Adhesiveness; 9. Relations to heat. These properties of our soil are now under investigation. We may point out certain peculiarities, however. It is very fine silicious sand, so fine that it is scarcely gritty. When crops are suffering from drought on other soils in the same locality, those. on our soil do not seem affected to such a degree. Not much change of bulk takes place on drying. (?) It is not adhesive and is a very warm soil. Although we have had the farm only two years, it shows marked effects the second year from the applica- tion of fertilizers the first. These are the indications as to the physical characters of the soil; they may be considerably modi- fied by analysis. The chemical composition of the soil cannot now be discussed further than to call attention to facts directly used in this paper» discarding the so-called inert material of the soil for the present. Nitrogen is found in soils in the form of ammonia, nitrates and insoluble organic compounds. The ammonia usually exists in the soil either as double salts with insoluble bases or as double silicates. A small amount always exists in solution, as it 1S during the warmer season constantly being formed, or absorbed. Nitrates probably exist in the soil in the form of nitrates of potash, ammonia, soda, lime and magnesia. The insoluble forms of Nitrogen are in most cases not available unless converted into ammonia or nitrates. Nitrates are not fixed by the soil like the ammonia, but exist there for the most part as freely soluble. Phosphoric acid, although so important to the plant, occurs very sparingly in the soil. It is there in the form of line, iron, magnesia, and aluminium phosphates, all more or less insoluble. 124 FERTILIZERS ON SANDY SOIL—SMITH. Potassium occurs in the form of silicates, especially hydrated silicates. It is not abundant. , A discussion of the other constitutents is not required in this paper. “From a great number of experiments made by Way, Liebig, and many others, it seems to be established as a general fact that all tillable fields are able to decompose salts of the alkalies and alkali-earths in a state of solution in such a manner as to retain the base together with phosphoric and silicic acids, while the hydrochloric, nitric and sulphuric acids remain dissolved in union with some other base besides the one with which they were ori- ginally dissolved.” This power varies in regard to the time required, the com- pleteness of the absorption, and the quantity absorbed. It is increased by adding bases to the soil and diminished by treating the soil with acids. It is probably due to hydrated double sili- cates. It is a part of good farming to increase them. We find them very abundant in the rocks around the Bay of Fundy and possibly they may in a measure account for the fertility of our marsh lands. It may also be added that when one base is introduced into a. soil it usually, more or less, displaces some other base, but it has not been shown that this invariably follows. Ammonia is least. readily displaced and potassium follows next. Phosphates are probably retained by the soil by the produc- tion of insoluble double phosphates. Bases may be retained by the formation of double salts, especi- ally with iron hydrates. THE EFFECT OF FERTILIZERS AND MANURE UPON THE SOIL The probable effect of the application of ammonia salts to the soil would be to slightly increase its absorptive power. This. would be still more marked with potassium compounds and sodium nitrate—the only form in which we apply nitrates. Most of the ammonia from manure is converted into nitrates, but. how far this is true of ammonia salts is not known. Phosphates FERTILIZERS ON SANDY SOIL—SMITH. 5 would in a short time become insoluble double phosphates. With manure the case is different. All our manure is applied before fermentation begins. It contains no ammonia, but presumably ammonia is formed in the soil from the soluble nitrogen com- pounds it contains. The conditions which would tend to cause this change would be such as would favor nitrification, and the ammonia would immediately be converted into nitric acid. These conditions are decaying organic matter in contact with the soil containing nitrifying ferments. When ammonia salts as a ferti- lizer are applied, such is not the case, and the salts, if applied in any considerable quantities, would retard the action of the fer- ments, or might even kill them. This is only a surmise till we have investigated it more fully ; but whatever the cause, ammonia salts, as will be shown, appear actually iujurious to most of our crops, especially potatoes. This we suggest as an explanation till we have found out what is the truth. Phosphates, whether in manure or not, soon become precipitated into insoluble phos- ‘phates. These are dependent on what bases are most abundant in the soil. In manure the phosphates are, like all the other constituents, very finely divided, and the decomposition of pro- ducts of the manure tend to hold the phosphates longer in solu- ‘tion or to dissolve those freshly precipitated. This would not be the case with phosphates of fertilizers, for they have no organic decaying matter in close proximity to them unless we except fine ground bone, and that class of fertilizers. The potassium is present first as carbonate, then as rapidly as nitric acid forms it would be combined with it and with the other organic acids present. Its tendency would be to pass over into the zeolites in a short time. PAR i PLANTS :—THEIR COMPOSITION AND RELATION TO THE SOIL. The elements essential to agricultural plants are potas- -sium, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus and sulphur. Besides there are constantly found in plants, iron, chlorine, sodium and silicon. Iron undoubtedly is indispensible to the growth -of plants. Chlorine might possibly be added also. In regard 126 FERTILIZERS ON SANDY SOIL—SMITH. to sodium and silicon the ease is different, and we will take time to point out that probably these are not required for plants, —especially as it is often erroneously taught that plants require them, particularly the latter, to strengthen their stalks. It appears from experiments that sodium cannot be wholly excluded from plants on account of its universality, but that in so far as. it is or can be excluded, the plants do not suffer for it. Silicon is always present in the plant when grown under natural con- ditions. It occurs in largest proportions in the outer portions of the plant, especially the bark and leaves, and in the parts sur- rounding the seeds. It varies very much in the same and in different plants. The amount present depends on the amount of it soluble in the soil. Sachs has shown that the amount in the ash of the Indian corn could readily be reduced from 18/ to 74% with- out injuring the growth in the least. Knop grew a maize plant. with 140 ripe kernels in a medium so free from silicon that there was only a trace of it found in the root, but half a milligram in the stem, only 22 milligrams in the leaves, and none in the seed. Knop thought that the little that he found was due to dust. and was not present in the tissues. He says, “I believe that silica is not to be classed among the nutritive elements of the Graminew, since I have made similar observations in the analysis, of barley.” In experiments conducted by Sachs, Knop, Nobbe, and Siegert, Stohmann, Raute, Rautenberg and Kuhn, Birner and Lucanus, Leydbecker, Wolff and Hampe, it was, as far as possible, excluded from the food of plants grown in glass vessels, without. any injurious effects to the plants. A number of plants of different. species have been grown to full development without an appreci- able amount of it being present. Davy supposed that the function of silicon was to serve as a support to the plant as bones do to the body of an animal. But. we find that the proportion of silicon is not greatest in those parts which require the greatest strength. The analysis of the oat shows that the upper part of the stem and leaves contain more silicon than the lower part of the stem, which certainly requires to be the strongest. In the experiments above, the stem was not weakened in the least when grown without this. 7 FERTILIZERS ON SANDY SOIL—SMITH. I bo element. A sample of wheat straw was brought to our attention from New Annan, Colchester County, and the farmer complained that just at harvest time the straw, especially wheat, broke off just below the head, and that he lost a considerable amount of grain from this cause. When the straw was analysed it was found to contain a large percentage of silicon in the upper internode just below the head where it broke. Again the wood of our various trees is surely strong, but it possesses scarcely any ash, and of this ash only a small part is Silicon. The bark, however, which is so brittle and weak often possesses a large percentage. Of the volatile parts of the plant only a word is required. Plants obtain their nitrogen from the compounds in the soil. It is possible that the clover may obtain a little from sources that are not available to other plants, but it is not necessary to dis- cuss the point here. The most of our cultivated plants depend on nitrates and ammonia, and can possibly use one or two of the other forms of combined nitrogen in the soil. Of all the constituents of the plants mentioned above, only three are usually in such small quantities or in such insoluble forms in the soil that the plant cannot obtain them. In order to be unavailable to the plant, they must be locked up in quite insoluble forms, for the plant is able in a measure to make its own solution. It can undoubtedly dissolve out bases from the hydrated silicates, and, probably, also put double salts containing potassium or ammonia in solution. Double phosphates contain- ing alkalies are probably often soluble to the roots. Our soil is a sandy soil. These are held in bad favor by popular opinion. They are called leachy. They are said to possess all that a soil should not have, and none of those proper- ties which a soil should have. Fortunately their reputation is worse than they are. The effect of the application of fertilizers to them would be in the highest degree to increase the absorp- tive power for valuable constituents except nitrates. These it might be expected would be washed out of sandy soils more rapidly than from other soils. Every application of fertilizers would increase its absorptive power for other constituents. As to how far these plant foods are likely to be washed out again, 128 FERTILIZERS ON SANDY SOIL SMITH. is a subject for investigation, They should be in a very avail- able condition for the plant. Manure, when applied to such soils, would increase their retentive power for water, and by its decay in the soil might improve their physical and chemical properties immensely. PARE see WHAT DOES OUR SOIL REQUIRE ? The problems that presented themselves to us on taking pos- session of the farm for the School in the late fall of 1888 con- tained among others the following questions : — What plant foods are there in the soil ? How abundant, and how accessible to the plant ? Is the difference in demand made by the different crops shown by application of fertilizers ? In order to answer these questions, some experiments were un- dertaken as soon as we obtained possession of the farm. These were confined to Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium. In each application of fertilizer a shght excess over what it was thought would be required for the plant was used. The same amount of each was used when used together. Forty-two separate trials were made during the past two years, the results of which are recorded in this paper. Instead of giving the amount of the dif- ferent yields, I have reduced the increased yield to per cent. of increase over the unmanured plots. This enables us to compare the results one with another much more readily. The table gives the year, the crop, the fertilizer appled, and the per cent. increase. In each set of experiments the plots were treated exactly alike in every other respect. It will be observed that each ingredient increased the yield when applied alone, that as a rule, when two were applied together the inerease was greater than when a single ingredient was applied, but not double that of either, finally, that when three were applied, the increase was often over three times that caused by a single ingredient. The results from manure on potatoes are worthy of notice. FERTILIZERS ON SANDY SOIL—SMITH. 129 The Nitrogen was applied as Sodium Nitrate and as Ammo- nium Sulphate, Potassium as Potassium Sulphate and Chloride, Phosphorus as Mono-, Di- and Tricalcic Phosphates. TABLE I. Showing the per cent. of Increase of each Crop from the Appli- cation of different Fertilizers. Per Cent. Fertilizer. Crop. Year. Increase. Average. MINOR rss oe dae s < Potatoes ..1889 12.2 ) ce ime AS. 8 = 1890 8§= 6.8 17.4 I os Grass .. 1889 7.6 (: ee oe = .. 1890 43.5 (Shs Al hs) 6a ss . L889 ~ 9. i 200.8 CeO dial he ara % = L890 35: aie OMS i ene es Potatoes .1890 3.9 a, | suki a ee | Oats 2 1889 308 .... “30s RESO anaes es 4. es LOGO eld RAM toca cake ha Grass ... 1889 | 2.3 IO Nes tee ee ‘: . .1890 638) eS St ee eee ee Potatoes..1889 24. | 5 de Se ss . .1890 co) 3) OPPO es... 6615 1 889,500 1 a) . ees Oats. oe 1SeGids 10st al CHOPS 2. ee eee Te | pF DR Ang aed eteae Potatoes..1889 21.1 24.9 Se CASES EERE aE ws z ..1890 =. 20. r foe ag biscyeysy abocolys tte: 59% Grass). .|.. 1889 .; 32. EEE Foals oc: aie SOO) 4a 4 i NaNO; and K,SO, ..Potatoes..1890 31.7 — - a a patley” 7.380, LOus 20.7 " < se Oats: sea S89 RSA ¢ and CaH,P.OsPotatoes..1890 20. ) ef . Oats xe 889) yo8%9od) if Oil (NH,),.SO,and “ Potatoes..1890 11.2 11,2 ana. Kos. O,,, “ ..1890 4.2 4.2 NaNO, and Ca,P,0, “ .. 1889 5. “« and Ca H,P,O, Barley ..1890 14.4 . ia g ..1890 50. ) KepOgasakl. ache tos Oats.... 1889 21.5 iG e Barley ..».1880.,, 56. \ 48.1 : ss - 1850. “66.9 J 130 FERTILIZERS ON SANDY SOIL—SMITH. Per Cent. Fertilizer. Crop. Year. Increase. Average K.SO, and NaNO,...Grass ....1889 65.3 fe ce ae ..1890 155.8 Sf a .-Potatoes..1889 23. i ‘ RG ..1890 61.2 > 75.6 ms Oats, ....1889° S433 | . . » bakley, “. 1890) 2 Vet | , ‘ ppm - 1890" 107-7 é (NEL) SO)... a 1890 "814 i f . . Potatoes .. 1890 8. i 36.7 Farm manure ...... < ..1889 65.5 r ERR ES PAL ee t ..1880 38.7 if 5p Table I shows that the increase from Nitrates used alone averaged...... 17.4 Ammonia “ SE ON ea cae 14.4 Nitrates and Ammonia ¢ A) is) Potash , Ee ie foe ae 14.2 Phosphates oA 24.9 Nitrates and Potash nec Oem ‘: “ Phosphates we w koe 25.4 Ammonia and Potash Ns eye 4.2 . “ Phosphates Prk 5 - 11.2 Potash and Phosphates cw ss ae 48.1 Nitrates, Potash and Phosphates “ —........ 75.6 Ammonia, i Y a Be oe 36.7 Farm Yard Manure fT a ae eee 52k Of the three constituents, Phosphates gave the largest yield when used alone, Phosphates and Nitrates the largest yield of the two combined on potatoes, and Phosphates and Potash the largest yield on grains. Nitrates gave better results than Ammonia, either alone or in combination with the other fertilizers. These experiments have extended over about twenty-five acres of the farm, and have been repeated a number of times. They seem to indicate that — Our soil has a similar composition over the entire farm ; All the above constituents when applied increase its fertility ; Phosphates appear the most useful ; FERTILIZERS ON SANDY SOIL—SMITH. ist Nitrates are more valuable than ammonia It depends upon the crops as to the proportion of the different constituents to apply. Further tests are required to show — What constituents the respective crops require ; The effect of continued application of the three different fer- tilizers to the same soil; To confirm or correct indications. Nothing has been said of the relative profit of these fertilizers, as that has nothing to do with the problem before us. Some of them were, however, extremely profitable. XI.—ON THE VARIATION OF DENSITY WITH CONCENTRATION IN WEAK AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS OF COBALT AND NICKEL SULPHATES.—By A. M. Morrison, B. A. (Received July 25th, 1891. ) In a paper which I had the honor of reading before the Insti- tute last session,* I gave the results of a short series of observa- tions of the density of weak aqueous solutions of Cobalt Sulphate. The solutions used were prepared by mixing weighed quantities of water and of crystals of the salt, which, on what seemed to be satisfactory information, were taken to be heptahydrated crystals. The amounts of anhydrous salt present in the solu- tions used were calculated on this assumption. On comparing the differences between the specific volumes of these solutions and the volumes, in the free state, of their con- stituent water, with similar differences in the case of solutions of other sulphates, as determined by Prof. MacGregor,+ it was evi- dent that either the dilute solutions of this salt exhibited the phenomenon of contraction in a very remarkable manner, or that the information on which I relied as to the constitution of the crystals used was incorrect. I therefore made several careful chemical analyses of the crystals and found that they contained not seven but six molecules of water. This being so, the constitutions of the solutions whose densities are given in the paper referred to, are consequently inaccurately specified. I have therefore re-calculated them, and the results are given in the first two columns of the following table: * Trans. N.S. Inst. Nat. Sci., Vol. VII (1890) p. 480. { Trans, Roy. Soc. Can., Vol. VIII (1890) See. iii, p. 19. (132) DENSITY OF SOLUTIONS—MORRISON. loo Density at 20° C, Percentage of anhy- (Grms. per cu. cm.) drous Co SO4 in Difference. solution. Observed. Calculated. 0.6952 1.00552 1.00554 + 0.00002 1,6373 1.01533 1.01540 + 0.00007 1.8558 1.01766 1.01768 + 0.00002 2.5926 1.02541 1.02539 — 0.00002 2.9654 1.02954 1.02929 — 0.00025 5.38693 1.05498 8.5699 1.09047 These corrected results agree much more closely with Nicol’s* observation, which gave 1.04123 as the density at 20° C. of a so- lution, containing 4.1434 per cent. of the anhydrous salt, than the erroneous results formerly published. Graphical treatment of the above results gives 1.0418 as the density of Nicol’s solu- tion. They agree much less closely with Wagner’st result, which gave 1.0860 as the specific gravity of a solution containing 7.239 per cent. of salt. This observation was made at the tem- perature of the laboratory, which is not given in his paper. The temperature of the water to which his specific gravities are re- ferred is also not given, If we assume that the temperature of the laboratory was 15° C., and that the specific gravity given by him is referred to water at the same temperature, and if we further assume that the thermal expansion of the solution under consideration is practically the same as that of water, we find for the density (in grammes per cubic centimetre) of this solution at 20° C., the value 1.0841. My observations treated graphically give 1.0755 as the density of this solutiou. Probably, therefore, the above assumptions made in calculating Wagner’s density are not correct. * Phil. Mag., Ser. 5, Vol, XVI (1883) p. 122. + Wied, Ann., Bd, XVIII (1883) p. 269. 134 DENSITY OF SOLUTIONS—-MORRISON. Prof. MacGregor * having shown that in the case of a great many salts, the curves exhibiting the relation of the density of dilute solutions to their percentage composition, are practically (to the fourth decimal place of the density when it is expressed in grms. per cu. cm.), straight lines, I have thought it well to determine to what degree of concentration the same is true for solutions of this salt. I find that the first four of the above ob- servations may, to the fourth place of decimals, be represented by the formula — Dz) = 0.99827 + 0.01046 pp. where D,, is the density of solutions at 20° C., and p the percent- age of anhydrous salt in solution, 0.99827 being the density of water at 20° C. according to Volkmann.}+ The third column of the above table gives the densities of the first five solutions calculated by means of this formula, and the fourth column, the amounts by which the calculated values exceed the observed values. It will be seen that for solutions containing 2.6 or 2.7 per cent. of an- hydrous salt, or less, the curve referred to is, to the fourth place of decimals, a straight line. Nickel Sulphate. No observations of the density of very dilute solutions of Nickel Sulphate having, so far as I know, been made hitherto, I have made the few which were necessary to extend our know- ledge of the density of solutions of this salt to extreme degrees of dilution. The solutions were prepared and their composition and density determined in the way described in my former paper, referred to above. The results obtained are given in the first two columns of the following table : — * Trans. Roy. Soc. Can., Vol. VII, (1889), Sec. iii, p. 23. t Wied, Ann., Bd. XIV. (1881), p. 260. DENSITY OF SOLUTIONS—MORRISON. 135 Density at 20° C. Percentage of anhy- (Grms. per cu. cm.) drous Ni SOq in Difference. solution. amy oe ADT ie a | Observed. Calculated. 1.2512 1.01155 1.01158 + 0.00003 2.0799 1.02046 1.02040 — 0.00006 3.9633 1.04064 1.04044 — 0.00020 The only results by which we can check the above are Nicol’s single observation* and Favre and Valson’s series of observa- tions.+ Nicol found that a solution consisting of half a mole- cule of crystallised salt to 100 of water has, at 20° C., a specific gravity, relatively to water at 20° C., of 1.04296, or, as a simple calculation will show, that a solution containing 3.9711 per cent. of anhydrous salt has a density, in grms. per cu. cm., of 1.04116. Graphical treatment of my observations gives 1.0408 as the density of this solution. The weakest solution examined by Favre and Valson consisted of 14.05 parts of crystallised salt and 100 parts of water, and therefore contained 6.772 per cent. of anhydrous salt. The next weakest contained about twice this percentage. The densities of solutions so strong as these cannot be found by the aid of my observations above. But if a curve of densities versus percentage compositions be plotted by means of my observations and theirs combined, it shows no discontinu- ity between the two portions. The following formula represents to the fourth decimal place the densities of solutions of this salt up to a concentration of about 2.5 per cent. : — Dz = 0.99827 + 0.0164 p. The densities calculated by means of this formula are given in the third column of the above table, and the amounts by which * Phil. Mag., Ser. 5, Vol. XVI, (1883), p. 122. t Comp. Rend., T, LXXIX, p. 968. 136 DENSITY OF SOLUTIONS—MORRISON. the calculated values exceed the observed values are given in the fourth column. They will be seen to bear out this statement. It. may be well to note that the values of the constant multi- pliers of p in the two formule given above, that is, the values of the mean rate of change of density with concentration, through- out concentration ranges of from zero to about 2.5 per cent., in the case of these salts, are approximately the same. They are also approximately the same* as the same rates of change in the ease of zinc and magnesium sulphates, and not very different from those of iron, cadmium, copper, aluminium and other sulphates. * Trans. Roy. Soc. Can., Vol. VII, (1889), Sec. iii, p. 31. TRANSAOTIONS OF THE AMova Scotian Mnstitute of Science. SE DoLON, OF 1891-92; I—NOotTES ON CONCRETIONARY STRUCTURE 1N Various Rock FORMATIONS IN CANADA.—By T. C. WESTON, OF THE GEO- LOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA.* (Read Nov. 9th, 1891.) Many times between the years 1860-70 the late Sir Wim. E. Logan, and subsequently Dr. Selwyn, called my attention to certain concretionary forms found in the gold-bearing rocks of Nova Scotia. Some of these seemed to be organic, and I was requested to make and examine microscopic sections of them. In treating several of these with acid, they proved to be com- posed chiefly of dolomite, with a large proportion of siliceous matter, and generally a little iron pyrites, which formed a nucleus. In 1890 a number of similar forms were found by Mr. Willis in the rocks of the Northup Gold mines, Rawdon, Nova Scotia. They were handed to Professor Hind, who supposed them to be fossils, and assigned them to Lower Silurian age. Wishing the “judgment of a specialist,’ he gave them to Professor Kennedy, of King’s College, who confirmed Professor Hind’s opinion and pronounced the fossils to be Stromatopora. Mr. Fletcher and Mr. Faribault, of the Geological Survey, while in the vicinity * Communicated by permission of the Director of the Geological Survey of Canada. 138 CONCRETIONARY STRUCTURE IN ROCKS—WESTON. where this discovery was made, visited the mines, and brought away a number of these so-called fossils. They were given to me by Dr. Selwyn, director of the Dominion Geological Survey, for microscopic examination; and, I regret to say, the result is precisely the same as for those examined thirty years ago. They appear to be composed of dolomite, and, when dissolved in hydrochloric acid, leave a good percentage of insoluble matter, probably felspar and silica. It is likely that they were spheroidal or ovoidal in form before being flattened by the pressure of overlying beds. One of the specimens before me is a piece of greenish-grey laminated mica-schist five inches long and one inch thick. Inclosed in this are four of these concre- tionary forms broken through the centre, each measuring one inch in length and half an inch in breadth. ‘Two of these are connected with each other by a thin strip of the material of which they are composed. DOLOMITIC CONCRETIONS IN GOLD-BEARING Rocks OF NOVA SCOTIA, In broken sections some of these bodies show shght concen- tric layers which in microscopic sections are not seen. Nota trace of organic structure was found. I quite agree with Professors Hind and Kennedy as to the importance of finding fossils in the auriferous rocks of Nova Scotia, and trust they have been more fortunate than I It is well known that concretions occur in all rock formations. One or two instances will be worth recording to show how eare- CONCRETIONARY STRUCTURE IN ROCKS—WESTON. 139 ful one should be in referring any forms of a concretionary nature to organic structure. About the year 1863, forms with a decided concretionary aspect were found in the Huronian rocks of St. John’s, New- foundland. (The label on the specimen now in the geological museum, Ottawa, gives the exact locality, but not the date.) They were at once pronounced to be fossils, and even referred to the genus Oldhamia, having a slight resemblance to O. radiata of the Cambrian rocks of Ireland. A number of pieces of green argillite with these markings were sent to Sir Wm. Logan for examination. I was instructed to slice and examine them with the microscope, but before doing so ventured to tell Sir William that they were only concretions, and that, moreover, they lay transverse to the bedding of the rock. He was much vexed and showed a long paragraph about them which had appeared in one of the Newfoundland papers. Much to the disappoint- ment of the discoverer of these supposed wonderful fossils, they were only concretions. CONCRETIONS IN HURONIAN Rocks OF NEWFOUNDLAND. Similar forms can be seen in the Potsdam rocks on the coast of Labrador, and in the red slates and argillites on some of the small islands in the St Lawrence River. 140 CONCRETIONARY STRUCTURE IN ROCKS—WESTON. In 1870 Dr. Selwyn found in the grey auriferous slates at the Ovens Bluffs in Lunenburg County, Nova Scotia, certain fucoidal markings which Mr. Billings, paleontologist to the Geological Survey, regarded as belonging to the genus Hophyton (Geological TREE-LIKE CONCRETIONS AT KINGSTON, ONT. Survey Report, 1870-71, page 269). Mr. G. F. Matthew describes similar markings from the Cambrian rocks of St. John, N. B., as being produced by some animal (Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada, Vol. IIL, page 150). The Ovens specimens he refers doubtfully to the genus Ctenichnites. But, whether they are plants or tracks, CONCRETIONARY STRUCTURE IN ROCKS—WESTON. 141 it is an interesting discovery which should urge those working among the gold-bearing slates of Nova Scotia to a diligent search for organic forms. At Dr. Selwyn’s request, the writer spent several weeks among the gold-bearing slates of St. Mary River, the Ovens, and other localities in Nova Scotia. At Cape St. Mary, concretionary forms such as those from the Northup mines, only very much flattened, some to the eighth of an inch in thickness, were seen. Many were broken open and carefully examined, but no trace of organic structure was found. In the Cambrian sandstones (Potsdam), on the banks of the Rideau Canal, near Kingston, Ont., large cylindrical trunk-like Ess EE, = = ae Ge it SECTION OF WEATHERED SPECIMEN. concretions stand erect transverse to the bedding of the deposit. Some of these are from ten to twenty feet in height. (See figure, p- 140.) Dr. Selwyn visited these so-called fossil trees, and 142 CONCRETIONARY STRUCTURE IN ROCKS—WESTON. caused a section of one four feet in diameter to be sent to the museum in Ottawa. The writer also saw these singular bodies, and assisted in getting good photographs of them. Weathered transverse sections show well-defined concentric rings of various colors, measuring from the eighth of an inch to three inches in thick- ness, but there are no radial lines. (See figure, p. 141.) The people in the vicinity of the quarries where these trunk-like forms are found were much disappointed when told by Dr. Selwyn that they were only concretions. On the other hand, many of the fossils found in the Chazy and Trenton formations of Ottawa were at one time supposed to be concretions, but are now known to belong to the family of the Monticuliporide (Micro-Paleontology, by Arthur H. Foord, page 24, plate VI.). It is, therefore, important that all such nodular or concretionary-looking forms from the auriferous slates of Nova Scotia should be microscopically examined before coming to the conclusion that they are organic remains, and especially before assigning names to what on thorough examina- tion turns out to be of inorganic origin. Il—EVIDENCE OF THE POST-GLACIAL EXTENSION OF THE SOUTHERN Coast OF Nova Scotra.—By W. H. PREST. (Read Feb. Sth, 1892.) AT various points on our southern coast are deposits of peat and marsh mud below high water mark. These often contain roots and stumps of trees now existing in this Province, and, by their position and by other circumstances, point conclusively to a late subsidence of the land. Similar deposits have been referred to by geologists as exist- ing on the coast of Cumberland County, and the same conclusion has been drawn from their occurrence there. Iwill here give further evidence which may be of value in future investiga- tions. Below Black Point, at the mouth of the Liverpool River, Queens County, is a deposit of black mud containing roots of bushes. In some places the mud, nearly one foot thick, has been washed away by the force of the waves, disclosing the angular rocks beneath, which show no appearance of ever having been part of a sea beach. The marsh has now a covering of sea shells, and is daily washed by the tides. On the coast at Black Rocks, south-east of Lunenburg, is another deposit of peat and mud containing tree stumps and roots. This peat bed is situated in a deep gulch or valley at the head of a cove, and is several feet deep. It is underlaid on each side of the guleh by what is probably a beach of sand and gravel, and overlaid by a slight deposit of sand and sea shells. Whether the underlying beach is of marine or fluviatile origin I am not prepared to say, but the surface of the peat is washed daily by the tides. The following section will fairly illustrate the subject : 1. Cambrian slates. stoi Seon Sand and gravel. 3. Peat and mud, containing tree stumps. (143) 144 POST-GLACIAL EXTENSION OF SOUTHERN That these stumps have grown where they are now embedded is indisputable, as they cannot possibly be accounted for by a land-slide. The contour of the neighbouring surface is totally opposed to it. The valley is surrounded by clifts and rocky hill- sides, and contracts at its upper end into a narrow rocky gulch, so that the present position of the stumps is the only place where vegetation could have thriven and peat have been formed. The stumps are much decayed and worn level with the surface of the bog, but are still complete enough to show that they are indigenous to this spot. At the mouth of Broad River, in Queens County, behind a sand bank, is a large depression which at low tide is a marsh containing a pond one quarter of a mile long. At high tide it is alake. The oldest settlers say that sixty years ago, this place was a Swamp covered with forest. The partly decayed stumps and roots now found at low tide attest to the truth of the story. At Catherine River, east of Port Joli, in the same County, a large tract of salt marsh was dyked, and a new river channel cut. This channel, although cut through soil periodically cover- ed by the tides, reveals several feet below the surface abundance of partly decayed roots, stumps and logs. The existence of a forest at this place seems to be beyond the memory of the oldest inhabitant and I have failed to secure any tradition re- lating to it. At Port Mouton, also, as well as other places around our coasts, deposits of peat containing logs, roots and stumps are seen at low tide. In Prince Edward Island, a short distance above the city of Charlottetown, there is to be seen at low tide a considerable deposit of peat and marsh mud containing the stumps and roots of immense trees larger than any I have ever seen on the Island. These stumps have been worn down and are gradually becoming covered with sand. On the south shore of Cascumpee Bay is a vast bed of peat known as “ Black Bank.” It is the result of the growth of a species of peat moss denominated “Sphagnum.” The contents of this bog have been estimated at 14,080,000 cubic yards. With COAST OF NOVA SCOTIA—PREST. 145 it is seen the usual accompaniment of tree roots, some of which are in a perfect state of preservation. One layer of roots is seen below low water mark. A section of this bog twelve feet high is ex- posed on a point, and, even at that height, the waves during storms reach its very top. The decrease in size of this bog must: already have been considerable, as it is well known that the deposits are thin at the edges. A like deposit, but of far less extent, is seen at Lennox or Indian Island in Richmond Bay. It is supposed to have an average depth of seven feet, and the tide reaches within three feet of the top. At low tide stumps and roots are seen here as elsewhere. At Gallas Point and other places in Orwell Bay, tree stumps apparently rooted in the marshes in which they grew, are seen five feet below high water mark. Those accumulations, once, undoubtedly, on a much higher level have been recently sub- merged, so that the sea is continually working upon them. The above details are, I believe, entered in a published report on the Geology of Prince Edward Island. I mention this to show that in the neighbouring Provinces also a gradual subsidence is now going on. There are, undoubtedly, numerous other places along our coasts where it is apparent that peat bogs and forests are being slowly engulfed by the ever-advancing sea. A sum- mary of this class of evidence seems to show that there has been a very recent (geologically speaking) subsidence of the Maritime Provinces. This subsidence must have been at least eight or ten feet, for in order to protect and promote the growth of vegeta- tion, the surface must not only be above the highest tides, but must be beyond the reach of the sand and stones thrown up by storms, especially in an exposed situation lke Black Point. Unfortunately we have no means of determining the time in the case of subsidence as we have in the case of elevation, all evi- dence being swallowed by the ever-restless sea. At Musquodoboit Harbor, Halifax Co. when the tide is low and the water placid, is seen a deep and narrow channel extending through the surrounding flats to the sea. This channel is walled with cliffs of solid rock in some places almost perpen- 146 POST-GLACIAL EXTENSION OF SOUTHERN dicular, and may be seen at various places throughout the Har- bour. At the head of the Harbour where the Musquodoboit River enters, the channel is extended by a like depression and steeply escarped rocks. This last is seemingly a simple continu- ation of the defile below, and a glance at the steep parapets a short distance above tells the story of its formation. Like Niagara, it has been apparently for many thousands of years subject to the undermining and eroding influences of the swiftly flowing river. Ages ago after the last recession of the continen- tal ice fields it probably began its work, which resulted in the present almost perpendicular cliffs, and ages hence should the same influences be still at work, time, if not man, will witness the retreat of the steep rapids and their present position occupied by a deep defile resembling the one below. The formation of this river gorge, I have ascribed to what seems to me the most efficient and probable cause, supported by similar evidence on the LaHave, East, Sutherland and numerous other rivers. That it was formed since the glacial age, the cliff tops glaciated to the edges which are yet angular and unworn, seem to prove. That it was not formed by the sea is evinced by its tortuous course through the surrounding hills, preventing the possibility of powerful action at the foot of the cliffs. That it is not an enlarged fissure is demonstrated by the undisturbed state of the slate and quartzite strata through which it is cut. Thus we are left to accept the formative influences first detailed as the most reasonable and effective cause of its conformation. Now to apply this argument where it rightfully belongs I may say that the Harbour channel is an exact counterpart in almost every particular of the river channel. Its surroundings, tortuous course, conformation and geological structure are the same, but while the harbour channel is fringed with water- covered mud and sand flats, the river flows through dry land. However, the inference forced upon us seems to be the same, viz., that the harbour channel was excavated by the river at a time when the land was at least thirty feet higher, and the mouth of the river seven miles farther south than it is at present. To pursue the subject still further some credence may perhaps COAST OF NOVA SCOTIA—PREST. 147 be given to the theory that the granite boulder dredged by the Challenger one hundred miles off the coast denotes the extension of glaciers and consequent existence of land that much farther south. Speculations regarding the time when this doubtful southern extension of glaciers took place might not be altogether futile if we only knew the rate of deposition on that part of the sea bottom. No doubt the above mentioned boulder was on the sur- face or within a few inches of the surface of the mud or clay composing the bottom, and the inference drawn from these facts will be, that either the annual deposition is inconceivably small or that the boulder was dropped from a passing iceberg long subsequent to the great ice age. As to the time when the Musquodoboit River began to excav- ate its channel, an approximate estimate might be made, provid- the rate of erosion were known. The rock is a hard quartzite and slate, and with only the now existing denuding agencies its excavation would be a work of many thousand years. To take Sir Charles Lyell’s calculations for the much softer rocks of the Niagara, which is I think 33,000 years, we may arrive at a very rough approximation. But as his figures have been often disputed, we must rest content in the belief that many thousand years ago our sea coast extended much further south, and that had it remained so, Halifax would never have been the chief Naval Port of the British North American squadron. Art, IJ]. —ON THE VISIBILITY OF VENUS TO THE NAKED EYE.— By PrinctpaL A. CAMERON, YARMOUTH. (Read May 9th, 1892.) ASTRONOMERS tell us that Venus is always visible through the telescope. Not always from any one station on the earth’s sur- face, because of course she cannot be seen when below the horizon ; but always from somewhere on the earth, and always. from any given place while she is above the horizon of that. place and in a clear sky. When these two conditions are satis- tied the telescope will show Venus whether the time be noon or night and whether the planet be at greatest elongation or at either conjunction—barring only those rare occasions when she passes directly behind the sun at superior conjunction. So, if one has a telescope, he may see Venus every day in the year,—weather permitting of course, which is a very impor- tant practical consideration and must always be so in such mat- ters until our meteorologists get the whip hand of the weather fiend and make him keep his clouds out of the way. If, how- ever, one has no telescope, nor any other optical instrument ex- cept the naked eye, on how many days of the year may he see Venus? This is a question which every star-gazer finds him-- self asking at times; and closely connected with it is this other one, When and for how long a period can Venus be seen in the day time with the naked eye / These questions form the subject of this paper, which may be described as a contribution towards procuring answers to them. When I first became interested in them I sought for answers in the pages of astronomical books and periodicals and by sending letters of inquiry to astronomers, but these methods of research proved fruitless. Then I applied to Venus herself, and jotted down the bits of information which from time to time she was kind enough to give me. After I had been at this for a year or two I learned that M. Bruguiere of Marseilles had been engaged 148 ON THE VISIBILITY OF VENUS—CAMERON. 149 on the very same work for several years and had made and _ re- corded a large number of observations. These he was good enough to send me, and in this paper I have made use of them as well as of my own and of any others that I have been able to lay hands on. As seen from the earth, Venus completes a revolution around the sun in 584 days. During one half of this time she is even- ing star, and during the other half morning star. By way of a few preliminary and explanatory remarks, let us consider her motion and the various changes she undergoes during the 292 days of her season as evening star, and for the sake of sim- plicity let us suppose that both she and the earth are at their mean distances from the sun. Both orbits differ but very little from circles, and the results got from considering only the mean distance will be quite correct enough for the present purpose. At the beginning of an evening star season Venus is in superior conjunction on the further side of the sun from us, and is in the same part of the sky as the sun is. She cannot then be seen by day because she is hidden in the sun’s rays, and she cannot be seen in the evening because she sets at sunset. After superior conjunction she moves off to the east of the sun. In 39 days she is 10° away, in 78 days 20°, in 120 days 30°, in 166 days 40°, and 220 days after superior conjunction she reaches her greatest elongation of 46° 20. Only 72 days are left for her to get back, less than a third of the time she takes to swing out. Half of the 72 days are used up in work- ing back to 40°, 14 days more to 30°, 9 days more to 20°, and in another 13 days she is again in line with the sun, this time on the hither side of him and in inferior conjunction. In so far then as her visibility depends on her elongation, it is apparent that she can be seen at a shorter interval of time from inferior than from superior conjunction. It is always perfectly easy to see her when 20° out, and if this were the limit of her visi- bility we would have to wait 78 days after superior conjunction before getting a glimpse of her, but we could see her every evening after that until 13 days before inferior conjunction, 150 ON THE VISIBILITY OF VENUS—CAMERON, While her elongation is changing, her brilliancy is changing also. At greatest elongation she is three times as bright as at. superior conjunction. This does not mean that it is only three times as easy to see her in the former position as in the latter— it is infinitely more easy to do so. No eye can see her in the one case, and no eye can fail to see her in the other. What is called brilliancy is a something quite independent of elongation, and it is lack of elongation and no lack of brilliancy that makes Venus invisible at superior conjunction. If, when at superior conjunction, she had the brilliancy which she has at greatest elongation, she would still be invisible to the naked eye; and if, when at greatest elongation, she had only the brilliancy of superior conjunction, she would still be the brightest gem in the sky. The actual brilliancy at any moment depends on several con- ditions, some physical and others geometrical. Of the physical conditions we know too little to be able to make them the subjects of calculation; but from the geometrical conditions we can calculate the relative theoretical brilliancy for any position in her orbit, and this is found to agree quite well, as a general rule, with the actual observed brilliancy. These geometrical conditions are three in number: the distance of the planet from the sun, the distance of the planet from the earth, and the phase of the planet—that is, the illuminated part of its disc. To get a general idea of the changes in Venus’s brilliancy, we may, as before, suppose her to be always at her mean distance from the sun, and then the changes will depend only on her distance from the earth and her phase. It will be convenient also to select some standard in terms of which to express her different brilliancies. For this I shall take her greatest brilliancy as it always would be if both she and the earth were always at their mean distances and if the reflective powers of all parts of the surface of Venus were equal and constant, and I shall use the number 100 as the value of this mean greatest brilliancy. At superior conjunction she presents the same face to the earth as she does to the sun, so that the value of her phase is 1 —she is “full,” as we say of the moon. But her distance from ON THE VISIBILITY OF VENUS—CAMERON. 151 the earth is then so much greater than when she is brightest that her brilliancy is only 24. As she moves out from superior con- junction her distance decreases, and so does her phase; but the in- crease of brilliancy due to the decrease of distance is greater than the decrease of brillianecy due to the lessening phase, and so she erows gradually brighter. When she reaches greatest elongation, her distance is only V+ of what it was at superior conjunction ; and as brilliancy varies inversely as the square of the distance, “it would now be six times what it was at superior conjunction if the phase remained full. But at greatest elongation the phase is only $—Venus looks now like a half moon in the teleseope— and so the brilliancy is only three times as great as at superior conjunction ; more precisely, the value in terms of our standard is now 73. Not 100 yet, for Venus is not brightest when she is farthest from the sun in the sky. For five weeks after she begins her inward swing her brightness continues to increase and reaches its maximum value of 100 when she gets back to elongation 40.° This happens 256 days after superior conjunction and only 36 days before inferior conjunction, and when the phase is just about }. The decrease of brilliancy due to the lessening phase is henceforth greater than the increase due to the shortening dis- tance, and the brilliancy goes down, and at a much swifter rate than it went up. In 16 days it goes down to where it was at greatest elongation; in 12 days more it is down to where it was at superior conjunction. Thus in the 27 days after greatest brilliancy Venus loses all the increase she gained in the 256 days before. Nine days later she is at inferior conjunction, and phase and brilliancy are each 0. This last statement is strictly true only when she makes a transit across the sun’s face; at all other inferior conjunctions she appears in the telescope as a very thin crescent,—a inere thread of light—a little north or south of the sun. Besides elongation and brilliancy, there is one other condition that affects the visibility of Venus, viz, her declination. In northern latitudes the farther north she is, the higher she rises, and the easier it is to see her in daylight. For observation in 52 ON THE VISIBILITY OF VENUS—CAMERON. the evening about the time that the other conditions are begin- ning or ceasing to be favorable, it is not so much her absolute declination that is important as the difference between hers and that of the sun. The longer the interval of time between sunset and the setting of Venus, the easier it is to pick her up at these critical seasons ; and the length of this interval depends not only on the elongation, but also on this difference of declination. When Venus is farther north than the sun the interval is longer than that due to elongation, and when farther south it is shorter. When the elongation is 15° and the declination of both objects is 0°, the planet will set an hour after sunset; but if her declina- tion were then 5° north she would remain above the horizon in this latitude a quarter of an hour longer, if 5° south a quarter of an hour shorter. All of the above is just as true for the morning star season as for the evening star season if allowance be made for the fact that in the former case the season begins with inferior conjunction and ends with superior conjunction, instead of vice versa as in the case considered. And now to answer the questions which form the subject of my paper, so far as the observations in hand admit of their being answered, In giving the particulars of elongation, brilliancy, etc., in connection with the observations, the hypothesis of mean distances used in the above prefatory matter is no longer retained. The actual distances of hoth Earth and Venus for each date, as given in the Nautical Almanac, are the ones that have been used. In the matter of brilhancy the same standard is used as above, and each value given is a percentage of the mean greatest brilianey. All hours mentioned in the paper are standard time of the 60th meridian W. Long. I have said that it is always perfectly easy to see Venus with the naked eye when her elongation from the sun is equal to or greater than 20°, and that this happens on the average at an interval of 78 days from superior conjunction and 13 days from ON THE VISIBILITY OF VENUS—CAMERON. 153 inferior conjunction. If this were the limit of eye-visibility there would be 91 days out of every 292 during which she would be invisible, and 200 during which she would be visible. If then there are any eyes so poor that they can’t see Venus when nearer than 20° to the sun, even those eyes can see her for more than two-thirds of the time, that is for eight months out of every twelve on the average. I have no particular reason for selecting 20° elongation as the upper limit of perfectly easy visibility except that 20 is a nice round number, and that something of this sort may be found convenient to refer to afterwards. As to the “ perfectly easy” character affirmed of Venus in this position, that is a matter that every one can verify for himself. The first opportunity to do so will occur on the evening of June 25, and the next on the morn- ing of July 22 this year. On these dates Venus will be 20° out from inferior conjunction. This is the easier of the two 20° positions. In general the phase is then only ,j; but the brilliancy is 45. At 20° from superior conjunction the phase is, in general, i, but the brilliancy is only 27. The first opportunity for an observation of this last kind will occur on the morning of February 10, and the next on the evening of July 14, 1893. Our business now is to see how much nearer to conjnnection than 20° the naked eye can see Venus, and at how small a phase and how low a brilliancy. I shall take up the observations near superior conjunction first. In 1888 Venus was in superior conjunction on July 11. About a month later I began trying to pick her out in the sunset sky, but the weather was against me and it was August 23 before I got the first glimpse of her. That was 43 days after conjunction. The elongation was then 12}°, the phase *, and the brilliancy 24.4. The observation was made at 7.30 p.m., 15 minutes after the sun had dropped below the sea-horizon and when Venus was 3 above it. I learned afterwards that M. Bruguiere had seen her at Marseilles on August 12. This was only 32 days after 9 154 ON THE VISIBILITY OF VENUS—CAMERON. 99 conjunction, when the elongation was 9°, the phase ;; and the brilhancy 24. Here we are already well within the 20° and 78-day limit, even with my 43-day and 12° observation, to say nothing of M. Bruguiere’s still better one. As to mine, it was easy enough to imake, any one might have made it if he had happened to be looking that way at that time. It was the result of a mere ran- dom search, for I had not prepared myself by any previous ob- servations of sun or stars to know the exact spot in my sky where Venus would be at the time. I felt sure that the 43 days and the 12° could be cut down considerably, but I had to wait a year and a half before there was another chance to try. The next superior conjunction occurred in 1890 on February 18 at 7am. There is, of course, an opportunity before as well as after each conjunction to try how close to conjunction one can push his observations, and, if other things were equal, the betore one would be the better of the two; for the observer would have each day's observation to help him in making that of next day. But other things are not equal. It is not that there is any difference in the astronomical or other conditions of the thing observed, the difference arises from the personal habits of the observer. Observations of Venus before superior conjunction have to be made in the morning before sunrise; after superior conjunction, in the evening after sunset; and under the social conditions of modern life the latter can be made much more con- veniently and comfortably than the former. Some time or other —perhaps before next superior conjunction in the spring of 1893 —I may make up my mind (and my body) to try what can be done by morning observations, but I have nothing of that sort as yet that is worth recording in the present connection. And M. Bruguiere seems to be in much the same condition. The best: observation made before superior conjunction that I find in his list is that of December 15, 1889, 65 days before the conjunction of February 18, 1890. Three weeks after this conjunction, on March 10, I made my first attempt to catch Venus in the evening, but did not sueceed. The next five days were cloudy. But the next (March 16) was ON THE VISIBILITY OF VENUS—CAMERON. 155 clear, and, having determined by a sun-observation that about 10 minutes after sunset Venus should be close to a certain chim- ney on a neighbouring house, I looked there at that time and saw her. A note made at the time says, “6.30 sun’s centre in horizon, 6.42 Venus distinctly with eye.” This was 26} days after superior conjunction, the elongation was 63°, the phase ,%, the brilliancy 24. This is the best observation I know of near superior conjunction, and is the best near either conjunction so far as smallness of elongation is concerned. It might have been even better, had it not been for the cloudy evenings on the previous five days. At Marseilles the weather was much worse than here, and it was not until two months later that M. Bruguiere got his first eye-glimpse of Venus after this superior conjunction. The next one, and the last one to date, occurred at noon on September 18,1891. The earliest observation after it that I have heard of was made by Miss Beatrice Tooker of Yarmouth on October 17, 29 days after conjunction ; but this was with an opera-glass and so we can't count it here. The declination con- ditions were not as favorable for early eye-observations as on the previous occasion, and iny eyes were not in good condition at the time for looking into a sunset sky. Asa matter of fact I did not look for Venus at all until the evening of November 9, 52 days after conjunction, and by that time of course she showed up at once, and only five minutes after the sun’s upper limb had disappeared below the horizon. There is quite enough evidence here, I think, to show that our provisional limit of 20° and 78 days can be reduced a good deal. It would perhaps be going too far to say, on the faith of my observation of March 16, 1890, that we can always see Venus in clear weather when only 26 days and 6° out from superior con- junction ; and yet that observation was the only one of mine, made near this conjunction, that gave Venus a fair chance to show what she could really do for us in this line. To be quite safe, however, let us allow a liberal margin of 50 per cent. or so to cover adverse declination conditions, and we shall have as 156 ON THE VISIBILITY OF VENUS—CAMERON. a general limit near superior conjunction an interval of 40 days and an elongation of 10°. Thus no one who wishes to have a daily glimpse of Venus need wait longer than 40 days after superior conjunction to begin having it, and in favorable con- ditions he may hope to be able to begin as early perhaps as 20 days after. Having once begun, the daily glimpse may be con- tinued, weather permitting, for the next eight months or more, until Venus gets near inferior conjunction. Nearer than 13 days certainly, for that is the interval of time that corresponds here to an elongation of 20°; and we have already found this elongation to be quite unnecessarily large in the case of superior conjunction, although there the brillianey is only ; of what it is at 20° out from inferior conjunction. Let us now see how near to inferior conjunction the observa- tions at hand show that Venus can be seen. Owing to several unfortunate circumstances I have never been able to do justice to Venus near any of these conjunctions. Be- fore them, the sky has been cloudy or the early evenings have been required for other engagements; after them, the early mornings have been passed in the unconscious condition and the horizontal position common to most of us at those hours. As will be seen presently, this last unfortunate circumstance seems to have affected other observers as well as myself, and to it may be largely attributed the fact that there are no observations as near to inferior conjunction after it as there are before it. Then there is the other disadvantage already mentioned in connectien with observations made after superior conjunction ; at such a time the observer has no previous day’s observation of the same object to help him in selecting the right spot in the sky to look at. He can get over this of course by taking observations of stars hav- ing the same declination and the same hour-angle as the planet to be observed, but there still remains the other disadvantage of the inconvenient and uncomfortable hour at which planets must be caught early after passing to the west side of the sun. The only observation of mine after inferior conjunction that I have kept a record of was made after an interval of 184 days ON THE VISIBILITY OF VENUS—CAMERON. 157 when Venus was 26° out from the sun. It would be absurd to accept this as anything like a limit of visibility for this position. The observation was made at mid-day, and it was a purely ran- dom one to boot—not a bit of preparation had been made for it. Venus was then so bright as to be readily seen by a couple of friends who were prepared a minute before to swear that it was utterly impossible to see her with the naked eye at such a time. The date was May 19, 1889. M. Bruguiere saw her two days earlier, on May 17, and his was probably also a midday observation. After the next inferior conjunction on December 4, 1890, he cut his own record down two days by seeing her on December 18 when she was 14 days out. I don’t know at what time of the day this observation was made, but I would not be at all surprised to learn that it too was a noon one. Nothing less than 13 days yet, and perhaps it may be thought ‘that it was too rash to pooh-pooh that interval as unnecessarily large for this position. The mere absence of observations made at uncomfortably early hours would not, however, prove that they could not be made; but it fortunately happens that there is no need to urge this plea. December 13, 1890, was the ninth day after the last inferior conjunction. Half an hour before sunrise on that morning Venus was seen with the naked eye by Miss Katharine Travis, of Hampton, N. B. The elongation was then 15°, the phase ,%, and the brilliancy 28. This is the best observation I know of after inferior conjunction. I hope some of our early-rising star-gazers will better it after the next one on July 9 this year. Much better has been done at the more convenient season hefore inferior conjunction. But not by me. My best observa- tion of this kind was made 8 days hefore the conjunction of April 30, 1889, on the evening of the 22nd. The elongation was nearly 144°, the phase ,j, and the brilhancy 23. Every evening after that until conjunction was cloudy or foggy; indeed, that evening was cloudy too, and it was only through a break in the clouds that she managed to let herself be seen for a minute or 158 ON THE VISIBILITY OF VENUS—CAMERON. two about a quarter of an hour before sunset,—before sunset not * after. She looked bright enough to be good for three or four evenings yet, if the clouds or fog would only let her through. At Marseilles the skies were clearer then, and M. Bruguiere got his last glimpse of her on the 27th, five days later than mine- At what time of the day I don’t know, but as he counts it four days (instead of three) before conjunction, I think it must have been early in the day and probably about noon. In his longi- tude the time of conjunction was 2 a.m on May 1, so his obser- vation could not very well be more than 34 days before. That is the closest in point of time that I know of. The elongation for Greenwich noon on the 27th was 72°, the phase less than ,y, and the brilliancy only 6.9. He succeeded in holding her again until about 44 days before the last inferior conjunction in December 1890, and though the elongation was then nearly 9”, the phase was a little less than before—}# of ,,, only,—and the brilianey was only 6.5. In smallness of phase and lowness of brillianey this is the very best of all the observations that Ihave a record of, and it is probably as good as can be done. If any one cares to try to equal or better it, the first week in July will afford an opportunity to do so if the weather permits. Perhaps it may be as well to collect into a couple of sentences the three or four chief facts mentioned above. Venus’s last complete season as evening-star began with the superior conjunction of February 18, 1890, and ended with the inferior conjunction of December 4, in the same year, lasting for a period of 290 days. I saw her with my naked eye as early as March 16, 263 days after superior conjunction, and M. Bruguiere saw her (in the same latitude) with his naked eye as late as November 29, 44 days before inferior conjunction ; so she was visible to the naked eye during that season on 259 days, that is, on 89 days out of 100. When I saw her first in March she was only 64° distant from the sun’s centre, when M. Bruguiere saw her last in November the brilliancy was only 63 per cent. of her mean greatest brilliancy. There is no reason why as good, if not a better, showing could ON THE VISIBILITY OF VENUS—CAMERON. 159 not be made for one of her morning-star seasons if some one would only take the trouble to turn out in the mornings and make the necessary observations at the beginning and end of the season. So far, I have dealt with only one of the two questions that I proposed to treat when beginning to write, but the paper is already longer for the one subject than I hoped to make it for both. The second—as to the visibility of Venus to the naked eye in daylight—is the more interesting of the two, but it must stand over for the present. I may just say, however, that I have learned from Venus herself that it is not at all a rare or extra- ordinary thing to see her with the eye in broad daylight, and that no keen powers of vision are needed to see her so, On every clear day this year so far she could have been seen even at noon by any eye of average quality that knew where to look for her; and the same sight may be had by the same kind of eye on every clear day from now till the end of the year, except- ing only a fortnight or so in July. IV.—List oF LocaLiriEs FOR TRAP MINERALS IN Nova Scoria.* By THE LATE REv. THoMAS McCuLtocu, D. D., President, and Professor of Moral Philosophy, Logic and Rhetoric, in Dalhousie University. (Read 14th December, 1891. ) TRAP DISTRICT. LOCALITIES FOR MINERALS. St. Mary’s Bay. Little River, Mink Cove. Jasper in varieties. Lamellar quartz, with caleareous spar. White diabasie in geodes of quartz. Magnetic iron ore, Onward to Sandy Cove. Geodes of quartz ‘in jasper, transparent. Geodes with amethyst, various shades. Geodes with quartz, amethyst, and chabasie. Lamellar quartz with calcareous spar in cavities. Red, yellow and striped jasper in fissures. Sandy Cove. Stilbite in geodes of chalcedony. Quartz crystals, fine. Specular iron ore, brilliant, Ditto, embedded in limpid chalcedony. Ditto, in transparent chabasie. Ditto, with quartz and calcareous spar. * This is a very old list, and was found recently among the Museum specimens of the McCulloch Collection, presented to Dalhousie College by the Rev. William McCulloch, D. D., of Truro, The original manuscript bears neither date nor author’s name, but, on its being forwarded to Rev. Dr. W. McCniloch, to ascertain if it was in his father’s hand-writing, he replied: ‘‘ You are right about the document enclosed. I had given it up as lost. It is in my father’s hand, though the work was the joint labour of my father and brother Thomas, running over years.’—GRORGE LAWSON. 160 TRAP MINERALS IN NOVA SCOTIA—M‘CULLOCH. 161 Cale spar. Laumonite, beautiful crystals. Ditto, | with calcareous spar in fissures. Ditto, — with fine specular iron ore. Agates. Chalcedony. Needlestone. Quartz in veins—also disengaged. Hastward a mile. Specular iron ore, in rhombic erystals, plates and scales, best: in disintegrated amygdaloid or friable black wad. Magnetic iron ore. Outer Sandy Cove, Bay of Fundy. Jasper, red. Ditto, fine red and yellow cemented by quartz and amethyst. Geodes of quartz and amethyst. Ditto, amethyst. Agates, fine, in nodules and large tables, on the shore. Agates, brecciated. Hornstone. Chalcedony. St. Mary’s Bay, eastward Agates, tine varieties. Jasper. Chalcedony. Amethyst. (Quartz. Hornstone. Calcareous spar. Jasper, amethyst and chalcedony united. Geodes of amethyst. Cat’s eye chalcedony. Specular iron ore. 162 TRAP MINERALS IN NOVA SCOTIA—M CULLOCH. Titus Hill, St. M. Bay. Striped jasper. Jasper, cemented by chalcedony. Ditto, hollow, with stalactites of quartz and jasper. Calcareous spar. Chabasie, dirty, crystals large. Lastward. Chalcedony in pebbles, cemented by siliceous ——. Quartz crystals in cavities of jasper. Amethystine quartz in delicate prisins. Trout Cove, Bay of Fundy. Agate, varieties, not found elsewhere on Digby Neck. Chalcedony, tine. Chalcedony, milk white, in veins. Jasper, with zig-zag lines of carnelian, in trap. Gulliver's Hole, Bay of Fundy. Jasper, Chalcedony, ia in the debris. Other minerals, Nichols Mountain. Amethyst in chalcedony. Amethyst quartz and chalcedony united. Magnetic ore in transparent chalcedony. William’s Brook, St. Mary's Bay, in the banks near the sowrce of the brook. Quartz, milky, radiated in amygdaloid. Geodes of heulandite, fine, white, foliated, with radiated stilbite. Geodes of heulandite, with green crystals supposed to be chabasie. Cachalong, botryoidal, in quartz veins. TRAP MINERALS .IN NOVA SCOTLA—M‘CULLOCH. 163 Hast of the Gut, six miles and onward. Agates composed of lines of chalcedony, carnelian and cachalong. Chute’s Cove, both east and west. Heliotrope, in stones, also dropped out. Jasper and quartz in veins. Chalcedony, white, in veins. Carnelian, in plates. St. Croia Cove. Zeolites, fascicular, in cavities. Ditto, four-sided prisms. Heulandite, beautiful. Ditto, fohated, in veins. Mesotype, abundant in disintegrated soil. Martial’s Cove. Zeolites, different species. Heulandite, in veins, six inches wide. Analeeme, with globules of copper, green and transparent. ta) ’ fo) Copper. Hadley’s and Gates’ Mountains. Chlorophezeite. Thomsonite, in the fields, everywhere. Mesotype, white, silky. Peter's Point. Laumonite, beautiful, in fissures. Ditto, —§ imbedded in rhombie calcareous crystals. Apophyllite, fine. Hornstone. Jasper. Laumonite, in fissures ; also embedded in caleareous rhombic crystals. . Ditto, near the point under an arch of columnar trap, in a cave, well preserved, removable by hand. Apophyllite, fine. 164 TRAP MINERALS IN NOVA SCOTIA—M‘CULLOCH. Honstone. Jasper. Toward French Cross and there. Mesotype, fibrous, in amygdaloid. Caleareous spar, in grottos, beautiful. Heulandite, easily removed. Zeolites, spheroidal, in amygdaloid, abundant. Laumonite. Mesotype, fine. Jasper, Quartz, in veins. Chalcedony, Heulandite, unrivalled. Chalcedony, botryoidal. Quartz, geodiferous. Stilbite. Analceme, red. Other minerals in the vicinity. Toward Black Rock. Mesotype and chlorite in amygdaloid. Heulandite, red, with analceme. Laumonite, beautiful, projecting out. East of Black Rock, a few miles. Calcareous spar, large veins, rich straw yellow. Stilbite, in the debris, in masses, fasciculi, and in bundles of threads. Jasper. Chalcedony, milky. Agates. Prehnite. Many other minerals. Hall's Hurbowr.—No notices. Onward on the road to Cornwallis. Stilbite, in the fields. Quartz, agate, jasper and chalcedony, at several places. TRAP MINERALS IN NOVA SCOTIA—M‘CULLOCH. 165 Cap ad Or. West Side. Copper in seams, best found at half tide. Calcareous spar. Analceme, tinged green, copper filaments enclosed. East Side Horse Shoe Cove. Copper in jasper,—ditto sulphate,—green carbonate. Analceme, transparent. Calcareous spar. Ditto, incrusted with stilbite, like sugar. Stilbite, radiated, in caleareons spar. Many other minerals. Spencer's Islund. Siliceous Sinter. Jasper. Quartz crystals. Amethysts in geodes. Agates. Calcareous spar. Stilbite. Amethyst, splendent. Partridge Island. Calcareous spar, large crystals. Stilbite. Ditto, with caleareous spar, fasciculated, flesh red, and colourless. Arragonite, transparent. Yellow stilbite and calcareous spar, by breaking masses on the shore. Chabasie in amygdaloid, transparent, orange, large and brilliant. Agate. Jasper. Chalcedony. 166 TRAP MINERALS IN NOVA SCOTIA—M‘CULLOCH. Cachalong, botryoidal, in inaccessible trap, to be picked from debris. Amethyst in geodes. Hornstone, on the shore. Opal and semi-opal. Swan Creech. Analceme, large plates. Ditto, covered with needlestone. Heulandite, pearly. Ditto, in brown plates. Siliceous Sinter, with stilbite and heulandite Chabasie, also, with the preceding ; abundant minerals, east- ward 3 mile. McKay's Head. Siliceous sinter in veins. Ditto, in geodes, beautifully crystallized and in many forms. Hogtooth spar. Amethystine sinter in geodes. Two Islands. Chabasie, Analeeme, Heulandite, | abundant,—often in the same specimen. Caleareous spar, Siliceous sinter, Ditto, in cavities of amygdaloid, white, grey and amethystine. Siliceous sinter in geodes, beautiful. Moss agate, largest Island, east side, near a vein of ferru- ginous oxide at a mass of debris. Jasper, beautiful, on the south side, in the outer Island. Stilbite, rich. Heulandite, | ere Analeeme, J Five Is/ands. Few minerals, inferior. Arr. V.—THE GEOLOGY OF CAPE BRETON—THE LOWER SILU- RIAN.— By EDWIN GILPIN, JR., Lu. D., F. B.S. C., Erc., Inspector of Mines. (Read 9th May, 1892.) In my last paper I gave a brief sketch of the Devonian Measures of Cape Breton and now come to the Lower Silurian rocks. I have already drawn attention to the remarkably limited developments of geological horizons in this island. Between the basal conglomerate of the Carboniferous and the Pre-Cambrian there intervene only a few limited areas referred to the Devonian and the Lower Silurian. The Lauren- tian hills of the island may have borne on their ‘crests much fuller representations of the geological sequence than are now presented, but evidence is not wanting to show that for long periods they must have stood as now, bare and patriarchal. The Lower Silurian of Cape Breton rests frequently upon the Laurentian, and its conglomerates include pebbles of its felsites, gneisses, ete. It is in turn overlaid at many points by Lower Carboniferous strata, and has yielded its fragments to form the basal conglomerates of the latter formation. The fact that hitherto the Lower Carboniferous conglomerates have failed to yield pebbles differing from the Lower Silurian and Laurentian rocks, forms an argument in favor of the view that the Lower Silurian and Devonian alone in Cape Breton mark the gap already alluded to. This argument is the stronger because the Carboniferous conglomerates are composed of material derived from strata close to the point of formation. They do not, as in several cases in Nova Scotia, contain boulders and pebbles that have been carried many miles. The extent of these Silurian strata is observed at many points by the overlying Carboniferous conglomerates, and at other localities they appear to have been preserved by the protection against denudation afforded by the Laurentian ridges. These strata are not found in the counties of Richmond or Inverness, (167) 168 LOWER SILURIAN OF CAPE BRETON—GILPIN. and are represented in Victoria County only by a small outcrop near Cape Dauphin, referred with doubt, in the absence of fossil evidence, to this age. A long narrow band runs from Moore’s Brook, in St. Andrew’s Channel (Little Bras d’Or) along the shore to the mouth of McLeod’s Brook, which it ascends to its source, and then follows Indian Brook down until within a mile of its mouth, at the Chapel on the Escasonic Indian Reserve on East Bay. Except at Owl’s Brook, this band is no where over a mile in width. Long Island is entirely composed of the slates and limestones of this group. At the Long Island, Barasois and MeSween’s Brook there is an unconformable capping of conglom- erate. At Dugald’s Point the conglomerate completely obscures it, and rests upon the Boisdale felsites. No exposure of the Silurian strata 1s visible for several miles, until Maclean’s Beach is reached, where it reappears as a narrow strip between the Laurentian and Conglomerate. This outcrop terminates at Shen- acadie, but a small outlier is visible about a mile to the west- ward. Similar outliers occur on East Bay, near the mouths of Mackintosh and Bown’s Brooks. At the head of East Bay, these strata outcrop again resting on the syenitic masses of the Coxheath Hills, and are in turn obseured by the Carboniferous conglomerate. The northern edge of this exposure runs from the foot of Gillis Lake, and passes a little South of McAdams Lake and continues to a poit on the East Bay road about one mile west of the bridge over Spruce Brook. This strip is about a mile wide in the centre and gradu- ally narrows at each end. The greatest development of this horizon, however, is met in the Mira River district, and here it has been carefully traced and minutely described by Mr. Fletcher of the Canadian Geological Survey. The Mira River forms its northern boundary until a point on the northern bank is reached, about two miles east of Marion Bridge, where the formation is met on the north side of the river, covering a tract of land nearly square and about three miles broad. The next exposure on the north side of the river is met LOWER SILURIAN OF CAPE BRETON—GILPIN. 169 at the mouth of Salmon River, where these measures are inter- posed between Lower Carboniferous limestone and Laurentian felsites. The felsite rocks cut out this patch and almost com- pletely surround it. Still passing toward the head of the lake, after an interval of about a mile, the Silurian strata are met again, and occupy the shore of the lake to its head, and the banks of the Giant Lake River to the foot of Giant Lake. This ex- posure, about seven miles long and four wide, projects into the felsites of the Mira Hills, and is in several places pierced by masses of felsite. The shore of the lower half of Giant Lake is occupied by syen- ites and felsites, succeeded in the upper half by the Silurian strata, which form a band about seven miles long and three wide terminating on the northern shore of the Upper Marie Joseph Lake. There are several small outliers in this district, at Five Islands Lake, and on the shores of Framboise Cove ponds. A line drawn from the head of Mira River to the shore at the northern side of Catalogne Lake forms the extreme southern boundary of these measures. This line passes within about a mile and a half of the head of Gabarus Bay. While the Silurian measures are unbroken in the northern part of this district along the shore of the Mira River, they are broken into by isolated ridges and projections of the Laurentian felsites, etc, of the Gabarus district. Thus we find within and to the north of the line running from the head of Mira to Catalogne, the felsites, ete., of the White Granite Hills, the String Lakes, Blue Mountains, Bengal Lakes, and Catalogne Road. The stratigraphical arrangement of these measures cannot now be made out with any degree of certainty. The plications im- posed on the strata during succeeding ages, and the severe denu- dation which has ploughed the island so deeply, have left the sections imperfect. Generally speaking these measures are now presented as imperfect folds, having a general north-east and south-west course with cross foldings, having their origin in local irregularities of the surface of the Laurentian rocks, upon which they were deposited. It may also be inferred from the volume of conglomerates, grits and coarse sandstones presented at several e 170 LOWER SILURIAN OF CAPE BRETON—GILPIN. points in the districts under consideration, that the original thickness varied with the conditions of deposition, which would be paralleled by the facts observable among the overlying Basal Carboniferous rocks. The exact position of these measures in the Geological Scale is not yet determinable with absolute certainty. When compari- sons are made between geological horizons in Nova Scotia and those further west, or on the western side of the Continent of Europe, it is found that the general conditions characterizing such horizons on one side or the other do not necessarily prevail in Nova Scotia. Local peculiarities of surrounding land, and duration and conditions of deposition, have produced such changes that the geologist can but say, so far as can be judged, such and such a series corresponds best with such and such a group. Dana, in his Geology, gives an excellent account of the Pots- dam period, then regarded as the base of the Lower Silurian, and the geological sequent to the Azoic period, the period preceding the appearance of animal life. Since then there has been introduced horizon after horizon, until, between the base of his Lower Silurian and the true Azoic, there stretches now a long list of measures. Thus Sir J. William Dawson, writing about a year ago, places in descending order, below the Silurian, the Ordovician, embracing the Cobequid Series, &e., and the Caradoc and Bala felsites, Llandeilo and Arenig Series, &e; then the Cambrian, embracing the Mira and St. Andrews’ Channel series, under consideration at present, and considered by Dr. Dawson as representing the Lingula flags of England. Then the Acadian series of St. John and the Atlantic gold-bearing rocks of Nova Scotia, followed by Basal Cambrian rocks ob- served in New Brunswick, but not yet recognized in Nova Scotia. Then come the Huronian, considered as represented in Nova Scotia by certain rocks in Yarmouth County, and parts of the districts in Cape Breton mapped by the officers of the Geological Survey as Pre-Cambrian and Laurentian. Fossils occur at numerous localities in these measures, and no doubt as they are more fully examined a very complete and characteristic horizon will be extablished. LOWER SILURIAN OF CAPE BRETON—GILPIN. 7 At Young’s Brook, in St. Andrew’s Channel, are found in thin greenish and bluish slates impressions of an Obolella, and parts. of a trilobite, considered by Mr. Billings of Quebec group age. Above McCormack’s Road, in McLeod’s Brook, are beds of com- paratively unaltered slates, resembling Carboniferous grey and blu- ish shales. These bedshave yielded many specimens of Dictyonema, Obolella, and an obscure Orthisina. Near Marion Bridge, on the Mira River, light colored and gray and reddish sandstones yield Obolella but of species differing from those met on St. Andrew's Channel. Mr. Fletcher writes:—Considered in regard to the occurrence of animal life the contorted felspathic shale, sandstone and limestones found at the mouth of Mackintosh Brook, and on the shore below Allan and Donald McAdams, are of the highest interest. Many of the shales are blackened with the impressions of brachiopod shells, while some of the limestone is largely com- posed of them. Among the shells there are numerous phosphatic nodules, up to three-eighths of an inch in length. On examina- tion they are found to consist of a fine bituminous paste, with minute irregular grains of silicious matter aud fragments of lingula, which is supposed to have formed the food of the animals which produced the coprolities, and which, it has been suggested, may have been some of the larger Trilobites—These coprolites are not uncommon in rocks of various ages. It is sup- posed that the apatite deposits of Laurentian age, now worked to some extent for the manufacture of fertilizers, were aggrega- ted and crystallised from wide spread phosphatic nodules similar to these but of much earlier date. Similar coprolites have been observed at Arisaig in rocks of Upper Silurian age, and I have seen them near Sutherland’s River, in Pictou County, in strata probably the continuation of the Arisaig rocks. They are not, so far as yet observed, of economic value in Nova Scotia. McNeil’s Brook, south side of Mira, is a good hunting ground for fossils. Characterizmg this horizon, Mr. Fletcher says . “ Above McNeil’s Mill the Brook exposes argillite and fine sand- stone, including a bed of nodular bluish gray and black, bitumi- nous, often granular, limestone, full of fossils, among which were recognised Orthis, Obolella and the head of a trilobite. Above 172 LOWER SILURIAN OF CAPE BRETON—GILPIN. the bridge on Trout Brook Road gray, black and bluish argillites form clifts abounding in impressions of trilobites, including Agnostus and an Olenus (or Sphcerophthalmus) allied to O. Alatus of Boeck.” The amateur who is willing to work up this district will probably figure as the discoverer of many new and impor- tant varieties of the life characterizing this interesting series of Strata. On the shore at Long Island there is a good section of these measures exposed, but the beds are so disturbed by folding, faults, &e., that no estimate of thickness can be given. The following from Mr. Fletcher's measurements at this point will serve to show the general character of the rocks. met here. Sea green, and blue purple, whitish and gray, laminated, cal- careous, hematitic felsites, micaceous slates and argillites, one color passing into another, with thin beds of compact felsite and quartzite. Red, coarse, calcareous sandstone, alternating with greenish, laminated, micaceous, pitted marl, in contorted rolls, from which the layers may be removed like the coats of an onion. Greenish and blue papery slates, often contorted. White waving, close grained quartzite and quartzose sandstone, sometimes fels- pathic. Mottled fine grained, ferruginous sandstone, arenaceous shale, and argillite, intersected by quartz and calcspar veins. A very common rock is a compact and slatey grey or bluish grey felsite, sometimes calcareous. In places the Pre- Cambrian Syenite has lying directly on it a fine grained felsite greenish, with glittering specks, and films of hematite. Many of the argillites of this district are comparatively unaltered, and are frequently mistaken for Carboniferous shales, so that explo- rations have been carried on in them in the expectation of strik- ing coal. Limestone is not abundant, but the beds are at many points decidedly calcareous. At McLean’s Point there are many reticulating veins of cale spar in the rocks, which sometimes form compact beds of limestone, having in places a cone in cone struc- ture. At many points there are conglomerates frequently resting on the Laurentian rocks. They are of various degrees of coarse- ness, and consist of felsites, syenites, porphyries, gneisses, ete.. LOWER SILURIAN OF CAPE BRETON—GILPIN. 173 from the rocks they rest on. It is possible that further investi- gations may result in the separation of the lower members of of this series into a sub-horizon. The present facies of the rocks of this formation and their fossils show their accumulation in comparatively shallow border waters, having a comparatively mild temperature. Presumably the outline of Cape Breton was then as now indicated most strikingly by the comparatively ele- vated lands of the precambrian, which, together with the older rocks of Newfoundland, protected the Gulf of St. Lawrence and gave sheltered waters for the accumulation of the Silurian slates and marls, some of which we now find comparatively unaffected by metamorphic action. This set of rocks in Cape Breton has not yet been found to carry any important mineral deposits. Mr. Fletcher speaks of the abundant presence of iron oxide in the rocks between the Barasois and McSween’s Brook on St. Andrew’s Channel. In one or two places it impregnates the rocks so strongly as to form beds of iron ore which, however, on being traced, proved to be- come of inferior quality. At one place near McLean’s point an opening has been made into a bed of red hematite of excellent quality, and a few tons extracted. Although irregular at the sur- face the bed appeared to become more defined in depth. On analysis it proved to contain— Metalhemron, Wer cent cc... 2 he hen. - 62.50 Silica, et PONE A Bc cece te eke ¢ 7.82 Phosphorus, Oo, de Delecseiasncas o/Sheaspeon mune eieus 0.9 Sulphur, SOON | PERO I DE Le 2. Me ee eens Scns trace. Magnesia, ah) Tia bh a Ske R A eat 88 Lime, Fe ONE Ee Tee eee ee ances 67 Water, 5 ee OT A Pee = A er eR LO I am not aware of any other deposits of iron ore in rocks of this age which promise to be of value. No mineral is more deceptive than iron ore. Its oxide spread in a thin film over boulders in a conglomerate and forming the cement of the mass has often led to the waste of large sums of money. A bed may be met giving the characteristic streak, color, &ec., of an excellent 174 LOWER SILURIAN OF CAPE BRETON—GILPIN hematite, but a further examination shows that, perhaps, a few inches of the rock has been partially replaced by iron oxide, and that often yards away it has only enough iron in it to give a red color. Traces of copper pyrites have been found at a few points in these rocks, but there does not seem to have been any igneous action paralleling that of the well-known copper fields of Lake Superior, and bringing up the metal from lower depths. It may, however, be found on further search that faults along lines of junction with the older rocks have permitted the accumulation of workable bodies of copper ore in these measures. Iron pyrites is not uncommon in layers of nodules, which at numerous places have made small beds of bog iron ore, a mineral not of much value until local furnaces are built. The soil overlying the Silurian strata is generally thin and cold, and in many places stony. Hitherto it has not attracted any appreciable amount of farming except at some points in the Mira River Valley, where presumably the present of limestone, Wce., has given the soil some little superiority. VI—NotTEs on Nova Scotian ZooLocy, No.2.—By Harry PIERS. (Read March 14th, 1892. ) In the following paper it is my desire to bring before the Institute of Science such notes of new, rare or otherwise interest- ing occurrences as have come to my knowledge or observation and been recorded in my note-book. The present contribution is the second of a series which, if acceptable, will be prepared as often as time and material warrant.* Had a periodical record of similar kind been previously published in our Transactions, I do not doubt it would have been of interest and service to such persons as myself who are occupied in studying the fauna of Nova Scotia. As it is, much valuable information has been lost through neglect to preserve it in such a way that it could be of future use in the formation of elaborate and more particular treatises. It is to remedy this that the present and previous collections of notes have been made. I wish to thank those who have always allowed me to inspect their collections, and who have ever been willing to stimulate me in my very pleasant duty of keeping Nature under police surveillance. BIRDs. Kine Emer (Somateria spectabilis). Mr. T. J. Egan informs me that during the present spring (1892) he mounted three of these rare ducks. They were shot at Lawrencetown, Sambro and Musquodoboit. CANADA GoosE (Branta canadensis). It was reported— whether correctly or not, I cannot say—that a flock of wild geese had been observed during its northern migration on February 23rd of this year (1892)t. The main body, however, * The first number was published in the Zrans, N. S. Just. of Nat, Sc., vol. vii, pp. 467-474. + A letter in Forest and Stream said that a flock had been seen moving in Connecticut on Febru ary 10th, but that, no doubt, was merely a short local flight. (175) 176 NOTES ON NOVA SCOTIAN ZOOLOGY—PIERS, did not pass our locality until March 10th. During the after- noon of that day no less than ten very large flocks were seen within a short interval of time. Last year (1891) I noted the species on March 11th: in 1890, on March 17th; and in 1889, on March 8th. According to this, the average date of their first passage is about March 11th. GREEN HERON (Ardea virescens). This is an uncommon species in our avifauna. Mr. W. A. Purcell, taxidermist of Hali- fax, obtained a specimen from Lawrencetown about April 20th, 1890, and shortly before the 15th of November, 1891, Mr. Arthur P. Silver was equally fortunate. BLACK-CROWNED NicHT Heron (Nycticorax nycticoraxz nevius). Only July 4th, 1889, Mr. Harry E. Austen, of Dartmouth, obtained a specimen of this rare wader, in full breeding plumage, at Cole Harbour, Halifax County. VirGInia Rat (Rallus virginianus). Rare in Nova Scotia. Mr. Purcell “set up” one which had been shot in the Province in November, 1890. : RED PHALAROPE. (Crymophilus fulicarius). On June 10th, 1891, Mr. H. E. Austen obtained one of these uncommon summer visitors from a couple of fishermen who, early in the morning of that day, had rowed up to the bird and captured it with their hands.* As it was alive, Mr. Austen took it home and kept it about a week. An account of the capture appeared in the Ornithologist and Oologist, Boston (vol, xvi, p. 111.), a periodi- cal which frequently contains notes relating to our birds. While uncommon in this vicinity, I understand it is more abundant in the Bay of Fundy and at Cape Sable. KILLDEER (4gialite’s vocifera). This plover is usually very rare in Nova Scotia, but in the fall of 1888 a flight of large size was driven northward by a severe storm and for a while the birds were numerous along our shore. Dr. Arthur P. Chad- bourne, who made a special study of the movements of this flock, and contributed his views to The Auk for J uly, L889, con- * According to Mr. Austen, the fishermen called it a ‘‘Gale Bird ;’ but as in Chae recent revision of Nuttall’s Ornithology I find ‘‘ Whale Bird” given as one of the vernaculars 0 this species, I am led to think that the similarity of sounds may have caused Mr, Austen to mis- take the name by which his informers knew it. NOTES ON NOVA SCOTIAN ZOOLOGY—PIERS. 177 siders that the birds while moving along the coast of Carolina had been blown to sea by a heavy gale and from thence driven in our direction. For several days after this occurrence, the birds were abundant from this Province to Rhode Island. In November, 1890, Mr. Purcell obtained a single specimen. AMERICAN ROUGH-LEGGED Hawk (Archibuteo lagopus sancti- johannis). This bird has been becoming more rare than for- merly, but during the past season several were taken. Two (a male and a female) were brought to Mr. Purcell, at different times, by “Josh” Umlah, who lives about seven miles from the city. Isaw them both “in the flesh.” The male was taken in a trap or snare about December 10th or 11th, 1891, and the female was shot on New Year’s Day, 1892. Umlah said there was also a black-coloured hawk about his place: this was evi- dently one of the same species, but of the melanistic phase of plumage. About the middle of January, 1892, George Umlah of Harrietstield shot a very dark-coloured hawk, but failed to bring it out of the woods, excusing himself on the ground that, as it was almost crow-black, he thought it would be of no inter- est. This was doubtless another of the very rare, dark indi- viduals, a variety which is known by the name of “ Black Hawk.” Mr. T. J. Egan tells me that he had four of the birds in immature plumage, and one of the adult cr melanistic colour. They were all taken in the early part of 1892. Saw-wHET Ow. (Nyctala acadica). This pretty little owl which is becoming a rarity in Nova Scotia, was very frequently observed during February, 1892.* I do not attribute this to an increase in number, but rather to the fact that, owing to a great searcity of their usual food, the birds were forced to leave the woods and come to the vicinity of dwellings. Just previous to February 18th, I recorded six which were observed by various people about my own home. Of this number two or three were picked up dead—evidently starved to death. In a single week preceding February 19th, Mr. Purcell received three specimens, one of which was found dead beneath a quantity of lumber on one of the city wharves. Mr. Downs informs me that several *The ground was then covered with snow. 178 NOTES ON NOVA SCOTIAN ZOOLOGY—PIERS. were brought to him, and Mr. Egan also mounted a number. The birds were extremely thin. ‘To exemplify the courage of this little owl when oppressed by hunger, I may relate the following incident My father, when a boy, possessed a rat which he had trained and taught to draw a small cart. One day he and Mr. George Piers discovered a Saw-whet which they captured and placed in the room with the rat, and waited to see the result. Immediately the owl pounced upon the latter and fastened its claws in the animal’s back. The rat feeling the bird upon hin, ran a few times around a table, and then both fell over, dead. The Saw-whet, evidently in a starved condition, had spent all its energy in killing the rat, so that when the latter succumbed, the former also died from extreme exhaustion. Both owl and rat were given to Mr. Andrew Downs,who stuffed the two, and after-. wards sent them to the first great exhibition held in London, 1862 Snowy Own (Nyctea nyctea) Usually the Snowy Owl is an uncommon visitor, but during occasional seasons they have been rather plentiful. The latter was the case during the winter of 1890-91, and a fair number were shot throughout the province. They were also reported more numerous than usual in other localities. During the same winter, the Snowflake (J. nivulis), another northern bird, visited us in far greater numbers than has been its wont for many years. I noted many flocks of large size. AMERICAN Hawk Ow1L (Surnia ulula cauparock). This owl has now become very rare. Mr. Andrew Downs was fortunate in securing one early in 1889, and I understand Mr. Austen has two in his collection. YELLOW-BILLED FLYCATCHER (EL'impidonax flavinentiis). On June 29th, 1891, dir. Austen collected two nests of this species at Dartmouth. They were each about three feet from the ground, the one in the fork of an alder and the other attached by its rim to aspruce-branch. The outside was formed of coarse grass while the lining was of the same material but of a finer kind. Measurements: circumference of top, outside, 10 inches ; diameter and depth of cavity, 24 inches. Each nest contained three egos whose colour Mr. Austen describes as cream-white NOTES ON NOVA SCOTIAN ZOOLOGY—PIERS. 179 with considerable variations in the markings. Some have a ring of red or reddish-brown blotches near the larger end, between which are minute red dots. Others have one or two reddish blotches on one side only, near the larger end, and some dots around the egg. In others, again, there is only a ring of little red spots. CANADA JAY (Perisoreus canadensis). On May 3rd, 1889, Mr. Austen found a nest of this species, containing three eggs: It was built in a grove of spruces, and was six feet from the ground. On April 22nd of the present year (1892), he obtained another nest in the vicinity of Porter’s Lake, near Dartmouth. It was a large structure, placed on one of the limbs of a low spruce tree. Outside, it was composed of twigs of the Balsam Fir, (A. balsamea); within this, was a thickness of fine grass, moss, and small twigs; and inside of all, the bird had arranged a complete lining of feathers of the Rufted Grouse (B. umbellus togata). There were two eggs, which Mr. Austen tells me were coloured yellowish gray and rather light green, dotted very tinely with brown and slate. The eggs of this Jay are very rare, and the price of a single specimen is as high as a dollar and a quarter. AMERICAN Crow (Corvus americanus). A curious freak of nature was shot at McNab’s Island, near Halifax, in the early part of October, 1891. This rarity was a Crow, one of whose tail feathers was altogether pure white, while the remaining ones were of the normal colour. The rest of the plumage was as usual black, and the eyes were likewise of the ordinary colour. It is in My. Purcell’s collection. BAY-BREASTED WARBLER (Dendroica castanea). On June 20th, 1891, Mr. Austen observed this uncommon species at Dart- mouth, and thinking it probable that a nest was in the neigh- bourhood, he proceeded to make a thorough search. Nearly three hours had elapsed before the structure was discovered. It was placed on a hemlock bough, about seven feet from the trunk, and some twenty feet from the ground, while above was another branch covering and concealing it. At that time the birds had not completed its construction. On June 24th it con- tained one egg, and on the 29th, two. Thus it remained until 180 NOTES ON NOVA SCOTIAN ZOOLOGY—PIERS. July 3rd, when, still holding only the pair of egos, Mr, Austerr took both them and the nest. The outside of the latter was. formed of grass with pine-needles and pieces of twigs. Without,. the diameter was 4 inches, and depth, 2. Breadth of cavity, 24 inches; depth, 1 inch. Mr. Austen describes the eggs as being: of a “bluish green tinge, speckled with reddish brown, and with a complete ring of dark-red blotches around the larger end.” The identification was complete. Eggs of this species have been priced at a dollar and seventy-five cents each, which shows that: their rarity is such that any description of them will be of interest. YELLOW PALM WARBLER (Dendroica palmarum hypochrysea).. In 1863, Mr. William Winton sent to Professor Baird, of the Smithsonian Institution, the eggs of this species which he had collected at Stewiacke, N.S. This was the first time Baird had’ ever seen them. On May 26th, 1891, Mr. Austen found a nest: containing four eggs at Dartmouth. It was in a wet piece of ground, sunk a little below the level of the soil, and partially concealed by a dead branch. The structure was formed, outside, of grasses, bits of moss, and fine roots, while the inside was lined with very fine grass, then a few black horse-hairs, and within all a lining of feathers. Its depth outside was 2} inches; depth inside, 1? inches ; breadth inside, 2 inches; circumference outside,. at top, 114 inches; circumference outside, at bottom, 9$ inches.. Mr. Austen describes the eggs as white, with a faint reddish tinge, dotted indistinctly with red, and one or two scattered blotches; larger end marked with a ring of reddish and brown blotches of various sizes. The set is now in the collection of Mr. J. Parker Norris, of Philadelphia. WINTER WREN (Troglodytes hiemalis). On June 5th, 1891, I obtained the nest and eggs of this species at Kidston’s Lake, near the “ Rocking-stone,” (Spryfield, Halifax County.) As its breeding habits are very little known to naturalists, I intend to devote some space to a detailed description of this rare nest and eggs, in a paper which I hope shortly to read before the Institute. The rarity of the Winter Wren’s eggs will be evident when I NOTES ON NOVA SCOTIAN ZOOLOGY—PIERS. 181 note that a New York oologist quotes them in one of his price- lists at a dollar apiece. RuBy-cROWNED KINGLET (Regulus calendulu). In 1891 Mr. Austen found two more nests of this Kinglet. The first was taken on June 12th, and contained six eggs. The second one, full of young, was discovered two days later at the very top (about forty feet from ground) of a black spruce, and placed under the ‘sustaining branch, to which it was hanging by little twigs. Neither nest could be seen from the ground. REPTILES. RiInG SNAKE (Diadophis punctatus). On May 15th, 1891, Mr. M. Y. Gray gave me a small living snake which he had cap- tured on the 10th of that month, in a sandy place close to the Prince’s Lodge, Bedford Basin. When found, it was lying motionless, coiled like the figure 8. I easily identified it by the yellowish occipital ring, as belonging to the species Diadophis punctutus, a very rare snake in this province, and which Mr. John T. Mellish* does not think occurs at all in Prince Edward Island. My specimen is small—only 5} inches in length,—but very pretty. Forsome time I kept it alive, and it proved of much interest. The warmth of my skin was evidently pleasant to the reptile and it crawled over the hand and went around and between the fingers, occasionally thrusting out its tongue but never attempting to bite or make its escape. The following description may be of use in comparing this individual with others from distant localities : Upper labials 8; 6th and 7th largest, 4th and 5th form- ing the lower part of the orbit. Lower labials 8; 5th the largest. Colour (before fading in alcohol): Above slightly lustrous, black (or nearly so) with steel-blue reflections. Head above, same colour but more lustrous. Body and tail beneath, recdish-orange, more red on posterior part. A series of black sub-triangular spots along the lateral margins of the scutelle, and in contact with the dark colour of the flanks. No black *Notes on the Serpents of Prince Edward Island. Trans. N.S. Inst, Nat. Se.. vil. 1V., pp. 163-167. 182 NOTES ON NOVA SCOTIAN ZOOLOGY—PIERS. dots along middle region of abdomen. ‘Tip of tail for about one- thirtieth of an inch, all black (this is hardly noticeable, except when examined closely). Occipital ring of the width of two scales, not interrupted, colour of anterior part of body beneath. Head beneath and upper labials, pale flesh-colour. Iris and pupil black. Number of abdominal scutelle from chin to anus, 155+1. Number of pairs of subcaudal scutellee, 56. Number of dorsal rows of scales around the body (excluding the abdominal series), 15. Total length (tip of snout to tip of tail), 54 inches. Length of tail (anus to tip), 1:09 inches. The late Mr J. M. Jones, in his paper entitled “ Contributions to the Natural History of Nova Scotia: Reptilia,’* speaks of the Ring Snake as our rarest species, and Dr. J. Bernard Gilpin + likewise considered it very uncommon. The former gentleman records only two specimens—one taken at Annapolis by Dr. Gilpin, and the other captured in September, 1863, at Mr. Andrew Downs’ place near Halifax. Dr. Gilpin has only recorded one, which he captured at Fairy Lake, September, 1870, and for which he sacrificed a small flask of whiskey in order to preserve the valuable specimen. Some twenty-five or thirty years ago, my father, Mr. Henry Piers, saw one of these snakes swimming with great ease across the water at “Stony Beach,’ about twelve miles from Halifax, on the road to Prospect. The animal was about a foot and a half long, and the yellowish occipital ring was conspicuous. In 1885 a popular English periodical contained a few notes on snakes in captivity, written at Halifax, in which the writer spoke of having a Ring Snake which had been cap- tured near the city in the summer of 1885. It must of course be understood that this, coming from an unscientific source, can- not be vouched for. I may say that I have now been so fortu- nate as to have personally observed all the serpents known to occur in Nova Scotia, two of which are extremely rare. * Trans. N, S, Inst, Nat. Sc., Vol. I., pt. 3, pp. 114-128. + ‘‘ On the Serpents of Nova Scotia,” Trans. N.S Inst. Nat, Sc., Vol. IV., pp. 80-88 NOTES ON NOVA SCOTIAN ZOOLOGY—PIERS. 183 VERMILLION-SPOTTED Newt (Diemyctylus viridescens).* My brothers, Mr. Charlie and Sidney Piers, while fishing at Bayer's Lake near the St. Margaret's Bay Road, May 21st, 1891, netted one of these beautiful reptiles as it swam through the water. 1t was a viridescent adult. I placed the animal in water and observed its habits and movements, which interested me much. The following pigmental description, written while it was alive, should be of advantage, as specimens immersed in alcohol lose certain of their colours which are extracted or altered by the spirit : Whole animal with exception of top and sides of head and portions of legs, spotted or punctured, in a greater or less degree, with black. Above, olive brown, slightly darker on back and head. Obscure superciliary line of a colour lighter than upper part of head. On each side of the vertebre are three crimson spots encircled with black. They are not, however, regularly opposite each other. The anterior one on the left side is a little posterior to the fore-leg; the second one on the same side is ‘17 of an inch behind the anterior one; and the third or posterior one is °30 of an inch behind the second. On the right side the anterior spot is opposite the second spot on left side ; the second is 23 of an inch behind the first; and the posterior one is opposite the posterior one on the left side. Beneath, yellowish, lighter on under side of head. Lower half of tail not much lighter than upper half. Line of demarcation between the olive-brown of the upper part of animal and the yellowish colour of the lower portion, is fairly distinct; it proceeds from the snout along the sides of the head and body to the anus (which is a little posterior to the hind-legs.) rides golden with black mark across. snoubitiorione-lem Ay). an te. ee. Press; 55 ins. ce hime Sle mre. Sects cleat hE 3/2 LAO “anterior crimson spot on left side... ‘70 “ *This Newt was formerly a great puzzle to naturalists, and its red, yellow-red, viridescent, or intermediate phases of colouration, led to such being considered as distinct species. My specimen agrees with what was formerly known as the Crimson-spotted Triton (Zriton millepunctatus), which is the viridescent or greenish state. Those who are interested in the life-history of this species and its regular change in colour as well as habitat, should consult S. H. Gage’s paper entitled, ‘‘ Life- History of the Vermillion-spotted Newt,” in The American Naturalist, Vol. XXV, pp. 1084-1110 (Dec., 1891). 184 NOTES ON NOVA SCOTIAN ZOOLOGY—PIERS. When laid on the carpet the reptile crawled very slowly and awkwardly, but it was perfectly at home when placed in a bottle of water. There it used its feet to assist the tail in propelling the body, and the tail when so employed, moved in a sinuous manner. Respiration in liquid occurred from two to three times a minute. FISHES. BAUMARIS SHARK (Lamna cornubica). On April 10th, 1891, a shark was found off Sambro by Captain John Brown of Her- ring Cove, pierced through the tail by a trawl-hook and unable to free itself. It was secured with much difficulty and brought to this city where I examined it and prepared detailed drawings. It proved to be the Porbeagle or Baumaris Shark, a species com- mon to both sides of the Atlantic, and elsewhere. This is the first record I know of its capture in these waters, although of course it was to be expected. Mr. J. Matthew Jones does not include it in his excellent catalogue of our fishes, and neither does Knight nor Perley in those which they prepared. The present specimen weighed four hundred pounds, and its extreme length from tip of snout to tip of caudal, was seven feet three and a half inches. When dissected, it was found that the stomach contained a whole Cod (G. morrhua) weighing four or five pounds, together with the head of another Cod, and also a Hake (P. tenuis) of about the same size as the entire Cod. The liver was greenish-yellow. SILURIAN FOSSILS FROM ARISAIG, NOVA SCOTIA—AMI. 185 VII.—CaTALOGUE OF SILURIAN FossiLs FRoM ARISAIG, NOVA ScoTra. By Henry M. Ami, M.A., F.G:S. (Read April 11th, 1892.) Through the paleontological writings of Salter, Billings, Daw- son, Honeyman, Hall and Jones—the fauna of the Silurian rocks of Arisaig have been made widely known and notable both on account of the abundance and variety of its forms, as well as on account of the remarkable continuity and unbroken sequence of the strata from which these organic remains have been obtained. In the Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London, in the Canadian Naturalist, and Nova Scotian Institute of Natural Science Transactions, as well as in the Reports of the Geological Survey of Canada, the above-mentioned authors have described and recorded numerous new, interesting and previously unknown forms. During the season of 1886, Mr. T. C. Weston, accompanied by Mr. J. A. Robert, made important collections of fossils in the rocks constituting the stratigraphical series at Arisaig, along the coast, in connection with the geological work entrusted by Dr, Selwyn to Mr. Hugh Fletcher, and amongst them were several new and hitherto unrecorded forms, besides good examples of species which had been previously considered or doubtfully identified. These collections, as well as others from Nova Scotia, having been placed in my hands for determination during the season of 1886-87, I have applied myself to identify the various forms present. Amongst the Arisaig collections alone I have been able to recognise no less than 163 species, which are divisible into groups as follows :— 4 186 SILURIAN FOSSILS FROM ARISAIG, NOVA SCOTIA—AMI. No. of Species. Pl aibaes. eset oe Racist eee ee 3 Rhabdophoras ta. 620 65 sett ee ee 6 Roly pis. doth abe aie ocinemewen oe 3 Brachwopodar: eek see peck Cpe ee 44 Mamneliibranchiatacsr. <2 00. 2s care : 59 Pteropoda 4 a7 Rein w vacant ee 8 Gasteropodaeek .; sco. Seer cee renee 9 Cephalopoda ses): AasA- sea: Sack oe 13 WiGireibesn coche otter aera: ela ee ee Ne eee 4 Ostracodas. 1 sisi. leoraclotipentne:s 7 Tiobitais «ciel. sit—29 00k. Die SRE ee 6 Merostomataycid ish .Sisiar, aba. eA 1 Totalsvntee. as: F ethene 163 The species included in the above enumeration are all Silurian (Upper Silurian), and represent horizons from the base of that epoch to its summit, which, according to the New York and Ontario system and equivalencies, would indicate from the Medina to the Lower Helderberg, both inclusive, and according to British nomenclature, include from the Llandovery to the upper members of the Ludlow. It is but natural to point out here that, in examining the fauna of these Arisaig rocks, I have found a most intimate relation existing between it and the fauna of rocks assigned to a similar horizon in Europe along the Atlantic border. In fact, the intimacy may be said to be much closer between the Arisaig fossils and those, for instance, of the Ludlow rocks of Kendal, in Westmoreland, England, than with either the Silurian rocks of Anticosti, of Ontario or of New York State. The following is a classified list of the organic remains collected by Mr. T. C. Weston in 1886 in Divisions A, B, B’, C and D of the Arisaig Section, according to the late Rev. Dr. Honeyman and Mr. Hugh Fletcher, B. A. It is hoped to supplement this catalogue shortly with full descriptions of the new forms herein mentioned, and notes on other interesting species, which are but little known or previously unrecorded to 10. Line 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. IE” 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. Se eer SILURIAN FOSSILS FROM ARISAIG, NOVA SCOTIA—AMI. SILURIAN FOSSILS FROM ARISAIG, NOVA SCOTIA. LIST OF SPECIES. PLANTA. Paleeophycus sp. Psilophyton (7) sp. Obscure fucoidal remains, uncer Jere RHABDOPHORA. eaueraptus Clintonensis, Hall. Halli, Barrande. Riccartonensis, Lapworth Sandersoni (7) Lapworth. sp. indt. « (2) sp. (2) POLYPI. Cladopora seriata, Hall. Streptelasma patula, Rominger. : sp. nov. BRACHIOPODA. Lingula spathata, Hall, rectilatera, Hall. es lamellata? Hall. oblonga, Conrad. sp. indt. Leptobolus sp. Discina tenuilamellata, Hall. a “ v. subplana, Hall. Vanuxemi, Hall. sp. Pholidops implicata, Sowerby. Chonetes Nova-Scotica, Hall. e tenuistriata, Hall. cc 187 52. Do. 58. 59. 60. SILURIAN FOSSILS FROM ARISAIG, NOVA SCOTIA—AMI, Orthis elegantula, Dalman. hybrida ? Sowerby. subearinata, Hall. n. sp. polygramma, Sowerby. ee rustica, Sowerby. “ sp. indt. Platystrophia biforata, v. lynx, Eichwald. Skenidium pyramidale, Hall. Strophomena euglypha? Sowerby. as rhomboidalis, Wilekens. ¢ expansa, Sowerby. S corrugata ? Conrad. i subplana, Hall. e varistriata, v. arata, Hall Spirifer crispus? Hisniger. rugeecostus, Hall. id subsuleatus, Hall. Atrypa reticularis, Linnzeus. ‘i Sp. Rhynchonella eequiradiata, Hall. emacerata, Hall. es formosa, Hall. cs neglecta, Hall. “ sinuata, Hall. ss Saftordi, Hall. sp. indt. Pentamerus Knighti, Sowerby. (2) Sp. Leptoccelia hemispherica, Sowerby. pA intermedia, Hall. LAMELLIBRANCHIATA. Orthonota curta, Hall. E: incerta, Billings. ss sunulans? — billings. ce Nn. sp. 67. 68. 69, 78. SILURIAN FOSSILS FROM ARISAIG, NOVA SCOTIA—AMI. I89 Orthonota sp. indt. ? Leptodomus truncatus, McCoy. Sanguinolites anguliferus, McCoy. a: carinatus, McCoy (sp.). Grammysia Acadica, Billings. ss cingulata, Hisinger. « of var triangulata, Salter. y remota, Billings. Goniophora bellula, Billings. g transiens, Billings. os N. sp. ee sp. indt. Cleidophorus erectus, Hall. x concentricus, Hall. : cuneatus, Hall. -s nuculiformis, Hall. o semiradiatus, Hall. ss subovatus, Hall. S sp. allied to C. subovatus, H. Anodontopsis angustifrons, McCoy. a ?.N. sp: Cucullella elongata, Hall, sp. (=Cleidophorus elongatus, H.) Cucullella N. sp. No. 1. "i N. spi No. 2: Cytherodon ? placidus, Billings. - socialis, Billings. i N. sp. Ctenodonta angusta, Hall sp. ¥ i n. var. Or N. Sp. - attenuata, Hall sp. a n. sp. = equilatera, Hall sp. ry elliptica, Hall. e sp. indt. Megambonia cancellata, Hall. hians ? McCoy. 190 97. 98. 99. 100. 101. 102. 103. 104. 105. 106. 107. 108. TOS; 110. 1 a 1 tee Lis: 114. 115. 116. IIa ye 118. ES: 120. 121. 122. 123. 124. 125. 126. 12% 128. SILURIAN FOSSILS FROM ARISAIG, NOVA SCOTIA—AMIL. Megambonia striata, Hall. Modiolopsis exilis, Billings. e rhomboidea, Hall. Ambonychia ? n. sp. Posidonomya, sp. indt. Posidonia alata, Hall. Pterinotella curta, Billings. ce venusta, Hall. # n. sp. Pterinea emacerata, Conrad. Honeymani, Hall sp. limiformis, Hall. manticula, Hall. orbiculata, Hall. ik textilis, Hall. sp. nov. sp. nov. (7) sp. indt. is asperula, McCoy. PTERAPODA. Conularia Niagarensis, Hall. Tentaculites distans, Hall. ss elongatus, Hall. # minutus, Hall. e Niagarensis, Hall. ss n. Sp. i sp. indt Theca n. sp. GASTEROPODA. Pleurotomaria Halei ? Hall. is sp. Murchisonia Arisaigensis, Hall. subulata, Conrad. ef. M. Conradi, Hall. 129. 130. 131. 132. 133. 134. 135. 136. 137. 138. 139. 140. 141. 142. 143. 144. 145. 146. 147. 148. 149. 150. 151. 152. 153. 154. 155. 156. SILURIAN FOSSILS FROM ARISAIG, NOVA SCOTIA—AMI. Cyclonema cancellatum, Hall. obsoletum ? Hall. m. spe, Nose. n. sp., No. 2. ce ce ce CEPHALOPODA. ? Discosurus conoideus, Hall. Cyrtoceras? sp. Orthoceras elegantulum, Dawson. longicameratum ? Hall. exornatum, Dawson. punctostriatum, Hall. virgatum ? Sowerby. rigidum ? Hall. sp. No: I. sp. No. 2. : sp. No. 3. 3 sp. No. 4. Oncoceras sp. VERMES. Conchicholites sp. Cornulites flexuosus, Hall. é v. gracilis, Hall. Serpulites dispar, Salter OSTRACODA. Primitia mundula, Jones. ee ovata ? Jones and Hall. Beyrichia equilatera, Hall. se tuberculata, Kloeden. ce ce v. pustulosa, Hall. v. strictispiralis, Jones. v. Neetlingi, Reuter. HOW 163. SILURIAN FOSSILS FROM ARISAIG, NOVA SCOTIA—AMI. TRILOBITA. Calymene Blumenbachi, Brongniart. Homalonotus sp. és Dawsoni, Hall. Phacops ? sp. Dalmania Logani, Hall. Acidaspis tuberculatus ? Conrad. MEROSTOMATA. Stylonurus ? sp. nov. Orrawa, March 7th, 1892. € THE INERTIA OF THE CONNECTING ROD—MACGREGOR. 193 VIIL—On THE GRAPHICAL TREATMENT OF THE INERTIA OF THE CoNNECTING Rop—By Pror. J. G. MacGrecor, D. Sc., DALHOUSIE COLLEGE, HaLirax, N.S. (Received June 15th, 1892). In slow-speed steam engines, no great error is introduced in calculating the effort of the connecting rod on the crank-pin, on the assumption that the connecting rod is without mass. In high-speed engines, however, a ccnsiderable error is thus intro- duced ; and it is therefore desirable to have a method of deter- mining the actual effort. In this paper a graphical method of making the determination is described. The effort transmitted by the connecting rod is affected by the weight of the rod as well as by its inertia, and also by the fric- tion of the surfaces in contact. The effect of the weight of the rod and of friction, however, may be found by well known methods. I shall therefore assume the rod to be weightless (though not massless), and the surfaces in contact to be smooth. 0 Let CA be the centre line of the crank of the ordinary steam engine, and AB that of the connecting rod, BC be- ing thus the line of the piston’s motion. The end B of AB there- : fore moves to and fro ; Fig.t. in the line BC, while the crank-pin A moves in the circle A, 4, A;. The motion of these points is regulated by the flywheel. If the engine have a flywheel of sufficiently great moment of inertia, A will move in its circle with practically uniform speed. If the moment of 194 THE INERTIA OF THE CONNECTING ROD—MACGREGOR. inertia be not sufficiently great for this purpose, fluctuations of speed will occur, which, apart from the solution of the present problem, may be determined approximately. We may therefore regard the velocity of the crank-pin A as known for all positions of the crank. The motion of the connecting rod is thus one of the data of the problem. As is well known, it may be regarded as rotating instantaneously about a fixed axis whose position is the inter- section U, of the line CA produced, with a line through B per- pendicular to BC. The distances of O from A and B for any position of the crank may be found by drawing to scale a dia- gram similar to Fig. 1 and measuring the lengths of the lines AO and BO. We shall use the symbols s and p to indicate these distances respectively. The forces acting on the connecting rod are (its weight being neglected) the force exerted on the end B by the crosshead of the piston rod, and the resistance of the crank-pin acting on the end A, which is of course equal and opposite to the force exerted by the rod on the crank-pin. As we are neglecting friction, these forces may be considered as acting through the points B and 4, the centres of the pins. They may be resolved into components in and perpendicular to the lines of motion of B and A respect- ively. Let P and S be the components in the lines of motion. The indicator diagram, the area of the piston, and the mass of the reciprocating parts, being given, P may readily be deter- mined for all positions of the crank. S is the force which it is desired to determine. The simplest relation between these forces and the kinetic changes which the connecting rod is given as undergoing, is that expressed in the equation of energy. Let de be the length of are described by the crank-pin 4, during any small displacement of the rod. Then, as the rod is instantaneously rotating about O, (p/s)de will be the distance traversed in the same time by B. Hence the work done by the forces acting on the rod is P(p/s)de — Sde ; for the component forces perpendicular to the lines of motion of A and B do no work. The work done must be equal to the in- THE INERTIA OF THE CONNECTING ROD—MACGREGOR. 195 erement of the kinetic energy of the rod. As the rod is rotating about the point O, instantaneously fixed, its kinetic energy is 4 *mk’, where w is its angular velocity about O, m its mass, and k its radius of gyration about an axis through O perpendicu- lar to the plane of motion. Hence the equation of energy 1s: ae S) de=d(k «’mk’), . Pio ga ty ele or I 3 S de? mk’). In this equation P, » and s are known as pointed out above, for all crank positions, 7. e., for all values of c. The mass m 1s known. The angular velocity « may easily be found; for it is equal to the linear velocity of the crank-pin divided by s, the distance of the pin from O; and the angular velocity of the crank being given, together with its length, the linear velocity of the crank-pin may be obtained at once. The radius of gyration, k, about O is equal to the square root of the sum of the squares of the radius of gyration, h, about a parallel axis through G, the centre of mass of the rod, which is constant and may be caleu- lated, the form and dimensions of the rod being given, and of the distance, d, of G@ from O, which may be found for all crank positions by measuring the length of the line GO in diagrams similar to Fig. 1. All the variable quantities of the above equa- ition except S may thus be expressed as functions of ¢. It is ‘therefore sufficient for the determination of S. Usually, however, the problem under consideration is presented ‘in this way :—By what amount is the component, normal to the eerank, of the effort on the crank-pin too great, when calculated on the assumption that the connecting rod has no inertia? Or in other words, what pull normal to the crank must the crank-pin exert on the rod, in order that the rod may move in the given ‘way ? ‘The equation of energy modified so as to be a direct answer to this question takes a somewhat simpler form. For if S’ be the component normal to the crank of the effort on the crank-pin, calculated on the assumption referred to, we have, putting 71 =o, P(p/s)— S’ = 0. 196 THE INERTIA OF THE CONNECTING ROD—MACGREGOR. Hence the amount by which the required force is too great when calculated in this way, is given by the equation : S’-S meg w MK’). de ~ This expression lends itself readily to graphical treatment:- For this purpose we find » for various crank positions, by” drawing diagrams similar to Fig. 1 for as many positions of the crank as may be desired, measuring the lengths s in these posi- tions and dividing the values of the velocity, 1’, of the pin for these positions by the corresponding values of s. We then plot a: curve with distances traversed by the crank-pin from some: initial position such as