PROCEEDINGS AND TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

Cropdon Microscopical F atural History Club.

13rH Fes. 1884 ro 187nH Jan. 1892.

PROCEEDINGS & TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

CROYDON

MICROSCOPIGAL & NATURAL HISTORY

CLUB.

VOLUME III.

137n Fes. 1884 ro 18TH Jan. 1892.

CROYDON :

PRINTED FOR THE CLUB BY WEST, NEWMAN & CO.,

Harton GARDEN, LONDON.

1892.

'

Ne ES

a? ne

PROCEEDINGS

OF

THE CROYDON MICROSCOPICAL AND
NATURAL HISTORY CLUB.

1889—90.

Ciuenticth Annual Mecting.
Held at the Public Hall, Croydon, Wednesday, January 15th, 1890.
Henry G. Tompson, M.D., President, in the chair.

The Balance-sheet of the accounts for the year 1889 was
taken as read (page cxxii) and passed, and a vote of thanks
accorded to the Auditors.

It was proposed by the President, seconded by Mr. H. T.
Mennell, and carried unanimously :—

“That Mr. Edward Lovett be elected President for the ensuing
year.”

It was proposed by Dr. Carpenter, and seconded by Mr. H.
Turner, that Mr. Kenneth McKean be re-elected Treasurer.

It was proposed by Mr. Haton, and seconded by Mr. K.
McKean, that Mr. F. C. Bayard be elected Honorary Secretary.

The above propositions were carried unanimously, and the
elected officers thanked the Club for their election.

No other nominations having been received Mr. W. Murton
Holmes, Mr. W. Low Sarjeant, Dr. A. B. Carpenter, Mr. J. W.
Helps, Mr. Chas. F. Oakley, and Mr. C. H. Goodman, were
elected to serve on the Committee in the place of Mr. F. C.
Bayard, Mr. H. 8. Cowdell, Mr. W. M. Gibson, Dr. G. J. Hinde,
Mr. Ed. Lovett, and Mr. EK. B. Sturge.

A vote of thanks to the retiring members of the Committee
was proposed by Mr. Morland, seconded by Mr. Cushing, and
carried unanimously.

b

cx Proceedings.

The following is the list of officers for the year 1890 :-—

President.—Epwarp Lovett. .

Vice-Presidents.—J oun Berney, F.R.M.S.; Aurrep CarPENTER,
M.D., J.P., &c.; Purp Crowzey, F.L.S., F.Z.8., &e. ;
Henry §. Haron, M.A., F.R.Met.Soc. ; Henry T.
Mennett, F.L.8.; Henry G. Toompson, M.D

Treasurer.—Kenneta MoKean, F.L.§.

Hon. Secretary —Franois C. Bayarp, LL.M., F.R.Met.Soe.

Committee.—Dr. A. B. Carpenter, F.R.M.S., &c.; Tos.
Cusnine, F.R.A.S.; James Epes, gun., F.L.8.; C. H.
Goopman; J. W. Hexes; W. Murron Houmes; Onas. F.
Oaxtey; W. Low Sarseant; Ernest Srraker.

The President then delivered his Address, at the conclusion of
which it was proposed by Mr. Cushing, and passed unanimously,
that a hearty vote of thanks be accorded to the President for
his admirable Address, and also for his services during the past

ear.

Votes of thanks to other retiring officers were also passed and
acknowledged. The proceedings then terminated.

The President’s Address.

GENTLEMEN,—It has been customary for the President, at the
Annual Meeting of this Club, to give a resumé of its working,
progress, and general condition. I think it is acknowledged by
all that no other Club of its kind (outside London) can show a
better record of general usefulness, and efficiency than the
Croydon Microscopical and Natural History Club.

During the past year 24 new members have been enrolled, 12
have resigned, and 2 have died. Of these the late Rev. J.
Masterman Braithwaite, the Vicar of Croydon, was a man who
took a keen interest in all scientific pursuits, notably in
electricity, the knowledge of which science he did not keep to
himself, but, in an ungrudging and liberal spirit, imparted to
others, in his lectures at the Welcome Hall. Here he had for his
audience those whom many would not take the trouble to
interest, forming his class from the more intelligent of his lowly
parishioners.

Dr. Whitling, whom we also deplore, brought to practical
bearing his scientific knowledge, and thus indirectly reflected the
work done by this Society in his extensive practice.

The muster-roll of our Club, at the present time, is 276
members, 7 honorary members, and 2 associates, making a total
of 285 members. A list of our members up to date will be found
in our Proceedings.

The Balance-sheet shows that during the past year we have
received, in subscriptions £131 10s., from the sale of Soirée

Proceedings. exi

tickets £14 7s. 6d., and from the sale of Transactions 7s. 0d.,
which, with the balance in hand on the 1st of January, 1889, £32
10s. 7d., amounted to £179 5s. 1d. On the other side, the
payments have been £169 19s. 5d., leaving a balance in hand
of £9 5s. 8d.

Special Fund.—Balance, 1st January, 1889, £38 16s. 2d.;
dividends on 23 per cent. stock, £5 18s. 2d. On the other side,
for payment, optical lantern and lenses complete, £18 10s. 3d. ;
2 steel gas bottles and screen and stand, £5 9s. Balance of
this fund in hand, 31st December, 1889, £25 15s. 1d. Balance
at bankers, 31st December, 1889, £85 Os. 9d. Invested in 23
per cent. stock, £210 11s. 8d.

The reports of the different sections show that a large amount
of work has been executed by the several Committees. Thus
Mr. Mennell, the Honorary Secretary of the Botanical Sub-
Committee, reports as follows :—

The Sub-Committee has made considerable progress with the
arrangement and naming of the Club Herbarium; but the mounting
of the specimens still remains to be done, and it may be necessary to
employ paid assistance to accomplish it. Offers of voluntary help will,
however, be gladly received as well as further contributions. Several
members of the Club have during the past summer added to the Club
collection. -The conversational evenings for which this Committee
was responsible have been devoted to the arrangement of the Herbarium.
One of the excursions during the summer was also arranged by it, and
was a very interesting and successful occasion. The locality chosen
was the remarkable series of large ponds lying between Copthorne and
Rowfant and Lingfield. They occupy a broad flat valley surrounded
by wooded hills. Through the valley a stream flows which eventually
finds its way into the Medway. The abundance of wood for conversion
into charcoal, its nearness to the iron deposits of Tilgate Forest,
together with the water-supply, naturally led to the selection of this
locality for the establishment of the iron works both for smelting and
forging. The valley was dammed across at three points with solid
masonry, and three large ponds or lakes were thus artificially formed,
the names of two of which, Hammer Pond and Wire Mill Pond,
perpetuate their purpose, though the industry has long since completely
disappeared from the district. The dams have gradually fallen into
decay, thus lowering the level of the water, and leaving large marshy
tracts about the margins, presenting in their scenery, surroundings
and vegetation a close resemblance to the Fens and Broads of the
Eastern Counties; all appearance of their artificial origin has long
been obliterated. The party alighted at Horley Station, and drove
thence by Burstow and Copthorne Common to within a short distance
of the upper pond. By the roadside Geranwm striatwm was very
abundant, but it was across the Surrey boundary, in Sussex. Devious,
and not easily found, footpaths through thick woods, connect the ponds.
In these woods the bird’s-nest orchis (Listera Nidus-avis) was noticed.
Here in spring also wild daffodils abound. The best botanical locality,
however, is the extensive marsh at the head of the Middle or Wire
Mill Pond. The smaller butterfly orchis (Habenaria bifolia) and the

b2

xii Proceedings.

marsh thistle (Cardwus pratensis) were abundant, as well as several
species of sedges (Carex pulicaris, stellulata, and ampullacea), and
an interesting form of Carex vulgaris var. juncella). The latter was
very conspicuous with pure white stigmas and yellow anthers, flowering
much later than other species of the genus. The lower pond (Hedge-
court) is the largest of the three, and most reminds the botanist of the
Broads of Norfolk. On the margin there are great masses of the bog
bean; and in deeper water the true bulrush (Scirpus lacustris)
attains an unusual size and height. Large patches of the beautiful
floating polygonum, and of the white water lily, adorn the surface of
the water; and many interesting water weeds are to be found beneath
it, amongst which the comparatively rare smaller bladder-wort
(Utricularia neglecta) was found in abundance. On the ponds there
are numerous water fowl, including wild Duck and Coot. To the
artist and photographer the scenery is most attractive, and it is
especially to be prized by all lovers of nature, seeing how deficient in
water the Surrey landscape is. After partaking of tea in primitive
fashion in a miller’s cottage at the lower end of Hedgecourt Pond, the
party walked to Lingfield Station and thence returned to Croydon.

Mr. Edward Lovett, the Honorary Secretary, reports of the
Geological Sub-Committee :—

During the year, no sections, excavations or borings have been made
in our district of sufficient importance to call for special remarks, or to
be reported to the Club. There have been, however, a few minor
diggings between Addiscombe and Shirley exposing more of the pebble
and shell beds of the Park Hill series, thus proving their continuation
in this direction. A new road is also being cut (December, 1889) in
South Park Hill, and as it is being carried much lower than the present
field level it has exposed the clay beds of this part, the difficult nature
of working which is clearly seen. It has been thought desirable to
make a small collection of geological photographs illustrating various
rock sections, formations and similar characteristic features, for the
Club Cabinet, and through the kindness of our friends on the Photo-
graphic Sub-Committee, a start has been made in this direction, and a
series of twelve photographs bearing upon this subject was exhibited
at our Soirée; they were taken by Messrs. McKean, Low Sarjeant,
Collyer, and Goodman. The Sub-Committee will be glad of further
assistance, and will be happy to give information as to what is required.
The excursion in August was directed by the Geological Sub-Committee,
when a visit was made to the chalky pebble beds at Caterham water- -
works, the chalk escarpment, the gault brick-fields and the Fuller’s
earth pits at Nutfield; the tunnels of the latter were explored, and
sections of strata were photographed during the day.

The Meteorological Sub-Committee has continued its work
under the supervision of its Honorary Secretary, Mr. Bayard.
The daily rainfall of 45 stations in the Club district has been
tabulated every month, examined and corrected, and the results
printed and issued to the observers and all members of the Club
interested in the question, either before or within a very few days
after the end of the month succeeding that to which the statistics

—— Fie =

Proceedings. exili

refer. In order to show the Club how great interest is taken in
the question of rainfall, the Sub-Committee reports that the
Honorary Secretary sends the returns to no fewer than 90
persons every month.

At the beginning of the year the Committee made a grant to
the Meteorological Sub-Committee of £25; the expenditure has
exceeded this by the small sum of £1 4s. 5d., an excess due to
the fact that 14 months’ payments have been made, owing to the
printer’s bill for the last few months of the year 1888 not having
been received in that year. In future it is hoped that the
expenditure will not exceed £25 per annum. The Club is much
indebted to the Photographic Sub-Committee for photographing
several of its stations, and also to the Borough engineer (Mr.
Walker) for his courtesy on the occasion of its excursion to
Addington. The report of the Meteorogical Sub-Committee will
be found in the Transactions.

The Microscopical Sub-Committee, the Honorary Secretary of
which is Mr. Murton Holmes, have prepared a list of slides in
the cabinet of the Club up to this date. Itis hoped that this -
will not only facilitate the use of these by our members, but lead
to additions being made to the collection. This catalogue will
be found in the Proceedings. :

Mr. Berney, the Honorary Secretary of the Zoological Sub-
Committee, writes, ‘‘that the only fact of interest to report was
the great scarcity of insects during the past season.”

The Photographic Sub-Committee, through its Honorary
Secretary, Mr. Charles Hussey, reports as follows :—

During the past year the membership of the Section has increased
EN 31 to 43; some of the new comers being new members of the

lub. :

General meetings of the Section have been held on the first Friday
of each month throughout the year, and have, as a rule, been well
attended. Six Optical Lantern Exhibitions (exclusive of the Soirée)
have been given; the quality of the slides showing a marked general
improvement over those of last year.

In addition to the conversational meetings, the following papers

_ have been read :—

‘* Stripping Films, and printing and enlarging on Transferotype, and
Bromide papers,” by Mr. H. 8. Bellsmith.

“With a Camera through Southern Spain and Morocco,” by Mr.
Andrew Pringle. This was a lecture illustrated by photographs shown
by the Club’s optical lantern.

‘The Collodio-Bromide Process for lantern-slides and trans-
parencies,” by Mr. Wm. Brooks.

‘* Art in its relation to Photography,” by Mr. George Davison.

‘Reducing and enlarging Photographs by artificial light,” by Mr.
W. Low Sarjeant.

“The Ferrous Oxalate Developer,” by Mr. D. E. Goddard.

The Wet Collodion Process,” by Mr. Charles Hussey.

Cxiv Proceedings.

The following excursions have been made during the year :—
May 14th, Oxted and neighbourhood. June 1st, Ockley and Capel.
June 22nd, Betchworth to Brockham Green. July 6th, Reigate.
August 10th, Lingfield. August 31st, Baleombe.

With the exception of the months of May and June, the year 1889
can hardly be said to have been favourable for out-door photography ;
good work has nevertheless been done by our members, and, in the
majority of cases, slides have been made from their negatives for use
in the Club lantern.

The fine optical lantern and kit purchased by the General Com-
mittee have proved of the greatest assistance to the Photographic
Section, having been used regularly and with great satisfaction
throughout the winter months.

The Sub-Committee desires to call the attention of the members of
the Club to the great utility of photography as an aid to scientific
investigation. The manipulatory difficulties are small and easily
overcome, while the resulting photographs (either paper prints or, pre-
ferably, optical lantern-slides) are often of the greatest scientific
value. The Sub-Committee and members of the Section will with
pleasure assist any member of the Club who is desirous of taking up
photography, either as an artistic recreation or as an aid to scientific
study.

pene ae has already been given by members of the Photographic
Section to the Geological and Meteorological Sections; in order, how-
ever, that the work may be systematised, it may be expedient, at a
future time, to appoint a Photo-scientific Committee, consisting of (say)
two members of each Section of the Club, to draw up a circular
pointing out the best methods of securing photographs of scientific
value, and the means by which these photographs may be most con-
veniently made available for general reference.

During the past year 6 excursions and the same number of
- photographic rambles were arranged, and were the means of
imparting useful knowledge and recreation to those engaged, as
we see from some of the reports which have been received.
Unfortunately your President was never able to join in them,
for although Bank Holidays come and go for many, those days
are as other days to the medical man.

The ordinary Monthly Meetings have been fairly well supplied
with Papers during the past year.

February 18th.—Mx. Lovett read a Paper (Trans., Art. 74) “On
some practical hints and suggestions on the preparation of
objects for the Microscope,” in which he briefly referred to the
various methods of preparing objects for the microscope, namely,
dry, in cells in Canada balsam, glycerine jelly and fluids of
different kinds; and gave some practical hints with regard to
each. As the paper appears in our Transactions, further
reference to its contents is unnecessary here.

March 18th.—Mr. Charles Hussey read a Paper “On the
application of Photography to scientific research.” He com-

Proceedings. CXV

menced by reviewing the great strides recently made in
photography, and the numerous uses to which photography
had been applied for scientific purposes. The medical man by
its means could obtain a permanent record of the various changes
taking place in the patient under his observation. The botanist
had unfolded in his view the growth, the expanding and develop-
ment of plants through all their varying changes. The
zoologist, the extraordinary positions displayed by animals in
walking, running and leaping, and every varying position of the
wings of birds during their progress through the air. To the
geologist it was almost indispensable by preserving the appear-
ance of freshly exposed rock sections. By it the astronomer
obtained records of the sun spots and those little understood and
erratic projections from the sun’s corona. Its use by the
microscopist was patent to all, for by it he was enabled to enlarge
that multitudinous and glorious display of the minute creatures
inhabiting the earth. And lastly, it might be called a terror to
evil doers, for, by the detective camera, they could be portrayed
in the midst of their evil career. .

April 10th.—Dr. Carpenter read a Paper ‘‘On Microscopic life
in Sewer Air, as bearing on the question of Ventilation of
Sewers.” This paper which is of great practical interest to all
interested in the health and prosperity of our town appears at
length in our Transactions (Trans., Art. 75). In this highly
instructive and scientific paper Dr. Carpenter from an early date
showed how the proper ventilation of sewers was the means of
averting disease in this town.

May 8th.—Mr. Robert Brodie read a Paper (Trans., Art. 76)
*©Qn Ancient and Modern Science.” In this paper Mr. Brodie
traced the gradual evolution of ancient science up to the probably
more correct modern, and said although the modern was in
accordance with a more enlightened and mature experience, he
still gave great credit to the ancient scientists, who had to perform
their experiments under great disadvantages, as they were
unacquainted with the scientific instruments and data of the
present time. It would be only taking up your time un-
necessarily to further dilate on this subject, as a full report of it
appeared in the Local Press, and an abstract kindly forwarded
by Mr. Brodie will also be found in our Transactions.

September 11th.—At this meeting no paper was read, but the
meeting was resolved into a conversational chat, during which
many topics of an interesting nature were discussed.

October 9th.—There was an absence of a paper at this meeting
also, but Mr. Mennell made some very interesting remarks on a
recent visit to Strathpeffer, and especially on the “ vitrified
forts’ as they are called, which occur in the North of Scotland
in a belt across the island from Inverness to Fort Augustus.

exvi Proceedings.

The rock of which the hills round Strathpeffer are composed is
a sandstone conglomerate. The forts are built up roughly of
masses of this rock, to which after construction intense heat has
been applied so that the whole surface is run together and
vitrified. The suggestion is that the idea of so treating them
arose first from the accidental effects of the beacon-fires which
were lighted on them; however that may be, the practice seemed
to prevail widely at some early period, probably about the Sth -
century, during the conflicts between Picts and Scots, and about
twenty of these forts can still be traced across the country from
Fort Augustus to Dingwall and Banff. The most conspicuous
and largest of these is Knock Farril close to Strathpeffer. Mr..
Mennell exhibited and described several rare plants from the
neighbourhood of Strathpeffer, notably Ajuga pyramidalis, which
grows on the bare conglomerate face of Tor Achilty. The
beautiful little dwarf birch (Betula nana), an Arctic species, the
Alpine arbutus (Arctostaphyllos alpina), the bearberry (Arctosta-
phyllos wva-ursi), and the dwarf cornel (Cornus suecica), all from
Ben Wyvis. Mr. Murton Holmes, also made some observations
on the preserving and mounting of Foraminifera, and exhibited
specimens showing that in some media the markings were
entirely obliterated, whilst in others they were clearly defined.

November 13th.—Mr. J. W. Helps read a Paper (Trans., Art.
77) ‘‘ On some Coal-tar Products.” The Lecturer gave a most
interesting and instructive description of the many preparations
obtained from Coal-tar, showing how an almost endless variety
of colour may be produced by substitution and change in the
relative position of its ultimate elements. He also told us that
although the colours were legion, still there was an instability
and difficulty in fixing them even by mordants. He also illus-
trated by diagrams the most approved means of extracting the
different products in an economical way, by means of one
apparatus, where, by regulating the temperature at fixed points,
each product was arrested at the temperature which caused its
formation. He also illustrated his Lecture by exhibiting a very
fine series of the colours derived from Coal-iar, as well as of
many of the other products to which he referred in his paper.
The paper appears at length in our Transactions.

December 11th.—The President read ‘“‘ Some notes on the Com-
parative Anatomy of the Vertebrates.” In this paper the
President endeavoured to show the anatomical distinctions
between the different divisions of the Vertebrates, pointing out
how a slight differenee of conformation of certain bones in the
skeleton sometimes placed an animal in a relative situation one
would have thought incompatible with its social position. He
found when reading the paper he embraced too large a field to
make it as instructive as he could have desired. He also finds

Proceedings. oxvii

he arrived at a too hasty opinion as to the position one class
(viz., the Birds) occupied, placing them lower in the scale than
they either socially or anatomically deserved, for on looking
further into the subject he finds he ought to have located them
with the Reptiles, under Huxley’s order of Sauropsida. He
therefore thinks an ample apology is due to the Birds, which he
hopes their great friend and benefactor Mr. Crowley will duly
convey to them.

The Conversational Meetings have been fairly well attended,
and many matters of a highly interesting nature discussed.

The Twentieth Annual Soirée was held in the Large and
Small Halls, and the old School of Art Room on the 20th of
November, when 108 microscopes were exhibited by the following
Clubs:—Croydon 86, Royal 7, Quekett 14, South London 10,
Brockley and St. John’s 6, Forest Hill 9, Greenwich 4, Holmes-
dale 6, Tower 8, and unattached 18.

In the Small Hall were displayed, by 41 exhibitors, many
collections of an interesting and instructive character, amongst
which we noticed a fine collection of photographs of all the known
Great Auks’ eggs, including Croydon’s only one, the property of our
friend Mr. Crowley; the well known, and always eagerly looked
for, basket of flowers collected by Mrs. Miller found its usual
place with an increased number of varieties. Mr. Helps had his
very fine display of coal-tar products; and on a long table
extending nearly across the room, was the large and very com-
plete collection, by Mr. Lovett, of lamps, commencing at the most
primitive of lights, ascending by a species of evolution to the
most modern and almost perfect lamp. Mr. Crowley also gave
us a display of his unique collection of butterflies and moths.
Many other exhibitors placed for our edification collections,
useful, curious and instructive.

In the old School of Art Room, two exhibitions of lantern-slides
(prepared by the members of the Club) were given.

The total number of visitors and members present amounted
to 680, being 60 below the total of the previous year. This
falling off was not due to less interest being taken in the Club,
put was caused chiefly by the Mission which was held in Croydon
during the week we held our Soirée. However, in comfort we
gained, if in pocket we lost, by their absence.

Having now traced the progress of the Club during the past
year, it behoves us to see if we are satisfied with its prosperity ;
from my point of view I think we ought not to be, for when we
consider we have 285 members and only an average of 27 attend
our Monthly Meetings, we feel compelled to look round and ask

exviii Proceedings.

ourselves, What is the cause of this small attendance? Are the
Meetings held on an inconvenient day? There is no doubt our
day of Meeting accounts for the absence of some whom I know
would like to be present, for on our night the Royal Microscopic
and Geological Societies hold their Meetings, but even this would
only account for the few. What is become of the many old and
new members who stay away? If it were only the old members,
I would be inclined to say perhaps they grow weary of the
Meetings, or perhaps they have arrived at a time of life when
they cannot come out in the evening, but I find the absentees
include new members as well. Of these many may join in order
to get tickets for the Annual Soirée. We may then ask ourselves,
What of the Nine? and the only answer I can give is, I think we
ought somehow or other to coax, induce, or even try gentle
pressure on, our new members, to prevail on them to read short
papers on any subject they are interested in, at our Monthly
Meetings ; thus we might lead them to do greater things later on ;
we should not expect them to give us those polished papers they
might think necessary for a scientific society. I consider the
constant practice of preparing short papers, so that we might
have two or three read at a Meeting, would be a preparation for
greater things in the near future. They must not be afraid of
criticism, as kindly criticism leads the author to weigh well his
statements before they are made, and even mistakes when
pointed out make a lasting impression on the mind. In doing
this I should be sorry to suggest the elimination of those
excellent papers we have had read to us from time to time by
outside friends. I only throw out this suggestion in order that
we may be able to fill up those blank evenings which recur
almost every session. In this way we may be enabled to do a
double amount of good both to him who gives and to him who
receives.
Members elected, 1889.

January 9th.—William Edgar Backwell, 1, Tennison Road, South
Norwood. William Bullock, 20, Dingwall Road. Ralph Henry
Crowley, Bramley Oaks, Bramley Hill. William Lucas Distant,
F.G.8., Russell Hill Road, Purley. Thomas William Hall, F.E.S.,
7, Princess Road, Selhurst. Charles Henry Burnaby Sparrow, 1,
Chepstow Road. Samuel Stevens, F.L.8., Loanda, Beulah Hill,
Upper Norwood.

February 13th.—A. Norrington, Homeside, Purley. Alfred Ernest
Pinnell, Winchester Villa, Carshalton.

March 13th.—Thomas Dunean Aldous, 37, St. Peter’s Road. James
Gibb, 18, Outram Road. D. Everett Goddard, F.R.M.S., Wallington,
Surrey. Charles Mansfield, The Lindens, Coombe Road. George
Neall, 88, Lower Addiscombe Road. J.J. Pitman, 59, Dingwall Road.
Felix Joseph Vergara, Java House, South Norwood.

April 10th.—EHdgar F. Blow, 110, Lower Addiscombe Road. William
Henry Maidlow, Elm Lodge, Park Hill Rise.

Proceedings. xix

May 8th—Howard Martin, Bolney Grange, Havelock Road.
8. P. L. Phillips, Oxford House, Cherry Orchard Road.

Oct. 9th.—A. Stuart Blackett, 58, Southbridge Road, Croydon.
Dr. Edward Pearl, Tavistock, Sylvan Road, Upper Norwood. Samuel
Hodder Slade, Richmond House, South Norwood.

Nov. 13th. Howard R. Wise, Beechfield, Bramley Hill.

Library and Collection.

The additions to the Library and Collection during the year
1889 are as follows :—

From Individuals—Anonymous: Pamphlet on some forms of
British Violas. F.C. Bayard: Miscellaneous Meteorological Pamph-
lets. W. H. Beeby: The Flora of Shetland and other Pamphlets.
Dr. G. J. Hinde, F.G.S.: Paper on a true Calci-sponge from the
Middle Lias of Northamptonshire. W.Murton Holmes: One dozen
slides for the Cabinet. H. B. Sturge: Bulletin of Miscellaneous infor-
mation, Royal Gardens, Kew. N. Waterall: Naturalist’s Voyage
round the World, by C. Darwin.

From WSocieties—British Association for the Advancement of
Science: Report, 1888 (Bath); Report of the Delegates of the Cor-
responding Societies, 1889, and the President’s Address. County of
Middlesex Natural History Society: Transactions. Hast Kent Natural
History Society: Transactions. Hampshire Field Club: Papers and
Proceedings, Nos. 1 and 2. Holmesdale Natural History Club: Pro-
ceedings. Manchester Microscopical Society: Annual Report, 1888.
National Footpath Preservation Society: 4th Annual Report, and
Report of the Barnlake Right-of-way. Northamptonshire Natural
History Society: Journal, Nos. 34, 35,36. Quekett Microscopical
Club: Journal, 3 numbers. Royal Microscopical Society: Journal,
3 numbers. Smithsonian Institute: Report for 1886.

From Proprietors.—Essex Naturalist ; Science Gossip.

Loan Collection.—Dr. Carpenter: Palsontographical Society,
Publications up to date; Ray Society, Publications up to date.

Exhibits, 1889.

Feb. 18th.—C. H. Goodman, Insects preserved in fluid on a tablet
form for cabinet exhibition. W.Murton Holmes, The annelid Aphro-
dita aculeata or sea mouse (in spirit). Ed. Lovett (to illustrate his
paper), A series of fluid preparations of embryo Crustaceans, Mollusca,
Fish, Insecta, &c.

March 13th.—Hd. Lovett, Photographs of Geological, Ethnological
and Botanical interest. R. McLachlan, A fine photo-process print of
a series of moths of the genus Agrotis. N. Waterall, Specimens of
Italian marble and Vesuvius rocks.

April 10th.—Dr. A. Carpenter, Pine needles formed into a ball and
felted together, found on the surface of water at Ellesmere. W.Murton
Holmes, Series of drawings of sponge spicules. C. H. Jolliffe, Aspirator
charged with bacteria. K. McKean, Testacella haliotidea (alive) from
Highbury. W.J. Nation, Roots of ivy formed in a dense mass of
fibre in the hollow of a drain-pipe.

CXX Proceedings.

May 8th.—J. Drage, Imago and pupa-case of the Hawthorn Sawfly.
Ed. Lovett, Engravings of Microscopical and Natural History speci-
mens, early part of 18th Century.

Sept. 11th.—F. C. Bayard, Stem of sycamore constricted by a
ligature. Ed. Lovett, Flint knives, hammers, and cores from Belgium.
C. F. Oakley, Micro- and other photographs. W. Low Sarjeant, Volvox
globator and other pond life, collected during the Club’s excursion to
Sutton. N. Waterall, Nest of a robin from a basket hung up in an
outhouse.

Nov. 13th.—J. W. Helps (in illustration of his paper), A large series
of colours and other products obtained from coal-tar.

Dec. 11th.—Dr. A. B. Carpenter, Lignite and fossils with pyrites
from an excavation near Shirley. C.H. Goodman, Skulls of tiger,
pig, gavial and porpoise. Ed. Lovett, Har-bones of recent and fossil
Cetaceans. Kenneth McKean, Benzole solidified by the addition of a
wood extract. Dr. H. G. Thompson (to illustrate his Lecture), Sundry
anatomical specimens.

List of Exhibitors of Microscopes and Objects of Interest at
Twentieth Annual Soirée, November 20th, 1889.

Croydon- (40).—W. Aldridge, Frank Allen, J. H. Baldock, F. C.
Bayard, J. Berney, J. A. Carter, H. C. Collyer, P. Crowley, W. H.
Cullis, F. W. East, J. Epps, jun., W. M. Gibson, C. H. Goodman, H.
D. Gower, W. Murton Holmes, A. C. Hovenden, G. 8. Hovenden, H.
M. Klaassen, C. H. Lanfear, H. Long, E. Lovett, M. E. Lownds, W.
H. Maidlow, K. McKean, H. T. Mennell, W. F. Miller, W. J. Nation,
C. F. Oakley, H. F. Parsons, P. W. Perkins-Case, W. Pool, A. W. Rich,
W. L. Sarjeant, E. L. Shore, J. Stanley, E. Straker, E, B. Sturge, J.
W. Young, N. Waterall, and A. Warner.

Brockley and St. John’s (6).—G. Berry, G. P. Berry, E. Carlile,
J. T. Holder, A. J. Mitchell, and A. J. Robertson.

Forest Hill (9).—J. O. Boyes, H. H. Cowley, T. D. Fenner, E.
George, Miss Lownds, M. E. Lownds, J. H. Stanley, C. F. Worters,
and J. H. Worters.

Greenwich (4).—J. Beale, W. B. Bradford, W. Dannatt, and 8. J.
Weare.

Holmesdale (7).—F. Bossey, Colonel Clarke, A. B. Gough, D. P.
Poulter, C. E. Salmon, E. S. Salmon, and W. F. Tindall.

Metropolitan Scientific Association (1).—C. West.

Quekett (15)—_F. W. Andrew, J. W. Bailey, E. Bartlett, W. J.
Brown, H. A. Crowhurst, A. J. Jenkins, G. A. Messenger, J. H. Oliver,
G. D. Plomer, F. D. Rudkin, A. Smith, A. T. Spriggs, A. F. Tait, W.
W. Taylor, and W. Watson. x

Royal (7).—H. Epps, F. W. Hembry, R. Macer, C. Rousselet, G.
J. Smith, J. J. Vezey, and T. P. Watson.

South London (10).—H. G. Coombes, A. L. Corbett, R. Hlliott, T.
D. Ersser, C. H. Oakden, F. Reeve, J. A. Smith, W. B. Smith, D. Ward,
and W. West.

South London Entomological (4).—R. Adkin, H. A. Auld, H. W.
Barker, and J. R. Wellman.

Sutton (1).—A. W. Bawitree.

Sydenham and Forest Hill (1).—E. W. Perrins.

Proceedings. CXxi

Tower Hill (2).—J. Alstone and J. Thompson.

Unattached (22).—L. Atkinson, Mrs. Blow, E. Collingwood, H.
Cooper, R. E. Crossland, G. Dannatt, F. Enoch, W. H. Fairbank, J.
Fitz Marshall, J.J. Gaccad, J. J. Gibson, H. Hills, G. Lovell, J.
Marshall, senr., F. W. Peet, W. J. Richardson, G. H. Rodman, C. D.
a J. H. Stanley, C. W. Stidstone, J. A. Williams, and J. R.

ams.

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CXXxill

CATALOGUE or MICROSCOPICAL PREPARATIONS w
THE CABINET or tHe CROYDON MICROSCOPICAL
AND NATURAL HISTORY CLUB. 1890.

_—_—_—_—_>—————_.

In the following Catalogue but little attempt has been made at
scientific classification, but in order to facilitate the introduction of
new slides, and the withdrawal of spoiled ones, the Collection has been
divided into 25 sections, corresponding with the letters of the alphabet ;
therefore in applying for slides members must be careful to give the
Lerrers, as well as the Numpers, of the Slides they require.

INDEX.

VEGETABLE KINGDOM. ANIMAL KINGDOM.
A Dr1ATOMACEE Q ANNULOSA
B Axem (Marine and Fresh-water) R_ Insects (Whole)
C Foner, Ferns and Mosszs S Parts or Insects (not including
D> Couricuzs, Hares and RaPHipEes wings and scales of Lepido-
E Pozen, Stance and SEEps ptera, &c.)
F Leaves and Perats, &c. Wines anp Scates oF LEPmo-
G Serortons (Botanical) PTERA, COLEOPTERA, &C.

FisH-skIn, Scauzs, &e.
Harrsand Fraruers (Vertebrate)
W Sections oF TEETH, Bonz, Harr,

<q 4

ANIMAL KINGDOM.

&e.
Hs i aoe X AnavomrcaL Preparations (Ver-
K Ponycysrmna tebrate)
L Zooruytes (Polyzoa, Hydrozoa,
&e.) MINERAL KINGDOM.
M EcHINODERMATA
N Motuzusca Y Mrverats, Caemroazs and Crys-
O CrusTAcEA TALS
Pp

Aracunipa and MyriaPopa Z MIscELLANEOUS

CXXiV Proceedings.

VEGETABLE KINGDOM.

Section A—DraToMacEz.

1. Arachnoidiscus Ehrenbergii ook a «- Cole
2. Cestodiscus superbus a f af
3. Grammatophora marina & Rhabdonema arcuatum Ed. Lovett
- Ooze from Antarctic Ocean (H.M.S. ‘ Challenger’) ts
W. M. Holmes
: Bacteriastrum (Arafura Sea) H.M.S. ‘Challenger’
7. Diatoms (H.M.S. ‘ Egeria’) ae <2 a
8. Ste
9. Campylodiscus (Simmering, Saxony) ate aoe
10. Cementstein (Mors Island, Jutland) nee oe
11. Diatoms (Richmond, Virginia) age god fs
12. is (Nottingham, Maryland) SE ae
13. » (Richmond, Virginia) ... a age
14. + from Guano AC ahs fee :
15. a + ace = ae .. Ph. Crowley
Section B—Aue (Marine and Fresh-water).

1. Plocamium coccineum ... .. W. L. Sarjeant

2. Fresh-water Conferva att a a .. K. McKean
4, The erowth of Marine Conferva (im situ) No.1 es
oe ” ” No. 2 ”
6. ” ” No. 3 ”

These slides Nos. 1, 2 and 3, were suspended in a marine aquarium shaded
from the rays of the sun. No. 1 was mounted after 14 days’ immersion (or

as soon as bubbles of oxygen appeared on its surface), No. 2 a week later,
and No. 3 a week after that.

' Section C—F une, Ferns and Mosszs.

1. Polytrichum (Antheridia) . oc eae .- Cole
2. Funaria hygrometrica ace “oe ade -.. John Berney
8. Aicidium epilobii_ ... nee ae «- Hd. Lovett

4, Davallia Tyermanni (Scales) ay «. Jd. Gregory
5. Hymenophyllum Tunbridgense ... re «. Ph. Crowley

6. Platycerium Alcicorne ie ofc ote ... John Berney
7. Hymenophyllum Tunbridgense ... sot -. Ph. Crowley
g. Adiantum capillus-veneris oe ws sos K, WeKean
9. Davallia elegans... eee -

10. Polypodium vulgare er as

11. Polystichum aculeatum ... -

12. Scolopendrium vulgare... see 53

13. ” (vert. sect. of Sorus) ... Cole

14. Asplenium adiantioides ... ; .. K. McKean

15. Aspidium Filix-mas

”

OWA Pw PH

fot it
ao

a
bo

CO DID or 9 DO

. Acor:
F Psat (Starch) Ay

. Tous les Mois (Starch)

. Orris Root (Starch)

. Silene inflata (Seeds)

. Lobelia inflata( ,, )

. Nemesia elegans (Seeds) . :

. Pantoronia imperialis (Seeds)

. Hypericum perforatum a)
. Poppy from Delhi (Seeds) ..

. Ice Plant (Seeds) ...

. Blumenbachia coronata (Seeds) .
. Chara (Fossil Seeds) 5

Proceedings.

CXXV

Section D—Couriouzs, Hams and pees

. Cactus (Spines)
. Aloe (Cuticle, dry, to show cells) ..

LS (stained)
Echinocactus Visnaga (Raphides) _

. Poplar seed (Hairs)
. Cowhage (Mucuna pruriens), Hairs from Fruit

Hippophae rhamnoides (Scales from Leaf, dry)

Polariscope f
; Rhododendron Maddenii (Scales from under side

of Leat)

. Shepherdia argentea ( (Scales from Leaf) ...
. Mereurialis perennis se ami a and spiral

fibres from Leaf) .

. Tamus communis (Expressed Juice of Berry) .

Ed. Lovett

W. H. Beeby
J. Gregory
W. M. Holmes

K. McKean

J. Gregory
K. McKean

W. H. Beeby

Section E—Pouten, Starcu and SEeps.

. Tobacco Plant (Pollen)

Passiflora cerulea (Pollen)

. Catalpa syringefolia (Pollen)
. Tradescantia virginica (Anthers and Pollen)

Lilium bulbiferum (Pollen)

. Spermania (Stamens)

. Tacea (Starch)

. Rice (3, )

. Maize ( 4, )

. Potato( ,, )

. Arum maculatum (Siareh) =
. Oat (Starch) ..

. Potato (Starch)

puiey 36

K. McKean
Ed. Lovett

”
W. L. Sarjeant
Ed. Lovett
Ph. Crowley
J. H. Baldock

”?

K. McKean
J. H. Baldock

K. McKean
W. M. Holmes

K. McKean
Ed. Lovett

J. Gregory
W. M. Holmes

Section F—Leaves and Perats, &c.

. Trifolium procumbens peciee
” arvense (Leaflet)
3 Molinerii (Stipule) <5
pe & (part of Calyx)
95 ¥ (Leaflet) *

W. H. Beeby

CXXVi

Proceedings.

. Vicia Bobartii (Leaflet) aoe

. Medicago lupulina (Leaflet) Bae

. Geranium molle (Sepal) :

. Polygonum (part of Leaf) ..

. Epilobium montanum (part ‘of Leaf)

. Lathyrus pratensis (Stipule)

. Geranium pusillum (Sepal)

. Orobus tuberosus (part of Leaflet) wf
. Mercurialis perennis (part of Leaf) ae
. Typha latifolia (trans. sect. of Leaf)

. Orchis mascula (part of Leat) ...

. Shepherdia argentea (Leaf, opaque)

Potamogeton oblongus (part of Leaf)

. Deutzia scabra (Leaf, opaque) ~
. Ficus elastica (Mid-rib from Leaf)

a (sect. of Leaf)

Section G-——Srcrions (Botanical).

Rush (cect, of Stem)
. Phytolacca decandra (trans. ‘sect. ‘of Stem)

. Eleagnus speciosa (Leaf)

. Correa speciosa (Petal) ...
. Hippophae rhamnoides (Leaf)
. Trichinium Marylesii (Floret)
. Oak Button

. Rubus fruticosus (trans. sect of Stem)
. Sparganium simplex (long. sect. of Stem)

(trans. sect. of Stem)

Cobza scandens (trans. sect. of Stem)

. Laburnum (sect. of Root) ..
. Brazil Nut (sect. of Shell) ..
. Quillaia Bark (section)

. Artemisia Absinthium (trans. sect. ‘of Stem)

Cedar (sect. of Wood)

. Elder (sect. of Pith) oc
. Cinchona calisaya (sect. of Bark)

5 succirubra (sect. of Bark)
Condaminea (sect. of Bark)

. ”

. Cane (trans. section)
. Rush
. Sarsaparilla (trans. sect. of Root)

. Acer pseudo-platanus (trans. sect. of Twig)
. Clematis vitalba (trans. sect. of Twig)

. Brake (Pteris aquilina), trans. sect. of Stem
. Cork (section)
Philanthus mimosefolia (trans. sect. of Stem) ..
. Straw (Ash from)

Palm (Prichardia pacifica), s sect, of Leaf-stem ze

K. McKean
W. H. Beeby
K. McKean
W. L. Sarjeant
W. M. Holmes
K. McKean
John Berney
K. McKean

J. Gregory

W. H. Beeby

”

J. 8. Johnson
Ed. Lovett

W. L. Sarjeant
John Berney
Ph, Crowley
Ed. Lovett

”
”

: W. M. Holmes

K. McKean
W. H. Beeby
W. M. Holmes
Hid. Lovett

Proceedings,

ANIMAL KINGDOM.

Section H—Spronees.

CXXVil

1. Halichondria (trans. section) nee oes «. Cole
2. Euplectella aspergillum epiotee) K. McKean
8. Geodia Barrettii (Spicules) a ose W. M. Holmes
4. Dredging (H.M.S. ‘ Egeria ’) 9
5. Spicules from a Flint ‘(Horstead, Norfolk) G. J. Hinde
6. Donatia robusta ee = ... W. M. Holmes
7. Various Spicules ... aed sas FFP) a
Section J--Foraminirera.
1. Nummulites. Eocene: Isle of Wight Ed. Lovett
2. Portsmouth ... F
3. Dredgings, H.M.S. Porcupine,’ 2435 fathoms .. K. McKean
4. ” ooo. ”
5. “ H.M.S. ‘Challenger,’ Cee sea .. Hd. Lovett
6. Foraminifera from Sponge - J. S. Johnson
Le + K. McKean
8. a5 from Chalk, Warlingham .. 56
9. ” ”
10. 5s from Sponge Sand .. W. L. Sarjeant
11. » Chalk, Croydon =
12. Calearina, Ceylon W. M. Holmes

0D Lo

Pa See eS

. Globigerina (Ooze), Atlantic, H.M.S. ‘Challenger’

Foraminifera from Chalk, Margate
” ” Sponge Sand .
A Internal Casts, Macassar Straits ..

Section K—Potyocystina.

. Polycystina, Chalky Mount, Barbadoes... -...

i Caen,

5 Springfield Barbadoes
a M.S. gears sel
or pac bifioes

Cole
K. McKean
W. M. Holmes

W. M. Holmes
SS Bea ohnson

W. L. Sarjeant
Cole
W. M. Holmes

”

Section L—Zooruytes (Polyzoa, Hydrozoa, &c.).

. Cristatella mucedo (Ova) .

Anguinaria spatulata (parasitic on ‘an Alge)

. Gorgonia (Spicules), South Africa
. Bugula avicularia and Campanularia_..,

Ed. Lovett

ae a Sarjeant
W. M. Holmes

c 2,

-

CXXVili Proceedings.

Section M—EcurtnopERMAta.

1. Star Fish eres ae Begaanagent), Spines and
Plates Sic eas Cole
2. Green Pea Echinus ro “re se ... Hd. Lovett
3. Echinus (Spines of young) See aa .. K, McKean
4, » (basal portion of nie a ... Hd. Lovett
5. Cidaris (sections of Spine) .. act ve ... W. M. Holmes

Section N—Motzvsoa.

1. Anodonta cygnea (horizontal sect. of Gill) _... Cole
2. (trans. sect. of Gill with Glo- -~
chidia’ mM situ) ... ”
3. Anodonta cygnexa (trans. sect. Organ of Bojanus) “5
4, a (trans. sect. Genital Gland) . a5
5. (portion of Mantle ceeree the
Shell- “secreting margin) .. K. McKean
6. Anodonta cygnea (Adductor Muscle skeined
fibres) = ”
7. Helix pomatia (Romaki Snail), ‘trans. “sect. of
Ovitestis ... a5 ae oC ... Cole
8. Helix pomatia (Palate) ae soe ... W. L. Sarjeant
9. Cyclostoma elegans (Odontophore) aa .. Cole
10. Limnzus pereger (Odontophore) .. ao ... AX. McKean
11. Anodonta cygnea (Embryo) se ane =
12. (young) oe “ct .. W. L. Sarjeant
13. Octopus vulgaris (Skin)r") ... K. McKean
14. Planorbis. Hocene: Hadon Hill, Tsle of Wight Ed. Lovett
15. + A London Clay, Sheppey ... op
Section O--Crustacza.
s
1. Cyclops quadricornis He ie .. K. McKean
2. Lobster (trans. sect. of Liver) ae Se ... Cole
Section P—Aracanipa and Myriaropa.
1. Epeira diadema (Foot) ... dc oe .- Cole
2. + (Spinneret) we ae aes eee
3. is (Jaws) : So ae ot amor
4, (Leg) i re ae .. K. McKean
5. Tick of Blatta orientalis me os dts .. Ed. Lovett
6. Parasite of Golden Eagle ... bee ad ce ry
7. Lipecurus of Pheasant... ae af de: he
8. Parasite of Pheasant (Ova) tc e ee -
9. 5 Indian Kite ... ate ee .. K, McKean
10. “5 Dung Beetle ... veg ee “5
11. Crab Louse (Phthirius pubis), human oa ee ce
12. Tick of Pariah Dog, oe wt ae ae A
13. Stone Mite (Ova) ... ae He ... John Berney
14. Centipede... cee bee Piet si: sas A
15. 9 eee eee eee tee see eee 9
16. » (Head) .., = bis wae ae eee MG ae

Proceedings.

Section Q—ANNULOSA.

CXxi1X

1. Earth Worm (Lumbricus terrestris), trans. sect. Cole
2. + Spermatozoa 5,
Oe aro aes . young .. K. McKean
4. Tape-worm, human (Teenia mediocanellata),
long. vert. sect. through middle region Cole
5. Trichina spiralis (encysted in Muscle) seat ss
6. Ascaris vermicularis (Thread-worm, human) ... K. McKean
7. Leech (Sanguisuga medicinalis), trans. section -Cole
8, Liver Fluke (Fasciola hepaticum), trans. section )
between Suckers ive ae un stl yy
9, Liver Fluke (Sheep) J. S. Johnson
Section R—Inseots (Whole).
1. Termite Worker (Termes bellicosus), Madras ... K. McKean
2. Thrips from ear of Wheat ... sce aie Ses oA
3. * “ee: Sem “ 33
4, Aphis rose stung by Ophion luteum ... Hd. Lovett
“ Larva of? ... =n ae fe .... John Berney
: re a oe A, Bes Sr ae ig
7, Flea of Dog (Pulex canis) ... Besos eS, K. McKean
8. Notonecta glauca (Boatman Fly, 4 days old) 7
Section S—Insrcts (Parts).
1. Gnat (Culex pipiens), Legs K. McKean
2. Ichneumon Fly (Legs) _ + 3
3. Notonecta glauca (Hind Leg) _ ... J. 8. Johnson
4. Blow Fly (Musca vomitoria), Foot K. McKean
5. House Fly (Musca domestica), Foot... a
6. Tiger Mosquito (Head, Wings and Legs) Fy
7. Blue-bottle Fly (Eyes) : she e: z
8. Ichneumon Fly (Sting) o
9. Humble Bee (Sting)

25.

. Sawfly (Head)

“e (Ovipositors ‘separate) ey =
. (Ovipositors in natural position)

. Crane Fly (Tipula o
. Tiger Mosquito (Head), Madras ...
. White Moth (Eyes) a as
. Moth (Tongue) aaa act
. Silkworm (Tracheal System)
. Ichneumon Fly
. Ladybird (Coccine aa
. Blue-bottle (Musca vomitoria), Wing

. Dermestes (Exuvium of Larva) ... ea
Puss Moth (Cerura vinula) and appendage

(Wing)

' Boarmia rhomboidaria (Antenna and Leg)
. Ichneumon Fly (Antenna) sus
. White Moth (Antenna) ... ae
leracea), Head

lla), Wing

Ed. Lovett
K. McKean

Cole “s
K. McKean

Cole’
K. McKean

3?

W. M. Holmes

ofLarva Ed. Lovett

CXxXX Proceedings.

26. Goat Moth (Cossus ligniperda), Proleg of Larva
27. Swallow-tail Moth ia we sspears is Ova
28. Fly (Ova) ...

29. Waved Umber Moth (Ova)

J. 8. Johnson
John Berney

”
”

Section T—Wines anp Scares or Lepmorrera, CoLEopTsrRa, &c.

it ee Lepidoptera (upper surface of Upper
Win ;

: iTopianl Lepidoptera (upper surface of Upper
Wing) eh aed SS eer

: gil Lepidoptera (lower surface of Upper
Win

Wing) 5k Sea ay oe
. Tropical Lepidoptera (upper surface of Upper
Wing) pod Bac
. Tropical Lepidoptera (upper surface of Upper
Wing) +c cee oes

2
3
4. Teopioal Lepidoptera (lower surface of Lower
5
6
7. Polyommatus “Corydon (Scales)

Section U—Fisx-sxin, Scaues, &c.

. Gobius (Skin)
Eel (Skin)

. Hel (Scales) oot
; Sole (Skin) ...
»» (Scale) .

CO DID OH OY BO

. Sword Fish (Scales from Rostrum)

Ed. Lovett

W. L. Sarjeant

J. S. Johnson

K. McKean
Ph. Crowley

J. 5. it ohnson

Ph. Crowley
Ed. Lovett

Section V—-Harrs and Fraruers (Vertebrate).

1. Feather in its Follicle (section)

2. Peccari (Dycotyles Tajaca), trans. sect. “of Hair

3. Porcupine (Hystrix cristata), trans. sect. of Quill

4 ie of Quill
stained ..

5. Porcupine (Hystrix cristata), trans. sect. “of Quill
stained...

6. Hedgehog (Erinaceus europeus), ‘trans. "sect. of
Spine “ sas

7. Rhinoceros (trans. sect. of Hair from Tail)

8. ”

9. Diseased Hair (human) ...

10. Ornithorhynchus sequel (ix)

11, Kangaroo (Hair) ...

Cole

Ph. Crowley
W. L. Sarjeant
Ph. Crowley
W. M. Holmes

K. McKean
W. M. Holmes
Ed. Lovett

Proceedings.

Section W-—Secrions or Tretu, Bonz, Ho

. Human Bone (trans. sect. of compact tissue of
. Greenland Whale (Balena taysticetns), ‘sect. of

. Bullock’s Hoof (section) Ae

. Red Deer (Cervus elaphus), sect. of Antler (Fossil)
. Fallow Deer (Dama plaiyeaty sect. of Antler
. Human Corn (section) : aa

Ompeo np -

OXXXi

RN, &C.

shaft of long Bone) =o Cole
Baleen... “ «. Ed. Lovett

W. M. Holmes
Ph. Crowley

J. 58. 5 ohnson

Section X—-Anatomican Preparations (Vertebrate).

1. Lung, human (vert. section)
2. Kidney, human (trans. section)
3. Lung (Alveolar Pneumonia), 1st stage
2 Ge 4: 2nd stage ..
Bins uss A 3rd stage ...
6. ,, Broncho-Pneumonia 5
7. 4, Interstitial Pneumonia
8. ,, Acute Pleurisy
9. ,, Tuberculosis ...
10. Tubercular Phthisis (Tubercle softening in in
‘centre) st Re
11. Lung, Brown Induration ae
12. ,, Anthracosis ...
13. ,, Vesicular Emphisema
14. +,, Carcinoma ...
15. Kidney, human (vert. section injected)
16. “a » (stained) AG eee
17. Pee » (Infant) ... a.
18. “f » (Foetus at term) .
19. » Interstitial Nephritis (waxy disease)
20. f
21. » Large white (early stage)
22. i; ms (later stage)
28. Ps in Leucocythemia
24, = Acute Congestion
25. » Fatty Degeneration (phosphorus poisoning)
26. + Secondary Epithelioma ...
27. i Tubercular Renal Phthisis
28. Red Granular :
29. Pancreas, human (trans. sect. injected) ..
30. (trans. sect. stained)

31. Thyroid ‘Gland, human (trans. section) .
82. Spleen, human (vert. section) ...

83. Liver, human (to show hepatic ae
84. Areolar Tissue, human (stained) .

35. Adipose Tissue, human (stained)

36. Nerve Tissue, human (trans. section)
87. Hyaline Cartilage (Human Trachea)

Cole
K. McKean
Cole

CXXxii Proceedings.

38. Epithelium 1, Squamous (Tongue) aa «. Cole

7 2, Columnar (Intestine) ae poeta beahss
8, Ciliated (Fauces) ... tec 7"
39. Cerebellum, human (trans. sect. stained) ecoeeen
40. Cerebrum, human south has
41. Skin, human (vert. sect. of Sole of Foot) Sy an te
' 42, Scalp, ,, (horizontal sect. double stained) . a
ABS, » (vertical section double peo i
44, Penis, human, Infant at term (section) . esa ws
45. Cat, Ileum (trans. sect. injected) ... bm Soe ace
46. ,, Spleen es
47. Ossification of Cartilage (long. sect. of Femur of
Kitten) .. ba “56 a
48. Cat, Spinal Cord (Dorsal region) . aoe eae ay
49. ,, Cornea (vert. section) aie ane ~
50. ,, Lung (injected) wee «os ae roe uae
ls 353 Testis (trans. section) A
52. ,, Mammary Gland during period my lactation
(trans. section) ... cor ae <j
53. Kitten, Ovary (trans. section) ace as Bete a
54. Cat, Liver (injected) oes 8
55. Dog, Submaxillary Gland (vert. section) _ Seebml ors
56. ,, Tongue (vert. section) See pee st rs
Silas was » (vert. trans. section) was be <3
58. ,, Large Intestine (trans. section) ... py a Es
59. ,, Stomach (trans. sect. Pyloric end) .. ase i
60. ,, Tail of Puppy (trans. section) es AA
61. ,, Penis of Puppy 1 month’ old ee section) rn
62. ,, Duodenum (trans. section) . z
63. ,, Stomach (trans. sect. Cardiac end) Bec ee
64. CHsophagus (trans. section) .. ee aeantelts

65. Calf, Thymus Gland (hor. section) es
66. Cow, Yellow fibro-cartilage from Pinna of Ear... *

67. Sheep, Lung (trans. sect. of Bronchus) . 3
68. ,, Kidney (hor. sect. of Papillary portion) . +
69. Lamb, Tendon (trans. section) ... 3
70. Rabbit, Uterus 33

71. Rhinoceros, Ligamentum Nuche (section) Bl. eo Lovett
72. Elephant, Indian (flesh of Foot, section) dak a3
73. Mouse, Liver and eney (sections) aa ... W.M. Holmes

74. Rat (Spermatozoa) .. ore ae ..» Cole
75. Pig (Muscle) fe oe Fe Pegs
76. Duck (trans. sect. of Lung) | ae ee Ducal fy,
77. Bird (trans. sect. of Ovary) ee ae Exot) mabe
78. Tadpole (Mouth) ... a iss = peat he xs
79. Frog (trans. sect. of Lung) a sey 5 ey
80. ,, (vert. sect. of Skin, stained)... ase Peet EX.
81. ,, Blood (double stained) "9 ome APs “A
82. Lamprey (trans. section) ... “os a

”
83. Water Snake (Blood discs), Madras aie .. K. McKean
84, Carpet Snake (Morelia variegata), Blood eh ae
Madras ... BA ie
85. Carpet Snake (Muscular fibre)
86, ” ”

. ste
Proceedings. CXXxill

MINERAL KINGDOM.

Section Y—Munerats and Crystazs.

1. Pikrite, Inchcolm, Frith of Forth na, ... Cole

2. White Syenite, Lain oP Bly ae

8. Red Syenite, Ord Hill, Sutherland ”

4. Oolite (Secondary Formation) oe a ... Norman
5. na A a 5

6. Porphyritic Basalt, Edinburgh ... ae ... Cole

7. Serpentine, Portsoy a eee

8. A The Lizard, Cornwall es bao e

9. Hebridian Gneiss, Hannan Islands eS ante 5 the 2
10. Dolerite, Dalmahoy Hill ... re ae rere
11. Diabase, Corstorphine Hill, Edinburgh ep ear
12. Uric Acid (Natural Crystals) oH oe ... W.M. Holmes

Section Z—MuscELLANEOUS.
1. Mummy-cloth from Luxor ae oes ... Ed. Lovett

Date of Election.
12 Oct. 1887.

13 Mar. 1889.

10 Oct. 1883.
10 Dee. 1884.
9 Mar. 1887.
13 May, 1885.

9 Apri. 1884.

11 May, 1887.

19 Mar. 1879.
9 Jan. 1889.

21 Mar. 1877.
19 Noy. 1873.

4 May, 1870.

Original.

15 Apyrl.
9 Sept.
10 Noy.
14 Apri.
8 Feb.

10 Mar.

14 Mar.
15 Mar.

1874.
1885.

1886.
1888.

1886.

1888.

1871.

11 Nov. 1885.

Original.

13 Jan. 1886.
9 Oct. 1889.

Original.
10 April.
10 Dee.

1889.
1884,

15 Dee.
11 Apl.
16 Jan.
19 Feb.

9 Mar.
10 Nov.
12 Nov.

1880.
1888.

1887.
1886.
1884,

1886,

1878.
1873.

CXXX1V

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Revised to end of March, 1890.

Apams, WALTER, Trevenna House, Chepstow-road.
Atpous, THomas Duncan, 37 St. Peter’s-road.
ALDRIDGE, WILLIAM, Westow-st., Uppr. Norwood, 8.H.
AutpricutT, W. J., Broad-green, Croydon.

ALLDER, JosHuA. 2 The Close, Chatsworth-road.
ALLEN, Franx, Warrington House, Duppas Hill-road.
AuEN, A. H., Melrose Villa, Wellesley-road.

Austen, W.YV.,18 Belgrave-rd., South Norwood, S.E.

BacKWELL, RicHarD, Tennison-rd., 8. Norwood, 8.E.

BacKWEL.L, WinLt1am Epear, 1 Tennison-road, South
Norwood, 8.E.

BapvDeEtey, T., The Chestnuts, Broad Green.

BatLey, Epwin, Lansdowne-road.

Baker, SAMUEL, Lansdowne-road.

Ba.pIsToNn, FREDERICK, Glastonbury Lodge, Syden-
ham-road. .

Bawpocg, J. H., F.C.S., 3 High-st., 8. Norwood, 8.E.

BarBeEr, J. H., 41 London-road.

Barritt, F. ALFRED, Hazeleigh, Dean-road.

Barrow, REUBEN VINCENT, Engadine, Park Hill Rd.

BastTaRD, EpwarD Rocer, Highbury House, South
Norwood, 8.E.

Bayar, F. Campsetu, LL.M., F.R. Met. Soc., Manor-
road, Wallington.

Berar, Dr. F'., Westwood, Brighton-road.

BrEesy, WILLIAM H., F.R.M.S., 14 Ridinghouse-street,
London, W.

Berney, Henry, 114 North End.

BrERNEY, JOHN, F.R.M.S., 114 North End.

Binyon, THomas W., Chichester-road.

Buackett, A. Stuart, Bloomsbury Mansion, Hart-
street, London, W.

Buake, W. J., Elmfield, Park-lane.

Biow, Epa@ar F., 110 Lower Addiscombe-road.

Bresner, G. ReirH, M.D., Bensham Lodge, West
Croydon.

Brewer. J. G. B., Havelock-road.

Brock, ArtHuR, Chagford, Selhurst-rd., 8. Norwood.

Brock, Gro. E., Beech Hyrst, Haling Park Road.

Bropie, Rozert, M.A., George-street.

Brooks, W., Laurel Villa, Wray Park, Reigate.

Brown, J. Weir, Ferndean, Heathfield-road.

BuckianD, JoHN WeLLiIneToN, 130 Lower Addis-
combe-road.

:

Date of Election.
9 Jan. 1881

12 Mar. 1890.
9 Jan. 1889.
14 Mar. 1888.

21 Mar. 1877.

Original.

19 Jan. 1881.
11 Jan. 1888.
15 Jan. 1874.
11 Apri. 1888.

15 Dec. 1880.
16 May, 1877.
19 Apri. 1876.
16 May, 1877.
20 Dec. 1876.
12 Dec. 1888.
18 Jan. 1882.
21 Oct. 1887.

Original.

16 Apri. 1873.
14 Dec. 1887.
21 May, 1879.
11 Nov. 1885.
10 Oct. 1888.

Original.

9 Jan. 1889.
20 May, 1886.

20 May, 1874.

Original.

18 Apri. 1877.
-15 Sept. 1875.
9 Jan. 1889.

8 Aprl. 1885.

Original.

11 May, 1887.

9 Jan. 1884,
18 Sept. 1888,
19 Dec. 1877.
18 Feb. 1880.
18 May, 1887.

14 Sept. 1887.
18 Nov. 1874.

List of Members. CXXXV

Bunpp, Psrcy, High-street.

Bupcen, Water, Elswick Villa, Addiscombe-road.

Buttock, Wiit1am R., 20 Dingwall-road.

Burrovex, F., Trellis Cottage, Collier’s Water Lane,
Thornton Heath.

CarPenter, A. B., B.A., M.R.C.S8., F.R.M.S8., Bedford
Park.

CARPENTER, ALFRED, M.D., J.P., Heath Lodge, Lower -
Addiscombe-road.

CarTER, JAmEs A., M.A., Reedham, Purley, Surrey.

Casu, Wiu1am, Jun., Lifford Lodge, Outram-road.

CuamBers, W. E,. J.P., Eversfield, Sutton.

CHATTERTON, GEORGE, M.A., M. Inst. C.E., Linton,
Grosvenor Hill, Wimbledon, S.W.

CHEESWRiGuHT, F. R., Maythorne, Birdhurst Rise.

CHISHOLM, JAs., 21 Outram-road.

CHUMLEY, JoHN, Worcester Lodge, Canning-road.

CLARKE, JosiaH, 88 George-street.

Coatss, W. N., Fairfield-road.

CouURLANDER, Louis, 42 North End.

CoLuyEeR, Henry C., Beecholm, Park Hill Road.

CoLiyER, Brycr, Woodlands, Haling Park Road.

CorDEN, GEORGE, F.R. Met. Soc., 33 Limes-road.

Corry, Joun, J.P., Rosenheim, Park Hill Road.

Coucuman, ALFRED, Houghton, Birdhurst Rise.

CowneEtLt, H. §., Cotleigh, West. Wickham, Beckenham.

CrosFIELD, G. T., Hurstleigh, South Park Hill Road.

Crossman, Henry Danvers, Shirley, Surrey.

Crow ey, Purp, F.Z.S., Waddon House.

Crow ey, Ratpa Henry, Bramley Oaks, Bramley Hill.

CuLLis, WILLIAM Henry, 7 Gresham-road, South
Norwood, 8.E.

Curtine, GrorGE, Elgin House, Addiscombe-road.

OnE Tuomas, F.R.A.S., 2 Southside, Chepstow-
road.

Davies, ARTHUR CaPEL, The Glen, Duppas Hill.

Dickrnson, Wii1am, M.A., F.G.S., Warham-road.

Distant, Wiiu1aAm Lucas, F.G.S., Russell Hill Road,
Purley.

Drxon, Joun, C. E., High Towers, Selbourne-road,
Park Hill.

Drx, T. H., 81 High-street.

Down, H. W., Bank Chambers, North End.

DracGeE, JoHN Henry, Tamworth-road.

DraGe, JoHN, Tamworth-road.

Drummonp, H., 6 Walpole-road.

Duxes, M. Cuartzs, M.D., Wellesley-road.

Duncan, Pserer THomas, M.D., Park-lane.

East, FrepERIcK W. Timberham, Horley, Surrey.
Eastty, ALFRED, Addiscombe-road.

CXXxvi

Date of Election.

16 April. 1879.

4 May, 1870.
9 Dec. 1885.
19 Jan. 1881.

21 Feb.
9 Jan.

8 Feb.

13 Mar.
Original.
19 Oct.
11 Mar.
9 Nov.
13 Mar.
9 Feb.

14 Jan.
12 Jan.
12 Jan.
11 Nov.
8 Aprl.
18 Jan.
12 Dec.

Original.

9 Jan. 1889.
18 May, 1881.
1879.
1888.
19 Sept. 1877.
1886.

19 Mar.
14 Mar.

10 Nov.
12 Jan.

Original.

11 Aprl. 1888.
11 Aprl. 1888.
11 Apri. 1888.

16 Feb. 1881.
2 Mar. 1873.

14 Aprl. 1886.

1872.
1884,
1883.

1888.
1889.

1881.
1885.
1887.
1889.
1887.

1885.
1887.
1887.
1885.
1885.
1882.
1883.

1887.
21 Sept. 1881.
12 May, 1886.
15 Jan. 1890.

List of Members.

Baton, H.S8., M.A., F.R., Met. Soc., Shepton Montague,
Castle Cary, Somerset.

Eprince, Sir Tuos. R., J.P., The Elms, High-street.

Exsorouas, C. M., Hazlehurst, Park Hill Road.

Epps, James, Jun., The Homestead, Ross-road, South
Norwood, 8.H.

Face, Epwarp, Beachley, Chichester-road.
Fak, FERDINAND, 1 Park Hill Road.
Fenn, W. G., Heath Lodge, Thornton Heath, 8.E.

Gaster, Frepericr, F.R. Met. Soc., 187 Acre Lane,
Brixton, 8.W.

Gis, JAMzs, 18 Outram-road.

Gipson, JoHN, 10 Canning-road.

Gipson, WattTeR M., 14 Lower Grosvenor-place, 8.W.

Git, J. J., 179 St. James’s-road. .

Guazier, J. T., Mavis Bank, Park Hill Rise.

GopparbD, D. Everett, F.R.M.S., Wallington.

ire C. H.9 Dorleote-rd, Wandsworth Common,

.W.

Gower, Harry Dovetas, 16 Wandle-Road.

GREENWAY, Henry, Ulimbali, Ashburton-road.

GREEN, J. §., Ranmore, Birdhurst Rise.

Gripper, Dr. WALTER, Wallington, Surrey.

Grunpy, Ricnarp F., Melton Lodge, Havelock-road.

GurImaRAEns, P. G., Warham-road.

GuRNEY, GEORGE, Canning-road.

Happock, Rouand, 5 The Waldrons.

Hat, THomas WILLIAM, 7 Princess-rd., Selhurst, 8.E.

Haart, P., ‘‘ Lyndhurst,” Fairfield-road.

Harwoop, W. R., Glebelands, Mitcham.

Hewes, James W., Waddon Marsh-lane, Surrey.

Henman, CHarzes, “ Streatley,” Friend’s-road, Hast.

Hersert, Honourable Sypney, M.P., 10 Mandeyille-
place, Manchester-square, W.

Hinpe, Dr. GrorceE J., F.G.S., Avondale-road.

Hoszson, J. M., M.D., 65 Lower Addiscombe-road.

Hoximes, W. Murton, Glenside, St. Peter’s-road.

HoreweE tL, M., 79 Lansdowne Gardens.

Horstey, Henry, M.R.C.S., London-road.

Hovenpen, A. Ceci, Arbor End, Selhurst-rd., South
Norwood, 8.E.

Hovenpen, Ervest C., Arbor End, Selhurst-rd., South
Norwood, 8.H.

Hovenpen, G. §., Arbor End, Selhurst-road, South
Norwood, 8.E.

HovenbEn, R. G., Heathcote, Park Hill Road.

Hovenpsn, T., Arbor End, Selhurst-road, South Nor-,
wood, S.E.

Howe tt, Aubert D., St. Andrews, Perryvale, Forést
Hill, S.E.

~ 10 Nov.

Date of Election.
18 Jan. 1882.
11 Mar. 1885.

17 May, 1871.
12 Mar. 1890.

16 Dec. 1874.
9 Mar. 1887.

Original.
18 Jan. 1882.
16 Feb. 1881.
1888.

8 Feb.
14 Noy. 1888.
10 Jan. 1883.

21 Nov.
21 Dec.

1877.
1876.

1877.
1885.

18 Aprl.
8 Aprl.
Original.
Original.
16 May, 1877.
11 Oct. 1882.
14 April. 1886.
8 Oct. 1876.

iginal.
18 Feb. 1874.
12 Mar. 1890.

10 Aprl. 1889.
Original.
13 Mar. 1889.
15 Dec. 1880.
Original.

10 Mar. 1886.

8 May, 1889.
20 Feb. 1878.
9 Feb. 1887.
11 Apri. 1888.

8 Dec. 1886.
Original.
1886.

19 Mar. 1879.
16 Dec. 1874.
18 Jan. 1882.
18 Jan. 1882.

List of Members. CXXXxVii

HupDDLEsTON, Rey. GrorGcE Henry, 106 St. James-road.
Hueues, Morean, 4 Wellesley-road.

Inerams, Witur1am, Whitgift Schools, Church-road.
I‘Anson, WitL1AM Henry, 120 St. James-road.

JARRETT, C., 30 St. John’s Grove.

Jounston, B. McKay, Katharine-street.
Jones, H. F., 34 Eastcheap, London, E.C.
JONES, SAMUEL, Trelawney, Addiscombe-road.
JUSTICAN, J. W., B.A., Outram-road.

Kine, CHARLES, Station-road, South Norwood, S.E.
Kraassen, H. M., Aberfeldy, Campden-road.
Kuster, Gustav, 14 Dingwall-road.

Latne, R. A., St. Peter’s-road.

LamBert, A., Jun., Mersey View, Cressington Park,
near Liverpool..

Lane, Harry, Havelock-road.

LANFEAR, CECIL, Rockwood, Chichester-road.

LatHam, Batpwin, C. E., 21 Havelock-road:

Lez, Harry, 20 St. John’s-grove.

Ler, J. R., 70 High-street.

LERESCHE,GEORGE Henry, 3 Alexandra-road.

Linton, Francis J. G., Clydesdale, Park Hill Road.

Lortus, T., Outram House, Lower Addiscombe-road.

Lone, Henry, 132 High-street.

Lovett, EpwarD, West Burton House, Outram-road.

Lovett, WALTER JAMES, Linda Villa, Farquharson-
road.

Marpiow, Wm. Henry, Elm Lodge, Park Hill Rise.

Masor, CHartes M., Duppas Hill Terrace.

MANSFIELD, CHARLES, The Lindens, Coombe-road.

Marks, J. G., 115 Waddon New-road.

MarsHatt, Epwarp, M.R.C.S., Church House,
Mitcham.

MarsHati, Ropert, Broomfield, The Avenue, Duppas
Hill

Martin, Howarp, Bolney Grange, Havelock-road.

Martuer, C. W., 47 Dingwall-road.

Maw, G., F.R.S., F.L.S., Benthall, Kenley, Surrey.

Mayer, GrorGs, 1 Lancaster Villas, Albert-road, South
Norwood, S.E.

Mayzarp, Martin W., 86 Lower Addiscombe-road.

McKean, Kenneta, F.L.S., Warham-road.

McLacuatan, Rosert, F.R.S., F.L.8., 23 Clarendon-
road, Lewisham.

MENNELL, H. T., F.L.S., Park Hill Rise.

Minter, Wiiiiam F., Canning-road.

Min, James Stocks, Cyprus, Chichester-road.

Morpavtnt, G., Glenearn, Epsom-road,

CXXXViil

Date of Election.
9 Jan.

21 May, 18738.
14 Nov. 1883.

15 Dec. 1880.
15 Jan. 1890.
9 May, 1888.

19 May, 1880.

Original.

Original.

13 Mar. 1889.

11 Jan. 1888.
4 May, 1870.

11 Jan. 1888.

18 Feb. 1874.

14 Nov. 1883.
18 May, 1881.

9 Oct. 1889.
19 Oct. 1870.
9 Dec. 1885.
14 Sept. 1887.

12 Nov. 1884.
1877.
21 Feb. 1872.

17 Jan.
19 Jan. 1881.

8 May, 1889.

4 May, 1870.
13 Feb. 1889.

13 Mar. 1889.
11 Nov. 1885.

Original.
14 Sept.
9 Noy.
17 Jan.
21 Jan.

1887.

14 Jan.
14 Jan.

12 Mar.
12 Mar.
15 Sept.

17 Jan. 1877.

1884,

1887.
1877.
1880.

1885.
1885.

1890.
1890.
1880.

List of Members.

Morean, James Henry, F.S.8., St. Ethelberga, Bird-
hurst Rise.

Morand, CHarzes C., Rastrick Lodge, Morland-road.

MortanD, CHARLES ERNEST, Rastrick Lodge, Morland-
road.

Morris, A., Beddington, Surrey.

Morris, J. E., Beddington, Surrey.

Morris Witt1am, C.E., The Kent Waterworks, Dept-
ford, S.E.

Morton, SHAapForTH, M.D., Wellesley Villas, Welles-
ley-road.

Muccerines, T. Bensamin, The Vale, Sydenham, 8.E.

Nation, W. J., 40 Thornton-rd., Thornton Heath, §.E.
NEALL, GEoRGE, 88 Lower Addiscombe-road.
Newman, E. Oakey, 16 Alexandra-road.

Newton, Cuartes, Crossland Villa, Broad-green.

Oaxktey, Cuarwes F., Abbotsford, Sudbury-rd., Thorn-
ton Heath, S.E.
OLDFIELD, JoHN, 16 Tamworth-road.

Pacet, Peter, Jun., Coombe-lane.

Parsons, H. FrAnkK1IN, M.D.,F.G.S.,13 Whitworth-rd.,
South Norwood, 8.E.

Peart, Dr. Epwarp, Fairoak, Sylvan-rd., Upper Nor-
wood, S.E.

PEEK, Sir Henry W., Bart., Wimbledon.

PrerRxins-Case, P. W., M.D., Oakfield-road.

Perry, ARCHIBALD H., 6 Friend’s-road East.

Perry, EDWARD SEAGER, 4 Morland-road.

Petton, JoHN, Warrington Lodge, Waddon.

PretHerick, H. W., Maple Lodge, Havelock-road.

Purtres, JAMES, Woodlands, Wellesley-grove.

Puituirs, 8. P. L., Oxford House, Cherry Orchard-rd.

PuiLpot, CHARLES W., M.D., Friends’House, Park-lane.

PINNELL, ALFRED ERNEST, Winchester Villa, Car-
shalton.

Pirrman, J. J., 59 Dingwall-road.

Poon, W., 53 Thornton-heath, §.E.

Price, GeorGE, N., 72 High-street.

PRINCE, JAMES WEBSTER, Brickwood House.

Purser, J., 8 Madeira Villas, Upper Addiscombe-rd.

Puxon, E. W., Wintons, Park Hill Road.

Pysr-Smitu, ARNOLD, Fairfield-road.

ReaD, Joun Puri, Eversfield, South Park Hill Road.

Reep, Lester, F.C.S., F.I.C., Hyrst Hof, South Park
Hill Road.

Rep, JAMEs Curistin, 43 Addiscombe-road.

Rein, Jonn JoHnstTone, 4 Sydenham-road.

Ricu, ALFRED WILuIAM, Oak Villas, Fell-road.

Ricuarpson, T. A., 24 London-road,

Date of Election.
4 May, 1870.
19 Dec. 1877.
18 Sept. 1872.
15 Feb. 1882.

18 Mar. 1874.

11 Jan. 1888.
21 Oct. 1874.
14 April. 1886.
12 Mar. 1890.
12 Mar. 1890.
18 Aprl. 1877.

12 Sept. 1888.

19 Sept. 1877.
14 Jan. 1885.

11 Aprl. 1888.
10 Nov. 1886.
13 May, 1885.
14 April. 1886.

9 Oct. 1889.

8 Feb. 1888.
14 Aprl. 1886.
13 Feb. 1884.

9 Jan. 1889.
15 Mar. 1882.

Original

9 Jan. 1889.

21 Dec. 1881.
20 Feb. 1878.
11 Jan. 1888.

Original.

12 Dec. 1888.

Original.
12 Dee.

16 Sept.
13 Sept.

9 Mar.
11 Nov.
11 Nov.
16 Jan.
17 Nov.
17 Nov.

9 Jan.
12 Mar.
10 Nov.
18 Sept.

1888.
1874.
1882.

1887.
1885.
1885.
1878.
1880.
1880.

1884.
1890.
1886.
1872,

List of Members. CXXXIX

Ringe, Byron, 112 North End.

Rosrnson, G. E., Lee Villas, Canning-road.
Roxprnson, W. Mossz, Kenley, Surrey.

Roprinson, Wm. Jas. Patmer, Lee Villas, Canning-rd.
Rosy, R. F., Shirley House, Selhurst, 8.H.

Roops, AtForD, 35 Derby-road.

Rosser, WaLTER, M.D., Wellesley-road.

Rostron, Srmpson, Riverside, Beddington.

RussELL, ALFRED CRAKE, 12a Clarendon-road.

Rytey, Rev. Grorce B., 177 Lower Addiscombe-road.
Rymer, 8. L., Wellesley-road.

SanDELL, Jonn T., Abbotsford, Sudbury-rd., Thornton-
heath, S.E.

SaRsEANT, W. Low, 7 Belgrave-road, 8. Norwood, 8.E.

Saunpers, THomas Dopeson, Twyfordbury, Park Hill
Rise.

Scumrrz, J. H., J.P., Lansdowne-road.

SHEARER, Donatp, Park Hill House.

SHors, BE. L., Millbrook House, Elmwood-road.

SKINNER, EpGaR, 10 Duke-street, St. James’s, 8.W.

SnapE, Samuet Hopper, Richmond House, South
Norwood Hill, 8.E.

SmirH, Haron, F.R. Met. Soc., Ingleside, Kenley.

Suira, LANGLEY Wm., Spring Lodge; Dean-road.

Surru, Dr. S. Parsons, Addiscombe.

Sparrow, CO. H. Burnasy, 1 Chepstow-road.

Sranuey JosErH, 17 Belgrave-road, 8. Norwood, S.E.

STANLEY, W. F., F.G.S., Cumberlow, 8. Norwood, 8.E.

STevens, SAMUEL, F.L.S., Loanda, Beulah Hill, Upper
Norwood, 8.E.

Stow, Isaac, 52 Canning-road.

Srraxer, E., Hazelshaw, Kenley, Surrey.

STREETER, J. S., High-street.

Srronc, Henry, J., M.D., George-street.

Srunt, G. N., Kenley, Surrey.

Srurce, EpwarD B., The Waldrons.

Sutciirr, Rosert, 6 Bramley Hill.

Swarne, J. C., Park Hill Road.

Syms, JouN E., Stanton Villa, Stanton-road.

Taytor, Martin, Southbridge-road.

Trrry, W., Cambourne-road, Sutton.

Tompson, A., 43 Carmichael-road, 8. Norwood, S.E.

Tompson, H. G., M.D., 86 Lower Addiscombe-road.

THompson, FrANcIS, Haling Park Road.

TopLey, Wiu1aM, F.R.S., F.G.S., Hurstbourne, Elgin-
road.

Trew, Tuomas N., M.D., Park Hill Rise.

Turit, CHARLES J. M., Marion Villa, Addiscombe-road.

TurNER, A. W., Cambridge House, Canning-road.

TuRNER, HENRY, 33 Lansdowne-road.

exl

Date of Election,
19 Dee. 1

20 Dec.
18 Dec.
19 Sept.

20 Apri.
11 Jan.
9 Feb.
15 Jan.
9 Jan.
15 Jan.

17 Oct.
Original.
17 Mar.
+9 Nov.
12 Dec.

13 Nov.

9 Sept.
10 Mar.
21 Apri.

16 Apri. 1879.

16 Aprl.

20 Apri. 1881.
11 Nov. 1885.

1876.
1878.
1877.

1881.
1888.
1887.
1890.
1884.
1890.

1877.

1875.
1887.
1883.
12 Apri. 1882.
1889.
13 May, 1885.
17 May, 1871.
12 Oct. 1887.
12 Oct. 1887.

9 Sept. 1885.

1885.
1886.
1875.
16 Aprl. 1879.

1879.
11 Jan. 1888.

List of Members.

Waker, Tuomas, C.E., Warrington-rd., Duppas-hill.

Watton, A., The Homestead, Bedford Park.

Warp, Jesse W., The Chestnuts, Brighton-road.

Warner, A., 2 Grosvenor Villas, Holmesdale-road,
Selhurst, 8.E.

WATERALL, NaTHANIEL, Waddon Lodge.

Waters, ALFRED, Stapleton House, Waddon Old-road.

WAYDELIN, CaRL, Jun., Bensham Villas, Broad-green.

Wayte, Joun, M.D., B.A., 108 North End.

Wess, W., Jun., Lanoy Cottage, Duppas-road.

WEBSTER, EpwIn, 234 South Norwood Hill, S. Nor-
wood, S8.E.

Wenuam, W. P., Horndean, Waddon Old-road.

West, FREDERICK, The Waldrons.

WHEALLER, G. Anson, Allandale, Coombe-road.

Witp, A. Scorr, Canning-road.

Wit1rams, Bertram Atex., L.D.S., 11 Wellesley-road.

Wiutouecusy, C. W., Ivy Cottage, Parson’s Mead.

WiseE, Howarp R., Beechfield, Bramley-hill.

Wirt, 8. J., 44 Dingwall-road.

WoopwarbD, JoHN, 1 Lee Villas, Canning-road.

Wratten, F. C. L., 42 Canterbury-road.

WRATTEN, SIDNEY HERBERT, 42 Canterbury-road.

Young, JoHN Woop, Heathcot, Tavistock-road.

Honorary Members.

Berney, FreperickK Les, Ravensbourne, Tambo,
Queensland, Australia.

Cameron, Commander V. Lovett, R.N., C.B., Kwin-
hata, Epsom-road.

Cots, R. oe M.D., San Francisco, California,
U.S.

gases Joun, D.O.L., F.R.S., Hemel-Hempstead,

erts.

Fuiowsr, W. H., LL.D., F.R.S., Natural History
Museum, South Kensington, London, S.W,

PRESTWICH, Prof. JosepH, Shoreham, Sevenoaks, Kent.

Symons, G. J., F.R.S., 62 Camden-square, N.W.

Associates.

CoLLyER, Epwarp B., Selsdon-road, Croydon.
Ropsourn, J., The Garden, Coombes, Coombe-lane.

TRANSACTIONS

THE CROYDON MICROSCOPICAL AND
NATURAL HISTORY CLUB.

1889—90.

74.— Some Hints on THE PREPARATION OF DELICATE OrGANISMS
FOR THE MicROscoPE.

By Epwarp Lovett.
(Read February 13th, 1889).

Mr. Lovett said that such organisms as the ova of Mollusca,
Crustacea, Fishes, &c., were often of such a nature as to be very
difficult of permanent preservation, but he had succeeded in
overcoming the difficulty satisfactorily by means of a fluid, the
density of which he modified in accordance with the organism
about to be mounted. This fluid was composed nominally as
follows :—3 parts pure alcohol, 2 parts pure glycerine, and 1
part distilled water. This strength was suitable for young
crustaceans, the ova of the fishes, and for the tougher ova sacs
- of the mollusca. For the ova of crustaceans and insects, and
for that of the very small fishes, one or two parts more of distilled
water might be added ; whilst for such exceedingly delicate sub-
stances as the ova of the nudibranchiate Mollusca, zoophytes
extended from their capsules; and for various delicate fresh
water forms, a weaker formula than this was necessary ; but as
practice was the best instructor, he recommended his hearers to
be guided by what they found to be the best proportions.
[his fluid should be put into small glass tubes, with corks

bearing numbers corresponding to those in a note book, so that

full details of the contents might be recorded. These tubes
should be taken down to the shore by the collector, and the
organisms obtained should be placed therein alive, direct from
the sea. The length of time required for the preservation of the
object by the fluid varies according to the organism, from a week
to a year; but some of Mr. Lovett’s best preparations had been
soaking, before being mounted, for five or seven years ; and as a
B

204 Dr. A. Carpenter on

proof of the value of the preservative fluid, he exhibited the
mucous-like ova mass of an Folis, which was in quite its
natural condition, although eight years of age as a micro slide.
The cement used by Mr. Lovett for fixing cells for this fluid,
for fixing the cover glasses to the cell wall, or for covering
sunk cells, is composed of equal parts of red lead, white lead,
and brown litharge, pounded to a powder and kept dry. When
wanted for use, a little is mixed with japanner’s gold size as
thick as required, and it must be used with great care to ensure
success, but in this case also the lecturer stated that practice was -
the best way to satisfactory results.

75.—Microsic Lire 1n Sewer Arr.
By Autrrep Carpenter, M.D., J.P.
(Read. April 10th, 1889.)

Tue peripatetic world is now and then convulsed by agitations
against the smells which come from openings into sewers. ‘* Shut
them up,” say the most energetic and demonstrative. Some-
times this is effected, sometimes it is not. In the heated discus-
sions which spring up, in consequence of some stinking outlet,
argument is useless. The loudest exclaimers often gain the day
rather by the loudness of their declamation than by the correct-
ness of their reasons. ;

I propose to consider the question in its bearing upon the
public health in a scientific rather than in a partisan spirit.

The reasons for objecting to smells from sewers are sound
enough. It has been proved conclusively that sewer smells do
promote sickness. It is reasonable, therefore, that those who
object to pay an unnecessary doctor’s bill, and at the same time
incur the risk of losing one of their beloved ones, should be loud
in their antagonism to smells from ventilating gratings.

The first point to be determined is the actual nature of the
smells, and, secondly, the causes which produce them. There
are various kinds of smells, some pleasant, others objectionable,
and some decidedly obnoxious, and one class is utterly offensive.
This division is not satisfactory, because some smells which are
grateful to some persons are most offensive to others. We
cannot divide them in this way. Another classification might be
made according to their manufacture. The odour of flowers and
of individuals—-human or animal—differ as to their causation
from the odour of a gas works, and yet they are allied. These
smells arise from chemical changes in the structures of the
bodies engaged, which give off minute particles of matter,

Microbic Life-in Sewer Air. 205

usually of an ethereal or gaseous character ; and being so they
are endowed with the attributes which belong to gases, each
atom having:a repulsive action toward every one of its own
kind. These odours are more or less rapidly oxidized when dis-
charged into the air. They do not act injuriously upon human
beings, except so faras they may take away the ozone or free oxygen
in the atmosphere, and render the air less vivifying than it other-
wise would be, and they cover up other and more dangerous smells.

The odours from individuals are also distinctive. Some
individuals smell very disagreeably; but the mere smell is
not capable of reproducing its kind any more than those from
flowers and chemical decompositions, and is not, therefore,
disease-producing. It cannot set up disease in other people.
The odours from recently-discharged excreta are allied to this
class. They are gaseous, have a tendency to diffuse themselves
into space, are rapidly oxidized, and are not in any way Phenix-
like—that is, do not grow another generation of a similar kind.
True, there are individuals with peculiar idiosyncrasies (as they
are called) who cannot bear the smell of musk, or other penetra-
ting odours. I have known one lady who could not stay in a
room with a blossoming plumbago without feeling faint, though
I could not detect any smell from the flower. But these are not
cases in point. Stinks of this character may seriously affect a
person, but there is no reproductive power in the smell. It is
this point upon which I wish particularly to dwell, so as to
bring before you the facts and the nature of so-called sewer gas.
The smell of a recently used water-closet is very objectionable,
but there is no probability of mischief to the next user on that
account. It is no more injurious than is rose-water or the
kennel of a fox. Fortunate for humanity that it is so. The
odours from recent excreta are like to musk; they are ethereal,
and tend to diffuse themselves, and so to become oxidized, and
are rapidly destroyed. The excreta from a cholera or fever
patient at its immediate discharge is perfectly harmless; but it
is highly charged with ova, or germs of organic living matter,
which are not so harmless. They are not volatile nor diffusible,
like the ethereal smells of musk or of the fox. They require to
be separated from the containing liquid, dried, lifted, and dis-
persed by currents of air. Where so carried they may or may
not fall into congenial soils. Any one walking upon the chalk
downs on a midsummer day may see the analogue of that which
takes place in sewers. The air blowing over the South Downs
lifts up the seeds of the various thistles which grow there, and
carries them on to arable fields below, or out to sea. In the one
case they reach a congenial soil and grow, to the vexation of the
agriculturist ; in the other they are destroyed. So it is with
disease germs from sewers.

BQ

206 Dr. A. Carpenter on

There is something more than smell or something less,.as it
has not been proved that disease microbes have any smell at all,
and, of course, it is only those which cause disease that need be
avoided, and the sewer must have a tidal state to enable these
germs to find exit at the street openings. This brings me to
another point in the case. There are benign microbes as well as
malignant organisms. There are microbes which are friends to
man, as well as those which are inimical. Take a cubic inch of
mould from the Beddington Sewage Farm. It swarms with
millions of living creatures, which are hard at work on a warm
day preparing the organic matter in the humus by turning
its nitrogen into nitrites ready for use by the vegetable world, if
it happens that no radicle belonging to a carnivorous plant is at
the moment ready to save the necessity for the change. It has
been shown by direct experiment that the formation of the
nitrites is due to this cause, and that the development of
ammonia which takes place under some other circumstances, is
also a reaction due to another organism of another kind, the
result being acid in the one case, alkaline in another. In the one
case putrescence is avoided, a nitrite or other acid being formed;
in the other it is hastened, and ammonia results. Here we have
another line. How does this alteration come about? The
answer is that it comes about very much in the earth or in
sewers as it does in the air; let oxygen abound, especially
ozonized oxygen, and nitric acid tends to form. The organisms
which cause this tendency grow as vigorously as does the yeast
micrococcus in a solution of sugar.. When the air is highly
charged with electricity, the rain which descends in a thunder-
storm contains an appreciable portion of nitric acid. But let the
presence of oxygen be diminishing, and compounds of nitrogen
form which are alkaline, and putrefaction is then promoted. A
set of microbes come into being which are sometimes inimical to
humanity; but here again we see the overruling hand of a
Divine Providence, for one of the products of putrefactive
agency, namely, sulphuretted hydrogen is completely destructive
to those organisms that especially revel in the humours of
animal life. This result is shown in the work of the doctor. It
is our duty as students to do some dissecting in our student days,
and we may be requested to do so at any time by the coroner. It
sometimes happens that the operator wounds himself. I have
experienced this while making post-mortem examinations upon
those who have only been dead for forty-eight hours, more or less.
This class of wound is always very serious, for disease germs
may be transplanted; but a wound inflicted at the end of a dis-
section, when putrefaction is established, perhaps six or eight
weeks after the death of the subject, has very little danger in it,
for the disease-producing microbes, if they had been present,

Microbie Life in Sewer Air. 207

have all been destroyed in the process of the putrefactive action
which has taken place.. This result happens in sewers as well as
in dissecting-rooms.

There are two classes of microbes which have to do with
destructive agencies—the moulds, which belong to the family of
fungi, and the true microbe or schizomycites order. If air be
sparsely admitted the moulds predominate, and there is a
tendency to acid formations, carbonic acid, butyric, nitrous
acid, &c.; but if it is all. but excluded, the schizomycites are
most numerous, and it is for this reason that ventilation must
be good or not at all. We now reach a point of importance in
the inquiry. Microbie life is connected with decomposition of
organic matter containing nitrogen in its constitution. Decom-
position is accelerated or checked by outside circumstances, such
as the presence or absence of air; it is also influenced by tem-
perature, by moisture, and the presence or absence of other
agencies, as is proved by the action of antiseptics and germicides.
We may even advance a step further, and say that without
decomposition, there is no development of microbic life ; this is
an important factor in the consideration of sewer air.

Let us now inquire as to the nature of the decomposition
which promotes the formation of these organisms. As experience
is gained we become more and more convinced that there is no
known means whereby any such organisms arise without the
previous introduction of a parent germ of the same kind ; that
the spontaneous origin of such germs is not likely to happen;
though no doubt in the case of some kinds of disease germs,
such as that of typhus-fever, the dormant organism is an ever-
present commodity, as much as that which gives rise to the blue
mould in cheese. It is also established by experiment that a
germ may be made more malignant by cultivation, or by culti-
vation may be deprived of its malignancy. It is upon this fact
that vaccination is found to be prophylactic against small-pox,
and Pasteur is able to prevent the spread of splenic-fever among
cattle, and take out the sting of hydrophobia, by giving rise to a
disease of a similar but of a milder type, though in the last-
mentioned this may be only a choice of two evils.

Let us now ask whether any microbes are to be found in sewer

air? Secondly, whether they are necessary parts of a sewer

system? Thirdly, whether being there they are benign or malig-
nant? And fourthly, whether it is possible for those which are
benign to become malignant by cultivation in the sewer or out-
side, and vice versd. My attention was first attracted to sewer
air in the years 1853, 1854, and 1855. We had a ventilator
fixed to the sewer at the Friends’ School in 1854, which was
then in Park Lane, Croydon. One of the teachers, who was of
an inquisitive turn of mind, got on the roof and smelt at the

208 Dr. A. Carpenter on

opening, with the sequence of a severe attack of sickness. It
was the first case in which I was able to draw a distinct inference
as to cause and effect with which I came into contact, though I
was then satisfied that sewer gas did cause much illness in the
town. It was not long before this event that I had ventilated the
soil-pipes of my house, then in the Dingwall Road, the first ven-
tilator of the kind which was put up in Croydon, and by that
means, I think, saved my household from the invasion of typhoid-
fever, which affected my neighbours in every house in that road
right and left of me. From experiments carried out at that
time in various houses in Croydon, I was satisfied as to the
dangerous character of sewer air when coming from unflushed,
unventilated sewers, and I determined to do my best to get the
Croydon system of sewers both flushed and ventilated. It was
not, however, until after the year 1865, with its distressing
events, that the local authorities would agree to adopt the prin-
ciple that every individual house should have its own protector
from the invasion of obnoxious gases. About that time the
experiments of the German scientist, Prof. Treber, of Dantzic,
who followed up Erzenburgh’s discoveries, had made out the
connection between living organisms and disease, such as that
which produced splenic-fever in cattle, and relapsing-fever in
human beings. I began my own experiments on sewer air about
this time, and tried to get some facts from personal observation
which should be worthy of a place in the literature of this
society. I had proved to my own satisfaction that potato blight
was caused by a mould fungus (the Peronospora infestans), though
I did not, for one moment, claim to be the discoverer, but only
verified that which was suggested by others. I had learned that
dry rot resulted from another fungus (the Mereleus lachrymans).
I detailed my observations upon Peronospora infestans in the
‘Times’ newspaper, with the result of drawing upon me the
anger of those who were working in the same field, perhaps in a
more conclusive measure than I did, but of whose work in that
particular field I was, like most other people at that time, quite
unaware.

I followed out my observations upon sewer air by suspending
microscopic slides in those positions in which sewer air was dis-
tinctly found to make its exit. While I was so engaged I made
out that a number of Mr. Latham’s charcoal baskets were inserted
into openings into which air sometimes entered. These baskets
had been provided to obviate the mischiefs from sewers by purify-
ing the air issuing from them by means of charcoal; some
were openings for the admission of air rather than as exits. This
was especially the case with two or three openings at or near to
the Zion Nursery, which had been complained of as nuisances,
but which were conclusively proved to my own satisfaction to be

Microbie Life in Sewer Air. 209

completely innocent of offence, for air went in instead of coming
out, though it is quite probable that there was a reverse action
occasionally. It was evident to me that the smell then complained
of came from some other source than the sewer grating. The
examination of the slides that I placed in the gratings showed a ©
variety of organisms such as had been found in the wards of a
large hospital, but I could not recognize any that I could accuse
of being typhoid or other disease germs, which were the
organisms I was more especially searching for. The arrested
organisms were vibrios, micrococci and vegetable germs, imno-
cent of malignant action on man, as far as our knowledge
extended. I was not at that time aware of the plan of cul-
tivation by means of gelatine solutions, such as are now so
successfully used in similar investigations. Some of these I
exhibited on a former occasion to the members of this society.
I exhibited also some specimens and diagrams prepared by
Dr. Heron, showing these developments, when I last addressed
the society upon the subject of disease germs.

My last attempt at investigation in this direction was made
upon a ventilating opening at the side of my garden upon
Duppas Hill Terrace. The results of that investigation have
been published in St. Thomas’ Hospital Reports for the year
1883. They involved a medical question which I was anxious to
submit to the medical profession, and did not detail them to this
society. The substance of my observations, which were carried
on in the winter of 1880-81, was that certain smells came from
that ventilator which varied in nature as well as in intensity.
Sometimes the smell was excessively offensive from the presence
of sulphide of ammonium; at others there was an ordinary
sewer air smell; and at others a sweet, hay-like odour, which
could not be called distinctly offensive. I never smelt that par-
ticular smell at that sewer without getting a relaxed throat anda
cough in the next day or two; and on two occasions, a distinct
feverish attack lasting for forty-eight hours. There was one
point of importance in the microscopical examination of the
slides which I suspended in the ventilator—viz., that whenever
the sweet, hay-like smell existed, some very minute highly
refractive organisms, smaller than the ordinary micrococci, were
seen, which were always absent when the sweet hay-like smell
was not perceived. I always suffered from relaxed throat after
inhaling the sweet hay smell, and I came to the conclusion that
the highly refractive particles were the germs which gave me the
relaxed throat, and that they were non-existent when putrefaction
was thoroughly established. If I had known anything of gela-
tine cultivation then, I should certainly have cultivated those
germs, and tried to prove their connection with somewhat similar
organisms which are found in diphtheria and croupous or infectious

210 Dr. A. Carpenter on

pneumonia. (Some cases of these diseases did exist on Duppas
Hill about that time). It was while making these investigations
that I discovered a defect in my own left eye, which led me to
give up microscopical research, and which has since disabled me
from assisting at the Society’s microscopic demonstrations.

Since that time I have been educating myself by the microscopic
studies of others in the same direction. It has been clearly proved
by experiment that actual putrefaction is generally destructive of
the life of disease germs, so that the only result which need
follow the inhalation of the offensive odours from sewers is the
necessity of calling the attention of the local authorities to the
fact that the sewer is a sewer of deposit, and before the stink
escaped might have been a source of danger to those passing by
that locality? We may depend upon it that it is not the sewers
which stink that are the most dangerous, though before putrefac-
tion was complete, it was possible that there might have been
disease germs escaping from that particular opening; though I
shall show presently that they need not excite serious alarm.
Let us go back to

The Habitat of the Germ.

Many attempts have been made by various observers to catch
the organism. So difficult is this, that Prof. Nageli, of Munich,
endeavoured to show by a series of experiments which he carried
on for some years, that they are not given off by moist surfaces ;
and Prof. Frankland said, in 1877, that nothing particulate was
given off from running sewage; but as he has also shown us
since then that the bursting of bubbles disseminated particles
of lithia in solution, it is evident that whenever bubbles burst,
any particulate matter in the substance of the bubble might be
disseminated as well as the lithia. Some experiments have been
made by Mr. J. S. Haldane, in the Westminster Palace sewer,
which go to prove that micro-organisms were few whenever
there was a regular current of air; that with little or no draught
there was an increase of carbonic acid, and with that an increase
of micro-organism, but they were moulds rather than bacteria.
But another very curious thing was found to exist—viz., that.
when the ventilation within the sewer was much improved, so
so that CO, was materially diminished, there was a considerable
increase in the number of bacterial organisms, as if a diminution
of oxidation allowed of the increase of germs.

Mr. Haldane examined the air in the Bristol sewers, which
are not ventilated. He found that in those sewers the moulds
exceeded the bacteria, while in the air of the streets the bacteria
exceeded the moulds. ;

Hesse has shown us that, although the spores of the moulds
are much larger than the bacteria, they remain suspended in

Microbice Life in Sewer Air. 211

the air much longer than do the bacteria. Mr. Haldane con-
cluded that it is to the presence of air from without that we owe
the more prolific existence of bacteria in sewers, and not vice
versa. His experiments led him to conclude that true sewer air
contained fewer micro-organisms than the air of a street, or even
the air of an ordinary living-room. Our experimenter did find,
however, that when the sewage was splashed about, there was a
large increase in the number of organisms observed, which is a
great argument against the formation of large sewers. It is
argued that there is much doubt as to the power of sewer air to
disseminate typhoid germs independent of water supply. My
own experience, arrived at by passing through three epidemics
of that disease in Croydon, fully convinced me that when sewers,
such as some of ours were in 1875, are loaded with typhoid
excreta, the germs which are capable of reproducing the disease,
‘do get conveyed from sewers into human beings by aérial means,
either directly by air cr through the water supply. In those
epidemics the very large number of domestic servants, especially
kitechenmaids and cooks, who became victims to the disease, was
one of their marked characteristics, the reason being that those
persons went downstairs into the basements in the early morning
before the house was thoroughly ventilated, and inhaled the
sewer air that had collected in the kitchen during the night.
Then there was Dr. Buchanan’s demonstration as to the reason
why fever existed on oneside of two or three streets which he
specified, in which the water supply was the same, and the sewer
the same on both sides. In one set of cases, the air was admitted
into the houses from the sewer, in the other it was not. It is
clear, however, that ordinary sewer air cannot produce mischief
unless the organisms from particular forms of disease exist in
the sewer. It becomes the bounden duty of the authority to take
care that no such organisms continue to live and multiply there,
and that when cases of any infectious disease exist in a given
locality, they shall pay particular attention to the sewers in
that locality, and prevent them from discharging disease germs
into the streets from the open grids which are left for venti-
lating purposes. They will do this if they are only partially
ventilated, and are sewers of deposit.
We are now in a position to answer the four questions which
I have put forward. First: Do microbes exist in sewer air ?
No doubt they may. If, however, sewers are properly laid, and
there is no sewage deposit, no impediment to discharge allowed
to take place, and no stagnant air in any part of it, there will be
no disease germs.
Disease germs require time for development, and if excreta be
hurried away to their proper destination, where they may become
bonnes bouches for the carnivorous plants which should be found

212 Dr. A, Carpenter on

on sewage farms, there is an end of their rdle as disease germs.
But if the sewers are sewers of deposit some germs may settle in
the pipes; they may fructify there, and their living, growing spores
be carried away by the currents of air and then discharged to
the possible danger of the people. They are not, however, the
necessary parts of a sewer system, but are the accidents of
defect. I have not the least doubt myself that a stinking
grating is not dangerous, from the circumstances I have men-
tioned. It is an undoubted fact that the panic in the House of
Commons, by which the Metropolitan Board of Works was
brought into being, was produced by stinks from the bed of the
Thames. It was the healthiest year that London had experienced
for a long time, as far as enthetic disease was concerned, at
least, if statistics prove anything, and yet the Thames smelt so
badly, that our senators could not carry on their work in the
committee rooms of the House of Commons.

Stinking sewers should not be allowed to exist, but to my
mind it is better to have the open grids in the streets than to
convey the mischief, which is possible, into positions preventing
our getting the knowledge that the sewers require to be scoured.
Every line of sewer should be well scoured in the crown of
its arch as well as at the bottom, and after the scouring,
thoroughly flushed by a body of water that fills its calibre
completely. The flushing which I see going on in our town
from a two- or three inch tube, is all but useless for the pur-
pose required, except where there is a stoppage, which produces
a head of water and fills up the sewer. Sewers of comparatively
small size, in exactly straight sections, so that they may have
the lamp test applied, which can be flushed by the sudden
discharge of a large body of water at frequent intervals, when
the temperature of the sewer rises above a certain point, will
remove the colonies of disease germs. They do grow on the
sides and invert of the arch of sewers, as certainly as they may
be made to grow in tubes containing pure solution of gelatine.
If the ventilation is tardy, so as to allow of fructification, the
colonies give off their spores, and these may possibly light upon
a passer by, who happens to be infective, and upon whose mucous
membrane the organism happens to fall. I say this is a possible
contingency but it will rarely happen. These germs are of
two kinds: the one is a living, growing organism; I may
compare it to the barley which has been made to sprout in
preparation for malting. If this organism be planted on a
mucous surface ready for its reception it may take root, repro-
duce its kind, and set up its own form of disease; but, like
the white corpuscles in human blood, exposure to pure air for
a very short period indeed is fatal to it. The fact is made
out in the operation called transfusion. If the blood in its

:
J
~
4
4

Microbic Life in Sewer Air. 213

passage from one person to another be exposed to the air for
more than a small fraction of a second, the corpuscle dies, and
the patient, though at first reviving, afterward succumbs to the
mischief produced by the dead fibrine. If growing germs are
exposed to a current of fresh air, free from ammonia, and with
its fair proportion of oxygen, in the sewers, the germs will be
deprived of vitality before they escape into the open air. It is
for this reason that the ventilation of sewers must be complete if
such ventilation is to be safe. A partial ventilation does not
provide for the death of the living, growing germ, and it is this
living, growing germ which does the mischief; for the other
form, the resting spore, will not rise from the watery bed. The
growing germ is also destroyed by sulphuretted hydrogen and its
binary compounds, the product of the decomposition ‘of all
albuminous matters. I say, then, that well-ventilated sewers
are safe; they are doubly so if they are thoroughly and properly
flushed. If they are not sewers of deposit they cannot produce
sewer gas, and if they thoroughly stink, disease germs cannot
live in them, so that in either case there is no danger; but there
is a possible danger, when it is not discoverable by reason of
smell, if those openings which give out offensive odours are
occasionally free from the discharge of stinking matter, and
some one who is not germ-proof stoops down at the opening.
Children will be victims. In a pure atmosphere the life of the
germ is momentary, and all serious danger is soon at an
end. I have said in a pure atmosphere. If the air is impure,
if it contains alkaline gas in the form of ammonia rather than
the nitrous or sulphurous form of gases, there is the possibility
of a much longer life for the germ than when the air is pure,
or has an acid reaction. It is due to this fact that diseases
spread in unventilated, dirty houses, and if it was not for the
sulphurous acid which is found in the London smoke-fogs, it is
most likely that the life-history of disease germs would be made
more manifest than it is when we have anu atmosphere entirely
without ozone for days together.

We may take it as true that living disease germs from sewer
ventilators are possible factors, but they are rarely provided. If
the sewers are only partially ventilated, with tendency to the
formation of carbonic acid in excess, there is a mould formation
rather than bacterial life, and moulds are not yet proved to
be zymotic disease germs to human bemgs. They are com-
paratively benign; like benign bacteria, they help to purify
both air and water, and return the albuminoid or nitrogenous
conte to their simple elements, ready for use by the vegetable
world.

I cannot conceive benign organisms becoming malignant in
the processes which take place in sewers unless the temperature

214 Microbic Life in Sewer Air.

be raised much beyond that which is ordinarily found in proper
sewers, with an abundant water supply. I mentioned, when
speaking of sewer flushing, that this process must be frequent at
certain times, when temperature is higher than usual. If at
any time the temperature in this country should be continually
high for a month or six weeks together, so that the temperature
of the London water should be kept above 65 degrees for a
month, London may prepare for a tremendous outbreak of
typhoid in the succeeding autumn. It requires a continuously
high temperature for probably a month to develop typhoid spores
in the drinking water as at present manipulated at the filter
works of the water companies. That season will come some
day with the usual result, ‘‘ panic,” and consequent loss. For
the same reasons, unless sewers have their temperature perma-
nently raised for some time, there is no danger from benign
germs being replaced by malignant; but I believe that it is pos-
sible for the continuous discharge of hot water so to raise the
temperature of a drain-pipe, that it may be a hidden source of
danger, and that such continuous discharges of hot water from
manufactories may be dangerous in badly-constructed sewers,
though an excessive heat, such as is experienced on a sunny day,
destroys bacteria. But if sewers are well and truly laid; if the
pipes are smooth inside and have been properly jointed ; if they
flush clean, and are properly flushed at intervals, depending
upon the temperature of the sewage, then there is no real
danger from the admission of hot water into sewers.

I think I have dealt with the four points to which I have drawn
attention, and I will conclude what I have to say on this subject,
by stating that the greatest danger from drains is not in the public
sewer, but in the house connection, and in the private drains
laid by speculative builders. These are only occasionally used,
they become all but dry at frequent intervals; and if they are
not as clean as a back kitchen sink ought to be, they will, in spite
of all precaution, occasionally produce sewer air. ‘They must be
ventilated even more perfectly than the public sewers, and so cut
off from all direct communication with the house, that it shall
be absolutely impossible for any of the products of decomposition,
if they arise, to find their way inside the dwelling, and carry
living, growing germs with them. If these arrangements are
carried into effect, those living in such houses may defy disease
germs and live in perfect safety from their attacks; and, in the
words of the Psalmist we may say :—1l. ‘Thou shalt not be
afraid of any terror by night, nor for the arrow that flieth
by day ; nor for the pestilence that walketh in darkness, nor for
the sickness which destroyeth in the noonday. 2. A thousand
shall fall beside thee, and ten thousand at thy right hand, but it
shall not come nigh thee.”

( 215 )

76. Snort Apstract oF A Paper on ‘ ANCIENT AND MoprErn Scrence.’
By Rosert Bropm, M.A.
(Read before the C. M. & N. H.8., on May 8th, 1889.)

Ir is not difficult to contrast the mental and material condition
of the most advanced peoples in ancient and modern times. A
comparison of Athens at the end of the 5th century z.c., with
the most highly civilised nations of modern Europe, shows that
while in painting, sculpture, architecture, history, poetry, philo-
sophy, and the drama, the Athenians have not been surpassed,
they were almost wholly unacquainted with the principles of
physical science now known and applied to locomotion, manufac-
tures, and all the needs of daily life. In some branches of
philosophy, such as deductive logic, ethics, and metaphysics,
their great thinkers have left works which will be valuable for all
time ; but physical science they either neglected altogether, or
else they employed wrong methods in its cultivation, so that the
conclusions at which they arrived were worthless. A sketch of
the history of Greek philosophy, from Thales to Aristotle, shows
how differently the ancients and the moderns approach the study
of the laws of nature. The first man who deserves the title of
‘‘man of-science’’ is Archimedes, 800 8.c. Between the time of
Archimedes and the 7th century, a.p., some few discoveries were
made, but from that time till the middle of the 16th century,
science was at a standstill. In the ‘‘ dark ages ’’ few people had
any knowledge, and those that had any wanted enlightenment to
enable them to use it. By degrees the idea of liberty in the
State, in religion, and in knowledge grew up, and by the time
that Lord Bacon wrote his ‘Novum Organum,’ the world was
prepared for a change in the methods of enquiry. Already
Copernicus had laid the foundations of the new astronomy,
and Tycho Brahe, Kepler, and Galileo, were all at work durin
some part of the period covered by Bacon’s life, 1561-1626. In
1642 Newton was born, and from the latter half of the 17th
century to the present day, the progress of science has been
uninterrupted. In the days of Galileo there was some reason .
for the expectation that bigotry, by the aid of persecution, might
stifle enquiry, and perpetuate the ignorance that served the
purpose of the bigots. But all such hope has happily long
ceased to exist, except in the minds of those who are intel-
lectually on the level of the opponents of knowledge three
hundred years ago. The torch kindled in the 16th century
has been passed from hand to hand, and each generation has
entrusted it to the next, blazing with a far brighter light than
when it received it from its predecessor. When this great

216 James W. Helps on some

Lampadelphoria, or torch-race of science began, we know—that
the runners are in full swing now we know—but where it will
end, and how long the course will take is hidden from our ken.
What Clytemnestra, in the old Greek Tragedy, said of the beacon-
fires that told her of the fall of Troy, we may say of the
advance of science—

‘Such is the fashion of our race of lamps,
Each in succession ministering to each,
And both alike are conquerors, first and last.”

77.—Some Coat-Tar Propucts.
By James W. Hetps.
(Read November 13th, 1889.)

Tue subject of my paper this evening is one about which so
much can be said, that I feel myself placed in a position of some
difficulty, as it is by no means easy, in the short space of time
at my disposal, to give much more than a bare outline of a few
of the products now obtainable from coal-tar. It will not be
necessary for me to say much about the coal itself from which
the tar is produced, as probably all here know the manner in
which it was formed, and acknowledge its vegetable origin.

I must first of all briefly allude to the manner in which the
tar is produced, and to do this must describe the earlier pro-
cesses in the manufacture of coal-gas. A certain quantity
of coal is placed in a retort made of fireclay, which is usually
one of several, set in brickwork and heated by one fire common
to all to a temperature of about 2000° F. (1100° C.). This
retort is closed by a lid and the coal subjected to destructive dis-
tillation ; the volatile constituents pass off through a pipe lead-
ing from the mouthpiece to a vessel called the hydraulic main.
Now it is well known that substances require more heat to exist
in a gaseous than in a liquid state, consequently, immediately
on leaving the heated retort condensation commences, and one of
the first results is the production of tar. The gases are, after
leaving the main, conducted through a long series of pipes and
condensers of various kinds, until their temperature is reduced
to nearly that of the surrounding air; by this means almost the
whole of the tar is thrown down; what little remains is removed
when the gas passes through the washers and scrubbers, where
also the ammonia and portions of certain other impurities are
extracted.

We have now obtained coal-tar, the quantity of which, result-
ing from the distillation of one ton of Newcastle coal, is about

Coal-tar Products. 217

104 or 11 gallons. It is a black, more or less viscid fluid, of
specific gravity between 11 and 12. Before proceeding to de-
scribe the treatment which it undergoes at the tar distillers, I
should like to give you a short chronological history of it and its
principal derivatives, which will, I think, afford a very striking
proof of the rapid strides which have been made in chemical
research during the past fifty or sixty years.

No doubt, from the first, coal-tar has been used in small
quantities as a cheap sort of paint, and towards the end of the
last century Lebon, in France, pointed out the use of certain
products obtained in the distillation of coal for the preservation
of timber. In Germany also, after being boiled down and
deprived of its volatile constituents, tar was used for making
roofing felt. A further step was made towards making it a
marketable commodity when the naphthas or light oils produced
in the boiling of tar were used in dissolving the india-rubber
which was being brought into use by Mackintosh in the manu-
facture of waterproof garments.

In 1820, Garden found in the tar oils a substance known as
Narnruatens, which though thus one of the earliest products to
be discovered, was one of the latest to be utilised.

In 1825, Prof. Faraday discovered Brnzot, in oils produced
by compressing oil-gas ; and in 1832, Dumas and Laurent dis-
covered Anruracens, or ‘‘ Paro Naphthaline” as it was called ;
and the same year saw the production by Reichenbach of
Creosote from wood-tar. Two years later Runge brought to
light Carsotic acy, or Paenoi; and about the same time he
proved the existence of Anmine (or Kyanox as he called it) in
coal-tar.—I should say that Anmnz (called Crystatiine by the
discoverer) was obtained in 1826, by Unverdorben, while dis-
tilling indigo.—The same chemist (Runge) was the producer of
the first colour reaction, and in rather a strange way. He was
engaged distilling some tar, and wishing to see whether the oils
he had obtained contained ammonia, he dipped a strip of wood
into some hydrochloric acid and held it above the still; the
white fumes indicative of the presence of ammonia showed
themselves, but he was surprised to see also, that the part of the
wood which had been dipped in the HCl was dyed a deep
crimson. He at once saw that he had found out some new sub-
stance, and he gave it the name of “ pyrrol.”” He and others
made many attempts to isolate it, but it was reserved for the
present Prof. Greville Williams to achieve success. Pyrrol, how-
ever, still remains nothing but a chemical curiosity. Soon after
this, viz., in 1887, Pelletier and Walter, by the production
of Toturnr, made a discovery almost equal in value to that
of Benzene. In 1838, a great impetus to the employment of
coal-tar was given by the inyention by Bethell of a method for

218 James W. Helps on some

preserving railroad sleepers, &c., by soaking them with the
creosote or heavy oils from coal-tar.

Still, however, the lighter oils were little used, except for
burning and for dissolving india-rubber; their day came when
A. W. Hoffman, in 1845, showed in them the presence of
Benzene, and when two years later his pupil, C. B. Mansfield,
described the composition of these oils, and also a method
of preparing pure benzene on a practical scale. His devotion to
this research unfortunately cost him his life, for he was burnt to
death through the bursting of an experimental still at which he
was working. These discoveries were soon followed by the pre-
paration of Nrrro-BenzENE or oil of mirbane, frequently used as a
substitute for the essential oil of bitter almonds.

Coal-tar still failed to attain any commercial value; but all
this was changed when, in 1856, Mr. W. Perkin succeeded in
producing the first aniline colour, especially as the starting-
point for this, viz., Benzol, was exclusively derived from coal-tar.

I have said that Aniline, under the name of Crystalline, was
found out by Unverdorben, and Runge found in coal-tar a sub-
stance called Ayanol; the latter also found that a solution of this
substance in water formed a dark purple on the addition of
chloride of lime or bleaching powder, a rather strange result, as
bleaching powder usually destroys rather than produces colour ;
but it was Hoffman, however, who proved that Crystalline,
Kyanol, and Aniline, were one and the same thing. Now,
Perkin, failing in some experiments he was making with Aniline,
turned his thoughts in another direction, and the idea occurred
to him that the purple colour obtained by the mixture of aniline
and chloride of lime, could be fixed and used asadye. He dis-
solved some aniline in sulphuric acid, added bi-chromate of potash,
and obtained a dirty-looking precipitate; this he treated with
alcohol, and produced a solution which imparted to his quill-pen,
when boiled in it, a.most brilliant purptx. Mr. Perkin made this
colour on a large scale, and thus founded the industry known as
the Aniline Colour Trade. Naturally, his success set other
chemists to work, and it is hardly surprising that the number of
derivatives from the tar-oils, &c., increased with great rapidity,
and has gone on doing so ever since. Let me draw your atten-
tion to the chart, or ‘‘ tar-tree,”’ as it is called, showing over 600
different products, nearly all brought to light during the past 50
years.

Having now given you a brief history of the chief derivatives
from coal-tar, I must give you some idea of the manner in which
they are obtained. The first step is to distil the tar; this is
done in wrought-iron stills of various forms, one of which is
shown set in brickwork on drawing No. 1. A. is the still,

Coal-tar Products. 219

capable of holding about 1200 gallons, which quantity is run
into it at the top. ‘The fire is lighted at B, and as the tar
warms distillation commences. This is at first attended with
some danger, as the water in the tar causes it to rise and froth ;
the firing must therefore be conducted with great care, to avoid
sudden boiling over. Vapours soon issue from the pipe C, at the
top of the still; these are at first composed of water and the
more volatile oils, called First Runnines, and after leaving the
still they are led through a worm condenser, which is kept
immersed in a vessel containing water, constantly on the flow.
As these vapours condense, they pass on to a receiver ; this
vessel is provided with as many outlets as there are fractions
to collect, each leading to a different stove-tank. As soon
as these vapours nearly cease, the receiver is changed, and
the temperature in the still (which so far has been kept below
a certain point) increased. The distillation now becomes more
rapid, and vapours are given off, which are condensed and
collected under the name of Licur Oms; these processes are
repeated, and in turn the vapours of Carsoxic Om, CrEosoTE
Om, and AnTHracENE Or are distilled over, condensed, and
collected. The principal guide which the attendant has to
assist him, in making the different changes, is the thermometer
in the still; but he has also to note the smell, specific gravity,
and quantity of the distillates. It is usual to change at the fol-
lowing points :—

First runnings up to 105° or 110°C.
0

Light oils 4 B10
Carbolic oils », 240°
Creosote oils Es DO?

Anthracene oils above that.

After the anthracene oil ceases to flow, the residue is known
as Prron. This is allowed to cool, and carefully run out into
proper receptacles.

The quantities of each of the above-mentioned substances,
which can be obtained from a charge of 1200 gallons of tar, vary
so much according to its quality and mode of distillation, that it
is not easy to arrive at a satisfactory average.

According to Watson Smith, 1000 gallons of Lancashire tar,
chiefly from Cannel coal, gave the following results :—

Ammoniacal liquor 25 2:2
First runnings 38 2°2
Light oils 131 10°6\ Per cent.
Creosote oils 87 7-°6( by weight.
Anthracene oils 191 16.9
Pitch 84 60°5

220 James W. Helps on some

On further treatment these products yielded—

90 per cent. benzol 6 gals.
Solvent naphtha 74:
Carbolic acid 4
30 per cent. anthracene 0°50 cwt.
Equal to pure anthracene +15 ,,

Having obtained the first-named products, further treatment is
necessary before they are of much practical use; the light oils
are therefore rectified for the production of naphthas of varying
qualities. To obtain from these the benzol, toluene, &c., a very
careful system of rectification is necessary.

We have now obtained the Benzol which is the compound used
for the preparation of aniline; it is a colourless liquid with a
peculiar smell, its formula is C,H, sp. gr. at 0° C—0-8991,
boiling at 80°C. It is, of course, only possible for me to touch
upon one or two of the various bodies which can be obtained
from it; I will therefore proceed to explain the treatment
adopted for the production of aniline.

To begin with, the benzol is treated with nitric acid, or a
mixture of that acid with sulphuric acid; by this means one
atom of the hydrogen in benzene is replaced by one of nitric
peroxide, for the formation of Nitro-benzene, the properties of
which I have already mentioned; this liquid is then washed with
lime and water for conversion into aniline; it is generally
subjected to a treatment discovered by M. Bichamp, which con-
sists in reducing it by means of ferrous acetate.

It was, as I have said, from this aniline that Perkin made his
purple dye; his success, of course, set others to work, and before
long M. Veguin, by boiling aniline with tetrachloride of tin, pro-
duced a splendid crimson, known as Magenta; many other ways
of making it were discovered, but that of Mr. Medlock was the
great commercial success; it consisted in treating the aniline
with arsenic acid, and resulted in a large fortune being made.

Let me quote Mr. Leicester Greville as to the tinctorial
powers of this dye :—

“100 lbs. of coal—5 lbs. of tar = 2 ozs. of benzene =
1040 grains or 23 ozs. of aniline = 207 grains of magenta.
This quantity is sufficient to dye 8 lbs. of wool, or to print
207 yds. of calico: in other words, 1 grain of magenta will print
1 yd. of calico 1 per cent. in weight.”

From magenta many beautiful dyes are obtained, such as
Nicholson’s blue, which I have here; it is an alkaline blue, and
a fabric dyed in it is almost colourless, until dipped in a weak
acid solution ; it will not rub off.

Magenta treated with iodide of methyl gives a lovely green,

Coal-tar Products. 221

and, by a process commencing with the treatment of it with
chloride of methyl, dimethyl-aniline violet is obtained ; this is a
very much-used dye.

I cannot say much about the further treatment and uses
of carbolic oils and creosote oils; the value of the former as a
disinfectant is well known to you; when it is treated with nitric
acid Trinitro-phenol or Picric Acid is produced, which gives a
delicate fast yellow dye. Its salts, such as the picrate of potas-
sium, are very explosive.

From both creosote oil and carbolic oil Naphthalene is obtained ;
this is used in the production of the albo-carbon light. Until
late years it has had but little value; now, however, many
beautiful colours are made from it. I may mention Magdala red
and Manchester yellow.

By the oxidising action of nitric acid it is converted into
Phthalic Acid; this is connected with the benzol series, as when
heated with excess of lime it is converted into benzene; it is the
starting-point for the long series of colours known as the Azo-
’ compounds. f

I now come to a substance which I cannot dismiss quite so
lightly. If you refer to Table A, you will see that in the distill-
ation of tar a substance called Anthracene Oil is produced,
coming off above the temperature of 270°. By cooling and
pressing, the solid hydrocarbons are separated from the liquid
ones, which latter are either re-distilled or used as lubricants.
The solid portion is further washed and pressed into anthracene
cake. Its formula is C“H"™, and it boils at 860°. It was of little
use until the discovery by Grebe and Lieberman that from it
could be produced Alizarine, the colouring principle of the madder
plant (Rubia tinctorum). Now this plant has been used for the
purpose of obtaining a red dye from time immemorial. The
process is said to have originated amongst the inhabitants
of Malabar and Coromandel, from whence it was introduced into
the Levant, where no doubt it received its name of ‘‘ Turkey
Red.” It gradually spread to Russia, France, and finally to
Great Britain.

The plant itself yields only about 1 to 14 per cent. of colour-
ing matter, and on this account many attempts were made to
isolate this latter, and in 1826 Colin and Robiquet obtained from
the plant a substance which they called alizarine. From time
to time further investigations were made, and in 1868 Grebe
and Lieberman found, on submitting alizarine to a certain
process, that they obtained a substance identical with anthra-
cene; they then reversed the process. A substance known as
‘‘ anthraginnone” (CH*0O?) had previously been obtained from
anthracene by oxidation; this was treated by Grebe and
Lieberman first with bromine and then with caustic potash. As

02

py ya On some Coal-tar Products.

a result they obtained alizarine, or the colouring principle of the
madder plant. This treatment by bromine, however, proved too
expensive, and soon two patents, one by Perkin in England, and
the other by Caro Grebe and Lieberman, were brought out,
heated sulphuric acid being thereby substituted for bromine.
These patents were subsequently combined. The production of
artificial alizarine has now almost superseded the natural pro-
duct, and the growth of the plant has almost ceased.

Of late years many other important discoveries have been
made, including one described by Sir Henry Roscoe as “the
most remarkable of all the marvellous products of the Coal-tar
Industry.” I allude to Saccharine, the discovery of which is due
to Dr. Constantin Fahlberg. He was engaged in studying the
oxidation products of the toluene sulphamides, and found that
by oxidising pure ortho-toluene sulphamide he obtained a re-
markably sweet compound. By much further study and research,
extending over several years, he succeeded in producing sac-
charine on a practical scale; its starting-point is toluene, which
in the first place is heated with sulphonic acid, forming toluene
sulphonic acid; the succeeding treatments, six in number, are
somewhat complicated, and it is hardly advisable for me to enu-
merate them, the final one, however, is the oxidation of the
ortho-toluene sulphonic-amide by potassic permanganate in the
presence of an alkali, and the precipitation of the resulting
product with a dilute mineral acid, when Benzoyl-sulphonic-imide,
or saccharine, separates out.

I have here a sample of the pure product, which is some 300
times sweeter than cane sugar, and also a sample in its commer-.
cial and soluble form. On account of its great sweetening
power it is claimed that it is as cheap as sugar at 3d. per pound.

It is of great value in medical cases, being powerfully anti-
septic and non-fermenting, and can be given to persons who are
forbidden the use of sugar.

I would also mention a substance, a derivative of Coal-tar,
which is greatly used in pharmacy, viz., Antipyrin, a febrifuge of
certain action; it is also claimed to be of great value in the
treatment of sea-sickness, and, in fact, in various other ailments.
I fear I have already taken up more of your time than is usual on
these occasions, and must therefore content myself with having
given you but a slight insight into the productive properties
of Coal-tar.

( 223. )

- 7,
_?7. THE REPORT OF THE METEOROLOGICAL SUB-
COMMITTEE FOR 1889.

(Read February 15th, 1890.)

Tue arrangements for observing the daily rainfall round

Croydon have been successfully carried out on the same plan

as last year. The year commenced with a staff numbering

88 observers, superintending 45 stations, as against 31 observers,
superintending 34 stations in 1888. Of these 45 stations
two have been discontinued. Mr. Baldwin Latham left Park

Hill, and Mr. Heward has discontinued taking observations at

New Malden, though still continuing those at the Sewerage
Works. ‘Two stations also have been moved in the course of

the year, Mr. Bayard moved on June Ist to another house in
Wallington, within one hundred yards of his old residence, and
the same height above sea level; and Mr. Marriott moved, on
September 11th, to another house, some distance away from
his old one at West Norwood, and in consequence only monthly

totals have been given from that date to the end of the year.
Captain Cleeve, R.E., who kindly continued Captain Sherrard’s
~ observations at Woolwich, found himself unable to continue
: the daily observations, but has taken monthly ones.

.. Appendix I. to this Report contains a list of the observers,
with particulars relating to the stations and gauges. The two
stations with the asterisk prefixed were admitted after the
commencement of the year, and the three with the double
asterisk are stations which sent in reports in the previous year.

Appendix II. contains the tables of daily rainfall issued
monthly, and subsequently stereotyped.

Appendix III. gives the monthly rainfall of the five other
stations.

And, finally, Appendix IV. gives a record of all falls of rain of
1 inch and upwards in the 24 hours, extracted from Appendices
II. and III.

As explained in last year’s report, the stations have been this
year arranged as far as possible in districts. This arrangement,
as a whole, has given satisfaction to the observers and others
interested, though certain anomalies have appeared which will
be corrected in future years. Esher will in future be placed just
before Surbiton, instead of after Ashtead. A new station at
Farningham Hill on the Darenth will be placed next to
Orpington, and will be followed by Wilmington, formerly at the
end of the list. The accession of Denbies, Ranmore Common,
though on the further side of the Mole, is most welcome, as it
fills up a very palpable gap. The Sub-Committee would be very

224 Report of the Meteorological Sub-Committee for 1889.

glad to hear of stations with daily records at Botley Hill and
Betsom Hill, Knockholt and Erith.

With reference to the rainfall during the year, if it is allowable
to take as a fair ayerage the records of the stations in the district
which have the longest reliable average, namely, Greenwich,
with 45 years, and Kew and Surbiton, with 80 years, it would
seem that it has been deficient. All these stations, it should be
noted, are in the Thames valley; and, perhaps, it would be
hardly right to compare them with stations more in the interior
of the district, but for the fact that the result of a short rainfall
is borne out by the shorter averages, 15 years and 10 years, of
several other stations. Taking all these averages into considera-
tion, it is probable that the average deficiency of the rainfall
has been about linch. Of the falls of rain in the district, of
1 inch and upwards in 24 hours, the only remarkable one is that
of September 2nd, in the Darenth Valley. This day will long be
remembered in that district. A thunderstorm raged in Essex on
that day; at North Ockendon, 4:55 inches of rain fell, and at
Upminster Hall, 4:32 inches. At Dartford, 4:00 inches fell, at
Wilmington, 3°90 inches, and at Farningham Hill, 2-46 inches.
It would have been interesting to have traced the course of this
storm, had there been a sufficient number of stations on the
extreme eastern portion of the district.

In conclusion, the Sub-Committee ventures to express a hope
that members of the Club will seek to secure the help of persons
willing to provide and keep rain gauges in the south-eastern,
eastern, and north-east portions of the district.

APPENDIX I.

Height of | Height of
Size of | Gauge Station

BeceIpas: OBSERVERS. Gauge.| above above
: ‘| Ground. | Sea-level.
SURREY. IN. | FT. IN. FT.
*Dorking (Denbies) ...........+-- J. Beesley 0 5.15.0 00-s 5 0 6 610
Reigate Hill (Lovelands) ........ 8. Binnie. ae wsa ee sen pub besarte 600
Caterham (Caterham Asylum) ....| G. 8. Elliott, M.D. ....} 5 | 1 0 610
KENT.
*Knockholt (The Beeches) .......- W. Morris, C.E. ......| 5 | 1 0 785
. SURREY.
Marden Park (Birchwood House)..| C. & F. Rutley........ 5 1 0 471
Kenley (Ingleside) ............+- Harold Smith ........ 8 1 0 375
Purley (Reedham Asylum) ...... J. A. Carter .......... 5 ta 375
Purley (Tudor Cottage) .......... J. Bonwick .......... 5 1 0 216
Ashtead (D’Abernon Chase) ...... Sir W. Vincent, Bart...) 5 1 0 300
**Hsher (West End) ...........- WsH Dinegssn s7scists- 5 1 0 51
Esher (Sewerage Works) ........ Baldwin Latham, C.E..| 5 | 1 0 40
Sutton (Mulgrave Road) ........ AWinGOOd pts stacterciviae re 5 | 5 6 230
**Sutton (Grange Road) .......... Wa ‘Thurtal 2. seins: 5 1 6 230
Carshalton (The Wrythe) ........ J. W. Manley ........ 5 | 410 107
Wallington (Manor Road)..... .. F.C. Bayard ........ 5 41 157
Beddington (Riverside) .......... S. Rostron .......:.. 5 | 1 0 120
Waddon (Waddon House)........ P. Crowley .......... Ta ae Beat 156
Croydon (Brimstone Barn) ...... Croydon Corporation ..| 5 | 1 0 130
Croydon (Dingwall Road) ........ Croydon Corporation ..| 5 1 0 195
Croydon (Park Hill Rise) ........ Baldwin Latham, C.E..| 8 | 1 0 253
Addiscombe (Outram Road) ...... E. Mawley ...... vee} + 8 *(20 D9 202
Addington (Park Farm).......... W. Whalley .......... 5 1 0 268
_ Addington (Pumping Station) ....| Croydon Corperation ..| 8 1 0 331
| KENT.
_ West Wickham (Layham’s Farm) .| W. Ashcroft .......... 5 1 0 500
Hayes Common (The Warren)....| Miss Akers .......... 5 10 296
Keston (Bradfield) .............. ali Spies eyo 5 | 10 350
_ Keston (Heathfield) ............ Miss M. Holland...... 5 0 6 420
_ Keston (Tower Fields) .......... G. Buchanan, C.E..... 8.5 Og 301
_ Orpington (Kent Waterworks Co.)..| W. Morris, C.E. ......}| 5 1 0 220
Chislehurst (The Chestnuts).......| J.B. Snell .......... 5 1 0 325
Bickley (Highfield) ........... Defoe BALLON “oy.2.oaaicoee' es 5 1 2 295
Beckenham (Foxgrove) .......... P. Bicknell .......... 5 0 6 142
SURREY.
Wimbledon (Sewerage Works) ....| W. S. Crimp, C.E. ....| 5 1 0 58
Wimbledon (Mount Ararat) ...... US -DEY BES SR saoce gocer 12 3 0 157
Raynes Park (Pumping Station) ..} W. 8. Crimp, C.E. ....}. 5 1 0 47
New Malden (Gosforth Lodge) ....| T. L. Heward, C.E..... 5) 4 0 48
New Malden (Sewerage Works) ..| T. L. Heward, C.E..... 5 150 45
Surbiton (Seething Wells) ...... R. Hack, C.H. ........ 10 0 6 25
Kingston (Sewerage Works)...... J. Stevenson.......... 5 20) 25
Richmond (Ormond Lodge) ...... Meike: BLALOLGn stestle stat vist « 5 09 51
Kew (Kew Observatory).......... Kew Committee ...... 11 i559 19
Brixton (Acre Lane) ............ iy Gacterien ei aeeiae 8 1 0 77
_ West Norwood (Chapel Road) ....| W. Marriott ..... Sa AiSa| ert 1 0 185
KENT.
Sydenham (Longton Grove)...... IM UAEOQEUGE setae mrataeits 8 4 6 220
_ Forest Hill (Dartmouth Road)....| Mrs. Behrens ........ 5 10 220
Deptford (Kent Waterworks Co.) ..| W. Morris, C.E. ......} 5 1 0 20
Greenwich (Royal Observatory) ..| Astronomer Royal ....| 8 0 5 155
-**Woolwich (Shooter’s Hill) ...... Capt. S. D. Cleeve ....| 5 10 352
_ Eltham (Victoria Road) ........ Capt. M.S. Richardson.| 5 1 0 205
~ Wilmington (Kent Waterworks Co.)) W. Morris, C.E. ......| 5 1 0 25

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APPENDIX III.
MONTHLY RECORDS.

R

Station. |Jan.|Feb.|Mar.| Apr.) May|Jun.|July/Aug.|Sep.| Oct. | Nov. | Dec. || Year.

IN. | IN. | IN.| IN. | IN. | IN. | IN. | IN. | IN. | IN. IN. IN. IN.
*Dorking ..|1-42 |3-05 |2-94 |2-28 |4-08 |1:04 |1-42 |2°39|1:17| 5-68 | 1:33 | 2:19 || 28-99
*Knockholt}1:39 [3-07 |2°70 |3-28 |1-80 |1-52 |3°06 |2°71 |1:58 | 4:85+| 0°95 | 2°40 || 29°31
**Hsher ..|0°92 |1-99 |1-63 |2°09 |2°64 [0°72 |2°25 |2:00 |1°30| 3:72 | 0°74 | 1:43 || 21:43
**Sutton ..|1-:08 |2°27 |1-60 |1°97 |3°16 |0°87 |2°65 |2-00 |1:09| 4:09 | 0-75 | 1:27 || 22:80
** Woolwich |0-82 |3-81 |1:60 |2°15 |4-05 |2°94 |2°64 |2-66 |0-96 | 4:01 | 1-22tt) 1-0044+|| 27°86

+ Taken Noyember 4th. ++ Taken December 11th. ttt Estimated.

APPENDIX IV.

Fauus or 1:0 In. AND UPWARDS.

Marcu 71H.

Reigate Hill, 1:12 in. ; Marden Park, 1:07 in.; Dorking, 1-06 in.;

Kenley, 1-04 in.; Caterham, 1-00 in.
May 25r7n.

Chislehurst, 1°13 in.

May 26TH.

Dorking, 1-75 in. ; Ashtead, 1:67 in.; Esher (Sewerage Works),
1:52 in. ; Kew, 1:51 in.; Kingston, 1:48 in. ; Surbiton, 1°44 in.;
Richmond, 1:36 in. ; Wimbledon (Sewerage Works), 1°31 in. ;
New Malden (both Stations), 1:30 in.; Sutton (Mulgrave Road),
1:24 in.; Carshalton, 1-22 in.; Raynes Park, 1:14 in.; Wim-
bledon (Mount Ararat), 1:09 in. ; Beddington, 1:03 in.

JUNE 9TH.
Eltham, 1:08 in.; Bickley, 1:05 in. ; Sydenham,1-02 in.
Jury 21st.
Eltham, 1:18 in.; Sydenham, 1:09 in. ; Beckenham, 1-01 in.
SEPTEMBER 2ND.
Wilmington, 3:90 in. ; Farningham Hill, 2°46 in.

Octoser 19x.

Caterham and Marden Park, 1:22 in.; Kenley, 1:19 in.;
Purley (both Stations), 1:05 in.; West Wickham, 1-03 in.

9

97 OCT. 90

CONTENTS.

PROCEEDINGS. PAGE
20th Annual: Méecttnesen.:p. nsi soc cet heak ace ieee eae ae cix
President's PEGE bares 3), Say Sy a = Rear NER ONAR SRA, © fe 7 Se cx
New Members elected’. (..4..i0,.0. 4) Nevceos ites es serene eXxvili
Library end OolleetiOn: .n.:ie.is.2209.05< sets ractencsutes seated een exix
PIX Daite conc cadic 2. + cGRRv aud a ekate an Geb eee ons thee Roses eae exix
Troasurér’s Ad alance SCO Siggins veces as evewske census ckresinn (Gaapeaen exxil
Catalogue of Microscopical Preparations, 1890 ................+000. CXXill
List of Momibete2s.: Assanviad--: 5.25, ooo ersnenas ature eae wees OXEXIV

TRANSACTIONS.
Some Hints on the Preparation of delicate Organisms for the
Microscope. By Hpwarp Lovert........:..0.ccececcsconreseeeees 203

Microbic Life in Sewer Air. By Aurrep Carpenter, M.D., J.P. 204

Short Abstract of a Paper on ‘‘ Ancient and Modern Seience.”’ a
By Rowert Broprs; MiA. so .i ccs viees anes scccdecevines desesnane 215

Some Coal-tar Products. By James W. HELPs ..............:.000-5 216
Report of the Meteorological Sub-Committee for 1889 ............ 223 |

Cropdon Microscopical and Aatural History Club,

i

OFFICERS FOR 1890.

President.—Epwarp Lovett.

Vice-Presidents.—Joun Burney, F.R.M.S.; Aurrep CARPENTER,
-M.D., J.P., &c.; Puofie Crowney, F.L.S.; F.Z.8., &c.; Henry 8.
Haron, M. ke F. R. Met. Soc. ; Henry T. Mannezz., F. a ee Henry G.
THompson, M. D.

Treasurer,— Kennete Wakes: F.L.S.

Committee. —Dr. A. B. Carpenter, F.R.M.S., &.; Taos. Cusuine,
F.R.A.S.; James Epps, jun., F.L.8.; C. H. Gootscan ; ; J. W. Hetps ;
W. Murron Hotmes; Cnas. F. Oax.ey: W. Low Sarseant; Ernest
DSTRAKER.

Hon. Secretary.—Francis C. hues LL.M., F.R. Met. Soc.,
Manor Road, Wallington, Surrey, to whom all sofimnatiienttons may
be addressed:

?

— = —ti<‘i;éCé AGT

| 7 CROYDON ai
if MICROSCOPICAL. «NATURAL HISTORY | :

“CLUB.

"FEBRUARY 2, 1890, io JANUARY 1, 1891.

) onoypon:

o | h h wee

| PRINTED FoR THE cu, BY WEST, NEWMAN, &e co., HATTON GARDEN, LONDON. |
aM | a

—_

——

PROCEEDINGS

OF

THE CROYDON MICROSCOPICAL AND
NATURAL HISTORY CLUB.

1890-91.

Cwenty-first Annual Meeting.
Held at the Public Hall, Croydon, Wednesday, January, 21st, 1891.
Epwarp Lovert, President, in the chair,

The Balance-sheet of the accounts for the year 1890 was taken
as read (page cxlxx) and passed, and a vote of thanks accorded
to the Auditors.

It was proposed by Mr. McKean, and seconded by the
President, that Mr. Sturge be elected Treasurer in the place of
Mr. McKean, resigned ; which was carried unanimously, and a
cordial vote of thanks was passed to Mr. McKean for his services
as Treasurer to the Club.

No other nominations having been received, Mr. K. McKean,
and Mr. H. D. Gower, were elected to serve on the Committee
in the place of Mr. T. Cushing, and Mr. J. W. Helps, to whom
a vote of thanks was passed on their retirement.

The following is the list of officers for the year 1891 :—

President.—Epwarp Lovett.

Vice- Presidents.—Joun Berney, F.R.M.S.; Aurrep CarPENTER,
M.D., J.P., &c.; Pm Crowrey, F.L.S., F.Z.8., &e. ;
Henry §. Eaton, M.A., F.R.Met.Soc.; Henry T,
Mennett, F.L.S.; Henry G. Tuompson, M.D.

Treasurer.—Epwarp B. Srurce.

Hon. Seeretary.—Francis C. Bayarv, LL.M., F.R.Met.Soc.

Committee.—Dr. A. B. Carpenter, F.R.M.S., &c.; James
Epes, gun., F.L.8.;°C. H. Goopman; H. D. Gower ;

b

exlii Proceedings.

W. Murton Hoitmes; Kenneta McKean, F.L.S.; C. F.

Oaxtey; W. Low Sargeant; Ernest Srraker.

The President then delivered his Address, at the conclusion of
which a hearty vote of thanks was accorded to him for his
Address, and also for his services during the past year.

A vote of thanks to the Local Press for its services in con-
nection with the meetings of the Club terminated the pro-
ceedings.

The President’s Address.

GenTLEMEN,—I do not think it is possible for me to devise a
better system than that which has been followed by my
predecessors in devoting the Annual Address to a review of the
history of the Club for the preceding year; and it is with great
pleasure that I am able to report that the Croydon Microscopical
and Natural History Club is as flourishing and as good for work
in the twenty-first year of its existence as at any previous time.

During the past year 44 new members have been enrolled, but
we have lost 35: 5 of these have died, and many of the
remainder have left the neighbourhood, so that in this respect
we have lost more than usual. Of those who have died we must
especially allude with regret to Dr. KE. Berney, Mr. Chas. Grundy,
and Mr. W. Mosse Robinson, names well known by us all in
this town of Croydon.

Our present list of members therefore is 285, to which add 7
honorary members, and two associates, bringing up the total to
294—a net increase of 9 members for the year. As there are
9 other names for ballot this evening, the steady increase in our
growth as a Club is well maintained.

In reference to our financial position, I think a few retro-
spective and prospective remarks are necessary. In the Balance-
sheet before you, it will be seen that we commenced the year
with a balance of £9 5s. 8d. and finish with one of £20 9s, 3d.
This, however, does not include the cost of printing our
Transactions for 1889, and several other bills which had not been
received when the Accounts were closed. These together may be
estimated at about £40, making the balance on the debtor side
of the Accounts; against this we have of course the usual
floating amount of unpaid subscriptions. However, it is evident
that our expenditure is advancing in a somewhat serious manner,
as the following figures show :—

In 1887 our receipts were £138; expenditure £128, +413

1888 35 £149 a £151, — 2

1889 £146 $i £170, —24

1890 * £157 a dest ag
due £40,

It therefore becomes us to watch our future with care, and

<i

Proceedings. exliii

endeavour to keep well within our income. Our Annual Soirée
is still a severe tax on our resources, but its success and the
reputation it enjoys fully justify its cost; and I believe we are
in an unique position in giving such an entertainment on so
small an annual subscription.

You have seen that, in spite of additions to our membership,
resignations prevent anything like a large increase of revenue :
may I therefore remind all our members that they can materially
assist the well-being of the Club by obtaining fresh members,
and thereby increasing our annual income. A membership of
400 would by no means increase our expenses pro rata, and
would give us a fair annual surplus.

With such a varied series of work as we do, and with such a
small subscription, carrying as it does so many advantages, we
ought in so populous a district to obtain a- more regular accession
of new members than we do even now, and I again urge our
present members individually to forward our interests by intro-
ducing as many of their friends as possible. .

As regards our Special Fund, there is nothing worthy of
remark except that it carries a balance of £27 2s. 10d., which I
believe may ‘be applied to the purchase of apparatus and
appliances for the use of members.

Our Sub-Sections are doing very good work, and the reports
which have been sent in by the various Secretaries show that
the past year has been one of general activity and prosperity.
These reports are as follows, viz :—

REporT OF THE BotanicaL SuB-CoMMITTEE, JANUARY, 1890.

The Botanical Sub-Committee report that the whole of the
specimens in the Herbarium of the Club have been securely mounted
and labelled, and are arranged in the cabinet in the Committee Room,
where they can be referred to by members. It is hoped that further
considerable contributions to the collection will be received shortly, as
the result of the work of our local botanists during the past season.
Assistance in this direction is earnestly invited. The Sub-Committee
have sustained a serious loss by the removal of their valued colleague,
Mr. Wm. Fred. Miller from Croydon. His services to the Club, as
the recorder of the dates of the flowering of plants in the county,
extending over a long series of years, the results of which have been
published in the Transactions of the Club, have been of great value,
and his place will be difficult to supply. It would be an appropriate
recognition of his services to the Club were he elected an Honorary
Member. The excursion under the auspices of the Botanical Com-
mittee was unfortunately, owing to the weather, a failure. Mr. Straker,
who kindly undertook to conduct it, reports that only two members,
neither of them botanists, accompanied him, and that the programme
laid down had to be curtailed and altered. Mr. Beeby, in a letter to
the Secretary of the Committee, says :—

“The only striking addition to our Surrey list is Ulex gallii, a plant

b2

exliv Proceedings.

which is incorrectly reported about as often as Scleranthus perennis,
but which I found for the first time on a heath near Horsell. Besides
this, a good deal of work has been done in some of the critical genera,
such as Salix, Epilobiwm, &c., the latter entirely by the Rey.
E. S. Marshall, and the former partially by him.”

In ‘Science Gossip ’ there recently appeared a notice that Dianthus
cesius, the Cheddar pink, had been found near Guildford on the lime-
stone (presumably chalk is meant); as this plant is confined to the
limestone cliffs of the Mendips, its discovery in our county would, if
confirmed, be of great interest, but as it is a plant not unfrequently
cultivated, it would be necessary to be sure that it had not been
intentionally or accidentally introduced.

In the ‘Daily News’ recently, there appeared a notice not strictly
appertaining to this Sub-Committee, which Mr. Berney and the
Zoological Sub-Committee will, we trust, excuse us for referring to, so
closely is it connected with our province. We refer to a statement
that the dreaded Phylloxera had appeared in one of the vineries at
Kew Gardens during last summer, apparently introduced with some
young vines from Hungary :—

“The most unwelcome of all visitors to Kew Gardens last summer,
was found in one of the vineries in the form of an undoubted specimen
of the dreaded Phyllorera. It appears from the statement of Mr.
Morris that it was first observed in a corner of a house containing
young vine plants from Hungary; but both root and leaf galls were
subsequently found on another plant at the other.end. The natural
impulse of the scientific mind was to institute at once a careful series
of investigations and experiments; but, looking to the subtle and
amazing power of propagation which characterises these pests, it was
determined instantly to destroy everything growing in the house.
This was done with scrupulous care—first by igniting sulphur, after
syringing the whole of the interior with water, and then by burning
every part of each plant so as to calcine the soil thoroughly. Besides
these precautions every bit of rotten or defective woodwork was
removed and burnt, and, lastly, the entire remaining woodwork was
scraped and repainted.”

At the recent Soirée of the Club a very interesting series of dried
plants were exhibited by Mr. Salmon, of Reigate. These were espe-
cially noteworthy for the excellence of the specimens, the careful
drying, and the skilful and artistic mounting. They were an excellent
example of what can be done in this direction.—Hrnry T. MENNELL,
Hon. Sec.

ReEpPoRT OF THE GEOLOGICAL SuB-CoMMITTEE, JANUARY, 1890.

There have been very few fresh excavations or sections made in our
district during the past year except at Shirley, a valuable paper on
which was read before the Geologists’ Association, 6th June last, by
our member Mr. H. M. Klaassen, F.G.S., who has kindly allowed me to
quote some of his observations here.

“ The Pebbly and Sandy Beds overlying the Woolwich and Reading
Series on and near Addington Hills, Surrey.

‘‘ Barly in the spring of the present year (1890), the upper part of the

village of Shirley was connected with the main drainage of Croydon,

Proceedings. exly

and excavations for a sewer were made in a nearly direct line from the
windmill in Shirley road, past the Sandrock Hotel, to 250 feet beyond
the Infant School, near the top of the Addington Hills. These exca-
vations have a special interest. They give a continuous section from
the Blackheath to the underlying beds, and throw some light upon the
long disputed question as to what formation the pebbly and sandy
beds, which overlie the Woolwich and Reading series, belong to. Some
geologists have classed them with the Oldhaven, others have grouped
them with the Woolwich and Reading, beds. For years a controversy
upon this question has been carried on by Messrs. J. Starkie Gardner,
G. F. Harris, Prof. Prestwich, and W. Whitaker. The arguments for
and against the different views are summarised in Whitaker’s ‘Geology
of London,’ vol. i., pp- 90—102 (1889). The section, 1636 feet long,
begins on the Addington Hills at a height of 418 feet above Ordnance
datum, and ends in Shirley Road, Croydon, at 320 feet.
‘The excavations show :—

FT. IN.
On Addington Hills, 418 ft. above oO. D.

Flint pebbles in light coloured sand - - - - - 12 0
At the Sandrock Hotel, 360 ft. above 0. D.

Dark brown sand - - 1

Yellow sand, and grey sand with impure pipe clay 17 6
At the Drinking Fountain, 347 ft. above O. D.

Flint pebbles- - - - - - > +

Yellow sand - - - - - 7-7 7
Grey sand with impure pipe clay -
Mottled clay, Reading bed - - - - - -
Pebble rock with mottled clay and green sand -
Green sand, Woolwich and Reading bottom bed

At 337 ft. above O. D.
Woolwich blue and blackclay - - - - - - - H O
Reading mottled clay - - - - - Spee he. e930

Near the Windmill, Shirley Road, 320 ft. above O. D.
Pebbles, yellow and greysand - - - - -
Woolwich blueclay- - - - - 7 7 7 7 7 7 2 0

“The sewer excavations afforded little scope for detailed ex-
amination, but near the line of excavations there are pits at different
levels, where the pebbly and sandy beds can be conveniently examined.
The highest bed of the Addington Hills'is the Blackheath pebble bed,
consisting of small and large flint pebbles in a fine sandy base; the
sand is incoherent and without fossils, its colour reddish yellow, and
in long exposed sections yellowish grey. The exact thickness of the
bed could not be ascertained; in our section it begins at 380 ft. above
Ordnance datum, and is continuous to 481 ft., the highest point of the
hill, where bleached pebbles lie exposed on the surface,” et. seq.

The foregoing table, however, serves for our present purpose, but I
hope we may be able to quote further from this interesting paper.
I understand that some of the Shirley villagers upon seeing the
lignite, which was discovered in the excavations, thought that coal
had been found, and took it home to burn; but it was of little use, and
was moreover highly charged with pyrites.

The geological excursion of the year took place on Monday, Augu
4th, and was very well attended, twenty-seven members of the C }

7

exlvi Proceedings.

being present. Most of this number drove from Croydon to Caterham
where the remainder joined them. The walk then commenced by
passing over the outcrop of the chalk, just visible at a rise of the road
outside Caterham, to the firestone pits of the upper green sand for-
mation. These pits were explored by the kind permission of Mr.
Brotherton, and under the direction of his manager. The workings,
which penetrate the base of a hill till they reach a point 300 ft. below
the summit, are very tortuous and intricate, and have been worked for
a very long period. The firestone, when cut from its natural bed, is
workable by the curious primitive tools still in use, but upon exposure
to heat or air it rapidly hardens, thus fitting it for furnace floors and
other similar purposes. This subterranean ramble was much enjoyed,
and the workings were shown up by magnesium light by one of the
party. Several good photographs of geological interest were also
taken. After traversing the intervening strata, no good sections of
which were uncovered or exposed, the party visited the silver sand pits
in the lower green sand formation near Godstone. Beyond weathering
action and the veining of the sand rock, there was not much of special
interest, but some further photographs were obtained.

Tilburstow Hill was next visited, where a large pit of a ferruginous
sandstone occurs; this and some large masses of chert from the
immediate neighbourhood were carefully examined: and a survey of
the surrounding country was obtained from the highest point of the
hill, the chalk and green sand escarpments, and the large expanse of
the formerly forest-clad Weald being well made out. After a beautiful
walk to Oxted, the party returned to Croydon.

Some additions have been made to the series of photographs illus-
trating geological phenomena, which is being formed by the Club, and
it is hoped that these will be constantly added to, in order that we may
in time possess a large collection of such photographs, which cannot
fail to be of interest and use to those who may be studying the physical
aspect of geology. In the future when we obtain larger premises such
a collection would form a suitable adornment for the walls of our Club-
rooms. This Sub-Committee is always desirous of giving any
assistance or information in its power to members who may wish to
become better acquainted with the geology of the district—Ep. Lovett,
Hon. Sec.

Report oF THE METEOROLOGICAL SuB-CoMMITTEE, JANUARY, 1890.

The Meteorological Sub-Committee has continued its work under
the supervision of its Honorary Secretary, Mr. Bayard. The daily
rainfall of 48 stations in the Club district has been tabulated every
month, examined and corrected, and the results printed and issued to
the observers and all members of the Club interested in the question,
either before, or within a very few days after, the end of the month
succeeding that to which the statistics refer.

The Sub-Committee also desire to mention that Mr. Bayard has
taken weekly temperature observations in the River Wandle, in Surrey.
They were taken between 3 and 3.30 p.m. on Sunday afternoons, and
extended from October, 1888 to February, 1890. This record was pre-
sented by the Club’s delegate, Mr. Cushing, to Dr. Mill, the Honorary
Secretary of ‘‘The Committee on Temperature variation in Lakes,
Rivers, and Estuaries,” at the Leeds Meeting, 1890, of the British

Proceedings. exlvii

Association, and the Sub-Committee have included it in their Report,
which will be found in the ‘ Transactions.’

At the beginning of the year the Committee made a grant to the
Meteorological Sub-Committee of £25, for the expenses connected with
the rainfall returns.

The excursion of the 4th October, 1890, was under the direction of
this Sub-Committee. On the invitation of G. M. Whipple, Esq.,
Superintendent of Kew Observatory, eleven members of the Club, in-
cluding the Hon. Sec., interested in meteorology and photography,
paid a visit to the observatory. They were all most courteously
received by Mr. Whipple and the staff of the Observatory. Mr.
Whipple first gave the members a short history of the Observatory,
and then the party were divided, and part went over the Observatory with
Mr. Whipple, and the remainder with the Chief Assistant. All the
instruments, photographic and otherwise, were shown, as was also the
library, which contained some most interesting works, scientific and
otherwise. In addition to the attractions of the Observatory, as there
was an entertainment in the Old Deer Park where the Observatory is -
situated, the party enjoyed the privilege of seeing the descent of Prof
Baldwin in a parachute, from a balloon.—F. C. Bayarp, Hon. Sec.

Report oF THE MicroscopicaL SuB-CoMMITTEE, JANUARY, 1890.

The Microscopical Sub-Committee have taken in hand the arrange-
ment of the slides of microscopic objects in the Club Cabinet. A
strictly scientific classification was found impracticable, but in order to
facilitate the introduction of fresh slides, the collection was divided into
sections corresponding to the letters of the alphabet, so that members
applying for slides should give the letter as well as the number of the
slides they require. A list of the slides was for the first time printed
in the last issue of the ‘ Transactions.’

The Club is very much indebted to Mr. Harry Lee, for a very

‘valuable and interesting collection of slides of sponges, which belonged
to his father, our first President. Many of these were mounted by, or
were from the collection of, the late Dr. Bowerbank, the eminent
authority on matters relating to sponges. The collection contains
examples of all the principal families of the Spongiade, and members
wishing to study the structure of this interesting and beautiful order
of the animal kingdom will derive considerable advantage from care-
fully looking through it. The Club is also indebted to Mr. Goodman,
for some slides chiefly of botanical interest.

A special exhibition of microscopes and microscopic objects was held
at the Small Public Hall, on Wednesday, May 28th, under the auspices
of the Microscopical Sub-Committee. It was attended by a great
many visitors who appeared to spend a pleasant evening, and to be
very much interested in the exhibits. The exhibitors were Messrs.
Aldous, Baldock, Bayard, Berney, Dr. A. B. Carpenter, Messrs. Collier,
Crowley, Epps, Greenway, Hinde, Holmes, Lovett, McKean, Sarjeant,
Syms, and Dr. Thompson.

The President (Mr. Lovett), from his apparently inexhaustible
collection, made a large display of microscopic slides illustrating
zoological, botanical, and geological subjects; also a series of slides
illustrating the stages of preparation in fluid .and a series of slides
** with a history.”

exlviii Proceedings.

He also exhibited a collection of marine objects, illustrating the
mode of preserving temporarily in tubes of fluid, and a microscopist’s
workshop, being the apparatus used in the preparation of objects.
Under microscopes he exhibited fully matured eggs of a fish (Gobius
niger), and a young crustacean (Porcellama platycheles), showing
plumose mouth organs. Mr. Philip Crowley deserves to carry off the
palm for patience, for his section of the entire length of a fox’s jaw
with the teeth am situ.

Several microscopes of old pattern, some dating from last century,
and two solar microscopes, were exhibited by various members. These
showed in a marked manner the advances which have of late years
been made in microscopic construction, and it may almost be said that,
considered as an instrument of scientific research, the microscope is
now practically perfect.

A very interesting book by Adams, dated 1771, was exhibited by
Mr. Aldous, F.R.M.S§.

The living objects exhibited were principally aquatic, and, as usual,
were regarded by the visitors with mingled feelings of interest and
horror, more especially some animalcules from water in which water-
cress had been washed for table. Other objects exhibited, were Muller’s
type slide of diatoms, cat’s tongue, hair from beard, wood ants, head
of mosquito, leaf of sundew with a captive fly, sections of human
tongue, lung, and scalp, diamond beetles, sponge spicules, section of
‘ gneiss,’ by polarised light, silver in the act of crystallising, diatoms
on sea-weed, internal casts of Foraminifera, fossil wood, &c., sections
of limestone from New Zealand.

Mr. Holmes also exhibited a series of drawings of sponge spicules,
and a number of slides of sponges, both marine and freshwater, Forami-
nifera, and geological specimens, &¢.—W. M. Houmes, Hon. Sec.

REPORT OF THE ZOOLOGICAL SuB-CoMMITTEE, JANUARY, 1890.

Owing to my not having had much opportunity during this last
season of collecting in our neighbourhood, and from the fact of the
scarcity of insects, there is little of interest for me to report; I will,
however, make a few observations on those things which have come
under my notice during my rambles. Mature Lepidoptera I found com-
paratively few of. Larve were scarce, with exception of M. brassice
and M. persicarig. It frequently happens that larve in June and July
are most abundant, so much so that scarcely a leaf is left on the trees ;
yet very few imagos are the result of this abundance, owing to the
thousands of ichneumons destroying the larve; this is no doubt a
provision of nature to keep down the excess of lepidopterous insects
in their larval state; but unfortunately the ichneumons are not wise
enough to know when.to leave off to please the collector, and the
result is that imagos are scarce, to the great discomfort of the
entomologist.

Should the weather continue severe,—and we have really a hard
winter,—the probabilities are that the coming season will be a good one,
as from experience I have always found that after a mild winter the
insects are very scarce, and after a hard one they are very plentiful.
A mild winter is also very hurtful to hybernating larve, as the damp-
ness induces fungoid growth in their bodies, which destroys them; the

Proceedings. oxlix

larve, also, are tempted by the warmth of the season and the sun to
come out of their hiding-places, and starve in consequence of their not
being able to find food, and many are thus destroyed by birds, mice, and
other vermin; the ground being soft, beetles and other underground
enemies prey on them; this would not be the case in hard weather,
where the ground is hard frozen or covered with snow. We are well
aware that some of the larve commit great havoc in our orchards.
Chimatobia brumata is a pest in the Kent orchards, and the fruit
growers are trying experiments for their destruction.

In October, 1889, I was visiting one of these orchards, where I found a
tenant just commencing liming the trunks of the fruit trees; he had
fastened a narrow band of paper tightly round the collars of the trees,
just below where the trees began to branch, and this paper he had
painted over with some sticky material; the females being wingless
were not able to reach the branches, and many were entrapped on the
paper. I suggested that, in place of liming the trees in October, he
should put it off till the middle of January, as the moths, in the event
of the weather proving mild, would deposit eggs till probably the end
of December ; and by liming the trees in the middle of January all the
eggs would be encased in the lime and would therefore not hatch;
whereas, if the trees were limed in October the lime would set, and the
insects could lay their eggs on it with impunity, and the larve would
be able to infest the trees. Whether my suggestion has had any
beneficial result I am unable to say, as I have not again visited the
orchard.

Some time since I prepared some lists of Lepidoptera and had them
bound in parts, with a hope that all those members taking an interest
in this work should, at the close of each season, insert in those lists the
captures of all scarce and new insects taken, say, within 20 miles of
Croydon, or even at a greater distance, if it was thought advisable.
The lists consist of :-—

Genera. Species.
Rhopalocera oe wo ae 28 66
Sphingina and Bombycina aoe 11 36
Noctuina ... “i Bae ee 93 294
Geometrina ay aa a 85 272

The remainder consisting of Pyralidina, Tortricina, Tineina, Ptero-
phorina, and Alucitina. I have left the preparation of these lists for
those who collect them. If the lists are properly filled in, noting the
dates and places of all captures, they may become very useful books of
reference to those who come after us.—_JoHN BERNEY, Hon. Sec.

REPoRT OF THE PHOTOGRAPHIC SUB-COMMITTEE, JANUARY, 1890.

I have pleasure in reporting that during the past year, the Photo-
graphic Section has increased from 48 to 60 members, and that the
meetings on the whole have been well attended, especially the lantern
evenings.

Eight excursions have been made during the summer, viz. :—April
26th, to Westerham ; May 10th, to Coulsdon; May 17th, to Horley;
June 7th, to Merstham; June 28th, to Guildford ; July 26th, to Hever ;
August 16th, to Caterham; and September 13th, to Upper Warlingham.

The largest muster was to Horley, on which occasion 23 members

el Proceedings.

responded to Mr. F'. W. Hast’s kind invite to the Photographic Section.
Mr. Hast met the party at the station with carriages in readiness to
drive them to the various places of photographic interest in the neigh-
bourhood. The route taken was vid Smallfield Place, Dowlands Lane,
Burstow, Keeper’s Common, across Pot Common on to Worth, thence
by way of Three Bridges and Crawley to Lowfield Heath, where we
were most hospitably entertained by our kind host.

Technical and conversational meetings have been held on the first
Friday in each month throughout the year, and demonstrations on the
various branches of photography have been given. Lantern evenings
have been held on the third Friday throughout the winter months, and
an average of 150 slides have been passed through the lantern on each
occasion, a large number of them being of excellent quality.

At the Soirée this Section was well represented, some 25 members
exhibiting transparencies and prints, the work shown being of a very
high average.

I am glad, in conclusion, to be able to say that this Section is in a
more flourishing condition than it ever has been; this is no doubt
largely due to the kindness of those members who are always ready to
assist and help others who are not so advanced as themselves.—W.
Low Sargeant, Hon. Sec.

The excursions of the year are referred to under the Reports
of the various Sub-Committees in whose charge they were;
except the one on Whit Monday, May 26th, 1890, which was of
a general character, partly perhaps archeological, and which
was under the direction of our Hon. Secretary, Mr. Bayard. A
party of 29 members and friends met at Holmwood Station, and
proceeded by lane and field to the old British camp, Austiebury,
just above the village of Christchurch: this old earthwork was
explored with much interest, and the party descended into Christ-
church village, and then ascended to the top of Leith Hill; the
view thence was not good as the weather was too hazy. The road
then lay through the woods to the picturesque old village of
Friday Street, some photographs of which were secured.

The party then crossed the Park to Wotton House, where it
was most courteously received by Mr. Evelyn, who conducted
the members over the house and grounds showing them the
quaint old rooms and halls, the picture gallery with portraits of
the celebrated John Evelyn and others of the family. In the
museum were a number of valuable objects of interest, the chief
being the original manuscript of ‘ Evelyn’s Diary,’ and a Hortus
siccus, or herbarium of medieval plants collected about 1685 at
the Horticultural Gardens at Padua. The gardens and grounds
contained many rare and interesting shrubs and plants, as well
as interesting relics of John Evelyn, as shown in the bowers,
terraces and fountains, arranged or built by him.

After a most enjoyable visit, the members returned to Croydon,
part taking the road direct to Dorking, and the rest proceeding

0 pte i eel —_—<—-

Proceedings. cli

through the fields and bye-paths by Milton Mill and the lower

- part of Westcott.

During the past year no less than fourteen papers and com-
munications have been read before the Club, and these have
been of very general interest.

February 12th.—Mr. F. OC. Bayard read the Report of the
Meteorological Sub-Committee for 1889, which has already
appeared in extenso in our ‘ Transactions’ (Trans., Art. 78, p. 225).
This elaborate and carefully drawn up series of tables not only
shows what valuable work is being done by this section and its
numerous contributing observers, but reflects the greatest credit
upon our worthy Secretary, who is thus conducting two distinct
secretarysbips, both of which absorb so much time and attention.
Mr. Lovett made the following observations on some ‘‘ Slides of
Voleanic Vitreous Dust.” This exceedingly minute dust was
collected on the ship ‘ Arabella,’ on which it had fallen in Lat.
5.87 §., Long. 88.58 E., Aug. 28th, 1883, 1000 miles from Java.
It is considered to be, and in all probability is, from the great
voleanic eruption in Java about a little prior to that date. It
consists of such extremely comminuted particles that it is capable
of floating in the atmosphere for some considerable time ; and as
it would also be carried by wind currents for great distances, it
in all probability caused those strange afterglows, which were so
characteristic of the period following the eruption, at sundown.
An account of the eruption of Mount Vesuvius, of 1767, states
that people in Naples suffered as to their eyes by the dust which
then fell, and quite heavy dust fell on board ships 60 to 100
miles off, to the great astonishment of the sailors. It would be
interesting to know whether this vitreous dust was in any way
injurious to the crew of the ‘ Arabella,’ as minute particles of

lass inhaled cause bleeding at the lungs.

March 12th.—Mr. Walter Crouch, F.Z.S., &e., of the Essex
Field Club, read a paper “On the Physical Conditions of the
Sea” (‘Trans., Art. 79), in which he referred to various marine
phenomena—ocean currents, tides, colour, depth, temperature,
&e., of the sea, alluding to any localities remarkable for any
distinctive features. The great ocean depths and records of all
deep soundings were next treated, and such forms of life as exist
in such positions described ; the expeditions of the ‘ Lightning,’
‘Porcupine,’ and ‘Challenger,’ being quoted in support of the
subject. The paper, which from the nature of the subject was
rather a lengthy one, was well illustrated by charts and maps for
showing the’ known currents, trade routes, &c., and by diagrams
of deep-sea life, and statistics of various kinds connected with
the subject.

April 9th.— A short paper was read by Dr. G. J. Hinde,

clii Proceedings.

F.G.S., on a ‘‘ Discovery of Chert containing Radiolaria, &c., in
the Paleozoic Rocks,” which was illustrated by some sections of
chert showing these organisms, which were from Scotland and
Spitzbergen. This discovery, which is of great interest, proves
the existence in these older rocks of sponge spicules and Radio-
larians, which had not hitherto been known to extend so far back
as the paleozoic period (Trans., Art. 80). The Rev. Geo. Bailey,
F.R.M.S., read a paper entitled ‘‘The Tenants of a Fossil
FEchinus,” in which he first described the process of cleaning the
material for microscopic examination: he then enumerated forty-
five species of Foraminifera which he had obtained from a single
silicified Echinus, all of which he had determined, and which
were exhibited on the table. This paper, with lists of species,
will be found in our ‘ Transactions ’ (Trans., Art. 81).

May 14th.—Mr. H. T. Mennell, F.L.S., read a report upon a
large collection of Surrey birds recently sold, but fortunately
retained in the county (Trans., Art. 82). Several rare specimens
were referred to, and the localities where killed mentioned. The
risk of losing such local collections as this is a powerful argu-
ment in favour of forming a suitable county museum, to which,
it would be hoped, all such collections, or individual objects of
Surrey interest, would ultimately tend. I read a short paper
upon some simple methods of preparing marine objects, especially
Mollusca, Crustacea, and Echinodermata, for the cabinet :
pointing out that the chief point to keep in view was the
retention of form and colour, which could only be done with care
and non-exposure to heat or direct sun-light, as the former dis-
torts and the latter bleaches (Trans., Art. 83).

September 10th.—The following communications were read,
viz.:—(1). By Mr. H. T. Mennell, F.L.8., ‘On the Botany of
Snowdon and Cader Idris,’ in which the very interesting flora
of these mountain spots was described and illustrated by a col-
lection of dried specimens (Trans., Art. 84). (2). By Mr. P.
Crowley, F.L.S., ‘On an Abnormal Growth of the Black Poplar,”
the root shoots of which had forced up a piece of asphalt path,
and in its endeavour to grow had become highly subdivided and
bifurcated. (3). By Mr. J. Jenner Weir, F.L.S., ‘On some
remarkable points of resemblance between some flies (Volucella)
and some bees (Bombus),’’ the larve of the former being
parasitic on those of the latter; hence probably this mimicry
for protection, to enable the enemy to enter the nests of the bees
and deposit their eggs (Trans., Art. 85). (4). By Mr. Goodman,
‘On the Geology of the Swanage and Purbeck Districts,” in
which the interesting strata and fossils of this locality were des-
cribed (Trans., Art. 86). (5). By Mr. Murton Holmes, ‘On
some Glauconite Casts of Organisms from the Firestone of the
Lower Green sand Formation at Godstone,” which were of a

Proceedings. eliii

remarkable character, and included an abundance of sponge
remains (Trans., Art. 87). (6). I gave a short account of ‘‘ The
manufacture of Tappa Cloth in Fiji,” which cloth is merely a
woody fibre beaten out from the inner bark of the bread-fruit
tree after maceration (Trans., Art. 88).

October 8th.—By Mr. W. Murton Holmes on “‘ Sponges.’”’ In
this paper the lecturer gave an interesting account of the
structure of these organisms, especially in regard to their
spicules, the forms of which are exceedingly diversified. He
illustrated his observations with a large number of well executed
diagrams and drawings, and compared recent forms with their
fossil representatives (Trans., Art. 89). y

November 12th.—I contributed some ‘‘ Observations upon the
Life-history and Habits of the Marine Decapod Crustacee of the
British Seas.’’ These animals exhibit many points of special
interest to the naturalist, and their habits show in various —
species wide divergences. For example the swimming crabs,
Portunus, Polybius, éc., have the terminal joint of the last pair of
legs paddle-shaped, whilst their entire carapace is chitinous and
delicate ; whereas species inhabiting a rocky shore, such as the
genera Xantho, Lithodes, dc., possess a powerful and heavily cal-
careous shell. Some species, such as Pisa, Inachus, déc., are
exceedingly sluggish in their movements, and are frequently
covered with growths of sponge and alge: whilst nearly the
whole of the Palemonide are vivaceous and rapid in their
movements. The question of protective colouring is also one of
great interest, for whilst almost all species inhabiting estuaries
or muddy localities are dull and sombre in tint, those even of
the same species, which are obtained from clear water of a
granite district and which live amongst brilliant alge, are almost
invariably bright and vivid in their colours. The Porcellanide
are especially remarkable for their wonderful protective adaptation
to surrounding conditions. There are also points of great
interest in connection with the early conditions of life of these
animals, for it is an universal rule that all those species such as
Palinurus, Homarus, éc., which in their primary stages are a
prey to fishes, produce ova in enormous masses; whilst those
differently situated and which enjoy a certain amount of pro-
tection, produce only a small number of ova: of these latter
may be mentioned the genera Aaius, Gebia, and Callianassa. It
is remarkable that the common crab, Cancer pagurus, is never as
a rule found with ova, and for years I had searched in vain for
it. Certain species of Crustaceans live buried in the- sand
beneath the water, and others burrow in the rough shingle
formed by the detritus of granite rocks: of the former Thia polita
is a good example, and of the latter Gebia deltura, whilst Corystes
cassivelaunus buries its body and waves its long antenne as a bait

cliv Proceedings.

for small fish, which it captures with its long claws. Of the
hermit crabs much might be said as to the curious fact of their
requiring artificial protection for their soft abdominal segments,
whilst the great stone crab, Lithodes maia, is an example of a
species in a state of evolution from the hermits to the true crabs,
and the genera Galathea and Munida in a transition state to the
lobster group. They possess the fifth pair of legs in a pseudo
condition only, and Dromia vulgaris uses these curious appen-
dages for freeing its carapace from any obnoxious substance.
My contributions to the Zoologist, 1881-4, go into this subject
more fully.

December 10th.—By Mr. E. Straker on ‘‘ Changes in the Aspect
of our District during Historic Times” (Trans., Art. 90). In this
paper Mr. Straker referred to the fact that this subject though of
great interest had not been touched by geologists. The chief
changes had been wrought by man, domesticated animals, and
earth worms, which latter were constantly forming vegetable
mould. Prehistoric man being a hunter did little to alter the
aspect of the country, but the advent of the Saxons wrought
great changes, owing to their three field system and their heavy
draught oxen. The lecturer then referred to the Dooms-day
Book, as to the distibution of parishes with their proportions of
grazing, arable, and wood lands, and pointed out that such
allotted areas had in reality not altered to any very marked ~
extent. Mr. Straker concluded with some observations upon the
alteration of our flora by the introduction and cultivation of
suitable trees, shrubs and plants from other parts of the world.

The Twenty-first Annual Soirée of the Club took place on
Wednesday, November 26th last, and its interest and attractive-
ness were well maintained. Ninty-one microscopes were exhibited
by members of twelve different Societies, and some of the pre-
parations shown were above the average of excellence. The
Photographic Section of the Club made perhaps the finest
display of photographs ever seen in Croydon. These were the
work of members, and much taste and judgment were shown in
their arrangement, causing them to attract a great deal of atten-
tion : a large number of excellent transparencies were also shown.
A large series of meteorological instruments of great interest
were exhibited by Mr. Stanley; and Mr. Philip Crowley lent his
remarkably fine collection of Lepidoptera from the Palearctic
region of the world. My own exhibit consisted of a rather large
series of Neolithic arrow-heads and spear-heads from nearly all
parts of the world, and made of flint, jasper, chert, chalcedony,
carnelian, obsidian, quartz; also celts and their modern repre-
sentatives from the South Pacific. I also showed the war head-
dress of eagle feathers, formerly belonging to a chief of the

SS ee

Proceedings. elv

Cheyenne tribe, which attracted much attention in consequence
of the interest taken in the present out-break of these Indians
and the Sioux. The basket of flowers, gathered in the open air
at Addiscombe on the day of the Soirée, contained 121 varieties
collected by Mrs. Lovett: this number is 28 below the previous
year, in consequence of the very severe frosts experienced in the
earlier part of the month. Mr. Bidwell exhibited a fine series of
the eggs of birds, illustrating abnormal forms, marking and
colourisation, caused in some cases by immaturity, in others by
disease or the imperfect secretion of the colouring matter. Some
heads of the celebrated mummy cats from Egypt, were exhibited
by Mr. E. Straker, and Mr. Bayard showed some casts of very
fine Greek gems, and there were several good series of botanical
specimens, fossils, and recent shells, lent by various members,
besides a fine trophy of heads and antlers of animals by Mr.
Thorpe, and a large number of sundry objects which proved of
great interest to our visitors. The total number present was
683, or 58 more than at the previous Soirée, and 7 below that
of 1888.

During the year the exhibits at the ordinary meetings have
largely increased, and have, I think, given rise to considerable
interest at our monthly gatherings. They will be found duly
specified later on in this Report. I hope we may have still more
during the present year. Almost all objects in nature prompt
discussion and elicit information, and nothing is too humble to
be beneath notice.

I cannot conclude without some remarks about the future of
our Club. In October last, I brought forward a scheme for
enlarging the sphere of our Society, and acquiring a large and
serviceable suite of rooms, useful alike to all sections and every
member of our Club. This scheme, which to succeed required
a very general support, failed from reasons with which you are
all acquainted, but I still hope that the remarkable cordiality of
the support which was accorded to the scheme is an omen that
we may yet look forward to the time when something may be
done in this direction. As an instance of the way in which my
project was received by many of our members, I should like to
record here that unsolicited letters of guarantee towards future
contingent expenses were sent to me for sums exceeding in the
aggregate four hundred pounds; and that a large number of
letters were received by me cordially approving of my suggestion ;
whilst anything like disapproval of the project was conspicuous
by its absence. With the growing usefulness of our Society, and
the rapidly increasing and valuable work done by our Sub-
Sections, we find ourselves out-growing our accommodation.

elvi Proceedings.

Our largest and most popular Section at present, owing to the
widespread use of the camera, is our Photographic Section with
its sixty members. This Section has long felt the want of a dark
room where its practical work could be carried on, and where
friendly suggestions on the intricacies of developing could be
imparted by our experienced to our inexperienced members.

I therefore devoted my attention to obtaining such a room, and
found that it was difficult to find anything quite suited to our
wants. I discovered, however, on these premises a room which
I could see would answer our requirements with certain necessary
fittings. Upon application to the Committee of the Institution,
I obtained this room for one year from 8th inst., and I have
given myself the pleasure of making it useful and comfortable,
in which work I have been most kindly assisted by Mr. Waller,
who has vastly improved the appearance of the walls.

This room I now beg to hand over to the Club for the use of
its Photographic Section for the present year, as a slight proof
of the interest I have always taken in its welfare, and as an
acknowledgement of the honour I received when I was elected
by you to this chair. The particulars of the room, which I hope
you will all visit at the close of this meeting, are as follows :—
Length 25 ft., width 8 ft. 10 in., height about 7 ft.6 in. Con-
erete floor, which I have covered with thick coir matting. Water
is laid on, and there is a copious sink. It is heated and lighted
by gas: the stove meter, &c., for which however are hired. I
have also placed there a table and a few chairs, &c.

Of course this room is practically available at all times, but
this will doubtless be arranged by our Photographic Sub-Com-
mittee. In the meantime, I would like to suggest that in
addition to the fixed photographic meetings, the room shall be
open one evening a week for purposes of practical work and
comparing notes, and later on if one evening is not sufficient
two can be arranged, but it is necessary that the room when
open shall be under the charge of someone, and our new Photo-
graphic Secretary, Mr. Gower, has undertaken this charge in the
meantime. I sincerely trust that this room will meet with the
approval of our photographic friends to such an extent that they
will want to bring to our Club a number of their friends to enjoy
with them its advantages.

In conclusion, gentlemen, I must thank all those who have by
their wise counsel and help so kindly assisted me in endeavouring
to carry out the responsible position in which you did me the
honour to place me; and, whilst feeling a little pardonable
satisfaction at our success so far, I venture to express a hope
that if all is well this year we may look forward to still further
progress, more good practical work, and a largely augmented
list of members, in which hope I feel sure I am joined by you all.

Proceedings. elvii

Members elected, 1890.

January 15th.—M. Hopewell, 79, Lansdowne Gardens. J. E.
Morris, Beddington. John Wayte, M.D., B.A., 108, North End.
Edwin Webster, 234, South Norwood Hill, South Norwood.

March 12th.—Walter Budgen, Elswick Villa, Addiscombe Road.
William Henry I‘Anson, 120, St. James’ Road. Walter James Lovett,
Linda Villa, Farquharson Road. James Christie Reid, 43, Addiscombe
Road. John Johnstone Reid, 4, Sydenham Road. Alfred Crake
Russell, 124, Clarendon Road. The Rev. George Buchanan Ryley,
177, Lower Addiscombe Road. Charles James Napier Yuill, Marion
Villa, Addiscombe Road. ;

April 9th. Edgar A. H. Field, L.D.8.Hng., 85, High Street.
Arthur William Hirst, St. Michael’s Road. Edward Hall Grimwade,
Norton Cottage, Oakfield Road. Ernest Alfred Patch, The Chestnuts,
Havelock Road. Frederick William Purser, 41, Addiscombe Road.
St. George C. Reid, Brigstock Villa, Thornton Heath. Simeon Talbot
Silvester, Wellesley Road. Alfred Underhill, 23a, Clarendon Road.

May 14th.—William Ashcroft, Layham’s Farm, Beckenham. J.
A. Finney, 57, St. Peter’s Road. William Goode, Mulgrave Road,
Sutton. H. B. James, The Oaks, near Carshalton. Capt. Mallcott
8. Richardson, R.E., Victoria Road, Eltham. William Whalley, Ad-
dington Park Farm. Charles Thomas Wilkinson, 21, Brighton Road.

September 10th.—F rederick Elliott Annison, Wendouree, Chichester
Road. Arless Haydon Carter, Reedham, Purley. David Waller, jun.,
Ferndene, Warrington Road.

October 8th.—William Ritchie Baker, 9, Belmont Villas, Wallington.

November 12th.—Frederick T. Edridge, J.P., Addiscombe Court.
Harry Fuller, Hollymount, Duppas Hill. John Privett, Amsworth
House, South Park Hill Road. Spencer E. Whealler, 9, Friend’s
Road East.

December 10th.—The Rev. George Albert Brock, 41, Selhurst Road,
South Norwood. Robert Wylde Church, Rydalmere, 50, Birdhurst
‘Road. Henry Clark, 2, Ventnor Villas, Waddon-New-Road. William
Challoner Cutler, Derwent Bank, Upper Addiscombe Road. Arthur
Francis Harland, 32, Park Lane. Thomas George Walter Hoole, 25,
Birdhurst Road. Walter C. Norton, Maycourt, Campden Road.
Vincent John Shute, 144, Birchanger Road, South Norwood. James
Wenham, 29, St. John’s Grove.

Library and Collection.

The additions to the Library and Collection during the year
1890 are as follows :—

From Individuals.—F.C. Bayard: Comparison between the Jordan
and Campbell-Stokes Sunshine Recorders. W.H. Beeby: Flora of
Shetland. Dr. A. Carpenter: Duplicate numbers of Club’s Reports and
Transactions ; Simon’s Public Health Reports, 2 vols. ; Vital Statistics,
1 vol. Thomas Cushing: British Association Pamphlets. OC. H.
Goodman: 3 doz. Microscopical Slides. W.Murton Holmes: 3 doz.
Microscopical Slides. Harry Lee: 270 Microscopical Slides made by
the late Henry Lee. Rey. E. S. Marshall: A Collection of Rare

c

elviii Proceedings.

Surrey Plants. Prof. O.T. Mason of Washington, U.S.A.: Sundry
Pamphlets. Prof. J. Prestwich: Relation of the Westleton Beds of
Suffolk to those of Norfolk, in 3 parts. C. L. Prince: Summary of a
Meteorological Journal. E. B. Sturge: Excursion arrangements of
London Geological Field Class 1888, and Kew Bulletin for July 1889.
N. Waterall: Darwin’s Journal during the Voyage of the ‘ Beagle,’
and Darwin’s Coral Reefs’ Volcanic Islands and South American
Geology.

From Societies.—La Societe Belge de Microscopie: Bulletin, 6me
Annee, Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, and Annales Tome xiii. 3me
Fascicule, and Tome xiv. Berwickshire Natural History Club: Pro-
ceedings. Brighton and Sussex Natural History and Philosophical
Society: Reports for 1888, 1889, 1890. British Association: Report,
1889 (Neweastle-on-Tyne). Eastbourne Natural History Society :
Transactions, Vol. 2, Part 3. Essex Naturalist: 4 numbers. Hamp-
shire Field Club: Proceedings, No. iv. Holmesdale Natural History
Club: Proceedings, 1888 and 1889. Manchester Microscopical Society:
Transactions and Annual Report, 1889. Oldham Microscopical
Society and Field Club: Report for 1889. Quekett Microscopical
Club: Journal, 1 number. Reading Literary and Scientific Society:
Reports for 1889 and 1890. Royal Microscopical Society: Journal,
5 numbers. South Eastern Naturalist: Vol. 1, Part 1. West Kent
Natural History Society: Proceedings, 1889.

From Proprietors.—Science Gossip.

Loan Collection.—Dr. A. Carpenter: Paleontographical Society,
Vol. xliii; Royal Society, Proceedings, Vol. xxi.

Exhibits, 1890.

February 12th.—E. Lovett, A series of Sea Urchins (Echinoder-
mata), including Hchinus sphera, Spherechinus brevispinosus,
Spatangus purpureus, Echinus flemingii, éc.; Slides of vitreous
volcanic dust from the Krakatoa Eruption. OC. H. Goodman,
Specimens illustrating the anatomy of insects; also slides and micro-
photographs of insects. Ernest Straker, 3 heads of mummified cats
from Egypt. E.O. Newman, Head of a mummified cat from Egypt.
K. McKean, Land Mollusca. Dy. Franklin Parsons, Recent and fossil
echinoderms. Dr. Hinde, Fossil echinoderms. H. D. Gower,
Engravings of fish. W. L. Sarjeant, Diagrams of vitreous volcanic
dust drawn by means of the camera lucida; also slides of some of
the same dust under his microscope. W. Murton Holmes, Sections of
spines of echinoderms under his microscope; also polished section of
calculus from horse.

March 12th.—F. C. Bayard, Thermometers for registering the
temperature at various depths in the ocean (lent by Messrs. Negretti
& Zambra). C. H. Goodman, marine sponges, zoophytes, &. W.
Crouch (to illustrate his paper), Charts, maps, photographs, engravings,
&e., to illustrate various marine phenomena. E. B. Sturge, Specimens
of the shore in the locality of John O’Groat’s, N.B. K. McKean, Tests
of Foraminifera and drawings of living organisms. W. L. Sarjeant,
Dredgings, Mid-Pacific, 2425 fathoms (H.M.S8. ‘ Challenger’). .R. J.
Backwell, Soundings, 1860 fathoms, N. Atlantic. Dr. A. B. Carpenter,
Diatom ooze, 1950 fathoms, Antarctic (H.M.S. ‘Challenger’). W.
Murton Holmes, Soundings from depths varying from 1300 to 4428

Proceedings. clix

fathoms. E. Lovett, Micro-slides of deep-sea soundings and surface
fauna; a large series of various materials forming the ocean bed; also
objects and appliances made and used by North American and Eskimo
Indians, together with photographs and drawings illustrating the
natives themselves.

April 9th.—. Lovett, Primitive oriental fire-making appliances,
including various steels with flint, agate, quartz, jasper, &c., tinders
and tinderholders, &c., from Thibet, and Northern and Central India,
and a fire compression tube from the Katcheens of Bhamo, Upper
Burma; also a series of polished stone axes (British). Dr.G.J. Hinde
(to illustrate his paper), Slides of sections of chert containing Radio-
larians. Rev. G. Bailey (to illustrate his paper), Slides of Frondicu-
laria, Cordai, and other organisms from interior of a fossil Hchinus.
P. Crowley, A large series of butterflies, Parnassius group, of the
Palearctic regions. W.Murton Holmes, Glass-rope sponges (Hyalo-
mena sieboldii), from Japan. H. T. Mennell, Plant of tooth-wort
(Lathrea squamaria) parasitic on the hazel, from Warlingham. N,
Waterall, Fragments of lava from Mt. Vesuvius.

May 14th.—P. Crowley, A collection of bird-skins to illustrate Mr.
Mennell’s paper. E. Lovett, A collection of fish-hooks of bone, stone,
shell, wood, bronze, and iron, to illustrate development in form and
material; also’a moth (Hemerophila abruptaria), shown as an illus-
tration of protective colouring. K. McKean, An ephemera (Choroterpes
picteti) mounted in balsam without pressure. C. H. Goodman, Cast
skin of Chironomus plumosus, showing respiratory tufts.

September 10th.—H. T. Mennell, Dried plants from Snowdon and
Cader Idris, to illustrate his paper. P. Crowley, Abnormal
growth of black poplar. J. Berney, Living larve of Lepidoptera,
including some of the rarer species. W. Murton Holmes, Specimens
of Godstone chert and firestone. J. Jenner Weir, Dipterous insects
mimicking humble bees (Hymenoptera). C.H. Goodman, Fossils, &c.,
from Swanage and Purbeck District. E. Bailey, Tin ore. N. Waterall,
Model of a gondola, &. G. Mordaunt, Fetish ornaments, Ashantee
box of elephant skin from Cape Coast Castle. E. Lovett, Tappa cloth,
kava bowls, tappa hammers, food dish, shark hooks, &c., from Fiji;
also bow and arrows and barbed arrow-heads from pigmies of South
‘Central Africa.

October 8th.—W. Murton Holmes, Drawings (to scale) of sections of
_-sponges, spicules, &c., to illustrate his paper. W. L. Sarjeant,
-Gamboge containing a number of ants embedded in the matrix ; these
probably fell into the bamboo tube which was collecting the resin.
E. Lovett, Certain shells, showing the uses to which they were put;
_also a Strombus used as a fog-horn by the Normandy fishermen ; also
a Cassis, showing cameo cut on its surface; also shells used by the
-Chinese as windows.

November 12th.—E. Lovett (to illustrate his paper), 24 cases of
- specimens of British marine decapod Crustacee. W.Murton Holmes,
Fossil fish teeth, &c., from the chalk of Croydon, and various recent
sponges. J. Epps, Jun., Specimen of razorbill caught in October, on
Blackfriars Bridge, London.

December 10th.—E. Lovett, Sketch of abnormal mushroom ; also

'. ‘Tropical crustacean, and béche-de-mer.

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TRANSACTIONS

OF

THE CROYDON MICROSCOPICAL AND
NATURAL HISTORY CLUB. —

1890-1.

79.—PuysicaL ConDITIONS OF THE SEA.
By Wares Croucn, F.Z.S.
(Read March 12th, 1890.)

Mr. Crovucn, after stating that the sea had always been a
subject of great interest, not unmixed with awe, referred to some
of the ancient myths regarding it, quoting from several early
writers to support his remarks. Coming to our own day, he
alluded to the various expeditions that had been fitted out to
explore its depths, test its temperatures, and examine its fauna,
of which the following were mentioned:—The cruise of the
‘Lightning,’ between Oban and Faroe Islands and a portion of
the N. Atlantic, in 1868; the cruises of the ‘ Porcupine’ of 1869-
70, the latter part of which was devoted to the Mediterranean.
The greatest expedition, however, was that of the ‘Challenger,’
extending from Dec. 7th, 1872, to May 24th, 1876, and sailing
68,890 nautical miles, with a total of 362 observing stations,
the general results of which expedition are now pretty well
known.

The lecturer then reviewed the general distribution of land
and water, stating that Prof. Dana concludes that the present
continental and oceanic areas began with the very commence-
ment of the solidification of the crust of the earth; and although
changes, upheavals, re-depositions, &c., are going on, and have
been from all time, they do not do more than modify the
surface, and do not appear to have altered its main disposition.
Having referred to ocean depths, he stated that the greatest yet
sounded in the Atlantic was 3875 fathoms, and in the Pacific
4475 fathoms, the greatest depths being found near volcanic

B

252 Mr. W. Crouch on Physical Conditions of the Sea.

islands. As regards density, it had always been assumed that
such would largely increase at extreme depths, but it now
appears that it scarcely increases at all beyond 2000 fathoms.

Referring to tides, and consequently including “bores,” he
said that in the Amazon, at the equinoxes, for three successive
days they have five waves from twelve to fifteen feet high, which
follow one another regularly up the river; and as to the general
circulation of the ocean, Sir W. Thompson had said, “*‘ We have
now good reason to believe that the indraught of water at a low
temperature into the Atlantic and Pacific from the southern
seas is to a great extent due to an excess of precipitation over
evaporation in the water hemisphere, and a corresponding excess
of evaporation over precipitation in the land hemisphere.....
That, in fact, a part of the circuit of general ocean circulation
passes through the atmosphere.

Mr. Crouch then passed on to ocean temperatures, and their
causes. It had been estimated by the ‘ Challenger’ expedition
that the direct rays of the sun penetrated to a considerable depth,
probably in clear water to 600 ft. Highest recorded temperature,
90° in Red Sea. The temperature of the sea falls very slowly
from 89° to 28:4° (its freezing point), because its whole depth
cools together.

Touching upon the composition of the ocean-bed and the
Globigerina ooze of the Pacific, he alluded to the continuity of
the deposit of the chalk, as shown by the various forms, tests,
and remains from this grey ooze. In the channel between the
Caroline and Ladrone Islands, at a depth of 4575 fathoms, the
bottom was of red clay, binding together the siliceous tests of
Radiolarians and Diatoms. The lecturer, in describing the
colour of the sea, said that the true normal colour, as may be
seen in the Tropics and in the Mediterranean, is of a deep rich
blue; but this may change to purple, red, brown, yellow, to even
black. Dr. Carpenter was of opinion that the peculiar blue colour
of the Gulf Stream was probably due to the very finest particles of
river silt from the Mississippi. Colour is often caused, too, by
the nature of a shallow bottom.

The Red Sea owes its tint to a series of minute Algex, which at
times give it the appearance of clotted blood. This Alga,
Trichodesmium, Prof. Moseley describes as like minute fragments
of chopped hay. It has also recently been observed that the
density of sea-water has a most important bearing upon the
question of colour, and that frequently the brown waters of a
river will flow for many miles over the clear blue waters of the
ocean without mingling, owing to the great difference in density.
In Arctic seas, the masses of pelagic life alter the colour to such
an extent that whalers are able to tell the locality of whales by
this presence of their food,

Dr. G. J. Hinde on discovery of Chert, dc. 253

In conclusion, Mr. Crouch referred to the luminosity of the
sea, which in our latitudes is caused by the presence of myriads
of a minute Protozoa, Noctiluca, but in tropical regions to Pyro-
soma, Tunicata, and even fishes themselves contribute to the
display. Prof. Moseley, of the ‘Challenger,’ is said to have
written his name luminously with the tip of his finger when
dipped into the phosphorescent sea.

80.—Discovery or Cuert contamninc Rapionaria, &c., IN THE
Patzozorc Rocks.

By Dr. Geo. J. Hivos, F.G.S.
(Read April 9th, 1890.)

Dr. Hixve commenced by giving a brief description of what
chert was, and its geological position. Although allied closely
to flint, it is of a much more impure character, and its fracture
is not so conchoidal, but flatter; it also occurs, not in nodules,
as in the case of flint, but in bands, and often in large rock
masses. It occurs largely in the lower greensand beds, Til-
burstow Hill, near Godstone, being a good locality; it also
occurs in the Portland beds of the Oolitic series, in the
carboniferous limestone, &c.

Dr. Hinde then exhibited and described some specimens of
chert from some beds far older than the above, viz., from those
of paleozoic age. The localities whence these were derived were
chiefly Scotland and Spitzbergen. Sections of these were made,
and examination of them by the microscope revealed the presence
of sponge spicules and Radiolarians, which had not hitherto been
known to extend so far back as this geological period. It was
evident that many organisms which from their delicate structure
were subject to destruction might have existed during early
geological times in beds where no trace of them exists; whilst
others, as in this case, owe their preservation to the protective
agency of silica.

81.—Tue Tenants or A Fossa Ecuinus.
By rue Rev. Gro. Bamery, F.R.M.S.
(Read April 9th, 1890.)

Some time ago, whilst waiting at the Farningham Road Rail-
way Station, having half-an-hour at my disposal before the train

BQ

254 Rev. G. Bailey on the

was due, I looked over the chalk-pit close by, and secured two
or three specimens of Micraster. These fossil Echini, however,
had been too long exposed to changing atmospheric influences to
fit them for use as cabinet specimens: for they had not been in
my possession many months before the tests fell in fragments in
the tray where they were kept, leaving me only so many casts of
chalk instead of complete specimens of Echini. Although some-
what disappointed at the time, I took one of these masses of
chalk that had replaced the living substance formerly occupying
the now broken shell, and prepared it for microscopic examination.
It soon became evident that, in losing the specimen I had vainly
hoped to preserve, I had gained a most interesting addition to
my store of cretaceous Microzoa.

The shell of the Echinus had been occupied by a large number
of Foraminifera, and these tenants of the fossil shell were in a
splendid state of preservation. Some of these were by no means
easy to clean perfectly, especially such as had any roughness of
outline or any spiny projections, for they were coated with
amorphous silex.

No less than forty-five species of Foraminifera are observable
on the slides available for inspection this evening, and some of
them are of special interest. Prof. Jones, in his ‘ Catalogue of
the Fossil Foraminifera in the British Museum,’ gives a list.
of the Foraminifera of the chalk and chalk-marl of England.

‘ Amongst the tenants of this Echinus are three species of Lagena,
two species of Cristellaria, one species of Teaxtularia, one species
of Bigenerina, and one species of Truncatulina, not included in the
above list.

Unfortunately I am at present unable to identify with
certainty all the species to be seen on these slides, yet the
generic features are placed beyond reasonable doubt. The list
of Foraminifera attached to these notes is as complete as prac-
ticable from the very limited source herein indicated. Chalk
taken from outside the fossil I am referring to contained other
Microzoa which were not found inside the specimen; for
example, sponge-remains were plentiful outside, but not inside,
only a few small fragments of spicules and two or three
gemmules being found within the shell. Polyzoa were not
wanting outside, but scarcely a trace was visible inside.

Two remarkable organisms are indicated on slides No. 1 and
14. They are circular, and at first I took them to be something
akin to the so-called wheels of Chirodota; but I was impressed
with the fact that the spaces between the spokes were not open,
but solid. I showed a more perfect specimen than either of
these preserved to Mr. Carruthers, of the British Museum, and
after a careful examination he gave it as his opinion that it was
undoubtedly a Diatom, rendered somewhat obscure by the

ca

Tenants of a Fossil Echinus. 255

amorphous silica which covered it. Unfortunately, through
neglecting to have the slide containing the specimen just
referred to, flat instead of resting on its edge, the slide was
spoilt, and the specimen lost. Then there is another obscure
specimen that I am inclined to think may prove to be a
Polycystina. Soon after I had noticed this example in slide
No. 21, my attention was called by the Editor to a note in
Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. for July, 1888, from the pen of Dr.
Wallich, who had discovered three, if not four, genera of
Polycystina in a flint from Surrey. Anyhow, I regard it as a
Polycystina until it be successfully disputed. Single valves of
two species of Entomostraca were among the finds in this prolific
Echinus. Then again, coccospheres and coccoliths were in great
abundance, but they are so very minute as to render them
unpopular for general inspection.

The coccospheres are small round sarcodic bodies, and cocco-
liths are minute oval discs that are sometimes seen attached to
coccospheres, but they are much more commonly seen separately.
Messrs. Sorby, Huxley, Wallich, and others have studied them,
but they have not yet agreed in defining them, and so we must

‘wait until more is known about them.

List or Tenants 1n THE Fossm Houinus.
Foraminifera.

Vaginulina legumen, Linn.

Textularia agglutinans, D’Orb.
Cristellaria crepidula, F. & M.

5 baudouiana, D’Orb.

i globosa, Khr. fs cultrata, Montf.
z sagittula, Defr. a rotulata, Lam.
He trochus, D’Orb. 2 variabilis, Rss.
ai turris, D’Orb. of 2 spp.

5 spp. Polymorphina, 2 spp.

ee a ae. Se

7
Bigenerina capreolus, D’Orb.
Spiroplecta biformis, P. & J.
a: rosula, Ehr.

Verncuilina triquetra, Munst.
Bulimina presli, Rss.
Bolivina, several spp.
Lagena apiculata, Rss.

», globosa, Mont.

» sulcata, W. & J.
Dentalina, several fragments

only.
Frondicularia cordai, Rss.
3 sp. ?

Globigerina cretacea, D’Orb.
i» bulloides, D’Orb.
Fp linneana, D’Orb.
¥ marginalis, Rss.

Spheroidina bulloides, D’Orb.

Discorbina, sp. ?

Truncatulina lobatula, W. & J.

3 muellerstorfi ?
Schw.

Anomalina ammonoides, Rss. '

Ramulina aculeata, D’Orb.

Rotalia, sp. ?

Nonionina, sp. ?

256 Mr. H. T. Mennell’s report upon the

Various Organisms.

Diatom? or more probably a Sponge spicules.
wheel-shaped spicule. » gemmules ?

Entomostraca, 8 spp. Coccospheres, abundant.

Polycystina. Coccoliths, very abundant.

82.—Report upon THE Starrorp CoxtiectTion or British Birps
RECENTLY SOLD AT GODALMING.

By Henry T. Mennetu, F.L.S.
(Read May 14th, 1890.)

Towarps the end of last February there appeared in the
‘Pall Mall Gazette,’ and other London papers, paragraphs
describing a collection of birds to be shortly disposed of by
auction at Godalming. These notices excited the interest and
curiosity of many of us. The collection was stated to be the
work of a lifetime, and to contain a vast number of rarities.
From the catalogues which appeared shortly afterwards, it was
seen that the collection was that of Mr. William Stafford, of
Godalming, deceased. The sale took place on March 5th, 1890.
The first lot in this catalogue was thus described :—

‘Lot 1.—The beautiful collection of birds, the greater part
of which are British species, as made and set up by the late Mr.
W. Stafford, the well-known naturalist of Godalming. This
museum has been formed after sixty-five years’ personal interest
and perseverance. Most of the birds have been obtained in the
neighbourhood of Godalming and Guildford, and many have a
history attached to them, which increases the interest and value
of this fine and nearly complete local collection. The scenery at
the back of each case, painted by Mrs. Stafford, is in keeping
with the nature and habit of each example, and the setting up of
the collection is altogether artistic.”

It consisted of 382 cases of birds, and the catalogue was much
more elaborate, careful and correct than is usual for country
auction sales. It was afterwards ascertained that it had been
copied from a catalogue prepared by Colonel Godwin Austen when
the collection was exhibited at Guildford in a Loan Art Col-
lection some years ago, and no doubt pains were then taken to
verify the details given, the name of the author being a guarantee
that this would be done. The localities were given for the rarer
species, as well as some interesting particulars of their capture.

Mr. J. B. Crosfield and I spent a day in carefully going over
the collection, and, as far us possible, verifying the species. We

Stafford Collection of Birds recently sold at Godalming. 257

were permitted by Mr. and Miss Stafford, the son and daughter
of the collector, to inspect a MS. catalogue, which in some
instances gave fuller details than those in the printed catalogue,
and it appeared to us to add considerably to the confidence to be
placed in the authenticity and origin of the specimens. Miss
Stafford assured us that, though many of the specimens were not
killed by her father, but had been obtained by gift or purchase,
all had been obtained in the flesh, and skinned and set up by him.

Mr. Stafford was a corn-dealer at Godalming, and had con-
verted the large barn-like upper story of his warehouse into a
museum. The cases of birds covered the walls all round, and
the long tables in the centre; and the beams and rafters of the
roof were covered with a miscellaneous collection of armour,
weapons, pictures, and curios of every description; of these it
would be easy to say much, and interesting details might be
recorded of many found in or connected with the history of the
county.

Our notes must, however, be limited to the birds, and chiefly
to those shot in the county. We could form no estimate of the
value of the collection, or the price it was likely to fetch; but we
were anxious that, if it should go at a moderate price, it should
be secured for the county, and not dispersed; and we were
prepared to run the risk of purchasing it with this object.
Happily our efforts in this direction were not needed, as it was
eventually secured by the authorities of the Charterhouse
School, where it will be added to their museum at Godalming.
The first bidder, either with assumed or real simplicity, put in
the collection at 10s. a case, remarking that he was no scholar,

’ and must leave it to the auctioneer to work the sum. This was

equivalent to £166, and it was ultimately knocked down to the
representatives of the School at £400—a very handsome price,
and far beyond what we had anticipated.

Some want of confidence in the authenticity of the records of
habitat, &c., have been expressed by authorities whose judgment
we should respect. The grounds for this distrust appear to be
that so many rare species had fallen into Mr. Stafford’s hands,
and were stated to have been got in the neighbourhood of
Godalming; but this difficulty is much reduced when we consider
that they include the casual or occasional visitants of sixty-five
years, and that the neighbourhood is one likely to be rich in
birds from its varied character, abundant water, extensive woods,
and reasonable proximity to a long line of coast.

It was also alleged that Mr. Stafford had obtained many
specimens from Leadenhall Market; this is true, but the fact that

_ these are carefully labelled as such, both on the cases and in the

catalogue, adds to, rather than detracts from, the authenticity of
those stated to have been killed in the locality. Scepticism is a

258 Mr. H. T. Mennell’s report upon the

very useful and important habit of mind to the naturalist, but
it must not prevent him from accepting reasonable evidence.
On the whole we come, after very careful consideration, to the
conclusion that few collections would better stand the test of
investigation than this one.

We will now proceed to note the rarer and more interesting
species killed in Surrey, taking them in the order of the catalogue,
extracts from which are in all cases given in quotation marks :-—

Case 16. Buack Renstart, Ruticilla titys (or tithys).— Killed
in Ockford Road, Godalming, when the ground was covered with
snow, in 1855.” This bird is a summer visitant to Central
Europe, and occurs not very unfrequently on the south coast of
England in winter ; it has, however, occasionally been known to
nest in Britain.

17. Buus-tHRoateD Warsier, Cyanecula suecica.—‘ Killed at
Wandsworth, Surrey, May, 1862.” This specimen has the white
blotch on the throat, and is therefore the bird known as Cyanecula
leucocyanea. This form has very rarely been met with in
Britain.

174. Another specimen, in full plumage.—“ Killed at Guild-
ford Castle; presented to Mr. Stafford by Mr. W. Bridger.”
According to Harting, there are three forms of this bird, which
have all received different names :—(1st). Cyanecula suecica, the
eastern and northern form, with a red spot in the centre of the
blue. This is the form that has usually occurred in Britain.
Harting, in his ‘ Handbook of British Birds,’ from which I take
these particulars, records about a dozen instances of its capture,
widely distributed over the island. (2nd). Cyanecula leucocyanea,
the western and southern form, with a white spot in the centre
of the blue. This is the ordinary Dutch and German form, and
might therefore be expected to be the commoner visitant here.
Of this form, however, Harting only records one occurrence,
viz., in the Isle of Wight, 1865 to 1867 (resident all that time).
(8rd). Cyanecula wolfi, which has the entire throat blue. This
is the rarest form in collections; it is said to be more common
in Russia. Some authors, however, regard the birds with the
wholly blue throat as merely sports or chance varieties of the
white-spotted form, and the specific name C. wolf is by some of
these given to the latter, including under it both the white-
spotted and wholly blue forms.

30. Pair of Fire-crestep Wrens, Regulus ignicapillus. — No
locality given in catalogue. Shot by W. C. Stafford, son of the
collector. These birds should be carefully examined and
identified.

88. TurusH-Like Warsuer or GREAT Reep Warsxer, Salicaria
arundinacea.— Shot at Ockford Pond, Godalming, in 1858, by
Mr. J. P. Stafford” (son of W.8.). Harting states that the nest of

|
|
\

Stafford Collection of Birds recently sold at Godalming. 259

this bird has been found in Surrey, Kent, Hants, Herts, and North-
amptonshire. The bird has also occurred near Newcastle and
elsewhere. It breeds in Central and Southern Europe, wintering
in South Africa.

44, Avpine Warszer or AccentToR, Accentor alpinus.—‘* Shot
at Milford, in the winter of 1841, hopping about stone-heaps at
the road-side, and mistaken for a large Hedgesparrow.” Harting
gives about a dozen occurrences in Britain, in widely scattered
localities. This bird inhabits the higher mountain regions of
Southern Europe. In North Europe and Britain it is a rare
straggler.

47. Brarpep Trrmousz, Panurus biarmicus. — “ Shot in the
neighbourhood of Godalming, where itis now rare.” On referring
to the MS. catalogue, it appeared doubtful whether the actual
specimens in this case had been killed at Godalming, but Mr.
Stafford makes a note in his diary that he has had specimens so
killed; and other specimens have from time to time occurred in
several other localities (as the Isle of Wight, Devonshire, Corn-
wall, &c.) distant from the fens of the eastern counties, where it
is resident.

55. Orestep Tirmice, Parus cristatus.—‘‘ One specimen killed
at Hampton Lodge by Mr. Long.” This bird is resident in the
north of Scotland; it has only very occasionally occurred in
England.

58. Wuite-wincepD Waertait, Motacilla alba. —“** Shot near
Broadwater, Godalming, in spring plumage, by Mr. J.P. Stafford.”

61. Buun-seapep Ye~uow Wacratn, Motacilla flava (usually
called the Grey-headed Wagtail).—‘‘ Shot by W. Stafford.” An
occasional summer visitant: it has bred in Northumberland.

69. Pair of Gotpen OrtoLEs, Oriolus galbula.—*‘ Killed near
Oxenford Bridge, Puttenham, by Mr. Jones, farmer, of Elstead.’’
This beautiful bird breeds in Central and Southern Europe, and
winters in South Africa. In England it is a rare summer visitant ;
the nest has been found several times in Kent.

70, Great Grey Surixe, Lanius excubitor.—* Killed at Hasle-
mere by Mr. Hedgecock, of Stroud Farm.” Inhabits Northern
and Central Europe in summer, and winters in Southern Europe.

74. Woopcuat Surme, Lanius rutilus.—* This rare specimen
was killed at Milford by R. Upfold.” The nest has been found
in the Isle of Wight. A more southern bird than the last-named,
wintering in South Africa.

75a. Waxwinc, Ampelis garrulus, Linn.—‘* Killed in Peper-
harrow Park, winter of 1849.” This beautiful bird appears irre-
gularly, or at long intervals, in considerable abundance in Britain
in the winter; it breeds in the pine-forests of the Arctic circle.

77. Prep FrycarcHEer, Muscicapa atricapilla, Linn. --— ‘* Un-
common in Surrey ; killed at Witley Park, near Godalming.”

260 Mr. H. T. Mennell’s report upon the

84. Pair of Sisxins, Fringilla spinus, Linn.—‘‘ Found in winter
near Godalming, feeding on the seeds of the alder.’’ Breeds in
Scotland. I have seen them in summer in Mar Woods, on the
Dee, above Braemar.

89. Pair of Tree Sparrows, Passer montanus.—‘‘ Shot by W.
Stafford.”

102. Wauitz-wincep CrosspitL, Lowxia bifasciata.—‘‘ This rare
specimen was shot at Munstead Heath, Godalming, by J. P. Staf-
ford.” A native of Northern Europe and Asia. It has occurred
pretty frequently in Britain. Yarrell also records it from Surrey.

1084. Ortotan Bunrine, Emberiza hortulana. —— ** Shot at
Godalming; a rare bird in Surrey.”

1084. Ortouan Buntine, E'mberiza hortulana (female).—-Caught
at Peckham by a birdcatcher.

112. Pair of Lartanp Bunrines, Emberiza lapponum.—* Killed
during very severe weather at Mousehill, Godalming, in company
of a flock of Sky Larks, by Bone, huntsman to Lord Middleton.”
‘An irregular winter visitant,” Harting.

115. Rosr-cotourep Pastor, Pastor roseus. — ‘‘ Killed while
feeding on cherries in Busbridge Gardens; presented by —.
Wilder, Esq., of Busbridge Hall.’ This interesting bird breeds
in Southern Europe. In winter it is found in India.

116. Cuoven, Pyrrhocorax graculus.—‘* Shot at St. Catherine’s
Hill, near Guildford.” This bird was formerly resident in
Sussex and the Isle of Wight, but is not now found breeding
east of Dorsetshire.

117. Nurcracser, Nucifraga caryocatactes.—‘‘ Shot by J. Wood,
farmer, Elstead, about 1889.’ Several instances are recorded of
its occurrence in Surrey, ¢.g., in the ‘ Letters of Rusticus,’ “Near
Pepper Harrow Park, Godalming, and near Guildford.”

124. Raven, Corvus corax.——‘‘ Shot by George Chitty, Chid-
dingfold.”’

130. Pair of SHore Larxs, Alauda alpestris. — ‘‘ One shot on
Merrow Downs, Guildford ; two others were killed at Petersfield,
and presented by Thos. Jones, stage-coachman.”’ This bird fre-
quents the shore in winter only ; in the summer it lives in high
mountain regions.

136. Pair of Great Sporrep Woopreckers, Picus major, Linn.
-— Shot at Westbrook, Godalming.”

144. Hoopoz, Upupa epops, Linn.—‘ Shot in front of Bus-
bridge Hall.” In the MS. note-book is a record, ‘‘ This specimen
was shot at Hambledon, near Godalming; several have occurred.”
This note apparently refers to a specimen sold separately (Lot 118
in catalogue) for 20s.

162. Pair of Marsn Harrrers, Circus eruginosus.— One bird
was killed at Elstead, 1847; the other at Frensham, in the same
year; presented by J. H. Frankland.”

Stafford Collection of Birds recently sold at Godalming. 261

164. Montacu’s Harrier, Cireus cinerarius.—‘* This bird was
picked up dead on Royal Common, Godalming, in the winter of
1840.” (A note refers to its having a nest and four eggs, which
is not quite consistent with the time of year, unless it was found
dead on its nest.)

1654. Pair of Buzzarps, Buteo vulgaris. —‘‘ Both specimens
were killed at Witley when nesting; presented by the Master of
Witley Workhouse.” An event not likely to be repeated, we
fear, now-a-days.

166. Roveu-teccep Buzzarp, Buteo lagopus. — ‘‘ Killed near
Busbridge and Munstead ; presented by R. Munro, Esq.”

170a. Pair of Gosnawxs, Astur palumbarius.—‘‘ This bird was
caught in a trap near Godalming by Mr. Swanley. The bird on
the right was shot near Chiddingfold by Mr. Burdock.”

176, 176a. Honzy Buzzarp, Pernis apivorus.——‘‘ Caught in a
trap on Lea Park, Godalming, in successive years.” This bird,
though rare, has been recorded as occurring in a considerable
number of counties.

1768. Honey Buzzarp, Pernis apivorus. — Shot at Pepper-
harrow by Lord Middleton’s keeper, Lee.”’

180, 1804, 1808. Prrncrine Fatcon.~—‘‘ The first shot at Mun-
stead Heath, Godalming, in 1849; the second caught in a rabbit-
trap at Puttenham in 1835; the third shot at Munstead Heath,
1849 (a female of second year).” ]

181a. Pair of Hossres, Falco subbuteo.—*‘ The male was killed
on Pound Hill, Godalming; the female at Binscombe.”

182. Merun, Falco @salon. — ‘‘ Shot near Godalming, May
10th, 1870, by Mr. Dykes, gamekeeper.”’

188, 1884. Rep-Froorep Faucon, Falco vespertinus.—‘‘ The male
shot at Compton, near Godalming, in 1871. The female at
Binscombe.” Harting quotes from Meyer a record of the
occurrence of a pair of these birds at Claremont, near Esher,
Surrey.

186. Pair of Ospreys, Pandion halictus.—‘‘ One specimen was
shot at Hammer Pond in 1843; the other at Abbot’s Pond,
Frensham.”

189. Pair of Gannets, Sula bassana.—‘‘ One was found in an
exhausted state near Frensham Pond, 1840; the other was
killed at Linchmere, near Haslemere, 1844; it had dropped in a
stubble-field, and a boy killed it with a stick; sent by Rev. H.
Baker.” This bird does not breed nearer than Lundy Island, in
the Bristol Channel.

195. Squacco Heron, Ardea comata. — ‘Killed at Vachery
Pond.” Harting records about twenty instances of its occurrence
in Britain.

196. Lirrte Birtern, Botaurus minutus.—** Killed at Bramley ;
sent by Mr. W. Matthews, of Bramley.”

262 Mr. H. T. Mennell’s report upon the

198, 1984. Birrern, Botaurus stellaris. — ‘‘Male killed at
Elstead; female at Eastney Bridge.”

197. Nicur Heron, Nycticornix griseus.—‘ One specimen was
killed at Bramley.” This bird no longer breeds in Britain, but
is a pretty regular annual visitant.

202. Spoonsrtn, Platalea leucorodea.— Shot at Vachery Pond,
Cranleigh, in the summer of 1839; sent by Mr. Piper, of
Guildford.”’

205. Bran Goosz, Anser segetum.—* Shot a little below Godal-
ming Wharf by a bargeman in 1841.”

207. Wuitz-FRonTED GoosE, Anser albifrons. — ‘‘ Shot near
Godalming, Unnstead Old Water, in 1841.”

209. Brent Goose, Anser bernicla.—‘‘ Shot near Godalming in
1852.”

210. BarnactE Goose, Anser leucopsis.—‘‘ Shot ur. Elstead, 1849.”

216. Common SHELDRAKE, Tadorna vulpanser. — *‘ Killed at
Frensham Pond; sent by J. H. Frankland.”

217. Ruppy Suenprake, Tadorna rutila.a—‘* Found dead in a
ditch at Farnham by J. Knight.” A very rare bird in Britain,
and the possibility of its escape from captivity makes the records
of its occurrence always questionable.

222. Pair of Gapwatus, Anas strepera.—* The male was killed
at Elstead, 1850; the female at Hammer Ponds, 1850, by J. R.
Grevell.”’

227. Pair of SHovetters, Anas clypeata. — ‘‘ Shot at Cosford
Pond in spring, by J. Hawkins, Esq.” Usually only a passing
migrant, but occasionally breeding. I have myself taken its nest
at Prestwick Carr, near Newcastle-on-Tyne.—H. T. M.

230. Pair of Scaurp Ducks, Fuligula marila. — ‘‘ Killed at
Hampton Lodge, Elstead.’’ A winter visitant in this county.

232. Frerrueinous or Wuitz-EyeD Duck, Fuligula ferruginea.—
‘‘ Killed at Bramley, and sent to Mr. Stevens, Poulterer, Guild-
ford.” ‘A spring visitant to the eastern counties of England
from the Thames to the Humber,” Harting.

233. Pair of Gotprenryes, Clangula glaucion. — ‘‘ One shot at
Chiddingfold; one at Thorncombe Swell, near Godalming.” A
winter visitant.

241. Common Scorer, Oidemia nigra.—‘ Shot near Godalming
Wharf during a very severe winter.”

244. Pair of GoosanpErs (male and female), Mergus merganser.
—‘‘ Killed at Ockford Pond, Godalming.”

245. Pair of Rep-preastep Mereansers, Mergus serrator. —
‘Shot at Fleet Pond, 1843.” This bird breeds in Scotland and
Ireland; in England it is only a winter visitant.

246. Hoopep Mereanser, Mergus cucullatus. — ‘‘ Killed at
Elstead.” This is a North American bird, very occasionally
occurring in Britain. Yarrell records it from Sussex.

Stafford Collection of Birds recently sold at Godalming. 268

247. Pair of Smews, Mergus albellus. — *‘ Killed at Sir W.
Magney’s Mills, Alberry.”

256. Barpary Parrriner, Perdix petrosa. — ‘ Shot at Putten-
ham by Mr. Carey.”

2584. Virainian Coxtus, Ortyx virginianus,—— At one time well
known near Godalming as American Partridge.” No doubt the
result of an attempt to introduce or acclimatize the bird on the
part of some landowner in the neighbourhood.

264, Bamuon’s Crake, Crea bailloni. — ‘‘ This rare bird was
caught at the spring in Church Street, Godalming (before the
water was carried off by an underground drain), by a man named
Rainbow, a leather-dresser, 1837.”

267. Lirrte Crake, Crex pusilla.” — ‘Shot by Mr. Jefferies,
Gunmaker, Guildford, at Mr. Sheyer’s farm, Bramley, in
1860.”

275, 2754. Great Prover or Stone Curtew.— One killed at
Compton; the other at Puttenham, in a rabbit-net.”’

283. Rinecep Puover, Agialitis hiaticula—‘‘ Shot at Vachery
Pond, Cranleigh.”

285, 2854. Dorreren, Hudromias morinellus.—— ‘* Bought from
the landlord of the Seven Thorns Inn, Hindhead, in the spring
of 1845.”

287. Turnstons, Strepsilas interpres. — “ Killed at Hammer
Ponds, near Godalming.”

290. Buack-wincep Srizt, Himantopus candidus. — “ Found
dead near Vachery Pond, Cranleigh, 1845.” Gilbert White
records the occurrence of six of these birds at Frensham Pond,
Hants in 1779; and in Zool. 1856, p. 5041, its occurrence
in the same locality, in 1832, is recorded. ‘

294. Pair of Great Snipes, Gallinago major.— Shot between
Guildford and Godalming, 1850.”

2954. Sapine’s Snipe, Gallinago sabini. — ‘‘ From Elstead.”
This bird is not recognised as specifically distinct from the
Common Snipe by many authorities.

805. Purpte Sanpprper, Tringa maritima.——‘‘ Shot at Milford,
at Mr. Webb’s pond, and bought from Robert Upfold.”

806. Pair of Knots, Tringa canutus.——‘* Shot at Broadwater in
1832.”

807, 8074. Rurr and Rerve.—‘“ Killed near Godalming, Aug.
1886 ; and one in 1840, with several others.”

8084. SanpEruine, Calidris arenaria.-——‘‘ Shot at Liphook.”
This is in Hants, but very near the boundary of Surrey. On
another case of this species it states, ‘‘ Several specimens killed
at Putney Bridge,” but does not say that the specimens in the
case were among them.

812. Pair of Green Sanpprieers, Totanus ochropus,——“ Killed at
Catteshall Farm, Godalming, by W. Arnold,”

264 Mr. H.T.Mennell’s report upon the Collection of Birds,

313. Woop Sanpprpr, Totanus glareola.——“‘ This rare specimen
was killed at Catteshall in 1857.”

815. Speorrep or Dusky Repsuanx, Totanus fuscus.x—“ Shot at
Forked Pond, near Godalming, in 1853,”

316. Pair of Greensnanks, Totanus glottis.—‘ Killed on Godal-
ming Peasemarsh.”

819. Buack-ramep Gopwit, Limosa e@gocephala. ~- “* Shot at
Down Land, Liphook, in 1840.” This is just over the county
boundary, in Hants.

821. Wuimpret, Numenius pheopus. — ‘Killed at Thursley,
near Godalming.”

325. Rosgate Tern, Sterna dougallii. —- “Killed at Vachery
Pond, Cranleigh, 1873.”’

332. Pair of WuiskerEeD Terns.—‘ Shot at Hampton Lodge;
from H. Long, Esq.”

334a. Pair of Brack Terns. — ‘“‘ Shot at Hampton Lodge;
presented by H. Long, Esq.”
343. GreatTER Buack-BAckED Gutu, Larus marinus. —~ ‘‘ One

specimen was found in a stubble-field at Milford, exhausted ;
brought to Mr. Stafford by James Milton, employed on road.”

8464. Lirtte Guuu, Larus minutus. —*‘ Four of these were shot
at Battersea.’

846p. Lirrtze Guuu, Larus minutus.—* Shot at Battersea.’’

8468. Lirrne Guu, Larus minutus. — “Shot at Walton-on-
Thames.”

3504. Ricuarpson’s Sxua, Lestris parasiticus. — ‘‘ Killed at
Wonersh by Mr. Head, bailiff to Lord Grantley.”

852. Storm Perren, Procellaria pelagica. —— ‘* First, Milford,

nr. Godalming, 1840.”’ ‘‘ Second, Wormley Hill, found dead, 1837.”
853. Forx-tamep or Leacu’s Perret, Procellaria leucorrhea.—
‘‘ First, Rodborough Hill, Godalming.” ‘Second, Killed on
Hindhead.” ‘‘ Third, Found dead at Haslemere.”’
854, 8544. Wiuson’s Perret, Procellaria wilsoni.— Killed on

Godalming Peasemarsh, after a very severe storm.’ ‘ Two
others were killed a few days after, in the same place.”

355. Manx Suearwater, Pufinus anglorum. — “ Killed at
Aldershot; one from B. Hampton, the other from —. Catfield.”

3624. Great Norruern Diver, Colymbus glacialis.—‘* Female
was shot at Broadwater.” ‘‘ Caught near Godalming” is on the
case itself.

365, 8653. Great Crestep Gress, Podiceps cristatus.—‘* Shot

at Forked Pond, Godalming.” ‘Shot at Frensham Pond in
1887.”

866. Rep-neckep Gress, Podiceps rubricollis—*‘ Bird in winter
plumage killed at Toseley.”

367. Dusxy or Stavontan GREBE, Podiceps cornutus.”’ — ‘* Shot
at Cosford Pond.”

Mr. B. Lovett on some suggestions for Collecting, de. 265

868, 8684. Earep Grese, Podiceps auritus.-—** Male, Hammer
Pond, 1840; female, Forked Pond, 1840.”

875. Lirrne Aux.—-‘‘ Taken at Haslemere ; from W. Scofield.”
«Four others have passed through the hands of W. Stafford
within forty years, that have been procured in this immediate
neighbourhood.”’—Extract from MS. note-book.

876, 8768. Purrin, F'ratercula arctica. — ‘‘Hascombe Pond,
Witley ; and Highdown Ball.”

We have thus records of just 100 species which seem worth
noticing as being of more or less rarity and interest. It is a
goodly list, no doubt. Some of the more critical and difficult
species may probably need closer examination, and more exact
knowledge, than we could give them on our hasty inspection.
As the collection is happily to be kept together in a public
institution, this examination will not be difficult. I hope the
MS. notes of Mr. Stafford have gone with the collection, and
will be preserved; these notes should be carefully compared with
the labels on the cases, many of which are becoming barely ~
legible through age.

83.—Some Succxrstions ror CoLLEOTING AND PRESERVING
Sprormens oF Marine ANIMALS.

By Epwarp Lovett.
(Read May 14th, 1890.)

Tue following observations may be of some value, as they are
the result chiefly of actual experience, and have been found of
practical use to the author.

There are very few coast localities that are absolutely useless
as collecting grounds, but of course some places are exceedingly
rich in marine fauna, whilst others are poor; yet it often
happens that an unfavourable locality is productive of varieties
and abnormal forms from the very fact, that it is an unfavourable
locality. As regards localities rich in marine life, the Channel
Islands, and the shores of Cornwall, Devon, Sussex, South
Wales, and the Farne Islands may be mentioned. It is worth
while, if possible, to be also near a fishing town, especially
where dredging-boats work, as a bushel of refuse brought in by
such a boat will often contain a large quantity of rare things,
and more than one addition to the British marine fauna has
been obtained from the refuse of a ‘scallop’ dredge. The work
of dredging can of course be done by the collector himself, and
needs no description ; but, where a dredge cannot be obtained,

266 Mr. E. Lovett on some suggestions for Collecting, dc.

a useful substitute in weedy localities is a small grappling-anchor
with a safety line, in case of fouling, to which also may be
added hempen tangles; the grapple used from a small boat will
tear off and bring up large alge, &c., whilst the tangles will often
cling to Echinoderms and Crustaceans, and thus bring them to
the surface.

Shore hunting requires but little advice, but, as a rule, it is
good to take the advantage of a spring tide, when ground can be
examined that is not often exposed. In rocky localities, like the
Channel Islands, when a big spring tide sometimes enables the
naturalist to walk out for four miles over the bed of the sea,
the wealth of marine life is to be seen in great profusion.
Large loose rocks may be turned over to great advantage, as
many rarities are seldom seen in the light, but hide away in the
small hollows beneath ledges and boulders. Sand-banks may be
dug for boring Mollusca and Crustaceans, and beds of Zostera
or sea-grass are always sure to yield numerous forms of all
orders. For this kind of work wading is absolutely necessary,
and the tide should be followed down; but it should always be
remembered that it is necessary for safety to turn before the tide
does. An ordinary angler’s fish-basket does very well for taking
home the larger specimens, using Zostera or Alge to prevent
damage by shaking. Small bottles or tubes containing a fluid of
one part alcohol, one part glycerine, and two parts water, does
for the temporary carriage of microscopic organisms, into which
they should be put alive. A small knife and a small pair of
forceps, which may be safely carried by sticking the blade and
the points into a cork, which can be tied to a coat-button, should
be taken ; a small hand-net is all else that is really required.

Having returned to lodgings after a good day’s sport, a few
words as to preservation of the various specimens may be of use.
The Mollusca (with shells) may be put on one side if necessary,
as they do not require immediate attention as do others. But
when they can be attended to, all that is required is to put them
into boiling water, remove contents carefully, wash and dry the
shells, and, in the case of bivalves, tie them up, or they will dry
gaping. The sea-urchins and star-fishes (unless very minute
_ Specimens) should be put into sea-water to revive them; when
the spines have assumed the natural erect position, take them
out and put them quickly into methylated spirit (which need not
be fresh for each lot), and leave them to soak for one or two
days; this will harden the integument, and when the contents
are removed, the spines will remain firm; star-fishes treated in
this way harden with judicious drying.

The Crustaceans perhaps are the most difficult to preserve, as
in most cases spirit injures the colour, whilst light and heat
altogether destroy it. The specimens are most easily treated by

-Mr. H. T. Mennell’s notes on the Plants of Cader Idris, dc. 267

putting them into a bucket of fresh cold water, and should be
kept in the dark; this will kill them, and in a few days partially
decompose the flesh, when it can be readily removed by cutting
off the carapace. When all the contents of the shell have been
cleaned out (or as nearly as possible), the specimen should be
washed in cold water, a little powdered alum sprinkled over the
interior only, and the specimen may then be set out on a board
and dried. The drying may be done in an outhouse or where
there is a current of dry air, excluded from sun-light or too much
heat. When quite dry and rigid, the specimens may be freely
dressed with spirit of turpentine in which a very little gold size
has been mixed; this preserves the specimens from insects,
damp, and decomposition, and gives them a slightly moist
appearance without the objectionable glaze of varnish. This
treatment is also applicable to sea-urchins and star-fishes. _

As regards the preparation of the microscopic material that
has been collected, that has already been described in a paper by
me before this Society.

84.—Nortes on THE Pxuants or CapER [pris AND SNOWDON,
By H. T. Mennetu, F.L.S.
(Read Sept. 10th, 1890.)

Last July I spent a fortnight with my sons in North Wales,
making the two mountain masses of Cader Idris and Snowdon
our centres. Both are composed of paleozoic sedimentary
rocks, which have been subjected at two distinct periods to
violent volcanic disturbance, throwing up vast masses of
felspathic lavas, volcanic ash, and scoria. Cader Idris has
been mainly affected by the earlier volcanic outburst; Snowdon,
of which it was the centre, by the later. Columnar porphyry is
seen in the grand cliffs of Llyn-y-Cau, on the south side of
Cader Idris. Whether it be the geologic formation, or whatever
be the cause, there can be no doubt that these mountains are
less rich than those of Scotland in their alpine flora, and are
somewhat disappointing to the botanist.

The alpine flora of the world, or of the northern hemisphere,
is wonderfully uniform,—whether it be on the summit of the
Grampians, the Scandinavian Fjelds, the Siberian Tundras, or
the Rocky Mountains or White Mountains of the New World.
This uniformity bespeaks a great antiquity for this flora, and is
evidence of a time when the whole of the northern hemisphere
was under more or less glacial conditions.

This flora now maintains a struggling existence only on the

¢

268 Mr. H.T.Mennell’s notes on the Plants of Cader Idris, de.

mountains, where the less hardy but much more vigorous and
aggressive flora of the lowlands cannot follow it; and it may be
that the warmer winter climate of the Welsh Alps, open to the
warm Atlantic gales, enables this lowland flora to flourish at a
higher elevation, and to wage war successfully with the alpine
plants, and this may account for the comparative poverty I have
alluded to.

On the wet rocks of Llyn-y-Cau, below Cader Idris, on the
fine crags of Cwm Glas and of Orib-y-disgail, parts of
Snowdon, as well as on the slopes of the Glydrs, and especially
in the chasms of Twll Dhu, many of the most striking and
beautiful of our alpine favourites may, however, be found in
abundance. Of these, the most noticeable are Saaifraga oppositi-
Folia, Silene acaulis, Rhodiola rosea, with many varieties of the’
mossy saxifrage, Saxifraga hypnoides and its forms, mingled
with some less distinctly alpine plants, such as Trollius europaeus,
the globe flower; a very erect short stiff form of Geum rivale,
Thalictrum montanum, and others. A handsome mountain variety
of the common thrift also attracts attention. The parsley fern is
very abundant on both mountains, as also is Lycopodium alpinum ;
and the filmy fern, Hymenophyllum wilsoni, clothes the wet rocks
about the waterfalls,

In mountain pools, on the flat ground above the Devil’s
Kitchen, we found the curious aquatic crucifer, Subularia aquatica ;
and on the bare rocky ribs, running down from the base of the
Glydr Fach to the Devil’s Kitchen, a few plants of Hieracium
holosericeum, the only one of the ‘ alpinum” section of the hawk-
weeds we noticed. This genus is much less abundant, both as
regards species and individuals, than in Scotland or the North
of England. The most abundant species at a high elevation on
both mountains, but especially on Cwm Glas, was Hieraciwm
bifidum, one of the several species formerly included under
H. pallidum. On slaty débris on lower levels, near Tal-y-Llyn,
Cader Idris, a form was found, which may prove to be H. ovarium,
a species very recently identified as British.

I was much interested in observing on the hill sides above
Bethgelert, and also, though less conspicuously, elsewhere,
‘“‘ Fairy Rings,” as they are called, formed entirely of Lycopodium
alpinum. One of these that I measured was 16 yards in diameter,
the outer ring was absolutely perfect, and like a box-edging ;
inside the ring were scattered plants of the Lycopodium, much
less vigorous, and many of them withering.

From the botanist’s point of view, however, our best find was
Alisma, or Elisma natans, in a lakelet near Dolgelley. This very
rare and interesting plant grows in two or three feet of water;
at the base, rooted in the mud, is a tuft of slender grass-like
leaves, thence rise to the surface slender delicate pedicels,

Mr. J. J. Weir on some points of resemblance, dc. 269

surmounted in some cases by beautiful oval floating leaves,
about two-thirds of an inch long, like those of a Potamogeton ; in
others, by pure white three-petalled flowers, also floating on the
water. The slender thread-like stalks, curled and twisted, follow
the rise or fall of the level of the water, so variable in mountain
lochs. In the same water was a peculiar form of Juncus supinus,
with very slender flaccid leaves and stalks, perfectly erect, and
without runners; the flower-heads very small, and with a
distinct pinky colour, reminding one of Epilobium buds. It is
Juncus fluitans, Lamarck.

85.—ON soME POINTS OF RESEMBLANCE BETWEEN CERTAIN
DiereRA AND HYMENOPTERA.

By Joun Jenner Weir, F.L.S., &c.
(Read Sept. 10th, 1890.)

Smvcz Mr. Bates drew attention, many years ago, to the
mimicry of one species of butterfly by another, the subject has
received considerable attention from those who delight in the

philosophy of natural science; and his hypothesis that the

model was a species inedible by birds or lizards, and that the
edible obtained a certain amount of impunity from their attacks,
by its deceptive resemblance, has received general acceptation.

The insects in the box, herewith, illustrate another kind of
mimicry, inasmuch as they are species of Diptera, or two-winged
flies, which feed on the larve of hymenopterous humble-bees.

The whole of the specimens exhibited are of one species, but
it will be seen that the four upper closely mimic the common
humble-bee, Bombus terrestris ; the three in the centre, the red-
tailed humble-bee, also a very common species, Bombus lapidarius.
The single specimen, at the bottom of the box, illustrates
imperfect mimicry; the specimen is black, like the mimic of
Bombus lapidarius, but its abdomen at the extremity is of a
whitish yellow instead of red, in this respect more resembling
the mimic of Bombus terrestris.

It is very probable, as pointed out in the ‘ Entomologist’s
Monthly Magazine,’ by Colonel Blathwayt, that this mimicry

_ enables the flies to deceive the bees, and thus pass into their

nests and deposit their eggs in the comb, where the larve of the
flies are parasitic on those of the bees.

The subject is a very interesting one, and should be further
investigated, in order that it may be ascertained that the
dimorphic forms of the Volucella do really affect the nests of the
two species of bees they respectively resemble.

c2

270 Mr. H. C. Goodman's notes on the

One thing is quite certain, that the flies.are parasitic upon the
bees; and it is remarkable that they should, undetected, obtain
admission into their nests, when it is well known that so many
Hymenoptera detect not only intruders of other species, but even
of their own species of another colony, and ruthlessly expel them.

At the same time it is well to remark that there are several
genera of ‘‘Cuckoo-bees,” which are parasites in the nests of
other bees, feeding on the food stored up by their industrious
hosts; and the species above mentioned, Bombus lapidarius, has
a red-tailed cuckoo-bee parasitic upon it.

86.—Notrs on tHe GroLocy or THE Is~tE or PuRBEOK.
By C. H. Goopman.
(Read Sept. 10th, 1890.)

Tuat part of Dorsetshire lying S. of the River Frome and
Poole Harbour, and known as the Isle of Purbeck, is about
14 miles long by 7 wide, and presents many features of geological
interest. The most conspicuous is a great central chalk range
running E. and W., on one point of which Corfe Castle stands. .
On the north side extends the low-lying Bagshot sands, and
here is preserved an interesting local object. Situated on a low
hill, and conspicuous on the moorland, is the ‘‘ Agglestone,”
computed to weigh 400 tons. It is a hard concretionary block,
left after the denudation of the surrounding soil.

Passing now by steamer round the eastern extremity of the
chalk range referred to, deep indentations in the coast can be
traced, also stacks already isolated by the sea, and others in
the process of formation. -The strata are horizontal, but near
the southern side exhibit a most striking contortion, being
suddenly bent up to a vertical position, The recess beyond
forms Swanage Bay, composed mainly of the Wealden clays
and Hastings sands. Lyall says it cannot be less than 2000
feet thick; it is productive of reptilian remains, and the usual
bands of lignite. A small stream flows into the bay through the
town ; and it may be worth recording that I here found Gyrinus
urinator, hitherto unknown on the south coast.

Parallel with the chalk, and forming the southern boundary of
the valley, is the ridge from which the island takes its name, and
which gradually dips eastward, terminating in the projecting
rocks, called Peveril Point. The beds are divided into upper,
middle, and lower Purbeck. The upper produces the well-known
Purbeck marble, a fresh-water limestone containing Paludina,

Geology of the Isle of Purbeck. 271

Although retaining its beauty under protection, it soon loses
its polish exposed to the atmosphere. The middle contains
numerous layers, fresh and marine. Several species of mam-
malian remains have been found in this section; but the most
conspicuous feature is the ‘‘cinder” bed, 12 feet thick, com-
posed of a mass of Ostrea distorta, and which can be well studied
in Durlston Bay. Shells of Cyrena also occupy another thin
bed. The lower Purbeck is remarkable chiefly for its “dirt”
bed, with its remains of Cycads and coniferous trees. Layers
of gypsum can also be well seen from the shore.

The quarries from which the Purbeck stone is dug are
scattered all along the hill side above the town, and consist of
sloping well-like holes of no great depth, up the sides of which
the blocks are drawn by a windlass. Sheds for squaring the
curbs and flags stand by the mouth, and the whole is generally
surrounded by a low wall. Each quarry is worked by two or
three men; and I was informed by an intelligent native that the
trade is fast dwindling down, owing to the clannish and con-
servative habits of the miners, who resist any change or
suggestions for co-operation and improved machinery. Many of
the quarries that I visited were unworked, which seemed to bear
out the statement.

At Durlston Head we come to the Portland stone, a tongue of
which extends eastward to this point, and forms a facing to the
Purbeck. It is well seen all the way to St. Aldhelms Head,
about 5 miles distant. The cliffs, though not high, are vertical,
rising abruptly from the sea and exhibiting square-shaped caves,
and are the haunt of many sea-birds. Some open quarries of
this stone exist along the coast, and produce huge ammonites
and oysters. In smooth weather boats can be moored alongside,
and the stone lowered directly into them by a crane.

On some of the hill sides in this neighbourhood are a number
of artificial parallel terraces. The only suggestion I can find as
to their origin is in a paper, by Canon Isaac Taylor, describing
the cultivation of ancient lands by ridges. Whatever the ground
formerly produced, it is now only used for sheep grazing.

Beyond St. Aldhelms—or St. Albans Head, as it is sometimes
called—the land recedes to Chapman’s Pool, which is the entrance
to a deep narrow gorge running inland. At the base of these
hills appears the celebrated Kimmeridge clay, gradually rising
westward, and productive of many fossils. Large ammonites
are very abundant, and may be seen projecting from the cliffs.
Many species of marine shells exist, and where the clay is hard
splits up easily, showing their remains, but generally in a
fractured condition. One species, however, Astarte...., I obtained
in a better condition, as it appears to be always imbedded
vertically to the line of cleavage. On the shore I picked up part

272 Mr. W. M. Holmes’s Glauconite Casts

of the jaw of a plesiosaurus, or long-necked sea-lizard, and also
an elephant’s tooth; but the celebrated elephant bed(?) lies
further west, which I was unable to explore.

The western boundary of the Isle of Purbeck is Luckford lake
and stream; the latter rises in the grounds of Lulworth Castle,
and flows into the Frome river, thus bringing us to the point
from which we started.

87.—Guauconite Casts rrom GopsTonE FIRESTONE.
By W..Murton Hotes.
(Read September 10th, 1890).

I ruoveut it would be interesting to the members of this Club,
who took part in the excursion on the August Bank Holiday, if
a short account were given of the microscopic structure of the
firestone rock, quarries of which occur near Godstone, and were
visited on that occasion.

In December, 1886, Dr. Hinde read a very complete paper on
the same subject, so complete, in fact, that I find, on comparing
my own notes with it, he has already forestalled all I have to
say; but there are doubtless some present who have not seen the
original paper, and it will be well to re-state some of -his con-
clusions :—

“Firestone belongs to the upper greensand formation, and
is well shown between Godstone and Merstham. When first
quarried it is soft and earthy, but becomes much harder by
exposure to the air. It varies in colour from a whitey-brown to
a bluish tint, but under certain conditions it occurs as a soft
cream-coloured powdery material, very light, and throughout
filled with minute tubes. This kind is more particularly shown
at Farnham, and the nearest equivalent to it is at Merstham in
the yellowish decayed rotten-stone. The cavities are really the
negative casts of sponge spicules, that is, the spicules have been
dissolved, and only their minute impressions in the soft matrix
remain. This matrix is nearly entirely composed of minute
discs or spherules of soluble silica, and seems therefore to have
been derived from the solution of the spicules.”

Dr. Hinde found spicules representing each of the four prin-
cipal groups into which sponges are divided. After treatment
with acid (which in my particular specimen caused brisk
effervescence, indicating the presence of lime carbonate), and
subsequent washing, the particles are ready for mounting for
examination. The most conspicuous objects in the field are
numerous short rod-shaped bodies of an emerald-green colour,

from Godstone Firestone. 278

interspersed with irregularly shaped siliceous particles thickly
covered with the discs or spherules already mentioned. Here
_ and there may be seen the internal casts of foraminifera and
sometimes the spicule of a sponge that has not been entirely
broken up, but they are not so evident as in some selected
specimens. We find a very similar structure in chert, which
occurs abundantly at Tilburstow Hill. Chert is easily splintered
into fragments sufficiently thin to show its structure when
mounted in Canada balsam. Such splinters often exhibit the
internal casts of sponge spicules very perfectly, but the outer
siliceous skeleton of the spicule itself has either been entirely
dissolved away, or become merged in the matrix of the chert so
as to be indistinguishable. Parts of the chert show numerous
circular markings, and it seems to me that these were originally
spherules such as we find in the firestone, which have continued
to grow by accretion of silica until they have overlapped each
other, and a solid stone is the result. So far as I can see this
appears to be the only difference between chert and firestone.
We know that hydratid silica is soluble in alkaline carbonates,
which are only partially decomposed by the silica dissolved, and
it is owing to this fact that almost all spring, river, and sea water
contains silica in solution in minute quantities. When aided by
heat, as in the geysers of Iceland, large quantities are dissolved
and deposited as a petrifaction on surrounding objects as the
liquid cools (Miller). In this way probably the harder rocks
have been formed.

We will now turn our attention to the green bodies before
mentioned, and try to trace their origin. These consist of a
mineral composed of silica and iron known as glauconite. At
Oamaru, New Zealand, there are large deposits of a chalky-
looking substance, which is composed of sponge spicules,
diatoms, Radiolaria, and Foraminifera. The cavities of the
sponge spicules in some of the specimens that I have examined
contain vermiform bodies composed of glauconite, and which
appear to have been derived from the solution of the spicule
walls and subsequent deposition in another form, for we
frequently find these bodies in spicules almost closed at both
ends, with the exception of the small canal aperture ; and, as
their specific gravity is greater than the original spicule, it is
only to be expected that they will occupy less space. Hence the
cavity is never perfectly filled. The Foraminifera, after treatment
with acid, frequently leave perfect siliceous casts of the interior of
their shells. ;

The question arises, are these glauconite casts formed previously
or subsequently to the upheaval of these beds? The evidence
that I can offer is not conclusive. I have examined sponge
spicules dredged from great depths (3000 fathoms), and have not

974 Mr. E. Lovett on Native Cloth, Fiji Islands.

seen any with glauconite casts. They have exhibited in abun-
dance circular depressions, which in some cases communicate
with the central canal, and are sometimes so numerous that the
spicule is almost broken up. The central canal itself is frequently
hollowed out in various forms, but no sign of glauconite. On
the other hand, I have some Foraminifera dredged from no great
depth in the Macassar Straits, which exhibit perfect casts of a
siliceous mineral. On the whole I think that the evidence is in
favour of their being formed through the medium of water.

In conclusion, as their composition is so similar, we may
regard firestone as an immature form of chert, and the beds at
Oamaru as immature forms of firestone.

88.—Native Crotu, Fis1 Isuanps.

By Epwarp Lovett.
(Read September 10th, 1890.)

One of the most primitive kinds of cloth perhaps ever made is
that manufactured and used until very recently by many of the
islanders of the South Pacific, but whence it is now almost
entirely displaced by Manchester goods and other cheap fabrics.
This very remarkable material, which is known as “ tappa,” is
made chiefly from the inner bank of the bread-fruit tree, Arto-
carpus incisa, a native of the islands and of the Indian Archi-
pelago. This bark is very fibrous, and the modus operandi is as
follows :—A huge block or log of hard, well-polished wood lies in
an open-sided shed; the upper surface of the log is convex, and on
this is laid the fibrous bark, which is beaten with grooved mallets
of iron-wood by women who sit in rows on each side of the log.
Originally only two or three inches wide, by beating and welding
together, very large sheets of this cloth are produced, many feet
square.

The patterns and colouring are also very curious, the former
being of the most primitive form known, and the latter being
always some native pigments of black or brown. The pattern
is produced by means of perhaps the most original stencil plate
known, viz., a plantain-leaf with the desired marks cut out on it;
this is laid on the cloth, and the crude colour brushed or smeared
over it.

A superior kind of cloth is made also from the paper mulberry,
Broussonetia papyrifera, the young branches of which are mace-
rated in water, and beaten and welded together, as in the case of
the bark of the bread-fruit tree.

(-\o75 -)

89.—FREsH-waTER SPONGES.
By W. Murton Homes.
(Read October 8th, 1890.)

Autnoven fresh-water sponges resemble many marine forms
in constitution and general appearance, they differ in one or two
important points; for, whereas amongst marine species we find
some with calcareous and some with siliceous spicules, while
others possess a skeleton of horny fibres, the skeleton of fresh-
water sponges, upon which the sponge-flesh or sarcode is sup-
ported, is invariably composed of siliceous spicules slightly con-
nected together by means of firmer sarcode. The main divisions
of the skeleton are made up of several spicules lying side by side,
and sometimes overlapping at their ends, the smaller divisions
consisting either of a single spicule or of smaller bundles. These
spicules in different species vary in size and shape, and are
sometimes more or less spiny, but these differences are not by
themselves sufficiently constant or positive to serve as a means
of classification.

Another particular in which fresh-water sponges differ from
marine is the presence, at certain seasons, of peculiar bodies
known as statoblasts or gemmules, which have never been found
in sponges of marine origin. These gemmules are about A, of
an inch in diameter and nearly spherical, and are found either in
continuous layers, as at the base of encrusting species, or singly
in the interspaces between the skeleton spicules, or in groups of
a dozen or less scattered through the sponge mass, or in smaller
groups enveloped in a compact cellular parenchyma. They con-
sist of a compact mass of protoplasmic granules enclosed in a
chitinous or horny envelope, having a circular orifice known as
the hilum, or foraminal aperture, which is sometimes plain, but
more frequently has a slightly raised and expanded margin, or
prolonged into cylindrical or funnel-shaped tubules. The
chitinous coat is surrounded by a crust composed of air-cells,
sometimes very minute, and in other species easily visible under
a low magnifying power.

In all the genera of fresh-water sponges, with the exception
of Spongilla (which are surrounded by acerate or cylindrical
spicules only), a number of peculiar spicules are found embedded
in this crust in a radial direction, and their varying forms con-
stitute the basis of the classification now adopted.

Another form of spicule, but occurring in some species only,
is the dermal or flesh spicule, which exists in more or less
abundance on the outer dermal film, or lining the canals in the
deeper portions of the sponge. They are always much smaller

276 Mr. W. M. Holmes on

than the skeleton spicule, and are never bound together in
any way.

Fresh-water sponges, when living, are generally of a green
colour, more especially when growing in situations fully exposed
to the light, and from this cause might be mistaken for vegetable
growths. They are principally met with in running water (the
finest specimens will always be found where there is a strong
current), and are attached to stones, pieces of floating wood,
roots, and submerged branches of trees, &. Muddy water is
fatal to them.

The classification generally adopted is one based on the
system of Mr. H. J. Carter, F.R.8., a short account of which I
will now give :—

Group Spongillina.

Char. Bearing seed-like reproductive organs called statoblasts

or gemmules.

This is divided into seven genera, viz. :—

1. Spongilla. Gemmules surrounded by acerate or cylindrical
spicules alone.

2. Meyenia (named after F. J. F. Meyen, who first discovered
the birotulate spicules in 1839). Gemmules surrounded by
birotulate spicules of a single class or type; diameter of rotules
equal or nearly so.

3. Heteromeyenia. Birotulates of two classes or types, both
resting by one rotule on the chitinous coat; the less numerous
class longer than the other.

4, Tubella (a little trumpet). Birotulates with rotules un-
equal; the larger rotule on chitinous coat.

5. Parmula (a little buckler). Spicules with distal rotule
entirely eliminated.

6. Carterius (after H. J. Carter, F.R.S.) Foraminal tubules
prolonged, their tubules broadly funnel-shaped, or divided into
cirrhous appendages of varying numbers and lengths.

7. Uruguaya (from River Uruguay). Provisionally constituted
on the supposition that gemmules were not developed. These
have since been discovered by Dr. Hinde with spicules similar to
Meyenia leidyi, but he considers that the cylindrical form of the
skeleton spicules and their peculiar arrangement in the skeleton,
and the greater solidity of these sponges, give this genus
characters sufficiently distinct to mark it off from other fresh-
water sponges.

Although this system of classification, based on the form of
the gemmule spicules, has many advantages, it may be questioned
whether it is, strictly speaking, a natural one, for we find even
in the same gemmule many spicules which exhibit a tendency to
pass into a form belonging to those of another genus, thus

Fresh-water Sponges. 277

proving that all the known existing species must have descended

aa a much smaller number, if not from a single primitive

orm.

a few words now upon the function of the gemmules or stato-
asts.

Fresh-water sponges are much more liable than marine to
great variations of temperature. Ice would probably kill the
parent sponge. They are also liable to be left dry at certain
seasons, for Mr. Bates, in his book, ‘The Naturalist on the
Amazons,’ states that in one part of the river the difference in
level between the wet and dry seasons amounts to 25 or even
35 ft., that the floods last from three to four months, and when
the water retires ‘the trunks and lower branches of the trees
are coated with dry slime and disfigured by rounded masses of
fresh-water sponges, whose long horny spicule and dingy colours
give them the appearance of hedgehogs.” ‘

Another writer (Dr. Rusby) states that sponges on the River
Ibon are deposited on branches, and resemble the mud nests of
ants and bees.

Some provision is therefore necessary for the continuance of
the species, and these gemmules are admirably adapted to with-
stand extremes of cold and drought, the outer crust of air-cells
being a good non-conductor.

When placed under conditions favourable for germination the
protoplasmic contents ‘‘ pass through the foraminal aperture,
spreading out on every side. Ina few hours the infant colony
may be seen producing aqueous currents, developing and
arranging skeleton spicules, and in every way living the life of
a young sponge”’ (Potts).

In preparing the spicules for microscopic examination, I have
found the most satisfactory way to be, to boil three or four
gemmules in a watch-glass with three or four successive drops
of nitric acid until they are perfectly disintegrated ; then treat
with liquid ammonia, which dissolves the altered animal matter,
and finally wash very carefully with distilled water.

The gemmule spicules, together with gemmules made more
transparent by partial destruction with nitric acid, the normal
sponge and dermal film are all the elements necessary for deter-
mining the species.

As might be expected, America has hitherto yielded by far the
largest number of known species, 58 or more being known,
besides varieties, and of these only about three or four have been
found in England.

This subject is exhaustively treated in a monograph by Edward
Potts, of Philadelphia, which has been of considerable use to me
in the preparation of this communication.

278 Mr. E. Straker on changes in the Aspect

90.—CuHancEs In THE Aspect oF ouR DistRIcT DURING HisToRIc
Times.

By E. Srraxer.
(Read December 10th, 1890.)

Tue subject of the few notes I have put together for my paper
to-night is the ‘‘ Changes in the Aspect of our District durmg
Historic Times.”

We have heard in this room able and interesting papers on
the geological changes that have taken place in our district, but,
as a rule, the geologist considers his task complete when he has
investigated and demonstrated, as far as he is able, the formation
and history of the main geological strata. He traces the various
changes that have taken place in geologic time, but when the
earth had assumed the same general aspect as we now see, and
man had appeared on the scene, he considers his task finished.
In fact, it much reminds one of our school histories, which
always ended somewhat thus: ‘1887, accession of Queen
Victoria, whom may God preserve”; and leave all more modern
events unrecorded.

To my mind this interval between geologic time and the present
has a great deal of interest, and, from a biological point of view,
great importance. The condition of the surface of the soil,
whether it be down, heath; common, or woodland, meadow or
arable, whether it be wet or dry, has a very marked influence on
its flora, and, as a necessary consequence, on its fauna.

Any attempt to trace this history must necessarily be almost
entirely conjectural; I must therefore beg your indulgence for my
theories, as I find it extremely difficult to trace any definite
historical record on these subjects.

I do not think that the chalk-hills, which form the greater
part of the area of our district, were at any time densely wooded,
although I have no doubt they were fairly covered with scrub
and brushwood, with here and there a stretch of turf. The
extreme thinness of the layer of earth on the surface of the
chalk is in itself strong evidence of this. On such downs as
Riddlesdown and Farthing Down, which, I have no doubt,
remain exactly in their primeval condition, the only tree of any
size is the yew, the extremely slow growth of which must
require but little annual sustenance. On the clay soils north and
south of the chalk we have evidence of the existence until com-
paratively recent times of dense forests, consisting mainly of oak.
The woods, like those of the weald at this day, were intersected
by many watercourses, and interspersed with bogs and swamps.
The slight elevation above the sea-level of both these tracts must

of our District during Historic Times. 279

have rendered the natural drainage very imperfect, and probably
the rainfall would be much greater than at present.

With regard to the fauna, the animals would be much the
same as at present, the beaver, the wolf, and the wild boar being
probable additions, while most probably the red deer existed in
considerable numbers.

The chief factors in the formation of the soil, as we now see
it, have been (1) the clearance of wood and cultivation of the soil
by man, (2) subaérial denudation and dissolution of the chalk by
rainfall, (3) the action of earthworms. Before entering into
historical matters, it will, perhaps, be as well to treat of the two
latter factors. I do not think that subaérial denudation can have
had much influence in our district during the comparatively
short period we are considering. Until the slopes of the hills
were cultivated their natural clothing of turf would protect them
from the disintegrating influence of the frost, and in most cases
from rain-washing, though on the clay and gravel soils this may
well have had a greater influence. The amount of chalk dissolved
by the carbonic acid in rain-water has been calculated at 9-100ths
of an inch per century, and even if we suppose the rainfall to
have been twice as great as at present, this would only amount
to 2°7 in. in 2000 years.

In regard to earthworms, Darwin’s well-known work on these
animals, largely based on observations in a district adjoining and
similar to ours, shows that they have played a very important
part. One of his experiments showed that a layer of chalk
spread on a meadow was buried to the depth of 7 in. in 29 years.
He states that over 10 tons of dry earth annually passes through
their bodies, and is brought to the surface on each acre of land,
so that the whole superficial bed of vegetable mould passes
through their bodies in the course of every few years. Their
habit of dragging leaves into their burrows adds to the soil, and
by the acids formed by their decay disintegrates the lower beds.
The castings ejected are washed by the rain, blown by the wind,
or spread by animals, until every irregularity is filled up. The
well-known ledges on the slopes of the hills, generally called
sheep-walks, are in all probability due to the worm-castings
rolling down until stopped by some irregularity of the surface,
plants, or grass. If these are carefully examined they will be
found to taper off at each end to other ridges, more like long
scales than definite paths. Although these tracks are used by
sheep, Professor Henslow and Darwin do not consider that they
are formed by them.

But the most important influence on the aspect of the land, as
we now see it, has been man and his domestic animals. The
early races of prehistoric man, being solely hunters and not
cultivating the soil, would change it but little, but later races

280 Mr. E. Straker on changes in the Aspect

have done much in this way. The first inhabitants of our
district of whom we have any historical record are the Belge,
who no doubt had dispossessed their kinsmen the Keltx, the
successors of an unknown number of agricultural races. At the
invasion of Caesar, Britain was the granary of Gaul. With the
rude tools and imperfect husbandry of those times this must have
argued that a considerable area of land was under cultivation,
and this would have necessitated a very long period of clearances.
The nearest parallel at the present day to the condition of
England at that time is the state of things in Central Africa,
that is, isolated villages in the primeval forest, each surrounded
by a belt of cultivation, and communicating with the neigh-
bouring villages by narrow footpaths through the forest.

The Roman invasion had little influence outside the large
towns, and probably affected our district to a very small extent.
They introduced, or have the credit of introducing, the elm and
the pheasant, both of which are now conspicuous members of
our flora and fauna. In agriculture their influence seems to
have been nil, much as in India the native retains his ancient
customs under the British Raj.

The coming of the various Teutonic races known as the Saxons
was of great importance. This race entirely replaced the Keltic
inhabitants, and no doubt made great alterations in the system
of cultivation. Although it is very probable that the Kelts had
some communal system of agriculture, the system which has had
the greatest influence on our landscape, namely, the Three-field
System, was practised by the Saxons in their continental homes,
and applied here, so to speak, ready made. The Saxons also
introduced the domestic ox of long-horn type, descended from
the urus of Germany, a very distinct animal from the Keltic
shorthorn, Bos longifrons. It is to this animal that we owe the
present condition of our arable land, as, until comparatively
recent times, the horse was not used for ploughing to any great
extent, and even at the end of the last century an agricultural
writer of Croydon advocates the use of oxen as more profitable.
The three-field communal system was worked thus :—The houses
of each village, with their gardens, orchards, &c., were grouped
together, and the ring of arable land around them was divided
into three great fields without hedges. ach of these fields was
again divided into many long strips. The plough was a massive
affair, constructed mainly of wood, and required no less than
eight oxen to draw it. The long strips were divided from each
other by ‘“‘ balks”’ of turf left unploughed. It does not appear
very certain how many of these strips were ploughed in each
year by one plough, but at any rate the strips were changed each
year, so that all should have an equal share of good and bad
land. It was usual for the normal team of eight oxen to be made

of our District during Historie Times. 281

up from several different peasants, who shared the produce in
proportion to the oxen. One field was in corn, the second in
green fodder, and the third in fallow in each year. Outside the
arable land were Lammas meadows (i. e., meadows kept for hay,
but grazed after hay harvest), common pasture, and common
woodland. The cattle, geese, &c., also grazed on the fallow
field. It is said that working oxen, in order to thrive, must have
plenty of space and grazing after their work, and it is possible
that their disuse is partly owing to the gradual enclosure of
common land. It will be readily seen what an important factor
these lumbering ploughs, working for a thousand years at least,
must have been in the carving down of the surface of the land.
Especially has this been so on the slopes of the chalk-hills,
where it is customary to plough one way only, turning the sod
downhill, the plough returning idle. This has the effect of
’ moving the entire top soil of the field one furrow wide downhill
at each ploughing. This custom would have ere now removed
all the soil to the bottoms, but this was prevented by the other
custom mentioned, that of ploughing in strips only. This
resulted in the formation of what are called linces, a series of
steps on the hill-side; this is not often seen now, owing to the
linces, after the disuse of the communal system, being ploughed
down; but there are some very fine examples on the chalk
between Calais and Boulogne, where the French system of petite
culture has preserved them. This ploughing of linces has been
further extended with the object of enlarging the fields; very
many linces have been ploughed in Coulsdon parish during the
last ten years. After a while the upper part of the hill-side is all
ploughed away, and has to go out of cultivation, on account of
the chalk being left bare. Thus the slopes of the hills tend to *
go out of cultivation, and return to a condition of waste.

The first, and, indeed, the only complete record we have of
the state of our district in ancient times is that remarkable
survey known as Domesday Book, compiled about 1080 a.p.
This survey was made for the purpose of taxation, and does not
give exact quantities of land, &c., but only, so to speak, their
rateable value. On examining the record for our district it is
very remarkable how nearly, so far as we can judge, the amount
of arable land, &c., approximates to what we now see. It is not
always certain whether the boundaries of the Domesday manors
were the same as those of the present parishes, but in many cases
we have no reason to doubt that they were. The survey runs
somewhat in this form :—The manor of so-and-so is held by A. B.
of M. N.; in King Edward’s time it was valued (or taxed) at so
many hides, now so many ; there is land for so many ploughs,
and the woods yield so many swine. Other items adding to the
value are also mentioned. The items of plough-lands and swine

282 Mr. E. Straker on changes in the Aspect

give some idea of how much land was arable and woodland
respectively.

From an examination of typical parishes in the Hundreds
of Wallington and Tandridge, I have been able to get some
rough approximation of the amount of land in arable, common,
and wood. The plough-land is taken by most writers at 120
acres, more or less according to the soil, about an equal quantity
of meadow and waste would be required for the grazing of the
oxen, and to provide hay to keep them through the winter. This
leaves about 25 acres of woodland for each hog yielded, which
may have been every seventh or tenth hog, or some such pro-
portion. If we work this out it comes very near the present
acreage of the parishes, for example, Croydon :—

20 plough-lands at 120 a.=2400 arable.
Equal waste = 2400 grazing land.
200 swine at 25 a. = 5000 woodland.

9800, present area, 9901.

Coulsdon (two manors in Domesday) :—

18 plough-lands at 120 a.—2160, arable in 1840, 2600
Equal waste = 2160, grazing land in 1840, 1575
9 swine at 25 a. = 225, woodland in 1840, 200

orchard and gardens, 28

4545 4403

Beddington (two manors in Domesday) :—

12 plough-lands at 120 a.—1440 arable.
1 1440 grazing, &e.
10 swine at 25 a. 250

3180, present, 8128.

Of course, other parishes do not all work out so well as these,
but the general inference I draw is this, that the parishes on the
chalk have not changed their aspect to any very material extent
during these 800 years, especially if we allow for the many
enclosures made during this century ; while those of the forest
belts north and south were at the time of Domesday but half
cleared, and contained vast tracts of woodland. This is well
shown in the case of the southern parishes by their peculiar
shape. :

These parishes each have their village on the fertile belt,
and a long strip of woodland extending back to the Sussex
forests, the four present parishes on the clay being not mentioned
in Domesday, and created since. These manors yielded large

of our District during Historic Times. 283

numbers of swine, second only to Croydon, with its Norwood of
5000 acres.

There is a similar looking series of parishes between Lewes
and Keymer, in Sussex, but I do not know if their history is
the same.

After Domesday we have but few records which give us much
information. There are some which show that the head of the
Wandle was formerly much higher than at present, the old town
being intersected by a series of streams sufficient to furnish
power to one or two mills. It would also appear that the Bourne
of Caterham Valley was more frequent, and yielded more water
than at present (if it is ever going to flow again).

I can find no direct evidence in our flora that the land was
very much wetter, although it seems reasonable to suppose that
the little Sphagnum bog on the Addington Hills is the last relic
of a much more extensive one. There are some records of water
plants on the chalk—at Coulsdon, for instance—which are not
now found. I regard these as either referring to localities some
distance away, such as Merstham, or isolated localities round
ponds. There were formerly many more ponds than now, and it
frequently happens that water plants are carried from one pond
to another on the feet and feathers of aquatic birds.

There are many trees that now form an important element in
our landscape that have been introduced by man. Fruit trees
and shrubs, such as wild cherry, wild pear, currants, and goose-
berries, are very old-established colonists, coming in probably
in prehistoric times with their cultivators from Asia. The elm
came with the Romans, the lime, sycamore, poplar, Scotch fir,
larch, Spanish and horse-chestnut, some of which are important
in our landscape, during historic times.

Corn-field weeds, though undoubtedly alien, are most likely as
old as the corn they infest. Poppy, charlock, and mustard are
conspicuous in our fields ; the soil seems full of their seeds, and
they can be of no recent introduction. The same applies to our
long list of arable weeds. Beyond these there are scarcely any
alien plants in our district of any importance.

With regard to the extinction of native plants by man, we have
again no evidence to goon. It is probable that the orchids of
our chalk-hills, now so rare, were more widely spread before the
slopes were cultivated. There are two plants which have become
extinct, or nearly so, in recent years in curious fashions. One is
the common male fern, which was formerly in almost every wood,
now scarcely to be found near London, the other the curious
plant butcher’s broom, Ruscus aculeatus. This was not un-
common on clay soils, but has been exterminated within a wide
radius of London owing to it being used by tobacco manufacturers
to dampen tobacco, the spines at the ends of the leaves (which

‘ D

284 Aspect of our District during Historic Times.

are not leaves at all, but flattened stems) throwing an even spray
which cannot be produced by other means.

In respect to the fauna, and more especially the birds, I do
not feel myself qualified to speak; perhaps some member better
versed than myself can give us some information regarding their
introduction or extinction.

There is one rather curious fact I have noticed, that is, that
when a neighbourhood of villa residences has attained some age,
and the trees and shrubs in the gardens are fairly grown, the
number of species and individuals of birds and animals seems to
be much greater than in a similar area of country. For example,
in our garden at Kenley we have gained during the last ten
years two species, the squirrel and the wood-pigeon ; there are
many more thrushes, black birds, and starlings, but we have lost
the nightingales. No doubt there is greater protection from
predatory wild animals, such as stoats, polecats, hawks, and owls,
which counterbalances the risk of disturbance, besides possibly
a better food supply than in the open.

In conclusion, I should be very pleased if these rambling
notes could be supplemented by any information as to any known
changes in our fauna during recent times, which I have no doubt
some of our members will be able to give us.

( 285 )

91._THE REPORT OF THE METEOROLOGICAL SUB-
COMMITTEE FOR 1890.

Prerarep py Tae Hon. Szc. F. C. Bayarn, F. R. Met. Soc.
(Read February 11th, 1891.)

Tan arrangements for observing the daily rainfall round

Croydon have been successfully carried out on the same plan
as last year. The year commenced with a staff numbering
45 observers, superintending 53 stations, as against 38 observers
and 45 stations in 1889, and 81 observers and 34 stations in
1888. No stations have been discontinued or moved during the
year. ;
Appendix I. to this Report contains a list of the observers,
with particulars relating to the stations and gauges. The
stations with the asterisk prefixed were admitted after the
commencement of the year, and the four with the double
asterisk are stations which sent in reports in the previous year.

Appendix II. contains the tables of daily rainfall issued
monthly, and subsequently stereotyped.

Appendix III. gives the monthly rainfall of the five other
stations.

Appendix IV. gives a record of all falls of rain of 1 inch and
upwards in the 24 hours, extracted from Appendix II.

And, finally, Appendix V. contains general notes on the charac-
teristic features of every month.

The method of grouping the stations into districts adopted by
the Sub-Committee seems on the whole to have given satisfaction.
The Sub-Committee welcome the accession of South Norwood,
and of one other station on the high ground at Banstead. The
Sub-Committee much regret the absence of stations, with daily
records, at Botley Hill, Betsom Hill, Knockholt, and Brith.

With reference to the rainfall of the year, if we take as a basis
for comparison, the records of the stations in the districts for
which we can obtain an average of ten years and over, it would
seem to have been very deficient. The deficiency varies from
5 in. at Surbiton on a 85 years’ average to 1°5 in. at Sutton on
a 10 years’ average. This reveals a somewhat serious state of
things, for, combined with the deficiency of 1889, the amount of
rain that has fallen over the district in the last two years is
probably at least 8 in. less than the average amount over a long
series of years. This want of rain, unless the spring and summer
should turn out to be very wet, appears likely to cause a great
deficiency in the water supply of the district, and the Sub-
Committee cannot impress too strongly on the water authorities

D2

286 Report of the Meteorological Sub-Committee for 1890.

the need that there is for the greatest economy in this all-
important necessary of life. From the address of Mr. Baldwin
Latham, President of the Royal Meteorological Society, delivered
before the Society on Nov. 15th, 1890, we conclusively learn that
all low-water years, that is, years in which the underground
waters are low, are very unhealthy ; and the reason is not far to
seek, if we consider the different strata as shallow basins in which
the impurities sink to the bottom, and are pumped up when the
water is low. In this town of Croydon we have, thanks to the
foresight of the Corporation, a supply of water which, though
perhaps not quite as plentiful as it might be, is yet on the whole
a fairly good one, and in quantity is far in excess of many of the
villages and towns of the district. In giving utterance to these
weighty words the Sub-Committee have no wish to create alarm,
' but it particularly desires to give warning as to a possible
scarcity; and, in view of this, it trusts that every sanitary
authority will do its very utmost to keep all streams and springs
unpolluted.

Further, the Sub-Committee would draw attention to the very
small number of days—only three—on which an inch and up-
wards fall in the 24 hours. The largest amount, 2°62 in., fell at
Kingston, and the next largest, 2°47 in., at West Norwood in the
24 hours. The Sub-Committee express a hope that some day
some one who has a self-recording gauge in Croydon will have a
big fall of rain, so as to test our pipes in Croydon, and see
whether they are prepared for it. If so, all honour to those who
have so successfully planned and carried out the drainage of this
great town.

In conclusion, the Sub-Committee ventures to ask the aid of
every member of the Club in helping forward, both financially
and otherwise, its observational labours, as being intimately con-
nected with the health and happiness of us all.

No. STATIONS. OBSERVERS.
SurREY—
Dorking (Denbies).............. J, Beesley -. oss sees
Reigate Hill (Lovelands)........ Ri BiMNS* oo icles vines
x Caterham (Metropolitan Asylum).| G. S. Elliott, M.D. ....
ENT—
**Knockholt (The Beeches)........ W. Morris, C.E. ......
SurREY—
5 | Marden Park (Birchwood House) .| C. & F. Rutley........
Kenley (Ingleside) ............ Harold Smith ........
Purley (Reedham Asylum) ...... JA. Carter .o3..5250%
Purley (Tudor Cottages) ........ J. Bonwick ..........
Ashtead (D’Abernon Chase) Sir W. Vincent, Bart. ..
10 | Sutton (Mulgrave Road) ........ WiesGioOdero senate «
**Sutton (Grange Road) .......... WepDburtell 275, set
Carshalton (The Wrythe) ...... J. W. Manley ........
Wallington (Manor Road) ..... HeiC- Bayard: Gc, «cs
Beddington (Riverside) ........ Se HOS mMOM Hy otto aise att
- 15 | Waddon (Waddon House) ...... P. Crowley .....s..5;
' Croydon (Brimstone Barn) ...... Croydon Corporation ..
Croydon (Limes Road) ........ Croydon Corporation ..
Croydon (Whitgift) ............ A. li. Watson ........}
1 Addiscombe (Haveloek Road)....| Baldwin Latham, C.E. .
_ 20] Addiscombe (Outram Road) ....| EH. Mawiey ..........
i Addington Hills (The Reservoir) .| Croydon Corperation . .
i Addington (Park Farm) ........ Wie Wihalleyens ties so
Eg tinigton (Pumping Station) ..| Croydon Corporation...
ENT—
West Wickham (Layham’s Farm)| W. Ashcroft ..........
25 | Hayes Common (The Warren) ..| Miss Akers ..........
Keston (Bradfield) ..........-. Tako TEUILD OSS eric
Keston (Heathfield) ............ Miss M. Holland ......
Keston (Tower Fields).......... G. Buchanan, C.E.....

APPENDIX I.

Orpington (Kent Waterworks) ..| W. Morris, C.H. ......
30 | Farningham Hill .............. Adis: WARIBR a sihierw era's
Wilmington (Kent Waterworks)..| W. Morris, C.E. ......

Chislehurst (The Chestnuts) ....| J.B. Snell ..........

Bickley (Highfield) ............ J. BaiteM se meer. os coal

Beckenham (Foxgrove) ........ P. Bieknelly se... 2e
Surrey—

_ 35 | *South Norwood (Whitworth Road)| H. F. Parsons, M.D. ..
Wimbledon (Sewerage Works) ..| C. H. Cooper, C.E.....

Wimbledon (Mount Ararat) ....|‘l. Devas ..........

Raynes Park (Pumping Station). .| C. H. Cooper, C.E.....

New Malden (Sewerage Works) ..| ‘I. L. Heward ......

40 |**Esher (West End) ............ Wie JELs Dinas secre
Esher (Sewerage Works) ........ Baldwin Latham, C.E..
Surbiton (Seething Wells) ...... Re Hack; Giliv a... seis
Kingston (Sewerage Works) ....| IT. Stevens............
Richmond (Ormond Lodge) ....! J. T. Billett ..........

45 | Kew (Kew Observatory) ........ The Kew Committee ..

‘ Brixton (Acre Lane)............ Bi. Gastergs, » swine s betes

+ |Kentr—

a Sydenham (Longton Grove) ....| M. J. Porter ........

- Forest Hill (Dartmouth Road) ..| Mrs. Behrens ......
_ 50} Deptford (Kent Waterworks) ....| W. Morris, C.E. ....
: Greenwich(TheRoyal Observatory)) The Astronomer Roya

ss se

>
+ West Norwood (Thornlaw Road)..) W. Marriott ..........

oe

M

____|** Woolwich (Shooter’s Hill) ...... Capt. S. D, Cleeve, R.E.

Eltham (Victoria Road) ........ Capt. M. S. Richardson,

oe (R.E.]
howe

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Height of | Height of
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375
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216
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230
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120
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130
195
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205
202
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268
331

500
296
350
420
351
220
300

25
325
295
142

200
58
157
47
45
51
40
25
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19
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220

220
220

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155
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312 Report of the Meteorological Sub-Committee for 1890.

APPENDIX III.
MONTHLY RECORDS.

Station. | Jan. | Feb. |Mar.|Apr.|May|Jun./July; Aug. |Sep.| Oct. |Nov./Dec.|| Year.

IN. IN. | IN.| IN. | IN. | IN.| IN.| IN. | IN. | IN. | IN. | IN.
Knockholt..} 3:80 } 1:05 |3-20 |1-70|1-64 |2°53|4°45 | 2-171 |1°05| 1:45 |3-00 |0°88
Sutton ....| 2°29 | 0°94 |1°83 |1-71|1°63 /3°31 |4-46 | 2°00 |0°82| 1:11 /1°70 |0°84
S. Norwood.| 2°30}| 0-86t |2°14 |1:92 |1°51 |2-61 |3°92 | 2:19 !0°57| 0°99 {1°71 |0°61
Esher ....| 2°38 | 0:97 |1:51 |1-74|1-76 |2°65 |3-07 | 1:93 |0°50) 1:10 |1-79 0°70
Woolwich ..| 2:15 | 1-30 {1-94 |1-87 |1-50 {2-40 |3°78| 2-23 0-39 | 1-77++/1-30 0-99

-+ Estimated. tt Taken November 5th.

APPENDIX IV.

Fauts oF 1:0 IN. AND UPWARDS.

Marcu 191x.
Reigate Hill, 1:01 in.; Farningham Hill, 1:10 in.

JuLy 47H.

Dorking, 1:02 in.; Reigate Hill, 1-31 in.; Caterham, 1°25 in.;
Marden Park, 1:25 in.; Kenley, 1:16 in.; Purley (Reedham),
1:14in.; Purley (Tudor Cottages), 1:23 in.; Carshalton, 1-10 in. ;
Beddington, 1:01 in.; Croydon (Limes Road), 1:05 in.; Croydon
(Whitgift), 1:05 in.; Addiscombe (Havelock Road), 1-01 in.; ~
Addiscombe (Outram Road), 1-06 in.;, Addington Hills, 1-13 in. ;
Addington (Pumping Station), 1:10 in.; West Wickham, 1-07 in. ;
Hayes Common, 1°18 in.; Keston (Bradfield), 1:08 in.; Keston
(Heathfield), 1:20 in.; Keston (Tower Fields), 1:16 in.; Orping-
ton, 1:18 in.; Farningham Hill, 1:10 in.;, Wilmington, 1:03 in.;
Chislehurst, 1:07 in.; Bickley, 1-50 in. ;’ Beckenham, 1-04 in. ;
Sydenham, 1:12 in.; Forest Hill, 1:02 in.; Eltham, 1-08 in.

JuLty 177TH.

Dorking, 1:30 in.; Purley (Reedham), 1:07 in. ; Purley (Tudor
Cottages), 1:83 in.; Ashtead, 1°25 in.; Sutton, 1°35 in.; Car-
shalton, 1:24 in.; Wallington, 1:55 in.; Beddington, 1°38 in. ;
Waddon, 1:25 in.; Croydon (Brimstone Barn), 1:23 in.; Croydon
(Whitgift), 1:10 in.; Addiscombe (Havelock Road), 1-03 in. ;
Addington Hills, 1-04in.; West Wickham, 1:13in.; Wilmington,
1:07 in.; Wimbledon (Sewerage Works), 1:42 in,; Wimbledon

Report of the Meteorological Sub-Committee for 1890. 818

os Ararat), 1°60 in.; Raynes Park, 1:53 in.; New Malden,
‘14in.; Esher, 1:72 in.; Surbiton, 1°48 in.; Kingston, 2-62 in.;
Richmond, 2:27 in.; Kew, 2:28 in.; Brixton, 1:79 in.; West
Norwood, 2°47 in.; Sydenham, 1°70 in.; Forest Hill, 1:62 in.;
Deptford, 1:82 in.; Greenwich, 1°62 in.

APPENDIX V.

JANUARY.

The month was very mild, damp, and stormy, with, however,
an unusual number of fine days. The percentage of bright
sunshine recorded at Kew was 21, being the highest January
value yet registered, the mean percentage for the past 13 years
being 14. At Beddington the maximum thermometer was above
50° on 16 days, and 45° on 25 days. The rainfall was slightly
above the average.

FrEpruary.

This month was bright, dry, and rather cool. The percentage
of bright sunshine recorded at Kew was 21, the average value
for the past 13 years being 19. At Beddington the maximum
thermometer only once touched 50°. The rainfall was nearly
1 in. below the average.

Marcu.

This month was characterised by a great variety of tempera-
ture, and a comparatively large rainfall. The temperature of the
first four days was unusually low, that of the 4th being the
coldest on record at Greenwich. The minimum thermometer in
the shade at Beddington on this day stood at 5:4°, and at
Wallington 9°8°. Vegetation towards the end of the month was
considered to have been three weeks earlier than 1889, and five
weeks earlier than 1888.

APRIL.

The month has been cold, the rainfall about the average, and
as a rule vegetation was rather backward. LHasterly and north-
easterly winds were prevalent. Butterflies were very late, and
few in number; the nightingale was heard at Beddington on the
22nd, the cuckoo at Keston on the i4th, and swallows were seen

- at Keston on the 28rd.

“May.

The month has been very mild and fine, with no cutting east
winds or frosts. The maximum thermometer rated rather low,

814 Report of the Meteorological Sub-Committee for 1890.

being at Beddington over 70° on three days only. Strawberries
and apples promised well, but plums and peaches were exceed-
ingly scarce. Insects were few in number. The rainfall was
rather low.

JUNE.

The month was very cool and wet. The low daily maxima
were remarkable; at Beddington the maximum thermometer was
only twice above 76°, and only five times above 70°. The rain-
fall at Kew was the heaviest for June since 1879, and was
1:20 in. above the average for the past 30 years. At Kew, of the
amount 0°96 in. on the 28th, no less than 0°45 in. fell in forty
minutes, namely, between 8.40 and 9.20 p.m. ‘The hay crop
was generally good, and, as regards fruit, apples, currants, and
strawberries were fairly plentiful, but there were no plums, pears,
or peaches.

JULY.

This month may be divided into two portions, the first eighteen
days being very wet, and the latter part of the month dry. It was
the wettest July since 1888. At Kew, the fall on the 17th,
2:28 in., exceeds any previous record by 0°50 in.: it lasted from
5 p.m. on the 17th till 6 a.m. on the 18th, and of this fall 0.50 in.
in thirty minutes, between 6.45 and 7.15, on the 17th. The
maximum temperature was very low; at Beddington the maxi-
mum thermometer never touched 70° till the 15th, and the
maximum, 75'2°, was on the 16th.

Aveust.

This month has been cold, dull and wet, and of a very similar
character to August, 1888. The maximum temperature of the
month occurred on the 5th, and was at Wallington 81:9°.

SEPTEMBER.

The month was very dry and warm, with a remarkably small
rainfall. At Kew the rainfall was no less than 1-90 in. below
the September mean for the past 30 years, and was the smallest
fall since 1865. The mean temperature was much above the
average.

OcToBER.

The first fifteen days of the month were warm, and the latter
part much colder. At Kew 1214 hours of bright sunshine were
registered, giving a mean percentage of 39, which was 10 per cent.
above the average of the past 13 years, and was the highest
October value -recorded there. The rainfall of the month was
extremely low, and was at Kew 1-50 in. below the average of the
past 80 years, and the smallest October fall since 1879.

a

Report of the Meteorological Sub-Committee for 1890. 315

NovEMBER.

The month was very mild, with temperature much above the
average until the 25th, when a spell of cold set in. The low
temperature of the 28th will long be remembered ; it was 2°1° at
Beddington, 1:0° at Waddon, and 10°3° at Wallington. The
rainfall was rather small, and at Kew it was 0°75 in. below the
average of the past 30 years.

DrEcEMBER.

This was the coldest December for certainly 100 years. At
Beddington the mean for the month was 28°, and the low daily
maxima were as remarkable as the minima. There has been no
month so cold since January, 1838, or perhaps February, 1855.
At Beddington 23 days had the mean below 32°, and on 14 the
maxima were below 32°; whilst the minima were below 20° on
12 days, 15° on 6 days, and 12° on 4 days. The absence of sun
was most remarkable, only 20 minutes of bright sunshine being
recorded at Kew during the whole month. The rainfall also was
very small, the amount at Kew being 1:40 in. below the average
of the past 30 years.

316 Mr. Thomas Cushing on

92.—WanpDLE TEMPERATURES.
By Tuomas Cusuine, F.R. Met. §.
(Read February 11th, 1891.)

Tue question of the variations found in the temperature of the
River Wandle is one which, I think, ought to have some interest
for us, as it is of a purely local character; and it is on this
account that I venture to draw attention to the great discrepancies
which oceur within a very limited area of this river, and will,
with your permission, say a few words this evening by way of
supplementing the Meteorological Sub-Committee’s Report, which
has just been read to us.

The observations from which my analysis has been made were
taken every Sunday afternoon throughout the year 1889, by our
indefatigable Hon. Secretary, Mr. Bayard, and the way in which
he has tabulated the observations and worked out the means—if
he will allow me to say so—does him the greatest possible credit.
I believe he has taken them both before and after this period, but
1889 is the only complete year with which I have had the oppor-
tunity of dealing. I understand that all the observations were.
taken with the same thermometer, that the thermometer is
graduated on the stem, and has been verified at Kew. The
depths at which the observations were taken vary from 12 to 18
inches below the surface of the water.

In all there are ten stations on this river, within an area of one
mile, five on the Carshalton branch and five on the Croydon
branch. The Carshalton stations are at Park Wall, Phillpott’s
Corner and Haydon’s Corner, at the Lower Pond steps, at the
Upper Pond, Old Rectory Stream, and at Waterhouse Pool.
And, on the Croydon branch, at the Road Well, Wallington Old
Manor House, the mill-stream and pool-stream at Smee’s Mill,
and the road-stream and pool-stream at Wallington Manor House.
Those are the stations at which the temperatures were syste-
matically taken every Sunday throughout 1889.

The stations are numbered from 1 to 5 on the Carshalton
branch, and from 6 to 10 on the Croydon branch.

1889.
Temperatures.—Carshalton Branch of Wandle.
Greatest difference.
Station 1. Lowest, 87°7°. Dec. 29.
Highest, 583°. Aug. 4. 20°6° Fahr.
ai 2. Lowest, 45°1°. Dec. 15.
Highest 549°. Sept. 1. 9°8° 3
- 3. Lowest, 49°9°. Dec. 380.
Highest, 51°6°. . Aug. 4. 1°7° rr

Wandle Temperatures. 817

‘ Greatest difference.
Station 4. Lowest, 46°6°. Jan. 6.
Highest, 55°0°. June 2. 8:4° Fahr.
a 5. Lowest, 49°8°> Jan. 6.
Highest, 50°7°. July 28. 0-9° an

Croydon Branch.
. Lowest, 48°3°. April 4.
Highest. 52°6°. Sept.1. 43° ES
. Lowest, 46°9°. Jan. 6.
Highest, 53:4°. June 2. 6°5° ss
- Lowest, 41°6°. Dec. 29.
Highest, 66°29. June 2. 24°6° “
. Lowest, 86°7°. Jan. 6.
Highest, 63-0°. June 2. 26°3° E 2
» 10. Lowest, 48°5°. Feb. 24.
Highest, 52:0°. Sept. 1. 3°5° v

eo Oo N OD

1889.

The mean shade temperature of the air, 7.e., the weekly mean
of the max. and min. for this period, was lowest on Jan. 6th,
being 30°5° F.; the highest being 64°1° on Sept. 15th, showing
a difference of 33°6°. But the lowest observed shade temperature
I find was on Dec. 8th, being 25°3°, or 6°7° below the freezing-
point ; and the highest shade temperature, on June 30th, being
77°3°, or a difference of 52°.

Mr. Bayard has done good service in bringing these dis-
crepancies to light, and placing them on record in the careful

_ way he has, so that they may be available for future investi-

gators.

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PICTORIAL SELECTION IN
PHOTOGRAPHY.

[ Photographic Section of the Croydon Microscopical Society. }

In dealing with the composition of pictures in reference to photography,
apart from painting, it is only necessary to treat of: the position and
arrangement of lines; the balance of parts; the variation in the tones of
light and shade; and the most suitable positions for the introduction of
figures or other objects which shall go to form a pleasing picture.

Let me, however, at the outset, explain that it is farthest from my
wish to insist exclusively on any one series of rules upon which all
pictures should be constructed, any more than I would desire to enforce
a standard by which all works should be judged whether they be good or
bad. I mean that, having regard to the great difference of opinion held on
matters of art, it is useless to lay down an inflexible or hard-and-fast line
which admits of no departure. I hope, therefore, the remarks I may
make will be accepted rather in the light of “ hints,” in the carrying out
of which a better result may be obtained than would otherwise occur
should these points be overlooked or neglected.

Seeing that photography is so purely a mechanical process in which
the artist has no chance of leaving out any objectionable object which
may detract from the view before his lens, it is of the utmost importance
he should know some of the principles on which a good picture is built
up, in order that he may in some measure be able to cope with the diffi-
culty and perhaps overcome it. To know where and how to select the
best standpoint, how much of the prospect to include in his picture—and,
of equal importance, how much he should ex-clude—to note the changes
under varying lights, the relief of those portions in light against others
in shade or cast shadow, the judicious arrangement of parts, or the apt
introduction of figures requires more training than the setting up of a
camera, the snapping of a shutter, and the subsequent development of

te 2)

a plate; yet it is only on acquiring such knowledge that the photographer
is able to excel, or that really artistic pictures can be produced.

To some these matters present little difficulty, they grasp or overcome
them without apparent effort, in some instances are hardly conscious of
having exercised any discrimination in their choice, and, if questioned on
the composition of their pictures, could only tell you ‘they liked
them that way best.”” Others are not so happy; they never get successful
pictures—their horizon is too high or else it is too low, sometimes too
dense, at others hard to find; the front elevation of a house appears to
afford them interest ; whilst a large tree in the centre, with a smaller one
equidistant on either side, seems to them quite an ideal picture, the
embodiment of perfection in composition—having a due regard to the
equal balance of parts. Sometimes they essay figures or portraits (?) of their
friends, and, remembering the triangular form has been, by some, greatly
extolled, they straightway place their central figure in a standing position,
carefully arranging the residue of their victims in sloping order, on either
side, with a result too dreadful to dwell upon.

One could multiply these instances, but enough has been said to show
how necessary it is to have either some knowledge of pictorial effect, or,
failing this, the desirability of becoming acquainted with a few of the
rules of art.

Composition is the art of properly disposing or arranging in the most
effective manner the various forms and objects which constitute a picture,
or, in other words, the judicious selection and combination of various
parts which, when united, form one perfect whole. Sir Joshua Reynolds,
when speaking of paiiting; says: ‘‘ Composition, taken generally, is the
principal part of invention, and is by far the greatest difficulty the artist
has to encounter. Every man that can paint at all can execute individual
parts; but to keep those parts in a due subordination, as relative to a
whole, requires a comprehensive view of the art, that more strongly
implies genius than perhaps any other quality whatever.” Let us now
see of what this quality consists; and, inthe first place, consider the
arrangement of lines.

LInEs.

The term “line” is not altogether satisfactory, as there are no actual
lines in nature, but it must in this instance be understood to refer to the
apparent boundary of different objects, the limit at which they seem to
merge the one into the other. The most important line, or that which
has the greatest influence on all the others in a picture, is known as the
horizon, or “‘ horizontal line,” which should always indicate the height of
the eye of the spectator. This line varies in height with the position
chosen, so that, when standing on a common or the seashore, the horizon
appears low, but in ascending a cliff or hill it is found to rise in proportion
to the height attained; hence, in the former case of the seashore, the
horizon would be situated about a third or a fourth of the height of the
picture above the base line, whilst in the latter instance it would be much
nearer the top. It should not on any account be allowed to divide a
picture exactly in the middle, as in this case all lines receding from the

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spectator, either from above or beneath, would be too equal to form a
pleasing result. No exact height need be given, but, as a guide for all
open prospects which present great distances at a low level, it would be
well to assign the horizon a position not exceeding, say, one-third the
height of the picture above the base line, where it would give greater
variety to the lines running from the spectator, and altogether form a
more pleasing and agreeable composition, For pictures taken from an
elevation, the space from base to horizon would perhaps occupy three-
quarters of the height of the composition, or possibly even more; but let
me here remark that the greatest care should be exercised in determining
the height of the horizontal line, as it is on reference to its relative
position that an intelligent observer would recognise at once the altitude
from which the picture was taken. It is equally necessary to bear this
in mind when making “slides” or trimming prints to guard against
cutting off more of the foreground than the sky, thereby reducing the
height of your horizon, and in consequence falsifying your picture.

Having decided on your horizontal line, it is necessary now to note the
direction taken by the other lines, which are regulated by the position of
the ‘‘ point of sight.”

Pornt or Sieur.

The point of sight is always situated, as you are aware, opposite the

Fig. 1.

eye on the horizontal line. You will remember the fact that objects are
seen by means of rays of light proceeding in straight lines, some of which
meet at the eye of the observer; and I need only point out that, supposing
that observer should choose the centre of a long, straight, and level street

i ae

for the scene of his operations, he would get a series of lines from the
ruts, gutters, footways, and houses more suggestive of a geometrical
design than a pleasing representation of an inhabited thoroughfare (Fig 1).
The same remarks apply to the point of sight as were made in reference to
the horizon in the undesirability of giving it a central or middle position.
It should be placed, more or less, either to the right or left of the centre,
so that, by presenting more of the subject on one side than another,
formality is avoided, and the angles of the general lines are more advan-
tageously varied (Fig. 2).

Having determined the position of the horizon and the point of sight,
it should next be seen how the lines of the Jandscape compose them-

selves. Many methods have been advanced for the most perfect ar-
rangement of lines, but in the infinite variety of subjects which are
presented it is almost impossible to be guided by precept alone.
Parallel lines should always be avoided, as, apart from their tendency
to suggest a geological diagram, they serve to conduct the eye from
side to side of the composition, a defect which should be carefully
guarded against (Fig. 3). Lines which guide the sight perspectively through
the picture, or which lead the eye from the foreground through the
middle distance on to the horizon, are always the most pleasing and agree-
able, and.should invariably be selected in preference to all others (Fig. 4).
Lines which have a tendency to encircle a view should not be lost sight
of, as, in addition to the help they afford of keeping the eye in the
picture, they also assist to concentrate the attention on the chief
point of interest beyond. As instances of this effect I might cite 4 Peep
between Trees, or a pathway through a wood, in which the stems and

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branches of the trees would take the direction named. If in the first
position you have chosen to set up your camera you find the lines of the
foreground rising perpendicularly from the base line, reject it at once, and
move to a spot where they shall incline either to the right or left. The
lines, then taking a slanting direction, will lead the eye into the picture

pat eae —————

Fig. 3.

in a far more agreeable and satisfactory manner than if they had followed
the vertical tendency which obtained in the first situation.

Pornts.

Observe where the most prominent feature of your landscape comes,
whether too much in the centre of your picture or too near its limits.
It is generally considered bad taste to have any object coming exactly in
the centre of a composition so that it shall be equidistant from the
outside lines of the picture, and this should be borne in mind when
focussing the landscape, but I shall have something more to say in
reference to this later on, Note whether you have one point immediately
over another, and, if so, make some little alterations in your position to
remedy this defect. Do not have two or more parts of your picture of
nearly equal size, neither let the undulations of, say, ‘‘a moorland with

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distant hills’? cut up your composition into several equal portions—a
circumstance of very frequent occurrence in all such situations as well as
in mountainous districts.

BREADTH.

Remember that simplicity of construction, combined with masses of

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light and shade, agreeably disposed, are the requisites necessary to give
a picture dignity and repose. Therefore, although it is most desirable to
have variety and contrast in the lines of your composition, it is highly
important that these values be carried to no great excess. An outline,
well diversified in a natural manner, will always be more pleasing to the
eye than a repetition of lines without variety; for the sight is as soon
fatigued with monotony and repetition of forms as the ear is with the
continued recurrence of the same sounds. The rounded forms of the
clouds will contrast with the angular forms of the mountain, and these,
in their turn, with the horizontal lines of water; but it is the breaking
up of these masses I would particularly wish you to guard against, always
bearing in mind it denotes greater talent in those who can “ simplify,”
rather than in those who ‘‘ cut up” or complicate their productions, For
instance, see that your distance is not “ broken up” by, say, an open row

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of trees cutting across it on to the sky line, thus rendering patches of
distance as seen between the trees as patches also of the trees themselves
(Fig. 5). Get to some other position, in which you can either command
the distant prospect without the interruption of the trees, say, above
them, or else go closer to them, in order that you may get a view between
them, and thus overcome the difficulty (Fig. 6).

Hundreds of otherwise good pictures are quite spoiled through lacking
this great quality of ‘‘ unity” or breadth, whilst those of a very low
order excel, in the minds of the vulgar, in its very violation.

Let me give you an example of one of these latter. A little piece of

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rock here, or a tiny bush there, two stones placed together and another
not far off. A winding road which leads to nowhere, cropping up at un-
expected intervals, serves to offer some foundation for travellers who are
seen to keep a most regular and respectful distance from each other, A
little to the right is a placid stream of water, with a wonderful lot of
rushes of isolated growth and “ pot-hook” form. A man in a boat adds
life to this portion, whilst a bridge, at no -remote distance, affords a
vantage ground for one on fishing bent. It would be hard for these poor
souls to be far away from any source of refreshment, so a kindly hand
erects an inn, and finds a landlord too. You have often seen him. He
is most generally to be observed at the door, whilst his wife leans out at
the window. Two cows in marching order, single file, one red the other
white, go, together with a black horse, to complete the list of all the
bodies terrestrial. The prospect beyond is of great variety; heathery

© a)

moors and glowing fields, rocks of quaint geological formation, and cas-
eades past conception to the ordinary human mind ; but at last they are
all merged into the distance, and find repose in the ‘‘ blues.”

We have seen, thus far, the most agreeable situation for the ‘‘ horizon,”
the position of the point of sight, the tendency of the general lines, the
disposition of the masses, and the desirability of maintaining ‘‘ breadth”
to the exclusion of ‘‘ spottiness ” in our pictures. We must now consider

Fig. 6.

the balance of parts, or the relation which one or more masses bear to
others in the composition,

BawaNceE OF Parts.

A balance of parts does not necessarily mean that equal quantities of
the subject should be placed on each side of the picture. We have
already noticed this unsatisfactory effect in the view of the roadway as
seen from a central position. A great preponderance of your subject
may exist on one side, and yet be sufficiently balanced on the other by a
group of figures, an object, or a mass of either light or shade. Indeed,
it is common, in most landscape compositions, to place a greater mass
on one side or the other, allowing it to slope into the distance, the mass
being balanced, say, if in a harbour, by “‘ shipping,” or, in the case of a
roadway, by ‘animals or figures,” the shipping, animals, or figures,
always holding a secondary position in reference to the amount of space
they occupy (Fig. 7).

Not only is this arrangement more pleasing in its lines, but it is

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decidedly more picturesque in the irregularity of its parts. Another
very general and agreeable composition is that in which the greatest
mass is allowed to take a position a little to either right. or left of the
centre, sloping towards the sides, the objects which balance it being
placed in close proximity (Fig. 8).

In the infinite variety of aspect in which nature is presented to us,
it is obvious no code of rules could be formulated to adequately suit all

circumstances, so that one’s own personal judgment must be largely
relied upon for selection and arrangement, and, in proportion to the
artistic knowledge we possess, so will depend the success or otherwise of
our productions.

Strone Licuts.

It must be remembered that brilliant light and strength of tone act
in a powerful manner on composition. A very small quantity of black
and white in violent contrast will require a large amount of middle or
half-tone to subdue it and preserve the harmony of the whole.

You will allow me to suggest, when photographing from nature, the
necessity of bearing in mind those colours which are likely to give these
strong contrasts when reduced to black and white, in order that you may
make due allowance for their balance in your composition. I am told it
is an excellent plan to use a piece of cobalt blue glass when selecting a
subject, as the tones can more readily be estimated by this means rather
than on the ground glass.

a2

(10+)

Cuter Pont.

Do not forget there should be a chief point of interest in every picture
which should at once arrest the eye, and in relation to which all other points
must be held subordinate. Where this “‘ chief point ” should be situated

depends very much on the character of the subject chosen, but some
points in a landscape are so obviously well suited for this purpose that
they should at once be selected and decided upon. In historical or
genre pictures the chief point of interest is not unfrequently placed in or
near the centre, but it is by no means essential it should occupy that
position alone.

Having now determined your “chief point,” you will arrange the
residue of your subject in such a manner as shall keep up the interest of
the whole, and present to the eye an agreeable composition. One object
should never be placed over another when that other is of equal size or
effect, as this, by dividing the interest, would destroy the power of both.
For the same reason two objects of the same size and interest should
never be placed so as to appear one on either side of a middle object.
One must be rendered subservient to the other to overcome this

deteriorating effect.

VX

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PROPORTIONS.

The proportions of pictures may vary with the general forms of the
subject selected, but they should never be exactly square. The effect of
height is often aided by an upright form, but its height should be
evidently more than its width. For landscapes an oblong form is most
desirable, varying in length as the prospect demands.

Lieut AND SHADE.

We will next see what influence “light and shade,” or ‘‘ chiaro-oscuro,”
has upon pictorial effect. The words ‘‘chiaro-oscuro”’ are commonly
translated “light and shade.” Some writers prefer ‘“‘ clear obscure,’’ or
‘“light obscure.” The term is used in reference to the lights and shadows
of a picture, as also to its tones of colour.

In contemplating an extensive landscape it may have been noted that
on the objects and forms nearest to the eye the most brilliant lights and
the deepest shadows are seen ; and that, as the distance from the eye in-
creases, these lights and shadows gradually diminish in intensity until
they are ultimately lost, blending together in a kind of greyish-blue tint.
Not only is it found that lights and shades lose their intensity in pro-
portion to their nearness or remoteness from the spectator, but, as a
necessary consequence, the contrasts also are less prominent, and the
outlines less distinct, the more the distance is increased.

it may be as well here to state that there is a distinction between shade
and shadows, the former being used in reference to those portions of
opaque bodies which are removed from direct light, and the latter the
deprivation of direct light suffered by another body, occasioned by the
opacity of an object which intercepts it. That it is necessary to make
this distinction is obvious, from the fact that in nature there is invariably
found a difference in the intensity of these two kinds of shade, the shadow
being almost always darker than the shade on the adjoining body by
which the shadow is cast. This can be easily seen by taking a white
object, say, a cube, and placing it on a sheet of white paper in a strong
light, when it will be seen the portion of the cube in shade will be lighter
than the shadow it casts, This difference is occasioned by reflected light ;
but it is unnecessary for me to do more than just refer to it, or detain
‘you further on the matter.

It is the intention of a good picture to tell its story distinctly and
intelligibly, avoiding all things which disturb the attention. This,
without a good knowledge of chiaro-oscuro, cannot be done, for, unless
the artist strictly adheres to the leading principles of this department of
art, his labour will be thrown away. His first endeavour must be to
obtain unity of light and shade by so massing his lights on the chief
point of the picture that the eye may dwell on it with undisturbed
satisfaction. To scatter over a picture at regular intervals a variety of
objects having an equal degree of light is to produce a result more nearly
approaching the nature of a chess-board, where the alternating spaces of

black and white, so equal in size and power, allow the eye to wander over
its surface, finding not a single point of interest on which it can repose.
The quantity of dark shade given in paintings is about one quarter ;
another quarter is allowed for light, and the remainder for middle tint-
In many excellent pictures we see the greatest part occupied by middle
tint, with very little positive light or dark, and in others we find a
preponderance of light, with just a little ‘‘ strengthening ” or ‘‘ darken-
ing” of a part to create a focus for the whole. Generally in this latter
composition small spots of colour, or strong contrasts, are introduced
with telling effect, as is often to be noticed in some of Turner’s charming
works, in which a group of figures, a boat, or even a few broken posts,
give extreme brilliancy to the picture.

As we are dealing with the camera now, it will be unnecessary for me

to enter into the various methods adopted by artists in the treatment of
chiaro-oscuro, because it is obvious the photographer’s art is limited to the
extent that he is only able to reproduce the subject as it appears before
his lens, after a careful selection of his position, &c., and the due con-
sideration of its most suitable lighting, whereas an artist has greater
scope in introducing certain effects, which may enhance the beauty of
the composition, although not actually present in the particular subject
before him. This would be considered under the head of ‘‘ invention,”
which need not trouble us here.

Supposing you have chosen your position, you will note how the
objects in the foreground tell, the proportions of the strongest contrasts,
the amount of brightest light and deepest shade in proportion to the
remaining middle tint. See the shade and shadow is not in excess, so as
to produce a dark and heavy result, and that the light does not pre-
ponderate, fcr an exactly opposite reason whereby a weak and insipid

i i a

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picture will be obtained. Do not hesitate to alter your position if these
do not quite satisfy you, as no success is gained without labour, and a
good negative is worth a little trouble. It will require some amount of
practice to nicely determine the “values” of distant prospects, as in
photography colour is reduced to black and white, with intermediate
tones ; but for near scenes, picturesque bits, old houses, &c., this difficulty
is soon overcome when it is remembered what depth of tone certain
colours produce.

Although unity of light must always be sought after, it must not be
carried to too great an extreme, as repose will almost be lost by the eye
being continually recalled to this isolated point (Fig. 9). In order that

this singleness may be prevented, it is advisable that other groups of light
should be admitted (Fig. 10).

These must be varied in their form, size, and degrees of power, and
the breadth of the shadows so well preserved, that they may serve as
places of repose to the eye, separating the groups from each other, that
is, there should be one single portion having the most brilliant light—and
consequently possessing the greatest contrast in the opposite depth of
shade-—to which should be added other groups of light of a less degree of
intensity, whereby both unity and repose will be secured.

The term ‘‘ repose” is applied to those parts of a picture, either in deep
shadow or middle tint, where lights and shades are so subdued that the
eye can rest upon them without fatigue, after the excitation produced by
the brilliancy and effects of the principal parts.

However scattered objects may be throughout the picture, they must be
so grouped and collected together that, although each object has its own
particular light and shade, the lights of all should generally mass together,
as well as the shades, which will give a unity of effect always to be com-

A aes

mended (Fig. 11). Cast shadows will be found of great assistance in
securing this quality of unity, inasmuch as, by passing from one object to
another, they connect and hold them together (Fig. 12).

Seeing that shadows are more prolonged when the sun is low, it will be
well to make exposures, when possible, either in the morning or after-
noon rather than exactly at noon. As, in speaking of composition, it

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was suggested that lines receding from the foreground were to be pre-
ferred, so, in the matter of shadows, parallel lines should be avoided.

INTEREST IN OBJECTS In LIGHT.

It is important to observe that when any object is placed in light it is
essential it should either possess some interest in itself or in its acces-
sories in order that it may have that degree of interest which alone can
allow the eye to rest upon it with satisfaction. Without such care it will
appear bald and uncouth, and present an uninteresting and defective
appearance. Thus, if you are about to select a rustic cottage with white-
washed walls, see that the portions in light have a few picturesque cracks
between the stones, or across the plaster, are partly hidden by a creeper,

a

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(740 -)

or an apple-tree close by. Perhaps a nail may be found on which to
hang a bird-cage basket, some garden implements, a sieve, or article of
wearing apparel. If a fisherman’s abode, nets, crab-pots, oars and spars
may be requisitioned, and, failing all these, it will possibly afford a suit-
able position to place a figure, care being taken in selection of colour of
dress in reference to contrast. If the ugliness cannot be overcome by

Fig. 12.

any of these means it will be best to reject it altogether, or defer its
portraiture until a more fitting time, when it may be seen in shade, and,
in consequence, be less conspicuous,

To recapitulate, we have noticed the most brilliant lights and shades
are in the foreground, gradually losing their intensity as distance increases,
that there is a distinction between shade and shadow, the latter being the
darker of the two, the intention of a good picture to tell its own story,
which is impossible without good arrangement of light and shade, the
great importance of unity in this matter to the getting rid of scattered
light, various proportions of light and shade in compositions, the desir-
ability of having more than a single spot of light and the proportionate
intensity and variation in size of those added, the gathering together of

aos)

scattered objects, the assistance of cast shadows, and the necessity of
having interest in the portion in light.

To determine the most suitable manner in which we may introduce our
figures, and to find the most appropriate position to place them in, must
be our next endeavour.

Ficurss, &c.

There are but few scenes in nature, however beautiful they may be,
upon which the eye can rest with continued pleasure unless they exhibit
some signs of animated life; consequently, few landscapes are complete
without the introduction of figures or animals, which shall enlist our
sympathies on behalf of the scene presented to us, and, moreover, furnish
us with a scale by which we may judge of the extent of the view and the
size of every other object it may contain.

Who does not know how greatly a wild stretch of mountain and moor
is enhanced by the presence of deer, shaggy cattle, or horned sheep ? and,
supposing it to represent a spot even too dreary to afford sustenance for
these, how welcome is the dark form of a cormorant rising with heavy
beat from a peat-stained tarn, whose waters, chafed by the flapping wings,
break into silver ripples along its course to the opposite shore! Or, to
take a pastoral scene, who will deny the increased interest manifested in
the contemplation of an old timber waggon with its team of horses and
rustic attendants, whose demeanour, perhaps, suggesting some slight
incident, no matter how trivial in itself, not only gives to the whole an
air of reality and truthfulness, but lends an additional charm to the
prospect presented.

Views which consist in a large measure of water, be it river, lake, or
sea, find their proper embellishments in ships’ barges and fishing craft of
all conditions of shape and size, and of every possible description.

It is very essential in choosing an object or figure to remember it
should be ‘‘in keeping” with the rest of the picture. Thus, in a village
scene consisting of thatched cottages, with trees, a tiny brook, and
distant country beyond, it would be highly injudicious to introduce an
individual whose chief attributes consist of a stove-pipe hat, with coat
and trousers of the latest West-end cut and design, to say nothing of
‘“‘ spats”? upon his feet, and a stick and glass complete, very proper, no
doubt, to his mind, for Piccadilly, but utterly unfit for the purpose we
require. Rather let us look about for one whose clothes bespeak honest
labour, which have long since lost the creases they once possessed in the
shopman’s windows, having, in part, become moulded to the form which
lives beneath them.

Another point I should like you to consider is the ‘‘ pose’’ of your
figures. It must be admitted that, in many cases, there is a lack of
grace in country-side folk and a certain amount of crudeness, or angu-
larity, call it what you like, about their natural attitudes. Perhaps no
one better than a painter knows the great difficulty there isin overcoming
this unfortunate effect, the most trying part of which is, that, the more
you endeavour to get your models into a pleasing attitude, the more rigid
and angular they become. They have the knowledge they are being

a

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© took,” and, as they generally hold views diametrically opposed to those
of the artist on such matters, a pleasing result is only obtained after much
tribulation. This is, however, most to be remarked in persons of middle
life and onwards, as children of both sexes and those in the hey-day of
youth generally pose themselves in very pleasing attitudes, quite befitting
their country life and occupation.

Whilst it should be your aim to place your figures in such a manner as
shall present agreeable lines in your composition, be very careful you
avoid the other extreme in giving them a species of classic pose more
suggestive of Junos or Dianas than the simple folk of a country village,
remembering you had better a thousand times have angular and even
somewhat ugly forms in your pictures than that such a result should
obtain.

These remarks apply to rustic scenes and general landscape views, and,
inasmuch as a West-end fop would be ‘‘out of keeping’ in proximity to
thatched roofs and whitewashed walls, so would a ploughboy in a like
degree be out of place in a London-drawing room, however much you
might wish to emphasise contrast. Always see, then, that your figures
are suited to the situation you intend them to occupy, and endeavour to
place them in as natural and easy a posture as possible.

Now, as to where they should be introduced in your compositions.
This will entirely depend on the subject you select, and what you deter-
mine shall be your strong point. If you decide that an object in the
landscape shall first arrest attention, the figures will then have to hold a
secondary position; but, if there is nothing of any particular interest in
your view, let the figures be made of more importance. They will
generally be found useful as a ‘‘ balance” in the composition, or as a
“contrast,” the irregularity of their outlines being opposed to the lines
and angles of buildings, as also their apparel, to the darker tones of
vegetation, or vice versd.

Another point you should consider is, whether you intend to make a
‘* figure subject’ or a ‘“‘ landscape with figures,” as on this depends the
size of the figures, or the space they should occupy. Avoid having them
of such a size as would leave any doubt in the mind of the observer which
was the more important part of the picture, the figures or the landscape.
If the former, the prospect beyond should be broad and effective in its
masses; if the latter, then the figures should be just sufficient to serve as
_ a scale, and give additional interest to the whole.

In “ grouping”’ care should be taken that no two groups are of the
same size, nor placed in opposite positions. Always endeavour to have
one group larger than any others, both as regards number and the space
it occupies. Generally, groups should diminish in the space they occupy
as they recede from the eye. If the light admits, try and connect them
by means of the shadows they cast ; sometimes a dog will be found very
useiul to this end. In placing your models avoid formality, aiming
rather at irregularity in their outlines. You do not want a regiment of
soldiers; hence never arrange them in line, have some portion of the
group higher at one point or another, not forgetting that nets or farming
implements carried on the shoulder will materially assist you in this

direction. If you have a preponderance of vertical lines in your com-
position, let the figures pose in such a way as shall cut them obliquely;

Fig. 13.

should horizontal lines be in excess, connect them with those of perpen-

dicular tendency (Figs. 13 and 14).
The ‘‘ relief” which figures afford in your pictures must receive some

consideration ; and, perhaps, in no instance will it be more necessary to
remember what tones certain colours take when reduced to black and
white. If this is overlooked, it will be found, after much care and trouble
have been expended on their arrangement, you will get no effect, owing to

(ened *)

the colours of the apparel worn by your figures being so near in tone to
whatever may form their background.

If your background is light, you will have greater ‘‘ breadth,” if the
tones of the dresses produce a light middle tint. If contrast is required,
you will have recourse to pronounced tone; but, supposing you have a
street view in some village, the brightest light being on the side of a
house or wall, it is by no means necessary you should straightway select
that spot as the most suitable to place your figures wearing the darkest
clothes, unless you desire to rivet the attention of the observer on that
particular point. It is impossible, in the infinite range of subjects which
will commend themselves to your notice, to say where your figures should
be placed in every instance. If you have natural taste, positions will be
suggested almost at a glance, and it will only remain for you to bear in
mind some of the precepts which have been enumerated, in order to
determine which is the most suitable, in keeping with the laws of
composition.

To those who do not possess this precious gift, but who are anxious to
produce pictures having some claim to artistic merit, I can only advise
they should endeavour to master these rules—a by no means insuperable
task—at the same time taking note of good work executed by others, not
only in photography, but in every branch of pictorial art, and, above all
things, continually going to Nature, closely studying her under her many
aspects, thereby acquiring a knowledge which can never fail to interest,
and which will always elevate and refine.

Let me say, in conclusion, I hope these remarks on composition may
assist you in your future efforts with the camera; and, although at first
sight it may appear a difficult matter to overcome, it should be remem-
bered, so vast is the importance of its principles to the artist, that any
time spent upon their acquisition will be well bestowed. Of this, how-
ever, we may all rest assured, that no portion of sound knowledge is
ever gained without some corresponding amount of exertion, and equally
certain is it that ‘“‘ excellence is never granted to man but as a reward
of labour.”

The following works have been referred to in the foregoing remarks :
—Theory and Practice of Landscape Painting, by George Barnard ;
Theory of Painting, by T. H. Fielding; Model Drawing and Perspective,
by Williams.

—

PROCEEDINGS

OF

THE CROYDON MICROSCOPICAL AND
NATURAL HISTORY CLUB.

189T 2.

Gwentp-second Annual Meeting.
Held at the Public Hall, Croydon, January 18th, 1892.
Epwarp Lovett, President, in the chair.

Tae Balance-sheet of the accounts for 1891 (p. elxxviii) was
taken as read and passed.

It was then proposed by the Hon. Secretary, seconded by Mr.
P. Crowley, and carried, that Rule 1 (management of the Club)
be altered by adding the words ‘‘a Librarian’ as a member of
the Committee, and that Rule 5 (membership) be altered by
adding the following words at the end :—‘‘ And any member more
than one year in arrear may be struck off, unless special cause
to the contrary be shown to the Committee.”

Mr. Bayard having resigned the office of Hon. Secretary, and
it being considered to be detrimental to the interests of the Club
to change both its President and Hon. Secretary at the same
time, it was proposed by Mr. Crowley, seconded by Mr. Mennell,
and carried unanimously, that the rule affecting the eligibility of
a President for re-election be suspended for this year, and that
Mr. Lovett be asked to occupy the chair for one year longer.

On the proposition of Dr. Franklin Parsons, seconded by Mr.
Cushing, Mr. Sturge was unanimously re-elected Treasurer, and
a vote of thanks was accorded to him for his services during the
past year.

It was proposed by the President, and seconded by Mr. W. Low
Sarjeant, that Mr. Walter Budgen be elected Hon. Secretary in

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elxii Proceedings.

the place of Mr. Bayard, resigned; this was carried unanimously,
and a hearty vote of thanks was passed to Mr. Bayard for his
services as Hon. Secretary.

Mr. Bayard was then, on the proposition of Mr. Sarjeant,
seconded by Mr. Goodman, elected Librarian.

No other nominations having been received, Mr. T. D. Aldous,
F.R.M.S., and Mr. J. Weir Brown were elected to serve on the
Committee in the place of Mr. James Epps, jun., and Mr. C. F.
Oakley, who retire in accordance with the rules.

The following is a list of the officers for the year 1892 :—

President.—Epwarp Lovert.

Vice- Presidents—Joun Berney, F.R.M.S.; Pamir Crowney,
F.L.S., F.Z.8., &c.; Henny S. Haron, M.A., F.R. Met.
Soc.; Henry T. Mennett, F.L.S.; Henry G. TxHompson,
M.D.

Treasurer.—Kpwarp B. Sturcs.

Hon. Secretary.—WautER BupGeEn.

Librarian.—F. C. Bayarp.

Committee—T. D. Atpous, F.R.M.S.; J. Wem Brown; A.
B. Carpenter, B.A., M.R.C.S.; C. H. Goopman; H. D.
Gower; W. Murron Hotmes; K. McKean, F.L.S.; W.

Low Sargeant; Ernest STRAKER.

The President then delivered his Address, at the conclusion of
which a cordial vote of thanks was accorded to him for his
Address, and for his services during the past year.

The President's Address.
GENTLEMEN,

In adopting the well-established custom of reviewing the
past year’s history of our Club im a Presidential Address, I
think we may congratulate ourselves that our society is still in
the ascendant. During the year we have enrolled 42 new mem-
bers, and lost from various sources, chiefly by removals from the
district, 33, leaving a net gain of 9 members, or exactly the same
increase as in 1890. We now number 303 members, which is a
remarkably good roll for a Club that has existed for 22 years
without once making a backward movement. I trust that our
present members will still further help to enlarge our member-
ship, and thus strengthen their Club during the present year by
inducing their friends to join.

I will now say a few words upon the next important matter,
namely, our financial position, which is after all the source of
life of all undertakings involving expenditure. A year ago I
drew particular attention to the alarming way in which our
expenditure was exceeding our income. This year that has

Proceedings. elxiii

happily ceased, and we stand in a really strong position con-
sidering the numerous and heavy calls upon our comparatively
slender income. From the Balance-sheet before you it will be
seen that we leave off with some £13 in hand. Of this, how-
ever, £10 consists of donations specially given towards the Rain-
fall Returns for the ensuing year (for which also £12 more is
kindly promised), This reduces our actual balance to £3 as
against £22 last year. But upon looking down the expenditure
for the year 1891, it will be seen that several large items have
been paid which belong to 1890, the accounts for which had, I
believe, not been sent in in time. Amongst these is £24 for
printing Transactions, £7 share of Rainfall Returns grant, and
£9 for Soirée of 1890; so that in reality we began this year
with liabilities of at least £40 against a balance of £22. At the
present, however, our accounts are practically all paid up, and
our balance, though small, is our own.

Again our prospects are good, for, besides the two generous
donations of Mr. Baldwin Latham and Mr. Compton Rickett
towards our Rainfall expenses, we have, as I said, £12 more
promised; so that with care we should close the present year
with a net credit balance of £30.

It will be seen from the Balance-sheet that a great saving
has last year been effected in our Soirée expenses, which
amounted last November to £31, as against £60 for 1890. The
modifications in our arrangements which led to this saving did
not meet with universal approval, but they have at least been
the means of relieving your Committee from the position of
having to report that the Club was in debt to the extent of some
£20. The further generous donation of £5 by Mr. McKean was
for the benefit of our Photographic Section.

As regards our Special Fund, which, as you are aware, is
available for appliances, apparatus, books, &c., useful to our
Club, we have a balance of £22. Although we have a fairly
good library, I do not think we possess any practical works on
photography, except the current journals, which have been kindly
given by Mr. Gower. I therefore think, as we have so many
photographers amongst us, that a few books for their use might
with advantage be procured.

Our Sub-Committees continue to work in their various sub-
jects, but I think some might do more, the chief delinquent, I
fear, being my own Section, the Geological. The Reports of the
Sub-Committee Secretaries for the past year are as follows :—

Report OF THE BoranicAL Sus-CoMMITTEE, JANUARY, 1891.

Since our last Report some valuable additions have been made to the
Club Herbarium, notably a series of specimens of Surrey Epilobia
(willow herbs), including several hybrids from the Rey. E. 8. Marshall,

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elxiv Proceedings.

of Whitley. The genus Epilobium is one of the most difficult, owing
to the readiness with which the species composing it hybridise.

We are not aware of any additions to the records of Surrey plants
during the year. Mr. Beeby writes :—‘‘ We cannot now expect many
new records for the county; our work lies among the critical genera, and
in testing what are really varieties and what are merely states, &c.”

It may, however, be noted that Senecio viscosus has appeared in
considerable plenty this year on the new roads on Park Hill. Itisa
rare and local plant in the county, and, we believe, not previously
recorded from the neighbourhood of Croydon. F

At the Field Meeting to Caterham and Whitehill, on the 3rd Angust,
the botanists of the party found ample employment, the most note-
worthy of their spoils being the curious saprophyte (or parasite on
decayed vegetable matter), Hypopithys multiflora, found in plenty
under the beeches at the top of Whitehill.

In our last Report we referred to the occurrence of Phylloxera at
Kew, on the strength of a newspaper paragraph. Mr. R. McLachlan
informs us it was at the Royal Horticultural Society’s Gardens at
Chiswick that the pest appeared; but it was, as we stated, promptly
got rid of by burning the plants and soil.

At the recent Soirée the Collection of the Club was exhibited, and
made a good show. Amongst the other botanical exhibits may be
noted a fine series of rare Welsh plants by the Messrs. Salmon, of
Reigate, including Lloydia serotina, Helianthemum Breweri, Cine-

raria spathulefolia, &e. This exhibit was noteworthy not only for

the intrinsic interest of the plants themselves, but also for the beauty
of the specimens, and the care bestowed in their mounting.

Mr. Mennell exhibited specimens of orchises (O. pyramidalis, O-
conopsea, and O. apifera) dried after being treated with sulphurous
acid, by which the colours are admirably preserved, and retain much
of the vividness and beauty of the living plant. The plants are im-
mersed in a solution of equal parts of sulphurous acid and methylated
spirit for about ten minutes before being dried in the usual way.
Another method recommended by our fellow-member, Mr. Packham,
is to dust the plant over with dry salicylic acid when putting it intothe
press, and to renew the operation when first changing the papers; he
states that he has tried this method with much success. It is desirable
that both methods should be further tried, and the results reported to
us.—Henry IT. MENNELL, Hon. Sec.

REPORT OF THE GEOLOGICAL SUB-CoMMITTEE, JANUARY, 1891.

I regret that, owing to the little that has taken place during the past
year in the way of penetrating the surface of the ground, there is
httle or nothing come to hand for me to record.

The Excursion of August 3rd was under the direction of this Sub-
Committee. Owing to the threatening nature of the weather, very
few members put in an appearance, eight being the number which
started from Caterham at the appointed time (11 for 10.30 a.m.) the
weather then being very fine. The route taken was across the Valley
to Whitehill. Wild flowers were in profusion, and many plants of
interest were gathered. Lepidoptera was also faily abundant; among
others, Zygena filipendule wascommon. Butterflies, however, were

Proceedings. elxv

searce. Besides a profusion of Hymenoptera, Diptera, and many
Coleoptera, on Whitehill, the curious larva of the fox moth, Bombyx
vubt, was found. i

After noticing the chalky pebble bed which caps part of Whitehill,
the party enjoyed the very extensive view obtained from this point,
distant spots being very plainly seen, and were enabled to follow the
various outcrops and escarpments most distinctly for many miles.
The hill was then descended, and a spring at the junction of the upper
greensand and gault was observed; a disused brick-yard, densely
clothed with vegetation, offered a small section of the gault-clay
for inspection. A little farther on the road photographs were taken
(three cameras being amongst the party) of an interesting old gabled
farmhouse. After this the rich corn-growing strip of ground charac-
teristic of the lower greensand formation was traversed, and the
village of Bletchingley was reached, where other photographs were
taken of the old church with its stout square tower, also of some
picturesque bits in the village street. The walk then led past the old
village pound to Nutfield, where attention was called to the fuller’s-
earth pits of the lower greensand formation.

The party returned from Red Hill at 4.15 p.m. after a remarkably
pleasant day, the weather being perfection, with the exception of two
very short showers. Upon reaching Croydon, however, a very heavy
hail and thunderstorm was just clearing, to be followed, however, by
four others during the evening.—Ep. Lovett, Hon. Sec.

RepPoRT oF THE METEOROLOGICAL SuUB-CoMMITTEE, JANUARY, 1891.

The Meteorological Sub-Committee has continued its work under
the supervision of its Hon. Sec., Mr. Bayard. The daily rainfall of
50 stations in the Club district has been tabulated every month,
examined, and corrected, and the results printed and issued to the
observers and all members of the Club interested in the question
either before or within a very few days after the end of the month
succeeding that to which the statistics refer.

As the monthly sheet is now full, it is proposed not to print the daily
values of more than 50 stations, and, with respect to all other stations
in the district, to give the monthly totals in the Sub-Committee’s
annual report. Having regard to the very important question of the
water supply of London, the value of the Club’s work through its
Meteorological Sub-Committee is becoming greatly appreciated.

At the beginning of the year the Committee made a grant to the
Meteorological Sub-Committee of £25 for the expenses connected with
the rainfall returns. The actual amount paid out in the course of the
year is £32 7s. 1d., but this amount included part of the grant of 1890,
and on the two years there is a balance in favour of the Club of rather
over £1, which the Sub-Committee regard as satisfactory.—F. C.
Bayarp, Hon. Sec. -

ReEpPorT OF THE MicroscopicaL SuB-CoMMITTEE, JANUARY, 1891.

I am sorry to say that there is nothing particular to report. The
slide cabinet has been arranged, but only two or three sets of slides
have been borrowed by members.

elxvi Proceedings.

The only event of the year was the special evening with the micro-
scope on the 29th April, 1891, when the following gentlemen exhibited
a variety of interesting objects under their microscopes, viz. :—
Thomas Aldous, J. H. Baldock, J. Berney, P. Crowley, J. Epps, jun.,
C. H. Goodman, H. Greenway, W. M. Holmes, E. Lovett, J. E.
Syms, E. B. Sturge, N. Waterall, W. B. Priest (Quekett Mic. Club).

It would be a good plan if we could combine to get more of the
‘evenings with the microscope,” but so many of our members have
given up their microscopes for photography, that it is somewhat
difficult to get a sufficient number to exhibit. Iam glad to see that
the latter section has been doing some excellent work in photographing
microscopic objects, a combination of science and art which ought to
be productive of some interesting evenings with the lantern.—W.
Murton Hotmes, Hon. Sec.

RerortT oF THE Zootocicat Sus-CommirTer, JANuARY, 1891.

The Report of the Zoological Sub-Committee is somewhat brief, and
I have therefore embodied a few remarks of my own with it.

Mr. Berney writes that ‘‘ Sambucaria,” in its larval state, hyber-
nates, feeds up again in the spring, and does not appear as an imago
till the latter end of June. I had some larve this autumn, and five of
them changed to pupe; two came out on December 24th, 1891, as
wmagines.

During the summer Aphides had been troublesome in gardens,
especially the woolly aphis or American blight. I may mention that
a good remedy for these pests, as also for swarms of caterpillars on
trees, is as follows :—Syringe the affected trees just before rain with a
mixture of a gallon of water in which is dissolved a little soft-soap and
a teacupful of paraffin oil added and well stirred in.

The larve of Mamestra persicaria were very abundant, eating up all
flowering plants. The common white butterflies were, as of late
years, quite rare in our gardens.

Cheimatobia brumata.— On Sunday evening, Nov. 29th, about
6.30 to 10 p.m., there were a great number of the males of this moth
on the road lamps at Addiscombe. I examined about 20 lamps, and
every one had some of these moths upon them. I counted 25 speci-
mens on one lamp, and there were as many on several others. -In the
main road there were only a few (three or four) on each lamp, and the
larger numbers were all on lamps in the lower parts of the locality.
The weather was misty and damp; a dead calm, temperature about
43°F. The larve of this moth do immense damage to various trees,
and the females are selapterous,

REPORT OF THE PHOTOGRAPHIC SUB-CoMMITTEE, JANUARY, 1891.

During the past few years the Photographie Section has been steadily
growing, and at the present time it is probably the strongest section of
the Club.

A brief history of its growth perhaps would not be amiss, as it will
show that when photography was first introduced into the Club it was
by no means a bad speculation, as we have gained many new members
other than pure students of nature.

In 1883 and 1884. The Section was not known, but there were

or

Proceedings. elxvil

probably many who practised this art, but had no means of bringing
their exertions into prominence.

In 1884 to 1886. We hear our new Photographic Section spoken of,
but then very few in number,

The year 1886 and 1887. Again the Section is alive, and noted as
being most active during that year.

1887 and 1888. The Photographic Section is chronicled as having
15 members, and the first Friday in each month was fixed for meetings
of the section, apart from the General and Conversational Meetings
of the Club.

1888, 1889. 31 members are notified, and at that time it was probably
the strongest section that the Club had.

In 1889, 1890, 43 members.

In 1890, 1891, 60 members.

And the present year (1891—92) we muster 73 members, which is
very satisfactory ; and I am happy to say we are still on the increase.

Seven excursions were made during the summer:—April 11th,
Addington Park ; April 25th, Oxted and Godstone ; May 9th, Arundel ;
May 23rd, Groombridge; June 6th, Haslemere; July 25th, Kingston ;
Sept. 12th, The Ballards. (And the Photo. Section has also availed
itself of the rambles and field excursions arranged by the other sections
of the Club). All the excursions have been fairly well attended. The
whole days were not perhaps quite so well patronised, owing to the
inability of members to get away.

The half-day excursion to Groombridge, under the direction of
Mr. Carter, was the best attended of any ; 28 members availed them-
selves of the opportunity to be present.

The Technical and Conversational Meetings have been well attended,
and the dark room has been used; but latterly, owing to accidents
with regard to overflow of water, which made the room damp, we
have been compelled to hold our weekly Conversational Meetings in
the Club-room. Now, however, alterations have been made that will,
I hope, render this room more useful to the Club.

It has been arranged to hold meetings, and to have definite papers
and subjects, every Friday evening for the future, and such subjects
allied to photography as will promote discussions; and, though these
meetings are promoted by the Photographic Section, it is hoped that
the members of the Club at large will avail themselves of them; and
I can only repeat what has been said before as to the desirability of
the union of the Photographie Section with the whole of the other
Sections for the purpose of assisting them to illustrate the valuable
communications made to the Club from time to time.

At the Soirée this year the Section was fairly well represented, but
many looked-for exhibitors were absent, probably owing to the past
season having been hardly up to the standard for good photographic
work, and also owing to many members using hand cameras, which
produce pictures hardly large enough for exhibition. -

There was a good show of transparencies, some hundreds of lantern
slides and transparencies being on view, and showing a high state of
perfection. :

In conclusion, I must say that the Section is as flourishing as ever
it was, and that by continued exertions on the part of the members
it will gain a prominence that has not before been obtained.—Harry
D. Gower, Hon. Sec.

elxviii Proceedings.

The excursions for the year, like many other things in 1891,
suffered severely from the weather, the first one, on Whit-
Monday, being perhaps the greatest sufferer in this respect.

Whit-Monday, 18th May, 1891.—-This excursion was arranged
by Mr. E. B. Sturge to leave Croydon per rail about 10 o’clock for
Cowden in Kent, thence walk to the village, where there are
several old half-timbered houses and an old church, the tower of
which was much damaged by lightning a few years since; then
cross the ‘‘ Kent Water’ into Sussex at Holtye Common; near
this, the Furnace Pond, is a large sheet of water with a mill.
Continuing the walk to Hammerwood Church and on to East
Grinstead, about eight miles in all. The morning being ex-
tremely wet and stormy, only two members, Messrs. Goodman
and Sturge, turned up, but they carried out the programme,
returning by rail to Croydon.

The visit to Kew Gardens, on June 20th, under the direction of
Mr. Mennell, was of much interest, the Alpine and herbaceous
rock garden being examined with much pleasure. Visits were
also paid to the most interesting of the houses, and an ex-
ceedingly pleasant and instructive afternoon was enjoyed by the
party.

Ightham Excursion —On July 11th an excursion took place to
Ightham, under the direction of Mr. Bayard. A small party
met at Beckenham Station and proceeded to Borough Green
Station. On arriving there the party walked to Ightham, where
they spent some time inspecting and photographing a very old
house, which was said to have been the palace of the last Roman
Catholic bishop in England. Thence the party went via Oldbury,
past the Roman camp and Ightham Common to Ightham Mote
House, a very celebrated ‘“‘ moated grange.’’ This being under
repair, the interior could not be seen. ‘Thence the party returned
to Ightham and Borough Green. The weather was magnificent.
Some orchids were found on Ightham Common, and an adder
was captured after considerable trouble.

The August Bank Holiday excursion is referred to in the
Report of the Geological Sub-Committee.

On Sept. 5th a visit was made to the Zoological Society’s
Gardens, under the direction of Mr. Crowley. A considerable
number of members were present, and an exceedingly pleasant
afternoon was spent. Through the influence of Mr. Crowley,
many little points of interest were shown which would not other-
wise have been. A pelican race was one of these, as also was a
private view of the toucans and hornbills, when their curious
manner of catching food thrown to them was shown. A
friendly visit to the anthropoid apes was also made, where the
celebrated ‘‘George,’’ which shortly afterwards unfortunately
died, was inspected by the party. The weather was remarkably

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Proceedings. elxix

good, and several photographs of animals and birds were taken
by some of the photographic members of the Club.

During the year twelve papers have been read at the ordinary
meetings of the Club, and one lecture has been delivered in the
large Public Hall, to which members and their friends were
invited. The subjects of the papers were as follows, viz. :—-

February 11th. — The ‘‘ Annual Rainfall Report”? was pre-
sented by Mr, F. C. Bayard, the statistics and calculations being
tabulated with our Secretary’s usual care and painstaking. The
tables appear in full in our last Report (‘Trans., Art. 91, p. 285).
‘“‘ Discussion on Wandle Temperatures,” from observations by
Mr. F. C. Bayard. These also appear in eatenso in the above-
named Report (Trans., Art. 92, p. 816).

March 11th.‘ The Respiration of Insects,” by Mr. C. H.
Goodman. This very interesting paper, which was admirably
illustrated by slides thrown on the screen by the optical lantern,
referred, firstly, to the various forms of respiratory apparatus,
and then proceeded to deal with the structure and functions of
branchie, trachex, spiracles, &c., of land and aquatic insects.
The paper itself will appear in our ‘Transactions’ (Trans.,
Art. 93), ‘

April 8th.— ‘Notes on the Prehistoric Lake Dwellers of
Switzerland,” by me. In this paper I briefly described the
investigation of these lake deposits. I then alluded to the
various forms of stone and bone implements used by these early
people, and then gave a brief sketch of the probable condition of
their civilisation and social status as deduced from an examina-
tion of the relics left by them. This paper will appear in our
‘Transactions’ (Trans., Art. 94).

May 3rd.—‘‘ Voleanic Action and the Structure of Igneous
Rocks,” by J. J. H. Teall, Esq., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S. This
paper dealt in a very descriptive manner with volcanic pheno-
mena, and was illustrated by means of slides thrown on the
screen by the optical lantern. Volcanic cones, intrusive veins,
traps, and dykes were thus illustrated. Views of existing vol-
canoes and craters were shown, as well as cliff sections showing
the effect of volcanic action in early geological times. Some
views of dykes were shown, in which the intrusive vein of
voleanic rock had been left like a wall, owing to the disintegra-
tion of the softer sandstone through which it had been originally
intruded. The lecturer then described the structure of volcanic
rocks and their mineral composition, illustrating his observations
by a fine series of microscopic rock séctions; these showed the
structures of granites, syenites, basalts, pitch-stones, rhyolites
&c., and referred to some specimens of the latter from the north

elxx Proceedings.

coast of Jersey, in which the structure showed a gradation from
the laminated lava-flow form to the spherular bodies of various
sizes which occur in this rock. Crystals of olivine, quartz,
felspar, &c., were also referred to, and their characteristic forms
and structure shown by the optical lantern.

September 9th.—Four short papers were read at this meeting,
viz. :—* On the occurrence of larve of the Goat Moth, Cossus
ligniperda,” by Mr. W. Murton Holmes; ‘‘On the Sand-wasp,
Ammophila sabulosa,” by Mr. C. H. Goodman; “On a double
nest of the Great Tit built in my garden at Addiscombe,”’ by me ;
and ‘‘ On the use of the Storm Petrel as candles in the Shetland
Islands,” also by me. These papers will appear in eatenso
(Trans., Arts. 95, 96, 97, and 98).

October 14th.‘ On a new Sense,”’ by Mr. Augustus Wheeler,
being the history and growth of spectrum analysis, with some of
its applications to the arts and sciences, illustrated by means of
the optical lantern. After a reference to the nature of light, the
lecturer proceeded to trace the history and growth of the science
of Spectroscopy from the great discovery of Newton of the com-
posite character of light to its refinements at the present day.
Having described the construction of several of the various forms
of spectroscope now in use, and touched upon some of their appli-
cations in the arts, he concluded by devoting some time to the
consideration of the very important aid this branch of science
has rendered to Astronomy, giving the greater prominence to
the measures of motion in the line of sight, in both the solar and
stellar economies, which this method has rendered possible,
laying special emphasis on the recent discoveries of invisible
companions of variable and double stars which were not hitherto
suspected of being binaries, but which have been proved to be so
by their motions as revealed by the spectroscope. The lecture
was illustrated with a large number of lantern slides, several of
which were actual photographs of spectra, and of the heavenly
bodies themselves.

November 2nd.-—‘‘On the Polarization of Light, illustrated
with numerous brilliant slides by means of the Optical Lantern,”
by Mr. J. J. Briginshaw. This very interesting paper, after
dealing with the principles of polarization and the invention of
the apparatus as adjusted to the microscope, proceeded to show,
by means of numerous slides of great beauty, how certain colours
and changes of colour were capable of being produced ; and also
how the power of exhibiting colours could be utilised for the de-
tection of minute mineral crystals in thin sections of rock; as
well as for showing the structure of metallic and other crystalli-
sations when formed by themselves. The lecturer showed a
pretty experiment in the displacement of the atoms in glass, and
consequent polarization caused by pressure, thus illustrating the

—=- 1s. - —- =

Proceedings. elxxi

elasticity of glass. He also successfully showed the growth of
erystals under polarized light.

December 9th.—* On the Signs of the Seasons,” by Mr. Epps.
In this paper, which was of considerable length, Mr. Epps
referred to the occurrence of animals and plants throughout the
twelve months of the year. In the early part of the year our
animals and birds are in winter clothing, and plant-life, except
in a quiescent state, is scarce. Soon, however, the very early
flowers begin to appear, and later on, when our spring flowers
bloom, the summer migratory birds revisit our shores, and nests
of the early pairers are built. Then later migrants arrive, and
insect-life becomes abundant among the now flower-clad fields ;
then follows a period of stillness in the song of birds, and a
temporary scarceness of flowering plants, to be again followed
by the fulness of bloom of late summer, the commencement of
the season of fruit, cereals, and berries, and the departure of
some of our birds. Then comes the time of harvest, with its
characteristic flora, and the tints of autumn. Later, our last
summer migrants leave us, our flowers linger on at the mercy of
the weather, and once more our native birds and animals
assume their winter garb ; our last flowers disappear, and the
country is once more bound in the iron bands of winter’s frost.

On March 18th a lecture was kindly given in the large Public
Hall by Col. Charles Swinhoe, F.L.S., entitled «‘ Mimicry in
Nature.” For this lecture, to which members and friends were
invited, the Club is indebted to the generous kindness of Mr.
Crowley, who himself engaged the Hall, and arranged other
matters on our behalf. The subject, which was illustrated with
a number of photographs and paintings shown by the optical
lantern, dealt mainly with the protective colorisation of forms
of insects, although brief reference was made to one or two
crustaceans, arachnids, and fishes. The lecturer first dealt with
protective resemblance, then with aggressive resemblance, and
lastly with mimicry, as it is called, where one creature liable to
molestation becomes somewhat similar in appearance (through
natural selection) to one not so liable. The lecture, which will
appear in our ‘ Transactions,’ was attentively followed by an
audience of 334 persons (Trans., Art. 99).

The Twenty-second Annual Soirée of the Club was held at
the Institution on Wednesday, Nov. 25th last, and was one of
the best that has taken place. It had been decided to do with-
out the usual refreshments, and, although this modification in
the arrangements did not meet with universal approval, a glance
at our Balance-sheet will show that the retrenchment was justi-
fied by our financial position, for had we incurred the same

elxxii Proceedings.

expenses as on the previous occasion we should start this year
with a debtor balance of about £20, instead of a small balance
on the right side. In point of exhibits, we have seldom if ever
had a better collection at our Soirée. There were 80 microscopes
contributed by our own and eight other Societies. The Photo-
graphic Section showed a fair number of pictures, and arranged
a very attractive table of transparencies. A lantern exhibition
also took place in the Old School of Art Room, and this was very
extensively patronised during the evening. Mr. Crowley, to
whom we were much indebted for a large number of decorative
plants, showed a large series of Lepidoptera of the Indo-
Australian Region ; and Mr. Elliott a miscellaneous collection of
antiquities. My own contribution was a collection of smoking
pipes from all parts of the world, illustrating primitive aboriginal
form and design in such objects. Mr. Bidwell brought a series
of weapons, illustrating the development of the means of firing
gunpowder. Mr. Drage had a very nice collection of nests and eggs
of the eider duck; and Mr. Thorpe, of George Street, lent some
very fine stuffed birds and animals, which greatly added to the
unusually fine effect of the stage decoration ; he also showed some
good sponges and corals. There were a large number of other
objects of interest shown by various members and friends, and the
School of Art assisted with a selection of works by pupils, which
added not a little to the success of the evening. Mr. Mennell
kindly undertook the arrangement of the Club’s herbarium in the
Small Hall, and there were besides several good collections of
botanical specimens. This is referred to in the Report of the
Botanical Sub-Committee. The usual exhibit of flowers gathered
in the open air at Addiscombe on the morning of the Soirée
reached, in number of varieties, 140, which is remarkable when
we consider the very severe and sudden frost of the October
previous, which absolutely destroyed all dahlias, nasturtiums,
and other soft plants. The arrangements as to tables, decora-
tion, &c., were much better than usual, and the carefully worked-
out details as to spaces for exhibitors were, as usual, in the
skilful hands of Mr. Berney. Although both halls were well
filled with exhibits, very many more might have easily been
obtained; and I am sure that if necessary we can give many
Soirées from purely local resources, for we appear to have far
more collections and objects of interest in our midst than we ever
suspected. The total uumber present was 630.

Our Conversational Meetings have been no better attended
than formerly, except, of course, those of our Photographic
Section, when the capacity of our one little room is severely
tested. I regret to say that the dark room, to which I had
looked forward as being of such use to the Club, has been so far

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Proceedings. elxxill

a failure, simply on account of the place proving utterly unfit
for even temporary human habitation owing to its dampness. I
am, however, glad to say that the Institutiou Committee, and
their present courteous secretary, have expressed themselves
anxious to do all they can to make us comfortable; so that I
hope our photographic friends will find the place soon fit
for work.

This brings me to a point which I consider an interesting one.
During the past year you will see that we have had four ordinary
papers and one general lecture, viz., ‘‘ Respiration of Insects,”
“Volcanic Action,” ‘‘ Spectrum Analysis,” ‘Polarization of
Light,’ and ‘‘ Mimicry in Nature” ; all of which were illustrated
by either direct photographs or by hand-drawn diagrams, &c.,
shown on the screen by the optical lantern. I need hardly say
that such illustration is not only far superior to the old diagram
style, but it is of exceeding value in placing the subject of
lectures and papers before us in a pleasing and tre light. .

The co-operation of our Photographic Section is thus an
established fact, and I look forward to much more and more
widely extended assistance in the future, when our ‘ Trans-
_ actions’ will, I hope, contain some proofs of their energy and
industry in the shape of illustrations to some of our papers.
There is practically no limit to the usefulness of the camera, and
I believe that we are only yet on the margin of what is likely to
be done in this direction; and this naturally leads to the con-
sideration once more of our future, and of our accommodation.
Last month I received the following letter from Dr. Carpenter,*
who has given me permission to include it in my Address,
indicating, however, that it only represents his individual
opinion :——

‘‘ Ksplanade Hotel, Ventnor,
“Dec. 15th, 1891.

_ ‘My dear Mr. President,-My long and serious illness has
prevented me fulfilling a promise that I made you in the begin-
ning of this year, that 1 would endeavour to formulate a scheme
for housing the Natural History Society at the Public Hall.
Before, however, I draw up that scheme, I should like to know
from you the amount and character of the accommodation that
you would require, and the rent that the Club could afford to
pay, promising that, if the arrangement is carried out, it shall
be a permanent one, similar to that with the Committee of the
School of Art. We can provide any amount of dark-room
accommodation in the basement. Room could also be provided

* Dr. Carpenter’s lamented death, on the 27th January, 1892, adds a
melancholy interest to this communication, which shows that the interests
of the Club were near to his heart up to the last.

elxxiv Proceedings.

for a museum to be constructed at some future time in the roof;
a large room for meetings of the Club, which would not be
appropriated entirely to Club purposes, but be held on terms
similar to those now in operation, and, of course, a library and
curator’s room. Iam not sure what other accommodation would
be required, but if you will give me the dimensions of such room
or rooms, I shall be in a position to formulate a scheme to be
submitted to the directors of the Institution. Iam glad to say
that I am getting better, and may be able to occupy some of my
leisure ‘time in endeavouring to bring about so desirable an
object. We probably may not be able to raise funds enough to
carry out all we propose as to internal completion, but we should
make the building substantial so as to be able to complete
according as funds were forthcoming for the purpose. If you
will give me this information, I may perhaps have to ask a
question or two upon it before I send you an abstract of my
proposals.—-Believe me, yours faithfully,

‘s ALFRED CARPENTER.”

To this letter I replied, also un-officially, giving my views as
to the rooms we should require, and the conditions under which
we could probably become tenants. It is proposed that a Sub-
Committee be appointed to really consider the question. There
is no doubt that in view of certain alterations and enlargements
adequate and convenient accommodation could be obtained at
the Public Hall, where the work of our Club could be carried on
much more satisfactorily and comfortably than at present ; but
until this suggestion assumes a more definite form, it would be
as well not to indulge in anticipations.

In conclusion, I would again urge every individual member to
do what he can to help on our Club in what I am sure all will
consider good work. Our meetings certainly ought to be better
attended, and I wish members would bring specimens to exhibit
at those meetings, either to describe for the benefit of others, or
to elicit information from others. I would also ask new mem-
bers, and especially strangers, to put themselves into communi-
cation with the Secretaries of the Sections in which they may
be interested, in order that they may meet with others who are
working at their favourite subjects. We are larger in point of
numbers than ever we have been, and we are certainly doing
more work: there is no reason at all why we should not go on
advancing. Nature is a large field, and Science is boundless :
we can never hope to investigate the whole of the one, or fathom
the depths of the other; so that, although in the twenty-third
year of our existence as a Natural History Society, we are really
only just beginning.

Proceedings. elxxv

Members elected, 1891.

January 21st.— Walter T. Barker, Fleetwood, Chepstow Road.
P. F, F. Guimaraens, Parkside, Warham Road. Albert Hovenden,
jun., Oaklands, Haling Park Road. W. F. Leonard, Holmesdale,
London Road. Cecil R. Martyn, The Limes, Thornton Heath, S.E.
W. D. Standfast, Elmhurst, St. Peter’s Road. Arthur H. Vesey,
Chelsea Electric Lighting Company, Chelsea, S.W. A. E. Watson,
7, St.. John’s Grove. Charles E. L. Watson, 87, Lansdowne Road.
Alfred Youngman, Hazeldene, Carshalton Road, Sutton, Surrey.

February 11th.— Robert Durham, St. Clair, Addiscombe Road.
H. Goschen, Heathfield, Addington. W. H. Goschen, Heathfield,
Addington. Ernest Holah, 30, Havelock Road. John Ollis Pelton,
Langley, Oakfield Road. George Smith, Ivy Cottage, Brighton Road.

March 11th.—F. G. Carey, Kent House, Addiscombe Road. William
H. Coldwells, 2, Chestnut Villas, Broad Green Avenue. H. C. Townly,
68, High Street.

April 8th.—Charles Hussey, J. P., Park Lane.

May 13th.— Alfred Bishop, Ringstead Lodge, Whitehorse Road.
William C. Brown, 27, The Waldrons. Albert Crundall, Eastbrook,
Park Hill Road. Edward Marriott, Reedham, Purley, Surrey.
Leonard Wilde, M.D., Health Office, Katharine Street. A. P. Youle,
Olinda, Addiscombe Road.

September 9th.— Dr. Henry William Drew, 52, Dingwall Road.
Alfred Lambert, Belclare, Ashburton Road. Frank Lloyd, Somer-
leyton, Haling Park Road. J. Compton Ricketts, Burleigh House,
Park Hill Road.

October 14th.—R. Percy Bovey, Devon Hyrst, Chepstow Road.
William F. Cadell, 14, Canning Road. Edmund G. Dowle, 13, St.
John’s Grove. James William Murray, 56, Canterbury Road.

November 11th.—Brian William Baker, Reedham, Purley. William
Henry Brown, 3, Lavender Road, Sutton. Arthur James Norrington,
Homeside, Purley. Alfred Ernest Wheelton, Reedham, Purley.

* December 9th.—John Bottomley, Dohroyd, Birdhurst Rise. George
D. Densham, Olden Lodge, Purley. W.H. Dodd, Whitgift Grammar
School. Leonard Oakley Grocock, 21, Beckenham Road, Penge.

Library.

The additions to the Library during the year 1891 are as
follows :—

From Individuals. —F. C. Bayard: Eocene and Oligocene Beds of
Paris Basin (Geologists’ Association) ; Address of President of Royal
Meteorological Society, 1890; Rapport sur le Microscope de Sellique
(1824); Descriptions des Microscope, de M. Matthieson d’Altona
(1834); Rapport sur un Microscope Simple, Seguier (1834); Royal
Observatory, Greenwich, On the Value of the Moon’s Semi-diameter ;
Greenwich Astronomical Results, 1856, 1858, and 1873. W. Budgen:
Picture-making by Photography; Pictorial Effect in Photography.
Dr. A. Carpenter: Journal d’Hygiéne, sundry numbers. Walter
Crouch, F.Z.S.: On the Land and Fresh-water Mollusca collected in
Wanstead and neighbourhood. A. R. Dresser: Six numbers of the
Optical Magic Lantern Journal and Photographic Enlarger. Dr. John

elxxvi _ Proceedings.

Evans: Progress of Archeology. Harry D, Gower: The following
papers as issued:— British Journal of Photography; Photographic
News; Photography ; Amateur Photographer ; Photographic Journal ;
The Camera; Photographic Quarterly; Photographic Reporter ;
Journal of the Photographie Society of Great Britain ; Optical Magic
Lantern and Photographic Enlarger; Photographic Art Journal.
C. L. Prince: Summary of Meteorological Journal. W. Low Sarjeant :
The Camera, Nos. 1—32; Photographic Quarterly, Nos.1—4. W.
Webb: Catalogue of Lepidopterous Insects in Indian Museum, vols.
1 and 2, bound in one.

From Societies.—British Association: Report, 1890; Handbook to
Cardiff; Sundry pamphlets. History of Berwickshire Naturalists’
Club, 1887—89. La Société Belge de Microscopie: Bulletin, 7me
Année and Annales, Tome xv. Essex Naturalist, 4 parts. Hast Kent
Natural History Society : Report, 1890. Eastbourne Natural History
Society: Transactions, 1889—90. Manchester Microscopical Society :
Transactions and Report, 1890. Manchester Geographical Society
Journal, 1 part. .Northamptonshire Natural History Society Journal,
4 back numbers. Oldham Microscopical Society and Field Club:
Journal, 1890. Quekett Microscopical Club: Journal, 2 numbers.
Reading Literary and Scientific Society : Report, 1890. Royal Micro-
scopical Society: Journal, 5 numbers. South-Eastern Naturalist:
1 number. West Kent Natural History Society: 3 back Reports.

From Proprietors.—Science Gossip.

Purchased.—Geological Excursions: Norfolk and Norwich Natural
History Society, 1 part.

Exhibits, 1891.

January 21st.—J. Henry Drage, White-fronted Goose (Anser albi-
frons), taken on Dartmoor.

February 11th.—J. Henry Drage, Bewick’s Swan (Cygnus Bewickit),
female, and sternum, showing the characteristic hollow keel and hori-
zontal flexure of the trachea. This bird wasshot on reclaimed land at
Brading Harbour, Isle of Wight, on 28rd December, 1890. It was
only winged, and was kept alive on green refuse and sopped bread
until 23rd January, 1891. Length from bill to tail, 3 ft. 10} in.;
stretch of wings, 6 ft. lin. Brent Goose (Anser brenta), female, shot
off Bembridge, Isle of Wight, 20th January, 1891. C. H. Goodman:
Nest of wild bees dug out of cliff at Swanage. E. Lovett, Fire-drill
from the neighbourhood of Neuchatel, Switzerland ; also the smoking
outfit of an Indian chief.

March 11th.—E. Lovett, Head-dress of bristles from South Africa ;
Wood bored by Teredo navalis.

March 18th.—P. Crowley, A series of mimetic Lepidoptera in
illustration of Colonel Swinhoe’s paper. E. Lovett, Crustacea showing
protective colour and development.

April 8th.—K. Lovett, to illustrate his paper, Implements, &c., of
stone, flint, bone, horn, and bronze; also a model of a Dyak lake-
dwelling from Borneo. J. H. Baldock, A translation of 2 vols. of
Prof. Heer’s work, ‘ Primeval World of Switzerland.’ C. H. Good-
man, Ephemera larva, ? sp., taken at Epsom.

May 13th.— HE. Lovett, A series of voleanic rocks from Mount
Vesuvius ; and a series of syenites rhyolites, traps, &c., from Jersey,

¢

Proceedings. elxxvil

to illustrate Mr. Teall’s paper. F.C. Bayard, Report of the Krakatoa
Committee of the Royal Society.. N. Waterall, Piece of stone from
the Coliseum, and piece of marble from the Forum, Rome.

September 9th.—E. Lovett, Double nest of Great Tit (Parus major),
and eggs; Stormy Petrels (Procellaria pelagica) from the Shetland
Isles. H.T.Mennell, Cones of Araucaria imbricata. K. McKean,
Shells of Helix obvoluta, and, under his microscope, jaw of same.
C. H. Goodman, Sand-wasp (Ammophila sabulosa) and case of
dragon-flies, &. W. M. Holmes, Cocoons and pupe of goat moth
(Cossus ligniperda) in wood. KE. Straker, Hazel-leaves cut by some
insect, with eggs laid on the midrib within the cup formed by the
curling of the leaf. John Berney, Living larve of the following :—
Swallow-tailed moth (Uropteryx sambucaria), small tortoise-shell
butterfly (Vanessa urtice), sycamore moth (Acronycta aceris), waved
umber moth (Hemerophila abruptaria), buff ermine moth (Arctia
lubrictpeda), brimstone moth (Runa crategata), grey dagger moth
(Acronycta pst), poplar hawk moth (Smerinthus populi), goat moth
(Cossus ligniperda), peppered moth (Amphidasys betularia), and the
large sawfly.

‘ October 14th.—K. B. Sturge, Photographs collected on his recent
trip to the United States and Canada. T. D. Aldous, Mummified
meee from Essiout in Egypt, supposed to belong to the period 700 to
900 B.c. ;

December 9th.—C. F. Oakley, A series of photo-micrographs. J.
Weir Brown, Specimens of kallitype printing and a curiously-tinted
photograph. T. D. Aldous, A new achromatic objective, one-fifth of a
millimetre, by Reichert, of Vienna. E. Lovett, Case of insects illus-
trating protecting resemblance; a series of crustaceans (Carcinas
menas), and a slide showing development of its embryo.

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Date of Election.

12 Oct. 1887.
13 Mar. 1889.
10 Dec. 1884.

9 Mar. 1887.
13 May, 1885.

9 Aprl. 1884.
14 May, 1890.
11 May, 1887.

19 Mar. 1879.
9 Jan. 1889.

19 Nov. 1873.
4 May, 1870.
8 Oct. 1890.

Original.
15 Apri.

9 Sept.
21 Jan.
14 April.

8 Feb. 1888.
10 Mar.

14 Mar.
15 Mar.

11 Nov.
Original.
13 May, 1891.
Original.

1885.

14 Oct. 1891.
9 Dec. 1891.
10 Dec. 1884.
15 Dec. 1880.
11 Apl. 1888.

19 Feb. 1873.
9 Mar. 1887,
13 May, 1891.
11 Nov. 1891.
10 Nov. 1886.
12 Nov. 1884.

12 Mar. 1890.
9 Jan. 1889,

1874.
1885.
1891.
1886.

1886.

1888.
1871.

c)xxxi

LIST OF MEMBERS.
Revised to end of April, 1892.

Apams, R. Water, 16 Chepstow-road.

Aupous, THomas Duncan, F.R.M.S§., 37 St. Peter’s-rd.
ALLBRIGHT, W. J., Broad-green, Croydon.

ALLDER, JosHuUA, Dunlewey House, Bedford Park.
ALLEN, FRANK, Warrington House, Duppas Hill-road.
AutEN, A. H., Leslie Lodge, Lower Addiscombe-road.
AsucrorT, WILLIAM, Layhams Farm, Beckenham.
AustEN, W. V., 18 Belgrave rd., South Norwood, 8.E.

BAcCKWELL, RicHArD, 1 Tennison-rd., 8. Norwood, S.E.

BackWELu, WILLIAM EpeGar, 1 Tennison-road, South
Norwood, 8.E.

Batuery, Epwin, 10 Lansdowne-road.

BakeER, SAMUEL, Lansdowne-road.

Baker, Wo. R., 9 Belmont Villas, Wallington, Surrey.

Baupiston, FREDERICK, Ashleigh, Addiscombe-road.

Baupock, J. H., F.C.8., 3 High-st., 8. Norwood, 8.E.

BarsBeEr, J. H., 81 London-road. ;

BarkER, WALTER T., Fleetwood, Chepstow-road.

Barrow, ReEvBEN VINCENT, Engadine, Park Hill-road.

BastTarD, EpwarD Rocer, Highbury House, South
Norwood, 8.E.

Bayarp, F. CAMPBELL, LL.M., F.R. Met. Soc., Lass?
road, Wallington.

BEARD, Dr. F., Brighton Road House.

BEEBY, Wittus H., F.R.M.S., 14 Ridinghouse-street,
London, W.

Berney, Henry, Chatsworth-road.

Berney, Joun, F.R.M.S., Chatsworth-road.

BisHop, ALFRED, Ringstead Lodge, White Horse-road.

BuakeE, W. J., Elmfield, Park-lane.

Bovey, R. Percy, Devon Hyrst, Chepstow-road.

BotTomtey, JoHN, Dohroyd, Birdhurst Rise.

BreEBNER, G. Reiru, M.D., 232 London-road.

Brewer, J. G. B., Havelock-road.

Brock, ArtuHur, Chagford, Selhurst-road, 8. Norwood,
S.E

Bropie, Rosert, M.A., George-street.

Brooks, W., Laurel Villa, Wray Park, Reigate.

Brown, Wn. Cuas., 27 The Waldrons.

Brown, Wm. Hy., 3 Lavender-road, Sutton, Surrey.

Brown, J. WEIR, "Ferndean; Heathfield-road.

BuckianD, JOHN WELLINGTON, 180 Lower Addis-
combe-road.

BupaGen, Waurer, 24 Addiscombe-road.

Butiock, Wiuu1am C., 20 Dingwall-road,

elxxxii

Date of Election.
14 Oct.
11 Mar.
21 Mar.

19 Jan.

13 Jan.
11 Jan.
15 Jan.

15 Dee.

10 Dee.
10 Dee.

12 Dec.
18 Jan.
21 Oct.
11 Mar.

16 Aprl. 1873.
1887.
21 May, 1879.
11 Noy. 1885.

14 Dee.

Original.

9 Jan. 1889.
13 May, 1891.
20 May, 1874.

Original.
10 Dec. 1890.

18 Apri. 1877.
9 Dec. 1891.
15 Sept. 1875.

Original.

9 Dee. 1891.
14 Oct. 1891.
11 May, 1887.
9 Jan. 1884.
18 Sept. 1888.
9 Sept. 1891.
19 Dec. 1877.
18 May, 1887.
11 Feb. 1891.

14 Sept. 1887.
16 Aprl. 1879.

4 May, 1870.

12 Nov. 1890.

9 Dec. 1885.

1891.
1891.
1877.

1881.
10 Sept. 1891.
1892.
1888.
1874.
11 Aprl. 1888.

1880.
16 May, 1877.
19 Aprl. 1876.
1891.
1891.
16 May, 1877.
1888.
1882.
1887.
1891.

List of Members.

CapDELL, Wo. F., 14 Canning-road.

Carry, Frepx. G., Kent House, Addiscombe-road.

ee A. B., B.A., M.R.C.S., F.R.M.S., Bedford
Park.

Carter, James A., B.A., Reedham, Purley, Surrey.

Cartrr, ARLESS H., Reedham, Purley, Surrey.

CarTER, FRANCIS, High-street, Carshalton, Surrey.

Casu, Witu1am, Lifford Lodge, Outram-road.

CuamBers, W. E., J.P., Eversfield, Sutton, Surrey.

CHATTERTON, GEeorGcE, M.A., M. Inst. C.E., Linton,
Grosvenor Hill, Wimbledon, $.W.

CuEEswricut, F. R., Maythorne, Birdhurst Rise.

CutsHoLm, Jas., Addiscombe Lodge, Addiscombe-road.

CHUMLEY, Joun, Worcester Lodge, Canning-road.

Cuurcnu, Rozgt. W., 50 Birdhurst-road. -

Cuark, Henry, 2 Ventnor Villas, Wadden New-road.

CLARKE, JOSIAH, 88 George-street.

CouRLANDER, Louis, 42 North End.

CoLtyerR, Henry C., Homewood, Haling Park-road.

CoutyrerR, Bryce, Woodlands, Haling Park-road.

Co~pwELts, Wm. H., 22 Montrell-road, Streatham
Hill, S.W.

Corry, Joun, J.P., Rosenheim, Park Hill-road.

CoucuMan, ALFRED, Houghton, Birdhurst Rise.

CowbELL, H.S., Cotleigh, West Wickham, Beckenham.

CrosFIELD, G. T., Walden, Coombe-lane.

Crow ey, Puruip, F.Z.S., Waddon House.

Crowtey, Raupa Henry, Bramley Oaks, Bramley Hill.

CRUNDALL, ALBERT, Eastbrook, Park Hill-road.

Curtine, GeorGE, Elgin House, Addiscombe-road.

Cusuine, Txos., F.R.A.S., 2 Southside, Chepstow-rd.

Cutier, Wm. C., Derwent Bank, Addiscombe-road.

Davies, ARTHUR CAPEL, The Glen, Duppas Hill.
Densuam, G. D., Olden Lodge, Purley, Surrey.
Dickinson, Witu1am, M.A., F.G.S., Warham-road.
Dix, T. H., 81 High-street.

Dopp, W. H., 9 Coombe-road.

DowLeE, Epmunp G., 13 St. John’s-grove.

Down, H. W., Bank Chambers, North End.
DraceE, JoHn Henry, Tamworth-road.

Drace, Jonny, Tamworth-road.

Drew, Hy. Wo., Dr., 52 Dingwall-road.
Drummonp, H., North View, Upper Bridge-rd., Redhill.
Duncan, PETER THomas, M.D., Park-lane.
Duruam, Rost., 46 Addiscombe-road.

East, FREDERICK W., Timberham, Horley, Surrey.

Eaton, H. S., M.A., F.R. Met. Soc., Shepton Montague,
Castle Cary, Somerset.

Eprince, Sir Tos. R., J.P., The Elms, High-street.

Eprinvce, Frepk. T., J.P., Addiscombe Court.

Exporoues, C. M., Hazlehurst, Park Hill-road.

Date of Election.
19 Jan.

21 Feb. 1872.
9 Jan. 1884.

1883.

9 Aprl. 1890.

14 May, 1890.
9 Mar. 1892.

12 Nov. 1890.

8 Feb. 1888.
13 Mar. 1889.

Original.
19 Oct.
9 Nov.

13 Mar.
9 Feb.

14 May, 1890.
1891.
1891.
1885.
1887.
1892.
9 Aprl. 1890.
1891.
8 Aprl. 1885.
1882.
1891.

11 Feb.
11 Feb.
14 Jan.
12 Jan.

9 Mar.

9 Dec.

18 Jan.
21 Jan.

Original.

13 Jan. 1892.
10 Dec. 1890.
18 May, 1881.
1879.
1888.
19 Sept. 1877.
1886.

1887.
9 Aprl. 1890.
21 Sept. 1881.
12 May, 1886.
11 Feb. 1891.-
10 Dee. 1890.
15 Jan. 1890.

19 Mar.
14 Mar.

10 Nov.
12 Jan.

Original.

11 Aprl. 1888.
11 Aprl. 1888.

1881.

1881.

1887.
1889.
1887.

List of Members. elxxxili

Epps, JAmEs, Jun., Norfolk House, Beulah Hill, Upper
Norwood, 8.E.

Face, Epwarp, Beachley, Chichester-road.

Faux, FERDINAND, 1 Park Hill-road.

Fenn, W. G., Heath Lodge, Thornton Heath, §.E.

Frevp, Enear A. H., L.D.S., 85 High-street.

Finney, J. A., 57 St. Peter’s-road.

Fuint, RicHarp, Woodstock House, Park-lane.

Fuiirr, Harry, Hollymount, Duppas Hill.

GasTER, FREDERICK, F.R.Met.Soc., 137 Acre-lane,
Brixton, S.W.

Giss, JAmss, 18 Outram-road.

Grzeson, Joun, 10 Canning-road.

Gipson, Waiter M., 14 Lower Grosvenor-place,
London, 8.W.

GuaziER, J. T., Mavis Bank, Park Hill Rise.

GopparD, D. Everett, F.R.M.S., Wallington, Surrey.

GoopmAy, C. H., 9 Dorlcote-rd., Wandsworth Common,

Goopr, Wn., Mulgrave-road, Sutton, Surrey.
GoscHEN, H., Heathfield, Addington.

GoscHEN, W. H., Heathfield, Addington.

Gower, Harry Dovuetas, 16 Wandle-Road.
GREENWAY, Henry, Ulimbali, Ashburton-road.
GrirritHs, 8. L., 340 London-road.

GRIMWADE, Epwp. H., Orwell House, Campden-road.
Grococx, Leonarp O., 21 Beckenham-rd., Penge, S.E.
Grunpy, RicuarD F., Fairlie, Morland-road.
GuIMARAENS, P. G., Warham-road.

Gurmaragns, P. F. F., Parkside, Warham-road.

Happock, Rouianp, 5 The Waldrons.

Hat., JoserH, Melton Lodge, Havelock-road.

HarLanpD, ARTHUR F., 32 Park-lane.

Hart, P. §., Lyndhurst, Fairfield-road.

Harwoop, W. R., Glebelands, Mitcham, Surrey.

Hepes, JAMES W., Wrangthorn, Stafford-road.

Henman, CHaAr es, Streatley, Friend’s-road East.

HERBERT, Hon. SypNey, M.P., 10 Mandeville-place,
Manchester-square, London, W.

Hinps, Dr. Grorce J., F.G.S., Avondale-road.

Hirst, AntHur Wo., St. Michael’s-road.

Hosson, J. M., M.D., 65 Lower Addiscombe-road.

Houmes, W. Murton, Glenside, St. Peter’s-road.

Houau, Ernest, 30 Havelock-road.

Hoots, T. G. W., 25 Birdhurst-road.

HoprweE tt, J. M., 79 Lansdowne Gardens.

Horstey, Henry, M.R.C.S., London-road.

Hovenpen, A. Crecrt, Arbor End, Selhurst-rd., South
Norwood, 8.E.

HovenDEN, Ernest C., Arbor End, Selhurst-rd., South
Norwood, S.E.

elxxxiv

Date of Election.
11 Aprl. 1888.

16 Feb. 1881.
21 Jan. 1891.

11 Mar. 1885.

8 Aprl. 1891.

17 May, 1871.
12 Mar. 1890.

14 May, 1890.
16 Dec. 1874.
9 Mar. 1887.
18 Jan. 1882.
16 Feb. 1881.

14 Nov. 1888.
10 Jan. 1883.

21 Nov. 1877.
9 Sept. 1891.

18 Aprl. 1877.
8 Aprl. 1885.

Original.

Original.

13 Aprl. 1892.
9 Sept. 1891.

11 May, 1892.
8 Oct. 1876.

Original.

18 Feb. 1874.

10 Aprl. 1889.
13 Mar. 1889.
10 Mar. 1886.

8 May, 1889.
21 Jan. 1891.
13 May, 1891.
20 Feb. 1878.

8 Dec. 1886.
Original.

10 Nov. 1886.

19 Mar. 1879.
18 Jan. 1882.
18 Jan. 1882.
21 May, 1873.
14 Nov. 1883.
15 Dec. 1880.
15 Jan. 1890.
9 May, 1888.

List of Members.

Hovenpen, G. §., Arbor End, Selhurst-road, South
Norwood, 8.E.

HovenDEn, R. G., Heathcote, Park Hill-road.

HovenDen, ALBERT, Jun., Oaklands, Haling Park-rd.

Hueues, Morean, M.R.C.8., L.D.S., Hastbridge,
Addiscombe-road.

Hussry, Cares, J.P., Coombe-road.

Incrams, WrLuram, Whitgift Schools, Church-road.
I‘Anson, WiLLIAm Henry, 39 Dingwall-road.

JamEsS, H. B., The Oaks, near Carshalton, Surrey.
JARRETT, C., 30 St. John’s Grove.

Jounston, B. McKay, Katharine-street.

JONES, SAMUEL, Trelawney, Addiscombe-road.
JusTIcAN, J. W., B.A., Outram-road.

KuaassEn, H. M., Aberfeldy, Campden-road.
Kuster, Gustav, 14 Dingwall-road.

Larne, R. A., St. Peter’s-road.

LAMBERT, ALFRED, Belclare, Ashburton-road.

Lane, Harry, Havelock-road.

LanFEAR, CEctL, Rockwood, Chichester-road.
LatHam, Baupwin, C. E., 21 Havelock-road.

Ler, Harry, 20 St. John’s-grove.

Linco, J. G., Wellesley Court-road.

Luoyp, Franx, Somerleyton, Haling Park-road.
Luoyp, Artuur, Shirley Hurst, Shirley, Surrey.
Lortus, T., Outram House, Lower Addiscombe-road.
Lone, Henry, 132 High-street.

Lovett, Epwarp, West Burton House, Outram-road.

Marpiow, Wm. Henry, Elm Lodge, Park Hill Rise.

MANSFIELD, CHARLES, The Lindens, Coombe-road.

MarsHAL1L, Rosert, Broomfield, The Avenue, Duppas
Hill.

Martin, Howarp, Bolney Grange, Havelock-road.

Martyn, Crcit R., The Limes, Thornton Heath, S.E.

Marriott, Epwarp, Reedham, Purley, Surrey.

Marner, C. W., 47 Dingwall-road.

Mayxarp, Martin W., 86 Lower Addiscombe-road.

McKean, Krenneta, F.L.S., Lloyds, London, E.C.

McLacuuan, Rosert, F.R.S., F.L.S., 23 Clarendon-rd.,
Lewisham, S.E.

MENNELL, H. T., F.L.S., Park Hill Rise.

MILLy, James Stocks, Cyprus, Chichester-road.

Morpaunt, G., Glenearn, Epsom-road.

MortanD, Cuas. C., Rastrick Lodge, Morland-road.

Moruanp, Cuas. Ernest, Rastrick Lodge, Morland-rd.

Morris, A., Beddington Park, near Croydon.

Morris, J. E., Beddington Park, near Croydon.

Morris Wruuiam, C.E., The Kent Waterworks, Dept-
ford, S.E.

Date of Election.
19 May, 1880.

Original.
14 Oct. 1891.

Original.

13 Mar. 1889.
11 Jan. 1888.
11 Nov. 1891.
10 Dee. 1890.

11 Jan. 1888.
18 Feb. 1874.

9 Mar. 1892
~18 May, 1881.

9 Apri. 1890.
13 Jan. 1892.

9 Oct. 1889.

19 Oct. 1870.
9 Dec. 1885.
14 Sept. 1887.
12 Nov. 1884.
17 Jan. 1877.
11 Feb. 1891.
19 Jan. 1881.
9 Mar. 1892.
4 May, 1870.
13 Feb. 1889.

13 Mar. 1889.
11 Noy. 1885.
Original.

14 Sept. 1887.

12 Nov. 1890.

9 Nov. 1887.
9 Aprl. 1890.

21 Jan. 1880.
14 Jan. 1885.

14 Jan. 1885.

12 Mar. 1890.
12 Mar. 1890.
9 Aprl. 1890.

15 Sept. 1880.
17 Jan. 1877.
9 Sept. 1891.

List of Members. clxxxv

Morton, SHADFoRTH, M.D., Wellesley Villas, Welles-
ley-road.

MucceEripGr, T. Bensamin, New Club, Brighton.

Murray, James Wn., 56 Canterbury-road.

Nation, W. J., 40 Thornton-rd., Thornton Heath, S.E.
NEALL, GEORGE, 88 Lower Addiscombe-road.
Newman, E. Oaktey, 16 Alexandra-road.
Norrincton, ArTHUR J., Homeside, Purley, Surrey.
Norton, WattsER C., Maycourt, Campden-road.

OakLEY, CHArzEs F., Abbotsford, Sudbury-rd., Thorn-
ton Heath, S.E.
OLDFIELD, JouHNn, 16 Tamworth-road.

PackKHAM, JAmEs, 16 Katharine-street.

Parsons, H. Frankuin, M.D., F.G.S., Oakhyrst, Park
Hill Rise.

Parcu, Ernest A., The Chestnuts, Havelock-road.

Peart, Surgeon-Genl. Wm., Stuston Lodge, Scole,
Norfolk.

Pear, Dr. Epwarb, Fairoak, Sylvan-rd., Upper Nor-
wood, S.E.

Peek, Sir Henry W., Bart., Wimbledon.

Perxins-Case, P. W., M.D., 254 London-road.

Perry, ARCHIBALD H., 6 Friend’s-road East.

Perry, EpwarD SEAGER, 11 Bramley Hill.

Petton, JoHNn, Warrington Lodge, Waddon, Surrey.

PELTON, JoHn Otxis, Langley, Oakfield-road.

Puitires, James, Woodlands, Wellesley-grove.

Puruies, H. Wuitrsy, M.D., Addiscombe-road.

Puitpot, CHarRLEs W., M.D., Friends’ House, Park-lane.

PINNELL, ALFRED ERNEST, Winchester Villa, Car-
shalton, Surrey.

Pittman, J. J., 59 Dingwall-road.

Poot, W., 312 London-road, Thornton Heath, 8.E.

Price, GEorGE, N., 72 High-street.

PRINCE, JAMES WEBSTER, Brickwood House.

Privett, Jonny, 10 South Park Hill-road.

Purser, J., 41 Addiscombe-road.

Purser, FREDK. Wm., 41 Addiscombe-road.

Pyr-SmiruH, ARNOLD, Fairfield-road.

READ, JoHNn Purr, Eversfield, South Park Hill-road.
Reep, Lester, F.C.S., F.1.C., Hyrst Hof, South Park
Hill-road.
ReID, JAMES CHRISTIE, 43 Addiscombe-road.
Rep, JoHn JoHnstTone, 4 Sydenham-road.
nee Sr. GrorcE C., Brigstock Villa, Thornton Heath,
E

Ric, ‘ALFRED Wm., The Grove, Chatsworth-road.
Ricuarpson, T. A., 24 London-road.
Rickxett, J. Compton, Burleigh House, Park Hill-rd.

elxxxvi

Date of Election.
4 May, 1870.
19 Dec. 1877.
11 Jan. 1888.
21 Oct. 1874.
12 Mar. 1890.
12 Mar. 1890.
18 Aprl. 1877.

13 Jan. 1892.
13 Jan. 1892.
13 Aprl. 1892.

12 Sept. 1888.

19 Sept. 1877.
14 Jan. 1885.

11 Aprl. 1888.
10 Nov. 1886.
13 May, 1885.
10 Dec. 1890.

8 Feb. 1888.
13 Feb. 1884.
11 Feb. 1891.

9 Jan. 1889.
21 Jan. 1891.
15 Mar. 1882.

Original.

20 Feb. 1878.
11 Jan. 1888.

Original.

16 Sept. 1874.
13 Sept. 1882.

9 Mar. 1887.
11 Nov. 1885.
16 Jan. 1878.
17 Nov. 1880.
13 Jan. 1892.
17 Nov. 1880.
18 Sept. 1872.

9 Aprl. 1890.
21 Jan. 1891.
19 Dec. 1877.
10 Sept. 1890.

20 Dec. 1876.
19 Sept. 1877.

List of Members.

Ripee, Byron, 112 North End.

Rosinson, G. E., Lee Villas, Canning-road.

Roops, AuForD, 35 Derby-road.

Rosser, WauTEeR, M.D., Wellesley-road.

RUSSELL, ALFRED CRAKE, 60 Clarendon-road.

Ry.ey, Rev. Grorce B., 177 Lower Addiscombe-road.
Rymer, 8. L., Wellesley-road.

Satmon, Cuas. E., Clevelands, Wray Park, Reigate.

Satmon, Ernest T., Clevelands, Wray Park, Reigate.

Samson, W. E., 55 Bensham Manor-road, Thornton
Heath, 8.E.

SANDELL, JoHN T., Abbotsford, Sudbury-rd., Thornton
Heath, 8.E.

Sargeant, W. Low, 7 Belgrave-road, S. Norwood, S.E.

SaunpERs, THomas Dopeson, Twyfordbury, Park Hill
Rise.

Scumirz, J. H., J.P., Lansdowne-road.

SHEARER, DoNALD, Park Hill House.

SHore, HE. L., Millbrook House, Elmwood-road.

SHute, Vincent J., 144 Birchanger-road, South
Norwood, S.E.

SmirH, Haro, F.R. Met. Soc., Ingleside, Kenley.

SmitH, Dr. 8. Parsons, Addiscombe-road.

SuitH, GrorcE, Ivy Cottage, Brighton-road.

Sparrow, C. H. Burnasy, 1 Chepstow-road.

SranpFast, W. D., 52 St. Peter’s-road.

STANLEY JOSEPH, 17 Belerave-road, 8. Norwood, 8.E.

StTanueEy, W.F., F.G.S., Cumberlow, S. Norwood, 8.E.

STRAKER, E., Mareotis, Spencer-road.

STREETER, J. 8., High-street.

SturGE, Epwarpd B., The Waldrons.

Swalneg, J. C., Park Hill-road.

Syms, JoHn E., Stanton Villa, Stanton-road.

Taytor, Martin, Southbridge-road.

Terry, W., Cambourne-road, Sutton, Surrey.
Tuompson, H. G., M.D., 86 Lower Addiscombe-road.
THompeson, Francis, Haling Park-road.

THORPE, CHARLES, 22 George-street.

Topiey, Wo., F.R.S., F.G.S., Hurstbourne, Elgin-road.
TURNER, Henry, 33 Lansdowne-road.

UNDERHILL, ALFRED, 234 Clarendon-road.

Vesry, ArtHuR H., Chelsea Electric Lighting Co.,
Central Station, Chelsea, S.W.

Waker, Tuomas, C.E., Warrington-rd., Duppas Hill.

Watter, D., Jun., Ferndean, Warrington-road.

Watton, A., The Homestead, Bedford Park.

Warner, A., 2 Grosvenor Villas, Holmesdale-road,
Selhurst, 8.E.

Date of Election,
20 Aprl. 188i

21 Jan. 1891.
15 Jan. 1890.
10 Feb. 1892.
9 Jan. 1884.
15 Jan. 1890.

17 Oct. 1877.
10 Dec. 1890.

Original.

17 Mar. 1875.
12 Nov. 1890.
14 May, 1890.

9 Nov. 1887.
12 Dec. 1883.
12 Apri. 1882.
13 Nov. 1889.
13 May, 1885.
17 May, 1871.
12 Oct. 1887.
12 Oct. 1887.

13 May, 1891.
9 Sept. 1885.
21 Jan. 1891.

12 Mar. 1890.

9 Sept. 1885.
10 Mar. 1886.
21 Apri. 1875.
16 Aprl. 1879.
16 Aprl. 1879.

16 Aprl. 1879.
11 Jan. 1888.

20 Aprl. 1881.
11 Nov. 1885.

List of Members. elxxxvii

WaATERALL, NATHANIEL, Waddon Lodge.

Watson, Cuas. E. L., 87 Lansdowne-road.

Wayrte, Joun, M.D., B.A., 65 Park-lane.

Weaver, H. E. W., 84 Brighton-road.

Wess, W., Jun., Lanoy Cottage, Duppas-road.

WessTER, Epwin, 234 South Norwood Hill, S. Nor-
wood, S.E.

Wenuam, W. P., Horndean, Waddon Old-road.

WeEnuaM, James, 29 St. John’s-grove.

West, Frepericx, The Waldrons.

WHEALLER, G. Anson, 9 Friend’s-road East.

WHEALLER, SPENCER E., 9 Friend’s-road East.

Wixinson, C. T., 21 Brighton-road.

Wit, A. Scorr, Canning-road.

Witu1aMs, Bertram AuEx , L.D.S., 11 Wellesley-road.

WiLLoucuey, C. W., 28 Friend’s-road.

Wise, Howarp R., Beechfield, Bramley-hill.

Wirt, 8. J., 44 Dingwall-road.

Woopwarp, Joun, 21 Canning-road.

Wratten, F. C. L., 42 Canterbury-road.

Wratten, Sipney HERBert, 42 Canterbury-road.

Yous, A. P., Olinda, Addiscombe-road.

Youne, Joun Woop, 1 Wellesley-grove.

Youneman, ALFRED, Hazelden, Carshalton-rd., Sutton,
Surrey.

YumLu, CHartes J. M., Marion Villa, Addiscombe-rd.

Honorary Members.

Berney, Frepertck Ler, Ravensbourne, Tambo,
Queensland, Australia.

CaMERON, Capt. V. Lovett, R.N., C.B., 7 Great George-
street, Westminster, S.W.

Cots, R. Bevertey, M.D., San Francisco, California,
U.S.A

Evans, Joun, D.C.L., F.RB.S., Hemel-Hempstead,
Herts.

Fiower, W. H., LL.D., F.R.S., Natural History
Museum, South Kensington, London, S.W,

PRESTWICH, Prof. Josepu, Shoreham, Sevenoaks, Kent.

Symons, G. J., F.R.S., 62 Camden-square, N.W.

Associates.

Cottyrr, Epwarp B., Selsdon-road.
RopzBourn, J.

TRANSACTIONS

OF

THE CROYDON MICROSCOPICAL AND
NATURAL HISTORY CLUB.

1891—2.

93.—Resprration or Insects.
By C. H. Goopman. —
(Read March 11th, 1891.)

In dealing with this comprehensive subject this evening it will
be necessary to omit all reference to the theory of respiration in
general, and proceed at once to examine the methods by which
it is effected. Assuming therefore that you recognise the neces-
sity of bringing the oxygen of the atmosphere into contact with
the blood so as to vitalise every structure in the body, we will
first notice the modes adopted in the different groups of the
Arthropoda. This is seen in the following table :—

(in the lower—cutaneous.

Cavsngama (but mostly—branchiate.
cutaneous.
Aracunipa, either [anche
tracheate.
Myrioropa ... aha tracheate.
InsEcTa re .... tracheate.

Here a gradual development is seen, the Insecta attaining the
highest position.

The general plan of the tracheal system, as found in insects,
may be said to consist of two main tubes extending down either
side of the body, often united at intervals by connecting ones.
Smaller branches ramify from every part in all directions,
gradually dwindling away as they penetrate further, and spread
over every organ. Lateral branches from the main tubes, or
tracher, lead to the external surface, where air is inspired

B

322 Mr. C. H. Goodman on the

through openings called spiracles. In some cases in the
Myriopoda each spiracle has its own separate tracheal system,
but this is seldom the case with the class we have to consider.
These trachezx consist of two thin membranes, between which is
coiled: a spiral thread, thus affording the necessary flexibility
and firmness. The inner membrane is an invagination of the
outer cuticle, so that when a moult takes place a part at all
events of the trachee is shed at the same time. Empty pupal
skins may occasionally be found floating on ponds with the
greater part of the trachea still visible, testifying to the deep
reaching nature of the metamorphosis.

An idea of the distribution of the trachee in the wings of
insects may easily be gained by observing the nervures, each of
which carries a branch, and which also assist in unfolding and
spreading those organs on emergence from the pupa state. In
the legs, too, they may sometimes be traced without much
preparation, and it is instructive to observe the way they are
enlarged in the neighbourhood of the auditory organ in the
tibia of crickets. The way the traches envelop the ganglia and
alimentary canal of the wasp are also well shown in the slides
exhibited. Closely connected with the trachee are certain
dilatations, found in flying insects, and called air-sacs. You
will notice that the structure is of a different character, and
that the spiral thread of the trachez is discontinued. A con-
sequence of this is that they collapse when the air is withdrawn,
and it is owing to their necessary inflation before rising from the
ground that the apparently leisurely spread of the wings and
elytra of the stag-beetle is due before a start is effected.

In Corethra plumicornis, the phantom larva, you will observe
two pairs of conspicuous spotted sacs, which, Prof. Rymer Jones
states, eventually burst and produce atracheal system. In most
of the Diptera, two large air-sacs may be found occupying a
considerable part of the abdomen.

Coming now to the stigmata or spiracles, great variety exists
in number, form, and position ; and it should be noted that this
variation often extends to the larva and imago of the same
insect. From one to ten pairs may be found, nine being a very
common allowance, while in aquatic larve they are reduced to a
minimum. In shape they are either circular, oval, crescentic,
triangular, reniform, &c. Asa rule, the thoracic spiracles are
the largest, although Dytiscus is a conspicuous exception. The
general position is down the sides, often in the soft integument
connecting each segment; they are conspicuous in many of the
lepidopterous larve. Occasionally they are ventral, as in some
Hemiptera, but more often dorsal. In the common water-
boatman (Notonecta) a further admirable arrangement must be
noticed. The diagram shows a section of the abdomen, and the

Respiration of Insects. 3238

spiracles are placed at the foot of the raised ridge on either side.
From the top a horizontal line of hairs stretches towards a
similar row from the raised median ridge, thus forming two air-
chambers to supply the stigmata, and permit a prolonged stay
under water. In this case the spiracles are really ventral,
though, as the creature always swims on its back, they are prac-
tically on the upper surface.

A similar result is produced among many aquatic Coleoptera
by the cavity formed by the elytra, which can often be seen
being replenished as the creature brings the tip of its abdomen
to the surface.

In the Hydrophili we find part of the under side clothed with
pubescence, which retains the air, thus rendering it somewhat
difficult for them to get to the bottom of the water; H. piceus
in this group gathers in the air with its antenne, bringing its
head to the surface for this purpose.

To guard against the entrance of dirt or foreign matters into
the trachew, the spiracles are protected by hairs, spicule,
ridges, or sieve-like coverings, of which I show four examples.

A curious modification of spiracle can be seen in Nepa, the
familiar water-scorpion. Here it is anal, and composed of a
long projecting tube; but, as great danger would arise from its
getting stopped up, Nature has provided that it shall be made in
two halves, with the sides fringed with hairs, which interlock ;
they can then be readily separated, and any impurities removed.
In Fristalis a long tube is provided, but in this case it is telescopic,
being capable of protrusion for a considerable length.

The muscular apparatus by which spiracles can be closed is
composed of four parts—the bow, the lip, the lever, and the
muscle ; and is thus described by Huxley :—‘ The bow is a
thickening of one-half of the circumference of the chitinous
lining. The lip is formed by the other half of the circumference,
and the lever is a chitinous process connected with one end of
the bow or with the lip. When the lever is single the musele,
which is attached to it, passes over the lip, and is inserted into
the opposite end of the bow. When it contracts it therefore
presses the lip against the bow. When two levers are present
they are attached to opposite ends of the lip and bow, and the
muscle extends between their extremities. The effect of its
contraction is to thrust the free edge of the lip against the bow.”

That something more is necessary than the mere presence of
air in the trachee is evident, and it is to the largely developed
muscular system we must look for a means of circulation. When
a wasp alights on a fence you must all have observed the con-
traction and expansion of the abdomen. With each pulsation
the process of expiration and inspiration is effected, and it will
be readily understood that if the spiracles were closed after an

B 2

324 Mr. C. H. Goodman on the Respiration of Insects.

inspiration the effect would be to drive the air up the trachea,
though it is probably owing to what is known as the diffusion of
gases that the supply is renewed in the finer extremities. It is
in the thorax that the larger spiracles occur, and it is through
them that the buzzing sound is chiefly produced. Small
chambers have been found in some insects behind the spiracle
at the entrance of the trachea, and it seems probable that the
vibration of certain chitinous processes in this locality have much
to do with it. The muscles of the wings are attached to the
thorax, and not to the wings themselves ; consequently, as the
capacity of the thorax is altered with every flap of the wings,
respiration is effected at the same time, the more rapid the flight
the quicker the breathing.

We have now lastly to examine those methods by which
respiration is carried on where no spiracles exist. The number
of insects thus provided is comparatively few, and they are all
aquatic larve breathing by means of branchie, although they
are not so highly developed as those with spiracles. I have left
them till the last for the clearer understanding of the subject. I
must, however, mention that there are some few insects known
to science which possess both branchie and spiracles at the same
time, and I regret I have been unable to get an illustration for
you, though one at least is a British insect. Such forms are
particularly interesting to the evolutionist as examples of an
intermediate transitional stage.

We will take that of Agrion first, as being the most common
and almost always to be found. The tail is seen to be composed
of three leaf-like flaps attached to the last segment. The
. microscope shows them to be ramified by trachex, and it is by
asmotic action through their thin tissue that the air is supplied
to the trachez. Another common form is the little white bunch
of filaments seen on either side of the head in Chironomus
plumosus, the cast-skins of which are often found floating on
ponds, and make beautiful opaque objects with the side reflector.
Each slender filament carries its own trachea.

The Ephemeride furnish many interesting species in their
larval condition. One of the commonest (a species of Boetis)
has seven pairs of oval laminate gills, articulated at the end to
the hinder edge of each segment of the abdomen. It is abun-
dant in the Hogsmill River at Ewell. Ephemera vulgata has six
pairs of bifurcate plumose gills. I have found their cast-skins
by thousands in the Basingstoke Canal in May. Another species
(probably Cleon dipterum) has its branchie of afan-shape, double,
a smaller in front of a larger, and on the dorsal margin of the
abdomen. In this species, which I have taken at Epsom, the
trachez were most distinct. In other instances the specimens
may have been younger, as they frequently are not developed

.

Prehistoric Lake Dwellings of Switzerland. 325

until the first or second moult, as previous to this they breathe
cutaneously,

It must be clearly understood that these organs are not
strictly branchiz, such as exist in the Crustacea, and in which
venous blood circulates, but tracheo-branchix, the air contained
in the water being absorbed through their substance, and taken
by the numerous trachez radiating through them.

Another form of gill is that of the larve called caddis-worms,
in which rows of short isolated threads extend along the body.
Sialis, the common little black-veined fly found by streams,
supplies another form of larval branchiz. Here seven pairs of
fine joimted tapering arms of some length project laterally, down
which the trachee with their numerous little branches may
easily be detected. When alarmed the creature directs them
slightly upward, and they appear comparatively rigid; they are
equally useful for swimming backwards or forwards.

Lastly, there is the enlarged rectum found in the Libellula,
with its ridges and rows of short leafy processes. In this case,
as in the others, the same structure serves for locomotion and
respiration. By the muscular contraction of the cavity the
effete water is driven out, and, when suddenly exerted, propels
the insect a considerable distance.

Thus we see that the methods of respiration are very varied
and very instructive. In all cases the method adopted is the
one best adapted to the requirements of the individual. I do
not profess to have shown you more than a passing glimpse of
this aspect of insect life, and have selected those examples I have
met with and are most familiar rather than those which are
most curious or uncommon.

94.—Norrs on Tor Preuistoric Lake Dwenuines or
SWITZERLAND.

By Epwarp Lovert.
(Read April 8th, 1891.)

Tue Lake Dwellings of Switzerland have attracted much
attention amongst ethnologists, owing partly to the great number
of relics found in the lake deposits, and also to the very great
interest that surrounds the remarkable people who lived during
that early period. The name of Keller stands pre-eminent
as an authority upon the subject, but numerous writers have
contributed to the bibliography of this very absorbing topic.

826 Me. E. Lovett’s notes on the

I do not intend to-night to do more than briefly describe the
conditions under which the implements were found, the conditions
under which we have reason to suppose they were made, and the
illustrations they afford us of the origin of recent implements and
appliances, as well as the state of the community or communities
who fashioned them, made the pile villages, and lived in them.

Many years ago, the accidental discovery of some curious stone
axes, which happened to come before the notice of a man who
knew what they were, and did not share the popular opinion that
such things were thunderbolts, led to the systematic investigation
of the old lake-beds of Switzerland, and of such shores of recent
lakes from which the water had retired, as well as to the dredging
of such waters as could not be otherwise examined. The results,
extending over a long time, have been the discovery of a large
number of piles marking the sites of these ancient settlements,
and an enormous mass of material in the shape of relics of one
sort and another, from which a pretty general idea of the people
who constructed these houses has been obtained.

To be brief, these piles indicated that all the villages or groups
of huts were built over the water, probably on one common
platform, and that each group or platform was connected with
the shore by a causeway, also on piles. Again, it was found that,
taking a section of the deposits, piles were found with their
points in the mud, but above the heads of other piles, showing
that fresh settlements have been reared above the débris of the
old ones; and as so much of all the material found has been
charred, there is reason to believe that the villages were frequently
destroyed by fire. The curious thing about the investigation of
these deposits is that it shows that there is a regular sequence of
marked ages ; for in the very lowest deposits stone is the material
of all implements of hardness, though horn and bone were used;
a little higher up the stone is of a more finished type, whilst still
nearer the surface bronze occurs not only in vast and highly
finished condition, but almost to the exclusion of stone; from
which it would appear as though there was a great gap between
the two periods, as very probably there was. But, to crown all, —
Roman remains in iron occur plentifully over the surface mud,
though no record exists of the Romans having knowledge of
these lake dwellings. No doubt the Roman relics which occur
there have no connection whatever with the relics of the lake
people, any more than the 16th century smoking pipes which are
found mixed up with the Roman remains have anything to do
with them; or than the relics of medieval, Roman, and bronze-
age times which are brought up sometimes from the bed of the
Thames in one haul of the dredge have anything to do with each
other.

Such dwellings are by no means confined to Switzerland,

;

Prehistoric Lake Dwellings of Switzerland. 327

though the completeness of discoveries there has put other
similar finds into the background. Such aquatic settlements
have been traced near water in many parts of the Continent,
from the mound-like villages of Friesland to the morass houses
of Roumania; and in Ireland and Scotland they existed, and the
remains are described as Crannoges; whilst in the Holderness
district of Yorkshire recent excavations have revealed pile
dwellings and weapons very like the Swiss examples ; and I am
myself inclined to think that our own River Thames, when it was
much wider, and covered the low grounds of, say, the Erith
district, had in its shallows several of these curious old pile
villages, for many of the stone and bone implements sometimes
dredged up are very like the Swiss forms. For modern examples
we have only to read of the water-houses of the great African
lakes, and the shore pile-dwellings of the water Dyaks.

As to the people who inhabited these curious houses, and who
made the varied assortment of implements, by which alone we can
judge of them: who can tell with certainty what they were, and
whence they came? As regards their condition socially, we can
form some idea from the data to be obtained from the investi-
gation of the Swiss lake relics. Probably these pile-dwellings
sheltered an industrious and inoffensive race to whom we owe
much of what we know and possess to-day. That they were
fishermen is certain, for not only have numerous fish remains
been found among these relics, but fish-hooks of bone and horn
and stone of the earlier period, and of well-finished bronze in the
later. They were also hunters, as is shown by the remains of a
variety of animals known to us as game, and by the existence of
such weapons as would be used in the chase. In all probability,
they kept cattle and dogs, the former of course on the mainland;
perhaps they were the originators of domesticating these and
other animals. They also grew grain and fruit, as the charred
remains of these objects testify, and in this they may have been
the first real cultivators of the soil. The charred netting found
in the peat-bed shows exactly the same knot as is now used, and
who can say that it was not invented by them ?

In connection with the age of stone, little or nothing has been
found of an ornamental or decorative character, but in the over-
lying deposit with bronze objects a decided evidence of art exists,
an art, too, which is in its way superior to many similar
examples even of our time. Was this art latent in the period
before the discovery of bronze, and did it suddenly burst out
when suitable material was obtainable upon which to display it;
or were these bronze-age people another race altogether? At all
events we can only conclude, even from the examination of a
small collection as the one before you is, that the primitive
lake-dwellers of Switzerland were a remarkable people; that,

328 Mr. W. M. Holmes on Cossus ligniperda.

considering all things, they made a marvellous use of the
materials at their disposal; that they were a hard-working
and industrious race, to whom we probably owe much, and that
they possessed an originality of design in their bronze ornaments
so good, that we are quite content in our boasted high state of art
and taste to copy the forms which they created.

95.—On CossuUs LIGNIPERDA.
By W. Murton Houmes.
(Read September 9th, 1891.)

Axsout two years ago, as I was walking in the public recreation
ground at Faversham, in Kent, the strong odour of the goat-
moth larva (so named from its supposed resemblance to the
odour of the he-goat) greeted my nostrils, and caused me to
endeavour to discover the spot from which it emanated. This
proved to be an Italian poplar, and, with the help of the
gardener, who brought a ladder, we found a large number of
the larve, in various stages of growth, under the bark. As,
however, none of them were full-grown, and I did not want the
trouble of keeping them for a year or two, I asked the gardener
to let them remain until the tree was cut down, which the
inroads of the caterpillars had rendered inevitable. Last autumn
I received from him, by post, a cardboard-box containing up-
wards of twenty of them, and the writhing mass that presented
itself when the box was opened was, to say the least, remarkable,
—so was the smell. Fortunately they had not been too long in
transit, as they had almost eaten their way out. Had they
escaped whilst in the custody of the Post Office, the feeling and
exclamations of the officials, more especially of the lady clerks,
may be imagined but not described. There is some difficulty in
keeping them securely, owing to the facility with which they
escape from any ordinary box. I placed mine in a bell-glass
aquarium with a heavy glass cover, which answered perfectly.
I put in several pieces of decayed wood, and in the course of a
few days they had all gnawed their way inside.

The caterpillars are by no means pleasant objects to look at,
or to handle, They are about three or four inches long, some-
what flattened, and with powerful jaws, and are of a mahogany
colour along the back, becoming gradually paler on the sides and
under surface, with a few hairs scattered over the body. Looked
at from a little distance, they appear like animated pieces of raw

a

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:
:
:
|

Mr, C. H. Goodman on the Sand-wasp. 829

beef-steak. Their odour is alike powerful and persistent. They
feed upon the sap-wood of the willow, poplar, ash, and elm, and
are three or four years in developing to the perfect insect.
Towards the winter of each year they spin themselves up into a
soft cocoon, and remain in a torpid state until the warm weather
returns, and the sap begins to flow. Apropos of sap, there was
some exuding from their burrows in the poplar tree when I saw
it, which seemed to be very attractive to several red admiral
butterflies. The caterpillar does not change into a chrysalis
until a short time before it is hatched, which takes place in July
and August. The chrysalis is furnished with a series of toothed
projections on the edges of each of the segments, which enable
it to work its way along the burrows, and, when the time arrives
for it to change into the perfect insect, it pushes itself for about
half its length through the bark, so that the moth emerges in
the open air.

For collections it is necessary to kill the moth, which is of a
brown and grey colour, as soon as the wings are fully developed,
as, being a heavy moth and a strong flyer, it is soon damaged.
The female moth is remarkable for possessing a well-developed
Ovipositor, which enables the insect to deposit its eggs in the
clefts and crevices of the bark.

One other English moth, the wood leopard, the larve of which
bore into wood, is also furnished with a similar ovipositor. The
caterpillars are very destructive to the trees upon which they
feed. I have known of several large trees infested by them
having to be cut down, and an avenue of poplars, leading to the
house of a friend of mine, was entirely destroyed by their
ravages.

96.-—-Tur Sanp-wasp.
By Cartes H. Goopmay.
(Read September 9th, 1891.)

Wauts staying in the South of Devon, at the end of September,
I had the opportunity of watching the habits of the sand-wasp
(Ammophila sabulosa). Their burrows are not uncommon in a
soft sandy bank in the cliff facing the sea at Budleigh Salterton,
and when the sun is shining they may be seen rapidly running
about enjoying the warmth.

On one occasion I saw a fine specimen alight near its tunnel
with a large legless grub about an inch long. Leaving its prey
outside it quickly entered its nest, and returned, but not before
the grub had rolled about eighteen inches to the foot of the bank.

330 Mr. E. Lovett on Double Nest of Great Tit.

The sand-wasp, missing its treasure, began to hunt up and down
the bank, but she passed twice within two inches of the grub
without seeing it. I replaced it after a minute or two on the |
spot from which it fell. It was now quickly found, and, seizing
it by her powerful mandibles, she endeavoured to get it down
the narrow entrance. Failing in this attempt, she let go for a
moment to alter her arrangement, when alas! the grub fell down
the bank a second time. Again she appeared unable to discover
it until it was replaced; but now, firmly grasping it near the
head, and with its body between her legs, rapidly disappeared
backwards into her nest.

97.--Dovuste Nest or Great Tit, Parus magsor.
By Epwarp Lovert.
(Read September 9th, 1891.)

In my garden at Addiscombe is an old Roman mill or quorn of
siliceous conglomerate, which stands upon a large ornamental
flower-pot, inverted, so that the hole in the quorn corresponds
with the aperture in the base of the flower-pot. The whole rests
on the ground under the shadow of a spreading apple-tree.

In the spring of 1888 I observed a pair of great tits (Parus
major) busy near the quorn, and was pleased to discover that the
whole of the lower area of the flower-pot was occupied by a
nest of these birds, and that it contained nine eggs. In due
course the young birds were hatched, and, when fledged and
ready to fly, I was surprised to find that the attempt to get
through the hole in their ceiling had resulted in the death of
two and serious damage to a third, the upper mandible and
scalp being badly broken. I mention this as I always considered
that these birds never built in localities from which the young
could not be extracted. However, I released the remainder of
the brood in safety.

About the same time the following year the same or another
pair of the same birds again built in the quorn,,the number of
eggs on this occasion being eight; seven of these hatched, and
were liberated when ready to fly, as the same difficulty as
to getting out of their prison presented itself.

Last year (1890) the birds came again, and nine eggs were
laid and hatched, but unfortunately, when the young were half-
grown, my cat killed one (perhaps both) of the parent birds, and,
although I[ did all I could for the young ones, they died after

Mr. E. Lovett on the Storm Petrel used as Candles. 331

two days anda half. This spring I was greatly delighted to see
a pair of the same birds (probably the young of 1888 or 1889)
again building in the same old place; and I took every precaution
to protect the birds from the cat, but unfortunately without
success, and the nest was again deserted.

Upon examining the now tenantless nest I was surprised to
find that instead of one hollow in the centre, as formerly had
been the case, there were two depressions or nest cavities near
the sides of the nest. In one of these were four eggs, and in
the other two. I had examined the nest ten days previously,
and there were then neither eggs nor depressions therein. Upon
careful examination I noticed that the four eggs in one cavity
were evidently one clutch or set, whilst the two in the other
cavity were different in shade and size of the specks of colour,
and evidently not laid by the same hen. It frequently happens
that if one bird loses a mate, it takes to itself another, and this
has been known to occur repeatedly, one cock taking hen after
hen to supply the place made vacant by his successive mates
being shot. In the present instance, however, I do not see how
this could have been the case, as all the six eggs were certainly
laid in ten days, and there is no reason why they should not
have all been placed in one nest cavity, except there were two
pairs of birds nesting in one spot, which I believe to be the real
fact of the case. The cat probably killed one bird of each pair,
though I only saw one dead bird; or the attack of the cat so
alarmed the other birds that they deserted the nest.

This remarkable double nest is on the table for inspection,
and I hope, and fully believe, that in spite of past failures and
trouble, the old Roman mill will next spring be again tenanted
by a pair of Parus major.

98.—Tse Storm Perret, ProceELLaRIA PELAGICA, USED IN THE
Orkneys, SHETLANDS, AND Sr. Kizpa as CanpLes.

By Epwarp Lovert.
(Read September 9th, 1891.)

In collecting material and data bearing upon the subject of
primitive fire-making and light-giving or holding appliances, I
came across some of an exceedingly interesting character con-
nected with the various islands north of Scotland. Amongst
these was the use of the whelk-shell, Buccinum undatum, as a
lamp with whale oil; crude lamps hollowed out of solid stone ;
and perhaps the most wonderful candle ever heard of, namely;

332 Colonel C. Swinhoe on

the storm petrels, simply dried, and a string inserted for a wick,
the exceedingly fatty nature of the birds causing them to be
adaptable to this purpose.

The following note, which I came across amongst some mis-
cellaneous jottings, bears out what at first seemed difficult to
believe :—-‘‘ Dr. H. Labourne mentions a curious peculiarity of
the stormy petrel, which has caused it to be styled the lamp-bird
by the fishermen of the island of St. Kilda. The flesh of the
bird is very oily, and the inhabitants of the island, who kill it by
thousands, utilise this property for domestic purposes; they
insert a wick in the bird’s bill, and obtain for an hour a light
that is sufficiently bright to serve their purposes.”

For a long time | tried in vain to get any specimens to illus-
trate this curious use of the bird, nor could I hear of any one
who had so seen them in use. This was owing to the fact that
in nearly all the islands, if not in all, the practice has died out
in favour of a better lighting appliance. At length I met with
a native of the Orkneys who seemed well acquainted with the
islands, and, although he himself had never seen the birds in use,
he appeared to know of some older men who had, and he obtained
for me some of the birds which I now exhibit, showing how they
were used for giving light.

My correspondent also furnished me with some curious par-
ticulars regarding these birds; which he detailed in a very quaint
manner. One was thatthe petrel birds come on shore in July to
hatch, but are not seen at any other time. Another was that
when he got them for me he said ‘it was no joke to get them
petrels, as they have to be dug deep out of the earth.’”’ This
sounds a paradox, but it refers to the fact that the birds build
at the end of long burrows made in the loose earth capping the
rocks and cliffs. When sending the birds he remarked that he
had no time to insert a string, so I could do that myself; and he
further stated that the birds were alive in his possession, but
Pe he killed them before sending, as they were such perishable
things.

99.—Minicry 1n Nature.

(A Lecture delivered by Colonel CHarLes Swinuos8, F.L.S., at the
Public Hall, Croydon, on Wednesday, March 18th, 1891.)

Tur subject of this evening’s lecture is Mimicry in Nature, by
which I mean the extraordinary resemblance Nature has brought
about in the course of ages, by very slow degrees, of a creature
to its surroundings, so that it may become hidden and lost to the

Mimicry in Nature. 333

eye, and thus be protected from its enemies. The subject can
be divided into Aggressive Resemblance, Protective Resemblance,
Warning Colours, and True Mimicry. I am going, however,
to-night to show you, by some exhibits with the magic lantern,
examples of protective mimicry only, i.e., protective resemblance,
where, by its likeness to its surroundings, the creature becomes
protected ; and secondly, true mimicry where animals that are
tasteful and greedily devoured by their enemies become protected
by their resemblance to others of a distasteful nature that are
not eaten, and in whose company they live. Most of my ex-
hibits to-night refer to insects, and a few to crustacea ; and Mr.
Lovett, the President of the Club, and Mr. Crowley, the Past-
President, have very kindly brought a quantity of specimens of
the creatures themselves.

For very many years collectors have observed, and from time
to time have brought to notice, the extraordinary resemblance
one creature bears to another with which it is in no way related ;
this is especially the case with insects. Nearly thirty-five years
ago, Prof. Westwood, the eminent entomologist, described in the
‘ Transactions of the Linnean Society’ a grasshopper, which he
called Condylodera tricondeloides, as bearing a remarkable resem-
blance to a tiger beetle of the family Cicindelide, a most pugnacious
group, called Colluris crassicornis. Now, if you come to think of
it, this grasshopper must have had a most remarkable resemblance
to a tiger beetle to have taken in an eminent entomologist like
the Professor, in whose collection, he tells me, this grasshopper
remained in the row of these tiger beetles for four or five years
before, after careful examination, he discovered it was not a
beetle at all, but a grasshopper. Of course the theory of mimicry
had not been started then, and cases of this kind were looked
upon as curiosities, and phenomena of Nature.

Another very good case in point is the wonderful resemblance
the female of Hypolimnas mysippus bears to the common dis-
tasteful Indian Danais, in whose company it lives; the resem-
blance is so perfect, it is only within recent years we find this
insect in collections, for the simple reason that collectors do not
catch the Danais, it is so common; while the female of H.
mysippus on the wing is not distinguishable from the common
Danais to the ordinary collector. I well remember the first time
I myself saw this insect; it was at Winchester, some twelve
years ago, in the collection of a schoolboy ; it was in a row of
the common Indian Danais someone had given him. He very
kindly gave me the insect, and I have it now. Mr. Bates was
the first who started the theory of the unconscious mimicry of
one species for another for protection from its enemies, in an
admirable paper in the ‘ Transactions of the Linnean Society’ in
1862; and subsequently Mr. Wallace, a close observer of Nature,

834 Colonel C. Swinhoe on

who collected for some years in the Malay Archipelago, a region
most fertile in mimetic examples, brought very many remarkable
facts on the subject to the notice of the scientific world. Since
then much has been written on the subject, not by mere collectors
and cabinet-naturalists, but by really scientific observers working
in the field, like the great Charles Darwin, Bates in the Valley
of the Amazon, Wallace in the Malay Archipelago, Trimen in
South Africa, and, in Europe, Meldola, Fritz Miiller, Wiseman,
Poulton, and others.

Now as to protective resemblance. Everyone knows that there
are plenty of butterflies and moths that bear a most remarkable
resemblance to their surroundings; this applies to all orders of
insects, to birds, beasts, and fishes, and it naturally suggests
itself to the thinking mind that Nature has brought about these
resemblances for the protection of the creatures so coloured and
marked: creatures that live in the sand are coloured of the same
hue as the sand; those living in the grass are green; and so on,
with some remarkable exceptions of brightly-coloured animals,
that from many experiments have been found to be so extremely
nasty, hardly anything will touch them. These come under the
head of warning colours, with which I am not dealing to-night.
There are some butterflies that so exactly resemble the leaves
they settle on as to become lost to sight as soon as they alight,
such as the Wallima machis, the common leaf butterfly of India,
my first exhibit. It is greedily devoured by many kinds of birds
and reptiles, and would be soon exterminated if Nature had not
protected it by its great resemblance to the leaves it goes to rest
upon. The second exhibit is the common lappet moth of England
(Gastropacha quercifolia), on a deal board, which, I need hardly
say, is not his proper resting place, and also amongst oak-leaves;
you can see how perfectly well it is protected by its resemblance
to the leaves. You may touch him, and he will drop amongst
the leaves he so resembles, and there he will stop. The next
exhibit has reference to some experiments that were made by
Mrs. Barber with chrysalids of Papilio nerius, an American
butterfly. This lady obtained these caterpillars, and tried them
on different kinds of leaves. The result was that those on the
leaves of an orange tree became a bright green, as shown in the
exhibit, just like the leaves of the tree; another was placed on a
different kind of plant having withered yellow leaves, and was
absolutely of quite a different colour to the first one, and more
closely resembling the colour of its leaves. Amongst these
caterpillars was one which escaped, and could not be found ; but
the next day they found that it had gone away and turned into
a chrysalis on the lid of a box, and was of exactly the same
colour as the lid. These were all from the eggs of one mother,
and therefore it is a perfectly fair experiment. Those that

Mimicry in Nature. 335

turned chrysalis on green leaves became green, those that turned
on withered yellow leaves became of a withered yellow colour,
and the one that escaped and turned chrysalis on the lid of a box
is of exactly the same colour as the lid.

The next examples are in reference to some experiments of my
own in India. At one time I collected the larve of a hawk moth
on several occasions, and I found them sometimes bright green,
and sometimes red, and could not account for it. I obtained
some eggs of this moth (Panacra vigil), and fed the half of them
on Cissus, which is pink, and the others on Culladium, which is
green, and, though a hot-house plant here, is very common in
India. Those fed on Cissus became pink, while those fed on the
green leaves of the Calladium became green. I was then under
the mistaken impression that the colouring matter of the food
plants gave the colouring to the caterpillars; but since then
many experiments have been made by others, and I am quite
convinced I was mistaken. The food plants can have nothing or
very little to do with it; it is nothing more or less than the
surroundings,

Mr. Poulton has made several experiments in this direction
with a number of caterpillars. He had a box made with a
number of divisions, and near the bottom of the divisions were a
certain number of holes. He then tied a number of caterpillars so
that half were in one division and half in the other, one of the
divisions being painted black, another red, and so on. Of
course this was a very uncomfortable position for the caterpillars,
and some died. However, some lived, and in every case the
chrysalis was of the colour of the surroundings in the direction
of which it was tied. No doubt it is the nervous system through
which they acquire the coloration of their surroundings, and it
appears to me that when a caterpillar turns into a chrysalis, the
the last thing his eyes rest on causes the colour of the chrysalis.

Now the next example is the cocoon of the common English
emperor moth. This is also the result of some more experiments
made by Mr. Poulton. These caterpillars spin a silk cocoon,
inside which is the chrysalis. One spun in a black bag, and
produced a black cocoon; while another of the same insects, and
of the same family, spun its cocoon on a sheet of white writing-
paper. The result was that every bit of the silk was perfectly
white. It is very difficult indeed to account for the reason of it.
Of course one only draws deductions as to the manner in whicly
Nature has brought about these extraordinary facts that a cocoon
should be white on white paper, and black in a black bag, in
resemblance to the surroundings. How it is done is a mystery,
and we must wait some years yet till it is elucidated.

My next example is that of a spider in lichen. The spider
makes its home right in the middle of the lichen, waiting for its

386 Colonel C. Swinhoe on

prey. But this is not an aggressive resemblance only, but a
protective one, because it is very good food, greedily devoured,
and it obtains protection from its extraordinary likeness to its
surroundings.

The next example is from life of the pipe-fish (Siphonostoma
typhle). This creature obtains its protection by being coloured
like the grass amongst which it lives, Zosteru, a grass-like
flowering plant which is found in the sea, like sea-weed. The
pipe-fish stands up in it like a piece of grass, and sways backwards
and forwards with the current in the same way as the grass.
This example is taken from life from the Plymouth Aquarium.
An interesting example of adventitious protection is afforded by
certain crabs (Stenorhynchus, an English spider-crab), which
fasten pieces of sea-weed on their bodies and limbs. Some of
these may be observed in the cases your President has been good
enough to bring; the exhibits were taken from life in the
Plymouth Aquarium, and I think very fairly represent the
creatures themselves. Mr. Poulton tells us in his book on the
colours of animals that Mr. Bateson has observed the process.
The crab takes a piece of sea-weed in his two chele, and without
either snatching or biting it, deliberately tears it in half as a
man tears paper with his hands. He then puts one end of it in
his mouth, and chews it up, presumably to soften it. He then
takes it out, and rubs it firmly on his head or legs until it is
caught by the peculiar curled hairs which cover them. If the
piece of weed is not caught by the hairs, the crab puts it back in
his mouth and chews it up again. The whole process is very
human and purposeful. This crab is a very favourite food for
some fish, and, as your President has just reminded me, the fish
never eat sponges, these creatures cover themselves with sea-
weed and sponges, so that they can thus be hidden by something
which their own enemies object to.

Next we come to true mimicry, where one creature is protected
by its resemblance to another. The general observation of all
the writers on this subject is that imitating species are com-
paratively rare, often very rare, whilst the imitated are to be
found in great numbers, the two living together; the imitated
are protected species, being distasteful, whereas the imitating
are good food, and would become exterminated but for the pro-
tection they obtain by being lost in the crowd of those they
resemble. I will confine my exhibits to butterflies, with which
I am most familiar, and whose structural characters and habits
I have studied for years. There are butterflies that, by many
experiments, have been found to be good food, and to be greedily
devoured by birds and lizards, and such creatures as prey on
them; and are protected by their resemblance to others that,
also by many experiments, have been proved to be of a

Mimicry in Nature. 337

distasteful kind, and, as a rule, are not eaten by birds or
reptiles.

The butterflies of the genus Danais are a very good example
of distasteful creatures, and they are mostly in great numbers.
For my own part, I have never seen them attacked; and I
remember some four years ago Mr. E. H. Aitken had some pet
lizards in Bombay, and he was very sceptical as to the Danais
being so distasteful as to be refused by creatures when hungry,
and he said he would make his lizards eat them. He therefore
kept them for five days without food, and then, in the ordinary
way of feeding them, he threw some live Danais into their cage.
They greedily ran to them, and it was quite comical to see the
way they stopped as soon as they got to them, threw up their
heads and walked away as if disgusted, and would not touch
them; and Meldola notes that in a neglected collection of
butterflies the mites will eat everything but the Danais, and
mites cannot be called dainty creatures.

There are two kinds of so-called mimicry; one where vast
quantities of distasteful butterflies of different genera and species
keep to the same colour and pattern, the other—the true
mimicry—where tasteful butterflies that would otherwise fall
an easy prey and become exterminated are protected by the
extraordinary resemblance to the distasteful ones. I think the
term ‘‘mimicry’”’ has been rather abused. It is perhaps un-
fortunate that some better term has not been invented to express
the resemblance Nature has brought about in the course of ages,
by very slow degrees, of one creature for another for protection,
just in the same manner as Nature has brought about the
resemblance of creatures to their surroundings; because the
word mimicry in its ordinary sense means conscious imitation,
whereas the word as now used means nothing of the sort ; but it
is obviously absurd to apply the term mimicry to cases where
creatures that are all protected by being distasteful resemble one
another.

We find that the protected species are always plentiful, mostly
in great numbers, and they live in countries in various groups of
patterns; but when the systematist comes to examine any group
in large numbers, he finds, to his astonishment, that they are
not all alike—that there are in each group many species, and
even many subgenera. To call this mimicry is misleading; if
the subject be thought out, the only conclusion we can come to
is that it could not be otherwise. Undoubtedly each group of
the same pattern came from one common ancestor, and it is
obvious that whatever changes have taken place in the course of
time, it was necessary for their better protection to maintain the
well-known distasteful pattern. At all events, there was no
necessity for changing it, and where changes have been going on

Cc

888 Colonel C. Swinhoe on

in the structural characters in different localities to adapt the
creatures to their changes in their surroundings, the general
pattern has been maintained, while the changes in structure in
some instances have been so great. as to form new subgenera in
the systematic lists. For example, I show in this exhibit six
butterflies of Danais of one pattern from various parts of India,
all of different subgenera. Although of one similar pattern,
they vary much in shape, and more particularly in the sexual
characters of the males. Tirimala (India) has a large scent-
pouch or sac between the median and submedian veins; Radena
exprompta (Ceylon) has none; Parantica agrea (S. India) has the
scent producing organs on both median and submedian veins;
and Bahora philomela (West Java) and Asthysa melanoleuca
(S. Andamans) have the same; but in Asthysa the scent-pouch
on the submedian vein is rudimentary, and they all differ more
or less in shape and form. Caduga larissa (Java) has the scent-
pouches on the submedian aud internal veins. In another
example are eight Huplocus of one pattern, but of eight different
subgenera, from different parts of India and the Malay Peninsula,
which also, though of very similar pattern, vary much in struc-
tural and sexual characters. These insects are so wonderfully
alike in pattern, it was not until so recently as 1883, when Mr.
F. Moore wrote his great Monograph on the Linninana and
Euploema in the ‘ Proceedings of the Zoological Society,’ ex-
plaining their structural differences, that their subgeneric dis-
tinctions have been properly understood.

There are many distasteful butterflies mimicked by others for
protection, but the Jancusse are the commonest in the Old
World; and after 1 had the good fortune to listen to Mr.
Poulton’s great lecture on Mimicry at the last British Association
Meeting at Leeds, it struck me it would be a good thing to follow
any one mimetic species all over the different countries inhabited
by it, and see the result. Now in the genus Hypolimnas or
Diadema, though according to systematists there are many
species, there are from a biological point of view practically only
two distinct species, H. mysippus and H. bolina, and I therefore
determined to follow them, and the result I must say has
astonished me.

First we will deal with H. mysippus. The female is somewhat
similar to the female of H. bolina, but it is a smaller insect; the
white spots on the wings above are larger, rounder, and without
any blue; and the under side has a reddish hue, not present in
A. bolina, and on the wing it is a far more active insect. The
male, so far as we know, is able to protect itself, and is never
mimetic; but if you cripple one and let it go, it soon falls a prey
to the first insect, bird, or reptile that sees it. Its female is
invariably mimetic, being a slow flier, and a conspicuous object ;

‘Mimicry in Nature. 339

when heavily laden with eggs, it would soon become exterminated
if not protected by Nature in some way or other. This female
invariably mimics the commonest of all the Danaine, i.e., D.
chrysippus, which is common all over India, Burmah, Ceylon, the
Malay Archipelago, Madagascar, Aden, and, in Africa, in the
west, south, and south-eastern coasts; and in every one of these
localities H. mysippus also exists, the female being of the Danais
colour and pattern; and where the Danais does not exist, H.
mysippus is not to be found. In Africa, D. chrysippus is of a dull
bronzy red, and not nearly so brightly coloured as it is in Asia ;
and similarly the females of H. mysippus in Africa are of a dull
bronzy hue, whereas in India the females are brighter coloured,
like the hue of the Indian Danais. In Africa and at Aden there
are two or three forms of D. chrysippus, some without the black
patch to the fore wings, some with it, but with white hind wings,
and some without it, also with white hind wings, and in their places
are occasionally to be found females of H. mysippus similarly
marked and coloured. In India the mimetic form of the Danais
without the black patch is also occasionally to be found, and so
also is the Danais, but the mimicker is commoner than the
mimicked. I am inclined to believe that this is the more ancient
form, but is dying out and is gradually being replaced by the
black-tipped form, and that the mimetic form has actually out-
lasted the form it has mimicked. There is proof of this in the
species H. bolina, examples of which I will give later on. It will
be seen from the exhibits that there are examples of H. mysippus
mimicking D. chrysippus, D. alcippus and D. dorippus.

Next we come to the species H. bolina. In Asia the female
only is mimetic, the male in all localities being of the normal
form. The female universally mimics Kuplea of the core pattern,
where these exist; and wherever core is the common form, the
mimic is invariably of the true core pattern. The exhibit shows
H. bolina and E. core. But E. core does not go very far south ;
one or two have been taken in Mergui, but there is no record of
its more southern existence. In Amboina it mimics /. climena.
In one of the Solomon Islands you get the normal male just as
we have it in India, and the female in the form of the commonest
Euplea of the place. In another island called Meleita, quite
close by, both male and female imitate the common Euplea of
the district, and this is one of the most beautiful mimetic forms
you can find. The male mimics the male, and the female the
female, imitating the common noxious and most plentiful
butterfly of the district in which it lives. Yet a little farther,
go to Ké Island, and here we find H. bolina mimicking FE. hopperit.
In Sumatra it imitates E. singapura. In fact, you may follow
it wherever you will, and wherever it is found it is always in the
garb of the commonest butterfly of the district. Then we come

c2

340 Colonel C. Swinhoe on Mimicry in Nature.

to the Fiji Islands, where we get a transitional form. There
seems to be here a regular mimetic gradation from a brown to a
yellow Euplea. We do not know much at present of the Lepi-
doptera of the Fiji Islands, but I can show you one or two of the
Euplea, and Mr. Crowley in his magnificent collection has
several. You can get them in the transitional stage there from
the Danais to the Euplea. From the Celebes, to my astonish-
ment, I have got the female of H. bolina in a mimetic form
resembling a male Danais, and these came in an ordinary
collection I received from the Celebes through Herr Sniller,
the well-known Dutch lepidopterist. From here we go to Africa.

In Africa we find both sexes of H. bolina mimicking various
kinds of Danaine, and consequently from a systematist’s point of
view, having lost their specific characters, they bear many
specific names. In search of the mimetic form of this most
extraordinary species I looked over Mr. Crowley’s magnificent
collection; I also went over the collection of Mr. F. Moore,
Mr. Godman, Mr. Druce, and of the British Museum, besides
my own, and I must say the result is most extraordinary. In
every district, the south, west, and east, and I dare say in many
places in the interior, you get this extraordinary insect in a new
garb, coloured and marked—though structurally the same—in
the garb of the common noxious Eupleus of the district. 1 might
have brought at least a hundred different specimens to-day. But
I have selected three, not that they show better mimicry than
the others, for in every locality where the forms occur the
mimicry seems to be remarkably good; but these show more or
less different patterns, and are from such widely different
localities as Natal, in the south-east, and the Cameroons, in the
west, of Africa :—H. marginalis, protected by its resemblance to
the Danais (Amauris) dominicas from Delawur; H. mima, pro-
tected by its resemblance to Danais (Amawris) echeria from
Graham’s Town; H. dubia, protected by its resemblance to
Danais (Amauris) egialea from the Cameroons.

I know there are many people who will still continue to pooh-
pooh the whole theory of mimicry. The theory was only started
in 1862; volumes have been written about it since then: many
eminent men have done so, and people still continue to reject it.
Only last summer a very eminent Professor, for whom in every
other matter I have the most profound respect, told me that his
silk umbrella was of a mimetic character, that it was gradually
assuming the appearance of a cotton umbrella to escape being
stolen. It is all very well to laugh at the theory, but it is an
undoubted fact that these things are. You have followed to-
night one species all over the Old World, and you find it nowhere
but in the garb or disguise of the common noxious insect of the
district. It is nowhere but in that disguise, and wherever the

Mr. E. Marriott on Gelatino-Chloride Papers. 841

noxious creature has become exterminated there it has become
exterminated also. It is obviously absurd to suggest as merely
phenomenal coincidences such cases as these, when certain
creatures only exist under mimetic forms, which vary in colour
and pattern according to the colour and pattern of the distasteful
creature in every locality where they exist together.

In conclusion, I wish to point out that I have only been trying
to show you some of the extraordinary cases of protective
mimicry; but as to how the thing is brought about, no one can
say, because nobody knows; all that one can do is to observe
Nature closely, and make deductions. That Nature is always
working for the protection and preservation of the creatures it
contains I think our common sense tells us. The key-note of
the whole theory of evolution which the great Charles Darwin
brought to light is the great struggle for life which is always
going on around us, the survival, in fact, of the fittest. And the
more one thinks, and the more one observes, the more you
become impressed with our own extreme insignificance, and with
the wonders of the work of the great Creator.

100.—Gertatino-CHLORIDE Papers.
By Epw. Marriorr.
(Read before the Photographic Section, October 2nd, 1891).

Durine the past four or five years the sale of gelatino-chloride
paper has increased wonderfully: four years ago it was very
little known amongst amateur photographers. In Germany itis
extremely popular, and in America the demand for it is enormous.
At last our English manufacturers are waking up to the fact
that there are trade possibilities in this line, and we need no
longer send to Germany for our supplies, and Mr. J. Fallowfield,
the Blackfriars Co., and the Ilford Co., are producing it.

Two years ago, as far as I can make out, there were only two
kinds on the market. To-night I have prints from seven kinds
for your inspection: Obernetter, Leisegang, Aristotype, Celero-
type, Fallowfield’s, R. Talbot’s, Adams’ Luminotype, and the
Ilford Paper. I print them rather deeply, and without any
washing the prints are transferred to the combined toning and
fixing bath. I have had no experience with any other bath,
although equally good results are obtained by their use. I know
that the one I use works well, keeps well, and will tone any
paper or transparency that requires it. I have with me two
lantern slides to show the difference in colour produced by this

342 Mr. E. Marriott on Gelatino-Chloride Papers.

bath. We are informed that the addition of chloride of gold to
hypochloride must give rise to sulphur compounds, and therefore
sulphuration of prints must follow. Iam not chemist enough
to discuss this point, but experience ranks before theory, and I
never get this sulphuration, except from thoroughly exhausted
baths; when yellowing appears it is time to make up a fresh
bath or add gold. Experts are unable to decide how it is that
albumen prints toned in such old-fashioned baths as sel d’or
(sulphur toning notwithstanding) retain their beauty for years,
while modern alkaline baths fail to yield this permanency. Per-
haps the heavier silvering of bygone days played its part, and
in the gelatino-chloride paper the conditions are somewhat
analogous, as with this process we can print from more vigorous
negatives, get a denser deposit of silver upon the print, and
reduce gold upon the image to an extent impossible to modern
albumen paper, without fear of over-toning. When the prints
in the bath have nearly reached the required tint they are
removed to clean water and well washed for two or three hours
in several changes of water. I thoroughly wash glass, celluloid,
enamelled iron, or ebonite; if glass, I dry it, and rub a little
tale over it with a softrag. When I wish to be especially careful,
I put both print and glass under water to exclude all air. The
print is then squeezed down, and, when satisfied that all air-
bubbles are removed, the print with its support combination is
set on one side to dry; excessive heat must not be used, or the
prints will resist all efforts to remove them ina whole condition.
They will not leave their support until they are quite dry, and,
with me, seldom fall off. I generally raise one corner and pull
them off. I keep pieces of celluloid in a stone jar, they are
covered with water, free from dust, and always ready.

In Matt-surfacing, proceed exactly in the same way as with
enamelling, only use a ground surface instead of a polished one.
If the prints are to be mounted with starch, they should be
backed whilst damp, and in contact with the support. To save
this operation many dealers keep a spirit or naphtha mountant,
but I have not tried any of these. White shellac dissolved in
methylated spirit, and strained through fine muslin, will, I
believe, act well as a mountant. Several of the prints exhibited
were mounted with a mixture of glue and methylated spirit, but
as this is only an idea of my own, and has not been tested long
enough, I do not advise it. Used carefully it does not injure
the surface of the print.

( 348 )

101.—_THE REPORT OF THE METEOROLOGICAL
SUB-COMMITTEE FOR 1891.

PreparepD By THE Hon. Sec. Francis CampseLt Bayarp, LL.M.,

F.R. Mer. Soo.

Tue arrangements for observing the daily rainfall round
Croydon have been successfully carried out on the same plan
as last year. The staff numbers 49 observers, superintending
57 stations, as against 45 observers and 53 stations in 1890.

Several changes have occurred during the year. The old
established station of Reigate Hill will in future become a
monthly one, instead of a daily one, owing to the removal of
the observer into Reigate, and its place on our printed list will
be taken by a new station, the College, Caterham Valley, the
accession of which is most welcome. ‘The old station at Grange
Road, Sutton, comes to an end, owing to the death of the
observer early in January. A new station appears for the first
time in that of Oakfield Road, Croydon. Owing to the removal
of Dr. H. Franklin Parsons into Croydon, his observations at
South Norwood came to an end, but Dr. B. N. Dalton has very
kindly offered to continue them at his house at South Norwood,
and though not strictly a continuation, the observations are
taken at a spot sufficiently near to enable the Sub-Committee to
put them in the daily list. With respect to New Malden, there
is a break of five months, owing to the departure of the engineer,
Mr. '[T. L. Heward; the station, however, is now resumed under
the superintendence of Mr. T. V. H. Davison. The stations of
Croydon (Limes Road), Esher (West End), Sydenham, and
Eltham have been discontinued, owing to the removal of the
observers; but the Sub-Committee have much pleasure in
announcing that the places of these stations will be taken by,
they hope, one at Oxshott, one at Wandsworth Common, and
by the old-established station at Woolwich resuming daily
observations.

Appendix I. to this Report contains a list of the observers,
with particulars relating to the stations and gauges. The
stations with the asterisk prefixed were admitted after the com-
mencement of the year, and the three with the double asterisk
are stations which sent in reports in the previous year.

Appendix II. contains the tables of daily rainfall issued
monthly, and subsequently stereotyped,

Appendix III. gives the monthly rainfall of six other stations,

Appendix IV. gives a record of all falls of rain of 1 inch

344 Report of the Meteorological Sub-Committee for 1891.

and upwards in the 24 hours, extracted from Appendices II.
and III.

And, finally, Appendix V. contains general notes on the
characteristic features of every month.

The observations are taken at 9 a.m. at all the stations, except
at Addington (Park Farm), and Brixton 8 a.m., Bickley 9.30
a.m., and Croydon (Limes Road), South Norwood, and Kew
10 a.m.

With reference to the rainfall of the year, the Sub-Committee
find it very difficult to come to any definite conclusion. Com-
paring it with 1890, it appears an extremely wet year, but when
it is looked at more closely there is rather a different tale. The
first six months of the year were comparatively dry, and the last
six months wet, the amount falling in the last months ranging
from 13 to 3 in. excess of the amount falling in the first six
months. It is, however, by comparing the year with the
averages of previous years that we must decide whether the
year has been wet or dry. At Greenwich the year closed with
an excess of ‘52 in. oyer the 50 years 1841—90 average, and was
the wettest year since 1888; at Surbiton it closed with an
excess of 3°20 in. over the 35 years 1856—90, and was the
wettest year since 1880; at Kew it closed with an excess of
2°36 in. over the 35 years 1856—90, and was the wettest year
since 1885; at Brixton it closed with an excess of 3:00 in. over
the 20 years 1871—90, and was the wettest year since 1880; at
Beckenham it closed with a defect of -78 in. on the 20 years
1871—90, and was the wettest year since 1888; at Addiscombe
(Outram Road) it closed with an excess of 3:98 in. on the 15
years 1876—90, and was the wettest year since 1880; and at
Sutton it closed with an excess of 5-69 in. on the 10 years 1881—
90, and was the wettest year since 1880. We may therefore fairly,
the Sub-Committee think, come to the conclusion that the year
was a wet one, though not to any very great extent, the probability
being that the excess was not much more than 1 in. over the
average of a long series of years. With respect to the time at
which the rain fell, we all know what miserable weather we had
for our holidays; but even this was not without its corresponding
advantages, for these rains filled up the underground springs,
and instead of a great scarcity of water, which was expected by
nearly everyone about October, we got through scatheless, and
now the springs are well filled, and there is, your Sub-Committee
trust, no fear of a scarcity of water during this present year.
The Sub-Committee, however, cannot contemplate without appre-
hension the continuous pumping up of the under-ground waters
for the supply of our large towns, and are fully aware of the
prejudicial effects that this must eventually have on the public
health, and would impress on all public authorities the necessity,

Report of the Meteorological Sub-Committee for 1891. 345

which will year by year become more urgent, of endeavouring
to find out means of preserving some of the waters which now
run to waste, and using them as a primary supply, reserving the
under-ground waters for an emergency.

The number of days on which 1:U0 in. and upwards fell is
larger than in 1890, but the amount of the largest fall is much
smaller, being only 1-95 in. as against 2°62 in. in 1890.

In conclusion, the Sub-Committee ventures to ask the aid of
every member of the Club in aiding them in their work.

10

15

20

30

40

5

or

ape EN DEX 1.

StaTiona,

Surrey—
Dorking (Denbies)..............
Reigate Hill (Lovelands)........

*Caterham Valley (The College) ..
Krent—

**Knockholt (The Beeches)........
SurrEy—
Marden Park (Birchwood House) .
Kenley (Ingleside) ............
Purley (Reedham Asylum)
Purley {Tados Cottages)
Banstead (The Larches) ........
Ashtead (D’Abernon Chase)
Sutton (Mulgrave Road)
**Sutton (Grange Road) ..........
Carshalton (The Wrythe)
Wallington (Manor Road)
Beddington (Riverside) ........
Waddon (Waddon House)
Croydon (Brimstone Barn) ......
*Croydon (Oakfield Road)........
Croydon (Limes Road) ........
Croydon (Whitgift School) ......
Addiscombe (Havelock Road)....
Addiscombe (Outram Road) ...
Addington Hills (The Reservoir) .
Addington (Park Farm) ........
Addington (Pumping Station) ..
Krent—

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OBSERVERS,

Je Beesleyis sv. scvicles we
FR GBinS y saiscieiete dei 'ete
G. 8. Elliott, M.D. ....
C. W. Rudd

W. Morris, C.E. ......

C. & F. Rutley ........
Harold Smith
J. A. Carter
J BONWICK! Gli. She.
Rey. C. J. Taylor......

a

...| Sir W. Vincent, Bart...

WiitGoodey asec ccs we
late W. Thurtell
J. W. Manley
F. C. Bayard
S. Rostron

PA Crowley: src ses wis v's
Croydon Corporation ..
A. Malden ..........0
Croydon Corpceration ..
AS Era NWELUSOMD s<)0: cavecste =
Baldwin Latham, C.E. .

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Croydon Corporation ..

West Wickham (Layham’s Farm)| W. Ashcroft ..........
Hayes Common (The Warren) ..| Miss Akers ..........
Keston (Bradfield) .......... cali Le Wl Sao seac Sc sear
Keston (Heathfield) ............ Miss M. Holland ......
Keston (Tower Fields) .......... G. Buchanan, C.E.....
Orpington (Kent Waterworks) ..| W. Morris, C.E. ......
Farningham Hill .............. HW dio Weigle Se ajeeon

Wilmington (Kent Waterworks). .
Chislehurst (The Chestnuts) ....
Bickley (Highfield) ............
Beckenham (Foxgrove)
SuRREY—
South Norwood (Whitworth Road)
*South Norwood (Selhurst Road) ,
Wimbledon (Sewerage Works)
Wimbledon (Mount Ararat) ..
Raynes Park (Pumping Station), .

New Malden (Sewerage Works) ..

Esher (Sewerage Works) ........
Surbiton (Seething Wells) ......
Kingston (Sewerage Works)
Richmond (Ormond Lodge)
Kew (Kew Observatory)
Brixton (Acre Lane)............
West Norwood (Thornlaw Road)..
Krent—
Sydenham (Longton Grove) ....
Forest Hill (Dartmouth Road) ..
*Forest Hill (The Nurseries)
Deptford (Kent Waterworks) ....
Greenwich (Royal Observatory)...
**Woolwich (Shooter’s Hill) ......
Eltham (Victoria Road) ...,....

Cr

ee ar ry

W. Morris, C.E. ......
J. B. Snell
J. Batten

Cr
re od

H. F. Parsons, M.D. ..
B. N. Dalton, M.D.....

.| C. H. Cooper, C.E.....
-| T. Devas

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C, H. Cooper, C.E.....
(T. L. Heward ......

| T. V.H. Davison, ca}
Baldwin Latham, C.E..
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.| J. T. Billett

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The Kew Committee ..
FE. Gaster ..5 5000 ce as oe
W; Marriott ....<. +. ae
Md Porter! ss steers siete
Mrs. Behrens ........

.| James Carter & Co.....

W. Morris, C.E. ......
The Astronomer Royal .
Capt. S. D. Cleeve, R.E.
Capt. M. S, Richardson,

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Report of the Meteoroloyical Sub-Committee for 1891.

370
APPENDIX III.
MONTHLY RECORDS.
Srarton. | Jan. | Feb. \Mar.| Apr. May| Jun.'July Aug. Sep.| Oct. |Nov | Dec Year.
IN. IN. || IN. | IN. | IN. |. IN. | IN.| IN. | IN. | IN. | IN. | IN. || IN.

Cat. Valley..| 2°61} | 0°15 [2°79 [0-71 |3-02|2-45 |3-99| 5-22 0°94) 6°90 [380 4:14 || 36°72
Knockholt..| 3°40 | 0°04 (3-05 |1-10 3-22 |2°63 |3°35 | 5°32 (1°25) 6:30 [3°28 3°12 || 36°11
Sutton ....| 1°78 | 0°05 |2°34|0-70 |3-20 |1:60 |2°91| 4-38 |0°98| 4°94 (2:59 /3-17|| 28-64
Croydon ..| 1:89 | 0:03 |2°95 0-63 |2°82 1-13 |3-84 3:90 |0°69| 5°75 |2°51/2°56 |) 28:70
Forest Hill..| 1:97 | 0°10 |2°13|0°64|3-07 |1-11 |4:20| 3-65 |1-21| 5°58 |2°09/|2°80|| 28°55
Woolwich ..| 1:66 | 0:06 |2.23 |0°82 |2°70 |1-60 |2:83 | 3-29 |0°62| 4:92 |2°65/1-94|| 25:32

t Estimated.

APPENDIX IV.

Farts or 1:0 1n. AND UPWARDS IN 24 HOURS.

JULY 7TH.

Purley (Reedham), 1-04 in.; Addington (Pumping Station),

gibi

in.

JuLy 27TH.

Addington (Park Farm), 1:02 in. ; West Wickham, 1:11 in. ;
Keston (Tower Fields), 1-03 in.

Juty 31st.

Kenley, 1:14 in.; Purley (Reedham), 1:06 in.; Purley (Tudor
Cottages), 1:25 in.

AvuGUST SRD.
Purley (Tudor Cottages), 1:0+ in. ; Ashtead, 1:20 in.

Avaeust 20TH.
Dorking, 1:95 in.; Reigate Hill, 1:86 in. ; Caterham, 1°45 in.;

Caterham Valley, 1:46 in.; Marden Park, 1:32 in.; Kenley,
i:17 in.; Purley (Tudor Cottages), 1°15 in.; Banstead, 1:29 in.;
Ashtead, 1°40 in.; Sutton, 1:01 in.; Carshalton, 1:07 in.;
Wallington, 1:08 in.; Beddington, 1:12 in. ; Waddon, 1:08 in.;
Croydon (Oakfield Road), 1:27 in.; Croydon (Limes Road),
1:19 in.; Croydon (Whitgift), 1:14 in.; Addiscombe (Havelock
Road), 1:06 in.; Addiscombe (Outram Road), 1:03 in.; West
Wickham, 1:23 in.; Keston (Heathfield), 1:03 in.; Orpington,
1:10 in.; Farningham Hill, 1:25 in.; South Norwood (Selhurst

Report of the Meteorological Sub-Committee for 1891. 871

Road), 1:20 in. ; Wimbledon (Sewerage Works), 1:32 in.; Wim-
bledon (Mt. Ararat), 1:42 in.; Raynes Park, 1:38 in.; Esher,
1:06 in.; Surbiton, 1:19 in.; Kingston, 1:37 in.; Richmond,
1:17 in.; Kew, 1:16 in.; Brixton, 1:38 in.; West Norwood,
1:19 in.; Sydenham, 1:19 in.; Forest Hill (Dartmouth Road),
1-11 in.; Forest Hill (The Nurseries), 1-03 in.

Aueust 21st.
Forest Hill (The Nurseries), 1-08 in.

Novemser 10rn.

Dorking, 1:07 in.; Caterham, 1:10 in.; Kenley, 1:05 in.;
Purley (Tudor Cottages), 1:06 in.; Ashtead, 1-06 in.; Sutton,
1:03 in. ; Carshalton, 1:15 in.; Wallington, 1:09 in.; Beddington,
1:15 in. ; Croydon (Limes Road), 1:10 in.; Keston (Bradfield),
1:26 in.; South Norwood (Selhurst Road), 1°03 in.

December 1st.
Dorking, 1:10 in.; Caterham, 1-00 in.; Kenley, 1:20 in.;
Purley (Reedham), 1:08 in.; Purley (Tudor Cottages), 1-18 in. ;
Banstead, 1°19 in.

APPENDIX V.

JANUARY,

The long frost which began on November 25th, 1890, and
continued through December, 1890, did not finally come to an
end until the 23rd of this month, being certainly the greatest
and longest frost for over 100 years. Immense damage was
done to evergreens and all vegetable produce. The mean
temperature at Beddington was 32°4°.. The month at Kew was
one of the brightest Januarys on record, 74 hours of bright sun-
shine, a percentage of 28 per cent., twice the average, having
been registered. The rainfall was slightly above the average.

Frsruary,

The extreme dryness of this month will long be remarkable.
In many places there was no measurable quantity of rain, and at
Kew, though the total was ‘09 in., yet out of this only :01 was
actual rainfall, the rest being concentrated dew or fog. The
mean temperature of the month was rather low, being at Bed-
dington 372°. and at Wallington 89:3°,

872 Report of the Meteorological Sub-Committee for 1891.

Marca.

This was a cold and rather wet month, and towards the end
vegetation was considered to be at least 16 days behindhand.
The great snowstorm of the 9th and 10th will long be remem-
bered, covering as it did the country round here to the depth of
10 in., and to unprecedented depths in the west. The rainfall
at Kew was slightly below the average of the past 30 years.

APRIL.

A very cold dreary month, with very small rainfall and a great
prevalence of east and north-east winds. At Beddington the low
daily maxima were remarkable, thére being only 3 days -with a
maximum of over 60°0°. No rain, or very little indeed, fell in
the district after the 12th. The almond was in flower on the
17th, about 3 weeks or a month late; the yellow butterfly was
not seen till the last week, nor the cuckoo heard before the 28th;
and even at the close of the month hardly any leaves except of
gooseberry and currant bushes were out.

May.

The first 14 days were spring-like, with no ground frosts and
some refreshing showers; but after this came a change, and
snow fell at Kew on the 16th and 17th, and there was a very
severe hailstorm at Beddington on the 24th. The rainfall at
Kew was ‘65 in. above the May average, and at Wallington
*69 in. above the May average for 1886 to 1890. At Kew there
were during the month 162 hours of bright sunshine, which was
5 per cent. below the average of the past 14 years. There seemed
to be no insect-blight in the Keston district.

JUNE.

A comparatively warm month, and the dryest June since
1887. After the 16th, with the exception of the 28rd, the
maximum thermometer in the shade was well above 70:0°.
Vegetation, which was backward in the early part of the month,
recovered rapidly towards the close. The rainfall at Wallington
was slightly below the June average of the 5 years 1886-90.
Sunshine was fairly plentiful, and was so hot.on the 28th at
Beddington as to raise the black bulb in vacuo to 141:0°.

JULY.

A cold, wet, sunless month, very similar to July, 1890. The
hay crop was got in in fair condition, but was about one month
late, and strawberries lasted throughout the month, and were a
heavy crop. With respect to mean temperature, it was about

Report of the Meteorological Sub-Committee for 1891. 878

60-5°, practically the same as June, instead of being about 2°5°
warmer, On the 31st, at Waddon New Road, Croydon, ‘29 in.
fell in five minutes, between 1.55 and 2 p.m., being at the rate
of 3:48 in. per hour.

Avueust.

The weather was practically the same as that of July, being
very wet, cold, and sunless, with strong winds during the last
10 days. The rainfall was the heaviest August fall at Kew since
1881, and was 1°9 in. above the past 30 years mean. At Bed-
dington and Wallington it was the heaviest August rainfall since
the observations were commenced. The highest maximum in
the shade occurred on the 14th, and was at Kew 73°6°, at Bed-
dington 75°0°, and at Wallington 74°6°.

SEPTEMBER.

The month was fairly dry and fine, a great contrast to the
two previous months, and, beginning with the 8th, there was a
week of really hot weather, during which the maximum in the
shade for the year was reached. The rainfall was very small,
the average for September at Greenwich being 2°41 in., an
amount which has not been reached since 1885. The harvest,
though in places rather poor, was on the whole got in in a better
condition than was at first anticipated.

OcToBER.

An exceedingly wet, stormy, and wild month, with no frost
until the 31st. The mean temperature 50°5°, at Beddington,
was higher than that of any October since 1886. The rainfall
was exceedingly heavy. At Keston (Tower Fields) it was the
wettest month since the commencement of the observations, and
likewise at Beddington, the next wettest October being in 1882.
At Kew it was the wettest October since 1880, when 5:94 in. fell,
and, with this exception, it was the largest October total since
1865. At Kew, although so much rain fell, yet the amount of
bright sunshine was 4 per cent. above the average, 110 hours
being recorded, which gives a mean percentage of 33.

NovemMBeErR.

The opening week was dry and cold, with easterly, but on
the 9th there was a return of stormy wet weather and S.W.
winds. A heavy gale, extending over a wide area and doing
great damage, occurred on the 11th, and the barometer went
down to a lower point, 28°31 in. at 11.380 a.m., than any touched
since Dec. 8th, 1886. At Wallington the barometer fell from
80-636 in. reduced, &c., on the 5th to 28-522 in. reduced, &c.,
on the 11th, a fall of over 2 in, in six days. During the week,

374 Report of the Meteorological Sub-Committee for 1891.

from the 9th to the 16th, at most places in the district, more
than 24 in. of rain fell. During the last week the air was
colder, with frosts at night.

DrcEMBER.

The year ends up with an extraordinary month, one which
will chiefly be remembered in the district as being without snow,
although snow had fallen heavily all round us. It may be
divided into two distinct portions, the weather in the first half
being cyclonic, with heavy rain and warm winds ; but the latter
half was dry, very cold, with exceedingly dense and continuous
fogs, and abnormally heavy rime on trees, buildings, &. The
frost gave way on Christmas Day, and the month ended up as it
began. But for this cold spell it would have been at Beddington
one of the warmest Decembers for many years, and even as it is,
it is the warmest since 1884, the mean temperature being 39°5°.
It is remarkable that at Beddington the mean maximum of
December, 1890, was only 0°3° higher than the mean minimum
of the present one; but the variation of the daily mean was far
more than in 1890, the difference between the warmest and
coldest days (4th and 22nd) being 33°5° as against 21-0° in
December, 1890. :

aie

——_+—_——

Addington Water Works, Visit of Club to i

Addington, the new Well at. Report by E. Lovett

Ancient and Modern Science. Robt. Brodie. Abstract

Bailey, Rev. Geo. Foraminifera and other Micro-organisms
in Flint. - ; : 4 : - 5 : :

Bailey, Rev. Geo. On the Tenants of a Fossil Echinus .

Beeby, W. H. Ona new Flora of Surrey -

Beeby, W. H. On Sparganiwm neglectum, sp. nov., "and other
new Surrey Plants .

Beeby, W. H. On some recent Additions to Flora of Surrey

Beeby, W. H. On some Additions to the Flora of Surrey

Bennett, Alf. W. Plant-life in our Ponds and Ditches

Berney Fred. L., elected Hon. Member . : .

Berney, J. Presidential Address 3 é = -

Books in Club Library 2 ° F : -

Botanical sub-Committee. Report, January, 1889 .

Botanical sub-Committee. Report, January, 1890 .

Botanical sub-Committee. Report, January, 1891.

Botanical sub-Committee. Report, January, 1892.

Brodie, Robt. Ancient and Modern Science .

Bulimus Goodallii, in Croydon, exhibited -

Cader Idris and Snowdon, notes on the Plants of. H. 7. Mennell

Cameron, Comr. V. Lovett. Lecture on Journey across Africa

Canada, notes on the Geology of. By W. Topley, F.R.S.

Canada, on the Flora of. By H. T. Mennell .

Carpenter, Dr. Alfred. On recent Observations made in the
new Road at Purley, Archzological and et

Carpenter, Dr. Alfred. On Disease germs .

Carpenter, Dr. Alfred. Microbic Life in Sewer Air

Carter, W. August. Marine and Fresh-water Fishes. Abstract

Changes in the Aspect of our District ae: Historic Times.
E. Straker .

Chert containing Radiolaria, the discovery of, i in the Paleozoic
Rocks. By Dr. Geo. J. Hinde . - -

Coal-tar Products. James W. Helps

Collecting and Preserving Marine Animals, ‘suggestions on.
By Ed. Lovett . 5 - ‘ i =

Cossus liqniperda. By W. M. Holmes . . :

Crouch, Walter, F.Z. Ss. Physical conditions of the ‘Sea 3 -

Crowley, P. Breeding-quarters of the Spoonbill in Holland .

Cushing, Thos. On Wandle Temperatures.

Diptera and Hymenoptera, on certain points of Resemblance

Disease germs. Dr. Alfred Carpenter :

Domestic Birds, probable Causes of their Domestication .

111
Ixviii

will chiefly be remembered in the district as being without snow,
although snow had fallen heavily all round us. It may be
divided into two distinct portions, the weather in the first half
being cyclonic, with heavy rain and warm winds; but the latter
half was dry, very cold, with exceedingly dense and continuous
fogs, and abnormally heavy rime on trees, buildings, &c. The
frost gave way on Christmas Day, and the month ended up as it
began. But for this cold spell it would have been at Beddington
one of the warmest Decembers for many years, and even as it is,
it is the warmest since 1884, the mean temperature being 39°5°.
It is remarkable that at Beddington the mean maximum of
December, 1890, was only 0-3° higher than the mean minimum
of the present one; but the variation of the daily mean was far
more than in 1890, the difference between the warmest and
coldest days (4th and 22nd) being 33°5° as against 21-0° in
December, 1890.

INDEX.

ees

Addington Water Works, Visit of Club to ‘

Addington, the new Well at. Report by E. Lovett

Ancient and Modern Science. Robt. Brodie. Abstract

Bailey, Rev. Geo. Foraminifera and other Micro-organisms
in Flint . - : 2 2 ‘ : é ; :

Bailey, Rev. Geo. On the Tenants of a Fossil Hchinus .

Beeby, W. H. Ona new Flora of Surrey A

Beeby, W. H. On Sparganium neglectum, sp. nov., |, and other
new Surrey Plants.

Beeby, W. H. On some recent Additions to Flora of Surrey

Beeby, W. H. On some Additions to the Flora of Surrey

Bennett, Alf. W. Plant-life in our Ponds and Ditches

Berney Fred. L., elected Hon. Member . :
Berney, J. Presidential Address . : : - “
Books in Club Library . : : F 2 & :

Botanical sub-Committee. Report, January, 1889 .
Botanical sub-Committee. Report, January, 1890 .
Botanical sub-Committee. Report, January, 1891. -
Botanical sub-Committee. Report, January, 1892. 5 E
Brodie, Robt. Ancient and Modern Science . :
Bulimus Goodallii, in Croydon, exhibited .
Cader Idris and Sawdon, notes on the Plants of. H. , Mennell
Cameron, Comr. V. Lovett. Lecture on Journey across Africa
Canada, notes on the Geology of. By W. Topley, F.R.S.
Canada, on the Flora of. By H.T. Mennell . F
Carpenter, Dr. Alfred. On recent Observations made in the
new Road at Purley, Archzological and HI aes
Carpenter, Dr. Alfred. On Disease germs.
Carpenter, Dr. Alfred. Microbic Life in Sewer Air
Carter, W. August. Marine and Fresh-water Fishes. Abstract
Changes in the Aspect of our District during Historic Times.
E. Straker . Q
Chert containing Radiolaria, the discovery of, i in the Paleozoic
Rocks. By Dr. Geo. J. Hinde . : : - ‘ -
Coal-tar Products. James W. Helps :
Collecting and Preserving Marine Ra ‘suggestions on.
By Ed. Lovett . ; : . : -
Cossus liqniperda. By W. M. “Holmes . : .
Crouch, Walter, F.Z. Ss. Physical conditions of the ‘Sea . -
Crowley, P. Breeding-quarters of the Spoonbill in Holland .
Cushing, Thos. On Wandle Temperatures.
Diptera and Hymenoptera, on certain points of Resemblance
Disease germs. Dr. Alfred Carpenter . e :
Domestic Birds, probable Causes of their Domestication . F .

111
Ixviii

376 Index.

Earthquakes, recent. W. Topley, F.R.S. Abstract

Eaton, H. Storks. On Temperature and Rainfall of the
Croydon district for the five years, 1881—1885 :

Eaton, H. Storks. Presidential Address. 3

Eaton, H. Storks. Presidential Address.

Epidermic growths of Vertebrate Animals

Kuphorbia esula, new Surrey Plant, exhibited

. Evolution of the Fishing-hook from the Flint-hook of pre-
historic man to the Salmon-hook of the present day

Evolution of the Human Form. W. F. Stanley

Evolution of the art of making Fire. EK. Lovett

Fiji Islands, native Cloth. E. Lovett.

Fire, evolution of the art of making. E. Lovett , ; 5

Fishes, Marine and Fresh-water. W. August Carter. Abstract

Flora of Surrey, anew. W.H.Beeby . =

Foraminifer a, notes on the, with especial reference is variation!
in the Test, together with collected information as to their
Sex and reproduction. C. Davies Sherborn rae :

Foraminifera and other Micro-organisms in Flint. Rev. Geo.
Bailey -

Fossil Thee the Tenants of. By Rev. Geo. Bailey

Fresh-water Sponges. W. Murton Holmes

Fuller, William J. The anatomy of Spiders . :

Geological sub-Committee. Report, January, 1890

Geological sub-Committee. Report, January, 1891

Geological sub-Committee. Report, January, 1892

Geology of Western Canada, notes on. By W. Topley, F.R. S.

Glauconite Casts from Godstone Fire-stone. W.M. Holmes

Goodchild, J.G. Hawks and their Allies, with notes on Hawking

Goodman, C. H. Notes on the Geology of the Isle of Purbeck

Goodman, C. H. On the Respiration of Insects A -

Goodman, C. H. On the Sand-wasp

Great Tit, double nest of. Ed. Lovett

Gun-flint Manufactory at Brandon, with reference to its con-
nection with the Stone Age. By EH. Lovett .

Hawks and their Allies, with notes on Hawking. J.G. Gosdehild

Helps, Jas. W. Some Coal-tar Products 3 ; :

Herbarium, the Club P

Hinde, Dr. G. J. Remarks on ' Sponge Spicules i in Chalk

Hinde, Dr. G. J. The microscopic structure of the so-called
Malm or Fire-stone Rock of Merstham and Godstone :

Hinde, Dr. G. J. On the discovery of Chert containing
Radiolaria, &c., in the Paleozoic Rocks .

Holmes, W. Murton. LEpidermic growths of Vertebrate
Animals. Abstract .

Holmes, W. Murton. Glauconite Casts from Godstone Fire-
stone : .

Holmes, W. Murton. On Fresh-water Sponges

Holmes, W. Murton. On Cossus ligniperda . : :

Hussey, Chas. Stereoscopic propane : 3 : -

Lee, Henry. Obituary Notice * : ; -

Limazx levis, exhibited .

Lovett, E. On Edible Mollusea of British Isles

PAGE
lxx

XClV
lxxii
lxxvi

eh
¥

= ,

a”

pee.

~
*

Bish eth

.

Index.

Lovett, E. On the Evolution of the Fishing-hook . : ‘
Lovett, E. Notes on the Glacial Deposits and other interest-
ing features of North Yorkshire
Lovett, E. The Gun-flint Manufactory at “Brandon, with
reference to its connection with the Stone Age ; °
Lovett, E. Report on the new Well at Addington 2 .
Lovett, E. Evolution of the art of making Fire.
Lovett, E. Some hints on the preparation of delicate
Organisms for the Microscope . : , : =
Lovett, "E. Presidential Address
Lovett, E. Some suggestions for Collecting ‘and Preserving
specimens of Marine Animals
Lovett, E. Native Cloth, Fiji Islands
Lovett, E. Presidential Address
Lovett, E. On the Pre-historic Lake- dwellings of Switzerland
Lovett, E. Double nest of the Great Tit, Parus major .
Lovett, E. The Storm Petrel used in the ne Shetlands,
and St. Kilda, as candles . =
Low-Sarjeant, W. On Pond Life . :
Malm or Fire-stone Rock of Merstham and Godstone, its
microscopic structure. Dr. G. J. Hinde .
Marine Animals, suggestions on Collecting and Preserving
Marriott, Edw. Gelatino Chloride Papers 3 3
Mennell, H. T. Presidential Address. : :
Mennell, H. T. On the Flora of Western Canada .
Mennell, H. T. Presidential Address.
Mennell, H.T. Report upon the Stafford Collection of British
Birda recently sold at Godalming . :
Mennell, H. T. On the Plants of Cader Idris and Snowdon .
Meteorological sub-Committee’s Report. Temperature and
Rainfall for five years. 1881—1885
Meteorological sub-Committee. Report on systematic ob-
servance of Rainfall in the Club district . 3 "
Meteorological sub-Committee. Report, February, 1889 *
Meteorological sub-Committee. Report, February, 1890
Meteorological sub-Committee. Report, February, 1891
Meteorological sub-Committee. Report, January, 1892.
Microbie Life in Sewer Air. Dr. Alfred Carpenter . ; :
Microscope, on the use of in the study of Rocks
Microscopical Preparations in Club Cabinet, catalogue of
Microscopical sub-Committee. Report, January, 1891
Microscopical sub-Committee. Report, January, 1892
Migrations of Birds. Henry Seebohm .
Miller, W. F. Dates of the First conga ‘of some Plants
a near Croydon, 1880 to 1887 :
Mimicry in Nature. Col. Chas. Swinhoe 3 : : -
Mollusea, the Edible of the British Isles
Ostracoda, notes on the Fossil. C.D. Sherborn . : p
Photo. Section, establishment ofa . : , = -
Photo. sub-Committee. Report, January, 1889
Photo. sub-Committee. Report, January, 1890
Photo. sub-Committee. Report, January, 1891
Photo. sub-Committee. Report, January, 1892

377

PAGE
28

37

113
152
160

203 —
exlii

265
274
elxi
325
330

331
5

124
265
341
xili

18

. XXXVili

256
267

76

lxiii
168
223
285

elxv
204

13

Cxxiii ~

exlvii
elxv
xiii

154
332
11
162
xii
xeix
exili
exlix
elxvi

378 Index.

Zoological sub-Committee. Report, Bean 1892
ht RA *

PAGE
Photographs, stereoscopic, and how to take them. 149
Physical conditions of the Sea. Walter Crouch, F.Z.S. 251
Plants, Recorded dates of First Flowering near qe 1880

to 1887. W. Milier . 154
Pond Life. W. Low-Sarjeant . 5
Ponds and Ditches, Plant-life in. Alf. w. Bernese. 39
Pre-historic Lake-dwellings of Switzerland. HE. Lovett . 325
Preparation of delicate Organisms for the microscope 203
Purbeck, Geology of the Isle of. C. H. Goodman . 270
Purley, Dr. Carpenter on Skeletons discovered at 24
Respiration of Insects. By C. H. Goodman . 321
Rudler, F. W., F.G.S. On the essa of the Microscope

to the study of Rocks 13
Rule, alteration in management of Club . E ‘$ e s lix
Sand-wasp, note on the. C. H. Gasiaan 829
Seebohm, Hy. Onthe Migration of Birds . xliii
Sherborn, C. D. Notes on “the Fossil Ostracoda 71
Sherborn, C. D. Notes on the Foraminifera . 3 133
Sparganium neglectum, oD: nov., and other new Surrey Plants 35
Special Fund . : - 5 ; XXXIX
Spiders, the anatomy of. W.J. Fuller . F F 166
Sponges, Fresh-water. W. Murton Holmes . 275
Spoonbill, a visit to the Breeding-quarters in Holland of : 21
Stanley, W. F. On the evolution of the highest types of the

Human Form . 69
Stereoscopic Photos., and how to take them. Chas. Hussey . : 149
Storm Petrels used as Candles. Hd. Lovett 331
Straker, E. Changes in the aspect of our District during

Historic Times . : 3 : : ‘ : 278
Surrey Flora. W. H. Beeby : ; : : : 1
Surrey Flora, some recent additions to. W. H. Beeby . : 40
Surrey Flora, some additions to. W.H. Beeby : é 121
Surrey Wells and their Teaching. W. Whitaker . : : 43
Swinhoe, Colonel Chas. Mimiery i in Nature . - . : 332

Tappa Cloth, note by E. Lovett . 5 274
Thompson, Henry G., M.D. Presidential Address c c cix
Tobacco, grown and cured in Addiscombe, exhibited evii
Topley, W., F.R.S. On the Physical a rnea oe and Geology

of Western Canada . 16
Topley, W., F.R.S. On recent Earthquakes. " Abstr act . lxx
Wandle Temperatures. Thos. Cushing . 316
Weir, J. Jenner. Domestic Birds, the ae causes of +heie

Domestication. Abstract . 3 Ixviii
Weir, J. Jenner. On some points of resemblance between

certain Diptera and Hymenoptera. ; : : 269
Well-gaugings in the Croydon District. 198
Whitaker, William. Some Surrey Wells and ‘their Teachings 43
Woodford, C. M. Lecture on the Solomon Islands - cili
Worsley- Benison, H. W.S. Power of Movement in Plants 138
Zoological sub-Committee. Report, January, 1889 : . c
Zoological sub-Committee. Report, January, 1890 : . exiyiii

elxyi

CONTENTS.

: PROCEEDINGS. — ae i ar
and Sea: Meeting vertetenereeeeiees one one ee eee eee ee oye hte aa? zi ae a: elxi
“> Bedsident’s Address" ee eeeee ; eu h oy Sate besee wee obverse seve eee hae setae 3 A elxii 4 4
New Members elected ar ee ool teens Rage ane ory Sor ; acne : peeves — elxxv ; a ¢ f

ie “2 Library br sracciete aaale TT ace + see Kecaehes oe sees reeves elxxv ay ses
a Sa Bivhibie cai ike eatuat ae, eee wen eee oe Weereveve Adin i elxxvi .
Treasurer's Balance Sheet .........0:0005006 a i oe . ae
© Liat of sealed res penne eecvceae wae eke AOR MH 18S EE ee ee ks St elxxxi_ ? :
+ on m - : 7

ees ‘qpaneagrions. °° > a
ee aos eee . By C. H, Goopmast © ....i.ccsdesccaeiee 221)
¥ Notes on the Pre-historic Lake-Dwellings of Switzerland. Dee

a

is “Epwarp Loverr va senveoese Bacar drv ye Vion raeae saosin sheeevetaveepenease 825 —
is On Cossus ligniperda. ‘By W. Morton es aeh aes ec 828
‘The Sand-wasp. By Cuarues H. Goopaan. Ss Gevtte ae age

Double Nest of Great Tit, Parus mdjor...ccccccesceeeesereess BBO”

ie The Storm Petrel, Procellaria pelagica, it in rk hae .

Shetlands, and St. Kilda, as Candles. By Enwarp pes 831

Foe ‘Midecy ie Nature. By Cuartes Swinnor, F.L. 8. hae aa
Gelatino-Chloride Papers. By Epw. Marrtorr .......ccce00.. B41

Report of the Meteorological Sub-Committee for 1891. Peepred }

Fs rick B.C. Bavaro, ER. MotiS064, ty. cinniianos 2

ke AND Here TO VoL. T..

“ ites + Me aint
4 se ae eo == ee —

- ep acs and 9 Sat Bit ca,

Raa ah AVI SN
OFFICERS FOR 1892.

we ‘fosadent-dlowiso Davew: asks x

- Vice-Presidents: — Joun Bernuy, F.R.M. 8; Stace Canes a

é > ty, PUB; 6; Hane 8, Baroi, MA IR ee Soe. =
1f. — T. Menvewt, F.L.8.; Henry G. ‘Tuompsoy, M. D. <3

- Treasurer.—Epwarp B. Srurce, :

oe Committee—-T. D. Axpous, F.R.M.S.; Es Wem Baws ‘KB Se

CARPENTER, B.A., M.R.C.S.; C. H. Goopman; H. D. Gower; W.
Leeie es cae K. “McKuay, se We Low. ears Paget

S Libsartan 2. Oc Bip, :
Hon. Sirsa dak. ese Bupern. ,

—s tC

ite

PROCEEDINGS

OF

THE CROYDON MICROSCOPICAL AND
NATURAL HISTORY CLUB.

1892—93.

Ctuenty-third Annual Mecting.
Held at the Public Hall, Croydon, January 11th, 1893.
Epwarp Lovett, President, in the chair.

Tue Balance-sheet of the accounts for 1892 (p. xix) was
taken as read and passed.

It was proposed by the President, seconded by Mr. Mennell,
and carried unanimously, that Dr. H. Franklin Parsons, M.D.,
F.G.S., be elected President for the ensuing year.

It was proposed by Mr. McKean, seconded by Mr. Turner, and
carried, that Mr. Thos. D. Aldous be elected Hon. Secretary to
the Club in the place of Mr. Budgen resigned, to whom a hearty
vote of thanks was accorded for his services to the Club during
his tenure of office.

On the proposition of Mr. Crowley, seconded by Mr. Low
Sarjeant, Mr. Sturge was unanimously re-elected Treasurer, and
Mr. F. C. Bayard was re-elected Librarian.

No other nominations having been received, Messrs. Cushing,
Lanfear, and H. C. Collyer were elected to serve on the
Committee in place of Dr. A. B. Carpenter and Mr. Ernest
Straker, who retire in accordance with the rules, and of Mr.
Aldous, appointed Secretary.

In accordance with the foregoing resolutions, the following is
the list of officers for the year 1893 :—

b

ii Proceedings.

President.—H. Franxuin Parsons, M.D., F.G.S.

Vice- Presidents—Joun Berney, F.R.M.S.; Paine Crow ey,
F.Z.8., F.L.S.; Henry 8. Eaton, M.A., F.R. Met. Soc. ;
Henry T. Mennett, F.L.S.; Henry G. Tuompson, M.D.,
J.P., &.; Epwarp Lovert.

Treasurer.—EH. B. Srurce.

Hon. Secretary.a—Tuos. D, Atpous, F.R.M.S.

Librarian.—F. C. Bayarp, LL.M., F.R. Met. Soc.

Committee.—J. Wrrr Brown ; H.C. Cottyer; Txos. Cusuine,
F.R.A.S.; C. H. Goopman; H. D. Gower; W. Murron

Hotmes; K. McKean, F.L.S.; C. Lanrear; W. Low
SARJEANT.

The President then delivered his Address, at the conclusion of
which a cordial vote of thanks was accorded to him for all that
he had done for the Club, and for the able manner in which he
had occupied the chair during the past three years.

The President's Address.
GENTLEMEN,

In presenting to you my third and last Presidential Address,
I do so with mingled feelings of satisfaction and gratitude:
satisfaction that the Club is, in every way, in a flourishing and
sound condition, and gratitude to those many friends who, by
their wise counsel and greater experience, have assisted me so ably
in carrying out the duties devolving upon this chair to which you
did me the great honour of electing me three years ago. AsI
have stated, our position to-day is perhaps even stronger and
more satisfactory than it has been for years past. Our roll of
members has certainly slightly decreased, for we have lost 36
against 27 elected during the year, our number at the present
moment being two hundred and eighty-eight. This apparent
falling-off is due, however, chiefly to the fact that several mem-
bers have been struck off the roll in consequence of a slight
forgetfulness or disinclination on their part to pay their arrears
of subscriptions, in spite of repeated applications and notices.
We have, however, lost six members by death, including Dr.
Carpenter, whose loss we all deplore; as well as Sir Thomas
Edridge, and Mr. H. Lane, of Addiscombe House.

The Balance-sheet which is in your hands may be considered
very satisfactory. We commenced the year with a bank balance
of £9 19s. 6d., and no liabilities, and we close it with one of
£48 15s. 10d., and no liabilities, a clear gain of nearly £40.
This very pleasant state of things is due to several causes, to the
care and diligence of our Hon. Treasurer, and to the economy
and good management of our Hon. Secretary, and to the

CHER, lied

Proceedings. iii

generous donations to meet the expenditure in connection with
our Rainfall statistics. The subscriptions have been got in very
satisfactorily on the one hand, and there is a marked reduction
under the head of printing, stationery, and postages. Then
again as to the Soirée, the cost looks rather larger, but in 1891
the orchestra was not paid for by the Club, whereas in 1892 it
was. On the other hand, however, our sale of tickets rose to the
unusual figure of £26 12s. 6d., as against £19 7s. 10d. for 1891.

Our Special Fund balance is £24 18s. 9d., available for fittings,
appliances, and such like necessaries in connection with our
Society ; so that with petty cash in hand, we now possess a year’s
balance of £76 5s. 1d., and an invested capital of £210 11s. 8d.
in Consols, which is, I venture to think, remarkably good for a
suburban scientific society of twenty-three years’ standing.

We now turn to the work done by the Club during the past
year. Our Sub-Sections continue their work in a satisfactory
manner. The Geological Section has taken charge of a whole-
day excursion, and an evening ramble, both of which will be
referred to later on, but as no members of this Sub-Committee
have sent in any notes to the Hon. Sec., there has probably been
nothing done during the year in breaking fresh ground in our
neighbourhood.

The Botanical Section has had charge of two excursions which
are described later on, and also arranged an extensive exhibit of
plants at our Soirée, to which further reference is made in my
report of that function.

The Meteorological Section reports as follows :—

Report oF THE MetTEeoRoLoGicaL SuB-ComMMITTEE FoR 1892.

The Meteorological Sub-Committee has continued its work under
the supervision of its Honorary Secretary, Mr. Bayard. The daily
rainfall of 50 stations in the Club district has been tabulated every
month, examined, and corrected, and the results printed and issued to
the observers and all members of the Club interested in the question
either before, or within a very few days after, the end of the month
succeeding that to which the statistics refer. Further particulars will
be found in the scientific report of the Sub-Committee which will
be presented at the meeting next month.

The Committee having felt that the finances of the Club could no
longer bear the strain of the Sub-Committee’s expenditure, six gentle-
men interested in the matter subscribed the sum of £22 12s. towards
the cost, the Club providing the balance. The gentlemen subscribing
considered the statistics of such value to science, and also to the well-
being of the Club, that the subscription has been a matter of pleasure
to them.—Francis CAMPBELL BayarD, Hon. Sec.

In the Microscopical Section a practical demonstration was
given early in the year on drawing from the microscope by
means of the camera lucida, &c., by Mr. T. D. Aldous, which

b2

iv Proceedings.

was well attended. This demonstration seems to have been
highly appreciated by those present, and it is hoped during the
present year that several similar meetings may be arranged. It
is the feeling of the Sub-Committee that something of the kind
is necessary to awaken an interest in microscopic studies amongst
the younger members of the Club. ‘The microscope has of late
years passed beyond the stage of being a mere scientific toy, and
the field of research still unexplored is enormous.

REPORT OF THE PHOTOGRAPHIC SuB-CoMMITTEE FoR 1892.

Inhanding you the Report of the Sub-Committee of the Photographic
Section of the Club, I ain pleased to say that the Section has passed
through a very successful season. Hight excursions were made during
the summer; two being General and Photographic, and six Photo-
graphic. Technical and Conversational Meetings have been held once
a month, as well as the monthly lantern nights, and trial nights for
members’ slides.

At the Soirée, the Sectional Exhibit was small (small from the
number of members exhibiting), but otherwise good; but I am sorry
at the same time to say that, considering the large number of members
that the Section consists of, it was not such a large exhibit as might
have been expected.

The General Committee have gone to great expense and trouble in
fitting up the room next to the Club room as a dark room for the
Photographie Section; water, gas, and a developing table have been
supplied with dishes, measures, &c., and, in fact, everything requisite
and necessary for the carrying on of Photographic work. And it is
hoped by the Committee that the members will endeavour to use the
same in a way that will at least let those who have taken so much
trouble and time for the Section see that their efforts to please and
further the interest of the Section have not been made in vain.—
Harry D. Gower.

The Zoological Section has an interesting record so far as

Entomology is concerned. The season of 1892 was a remarkable
one in respect to insect life. For some years butterflies have
been getting quite scarce, but this year they were abundant. In
our gardens were to be seen the blues and the small coppers as
of yore, whilst the Vanessas—urtice, atalanta, and io—were really
quite common, as also were several of the Pieride. Perhaps the
event of the year was the profusion of Colias edusa, with some
C. hyale, and a few of the interesting variety C. helice. Mr.
Berney records many captures of them at Russell Hill, where
also, and elsewhere, Mr. Harry Lee tooka number. Mr. Mennell
also records early hybernating specimens in June at Park Hill,
and he says he saw later specimens almost wherever he travelled,
Fissex, Somerset, &c. It would be curious to know the cause of
these intermittent occurrences, for in some years it is a very
scarce insect,

Proceedings. v

There are, I think, three chief causes which influence the life
of Lepidoptera, and produce a scarcity or an abundance of a
species, wiz., a favourable period for fertilization, i.c., a warm
sunny time as opposed to a cloudy, chilly and wet period ; for I
am inclined to think that this period of fertilization is just after
emergence, and not during the whole life of the insect. Then
again, there is the health of the larve, and its food-plant; cold
wet weather being as detrimental to growth as dry chilling winds,
whilst warm and slightly moist seasons are the best. Lastly we
come to the question of its enemy the Ichneumon Fly, of which
there are many affecting many different species of Lepidoptera.
If all these causes were favourable to, say, Colias edusa, we
can understand the abundance we have this year seen of
the insect, whereas if the three causes worked together against
it, we can quite see how rare it might suddenly become, even to
being in some localities exterminated for the time.

List of Lepidoptera taken at The Close, Chatsworth Road, eacept as
otherwise stated, in the summer of 1892, by Mr. John Berney —
Polyommatus phleas, 2. Colias edusa, ‘‘ taken at Russell Hill,” 10.
H. Lee took a large number, principally C. edusa, a few C. hyale,
and a few C. helice. Noctuse :—Plusia festuce, 20; P. iota, 1.
Dipterygia pinastri, 6. Gonophora derasa, 5. Thyatira batis, 6.
Gramueria trilinia, 2. Xanthia citrago, 1. Leucania conigera, 1.
Agrotis lunigera, 4.. Triphana subsequa, 1. Hepalide :—Lupuli-
nus hectus, 13; L. humuli, 11. Geometre :—Amphydasis betula-
ria, 2. Also larve of P. festuce and P. iota hybernating.

Excursions—The excursions during the past year have been
of great interest, and have moreover been remarkably well
attended. A new departure was the arrangement of short
evening rambles, which were so much appreciated that it is to be
hoped they will be continued. ‘The following is an account of
the rambles of the year :—

On May 21st, an excursion to East Grinstead and Lingfield
was conducted by Mr. H. Straker. The party, twelve in number,
proceeded by train direct to East Grinstead. A visit was first

_ paid to Sackville College, an ancient foundation for the relief of

decayed townsfolk and tenants. The rooms of the warden and
the chapel were kindly shown, the former containing some quaint
furniture, &c. Several photographs were taken of the College,
and the walk was then resumed to Wire Mill Pond and Lingfield.
About the pond Cnicus pratensis, Serratula tinctoria, Valeriana
dioica, Carex vesicaria, C. curta, a Nitella, and a species of Utricu-
laria (but in too young a state for determination), were observed.

On June 6th (under the direction of Mr. E. B. Sturge) to
Cowden. A party of abont twenty-four members and friends
met about 11.30 at Cowden Station and proceeded to the village,

:

vi Proceedings.

where some fine timbered houses were seen. ‘The Rector, the
Rey. Dr. Burton, was fortunately met with, who kindly showed
the party over the old church, which contained many fine pieces
of work. The spire and belfry were practically supported by
four oak trees roughly squared. ‘The five bells were of very
sweet tone. The pulpit is of fine carved oak, and has an ancient
iron bracket carrying an hour sand-glass, about which there is a
curious legend. On the floor of the Church is an iron slab said
to have been cast at the iron works which formerly existed at
Furnace Mill.

The party then proceeded to Holtye Common and the Furnace
Ponds, at which place many objects of Natural History were col-
lected. Of butterflies, the orange-tip Cardamines was common,
as also were skippers of the genus Z’hanaos; some hybernating
Colias edusa were seen, as well as several fritillaries. Of
plants, many orchids were found, as also numbers of ferns,—
Lastrea Filix-mas, L. dilatata, and Blechnum; also examples of
the stag-horn moss, Lycopodium. The ponds abounded with
microscopic life, and a few very fine shells of Anodon cygnea
were obtained. The party then walked to Kast Grinstead,
passing on the road a ‘‘ gamekeeper’s museum,’ where hung
several weasles, kestrels, and jays. The day was beautifully
fine, though rain had fallen previously.

June 25th. Mr. Mennell, who conducted this excursion,
sends me the following:—A party of about ten met at Hast
Croydon Station, and went by train to Marden Park, where they
disembarked and took the road to Woldingham. About half a
mile up the road the ground on either side is open to the
road, and with a full south exposure is about as sunny a
spot as can well be imagined. ‘he plant par excellence of
this tract is F’ragaria vesca, better known as the wild straw-
berry, and it here covers some 800 acres with a profusion
not often equalled in the Alps, and rarely, if ever, in this
country. A year or two back the bee orchis abounded on these
slopes, but this year only a stray plant or two were seen. ‘This
seems to be the habit of the family, abundant one year, scarcely
to be found the next. It would be interesting to observe care--
fully whether this is due to the season and the weather, or to
the plant needing a rest after flowering. That it was not merely
the season seems proved by what followed later. A fine plant
or two of the larger butterfly orchis, Habenaria bifolia, was
gathered; but nothing else beyond the ordinary plants of the
chalk,

_ The party then walked across the fields to the opening of the
Hallelu Valley, the happy resort in summer of numbers of
children’s treats and beanfeasters; these, however, have not
interfered with the flowers of the valley, as fortunately neither

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Proceedin fs. vil

children nor beanfeasters stray far from the meadows round their
head-quarters. By the side of the road Mr. Budgen espied a fine
goat moth just emerged from its chrysalis which lay near by.
There was no appearance of wood near, but probably the rotten
stump would have been found had the sandy bank been probed.
The large helleborine, Cephalanthera grandiflora, a local chalk
orchid, was found in the woods on the slopes of the valley, and
in the meadow below the wood we came unexpectedly upon a
very remarkable patch of the bee orchis in full flower; there
must have been little short of a hundred blooms within the space
ofa few yards. This seems to show that the season was not at fault,
or the cause of its absence elsewhere as mentionedabove. The viper’s
bugloss, Echium vulgare, was remarkably fine on the dry sunny
slopes; near here too is the classical locality of the rare Lathyrus
hirsutus, one of the two or three British plants found only in the
county of Surrey. It was in good flower, but is scarce, and
should be carefully protected by every Surrey botanist. From
the head of the Hallelu Valley, we made for the high road
between Warlingham and Worms Heath, and crossing it, took
the road to Farley, following bye-paths most of the way; and
some little ignorance of the public-louses of the district was ex-
hibited by the nominal leader of the party, so that the promised
tea was deferred till later. The walk continued by a pleasant
path through the woods leading from Farley Green to Addington
Bottom, and in the well-known locality, discovered by the
late Mr. John Flower, the other great Surrey rarity, Teucriwm
Botrys, was found in abundance, though not yet in flower.
Until this discovery, Box Hill was the only British locality for
the plant, and there it is now very rare. A pleasant walk up to
the Addington Hills brought the party at last to their long
promised tea. The view from the hills was particularly fine and
far reaching, and a rather dark wild sky made the scene almost
Scotch in its character.

On July 9th, an excursion was made to Ightham, under the
guidance of Mr. F. C. Bayard. Mr. Budgen, who was one of the
party, reports that of Lepidoptera, he observed or captured
Vanessa urtice and V. atalanta, also Cabera pasaria, Fidonia pini-
aria, and Ellopia fasciaria. Dragonflies were plentiful, and
Agrion puella and A. minium were seen, as well as Libellula
depressa. Of plants, were observed, Hypericum humifusum, Ver-
bascum thapsus, Sedum rupestre, Epilobium angustifolium, Galium
palustre, dc.

On July 20th, an evening ramble was made (conducted by Mr.
Straker) to Purley Downsand Sanderstead. The party, about fifteen
in number, including several ladies, arrived at Sanderstead Station
shortly before six, and at once proceeded through Purley Beeches
on to Purley Downs, for which Mr. T, Chandler, of Purley Oaks,

Vili Proceedings.

had kindly given permission. The storm of the previous night
had broken a very large limb from one of the beeches; it was
honeycombed with holes containing remains of birds’ nests, &e.
In a smaller tree, a wood pigeon’s nest containing two eggs was
discovered, but not disturbed. Among the numerous plants noticed
may be mentioned the rampion (Phytewma orbiculare) in great
abundance (Asperula eynanchica), dropwort, Viola hirta, with
cleistogamous flowers and fruit, and many other plants charac-
teristic of the chalk down flora. The way was then taken
through cornfields to Sanderstead Church, and thence by the
footpath to the foot of Croham Hurst and to Croydon ; the distance
traversed being about seven miles. The members and friends
who took part in this ramble agreed that this new departure of
the Club was a distinct success, the more leisurely proceedings
enabling greater attention to be given to observation and to dis-
cussion than on distant and more ambitious excursions.

August 1st. This excursion was under the direction of
the Geological Sub-Committee, and was conducted by the Presi-
dent and Hon. Sec. Members and friends to the number of
eighteen assembled at Betchworth about 10.20 a.m., and leaving
the station, proceeded through the curious old village to a bridge
over the river Mole, the pretty scenery near this spot being very
much admired. The party then walked towards the range of
chalk hills, passing through a brickfield situated on the Ather-
field clay, and a sand-pit in the Folkestone beds, till another
brickfield was reached, on the gault clay, where the interesting
machinery for making bricks by the dry and wet processes was
examined, as also were the drying and burning kilns. A visit
was then paid to the hearthstone-pits, a series of underground
workings penetrating for a considerable distance into the hill.
These were explored by several members of the party, who
examined with much interest the headings and the shoring up of
the roof of the passages, the fungoid growth on the timbers
used being of a most remarkable appearance. The ascent of the
escarpment was then continued until a large chalk-pit was
reached, where a magnificent face of chalk was exposed, and a
few fossils were found. After a further arduous climb, the sum-
mit of the hill was reached, when the party rested to enjoy the
splendid view, and hear some notes relating to the locality by
Mr. Budgen. Walton Heath was then crossed, and some loam-
pits containing small fractured flints of neolithic age were
examined. Reigate was reached about 4 p.m., where the party
was received at Highfield, the residence of Mr. Budgen, Sen.,
who hospitably provided tea on the lawn of his house. The
members of the Club arrived at Croydon at about half-past six
o’clock, after a most pleasant day.

Notes on the district visited :—In early times the whole area of

Proceedings. ix

the weald was dense forest land tenanted by wolves, wild boar,
and other animals, which gave much trouble to the primitive
inhabitants of the locality. A main track-way led along the
ridge of hills, its exposed position being selected in order to
secure travellers against surprise by robbers or wild beasts.
Along the valley ran the little river Mole or Y-melyn. On
Walton Heath the invading Romans encamped, and at Bletchingly
a Roman villa has been traced; but traces of them beyond this
in the immediate neighbourhood are scarce. At the time of the
Saxon invasion, the Weald forest is said to have been 120 miles
long, and 30 miles wide, and is often alluded to as an impene-
trable forest, and a place that evidently inspired terror, as it was
the resort of robbers and outlaws; the Anglo-Saxon word for
robber being ‘“ wealdgenge,” a farer or dweller in the weald.
The Pilgrim’s Way, which on the gravel and upper greensand is
bordered by yew trees, is bordered by ash to the east of Reigate ;
it may, and probably was, used by pilgrims, but it is more than
probable that they merely used a good track which was already
there, and which dates back to a very much earlier period than
that of the pilgrims.

August 24th (evening geological ramble). A small party of
five members assembled at 6 p.m. on the Hast Croydon railway
bridge, and walked thence up Park Hill Rise to the edge of the
new railway cutting, where the position of the Oldhaven, Wool-
wich, and Reading beds was discussed, and where several blocks
of pebbly rocks were still to be seen, and the fossils they yielded
were examined. The large chalk-pit at the Coombe Lane end of
Park Hill Road was next visited, and the junction with the
overlying beds traced. The party were indebted to Dr. Franklin
Parsons, who was present, for much valuable information on the
subject.

On Sept. 8rd an excursion was made to the Gardens of the
Zoological Society, under the direction of Mr. Crowley. The
day was very fine, and nine members put in an appearance. The
diving birds were visited, and were fed to illustrate their mode of
taking their prey under water. The reptile house was next
visited, and after that an inspection was made of the elephant
and hippopotamus house, where was seen the young hippopota-
mus born in the Antwerp Gardens. In the parrot house, the
curious ka-ka, or flesh-eating parrot, attracted much attention.
In the insect house the tarantula spiders were excited from their
hiding-place by the keeper, and gave much interest. These
large spiders were stated to be fed on cockroaches and young
mice. The scorpion too was induced to show itself, and in an
adjoining case was seen a large living bulimus from Trinidad.
A land crab was also seen, which strongly resembled its marine
relatives, even in the readiness with which it parted with its

x Proceedings.

limbs; this particular specimen having lost nearly all it ever
possessed. The electric eel was also the centre of much
attention. A number of small fish were thrown into the tank,
and appeared to at once feel the terrible effects of the electric
shock, for they performed the most violent gyrations immediately,
and those which escaped the maw of the eel seemed utterly
paralyzed and unable to move afterwards.

During the year eleven papers have been read at the ordinary
meetings of the Club, besides one lecture in the large Public
Hall, to which latter members and friends were invited. The
following is a list of the subjects of these papers, viz. :—

February 10th—The ‘‘ Report of the Meteorological Sub-
Committee on the Rainfall of the Croydon district for the year
1891” was presented by Mr. F. C. Bayard. The tabulated
matter, which shows great care in its arrangement, appears in
our last Report (Trans., Art. 101). A paper was read by Mr.
C. Lees Curtis on ‘ Nelson’s new Projection Microscope.” The
microscope projection apparatus is made on the model suggested
by Mr. E. M. Nelson, and consists of an oxyhydrogen lantern
with ‘a 44-inch double condenser, a water trough condenser
having a plano-convex lens at one end, and a concave at the
other, and so constructed that all heat rays are stopped. The
light passes through the condensers and trough, emerging from
the concave in parallel rays. To the end of the water trough is
attached the microscope, consisting of substage with sliding
focusing arrangement, having a hinged opening through which
the different substage apparatus can be placed in position, the
top of this opening is shut with a spring, a large stage with a
clip to hold the object and different sized diaphragms, and a
sliding body with micrometer screw fine adjustment complete
the apparatus. The instrument shown was provided with an
oxyhy drogen mixer jet having rackwork vertical adjustment, and
quadrant plate lateral movement; these adjustments allow the
light to be easily and accurately centred to the optic axis.
Different substage condensers are required to suit each objective
used, and arrangements are made for ‘‘dark ground” and
polariscope effects ; these latter, however, entail considerable loss
of light.

March 9th.— The Early History of the Microscope,” by Mr.
T, D. Aldous, F.R.M.S. In this paper, which appears in our
‘Transactions’ (Trans., Art. 102), Mr. Aldous dealt very fully
with the early history and development of the instrument; de-
scribing those by Hooke, 1665; Divini, 1672; Bonnani, 1698 ;
Marshall, 1702; Gundelius, 1702; Culpeper, 1740; Cuff, 1744;
Adams, 1771, and others. And considering the perfection to
which the instrument had now attained, it was certainly mar-

Proceedings. x1

vellous to think what the early naturalists had achieved with the
means at their disposal. Mr. Aldous’ paper was illustrated by a
- number of diagrams of early forms of the microscope, as well as
by some old and valuable examples from his own collection.
April 18th.—‘* Notes on a Ten Weeks’ Trip to the United
States and Canada,” by Mr. EH. B. Sturge. In this lecture,
which was largely attended, and which was illustrated by a fine
series of slides shown by the optical lantern, Mr. Sturge gave an
interesting account of the various American and Canadian towns
he had visited, and of Pike’s Peak, which he had ascended.
The heat, he said, was in some places very great, the thermo-
meter standing as high as 101° Fahr. A number of slides
showed some of the leading features of New York, which were
graphically described, as also were the Niagara Falls, and the
wonderful Hoosac Tunnel. The magnificently wild scenery of
the Rocky Mountains was next referred to, and many beautiful
slides were shown; some of these being photographs of some of
the gigantic forest trees of that locality. At Pike’s Peak, which
is 14,115 feet above sea-level, the ascent can be made by the cog-
wheel railway, recently opened. On the summit is a signal
house belonging to the United States Weather Bureau. ‘The
journey to San Francisco was then described, and Mr. Sturge
said that the ferry boat which crosses the Straits of Carquinez is
considered to be the largest in use, being capable of taking
twenty-eight Pullman cars at one journey. Puget Sound was
stated to be a remarkably fine expanse of water, with the banks
so beautifully wooded that the forest-growth extends right down
to the water’s edge. Near Banff and Winnipeg, Mr. Sturge saw
some magnificent scenery. At the latter place is situated the
head-quarters of the Hudson’s Bay Company, with large ware-
houses and stores. The distance of this town from Vancouver is
1,482 miles. The lecturer said that he had not very great faci-
lities for noting the Natural History features of the country
through which he passed, but he had seen during his visit
whales, prairie-dogs, Californian grey squirrels, chipmunks,
foxes, cow-birds or starlings, prairie fowl, jays, grouse, humming-
birds, and last, but not least, mosquitoes. The lecture, which
much interested the andience, was illustrated by a number of
objects of general use collected from the various tribes of North
American Indians, and which were exhibited by the President.
May 11th.—‘‘ Abnormal forms and variations in the Animal
Kingdom,” by the President. In this paper reference was made
to the various ways in which abnormalities occur, such as
albinism, melanism, and even monstrosities. But the paper
dealt with such comparatively normal variations as might result
from any change in the surrounding conditions, either geological,
climatological, &c. And cases were cited in which such variations

xi Proceedings.

did occur, and might even be perpetuated by a continuity of the
altered conditions. Such variation being the result of a struggle
on the part of the organism to put itself in complete correspon-
dence or accord with its environment (Trans., Art. 103).

Sept. 14th.—**On the Composition of the Hearthstone obtained
from Betchworth, microscopically considered,” by Mr. Murton
Holmes. The stone which had been collected on the Bank
holiday excursion, August 1st, was when first quarried of a dull
greenish colour, but dries of a greyish tint, and is rather harder.
The microscopic organisms discovered are stated in the paper
(Trans., Art. 104). ‘Observations on the Emergence of the
Crane Fly, Tipula oleracea,” by Mr. C. H. Goodman. In which
position and movements of the pupa, and the method in which
the imago frees itself, were carefully described (Trans., Art. 105).
‘‘On a Series of Fire-making appliances from Rajpootana,
India,” by the President. This paper gave a description of two
classes of appliances, namely, the friction and the percussion
methods. ‘The former were represented by the usual twirl stick
and hearth, and was found in use amongst the Bhiels, a native
aboriginal tribe, whilst the latter was illustrated by steels and
pieces of chalcedony, agate, and other silicate rocks. These
were obtained in Hindoo country villages (Trans., Art. 106).
Besides these papers, Dr. Franklin Parsons gave an interesting
account of fossil ostreas. Mr. Kenneth McKean described tlie
occurrence of a variety of Planorbis albus. Mr. W. Low Sarjeant
gave particulars of a fine series of land and fresh water shells
shown by him. Mr. Berney exhibited and described a collection
of Lepidoptera made by him in the New Forest, and Mr.
Crowley showed a series of butterflies of the genus Colius from
the palz-arctic region.

Oct. 12th.—'* On the Mouths of Insects,’’ by Mr. C. H. Good-
man. In which the organs and general structure of the various
forms of mouth were described, showing how, although the same
general plan obtained in nearly all cases, a very decided differ-
ence occurred owing to the development of some particular part,
or the devolution through absence of requirement of another
part. The paper was illustrated by a large number of lantern
slides of micro-photographs ard diagrams shown by the optical
lantern (Trans., Art. 107).

Nov. 9th.—By Mr. H. M. Wallis (President of the Reading
Literary and Scientific Society) on ‘‘ The Descent of the Bird.”
The lecturer began his discourse by a defence of the theory of
evolution, and said that at first sight there did not appear to be
much connection between a tom-tit and an alligator, yet he
would trace the bird structure back to that of the great Saurians
of the trias and other geological epochs, thus giving to birds a
reptilian ancestor. After describing the earlier remains of fossil

Proceedings. xiii

reptiles, he said that in the trias the reptilia became long-legged,
and their eyes were modified, as in the case of the Dinosaurians,
reptiles so large that some of them probably weighed as much as
thirty tons. Again, in the Iguanodon the armour-like covering
probably gave way to a hairy skin. The bones of the Dinosau-
rians were tubular, and in this respect approached the bird
structure. One of the great difficulties of tracing the develop-
ment was the scarcity of the fossil remains of birds, but in the
Archzopteryx of Solenhofen we have a true fossil bird, about the
size of a magpie, but having a long vertebral tail. Then we have
the birds of the Kansas chalk. A strong mark of resemblance
exists in the eye, which in birds is set in a circle of locking
bones ; this is found also in Iguanodon. Again, the condyle, or
process at the base of the skull, is single in reptiles and birds,
whilst it is double in all mammals. The structure of the verte-
bral bones, though varying somewhat, show again a close
relative correspondence between reptilia and birds, as also does
the consolidation of the pelvic bones. In Hesperornis the pelvis
assumes the bird form. ‘The lecturer then described the Dinor-
nis, and other gigantic struthian birds, and said that though
there were no living wingless birds in Madagascar, the bones of
Epiornis maximus were found there. The lecture concluded
with a description of the structure of our recent birds, showing
the greater or less development of certain parts in conformity to
the conditions under which each species existed. At the con-
clusion of this admirable paper observations were made by the
President and Mr. Mennell, who drew attention to the discovery
by Mr. Klaassen, a member of the Club, of the bones of a gigantic
bird in the strata of Park Hill.

Dec. 14th.—In the unavoidable absence through rather sudden
illness of Mr. J. Charters White, who was to have read a paper,
Mr. H. Tuke Mennell kindly took the evening, and gave a most
interesting and graphic account of a visit to Norway. After re-
ferring to the geology, botany, ornithology, &c., of the country,
Mr. Mennell described and discussed the origin of the remarkable
fjords, which everywhere break up the coastline, and Dr. Hinde,
at the conclusion of the paper, made some additional remarks on
the same subject. These notes on Norway will appear in our
‘Transactions’ (Trans., Art. 108). The President then made a
report on his microscopic examination of dust collected on the
glass of cases exhibited at the Soirée. It consisted chiefly of
such materials as might be expected to occur in large crowded
assemblies under such circumstances. There were traced fibres
of wood, cotton, silk, wool, jute, particles of iron, silica and
leather, small barbs from feathers, human hair, and hair of
chinchilla, besides one or two uncertain atoms of material. Mr.
Philip Crowley also exhibited and described a nest and an egg of

xiv Proceedings.

bird of paradise (Paradisia raggiana) from New Guinea, an
unique specimen, being the first brought to Europe.

On Wednesday evening, 27th April, 1892, a lecture was
delivered by Dr. R. Bowdler Sharpe, F.L.S., &., in the Large
Public Hall, entitled ‘‘ Curiosities of Bird Life.’ The lecture,
which was illustrated by eighty coloured pictures specially
designed by the celebrated Natural History artist, Mr. J. G.
Keulemans, and shown by the oxyhydrogen lantern, treated of
many points of interest connected with birds. Dealing first with
merely curious birds, such as the Bohemian waxwing, &c., the
lecturer went on to describe the similarity that often existed
between birds of quite different genera, or even families, such
adaptiveness being in some way for the benefit of the altered
species. Dr. Sharpe also referred to the protection that many
species derive from their resemblance to other and quite different
objects, and instanced a most amusing case of a bird whose
marking made it almost indistinguishable among reeds, dodging
its pursuer. Birds which had strong tastes for artificial decora-
tion were then referred to, and the bower birds were especially
described. The lecturer concluded with some most interesting
observations on the swallow, giving an account of their migra-
tory habits, and showing a series of pictures of towns passed
over by swallows in their autumn migration to the sunny south.
The lecture, which was arranged by the kindness of Mr. Crowley,
ee greatly enjoyed by a large number of members and their
riends.

The Twenty-third Annual Soirée of the Club was held at the
Public Hall on Nov. 23rd, and was in every way one of the most
successful on record. In the Microscopical Section 92 instru-
ments were exhibited, and the objects shown by them were far
above the average in point of interest. Some early forms of the
microscope were also displayed by Mr. Aldous. Mr. Crowley
exhibited yet another section of his magnificent collection of bird
and insect life. Amongst the botanical exhibits were a number
of dried plants shown by Mr. H. T. Mennell, which had been
treated with dry salicylic acid. The acid, which is in the form
of a white powder, is dusted over the flowers when they are put
in the press, and the process is repeated when the papers are
changed. The colours of flowers are well preserved by this method,
which seems better adapted to their fragile flowers, such as
campanulas (bluebells), and the like, than that of immersion in
sulphurous acid described last year. For fleshy flowers with
more substance, the latter process appears the best. With
salicylic acid, some flowers, e. g., the bee orchis, are rendered
more Vivid in colour than is natural. As is well known the blues

Proceedings. XV

of flowers, like campanulas, are most difficult to preserve by the
ordinary method of drying. The action of both sulphurous acid
and salicylic acid seems to be to destroy the vitality of the plant
at once, and to prevent any fermentation setting up in the juices.
It is this fermentation which affects the colours. A very fine
series of beautifully preserved and mounted plants were also _
exhibited by the Messrs. Salmon. The collection of flowers
gathered in the open air on the day of the Soirée was in the
hands of Dr. Franklin Parsons. The series was a very large
one considering the havoc caused in all exposed gardens by an
unusually early and severe frost. Mr. Low Sarjeant showed a
very carefully arranged collection of British land and fresh water
shells ; and a Campbell sunshine recorder, and a series of photo-
graphs illustrating the progress and results of a tornado, were
exhibited by Mr. Bayard. Objects of general interest from
Egypt, by Mr. E. B. Sturge. Native weapons, &c., from India,
by Mr. C. J. N. Yuill. Other weapons from the Maoris, by Mr.
Kvan Carpenter. Some interesting original drawings of mollus-
can odontophores by Prof. Sars were shown hy Mr. K. McKean ;
and several calculating machines, by Mr. W. F. Stanley. Mr.
Thorpe, of George Street, lent a number of zoological specimens,
trophies, &c.; and Mr. H. C. Collier showed some ethological
specimens from Barrows, near Arundel.. The President’s exhibit
was his collection of stalk-eyed crustacea from the British seas,
including every known species but two or three. A very good
exhibit was made by the Photographic Section, both of prints
and transparencies ; but a comparatively small number of photo-
graphers were represented, considering the large number there
are in the Club. The enlargements by Mr. W. Low Sarjeant,
Mr. Hirst, and one or two others, were very fine, and a capital
series showing the different warm tones to be obtained on
bromide paper were shown by Mr. Weir Brown. ‘Two lantern
exhibits were given during the evening in the old School of Art
Room, and were well patronised. The spacing arrangements
were, as usual, in the skilful hands of Mr. Berney, and the
decorative plants were again kindly lent by Mr. Crowley. Through
- the generous co-operation of Messrs. Mennell, Crowley, Berney,
Budgen, McKean, with my suggestion to provide the refresh-
ments ourselves, and thus relieve the Club of this important
item of expense, the financial result of the Soirée was eminently
satisfactory, and the satisfaction given to our visitors more so.
Our total Soirée expenses, as will be seen, was only about £36,
whilst our sale of tickets rose to the unusually high figure of over
£26, thus reducing the net cost to the Club to some £10, an ex-
ceedingly gratifying result, and one not often attained.

Our Conversational Meetings have not been much better than

Xv1 Proceedings.

usual, except in one or two instances; but it is hoped that by
organising some practical evening for work they will become
more useful, and therefore better patronised. The acquisition of
another permanent room to be used chiefly for a photographic
dark room, but also available as a room for general practical
work, cannot but prove of great use and value to the Club, and
it is hoped that members will not fail to take advantage of it.
Another step in advance is the decision of your Committee to
appoint, at a small remuneration, an Assistant Secretary, to re-
lieve the Club’s Hon. Sec. of much of the mere routine portion
of his duties, and thus enable him to deyote more time and care
to the general management and direction of the Club. We are
also recording to-night a still further advance, in the opening, so
to speak, of the nucleus of that museum which it has long been
hoped may some day be formed in the town of Croydon under
the fostering care of this Club. The fine collection of shells and
corals, fossils and minerals formed by the late Dr. Carpenter, one
of our former Presidents, and one of the most active supporters
of the Club in its past, has been generously presented to us, to-
gether with the cases and cabinets containing them, by his
family. Through the kindness of the Committee of the Institu-
tion, and the great courtesy and anxiety to meet our views of its
Hon. Sec., Mr. Harry Berney, these cases of specimens are
allowed to be placed in this our meeting-room, where, I trust,
the ‘‘Carpenter collection” will prove of interest to our numerous
members, and be the starting-point from which our long wished
for museum may grow. Gentlemen, I think I have done, and
it is my fervent wish that you will all help forward the interests
of our Club. Its record is a good one, and I am happy in
feeling that our past year, although our twenty-third, has been
one of prosperity and advance. I feel sure that in the good
hands about to take charge’of the ship we may look forward to a
happy new year.

Members elected, 1892.

January 13th.—Francis Carter, High Street, Carshalton, Surrey.
Joseph Hall, Melton Lodge, Havelock Road. Surgeon-Genl. Wm.
Pearl, Stuston Lodge, Scole, Norfolk. Chas. HE. Salmon, Clevelands,
Wray Park, Reigate. Ernest T. Salmon, Clevelands, Wray Park,
Reigate. Chas. Thorpe, 22, George Street.

February 10th.—H. E. W. Weaver, 84, Brighton Road.

March 9th.—H. Whitby Philips, M.D., Addiscombe Road. Richard
Flint, Woodstock House, Park Lane. James Packham, 16, Katharine
Street. §S. L. Griffiths, 8340, London Road.

April 13th.—J. G. Lincoln, Wellesley Court Road. W. E. Samson,
55, Bensham Manor Road, Thornton Heath.

May 11th.—Arthur Lloyd, Shirley Hurst, Shirley, Surrey,

a s

Proceedings. XVli

September 14th.—Robert H. Davies, F.I.C., The Laurels, Culverden
Road Balham, §.W. George Ashby Lean, 51, London Road.

October 12th.—Thos. K. F. Page, 24, Sydenham Road. Louis Car-
= Panmure, Tavistock Road. Rev. J. Isabell, 65, Old Waddon

oad.

November 9th.—Charles Young, 26, Addiscombe Road. Frank
Barlow, Clevedon, Lower Addiscombe Road. Frederick George Bing,
16, Lower Coombe Street.

December 14th.—Charles Moss, 21, Charleville Circus, Sydenham.

Library.

The additions to the Library during the year 1892 are as
follows :—

From Individuals.—F. C. Bayard: Report on Thunderstorms of
1888 & 1889; The family of the late A. Carpenter: A large collection
of fossils and minerals, together with their cases; J. A. Carter: Traitée
de Photographie; W. Crouch: Trawling in the Crouch, Oct. 10th and
15th, 1891; P. Crowley: 3 Nos. of the Bazaar Chronicle, June, 1860;
J. Epps, Junr.: Sundry Nos. of Science Gossip; H. D. Gower: Photo-
graphic papers as issued; G. J. Hinde & W. M. Holmes: Sponge
remains in Lower Tertiary, New Zealand; W. M. Holmes: Twelve
Microscopic Slides; 8. Laing: Antiquity of Man; H. F. Parsons:
Report of Influenza Epidemic ; Thomé’s Structural and Physiological
Botany; J. Prestwich : Primitive Character of Flint Implements on the
Chalk Plateau of Kent.

From Societies.—British Association: Report, 1891; Particulars of
Committees. La Société Belge de Microscopie: Bulletin, 8me Année
& Annales, Tome xvi. History of Berwickshire Naturalists’ Club,
Part I., 1890. Brighton and Sussex Natural History and Philoso-
phical Society: Reports for 1891 and 1892, 2 parts. Essex Naturalist,
9 parts. East Kent Natural History Society: Reports, 1891 and 1892,
two parts. Eastbourne Natural History Society: Transactions, 1890
—91. Manchester Geographical Society: Journal, 3 parts. Man-
chester Microscopical Society : Transactions and Report, 1891. North-
amptonshire Natural History Society Journal, 1889, 1890, 1891, 12
parts. Quekett Microscopical Club: Journal, 2 parts. Reading
Literary and Scientific Society: Report, 1892.. La Société Royale
Malacologique de Belgique: Proces Verbal, 10 parts. Royal Micro-
scopical Society: Journal, &c., 7 parts. West Kent Natural History
Society: Report 1891—92.

From Proprietors.—Entomologists’ Record, 1 part; Field Club, 2
parts; Natural Science, 1 part; Science Gossip.

Exhibits, 1892.

January 13th.—Mr. W. Low Sarjeant, A portion of an elephant’s
tusk showing an abnormal condition of the centre, which Dr. Franklin
Parsons suggested was due to the growth of secondary dentine.

February 10th.—Dr. Franklin Parsons, A bottle of water highly
charged with carbon; being the melted rime from trees at Park Hill
during the fog-frost of January, 1892. The President, Series of shells,

: c

XViii Proceedings.

including Pecten varius var. niveus, also Haliotis tuberculata, and
Mactra glauca.

March 9th.—Mr. Aldous, in illustration of his paper, Two old
microscopes, and eleven diagrams. Mr. Epps, A solar microscope, in
illustration of Mr. Aldous’ paper. Mr. Sturge, Chamber’s ‘ Dictionary
of Arts and Sciences’ (1738), with illustration of Marshall’s microscope.
The President, Collection of weapons and appliances made and used
by the natives of Arctic America; extemporized microscope. Mr.
Oakley, photograph of group of mushrooms grown at Thornton Heath,
weight seven pounds, containing thirty-four mushrooms, largest seven
inches, and smallest three inches in diameter. Mr. H. D. Gower,
Photograph of Calopteryx virgo. Mr. Packham, Photo-micrographs
of fossil wood (Endogenites erosa) from Wealden beds.

April 13th.—Mr. Sturge, Photographs, books, and pamphlets in
illustration of his paper. he President, Series of Indian weapons and
garments in illustration of Mr. Sturge’s paper.

May 11th.—The President, A series of mollusca and crustacea, in
illustration of his paper. Mr. Aldous, Old map of London; a naturally
mummified mouse, and a portion of incrustation of house boiler. Mr.
Goodman, A case of peculiar forms of insects, and a spider with spinous
projections; two photo-slides of Holobates compar and Holobates
Wiellerstorfii, pelagic forms of Hemiptera. Mr. Mennell, Living
plants of Primula farinosa, also variety acaulis, and Gentiana verna.
Mr. Marriott, A white sparrow, not an albino, taken at Reedham.

September 14th.—Mr. Sturge, Specimens of carbonate of lime from
Cox’s Cave, Cheddar Cliffs. Mr. H. Long, A portion of selenite (ery-
stallized sulphate of lime), from Woodside Green. Mr. C. H. Goodman,
Specimens of the Crane Fly (Tipula) from the pupa, and Photographs
of the effects of a local cyclone near Belvedere, Kent. Mr. McKean,
Specimens of Planorbis albus. Mr. W. Low Sarjeant, A series of land
and fresh water mollusca, and a series of Limne@a stagnalis. Mr.
Berney, A series of Lepidoptera from the New Forest, and others from
Croydon. Mr. Crowley, A series of the genus Colias. The President,
Primitive fire-making appliances from Rajpootana, and primitive wood
lamps from India; Skull of leopard with malformation of nasal bone;
Nests of weaver bird from the Island of Elephanta, India, and examples
of protective resemblance in Lepidoptera.

October 12th.—Mr. Crowley, Specimen of Zygena filipendule,
taken at Riddlesdown. Mr. Murton Holmes, A spider, very red when
alive, taken on Rhododendron. Mr. Aldous, Large starfish, foreign
species, obtained, preserved, from a trawler at Brixham; Piece of sponge
trawled up off Babbicombe; Pen-like bones from cuttlefish.

November 9th.— Mr. N. Waterall, Specimens of rock from the
Mountain Railway, Monte Generoso, Bella Vista, Capolago, Switzer-
land.

December 14th.—The President, Dust collected from show-cases at
the Soirée. Mr. Crowley, A nest of the bird of paradise (Paradisia
raggiana), with one egg, from New Guinea. Mr. McKean, A slide of
dust, deposited on a cleaned surface, at Lloyd’s, between the hours of
twelve and one p.m.

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TRANSACTIONS

OF

THE CROYDON MICROSCOPICAL AND
NATURAL HISTORY CLUB.

1892—93.

102.-—Tue Barty History or tHe Microscope.
By Txos. D. Axpous, F.R.M.S.
(Read March 9th, 1892.)

Ir has occurred to me that, to a Microscopical Society like
ours, some account of the history and progress of the instrument
from which we take our name may not be without interest.

-T have on more than one occasion been accused of spending
my spare time in some ‘“fusty old book shop,” as the irreverent
are wont to call those mines of entertainment and learning,
which nevertheless are duly appreciated by the enquiring and
intelligent man. Well, gentlemen, I do not deny the soft im-
peachment, and, as a result of time so spent, I have been fortu-
nate enough to obtain a copy of a book called ‘ Micrographia
Illustrata; or, the Microscope Explained,’ published in 1771 by
the elder George Adams, containing many interesting plates of
contemporary instruments; ‘The Microscope made Kasy,’ by
Baker, 1742; and a very important work entitled ‘ Essays on
the Microscope,’ published in 1787 by George Adams the
younger. From these, the ‘ Encyclopedia Britannica’ of 1797,
and a book kindly lent me by our President, I have been able to
gather the various data relating to the history and progress of
the microscope, which I shall presently place before you.

In his preface to ‘Essays on the Microscope,’ Adams the
younger says:—‘‘ The plates were drawn and engraved with a
view to be folded up with the work; but as it is the opinion of
many of my friends that they would by this means be materially
injured, I have been advised to have them stitched in strong blue
paper, and leave it to the purchaser to dispose of them to his

B

2 Mr. T. D. Aldous on the

own mind.” Well, gentlemen, I wish Mr. Adams's friends had
kept their opinions and advice to themselves, for, as may be
imagined, the plates have been very much disposed of and sepa-
rated from the work, and this has given me a lot of trouble in
hunting up in other contemporary works the plates he refers to,
and in comparing his descriptions with the drawings and reference
lettering of other men. With just this one little grumble I will
pass to my subject.

The microscope was invented in the year 1590 by a Dutchman
named Zacharias Jansens, and in 1619 one Cornelius Drebell
brought to England, from Holland, one of these instruments.
This was in all probability more of the nature of a microscopic
telescope than what we understand as a microscope. It was
formed of a copper tube 6ft. long by 1 in. in diameter, supported
by three brass pillars mounted on a wooden base, on which the
objects to be viewed were placed. This seems to be an extra-
ordinary length of body-tube, and one is almost inclined to think,
in the absence of any drawing, that, while the whole instrument
may have been used as a telescope, probably the tube was
removed, leaving the bottom lens on the pillars to be used as a
magnifying-glass or simple microscope when small objects were
to be viewed; it is from this instrument the Dutch claim to
be the inventors of the microscope. The great Galileo made
one in 1637.

But an Italian named Fontana, in a work published in 1646,
says he made microscopes in the year 1618. This, indeed, may
have been so, for instances are not wanting where two men have
produced similar things at the same time; and, as a striking in-
stance of this in our own times, I may mention those wonderful
papers of Darwin and Wallace, read before the Linnean Society
on the same night, July 1st, 1858.

But if we consider the microscope in its most simple form of a
magnifying-glass, I think it is highly probable that it was known
to and used as such by the Greeks and Romans. There are
extant specimens of ancient workmanship so fine in detail that
it is difficult to understand how they were carved or engraved
without the aid of a magnifying lens of some sort; some of the
Roman or Greek seals, for instance, which have been found, look
commonplace to the naked eye, but when magnified are seen to
bear work of great delicacy and minuteness, and in the writings
of Pisidias occurs the passage, Ta peaArata ws da dsowrpoou Bacaress,
‘You look at future things by or through a dioptrum.” Now, in
a somewhat aged lexicon in my possession, I find the word
Atomrpixos, which is translated into Latin, ‘‘ad spectanda re-
motiora aptus,”’ which, I take it, may be freely rendered as
‘suitable for viewing distant objects.” Why not small ones ?
Then turning to a Latin author, Seneca writes :— “ Litere

Early History of the Microscope. 3

quamvis minute et obscure, per vitream pilam aqua plenam,
majores clarioresque cernuntur.” ‘ Letters, though small and
indistinct, are seen larger and elearer through a glass bubble filled
with water,’ which, I think, proves that the Romans, at any
rate, used a magnifying-glass as such.

Now to come down to the period when the microscope began
to assume a shape worthy the name we find the instrument to
have been what is known as a single microscope, 7. e., consisting
of a single deep convex lens set in metal, having a very small
aperture. As early as 1656, however, we find inventive genius
at work in the person of a Dr. Hooke, who, in the preface to his
‘ Micrographia Illustrata,’ describes the manner of making tiny
glass globules, and about the year 1665 these globules began to
be occasionally applied to the single microscope. Of course the
magnifying power of such a lens is very great, but unless
Dr. Hooke was satisfied with a very small field, the spherical
aberration which would occur must of necessity have made his
observations somewhat distorted. Here again we find an inven-
tion attributed to two people, some affirming the inventor to have
been a Monsieur Hartsoeker ; but, as the first recorded discovery
of this observer is that of Spermatozoa, made when he was
18 years old, in the year 1674, he must have begun inventing very
young to have been previous to Dr. Hooke’s description in 1656.

To give you an example of the patience with which these
early observers worked, I take bodily a description of the mode
of manufacturing these globules, as given by Dr. Hooke in his
‘Letters and Collections,’ 1678. He says :—‘‘ Take a small rod
of the clearest and cleanest glass you can procure, free, if
possible, from blebs, veins, or sandy particles ; then, by melting
it in a lamp made with spirit of wine or the purest and clearest
salad oil, draw it out into exceeding fine and small threads ; take
a small piece of these threads and melt the end thereof in the
same flame, till you perceive it run into a small drop or globule
of the desired size; let this globule cool, then fix it upon a thin
plate of brass or silver, so that the middle of it may be directly
over the centre of a very small hole made in this plate, handling
it till it is fixed by the before-mentioned thread of glass. When
the plate is properly fixed to your microscope and the object ad-
justed to the focal distance of the globule, you will perceive the
object distinctly and immensely magnified. By this means,”
says Dr. Hooke, ‘‘ I have been able to distinguish the particles
of bodies, not only a million of times smaller than a visible point,
but even to make those visible whereof a million of millions
would hardly make up the bulk of the smallest visible grain of
sand ; so prodigiously do these exceeding small globules enlarge
our prospect into the more hidden recesses of nature.”

Now, gentlemen, I should be sorry to argue with a man so

B2

4 Mr. T. D. Aldous on the

much older than myself as Dr. Hooke, but I would with very
great respect submit that if one looks at an object ‘a million
times smaller than a visible point,” it is necessary to magnify it
a million times in order to make it appear as large as a visible
point, or, in other words, to see it at all; and as with our
modern instruments, using, say, 2, oil immersion objective and
a Zeis No. 5 ocular, we get an amplification of 2020 times only, I
think we must make some allowance for enthusiasm in Dr.
Hooke’s concluding statement.

There were various makers and modifications in the details of
the manufacture of these globules, and one of the most dexterous
was a Neapolitan named Di Torré, who, after giving a detailed
account of the mode of their manufacture, concludes by saying:
—‘‘In damp weather, notwithstanding every precaution, it will
often happen that, out of forty globules, four or five only will be
fit for use.”

Now we come, in the history of single microscopes, to about
the year 1678, and meet a familiar name, Leuwenhoek, who
made so many discoveries. He seems to have used entirely
single microscopes; each of them consisted of a very small
bi-convex lens set in a socket formed by two metal plates
riveted together, and, of course, pierced with a small hole at
the centre of the lens. He had many such instruments of
varying powers to suit the various objects he examined by
attaching them to a silver point or needle capable of being
moved in any direction. Some of these instruments are, I
believe, in the possession of the Royal Society; they did not
magnify so much as the glass globules, but, as Leuwenhoek
truly remarks, in a letter to the Society, “ that from upwards of
forty years’ experience’ he found that the most considerable
discoveries were to be made with such glasses as, magnifying
but moderately, exhibited the object with the most perfect
brightness and distinctness.

Here I must mention the very ingenious device of a Mr.
Stephen Gray, of Charterhouse, who in 1696, looking through a
glass globule which had some defects, noticed that these defects
were much magnified ; thereupon he conceived the idea that if
he could get a drop of water containing animalcule, he would
see them much magnified. This he did by getting a drop of
water known to contain animalcule on the end of a piece of
brass wire, and he says :—‘‘On applying this to the eye he found
to his astonishment that those scarcely discernible with his
glass globules appeared as large as ordinary-sized peas.”” Another
enthusiast. Still, the idea was ingenious; and he went further,
for he contrived another water microscope, consisting of two
drops of water separated in part by a thin brass plate, but
touching near the centre, which were thus rendered equivalent

;
:
4
4
.
a
;

Early History of the Microscope. 5

to a double convex lens of unequal convexities, almost reminding
one of a Coddington lens.

Dr. Hooke, too, describes a method of placing his glass
globules in contact with water when examining that fluid, and
speaks of the clearness and brightness gained by this means.

In 1702 we have Wilson’s microscope. This was an alto-
gether more elaborate instrument, consisting of an object-
lens, an object-holder, a screw for focusing, and a condensing
lens.

In 1788, Dr. Lieberkuhn made the greatest improvement the
single microscope received, and that, one which had from the
beginning been wanted, in that he placed the small lens in the
centre of a highly polished concave speculum of silver, which, by
reflecting light on to an opaque object placed underneath it,
opened up the possibility of examining such objects, thereby
placing a huge new field of research within the reach of micro-
scopical workers of the time. On this account I need hardly
point out this instrument obtained and maintained a high
reputation, so much so that nearly all the compound micro-
scopes subsequently made were by a simple device rendered
capable of, on occasion, supplying a Lieberkuhn’s single micro-
scope. This great man made three forms, but I have only taken
two of them, as amply illustrating his invention. |

Then, in 1740, we find a somewhat elaborate single instru-
ment brought out by the elder Adams, which he called the
Universal Single Microscope ; the whole of the magnifiers were
mounted on a revolving wheel, by which means they might be
readily brought under a fixed eye-piece, which was also sup-
plied with a speculum for opaque objects, the whole being
mounted on a pillar and illuminated by a mirror.

In 1742, Benjamin Martin, of Reading, invented a botanical
magnifier, which caused a good deal of interest at the time, and
is now largely used; in fact, I suspect that at the present
moment many of us have a specimen of the instrument in our
pockets.

In 1747, Cuff the optician improved, at the suggestion of
Mr. Martin Folkes (who was President of the Royal Society in
1742), the pocket microscope of Wilson, by fixing it to a stand,
and adding a mirror for illumination; and subsequently further
improved it by mounting the lens on a moveable arm, and
making a stage to slide up and down ona square stem. This
was the instrument used by Mr. Ellis in his examinations of

- corallines and zoophytes in 1756.

Then we have the microscope invented by Dr. Withering,
consisting of three plates, the upper and lower of which
contained a lens; the middle plate or stage was moveable on
the stout wires supporting and connecting the top and bottom

6 Mr. T. D. Aldous on the

plates, and by sliding this up and down the object was brought
to focus.

There were other modifications of the various instruments I
have mentioned, but I think I have taken the chief types; and of
these I have prepared some diagrams, to which 1 would now
direct your attention.

Of the double or compound microscope, consisting of two,
three, or more lenses, the earliest recorded examples are those
of Dr. Hooke, 1665; Eustachio Divini, 1668; and Philip Bonani,
1698.

Dr. Hooke’s compound microscope was composed of three
lenses, the object-glass, a middle or field lens, and an eye-
glass; it was about three inches in diameter and seven long,
and was furnished with four draw tubes. In his work, ‘ Micro-
graphia,’ Dr. Hooke gives a method of examining opaque objects
by placing a globe of glass filled with brine immediately in front
of his lamp, the pencil of light from this globe being received
by a small plano-convex lens with its convex surface turned
towards the globe, thus concentrating the rays on to the object,
which, I need hardly mention, is practically the same as that
used to-day. Dr. Hooke states that when he wished to examine
an object with greater accuracy, he removed the middle glass,
by which means he obtained more light and better definition.

The microscope of Eustachio Divini must have been a some-
what remarkable instrument; it, like that of Dr. Hooke, con-
sisted of an object and field glass, but instead of a double convex
eye-glass, he substituted two plano-convex lenses, which touched
each other at the centre of their convex surfaces. This was an
improvement, as by this arrangement a flat field was obtained
with a considerable increase of magnifying power. By means
of four draw tubes Divini obtained amplifications of from 40 to
148 diameters. When the draw tubes were all closed the body
was 16 in. long, and magnified 41 times, at the second length 90,
at the third 111, and at its fourth and greatest expansion 143;
the body-tube was a large as a man’s thigh, and the eye-glass
was equal in size to the palm of the hand. Altogether it must
have been an imposing instrument, 1668.

When writing the above I much regretted being unable to
show you a drawing of this instrument. What, then, was my
delight the other day to find that almost as I was writing,
Sig. P. A. Saccardo found preserved in the Museo di Fisica,
Padua, an ancient microscope bearing the inscription, ‘‘ Hustachio
Divini in Roma, 1672.’ A drawing of this instrument appeared
in the December number of the ‘Royal Microscopical Journal,’
and to that most excellent publication I am indebted for the copy
of the enlarged sketch now before you.

The measurements of this instrument are as follows :—When

Early History of the Microscope. 7

all the draw tubes were closed the length from eye-piece to
objective is 86:5 centimetres, or 14 in. when all were drawn out
as far as the marks I, II, III, IV; the total length is 41, 49, 54,
56°5 cm. respectively, or, expressed in English inches, 16 in.,
194 in., 214 in., and 224in. The body of the instrument is of
cardboard, covered with parchment coloured greenand gilded; the
largest tube has a diameter of 8 cm. or 3,4, in., and the lowest
tube carries on its lower half a broad spiral band of cardboard,
also covered with parchment, which gears into a spiral cut in the
cardboard cylinder, round which is the brass band bearing the
inscription; the three brass legs are 15 cm. or 5,4, in. long.
The objective, a biconvex lens, is held in position at the bottom
of the screw tube by a screwed cap, and the object is focused by
turning the object-holder up or down by means of the screw on
this tube, which is 2, in. long, and 1in. in diameter. ‘T'he eye-
piece is missing, and the field lens is a large somewhat yellow
biconvex one, 6 cm. or 2,3, in. in diameter, and 5 mm. or +} in.
thick. These measurements agree practically with those of the
instrument I mentioned above, except the tube is not as large as
a man’s thigh ; this, I think, must be an exaggeration.

The microscope described by Philip Bonani fifty years later
was, as far as the lenses were concerned, similar in construction
to the foregoing, consisting of an object-glass, a middle or field-
glass, and an eye-lens; but the form of mounting was different,
in that he placed the body in a horizontal position. It was
also provided with a stage for the object, and with a coarse and
fine adjustment for the body; the former was rack and pinion,
and the latter was effected by a screw on the body at the objec-
tive end, and finding, doubtless, that the weight of the body,
especially when the fine adjustment was back, made his in-
strument somewhat unsteady, he introduced a triangular sup-
port near the eye-piece, in which, of course, the body could be
easily moved backwards and forwards in obedience to his fine
adjustment screw. Bonani seems to have worked with direct
light, and between the lamp and the stage he placed a short
tube containing two double convex lenses; in fact, he intro-
duced a substage condenser. This instrument was, to my
mind, at any rate so far as the mechanical part went, a very
long step in the direction of improvement.

We find no further record of any importance from this time
till 1702, when Jean Zahn published a work at Nuremberg,
describing, amongst many others, two binocular microscopes, and
also a figure of one by Francis Grindelius, used for opaque
objects ; its optical parts consisted of six plano-convex lenses,
placed as shown in the drawing, but he gives no record of its
size. And in the same year, Mr. Jolin Marshall brought out
his microscope, which, however, from its unwieldy nature, was

8 Mr. T. D. Aldous on the

very little employed; it is, however, interesting from the fact
that it is the first compound instrument made for sale in this
country ; also as the first appearance of an ordinary condenser
such as we now use. After this—in England at least—nothing
seems to have been attempted in the direction of improvement
to the compound microscope for about thirty years.

But the year 1788 is historical from the publication of
Lieberkuhn’s invention of the solar microscope, which the in-
ventor himself exhibited before the Royal Society in London
in 1739; this was, in fact, the first projection microscope.
Lieberkuhn illuminated his solar microscope by the sun’s rays
falling directly on a condensing lens, and so its use was limited
to a short period of the day. About 1747, however, Cuff greatly
improved the apparatus by applying a moveable mirror, thus
making it available for general use; it was principally used for
the exhibition of animalcule and the circulation of blood, and
was much recommended for drawing purposes, the image being
thrown on a thin sheet of paper, the artist standing behind the
screen and tracing the outline with pen or pencil. This in-
vention, together with the discovery, by Mr. Trembly, of the
Plumatella, a fresh-water polype, about this time, and also the
observations of Baker and the elder George Adams, gave to
microscopical research a tremendous spur.

In 1740 the cumbrous compound instrument of Marshall was
greatly improved and reduced to manageable size by Scarlet and
Culpepper, after the latter of whom the instrument was named ;
their first microscope hada wooden body, but this seems to have
been at once replaced by metal, as in 1742 Baker describes .the
instrument as of brass. A specimen of this instrument, singu-
larly complete, 1am able to show you; it is probably of rather
later date, but not much, as those made in 1771 by the elder
Adams have a cross-shaped stage instead of this circular one.
The whole is exactly similar to that described by Baker, the
only difference being in the scrolled supports, which are illus-
trated in his ‘ Microscope Made Easy’ as straight.

‘‘In 1744,” says Baker, ‘*I found, however, some further
alterations were necessary to make this instrument of more
general use, as I fully experienced in 1743, when examining
daily the configurations of saline substances. The legs were
continual impediments to my turning about the slips of glass ;
besides, pulling the body up and down was likewise subject to
jerks, which caused a difficulty in fixing it exactly at the focus.
There was also no good contrivance for viewing opaque objects.”
Baker applied to Cuff, the optician, with the result that he pro-
duced an instrument supported on a sliding pillar, and fitted
with a fine adjustment.

At this time microscopy seems to have been given another

Early History of the Microscope. 9

rest, and nothing of importance was done till 1770, when
Dr. Hill published a treatise on the structure of timber. So
important a subject revived the ardour for microscopic pursuits,
and we find about this time the elder Adams contrived a micro-
tome for cutting transverse sections of wood, which instrument
was improved by a Mr. Cumming, and also later on by the
younger Adams.

In 1771 the elder Adams published a fourth edition of his
‘ Micrographia,’ in which, amongst other appliances then in use,
he describes a contrivance of his own for applying the solar
microscope to the camera obscura, and illuminating it at night
by a lamp, by which means a picture of microscopic objects
might, he says, be exhibited on winter evenings, and also the
variable microscope.

It seems that Lieberkuhn had adapted his solar microscope
for viewing opaque objects; but the contrivance was lost.
Knowing, however, that this had been done, a certain M. Aipinus
turned his attention to the subject, and in some measure suc-
ceeded ; but his success seems to have been marred by employing
a too small illuminating mirror. Some further improvements
were made by M. Ziehr. But the most perfect instrument of
the kind was that described by Mr. Benjamin Martin in 1774.
In 1777 we have Dellebarre’s microscope, and in 1784 M. Aipinus
describes some newly invented microscopes in a letter to the
Academie des Sciences of St. Petersburg, about which the
younger Adams makes some rude remarks as to their being
simply the application of the achromatic perspective, long known
in regard to telescopes, to microscopic purposes.

This, gentlemen, brings us to what we may call the end of the
history of the microscope in the unachromatised state, and
I think that when we look at the wonderful and good useful
work done by our forefathers, and compare the instruments at
their command with our present day microscopes, we cannot
but admire their courageous researches, and reverence their
memory as the founders of a science which has had, and is
having, not only an interest for those wishing to see Nature in
detail, but has enabled us to discover much which has been a
real benefit to the health and life of man.

10 Mr. E. Lovett on Abnormal Forms and

108.—Asnormat Forms AND VARIATIONS IN THE Anima Kincpom.
By Epwarp Lovett.
(Read May 11th, 1892.)

Tue following observations are compiled from notes made by
me from time to time, when I had opportunities of doing a little
practical work amongst Insects, Crustacea, and Mollusca.

Examples of deviation from the normal type are always inte-
resting, whatever may be the cause of such deviation, and there
are several, for example, albinism, melanism, mimicry (so-called),
deformity, and true variation, to which latter I wish specially to
refer.

Albinism is the name given to that remarkable white form
which frequently obtains amongst many animals, whilst melanism
is the exact reverse of this, being the dark or black variety. Mimi-
cry, or, to use a better though longer expression, the approach in
resemblance, through a long process of natural selection, of one
species to another, or to some other object, for the purpose of
self-interest, offensive or defensive ; mimicry, I repeat, appears to
come so very close to true variation that it is difficult to dis-
sociate it, though it is not my intention to deal fully with this
aspect of the subject, but more to the influence of other external
conditions in bringing about variations or deviations from the
type of the species subject to those influences. As regards what
may be called deformities, these can be dismissed altogether from
our consideration as being in no sense of the word true variations.
Deformities are either the result of imperfect development, acci-
dent, or monstrosity, and, if capable of reproducing their species
at all, which in the majority of instances is doubtful, would not
be at all likely to reproduce the aberrant features or peculiarities
which they themselves possess ; whereas true varieties possess
deviating characteristics which do not in any way interfere with
the functions of life, but, if anything, permit such functions to
be carried out with greater safety, and with more facilities, than
when the species in question was not in such complete accord
with its surrounding conditions. As examples of deformi-
ties may be instanced a decapod or ten-footed crustacean with
eleven legs, an example of which is in my collection; abnormal
growths of the limbs of crustaceans, which very frequently occur
through accident; butterflies with hermaphroditic tendencies, or
with imperfect or too many wings, such as exist in many collec-
tions, and which, I regret to say, are considered of great value.
Amongst Mammalia and birds such deformities assume a variety
of repulsive forms, as may too frequently be seen at country
fairs ; such cripples are of no value in any way whatever, and
are only calculated to degrade the observer of them.

Variations in the Animal Kingdom. 11

We will now consider the question of true variation, by which
I mean the deviation from the normal type in consequence of
some perfectly natural condition, which condition, however, is,
from some cause, different from that to which the varying species
has become adapted ; or else some condition or conditions which,
though to a certain extent artificial, do not in any way interfere
with the chief life functions of the species in question.

Mr. Herbert Spencer has defined life as that in which an
organism is in perfect correspondence with its environments or
the continuous adjustment of internal relations to external rela-
tions. A good illustration of this is the case of a man and a
fish. Both live by breathing oxygen, but one breathes by means
of lungs and the other by means of gills. If, therefore, the one
breathing by lungs exchanged places with the one breathing by
gills, both would cease to live, because neither would in that
case be in correspondence with its environment; or, in other
words, there would be a violent interruption in the continuous
adjustment of their internal to their external relations. On
the other hand, however, if the correspondence with the environ-
ment can be kept up by a modification of one or the other, or
both, or if the adjustment of the internal with the external rela-
tions can be effected, then life is not extinguished, but a varia-
tion takes place, and existence goes on upon a different basis.
For example, it has been recorded that a lizard (Awoletus, I
believe), breathing in water by means of branchiz, by being
gradually weaned, so to speak, from its aquatic life, became
perfectly terrestrial, and lost its branchie altogether. For such
a thing to occur in one individual is remarkable, and helps to
show what might take place through a long series of generations
under varying conditions of existence.

I will divide the few observations I have to make into two
sections for convenience, viz., variation of form or structure, and
variation of colour and markings. As to the former, I will begin
with a very common mollusc, the observation on which I have
already briefly described before this Club; but before doing so I
should like to say a word or two as to the terms common or rare
as applied to any organism. It must be borne in mind that
these terms are very general, and must not be taken to mean
exactly what they seem to; for if any species became really rare,
it follows that it must rapidly become extinct. No doubt many
species occur in far greater profusion than others, but on the
other hand, many so-called rarities exist also in profusion, but
out of the reach of man. This applies chiefly to marine
organisms, Crustacea, Mollusca, &c.; and, as an illustration, I
will mention two instances of my own experience. The large
bivalve, Mactra glauca, has always been quoted as a great rarity
by authorities, even in the Channel Islands, where I found it.

12 Mr. E. Lovett on Abnormal Forms and

I, however, know of a sand-bank on the Jersey coast, which I
visited at low tide on one occasion, where I found this rarity in
such abundance that I have no hesitation in saying that I could
have filled a bushel basket with them in a very short time. The
other case was that of a crustacean, Stenorhynchus Egyptius,
which had not hitherto been described as British. A dredger
brought up, amongst other material, about a hundred of this
species, until then never seen in our seas.

Now to revert to the common mollusc already referred to. It
is Patella vulgata and its allied Patella athletica, the limpet, a
very common shell, or rather a shell which lives in such a
position as to be met with by man. I consider it possible, too,
that if a very large collection of Patellas was made, from every
possible locality, it would perhaps be difficult to say where
P. vulgata left off and P. athletica began. The observation I
made with regard to this species was this, that where the animal
was fixed to a rock in such a position as to receive the full force
of the sea, the form of the shell was conical or elevated, whereas
the shells of animals fixed upon flat shelf rocks, or upon the
sides of gullies, where the impact of the sea affected them
laterally, were much more flattened or compressed.

It is obvious that vertical force is best resisted by a tall or
conical form, and lateral force by a flat one; in other words,
unless these Patellas had adjusted their structure to their external
relations during their growth they would probably have ceased
to exist at all, but, having done so, they part company as regards
similarity in form; and it would not be a very unwarrantable
thing for a species-making naturalist to call one Patella depressa
and the other Patella elevata.

Another mollusc, very largely sought for and met with, and
therefore called common, is the whelk, Buccinwm undatum.
(I select common species, because we see more examples, and
therefore understand the pros and cons of their variations better.)
This species is very largely obtained from the North Sea, and it
develops a remarkably fine shell, and, in fact, seems to be in
complete correspondence with its surroundings on the Dogger
Bank.

Now, if we go south to the Channel Islands, where so many
fine and beautiful Mollusca occur, we find Buccinwn a weakly,
puny shell, as unlike a good North Sea whelk as two species ;
so that it is evident that the bright warm waters of the sunny
south are, for some reason or other, not in complete cor-
respondence with the internal relations of this species; hence
a marked variation which might, with very little imagina-
tion, become a named variety, and then, of course, another
species.

Another common molluse, the mussel, Mytillus edulis, is very

Variations in the Animal Kingdom. 13

constant in form when in enormous masses, as it usually is found
in. When, however, it occurs in very small numbers, or even in
ones and twos, as it does on some parts of our coast, the form is
always abnormal, being most curiously twisted, curved, and
depressed. Now this form, or variety of forms, for there are
really seldom two alike, has actually been named, so it is on its
way to becoming a species ; whereas there is, I think, little
doubt but that these isolated specimens are the remnants of large
mussel-beds that have disappeared in consequence of their sur-
rounding conditions having become unfavourable, and that the
few that have survived have done so because there has been a
gradual attempt through many generations to conform to the
new surroundings, whatever they may be, and the alteration in
structure and paucity of survivors seems to show that the
struggle to adjust the correspondence is a severe one, and that,
so far as those particular localities are concerned, the species
and the variations are doomed to extinction on the ground that
a form that exists only in ones and twos, and under adverse
conditions, cannot survive.

There is one other instance that I would wish to quote before
leaving the Mollusca, and it is the question of abnormal forms
of Buceinum and Fusus from estuarine localities, and the sinistral
forms of both these and other genera.

Lhave a remarkable series of Buccinum from the area of the
Thames and Medway estuaries. Many of these are sinistral,
whilst many of the others are exceedingly curious in form, some
being elongated, others approaching the shape of a Murex.
There is little doubt that an estuarine area is not conducive to
the normal growth of this genus, and the endeavours to adjust
itself to its external relations, or, in other words, conform to its
environment, results in the deviations from the normal type
which we see from such localities. I may mention that abnormal
forms or variations of any kind of this species from the North
Sea are extremely rare.

As regards sinistral forms, it is very difficult, if not impossible,
to atiribute this peculiarity to any cause, and I consider it as a
mere sport, and not a true variation in any sense of the word ;
and yet it is a sport of a most remarkable nature. In the
geological deposit known as the Suffolk Crag, for example, the
typical representation of F'usus antiquus is sinistral, whilst dextral
forms of this species are rare. In our recent seas the reverse is
so much the case that a sinistral form is of exceeding rarity, in
fact, almost unknown. It would really seem as if some physical
cause existed to account for this strange reversion of condition
or form in one species. ;

In crustaceans, variations of form are not so noticeable, for
the simple reason that we see s0 comparatively few of even the

14 Mr. E. Lovett on Abnormal Forms and

most abundant species, and they appear as a rule to be living in
complete correspondence with their environment; and the same
remark holds good with the Echinodermata. It would be beyond
the scope of this paper to enter into particulars as to the life-
history and surroundings of these groups, but could it be possible
to form very large and complete collections of their representatives
from all parts of the world, a thing that has never been even
approached, I venture to think that we should find it extremely
difficult to make a line of demarcation between species. One
British species, a Xantho, has been named X. tuberculata merely
from the observation of one or two specimens; whereas I con-
sider, from a careful examination of its allied species, X. florida
and X. rivulosa, that it is either an immature form, or a variation
of one or the other, and nothing more.

Another crustacean, Dromia vulgaris, though common in the
Mediterranean, is not often met with in our seas, and it would
appear that, in company with one or two echinoderms, it was
gradually reaching this area from the south. What, however, is
remarkable is that of the few that have been obtained in the
Channel there are many that are larger than any seen from the
Mediterranean, from which it would appear that the new sur-
roundings found by the species in its extended area were more
congenial to its welfare, and enabled it to develop into a finer
example than the warm waters of the Mediterranean, although it
would certainly seem as if exactly the reverse of this ought to be
the case,

We now come to the question of colour and markings of an
abnormal character, or varying from the type. Much has been
written upon this, especially in regard to the subject of pro-
tection. I do not intend to go over what is well known, but
merely record a few of my own observations, as in the former
case. The absence of colour in organisms living almost without
light, or practically speaking, in the dark, is a well-known and
general fact ; and the whiteness of some Mollusca, not living in
the dark, and not naturally white, may be due to albinism. It
is also well known that bright light is favourable to the develop-
ment of bright colours, as is well seen by comparing specimens
of organisms from tropical, temperate, and arctic areas.

In many Lepidoptera there is a boreal form. ‘Take, for
example, the ghost swift, Hepialus humuli ; even in these islands
we find the type to be a southern insect, whilst a dark variety
occurs in the north.

The bands on some of the bivalve Mollusca, which occur as a
variation, not being seen in the type, are as yet difficult to
account for, as they are not sufficiently general ; but some time
since, whilst at Cullercoats, near the mouth of the Tyne, I
observed the fishermen baiting their hooks with a mussel, of

Variations in the Animal Kingdom. : 15

which they had large numbers, and which, instead of having a
hard blue-black shell, possessed a thin yellowish brown shell, in
many cases beautifully banded. So far as I could ascertain,
these mussels were obtained from a very dirty and brackish
water locality ; whether that was the cause of their variation I
do not know, but the variety certainly occurred in sufficient
numbers to be honoured with a name, if not to form a species.
No doubt the external conditions had been changing, and in-
fluenced a pro rata adjustment of the internal condition, or
secretory organs, of the animal. I am inclined to think that
the geological character of a locality has some influence upon
the organisms living in that locality. Of course this is un-
doubtedly true of land organisms, for the simple reason that an
animal keeps to where its food-plant is. But in regard to
marine organisms, this is different, at least to a very great
extent. If, however, we take a very common crustacean, Car-
cinus menas, which occurs on all parts of our coast near tide-
mark, irrespective of whether the locality be clay, sand, lime-
stone, or granite, we find that there is a decided character of
colour and markings, according to the nature of the rocks of the
place from which the specimen is obtained ; the markings being
brilliant on those from granite areas, almost black and very
dull from clay or muddy shores, and tawny from yellow ones.
This, of course, is due to adaptation to surrounding conditions.

Burrowing crustaceans possess no bright colours, and their
dull tints almost invariably correspond to the colour of the
material into which they burrow, thus showing complete corre-
spondence, and therefore life in, so far as this class is concerned,
its safest aspect.

It seems probable that climate has a marked effect on colori-
zation, and perhaps markings too; certainly the proximity to
the sea has, for when visiting the Farne Islands I examined the
sand-dunes on the shore near Bamborough, where I found many
hundreds of the little banded snail, Heli nemoralis, of almost
every possible variety of colour and markings, many of them
very beautiful ; but the typical form of this species was positively
absent, there were none; nor do I know of any inland localities
where the varieties I found occur. In the Channel Islands
many of the land shells are different from the normal inland
type; indeed, there is a named variety of the garden snail,
Helix aspersa, which will perhaps some day rise to the dignity of
a species. As regards climate, I think there is little doubt that
even such causes as difference of rainfall would produce varia-
tions in the animal life of a given area. Of course, temperature
has a very great deal to do with the variation of species ; this
needs no illustration, as it is well seen in the varying fauna of
the great zoological divisions of the world, When therefore we

16 Variations in the Animal Kingdom.

come to consider the causes which produce variation, viz.,
geological, proximity or distance from the sea, temperature,
rainfall, and excess or absence of bright sunshine, it is not
difficult to imagine that species are the fixed points or resting
places of such variation ; as such species begin to adjust them-
selves to their new conditions as soon as these conditions begin
to change or become abnormal.

These few observations naturally lead up to a few words, in
closing, upon the basis upon which zoological collections should
be formed, so as to be of real use in helping us to understand
the subjects to which they refer better than we do at present.
Nearly all collections are made upon the basis of systematic
classification, from which it follows that one good collection of,
say British, Lepidoptera is very like another, andso on. All the
well-known ground is gone over, over and over again, and if a
collection happens to attain to the proud distinction of being
considered better than another, it is probably because it contains
a longer row of one or two recognised good things, or a few
abnormal forms, perhaps cripples, monstrosities, or herma-
phrodites.

Suppose, however, in the case of insects, a collection is
devoted to one genus—say, the Pieride, or white butterflies—
and that representatives of this genus be obtained from all parts
of the world where it occurs, and from all varying physical
localities, might it not be possible to obtain in time such a
collection as would render it difficult to say that there was such
a thing as species at all? Even if circumstances rendered it
necessary to confine such a collection to the British Islands, it
would be of great interest to see large series of common insects
from every possible sort of locality, or collected under various
conditions of the seasons.

Then there is the rearing of specimens under artificial or
abnormal conditions, by which means variations can be pro-
duced ; such specimens, with record of the circumstances by
which they were obtained, would also be of great interest and
scientific value.

As I have already stated, it is those species most abundantly
met with where we may expect to meet with variation, and it is
only in large series, widely collected and carefully arranged,
that we may be able to trace out such local variation, and
there is no difficulty whatever in collecting in this manner.
There seems to be no question that collections illustrating and
thoroughly working out one group, family, or genus must be in
every way more valuable, more instructive, and more interesting
than mere typical collections which show nothing but what has
been seen before,

( 17 )

104.—On tHe Microscorican SrructuRE oF HEARTHSTONE FROM
BerouwortH, SURREY.

By W. Murron Hotmes.
(Read September 14th, 1892.)

Iumepiatexy overlying the beds of gault clay at Betchworth is
a layer of rock some ten feet in thickness, belonging to the upper
greensand formation, known as hearthstone.

The underground workings for this hearthstone were visited
by several members of this Club on August Ist. They extend
for some little distance into the escarpment, from the summit of
which, on a clear day, there is a magnificent view across the
Weald. ;

The hearthstone, when first quarried, is of a dull greenish
colour, and soft earthy consistence, easily crumbling between the
finger and thumb. When dry, it is of a greyish or buff colour,
and somewhat harder. Treated with hydrochloric acid, a por-
tion is dissolved with effervescence, indicating the presence of
calcareous matter.

Examined with a lens, it shows numerous dark specks in a
light-coloured matrix, with here and there a glittering particle
of mica. In order to examine it more conveniently, a small
lump was carefully disintegrated under water, and, by means of
fine gauze and decantation, was divided into five portions, so
that the particles were of tolerably uniform size.

The first and second portions consist of the coarser particles,
and are of a buff colour. The third portion is much darker in
colour, and contains the great bulk of the dark particles pre-
viously mentioned. The fourth and fifth are much paler in
colour, and consist of the finest particles. Assuming the bulk of
the first portion, after being allowed to settle, to be represented
by 1, that of the second would be about 2%, that of the third 5,
that of the fourth 5, and that of the fifth and finest 2.

These figures are fairly approximate, but it would have been
more accurate to have dried and weighed the various portions.
The coarsest portion consists principally of particles of mica,
some colourless, some brown, and others of a greenish tint.
Foraminifera are also present in fair abundance, and some in a
good state of preservation. They belong to the genera Globi-
gerina, Textularia, Pulvinulina, and Rotalia. Casts of the same
in glauconite are also present. The remaining particles consist
of fragments of sponge spicules, in many cases showing clearly
the central canal, which is occasionally filled with glauconite.
The fragments are frequently covered with spherical or disk-like
particles of silica. With the exception of the mica, most of the

c

18 Mr. W. M. Holmes on the Microscopical

particles showed traces of organic origin. The second portion
has a similar constitution, but the particles are somewhat smaller.
The third portion consists principally of grains of glauconite, and,
as this mineral is very abundant throughout the greensand for-
mation, I propose to discuss its constitution rather fully.

The mineral receives its name from its green colour, and it
occurs in small grains or in masses formed by the union of
several grains. It occupies a prominent position both in space
and time, its occurrence extending from the Cambrian period to
the most recent post-tertiary layers. Concerning the manner of
its formation, there has been much controversy, without any very
definite solution being arrived at.

Messrs. Murray and Renard, in their Report on the Deep Sea
Deposits collected by the ‘Challenger,’ have paid great attention
to this subject, and I have received great assistance from this
volume. They state that the grains of glauconite are generally
homogeneous, and are almost always accompanied either by
quartz, orthoclase, white mica, plagioclase, hornblende, magne-
tite, garnet, epidote, tourmaline, zircon, or fragments of ancient
rocks such as gneiss, mica-schist, chloritic rocks, granite, dia-
base, &c., and in modern deposits by organic matter, often of a
vegetable nature.

Dr. Hinde called the attention of this Club, in 1886, to the
occurrence of sponge spicules containing this mineral in the fire-
stone rock of Godstone, and two years ago I read a short note on
glauconite casts from the same locality.

Firestone appears to differ from hearthstone by containing less
lime in its composition, and by its much greater hardness when
dry.

Glauconite, both recent and fossil, consists of a hydrous
silicate of potash and ferric oxide, with variable quantities of
alumina, ferrous oxide, magnesia, and often lime. It is formed
in the cavities of foraminifera, sponge spicules, and other
organisms, but as to the conditions which determine its forma-
tion little is known. The shells and other organisms in which
it is formed are sometimes broken by the growth of the glauco-
nite, and the isolated cast then becomes a nucleus upon which
fresh additions may be deposited. Although generally found
associated with foraminifera and other organisms, the mere
presence of these is not in itself sufficient to cause its formation,
as it is absent in many coral muds and sands, and in many
pteropod and globigerina oozes. It is never formed in a free
state in the mud. Glauconite is one of the restricted number of
silicates formed at the present day on the sea-bed, not universally
distributed, but limited to deposits now forming in relatively
shallow depths in more or less close proximity to continental
land, and especially along those high and bold coasts that are

Structure of Hearthstone from Betchworth, Surrey. 19

removed to some distance from mouths of rivers bearing abundant
fine silt into the ocean.

In the hearthstone, glauconite occurs in the form of short
cylindrical rods, sometimes branched at one end, which have
evidently been formed in the cavities of sponge spicules; and
also in more or less rounded grains, in some cases exhibiting
plainly the contour of foraminifera, in the cavities of which they
had been formed.

The fourth portion consists of the smaller forms of foramini-
fera, such as globigerina and textularia, and of numerous disc-
like bodies or spherules, which are undissolved by acid, and are
stated by Dr. Hinde to be derived from the solution of the silica
of sponge spicules and of other silica in a hydrous state, and its
subsequent deposition in this form. Many of these spherules
exhibit a radiating structure, which is evidently due to a form
of crystallization.

The fifth and finest portion consists principally of coccoliths
interspersed with rhabdoliths. These bodies are extremely
minute, and play a most important part in all deep-sea deposits,
with the exception of polar and subpolar regions. Coccoliths
are oval calcareous disks, having a thick strongly refracting rim
and centre, and are the disintegrated remains of a spherical
body known as a coccosphere. Rhabdoliths consist of minute
calcareous rods, having a disk at one end, and are the disinte-
grated remains of a body called a rhabdosphere.

There has been considerable doubt as to the nature of cocco-
spheres and rhabdospheres, but they are now regarded as pelagic
alge. Rbabdospheres are developed in equatorial and tropical
regions, and are rarely met with where the temperature of the sur-
face-water falls below 65°. Coccospheres, while abundant in the
tropics, are found further north and south than rhabdospheres,
and are present where the temperature is as low as 45°. They
attain their greatest development in temperate regions, but are
absent in water affected by rivers.

There is something very remarkable in the fact that such
minute and fragile bodies as coccoliths and rhabdoliths should
be able to withstand the action of time, when siliceous bodies
such as radiolaria, diatomacer, and sponge spicules, which must
have existed in the same waters, have either entirely disappeared,
or become so much altered as to be recognised with difficulty.

We are now in a position to make a scientific use of the imagi-
nation to picture what the conditions must have been which
existed at the time this deposit of hearthstone was forming.
This layer of about ten feet must have been many years in the
course of formation. Generation after generation of sponges
lived at the bottom of that sea, which rolled in all probability
where we now are. In that sea foraminifera in countless

02

20 Mr. C. H. Goodman on the Crane Fly.

myriads lived and moved, and had their being, falling some 100
to 450 fathoms to the bottom when their little life was ended,
and the surface must have been bathed in such sunlight as we
here in England have now no practical experience of.

105.—OBsERVATIONS ON THE KMERGENCE OF THE CRANE Fy,
TIPULA OLERACEA.

By Cuas. H. Goopman.
(Read September 14th, 1892.)

On the 26th May, and at subsequent dates till 13th August, I
took some crane-fly larvee (Tipula oleracea) under the turf of my
garden, and put them into a breeding-cage for observation. On
the evening of 26th August two imagines emerged from the pupz
about 8 p.m. after dark, one of which I was able to watch. The
pupa worked its way up till it projected about half an inch above
the surface ; a small split at the head and back then took place,
and the fly began to emerge. This was effected by gentle lateral
movements, with intervals of rest, and occupied altogether fifteen
minutes. The legs and wings were, of course, folded close to
the body, which appeared unduly attenuated as it mounted
higher and higher, the grey-coloured abdomen being marked
with at least five wide black transverse bands. Before the body
was fully extricated, and while the long legs were still held by
the pupa-case, the wings were slightly loosened, but not suffi-
ciently to be of any service. As the pupa was standing in bare
soil, and not surrounded by grass, it became a matter of interest
what would prevent it falling over; in time, however, it was
projecting sufficiently far to enable the fore legs to be withdrawn,
and then the second pair. They soon appeared to become firm,
and were stretched out till they came in contact with the sides
of the box, some three-quarters of an inch distant. By the
support thus gained, the hind legs and the rest of the abdomen
were quickly withdrawn, and the fly scrambled up the side to
rest, the long heavy body hanging down. The wings gradually
extended, still being kept folded over the back; but by the
expiration of half an hour the abdomen had considerably con-
tracted, the broad black bands being reduced to narrow lines, till
merely its tip was visible beyond the wings, and a short time
after the Tipula was ready to fly.

It may be desirable to add that the eggs, which are very
numerous, are small, black, and shining, and are laid in the

SS a

Mr. E. Lovett on some Fire-making Apparatus. 91

autumn either on the ground or among the herbage close to the
ground.

The larva changes to a pupa between July and September, and
eventually works its way to the surface by means of the small
teeth with which it is furnished.

106.—On some REMARKABLE Firn-maxinc APPARATUS FROM
Raspootana, Inp1a.

By Epwarp Lovert.

(Read September 14th, 1892.)

I nave recently obtained a somewhat unusually large series of
fire-making appliances from the province of Rajpootana, North-
west India. ‘These are chiefly remarkable on account of the fact
that they represent, in a very marked manner, the two chief
primitive methods of fire-making, namely, by percussion and
friction. When, however, we consider the gulf that divides not
only the different races, but even the castes of India, it is not
surprising to find widely divergent ethnological characteristics
in a comparatively small area. In describing the specimens to
which I have referred, I will in the first place take those that
belong to the percussion method of fire-making. These are, as
might be expected, made and used by a low caste of Hindoos
inhabiting the villages north of the town of Neemuch, and, in
fact, the whole of this portion of N.W. India. They consist of
a series of bags and pouches, containing in the latter case a flint
and steel, and inthe former a flint and steel, a hand-pipe, and a
quantity of dried leaf rubbish, which is used in the pipes as a
substitute for tobacco. It is worthy of observation that the
steels are of very poor metal indeed, not very suitable for
obtaining the necessary spark; whilst the flint is represented
chiefly by another form of silica known as chalcedony, occa-
sionally varied by quartz, and even by a cherty kind of horn-
stone, such substitutes for true flint bemg common in India,
where, so far as I am aware, flint from cretaceous beds is not
known. The tinder and fuses of these curious fire-bags is of a
very primitive description, and the specimens indicate how little
the contact with Europeans has so far modified their aboriginal
customs ; for we may be certain that these specimens are practi-
cally similar to those that have been in use in this part of India
for an exceedingly long period.

We have now to consider the next series, which produce fire

22 Mr. C. H. Goodman’s Abstract of Puper

by the friction method. I need hardly state that these were
obtained from a Bheel tribe, an aboriginal people of India; so
that in all probability this method is with them many thousands
of years old. The chief point of interest in connection with this
fire-stick is that it is exactly the same kind, and is also worked
in the same manner as that employed by many African tribes,
by some of the Aborigines of Australia, by some of the Mon-
golian Eskimo peoples, and by the Zuni and other races of
North American Indians.

The apparatus, which is very simple, consists of a twirl stick
of very hard wood, which is worked by the hands of two operators,
in a softer piece of wood, which is known as the ‘“‘hearth’’; the
heat thus generated ignites the fine particles of the softer wood
rubbed off by the twirl stick, and these fall down a notch cut
for that purpose on to the tinder which is placed to catch the
spark. The hard twirl stick is of a tree Tectona grandis, and
the “ hearth” is of the wood Zizyphus jujuba ; and I am indebted
to Mr. Mennell for the following notes on these two interesting
woods :—

“The teak is Tectuna grandis, ‘Tecca’ the native name in
Malabar. It belongs to the natural order Verbenacee. Zizyphus
jujuba is the jujube tree, bearing an edible fruit much used in
Syria, Turkey, &c., of which it is a native, and introduced into
Italy, Spain, &c. It belongs to the order Rhamnee, the same
as our buckthorn (Ihamnus); it is a small tree, 20 ft. high.
Another species, Z. sinensis, is a native of China. Another,
Z.-lotus, bears the lotus fruit of the ‘ lotus eaters,’ or Lotophagi.
But my authorities say nothing about fire-making.”

107.—Azstract or Parser on THE Mourus or Insects.
By C. H. Goopman.
(Read October 12th, 1892.)

Norwitustanpine the great diversity of form that occurs in the
mouths of insects, it can be shown that they are all built up on
one type, the divergence being occasioned by the suppression or
great development of some one or more parts, so as to adapt the
trophi to the needs and habits of each particular group. Where
no food is required, there is little or no development.

The division into mandibulate and haustellate is a natural
one, and by a study of the Coleoptera, in which a fairly typical
mouth may be found, the way is paved for an understanding of

eee Sek om

Te

on the Mouths of Insects. 28

other orders in which the excessive development of some organs
is more marked.

A typical mouth consists of a pair of mandibles working
laterally, covered by a roof-piece called the labrum. Below the
mandibles are another pair of jaws, the maxille, with the lower
lip, the labium. Both the latter have appendages called palpi.

Cotzorrera.—Beginning with the mandibles, we find three
forms: carnivorous (tiger beetle), vegetable (cockchafer), insecti-
vorous (dragonfly). In each case they are unjointed, move
backwards and forwards only by a ginglymus joint, and have no
appendages, except a small feathered cartilaginous process found
in the Staphylinide, and known as the prostheca, and a yellow
sac, which occurs in Blaps, the use of which is not apparent.

The maxille are more elaborate, and are composed of a num-
ber of joints, and exhibit great variety in form. Attached are
the maxillary palpi, which in some of the carnivorous groups
are in duplicate, and it is here especially that many of the sense
organs exist.

The labium closes the mouth below, and shows great develop-

“ment in some of the Orthoptera. It bears the labial palpi, which ~

usually have fewer joints than the maxillary palpi. ‘The various
parts of this organ may be studied better in other orders.

Hymenorrera. — Form an intermediate step between the
mandibulate and haustellate, partaking of the character of both;
for, in addition to mandibles, we find a great development of the
ligula or tongue. In the bees great variation of the latter is met
with, forming two groups, the short and long tongued; and in
the photographs now shown the details can be understood, and I
would refer any one desiring a full knowledge of this interesting
point to Cheshire’s admirable book on bees.

Hemiprera.—This order is distinctly one of the haustellate
group. The head is prolonged into a beak or rostrum composed
of an elongated labrum and labium united. The mandibles are
very fine and lancet-like, while the maxille, equally fine and
closely united, appear as one organ. The rostrum is frequently
very long and folded beneath the body.

Dierera.—Here we find the labrum and labium united to form
a tube, and, as very great variety exists, we will select two
types :-—

1. Gnat. Trophi in female adapted for piercing and con-
sisting of mandibles and maxille reduced to fine bristle-like
organs, and which, together with the labrum, enter the wound.
The labium is the largest piece, and forms a trough, in which
the others lie, and which merely doubles up, but does not enter
the wound when the puncture is made. In many parts of the

24 Abstract of Paper on the Mouths of Insects.

world these insects render the locality uninhabitable to domestic
animals.

2. Blowfly. Mandibles and maxille suppressed, the labium
being the most highly developed part. The tube in this case is
much larger, and terminated by a pair of hollow sacs or labelle,
which are spread out when feeding, but at rest have their faces
united. The capillary canals are deeply sunk in their surfaces
till the labelle are fully expanded, when their indented rigid
edges are slightly protruded above the surface, and form the
object usually labelled “teeth of a fly.”

LeripoptrrA.—This order affords a good example of the great
development of some organs and the repression of others. The
most conspicuous is the familiar coiled antlia, with its large pro-
tecting palpi. Most writers regard the antlia as a development
of the maxille, but Lowne points out that they are identical
with the paraglossz or tongue-sheaths of the bee. Each half of
the antlia is pierced with two tracheal tubes, the inner margin
being armed with a double row of teeth, so that when they are
thus interlocked a third tube is formed, up which the nectar is
pumped. The papille, which arm the tip of the antlia, are
doubtless organs of sense. In one of the illustrations of the
antlia at rest you will notice the undulating appearance of the
trachea, and also the spines outside said to be used in tearing
open the nectaries of flowers.

Puricio£.—The most conspicuous organs in the fleas are the
maxillary palpi, which exceed any of the others in size. The
mandibles are finely serrated or toothed set, the maxille tri-
angular and sheath-like, the labrum a finely perforated toothed
process ; while the labial palpi are partly razor-like and partly
jointed in the more normal forms.

Prpicutip#.—Owing to the extreme difficulty of detecting the
real character of this group, they were long thought to be man-
dibulate in their action, but it has recently been found that the
mouth-organs consist of a very easily retractile tubular labium,
which is thrust out in the process of sucking. It is armed near
the base with a series of hooks, and carries at the tip the repre-
sentative of the mandibles.

ee re

( 25)

108.—Norrs on Norway.
By Henry T, Mennett, F.L.S.
(Read December 14th, 1892.)

Tue general features of Norway may be said to be a deeply
indented coast with innumerable islets, not unlike the west
coast of Scotland, but on a grander scale. The lofty cliffs rise in
most places sheer from the water level to heights of 1 to 2000 ft. ;
above these cliffs stretch gradually rising plateaux, attaining an
elevation of 4 to 5000 ft., or very rarely of 6000 ft.; vast snow-
fields cover the higher parts of these plateaux, the snow-line
coming down to about 5000 ft., as compared with 9 to 10,000 ft.
in Switzerland.

From these snow-fields, which are comparatively level, un-
broken, and monotonous, descend small glaciers, in some cases
to the sea-level; but as a rule the snow-fields rarely pass out of
the condition of névé into true glacier ice. The Folgefond in
Hardanger, and the Jostedalbre north of the Sogne fiord, are
among the largest of these snow-fields, and exceed in area any-
thing of the kind in Switzerland.

It will be readily understood from these outlines that the
grandest scenery is commanded from the sea-level. The fjords
or narrow arms of the sea run in some instances as much as 100
miles into the land, and thus enable steamers of deep draught
to penetrate into the very heart of the country.

Next to the grandeur of the cliffs, the waterfalls are the finest
feature of the country. This is due to the physical character of
the land; the large plateaux and the extensive snow-fields give
rise to numerous rivers, which attain their full magnitude before
they precipitate themselves over the rocky rampart into the
fjords. Of these falls, one of the grandest for height and volume
combined is the Voringfos in Hardanger. In the Nerodal are
falls attaining a height of 2000 ft., but their volume is small, and
they are lost in spray ere they reach the bottom.

Geologically, the rocks consist of underlying gneiss, with
granites and other primary rocks; the granites are large-grained,
loosely compacted, and readily disintegrated. The peculiarity
of the geology is that these primary rocks are not overlaid by
sedimentary or more recent rocks.

Many theories have been advanced as to the forces which have
produced the deep fissures which are now fjords. These fissures
are of enormous depth; for example, in addition to the height
of the cliffs above sea-level, the Sogne fiord attains a depth of
4100 ft., giving a total of 5 to 6000 ft. These fjords, however,
are often much less deep at their mouths than further inland.

26 Mr. H. T. Mennell’s Notes on Norway.

Ice, as a scooper out of valleys, acts in this way, scooping out a
furrow not of uniform depth, and acting less powerfully and
scooping less deeply as it proceeds on its course. The sharp
definition of these fissures at the present day may probably be
due to the fact that they have been filled up with ice from the
time of their formation up to very recent times.

The climate at the present day is powerfully affected by the
Gulf Stream. In latitudes uninhabitable in Eastern Siberia,
the climate in Norway is mild, and the sea does not freeze. The
isothermal lines run from N.W. to S.E., so that the Loffoten
Islands in the North have the same January temperature as
Copenhagen, and the mean temperature of the North Cape is
the same (35°) as at Ostersund in Jemtland, 552 miles further
south.

The rainfall on the coast is enormous, being 72 in. at Bergen,
but it steadily and rapidly diminishes as we go eastward; so
that at the head of the Sogne fiord it is only 23 in., or about the
same as we have here.

The cultivated land in Norway is of very limited extent, being
only 1074 square miles. Owing to the long Arctic days, barley
ripens in the same number of days from the time of sowing
(90 days), as in the South of France.

The botanical features of the country have close affinity to.

those of Scotland, or we should say, more correctly, the flora of
Scotland is distinctly Scandinavian. It is for this reason that
the Norwegian flora is of much interest to the English botanist ;
but the flora, which only survives on the higher mountains of
Scotland, and the species which are of the greatest rarity there,
in Norway prevail down to the sea-level, and in great profusion.
Ericaceous plants, or plants of the heath tribe, are perhaps the
most striking features of this flora; Menziesia (2 species),
Andromeda, Vaccinium (5 species), including the beautiful cran-
berry, and our ordinary heaths, abound and are of great beauty.
In this respect there is much resemblance to the swamp flora of
the central regions of Canada, and the geological record is also
much the same—primary (Laurentian) rocks, uncovered by
stratified rocks. Sazifraya oppositifolia, S. aizoides, Silene acaulis,
Lychnis viscaria, Aster alpinus—and, among ferns, Aspleniwn
septentrionale and Woodsia—all British rarities, abound, and are
of great beauty. Ranunculus glacialis and aconitifolius, Aconitum
alpinum (monkshood), Saxifraga cotyledon (with its fine feathery
spikes of delicate white flowers), Silene rupestris, are among the
more striking alpines which are not British.

In the woods, at not very high elevations, the lovely creeping
Linnea borealis, Cornus suecica, Trientalis europea, and Pyrola
grandiflora are in the utmost profusion, and must attract the
admiration of all, whether botanists or not, by their beauty,

AAs. .

Mr. H. T. Mennell’s Notes on Norway. 27

The forests disappointed us. In Western-Central Norway, of
which alone we can speak, the pines and other trees are com-
paratively small.

The traces of ice action in all parts of the country are very
remarkable. Moraines, both terminal and lateral, are distinctly
traceable in most of the valleys; scratched rocks and perched
blocks are everywhere noticeable.

We saw much fewer birds than we anticipated. The fieldfare
was everywhere abundant and noisy; we found its nest near
Bide. Mergansers were plentiful on the fjords, but there were
comparatively few water-fowl upon them. Ravens were seen
and heard occasionally, but no large birds of prey. These must
be looked for further north, as in the Romsdal.

The waters abound with fish, and any one who cannot eat it
freely will fare badly in Norway. Salmon three times a day is
the rule, varied with excellent whiting from the fjords. Bergen
has probably the largest fish market in the world, and it is a
sight of great interest. Large quantities of fish are brought to
market alive in coffin-shaped boxes towed behind the boats ;
from these the fish are transferred to long ranges of tanks on the
quays surrounding the harbour, and are sold alive to the people.

( 28 )

109.—REPORT OF THE METEOROLOGICAL SUB-
COMMITTEE FOR 1892.

PrepaRED By THE Hon. Sec. Francis CAMPBELL Bayarp,
F. R. Met. Soe.

THe arrangements for observing the daily rainfall round
Croydon have been successfully carried out on the same plan as
heretofore. As this is the Fifth Annual Report of the Sub-
Committee, it seems desirable briefly to look back to previous
years, and see whether we are making progress. The first
Report contained 84 records sent in by 81 observers, whilst the
present one contains 54 records contributed by a staff numbering
46 observers. So much for its popularity. With respect to its
usefulness, the Hon. Sec. has been applied to by various public
bodies, as well as private individuals, for information and
returns, which would appear to show that this publication of the
Club is supplying a want.

During the course of the year three stations have disappeared,
namely, Lovelands (Reigate Hill), through the removal of the
observer, Mr. Binns; The Wrythe (Carshalton), through the
death of the observer, Mr. Manley ; and Shooter’s Hill (Wool-
wich), owing to the gauge being stolen, and the refusal of Major
May, the observer, to replace it. Mr. Snell, of The Chestnuts,
Chislehurst, having moved into Bromley, where he has established
a station, discontinued his station at Chislehurst at the end of
the year, having obligingly kept it on for some months in order
to avoid a break.

Appendix I. to this Report contains a list of the observers,
with particulars relating to the stations and gauges. The two
stations with the asterisk prefixed were admitted after the com-
mencement of the year, and the two with the double asterisks
are stations which sent in reports in the previous year.

Appendix II. contains the tables of daily rainfall issued
monthly, and subsequently stereotyped.

Appendix ILI. gives the monthly rainfall of four other stations.

Appendix IV. gives a record of all falls of rain of 1 in. and
upwards in the 24 hours, extracted from Appendix II. and other
sources.

And, finally, Appendix V. contains general notes on the cha-
racteristic features of every month.

The Sub-Committee report with great pleasure the accession
of stations at Westerham, Coulsdon, and Eltham, the first of
which is especially welcome, as filling a great gap in a part of
the Club’s district which is entirely unrepresented in our daily
returns. For this station, as well as for Eltham, the Sub-

a

Report of the Meteorological Sub-Committee for 1892. 29

Committee is indebted to Mr. Morris, the engineer of the Kent
Waterworks Company.

With respect to the rainfall of the year, the smallness of the
fall during the first seven months is especially noticeable. At
Greenwich the fall was only 10-04 in., whilst the mean for the
first seven months of the 50 years’ (1841-90) average is 15°10 in. ;
at Surbiton the seven months’ fall was only 8°78 in., whereas
the 85 years’ (1856-90) average is 13:28 in.; at Brixton the
seven months’ fall was only 9:73 in., whereas the 20 years’
(1871-90) average is 18:65 in.; at Addiscombe (Outram Road)
the seven months’ fall was only 11:52 in., whereas the 15 years’
(1876-90) average is 14:07 in.; and at Waddon the seven
months’ fall was only 10-55 in., whereas the 10 years’ (1881-90)
average is 12:92 in. These examples show the very serious
deficiency which occurred during the first seven months, the
deficiency being greater in the case of those places which have
the longest average. This curious fact gives rise to a question
which the Sub-Committee can only propound without, owing to
the want of sufficient material, making any attempt to solve,
viz., the question whether the rainfall of the first seven months
does not show signs of diminishing in amount? This question
is well worth very serious consideration, but at present your Sub-
Committee can offer no definite reply. The Sub-Committee
think that practically at the end of the first seven months there
was a deficiency in the rainfall of between 3 in. and 4 in., certainly
a very large amount.

The last five months of the year offer a striking contrast to the
first seven months, for the rainfall was in every case above the
average. At Greenwich the total of the last five months was
12°31 in., the 50 years’ average for the same months being
11:44 in.; at Surbiton the fall for the last five months was
12°39 in., the 85 years’ average being 11°31 in.; at Brixton it
was 13:27 in., whilst the 20 years’ average was 11°46 in. ; at
Addiscombe (Outram Road) it was 13:30 in., whilst the 15 years’

average was 12°34 in.; and at Waddon it was 12°50 in., whilst

the 10 years’ average was 10°73 in. It would thus appear that
over the district the excess of the last five months would be about
1 in.

With respect to the deficiency in the annual fall as compared
with the average, it would be between 2 in. and 3 in. in the
Club’s district. This great deficiency will not, however, produce
any very serious effects on our water supply, for, as shown above,
the deficiency occurred in the early part of the year, when
evaporation is very active, and very little of the rain that falls
can replenish our underground stores of water, whilst the heavy
rains of the latter part of the year have been of essential use in
adding to our stores ; so that there is no likelihood of a deficiency
during the present year.

30 Report of the Meteorological Sub-Committee for 1892.

The Sub-Committee would draw attention to the rather large
number of days on which 1 in. and upwards fell in the 24 hours,
and to the great area of these falls. At only three places are
the falls at all noticeable as being over 2 in., viz., in the fall on
the 28th June, when there fell at Caterham Valley 2°50 in., at
Caterham 2°45 in., and at Marden Park 2-12 in. in the 24 hours.

In conclusion, the Sub-Committee express the hope that in
the course of the present year they may be able to replace the
loss of the Reigate Hill station, and they also have hopes of
getting a station at Cobham; but at present they see no hopes
of one at Erith. The Sub-Committee desire to express their
thanks to those gentlemen who so kindly subscribed the amount
necessary to enalle this great work to be carried on, and also
to all the observers for their co-operation in forwarding their
returns.

APPENDIX I.

Height of | Height of

a fea Gecenense: ange.| cabors.-| “above
Ground. | Sea-level.
SurREY— IN. FT. IN-| FT.
Dorking (Denbies)........... Wall BASE is eben alosiaie « 5 0 6 610
Caterham (Metropolitan Asylum).| G. 8. Elliott, M.D. ....| 5 10 610
Caterham Valley (The College) .. | Sfise SW. Bi ia71}| 8 | 400 |. 800
Kent—
**Knockholt (The Beeches)........ W. Morris, C.E. ......) 5 1 0 785
Surrey—
5 | Marden Park (Birchwood House) .| C. & F. Rutley........ 5 1 0 471
Kenley (Ingleside) ...........- Harold Smith ........ 8 10 375
*Coulsdon (The Grange) ........ Wiad MUNGO! es ac. = 6 > 5 1 4 525
Purley (Reedham Asylum) ...... J: Ay Carter J. 22.205 5 1 0 375
Purley (Tudor Cottages) ........ J. Bonwick .......... 5 £30 216
10 | Ashtead (D’Abernon Chase) Sir W. Vincent, Bart. 5 1 0 280
MOZSHOUG oa ecw cclea sae ceacieies W. H. Dines.......... 5 1 0 212
Banstead (The Larches) ........ Rey. C. J. Taylor..... 8 1 0 488
Sutton (Mulgrave Road) ........ W. Goode ..........0- 5 5 6 230
Carshalton (The Wrythe) ...... The late J. W. Manley... 5 410 107
15 | Wallington (Manor Road) ...... F. Campbell Bayard ..| 5 41 157
Beddington (Riverside) ........ 8. Rostron ..... ery a, 1 0 120
Waddon (Waddon House) . sf) Pa CEOWIGY a cts: ote crdwiecee |B 1 0 156
Croydon (Brimstone Barn) .. .| Croydon Corporation ..) 5 1 0 130
*Croydon (Waddon New Road) . .| Croydon Corperation ..| 5 1 0 146
20 |**Croydon (Oakfield Road)........ A. Malden...... Spighoc 5 1 6 178
: Croydon (Whitgift School) ...... A. E. Watson ........ 5 1 0 191
| Addiscombe (Havelock Road)....| Baldwin Latham, C.E..| 8 10 205
Addiscombe (Outram Road) ....] E. Mawley .......... 8 0 9 202
| Addington Hills (The Reservoir) .; Croydon Corporation ..| 8 Orns 473
_ 25] Addington (Park Farm) ........ W. Whalley .......... 5 1 0 268
! ae (Pumping Station) ..| Croydon Corporation ..| 8 10 331
7 NT—
West Wickham (Layham’s Farm)| W. Ashcroft .......... 5 1 0 500
Hayes Common (The Warren) ..| Miss Akers ..........| 5 1 0 296
Keston (Bradfield) ............| A. Hill .............. 5 1 0 350
Keston (Heathfield) ............ Miss M, Holland ...... 5 0 6 420
Keston (Tower Fields).......... G. Buchanan, C.E..... 8 0 9 351
Orpington (Kent Waterworks) ..| W. Morris, Soe ool» BF 1 0 220
Farningham Hill .............. A.J. Waring ........ 5 3 0 300
Wilmington (Kent Waterworks). . W. Morris, C.E. .... 5 10 25
Chislehurst (The Chestnuts) ....| J.B. Smell ........ 5 10 325
Bickley (Highfield) ............| J. Battem .........00. 5 1 2 295
Beckenham (Foxgrove) . .| P. Bicknell ........-.| 5 0 6 142
Surrey—
South Norwood (Selhurst Road) .| B. N. Dalton, M.D.....| 5 1 0 210
Wimbledon (Sewerage Works) ..| C. H. Cooper, C.E.....) 5 1 0 58
Wimbledon (Mount Ararat) ....| T. Devas ........++.. 12 3 0 157 .
Raynes Park (Pumping Station)..| C. H. Cooper, C. E. 5 1 0 47
New Malden (Sewerage Works) ..| T. V. H. Davison, CE..| 5 10 45
Esher (Sewerage Works)........| Baldwin Latham, C.E..| 5 1 0 40
Surbiton (Seething Wells) ......| R. Hack, C.E.........| 10 0 6 25
Kingston (Sewerage tee A osee| T. Stevens.....secsene 5 10 25
Richmond (Ormond Lodge) «| J. LT. Billeté ...cseee0s| 5 0 9 51,
Brixton (Acre Lane) ........ F. Gaster ......-.0005| 8 10 77.
Wandsworth Common (Patten Rd. ) I. J. Brodio cc. cccee| — 5 10 100
ect Norwood (Thornlaw Road)..| W. Marriott ..........| 8 1 0 220
NI—
Forest Hill (Dartmouth Road) ..| Mrs. Behrens ......../ 5 1 0 220
Forest Hill (The Nurseries) ....| James Carter & Co.....| 6 0 6 76
Deptford (Kent Waterworks) ....| W. Morris, C.E. ......| 5 1 0 20
Greenwich (Royal Observatory). The Astronomer Royal.| 8 0 5 155
Woolwich (Shooter’s Hill) ......| Major E. 8. May, B.A... 5 1 0 352

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“"S68I ‘toquieoeqg "Un Lh-[ 8 daquaoay «of yormusatxy 4n Unau (Q6-[T9T) suvah OG oYT,

56 Report of the Meteorological Sub-Committee for 1892.

APPENDIX III.
MONTHLY RECORDS.

Srarron. | Jan. | Feb. |Mar.|Apr.|May|Jun.|July| Aug. |Sep.| Oct. |Nov.| Dec.|| Year.

IN. IN. IN.

IN. IN. | IN. | IN. IN. IN. IN. FU 8 Fi |e

Knockholt..| 0°74 | 1:35 |1:272/1:18 |1:35 |4°63 |2°07| 3:65 |3°39| 4:60 [3°42 |2-47 30-12

Coulsdon ..| 0°42 | 1:21 [1-13 /1-11 |1-20 [3-48 /1-85| 3:59 [2-41] 4:17 2°81 /1-55|| 24-93

Croydon )
(Waddon

New Rd.) j
Croydon

(Oak | 0-41 | 1:45 |1:11 |1-28}1°18 [2°94 |2°16| 3:25 |1:96| 3°82 |2-23/1-24

APPENDIX IV.
Fats oF 1:0 1N. AND UPWARDS.

May 25rn.

Forest Hill (Dartmouth Road), 1:13 in.; Addington Hills,
1:08 in.; Deptford, 1:05 in.; Kenley, 1:03 in.; Raynes Park,
1:02 in.; Greenwich, 1:01 in. ; Banstead, Wimbledon (Sewerage
Works), and Wimbledon (Mount Ararat), 1:00 in.

JuNE 287TH.

Caterham Valley, 2°50 in.; Caterham, 2°45 in.; Marden
Park, 2°12 in.; West Wickham and Farningham Hill, 1°95 in. ;
Wilmington, 1:93 in.; Addington (Pumping Station), 1°81 in. ;
Hayes Common, 1°76 in.; Keston (Bradfield), 1:71 in.; Keston
(Heathfield), 1:57 in.; Bickley, 1°54 in.; Bromley, 1°52 in.;
Keston (Tower Fields) and Chislehurst, 1:45 in.; Orpington,
1:43 in.; Addington (Park Farm) and Wimbledon (Mount
Ararat), 1:35 in. ; Coulsdon, 1:26 in.; Esher, 1:23 in.; Kingston,
1:19 in. ; Raynes Park, 1:11 in.; Richmond, 1:08 in. ; Wimbledon
(Sewerage Works), 1-02 in.

JuLy 137TH.

Wilmington, 1:28 in.

Aucust 27TH.

Kingston, 1°85 in.; Surbiton, 1°75 in.; Wimbledon (Mount
Ararat), 1°72 in.; Richmond, 1-70 in.; Kenley, 1-66 in.;
Dorking and Raynes Park, 1:60-in. ; Wandsworth Common and
Coulsdon, 1:58 in.; Wimbledon (Sewarage Works), 1°54 in. ;

0°45 | 1:59 |1°48/1°32|1°19 |2-84 |2°18 | 3:09 |2:06| 3:93 |2°32 |1-28]| 23-73

Report of the Meteorological Sub-Committee for 1892. 57

Marden Park, 1:52 in. ; Purley (Tudor Cottages), 1:51 in.; New
Malden, 1°50 in.; Oxshott, 1:46 in.; Westerham, 1:40 in.;
Ashtead, 1:38 in.; West Norwood, 1:32 in.; Chislehurst, 1:30
in.; Esher and Greenwich, 1:26 in.; Carshalton, 1:22 in.;
Croydon (Waddon New Road), 1:19 in.; Purley (Reedham
Asylum), 1:13 in.; Banstead, 1:12 in.; South Norwood, 1:06
in.; Croydon (Whitgift School) and Forest Hill (Dartmouth
Road), 1:04 in.; Addington (Pumping Station), 1:03 in.;
Bickley, 1:02 in.
SEPTEMBER 297TH.
Kingston, 1:02 in.; Wimbledon (Mount Ararat) and Surbiton,
1:00 in.
OctosER 287TH.
Marden Park, 1:22 in. ©
Ocrosrer 380TH.

Banstead, 1:56 in.; Forest Hill (Dartmouth Road), 1°48 in. ;
Sutton, 1:44 in.; Wimbledon (Mount Ararat), 1:41 in.; Forest
Hill (The Nurseries), 1°39 in.; Bickley, 1:38 in.; Carshalton,
Wallington, and Addiscombe (Havelock Road), 1:37 in. ; Croydon
(Whitgift School) and Addington Hills, 1:36 in; Addiscombe
(Outram Road) and Eltham, 1:35 in.; Beddington, South Nor-
wood, and Bromley, 1:34 in. ; West Norwood, 1°33 in.; Keston
(Bradfield) and Croydon (Waddon New Road), 1°31 in.; Waddon,
West Wickham, Wilmington, and Deptford, 1:30 in. ; Greenwich,
1:29 in.; Keston (Heathfield) and Farningham Hill, 1-28 in. ;
Purley (Tudor Cottages), Keston (Tower Fields), and Brixton,
1:27 in.; Raynes Park, 1:25 in.; Kingston, 1:23 in.; Croydon
(Brimstone Barn), Addington (Pumping Station), and Chisle-
hurst, 1:22 in.; Orpington, Wimbledon (Sewerage Works), and
Croydon (Oakfield Road), 1:21 in.; Hayes Common, 1:20 in.;
Beckenham, 1°19 in.; Addington (Park Farm) and Wandsworth
Common, 1:15 in.; Purley (Reedham Asylum), 1:14 in.;
Ashtead and Richmond, 1:13 in.; Marden Park and Kenley,
1:11 in.; Oxshott and Surbiton, 1:10 in.; Dorking and Cater-
ham, 1:07 in.; New Malden, 1:05 in.; Coulsdon, 1:08 in.

APPENDIX V.

JANUARY.

The month has been a cold and dreary one, but is especially
remarkable for its almost total absence of snow, and its exceed-
ingly small rainfall, certainly the smallest for more than thirty
years. The month would probably be considered an unhealthy

F

58 Report of the Meteorological Sub-Committee for 1892.

one, owing to the great amount of sickness about. At Wallington
the mean temperature was 36°5°, at Beddington 35°6°, and at
Waddon 35:8°, which is about 1° below the mean. Sunlight
was deficient, being only 17 per cent. of possible duration at
Wallington.

Frpruary.

The month has been a changeable one, being very warm at the
beginning and end, but very cold from 14th to the 19th, on which
latter day the minimum in the shade at both Waddon and Bed-
dington stood respectively at 11:0° and 11°3°, and on the snow
at the latter at 2°19. The mean temperature at Wallington was
89-0°, at Beddington 88°5°, and at Waddon 38:6°, which is about
2° above the mean. Sunlight was again deficient, being only
19 per cent. of possible duration at Wallington.

Marcu.

The month, which was the coldest since 1883, was bright and
dry; but owing to the great rain on the 15th, the total rainfall
was not above 4 inch below the mean. -The mean temperature
at Wallington was 388:0°, at Beddington 37:0°, and at Waddon
87:6°, which was about 8° below the mean. A more backward
spring had not been known for many years. Sunlight was at
Wallington 34 per cent. of possible duration, being 4 per cent. in
excess of the mean.

APRIL.

This was an extraordinary month, owing to the great range of
temperature, which was 51:1° at Wallington, 49°9° at Bed-
dington, and 48:0° at Waddon. The first half of the month was
warm and sunny, but the latter half was cold and rather wet,
thus causing everything to be most backward. The mean tem-
perature at Wallington was 47:0°, at Beddington 45°1°, and at
Waddon 48°1°. Sunlight at Wallington was 54 per cent. of the
possible duration, being no less than 17 per cent. in excess of the
mean.

May.

The month, with the exception of the four days in the first
week (2nd to 5th inclusive), has been warm, dry, and genial, with
a very great range of temperature, which at Wallington amounted
to 52°8°, at Beddington to 56°9°, and at Waddon to 564°. The
mean temperature was about 1° above the mean, and was at Wal-
lington 54°8°, at Beddington 53°8°, and at Waddon 54:2°. Nearly
all the rain that fell came down on the 25th, and did an immense
good. Sunlight at Wallington was 48 per cent. of the possible
duration, and was 5 per cent, in excess of the mean,

Report of the Meteorological Sub-Committee for 1892. 59

JUNE.

The month has been a cool and tolerably wet one, though on
the whole rather favourable for out-door occupations. The mean
temperature has been rather low, about 1° below the mean, being
at Wallington 58°3°, at Beddington 57:1°, and at Waddon
576°. Sunlight at Wallington was 48 per cent. of the possible
duration, and was 6 per cent. in excess of the mean.

JULY.

The month has been a cool, dry one, with a great absence of
sunlight, and an increase in the amount of cloud. The mean
temperature was between 1° and 2° below the mean, and was at
Wallington 60°4°, at Beddington 59-3°, and at Waddon 61°5°.
Sunlight at Wallington was only 38 per cent. of the possible
duration, and was 3 per cent. below the mean.

Aveust.

The month has been a warm, but rather a wet one, more
especially in the latter part of it. The mean temperature in the
shade was the highest since 1886, and was between 1° and 2°
above the mean, being at Wallington 62°5°, at Beddington 61°3°,
and at Waddon 62:0°. This high temperature gave rise to a good
deal of sickness. Sunlight at Wallington was 47 per cent. of the
possible duration, and was 2 per cent. above the mean.

SEPTEMBER.

This month is noticeable for its comparatively low means of
temperatures, and its freedom from extremes. It was wetter
than any September since 1887, and it was not good weather for
harvesting, for though the first half was fairly dry, yet there was
a want of sun and dry air. The mean temperature is about 1°
below the mean, and was at Wallington 57:1°, at Beddington
56°0°, at Waddon 56°6°. Sunlight at Wallington was 40 per cent.
of the possible duration, and was 4 per cent. below the mean.

OctToBER.

A cold, wet, cloudy month, the coldest since October, 1887 ;
and the frost of the 25th-26th will long be remembered as being
especially severe for October. The mean temperature would
appear to be between 3° and 5° below the average, and was at
Wallington 46:2°, at Beddington 45-1°, and at Waddon 45:-3°.
There has consequently been a very great deal of illness about.
Sunlight at Wallington was only 24 per cent. of the possible
duration, being no less than 11 per cent. below the mean.

60 Report of the Meteorological Sub-Committee for 1892.

NoveMBeER.

This month has been a mild, calm, open one, very similar in
character to November, 1888. Sickness, especially whooping
cough, was very prevalent. At Wallington, on the morning of
the 8rd, was seen a very brilliant rainbow, which lasted from
7.3 a.m. to 7.23 a.m., the sun having only risen at 7 a.m. The
mean temperature was about 1° above the average, and was at
Wallington 44°6°, at Beddington 43°7°, and at Waddon 44:2°,
Sunlight was again deficient, and was at Wallington 17 per cent. —
of the possible duration, being 2 per cent. below the mean.

DrEcEMBER.

The month was a cold one, and owing to the nearly total
absence of snow the ground was frozen to a great depth. The
smallness of the rainfall and the lowness of the temperature will
probably account for the large amount of sickness which was
prevalent. The mean temperature would appear to be about
1° below the average, and was at Wallington 35°5°, at Bed-
dington 34°7°, and at Waddon 34:9°. Sunlight was again
deficient, being at Wallington only 15 per cent. of the possible
duration, and 2 per cent. below the mean.

“CONTENTS.

eee ae

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Be. fe ial Meeti ek
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Ee
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, 1 aE seeeeeee settee renee va alwiyincae'd'ws i wlbhe Opardin s wys wih a2 ck ote ier ae ee

Per eee eee Paice aes exerts ste meee tees ence ere ron sensereseresyee xvi

€ Ss Balance Acpepamtard eee see eure FOP A Ree CEN Meee at ee : xix

*) eth

es The Barly History of the Microscope. — By Tuomas D. pee.
ae ve F.R.M.S. see see eeenees se cewecerencsncene ee 1
BS FS | Abnormal Forms and Variations ‘in the Animal Kingdom. By

oS eee 22 RNa ae TRANSACTIONS.
cA a +

&: ed the Microscopical Birnttare of Hearthstone from Betchworth,
> Starrey. By W. Monvor Honmms: .,(0050.<.-:cccsts ene aaa
i Observations on the Emergence of the Grane Fly ( Tipula oleracea). .
4eo By Onatuae EL IGOODMAN «63 s.60k.<0agccegscivessiecusec gs veya
On some remarkable Fire- ees Apparats from Rajpootans,
India. By Epwarp Lovert......... OUTRO ee

A e
‘ve

PROCEEDINGS. | <. e

Epwarp Loverr. Pere rere ee eer errr ee rrr reer rier errr errr reer ree ere 10 ;

- Abstract of Paper on the Mouths of Bases: ee C. HL ‘Goonman 22°

Notes on Norway. By Henry T. Mennetn, F.LS. .....00ccceee 95

Ee q : Report of the Meteorological Sub-Committee for 1892. Prepared

oe ecm Mics x Matas iso ‘eho,

ae | OFFICERS” FOR usha:
prsaldent: —H. Franxuin Parsons, M D., F.G.8.

as Soa bg Dee Mat god

Treasurer —Epwaxp B; Srunex.
Librarian —F. C. Bayarp, LL.M., F.R. Met. Soc.

ie “McKean, F.L.8.; C. Lanrear; W. Low Sargeant.
Hon. Secretary.—Tuos. D. Auvous, F.R.M.8., 87, St. Peter's
a te Ron, hua to whom all communications may be addressed.

---Viee-Presidents. — Joun Berney, F.R.M.S.; Pam Crowzey,
ne PLS. F.Z8., &e.; Henry §. Karoy, M.A. F.R. Met. Soe. ;
- Henry T. Meynetn, F. LS. ; ; Hevry G. Ee. M. D., J.P., &. ;
eS lad Loverr.

i - Committee.—-J. Wem Brown; H. C. Connyer; Txos. Cusuine,
nk $.; C. H. Goopman; H. D. Gower; W. Murron Hormes 5 :

a tiene ys F.R.Met.Soe, tn Poh ieee

Ss Pee eer ep eee

&

$
(ets
ae \

PROCEEDINGS

OF

THE CROYDON MICROSCOPICAL AND
NATURAL HISTORY CLUB.

1893—94.

Cwenty-fourth Annual Meeting.
Held at the Publie Hall, Croydon, January 16th, 1894.
H. Franxuin Parsons, M.D., F.G.8., President, in the chair.

The Balance-sheet of the accounts for 1893 (p. xliv) was
- taken as read and passed.

The Treasurer remarked that it would greatly assist matters if
members would pay their subscriptions early in the year.

Mr. Mennell proposed the re-election of Dr. Parsons to the
office of President for another year. This was seconded by
Mr. Crowley, and carried unanimously,

Dr. Parsons thanked the members.

Mr. McKean, seconded by Mr. Holmes, proposed that Mr.
Sturge be re-elected Treasurer, and Mr. Aldous, Secretary ; and
Mr. Roods be elected Librarian.

Messrs. Sturge and Aldous thanked the members for their
re-election to their respective offices.

The Secretary said that, no other nominations having been
received, the names of Messrs. Drage and Epps would be added
to the Committee to fill the two vacancies occurring under the
rules, and that the officers of the Club for the ensuing year would
be as follows :—

President.—H. Franxuin Parsons, M.D., F.G.S.
Vice-Presidents.—Joun Berney, F.R.M.S.; Pamir Crowzey,
F.L.8., F.Z.8.; Henry 8. Haron, M.A., F.R. Met. Soe. ;
Henry T. Mennett, F.L.8.; Henry G. Tuompson, M.D.,
J.P., &.; Epwarp Lovert,
b

xxii Proceedings.

Treasurer.—H. B. Stures, -
Hon. Secretary.—Tuos. D, Atpous, F.R.M.S§S.
Librarian.—ALFreD Roops.

Committee—J. Wrtr Brown; H. C. Cottyer; J. H. Drace;
James Epps, Jun.; C. H. Goopman; Harry D. Gower;
W. Murron Hotmes; C. Lanrear; W. Low Sargeant.

The President then delivered his Address, at the conclusion of
which a cordial vote of thanks was accorded to him for his
address, and for his services during the past year.

The President’s Address.
GENTLEMEN,

The custom of the Croydon Microscopical and Natural
History Club—fortunately for your President—does not impose
upon him the obligation to search for a subject on which he
might attempt to say something original, but limits his annual
address to a review of the proceedings of the Club during the
past year, with, it may be, some suggestions for its future
action. The duty thus imposed upon me I will endeavour to

- discharge to the best of my ability, and I am glad to be able to
congratulate the Club on its continued vitality.

We started the year with a total roll of 281 members. During
the year we have lost 30, that is to say, 23 by resignation and
2 by death; while 5 members who have not paid any subscrip-
tions for three years or over have been struck off the list.

During the year we have elected 16 new members, and there

are 2 for election this evening; so that our net loss of member-
ship from all causes is 12, and we start this year with a total of
269, comprising 258 ordinary members, 7 honorary members,
-and 2 associates. It is hoped that members will do what they
can to obtain recruits for our ranks. Young men who are in-
terested in natural science will be especially welcome, even
though they may not have a profound acquaintance with any
branch. An increased membership would benefit the Club
financially, and the infusion of new blood would add interest to
our meetings. The work of a society like ours is apt to be left
- too much to the veterans who have already often said their say.

As to accounts. The financial depression of which we have
heard so much of late has, I expect, rather affected our Club ;
the subscriptions for the year having been less than in 1892,
viz., £121 against £138 10s., which, however, included some
arrears of previous years. Iam sorry to say that thirty mem-
bers have not yet paid their overdue subscriptions; this number
compares with 48, 24,17 for the three preceding years. The
sale of Soirée tickets amounted to £20 9s., being about £6 less

Proceedings. xxiii

than last year; and the donations towards the Meteorological
Sub-Committee expenses have been £15 against £22 12s.

Expenses. Printing and postages have been somewhat less,
£45 5s. 1d., as compared with £53 5s. 10d.; but we have now
an extra room for the Photographic Section, for which £9 rent
has been paid this year. The Soirée expenses, as per Balance-
sheet, amount to £88 0s. 7d.; with a further payment to be
made for tables, £10 18s. 6d. This account was not rendered in
time to be included in the accounts. It will be remembered that
for the past two years we have been largely indebted to a few
members for the reduction in the cost of the Conversazione,
while this year it has been entirely borne by the Club. We
have also the salary of an Assistant Secretary in this year’s
accounts. The balance on general account, as per Balance-
sheet, is therefore £59 10s. 3d. against £51 11s. 4d. a year ago.

The expenses connected with the removal of Dr. Carpenter’s
collections, and fitting up the same in the Club-room, fitting up
the dark room, lockers, apparatus, and new notice boards, have
been charged to the Special Fund Account. This now stands at
£4 11s. 4d.

The Treasurer would like me to add that if members would
kindly pay their subscriptions as early in the year as possible,
considerable correspondence, postage, &c., would be saved, and
the business of the Club facilitated.

The excursions during the summer months have formed as
usual an enjoyable feature of the proceedings of the Club, ladies
accompanying the party on several occasions. The whole day
excursions on Bank Holidays were well attended, the half-day
excursions and evening rambles less so.

The first excursion of the summer season to Caterham, God-
stone, Tilburstow Hill, and Oxted, took place on Whit Monday,
under the leadership of Mr. Lovett, and was favoured with
brilliant weather. A party of about twenty members and friends
proceeded from Caterham to Gravelly Hill, on the summit of the
North Downs. Here in woods and thickets on the chalky soil
were found many botanical rarities, especially orchids, as the
fly-orchis (Ophrys muscifera), the butterfly orchis (Habenaria
chlorantha), Gymnadenia conopsea, Cephalanthera grandiflora, and.
Epipactis latifolia ; also Daphne Laureola, Campanula Trachelium,
and Hippocrepis comosa. The Roman snail, Helix pomatia, was
abundant here, and several species of butterflies. From the
summit of the hill a glorious view was obtained over the nearer
ranges to Leith Hill, the Weald, and the South Downs. Passing
along the crest of the hill, a nest of the tit-lark (Anthus pratensis)
was found containing four eggs, one being that of a cuckoo, dis-
tinguished from those of the tit-lark by being somewhat larger

b

xxiv Proceedings.

and lighter in colour. Descending to Godstone, a halt was
made for luncheon, after which the party went on to Tilburstow
Hill, where some time was spent in watching a detachment of
the London Irish Volunteers signalling with the heliograph to
others on Gravelly Hill, some two or three miles distant, and on
Holtye Common, still further in the opposite direction ; these
stations forming links in a chain of heliographic communication
established on that day between Chatham on the east and Alder-
shot on the west. A fine section of the Folkestone beds of the
Lower Greensand was exposed in a sand-pit by the roadside at the
top of Tilburstow Hill. After crossing Tilburstow Common,
where Rhamnus Frangula was found, and stopping to slake their
thirst at a spring of deliciously cool water issuing from the foot
of the hill, the party came to Tandridge Mill. In the mill-
ponds the sweet flag, Acorus Calamus, was found. Passing the
mill, with its overshot wheel and picturesque ponds and cascade,
they went on through woods and hop-fields to Tandridge Church,
prettily situated among trees. In the churchyard is a noble yew
tree of immense girth and great antiquity, the trunk hollow
with age, but the branches still of vigorous growth. In the
church itself the most noteworthy features were the massive
timber framework supporting the belfry and spire, and the
curious dormer windows serving the purpose of a clerestory on
the south side. The route then lay by Oxted Green to Oxted,
and thence home by train.

On Saturday, June 17th, a half-day excursion was made to
Kew Gardens, always full of interest and beauty ; though at this
time suffering only too evidently from the effects of the prolonged
drought. The rock garden, herbaceous borders, Victoria regia
house, and palm house were visited.

On June 29th a heavy storm of rain, one of the very few
which occurred during the past dry summer, prevented an
evening botanical ramble which had been arranged to Shirley
Hills and Addington Park.

On July 8th a half-day excursion was made under the auspices
of the Botanical Section to Box Hill and Leatherhead, Mr. Men-
nell acting as guide. The parched and stunted condition of the
vegetation, owing to the long drought, was unfavourable for the
objects of the excursion. Arriving at Burford Bridge, the party
climbed Box Hill, a precipitous spur of the chalk escarpment, at
the angle where the valley of the Mole cuts through the North
Downs. The hill takes its name from the box-trees which grow
abundantly on the steep chalky slopes, and is perhaps the only
British station in which Bu«us sempervirens is native. The other
Box Hill rarity, Tewcrium Botrys, was not found, nor were the
bee-orchis and other orchids which have been recorded from
there. On the way from Box Hill by Headley Lane to Leather-

Proceedings. xxv

head were found a few interesting chalk plants, as the hound’s-
tongue (Cynoglossum officinale), the black mullein (Verbascum
nigrum), and Phytewma orbiculare, After tea at Leatherhead the
party returned by train to West Croydon.

On Saturday, July 22nd, a half-day excursion was made under
the guidance of Mr. Bayard to Wotton and Abinger. The
attendance was small. Leaving Gomshall Station, the route
lay along a sandy ridge, formed by the outcrop of the Folkestone
beds of the lower greensand, and occupied by woods and ‘‘ roughs”’
or furze-covered commons, to Deerleap Wood. On the way a
granite cross was passed, marking the spot where Bishop Wilber-
force was killed by a fall from his horse on July 19th, 1873. In
the open pastures mushrooms were found, it being somewhat
unusual to find them so early in the season. The champignon,
Marasmius oreades, was also very abundant, forming large rings,
one of which measured 28 ft. in diameter, and had a large furze
bush growing in the centre of the circle. Numerous birds were
observed. In Deerleap Wood is a barrow not very perfect, con-
sisting of a mound about 6 ft. high, surrounded by a circular
trench, the mound and trench being separated by a shelf on ap-
parently the natural level of the ground. The extreme diameter
across the barrow between the outside edges of the trench is
fifty yards. Passing Wotton Hall, the home of John Evelyn,
and still of his descendants, and the rock-hewn mausoleum of the
family, the party proceeded down the valley of the Tillingbourne -
to Abinger Mill. The mill-pond and other pieces of water in the
course of the stream afforded a series of pigtyresque views for the
camera. The wild balsam, Impatiens neWi~me-tangere, grew abun-
dantly on the edge of the mill-pond and down the course of the
stream, and the French willow herb, Epilobiwm angustifolium,
with its vivid rose-coloured flowers, formed great masses in the
woods. Other plants seen were the lady fern, Scirpus sylvaticus,
Verbascum nigrum, and Anchusa arvensts.

The Bank Holiday excursion on August 7th was made to
Cowden and Holtye Common. In the unavoidable absence of
Mr. Sturge through an accident, Mr. Murton Holmes acted as
guide, and gives me the following account of the day’s pro-
ceedings :—The party, numbering seventeen, arrived at Cowden
about 11.80. Mr. Holmes himself, who had come by an earlier

train, had in the meantime been exploring some fields near the
: station. Here blackberries were very fine and plentiful, and
| several specimens of Erythrea centaurium with white flowers
. were found, also the orpine, Sedum Telephium, just coming into
bloom. Insects were also tolerably abundant, more especially
the large heath butterfly (Hipparchia tithonus), which was in
good condition. Two or three specimens of the dingy skipper
(Hesperia tages) and some ‘small coppers” were also taken,

*F

+ Se correctiso¥Bm p- (aii

XXvi Proceedings.

On leaving the station the party walked to the village, where
they were shown over the church by the rector. This building
was erected during the 14th century upon the site of a Saxon
wooden edifice, the charred remains of which had been discovered
when digging. It was enlarged by the addition of an aisle about
200 years ago. The rector stated that at one time there were no
fewer than nineteen altars dedicated to different saints in the
church, which was by no means a very large one. From Cowden
the party proceeded along the high road to Holtye Common,
finding on the way Agaricus campestris and Boletus edulis. At the
inn a halt was made for refreshment, after which the party
walked across the common towards the Furnace Ponds. On the
common were found the sweet mountain fern, Lastrea Oreopteris,
in profusion, also Blechnum spicant, and here and there on the
banks, Lastrea Filia-mas and L. dilatata. The Furnace Pond
takes its name from some ironworks which formerly existed
here, and is said to occupy the site of excavations made for iron-
stone. The railings which now surround St. Paul’s Cathedral
were cast at these ironworks. Close by a tunnel in the solid
rock was observed. In this pond a large quantity of the narrow-
leaved bulrush (Typha angustifolia) was growing, and a little
further on, in Scarlett’s Pond, the broad-leaved species (7’. lati-
folia) was equally abundant. Judging from the planks that were
seen it was being cut for the market. The banks of the pond
were clothed with Mentha aquatica in full bloom, and here and
there was found the forget-me-not. Several interesting timbered
houses with massive chimneys, suggesting comfortable chimney
corners, were passed, and photographs of these were taken. All
along the route the wall-brown butterfly (Lasiommata megera) was
abundant; some specimens of the sulphur butterfly (Gonepteryx
rhamni) and some blues were also captured. Among the plants
collected were Achillea ptarmica, on the banks of what had once
been a pond, Scabiosa succisa, and a variety of Campanula rotundi-
folia with large flowers, shorter and more open than the ordinary
harebell. The walk was a most enjoyable one. Although the
weather looked somewhat doubtful early in the day, the sun
came out in full force about noon. Some of the party returned
from Dormans Station, others went on to Lingfield, and returned
by a later train.

On August 15th an evening ramble was made to Waddon for
the River Wandle. In the grounds of Waddon Lodge, through
the kindness of Mr. Waterall, the pool fed by springs, which
forms one of the chief sources of the stream, was seen; andin an
adjoining damp meadow, the verdure of which formed a refreshing
contrast to the general arid brown in this season of drought,
were found several marsh plants, as Caltha palustris and Carew
hirta, not abundant in the neighbourhood of Croydon,

Proceedings. XXVIL-;

On Aug. 19th an excursion took place to Eltham and Charlton.
The first place visited was Eltham Palace, formerly a moated
manor house, the foundation of which is commonly ascribed to
King John, though probably few parts, if any, of the existing
buildings are of so early a date. It was used habitually as a
royal residence down to the time of Henry VIII., and occa-
sionally as late as that of James I., and is still Crown property.
The most noteworthy of the existing buildings is a noble hall,
built by Edward IV., now dismantled, and in a somewhat
dilapidated condition, but untouched by so-called restoration.
It has a very fine open timber roof, with hammer-beams and
pendents, and the perpendicular tracery of the windows and the
vaulted roofs over the entrances are very good. The remainder
of the site is occupied by several dwelling-houses, which contain
portions of old work, though for the most part they are com-
paratively modern. The old palace was surrounded by a deep
moat, now containing water only on the north and a portion of
the east sides. The moat is crossed on the north side by a stone
bridge, date about the latter part of the 15th century, which
forms a very picturesque object. The party had the advantage
of the explanations of Mr. Jones, of the Archeological Society.
From Eltham the party walked to Charlton, passing near
Shooter’s Hill and the Herbert Hospital, and obtaining on the
way a very fine view of the hills in the direction of the Crystal
Palace and Croydon. Charlton House, a fine Jacobean mansion,
was also passed. The Roman camp at Charlton, which was the
next object made for, stands on a hill overlooking the Thames
and the marshes bordering it on the Kent and Hssex shores. The
ramparts, much obliterated by the hand of Time, remain only on
the W. and §. sides, the hill on which the N. and E. walls of the
camp stood having been quarried away by a series of extensive
excavations made for the purpose of getting gravel, &c. An ex-
cavation on the N.W. side of the hill on which the camp stands
shows the Thanet sands resting on the chalk. The junction of the
two formations is marked by a bed called ‘‘bull-head,” con-
sisting of green-coated unworn flints, and ranging in thickness
from 6 to 18 in., being thicker where it fills up inequalities in
thesurface of the adjacent chalk. (The same bed is to be met with
in the chalk-pit at Park Hill, Croydon). The lowermost 7 ft. of
the Thanet sand are locally called ‘‘black-foot” or ‘‘ strong
loam,’’ and are valuable for foundry purposes, being well adapted
for moulds for brass castings. The 12 ft. next above the “ black-
foot” consist of ‘mild loam,” larger grained and less cohesive
than that below, and better adapted for moulds for iron castings.
These loams are indeed exported for foundry use to parts of the
world so distant as India and China. ‘The upper part of the.
Thanet sand is a white sand, On the steep face on the HK, side.

EXVIii Proceedings.

of the Camp hill this white sand is the lowest bed now exposed.
Above it is a greenish sand, with rounded black flint pebbles,
the lowermost of the Woolwich beds; above this again is a bed
of strong reddish loam, also used for foundry purposes. Next
above this come some 8 ft. of laminated grey clay, crowded with
fossils, mostly fragmentary. Though individuals are abundant,
the species represented are comparatively few. The following
only were found :—Ostrea tenera and bellovacina, Cyrena cunet-
formis and cordata, Melania inquinata, and a Cerithium. Above the
shell-bed is a clay with few fossils, and above this again are the
pebble-beds of the Oldhaven series, here some 14 ft. thick. Some
fossils from the chalk were obtained from the workmen, among
them being fish remains, Inoceramus sp., Terebratula semiglobosa,
Ananchytes ovatus, Micraster cor-anguinum, and a spine of Cidaris.
The party were indebted to Mr. Gilbert, of Charlton, by whom
the pits are worked, for much valuable information, as well as
for permission to visit them. Photographs were obtained by
several members, but in other branches little was done. Of
plants, Parietaria, Sedum acre, and Corydalis lutea were seen
growing on old walls at Eltham, and Agaricus conchatus on &
stump on the way thence to Charlton. About the pits at
Charlton were found Diplotazis tenuifolia, Ononis arvensis, and
Hieracium boreale. These all occurred in Kent.

On September 16th a fungus hunt at Addington had been
announced, but few members turned up, and, owing to the
extreme dryness of the ground and air, scarcely any fungi were
met with, only two woody perennial species growing on trees,
Polyporus betulinus and P. annosus being found. A live specimen
of the mole, Talpa europea, was taken, and was found swarming
with parasites, which at a subsequent meeting were exhibited by
Mr. Murton Holmes mounted as microscopic objects.

Besides the ordinary excursions of the Club, on June 28th, by
the kind permission of the Astronomer Royal, a limited number
of members visited the Royal Observatory at Greenwich. Green-
wich Observatory, being pre-eminently a place for scientific work
rather than for show, is not open to the general public like Kew
Gardens, and the members of the Club were indebted to the
good offices of Mr. Bayard for the opportunity of seeing it. The
Observatory, which was founded by Charles II. in 1675, stands
on a limited area of ground on the summit of a steep mound of
Thanet sand, 155 ft. high, in Greenwich Park, commanding a
fine view over the Thames; its administration is under the
Admiralty, and there is a nautical air about it, especially in the
way in which the utmost use is made of limited space. The
work carried on at Greenwich is twofold, astronomical and
meteorological, and the party on arriving at the Observatory was

Proceedings. XXIX

divided into two detachments, which in alternate order were
taken round first one and then the other department by members
of the respective staffs, to whose kindness and clear explanations
we were much indebted.

On the astronomical side, the first object seen was the transit
instrument. This is a large telescope mounted between two
massive masonry pillars in such a way as to swing in a north
and south plane or meridian. ‘The field of the telescope is
crossed by five equidistant vertical ‘ wires ” (really made of fine
spider’s threads), and one horizontal one. The exact observation
of the position of a star requires the determination of the time
at which it crosses the meridian, and of its then distance from
the zenith. The time determination is made by the observer
pressing a knob each time that the star, as seen in the telescope,
crosses successively one of the five vertical wires; this closes an
electric circuit, and makes a dot on a graduated paper fixed on a
revolving drum in another apartment; the mean of the five
records gives a very accurate determination of the time when the
star crossed the meridian. The zenith distance or declination
is measured on an accurately divided platinum circle attached to
the transit instrument; this is observed through fixed micro-
scopes furnished with a comb-shaped micrometer arrangement,
by which the circle can be read to the fraction of a second of are.
In the same room are preserved various astronomical instruments
of historical interest. Through a telescope in another room the
members obtained a view of the sun, on which a large sun-spot
was visible at the time. They also saw the dome in which the
large new refractor, with object-glass twenty-eight inches in
diameter, is to be mounted.

In the meteorological department the most remarkable feature
is the series of self-recording instruments by which, through the
aid of photography, a continuous record of meteorological and
magnetic elements is obtained. In instruments in which the
‘amount of movement to be measured is very small, the movement
is made to alter the position of a small mirror, upon which a
beam of light falls, and is reflected to a sheet of sensitive paper
on a revolving drum ; the amount of movement as shown by the
spot of light being multiplied manifold by the angular displace-
ment of the mirror. The self-recording instruments and baro-
meter are placed in a cellar to avoid changes of temperature and
accidental vibrations. Before entering this, the party had to
leave behind their keys, knives, and other iron articles. Besides
the ordinary meteorological instruments, sunshine-recorder,
anemometers, &c., there are the earth thermometers, mentioned in
my paper on “ Harth Temperatures” (Trans., Art. 110), the deepest
of which has its bulb at a depth of 25 ft. below the surface.
These do not require to be pulled up to take the readings, but

XXX : Proceedings.

are made with stems long enough to reach above the level of the
ground, the scales being enclosed in a wooden case. There is
also an apparatus for determining the amount and sign of atmos-
pheric static electricity: this consists of a jet of water acting as
collector, which is supplied from an insulated cistern connected
by a wire with a quadrant electrometer with photographic
recording arrangement. arth currents of electricity are mea-
sured by galvanometers in circuit with insulated lines of wire
connected at either end to copper plates buried in the earth.
There are two such lines of wire, each several miles in length;
the direction of one being approximately north-east and south-
west, of the other south-east and north-west. During the past
two or three years the character of the earth current records has
undergone a curious alteration. Instead of the normal diurnal
oscillations of small extent previously observed, there are move-
ments of much greater amplitude at frequent intervals during
eighteen hours of the day, beginning about 6 a.m., and ceasing
about midnight ; the currents during the remaining hours of the
twenty-four retaining their previous character. On Sundays the
stronger currents do not begin until midday. On comparison of
the times, it is found that these abnormal currents correspond
with the passage of trains on the electric railway from London
Bridge to Brixton, which does not run within four miles of the
Observatory. A small deflection occurring regularly at every
hour is found to be caused by the electric time signal given at
the Observatory. The effects of these artificial currents are
however far surpassed by the strong earth currents which occur
from time to time during magnetic storms.

On April 15th, through the kindness of Mr. Collyer and Mr.
Graburn, a party of members of the Club had the opportunity of
opening a barrow at Wepham Down, Burpham, on the Sussex
downs, near Arundel. . The results of the exploration were given
to the Club by Messrs. Lovett and Collyer at the meeting on
May 10th (Trans., Art. 112).

At the evening meetings of the Club a fair number of papers
have been read. For three of these we have been indebted to
friends outside, the others have been contributed by members of the
Club. The attendance of members from various causes has not
always been so good as might be wished. The Committee would
be glad to see a larger number of members, especially the younger
ones, contributing to the proceedings of the Club,—not necessarily
long or elaborate papers, but, it might be, short notes on matters
coming within their observation which might serve as a text for
discussion. The exhibition of objects, with explanatory remarks,
adds interest to our evening meetings, and we should be glad if
more members would assist in this way.

ee

—

Proceedings. XXX1.

- On Feb. 8th, the Report of the Meteorological Sub-Committee

for 1892 was presented by Mr. F. C. Bayard, honorary secretary
of that Sub-Committee. This Report was published in our
volume of ‘ Transactions’ in 1893 (Trans., Art. 109, p. 28). A
paper was also read by your President on ‘Harth Temperatures,’
in which he gave the result of a series of observations made at
Croydon in 1892 at depths of one foot and four feet below the
surface, and also gave a resumé of the subject of ground tempera-
tures, pointing out how, owing to the badly conducting properties
of the earth, the diurnal and annual heat waves were retarded
at progressive depths, and their range diminished; while at
depths beyond that to which the annual heat wave extends the
temperature was found to increase with the depth. This
paper will be printed in our annual volume for 1893 (Trans.,
Art. 110).

On March 8th a paper was read by Mr. Charters White
entitled ‘A simple Method of Photo-micrography,”’ in which
he dealt fully with the processes and apparatus which he ad-
yocated; after which a large number of photo-micrographic
slides were thrown on the lantern and explained by Mr.
White; their beauty and sharpness of detail being much
admired.

On April 12th, Mr. Lovett exhibited and described a series of
mechanical fire-making appliances, in which a flint and steel
arrangement was put in action by means of a trigger. The Hon.
Secretary exhibited and described a specimen of the now rare
Solar microscope of the last century. A very interesting paper
was read by Mr. A. B. Farn on ‘“‘Pasteur’s Researches on the
Cause and Prevention of the Silkworm Disease,’ some of the
results of which Mr. Farn had himself experimentally verified.
Glancing at the culture of the silkworm as an industry, he traced
the appearance and spread of the disease which were attributed
to overcrowding of the young worms on the part of the cultivator ;
showing how Pasteur had demonstrated that the disease, which
is known as Pébrine, was caused by the invasion of the tissues of
the silkworm by a parasitic bacterium, and that it might be
communicated by inoculation, by feeding on leaves soiled by the
excrement of infected worms, or by infected dust carried in the
clothes of the attendants; and also that it was hereditary, the
parasite being found in the ova deposited by infected moths.
‘The special seat of the parasite is in the silk glands, the ducts of
which become so blocked as to prevent the spinning of silk.
This paper will be printed in our ‘ Transactions’ (Trans.,
Art. 111).

On May 10th, Mr. Lovett read a Report on the opening of a
Barrow on the South Downs, near Arundel, recently carried out
by members of the’ Club. Having briefly referred to various

XXxxli Proceedings.

ancient forms of burial, he gave a detailed account (which will be
published in our ‘ Transactions,’ Art. 112) of the measurements,
structure, and contents, comprising bronze, glass pottery, iron-
stone, flint, &c., of this barrow, which he considered to date from
the early iron period. He also described another place of inter-
ment in the neighbourhood of this barrow which was opened on
the same occasion, and in which were found three skeletons, and
fragments of Samian pottery. The skeletons were evidently
those of persons of considerable stature, and of one the thigh-
bone had been fractured and reunited at a period long before
death. The remains were considered to be of the Anglo-Saxon
period. Mr. Collyer made some supplementary remarks on the
same subject, and exhibited the bones and other objects obtained
in the excavations.

The meeting on September 19th was devoted to exhibition of
specimens, and short communications thereon. Mr. Murton
Holmes exhibited specimens of the freshwater polyzoon, Alcyo-
nella fungosa, from the Brent reservoir, Middlesex, and described
its structure and propagation; also parasites from the mole.
Mr. Goodman exhibited nests of the common and tree wasps, so
plentiful during the hot dry summer of 1893, and gave an
account of the life-history of the wasp, and of the mode of for-
mation of the nest. He attributed their recent abundance to the
dry weather of March being favourable to the founding of colonies
by the queens who survived the winter. He also exhibited a
photograph of an ancient fresco painting in Warlingham Church.
Mr. Lovett exhibited a series of stands for simple microscopes
designed by working-men “out of their own heads.” He also
made some remarks on the evolution of artistic designs from
simple natural objects, showing in illustration a series of snuff-
bottles from South Africa; the most primitive of these being a
simple gourd, of which the shape was afterwards copied in other
materials as wood, gut, ivory and pottery. Another illustration
was afforded by a series of cigarette-holders from Holland, origi-
nally made of the leg-bone of a hare, but the shape of which was
subsequently copied in meerschaum.

On October 17th, Mr. Goodman read a communication from
Mr. Budgen on “The Life-history of the Water Insect, Gerris
najas,” illustrated by photographs (Trans., Art. 113). The Pre-
sident read a paper containing some notes of a recent visit to
Belgium, exhibiting in illustration photographs, fossils and dried
plants (Trans., Art. 114).

The Twenty-fourth Annual Soirée took place at the Public
Hall on November 22nd, and was well attended, though the
number of persons present, 567, was slightly below that of last

Proceedings, Xxxiii
year. The sale of tickets realised £20 9s, The societies repre-
sented were as follows :—

Exhibitors, Microscopes.

OO to satin +5 <cmengdannatasaariben 80 17

PSO GS sina ipiv onda vahenapprunsasebuness 3 5
Oe ebt, jack é cio «euanidnemeeranepeets 12 13
BOUMIIONGON 4.0.6 00<cdsecnanghante 5 6
Holmesdale, Redhill and Reigate 5 6
Various and Unattached ......... 26 22

81 69

The number of microscopes was less than on previous occasions,
but the falling-off was mostly in familiar objects, many of the
slides exhibited being of a very interesting character. Among
these may be mentioned: wax insect (W. West); living rotifer,
Rhinops vitrea (C. Rosselet); tail of goldfish showing circulation
of blood (T. D. Ersser); eyes of living spider (J. A. Smith) ;
section of pearl (W. Smart). A very fine series of photographs
was exhibited by the Photographic Section in lantern, and as
transparencies, as well as on the walls of the corridor. Among
the other exhibits were a large collection of British Lepidoptera,
by Mr. Crowley; zoological specimens, by Mr. Drage and Mr.
Thorpe; a collection of fish-hooks, illustrating their develop-
ment from.prehistoric times, and a miniature rock garden with
living plants, by Mr. Lovett; Roman coins found at South
Croydon, and Anglo-Saxon weapons and ornaments found on the
Elms Estate, by Mr. Rigby; relics of Roman and medieval
London, by Mr. Straker; Japanese articles of daily use, by Mr.
Alfred Parsons; steel mill formerly used for giving light in
collieries, by Mr. E. Bidwell; photographs of pathological Bac-
teria, by Dr. Klein, F.R.§.; a fine series of rare plants, chiefly
from Surrey, Berks and Argyllshire, by Mr. C. E. Salmon, &c.
The collection of flowers gathered in the open air at Addiscombe
comprised 78 kinds, as against 113 the previous year; while that
of fungi from the neighbourhood of Croydon numbered 28 species,
against 38 in 1892; the diminution in each case being due to
the cold ungenial weather which had prevailed for some weeks
before the Soirée.

On December 19th a lecture was given by Mr. H. B. M.
Buchanan, B.A., on “‘ Evolution.”

The lecturer said that evolution, that is the development of
all forms of organic life from previous forms, was now generally
accepted by scientific men, at any rate as a working hypothesis,
which was more likely to be true than untrue. The analogy of

XXxiv. Proceedings.

the series of living forms, however, was not with a continuous
chain, but rather with a tree, the branehes from the trunk not
all tending upwards, but some sideways, and some even down-
wards, so as to fill every space in nature with some appropriate
inhabitant. He considered’ the theory of evolution under the
following aspects :—1. The history of the idea in the human
mind. 2. The evidence for evolution afforded by morphology.
8. The evidence afforded by embryology. 4. The evidence
afforded by paleontology.

1.—The idea of evolution seems to have been first mooted by
the Greek philosopher Anaximander (s.c. 611), who held that all
land animals had been primarily marine. Owing, however, to the
omission to verify their ideas by an appeal to observation and
experiment, Greek speculators often went very far wrong. Bruno,
in medieval times, also mooted similar ideas, but the general
tendency of the thought of the age was hostile, and no advance
was made until the present century. Lamarck (1809) held that
the slowly changing external conditions under which living
forms were placed would necessitate use and disuse of par-
ticular organs, and that this use or disuse produced changes
of structure, which were handed down to the descendants.
Agassiz pointed out that in descending from the higher to the
lower forms of life the structure became simpler and simpler, and
that a similar progress was met with as we went back in the
history of development of the individual, and in geological his-
tory. The sucéessive introduction of higher forms of life did
not however entirely supplant the lower forms, but compelled
them to take a subordinate place. This author, however, held
that new forms of life appeared as the result of special creation,
and not by development from pre-existing forms. Darwin, on
‘the other hand, believed that the numerous different forms of life
arose from one or a few original forms. He: pointed out that the
‘principle which Malthus had enunciated for the human species,
viz., that the multiplication of individuals tended to take place
at a greater rate than the means of subsistence for them, applied
to all living beings; hence there was a perpetual struggle for
‘existence, in which those varieties which adapted themselves to
changing conditions survived, while others didnot. Weismann,
while accepting the theory of descent, denies the transmission of
acquired characters. He holds that the “body cells,’ which
minister to the nutrition of the individual, are fundamentally
distinct from the ‘‘ germ cells,” which perpetuate the race; and
that acquired characters affect. only the body cells, and not the
germ cells; while the latter alone transmit characters. It has
yet however to be proved that the body cells do not act on the
germ cells, and the controversy is still progressing.

2,—Evidence in favour of evolution is afforded by morphology

Proceedings. XXXV

by the unity of type which runs through allied forms however
different in external form; thus the whale and the giraffe possess
the same number of cervical vertebre in spite of the different
length of their necks; also by the existence of rudimentary
organs, derived from ancestors in whom they were of functional
importance. Examples are the rudimentary concealed hind
limbs of the whale and the python, the teeth of fcetal whales,
and the eyes of blind fish. Hxamples of such organs in man are
the fold of skin at the inner angle of the eye, which represents
the membrana nictitans or third eyelid of lower animals; the
muscles of the external ear and scalp, which in only a few
persons are under voluntary control; the coccyx, or bony rudi-
ment of the tail, more prominent in the foetus ; and the appendix
vermiformis cceci, which in the lower mammalia performs the
function of a supplementary digestion. The hair on the human
body sloped downward as in the anthropoid apes, doubtless in
order to throw off the rain; and in the human fetus hair was
more general over the surface of the body. New-born infants
possessed a remarkable prehensile power in the arms, and the
soles of their feet faced inwards, the great toe projecting at an
angle from the others, presenting an approach to the hinder
limbs of apes.

3.—Embryological study showed that the history of develop-
ment of the individual recapitulated that of the species. Thus
the tadpole of a frog passed from the egg through forms resembling
a fish, and a tailed water breathing amphibian ‘to the tailless air
breathing adult frog. The germ cells are similar in all classes
of animals, but their development proceeds to different lengths in
different species. The progress is from the more general to the
more special; different forms in their development proceeding
for a greater or less distance along a common path, and then
branching off.

4,.—Paleontology also shows a gradually ascending scale of
life in the fossils preserved in the rocks, though the geological
record is very imperfect, and there are many missing links,
which, however, are gradually being supplied.

The meetings of May 10th and December 19th were open
ones, ladies as well as gentlemen being invited to attend.

The monthly conversational meetings have not been well
attended. During the past year the day on which the ordinary
meetings of the Club are held has been altered from the second
Wednesday to the third Tuesday in each month. It having been
represented to the Committee that many members were prevented
from attending the meetings of the Club, by their clashing with
the meetings of several learned societies and other engagements

EXXV1 Proceedings.

on the same evening, a circular was sent to each member of
the Club inviting his opinion as to the advisability of changing
the day of the week for the ordinary meetings from Wednesday
to Tuesday. The replies received having shown a large prepon-
derance of opinion in favour of the change (75 replies being in
favour, 29 against, and 32 neutral), a proposal to that effect
was, after due notice, brought forward at the meeting on May
10th (which was rendered special for the purpose), and was
carried unanimously, the change taking effect from September.
It is at present perhaps too early to say how far the hope of an
increased attendance as the result of the change has been realised,
but we find that unfortunately it is impossible in such a matter
to suit the convenience of all parties. The conversational
meetings will continue to be held on Wednesdays, so that those
members who cannot attend on Tuesdays may still keep in touch
with the Club; but it is proposed that they shall always be held
on the last Wednesday in each month, as otherwise they would
occasionally fall on the evening following the ordinary meeting.

The Sub-Committees for Botany, Geology, Meteorology, Micro-
scopy, Photography and Zoology were reappointed as usual, and
have continued their work with varying degrees of activity. I
would call the attention of members of the Club to the existence
of these Sub-Committees, who are at all times glad to receive
notice of any facts of interest connected with the natural history
of the district, and to assist beginners in their several depart-
ments. The names of the members of these Sub-Committees
will be found on the back of the annual card.

The Honorary Secretary of the Photographic Sub-Committee
gives me the following satisfactory report of that section :—

The Photographic Section of the Club, I am happy to say, has
again passed through a very successful season. Numerous excursions
were arranged and carried out during the summer, but were not quite
so well attended as might have been wished, and I should recommend
that an Excursion Committee be formed to carry out arrangements
both as regards localities and places of interest, and for the proper re-
cording of objects that would be of value to the Club generally.

Technical and conversational meetings, monthly lantern nights,
and trial nights, have been held as usual. The dark room is being
continually used, and forms a most useful room for practical de-
monstrations.

At the Soirée this year, the pictures showed a high standard of ex-
cellence. A large selection of framed exhibits,—showing a preference
for framed work rather than the usual mounts only pinned on the
frames. The number of processes employed for their production
being albumenized paper, bromide carbon, platinotype, gelatino-
chloride, and mezzotype. A large table in the Small Hall was devoted
to transparencies, of which there was a large number; the School of
Art Room being devoted to lantern exhibitions during the evening.

Proceedings. XXXvii

The membership of the section numbers about 70, and is slightly
on the increase; it would have been better but for several resignations.

The Committee hope that any members wishing to receive the
benefits of the section, or contemplating practising photography, will
send their names in to the Hon. Sec. of the section, from whom par-
ticulars as to use of dark room and lockers may be obtained.— Harry
D. Gower, Hon. Sec.

From Mr. Mennell I learn that

The Botanical Sub-Committee have nothing of interest to report;
little or nothing has been done in connexion with the Club Herbarium,
and help from younger members in its arrangement, preservation, and
increase would be gratefully welcomed. In the ‘ Journal of Botany,’
the Rev. E. 8. Marshall records the occurrence of Fumaria parviflora
near Witley as an addition to the county flora.

Mr. F. Barlow brought me specimens last September of one of the
balsams, Impatiens parviflora, from near Titsey ; this plant is nowhere
a native, but occurs in various localities as an alien—or introduced
plant. Senecio viscosus, which I noticed some three years ago as a
novelty in this section of the county, holds its own on Park Hill, and
was fairly abundant this summer.

A conversational meeting was held under the direction of the
Botanical Sub-Committee on January 24th, at which I endeavoured to
explain and illustrate the best methods of selecting specimens of plants
for the Herbarium, so as to exemplify their more important characters,
as well as the best methods of drying, preserving and mounting them.

The Honorary Secretary of the Meteorological Section reports
as follows :—

The Meteorological Sub-Committee has continued its work under
the supervision of its Honorary Secretary, Mr. Bayard. The daily
rainfall of 52 stations in the Club district has been tabulated every
month, examined and corrected, and the results printed and issued to
the observers and all members of the Club interested in the question,
either before, or within a very few days after, the end of the month
succeeding that to which the statistics refer. Further particulars will
be found in the scientific report of the Sub-Committee, which will be
presented at the meeting next month. The expenses of the section
have amounted to £25 2s. 7d., towards which four gentlemen interested
in the work of the section contributed £20, the Club paying the
balance.—F. C. Bayarp, Hon. Sec.

From the Geological Sub-Committee I have not received any
report.

The Zoological Sub-Committee report that nothing has
occurred during the past season to call for special notice. Mr.
Berney gives me a list of families and species of moths taken in
his garden at Croydon in the evenings of the summer of 1893,
after 6 p.m.; it comprises 66 species belonging to 17 families,
as follows :—Sphingide 1; Seside 1; Hepialide 2; Oncoptery-

c

EXXVili Proceedings.

gide 2; Ennomidx 2; Acidalide 2; Caberide 1; Larentids 5;
Leucanide 1; Apamide 12; Caradrinide 1; Noctuide 15;
Orthaside 10; Cormide 2; Hadenide 4; Pluside 2; Amphi-
pyride 3.

A conversational meeting was held on Feb. 22nd under the
auspices of the Zoological Section. The subject discussed was
the causes of the abundance in particular seasons of certain
insects usually uncommon, with special reference to Colias edusa,
so plentiful in 1892. The prevalent opinion in reference to this
particular insect seemed to be that in the British islands it does
not survive the winter, and that the specimens observed in this
country in summer are a second brood, the progeny of specimens
of the first brood, which have been blown over from the Conti-
nent early in the year.

Mr. Murton Holmes, Honorary Secretary of the Microscopic
Sub-Committee, gives me the following report :—

A hope was expressed last year that some demonstrations upon the
practical work of the microscope could be arranged, and the Sub-Com-
mittee is pleased to be able to report that by the kind assistance of
several members some successful demonstrations were carried out.
The first was undertaken by Mr. Aldous, who gave a graphic account
of the construction of the microscope, explaining the theory both of the
simple and compound forms. The next demonstration was by Dr.
Franklin Parsons on the various methods of microscopic illumination
[which was especially valuable, as a proper method of using mirrors
and condensers is essential to obtain good poem Mr. Lovett de-
voted an evening to the preparation and mounting of objects in liquid,
showing how cells should be made to retain the liquid in which the
objects are preserved, and what precautions are necessary to mount
the objects without distortion. Mr. Holmes explained how objects
could be rapidly mounted in Canada balsam, and the manner in which
they should be attached to glass slips when sections by grinding were
required. On a subsequent occasion he also illustrated the washing
and preparation of some diatomaceous earth for mounting.

The Sub-Committee earnestly hopes that members will more fre-
quently bring objects of microscopic interest for exhibition at the
ordinary evening meetings, and hopes to be able to make arrangements
to facilitate this.

I may here mention that Mr. Aldous kindly undertakes to have
a microscope stand ready at all ordinary meetings of the Club,
so that members wishing to exhibit slides need not bring a
microscope, but only the necessary objectives, having the uni-
versal screw. I may also call attention to the valuable col-
lection of slides in the Club’s cabinet, selections from which
members are allowed to take home and examine at their leisure.

I may too in this place refer to the Club’s library, and point
out that books may be taken out at any meeting of the Club on

Proceedings. XXxix

application to the Librarian, and retained for a reasonable time.
It is probable that many members are not aware of these privi-
leges, and that this is the reason why more use is not made of
the library and micro cabinet. It is to be hoped that the Club
may one day possess a microscope of its own with all necessary
apparatus complete.

The collection of shells, corals, fossils and minerals, generously
presented to the Club by the family of the late Dr. Alfred
Carpenter, has been mounted in cases during the year under the
superintendence of Mr. Lovett.

Glancing now at the future of the Club, I do not see why it
should not have a long lease of prosperity before it. We were
told by our last lecturer that those animals survive in the
struggle for existence which can adapt themselves to changing
conditions, and we endeavour to do so. It must be admitted
that the conditions affecting the life of a club such as ours have
somewhat changed since its establishment, now nearly a quarter
of a century ago. Natural science is now taught in other ways,
as by technical classes and university extension courses, so that
persons whose bent lies in that direction are not necessarily
attracted to the Club. The microscope, with which the Club
was at first especially concerned, though more indispensable
than ever as an instrument of research, has somewhat gone out
of fashion as the amusement of the amateur, having been sup-
planted by the photographic camera. In a district so well known
as Surrey, it is not likely that many additions to the fauna and
flora remain to be made by the field naturalist, save in certain
critical groups, and in the minuter and less studied invertebrate
and cryptogamic orders. These comparatively neglected orders
however well deserve attention; the microscope reveals to us a
world of beauty and interest in the lower forms of animal and
vegetable life, and the work of Darwin bears witness to the im-
portance in the economy of nature of so humble and apparently
uninteresting an animal as the earthworm. There is much yet
to be learned about the life-history of even familiar animals and
plants, especially by watching them through the various stages
of their existence. A wide field for observation also remains
open in tracing the various modes in which living beings are able
to secure for themselves a place in the competition for existence
by obtaining food, by protecting themselves against the attacks
of their enemies, and by promoting fertilization, and making
provision for the welfare of the young. Even the artificial state
of things, as we call it, caused by the growth of human popula-
tion merely introduces a new set of conditions into the struggle
for existence, to which some species are able to adapt themselves,
while others are not. Thus while some wild birds seek safety in

; oa

xl Proceedings.

avoiding man by their powers of flight, others, as the sparrow
and robin, place themselves under his somewhat treacherous
protection, doubtless finding the safety which they obtain from
their feral enemies to more than counterbalance the attacks of
cats and birdnesting boys. The fieldfare and redwing nest in
northern climes, and when visiting us in the winter feed in open
fields, with sentries on the alert to give warning against the
approach of an enemy; while their congener, the blackbird, fre-
quents the neighbourhood of human habitations, and skulking
about gardens and hedge-bottoms manages to pick up a good
living even in the severest weather. A curious change of habit
in this respect has recently come over the wood-pigeon, which in
its wild state one of the wariest of birds, has become very abun-
dant in the London parks, where, knowing apparently that guns
are not permitted, it shows no more fear of man than a London
sparrow. Some such change of habit in a past age has enabled
the rook and jackdaw to flourish, while the raven and carrion
crow are approaching extinction.

We must all regret the disappearance of some of the more
interesting plants and animals from our neighbourhood. The
diminution of wild birds has been recently the subject of discus-
sion in the local press ; the primrose has disappeared from woods
near Croydon where it was formerly abundant, and we must go
many miles afield to find any fern other than the common brake
in plenty. Ido not think that the disappearance is due to the
naturalist, or even to the ordinary holiday maker, so much as to
the professional dealer, who collects wholesale for purposes of
gain. The primrose is unfortunately cireumstanced in the
struggle for existence; its beauty makes it in demand; it is
easily found and dug up at any time of the year (not like the
bluebell and daffodil, which have deep underground bulbs), and
its dimorphic habit is unfavourable to the production of seed
when its numbers are reduced, since it can only be fertilised
when both forms of flower grow together. Whatever British
institutions the late Lord Beaconsfield may have helped to pre-
serve, I fear that he did not do much for the poor primrose.

The draining of marshes and ponds, the ploughing up of
pasture, and the conversion of open fields into eligible building
sites, are processes which cause the disappearance of many of
our more interesting species of animals and plants. These we
cannot hope to arrest, but we can avoid rapacious collecting, or
encouraging dealers by purchasing from them. There is no
reason why plants like the primrose and ferns should not be
propagated by seed, or parting the roots, instead of uprooting
them from their native habitats.

In geology the main features of our neighbourhood are well
known, but there are doubtless many details yet to be filled in,

Proceedings. xli

and I may point out the useful function which a Club like ours
may serve in preserving records of geological sections, especially
such as are of a temporary character. It often happens that the
beds to which most geological interest attaches are not those
which are most valuable in a commercial point of view—thus an
abundance of fossil shells in a clay unfits it for brickmaking—
and hence they are not to be found exposed in permanent open-
ings, as pits and quarries, but only in casual diggings, as for
sewers and drains, foundations of houses, new roads, and wells.
Well sections are especially important to be recorded since in a
district like this we depend upon them almost entirely for a
knowledge of the deep geology. ;

I may mention that the objection which I have raised to pur-
chasing wild animals and plants does not apply to fossils, which
do not propagate themselves; on the contrary, the knowledge
that such things have a value in money or beer leads workmen
to preserve specimens that would otherwise be thrown away.

I regret that I cannot say much upon photography, never
having acquired that pleasing art. I will only point out the
valuable service which the Photographic Section might render to
other sections of the Club by preserving records of natural
features of interest, such as of remarkable trees, of plants of
which the characters are imperfectly preserved in a dry state, of
geological sections, ancient buildings, &c. A Club album might
be formed for the preservation of these records.

Anthropology and archeology find a place,—indeed, a consider-
able one,—at our meetings and excursions, but have not been
recognized as yet by the appointment of a sub-committee. It is
possible that such a sub-committee might do good service in pre-
serving records of the fast disappearing relics of past times in
our town and neighbourhood. Probably, however, those members
most competent to act on such a committee are already on other
sub-committees.

Sub-Committees.

The members of the following Sub-Committees will, at all
times, be glad to receive notice of, and to investigate, any facts
of interest connected with the Natural History of the district,
and to give to members of the Club any advice and assistance in
their power.

Botanical Sub-Committee.—James Epps, F.L.8., Norfolk House,
Beulah Hill, Upper Norwood; W. Inerams, Whiitgifi Schools,
Church Road; H. T. Mennutt, F.L.8. (Hon. Sec.), Park Hill
Rise; H. Franxziin Parsons, M.D., F.G.8., Park Hill Rise;
Ernest Strraker, Spencer Road.

xi Proceedings.

Geological Sub-Committee. — James CutsHotm, Addiscombe
Lodge; Grorcx Hinpz, Ph.D., F.G.8., Avondale Road; EH.
Lovert (Hon. Sec.), Outram Road; W. Torrey, F.R.S., F.G.S.,
Elgin Road; H. Turner, Lansdowne Road; Txos. Waker,
C.E., Warrington Road.

Meteorological Sub-Committee—F. C. Bayarp, LL.M. (Hon.
Sec.), Wallington; Txos. Cusnine, F.R.A.S., Chepstow Road;
Bartpwin Latuam, C.E., Duppas House, Croydon.

Microscopical Sub-Committee—T. D. Axpous, F.R.M.8., 387,
St. Peter’s Road; H. Greenway, Ashburton Road; J. W. Hztps,
Stafford Road; W. Murron Houmss (Hon. Sec.), Glenside, St.
Peter’s Road; E. B. Srurez, The Waldrons.

Photographic Sub-Committee. — J. Wir Brown, Heathfield
Road; A. H. Carrer, Reedham, Purley; H. D. Gower (Hon.
Sec.), 16, Wandle Road; W. Low Sargeant, 7, Belgrave Road,
8. Norwood.

Zoological Sub-Committee. —Joun Berney, F.R.M.S. (Hon.
Sec.), Chatsworth Road; Pamir Crowzey, F.Z.S., F.L.S.,
Waddon; C. H. Goopman, Bryn Cottage, Whyteleaf, Surrey ; H.
Ler, St. John’s Grove; R. McLacauan, F.R.S., F.L.8., 23,
Clarendon Road, Lewisham.

The President, Vice-Presidents, and Hon. Secretary of the
Club for the time being are ex-officio members of every Sub-
Committee.

Members elected, 1895.

January 11th.—Henry Joseph Cooper, M.B., Cromer Lodge, Bird-
hurst Road. George Crabb, Redbrick Cottage, Upper Addiscombe
Road. Arthur Leaver, Walbrook Lodge, Barham Road. John Yates,
15, Canterbury Road.

February 8th.—George Binyon, Allandale, Coombe Road. Brandon
Dansie, 15, Outram Road.

April 12th.—Thomas Peacock, Tremonia, Chichester Road. A. R.
T. Bruce, Merstham, Surrey.

May 10th.—Harry Lane, 7, Belgrave Road, 8. Norwood. James
Pascall, Ambleside, Duppas Hill. J. W. Thatcher, Eversleigh,
Purley, Surrey.

September 19th.—Arthur P. Hoole, The Willows, Sutton, Surrey.

October 17th.—T. Archibald Dukes, B.Sc.M.B., 16, Wellesley Road.

Exhibits, 1898.

January 11th.—W. Murton Holmes, A medal of aluminium struck
in memory of the Chemist Shields; also a preserved water tortoise.

February 8th.—Mr. Lovett, Shell ornaments from Borneo ; also a
Maori food dish. C. F. Bing, Geological specimens. The President,
Water containing Infusoria, &c., and also diagrams in illustration of
his paper.

March 8th.—C. F. Bing, Historie implements of warfare, Mr,

Proceedings. xliil

Aldous, Views of old London Bridge; Indian betel-nut cutters, and an
Egyptian pen case.

April 12th.—E. Lovett, Fire-making appliances of the 17th and
18th Centuries, and sundry cocoons and tick. Mr. Waterall, Speci-
mens of minerals from Switzerland. Mr. Aldous, Solar microscope.
Mr. Crowley, pup.

May 10th.—K. B. Sturge, Parasitic fungus on mint, Beidiwm
menthe. C. H. Goodman, Eggs and specimen of Gerris. T. D.
Aldous, New reflector for drawing and monochromatic illumination.
The President, Fresh specimens of rare British plants, seakale, Crambe
maritima, Lithospermum purpureo-cerulewm, from Sidmouth ; Poten-
tilla rwpestris, Breidden, P. alpestris, Switzerland, Polygonatum
verticillatum, Norway, P. officinale, Savoy, Helianthemum polt-
foliwm, Torquay, Actea spicata, Towton (Yorks), Alliwm carinatum,
Guernsey, Cypripedium calceolus, Bavaria: grown in Croydon.

September 19th.—W. M. Holmes, Alcyonella fungosa, and a stuffed
mole. ©. H. Goodman, Wasps’ nests, and a photograph of fresco.
E. Lovett, Microscopes and articles illustrating his communication on
primitive art. The President, Fungi, Polyporus annosus, P. betulinus.

October 17th.—T. D. Aldous, Filaria sanguines-hominis. H.
Lovett, Stone implements in illustration of Dr. Parsons’ paper ; Pebbles
covered with eggs of the stone mite, Petrobia lapidum, from Addis-
combe. C. H. Goodman, Photographs illustrating Mr. Budgen’s
paper on Gerris najas. The President, Fistulina hepatica, and
photographs, fossils, and pressed plants in illustration of his paper.

Library.

The additions to the Library during the year 1893 are as
follows :—

From Individuals.—R. H. Worth (Author): The Erme, Yealm,
and Tavy, and the moorland Plym; H. D. Gower: Photographic
papers as issued.

From Societies.—Royal Microscopical Society: J ournal, 4 parts.
La Société Belge de Microscopie: 1892—1893, 2 parts. Eastbourne
Natural History Society: Transactions, 1691—92. Essex Naturalist,
8 parts. Northamptonshire Natural History ‘Society: 5 parts, 1892—
1893. Manchester Geographical Society: Journal, 1892—1893. Ber-
wickshire Naturalists’ Club: Journal, 1891—1892. South Eastern
Naturalist, Vol. I., part 8. Reading Literary and Scientific Society :
Report, 1893. West Kent Natural History and Microscopical Society :
Report 1892—1893. Brighton and Sussex Natural History Society:
Report, 1893. Scottish Microscopical Society: Proceedings, 1891—
18938.

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xlvii

CATALOGUE OF BOOKS IN THE LIBRARY

OF THE

Cropdon Microscopical und Patural History Club.

_Alge, Fungi, &c., Collection and Preparation of. Nave d Spicer. 1869

Amber, On the Microscopical Structure of. Sorby ¢ Butler. :

Archeologia. Society of Antiquaries, London. 24 vols.

Archeology, The Progress of. Dr. J. Evans. 1891.

Archeopteryx, On Portions of a Cranium and Jaw of. Dr. J. Evans.
1881.

Austen, W. E., Memoirs of. Frank Buckland. 1877.

Anatomy, Physiology, &c., Researches in. Gulliver.

Ben Nevis Observatory, its Foundation and Work.

Berwickshire Naturalists’ Club, History of. 2 vols. 1876—81.

Birds of Middlesex, The. J. H. Harting. 1876.

Birds’ Eggs, Catalogue of Mr. P. Crowley’s Collection of. 1883.

Birds, British, List of. British Ornithological Union. 1883.

Birds, Natural History of. 7. Rymer Jones. 1867.

Birds, Eggs, and Nests. Rev. J. C. Atkinson.

Birds’ Eggs and Nests, Natural History of British. Rev. F. O. Morris.
3 vols. 1864.

Birds, Huropean, Handbook of. J. Backhouse. 1890.

Birds, European, List of. H. H. Dresser. 1881.

Botany, A Text-book of. Julwws Sachs. 1875.

Botany, A Text-book of Structural. Thomé. 1878.

Bournes, On. H. H. French.

British Association, Address of President (Sir J. Lubbock). 1881.

British Association, Address of President (Dr. Siemens). 1882.

British Association, Reports 1883 to 1893. 10 vols.

British Association, Subjects for investigation by Local Scientific
Societies.

Brighton and Sussex Natural History and Philosophical Society,
Transactions of the. 1874—77.

Bromley and Keston, Round. Half-Holiday Handbook.

Butterflies, British. J. O. Westwood. 1860.

Callitriche polymorpha as a British plant. W.H.Beeby. 1888.

Camberley, Excursion to, described. Geological Association.

Cardiff, Handbook to. British Association. 1891.

Coral Reefs and Volcanic Islands. Chas. Darwin. 1890.

Coleoptera, American and North Mexican. Awstin. 1880.

Coryphodon remains, Woolwich beds, Croydon. H. M. Klaassen,

Crab and Lobster Fisheries, Reports on. Frank Buckland and
others. 1877.

xlviii Catalogue of Books.

Croydon, Chronicle of. J. Corbet Andersen. 1882.

Croydon to the North Downs. Half-Holiday Handbook.

Croydon Microscopical and Natural History Club, Reports and Trans-
actions of. 1871 to 1884. 2 vols.

Cryptogamic Botany, Introduction to. Rev. M. J. Berkeley. 1857.

Darwin, Charles. Natwre Series. 1882.

Deep Sea Explorations. Pamphlet.

Diatomacee, British. Wm. Smith. 1853—56. 2 vols.

Diatomées, Etudes sur des coupes de. W. Prinz. 1880.

Diatoms, Further Observations on the Movements of. Jabez Hogg.
1880.

Drifts of the Thames Valley. Pamphlet.

Earthquake, the East Anglian, of 1884. Meldola d White. 1885.

Earthquake, the great English. Symons. 1884.

Eastbourne Natural History Society, Transactions. 1 vol. 1875 to
1881.

Edward, Thos., Life of. (The Scottish Naturalist). Dr. Smiles.
1882.

Embryological and other delicate Organisms, Preparing for Micro-
scopical Examination. Hd. Lovett.

Essex Naturalist, The. 5 vols. 1887 to 1891.

Ferns of York, The. Hy. Ibbotson. 1884.

Fishes, The Natural History of British. Frank Buckland. 1880.

Flint, Some Notes on. J. Allen Brown.

Flora, Handbook of the British. G. Bentham. 1865.

Flora of Shetland, The. W.H. Beeby. 1889.

Flora of Surrey, The. A. Bennett.

Fluids. W. F'. Stanley. 1881.

Foraminifera, Introduction to the Study of. W.B. Carpenter. 1862.

Foraminifera of Down and Antrim, Recent. J. Wright.

Fossil Vertebrata, Supplement to Catalogue of British. Woodward ¢
Sherborn. 1891.

Fungi and Wild Flowers, Manual of the Preservation of. J. Lake
English. 1882.

Geological Congress, International. (Report of the British Sub-Com-
mittee). 1888.

Geological Excursions of the Geological Association. 1860 to 1890.

Geological Photography in Hertfordshire. John Hopkinson. 1890.

Geological Surveys of Europe, National. W. Topley. 1885.

Geology, Manual of. Rev. S. Haughton. 1876.

Geology of Ealing, Evidences of Glacial Deposit. J. Allen Brown.

Geology of the Wandle and Ravensbourne Watershed. J. W. Flower.
(Manuscript).

Geology and Geography of Western Canada. W. Topley. 1885.

Greenwich Astronomical Results. 1856, 1858, and 1873.

Greenwich Observatory: On the Value of the Moon’s Semidiameter.
1864.

Histology, Lectures on. John Quekett. 1852.
Human Microscopie Anatomy. A. Kédlliker. 1860.
Hunterian Oration: Royal College of Surgeons. Gulliver. 1883.

—

Catalogue of Books, xlix

Hymenoptera, Remarks on the Hairs of some of our British. Hdwd.
Saunders. 1878,

Index Entomologicus. W. Wood. 1854.

Insects, American. Thos. Say. 1824—28.

Insects, Lepidopterous, Catalogue of the Indian Museum. Horsfield
Moore.

Invertebrates, Museum talk on. Pamphlet.

Lantern Slides, 293 presented by Mr. Low Sarjeant.

ea REN of Middlesex, Thirty-six Hours Hunting among the. G.
J. Klein.

Leuconid Calcisponge from the Middle Lias of Northamptonshire,
Dr. G. J. Hinde. 1889.

Local Scientific Investigation, On. John Hopkinson. 1890.

London Geological Field Class, Report of Excursions, 1888.

Lower London Tertiaries, Section of, at Park Hill, Croydon, A, M.
Klaassen.

Manchester Microscopical Society, Transactions. 1885 to 1890.
Meteorite, Fall of, near Middlesboro’. A. S. Herschel.

Meteorites, Catalogue of, in British Museum. Pamphlet.
Meteorological Observers, Hints to. Royal Meteorological Society.
Meteorology, Report of Committee of the Royal Society, 1873.
Micrographic Dictionary. Griffith é Henfrey.

Microscope, Cantor Lectures on the. J. Mayall, Jun. 1886.
Microscope, Essays on the. G. Adams. 1798.

Microscope, The Achromatic. Richard Beck. 1865. |

’ Microscope, The. L. Lane Clarke. 1858.

Microscope, The. Naegeli d Schwendener. 1887.

Microscope, The. W.B. Carpenter. 1875.

Microscope and its Revelations, The. W.B. Carpenter. 1868.

Microscope, Practical Treatise on the use of the. John Quekett. 1855.

Microscope, How to work with the. Lionel S. Beale. 1868.

Microscope, How to work with the. Lionel S. Beale. 1875.

Microscope, Reports on the. Pamphlets.

Microscopic Objects, Preparing and Mounting of. Thos. Davies.

Microscopical Manipulation, On. W. T. Suffolk. 1870.

Microscopical Science, Studies in. A.C. Cole. 4 vols. 1883—87.

Microscopy, Practical. G.R. Davis. 1882.

Microspectroscope, Application of, to the Study of Evergreens. Thos.
Palmer.

Migration of Birds, Report on. Brown ¢ Kermode.

Moths, British. J. O. Westwood. 2vols. 1843 and 1849.

Natural History, The Student’s. Wm. Baird, M.D. 1863.

Natural History Objects, Notes on Collecting and Preparing. J. H.
Taylor. 1876. :

Naturalist’s Voyage round the World in H.M.S. ‘Beagle.’ Chas.
Darwin. 1889.

Naturalist’s Voyage round the World in H.M.S. ‘Beagle.’ Chas.
Darwin. 1890.

Nomenclature, On. W. H. Beeby.

Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists’ Society, Transactions. 2 vols.
1879 to 1889,

l Catalogue of Books.

Northamptonshire Natural History Society, Journals. 3 vols. 1882
to 1887.

Octopus, The. Henry Lee. 1875.
Ostracoda from the Fuller’s Earth, Oolite and Bradford Clay, On some.
J. Rupert Jones ¢ C. D. Sherborn. 1888.

Peruvian Bark. C. R. Markham.
Photographie, Traité de. Lerebowrs. 1843.
Photography, British Journal of. 1891.

Photography, British Journal Almanac of. 1886.
Photography, Modern. W. K. Burton. 1885.

Pictorial Effect in Photography. H.P.Robmson. 1886.
Picture-making by Photography. H. P. Robinson.
Pictures of Hast Anglian Life. Hmerson.

Podophthalma, Embryology of the. Pamphlet.
Polarized Light. Chas. Woodward. 1861.

Pond Life, Marvels of. H. J. Slack. 1871.

Portrait Photography, Practical. Wm. Heighway. 1882.
Public Health, Reports of. John Simon. 1887.

Quekett Microscopical Club, Journal of the. 5 vols. 1879 to 1891.

Rainfall, British. G. J. Symons. 12 vols. 1865 to 1870.

Rainfall, Systematic Observations and Record of. G. J. Symons.

Rosarius Year Book, The. Rev. H. H. D’Ombrain. 7 vols. 1877,
1879 to 1884.

Rotifera, The. Hudson & Gosse. 2 vols.

Royal Microscopical Society, Journal of the. 87 vols. 1868 to 1877,
and 1879 to 1891.

Royal Microscopical Society, The President’s Address. 1870.

Royal Society, Philosophical Transactions of the. 17 vols. 1665—
1809.

Science Gossip, Hardwicke’s. 9 vols. 1881 to 1889.

Scientific Directory, International. S. H. Cassano. 1885.

Scientific Terms, Dictionary of. W.M. Buchanan. 1876.

Sea Fables Explained. Henry Lee. 1884.

Sea Marks, Our. EH. Price Edwards. 1884.

Sea Monsters Unmasked. Henry Lee.

Selborne, Natural History of. Gilbert White. 2vols. 1877.

Shells, Collectors’ Manual of Land and Freshwater British. JZ. EH.
Adams. 1884.

Shells, Land and Freshwater British, Wm. Turton. 1857.

Shells, Recent and Fossil. S.P. Woodward. 2vols. 1851.

Smithsonian Institute, Washington, Reports of. 7 vols. 1882 to 1886.

Societies, Year Book of Scientific and Learned. 2 vols. 1886—87.

Spectrum Analysis as applied to Microscopical Investigation. W. T.
Suffolk. 1873.

Spectrum, A New Method of Measuring and Recording the Bands in
the. Thos. Palmer.

Spectrum, Changes in, caused by Vegetable Colouring Matters. Thos.
Palmer.

Subsidences on Blackheath. Pamphlet.

Valerians, On the Two. W. H. Beeby. 1888.

Catalogue of Books, li

Vegetable Lamb of Tartary, The. Henry Lee, 1887.
Violas, On some forms of British. W.H. Beeby. 1889,
Vital Statistics. Dr. Farr. 1885.

Watford Natural History Society, Transactions of the. 2 vols. 1875
to 1878.

Weather at Addiscombe. EH. Mawley. 5 vols. 1879 to 1884.

Weather Charts. G.Corden. 2 vols.in manuscript. 1867 to 1877.

West Kent Natural History Society, Reports. Vols. 1880 to 1891.

Westleton Beds of Suffolk, On their Relation to those of Norfolk. Dr.
J. Prestwich. 1890.

Zoologist, The. 2 vols. 1883—4.
Zoology, Introductory Text-Book of. H. A. Nicholson. 1875.

The Comunittee will be pleased to lend the lantern slides, presented
. the Club by Mr. Low Sarjeant, to Members, on application to the
ibrarian.

CATALOGUE OF BOOKS FOR REFERENCE.
Tue Late Dr. CARPENTER’S COLLECTION.

Annelids, Monograph of the British. McIntosh. 2 vols.
Aphides, Monograph of British. Buckton. 4 vols.

Bibliographia Zoologie. Agassiz. 4 vols. (Ray Society).

Botanical Geography. Meyen. (Ray Society).

Botanical and Physiological Memoirs. (Ray Society).

Botanical Works of Robert Brown, Miscellaneous. 2 vols. And Atlas
of Plates. (Ray Society).

Botany. Withering. 4 vols.

Botany, Reports and Paperson. 2 vols. (Ray Society).

Botany and Zoology, Reports and Progress of. (Ray Society).

Butterflies and Moths, Larve of British. Buckler. 3 vols.

Carex, Illustrations of the Genus. Boott. 4 vols. (Ray Society).
Cetacea, Recent Memoirs of the.

Cirripedia, Monograph of the. Darwin. 2vols. (Ray Society).
Collembola and Thysanura, Monograph of. Lubbock. (Ray Society).
Copepoda, Monograph of British. Brady. 3 vols. (Ray Society).
Cryptogamia, Higher. Hofmeister. (Ray Society).

Entomostraca, Natural History of British. Baird. (Ray Society).

Foraminifera, Introduction to the Study of. Carpenter.
Foraminifera, Recent. Walliamson.

Generations, Alternations of. Steenstrwp. (Ray Society).
Gymnoblastic Hydroids, Monograph of the. Allman.

Hemiptera-Heteroptera, British. Douglas ¢ Scott. (Ray Society).
Hymenoptera, Monograph of British Phytophagous. Cameron. 2 vols.
Hydrozoa, Oceanic. Hualey.

lii Catalogue of Books.

Lichens, Angiocarpous. Leighton. (Ray Society). -

Meduse, British Naked-eyed. Hd. Forbes.
Mollusca, Nudibranchiate. Alder d Hancock. 7 vols.

Oribatide, British. Michael. 2 vols.

Paleontographical Society, Publications of the. 44 vols.
Physiophilosophy, Elements of. Oken. (Ray Society).
Polyzoa, Freshwater. Allman.

Pterylography. Nitzsch.

Ray, Correspondence of. (Ray Society).

Ray, Memorials of. (Ray Society).

Reptiles of British India. Giinther. '
Royal Society, Abstracts of Proceedings. 1801 to 1873. 21 vols.

Selecta Fungorum Carpologia. Tulasne. 3 vols.

Shells, Bone, &c., Formation of. George Rainey.

Shoulder-girdle and Sternum, Structure and Development of, in the
Vertebrata.

Spiders of Great Britain and Ireland. Blackwall. 2 vols.

Spongiadse, Monograph of British. Bowerbank. 4 vols. (Ray Society).

Trilobites, Organization of. Burmeister.
Vegetable Teratology. Masters. (Ray Society),
Zoology, Reports on. (Ray Society).

Lent sy Mr. MENNELL.

British Ferns. Newman,
British Poisonous Plants. Sowerby é Johnson.

Flora of Essex. Gibson.
Frog, The Common. St. George Mwart.

Insects, Origin and Metamorphoses of.
Meteorology. Daniel. 2 vols.

Natural History Review. 3 vols.
Northumberland and Durham Natural History Society, Transactions
of the. Vols. 1 to 7.

Rusticus, The Letters of. 1849,
Tyneside Naturalists’ Field Club, Transactions of the. Vols. 1 to 6.
Vertebrata, Handbook of the Yorkshire.

TRANSACTIONS

OF

THE CROYDON MICROSCOPICAL AND
NATURAL HISTORY CLUB.

1893—94.

110.—HartH TEMPERATURES.
By Dr. H. Franxuin Parsons, F.G.S.
(Read February 8th, 1893.)

As a small contribution to the proceedings of the Croydon
Microscopical and Natural History Club, which has done me the
honour to elect me as its President, I submit some observations
which I have made during 1892 on the seasonal variations of the
temperature of the earth at depths of 1 ft. and 4ft. below the
surface. But as these by themselves would be rather a meagre
bill of fare to set before you, I propose to supplement them by a
short sketch of what is known as to the temperature of the upper
layers of the earth at different seasons and different depths. My
observations were made at Park Hill Rise, at an altitude of about
250 ft. above the sea, under grass, the soil being stiff clay (a
small outlier of the London clay). The thermometers were made
specially for me by Mr. Denton of Hatton Garden. The bulb is
enclosed in an outer shell to retard the movement of the mereury,
so that it may not change during the act of withdrawal and
reading. The thermometers are graduated on the stem, each
degree measuring ;4, in. They have not been verified at Kew,
but when placed together in a water bath the readings of the two
agree to a tenth of a degree Fahr. They are let down by brass
chains into pieces of iron gas-pipe driven vertically into the
ground to the required depth; one end of the chain is attached
to a loop on the top of the thermometer, the other to a cork,
which closes the upper end of the tube, over which a flower

B

62 Dr. H. Franklin Parsons on

saucer is inverted. I have since thought that it would have been
better if the pipe for the shallower thermometer had been placed
obliquely, sloping to the north, so that the bulb of the thermo-
meter should have been at the depth of a foot, and have had the
earth and grass directly above it. The readings were taken once
a week, on Sunday mornings between 9 and 10 a.m.; the maxi-
mum and minimum air-temperatures during the preceding week
being taken at the sametime. These were taken by a Six’s ther-
mometer hung against a north wall of my house. The readings
of this thermometer have been compared, by immersion in a
bath, with those of the earth thermometers, and corrected ac-
cordingly, so that they correspond toabout 1° F. The average
of daily observations would no doubt have given a truer approxi-
mation to the mean temperature of the week, but frequent absences
from home in the early part of the year prevented my attempting
observations more often than once a week. The mean temperature
of the year (48°6°) thus obtained is about the same as at Green-
wich, viz., 48°3°; but the weekly readings are higher than the
Greenwich means in summer and lower in winter.

The results of my observations are given in the accompanying
table and diagram.

Croypon GREENWICH (week

ending previous day).
Earth. Air,
Date. _
Week Tr f
a a Max on “0 ae
Jan. 3, 1892) 38°1° 43-0° 55° 43-0° 38°5°
ree 0) 34°9 41:6 45 33°1 37°7
pie 7 33°9 40°5 37 30°8 38:1
», 24 34:9 38°9 51 37°4 39°1
Fees! 41°4 40:2 53 42:7 40
Feb. 7 39°6 41-1 52 41°5 40:6
Pree fle: 39:0 42:0 54 43°3 39-4
Peer! 35°5 40°9 45 30°7 39°1
5728 39°2 41-1 55 40°9 39°8
March 6 35°6 40°8 43 33°5 40:4
rks 34:6 39-6 41 31°6 40°7
aa) 40°2 39°9 60 41-4 41:2
AL 43°7 41-1 60 41°4 41°7
April 3 42°8 41:9 68 42°7 44:3
hoe) 47-9 44-2 74 53°4 46°6
ahi elit: 41°7 44:3 67 41:3 47-2
» 24 49:2 44:5 70 47-1 48:1
May 1 45:9 45°9 65 45°1 48°5
~ 8 46:5 45°7 62 44-7 49°5
Gord 52-7 48-0 72 55°4 51°5
ssvy oe 54:4 49°6 69 53°9 54
ee 4s) 60°5 52°0 85 62°8 55°9

“OS WeUIMaN! ISOM _

‘eq ven 00 adeg ony =p ump yy ape ged
> pOz'er LL ple 0B Ol 9° 06'G4'9L°G" S52 °St "LL"

rac 2 aca aa
agp
s o
‘u0phorg
HH
is aa
ae
Lt
v9 _
sounye to dws J, 59
ee a

“9°08 O88 C'S 9S RL LL b BS 1S HLL LE
"qdes bay

4

+
4

:

i

g 5 ae

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yx
«J

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‘- erety

’ ¥
ya

SieAae

Earth Temperatures, 68

GREENWICH (week

CRoypDon. ending previous day),

Earth. Air. Air.

Weekly |Average of
Mean. | 20 years.

June 5, 1892) 59°7° | 54:1° | 87° | 45° 57°5°
i 19 63-0 557 85 49 58:5
» 19 57:3 56:2 66 38 59:3
So 2B 60:5 56-2 77 45 61:0
July 3 68-0 57°6 83 43 61:7
10 62°5 58-4 80 51 61:8
i t07 60°5 57-5 77 51 63:1
et 24. 61:9 57:0 74 48 63:1
pe te 24. 62:2 58:0 76 49 62°6
Aug. 7 63-2 58:5 79 49 62:7
Aya th 63°5 585 80 43 62:6
Sepia 62:7 60:0 84 50 61:9
41098 61:9 59-7 81 49 61-1
Sept. 4 58°6 59:2 73 45 60°3
eS i) 58:8 57-9 66 38 59-1
» 18 56:0 57:8 73 37 57°6
aa OB 57:0 57-6 73 40 56:4
Oct. 2 52:0 57:0 67 38 553
en) 49-0 545 62 40 53:3
sae (3 48-5 532° 59 34 51'8
» 28 43-0 50°6 52 31 50°8
» 30 48:5 49-1 59 25 48:8
Noy. 6 48-7 49:5 57 30 46°7
xt 18 46:7 49-0 54 27 43°8
» . 20 45:8 49:2 60 30 43-4
2h 44:3 47:8 50 28 41-1
Dec. 4 42°5 46:9 52 29 41:3
eh 37:0 44:9 42 26 41°5
i a7ls 43-0 44:7 54 28 415
te 377 44:5 48 19 39°6
Jan. 1, 1893) 35°6 42:0 34 15 38:8
Mean ...... 48:9 49:2 63:1 | 34:0 49:6

From this table we may learn—

1. That the mean temperature of the air was 48°6° F., of the
earth at 1 ft. depth 48-9°, and at 4 ft. depth 49°2°, showing a
slight increase with depth.

2. That the highest reading of the 1 ft. thermometer was 68° F.
on July 8rd, and the lowest 83-9° on Jan. 17th ; a range of 34°1°.

It is of practical importance to observe that the temperature a
foot below the surface never fell so low as 82° F., as showing that
esnives buried at that depth are not likely to be often blocked

y frost.

3. That the highest reading of the 4 ft. thermometer was

60:0° F. on Aug. 21st, and the lowest 38:9° on Jan. 24th; a
BQ

64 Dr. H. Franklin Parsons on

range of only 21.1°, as against a range of 34°1° at 1 ft. and 72°
in the air.

4, That the movement of the 4 ft. thermometer was much
more equable than that of the 1 ft. one; the former exhibiting
few fluctuations, and never a difference of so much as 8° between
the readings of successive weeks, whereas the latter exhibits
many ups and downs, and sometimes differences of over 7° in
successive weeks.

5. That in its movement the 4 ft. thermometer lags behind
the 1 ft. one, being below it in spring and summer, and above it
in autumn and winter.

The results, so far as they go, are in accordance with the
vastly more extended observations made at Greenwich Observa-
tory during the 27 years (1847-73), and at depths ranging from
one inch to 8 metres =25°6 ft. The results of these observations
are shown as monthly means on another diagram.

The mean yearly temperature of the air during the period
was 49-43°

Of the earth at one inch depth, 51:97°
a sat. tocerishts =f 51:19°

5 so) oe He A 51695

7 pi Lee ik, 3 aoe?

», 25°6 ft. ipo eo pee

The movement of the temperature at one inch depth was
nearly parallel to that of the air, but it was higher throughout
by 2° in winter and 3° in summer. At the greater depths the
movement of the temperature was retarded in proportion to the
depth. Thus, while the highest monthly mean in the air was
attained in July, that of the earth at 3-2 ft. was attained in
August, at 6°4 ft. in August and September, at 12:8 ft. in
September and October, and at 25-6 ft. in November and
December. Conversely, the lowest monthly mean was attained
in the air in January, at 3:2 ft. depth in February, at 6-4 ft.
depth in February and March, at 12-8 ft. in March and April,
and at 25°6 ft. in May and June. Thus, owing to the bad con-
ducting properties of the earth, the annual heat-wave takes four
or five months to reach to a depth of 25 ft.

The temperature also becomes more equable in proportion to
the depth. Thus, while the monthly means of the air tempera-
ture vary through a range of 24°, those of the thermometer at
3°2 ft. range through 21°, at 6-4 ft. through 15°, at 12:8 ft.
through 9°, and at 25-6 ft. through little more than 3°. Ata
greater depth it may be expected that we should meet with a
practically equable temperature, unaffected by the seasons, and
not far distant from the mean temperature of the locality.

Our distinguished member, Mr. Baldwin Latham, tells me

‘ that he has for a number of years made observations with earth

SY
Q
Ss

OLFIOTF?

lay ee INV VA Carle
Mean Monthly EARTH TMP READ oes

Ekibi 12 If Ne SEATS

Situation of

Bulb.

Th as Jan.
_ thermometer. eS

Ie ae, — NES) aoe

Aug. Sept | Oct.

Nov.

Apr. ik May. | June —

Earth Temperatures. 65

thermometers at Addiscombe, at depths up to 50 ft., and that he
finds that the seasonal changes of temperature do not extend so
deep as 40 ft., but that even at 50 ft. there are slow changes of
small amount extending over a series of years.

Neither the Greenwich observations nor my own show the
diurnal range of temperature, but some information on this
point is given by Mr. G. T. Symons in an Abstract of Meteoro-
logical Observations made in the Royal Botanical Society’s
Gardens, Regent’s Park, during the years 1871-76. Thege
observations were made three times daily, viz., at 9 a.m., 3p.m.,
and 9 p.m., and at depths of 3, 6, 12, 24, and48in. The means
for the period were as follows :—

a tt eee a a a

Mean of all readings for |Extreme readings
the period 1871 - 6. during period. | Range of
Depth. Monthly
Means.

Jam. | 3p.m. | 9 p.m. |Highest. | Lowest.

BIE si cie Sikin 2 sie 50°1° 55°3° 49:1°

3inches ....| 49°0 59°0 50°5 93°0° 26°2° 31°3°
Ginches ....| 48°9 52°8 51°6 84:0 31:0 29°4
Pfoot. ...... 49-2 49-9 50°5 77-2 32:0 26°5
2 feet........ 49-5 49°5 49°5 67°3 33°0 22:6
4 feet....00+ 50°1 50°1 50°0 66:0_| 37:0 18-9

These observations show that the course of the daily heat-
wave through the badly conducting earth resembles that of the
annual heat-wave, as shown by the Greenwich observations, only
that it does not extend so deep, not reaching to a depth of 2 ft.
It will be seen that of the three times of observation the air
temperature is highest at 3 p.m., and is lower at 9 p.m., when
the sun is down, than at 9a.m., when the sun is above the
horizon. At 8 in. depth the mean temperature is also highest
at 3 p.m., but is higher at 9 p.m. than at 9 a.m., indicating that
the highest point during the day must have been attained after
3 p.m.; and this is still more the case at 6 in. depth, while at
1 ft. depth the highest temperature of the 24 hours appears to be
attained at 9 p.m.

There is a difference between the conducting power of different
soils, light dry soils being worse conductors than dense clay
soils. Hence the former are subject to greater extremes of
temperature at the surface than the latter, but the heat and cold
do not penetrate so far down. This helps to explain how it is
that some plants, such as wallflowers, will stand the winter on
dry soils, but are killed by severe frost in clay soils, the frost
in the latter case penetrating sufficiently deep to kill the spongy

66 Dr. H. Franklin Parsons on

rootlets which are the means of nutrition of the plant. For a
similar reason plants which are well rooted will bear a frost
which would kill those which have been recently transplanted,
the rootlets of the former having penetrated to a sufficient depth
to be out of harm’s way.

The seasonal growth of plants, and especially of bulbous and
other plants which send up annual stems from perennial roots,
is doubtless largely dependent upon the temperature of the soil,
probably as much as upon direct solar heat or air temperature.
With most of our indigenous plants probably growth does not
commence until a temperature of about 42° F’. has been reached.
This is a direction in which much useful knowledge is likely to be
gained by a combination of phenological and earth temperature
observations.

The combination in autumn of moisture and plentiful decaying
organic matter, with a high ground temperature, is probably the
cause of the abundant development of fungi at that season in
our woods and fields. Similar causes probably account for the
seasonal prevalence in autumn of certain diseases, as typhoid
fever and diphtheria, which are believed to be produced by bacteria
of kinds capable of living outside the human body as well as within
it. In at least one disease, viz., the ‘epidemic diarrhea, which
occasions such a heavy mortality among children in some of our
large towns, a definite connection with earth temperature con-
ditions has been made out. On this point my former colleague,
Dr. Ballard, says:—‘‘ The summer rise of diarrhea mortality
does not commence until the mean temperature recorded by the
4 ft. earth thermometer has attained somewhere about 56° F., no
matter what may have been the temperature previously attained
by the atmosphere or recorded by the 1 ft. earth thermometer.
The maximum diarrhea mortality of the year is usually observed
in the week in which the temperature recorded by the 4 ft. earth
thermometer attains its mean weekly maximum. The decline of
the diarrhea mortality coincides with the decline of the tempera-
ture recorded by the 4 ft. earth thermometer, which temperature
declines very much more slowly than the atmospheric tempera-
ture, or than that recorded by the 1 ft. earth thermometer; so
that the epidemic mortality may continue, although declining,
long after the last-mentioned temperatures have fallen greatly.”
Possibly, as Mr. Baldwin Latham has suggested, the temperature
of the drinking water may be concerned in the production of
summer diarrhea, but this temperature is largely dependent
upon that of the earth.

The water of a moderately deep well, say, 50 ft. deep, is
approximately constant at about the mean yearly temperature of
the locality, but the water from superficial sources, such as
rivers and open reservoirs, varies greatly in temperature with the

Mean Monthly Temperatures. of
London Water.-Supplies as drawn
(from tite ayers.

SG erat). years |Og oma

West, Newman se.

Earth Temperatures. ; 67

season (Mr. Symons, in a series of observations already quoted,
found the water of the lake in Regent’s Park to range in tem-
perature between 80° and 29°F), I have arranged, in the form of
a diagram, the mean monthly temperatures of London water sup-
plies for the nine years 1884-1892, as given by Dr. Frankland in
the Registrar-General’s Weekly Returns for those years. In this
diagram the temperature of the Kent Company’s water, which is
drawn from deep wells in the chalk, is represented by a dotted line,
and the average temperatures of the water of the companies
deriving their supply from the Thames by a thick line. These
temperatures, however, are those of the water as drawn from the
mains, and do not represent it as delivered to consumers, for in
its passage through the smaller branches of the system the water
will doubtless have to a considerable extent approximated its
temperature to that of the soil in which the pipes are laid. Still
the difference in temperature between the deep-well waiter of the
Croydon Corporation and the Thames water of the Lambeth
Company is, I find, sufficiently perceptible when one takes one’s
morning tub, the former being comparatively equable in tempera-
ture, the latter icy cold in winter and lukewarm in summer.

The water of deep springs, such as those which issue from the
chalk at Waddon, is similarly equable in temperature, having
about the mean temperature of the year; hence it feels de-
liciously cool in summer, while it steams on a frosty day, and
keeps aquatic plants in verdant growth all through the winter.

When the temperature of the earth at depths below that at
which the influence of the seasons ceases can be ascertained, as
in mines, deep wells and borings, and tunnels, it is found to
increase steadily with the depth, though the rate of increase
' varies considerably in different places. The Underground Tem-
peratures Committee of the British Association made, in 1882, a
report, giving a summary of the best observations which had
been made up to that date. In thirty-six such observations
quoted the rate of increase of temperature with the depth varied
from 1°F. in 180 ft. in a deep well at Liverpool, to 1° F. in
34 ft. in a mine in Weardale. The rate of increase, however,
was usually similar in observations made in the same neighbour-
hood ; thus, in artesian wells in the neighbourhood of London
and Paris it was 1° in about 56 ft.; in the deep collieries of the
coalfield east of Manchester it was 1° in 77 ft. The differences
in the rates of increase in different cases may partly be explained
by differences in the nature of the rocks or configuration of the
surface. In compact rocks the heat conductivity is greater, and
the increase of temperature with depth consequently slower than
in looser and softer beds. Again, in laminated rocks the heat
conductivity is greater in the direction of the layers than across
them; hence in stratified rocks dipping at a high angle, the

68 Dr. H. Franklin Parsons on Karth Temperatures.

increase with depth is slower than where the beds are level. In
some cases local irregular increases of heat in mines appear to
be due to the oxidation of pyrites. Under high ground, as in the
St. Gothard and Mont Cenis tunnels, the temperature rises, but
not with a gradient so steep as that of the surface. The mean
deduced by the Committee from the thirty-six sets of observations
was 1° increase in 64 ft., or over 82° per mile.

At this rate, at a depth small in comparison to the diameter
of the earth, say, 100 miles, a temperature would be reached at
which all substances which we know would be melted or volati-
lised, and from the fact of the temperature increasing with the
depth, the conclusion was formerly drawn that the interior of the
earth must be a mass of molten matter, enclosed like an egg
within a thin shell of solidified rock. Mathematicians, however,
say that the rigidity of the earth must be equal to that of steel,
or the equatorial bulging caused by its rotation on its axis would
be greater than it is. Hence the physical condition of the
interior of the earth must be looked on as a problem which is
not yet solved, and perhaps never will be. The enormous pres-
sure in the interior of the earth is a factor altogether beyond our
experience,

The geo-isotherms or planes of equal temperature in the earth’s
crust cannot be everywhere equally distant from the centre;
they will be depressed under the oceans and polar regions, and
elevated under mountains and high plateaux, in volcanic regions,
and in the tropics. At Yakoutsk, in Siberia, the earth is perma-
nently frozen at a depth of 540 ft., whereas at Trevandrum, in
India, the mean temperature at a depth of 12 ft. is found to
be 86°.

The heat of the interior of the earth, coupled with great pres-
sure and the probable presence of superheated water acting
during the ages of geologic time, must powerfully modify the
physical and chemical structure of the materials of the earth ;
and when we remember that the more ancient rocks which are
known to us must have been brought to the surface by move-
ments of the earth’s crust after having been at one time covered
by strata several miles in thickness which have subsequently
been denuded, we need not wonder at these early rocks having
lost almost all traces of their original structure, and become
profoundly altered and metamorphosed into crystalline materials.

The temperature of the ground at any given depth is mainly
derived from two sources, viz., the rays of the sun and the
earth’s internal heat, the temperature of the superficial layers
depending almost entirely upon the former source, while the
latter becomes appreciable at the greater depths explored by
geologists. There may be other subsidiary sources, such as
chemical changes and the heat produced by unequal pressures,

Mr. A. B. Farn on the Silkworm Disease. 69

A heap of rotting manure will attain a heat of 120° F., and the
decay of fallen leaves and other organic matter must help, how-
ever slightly, to raise the temperature of the superficial layers of
the soil. The oxidation of pyrites, which we know will some-
times generate heat sufficient to set the spoil-heaps at collieries
on fire, is believed to affect the temperature in mines. The
erushing of rock by local strains also develops heat, and is
believed to be the source of volcanic action. All these sources of
heat, however, like other forms of energy on the earth, may be
traced back to one or other of two sources, viz., the sun’s radia-
tion and the earth’s original stock of energy.

111.—Tuz Suxworm Disease; its Cause aND PREVENTION.
By A. B. Farn.
(Read April 12th, 1893.)

I nave been honoured by a request to read a paper before your
Society, and have thought that, in complying with that request,
I would try to interest you by placing before you ‘as concisely as
possible an account of Pasteur’s researches as to the cause, and
prevention, of the silkworm disease, rather than attempt any-
thing original. Although the rearing of silkworms in this
country can scarcely be called one of the industries, yet the
results of silkworm rearing in other countries must indirectly
interest the commerce of this country. No less than £2,000,000
sterling is the value of the silk raw or manufactured imported
into this country annually. There being no large rearing of
silkworms here would seem to account for the fact that M.
Pasteur’s report on the disease does not seem to have received
very general attention in this country, nor, so far as my recol-
lections carry me, does there seem much need to intervene as
regards that particularly hardy race of silkworms which is still,
I believe, occasionally reared in this country. In one’s school-
days, I remember, each boy would at certain periods turn him-
self into a sort of perambulating incubator, carrying during the
daytime, in his waistcoat pocket, or even next his skin, a small
piece of flannel containing some score or more silkworms’ eggs,
and at night trying to maintain a more or less uniform tempera-
ture by placing them under his pillow. Then, too, with childish
impatience, he would, if a worm had but the temerity to show
his black head through the side of an ovum, endeavour to assist
nature and bring about a premature delivery by the aid of a

70 Mr. A. B. Farn on the

needle or a pin. The newly-disclosed worm thus incontinently
dragged into existence had to comfort itself with lettuce-leaves,
and these sometimes by no means of a succulent nature; and he
was a lucky worm indeed which survived until mulberry-leaves
came in, and then he had but the coarse leaves of the black mul-
berry; the tender, fine-textured, leaves of the white mulberry
never entered into his wildest dreams. Yet, despite rough
handling and indifferent food, some worms survived to produce
a very fair cocoon. If we believe in the survival of the fittest,
—and the race is still continuing in schoolboy hands,—I very
much doubt whether now anything less than a sledge-hammer
could seriously injure it.

But on the Continent, where silkworms were reared by myriads
and every care was taken of them, it sometimes happened that
entire broods died before reaching maturity. The eggs carefully
retarded in development by being kept in a cool place until the
tender leaves of the white mulberry were sufficiently advanced ;
the larve reared in houses constructed on scientific principles,
neither too hot nor too cold, and properly ventilated, surrounded
by everything that experience could dictate for the advantage of
the worm ; yet meeting with nothing but disaster. In France,
so terrible was the mortality of the worms, that the annual
crops of cocoons had fallen from 26,000,000 kilogrammes to
4,000,000 kilogrammes, causing a loss of at least £4,000,000
sterling in one year alone. Events seemed to point to the total
extinction of the silkworm. Nurserymen, who were rearing the
white mulberry-trees to transplant to the silk-rearing localities,
found themselves almost bankrupt. Trade in the South of
France suffered generally, for the most important debts incurred
during the year were usually satisfied after the silk harvest ; and
one can readily imagine all sorts of ramifications of distress
when the silk crop proved a failure.

All rearers of silkworms had at times lost their broods from a
cause they could readily understand, but here was a disease as
mysterious in its operations as it was fatal. When healthy
worms are approaching maturity they eat incessantly, taking in
an enormous quantity of food, of which a very large proportion
is fluid. The only way the larve can dispose of this fluid (as
they do not urinate) is by an imperceptible evaporation, through
their skins, and anything which checks or suppresses this evapo-
ration is deadly to the larve. In warm humid weather, when
the atmosphere is saturated by moisture, unless the temperature
of the rearing-houses is maintained so that the air therein is
kept artificially dry, the worms can no longer dispose of the
superfluous moisture within them. The contents of their ali-
mentary canal forthwith ferment, and the larve are seized with
diarrhea, turn rapidly black and putrefy. This disaster, how-

Silkworm Disease. 71

ever, was intelligible to the sericulturist. In consequence of sea-
fogs, when the air is laden with moisture, the rearing of silk-
worms is not attempted near the sea. I have seen the rearing
of silkworms recommended as an Irish industry, as the soil and
climate would suit the mulberry-tree ; the fact that the humidity
of the climate would be prejudicial to the silkworm had been
overlooked. But the disease which persistently and universally
attacked the rearings year after year, which baffled all treat-
ment, and which promised nothing but ruin, was apparently
beyond discovery as to its nature until Pasteur undertook the
enquiry. When first requested to do so he hesitated, not only
having other important investigations under weigh, but, as he
himself expressed it, ‘‘I know nothing about silkworms ; I do
not think I have ever even seen one.” The rejoinder to this
was, ‘So much the better; you will enter into the investigation
with an open mind.” An ‘open mind,” by the way, seems to
be very much in yogue at the present day with certain people,
and on all sorts of subjects too. However, M. Pasteur com-
menced the investigation of the disease, and I will endeavour to
place before you as shortly as I can the results he obtained.

When one speaks of the disease, one refers to Pébrine, about
to be described, and when one speaks of silkworms, one refers to
the larve of Bombyx mori; Pébrine being the most important
disease as Bombyx mori is the silk-producer par excellence.

Our English peasant or labourer keeps a pig or a few fowls to
eke out his income, but in South France peasants and others
rear silkworms instead, investing their money in rearing-houses
and appliances, and in growing mulberry-trees.

In years before Pébrine—or the pepper disease, one of its
symptoms being the appearance of small black spots resembling
pepper scattered over the worms,—before, I say, this disease
became such a scourge, each rearer of silkworms retained, at the
end of the season, some of the finest cocoons he had reared for
the purpose of continuing the breed. He thus sacrificed a
certain amount of silk to ensure eggs from healthy parents ; for
the silk of cocoons devoted to this purpose was not wound off,
and the moth freed itself in the natural way by making a hole in
the cocoon from which it emerged. Hach rearer therefore pro-
vided himself with seed from year to year from moths he had
himself reared, and of whose health he had been assured. Had
this course but continued, little probably would have been heard
of Pébrine, except as quite a casual disease.

But some ingenious individual conceived the idea of rearing
silkworms, not for the silk they produced, but solely for the eggs
which the moths would produce. Thus was started a trade
which supplied eggs in almost any quantity, and so cheaply that
the individual peasant no longer sacrificed any of his cocoons to

72, Mr. A. B. Farn on the

the moths, but reeled off all his silk, and went to the egg-rearer
for his next year’s supply of seed. This new departure was the
primary cause of the resulting terrible loss to the silk-rearers,
although it was a trade profitable enough to the egg-rearers.
Under this fresh division of labour things went smoothly enough
for a year or two, and then came almost total failure of the silk
crop. The seed which had been so successfully reared to silk
suddenly became bad in the extreme, and the strain obtained an
unenviable fame. The seed-rearers went further afield into dis-
tricts where the healthiness of the silkworms promised a supply
of healthy seed ; for a year or two this fresh locality furnished
excellent seed, to be again followed by disaster once more.
Driven from this place, the seed-merchant then made a fresh
start somewhere else, and again history repeated itself—disaster
in two or three years. Always extending their sphere of opera-
tions, the seed-merchants were always attended by disease within
a short period, and with almost total failure of the worms hatched
from the eggs they supplied. France, Spain, Italy, Syria, the
Caucasian Provinces, Wallachia, Moldavia, and other countries
were in turn invaded by the seed-merchants, to be closely fol-
lowed by the disease, until at last it was to Japan alone that the
seed-merchants could look for good seed. China would have
nothing to say to them, and wisely, and they could not obtain a
footing in that country.

Pasteur attributes, and rightly, the extension and intensity of
Pébrine to the following :—There had always been a certain
amount of the disease among silkworms, but causing only a rela-
tively trifling amount of damage; and this damage would have
doubtless continued but trifling if each silk-rearer had adhered to
that good old plan of each year saving some of his healthiest
cocoons for eggs. As I have before remarked, he then knew the
family history, and that upon the healthiness of the eggs de-
pended his silk harvest of the ensuing year, and he took his pre-
cautions accordingly.

But with the seed-merchant it was far otherwise; he had no
concern as to the production of silk, and could view with a
certain amount of equanimity failure of the silk crop, provided
he had an enormous number of eggs to sell. The larger the
number of eggs the more he could sell, and so in rearing-houses,
having no failure of silk before his eyes, he would rear two,
three, or more ounces of seed where a prudent silk-rearer,
realizing the damaging effect of overcrowding of silkworms,
would have accommodated but one ounce of seed. And Pébrine,
ever present, though under normal conditions of rearing a disease
of no great moment, became in these overcrowded houses de-
veloped to a degree which in a few years threatened ruin to the
silk-rearers who purchased seed from these overcrowded houses,

aS t~”

Silkworm Disease. 78

The evils resulting from overcrowding of human beings have
often received the attention of your worthy President, and he
doubtless could give you many instances where disease has
become epidemic in consequence.

This new industry of rearing silkworms from seed therefore
brought about almost total annihilation of the worm. Indeed, I
am not sure whether at the present time there is remaining even
a remnant of that variety of the silkworm which produced the
large shuttle-shaped cocoon of pale or of dark yellow silk of
great substance and lustre. The Japanese variety produces a
sort of bilobed cocoon, being slightly constricted round the
centre, and a silk of pale greenish yellow, wanting both the sub-
stance and lustre of the old Italian and French race. By sub-
stance I mean the thickness of the individual thread forming the
cocoon. This is shown by the following fact : You are doubtless
aware that for commercial purposes the silk of each cocoon is
not reeled off separately, but three, four, five or more cocoons
are wound simultaneously : the thread from each, by giving a
rotary motion to the cocoons as they float on warm water forms
one large thread. Six cocoons of the Japanese variety are
required to form a thread equal to that produced from four
cocoons of the other variety. Perhaps a slight digression on the
subject of reeling the silk may not be out of place here. Even
in those palmy days of sericulture, before Pébrine became a
scourge and egg-rearing an industry, the Italian silk had a
higher reputation than French silk, although the produce of a
precisely similar variety of silkworm, the difference being due
entirely to the mode of reeling the silk from the cocoons adopted
in the two countries. In France each rearer was free to do as
he liked in the matter of reeling, and so each one wound for
himself the silk from the cocoons he had reared. In consequence
there was no uniformity. One man might reel the produce of
three cocoons, another of four, and a third of five cocoons
together. Besides, some would be more expert or more careful
than others in maintaining a uniform thread by at once replacing
a spent cocoon by a fresh one as the reeling went on, or more
careful in eliminating all “foul” silk from the thread. Foul
silk is the technical term for that loose envelope of silk sur-
rounding the true cocoon, and which, being very difficult to reel,
forms kinks and knots. It is evident therefore that the silk of
each rearer might vary considerably, as indeed it did. The silk
thus reeled was bought up by itinerant merchants, who sorted
out the productions as well as they could, and sold the sorted
silk either to larger merchants or to manufacturers.

In Italy, on the other hand, the silk rearer was forbidden by
law to reel the silk the worms he had reared had produced unless
he was specially licensed for the purpose. Reeling silk was a

74 Mr, A. B. Farn on the

business of its own, and quite apart from worm-rearing. The
reelers bought the cocoons from the rearers, and reeled off the
silk. The reeler’s license specified how many cocoons he should
use in making a thread, and departure from this condition was
unlawful. The silk produced therefore from any one reeling-
house was always the production of the simultaneous reeling of
the same number of cocoons, and frequently the whole of the
cocoons of one district went to one reeling-house. ‘To this alone
may be attributed the superiority of Italian silk.

We have seen the cause which intensified the Pébrine disease.
Now to learn from Pasteur something as to the disease itself.
Before he made his enquiry other investigators had observed that
Pébrine was accompanied by small, shining, microscopic bodies
within the affected worms, and that the black spots of the
disease seemed to be due in some change in the skin where these
shining bodies were located. But it was left to Pasteur to
demonstrate that these bodies were parasitic bodies, and were
the sole cause of the disease, as also to prove how readily
the disease can be communicated not only from silkworm to
silkworm, but from one rearing-house to another situated far
apart. He found that one healthy silkworm could communicate
the disease to another healthy worm, and in this way: the para-
sites are voided by infected worms, and may be found in the
frass or dejecta. It often happens that in crawling one over the
other some worms are wounded by the legs of other worms. The
three pairs of front legs in the worms, the prolegs, are furnished
with sharp terminations, which permit them to hold the leaves
on which they are feeding firmly, and the accidental wounds or
punctures above referred to are caused by these sharp legs. If
previous to puncturing in this way the skin of another the worm
has smeared these prolegs by walking over dejecta, and if the
dejecta came from a worm suffering from Pébrine and passing
these parasites, it is evident at once that here was a means by
which the disease could be propagated by one healthy worm to
another healthy worm. To test this Pasteur introduced by
needle puncture these parasites into a previously healthy worm,
and thus infected it. The leaves, too, on which the worms fed
might become soiled by frass containing these parasites, and
upon this contaminated food being ingested Pébrine would ensue.
This he verified by feeding healthy worms with leaves bearing
parasites on their surface. The dust in rearing-houses he found
contained the parasites, and this dust, settling on the leaves,
readily conveyed the disease. A rearer who had never seen
Pébrine universal in a rearing-house went to visit a house in
which the disease was rampant. He spent some time in the
infected house, and took the disease away with him in the
dust which lodged on his clothes, and introduced it with

i ee eS

Silkworm Disease. 75

disastrous effect into his own rearing-house, in which he had
hitherto only most healthy worms.

But Pasteur demonstrated not only that the disease could be
transmitted from worm to worm, by one or all of these modes,
but also that the disease is hereditary, and that under such cir-
cumstances it is most fatal, destroying the worms whilst yet
small. An experienced eye can see at a glance whether Pébrine
is abnormally prevalent in a rearing-house. It is not requisite
to see the black spots on the skin of the diseased worms, but it
is at once observed that, although the worms have hatched
almost simultaneously, and have been reared under precisely
similar conditions, there is a marked difference in the size of
them. Some, the healthy worms, have progressed favourably,
changing their skins regularly, and have attained nearly their
full growth. Others, the diseased worms, are more or less re-
tarded; some are very small, and seem to have made scarcely
any progress, and there is every intermediate size between these
and the healthy worms, according as the subject is more or less
infested by the parasites. This want of uniformity of size is, as
I have already remarked, very noticeable, and at once suggests
the presence of Pébrine. By experiment Pasteur demonstrated,
as indeed would seem but natural, that the earlier in life a worm
became infected the less likelihood was there of it living to pro-
duce silk. It was whilst investigating the meaning of the whole-
sale destruction of young larve in houses which had hitherto
been free of Pébrine that he was led to examine the moths and
the ova laid by them. On the former he discovered the black
spots and the parasites, and these latter he also found in the
ova, pointing to the disease being hereditary.

Supposing worms have been healthy, and yet almost at the
last period of their existence as worms they become infected in
any one of the ways already noted. It is too late in life for the
disease to kill them, or even to prevent them spinning their
cocoons; but nevertheless they bear in them the seeds of the

disease. Having spun their cocoons they in ordinary course turn

to chrysalids. The newly-disclosed chrysalis contains at the
very first nothing but a substance of creamy consistence, having
no divisions into head, thorax, and abdomen. As these divisions
and the internal economy of the perfect insect are gradually de-
veloped, certain of the parasites contained by the diseased worm
are enclosed by the newly forming membranes, and in this
gradual process some parasites become imprisoned by the mem-
branes of the future ova. Thus, when the ova are laid, they
contain from the very first the germs of Pébrine, and presage
certain and untimely death of the larve issuing from them.
Seeds from different parents would not all be infected, and seeds
even from infected parents would not all of them enclose the

76 Mr. A. B. Farn on the Silkworm Disease.

parasite; and so one might reasonably anticipate some small
number at least of healthy worms would hatch from any given
seed. The infected ova would produce infected worms doomed
to an early death, yet not dying before they would become
a source of infection to healthy worms feeding with them.
Pasteur observed that a very large number of worms which had
not inherited the disease but had become infected somewhat late
in life, attained almost their full growth, and would mount into
the twigs provided for them in which to spin their cocoons, and
then, although moving their heads from side to side, and going
through all the motions of spinning cocoons, they produced no
silk whatever. They seemed spinning invisible cocoons with
invisible silk.

Upon making a post-mortem examination of such worms it
was found that the glands, which in a normal condition would
have produced that wonderful fluid which as it is ejected by the
worm dries and forms silk, were crammed by the Pébrine para-
site, to the total exclusion of the silk secretion. On this circum-
stance, and the fact that the silk-glands at all times seem most
infected, Pasteur founds his hypothesis that the silk-glands are
the proper habitat of these parasites. He says as the habitat of
the tapeworm is the large intestine, as muscle is the locality for
trichina spiralis, so the glands of the silkworm are the chosen
home of the Pébrine parasite.

As regards the propagation of the parasite itself, it would seem
to be in this fashion. At a certain period of its existence it loses
its glistening appearance. As it becomes duller small granular
particles are formed in its interior; these increase in size until
at last the capsule of the parent parasite separates, and allows
the nuclei to escape, and these then commence an independent
existence, gradually developing into the glistening full-sized
parasite.

The discovery that Pébrine may become an hereditary disease
not only explained the extermination which overtook some entire
broods, but at the same time furnished the clue to a practical
means of predicting the probable result of rearing the worms of
any batch of seed. If, upon crushing a few ova and examining
their fluid contents under a microscope, a very large number of
parasites are discovered, it may safely be predicted that the
rearing of the worms from this seed will be disastrous. And
upon a more or less abundance of the parasite under such micro-
scopical examination of the seed will depend the prediction as to
the more or less success in rearing worms from such and such a
stock. I may say that I had three samples of seed submitted to
me for microscopical examination and opinion. Relying entirely
upon Pasteur’s guidance in the matter, I predicted “ total failure,”
«almost total failure,” and “ fairly good results” respectively as

Report on the Opening of a Round Barrow, dc. 77

regards these samples, and I was greatly pleased to find my pre-
dictions borne out upon subsequently being put to the test by
rearing larve from the seeds. The practical suggestion of
Pasteur for eliminating the disease seems to be but a tedious
process, as indeed revocare gradum usually is. Tt was this:
Bearing in mind that the disease is hereditary, and bearing in
mind the various ways by which healthy worms may become in-
fected from the company of diseased worms, he suggests that,
commencing with the seed which by microscopical examination
promises the most success, each worm as it hatches should be
kept apart, and each worm should during its life be kept in soli-
tary confinement. Those which show signs of Pébrine should be
promptly destroyed, and only those which ultimately furnish the
finest cocoons should be kept to reproduce their species. Thus
by careful selection and rigid seclusion alone can one once more
obtain a healthy stock.

This, gentlemen, is a concentrated extract of Pasteur’s report
on the disease of silkworms. His patient investigations of the
disease extended over five years, each fact discovered was assigned
its proper place, and each deduction from it was made in that
masterly manner which, in this as in many other matters, has
made Pasteur’s name a household word. Whether he investi-
gates the deterioration in wine, the chicken cholera, hydrophobia,
or Pébrine, he always combines patient investigation with acute
reasoning in a manner which commands our admiration and is
past all praise.

112,— Report on THE OPENING OF A Rounp Barrow, AND A
supPOsED Saxon BurIAL, ON THE Souta Downs NEAR
Arunpex, Apri 157H, 1893. .

By E. Lovett.
(Read May 12th, 1893.)

specting the opening of a round barrow on the South Downs ;
and I have been asked to make a report upon what was found.
Before, however, coming to the subject of this paper, it might
be interesting to briefly allude to the principal methods of dis-
posing of the dead in various countries, and at the different
periods of man’s existence.
It seems to have been a very general characteristic of man of
g

78 My. E. Lovett’s Report on the

all races, and in all times, not only to regard death as a great
and terrible mystery, but to treat the dead, at any rate their own
dead, with the reverence and care which would be the natural
result of the awe caused by that mystery. Therefore, we find
such lasting memorials and such displays of art and science
scattered over the world in connection with the dead of past ages,
many of which are the only existing records of the people they
represent, and from which alone we gather the scant information
we possess regarding them.

Perhaps the earliest form of the disposal of the dead was by
burial, which word simply means “ hiding,’’ the body being laid
on the ground and covered over with stones, thus forming a sort
of cairn or mound. This of course became elaborated, and it is
probable that even in the age of stone this method developed
into the erection of cists or rude slab-constructed stone cham-
bers in the centre of its mound. From this cave-burials would
naturally spring, and as caves were often inhabited, the custom
of converting a man’s house into his tomb, as practised by some
races, would soon follow.

When we come to examine the customs of existing, or at any
rate recent, races or tribes, we find that scaffold burial, open and
covered, and from the latter house burial, to have been practised,
not only by the aboriginal Australians in a very primitive man-
ner, but by the Sioux, Chippawa, Blackfeet, Narajos, Cheyennes,
and Esquimaux Indians in a large variety of ways, including the
raised platform, tree-burial, raised boxes, lodges, and such-like
erections.

The house naturally developed into the tomb, with its wide-
spread diversity and artistic grandeur. This form of burial may
almost be said to have reached its highest development in Htrus-
can and Egyptian times, the wonderful art of the former and the
gigantic erections of the latter surpassing anything else before or
since of their kind.

The catacombs of the early Christians were a sort of reversion
to house or cave burials, whilst the method as at present adopted
places the body deep in the earth, and rears the tomb or monu-
ment above it.

We will now revert briefly to mound burials, and these have
been as widely distributed as, or perhaps even more so than, any
other form of sepulture. North America is perhaps the country
in which we find the highest development of this form of burial,
and the gigantic mounds of the Mississippi Valley have yielded
an enormous amount of evidence as to the earlier races of that
continent. These mounds, which were so large that modern
villages have in some instances been built upon them, were often
erected in the rude outline of some animal form, and the in-
yestigation of them has proved conclusively that they were the

Opening of a Round Barrow, de. 79

burial monuments of chiefs of a prehistoric stone-age race of
Indians.

Mounds and barrows are plentiful in our own country, and we
shall soon discuss the one which is the subject of our paper. It
would, however, be of advantage to briefly examine a few more
details as to forms and details of burials. In ordinary burials it
has been an almost universal custom to place with the body not
only the weapons and implements of the deceased, but also money
and food to assist it on its unknown journey, and the means of
making fire in order to procure light in the dark path before
it. There is still a survival in a modified form of such
ancient customs. Dolls have often been found in the graves
of Roman children, and it is not an uncommon practice in our
own day to bury with our dead some object of interest to the
departed one.

The chiefs of sea-going tribes, such as the Vikings, were, as we
know, buried in their canoes with all its and their equipments, a
gigantic mound being erected over the whole. Canoe-burial is
known not only in Scandinavia, but in America. Sometimes,
again, the dead chief, clad in his best and most warlike costume,
was placed upon the back of his living horse, and the mound was
slowly reared until it buried the living and the dead together.
The slaughter of slaves and even of the relatives and wives of
dead chiefs is a practice well known, and dates from very early
times. The Suttee as even now practised in India, and the
horrible customs of the West Coast of Africa, are survivals of
this dreadful accompaniment of burial. Of course the object of
such slaughter is the belief that the spirits of those slain will
accompany the spirit of the dead chief in the unknown regions
beyond the grave.

The positions and conditions in which the bodies of the
dead were deposited in their last resting place varied as much
as did the modes of burial, if indeed not more so. In some
instances the body was buried in a standing position, in others
it was doubled up into a crouching position ; in a few instances
the body has been found lying on its face, whilst reposing on
its side was much more frequent. The usual position, how-
ever, over a very wide range of time and area, is to place the
body on its back. And then we come to its position in regard to
the points of the compass. In very many instances little or
no notice seems to have been taken respecting this, whilst in
others we find savage races placing their dead in some position
as regards the rising or setting sun; the Indians of Nebraska
always bury with the head towards the east. Again, there are
various theories as to the position of such monumental stones,
as those of Stonehenge, for example; but it is very doubtful
whether there be any reason for such theories, as the positions

o2

80 Mr. E. Lovett’s Report on the

are probably purely accidental. In some instances of mound
burial the bodies have been placed in positions radiating from a
common centre, and in those remarkable buildings for the dead,
the Parsee Towers of Silence, the cavities for the reception of the
bodies are arranged in a similar manner. These towers of silence
are perhaps one of the most uncommon methods of disposing of
the dead, which as soon as deposited are stripped of the flesh by
vultures, whilst the bones are thrown into the central well, in
which the remains of many generations of departed Parsees find
a common resting place. _

We may now consider the mounds or barrows of our own
country, leaving out altogether those of other countries, in almost
all of which they abound in plenty.

The barrows of Yorkshire and Wiltshire have perhaps been
explored better than those of other places, the former by Canon
Greenwell, and the latter by Sir Richard Colt Hoare. It would
be to the Wiltshire series that our Arundel barrow would belong.
The chief form is circular; the long barrow being very scarce,
and supposed to belong purely to the stone age. They vary very
much in size, from mere undulations of the ground caused by
denudation or partial removal, to hills of which Silbury Hill in
Wiltshire is a good example, covering five acres of ground, and
being 180 ft. in height.

The variety of objects found in barrows in this country is very
great, and includes, besides the human remains, food-pans and
drinking-cups of earthenware, weapons of flint and bronze, orna-
ments and remains of clothing and fragments of the bones of
animals, large nodules of flint, potsherds, &c. The bodies them-
selves were either inhumed, cremated, or partially cremated. In
the cases of cremation the ashes were usually placed in an urn
under the mound ; in those of inhumation or partial cremation
they were sometimes merely covered with earth, at others
covered with flints and chalk first and earth on that; in others
again a stone cist or coffin was constructed, and in one or two
instances a split hollow tree has contained the body. The
almost general presence of bones and broken pottery in the
mounds is due to the fact. that it was the custom to have a
funeral feast at the time of burial or interment, and the drinking
and other vessels were afterwards broken up and thrown on to
the accumulating mound.

In the light of these briefly referred to descriptions of burials
and barrows, we will now turn to that opened by our friends last
month on the South Downs.

The first barrow inspected was situated about four miles to the
east of Arundel, and nearly upon the ridge of the chalk downs,
which in this part are covered with short grass. Its exact posi-
tion was a few hundred yards down the northern slope, and not

F

Opening of a Round Barrow, &c. 81

on the summit. The barrow was circular, and as usual gur-
rounded by a depression cansed by removal of the earth to
form the central elevation. Its diameter to the outside of
the depression was 57 ft., and it was about 5 ft. in height
before it was opened. At the time it was erected it was doubt-
less higher than this, but settlement and long exposure to the
denuding influence of wind, rain, &c., would much reduce its
original height.

When the party arrived workmen had already removed much
of the centre of the barrow, excavating a trench down to the
broken chalky surface. The whole of the material was a dry
crumbly black earth on the top, and below that the earth was
largely mixed with small chalk rubble. About a foot or 18 in.
above the undisturbed surface of the floor was a decided layer of
carbonaceous matter, varying from an inch to 2 or 3 in. in thick-
ness in places, and extending so far as we could ascertain to the
boundary of the barrow. In this carbonaceous material were
found a few fragments of bronze, too obscure to determine as to
what they were, though they were probably ornaments; also
some lumps of a greenish and imperfect glass, fused. These
apparently represented glass vessels, possibly containing unguents,
&c. Besides this were found small fragments of pottery of un-
certain age, but very crude, and a small piece of ironstone and a
second bit of the same, fused. Now, as this ironstone is not
found in the immediate locality, it may probably have been
placed there in conjunction with a piece of flint, as was fre-
quently the case under such circumstances, as it was generally
supposed that the departed spirit required the means of making
a light to guide it on its way on the dark unknown journey
before it.

After examining the excavation, we decided to drive a trench
to the margin of the mound, which we did in a westerly direction.
About ten feet from the centre we came upon a cinerary urn,
resting upon the base of the interment, mouth upwards, and

nearly filled with charcoal. This-charcoal was placed in this

urn after the cremation had taken place, and, in fact, was all
that was left of the body over which this particular mound had
been erected. The mound was made up of black earth and
rubbly bits of chalk, in which we found a few fragments of bones,
not human, and chipped flints, which were undoubtedly of greater
age than the barrow itself, and which would have been uninten-
tionally collected when rearing the mound. The fractured bones
of animals and the little bits of pottery of varying tints and
thicknesses were no doubt the remains of the funeral feast
already referred to. In almost all barrows that have been ex-
plored such objects have been found, so that the custom was a
very general one. The cinerary urn which we found does not at

82 —° Report on the Opening of a Round Barrow, dc.

all correspond with those usually found in round barrows of the
bronze age, as it is certainly less artistic, and is devoid of the
exterior incised decoration so characteristic of the pottery of the
Yorkshire barrows. Although not corresponding in type, it is
probably nearly of the same period, and I am inclined to fix the
age of this barrow at that known as the early iron period,
British ; partly in consequence of the type of urn already referred
to, and partly owing to the existence of glass in the barrow,
which material, so far as I am aware, is first known in connection
with the early iron age.

The remains of the bronze objects discovered in no way inter-
feres with this theory, as bronze and iron objects have been fre-
quently found together in barrows of this period; and as our
finds of bronze were exceedingly fragmentary, and as bronze
is less liable to corrosion than iron, it is very probable that
any iron which may have been in the mound originally has
quite disappeared, considering that the bronze has nearly gone
too.

I would therefore designate our find as a British barrow of the
early iron period, containing a cremated interment, with the
usual accessories.

We then turned our attention to a burial of quite another
kind. Some hundred yards or so down the northern slope of the
hill was a roughly elongated mound, which might perhaps be
called a long barrow, but the shape of which I venture to think
was more probably accidental, or resulting from the general
contour of the ground.

The discovery of a human finger-bone, scratched out by a
rabbit from its burrow, led Mr. Collyer to think that a burial
existed here, which in fact was the case. After removing the
top turf, which represented a pretty considerable accumulation
of root-fibre, we came upon a portion of a skeleton, which had
evidently at some distant period been disturbed. Digging care-
fully down we eventually unearthed three fine skeletons in situ,
at a depth of about four feet. These were lying at full length,
almost north and south, with the head to the south. So far as
we could judge, they had been placed upon their side, with the
face towards the rising sun, a plan still adopted by some Indian
tribes. I have said that this was not in my opinion a long
barrow; had it been so the skeletons would have been in that
peculiar crouching position, with the hands up to the face,
characteristic of that form of barrow.

The size and appearance of the bones point to men of fine
development, and a marked, but in such cases usual feature, is
the splendid condition of teeth. Primitive and early civilized
man had no need for vulcanite jaws, gold plates, and false
enamel, because they used the teeth which nature had given

Ee eC le

—_ ss *

De Sal.
Elie 7

Notes on the Development of Gerris najas. 83

them, as can be seen by the worn-down crowns of the teeth in
the gentleman’s skull upon the table.

We could not trace that the bodies had been placed in any sort
of coffin, cist, or cavity, but they had apparently been covered
with earth at the time of burial. In one instance, however, we
found several large natural flints placed over the skeleton, as
was frequently done in inhumed burials of the bronze age. In
this place we found no weapons, ornaments, or remains of
objects buried with the dead; but we did find one fragment of
Samian pottery-ware, which I venture to think established the
theory that the interment was Saxon (after the first Roman
period).

No doubt further investigation would have revealed further
skeletons, and possibly objects of a more definite character than
we had so far obtained.

As it was, we were only four hours at work on the two burials,
whereas four days would not be too much to have devoted to the
investigation of the round barrow alone. It must be borne in
mind that, considering the great ages of such mounds and burials,
the round barrow in question being most probably nearly or
quite two thousand years old, and considering, too, the perishable
nature of metal, bone, and wood, it is hardly surprising that the
contents of the barrow should have been of so fragmentary a
nature; indeed, itis a matter of congratulation that we found
so much as we did in so short a time, a fact entirely due to the
well thought out arrangements of Mr. Collyer.

The part of the country we visited is full of relics of a long-
forgotten past, and the South Downs, on which the round barrow
is situated, have all the peaceful appearance of down-land that
has been such from time immemorial; and yet, judging from the
occurrence of such interments as we investigated, and from the
evidence that Mr. Collyer has obtained of others, I should say that
this part, at any rate, of the South Downs is a perfect cemetery
of inhumed and cremated bodies, not only of Romans and
Saxons, but of prehistoric man of the early iron age, and most
probably of the bronze and stone age also.

118.—Norts on tHe Drvenopment oF GERRIS NAJAS.
By W. Bupczn anp C. H. Goopman.
(Read October 17th, 1893, by Mr. Goodman.)

On the 10th of May Mr. Budgen sent me some eggs of Gerris
najas, and he has since given me the following information.
He had two pairs (male and female) of these insects in

84 Notes on the Development of Gerris najas.

captivity, and between April 17th and May 4th five batches of
eggs were laid, with an average of eight in each. There was a
plant of Ranunculus aquatilis, having only fine cut leaves, in the
vessel, but the eggs were laid on pieces of wood floating on the
water, in three cases on the under side, and in one on the upper
side, the remaining one being doubtful. The eggs were clear
and transparent when laid, but eventually became darker, the
rich red eyes of the embryo being distinctly visible as they
matured. They were a long oval in shape, loosely laid, but all
in one direction, with their long axis parallel to the material on
which they rest.

About three weeks after the eggs were laid the young larve
began to hatch. When first hatched they swim about under the
water like a Corixa or Notonecta, but instead of using only the
posterior pair of legs as these insects do, they use both the
middle and posterior pairs, and they seem to have no controlling
power as to which side is uppermost. In the course of a few
hours the insect assumes its normal position on the surface of
the water. This change of position is accomplished very rapidly,
and seems to be effected by the insect rising as far as possible to
the surface, then by a kind of back-throw jerking its body out of
the water, then righting itself and withdrawing its legs. It is
interesting to note that this change cannot be accomplished if
the surface of the water is at all filmy or stagnant, neither will
the larva live if removed from the water.

The young larva when first hatched is of a pale yellow-brown
colour, and the abdomen is much prolonged, comprising nearly
one-third of the length of the whole creature; after a few hours
the larva becomes darker in colour, and the abdomen contracts
till it comprises scarcely one-seventh of the whole insect. As
the insect grows the abdominal segments gradually extend, until
in the pupa stage they amount to two-fifths, and in the perfect
stage as much as one-half of the whole.

The perfect insects are very voracious, flies, spiders, &c., being
all greedily sucked; they are gregarious, and the different stages
may be found together. The species is ordinarily apterous, but
Mr. Budgen informs me that he took one pupa with rudimentary
wings; the imago which it produced wasa cripple, but the mem-
branous wings as well as the elytra were clearly defined. This
is exceptional. (See Douglas & Scott, ‘ British Hemiptera,’ Ray
Society, pp. 560—561.)

I may add that I have found young larve at various times all
through the summer, so that egg-laying continues for some
ne after the above dates, which no doubt are some of the
earliest. .

a

i

( 85 )

114.—Nores From THE ARDENNES.
By Dr. H. Fransurn Parsons.
(Read October 17th, 1893.)

Tue following notes on a few observations made during a brief
tour in the south of Belgium in the end of August and beginning
of September, 1893, are submitted in the hope that they may not
be without interest to members of the Croydon Microscopical and
Natural History Club.

The route taken was to Namur, thence by steamer up the
river Meuse to Dinant, thence by road to Rochefort and Han-
sur-Lesse; by train to La Roche, and home again. The tract of
country traversed is a plateau gradually rising to the south-east
to a height of 1000—2000 ft., and deeply carved into valleys by
the rivers which traverse it. It was formerly a vast forest, the
Forest of Ardennes, which in Cesar’s time reached from the
Rhine to the Rhone. At the present time, however, the woods
are chiefly confined to the steep slopes of the valleys; the
plateaux being under cultivation and devoid of timber, except
long formal avenues of trees, like those in a box of toys, planted
by the roadsides. The alluvial ground at the bottom of the
valleys forms meadow land, in some places laid out as water
meadows.

The Meuse from Namur to Dinant is a river about the size of
the Thames at Hampton Court, flowing in a narrow valley with
steep carboniferous limestone cliffs at the sides, like the Avon
below Bristol. The carboniferous limestone is in thick beds,
apparently with a general dip at a high angle to the north, butin
some places nearly vertical, and in others much contorted. Here
and there a hard bed of rock among softer strata has been left
by denudation standing out as a wall in the side of the valley; a
detached portion of such a wall near Dinant forms a solitary
pinnacle of rock about 100 ft. high, called La Roche de Bayard.
The cliffs are of the form familiar in the carboniferous limestone
districts of this country, such as the Mendip Hills, the Welsh
borders, and the Derbyshire and Yorkshire dales. Some of the
crags are crowned with ruined fortresses, reminding one of those
on the Rhine. A bed of boulder clay was observed in a road
cutting on the higher ground near Dinant. The geological for-
mation at Rochefort and Han-sur-Lesse is carboniferous lime-
stone similar to that at Dinant; but between Dinant and Roche-
fort there is a tract composed of shales and sandstones resembling
those of the coal-measures. Fossils were not plentiful in the
carboniferous limestone, but corals were observed in a few
places, and the large brachiopod shell, Productus, characteristic

86 Dr. H. Franklin Parsons.

of that formation. At La Roche the geological formation is
slate; the precipitous cliffs characteristic of the limestone are
absent, and the general aspect of the country is a succession of
deep valleys with steep wooded sides, and occasional outcrops of
slaty rock, like North Devon or Montgomeryshire.

The limestone district of Belgium, like other tracts composed
of hard limestone rock, is full of caves, of which one of the most
extensive and celebrated, the Grotte de Han, was visited. This
cave illustrates in an interesting manner the mode of formation
of limestone caverns. Natural caves, I may remind you, are of
two kinds, and confined to two classes of situations, viz., sea
caves, formed mechanically by the force of the waves on the shore
acting upon weak places in the cliffs, and limestone caves, which
are produced by the solvent action of water holding carbonic
acid in solution, traversing the fissures of the rock. Natural
caves in inland districts are only found in limestone, though
occasionally in soft sandstones there are extensive series of arti-
ficial workings made as places of abode, or for the purposes of
getting stone.

At Han-sur-Lesse the river Lesse, a stream about the size of
the Mole at Leatherhead, runs in a U-shaped valley, the centre
of the bend being occupied by a hill rising about 300 ft. high
above the valley ; this hill is composed of thick bedded carboni-
ferous limestone, dipping at an angle of about 45° to the north.
The river Lesse enters a rocky opening, the Perte de la Lesse, in
the side of this hill and disappears, reappearing on the other
side of the hill, after a subterranean course of about a kilometre
(five-eighths of a mile), measured in a straight line between the
points of entrance and exit. The difference in level between the
points of entrance and exit of the river, as shown by the map, is
ten metres, or thirty-two feet. I was informed that experiments
had been made by pouring coloured water into the river at the
Perte, and that the colour was not perceived at the exit until
twenty-four hours had elapsed; also that a horse and cart with
the driver had been carried into the Perte during a flood, and
had never reappeared. These circumstances would seem to show
that the river in its underground course must traverse large
cavities or reservoirs of water. The valley between the Perte
and the Sortie is now devoid of any stream, though it has
evidently been excavated by the river at a former period. About
a quarter of a mile below the Perte is an opening, or rather a
series of openings, in the rock, into which the river must once
have run, judging from the remains of an old river channel
leading to it, and from the water-worn condition of the rocks
around the openings. This was formerly the entrance to the
cave. The present entrance for visitors is on the hillside near
it, but on a higher level. The passage through the cave takes

Notes from the Ardennes. 87

over two hours. The cavern consists of a series of galleries here
and there expanding into large and lofty chambers. ‘The first
part is dry ; then a series of galleries is traversed through which
water runs in winter, the footpath being carried on a raised
causeway. Finally, after many ups and downs, the subterranean
river ig reached, and the exit is made in boats at the lower
opening. The roof and walls of the cavern are hung in many
places with stalactites, unfortunately a good deal blackened by
the smoke of the torches used for illuminating, and which has no
means of escape. It is proposed to use electricity for lighting
the larger halls. Many of the stalactites have the form of
drapery-like folds, like the vallence of a bed; these are formed
apparently where thin films of water percolate through long
narrow cracks in the roof, or trickle over straight edges of rock.
Some of these emit a bell-like note when struck. The floor of
the cavern is covered with alluvial earth and stones, apparently
brought by the river; this again above the river level is covered
by a layer of stalagmite, with projecting bosses where the drip
from the roof falls. These projecting stalagmites are truncated
cones, or nearly cylindrical in shape, the summit being always
marked by a shallow depression worn by the falling drop.
Sometimes a stalactite and its corresponding stalagmite meet,
forming a continuous column from floor to roof. Here and
there the alluvial bed has apparently been washed out, and the
undermined stalagmitic layer has broken across and fallen out
of place, as shown by the oblique position of the stalagmites, the
water trickling over the fractured edge forming a festoon of
drapery-like folds. I could not learn that any human remains
or implements were found in the Grotte de Han, or that it con-
tained any peculiar fauna like the blind animals found in the
caves of Austria and Kentucky, though beetles are said to be
found in the first chamber from the entrance.

The fauna of the Ardennes until recently included such fere
nature as the wild boar and the wolf, but these I was informed
were now extinct in the part which I visited. The roebuck and
the eagle were said to be still met with, but I did not myself see
any vertebrata not familiar at home, except a large green frog.
A ring snake was discovered basking on the edge of a pond;
when alarmed it plunged into the water, and swam with a wavy
eel-like motion. Among insects,—of butterflies, the ‘pale
clouded yellow,” the ‘‘ marbled white,” and the grayling, or an
allied species, were noticed ; grasshoppers were abundant and
very noisy ; and several species of ants, including the great wood
ant, were plentiful. An avenue of old lime trees at Rochefort
was covered with thousands of a bright red species of bug,
quaintly figured with black. Although so brightly coloured,
these appeared to trust for safety to some protective resemblance,

88 Dr. H. Franklin Parsons.

perhaps to young red buds, or to droppings of birds feeding on
red berries, for they remained motionless in great heaps until
actually touched, when they hurried away rapidly in all directions,
so that it was no easy matter to catch them. Mr. Murton
Holmes tells me that its name is Triecphora sanguinolenta, the
scarlet hopper. Of mollusca, Helia pomatia and Cyclostoma elegans
were observed. Of the large slug, Arion empiricorum, in England
pte jet black, all the specimens seen were of a bright orange
colour.

The flora of the limestone regions about Dinant and Han-sur-
Lesse is very rich, and many interesting plants were found in
spite of the late period of the year, and the dryness of the
season. The flora consists chiefly of plants which are also
found in Britain, though some plants more or less abundant
there are with us only found in a few localities, or as introduced
species. The following may be mentioned :—

The white rock rose (Helianthemum polifolium). In Britain con-
fined to limestone cliffs in two localities in the south-west of
England.

Geranium sanguineum.

Sedum album.

Seselt libanotis. Common; though in Britain almost confined
to the Gogmagog Hills, Cambridge.

Bupleurum faleatum. Common; but in Britain confined to
Essex.

Sambucus ebulus (dwarf elder).

Chrysocoma linosyris (goldilocks). In Britain almost confined
to the Great Orme’s Head.

Campanula persicifolia and C. patula.

Verbascum lychnitis.

Melampyrum arvense.

Teucrium chamedrys.

Daphne mezereum.

Rumes scutatus.

Three species of Solomon’s seal, viz., Polygonatum verticillatum,
P. officinale, and P. multiflorum; the latter accompanied, as in
the west of England, by Paris quadrifolia.

Ceterach officinarum.

Polypodium robertianum.

The above species are in Britain found, for the most part, in
the chalk districts of the south of England, or on carboniferous
limestone rocks in the west. Hardly any of them can be con-
sidered of a northern or mountain type.

The following plants found are not natives of Britain :—

Arabis arenosa, or allied species.

' Dianthus carthusianorum.
' Trifolium montanum,
Lactuca perennis.

Notes from the Ardennes. 89

Vincetowicum officinale. This plant belongs to the natural
order Asclepiadaces, of which we have no British representative.
It is common on the Continent in dry stony places, occurring as
far north as Normandy. :

Digitalis ambigua.

Stachys recta and S. annua.

Teucrium montanum.

Cornus mas. A species in foliage closely resembling our
British cornel, but with red edible fruit like a cherry.

Melica ciliata, or allied species.

In the slate region about La Roche the flora is much less
varied than that in the limestone district. This is partly due
to the nature of the soil; the flora on a calcareous soil being as
a general rule richer in species than that on an argillaceous or
an arenaceous soil; but partly also to the system of forestry
pursued. The woods here consist almost entirely of oak scrub,
which is allowed to grow until the shoots are of a size for fire-
wood, when it is cut down; the herbage and vegetable débris
covering the ground between the tree stumps are collected
together into heaps and burned, and the ashes are scattered
over the ground as manure and ploughed in, after which a crop
of corn is sown, which is able to ripen before the young shoots
of the oak have grown up high enough to shade the ground.
This process it is obvious must exterminate the rarer species of
plants, except in situations too steep or rocky to be thus
cultivated.

The only flowering plants observed here, and not at the
places previously visited, were the boghean (Menyanthes trifoliata),
the baneberry (Actaa spicata), and a species of Senecio allied to,
if not identical with, S. saracenicus of our river-banks.

Ferns and mosses were more plentiful than on the limestone,
among the former being Polypodium phegopteris and P. dryopteris.

The pink crocus-like flowers, unaccompanied by leaves, of the
meadow saffron (Colchicum autumnale) were abundant in the
meadows everywhere. On the limestone the hawthorn was
almost exclusively of the form Crataegus oxyacanthoides, with
shining slightly lobed leaves, and bright scarlet haws having
several stones; while at La Roche the form Crategus monogyna,
which is commonest in England, was alone observed.

In conclusion I may say that the beauty and varied interest of
this region, its facility of access, the reasonable cost of living,
and the civility of the inhabitants, render it a very pleasant
resort for those who desire the more complete change which a
holiday on the Continent affords, but whom time and other con-
siderations forbid to visit remoter scenes.

Pere ees Oe ee Aa

( 90)

115.— REPORT OF THE METEOROLOGICAL SUB-
COMMITTEE FOR 1893.

PREPARED BY THE Hon. Sec., Francis Camppett Bayar,
F. R. Met. Soe.

(Read February 20th, 1894.)

Tuer arrangements for observing the daily rainfall have been
successfully carried out on the same plan as heretofore, and, as
will be at once evident, great progress has been made. This
Report contains the records of 638 stations, contributed by a staff
numbering 51 observers, as against 54 records and 46 observers
in the last Report.

During the course of the year two stations have disappeared,
namely, Heathfield, Keston, through the removal of the observer,
Miss M. Holland; and Oakfield Road, Croydon, through the
removal of the observer, Mr. Malden, to Chatfield Road, Croydon.
This last station, I am pleased to announce, will reappear again
this year.

Appendix I. to this Report contains a list of the observers,
with particulars relating to the stations and gauges. The nine
stations with the asterisk prefixed were admitted after the com-
mencement of the year, and the two with the double asterisks
are stations which sent in reports in the previous year.

Appendix II. contains the tables of daily rainfall issued
monthly, and subsequently stereotyped.

Appendix IIT. gives the monthly rainfall of 10 other stations.

Appendix IV. gives a record of all falls of rain of 1 in. and
upwards in the 24 hours, extracted from Appendix II. and other
sources.

And, finally, Appendix V. contains general notes on the
characteristic features of every month, and with reference to
them the Hon. Sec. desires to acknowledge his indebtedness to
Mr. Rostron’s very valuable notes, which have been published in
the ‘Wallington Herald.’

The Sub-Committee report with great pleasure the accession
of stations at Reigate Hill, Warlingham, Epsom, Thornton
Heath, Streatham Hill, Battersea Creek, Forest Hill, Nunhead,
and Woolwich, all of which are very welcome, as filling up gaps
in the Sub-Committee’s list of stations.

With respect to the rainfall of the year, the smallness of the
total fall is very remarkable. If we take the Greenwich record
for 78 years (1816-93) we find that there are only 12 years in

Report of the Meteoroloyical Sub-Committee for 1898. 91

which the annual fall was smaller than 1898, and they are as
follows :— ;

inches. inches
TS be Boeceeoaek ce 19°11 RSG Fete vedo ee» 19°66
MBA eee tacnn. cassis 16°43 TEGE sc csdeblcn savas 16°38
WANT Riloentiaccs so cloae 17°61 MEMO ie ccc wateee ss 18°55
AGU Woe. cist cinewee 19°53 1 SY a ae ra ge 19°95
0S 1 eae eee rene 19:01 WESA es oes cae 18°05
DUS spe AA AS eee 17°70 PBST csecssb essed tie 19°86

1899) 2o0.2735. ee 20-09 inches.

As the average yearly rainfall at Greenwich for the 50 years
(1841-90) is 24°54 in., we have at once a deficiency of nearly
4% in., a very large quantity. Going back, however, to a longer
period at Greenwich, we find that the average yearly rainfall for
the 75 years (1816-90) is 25°11 in., and we have therefore a
deficiency of 5°02 in. This latter quantity your Sub-Committee
think more nearly represents the deficiency in the Club district.
If we now turn to the several months, again making use of the
75 years’ average at Greenwich, and applying it to the Green-
wich observations of 1898, we find that in only four months was
the rainfall above the average, and as the comparison will prove
interesting, the following table has been constructed :—

GREENWICH.
vl) fig ie ee

Average, 1893 Average

75 years. . Be.
JaNUALY ...-eeeeee 1:90 in 1:54in. | —0°36in
February 161 ,, 2°62 ,, +101 ,,
Marah... .c..c00s 1:54 ,, 0°39 ,, —1-15 ,,
April’. .'foeiuae se 1:70 ,, 0-12 ,,. | —1:58 ,,
MBy.ceccc ce scice ns 2:04 ,, 0:53 ,, —151 ,,
JUNG cc vcceccacee 2°00 ,, 0:82 ,, —1:18 ,,
July sccscceeness 2°58 ,, 3°33 ,, + 0°75 ,,
August ....-+++6- 2°31 ,, 1:38 ,, — 0°93 ,,
September 2°38 ,, IEG? 5, — 1-22 ,,
October ......-+0+ 2-75 ,, 4-16 ,, +1-41,,
November ........| 2°37 5, 1:92), — 0°45 ,
December 1:93 ,, DE Wee + 0°19 ,,

Wear svcocea et 25°11 in. 20:09 in. | — 5:02 in

On examining this table we cannot but be struck with the
very great deficiency in the first six months, viz., 4°77 in., as
compared with the last six months, when the deficiency is only
0-25 in. This great deficiency in the earlier half of the year
sufficiently accounts for the great losses inflicted on all connected
with the land,

92 Report of the Meteorological Sub-Committee for 1898.

It is not proposed to go into the question of droughts, absolute
and partial, which have alreadly been so ably treated by our
hon. member, Mr. Symons, in the ‘ Meteorological Magazine,’
1893, p. 97, when great use was made of the tables published by
your Sub-Committee.

With reference to the water supply of the present year, the
great deficiency of last year will not have much effect, for, owing
to the wet October, December, and January of the present year,
the underground stores of water will be well replenished.

The Sub-Committee would draw the attention of the members
of the Club to the very small number of days—only three—on
which 1 in. or more fell in the 24 hours, and also to the com-
parative smallness of the falls. This forms a very striking
feature in the Sub-Committee’s Report, and is in marked con-
trast with the reports of previous years.

In conclusion, the Sub-Committee desire to express their
thanks to those gentlemen who so kindly subscribed the amount
necessary to enable this great work to be carried on, and to all
the observers for their hearty co-operation in so promptly for-
warding their returns.

5

25

35

— 40

45

50

STATIONS,

Surrey—Dorking (Denbies
*Reigate Hill (Margery Hall

APPENDIX I

OBSERVERS,

J. Beesley ......s0.00.
W. F. Taylor

Caterham (Metropolitan Asylum) ..| G. 8. Elliott, M.D. ....
Caterham Val. (Congregational Col.)| Miss S. W. Rudd......
Marden Park (Birchwood House) .-

Coulsdon (The Grange)
Kenley (Ingleside)

Purley (Reedham Asylum)

Purley (Tudor Cottages

Krenr—Westerham (The Fishponds) ..
**Knockholt (The Beeches)
Surrey—* Warlingham (The Vicarage)

Ashtead (D’Abernon Chase) ......

OZANOi tes cals tev cee be

*Epsom (Epsom College)

Banstead (The Larches)
Sutton (Mulgrave Road)

Wallington (Manor Road)

Beddington (Riverside)

Waddon (Waddon House)

et ee ee eees
eee seeee
seers eens
ee

Croydon (Brimstone Barn)........

**Croydon (Waddon New Road)
Croydon (Duppas House)

er

Croydon (Whitgift School)........

Croydon are Hill Rise)

Croydon (Outram Road)

re

ee ee ait

Addington Hills (The Reservoir) ..

Addington (Park Farm)

Addington (Pumping Station) ....

Kent—West Wickham (Layham’s Fm.

na

Hayes Common (The Warren) ....

Keston (Bradfield)
Keston (Heathfield)
Keston (Tower Fields) ..

Orpington (Kent Waterworks)

Farningham Hill

Wilmington (Kent Waterworks)

Bickley (Highfield)

Cr

eee eee ee we

ee ee aT

Bromley (Sundridge Avenue)......

Beckenham (Foxgrove)

Esher (Sewage Works). .

Surbiton (Seething Wells)

Kingston (Sewage Works)

Richmond (Ormond Lodge)
*Battersea Creek (S. & V. Water Co.)

Brixton (Acre Lane

Surrey—South Norwood (Selhurst Rd.)
*Thornton Heath (Thornton | an
*Streatham Hill (Wavertree Road
Wimbledon (Sewage Works)
Wimbledon (Mount Ararat)
_ Raynes Park (Pumping Station) ..
New Malden (Sewage Works)

we twee
wee eeeeeene
Se
eee ween

Wandsworth Common (Patten Rd.).
West Norwood (Thornlaw Road) ..

Krent—Forest Hill (Dartmouth Road)

Forest Hill (The Nurseries)........

*Forest Hill (S. & V. Water Co.) .
*Nunhead (S & V. Water Co.)...... J. W. Restler, C.E. ....
Deptford (Kent Waterworks

Mrs. Frank Rutley....
W. Morris, C.E. ......
W. Morris, C.E. ......
Rev. F. R. Marriott....
W. J. Stride..... ....
Harold Smith ........
J. A. Carter
J. Bonwick

eee eee eeee

or

W. 4H. Dines..........

or

F. Campbell Bayard ..
S. Rostron
P. Crowley
Croydon Corporation ..

a)

...| Croydon Corporation ..
Baldwin Latham, C.E..

A. KE. Watson ........
H. F. Parsons, M.D. ..
E. Mawley
Croydon Corporation ..
W. Whalley
Croydon Corporation ..
W. Ashcroft ......... :

a

ee)

eeeeee

G. Buchanan, C.E,....

...| W. Morris, C.E. ....

A. J. Waring

.| W. Morris, C.E. ......

Batten

B. Snell
B BIGTO Ye . tbete'css sens
. N. Dalton, M.D.....
GAS Viet Eiitetnrsstsetatesarante

ey

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BSS

rs

H. Cooper, C.E. ....

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fr)
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2
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. V. H. Davison, C.E.
Baldwin Latham, C.E. -

Ri: Hack) OsBs vcccxe es
A Sleyenss sacs encase
J? 'D, Billott arrest. ae
J. W. Restler, C.E.....
F. Gaster

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eee ewe ewan

.| J. W. Restler, C.E.....

Wi. Morris, GoHie 32.5

Greenwich (Royal Observatory) ....| The Astronomer Royal .

*Woolwich (Powis Street)

Eltham (High Street) ..

JG. Waller sfc oecds

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118 Report of the Meteorological Sub-Committee for 1898.
APPENDIX III.
MONTHLY RECORDS.

Sratton. | Jan. | Feb. |Mar.|Apr.|May|Jun.|July| Aug. |Sep.| Oct. |Nov.| Dec.|| Year.

—

— |§ ——_ | ————_ | ———| —_—_

IN. IN. IN. | IN. | IN. | IN. | IN. IN. IN. IN. IN. | IN. IN.
Knockholt..| 2°62 | 4.44 |0°65 (0°10 |0-40 |1-35 |3-00| 0°53 |0-75| 3:00 |3°00|1-56|| 21-40
Warlingham| 2°40 | 4-65 |0-60 (0-33 |0°86 (0°96 |2°74| 0-83 /1-48| 4.12 |2°79 3°50|| 25°26
Epsom ....| 2°40 | 3°61 |0°56 |0-17 |0-96 |0-96 |2-02) 0°33 1°82} 3-90 2°20 |2°31 || 21°24

Croydon

(aden | 1:63 | 3-06 |0.42|0:06 |0°63 |0°78 2°30) 0-52 |1-11) 3:24 |2°05|2°27|| 18.07
New Rd.)

Thornton

emi 1:49 | 3:06 |0°63|0-07 |0°88 0:86 2°17 | 0:59 |1°09| 3°51 |1:87|1-58|| 17-80

eee 1:66 | 2:80 |0:36 |0-18 0-52 0:86 |2-48| 0-99 |1-09| 4-11 |2-23|1-96|| 19-24
Battersea ..| 103 | 233. 0-21 /0.06 |0-36 0-69|1-93| 1-57 |o-92| 3-65 [1821-85] 16-42
Sw) 1-72 | 2-92. 0-35 |0-04|0-46 [1-01 [3-78 | 1-25 |1-24| 4-33. |2-06|1-94 || 21-10

Nunhead ..| 1:25 | 2°13 |0°31/0-08 |0-41 |0-64|2-85 | 1:15 |0-93| 3-94 |1°67|1:77 || 17-13
Woolwich ..| 1:48 | 2°25 |0:38 0-04 |0-40 0:80 /2°36 | 1°52 |1:11| 3°76 |2°04/1-84)| 17-98

APPENDIX IV.
Fauzts or 1°0 In. AND UPWARDS.

May 297.
Caterham Valley, 1:03 in.; Surbiton, 1.02 in.

OctoBER 9TH.

Forest Hill (Nurseries), 1°42 in.; Surbiton and Beckenham
(Cedars Road), 1°32 in.; Deptford, 1°31 in. ; Kingston, 1:27 in. ;
Greenwich, 1:24 in.; Forest Hill (Dartmouth Road) and Forest
Hill (S. & V. Water Co.), 1:18 in. ; Nunhead, 1:16 in. ; Esher,
1:12 in.; Brixton, 1:10 in.; Beckenham (Foxgrove) and Raynes
Park, 1:08 in. ; Richmond, 1:06 in.; Epsom, Bickley, Wimble-
don (Mount Ararat), and Battersea, 1:04 in.; Bromley, 1:03 in. ;
Purley (Tudor Cottages) and West Norwood, 1:02 in.; Wands-
worth Common, 1:01 in.; Banstead, Bromley Common, and
Woolwich, 1:00 in.

Ooctoser 11TH.

West Wickham, 1°70 in.; Caterham, 1:17 in.; Farningham
Hill, 1:15in.; Warlingham, 1:11in.; Caterham Valley, 1°10 in. ;
Upper Gatton, 1:09 in.; Reigate Hill and Keston (Bradfield),
1:07 in, ; Orpinton, 1:08 in. ; Keston (Tower Fields), 1:01 in.

Report of the Meteorological Sub-Committee for 1898. 119

APPENDIX V.

JANUARY.

The month may be divided into two portions, the first fort-
night’ being exceedingly cold and the latter part of the month
very warm. The mean temperature is the lowest for January
in the Wallington record, which goes back to 1885. Owing to
the want of snow the frost went very deep into the ground. The
lowest temperature in the shade occurred on the 5th, being 9-0°
at Beddington and Waddon. The mean temperature in the
shade was about 3:0° below the average, and was at Beddington
33°9°, at Waddon and Kenley 34:1°, and at Wallington 34:6°.
Sunlight at Wallington was very deficient, being only 4 per
cent. of the possible duration.

FEpBRuARY.

Since 1885 it is the first time that this month has been mild,
there having been seven cold Februarys in succession. It was
the wettest February since 1883, and more rain fell than during
the last three Februarys put together. The mean temperature
was about 5:0° above the average, and was at Kenley 40°8°, at
Beddington, 41°5°, and at Waddon and Wallington 41:7°. Sun-
light was about the average, being at Wallington 22 per cent. of
the possible duration.

Manrcz.

This was a remarkably fine month, certainly the finest since
1882, and its superior in smallness of rainfall, low relative
humidity, mean daily maximum, and duration of sunshine.
Had there been fewer cold nights during the latter half of the
month it would have been warmer than any March since 1822.
As it was, its mean was equal to that of 1842, and only 0:4°
below that of 1859, being at Greenwich 0:2° higher than that of
1882. Vegetation was nearly a month earlier than 1892, The
mean temperature was about 5:0° above the average, being at
Beddington 45-2°, at Waddon and Kenley 45:4°, and at Walling-
ton 46°5°. Sunlight at Wallington was 52 per cent. of the
possible duration, being no less than 22 per cent. above the
average.

APRIL.

Very seldom has a finer April been recorded, and it will long
be noted for its sunshine, its low relative humidity, and its small
rainfall. The nights were relatively colder than the days, and
owing to this the monthly mean was 0°9° below that of April,
1865—the warmest known—and 0:3° under that of 1844; but,
excepting these two years, it was the warmest April at Green:

120 Report of the Meteorological Sub-Committee for 1898.

wich of this century, the mean there being 51°4°, an excess of
nearly 5:0° on the seventy years’ average. The mean tempera-
ture is between 5:0° and 6-0° above the average, and was at Bed-
dington 50°8°, at Waddon 51°5°, at Kenley 516°, and at Walling-
ton 52°5°. Sunlight at Wallington reached the wonderful per-
centage of 65, an amount never yet equalled in any month since
the observations began, and this amount is no less than 28 per
cent. above the average.
May.

This month was very similar to the two preceding spring
months. The weather was less bright, and more rain fell than
in April; but the air was drier and mean temperature slightly
more in excess ; it was warm throughout, the last two days being
the only cool ones. At Greenwich, with the exception of May,
1833 and 1848, it was the warmest May of the century, the
mean being 57°7°, nearly 5:0° above the seventy years’ average,
the May of 1848 being the warmest known, with an average of
597°. The mean temperature of the district was about 50°
above the average, and was at Beddington 558°, at Waddon
563°, at Kenley 56°5°, and at Wallington, 57°5°. Sunlight at
Wallington was 50 per cent of the possible duration, being 7 per
cent. above the average.

JUNE.

This was again a month of warm, fine, dry weather, not quite
so brilliant as April or May; but notwithstanding ten or eleven
cool days, it was the warmest June at Greenwich since 1868,
when the mean was only 0:2° higher than this year. After a
few showers on the 8rd and 6th a drought set in, which lasted
until the 23rd, and during this period there was a week of in-
tensely hot weather, the like of which has not happened in June
since 1858. The mean temperature of the month was about
3:0° above the average, and was at Beddington, 60°5, at Waddon
and Kenley, 60:9°, and at Wallington, 62°4°. Sunlight at Wal-
lington was about 45 per cent. of the possible duration, being
38 per cent. above the average.

JULY.

This was a month of broken weather, but except on the 14th,
15th and 16th, the air was never cold, and the nights were warm,
and consequently the mean of this month at Greenwich, like
every other one since January, exceeded the seventy years’
average, though only by 1:0°. It has been the warmest July
since 1887. The mean temperature is about 1:5° above the
average, and was at Beddington and Kenley 62°9°, at Wallington
68:1°, and at Waddon 63:2°, Sunlight at Wallington was only
37 per cent. of the possible duration, being 4 per cent. under the
mean.

__-

Report of the Meteorological Sub-Committee for 1898. 121

Aveust.

The month was fine, dry, and extremely warm. After the
first six days, which were cool and rather wet, hot weather set
in on Bank Holiday, and continued until the 29nd. The heat
during this period was greater than has ever been observed at
Greenwich. For a full fortnight the maximum rose every day
well over 80°, and for three days over 90°. The 18th was alto-
gether unique, for it not only exhibited the highest temperature
ever known in August (95:1°), but it was absolutely the hottest
day ever known at the Royal Observatory, its mean being 79-6°,
or 01° warmer than July 15th, 1881. The mean value for the
week ending the 19th was 73°6°, and this value was for a week
also the highest known at Greenwich. The last week was much
cooler, but this decline in temperature only reduced its previous
excess, for the month’s mean at Greenwich was 65:5°, or 0°1°
higher than in either 1842 or 1857, the hottest Augusts known
before this year. The mean temperature of the month is about
4° above the average, and was at Kenley 63:2°, at Waddon 64-0°,
at Beddington 64:7°, and at Wallington 65:4°. The duration of
sunlight at Wallington was 48 per cent. of the possible duration,
being 8 per cent. above the average.

SEPTEMBER.

This was a month of most enjoyable weather, being free from
the heat of the preceding months, and also free from the damp
and wind usually marking the beginning of autumn. The first
half of the month was dry and fine, and it was not till the end
that the greater part of the rain fell. Mean temperature was
about the average, being at Kenley 56-3°, at Beddington 56°6°, at
Waddon 57°1°, and at Wallington 57°5°. Sunlight at Wallington
was 41 per cent. of the possible duration, being a deficiency on
the average of 3 per cent.

OctToBER.

The month was warm and rather wet, but withal a pleasant
one. It is noticeable that the 11th and 22nd were practically the
only two wet days since the beginning of March. The mean
temperature was about 3° above the average, and was at Kenley
51:1°, at Wallington 51°7°, and at Waddon 52°0°. Sunlight at
Wallington was 34 per cent. of the possible duration, being 1 per
cent. under the average.

November.

This has, like several months in the present year, been rather
a remarkable one. It will be noted for its low mean minimum
temperature in the shade, which is the lowest in the Wallington
record, which goes back to 1884, and the mean maximum in the

122 Report of the Meteorological Sub-Committee for 1898.

shade and the mean temperature are the lowest since November,
1887. The mean amount of cloud is largest, and consequently
the percentage of sunlight is the lowest, for November in the
Wallington record. The mean temperature is about 2° below
the average, and was at Kenley 41-2°, and at both Waddon and
Wallington 41:3°. Sunlight at Wallington was only 11 per cent.
of the possible duration, being 8 per cent. below the average.

DECEMBER.

The month, though misty and damp, has been on the whole a
pleasant one, with a high mean temperature and rather a large
rainfall. The mean temperature is about 3:5° above the average,
and was at Kenley 39:8°, at Waddon 40-0°, and at Wallington
40:1°, Sunlight at Wallington was 19 per cent. of the possible
duration, being 2 per cent. above the average.

OG

10 AUG. 94

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CONTENTS.

PROCEEDINGS. = Pail

. : “ :

aigeee fourth Annual | eee i Reese ee eee wee XX1
Fons ‘os . =

President's Ac ress. SR Se t= 6 © eee rena 6 Sinaieince ot clout eed che pe ewe mimRies am is XX11
Sub-Committees ewe see eseuenae i xli

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Exhibits, 1898 . eens aie, oeweseseos PAM MT Oe erg xlii
icp Library .. tenecereencenvesoes eee enee Ao Re Cee aie e489 pees hea ee gee xliii >
‘ Teoainere: Balance Sheet see enee eee eee veeeerars . ky ate: +. ta xliv
ee of Books in = Library .. Beer et

: "TRANSACTIONS.

- Barth feneeanene By Dr. H. Frawxuin EASeee F. G.8. (with

> 8 plates) .. eeeee eee seeee eeeeee wee se eeeererreeee 61 ; 2
The Silkworm Diseake: its Gas ali Piovcauta By ie B. ‘Fem 69

~~ Report on the Opening of a Round Barrow, and a supposed Saxon
Burial, on the South Downs near Raia ape 15th, 1688:

By Epwarp Loverr . cid cid Thives iy een pea TES

Notes on the Development ‘of arc is maja. ne Ww. ‘Base aa

LOBE ale Goopman .. wenee eee eeeoreeetece 83
Notes from the Relerciee: By ae’ i. eae Pugh 2 85
paver’ of the Meteorological Sub-Committee for 1893. Prepare

by Face CaMppELL eee F.R. Met.Soc. .. Sau sob 22 a

- émm | Mico m 2» Batual Him € Club,

OFFICERS FOR “1894.

President.—H. Gusecos Parsons, M.D., F. G. s.

- Vice-Presidents. — Jouy Berney, F.R.M.S.; Put Gabavee
ELS., F.Z.8., &e.; Henry 8. Earon, M.A, F.R. Met. Soe. ;
Henry T. Mennext, BLS. Henry G. Tuourton, M.D., J.P., &e.;
Epwarp Loyerr.

-Treasurer.—Epwarp B. Sruree. sa

~ Librarian.—Arrep Roops.
Committee—J. Weir Brown ; En an ‘Caen 4. HL Dasoa;
SS James Epps, Jun.; ©. H. Goopman; Harry D. Gowsr ; W. Morton

- Hommes; C. Lanrear; W. Low Sarswantr.
Hon. Secretary.—Tuos. D. Axpous, F.R.M.S., 87, St. Peter’s

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PROCEEDINGS

OF

THE CROYDON MICROSCOPICAL AND
NATURAL HISTORY CLUB.

1894—95.

Cwenty-fitth Annual Meeting.
Held at the Public Hall, Croydon, January 15th, 1895.
H. Franxuiw Parsons, M.D., F.G.S., President, in the chair.

The statement of accounts was received and adopted.

It was moved by Dr. Parsons, the President, and seconded by
Dr. Hobson, and resolved, that Mr. Walter Murton Holmes be
elected President for the year 1895.

Mr. R. F. Grundy was elected Secretary, Mr. E. B. Sturge
Treasurer, and Mr. A. Roods Librarian.

Messrs. N. F. Robarts, J. H. Baldock, and C. H. Burnaby
Sparrow were elected members of the Committee to fill the two
vacancies occurring under the rules, and the vacancy caused by
the retirement of Mr. W. L. Sarjeant.

The officers of the Club for the ensuing year are as follows :—

President—W. Murron Hoimes.

Vice- Presidents.—Joun Berney, F.R.M.S.; Pamir Crowzey,
F.L.S., F.Z.S.; Henry 8. Eaton, M.A., F.R. Met. Soc. ;
Henry T. Mennett, F.L.8.; Henry G. Tuompson, M.D.,
F.R.M.S., J.P.; Epwarp Loverr; and H. Franxuin
Parsons, M.D., F.G.S.

Treasurer.—E, B. Sturce.

Hon. Secretary.—R. F, Grunpy.

Librarian,—Atrorp Roops,

liv Proceedings.

Committee.—J. H. Batnock ; J. Wrerr Brown; H. C. Cottyer;
J. H. Drace; James Epps, Jun.; C. H. Goopman; H. D.
Gower; N. F. Roparrs; and C. H. Burnasy Sparrow.

The President then delivered his Address, at the conclusion of
which a very hearty vote of thanks was accorded to him for his
valuable services to the Club as President for the past year.

The President’s Address.
GENTLEMEN,

It once more devolves upon me as your President to sub-
mit to you a retrospect of the proceedings of the Croydon
Microscopical and Natural History Club during the year 1894,
now ended, and in performing this duty I am pleased to congratu-
late the Club upon its continued satisfactory condition, although
the chronicle of its doings may in some respects fall short of that
of the previous year.

Our strength at the commencement of the year was 267, viz.,
258 ordinary members, 7 honorary members, and 2 associates.
During the year 12 new ordinary members and 1 honorary mem-
ber have been elected, besides the 9 elected to-night; but on the
other hand 6 members have died (5 ordinary and 1 honorary), 34
have resigned (and one since the end of the year), owing to their
removal from the neighbourhood or other causes, and 6 have
been struck off for non-payment of subscriptions; leaving a net
loss of 25. Our roll now stands at 242, viz., 233 ordinary mem-
bers, 7 honorary members, and 2 associates. The diminution
in our numbers is to be regretted, but the withdrawal of members
whose interest in the Club does not extend so far as the payment
of their subscriptions is no great loss, especially as each member,
in return for the 10s. due from him as a subscription, receives
from the Club 6s. in money’s worth, viz., two tickets for the
Soirée, price 2s. 6d. each, and a copy of the ‘ Transactions,’
price 1s. Most of such members have now been weeded out,
and the Club starts the year with a comparatively clean list.
The number of new members elected and proposed to-night is
encouraging.

A few of our losses during the past year deserve especial men-
tion.

The death, on Sept. 30th, of our distinguished member,
William Topley, F.R.S., was widely regretted, both as a loss to
geologic science and on account of his amiable personal qualities.
Although during his long connection -of over thirty years with
the Geological Survey his investigations had extended over a
very wide field, the scene of his earliest and some of his best
known labours was in this part of England, in the Wealden area

—on eS SS

Proceedings.- lv

and its surroundings. In former years he took part in our pro-
ceedings more often than he had been able to do of late, and a
paper by him is published in our ‘ Transactions’ for 1884. At
our meeting of Oct. 16th a vote of condolence with his family
was passed, and I may here mention that Mrs. Topley, as a
memorial of her late husband, has generously presented to the
Club a valuable donation of books from his library.

Capt. Lovett Cameron, an honorary member of the Club, died
during the year.

We have lost during the year, owing to his removal to Bath,
the valued services of our Hon. Secretary, Mr. Aldous, who was
a frequent contributor to our proceedings on microscopic subjects.
During the time that Mr. Aldous’s services were not available,
owing to his removal from the district, and the long illness
which preceded it, the duties of the secretaryship have been most
efficiently discharged by our Treasurer, Mr. Sturge.

Another former Hon. Secretary, Mr. Low Sarjeant, has un-
fortunately been obliged to leave England during the year on
account of his health. Mr. Low Sarjeant was an accomplished
worker in the Photographic Section. As a mark of appreciation
of his services a testimonial, consisting of a gun and accessories,
was subscribed for by members of the Club, and presented to
him on April 6th: Mr. Sarjeant was also, on March 20th,
elected an honorary member of the Club, so that his connection
with us is not entirely severed. I may add that Mr. Sarjeant
has presented to the Club, a camera and stand and 273 lantern-
slides.

As regards our finances. The annual Balance-sheet of our
Treasurer, which is in your hands, shows that we started the
year with a balance in hand of £59 10s. 3d., and concluded it
with one of £30 2s. 4d., a diminution of £29 7s. 1ld. The pay-
ments during the year, however, have included an item of
£10 18s. 6d., belonging to the Soirée expenses of 1893, but the
account for which had not been sent in at the end of that year.
Allowing for this, the net diminution in our balance is £18 9s. 5d.,
by which amount our year’s expenses have exceeded our year’s
receipts. On comparison of our receipts and expenditure during
the past year with those of 1893, I find that our receipts in 1894
were £150 6s. against £156 14s. 6d. in the previous year, showing
a falling off of £6 8s. 6d., viz., £4 10s. in subscriptions, £1 13s.
in sale of Soirée tickets, and 5s. 6d. in sale of ‘ Transactions.’
On the other hand, our expenditure has increased from
£159 14s. 1d. in 1898 (including the item of £10 18s. 6d. above
referred to) to £168 15s. 5d. in 1894, an increase of £9 1s. 4d.
The principal items of increase in the past year over 1893 were
£9 18s. 10d, in printing of ‘Transactions,’ £2 8s. 4d. in grant

b2

lvi Proceedings.

to Meteorological Sub-Committee, and £1 3s. 10d. in Soirée
expenses. On the other hand, there has been a saving of
£3 19s. 8d. in postage, and £1 9s. 7d. in printing and stationery.
We have, I believe, at the present time no outstanding debts,
and the Club is in a perfectly solvent condition: but the figures
I have given show that unless we can increase our revenue by
enlisting more new members we shall have to exercise care in
keeping down our expenses.

The Special Fund consists of a capital sum of £210 11s. 8d. in
Consols, the interest on which is to be applied to the purchase of
articles and appliances for the use of the Club. Out of it have
been purchased during the year new linoleum for the floor of the
Club-room (which has during the year been redesorated by the
Literary and Scientific Institution, of whom we rent it), and a
microscope-stand for use at the meetings of the Club. No ob-
jectives have as yet been provided, so that members wishing to
exhibit slides will for the present have to bring their own (with
the universal screw), but they need not bring a stand. Mr.
Lovett has kindly given the Club a condenser for the illumina-
tion of opaque objects.

The pamphlets and periodicals which had accumulated during
several years have been sorted by members of the Committee,
and those worth preserving have been bound.

Excursions have been held as usual during the summer
months. The whole-day excursions on Bank Holidays have
been fairly well attended, the half-day excursions on Saturday
afternoons less so, especially during July and August, when
many members are probably gone farther afield. No evening
rambles have been held during the past year, but perhaps the
experiment is worth trying again under the auspices of the
several Sub-Committees, if they would make the necessary
arrangements for visits to places of interest near at hand.

The first excursion of the summer season was made on April
28th to the Zoological Gardens, Regent’s Park, under the
guidance of Mr. Crowley, F.L.S. The afternoon was showery.
Among the creatures to which special attention was given were
the weird-looking tame hornbill, which takes food out of his
keeper’s lips, and catches on the wing with unerring dexterity
grapes thrown into the air; the secretary bird, a large Indian
bird living on snakes, which it kills with a vigorous pat of its
foot; in the unavoidable absence of a cobra it was induced to
give a demonstration of its modus operandi on a dead sparrow
drawn along by a string; the pelicans, who were photographed
by some of the party in a race, with wings displayed and
waddling gait, from their pen to the pond in which their fish had
been placed; and the diving birds, who, swimming under water

Proceedings. lyii

by the aid of their fin-like wings, chased and never failed to
catch the minnows which formed their prey; an American
diver in particular, with a long slender needle-like bill, upon the
point of which he transfixed the fish before catching him between
the mandibles ; the lepidosiren, an African air-breathing fish ;
the new chimpanzee; and the gibbons, who leaped and swung
from point to point with more than the agility of an acrobat.
The second excursion, a whole-day one, took place on Whit
Monday, May 14th, to Leith Hill, under the guidance of Mr.
Sturge. The party, numbering about a dozen, arrived at Holm-
wood Station soon after 11, and walked thence by Coldharbour
to Leith Hill. The morning was somewhat threatening at
starting, but the day turned out beautifully fine. Leith Hill,
which is formed by the escarpment of the Hythe beds of the
Lower Greensand, here a ferruginous sand or sandstone, is the
highest point in the county of Surrey, and indeed in the south-
east of England, having an altitude of 987 ft. above the sea. On
the summit is a tower some 50 ft. high, built in 1766 by Richard
Hull, a retired Bristol merchant, who by his own desire was
buried underneath it. About thirty years after its building the
tower, having become a harbour for vagrants and smugglers,
was closed, and the interior filled with concrete; and so
effectually was the work done that when, in 1864, it was desired
to reopen the tower, it was found impracticable to clear out the
interior, and a staircase tower had to be built at the side to
afford access to the summit. From the top twelve counties are
said to be visible, and by the party, with the aid of a glass, the
following points among others were made out:—The sea near
Shoreham, through a gap in the South Downs at Steyning ;
Chanctonbury Ring, the highest point of the South Downs, and
the line of downs reaching away thence past the Devil’s Dyke
eastward nearly to Eastbourne; Holmbush Tower, Turner’s
Hill, Ashdown Forest, and other parts of the Weald ; the North
Downs from the Hog’s Back eastward to beyond Sevenoaks, and
over them Croham Hurst, Shooter’s Hill, the Crystal Palace,
the Houses of Parliament, Hampstead, the Chiltern Hills, Wind-
sor Forest, and Aldershot, and westward Hindhead. From the
tower some of the party returned to Holmwood Station ; others
made their way to Dorking; while others went on through
Abinger Hatch and Abinger Hammer to Gomshall Station. The
day’s finds were fewer than might have been anticipated. Among
plants were found Montia fontana and Ranunculus hederaceus, on
the wet banks of a streamlet on Coldharbour Common ; the ferns
Blechnum boreale and Nephrodium dilatatum, and an uncommon
moss, Bartramia pomiformis, on Leith Hill (where also the club-
moss, Lycopodium clavatum, formerly grew), and the wild balsam,
Impatiens fulva, on the banks of the Tuillingbourne stream at

lvili Proceedings.

Abinger Hammer. The soil seems favourable to conifers, the
Scotch fir reaching a large size. On the top of Leith Hill are
some well-grown trees of Araucaria, and at Abinger some tall
trees of Wellingtonia (Sequoia gigantea), bearing round cones,
small in proportion to the size of the tree. That primitive
appliance for salutary punishment and warning, the village
stocks, is still to be seen standing by Abinger Church.

A half-day excursion was made on Saturday, May 26th, to
Ashtead, Oxshott, and Esher. The attendance was limited.
Ashtead Common is a relic of forest scenery ; the oaks, which are
the prevailing tree, have been formerly pollarded in the exercise
of the commoners’ right of cutting firewood, but their limbs have
now a growth of some sixty years, forming stately trees, with
green ferny glades between them. Unfortunately the tender
green young foliage of the oaks had been blackened and de- ~
stroyed by the severe frost which occurred on the night of May
20th.* Ashtead Common being on stiff London Clay, a varied
flora is not to be looked for. Ant-mounds are of unusual size and
abundance. Oxshott Common is on the gravelly beds of the
Lower Bagshot Sand, and is covered on the higher ground with a
vegetation of heather and pine, while in the wet hollows are to
be found bog-plants, such as the sundew, the dwarf willow, the
petty-whin, and several species of Sphagnum; and in ponds the
marsh St. John’s-wort (H. elodes). On arrival at Esher the
party were hospitably entertained by Mr. and Mrs. Rutland
Saunders, and returned by an evening train.

On June 23rd an excursion was made to Warlingham and
Worms Heath, under the guidance of Mr. Goodman, and was
well attended. Ascending the hill from Upper Warlingham -
Station towards Warlingham Church a chalk-pit was passed, in
which several of the commoner chall-fossils were met with.
Warlingham Church has recently undergone renovation and
enlargement ; the earliest portions of the present building date
from about a.p. 1250, but it occupies the site of an earlier church,
of which traces in the shape of worked stones were found in the
walls of the existing building. The architectural features of
interest were pointed out by Mr. Goodman, among them being
an ancient fresco painting of St. Christopher. From Wazrling-
ham Church the party proceeded by Crew’s Farm and Chelsham
Place to Worms Heath. Worms Heath is an outlier of the
Oldhaven Pebble Gravel on the chalk downs at a height of over
800 ft. above the sea. At this elevation the clouds, which had
veiled the sky all the afternoon, were in contact with the ground,
forming great drifting masses of vapour which obscured the
view, while below their under surface the features of the valley

* 29° F. at Park Hill Rise, Croydon.

Proceedings. lix

could be seen. On Worms Heath there are some old irregular
conical pits, marked in the Ordnance Map as an ancient camp,
but which resemble old excavations for gravel rather than mili-
tary earthworks. Descending into the valley by a steep slope,
and through a field of rye which overtopped their heads, the
party returned by Halleloo Farm to Upper Warlingham, where
tea had kindly been provided for them by Mr. and Mrs. Good-
man. Among the botanical finds of the day were the bee-orchis,
the grass-leaved vetch (Lathyrus Nissolia), the white mullein
(Verbascum Lychnitis), Cephalanthera grandiflora, &c.

On July 21st a half-day excursion, photographic and general,
had been arranged to Hayes and Keston Common, but your
President was the only member who attended, and his proceed-
ings hardly need to be chronicled. Several interesting plants,
as the arrow-head, the sundew, butterwort, and bog asphodel,
Carduus pratensis, Verbascum Lychnitis, Scirpus flwitans, and
Geranium lucidum, were seen on Keston Common.

On Bank Holiday, Aug. 6th, a whole-day excursion was made
to Haslemere and Hindhead, and there was a fair attendance,
especially considering the long railway journey, and the un-
promising weather in the early part of the day. . Fortunately,
however, a dull damp morning was followed by a brilliantly fine
afternoon. On arriving at Haslemere, a little after 11, the
party, under the guidance of Mr. Mennell, jun., after stopping to
look at the picturesque little church, and Mr. T. P. Newman’s
alpine garden, well stocked with hardy perennials and rock-
plants, proceeded to Hindhead up the wooded spur called Hurt-
hill Copse, probably from the abundance of whortleberries or
‘‘hurts’’ which grow there. In these woods was found the rare
and curious fungus, Cynophallus caninus, so called from its
remarkable resemblance to the penis of a dog; it lacks, however,
the foetid odour so characteristic of its commoner ally, Phallus
impudicus. Hindhead is a lofty hill, or range of hills, 895 ft. in
altitude at its height-point, on the western border of Surrey ad-
joining Hampshire. It is formed, like Leith Hill, Tilburstow
Hill, and the other hills of the range which immediately borders
upon the Weald, by the outcrop of the hard Hythe beds of the
Lower Greensand. At this point, however, the outcrop of these
beds bends southward to form the western boundary of the
Weald ; so that the strike is N.and§., and the dip westerly. In
consequence the range, unlike most others in England, has a
steep escarpment on the east and a more gradual dip to the west.
On the highest point of the hill a memorial stone, inscribed with
appropriate sentences, marks the site of the gibbet on which in
former days highwaymen expiated their crimes. Immediately to
the north of this is the ‘ Devil’s Punch-bowl,” a deep semi-
circular amphitheatre-like hollow, the upper end of a steep valley

lx Proceedings.

running northward parallel with the main ridge of the hill. At
the bottom of this valley is a patch of boggy ground, kept satu-
rated by springs issuing from the base of the Hythe beds where
these rest on the subjacent Atherfield Clay. Here were found
several interesting bog-plants, as two species of sundew, viz.,
Drosera rotundifolia and D. intermedia ; the bog asphodel, gay in
flower; the bog pimpernel (Anagallis tenella); and the ivy-
leaved campanula (C. hederacea); also several species of ferns.
From the summit of the hill a fine view was obtained, though
hardly so panoramic as that from Leith Hill. The way back to
the station led through sandy lanes between deep banks.

A half-day excursion, on Aug. 18th, to Chislehurst and St.
Paul’s Cray Common, was announced, but so far as I am aware
not even a quorum of one member was obtained.

On Sept. 15th a half-day excursion for the especial purpose of
a fungus hunt was made, by kind permission of Col. Warde, to
Squerryes Park and Crockham Hill. The party, of whom some
had walked from Oxted Station, and others had come by train to
Westerham, met at the Westerham entrance by a picturesque
overshot water-mill, now used for pumping purposes by the
Kent Waterworks Co. They then walked through the beautiful
undulating and well-timbered park to Crockham Hill and Kent
Hatch, returning by Limpsfield Common to Oxted Station.
Nearly forty species of fungi were found and identified, among
the less common being Cantharellus cinereus, Hygrophorus calyptre-
formis, and Craterellus cornucopioides. The last named was
plentiful on the bare soil in beech-groves, though its blackish
irregular pilei were little conspicuous against the dark soil,
an instance of resemblance in hue between a fungus and its
habitat. The purpose subserved by the often bright colours of
fungi, whether protective or attractive, is an unsettled question.
One can hardly suppose these colours to be without any use, but
what their use to the plant may be is not known. The fungi
collected on this day were exhibited at the evening meeting on
Sept. 18th.

Since our last annual meeting eight ordinary evening meetings
of the Club have been held, viz., on the third Tuesdays in
February, March, April, May, September, October, November,
and December. Iam glad to say that there has been no diffi-
culty in maintaining a supply of communications for these
meetings ; all with one exception, which was not the sole paper
of the evening, having been from members of the Club. We
gladly and gratefully accept the help of friends from outside, but
it is satisfactory that the Club is able to keep up its meetings
without external aid. We should be glad, however, to see more
of our members, especially the younger ones, taking an active

Proceedings. Ixi

part in the proceedings of the Club. The attendance at our
ordinary meetings has varied, but on the whole has been mode-
rately good; better, I think, than in the previous year. At the
meetings on May 17th, Oct. 16th, and Dec. 8th lady visitors were
present on the invitation of the Club.

At the meeting of Feb. 20th the Report of the Meteorological
Sub-Committee for 1893 was read on behalf of the Hon. Secre-
tary, Mr. F.C. Bayard. This Report was published in our volume
of ‘ Transactions’ for that year (Trans., Art. 115, p. 90). The
main feature of the year 1893 was the deficiency of rainfall
which marked nearly every month, especially in the earlier part
of the year, and which amounted at Greenwich to 44 in. below
the average of the preceding fifty years. The temperature of
nearly every month, with the exception of January and November,
had been above the average, and so had also in most months
been the duration of sunlight. The President remarked that the
temperature of the ground at a depth of 4 ft. was 8° F. higher
in January and February, 1894, than in the corresponding season
of 1898. This was no doubt due to the excess of heat received
during the previous year, and it accounted for the early growth of
vegetation, which was so marked a feature of the spring of 1894.

Mr. Straker read a paper entitled ‘‘ Some Notes on the Outer
Shetlands,” in which he described the scenery, geology, botany,
and animal life of these the northernmost of the British Islands,
referring especially to Unst, Foula, and Fair Isle. He showed
how in the native art of the latter island the influence of the
survivors of the Spanish Armada, who were shipwrecked there in
1587, could be traced. The paper was illustrated by botanical
specimens, stuffed birds, and other objects of interest; and, in
further illustration, a specimen of the now almost extinct great
skua was exhibited by Mr. Weir Brown; and copper cruzies and
specimens of stormy petrels used as lamps in Shetland were
shown by Mr. Lovett.

On March 20th Mr. Aldous showed some recent improvements
in the microscope for high-power work, especially a centering
substage, and a graduated draw-tube.

A paper was read by Dr. Hobson on ‘‘Some Points in the
Life-history of Bacteria,” in which he treated of the botanical
position, morphological characters, moyements, methods of re-
production by fission and by spore-formation, and habitats of
these lowly plants, of the chemical processes involved in their
growth, and of the method of their identification by cultivation.
‘he paper was profusely illustrated by lantern-slides, kindly lent
by Dr. E. Klein, F.R.S. It will be published in our ‘ Trans-
actions’ (Trans., Art. 116).

The meeting on April 17th was devoted to the exhibition of
specimens and remarks thereon. Your President exhibited, as

Ixii Proceedings.

an illustration of the unusual forwardness of the spring, a speci-
men of hawthorn in flower, gathered at Slaugham, Sussex, on
April 15th. (It was in flower at Croydon a few days later.) He
had never but once before seen it in flower so early as the end of
April, and it was not generally out until nearly the middle of May.
Mr. J. Epps exhibited and described the fruit of the ‘‘ Cape
gooseberry” (Physalis peruviana), which the members had the
opportunity of tasting. ‘

Mr. W. C. Brown exhibited the disarticulated bones of the

head of the pike (sow lucius).

Mr. Goodman gave a demonstration of the anatomy of the
wings of insects.

Mr. Murton Holmes exhibited specimens of nudibranchiate
mollusca and other marine animals.

Mr. Mennell exhibited Viola arenaria in flower from Teesdale,
its only British locality.

At the meeting on May 15th Mr. Drage exhibited a specimen
of the giant hemlock (Heracleum giganteum) ; also cones of the
Wellingtonia (Sequoia gigantea), found at Abinger on the excur-
sion of the previous day.

Mr. Mennell exhibited two rare plants, viz., Cephalanthera
ensifolia and Hutchinsia petrea, which he had found a few days
previously at Symonds Yat on the Wye.

Mr. Lovett read an interesting paper on ‘‘ Notes from Cash-
mere and Northern India,” which was illustrated by a series of
well-executed water-colour drawings made by his brother, Captain
Lovett, and by a large collection of native-made objects. These
comprised tinder-boxes of both the Hindoo and Mongolian types,
and also a fire-drill used by the aboriginal Bhils, and pipes in a
variety of forms; the simplest consisted merely of mud on the
river-bank, raised up into a small mound; a cavity in the sum-
mit of the mound contained the burning leaves, and a smaller
hole driven in obliquely formed the stem, by lying down and
applying the mouth to which the smoke was inhaled. There
were ancient and curious lamps, and small vessels of sun-dried
clay, containing charcoal, and used as cooking-stoves on native
house-boats ; also native needlework, and a Sikh polo-stick, the
game of polo having come to us from that athletic people.

The meeting on Sept. 18th was also devoted to the exhibition
of specimens. Mr. H. C. Collyer exhibited some bones and
articles taken from a supposed Saxon grave on the Sussex downs
in the neighbourhood of Arundel, among them being a skull
deeply cloven by a clean cut as of a sword, probably that of a man
killed in battle ; the bones indicated a height of about 6 ft. 3 in.

Mr. Lovett exhibited a pair of ‘‘rivelins,” or leathern shoes
of primitive pattern, from Fair Isle, Shetland; also a model of a
coracle, or portable wicker-boat, used for fishing on the Welsh

.

Proceedings. lxiii

rivers, and made some remarks on the ancient character of these
objects. ;

Mr. Goodman exhibited some beautifully-executed drawings of
microscopic fungi.

Mr. Mennell exhibited some dried plants from Switzerland,
among which were two orchids, Epipogiwm Gmelint and Cepha-
lanthera rubra, which have been found as very rare natives of
Britain.

Your President exhibited specimens of several rare British
plants grown in his garden, viz., the shepherd’s-staff or small
teasel ( Dipsacus pilosus), from Arundel ; Senecio saracenicus, from
Somerset; and two species of balsam naturalised in Surrey, viz.,
Impatiens parviflora, trom Oxted, and I. fulva, from the banks of
the Tillingbourne at Abinger. The latter was the plant referred
to in the last Presidential Address as Impatiens Noli-me-tangere,
which was, I find, an error.” In my garden at Croydon it does
not produce the normal petalled flowers, but bears seed abun-
dantly, like the wood-sorrel and some of the violets, from minute
inconspicuous petal-less flowers. Its congener, I. parviflora,
seems not to possess this habit, which also is not shared by all
the species of Oxalis and Viola.

The fungi which had been gathered at Squerryes Park at the
excursion on the previous Saturday were also exhibited, and
your President gave a brief account of the botanical characters
of this group of plants.

On Oct. 16th a lecture was given by Mr. Lovett on ‘‘ Primitive
Lighting Appliances.” Beginning with the crudest appliances,
such as a whelk-shell containing oil, the beak of the shell serving
to hold the wick, or a stone hollowed into a cup-shaped cavity
for the oil, with a groove in which the wick lay, he traced the
development of the oil-lamp through successive stages to its
modern form. An important improvement upon the simplest
forms was to add a vessel under the lamp to catch the redundant
oil dripping from the wick. This stage is represented by the
‘“eruzy” stillin use in the north of Scotland, and met with
under various forms and modifications in many parts of the
world. It consists of two beaked saucers of metal, one above the
other, the upper containing the oil and wick, and the lower
receiving the drip; the upper saucer can be tilted forward to
supply the wick when the oil gets low. Ina further stage the
beak becomes a spout. Other modifications were the covering of
the oil-vessel by a lid, and the holding of the wick in a carrier,
and this being removed from the side to the centre of the oil-
vessel, we had the origin of the modern oil-lamp. The glass
chimney and Argand burner were improvements added in the
last century. ‘he lecture was illustrated by excellent lantern-
slides of lamps in Mr. Lovett’s collection, from photographs by

y~ see p- xxv

Ixiv Proceedings.

Mr. Kenneth McKean. In conveying the thanks of the meeting
to Mr. Lovett for his excellent address, your President alluded to
the still more recent improvements in lamps, e.g., duplex and
regenerative burners, pointing out that these proceeded on the
lines of increasing the temperature of the flame, since the hotter
the flame the larger was the proportion of the energy trans-
formed into light as compared with that wasted as dark heat.

At the meeting on Noy. 20th, Mr. Wm. Whitaker, F.R.S., of
the Geological Survey, submitted to the Club a series of records
of well-borings in Surrey, which will be published in our ‘ Trans-
actions ’ (Trans., Art. 117). He made some remarks upon cer-
tain of the sections, especially upon that at Hast Horsley, which
had pierced the whole thickness of the chalk, here considerably
greater than is usual in the London area; and upon the well at
Richmond, where a fair quantity of water was obtained from
galleries driven in the chalk beneath the Tertiary beds, one of
these galleries having, in fact, reached the base of the Thanet
Sand from below.

Mr. A. Lucas exhibited seed-vessels of Arum Dracunculus.

The President showed Nostoc commune (from Riddlesdown), a
gelatinous alga, which appears suddenly in masses on calcareous
soil after heavy rain ; also a fossil lobster (Thenops scy/lariformis)
found by Mr. C. Hehner in the Park Hill railway-cutting.

The President read a paper entitled ‘‘ Habits and Habitats of
Plants; some Remarks on Superficial Resemblances between
Plants of Different Affinities,’ in which he pointed out how
plants belonging to widely different orders, but adapting them-
selves to similar modes of life, had undergone modification on
parallel lines. This was exemplified by reference to leafless
root-parasites, to the plants with quill-like leaves which grow on
the gravelly bottoms of mountain lakes, to the plants which grow
submerged in water and to those which float on the surface, and
to twining, climbing, succulent, bulbous, and alpine plants.
Dried specimens of the plants referred to were shown in illustra-
tion. (This paper is published in the ‘ Transactions,’ Art. 118.)

On Dec. 18th Mr. Murton Holmes read a paper on. ‘‘ The
Nutrition of Plants.’ He first described the cell-structure and
nutritive processes in ordinary green plants, and then spoke of
the special processes of nutrition in certain groups of plants, as
saprophytes, carnivorous plants, parasites, and plants which live
together in mutually beneficial association (symbiosis). The
paper was illustrated by some excellent diagrams, and by micro-
scopic slides exhibited by several members ; and was followed by
discussion. (It is published in the ‘Transactions,’ Art. 119.)

Besides the ordinary meetings of the Club, a lecture, on April
8rd, by the Rev. H. N. Hutchinson, B.A., F.G.S., was kindly

Proceedings. Ixv

arranged for by our Vice-President, Mr. Philip Crowley. The
lecture was given in the large Public Hall, and there was an
attendance of about 800. The subject of the locture was
“Extinct Monsters,” and it included mention of sea-scorpions
(Pterygotus), from the Old Red Sandstone ; of the great fish-lizards
(Ichthyosauria), long-necked sea-lizards (Plesiosauria), and flying
dragons (Pterodactyla) ; of the Dinosauria, huge land-reptiles of
a kangaroo-like shape, which form with the ostriches a link be-
tween reptiles and birds ; of the sea-serpents of the chalk (Mosa-
saurus) ; of the ancient mammals of generalised type discovered
by Prof. Marsh in the American Tertiaries ; of Indian monsters
from the Siwalik Hills; of the giant sloths and armadilloes of
South America; of the mammoth, contemporary with early man,
and still occasionally found in the flesh embedded in the frozen
soil of Siberia; of the woolly rhinoceros; of the giant birds of
New Zealand ; and of the comparatively recently extinct sirenian,
Steller’s sea-cow. The lecture was illustrated by about fifty
lantern-slides, representing these extinct forms of life.

The Twenty-fifth Annual Soirée of the Club was held at the
Public Hall, on Nov. 28th. The attendance was 174 members
and exhibitors and 368 visitors, making a total of 542, against
567 last year, and there was consequently a slight falling off in
the receipts. Though the attendance thus showed a slight
diminution, there was no falling off in the number and interest
of the exhibits, which, so far as my memory serves me, quite
came up to any former occasion. Among the principal exhibits
were Bellarmine pottery and coins found in the recent excava-
tions in High Street, and other antiquities, lent by the Corpora-
tion of Croydon; a very extensive collection of British birds’
nests and eggs, by Mr. P. Crowley; a large group of stuffed
birds, skins, &c., by Mr. C. Thorpe ; a very interesting collection
of obsolete and primitive household appliances, by Mr. E. Lovett;
a collection of antique candle-snuffers of various design and
curious contrivance, by Mr. E. Bidwell; Japanese art-bronzes,
by Mr. Alfred Parsons; a large collection of cultivations of
chromogenic and pathogenic bacteria, by Dr. F. R. Blaxall ;
cultivations of bacteria from sewage, by Dr. J. M. Hobson;
beautifully dried specimens of British plants, by Mr. C. E.
Salmon; an ancient jewel-casket, by Mr. H. C. Thompson;
insects, by Mr. C. H. Goodman; minerals, by various exhibitors ;
and a collection of British fossils, by your President. The
annual bouquet of flowers gathered in the open air at Addiscombe
that morning contained about 188 different species and varieties,
as against 118 last year and in 1892, 140 in 1891, and 121 in
1890. November, 1893, was one of the few cold months of a
warm year, whereas November, 1894, was warm after a cold

Ixvi Proceedings.

summer ; hence our number of plants in flower exceeded that of
the previous year, although the Soirée fell nearly a week later.
The collection of fungi from the neighbourhood of Croydon
contained 33 kinds, against 28 in 1898 and 88 in 1892. There
was a fair array of microscopes brought by members of the
Royal, Quekett, South London, and Holmesdale Societies and
other friends, as well as by our own members. Among the
more novel microscopic objects exhibited may be mentioned :—
Bacilli of bubonic plague (from Hong Kong), and of vaccine
lymph, by Dr. Monckton Copeman; Conochilus volvox (an in-
fusorium living in colonies, like a number of Vorticelle with
their stalks tied together instead of being attached to a fixed
object), by R. C. Crossland ; Plumatella and Fudendrum, by Dr.
Bossy ; Lucernaria auricula (a hydrozoon in the medusa stage),
and Cape diamonds and garnets, by G. Berry; platino-cyanide
of yttrium (with polarised light), by H. G. Coomb. The
favourite exhibits of the circulation in a frog’s foot and of the
face of a watch multiplied by the facets of a beetle’s eye (the
latter shown by Mr. J. Epps, jun.), did not fail to attract the
usual amount of interest.

The work of the Photographic Section was displayed in the
corridor and on screens, as well as by exhibitions of lantern-
slides, during the course of the evening.

The Club were indebted as usual to Mr. Berney, Mr. Crowley,
and Mr. Sturge for their valuable help in making the necessary
arrangements.

The conversational meetings, which should be held on the last
Wednesday in each month during the session under the auspices
of the several Sub-Committees alternately, have rather flagged
during the year; few have been held, and those few have been
ill-attended. The Friday evening meetings of the Photographic
Section have, however, been kept up.

Concerning the sectional work of the Club only the Meteoro-
logical and Photographic Sections have sent me reports. From
the Meteorological Section I receive the following statement of
their work in 1894 :—

The Meteorological Sub-Committee has continued its work under
the supervision of its Honorary Secretary. The daily rainfall of 66
stations in the Club District has been tabulated every month, examined
and corrected, and the results printed and issued to the observers, and
all members of the Club interested in the question, either before or within
a few days after the end of the month succeeding that to which the
statistics refer. Short particulars of the weather have also been
inserted in each monthly sheet. Three gentlemen interested in the
work of the Section contributed a sum of £15 towards the expenses,—
F. CampsBeL.t Bayarb, Hon. Sec. ‘

Proceedings. Ixvii

I may here note that during the past year a change has been
made in the form of the monthly sheet issued to rainfall ob-
servers, the notes on the meteorological, phenological, and other
features of the month being appended to each monthly sheet,
instead of being given, as in former years, as an appendix to the
annual report of the Section. It is thought that these notes may
be of more interest to observers when the facts are still fresh in
their memory than at the end of the year. They will still be in-
cluded in the annual report of the Section, which will be pre-
sented at our February meeting.

There is plenty of scope for more phenological observations as
a branch of the work of the Club. Observations as to the date
of occurrence of well-marked periodical phenomena, such as the
flowering of plants, the arrival of migratory birds, &c., if carried
out on a sufficiently extended scale, are of interest, both as in-
dicating the character of the seasons in different years and the
climate of different places.

Of the work of the Photographic Section, Mr. Gower gives me
the following report :—

In tendering my report for the past year, I am glad to say that the
Photographic Section of the Club have again passed through a very
successful season. One thing, however, I am sorry to have to regret,
and that is the half-hearted way in which the excursions have been
attended. Numerous excursions were arranged, but members failed
to put in an appearance at many of them. If the Excursion Com-
mittee which was formed last year would look up the ground before-
hand, I do not think such scant attention would be paid to the excur-
sions as there has been during the past season.

Technical conversational meetings and lantern nights have been
held as usual.

A marked improvement took place this year at the Soirée with
reference to the pictures, nearly all exhibits being sent in framed, the
work being good all round (many of the exhibits giving evidence of
individual rambles other than those excursions arranged by the Club).
Some 600 transparencies occupied the Small Hall, and during the
evening three lantern exhibitions of members’ work were given in the
School of Art Room.

The membership of the Section remains the same. Several resigna-
tions have taken place, but have been filled up with new-comers.—
Harry D. Gower, Hon. Sec.

May I be permitted to suggest that the sectional Sub-Com-
‘mittees appear to require some strengthening. I am inclined to
think that in some cases the same member would be useful on
more than one Sub-Committee, and also that there might be
advantage in forming a Sub-Committee for Archeology and
Anthropology, as suggested by me last year.

Ixviii Proceedings.

Mr. Cushing, who was appointed our delegate at the Annual
Meeting of the British Association at Oxford, in August, 1894,
gives me the following account of the proceedings of the con-
ferences of the delegates of corresponding societies held in con-
nection with that meeting :—

BritisH AssocraTION MEETING aT OxForD, 1894.

During the meeting of the British Association at Oxford in August
last there were two conferences of delegates representing various corre-
sponding societies from all parts of the United Kingdom, and of which
the Croydon Microscopical and Natural History Club was one. At the
first conference, held on Aug. 9th, an instructive and exhaustive paper
was read by Mr. Cuthbert Peek on Local Museums, with suggestions
for their management and improvement. The principal points raised
and discussed were on “‘ Methods of registration and cataloguing ; the
protection of specimens from injury and dust; the circulation of speci-
mens and type-collections for educational purposes; central referees
for nomenclature and classification ; the most satisfactory methods of
making museums attractive ; museum lectures and demonstrations ;
and the relations between museums and County Councils.” The sub-
ject was most ably treated by Mr. Peek under all the above headings,
and much useful information was given both in the paper itself and in
the subsequent discussion; but throughout the proceedings there
seemed to be no points of special value to us in Croydon at the pre-
sent time, as in all cases it was assumed, a priori, that a museum was
already in existence, which unfortunately is not the case here. The
information obtained, however, may be useful to us at some future
time, should it ever be the good fortune of the burgesses of Croydon to
successfully impress upon the municipal authorities the necessity of
establishing a museum and an art gallery on a similar basis to the
Public Library, already so successfully established and appreciated ;
as it seems to me that there is no satisfactory way of ensuring the
proper care and exhibition of specimens and collections and the per-
manence of a museum, however well one might be started by private
pet ae otherwise than by its establishment by the local County

ouncil.

While on this subject, I should like to place on record the opinion
that I think there is reason to believe that in the past Croydon has lost
some valuable collections which might have remained here and en-
riched a local museum had there been a well-equipped institution in
which they could have been deposited and cared for, and there is no
doubt that if such a museum were once established it would soon
attract valuable contributions from many sources. It therefore be-
comes a question whether, in the near future, the Committee of the
Croydon Microscopical and Natural History Club might not consider
it desirable to approach the Croydon County Council on the subject.
Until something of this kind is done, and a permanent museum is
established, I see no way of making any use of the valuable suggestions
afforded by the reading and discussion of Mr. Cuthbert Peek’s most
interesting paper.

The second conference was held on Aug. 14th, when various sub-
jects were brought up for discussion, such as meteorological and

Proceedings. Ixix

geological photographs, earth tremors, pollution of the air of towns,
ethnographical surveys, erratic blocks, &c.; but as I was unable to be
present at this meeting, I would refer you to the Report published by
the Corresponding Societies Committee for an account of the discussion
of the interesting topics brought under the notice of the conference.
TxHos. CUSHING.
We should all, no doubt, be ready to echo Mr. Cushing’s wish
that in the new municipal buildings now being erected space
could be found for a local and educational museum worthy of a
town of the size of Croydon. The reasons why Croydon has not
such a museum as many much smaller provincial towns have
are probably that, though an old town, its municipal life is but
young, and that proximity to London and the national museums
there renders the want of a local museum less felt.

And now, Gentlemen, it only remains for me to thank you for
your kind support during my two years of office, and to bespeak
a continuance of the same for my successor who is so worthily to
occupy the Presidential chair.

Sub-Committees.

The members of the following Sub-Committees will, at all
times, be glad to receive notice of, and to investigate, any facts
of interest connected with the Natural History of the district,
and to give to members of the Club any advice and assistance in
their power.

Botanical Sub-Committee.—James Epps, F.L.8., Norfolk House,
Beulah Hill, Upper Norwood; W. Inerams, Whitgift Schools,
Church Road; H. T. Mennett, F.L.S. (Hon. Sec.), Park Hill
Rise; H. Franxiin Parsons, M.D., F.G.S., 4, Park Hill Rise;
Eryest Srraxer, Richmond, Malden Road, Wallington.

Geological Sub-Committee. — James CuisHoum, Addiscombe
Lodge; Groree Hino, Ph.D., F.G.S. (Hon. Sec.), Avondale
Road; J. M. Hozpson, M.D., 65, Lower Addiscombe Road; H.
Frankuin Parsons, M.D., F.G.S.,4, Park Hill Rise; N. F. Roparts,
F.G.S., Addiscombe Grove ; T. Wauxer, C.E., Warrington Road.

Meteorological Sub-Committee—F. C. Bayarp, LL.M. (Hon.
Sec.), Wallington; Txos. Cusine, F.R.A.S., Chepstow Road;
Batpwin Latuam, C.E., Duppas House, Croydon.

Microscopical Sub-Committee—T. A. Duxes, M.B., B.Sce., 16,
Wellesley Road; H. Greenway, Ashburton Road; J. W. Hetps,
8, Tavistock Road; E. Loverr, 41, Outram Road; W. Murron
Hoxmes (Hon. Sec.), Glenside, St. Peter’s Road; E. B. Srurez,
The Waldrons.

Photographic Sub-Committee.—J. Wr1r Brown, Heathfield Road ;
J. H. Batpocg, F.C.S. (Lanternist and Recorder), St. Leonard’s

c

Ixx Proceedings.

Road; H. D. Gowrr (Hon. Sec.), 16, Wandle Road; ©. F,
Oaxtey, Sudbury Road, Thornton Heath; Aurrep Roops, 15,
St. James’s Park ; C. H. Burnasy Sparrow; 1, Chepstow Road.

Zoological Sub-Committee. —Joun Berney, F.R.M.8. (Hon.
Sec.), Chatsworth Road; Pamir Crowrey, F.Z.S., F.L.S.,
Waddon; Joun Henry Drace, Tamworth Road, Croydon ; C. H.
Goopman, Bryn Cottage, Whyteleaf, Surrey; H. Lex, St. John’s
Grove; R. McLacuuay, F.R.S., F.L.S., 28, Clarendon Road,
Lewisham.

Anthropological Sub-Committee. —H. C. Cotuver, Homewood,
Haling Park Road; E. Loverr (Hon. Sec.), 41, Outram Road ;
N. F. Rogarts, F.G.S., Abingdon, Addiscombe Grove; H. G.
Tompson, M.D., 86, Lower Addiscombe Road.

The President, Vice-Presidents, and Hon. Secretary of the
Club for the time being are ew-officio members of every Sub-
Committee.

Members elected, 1894.

January 16th.— Edmund Dean, LL.B., 28, Oliver Grove, South
Norwood. Nathaniel F. Robarts, F.G.S., Abingdon, Addiscombe
Grove, Croydon.

March 20th. — George Edward Neeves, Cromer Lodge, Birdhurst
Road, Croydon. Henry W. Perry, The Cedars, London Road, Croydon.

April 17th. Henry Dolling Smith, 19, Cedars Road, Beckenham,
Kent.

October 16th.—Wm. J. Lancelot Smith, Sydenham.

November 20th.—Matthew Curry, Jun., M. Inst. C.E., Como Lodge,
62, Coombe Road, Croydon. Henry C. Thompson, “ Horndean,”’
Waddon.

December 18th.—Major Frederick Carr Swinerton Dyer, Kenley,
Surrey. Alexander Fitzgerald, 93, Addiscombe Road. Walter Charles
Norton, Maycourt, Campden Road. David Hill, Beckenham.

Exhibits, 1894.

February 20th.—T. D. Aldous (under the microscope), Slides of the
two common Moulds, Penicillium and Aspergillus glaucus, stained
and mounted in balsam, showing spores in situ.

March 20th.—E. Lovett, A series of photographs of the horse-
chestnut in bud, showing its mode of development.

April 17th.—H. F. Parsons, A piece of hawthorn in flower, gathered
at Slaugham, in Sussex, on April 15th, and Primula farinosa.
J. Epps, Jun., The fruit of the Cape gooseberry, Physalis Perwviana.
W. Murton Holmes, Nudibranchiate molluscs and an annelid. H. T.
Mennell, Viola arenaria, a scarce plant from Teesdale. W.C. Brown,
The bones in the head of the pike (Hsozx lucius), disarticulated.

May 15th.—J. H. Drage, A large leaf of the giant parsnip (Heracleum
giganteum), and some cones of the Sequoia gigantea, found at
Abinger. H. T. Mennell, Cephalanthera ensifolia, found in the
vicinity of Symonds Yat, on the Wye. E. B. Sturge, Weevils, bugs,
beetles, and a small cockchafer from Nimes; and some olive-leaves
under the microscope.

Proceedings. Ixxi

September 18th.—H. C. Collyer, Some bones and a skull taken
from a supposed Saxon grave on the downs near Arundel. E. Lovett,
A pair of rivelins or shoes, brought from Fair Isle by Mr. Straker; and
a model of a coracle used on Welsh rivers. C. H. Goodman, Drawings
of microscopical fungi. H.T. Mennell, Dried plants from Switzer-
land, including two orchids, Epipogum Gmelini, parasitic on the roots
of pine-trees, and Cephalanthera rubra. H. F. Parsons and W.
Murton Holmes, A large collection of fungi from Squerryes Park,
near Westerham. H. F. Parsons, The shepherd’s staff, a small
teasel (Dipsacus pilosus), from Arundel; ragwort (Senecio saracent-
cus), from Somerset; and two species of balsam naturalised in Surrey,
viz., Impatiens parviflora, from Oxted, and I. fulva, from Abinger ;
all grown in his garden. :

November 20th.—A. Lucas, Fruit of Arwm dracunculus (Snake
Arum). H.F. Parsons, A gelatinous alga, Nostoc commune, from
Riddlesdown. C. Hehner, A fossil lobster (Thenops scyllarifornis)
and some shark’s teeth from the railway-cuttings in Park Hill, and a
fossil-bone of ox found in the elephant-beds, Brighton.

December 18th.—C. H. Goodman, Galls formed on twigs of the
aspen found on Wimbledon Common.

Library.
The additions to the Library during 1894 are as follows :—

From Individuals. — A. Bennett: Botanical pamphlets; F. C.
Bayard: Report of the Meteorological Council, appendix xv.; A. Bar-
ber: Various photographic year-books and almanacs; H. D. Gower:
The photographic papers asissued ; W. Low Sarjeant : A15in. x 12in.
camera and stand and collection of 293 lantern-slides; E. B. Sturge:
Peruvian-bark, by C. R. Markham; Mrs. Topley: British petrography
(Teall); Memoirs of the late H. E. Strickland, M.A.; Report of the
Museums Association for 1893 ; Manual of the Protozoa (J. R. Greene) ;
Manual of the Ceelenterata (J. R. Greene); Observations on the dis-
position of the cubital coverts in birds (J. G. Goodchild); The in-
adequacy of Natural Selection (Spencer); The probability of finding
coal in the South-east of England (W. Taylor); A large number of
pamphlets and reprints of papers on Anthropology, Climate, Dene-
holes, Geology; &c.

From Societies.—Journal of the Société Belge de Microscopie for
1894; British Association Reports, 1893; Berwickshire Naturalists’
Club Proceedings, 1892; Annals de Sciencias Naturaes, Portugal ;
Epsom College Natural History Society, Journal, 1893; Essex Natura-
list, 1893; East Kent Natural History Society, 1893; Eastbourne
Natural History Society, 1892—93 ; Hants Field Club, vol. ii., parts 2
and 3; Manchester Microscopical Society, 1893; Manchester Geo-
graphical Society, vol. viii., parts 7 to 12; vol. ix., parts 7 to 9; vol. x.,
parts 1 to 3; Northamptonshire Natural History Society, 1893; Nor-
folk and Norwich Naturalists’ Society, vol. v., parts 1 to 5; Quekett
Microscopical Society, 2 part, 1894; Reading Literary and Scientific
Society, 1894; Royal Microscopical Society, 1894; Scottish Micro-
scopical Society, 1893—94 ; South London Entomological and Natural
History Society, 1892—93; West Kent Natural History, Microscopical,
and Photographic Society, 1893—94.

2

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( Ixxv )

RULES OF THE CLUB.

Se

Title and Objects of the Club.

THe Club shall be called ‘““THe Croypon MicroscopicaL AND
NaturaL History Cuus,” and shall have for its objects the mutual
help of its Members in the study of Microscopy, Natural History, and
Photography, the investigation of the Meteorology, Geology, Botany,
and Zoology of the neighbourhood of Croydon, in the County of
Surrey, and the dissemination amongst its Members of information on
the subjects of Microscopy and Natural History.

Management of the Club.

1.—The business of the Club shall be conducted by a Committee
(four to form a quorum), consisting of a President, Vice-Presidents (to
consist of all past Presidents), a Treasurer, an Honorary Secretary,
and nine other Members.

2.—The officers of the Club shall be elected at the General Annual
Meeting. The President shall not hold office more than two years in
succession. Of the nine Members of the Committee two shall retire
each year, and shall not be eligible for re-election that year. The
retiring Members shall be, (a) the one who has attended the smallest
number of Committee Meetings during the past year; (b) the one who
has served upon the Committee the longest. The remaining seven
shall retain office without re-election. If two or more Members have
an equal number of Committee Meetings, that Member shall retire
who has served the longest. If two or more Members have served an
equal length of time, that Member shall retire who has attended the
Committee least often during the past year.

At a Committee Meeting held on March 14th, 1888, the following
Resolutions were passed :—

I.— That Lady Visitors introduced by Members be cordially
welcome to join all the Excursions or Field Meetings of the
Club.”

II.—* That when in his judgment the Paper of the evening is
likely to be of sufficient general interest, the President be
empowered, with the consent of the reader of the Paper, to
invite the attendance of Lady Visitors introduced by Members.
Such invitation to be conveyed on the Notice convening the
Meeting.”

Ixxvi Rules.

III.—‘‘ That the various sectional Sub-Committees be also em-
powered, when they think it desirable, to invite the attendance
of Ladies as Visitors at any Meetings, whether out or indoor,
held under their auspices.”

Membership.

1.—Every candidate for Membership shall be proposed by two or
more Members, one of whom at least shall have a personal knowledge
of him, and who shall sign a certificate in recommendation of him,
according to the form appended. The certificate shall be read from
the chair, and the candidate therein recommended balloted for at the
following meeting. One black ball in five to exclude.

2,—The Annual Subscription shall be 10s., payable in advance on
the 1st of January (or on election, if previous to November), and no
person shall be entitled to the privileges of the Club until his Subscerip-
tion shall have been paid.

3.—Distinguished men may be elected Honorary Members of the
Club; such Honorary Members shall not be subject to any of the
expenses of the Club, and shall have no vote in its affairs.

4.—In order to encourage the study of Microscopy and Natural
History amongst mechanics, &c., residing in the district, individuals
of that class may be admitted as Associates, provided they shall first
communicate some original information or observation on Microscopy
or Natural History, or exhibit such specimens as shall, by their merit,
satisfy the Committee. Such Associates shall enjoy the privileges of
Honorary Members.

5.—No Member shall be considered to have withdrawn from the
Club until he shall have paid his arrears, and given a written notice to
the Secretary of his intention to resign.

6.—If it shall be thought desirable to expel any Member from the
Club, the same shall be done by a resolution of the Committee, which
shall be read at the next ordinary meeting; and at the following
meeting a ballot shall take place with respect to the proposition, and
if two-thirds of the Members present shall vote for such Member’s
expulsion, he shall no longer be considered a Member.

7.—Any Member may introduce a visitor at an ordinary meeting,
who shall enter his name, with that of the Member by whom he is
introduced, in a book kept for that purpose.

Ordinary Meetings.

1.—The ordinary meetings of the Club shall be held on the third
Tuesday in every month (excepting the months of June, July, and
August), at seven o’clock in the evening; the chair to be taken at
eight precisely, or at such other time as the Committee may appoint.

Rules. Ixxvil

2.—The ordinary course of proceedings shall be as follows :—

I.—The minutes of the previous meeting shall be read and sub-
mitted for approval as being correct.
II.—The names of candidates for membership shall be read, and
the ballot for election of Members shall take place.
III.—Scientifie communications shall be read and discussed ; after
which the chair shall be vacated, and the meeting shall
resolve itself into a conversazione, to terminate at ten o’clock.

3.—In the absence of the President, the Members present at any
ordinary meeting shall elect a Chairman for that evening.

4.—No Paper shall be read which has not received the sanction of
the Committee ; and, whenever it is possible, early notices of the sub-
ject of the Papers to be read shall be given by the Secretary to the
Members. No Paper shall exceed twenty minutes in the actual
reading, unless by the special permission of the Chairman.

5.—In addition to the above ordinary meetings, others, for con-
versation and the exhibition of Microscopical objects and Natural
History specimens, and for the borrowing and exchanging of books,
shall be held on the last Wednesday in each month throughout the
year, at eight o’clock in the evening.

6.—Photographic meetings shall be held on the first Friday in each
month throughout the year, at eight o’clock in the evening.

Business Meetings and Election of Officers.

1.—The accounts of the Club shall be audited by two Members
appointed at the ordinary meeting in December. No Member of the
Committee shall be eligible as an Auditor.

2.—At the same meeting, notice of the Annual Meeting in January
shall be given from the chair.

8.—An Annual Meeting of the Club shall be held, in place of the
ordinary meeting, on the third Tuesday evening in January, at eight
o’clock, when the election of officers for the year ensuing shall take
place ; and the Report of the Committee on the affairs of the Club, and
the Balance-sheet, duly signed by the Auditors, shall be read.

4.—The Officers of the Club shall be nominated in writing, and
stich nominations shall be sent to the Secretary seven clear days before
the Annual Meeting. In the event of the number of nominations
exceeding the number of officers to be elected, a printed list of the
nominations shall be circulated at the Annual Meeting, and the
Members present shall vote by ballot by striking out the names of
those for whom they do not desire to vote, and placing the lists in an
urn upon the table. Scrutineers shall be appointed at the meeting,
and the votes shall be counted during the course of the meeting.

5.—No permanent alteration in the Rules shall be made except at
one of the monthly meetings of the Club, and notice of any proposed
alteration or addition must be given at or before the preceding ordinary
meeting.

lxxvin Rules.

Library.

1.—Applications for the loan of books or microscopical slides to be
made to the Hon. Librarian at any “ ordinary” or ‘“ conversational ”
meeting of the Club, the borrower to sign a receipt, which will be
cancelled on the return of the work borrowed.

2.—No Member may have more than one work at a time.

3.—No work may be retained longer than one month, but the same
work may be again borrowed provided there be no other applicant for
it. Any Member not complying with this rule will incur a fine of 1s.
for each month after the first that the work is retained.

4.—The borrower shall make good all damage which any book, &c.,
may receive while under his charge; such damage to be assessed by
the General Committee.

5.—Books marked ‘‘R” (reference) and unbound pamphlets are not
to be removed from the reading-room.

6.—No Member will be entitled to the privileges of the Library who
has not paid such fines as he may have incurred.

Date of Election.
12 Oct. 1887.
9 Mar. 1887.
9 Apri. 1884.
14 May, 1890.

19 Mar. 1879.

9 Jan. 1889.

19 Nov. 1878.
4 May, 1870.
8 Oct. 1890.

Original.

15 Aprl. 1874.

9 Sept. 1885.
9 Nov. 1892.
21 Jan. 1891.
10 Mar. 1886.

14 Mar. 1888.
15 Mar. 1871.

Original.
15 Jan. 1895.
8 Feb. 1893.
13 May, 1891.
Original.
9 Dec.
10 Dec.
15 Dec.
11 Apl.

1891.
1884.
1880.
1888.

19 Feb. 18738.
13 May, 1891.
11 Nov. 1891.
10 Nov. 1886.
12 Nov. 1884.

9 Jan. 1889.

21 Mar.

12 Nov. 1892.
13 Jan. 1892.
11 Jan. 1888,
15 Jan. 1874.
15 Dec. 1880.

1877.

( Ixxix )

LIST OF MEMBERS.
Revised to June, 1895.

Apams, WALTER R., 16 Chepstow-road.

AtupER, Josaua, Dunlewey House, Bedford Park.
Auten, A. H., Leslie Lodge, Lower Addiscombe-road.
Asucrorr, Wiiu1aM, Layhams Farm, Beckenham.

BackweEtt, R.J., 42 Balfour-rd., South Norwood, 8.E.

BacKWELL, Witu1AM Epear, 42 Balfour-road, South
Norwood, S.E.

Battery, Epwin, 10 Lansdowne-road.

Baker, SAMUEL, Lansdowne-road.

Baker, Wm. R., 9 Belmont Villas, Wallington, Surrey.

BALDISTON, FREDERICK, Ashleigh, Addiscombe-road.

Baupock, J. H., F.C.S., Overdale, St. Leonard’s-road,
Duppas Hill.

Base, J. H., 92 Oakfield-road.

Bartow, FRANK, Clevedon, Lower Addiscombe-road.

BaRkER, WALTER T., Elmwood, Waddon-road.

BayarD, F. Campse.y, LL.M., F.R. Met. Soc., Malden-
road, Wallington, Surrey.

Bearp, Dr. F., Brighton Road House.

Bresy, Wittiam H., F.R.M.S., Vaila, Burwood Park
Road, Walton-on-Thames.

Berney, JonN, F.R.M.S., Chatsworth-road.

Berry, B. H., Highlea, Spencer-road.

Bryyon, GEorGE, Allandale, Coombe-road.

BisHor, ALFRED, Ringstead Lodge, Whitehorse-road.

BuakeE, W. J., Elmfield, Park-lane.

BotToMLEy, JoHN, Dobroyd, Birdiurst Rise.

BrReBver, G. Reitu, M.D., 2382 London-road.

Brewer, J. G. B., Havelock-road.

i ic Chagford, Selhurst-road, 8. Norwood,

Bropig, Rozert, M.A., George-street.

Brown, Wm. Cuas., 27 The Waldrons.

Brown, Wm. Hy., 3 Lavender-road, Sutton, Surrey.
Brown, J. WEIR, Ferndean, Heathfield-road.
BucKLAND, JOHN WELLINGTON, Ashburton-road.
Buttock, Wii1am C., 20 Dingwall-road.

MITER EE 4 A. B., B.A., M.R.C.S., F.R.M.S., Bedford
Park.

Carrington, Louis, Panmure, Tavistock-road.
Carter, Francis, High-street, Carshalton, Surrey.
Casu, Witui1am, 15 Fairfield-road.

CuampBers, W. E., J.P., Eversfield, Sutton, Surrey.
CuEerswricut, F. R., Maythorne, Birdhurst Rise.

lxxx

Date of Election.
16 May, 1877.
19 Aprl. 1876.
10 Dec. 1891.
16 May, 1877.
11 Mar. 1891.
18 Jan. 1882.
21 Oct. 1887.
11 Jan. 1893.
16 Aprl. 1873.
14 Dec. 1887.
21 May, 1879.
11 Jan. 1893.
Original.

20 May, 1874.
20 Dec. 1894.
Original.

10 Dec. 1890.

18 Aprl. 1877.
16 Jan. 1894.
15 Sept. 1875.
Original.

9 Dee. 1891.
11 May, 1887.

9 Jan. 1884,
18 Sept. 1878.

9 Sept. 1891.
18 Oct. 1893.
18 May, 1887.
11 Feb. 1891.
18 Dee. 1894.

1887.
1879.

14 Sept.
16 Aprl.

12 Nov.
9 Dec.
19 Jan.

1890.
1885.

9 Jan. 1884.

1883.

18 Dec.
9 Mar.

1894.
1892.

13 Mar.
19 Oct.

9 Feb.
11 Feb.
14 Jan.

1881.

1887.
1891.
1885,

1881.

1889.

List of Members.

CuisHoLM, JAs., Addiscombe Lodge, Addiscombe-road.
CuuMLEY, Joun, Worcester Lodge, Canning-road.
Cuark, Henry, 2 Ventnor Villas, Waddon New Road.
CLARKE, Jostan, 88 George-street.

CoLDWELLs, Wm. H., Woodside-road, South Norwood.
CoLtyER, Henry C., Homewood, Haling Park-road.
CoutyER, Brycr, Yen Bank, Sanderstead-road.
Coorsr, H. J., M.B., Southwood, Birdhurst-road.
Corry, JoHn, J.P., Rosenheim, Park Hill-road.
Coucuman, ALFRED, Houghton, Birdhurst Rise.
CowvE LL, H.5., Cotleigh, West Wickham, Beckenham.
Craps, Gro., Red House, Campden-road, 8. Croydon.
CrRowLey, Paruip, F.Z.S., Waddon House.

CuRLING, GrorGE, Elgin House, Addiscombe-road.
Curry, MarrHew, Jun., 62 Coombe-road, 8. Croydon.
Cusuine, THos., F.R.A.S., 2 Southside, Chepstow-rd.
CuTLeR, Wm. C., Derwent Bank, Addiscombe-road.

Davies, AntTHUR CapPEL, The Glen, Duppas Hill.

Dean, Epmunp, 28 Oliver-grove, South Norwood.

Dickinson, WiuuiamM, M.A., F.G.S., Warham-road.

Dix, T. H., 81 High-street.

Dopp, W. H., Woodstock-road.

Down, H. W., Bank Chambers, North End.

Drace, JoHN Henry, Tamworth-road.

DracGe, JoHuN, Tamworth-road.

Drew, Hy. Wo., Eastleigh, Addiscombe-road.

Dvuxzs, T. A., M.B., B.Sc., 16 Wellesley-road.

Duncan, Peter Tuomas, M.D., Park-lane.

Duruam, Rost., 23 Fairfield-road.

Dyer, FRED. CARR SWINERTON, Major, Hazelea, Kenley,
Surrey.

East, Freperick W., Timberham, Horley, Surrey.

Eaton, H. 8., M.A., F.R. Met. Soc., 4 Belfield Terrace,
Rodwell, Weymouth.

EprincE, FREpDK. T., J.P., Addiscombe Court.

Exsorovues, C. M., Hazlehurst, Park Hill-road.

Hpeps, James, Jun., Norfolk House, Beulah Hill, Upper
Norwood, 8.E.

Fak, FERDINAND, 1 Park Hill-road.

Fenn, W. G., Heath Lodge, Thornton Heath, §.E.
FirzGERAuLp A., 93 Addiscombe-road.

Fiint, RicHarp, Woodstock House, Park-lane.

Gipz, JAMES, The Quarries, Park Hill-road.

Gipson, WattER, M.A., 14 Lower Grosvenor-place,
London, 8. W.

Goopman, C. H., Bryn Cottage, Whyteleafe, Surrey.

GoscueEn, H., Heathfield, Addington.

Gower, Harry Dovatas, 16 Wandle-Road.

Date of Election,
12 Jan. 1887.
9 Dee. 1891.
8 Aprl. 1885.
19 Dee. 1893.
18 Jan. 1882.

Original.

18 Jan. 1892.
10 Dec. 1892.
18 May, 1881.
1895.

15 Jan.

14 Mar.
18 Dec.
12 Jan.

9 Apri.
21 Sept.
19 Mar.
11 Feb.

Original.

11 Apri. 1888.

16 Feb. 1881.
21 Jan. 1891.
11 Mar. 1885.

12 Mar. 1890.
17 May, 1871.
12 Nov. 1892.

16 Dee. 1874.
1895.

1881.

19 Feb.
16 Feb.

14 Nov.
10 Jan.

21 Nov.
Original.

11 Jan. 1893.

Original.

13 Apri. 1892.

9 Sept. 1891.
11 May, 1892.
19 Feb. 1895.

Original.

18 Feb. 1874,

1888.
1894.
1887.
1890.
1881.
1895.
1891.
12 May, 1886.
19 Sept. 1893.
15 Jan. 1890.

1888.
1883.

1877.
8 Apri. 1885.

List of Members. Ixxxi

GREENWAY, Henry, Ulimbah, Ashburton-road.
Grocock, LEonarD O., 21 Beckenham-rd., Penge, 8.E.
Grunpy, RicHarp F., 112 Lower Addiscombe-road.
GuiImMARAENS, H. Epwarp, Parkside, Warham-road.
GUIMARAENS, P. G., Parkside, Warham-road.

Happocx, Rouanp, 9 The Waldrons.

Hatz, JoserH, Melton Lodge, Havelock-road.

Haruanp, ArtTHuR F., 32 Park-lane.

Hart, P. 8., Lyndhurst, Fairfield-road.

Heuner, Cuas. W., Woodside House, Woodside-green,
South Norwood, 8.H.

Hetps, James W., As.M.1.C.E., 3 Tavistock-road.

Hits, Davin, St. Brelades, Elm-road, Beckenham.

Hinpeg, Dr. Georce J., F.G.S., Avondale-road.

Hirst, ArtHuR Wm., St. Michael’s-road.

Hosson, J. M., M.D., 65 Lower Addiscombe-road.

Hopsoiu, SypNrEy, 16 Wellesley-road.

Houau, Ernest, 30 Havelock-road.

Houmes, W. Murton, Glenside, St. Peter’s-road.

Hootz, A. P., The Willows, Sutton, Surrey.

Hoprewe tt, J. M., 79 Lansdowne Gardens.

Horstey, Henry, M.R.C.S., London-road.

HovenDEn, Ernest C., 4 Blomfield-street, London
Wall, E.C.

HovendeEn, R. G., Heathcote, Park Hill-road.

HovenbDeEn, ALBERT, Jun., Oaklands, Haling Park-rd.

Hucues, Morean, M.R.C.S., L.D.8., Hastbridge,
Addiscombe-road.

LT Anson, WitiiaM Henry, 39 Dinewall-road.
Inerams, Witu1am, Whitgift Schools, Church-road.
IsaBELL, Rev. JNo., 65 Waddon-road.

JARRETT, C., 30 St. John’s-grove.

JERRAM, F'REDK. Horack OLpERSHAW, 40 Longley-
road, Tooting.

Justican, J. W., B.A., Outram-road.

KraassEn, H. M., Aberfeldy, Campden-road.
Kuster, Gustav, 14 Dingwall-road.

Laine, R. A., 43 Upper Addiscombe-road.
LanFear, Cectt, Rockwood, Chichester-road.
Latuam, Baupwin, C. E., Duppas House.
Leaver, ArtHur, Walbrook Lodge, Barham-road.
Ler, Harry, 20 St. John’s-grove.

Lincotyn, J. G., Kirkdale, Selsdon-road.

Lioyp, Frank, Coombe House, Coombe-road.
Luoyp, Artur, Shirley Hurst, Shirley, Surrey.
Lock, Wi11A4m J., Lianberis, Avondale-road, Croydon,
Lone, Henry, 132 High-street.

Lovett, EpwarD, 41 Outram-road.

Ixxxii

Date of Election.
15 Jan. 1895.
13 Mar. 1889.
10 Mar. 1886.

8 May, 1889.
20 Feb. 1878.
8 Dec. 1886.
15 Jan. 1895.
Original.

10 Noy. 1886.

19 Mar. 1879.
19 Mar. 1895.

21 May, 1873.
14 Noy. 1883.
9 May, 1888.

15 Dec. 1880.
19 May, 1880.

19 Feb. 1895.
14 Dec. 1892.

Original.

13 Mar. 1889.
20 Mar. 1894.
19 Mar. 1895.

18 Dec. 1894.

11 Jan.
18 Feb.
15 Jan.

1888.
1874.
1895.

15 Jan.

9 Mar. 1892
12 Oct. 1892.
18 May, 1881.

1895.

15 Jan. 1895.
10 May, 1893.
12 Mar. 1893.
17 Jan. 1877.
11 Feb. 1891.
10 Nov. 1886.

9 Dec.
12 Nov.
20 Mar.

1885.
1884.
1894,

List of Members.

Maven, Artuur, 5 Chatfield-road, Croydon.

MANSFIELD, CHarLEs, The Lindens, Coombe-road.

MarsHatu, Rosert, Broomfield, The Avenue, Duppas
Hill.

Martin, Howarp, Bolney Grange, Havelock-road.

Martuer, C. W., 47 Dingwall-road.

Maytarp, Martin W., 86 Lower Addiscombe-road.

McCurve, Wm. J., 16 St. John’s-grove, Croydon.

McKran, KENNETH, F.L.S., Lloyds, London, E.C.

McLacutayn, Rosert, F.R.S., F.L.8., 23 Clarendon-rd.,
Lewisham, 8.E.

Mewnett1, H. T., F.L.S., Park Hill Rise.

Moors, Gro. Wu., Bryndhurst, Dornton-road, South
Croydon.

Moran, Cuas. C., Rastrick Lodge, Morland-road.

Moruanp, Cuas. Ernest, Kelvedon, Fairfield-road.

Morris, Witu1aM, C.E., The Kent Waterworks, Dept-
ford, S.E.

Morris, A. M., Harcourt-road, Wallington.

Morton, SHaprortH, M.D., Wellesley Villas, Welles-
ley-road.

Moss, ABRAHAM, 3 High-street, South Norwood, 8.E.

Moss, Cuarues, Heatherley, Coombe-road.

Nation, W. J., 40 Thornton-rd., Thornton Heath, 8.E.

NEALL, GrorGE, 88 Lower Addiscombe-road.

Nerves, Gro. Epwarp, Cromer Lodge, Birdhurst-rd.

Newsy, Grervase H., F.R.C.S., The Hollies, 61 Lower
Addiscombe-road.

Norton, WaLTER CHARLES, Maycourt, Campden-road,
South Croydon.

OaxLEy, Cuarues F., 12 Sudbury-road.

OLDFIELD, JOHN, 16 Tamworth-road.

Ouive, CHARLES DaniEL, M.A., Rokeby, The Downs,
Wimbledon.

Pack, Frepx. JAmEs, 8 High-street, Croydon.

PackHam, JAMES, 16 Katharine-street.

Paces, Tos. K. F., 9 Rosemount, Wallington, Surrey.

Parsons, H. Frankuin, M.D., F.G.S., Oakhyrst, Park
Hill Rise.

Parsons, SAMUEL GEORGE, Vallis Leaze, Raynes Park,
Wimbledon.

PascaLL, James, Ambleside, Duppas-road.

Peacock, THos., Tremonia, Chichester-road.

Pruton, Joun, Chatfield House, London-road.

PELTON, JOHN OLLIs, 26 Friends’-road.

PEMBROKE and Montcomery, Rt. Hon. the Earl of,
Hillingdon-place, Uxbridge.

Prerxins-Casz, P. W., M.D., 254 London-road.

Perry, Epwarp Seacer, The Highlands, Duppas Hill.

Perry, H, W., The Cedars, London-road.

Date of Election,

19 Jan. 1881.
9 Mar. 1892.
4 May, 1870.
13 Mar. 1889.

Original.

14 Sept. 1887

9 Nov. 1887.
9 Apri. 1890.
21 Jan. 1880.

14 Jan. 1885.

14 Jan. 1885.
9 Aprl. 1890.
15 Sept. 1880.

.16 Jan. 1894.
19 Mar. 1895.

11 Jan. 1888.
12 Mar. 1890.

21 May, 1895.
18 Aprl. 1877.

13 Jan. 1892.
13 Aprl. 1892.

12 Sept. 1888.
14 Jan. 1885.
19 Feb. 1895.

11 Aprl. 1888.
15 Jan. 1895.

10 Noy. 1886.
13 May, 1885.

8 Feb. 1888.
13 Feb. 1884.
17 April. 1894.

16 Oct. 1894.

9 Jan. 1889.
Original.

20 Feb. 1878.

11 Jan. 1888.
Original.

16 Sept. 1874.
18 Sept. 1882.

List of Members. Ixxxiii

Puriips, James, Woodlands, Wellesley-grove.

Puinuies, H. Wurrsy, M.D., Addiscombe-road.

Puinpot, CHARLES W., M.D.., Friends’House, Park-lane.

Pirrman, J. J., 59 Dingwall-road.

Price, Grorce N., 72 High-street.

Prince, JAMES WEBSTER, Brickwood House, Addis-
combe-road.

Purser, J., 41 Addiscombe-road.

Purser, FREDK. Wm., 41 Addiscombe-road.

Pyr-Smiru, ARNOLD, J.P., Park Hill Rise.

Reap, Joun Purp, Eversfield, South Park Hill-road.
Reep, Lester, F.C.S., F.1.C., Hyrst Hof, South Park
Hill-road.
sane Gxrorce C., Brigstock Villa, Thornton Heath,
E

Ricu, ALFRED Wm., The Grove, Chatsworth-road.

Rozarts, N. F., F.G.S., Abingdon, Addiscombe-grove.

Rogers, Henry, Altamont, Warlingham, Surrey.

Roops, ALFRED, 15 St. James’s Park.

RussELL, ALFRED CRAKE, 60 Clarendon-road.

RussELL, CHARLES JAMES LAWRENCE, Upton Dene, 56
Coombe-road.

Rym_r, S. L., J.P., Wellesley-road.

Satmon, Cuas. E., Clevelands, Wray Park, Reigate.

Samson, W. E., 55 Bensham Manor-road, Thornton
Heath, S.E.

SANDELL, Joun T., Abbotsford, 23 Bensham Manor-
road, Thornton Heath, 8.E.

SaunDERS, THomas Dopeson, Twyfordbury, Park Hill
Rise.

SaunpERs, THomas CHARLES CasTLE, Aberfoyle, Addis-
combe-grove, Croydon.

Scumirz, J. H., J.P., Lansdowne-road.

Serres, Rey. Henry Artuur, St. John’s Lodge,

Addiscombe.

SHEARER, DonaLp, Park Hill House.

Suors, E. L., Lansdowne Villas, Wellesley-road.

Smrru, Haroun, F.R. Met. Soc., Ingleside, Kenley.

Smitru, Dr. S. Parsons, Addiscombe-road.

Smirn, Henry Doniine, 19 Cedars-road, Beckenham.

Smrrx, WitL1am Joun LancEeLor, Ravenswood, New-
lands Park, Sydenham.

Sparrow, C. H. Burnasy, 1 Chepstow-road.

Sranuey, W. F., F.G.S., Cumberlow, S. Norwood, 8.E.

Srraker, E., Richmond, Malden-road, Wallington,
Surrey.

Srreeter, J. §., High-street.

SrurcE, Epwarp B., The Waldrons.

Swaing, J. C., Park Hill-road.

Syms, Joun E., Stanton Villa, Stanton-road,

lxxxiv

Date of Election.

11 Nov.
16 Jan.

20 Nov. 1894.

17 Nov.
13 Jan.

9 Apri.
21 Jan.

19 Dec.
19 Dee.
20 Dec.
19 Sept.

20 Apri.
21 Jan.
21 May,
17 Oct.
Original.
17 Mar.
12 Nov.
9 Nov.
12 Dec.
12 April.
13 Nov.
15 Jan.
13 May,
17 May,
12 Oct.
12 Oct.

13 May,
12 Mar.

9 Sept.
21 Apri.
16 April.
16 April.
16 Apri.

20 Mar.
11 Jan.

20 Apri.
11 Noy,

1885.
1878.

1880,
1892.

1890.
1891.

1877.
1893.
1876.
1877.

1881.
1891.
1895.
1877.

1875.
1890.
1887.
1883.

1882.

1889.
1895.
1885.
1871.
1887.
1887.

1891.
1890.

1885.
1875.
1879.
1879.
1879.

1894.
1888.

1881.
1885.

List of Members.

Terry, W., 2 Frascati, Surbiton, Surrey.

Txompson, H. G., M.D., 86 Lower Addiscombe-road.
THompson, H. C., Horndean, Waddon.

Tuompson, Francis, Haling Park-road.

THORPE, CHARLES, 22 George-street.

UNDERHILL, ALFRED, 32 Clarendon-road.
Vesry, AntHur H., Bradon House, George-street.

Water, Tuomas, C.E., Warrington-rd., Duppas Hill.

Watters, F. R., M.D., 5 Fairfield-road.

Watton, A., The Homestead, Bedford Park.

Warner, A., 2 Grosvenor Villas, Holmesdale-road,
Selhurst, S.E.

WATERALL, NATHANIEL, Waddon Lodge, Croydon.

Watson, Cuas. E. L., 87 Lansdowne-road.

WeIcHTMAN, ARTHUR JoHN, Langdale, Chepstow Rise.

WenuHaM, W. P., 109 London-road.

West, FrepericKx, The Waldrons.

WHEALLER, G. ANSON, 9 Friends’-road Hast.

WHEALLER, SPENCER E.., 9 Friends’-road East.

Wi1p, A. Scort, 28 Canning-road.

Wiuiams, Bertram ALex., L.D.S., 22 Wellesley-road.

WILLoucuesy, C. W., 28 Friends’-road.

Wise, Howarp R., Beechfield, Bromley-hill.

WISSENDEN, ARTHUR CuHAs., 50 Canning-road.

Wirt, T. J., 44 Dingwall-road.

WoopwakrbD, Joun, 21 Canning-road.

Wratten, F.C. L., Dingwall-avenue.

Wratten, Sipney HerBert, Dingwall-avenue.

Yous, A. P., Olinda, Addiscombe-road.
Yuri, Cuarues J. M., Marion Villa, Addiscombe-rd.

Honorary Members.

Berney, FREDERICK Ler, Ravensbourne, Tambo,
Queensland.

Cots, R. Bevertey, M.D., San Francisco, California,
U.S.A

Evans, Sir Joun, K.C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S., Hemel
Hempstead, Herts.

Fiower, Sir W. H., K.C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., Natural
History Museum, South Kensington, London,S.W.

PrREstWIcH, Prof. JosePH, Shoreham, Sevenoaks, Kent.

SaRJEANT, W. Low.

Symons, G. J., F.R.S., 62 Camden-square, N.W.

Associates.

CotLyER, Epwarp B., 146 Selsdon-road.
Ropgpourn, J.

ee

TRANSACTIONS

OF

THE CROYDON MICROSCOPICAL AND
NATURAL HISTORY CLUB.

1894-95.

116.—Some Ports 1n THE Lire-nisTory oF Bacteria.
By J. M. Hosson, M.D., B. Se.
Read March 20th, 1894.

I vo not intend in this paper to give undue prominence to the
medical aspects of Bacteriology, xemembering that this is neither
a medical nor a popular audience, but a philosophical society ;
nor, as the title indicates, do I propose to give a complete
résumé of the known facts in what has grown to be a science in
itself. I have simply selected such of the salient points in the
life-history of Bacteria as I think will be interesting to the
members of this Club. On some of these points I shall dwell
very lightly, of others I shall treat more fully.

Name.—Baxrvpiov is the Greek for a staff or baton, and as the
forms most readily observed are rod-shaped, the term has been
retained as a convenient one for the entire group of organisms,
although some are spiral, some cylindrical, and many are spherical.

Boranicat Posir1on.—The Bacteria are all included in the group
or family of Schizomycetes (from cxifw, I cut, and puxns, a fungus),
or fission fungi, from their characteristic mode of multiplication.
De Bary, of Strassburg, however, objects to the notion of regard-
ing them as fungi, and is disposed to combine them with the
Nostocacee—which are generally grouped with the alge, and
which also multiply by equal subdivision—and to give the name
to the entire family of Schizophytes or fission plants. :

Morpnotocy.—The individual cells, in common with all other
members of the vegetable kingdom, have walls of cellulose with
protoplasmie contents, the outer part of the cell-wall being

B

124 Dr. J. M. Hobson on

capable of more or less gelatinous swelling so as to bind the cells
into a more or less compact mass. There are three types of form
as I have already indicated, namely, the cylinder, the spiral, and
the sphere, with certain modifications, giving origin to the terms,
which are used generically, of bacillus or a little rod, spirillum,
and coccus, the latter having generally the prefix micro—micro-
coccus. In spirillum a single cell forms only a portion of one com-
plete turn of the thread. With few exceptions the cells are very
minute, 5,45, inch being about the most usual diameter. In
studying the morphology of fungi and alge, we are in the habit
of regarding the cells as only parts of the fabric, but in the case
of the Schizomycetes the cells appear to have more individual
importance. The reason for this is that the genetic connection
of the cells is of the loosest character, and there is, properly
speaking, no structure at all. Under the microscope the cells
commonly appear as mere crowds, no cell having any continuity
with its neighbour, or at most they are strung together like rows
of beads. Yet there are characteristic macroscopic appearances
whereby such differentiation as may be made out by the micro-
scope can be amplified. Another aid to differentiation is in
their life-products and effects. The term zooglea is applied
to these aggregations of cells under certain circumstances; but
since cultivation on solid media has largely replaced the older
methods of growing in fluids, the term has not the same signi-
ficance.

Moritity.—The cells may be non-motile throughout, or like
the hay bacillus (B. subtilis), they may be motile in the earlier
stages of their existence and non-motile in their later zooglea
stage. In several cases cilia can be demonstrated. They ap-
pear in photographs, and the extraordinary development there
shown may even suggest a doubt of their real existence as
such, seeming ‘too good to be true.” Micrococci are, as a
rule, non-motile, though a micrococcus has been figured with a
flagellum.

Repropuction.—This may be in the way of /ission already
indicated, or by spore formation. In the former a fine transverse
line makes its appearance across the shorter diameter of the cell,
when there is a shorter one, dividing it into two equal parts,
which gradually thickens, being a development of cellulose, and
thus prepares for the complete separation of the cells. Spore for-
mation is most often endogenous, but some species are arthro-
sporous. In some species the spore, instead of forming in the
middle of the mother-cell, forms at one end, causing thereby a
drumstick appearance. In hay bacillus, anthrax bacillus, and
others, the spore formation begins only when the food material
is nearly exhausted, or the vegetative process is stopped through
certain products formed, and requires the presence of a free supply

Some Points in the Life-history of Bacteria. 125

of oxygen. In Bacillus amylobacter, on the other hand, it is not
necessary to spore formation that the food material should be
exhausted. Moreover, some, at any rate, of the anaerobic
bacteria, i.¢., bacteria which vegetate without free oxygen,
produce their spores anaerobically. The spores have a dense
sheath, which may be gelatinous in its outer part, and this con-
dition of the sheath enables the spores to resist agencies which
destroy the vegetative cells. They can resist a dry temperature
better than the same temperature in water. They can stand
drying, and are capable of sprouting after many months,
when placed in favourable conditions of warmth, moisture, and
nutrition.

Coxovr.—Bacteria.are mostly colourless, but there are excep-
tions. One, Bacterium chlorinum, contains chlorophyll, and is
said to decompose carbonic acid. Other bacteria appear coloured
red, orange, yellow, blue; while others, again, are colourless in
themselves but create colours in their nutrient media; indeed,
it appears that even in bacteria-masses which show bright
colours, the pigment is in granules outside the cells, in fact that
the pigment in one case is soluble in water, in another is in-
soluble. The red colouring matter, however, called bacterio-
purpurin, found in one species, is allied to chlorophyll, and is
really contained within the cell.

Disrripution 1n Time anv Spacr.——In time there is evidence
that a bacterium existed so far back as the Carboniferous Era,
for Van Tieghem has found in sections of silicified plants, which
were in process of softening at the time, remains of an organism
which exactly resembles Bacillus amylobacter of our day, and
appears to have had the identical function with it of destroying
the cellulose elements of plants. In space bacteria may be found
anywhere and everywhere. Yet that there is a difference in
specific distribution may go without saying, some species being
very common and others comparatively rare. I am not aware
that the experiment has been widely made, but I venture to pre-
-dict that if in any part of the earth where vegetable and animal
life could be sustained, an ordinary infusion of organic matter
were exposed to the air for a longer or shorter time, the hay
bacillus and other common forms would make their appearance.
The reverse we know must obtain with regard to some of the
parasitic forms, as evidenced by cases where small-pox or
measles were introduced amongst a native community de novo,
or reintroduced after long entire cessation. The North American
Indians, Greenlanders, and Icelanders, in the former case, and
the South Sea Islanders in the latter, were stricken down whole-
sale by the advance of the disease in a virgin soil.

Hasitat.—That many bacteria are strictly aquatic is well
known, and was shown in a very positive manner by per Percy

B

126 Dr. J. M. Hobson on

Frankland, who found that certain forms could not only live but
multiply in distilled water. Very pure deep well-water also, which
may contain but five organisms to the cubic centimetre, after
keeping in a closed sterilized vessel for a few days, may contain
as many as 500,000 in the same space. The few bacteria which
have gained an access to this virgin soil can thus multiply with-
out check. Every pinch of garden mould contains enormous
numbers of bacteria, though some of these may be amongst
those which can thrive in water. It cannot be supposed that any
bacteria are really aerial in their habitat, for they would lack the
moisture they require for growth for one thing; yet, except at very
great heights, or well out to sea, it is not possible to examine any
considerable volume of air without finding any. The reason for
this clearly is that bacteria are so exceedingly minute, and are so
intimately associated with the multitudinous things that give off
dust, that they are carried upwards by various currentsand mingled
with the mass of the atmosphere by the winds. Itis well known
that some bacterial cells will survive a long period of drying,
that the spores are much more proof against this form of
destruction, and that either, directly they light upon a spot where
the requisite warmth, moisture, and nourishment are combined,
will vegetate and multiply. It is therefore not surprising that
under these circumstances bacteria should find their way to
wherever non-living organic solids or liquids exist. Whether
they should multiply in these situations depends upon cireum-
stances. It does not appear, however, that they can be found
within the blood or solid tissues of perfectly normal living beings.
Their presence in the mouth, intestines, &c., of living animals is
not an exception to the rule, for these parts are, strictly speaking,
outside the living tissues.

Errects or Oxycen anp Licut.—-Pasteur used the terms
aerobic and an-aerobic to denote the extremes in relation to
oxygen, the former indicating organisms to which the presence
of plenty of oxygen was essential to their growth, while the
latter implied that the organisms could get their oxygen out of
the organic compounds in their nutrient medium, and that the
presence of free oxygen reduced their vegetation to a minimum
or stopped it. Typical of the aerobic forms is the hay bacillus,
B, subtilis; of the anaerobic, the various putrefactive organisms
and the bacillus of tetanus. There are intermediate conditions,
however, and when I come to speak of cholera I shall show how
the characteristics of the organism can be modified by aerobic
and anaerobic growth respectively. Oxygen has also a powerful
effect upon the movements of bacteria, attracting the aerobics
and repelling the anaerobics. De Bary quotes a very pretty ex-
periment illustrating this. A piece of alga and bacteria are placed
in water containing no free oxygen. As the alga begins liberating

Some Points in the Life-history of Bacteria. 127

oxygen from the dissolved carbonic acid, little bubbles will form
upon it, and round these the bacteria will collect. Engelmann
has shown that the coloured bacteria are attracted by the red
rays ofthe spectrum. Janowski, on the other hand, found that
the typhoid bacillus was killed by a few hours’ exposure to direct
sunlight, and that the violet or actinic portion had this destructive
power. Phosphorescence in waters has been found to be largely
due to several species of bacteria.

TemprrRatuRE HErrecrs.—As might be expected, this has a
great effect upon the growth of bacteria. Different species have
a temperature at which their growth is most luxuriant, as well
as temperatures above and below this point at which vegetation
ceases. These several points are called respectively, optimum,
maximum, and minimum. The optimum is commonly from 80°
to 100° F. The maximum is often not much above the optimum.
There is a higher temperature still, which quickly kills the
bacteria. In liquids this is from 120° to 140° F., and destruction
is certainly effected in boiling water. Spores are far more
resistant to heat than the developed cells. In producing arti-
ficial immunity to infectious diseases it is well known that a
profound effect upon the powers of certain bacteria is exercised
by prolonged exposure to certain temperatures.

INTERACTION BETWEEN BacTeRIA AND THEIR Nutrient Mepia.—
This is a very important and extensive subject, and can only be
somewhat sketchily dealt with in this paper. These plants
having, with the exception of the coloured forms, nothing like
chlorophyll in their protoplasm, are, like the fungi, entirely de-
pendent upon organic compounds for their carbon and nitrogen.
Experiment has shown which combinations go to make the most
suitable media for individual species, wherein they may reach
their fullest development, but all, unless we except the case of
the water bacteria, must contain carbon and nitrogen in organic
combination, and mineral elements as well. Now the effect
upon the substratum is often very marked. Saccharomyces cere-
visia, the yeast plant, does not belong to this group, but its effects
are so well known that it may be taken as a type of other fer-
mentations. There must be present, besides sugar, nitrogenous
organic compounds and ash, and at least three-fourths of water.
The products are carbonic acid, succinic and lactic acids, glycerine,
and alcohol. Yet the yeast consumes for itself but 1°25 per cent.
of the sugar, 4-5 per cent. goes to make the acids and glycerine,
and 94-95 per cent. becomes broken up into alcohol and carbonic
acid. Chemically, the rearrangement of the sugar molecule
forms two molecules of alcohol, two of carbonic acid, and one of
water. When the alcohol amounts to one-fifth of the weight of
the liquid it arrests the fermentation. cetous fermentation is
set up when an acid nutrient fluid containing a small percentage

128 Dr. J. M. Hobson on

of alcohol is exposed to the air at a temperature of about 80° to
100° F. The Micrococcus aceti lights upon this mixture, and under
the circumstances grows, fermenting the alcohol into acetic acid.
This is a partly oxidising process. Other fermentations produced
by bacteria are instanced as follows:—The turning of milk, the
sugar of milk being converted into lactic acid, and the acid pre-
cipitating the casein; the conversion of urea into carbonate of
ammonia; the complicated fermentations of albuminous com-
pounds through stages into carbonic acid and ammonia, the
nitrifying of the resulting ammonia forming nitrates. Other
products of bacterial growth are pigments, which have also been
spoken of as ferment products. Again, there is the production
of certain bodies of the diastase type. Germinating seeds, as is
well known, produce an albuminous body called diastase, which
has the power of converting starch into grape sugar. The yeast
plant also inverts cane sugar into grape sugar by means of a
similar body. The term enzyme has been applied to these sub-
stances. In the animal economy these bodies are represented by
pepsine, pancreatin, and so forth. They have this in common,
that under suitable conditions they have the power of converting
organic compounds into other forms without themselves entering
into chemical combination. Lastly, bacteria have the power of
forming out of their pabulum various alkaloids. The term
ptomaines has been applied to these, from wrapa, a dead body,
because they have been found in decaying animal matter. Some
of these alkaloids are highly poisonous, and have been obtained
from cases of cholera, hydrophobia, tetanus, &c., and when given
to animals have produced symptoms resembling some of those
obtaining in these several specific diseases. There is reason to
think that the production of specific alkaloids sometimes requires
the collaboration of two different organisms. It is certainly the
case that bacterial products are dependent very largely upon the
character of the nutrient medium, and upon the presence or
absence of oxygen. The fermentative phase of Saccharomyces is
really anaerobic, although the presence of oxygen is necessary for
a pre-fermentative stage in which the production, simply, of fresh
cells takes place. I shall give an instance of this again when I
come to speak of cholera.

Parasitic Bacrerra.—By this are meant bacteria which ac-
tually live and multiply within the living fluids and tissues.
Bacteria which merely find a home within the alimentary canal,
where they regularly exist without producing any harmful
results, are not regarded as parasitic. A more strictly scientific
term would be infective bacteria, for it is their power of pro-
ducing more or less profound effects upon the living tissues, of
causing local or general infective diseases, which has called so
much attention to them, and has in fact created the science of

Some Points in the Life-history of Bacteria. 129

bacteriology. All three types—Bacillus, Spirillum, and Micro-
coccus—have their representatives among the infective bacteria.
It would be interesting to enumerate these so far as they are
known, or are fairly presumed to exist.

Some of the Infective (Pathogenic) Bacteria.—Micrococci have
been found in Suppurative Diseases (Pyemia, abscesses) ;
Scarlet Fever; Small-pox; Puerperal Fever; Erysipelas ;
Gonorrhea (a coccus is found dividing in two directions—
Merismopedia—adhering to the pus-cells, and it is claimed
that pure cultivations were inoculable); Pneumonia (the so-
called Pnewmo-coccus, certainly inoculable into mice, which died) :
Spirilla, in Relapsing Fever and Cholera asiatica: Bacilli, in
Leprosy; Typhoid; Plague; Tuberculosis; Anthrax; Glanders ;
Tetanus.

Generally, these visitants are not long sojourners, although
there are such notable exceptions as the bacilli of tubercle and of
leprosy. Hither the patient or the microbe soon gets the upper
hand. In the former case a more or less lasting immunity
becomes established, as I shall explain presently. Adhering to
my original intention, I prefer to give you some leading points
about two most interesting cases of infectivity rather than to run
rapidly through the whole scale. The two cases which I select
are cholera and tuberculosis, of which latter consumption is a
particular and the most important case. These two diseases
stand at the extremes of duration, cholera carrying off its
victims in a few hours, while in consumption man plays a long-
drawn but too often losing game of months or years. Yet they
have this in common, that they are amongst the ‘‘ grim reaper’s”
most stalwart henchmen. They slay their hecatombs: cholera
over small areas quickly, with remissions or intermissions ; con-
sumption over nearly the whole inhabited world, slowly, but
without halting. They have this other fact in common, that we
owe it to the same distinguished scientist, Koch of Berlin, to
have discovered their respective microbes.

Cuotzra.—The Spirillum cholere-asiatice is often called Koch’s
comma bacillus, because individual cells, being only small
sections of a spiral, have that appearance when detached from
one another. Sometimes, however, they remain connected, and
the truly spiral structure becomes manifest. It is a great air-
lover in what may be called its natural state, and exerts its very
free powers of movement to get to it. This is one of the bacteria
of which we can say for certain that it lives two lives—one a
non-parasitic, or saprophytic (cameéy, decayed or dead matter),
and also aerobic ; the other a parasitic and anaerobic. In water
which contains plenty of organic matter it can live and multiply.
Such a condition is supplied by the waters of the Ganges at its
mouths. Here is plenty of warmth and plenty of organic matter,

130 Dr. J. M. Hobson on

which accumulates through a certain degree of stagnation caused
by the impediment of the tides. The delta of the Ganges is
looked upon as the home of cholera, and there it is to be found
all the year round. Since the introduction of a good water
supply to Calcutta, cholera has been reduced there 60 per cent.
In another great delta, that of the Yang Tze at Shanghai, cholera
is also endemic, but it is not present all the year round as at
Calcutta. It comes regularly after two months of hot summer.
This points to the soil temperature as an important factor. It
is true that the temperature of the soil at some depth does not
reach its maximum till after the atmospheric maximum is
reached. The cholera spirillum is not difficult to cultivate.
When grown in peptonised gelatine, especially when free oxygen is
eacluded, it generates a very deadly alkaloid, which will produce
in animals some of the characteristic symptoms of cholera.
When the spirillum can get a footing in the intestines, and the
soil is not unfriendly, it takes up its abode there, getting into
the secretory crypts, and even beneath the epithelium of the
mucous membrane, but not, it appears, into the blood-stream or
internal organs. Yet to get to the intestines it must pass the
barrier of the stomach, and as it cannot stand acids, it would
appear to have a poor chance of getting to the intestines, whose
contents are alkaline. Yet that it does only too often reach the
intestines alive indicates that it does so either while gastric
digestion is in abeyance or the stomach in an unhealthy state.
Certain it is that persons who have got the cholera have often
been previously suffering with dyspeptic symptoms. Although
cholera does not appear to be catching from one to another in
the ordinary way, as small-pox and scarlet fever are, it is never-
theless indirectly catching. The people who wait upon the
patient, or who bury him when dead, do not often catch the
disease, while the person who washes the soiled garments later
on may do so. The explanation offered is this: during the day
or so which elapses before the articles are washed they have been
living a non-parasitic life, and have become hardier than the
pampered race which have been living a parasitic life, and have
thus become hardier and better able to force their way into a new
host.

TusEeRrcuLosis.—The tubercle bacillus was discovered in 1883
by Koch. It is a slender rod from 77455 t0 go/o5 inch long and
about +5455 wide. It has not been found as yet free in nature,
that is to say, so far as we know it is a pure parasite; but after
a great deal of trouble a way has been found to cultivate it
artificially. It is not motile, and is very slow growing. When
it finds its footing in a living body it does not travel with the
blood-current like anthrax, nor swarm in the intestine like
cholera, but takes up its abode in the solid tissues, there setting

Some Points in the Life-history of Bacteria. 131

up certain changes which are known by the name of tubercle.
Now, although the tubercle bacillus is so slow of growth, and
does not readily gain a footing, it is very tenacious of its powers
of vitality. This is partly due to its formation of spores. The
expectorations of consumptives are infectious even after drying.
It is recognised that phthisis is apt to cling to certain houses,
and one need not wonder that it should if one considers the dirty
habits of some of the inhabitants—of some even who would be
surprised if charged with being dirty. Yet the extensive use of
heavy hangings and thick-piled carpets, though eminently re-
spectable, is essentially dirty. Consumptive patients should be
taught to spit into water, or into some substitute for pocket-
handkerchiefs which can soon be burnt. Cattle are very prone
to tuberculosis—it appears to be increasingly so—and there is a
very general inference that the flesh and milk of affected beasts
should not be used. The milk appears to me to be a greater source
of danger than the meat, for the latter is not taken raw, while milk
is commonly so taken; moreover, the tuberculosis is an affection
of lungs, glands, and serous surfaces, and easily recognised. But
I am sceptical myself if tuberculosis is at all frequently inocu-
lated in this way. Consumption of the lungs, far and away the
most important among tubercular diseases, is certainly not got
by feeding. There remain abdominal tubercle and more or less
generalised tuberculosis to be accounted for, and it seems to me
that the chain of cause and effect here is with extreme rarity
complete. A point of interest is that out of the vast number of
people who are exposed to tubercular infection, a comparatively
small number develop the disease; the bacilli cannot get a
footing. There is a struggle going on between the tissues and
the organisms for mastery. When the tissues are in a healthy
and vigorous condition they are better able to combat the bacilli.
On the other hand, when the bacilli can find, particularly in the
lungs, a resting-place where they can grow for a while and thus
muster their forces, possibly secreting some compound which
depresses the vitality of the surrounding tissues, they have a
better chance of presently carrying on a successful invasion of
the same. Light kills the bacilli. If the belief of some is true,
that the bacillus has a non-parasitic phase of life, then the value
of light in and about dwellings is extremely great.
Immunity.—This subject is still very much in the workshops.
We are only able to see the seamy side, and there is much ap-
parent confusion. We all know that in most infectious diseases
one attack more or less protects from a subsequent one. It
is very easy to theorise about this, but very hard to find the
key to it. One notion was that the microbes used up some-
thing in the system, and that the system never, or only after a
longer or shorter interval, was able to make up this lost factor.

132 Mr. W. Whitaker on some Surrey Wells.

But it was never possible to demonstrate the existence of this
substance. Moreover, some diseases do not protect against
themselves, or even are more prone to return, and yet run their
course and die out. Another theory was that the bacteria added
something to the system which not only killed them, which we
iknow is the case among saprophytes, but, remaining in the
system, prevented any future invasions. But here again no
analysis could find the substance. Another theory is more
tangible. It is known that the bodies described as leucocytes
and white-blood corpuscles incorporate foreign bodies, and it has
been shown in experiments upon animals that the living cells do
swallow the bacteria. This is Metschnikoff's theory of Phago-
cytosis. He considers that the corpuscles by practice acquire this
power of swallowing and destroying bacteria; that they always
do so during the convalescence from infectious diseases ; but that
till they have thoroughly ‘learnt the trick’’ they cannot keep
down the invading bacteria. This theory supposes that the work
once learnt is handed down from one generation of corpuscles to
another. The old pathological schools are at the present day
represented in this question of immunity: the “solidists’’ holding
that it is the living tissues of the body which, in exercise of their
subtle vigour, act the part of a defending army; the “fluidists”’
maintaining that the serum of the blood has a bactericidal
action. In any case we must come fundamentally to the living
body-cells, which are responsible for the composition of this
serous medium.

117.—Some Surrey Wetis. (Second Paper.)
By W. Warraxer, B.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., Assoc. Inst. C.E.
(Read November 20th, 1894.)

Or the following sections the only one calling for particular
notice is at Hast Horsley, where the Chalk has been pierced from
top to bottom, from the Tertiary beds above to the Upper Green-
sand beneath. Only in two other places in the county had this
happened before, at Richmond and at Streatham. But whereas in
those sections the Chalk is about 670 and 6238 feet thick, at Hast
Horsley it is over 817, an increase of 147. The Earlswood boring,
throughout in Wealden beds, is also notable on account of its
depth ; and the Richmond well because it is the first experiment
in driving a great length of galleries in the Chalk beneath a great
thickness of Tertiary beds, that thickness varying from 250 to
300 feet; whereas in other places no such extensive work has

Mr. W. Whitaker on some Surrey Wells. 133

been done under anything near 200 feet of Tertiary beds, and
rarely under as much as 150.

Before describing the sections it may be well to give a list of
those already noticed, and in this one need not always refer to
the original sources, such as papers by Prof. Prestwich and
Mr. Lucas, but, more conveniently, to the two Geological
Survey Memoirs, in which previous publications of well-sections
are included, sometimes with additions, and always with acknow-
ledgment of the original authority.

The first reference, then, is to vol. iv. of the Memoirs, ‘ The
Geology of the London Basin, Part I,” 1872, in which 83 Surrey
wells, at the following places, are described (pp. 5387-563) :—

Ash, Bagshot, Balham Hill, Barnes, Battersea (2), Ber-
mondsey (12), Camberwell (3), Caterham, Chertsey, Chobham,
Clapham, Croydon (2), Dulwich (2), Egham (wrongly put under
Berks), Esher (?8), Farnham, Forest Hill, Garrett, Horsleydown,
Kingston (5), Lambeth (9), Lower Morden, Mitcham, Mortlake
(2), Norwood, Old Kent Road, Peckham, Penge, Richmond (4),
Rotherhithe (3), Southwark (3), Stockwell Green (2), Streatham,
Sutton, Sydenham, Vauxhall, Wandsworth (4), Wimbledon (4).

In my former paper (‘ Transactions’ for 1886) the following
51 were added, with further information on three of the Ber-
mondsey wells noted in the above :—

Anerley, Bermondsey (5), Brookwood, Caterham, Chelsham,
Chertsey, Coulsdon, Croydon (2), Denbies, Egham, Epsom (2),
Fetcham, Forest Hill, Frimley, Garrett, Guildford, Hatchfold,
Lambeth (8), Leatherhead, Malden (2), Merton, Mitcham (2),
Norwood, Old Kent Road, Peckham (3), Reigate, Richmond,
Southwark (2), Streatham, Thames Ditton, Thorpe, Tooting,
eo Walworth, West Molesey, Wimbledon (2), Worcester

ark.

In a second Geological Survey Memoir, ‘‘The Geology of
London and of Part of the Thames Valley,” published in 1889,
many of the sections in both of the above were reprinted, some-
times with additions, and many other Surrey sections were
added (vol. ii. pp. 188-239), the latter being at the following
places, and adding 86 to the list :—

Barnes, Battersea (2), Bermondsey (8), Camberwell (2),
’ Dulwich, Egham, Ewell, Garrett (8), Hook, Leatherhead,
Merton (2), Mitcham (24), Southwark (2), Streatham (4),
Sutton, Tooting (24), Wandsworth (4), Wimbledon (9).

Besides these there are two sections which, not coming within
the area described in the last Memoir, have not been reprinted ;
one at Ash (Rev. A. Irving, Proc. Geol. Assoc. vol. ix. p. 415),
- and ae other at Bletchingley (Spon’s ‘ Water Supply,’ ed. 2,
\ p. 213).

In the Memoir on ‘The Geology of the Weald” there are

134 Mr. W. Whitaker on some Surrey Wells.

details of a well-section at Redhill and notices of wells at
Wracklesham and Merstham (pp. 101, 142, 148). :

There are, therefore, published accounts of 225 well-sections
in the county (83+51+486+5), and this paper adds 32 more
(besides some further information as to two published sections),
bringing up the total to 257.

In the following sections the figures stand for feet, unless
otherwise stated.
[Words in square brackets have been added by the writer.]

Addington. Croydon Waterworks. 1885-1888.

An account of the work has been given to the Society by
Mr. EK. Lovett. See Trans. 1889, pp. 152-154.

Communicated by Mr. T. Walker, Borough Engineer.

3183 feet above Ordnance Datum.

Shaft 200 feet (8 feet filled up with concrete), with a short
boring. Galleries, in various directions, at 116 to 122, and 13824
to 1424. [In these there were almost dry parts, sometimes for a
long way, between springs. ]

Water-level about 68 or 69 feet down.

Supply in 1893, at the rate of 777,000 gallons a day.

Thickness Depth

FT. IN. FT. IN.
Farth’ [soily Me.) ics ccccdeacsesesevnaessecswanser sctancsts 5 6 o.°6
Chalk, with 7 layers of flints .............3.... 28 6 34 0

Hard brownish chalk rock .......sscsscseeeeees 1 0 35 0

Chalk, with five layers of flints ...........006 20 5 55 5

Open bed, with flint (water first found) ... 3 0 58 5

HON GDH s cassccdecsots<tacaepencneanerser ssi pexses= 5 6 63 11

Flinty | Close bed and flints ..........csccsccssesseeeveeee 2 4 66 3
halk; Clone Challe wcrcscce-ta-cacepedeskscarccuscesnordete 6 5 72 8
Watery open flint bed ............ssecsnseeeeeees 2 3 74 11

Chalk, partly open, mostly close, partly

with flints, with some layers of flint

(one at the bottom, a foot thick, beneath

which no more was found) ..........0.+++ Ut Lael 0
Close bed, and then plum-pudding chalk,

with 3 inches of bine |marl?] at the

Flintless DUSOPaancnoeceensstasseern carte tesenaure ose scans 5 0 157 0

@halks)\@loseibed' cc. sce. icascesctsecencceversecetasusee une 12 0 169 0
Curly chalk [? irregular curved jointing],

with two layers of bine [marl?] ...... 31 0 200 0

[All the Chalk presumably belongs to the Upper division, the
flintless character of the Jower part being a local accident,
probably of no very great horizontal extent.]

Mr. W. Whitaker on some Surrey Wells.

Bermondsey. Park Street. Messrs. Bowron’s,

Boring made and communicated by Messrs. Isler & Co.

Plentiful supply of water.

Thickness

FT. IN.

Dug well (the rest bored, 7} inches diameter) ...... —_——

[? Alluvium and tees Claivnetieedaccntcnenten soe tedseebess 8 6

Bercoe a rittal ~< ( GOUBVGL. svcccdsnecanencnedeetiepatssskhinues 13 0

; Glas 5 dcacttas coh cynenesetaaumtntoncs nations 37 «6

fommon Clay, j\Sandy clay. ...<:.c<vssssecacestyonccsvate 9 0

674 feet. | | cay Pale sales du clhusioe Mia Cantacbucn ser oanes 17 10

Green sand [? Basement-bed] ...... 3 2

Gla tacuacaseccwencnlecsnenceareeatas eeannas 5 0

[Woolwich and Motu DIA: ssssactecansenter oct avher :
Reading Beds, Sand SCHEER HEE EEE HEE EEEE EEE EEE EEE

Vy GUY, Poe cgewdave dete scceadcesetecs 6 6

88 feet. | a; SEES NES Gt AO EDN 4 6

WIVObi SAY Glaiy ss wdetascaseatcorssdessicce ese 5 6

Hi Woolwich and Thanet] Green sand............:+0+++ 29 6

PRESS fe SHANG tects saith ional fap uneseedapenanend eo autaswsaisees 28 6

Rem Rhees ta teasivaes Ue aeet nas astdose.qsaokt cecaassevasqetenereedoxs 163 0

Chertsey. A second well (1888) at the Brewery.

185

_
Oo
=
ARBHOADORDOAAHAOWEAIDOOMO:

(Account of first well published in the ‘ Transactions’ for 1886,

p. 49.)

Bored and communicated by Messrs. Isler.

ISTO ONPG iss cn capeseine nah «odteidsiccersce sessile saceces
BRIGr AAEB VOL) | TORMBBD Wa coscaaeaiadennasessaceeeens see 28
BMEHOG)) OBIE iy sndethamegdgacts caaneclccssecteuanacacees 174

MER cassis tceconnccnnnevie 23h
Blue clay ; with claystone at 155-
ppendce er 156 Pistons and pebbles at
eAcete| 179-180, claystone and pyrites
at 195-197 and 240-242, and
claystone at 384-385............ 338
MTOGIRE Oa cctw sth coucesesencascens sas 15
IVIOHUG DONGLE: soo sniecrcesscscesenccosess 30
[Reading Beds, | Brown loamy sand ........2..0eee008 18
104 feet. | Sand and water ..........cccsccssssees 15
PETG INU LE Yin wedica's vs douse en tdceseutceees 15
KGMEBNERANICE sca nnnevscsstsdslvvccuecseane 11

Thickness Depth
5 5

33
504

74

412
427
457
475
490
505
516
820

136 Mr. W. Whitaker on some Surrey Wells.

Chilworth. Franciscan Noviciate. 1892?

Made and communicated by Messrs. Legrand and Suteliff.
Water-level 114 feet down.

Thickness Depth

Sand and ironstone ............ 65 65
[Lower Greensand.] eerie cs snuseeqeeSeabnoekees ED
\Loamy sand and ironstone... 31 155

Cranleigh. Wethersal Grange.

Bored and communicated by Messrs. Duke and Ockenden.

{Old well, the rest bored ...... 43
[Weald Clay.] | Hard clay, no water .........++ 55 } 98 fects

Croydon. Gas-works, Waddon. Second well, about 300 yards
southward of the other. 1890.

Made and communicated by Messrs. Legrand and Sutcliff.
Water rising to 5 feet below the ground. Supply ample.

Thickness Depth

Pit (Gravel) ...cosccoccoccsscesscescescesssescsssscscssccssessces — 7
LORY Glaiyastesere-cestcsseteoceuccesceseece 3 10
[Woolwich and } Hard clay ........ssscccereesseereeesseenes 7 17
Reading Beds. | | Plastic /clayy........0sevsssssevesecserccenen’ 4 21
Sand’ and pebbles)..........0.s2sss.cees- 9 30
[? Woolwich (Blowing sand.........cc0csecsssssssereeeee 113 414
and {Bue MANU eevenmensecewraseacccecewevaneces 19 603
Thanet Beds.] (Sandy silt ..............ccssscccsocserseees 13} 74
Chalk and flints, with a vein of sand at the depth of
NODE ODT recechacessotest agen ston stascecondacesneeoteesecas 210 284

In the older well the depth to the Chalk is 1083 feet, or more
than 84 in excess of the above, showing a southerly rise of about
1 in 26.

Trial-boring for the Lambeth Water Company, next the Reservoir at
Selhurst. 1891.

218°2 feet above Ordnance Datum.

Made and communicated by Messrs. Docwra; with some par-
ticulars from a report by Mr. R. Etheridge, communicated by
Mr. S. H. Loutitt, Secretary to the Company. .

Water-level 119 feet down.

Mr, W. Whitaker on some Surrey Wells, 187

Thickness Depth
Yellow clay [? also gravel and sand,
according to Mr. Etheridge] ... 163 164
Stones [pebble-bed, according to

Mr. Etheridge] .........sseeeereceee 3 17
[London Clay-]4 Qoloured mA BG se mistie’ 113 ao
Blue clay s-eseeceeseeeeeneceeeeenneceeees 30 59
[Basement- (Sand ....seeeseeeeseersees 2 61
bed.| (Grey stone, with shells 13 623
Fine sand ....cccecececcevecceeecsceeseeees 12 TAR
[Oldhaven Clay, with stones and shells [thin
Beds. } pebble-bed, according to Mr.
Etheridge] ......ceeeeeseeseeeseeenss 3 75
Black clay [dark grey, Etheridge];
: shells and stone mixed........+++ 14 89
| Woolwich and | yfottled clay svevnovusersereeensesse 15 104}
ee eds,) Green sand and pebbles ........++++0+ 6 1103
423 feet. | Green SANG ......cececccsececccesceceeseeees 6 1163
Pebbles, very hard ...s..sssseseeeeeeees 1 1174
Very hard sand ......sseeeeeseeeseeneeeeee 123 130
esis We ee Ge oth Ta
47} feet. ] Black sand, like clay .......-+sse+eeees 4 164
FUints .....ccceseececececcececcncsceseeseeees 1 165
Chalk, with flints [hard bed at 271-295, according to
Mr. Btheridge] ........csscseecsecneeenseneeeeceserensnneses 305 470

At 177 feet the yield was 250 gallons an hour.
ely Geer is fu eBuu te 55 as ,, or 18,200 a day
(8 inch pump).
ar “ e ,, 1070 ,, A ,, or 25,680 a day.
eas. fs Fe », 2520 ,, + ,», or 60,480 a day
(6-inch pipe), after boring to 420 feet.

East Horsley. The Towers, just outside the garden-wall, north of
the house. 1886.

2 About 300 feet above Ordnance Datum.

Made and communicated by Messrs. Legrand and Sutcliff [and
from specimens] .

Water (in chalk) rose to 105 feet from surface. . Fell on
reaching U.G.S. (to 117 feet). Practically no supply of water
until over 400 feet deep, when the water-level rose several feet.
A further sudden rise in the water-level has twice taken place
since, and each time accompanied by a practical increase in the
yield, so that we now (March, 1886) can get over 1000 gallons

an hour without lowering the head of water more than 25 feet
(526 feet deep).

138 Mr. W. Whitaker on some Surrey Wells,
Thickness Depth
13

Dug well [partly BPAVEL | Vsgiasnsasenayensuesreevs apavewscaree _
[Thanet Clay [light brown sand] .......:.ssesseeereee 8 21
Sand (to Sand and clay [sand, with green grains
titania e and bits of brown clay] .....sesseceese 2 28
I ee Clay Noe batt sand, with clay] .......sssese6- 2 25
doubtful) Seder, DHL | © 5. <070 sivas sossvaevvoonsseves 5 30
2 90 feet. j Mottled clay [brownish and buff sand].. t 81
: Flints [green-coated] ......ssseeeseseeeeseees 2 33
White chalk and flints.............sseeeeeeeee 236 269
Putty chalk and flints .........sccccscseseeees 99 368
UMisrn ivr Halk Sewerest opactenecucenrascosenewedase 3 3724
Hard chalk and flints [ordinary white
| EE RO Se a 2S 41h 414
Mee i chalk [hard cream-coloured
Chalk, | SRR NE STR 2 159 - 578
8172 feet. einai Panel [a sort of loose chalk-grit] 20 593
2 Marly chalk and hard bands yard
cream-coloured marly (?) chalk] . 12 605
Grey chalk [White] .......:..ccsccsscssscesees 51 656
Marly chalk and hard bands [hard cream-
coloured. chalk] <.......0...scsssceresnesee 20% 6763
| Hard grey chalk [greyish] ..............00+ 31 7073
(Chalk marl [compact, firm, grey] ......... 143 850%
Gauer Upper Greensand [eompact greenish
rect eg ee a sand, calcareous?] ......s..sescseersees 173 868
(& Gault ?). Gault [friable sandstone of U.G.S8.; clay
; said to have been found also]......... 6 874

Epsom. Waterworks, New well. 1889.

In the same yard as the older wells, but nearer the road
(between the.stables and East Street).

A boring of 18 inches diameter, made and communicated by
Messrs. Tilley; with some particulars from a Report to the
Local Board, by Mr. G. Hodson (1894).

When made this bore-hole was tested to 13,000 gallons an
hour; but it is said that 20,000 gallons an hour are regularly
pumped, and that once this quantity was got continuously for
42 hours, when the flow of water was still enough to gain on the
pumps. The supply of the town is now chiefly got from this
boring.

Tee Depth

UV chtp Ge ees seen eins wes ee cote scseceescede ph s'sonagtoe ceca 2 1
(inom cae aaadeeevenesoteatesdecvaraccsoccesescste sno ecss 3 53
IBN Pogaace cichdooopnoctidc 7 123
: Hire-Clay ......sessescceces ‘2 143
[Reading Beds, 193 feet. Green ad saencaecoocrices 3 931
Oyster-shells ............ 13 25
Dark sand ..........0+0 293 544
[Thanet Sand, 31 feet.} {Sand and flints ......... i 56.

Mr. W. Whitaker on some Surrey Wells. 189

Farnham. Mr. W. Barling’s.

Made and communicated by Messrs. Legrand and Sutcliff.
Water-level 15 feet down.
Thickness Depth

Dug well, the rest bored......s+ssseseereeeee _ 63
Pipes driven (no record of the beds)...... — 922

FSand ....seccscecene 93 102

[Lower Greensand. | {Yellow sand ...... 2 104

Sand ..ccccccvereees 26 130

Waterworks. 1885.

Boring, communicated by Messrs. Legrand and Sutcliff.
Thickness Depth
2 2

Made ground...... Fas sora Tectia nen apeaia ain ne ie
, OMMLY SANA sisescecesccsecsceeseeeeees
[Drift, 16 feet. | {Tight ballast and loamy clay ......... 4s 18
Grey ClAY ..sscerseesecseeseseeeseseeneeees 1 19
Black gGatilt......cssssessevecceceeceeeeenns 59 78
[Gault, Gault, with thin layers of green sand 2 80
152 feet.| ~)Gault and stone in places ............ 50 130
Sandy gault, with 4 inches of stone
art 160 feet ......secececsessccescevers 40 170
Dead grey sand, with layers of green 10 180
Live green sand, with stones ......... 10 190
[Lower Live green sand (darker) .......+++++++ 59 249
Greensand, 4 Live green sand, cleaner and more
1874 feet.] lively .....csseceoseeeesees ere enecess 88 337
Hard coloured dead sand, with small
SHOTS .cesccsceccecceceeesarceceeeseces 203 3573

Frimley. Mytchett Place.

Made and communicated by Messrs. Legrand and Sutcliff.
Water-level 66 feet down.
Thickness Depth
36

[? Up. Bagshot (Dug well, the rest bored. ...seeeseeeeeee —
& Bracklesham {sana Pentti cessccssctcarccsaseccenesencns 26 62
Beds ?| Clay and Sand «esseseeeeeseeeeeeeeeeeees 18 80
[Lower Bagshot ?] Sand .....sssessssesereeeereeereseeeeees 152 232
( Clay and pebbles ......sssseeeeeeeeeeeees 8 240
Blue clay and sand ........seesseeeeeees 24 264
[London Clay ?] : Green sand [? colour from dampness] 23 287
Marl and clay ...csesecseeseeeseeeeeevers 8 295
Clay ..csseceeeeseseceesceeneseeceenenneneeenes 17 312

This is another version of the section given by the Rev. A.
Irving, and reprinted, with remarks, in my first paper on Surrey
ty

140 Mr. W. Whitaker on some Surrey Wells.

Wells (‘ Transactions’ for 1886, pp. 53, 54). The above classi-
fication of the beds seems more warrantable than that given
before.

Godalming. Messrs. Pullman’s, Leather Dressers.

Made and communicated by Messrs. Duke and Ockenden.
Good supply of water, rising to within 9 inches of the ground.

Thickness Depth
12

Mido Tp) CrOUNG oy .cssscedssessastnostessccuecs osnets 12

[River Drift.] Gravel, fine and coarse ...... 8 20
Yellow-brown sand ......... 10 30.
Blue-grey sand ............00+ 14 44
Stiff blue clay...............00 2 46

[Hythe Beds.] Blue-grey sand .............4. 7 53
Medium hard sandstone ... 7 60
Bluish clayey sand ......... = 12 12

Not far S.W. of Cateshall Mill.

From information given by Mr. Sweetapple.
According to information got by Mr. C. E. Hawkins this was
made some fifty years or more ago, and was unsuccessful.

Thickness Depth

[Lower Greensand.] eee ey kiss siapamenraeracae te z ef
[Atherfield & Weald.] Clay (the latter part sandstone) 490 540
Mi Pp

According to a letter from Mr. J. Church, at the Godalming,
Frith Hill, and Farncombe Waterworks, a large fissure was cut
in rock, which runs under Frith Hill, and an unlimited supply
was got from this source. When more than 10,000 gallons an
hour are pumped, sand is got with the water.

Godstone.
Two Wells. Made and communicated by Messrs. Legrand
and Sutcliff. 1888.
1. Cottages in Hart Lane.

Water-level 15 feet down.
Thickness Depth

Dug well (old, the rest bored) ..........ssccceseceeeeeeeeees — 45
Wren duclayic<.<.cescsstnen each ese vacesees 58 103
Hard clay and a little sand............ " 110

PTardiclaiys cocccacsepsziosessecc reteeee eee 26 136

Mr, W. Whitaker on some Surrey Wells. 141

2. The Homestead, about a quarter-mile S.E. of the Green
(Mr. T. Churchill, Builder).

Water-level 664 feet down.
Thickness Depth

Dug well (old, the rest bored) .......sscccssceseveseeeeee — 663
Dark clay and sand .............scesee0s 13 794
Dark green sand, with bands of
OL dade a.] BANCGSEOME: Hehe es oo sk uaves obese ce tbs 8 874
‘ |Green sand and clay, and bands of
BANGSTONO: scrwaacsocasiadsesasesaccces 103 98

Hambledon. Furze Hill. Mr. Muir’s.
Communicated by Messrs. Duke and Ockenden.

[Lower Greensand.] TF erruginous sand, 75 feet.

Horley. Elm Cottage (Mr. L. Miller’s).
No supply.
Communicated by Messrs. Isler & Co.

Sift sudiCawed laste aesthvaeteatensenss 49,
[Weald Clay. ] {Boon through blue slaty marl .. : a5 ot

Rede Hall. Mr. Tebbs.

Bored and communicated by Messrs. Duke and Ockenden.
Abundance of water, rising 34 feet above the ground.
Thickness Depth

Well (? old), the rest bored ...........sseeseeeeesseseeeeeens — 47
Soft blue rock ........... ete vee 32 79
Hard rock, with veins of clay a few

pest Uisy:| inches thick .....-.ssssssssessseese 66.145
Softer strata, with sand ............00. 5 150

Mr. Topley has noted that a boring made at the Railway
Station (about 1839) is believed to be 260 or 270 it deep, and
that water overflowed to the height of 20 feet.

Milford. Messrs. Rothwell’s Steam Dairy.

Made and communicated by Messrs. Duke and Ockenden.
Good supply of water, coming in at various depths, and
standing 8 feet down.

[? Hythe Beds.| Sandstone-rock, sometimes very hard, in
layers, 40 feet,

02

142 Mr. W. Whitaker on some Surrey Wells.

Mitcham. Schools.

Made and communicated by Messrs. Tilley.

To chalk, 218
Chalk, 3} 221

Mortlake. Brewery.

Further work has been done at this brewery by Messrs.
Docwra, who have communicated the following particulars :—-

Shaft and cylinders (of newer well) carried down to 210 feet,
with a heading to old boring at 105 to 110. A fissure at
2844 feet.

Water-level, February, 1890, 943 feet down; 18th September,
1890, about 129; 19th January, 1891, 77.

Thickness Depth

Blue clay [top beds omitted] ......... — to 164}
Sandy blue clay..........scssecseseeseeees 20 185
SIPEG) Sosace cbototsdent eaeog nod pacer sos 1 186
ondon Olga Clay stone, the bottom 2 feet light
oilers il, Aneaan tcacodcercccocso sere 3 189
PENA verscthessts een cdsstoceverscaces=se-b cease 1 190
oe GLEN) Shee OR Scesoce cosne cco 30 220
: Clay and sand (water) ......cscccccseeee 1 221
bores, ee t) IVierryasticktyiclary,)) hctsescsstrenssocecbeess 23 244
Beag ] IPG DD GSiiseedeweseaesecasenchanc\senieaeneves 1 245
: GUGONESANGL Meee dapesbececenactp rosso beens 12 257
Wark sand shccucessstesisadserascoseccwednas 153 2724

Chalk, with flints at 305 to 3053... 453 318
[Upper Chalk. |] {sad chalk and flints. Water at
3693 (? then softer chalk) ...... 82 400

Nine Elms. Messrs. Thorne’s Brewery, 27 Nine Elms Lane,
1892.

Made and communicated by Messrs. Isler & Co.
Water-level 54 feet down. Yield a barrel in 54 seconds.

Thickness Depth
12

Dug well (the rest bored, 8} inches diameter) ......... —

(Balltstasnteersseesauecedecsecsesesencessceree 10 22

Sand and stones ....ssssccceeseveeeeeces 13 35

Fee de er BOWINEIBANG ss. cs,ccsccsssossesscsneoreane 5 40

“1 -| Sand and stones .........cscecceesseeees 19 59
IBullastesrectctates cesstrosentssttecces onsets 352 943

Sand, clay, and shells ..........-.+0000. 154 110

Wiaihlediclaiyiue..sacetcecces-snsescsenmnces 27 137

[Woolwich and } Mottled clay and sand...............+4 13 150

Reading Beds,, Clay, stones, and shells .............+. 4 154

78% feet ?| Reading Beds [? clay] .........s.sse0e08 6 160

Mottled clay and pebbles............... 6 166

\Congealed ballast [pebbles] ......... F 173

Mr. W. Whitaker on some Surrey Wells. 143

Thickness Depth

Green and grey Sad ....ssecsseeeeeeee 35 208
[Thanet Sand.] teehee flints and grey sand... 4 212
Chalk and flints .........sscssecsecsecceereeeessseneceeceecenees 139 351

A shorter version appeared in ‘ Engineering,’ vol. lili. p. 776
(24th June, 1892).

There is doubt as to the above classification. One would
expect London Clay, and would be inclined to put this to the
depth of 150 feet. It is hard, too, to believe in so great
a thickness of River Drift as 94 feet.

Norwood. Brewery Co., Chapel Road, West Norwood. 1889.

Made and communicated by the Aqueous Works and Diamond
Rock-boring Co.
Water-level 133 feet down. Yield, 1400 gallons an hour.

Thickness Depth
FT. IN. FT. IN.

Old well (the rest bored) ....ccssseceesesseeeeeeeereceneeenes — — 1 0

Blue clay .....scscseceeeceececenereesenee 153 6 174 6

Black pebbles ... 2 3 176 9

[London Clay.]{ [? Basement- }Oyster-shell rock 0 6 177 3
bed, about 4 ft.] ) Pebbles and dark

BANG ..cesecsceee 1 2 178 5

SANA, ...cencesccsccccccccccoscrcnsssceaseces 8 0 186 5

Blue clay and shells ........-ssseseeee 5 5 191 10

[Woolwich and | Brown sand ........sssseseseeeeereseeeens T Th. AD

Reading Beds, ~ Oyster-shell rock .........eseseeseeeeeees 4 8 208 11

about 523 ft.] | Sand and shells ........sseseesseeeeeeee 19 205 8

Coloured [mottled] clay........-.+++++ 1710 223 6

\Pebbles and sand.........sesesseeseeeees 7 6 231 0

[Thanet Sand, { Grey samd......cscesceeeceseeeeeeseereeees 338 9 264 9

38 ft. {Fins AAA, SR SS 4 8 269 0

Chalk and flints .......cccscsssscccssescceeceessscsecsccssceeees 82 0 351 0

Perhaps the sand at the top of the Woolwich Beds, with the
pebbles, &c., classed as basement-bed of the London Clay, may
belong to the Blackheath Beds.

An account communicated by the Company differs much
in details (? another well), being as follows :—

Water-level 211 feet down. Rather a large quantity of iron
was found in the water at first, and was attributed to the new
pipes that were used. The quantity has lessened since.

Thickness Depth

Brown Clay ..ccsccsseeseeeeseeseees addin 10 40
[London Clay.] {Bike GIRS ie ci henaigeae isd agama deuetots 180 220
Pebbles [? Basement-bed] .........+++ 5 225

144 Mr. W. Whitaker on some Surrey Wells.
Thickness Depth
1 226

TROD SOU Siowesevievavcewrslaceensesseeseceee
: Brown dead sand.........scsesceseseeees 10 236
[Woolwich and) Shells and blue clay s.....sss.ssss00 1-237
s. 39 A ] CS, \ Coloured mottled plastic clay ...... 15 252
; Brown clay and pebbles .........+. 6 258
(LECTHINHNG "s-.a>ccsencasunesaercspessrans 6 264
Coloured sand, very hard ............ 10 274
ar tie Thanet sand, with water ..........+. 20 294
oF eae A ULM Si ae aca 2 296
OhallktandGHiniis asencpecssasesscsesbeseacaswarsssnsssaccseannn 57 353

Nutfield. The Spotted Cow, N. of the village.

From Mr. W. Topley’s notes.
Through gault at 124 feet.

Peckham. High Street, for Messrs. Jones d Higgins. 1898.

Made and communicated by Messrs. Baker.

25:3 feet above Ordnance Datum.

Shaft to the Chalk; the rest bored.

Water-level 28 feet below the road-level. Supply tested with
an 8-inch pump, which lowered the water only 3 feet, and the
original level was recovered in 10 minutes.

Thickness tac

Road-level to basement-level ........ssssssesecseeeee — 1
River Drift.] {Loam and ballast...............0+ 3 14
[River Drift. | Light [-coloured] ballast ...... oOo 19
Siltievecsditvenscpiesasisoasevereen tess 8 27
PVellOWiClay i ccussccesavessnaces esse 10 37
: IATL VAC lONGn sdcldecducusecsctesse sass 1 38
eras ae Green clay and pebbles ......... 3 41
aia rh ie Bs '\ Og sherbet ssacasseevddeassseitetes 1 42
: Pebbles and green sand......... a 46
(GROVARSANGbs.ntocccesonesesbccvsceces 4 50
Black pebbles .........sissecsseeee 10 60
; Brown Sand ......scessesesvoeseeeee 22 82

Shares ey {Dat BRL VAC UY rasecncnsacarerses 10+ 924
‘J Green-coated flints .........s00068 3 93

Ghali, sensscatecsvsareesutrescccovcroces aceenesnsetdeeres 833 1763

Penge. London and Provincial Steam Laundry, Green Lane, on
the northern side of the L.C. dD. Railway, about half-way
between Penge and Kent House Stations. 1892.

Communicated by Mr. E. Turner. The section also from
Messrs. Baker.

Bench-mark 93°4 feet above Ordnance Datum.

Cylinders (20 feet) and shaft to 74 feet; cement-bottom up to
62 feet; the rest bored, 12 inches diameter, pipe up to 48 feet.

Water rose to the surface.

| Mr. W. Whitaker on some Surrey Wells. 145

Thickness Depth
1 1

Mould .......ccssscnecessceecenecessesseescsneccnsceneeaees
[River Drift] Gravel ..........s0++ Seeiaaniassaneeauies 1 2
ee clay, LOtteN ........+.eeeee 11 13
pestibnuadstaceessonurskeaess 21 34
[London Clay, Sendy CLAY seeceecreressesssecceree 4 38
; Blue Clay ..csscsececcececececeeeeee 35 73
Samdly clay ...cecreeeseeenceeseeree 2 75
[? Blackheath {Light grey sand ........++++++ 5 80
Beds. | | pebbles and BAN “2...tcc.ceeneee 5 85
Petrified timber [? lignite] ... 3 88
Grey sandy clay ....sesssecseseeee 2 90
Shelly beds ....scseeccsesenseeseees 11 101
[Woolwich and Giolgusad [mottled] clay ...... 1 102
Reading Beds, < Shelly rock .....ssseeseceeeeesseeee 13 1033
32 ft.| Sandy Clay ....secccccceseeseceneee 3 104
Coloured |mottled] clay ...... 5 109
White marl .........csscsecseseeee 6 115
Pebbles ......sscsseseeceeeescsseeenes 2 117
Thanet Sand .....ccccccseceserecevcceceseecesecseceeeeees 1 118
Ee nd ag a EN MADRID a Pet 8 ATES a. ei a 2 sant Ee
Date. Hours pumped. | Water lowered (ft.) Water rose (ft.)
June 27 | 6 (12 to 6) 29% 14 in 12 hours.
» 28 | 11 (7—6) 32 down to 48 | 28k 4, 4
» 29] 6 (7—1) As aide ey ae 3h (from 1 to 2).
Startedagainat2} 1 ,, ,, 48 | 28in 12 hours.
suly it 9 (7—1, 26) See yoy (BE in in-
terval).
» 2|8(T—8) 46 ,, ,, 66 | 63 in 40 hours,
» 4|8(8—1, 2—6) "|, 64 180,14 ,, (3}inin-
terval.)

12 | 64 2S A De (EOE MNT a TE ae ha
Pump, of 6 inches diameter, 15-inch strokes, averaged 17 strokes a
minute.

Red Hill. Royal Asylum of St. Anne’s Society.

Made and communicated by Messrs. Docwra.
Shaft 484 feet; the rest bored.

Water-level 84 feet down.
Thickness Depth

{ Sand ...ccsssceeees 48 48
[Lower Greensand.] | Black sand ...... 12 60
USaid’-scpectastidic 52112

Reigate. Waterworks, in the valley S.W. of the town. Trial-
boring. 1868.

Communicated by Mr. F. 8. Courtney (Easton & Anderson).

146. Mr. W. Whitaker on some Surrey Wells.

Thickness Depth
Yellow running sand and water ... 60 6

Loamy yellow sand............ssesesees 23 83
Lee ee Live yellow sand and water ......... 3 86
sand.] Loamy yellow sand ........... ss+++ 9 95
; Live yellow sand and water ......... 21 116°
ess ee and a little water......... 36 152
ROW INGIUY i ass covmestawees auencscadieniae 6 158
[? Gea {Green SIG We SeRBOtELO Recacuatnoe: Paecsas 41 199
y: SID OLOLBYs occc0.05-cccavesteanestavna teas 8 207

In 1870 a well, lined with cylinders, was sunk to the depth of
68 feet, with a boring to 110. The water is said to have risen
to the surface: it is discoloured, and, despite of an elaborate
arrangement for filtration, the well became choked with sand,
and has been abandoned.

In 1890 an average of 133,204 gallons a day was pumped in
July, of 181,213 in August, and of 140,407 in September.

Reigate. Harlswood Asylum. About 1862 or 1863.
Information got by Mr. C. E. Hawkins (from Dr. Grabham,
the Superintendent, and from specimens). He says that there
were many other specimens, not marked.
About 160 feet above Ordnance Datum.
Shaft 160 feet; the rest bored. A failure as regards water.
Depth of Kei 8:2

Patadg GLA Va sce ctacvacas ss Teas cdscy sgaasascasenauannowar
Brown and pink mottled clay .........ssesseee 50
Clay, with thin seams of sand .......s.sseseeees 93?
Hard shaly clay, with shells ............sseeee00 120
NA Viaicoe wuseaes ssa cusctanuale deer aescesesesusmssouceaee 200
PULLMC LAV teaser oes ccnvecosesssgcescsskeseapsomerenanane 300
Hard ferruginous clay, with shells .........++ 408
Clay, with traces of shells .......ssssssesseeseeee 413
Very stiff purplish mottled clay ...........++++ 415
Clay, with traces of a decomposing salt ...... 461
Clay, with traces of small shells (not Cyprides) aa
Clay, with traces of a decomposing salt ......
SIOURE CIEE somtndeconed:. Borers ter ececde rer sonencn ceo 170 B
[Weald Clay.] + Sandy clay .........sesssesseees 470, 472, 473 and 474
Dhallivieligyi.. cotssecateusssessechuuaseeccesssdeeueesaace 478
Pinkish mottled clay .......cs.sscessecseceeeeeees 480
Greenish and purplish mottled clay, a little
BURLY, eects close cecerwsedhectecssdosessspesesmesenae 481
DANCY ClHVE >. sncchugvusescascoensteneercnosceatweses 486
Clay; alittle shally, ..:.....c.cosecssssecsscecakvoree 487
Dhialy clay..:..scsseresssaccevsees 488, 490, 495 and 497
Ti ccamete in snsneuGuaiewcoeewssnaxadcaenatciinn dees 498
SSHBLY ClH Vc cswssecesscaneeecseseanesenas ers foademensae §12
Gay Ain deus ncokececect ostnecekscrt ee stonsabaceccgecsaee 513
Clay 2, BANG Y\iasccssscvederocss. ows ceusscessaccen cece 518
? Sandy Pesen suse easues <vacree ds aruracncoscawaccsesdgee 534
DALY IGlay Ac cccesesssbevesstoceseevscresseses iwc eone

OCIBYh ciswsacesesscecose cevaceacsscecsassatorsccencencese 536

Mr. W. Whitaker on some Surrey Wells. 147

Depth of Specimens
538

[? Weald Clay (Fine clayey sand ..............ccssesscccscccccscseee
or Hastings {piash UCAS Cons cast ann canns shew sncdeiiaeehae tan 541
Beds. | Ol eiyis caremeectecesestpdpeedwasdanticda pes con tioe wdenens> 553
HANG; SANG cca senacen-ssscs0e 583, 586, 603, 611 and 612
Hin@) BANG: CLAN Wincsscacccscocseuasce+dssave 700 and 744
Da Gy (Clay Aeceeraunncs ods sacnccevacsetetecescs sctlea 760
Clay less sandy than the above..........s0se00 765
ae ce FINOVA AM igee esse tws eens oc celes ces sacccnecesers 773
QUAY. -acssveetddtacteeadsae tac dhahcs saapsvicesastsass as 785
Very sandy clay, fino ............ccccecccccsscncoes 832
Clay (plastic when wet?) ......sssssccseceessenes 833
Very fine sandstone ......... 845, 876, 886 and 910

According to Messrs. Baker, who made the boring, the depth is 9123

As there are sometimes considerable gaps between the speci-
mens, it is difficult to classify the beds. The Weald Clay seems
to go down to 558 feet, and the Hastings Beds may begin at
583. On the other hand, it is possible that the Weald Clay may
reach deeper down (? to 833 feet), though this would give an
excessive thickness to the formation. Under these circum-
stances it is clearly out of the question to attempt a division of
the Hastings Beds.

Richmond. Waterworks, Terrace Garden Well. 1890.

Communicated by Mr. W. G. Peirce, engineer.

423 feet above Ordnance Datum.

Shaft 320 feet; the rest bored.

Galleries from 314 to 320 feet down, in various directions, of
a total length of 4492 feet (1894), the chief one N.N.W. to the
old well. Another, southward, has just touched the junction of
the Tertiary beds with the Chalk at about 1000 feet from the
well (as the crow flies), showing that there is a slight southerly
dip. Probably some further length of gallery will be driven.

Thickness Depth
Mould, ashes, and brick-rubbish .............cesseeeeeeeees 3 3
Brown clay, mottled with a little

light blue, with broken and scat-

tered clay-stones .......ssseeseenes is 123
Clay, with a few fossils............... 823 95
Hard clay, with a few fossils ...... 39 134
Clay, laminated with partings of
moon rae ’ fine black and white sand ; black

4-in. clay-stone at base, with a
little water under .........s.sseee0e 6 140
foe Sek with a few sandy part-
Roacelscauwaeebasssanadenccocsdeuae 15 155
L very had clay, with a few fossils 30 185

| flint-pebbles, and a few fossils ; :

148 Mr. W. Whitaker on some Surrey Wells.

Thickness Depth
Very hard dry sandy clay: clay-
stone at base, with fragments of

, Plant-LemMains.....c2scsceccscsecsseve 123 1973
pane ER ‘Very hard dry sandy clay, with
coe )s fossils and part of a tree-trunk
BS we (9 ft. by 2} in.), much bored by
Teredo. Thin layer of black

flint pebbles at the base ......... 163 2141

Very hard dry sandylight-coloured
MOA OGUIOM CIA Y” ssctees sees onnssccche we 3h 2173
Hard dark somewhat mottled clay 17 2344
Very hard dry sandy mottled
UAV; Gaccananesee ose ee egacveecatverrs ee 53 2401
Hard mottled clay....... Dasiewacéneses 4 2441
Soft dark mottled clay ............6+8 54 2493
Very hard dry sandy light-
coloured mottled clay ............ 2
Hard dark mottled clay ............ 3
Very hard dry sandy light-coloured
mottled: clanysssescssscasausa eauteas vce 34 2594
Very fine dry sandy light-coloured
loans tessteverors cs varsedaresestiecs ot 1 2603
Fine light-brown sand, slightly
mottled in parts............ssseeeeee 8} 268}
Reading Beds, | Darker coarser sand, with 22 in.
654 ft. ~ _ of soft sandstone at top............ 3 2693
. Green sand and black sandy loam,
partly with soft chalk-pebbles
[CURAPERODE 7S unecsesssntarnastioe 1 2703
Green sand and black loam, partly
with flint-pebbles, hard brown
and light-blue mottled clay, with
fruits of plants, and brown and
black laminated clay............0+ 1
Green and grey sand, and (greater
part) conglomerate of flint-peb-
bles, in sand and loam ............ 3 275
Green iron-shot sand, with many
chips of flint, oyster-shells, pieces
of hard chalk, and fish-teeth (in
coarse greyish sand). Some
rounded pieces ofli.aestone [con-
cretions] at the base...........06. . 5 280

ie grey dry hard sand, loamy in

2 9593
+ 956

272

eh

parts, hard and clayey towards
Thanet Sand,
10 ft.

HMSWOUSC. Up satccins + cotoeus bacecadee char “
Continuous cemented layer of flint,
6 to 8 inches, with small flints
under, green-coated, in hard sand 1 290

9 289

Mr. W. Whitaker on some Surrey Wells. 149

Thickness Depth

[Upper] Chalk. The surface smooth. The top foot

bored in all directions with oval holes of all sizes

up to 3inch diameter, some reaching a depth of

over 12 feet; all filled with grey sand. Many

flints, in layers 14 to 2} feet apart (with few

breaks), and some between the layers: a thick

continuous layer, with black clay underneath, at

the depth of 889 feet ....sssssceesernecesenceseeseneeers 180 470

This differs from the older section in starting at a rather
higher level, so that the depth to the Chalk is greater. The
Reading Beds are somewhat thicker, whilst the Thanet Sand is
less than half the thickness.

Vauxhall. Bond Street. Messrs. Barrett d Co. Second well. 1886.

Made and communicated by Messrs. Legrand & Sutcliff.
Water-level 504 feet below the cellar-floor.
Thickness Depth
6

Dry well (the rest bored) ......ssessesssceeerereneeeeneseeees —
Ballast [River Gravel] ........+.sssceseees seetesseeseesaeeens 3 9
[London Clay, {Biae ed and septaria .........ss.ee ae Pe
siduaatnasnas halaeeittncnacomencies 4 4
1D sie Pebbles [Basement-bed] ........-.+ 4 114
Mixed clay ....c0ssocsecsecsenscrseesens = 1194
Clay and shells .........ssceseeseseeees 4 121
[Woolwich and | Clay and sand .........ssssseseeseeeeeers z 1264
Reading Beds, {Coloured [mottled] clay and sand 20 1464
503 ft. | Mottled clay..........cscececscsssceeeaces 4 154
‘ Clay and pebbles........cssesccserereees 5 1583
Green sandy clay and pebbles ...... 6 1643
GYOY SANG........c.cesecescsersesnscecsses 38 2023
[Thanet Sand.] {aren HAIN Sieeacus| cc vedseetecesseetensiacs 1 2034
Chalk and flints ........sccccssssessccesceereecesseeessecees we 1043-808

West Clandon. Woking Waterworks, 1882.

Communicated by Mr. H. H. French, who got information
from the well-sinker’s foreman, and from specimens.

Water rose 10 feet above the ground, but was said not to be
good. When the flints above the Chalk were broken through the
water broke in and drove out the workmen. [According to a
short notice in ‘ The Engineer,’ vol. iv. p. 27, water was found
at the depth of 810 feet. The supply seemed very poor in 1887.]

Thickness Depth
Soil yeelcwak sd ab eccs seeuncbincdaus cepenaancaneas’ey ties sass Gallen s9f 2 2
Flints and yellow loamy clay [? weathered London

Clay] ssscccccccececesenee abpsiiasanstptanss aivdssaspeneus REA 5 7

150 Dr. H. Franklin Parsons on the

Thickness Depth
Blue London Clay, with septaria at 16 levels (in three
cases large enough to go across the well). Black
loamy sand and a little water at 37 feet. A few
pebbles and a little water at 128. Veins of sand
at 145, 150, and 210. Shells at 176 and 226. Red-
dish clay at 222. A 6-inch bed of pebbles atbase 224 231
Compact bedofshellsandclay ... 1 232
. AS * » (whiter) 13 2334
Mottled clays, varying in colour

(blue, red, brown, buff, &.) ...... 354 269
. Mottled clays; no particulars kept, ©
ee but sandy toward the hie, ee 31 300
anes ?*\ Hard loamy green sand............+.. 5 3024
: Hard grey and yellow sand ......... 1} 3032
Loainy green sand, mottled brown 1} 305
Hard dry green loamy sand, with
scattered shells, much broken ... 44 to 5 } 310
Thin bed of small black flint pebbles.
Greenish loamy sand ............s00006 2 312
? Thanet Beds. {lean grey sand, full of water ...... 2 314
Green-coated flints....5.0.csccecscsesece = 3144
Chalk, with occasional beds of flints...........ccceseeee ? 9923 414

Wonersh. Chinthurst Lodge. 1887.
Made and communicated by Messrs. Legrand & Sutcliff.
Thickness Depth

MN Oe evscapntesceueatescaccteas 14 14

Bln Clay ic... scscsssotesn eects 12 26

Piet ] Jeiiuteycthate We pace sear 4 28
: Hard clay and sand......... 20 48

Elard Clay, <..ce+senskevensbe cee 2 50

118.—Hasits anp Hasitats or Pxrants: some REMARKS ON
SuperFiciaL RESEMBLANCES BETWEEN Puants or Dir-
FERENT AFFINITIES.

By H. Franguin Parsons, M.D., F.G.S.
(Read November 20th, 1894.)

Ir must often have attracted the attention of observant lovers
of plants that certain plants of a similar general appearance
differ widely in their flowers and fruit; or, conversely,—since
the affinities of plants are judged of by botanists from the repro-
ductive rather than from the nutritive organs,—that plants of
different families often resemble each other in habit; the word
‘‘habit”’ being used by botanists to express the general appear-
ance and mode of growth. Such resemblances are often borne

Habits and Habitats of Plants. 151

witness to by the names of plants; not only in scientific termi-
nology,—e. g., the numerous specific names ending in ides (idog,
form),—but also by the popular names. Thus we have ash and
mountain-ash; chestnut and horse-chestnut; nettle and dead-
nettle; flax (Linum) and toad-flax (Linaria); black bryony and
white bryony; alder and berry-bearing alder ; purple loosestrife
and yellow loosestrife: all of these belonging respectively to
widely different orders.

Sometimes, however, the similarity thus noted in popular names
may lie in properties or uses rather than in appearance (e. g.,
sorrel and wood-sorrel ; lettuce and lamb’s-lettuce), and in other
cases it is difficult to trace the resemblances which have given
rise to a similarity of name: as agrimony and hemp-agrimony ;
violet and water-violet (Hottonia).

The chief reason of these resemblances of form seems to be
that plants of different orders have, in the struggle for existence,
betaken themselves to similar habitats—the ‘‘ habitat’ of a plant
being the sort of place where it grows—and have adapted them-
selves to those habitats by acquiring forms and habits suited
to their station in life; and therefore, necessarily, in many cases
these adaptations of unallied plants have tended in similar
directions. .

Another explanation, however, may in some instances hold
good. It is well known that in the animal kingdom certain
species,—e.g., of insects,—escape from their enemies by their
resemblance to other species which are armed, uneatable, or in
other respects objectionable ; and it is conceivable that among
plants a similar mimicry may sometimes have been brought
about through natural selection, by a plant deriving benefit from
its resemblance to another plant which possessed some property
rendering it objectionable to herbivora and insects. Thus Sir
John Lubbock suggests that the dead-nettle may be protected by
its resemblance to the stinging-nettle, and the scentless May-weed
(Matricaria inodora) by its resemblance to the strong-flavoured
chamomiles. The dead-nettle, however, would seem to possess
other means of protection in its strong scent and rough hairs.

The following are instances from the British flora of groups of
plants belonging to different orders yet possessing a general simi-
larity in appearance corresponding to a similar mode of life :—

1. A very striking group of plants is that of the leafless root-
parasites, represented in the British flora by the species of broom-
rape (Orobanche) and the toothwort (Lathraa Squamaria), belong-
ing to the order Orobanchacee ; by the yellow bird’s-nest (Mono-
tropa Hypopitys), of the order Ericacee; and by three species
of Orchid, viz., Neottia Nidus-avis, Corallorhiza innata, and Epi-
pogium aphyllum, the two latter very rare in Britain but commoner
in Central Europe, specimens of the last named from Switzerland

152 Dr. H. Franklin Parsons on the

having been shown us at a recent meeting by Mr. Mennell. These
plants all agree in the absence of chlorophyll, and are hence more
or less self-coloured and of a dull brown hue, ranging, however,
from shades of purple to yellow ; they are of a succulent nature,
and the roots are few and fleshy; the leaves are reduced to mere
scales ; the stems are simple, except in one Orobanche; and the
flowers are in terminal spikes. Most of these characteristics
obviously depend upon the circumstance that such parasites
obtain their organic constituents ready made from other plants,
instead of manufacturing them for themselves by the aid of their
leaves from the carbon dioxide of the atmosphere.

There is another group of plants, however, which, though
partially at least parasitic on the roots of other plants, are never-
theless green and leafy. This group includes the genera Rhin-
anthus, Bartsia, Euphrasia, Pedicularis, and Melampyrum, in the
order Scrophulariacee. It is to be remarked that in these plants
the leaf area is small in proportion to the size of the plant, and
that of several of them the colour is a pale yellow-green (e.g.,
Rhinanthus Crista-galli and Bartsia viscosa). Several of them
have an upright unbranched stem and flowers in terminal spikes
like the leafless root-parasites. We seem to have in these
genera plants more or less on their way to the mode of life which
such plants as Orobanche have completely acquired.

It may be remarked, that of our two British aérial parasites
the dodder is leafless and not green; while the mistletoe is still
leafy and green, though the leaf area is small compared with
many other shrubs, and the leaves are of a pale yellow-green.

2. Another type of plants inhabits the gravelly bottoms of
the shores of pools, especially mountain lakes. It has narrow,
stiff, quill-like root-leaves, with no stem except the scape which
bears the flowers. The most characteristic plants of this habit
are the following :—Awlwort (Subularia aquatica), Crucifere ;
water-lobelia (Lobelia Dortmanna), Campanulacee ; shoreweed
(Littorella lacustris), Plantaginacee; quillwort (Isoetes lacustris),
Lycopodiaceew. In addition to these several species of rushes
and sedges may be found inhabiting similar situations and
having much the same habit of growth; but in their case this
habit does not differ widely from that which is general in the
orders to which they belong. The four first-named plants, how-
ever, belong to widely separated orders, and differ greatly from
the general habit of these orders, but resemble each other so
closely that from the foliage alone it is not easy to tell them one
from the other. The stout quill-like form of the leaves is doubt-
less advantageous in enabling them to withstand the shock of
the miniature waves on the lake-shore, while they are also stiff
enough to stand erect in air when the bottom of the lake is left
uncovered by the water during dry seasons.

Habits and Habitats of Plants. 158

8. Plants which grow submerged in stagnant or gently running
water have commonly long slender stems and leaves of mem-
branous texture, either simple and narrow, as in the pondweeds
(Potamogeton) and other monocotyledons, or torn into capillary
segments as is more frequent among dicotyledons,—e. g., the
Ranunculi of the aquatilis section, Myriophyllum, Utricularia,
Hottonia, and Ceratophyllum. Chara among cryptogamous plants
has a similar habit. Submerged leaves are supported by the
water in which they float, their buoyancy being often increased
by air-cavities in their substance; hence they do not need the
stiffness and strength of leaves which have to support their own
weight in air; and the narrow or finely divided form, while
exposing a large surface to the water for purposes of respiration
and nourishment, offers less resistance to currents, and so is less
liable to injury than a broad flat blade would be. The stems of
these plants throw out roots freely at the nodes, and thus pieces
broken off accidentally readily take root and grow in new
places to which they may be borne. Utricularia and Hottonia,
belonging to different orders, agree in habit in a further respect,
viz., that the flowering stem, which is much thicker and stiffer
than the submerged stems, rises erect out of the water, like a
mast on a raft, from the centre of a whorl of radiating horizontal
branches. Both of these plants have conspicuous flowers, ad-
apted to be fertilised by insects, and it is necessary, therefore,
that they should be borne aloft in the air, an object which this
arrangement secures. .

4. Plants, on the other hand, which float on the surface of
quiet waters have broad orbicular or oblong leaves, borne on
long flexible stalks, and sustained like a raft by the surface-
tension of the water. ‘The flowers are commonly borne up above
the water. Familiar examples are found in the yellow and
white water-lilies, which belong to the order Nympheacee ;
others are Limnanthemum nymphaoides (Gentianacee), and the
frog-bit (Hydrocharidacee).

Other water plants, again, have leaves of two kinds, the sub-
merged ones being narrow and finely divided, and the floating
ones broad and orbicular. or oblong. Instances are Ranwnculus
peltatus, and some of the Potamogetons, especially P. heterophyllus.
In the arrow-head (Sagittaria) the first submerged leaves are
narrow and strap-shaped (like those of Sparganiwm, Butomus,
Glyceria, and other monocotyledons) ; later leaves are oblong
and float on the surface of the water; and the fully developed
ones are acutely arrow-shaped and stand out of the water: a
complete gradation being found between‘ all of these forms.

Certain plants which float on the surface of stagnant water
have their vegetative organs reduced to a mere rounded or
branched frond with roots. Examples are the duckweeds ; some

154 Dr. H. Franklin Parsons on the

species of Riccia among the liverworts, and certain exotic Mar-
sileaces (an order allied to the ferns), viz., Salvinia and Azolla,
which may be seen in the Victoria Regia House at Kew.

5. Plants with long slender twining herbaceous stems and
heart-shaped leaves are found in a number of different orders.
As examples among plants native or cultivated in Britain, we have
the two common native species of Convolvulus and several culti-
vated Convolvulacex, such as the C. (Ipomea) major ; also Poly-
gonum Convolvulus, and the black bryony (Zamus communis), the
sole British representative of the order of the yams (Diosco-
reacew), an order in which, like the Convolvulacex, this habit is
frequent. I might also add the French bean, in which the
leaflets of the pinnate leaf are heart-shaped: and the hop, in
which, though the fully developed leaves are lobed, the early
leaves and those on the flowering branches are heart-shaped.

The climbing habit, a development, as Darwin has shown, of
the movements of nutation common in growing shoots, enables
weak-stemmed plants to get the advantage of more light and air
than they would otherwise be able to obtain, by availing them-
selves of the support of surrounding objects; and this habit, it
will be seen, has been acquired by plants belonging to a number
of different orders. The heart-shaped leaf is probably the form
which, under the circumstances, exposes the largest surface to
the light.

6. Plants which climb otherwise than by twining have com-
monly palmately-lobed or divided leaves with long stalks, the
stalk being at an angle to the plane of the blade. Familiar ex-
amples are the ivy, the vine, the Virginia creeper (Ampelopsis),
the passion-flower, and the gourds (Cucurbitace), including the
white bryony, our solitary British representative of the order.
The hop also, a twining plant, has leaves of a similar shape
during its period of most vigorous growth.

The advantage of this form of leaf to plants clinging to a
support seems to be that the long petiole carries the leaves well
out into the air, while the broad spreading blade of the leaf is
inclined at an angle which allows it to get full exposure to the
light. It is to be remarked that the bushy flowering branches
of the ivy, which do not cling to a support but stand out free in
the air, have simple ovate leaves with short stalks, the form of
leaf of the climbing shoots not being necessary or advantageous
on the branches exposed on all sides to the air.

Other climbing plants have pinnate leaves, as the vetches and
other Leguminifere ; the climbing fumitory (Corydalis claviculata),
which resembles a vetch in its habit of growth; many species
of Clematis, and the garden plant Eccremocarpus scaber (nat.
order Bignoniacer), the foliage and stem of which closely
resemble those of a clematis, though the flowers are entirely
different.

Habits and Habitats of Plants. 155

7. Few British plants possess peltate leaves, ¢.¢., leaves
circular in outline with the stem attached in the centre like the
handle of an umbrella. Such leaves are, however, possessed by
two small plants growing in damp places, both having creep-
ing stems and minute inconspicuous flowers, viz., the marsh
pennywort, Hydrocotyle vulgaris (Nat. Order Umbellifere), and
the Cornish moneywort, Sibthorpia europea (Nat. Order Scrophu-
lariacew). The long leaf-stalk carries up the leaf above the sur-
rounding vegetation, and the horizontally spreading blade ex-
poses a large surface to the light. A similar habit is possessed
by the ground ivy, Nepeta glechoma, belonging to the Labiate,
which has leaves of circular outline, though not attached by the
centre to the stalk.

8. Many plants growing in dry open pastures have a neat
dwarf habit of growth, with a rosette of broad spreading root-
leaves, a stem leafless or with few small leaves, and one or more
comparatively large flowers or heads of flowers. Familiar ex-
amples of this habit are the daisy, the plantains, and the mouse-
ear hawkweed ; but it is especially frequently met with in the
flora of mountain regions, as every one who has seen the flowers
of the higher Alps will remember. The habit seems to be an
adaptation to the circumstances of exposed situations, for it is
adopted in such situations by plants which in richer ground or
more sheltered places have tall branched leafy stems; probably
by being spread out on the ground the leaves are protected from
injury by the wind. Other alpine plants have narrow leaves,
and grow in compact mossy tufts; and this habit, again, is
common to plants of many different orders, e.g., Draba aizoides,
Silene acaulis, Cherleria sedoides, Androsace carnea, and several
species of Saazifraga.

9. Succulent plants are not so prominent a feature of our
British flora as they are of those of hotter and drier climates,
where a fleshy habit is assumed by plants belonging to genera
which in this country are represented by weeds of common
character, such as Senecio and Euphorbia. Some of the tropical
Euphorbie, indeed, exactly resemble Cacti. Our British succu-
lent plants mostly belong to the order Crassulacee, with occa-
sional representatives, chiefly maritime plants, in other orders,
especially the Chenopodiacee.

The advantage of a fleshy habit to plants growing in dry hot
situations is obvious, as it increases the volume of sap as com-
pared with the surface for evaporation, and thus enables them to
resist drying. Sedums put to dry in the press for the herbarium
will often grow between the sheets of blotting-paper. The fleshy
habit may similarly be useful to maritime plants in enabling
them to resist injury by the salt water; but I am inclined to
regard it as due in some cases to the direct action of the salt

D

156 Dr. H. Franklin Parsons on the Habits &c., of Plants.

upon the growth of the individual plant, rather than to the
modification of the species by natural selection; for plants
which are dwarf and fleshy when growing on the sea-coast, ¢.9.,
Glaua maritima, Plantago maritima, and Aster Tripolium, are
rank and weedy in habit when growing near the upper parts of
estuaries, where the tidal water which reaches them is only
slightly brackish. The presence of a large proportion of salt
in the sap would promote endosmosis and impede evaporation,
and thus tend to produce a swollen state of the leaf.

10. Another distinct habit of growth is that of bulbous-rooted
plants. In the British flora true bulbs are hardly met with,
except in the orders Liliacee, Amaryllidacee, and Inidacee,
though an approach to a bulb is met with in some other plants,
as Ranunculus bulbosus and Pinguicula vulgaris. Bulbous and
cormous-rooted plants commonly flower in the spring and have
linear root-leaves and a leafless flowering stem or scape. The
leaves commonly follow the flowers, or, if they appear at the same
time, persist after them; and they store up in the bulb a supply
of nourishment from which the next year’s flowers are produced.
Sometimes, however, a8 in Ornithogalum pyrenaicum, the leaves
precede the flowers, and are withered by the time that the latter
appear. The size of the bulb seems to depend a good deal on
the breadth of the leaves : thus the Crimean snowdrop (Galanthus
plicatus), and the Siberian squill, which have broad leaves, have
much larger bulbs than the common snowdrop and the Scilla
bifolia. A few bulbous and cormous-rooted plants flower in the
autumn, e.g., several species of crocus, the meadow saffron
(Colchicum autumnale), and the garden-plants Amaryllis lutea and
Zephyranthes candida. All these, though belonging to different
orders, have crocus-like flowers; and the Colchicum resembles
some of the true autumn-flowering crocuses in that its leaves
and seed-vessels are not produced until the following spring.

11. Instances of superficial resemblances to species not nearly
related rather than to those more nearly akin may be met with
among the cryptogamic orders of plants. Thus in several dis-
tinct genera we find ferns with feather-shaped fronds or leaf-
organs like those of the male fern. Polypodiwm alpestre so
closely resembles the lady-fern (Athyrium filiw-femina), that in
the absence of fructification it is all but impossibe to distinguish
the two. Again, Polypodium Dryopteris and Robertianum, and
Cystopteris montana, in their long creeping rhizomes and hori-
zontally spreading fronds borne on long stalks, closely resemble
in miniature the common brake-fern.

In several genera of fungi, as Dedalea, Polyporus, Hydnum,
Auricularia, Stereum, &c., we find species of a leathery or corky
texture growing attached by the side to trees or decaying wood,
and so closely resembling one another that until the under side

D
Mr. W. M. Holmes on the Nutrition of Plants. 157

is exposed to show the arrangement of the hymenium or spore-
bearing membrane in gills, pores, spines, &c., it is difficult even to
guess to which genus the fungus belongs. Other species in the
same genera have a different form: some with a central stem ;
others resupinate, i.e., spread out over the surface on which they
grow.

Among exotic plants still more striking examples might be
obtained. Thus the Cactacem, with their leafless succulent,
often spiny stems, are counterfeited on the one hand by the
Stapelias, on the other, as already mentioned, by the succulent
species of Huphorbia.

The Cycads, palms, and tree-ferns—plants widely separated in
a systematic arrangement—alike present the simple erect stem
surmounted by a terminal bunch of large feathery leaves which
forms so characteristic a feature in tropical forest landscapes.

But my botanical knowledge or your patience would fail,
rather than the number of available examples, if I attempted to
multiply instances in which plants in nowise closely related
to each other, in order to fill similar positions in the physical
world, have undergone adaptations on parallel lines.

119.—Tus Nurtaition or Puants.
By W. Murron Houmes.
(Read December 18th, 1894.)

TueEre is perhaps no subject which engrosses so much general
attention as the subject of eating and drinking. Directly or in-
directly the whole fabric of society is based upon the food-supply.

We are all conscious—sometimes painfully conscious—of the
necessity of taking a due supply of nourishment, and we concede
without question that other members of the animal kingdom
have the same need. Butwe do not always consider that plants
have similar requirements. The only idea of the average man
—or woman—concerning vegetables is that they are something
to be eaten, and any further thought as to nutriment ceases.
Nevertheless plants work indefatigably for their living.

A living plant, whether consisting simply of a single cell or of
a large number of cells in combination, takes up food from its
surroundings according to its immediate needs. The method of
absorption varies considerably, depending upon the nature of the
nutriment, differences of habitat, requirements of particular
species, and the constitution of the protoplasm in each species
concerned. f

D2

158 Mr. W. Murton Holmes on the

If we submit a dried plant to slow combustion, with a limited
supply of air, there remains a black residue, retaining in a great
measure the form of the plant. This residue is charcoal or
carbon, which in the living plant existed in combination with
hydrogen and oxygen. Had the combustion taken place with
a full supply of air so as to consume the carbon as well as the
hydrogen and oxygen, a white residue or ash would have re-
mained. The elements found in this ash, in a combined state,
are potassium, calcium, magnesium, sodium, iron, sulphur,
phosphorus, and chlorine, which are essential to nutrition.
Besides these other elements are found in the ash of some
plants, but are not considered to be essential to nutrition. The
organic compounds found in plants contain the elements carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulphur.

A well-developed living cell consists of a firm elastic mem-
brane of cellulose closed on all sides, containing a layer of a soft
substance called protoplasm in close contact with it, and itself
enclosing a watery fluid called cell-sap. In most plants nume-
rous green granules, called chlorophyll-granules, are found em-
bedded in the protoplasm in those parts exposed to the light.
The method by which a cell is able to absorb nutriment depends
upon the phenomenon known as osmosis, or liquid diffusion,
which may be explained as follows :—Whenever two fluids of
different densities are separated by an organic membrane, there
will always be a tendency to equilibrium of density between the
two from the formation of a double current, one passing from the
lighter to the denser, the other from the denser to the lighter.
This process is repeated from cell to cell throughout the plant.

Atmospheric air consists of a mixture of 77 parts by weight of
nitrogen and 28 parts of oxygen, with about 3 to 6 measures of car-
bonic acid in 10,000 measures of air, and also a trace of ammonia.
Those plants which contain the green chlorophyll absorb the
whole of their carbon, through numerous openings on the leaves
called stomata, from the carbonic acid of the air. Under the
influence of light the cells containing chlorophyll decompose the
carbonic acid, forming other compounds with less oxygen in
their composition, called carbohydrates, and the superfluous
oxygen is set free. Formerly this process was regarded as an
act of respiration, and was considered one of the characters by
which plants could be distinguished from animals, the former
absorbing carbonic acid and giving up oxygen, the latter ab-
sorbing oxygen and giving up carbonic acid. It is now known
that during respiration in plants carbonic acid is given off just
as in animals, but the giving off of oxygen during the process of
assimilation masks the action of respiration, which can only be
recognised when assimilation is at a standstill during the night.
During daylight the need of carbon is very great, and a fresh

Nutrition of Plants. 159

supply is being constantly worked up by the chlorophyll bodies.
In this way starch, sugar, and other similar organic compounds
are produced.

In the ease of plants living under water the supply of carbonic
acid is derived from the surrounding water, where it is held in
solution. It is also taken up in combination with lime as bi-
carbonate. Part of the carbonic acid is withdrawn, and the
reduced mono-carbonate precipitated. Hence the incrustation
of plants in both fresh and salt water.

Although nitrogen is present in the air to the extent of 79 per
cent. by volume, none is absorbed by plants in the free condition.*
It is derived almost entirely from the nitrates and ammoniacal
compounds formed in the soil from decomposing organic sub-
stances.

Mineral salts can only pass through cell-membranes in a state
of solution ; hence soluble sulphates, phosphates, and chlorides
of calcium, magnesium, potassium, and iron may pre-eminently
be called food-salts. As the plants remove these from the soil
it is necessary to replace them from time to time by means of
manures of different kinds, and, as there is the power of selec-
tion, one plant preferring one substance, and another another,
farmers find it expedient to vary their crops in rotation, so that
the land may not become too much impoverished. Food-salts
are absorbed by water-plants from the surrounding water through
their whole surface, and their structure is simpler than is the
case with land-plants.

In no class is absorption of mineral food-salts accomplished
in so complicated a manner as in land-plants, and the process is
by no means uniform in different plants. Every kind of earth,
especially that rich in clay and humus, which is a substance
produced by the decomposition’ of plants and animals, has the
power of retaining gases, and especially water and salts.

Salts are to be regarded as forming an exceedingly delicate
coating round the minute particles of earth, where they are
forcibly retained. If a plant rooted in earth is to take in these
salts, it has to overcome the force by which these molecules are
detained. This is effected by the attraction exerted by the
protoplasts of the plant as they grow, carry on the work of con-
struction, and use up material. What actually happens is an
energetic suction by the cells that are in close contact with
particles of earth, depending upon the chemical affinity between
substances in the interior of the cells and the salts adhering to
earth-particles, as well as upon the consumption of food-salts
for the manufacture of organic compounds within the green

* Certain bacteria forming colonies on the roots of leguminous plants
enable the latter to absorb free nitrogen.

160 Mr. W. Murton Holmes on the

cells. It is supposed that when salts are removed by suction a
restitution of like salts immediately takes place from the sur-
rounding mould, so that the concentration of the solution re-
tained by the earth remains approximately the same, or at any
rate equilibrium is very quickly restored. One advantage of
this is that cells in immediate contact only meet with a saline
solution of constant weak concentration, and are secure from in-
jury which would result from contact with a very strong solution.
In other words, the absorptive power of earth acts as a regulator
of the process of absorption of food-salts by plants, and is the
means of keeping the saline solution in the earth always at a
degree of strength best suited to the plants concerned.

Naturally the passage of salts from the earth to the interior of
the plant is dependent on the aid of water containing both the
substances composing cell-contents and the food-salts in solution.
The aqueous films adhering to the particles of earth, the water
saturating the cell-membrane, and the liquid inside the cell are
in unbroken connection, and along this continuous waterway the
passage of salt-molecules in and out can take place easily. The
majority of land-plants have special absorptive cells embedded
amongst or lodged upon the earth-particles, and are usually in
intimate connection with portions of them. Any part of the
plant that penetrates into the earth, or lies upon it, may, if it
performs the function of absorption, be equipped with cells of
this kind, but they are most commonly found close behind the
growing tips of roots; they consist of delicate tubes resembling
fine hairs, and have received the name of root-hairs. These
root-hairs, as in the case of most seedlings and in grasses, are
generally thickly covered with particles of earth. In addition to
absorption of nutritive salts by root-hairs, there is also in many
cases an interchange of materiats; that is to say, not only do
substances infiltrate from the earth into the absorption-cells,
and so onwards into the tissues of the plant, but others pass
out of the plant through the absorption-cells into the earth.
Amongst these substances carbonic acid in particular plays an
important part, decomposing the earth-particles, and rendering
food-salts in immediate proximity available.

Saprophytes are plants which take up organic compounds
formed during the process of decay. Among these are moulds
and other fungi, the mycelia, or vegetating portions, of which
often cover large areas, as in damp cellars, tunnels, mines, &c,
These plants contain no chlorophyll, and are in consequence
unable to form those compounds known as carbohydrates.

Some plants, such as liverworts, ferns, and lycopods, although
containing chlorophyll, must be regarded as saprophytes; so
that the presence or absence of chlorophyll is by no means a
distinguishing mark.

Nutrition of Plants. 161

The probability is that green saprophytes take carbon from
their substratum in a form unfitted for the manufacture of cellu-
lose and other carbohydrates, whilst those that are not green
must obtain carbon in the form of a compound, the direct ab-
sorption of which could be dispensed with if chlorophyll were
present.

There is no well-marked boundary line between plants which
absorb organic compounds and those which absorb inorganic
compounds from their respective substrata; and there un-
doubtedly exist plants capable of taking up both kinds of material
at the same time.

It is not a matter of indifference to these plants at what
temperature and in what state of the air in respect of moisture
the decomposition of humus takes place. Many plants live
only a short time im a garden, even though the earth in which
they are embedded be removed with them, owing probably to
some difference in the organic compounds formed under the
altered conditions. Saprophytes are much more fastidious as
regards the quality of their nutriment than one might expect.
A large number are associated with the decaying remains of par-
ticular plants and animals only. .

A number of plants exhibit contrivances which obviously have
for their object the capture and retention of such small creatures
as may fly or creep on to their leaves, and it has been ascer-
tained by searching experiments that the majority of these plants
use the animals they capture, in one way or another, as sources
of nutriment. For the most part the animals caught are insects,
-and the term insectivorous or carnivorous has been applied to
the class in question. About 500 are known. The most ex-
tensive group is that of the bladderworts. Their capturing
apparatus consists of little bladders with orifices closed by a
valve, which permit objects to penetrate into the bladder, but
not to issue out of it. They are rootless plants which live sus-
pended in the water, and, according to the season of the year,
either sink down to the bottom or ascend to just below the sur-
face. The animals, mostly minute crustaceans, such as water-
fleas, after entering the bladder, perish after a short time, decay,
and the products of their decomposition are sucked up by special
absorption-cells developed within the bladder.

In the pitcher-plants some of the leaves are converted into
pit-falls, and the escape of the captured prey prevented by a
number of points lining the inner wall of the cavity, and directed
from the aperture towards the closed bottom. They are of
various shapes—tubular, funnel-shaped, straight, bowed like
sickles, or spirally twisted. Among these is the well-known
side-saddle plant of America.

In another group of carnivorous plants are forms with scale-

162 Mr. W. Murton Holmes on the

like leaves, within which are cavities penetrable by minute
animals only, on account of the narrowness of the entry. The
animals are retained and drained of their juices by means of
protoplasmic filaments radiating from special cells. One of
these is the toothwort, a plant nearly allied to the yellow rattle,
but is destitute of chlorophyll, and lives underground parasitic
on the roots of trees and shrubs. The toothwort has not the
power of converting atmospheric carbonic acid, or crude food-sap
absorbed by its suckers from the plants to which it is attached,
into the various organic compounds necessary for further growth.
For this reason, and inasmuch as the quantity of nitrogenous
compounds in the fluids withdrawn from the roots is but small,
every additional supply of organic food, especially of nitrogenous
matter such as is derived from captured animals, must be ex-
ceedingly welcome.

Some carnivorons plants perform movements for the capture of
their prey. To this class belongs the butterwort. The flowers
are borne singly on slender stalks arising from the centre of a
rosette of leaves that rest upon the ground. The leaves are
oblong, and, owing to the lateral margins being somewhat up-
turned, are converted into a broad flat-bottomed trough, which
is covered with a colourless sticky mucilage secreted by glands
distributed in large numbers over the entire upper surface. As
soon as a nitrogenous organic body, such as white of egg, clotted
blood, milk, &¢., is brought into continuous contact with the
glands, they are forthwith stimulated, not only to a more profuse
elimination of mucilage, but also to the secretion of an acid
liquid which has the power of dissolving all bodies of this kind.
An insect alighting on the leaf is held fast by the mucilage, and
the edges of the leaf curl over so as to cover it, and bring it into
contact with as many glands as possible. This involution takes
place very slowly, it being usually some hours before the insect
is enfolded. After solution and absorption are accomplished,
usually at the end of six hours, the leaf expands again, and
its margins resume their original position. Spores and
pollen-grains falling upon the leaf are subjected to the same
fate as insects. The action of the acid liquid, which is a case
of true digestion, is identical with that of the gastric juice of
animals.

In the sundew the movements whereby the capture and
digestion of small animals is effected occur much more rapidly
and obviously. The leaves are covered with a number of club-
shaped hairs, surmounted by a glistening drop of a sticky fluid,
whose function is essentially the same as that of the glands of the
butterwort. The insects that fly on to the leaves and are caught
by the sticky liquid try to disencumber themselves by stroking
the viscous matter off with their legs, only to besmear themselves

Jutrition of Plants. 163

still more. They are soon plastered all over the body with the
secretion, and after a brief interval die of suffocation. A few
minutes after the glands of one of the tentacles has been excited
by an animal becoming glued to it, a systematic disturbance is
set up in the whole series of tentacles. First the tentacle origi-
nally irritated bends inwards, describing an angle of 90° in about
ten minutes. About ten minutes after the first tentacle has
been set in motion those standing near it begin to bend also,
those further off follow suit, and in the course of from one to
three hours all the tentacles are inflected and converge upon the
body entrapped. The result of the combined action is the
covering of the prey with a copious supply of the secretion
poured from a number of glands, so that it is dissolved and
rendered fit for absorption and for the purpose of nourishment.
After absorption is completed the tentacles resume by degrees
their original position, and the secretion poured out by them is
reimbibed ; so that the undigested particles, being now suspended
on dry tentacles, are easily blown away by the wind. In the
case of the Venus’s fly-trap the movements are still more rapid.
In this case the leaves, which are divided by the midrib into two
halves, shut up almost instantaneously upon an insect touching
any of the spines on their surface. An acid secretion is then
poured forth from glands on the surface, and the insect is
assimilated.

Another group of plants is that of the parasites, which mostly
do not contain chlorophyll, and are therefore unable to decom-
pose carbonic acid, and hence derive all their organic compounds
from other living plants and animals. The lowest forms of this
group are the Bacteria, a group of fungi, specific forms of which
are found in the blood in many diseases. The spores of some
other fungi enter the breathing-pores of insects, and, after
vegetating for a time, kill the animal by suffocation. The silk-
worm disease is due to this cause.

Among flowering plants we have the common dodder, which
may be found growing on heather and other plants. The seed
first of all germinates in the earth in the ordinary way, and
becomes afterwards attached by suckers to other plants, from
which it obtains all its nutriment, the original root perishing.
Others, such as the cow-wheat, yellow rattle, eyebright, and
lousewort, are parasitic on roots.

But the most wonderful plant is the gigantic Rafflesia, con-
spicuous for its flowers upwards of a yard in diameter. This
plant is found growing upon the roots of species of vine in
Sumatra and other Hast Indian islands.

Among parasites containing chlorophyll is the mistletoe. The
outer coating of the fruit is very viscid, by means of which the
seed becomes attached to trees, and is also disseminated by the

164 Mr. F. Campbell-Bayard’s Report of the

agency of thrushes, who swallow the fruit and deposit the un-
digested seed on branches.

There is a form of parasitism which has been called symbiosis,
a kind of partnership from which both plants derive an advan-
tage. The lichens are an example of this. They were formerly
considered to be a distinct class, but have now been shown to be
fungi enclosing alge. The roots of some trees and flowering
plants are found to be covered with the mycelia of fungi. These
act as an absorptive apparatus, and water and mineral salts are
caused to pass from the ground into the epidermal cells of the
root, and thence into the axis, branches, and leaves.

I am indebted for a great deal of this paper to the ‘ Natural
History of Plants’ of Prof. Kerner, of Vienna. It is a book
which will well repay a careful study, and will convince the
reader that botany can no longer be regarded as ‘‘a dry subject.”’

120.--Report or tHE Metreoro.tocican Sus-CommitTEeE ror 1894.

Prepared by the Hon. Sec., Francis CampspeLu-Bayarp,
FR. Met. Soe.

(Read February 19th, 1895.)

Tue arrangements for observing the daily rainfall round
Croydon have been successfully carried out on the same plan as
heretofore, but on a greatly enlarged scale, and with, it is hoped,
greater efficiency. The number of stations contained in the
monthly sheet has been increased by 14, filling up several gaps
in the list of places, and consequently making the printed
returns more and more representative. Two stations have
disappeared through the removal of the observers, namely, the
College, Caterham Valley, and Foxgrove, Beckenham, the record
of which latter station commences with the year 1868. Through
the courtesy of Mr. Bicknell, the observer at Foxgrove, Becken-
ham, a complete copy of this valuable record has been supplied
to the Hon. Sec. ‘The places of these stations have been taken
by Abinger, which appears to have a peculiarly heavy rainfall,
and West Molesey, both of which stations are very welcome.

The monthly sheets contain all the records which are received
by the Sub-Committee, and the stations of which the records have
been tabulated number 66 as against 63 in the last report, and
the observers number 54 as against 53 in the last report.

Appendix I. to this report contains the tables of daily rainfall
issued monthly, and of which a sufficient number have from time
to time been pulled for the use of the Club; and Appendix II,

Meteorological Sub-Committee for 1894. 165

contains a record of all falls of rain of 1:00 in. and upwards,
extracted from Appendix I. .

With respect to the rainfall of the year, a great many persons
in this district would have said that 1894 was a very wet year.
Our hon. member Mr. Symons has, however, shown, in a letter
published in the ‘Times’ of January 19th, that the rainfall of
1894 may be considered as quite an ordinary rainfall. However
this may be over the whole of the United Kingdom, the records
in the possession of your Sub-Committee show that, at all events
in our district, the year has been a very wet one. To prove this,
tables A, B, C, D, and E have been constructed.

Tables A, B, and C refer to Greenwich. Table A shows that
the rainfall is 1:77 in. above the 75 years’ average (1816-90),
9:34 in. above the 50 years’ average (1841-90), and 2-46 in. above
the 35 years’ average (1856-90). These tables show in a marked
way how fallacious a short average may be ; and as far as one can
judge it would appear that even a 75 years’ average may be too
small.

Tables C, D, and E give the difference from the 85 years’
average at Greenwich, Surbiton, and Mt. Ararat, Wimbledon,
the only three stations in the printed sheet having this long
average. This shows in respect to 1894 an excess of 2°46 in. at
Greenwich, 3°08 in. at Surbiton, and 5°61 in. at Mt. Ararat,
Wimbledon. This last amount appears somewhat large, but it
is probably correct, for we, who live in the district, all know that
a great many storms travel along the Wimbledon range of hills.

With regard to the question as to what is the excess of the
rainfall over the district on an average of a long series of years,
it appears to be between 2 and 3 in., not a large amount when
the deficiency of 1893 was estimated at 5 in.

The district, so far as your Sub-Committee is aware, has not
been injuriously affected by the floods, of which we heard so
much from the daily papers as having taken place in different
parts of the Catchment Area of the River Thames.

The Sub-Committee would draw the attention of the members
of the Club to the comparatively large number of days—eight in
number—on which 1 in. or more fell in twenty-four hours, and
in so doing would call attention to the very large fall of 2°42 in.
on October 20th at Chatfield Road, Croydon. The Sub-Committee
have no reason to doubt the observer's accuracy, though the
amount appears large in comparison with other stations near by.

In conclusion the Sub-Committee desire to express their
thanks to those four gentlemen who so kindly subscribed the
sum of £20 to enable this great work to be carried on, and
to all the observers for their hearty co-operation in so promptly
forwarding their returns.

A.— Greenwich Average 75 Yrs. (1816-90). B.—Greenwich Average 50 Yrs. (1841-90).

Average | 1894 |+ Average Average| 1894 |/+ Average
IN. IN. IN. IN. TNS oS] een
Jan. 1:90 3°08 +1:18 Jan. 1:99 3°08 + 1:09
Feb. 161 1:59 — 0:02 Feb. 1:48 1:59 + 0-11
March| 1:54 0°72 — 0°82 March| 1-46 0°72 — 0°74
April 1:70 1:45 — 0°25 April 1-66 1-45 —0-21
May 2°04 1:52 — 0°52 May 2°01 1:52 — 0-49
June 2:00 2°04 + 0:04 June 2°02 2°04 + 0:02
July 2°58 3°26 + 0°68 July 2°48 3°26 + 0-78
Aug. 2°31 3°03 + 0°72 Aug. 2°34 3°03 + 0°69
Sept. 2°38 1:25 —1:13 Sept. 2°25 1:25 —1-00
Oct. 2°75 3°99 + 1:24 Oct. 2°81 3°99 +1:18
Nov. 2°37 3°00 + 0°63 Noy. 2°27 - 8:00 + 0°73
Dec. 1:93 1:95 + 0-02 Dec. UNBy lr) 1:95 + 0:18
Year | 25:11 | 2688 | +1-77 Year | 24:54 | 26-88 | 49:34

C.—Greenwich Average 35 Yrs. (1856-90). D.—Surbiton Average 35 Yrs. (1856-90).

Average| 1894 |+ Average] | Average} 1894 |+ Average
IN. IN. IN. IN. IN. IN.
Jan. 2°02 3°08 + 1:06 Jan. D1 3°14 + 1-03
Feb. 1-46 1:59 + 0:13 Feb. 1:54 1:39 —015
March| 1:48 0°72 —0°76 March} 1:48 0°96 — 0°52
April 1:70 1:45 — 0°25 April 1:72 1:83 + 0-11
May 2°03 1-52 —0°51 May 1:98 1:49 — 0°49
June 2°15 2°04 —0-11 June 217 2-00 —0:17
July 2°34 3°26 + 0:92 July 2°28 3°51 + 1:23
Aug. ORR 3°03 + 0°78 Aug. O35 2°66 + 0°31
Sept. 2°31 1-25 —1:06 Sept.| 2°35 1°25 —1-10
Oct. - 2°60 3°99 + 1:39 Oct. 2°65 4:81 + 2-16
Nov. 2°16 3-00 + 0°84 Nov. 2°10 2°83 + 0°73
Dec. 1:92 1:95 + 0:03 Dec. 1:86 1:80 — 0-06
Year 24-42 26°88 + 2°46 Year 24°59 27°67 + 3:08

E.—Mt. Ararat, Wimbledon, Average 35 Yrs. (1856-90).

Average} 1894 |+ Average

IN. IN. IN.
Jan. 1:80 3°03 + 1:23
Feb. 1:39 1:89 + 0:50

March} 1:38 0:90 — 0-48
April 1:74 1:45 — 0:29
May 1:99 1:57 — 0°42

June 2:14 2°57 + 0°43
July | 2:38 | 4:22 | +41:-84
Aug. 2:21 2:93 + 0°72
Sept. 2-41 1-42 —0:99 .
Oct. 2:68 4-44 + 1:76
Noy. 2:09 3-18 + 1:09
Dec. 1:72 1:94 + 0:22

Year | 23:93 | 29-54 | + 5-61
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Report of the Meteorological Sub-Committee far 1894. 167

APPENDIX II,
Fatts or 1:00 In. AND UPWARDS,

Apri 147x.—Caterham Valley, 1:21 in.

Apri 24TH.—Dorking, 1:00 in.

Jury 10rs.—Purley (Tudor Cottages), 2:03 in.; West Wick-
ham (Wickham Court), 1:95 in.; Croydon (Chatfield Road),
1:89 in.; Croydon (Whitgift), 1:87 in.; Waddon, Croydon
(Duppas House), and South Norwood, 1°85 in.; Warlingham,
1:84 in.; Bickley, 1:83in.; Croydon (Brimstone Barn), 1°82 in. ;
Wallington, Beddington, Croydon (Outram Road), and Thornton
Heath, 1:80 in.; Croydon (Park Hill), 1:77 in.; Addington
Hills, 1:74 in.; Croydon (Waddon New Road), 1°73 in.; Ad-
dington (Park Farm), 1°72 in.; Kenley and West Norwood,
1:70 in.; Addington (Pumping Station) and Bromley, 1-69 in. ;
Eltham, 1°68 in.; Coulsdon and Banstead, 1:67 in.; West
Wickham (Layham’s Farm) and Keston (Bradfield), 1:66 in.;
Hayes Common, 1:65 in.; Keston (Tower Fields) and Streatham,
1:63 in.; Sutton, 1°61 in.; Forest Hill (Dartmouth Road),
1°58 in. ; Woolwich, 1°57in.; Beckenham (Foxgrove and Cedars
Road), 1:56 in. ; Caterham and Forest Hill (Nurseries), 1°55 in. ;
Orpington and Bromley Common, 1°54 in.; Forest Hill (South-
wark and Vauxhall Water Co.), 1:53in.; Upper Gatton, 1°49 in.;
Farningham Hill, 1-48 in. ; Epsom, Wimbledon (Sewage Works),
and Brixton, 1:46 in.; Ashtead, 1:45 in.; Dorking, 1-43 in.;
Deptford, 1:41 in.; Wimbledon (Mt. Ararat), Greenwich, and
Nunhead, 1°40 in.; Reigate Hill, 1:39 in.; Wandsworth Com-
mon, 1:38 in.; Westerham, Wilmington, Raynes Park, and
Kingston, 1:35 in.; Oxshott and Surbiton, 1:25 in.; New
Malden, 1:24 in.; Marden Park, 1:17 in.; Battersea, 1:15 in. ;
Richmond, 1:06 in. ; Caterham Valley, 1:00 in.

Avuaust 23xp.—Keston (Bradfield and Tower Fields), 1:20 in.;
Orpington, 1:11 in.; Bickley, 1:08 in.; West Wickham (Wick-
ham Court), 1:07 in.; West Wickham (Layham’s Farm) and
Eltham, 1:04 in.; Farningham Hill, 1:02 in.; Reigate Hill,
Bromley Common, and West Norwood, 1:00 in.

Ooroser 247TH.—Dorking, 1:26 in,; Abinger, 1:21 in. ; Surbi-
ton, 1-20 in.; Kingston, 1°05 in.

Octoser 30TH.—Croydon (Chatfield Road), 2°42 in.; West
Wickham (Wickham Court) and Keston (Tower Fields), 1-73 in. ;
Caterham, 1°63 in. ; Keston (Bradfield), 1:60 in.; Warlingham
and Banstead, 1°59 in. ; Forest Hill (Nurseries), 1°58 in. ; Ken-
ley, Ashtead, and Epsom, 1°56 in. ; Coulsdon, Addington (Park
Farm), and Bickley, 1°55 in.; West Wickham (Layham’s
Farm), 1°54 in.; Sutton, Wallington, and Beddington, 1:53 in.;

168 Report of the Meteoroloyical Sub-Committee for 1894,

Westerham, Addington Hills, and Addington (Pumping Station),
1:52 in,; Purley (Tudor Cottages) and Wimbledon (Sewage
Works), 1°51 in.; Kingston, 1:49 in.; Marden Park, 1°48 in. ;
Croydon (Duppas House and Whitgift), 1:47 in.; Waddon,
Croydon (Park Hill), Beckenham (Cedars Road), and West Nor-
wood, 1°46 in.; Reigate Hill, Bromley, Raynes Park, and
Streatham, 1:45 in.; Croydon (Brimstone Barn) and Brixton,
1:44 in.; Forest Hill (Dartmouth Road), 1:43 in. ; Wandsworth
Common, 1°42 in.; Croydon (Waddon New Road), Thornton
Heath, and Surbiton, 1:40 in.; Upper Gatton, Oxshott, Croy-
don (Outram Road), and Hayes Common, 1:39 in.; Orpington
and Farningham Hill, 1:37 in.; Bromley Common, Wimbledon
(Mt. Ararat), West Molesey, and Greenwich, 1:36 in.; Rich-
mond and Forest Hill (Southwark and Vauxhall Water Co.),
1:35 in. ; Eltham and Nunhead, 1°34 in. ; New Malden, 1:33 in.;
Deptford, 1:32 in.; Wilmington, 1:30 in.; Esher, 1:28 in.;
Woolwich, 1:27 in.; Battersea, 1:22 in.; Dorking, 1:17 in.;
Abinger, 1-01 in.

NovemsBer 127H.—West Wickham (Wickham Court), 1:39 in. ;
West Wickham (Layham’s Farm), 1:30 in. ; Caterham, 1:27 in. ;
Warlingham and Hayes Common, 1°25 in.; Bromley, 1°24 in. ;
Keston (Bradfield and Tower Fields), 1:23 in.; Kenley, 1°21 in. ;
Marden Park, Addington (Park Farm), and Bickley, 1:20 in. ;
Coulsdon, Addington (Pumping Station), and Bromley Common,
1:14 in.; Purley (Tudor Cottages), 1:12 in.; Reigate Hill,
1:08 in. ; Beddington, 1:05 in.; Upper Gatton, Croydon (Chat-
field Road), and Eltham, 1:03 in.; Croydon (Duppas House),
1:02 in. ; Wallington, 1:01 in.; Croydon (Waddon New Road
and Whitgift), Addington Hills, and Thornton Heath, 1-00 in.

NovemsBer 147xH.—Caterham, 1:29 in.; Banstead, 1°23 in. ;
Reigate Hill, 1:22 in.; West Wickham (Wickham Court),
1:20 in.; Coulsdon and Kenley, 1:18 in.; Hayes Common,
1:15 in.; Abinger, 1:18 in.; Orpington, 1:12 in.; Wallington,
1-11 in.; Addington (Pumping Station), 1:10 in.; Warlingham
and Croydon (Duppas House and Outram Road), 1:09 in.;
Croydon (Park Hill), and Bickley, 1:08 in.; Beddington, Croy-
don (Whitgift), Keston (Tower Fields), and Bromley, 1-06 in. ;
Sutton, Waddon, and Croydon (Waddon New Road), 1:04 in. ;
Addington Hills and Farningham Hill, 1-02 in. ; Croydon (Chat-
field Road), 1:01 in. ; Dorking and Westerham, 1-00 in.

Report of the Meteorological Sub-Committee for 1894. 169

Well Gaugings in the Croydon District.
Communicated by Tuoxtas Watrer, M, Inst. C. E., Borough Engineer.

All levels are given in feet above Ordnance Datum.

WaRLINGHAM Keniry VALLEY BricHTon Rp. VALLEY

Slynes | Crewes | Bughill|Marden | Well |Garston|Gt.Roke|Rsl. Hill) Purley-|Croham
Oaks | Farm | Farm | Lodge | Farm | House | Farm | F.Cot.| bury | Villas

Level of
Mouth
Bottom | 267-6 | 231-2 | 253-5 | 240-2 | 224-1

591°8 | 560-4 | 375-5 | 354-2 | 333-1 | 276-7 | 236-4 | 221-1 | 207-2 | 265-3
206:7 | 185-9 | 173-1 | 164-0 | 184°8

1889.
Jan. 14 — — | 294-7 | 288°5 | 283-2
Feb. 9-15 | 333°8 | 286°3 | 304°5 | 296°7 | 290-6
Mar. 28-29 | 359-1 | 305-1 | 330-5 | 318-4 | 308-9
May 3-4 | 349-4 | 302-7 | 324-9 | 316-6 | 308-7
June 4-5 | 341°8 | 295-6 | 318-1 | 310°9 | 304-2
July 4-5 | 330°8 | 288-6 | 306-1 | 301-4 | 296-2
Aug. 16-17 | 316-7 | 273-0 | 286-4 | 284-2 | 281-2
Oct. 8-9 | 309°2 | 257-0 | 266-5 | 265-9 | 263-7
Noy. 11-12 | 307-6 | 251-4 | 258-9 | 259-0 | 256-7
Noy. 23 3080 | — | 259-2 | 258-3 | 256-1
Dec. 9-10 | 308-1 | 250-8 | 259-1 | 258-3 | 255-7
Dec. 23-24| 307-7 | 251-3 | 258°6 | 257-6 | 255-4

242-7 | 204-2 | 181-1 | 175-0 | 195°5
246°8 | 206°4 | 183-2 | 176-6 | 196°6
255-2 | 211-9 | 185°3 | 179-9 | 199-0
257°7 | 214°4 | 187-0 | 181-6 | 199-9
256°1 | 213°6 | 186-2 | 180-9 | 199-2
252°7 | 211-2 | 185-2 | 179-3 | 197-9
245°7 | 206-7 | 182°3 | 176-7 | 195°5
234°9 | 200°5 | 179-1 | 172-5 | 192°9
228°8 | 197-7 | 177-7 | 170-9 | 190°9
227°6 | 196-8 | — | 170-2 | 190°5
226-9 | 195-8 | 176-9 | 170-0 | 190°3
226-6 | 195°7 | 176-7 | 169-7 | 190°3

231-2 | 196°6 | 177°5 | 170°6 | 192°1
242-2 | 203-1 | 179°9 | 174-1 | 195-3
249-5 | 207-9 | 182°5 | 177-1 | 197-1
251-4 | 209°3 | 183°3 | 177-9 | 197-4
250°9 | 209-0 | 183°2 | 177-6 | 196-9
248-9 | 207-9 | 182-7 | 177-1 | 196-2
245-1 | 205-8 | 181-7 | 175-9 | 195-7
241-6 | 203-7 | 180-4 | 174-6 | 194°9
237-2 | 201-4 | 179-1 | 173-0 | 193-7
232°6 | 199-0 | 177-8 | 171-6 | 191°6
228-1 | 197-0 | 177-1 | 170-3 | 190°0

Jan. 27-28 | 314:8 | 262-6 | 276-0 | 271-9 | 267-7
Mar. 1-6 | 333-9 | 283-6 | 303-6 | 295-4 | 288-6
Apr. 18-19 | 343-3 | 292°6 | 315-2 | 306-0 | 298-5
May 16-17 | 339°8 | 292-8 | 314-1 | 306-2 | 299-5
June 18-19 | 331-8 | 287-9 | 307-2 | 301°5 | 295-7
July 12-14 | 323-3 | 280-3 | 298-3 | 294-8 | 290-3
Aug. 9-11 | 319°3 | 273-6 | 291-3 | 287-9 | 283-8
Sept. 9-10 | 316-2 | 270-0 | 284-2 | 281-3 | 277-9
Oct. 8-10 | 312-4 | 263-6 | 274-6 | 272-9 | 269-8
Noy. 5-6 | 309-1 | 256-8 | 266-1 | 265-1 | 262-7
Dec. 2-3 | 306-7 | 250°8 | 258-3 | 258-1 | 256-0

1891.
Feb. 5-6 | 305-4 | 248-3 | 259-8 | 256-5 | 253-2 | 219-8 | 192-6 | 1748 | 167-8 | 186-6
Mar.9 | 311-8 | 258°6 (Bliz|zard)

Apr. 3-6 | 316-4 | 264-3 | 281°3 | 275-6 | 270-9
May 4-5 | 316-0 | 265-6 | 280-0 | 276-1 | 272-4

May 30- | 311-1 | 261-6 | 273-1 | 270°8 | 267-9

June 27-29 | 308-1 | 255-6 | 266°3 | 264-2 | 261°9
Aug. 6-7 | 305°3 | 248°8 | 256°5 | 255-8 | 253-7
Aug. 22-24 | 304°5 | 246°5 | 254:4 | 253-6 | 251-8
Sept. 11-12) 305-9 | 249-9 | 261°5 | 259-0 | 255-9
Oct. 13-14 | 308-8 | 255-0 | 267-3 | 264-6 | 261-4
Noy. 9-10 | 354-0 | 291-2 | 322-8 | 307-4 | 297-2
Dec. 11-12 ! 370°5 | 315-5 | 343-7 | 329°4 | 317-7

232°6 | 197-9 | 177-2 | 170-8 | 192-0
235°8 | 199-9 | 178-7 | 172-1 | 193-3

235-1 | 199-9 |,178°6 | 172-1 | 192-5

2312 | 198°3 | 177-7 | 171-1 | 190-8
225:0 | 195-5 | 176-2 | 169-5 | 188°4
222-5 | 194-4 | 175-8 | 168-8 | 187-5
222-6 | 194°0 | 175-6 | 168°5 | 187°5
227-1 | 195-6 | 176°3 | 169-2 | 189-3
242-2 | 202°5 | 179-7 | 173°5 | 194°8
257°3 | 212-8 | 185°6 | 180-2 | 199°8

170 Report of the Metevrological Sub-Committee for 1894,
WariincHAM Kentey VALLEY BricHTon Rp. VaLLEy
Slynes | Crewes | Bughill|Marden| Well |Garston|Gt.Roke|Rsl. Hill Purley- |Croham
Oaks | Farm | Farm | Lodge | Farm | House} Farm |F. Cot.| bury illas
Mateus | 591-8 | 560-4 | 375°5 | 354-2 | 333-1 | 276-7 | 236-4 | 221-1 | 207-2 | 265°3
Bottom 267°6 | 231-2 | 253-5 | 240-2 | 224-1 | 206-7 | 185-9 | 173-1 | 164-0 | 184'8
1892.
Feb. 12-13| 362-1 | 318-1 | 344-6 | 336-0 | 324°3 | 261-6
Mar. 4-5 | 349-7 | 308°7 | 331-6 | 324°8 | 316-1 | 260°1
Apr. 6-7 328-6 | 287°8 | 307-0 | 301°1 | 294°8 | 247-1
May 6-7 320°3 | 279°3 | 296-7 | 292-0 | 286-7 | 243°3
June 11-13 | 308°3 | 266°7 | 282-0 | 279°5 | 275-7 | 238°1
July 11-12 | 304°3 268°1 | 271-4 | 269-7 | 266-7 | 231-9
Aug. 12-13 | 303-2 266:9 | 267-2 | 267-0 | 264-9 | 229°6
Sept. 22-23) 301°9 2574 | 261-4 | 260°8 | 258-1 | 228°5
Oct. 24-25 | 299°8 | 251:4 | 259-5 | 258-9 | 255-7 | 226-2
Nov. 25-30] 336°8 | 290-4 | 305-5 | 291-5 | 283-1 | 234-4 ‘
Dec. 30-31! 353°3 | 296°8 | 323-1 | 309-5 | 300°3 | 245-8 | 204-4 | 180-4 | 174°8 196°6
1893.
Mar. 2-3 | 360°8 | 306°6 | 333-0 | 320-6 | 311-3 | 255-8 | 211-6 | 185-2 | 179-7 ) 219°5
Apr. 17-18 | 361°5 314:5 | 341-2 | 331-9 | 320-7 | 261-6 | 218-8 | 189-3 | 183-7 221:2
May 11-12] 347-0 303:4 | 325-5 | 317-3 | 309-7 | 260-2 | 216-2 | 187-1 |’ 181-6 . 218°8
June 20-21 | 322-8 | 284:1 | 300-2 | 296-7 | 292-8 | 250-2 | 209-9 | 184°5 | 178°6 | 216°8
Aug. 9-10 | 310°5 256'1 | 273-1 | 271°5 | 290-6 | 238°5 | 202°5 | 179-5 | 173-7 | 204-0
Oct. 3-4 304°5 | 246°8| Dry | 251°1 | 248-4 | 221-2 | 192-9 173°7 | 169-2 | 189-0
Nov. 8-9 292°8 | 243°4| Dry | 244-0 | 242-4 | 216-7 | 192°3 173°1 | 167°3 | 185°5
Dec. 7-8 292-3 | 241:4| Dry | 241°5 | 237-3 | 211-7 | 189-7 Dry | 165°9 185°3
1894.
ee oe || 305-8 264:6| Dry | 247-5 | 244-7 | 211-5 | 188-9 | 173-8 | 1657 | 186-3
Mar. 3-5 | 330-2 | 276°2 | 297-2 | 288:2 | 281-5 | 234-1 | 198-2 177°6 | 170°9 | 1940
Apr. 6-7 330°8 | 282-4 | 302°9 | 295:1] 288-8} — | 203-2 | 179°7 | 174-1 | 195°8
May 8-9 321-8 | 279-1 | 296-8 | 292-2 | 286°9| — | 205-3) 181-1| 175-2 | 196-6
June 12-13) 310-1 | 269-0 | 283-1 | 281-1 | 277-6} — | 203-9 | 183-5 | 174-0 195°0
July 19-20 | 309°3 259-2 | 270°5 | 269-1 | 266-8| — | 200-6 | 178°9 | 172°5 | 191-5
Aug. 28-29 | 306°2 250°5 | 259-7 | 259-2 | 257°2| — | 197:0| 177-5 | 169°9 | 188-7
Oct. 1-2 303-8 | 246°2 | 253-5 | 252-7 | 251-7) — | 194-6 | 176°0 | 168-5 | 187-0
Nov. 8-9 305°8 |coverea| 261:0 | 267°5 | 255°3 | — | 193°3 | 175°5 | 168-2 | 187-3
over
Dec. 5-6 360°8 = 332°7 | 314-7 | 295°5 | — | 205-9 | 181°3 | 176-1 | 196-9

as a a ee eee SSS

Report of the Meteorological Sub-Committee for 1894.

Ap-
DING-
TON

Adding-| Spar-

Level ot

row’s
n.

Bottom | 202-2 | 176-4

Nov. 11-12
Nov. 23
Dec. 9-10
Dec. 23-24
1890.
Jan. 27-28
Mar. 1-6
Apr. 18-19
May 16-17
June 18-19
July 12-14
Aug. 9-11
Sept. 9-10
Oct. 8-10
Nov. 5-6
Dec. 2-3
1891.
Feb. 5-6

July 11-12

184°)
188-2
191-4
192-7
193-0
1918
187-4
18571
183°5
182°9

182-4
184-1
186°8
188-0
188-7
188-4
187°5
186-0
184-7
183-0
181-7

177°3
177-0

Wick-

Court

299°8
178°5

bore93°0,

WIckHAM

Rouse
Farm

180-4 | 182-9 | 190-1 | 218°6 |

206-2
213-1
217-1
216°9
215-3
212:0
203°1
199-1

197°8
197°6

198-7
204-0
209°2
211:0
210°7
209°3
206-9
204°6 |
202-0
199-2
196-1

191-7
192-6
194°3
196-0

196°9

195-1
192-7
191°7
190°8
191-1
193-1
208-0

222°5

| 220°5

209-1
206°5
202-2
198°7

Ap- |

DON

‘arm ‘Lodge F

491°3
242°3

253-7 | 230-7
265°3 | 240-1
245°5
243°9
262-2 | 239-8
254-7 | 231:9
| 247°5 | 219-2
243°6 | 210-9

249-1
251°2 |
252-3
253-0
250°1 |
248-6
247°5
246°5

Dry | 207-7
| 242°3 | 207-4

245-6
245-7

245°7 | 210-6
252°5 | 226-0
258-2 | 233-1
260°7 | 235°7
259-2 | 235-2
255°3 | 231-7
252°4 | 228°8
251-1 | 226-0
248-4 | 221-9
245°2 | 215-2

Dry | 208-4

246-0
247°9
249-2
249°5
250°6
250°2
249-2
249-0
248°5
247°3
246°3

242-0
243-1
244-3
246-0
246°5
245-7
242-8
241:8
241-1 |
241:5
245-0
249-0

261-0 |
260-6

Dry | 199-7
Dry | 204-1
243°9 | 209-6
245°7 | 216-3

245°3 | 216°6

Dry | 209-1
Dry | 203-2
Dry | 201-4
242°3 201-3
243-5 203-7
249°4 216-4
264:5 ae

278°3 | 255-2
273°3 | 250-3
246-5 258°7 | 234-9
243°8 255°1 | 231-1
941-5 | 248-1 | 294-1
240-1 | 243-7 | 219-1
E

171

| SELs- LING-

HAM

Kennel

g-
\Selsdon | Farm

438-6 | 605-7
194-4 ) 316-7

353°7
359°4
363°7
365-4
362-2
359°4
353°2
350-1
349-3
348-4
347-7

346°3
347-1
354-4
358°6
359°4
360°8
358°3
356°9
355°2
352-0
348-4

340°7
338°5
339-4
340-4

341-6

341-4
340°8
340°8
340°1
339°7
344-0
355°3

375-4
372°7
356-9
352°5
348-0
347°2

172

Level of
Mouth j
Bottom

1892.
Aug. 12-13
Sept. 22-23
Oct. 24-25
Nov. 25-30
Dec. 30-31

1893.
Mar. 2-3
Apr. 17-18
May 11-12
June 20-21
Aug. 9-10
Oct. 3-4
Nov. 8-9
Dec. 7-8

1894.
Jan. 25-
Feb. 13
Mar. 3-5
Apr. 6-7
May 8-9

June 12-13
July 19-20
Aug. 28-29
Oct. 1-2
Nov. 8-9
Dec. 5-6

Ap-
DING-
TON

Adding-
ton Vil-

lage

1] 267-3

202°2

209°3
209°3

209°3

Report of the

Meteorological Sub-Committee for 1894.

bore 93:0.

192-2
188-9
186:8
187-7
190°5

197°7
203°5
204°6
201-4
195-1
189-1
185°1
183°7

182°5

184°4
187:0
188-6
188-2
185°6
183-0
181°3
180°3
185°3

299-8 | 317-4
178-5 | 180-4

WICKHAM

Nashe

3379
182°9

Wait’s
Farm

372:0
190-1

Lay-

ham’s

Farm

509°6
218°6

War-
LING-
HAM

Apb-
DING-
TON.

SELs-
DON

Adding-
ton
Lodge F.

Selsdon oe

491-3 | 438°6 | 605-7
242°3 | 194-4 | 316-7

2181
2131
211°4
214°5
23071

346-0:
344-7
343°9
3502
352°6_

242-7 | 366°3
253°8 | 3711,
240°1 |railedin
238°9
225-4
208°6
203°7
201:4

242-9
Dry
Dry

248°3

257°3

267°6
276°9
272°7
263-2
251:3
246°7
246°1
244°3

”
”

201°6

214°6
225°6
228°6
225°3
217-0
208°6
247:0 204:0
245°6 201-4

248°0
249-0
251°9
253°3
251-4
249°3
248-1

254°5 | 225-1

cr

| CONTENTS AL Saat

i PROCEEDINGS. ai. eames)

tae: fifth hana ee see o's POS here es baer ee eae eter ) liii
President's Address .. PAH Nyt ess ered oane a Henne tees 28 SS RURS aialiaterte : liv

: Sub-Committees pee e ew eenee Rie Be ALP aes 6 5 She reano mee eS \e nes ° i 7
Members ee BNE vr rrnnrninnii bids sv niga a ao at oie Ixx

; Exhibits, 1894 . =f SEER EE Oaee> eacecnt preeminent ie, Ixx
f Library oe aera <4» v1 tee Ree RI saa hte iene Ree eae lxxi
‘ieadarir’s ‘Balaace Sheet S aabsctictigs’. Vax deal ty tah -kk) scene am

“Bales of-ieOlaby cie,te.s cata css: tas ace eee ee
List of Members PPR naieel St aac die Ste lxxix

TRANSACTIONS.
Some Borne in the ee ey of Bacteria. By J. M. Hossos, aye.
; M.B., B. Se... sees Judi tn ene 123, :
Some pid Wells. By. W. Wier, B, A, Pit 8, FG. ‘8, sae ere
AADC: MUSEO Nec. .etes es cces'¢ 132

Habits and Habitats of Plants; some ee on n Superticial
Resemblances between pie of different uae bes
wer et, Womnenin Papsonsy MODs GY Bac too... jcc otk 150
The Nutrition of Plants. By W. Morton cca oer “ (157 —
Report of the Meteorological Sub-Committee for 1894. Prepared
“BY: the Hon. Sec., IRancts comasate mete, 3 F.R.Met.Soc. 164

— ee EEE

— oe = = — ———

“emp alco a 2 Balaral ise cla,

SS
OFFICERS FOR 1895.

" phdahiaatece We Murron Homes.
Vice-Presidents. — Jonny Berney, F.R.MLS. ; its Crowsey,
-FLS., F.Z.8.; Henry S. Baron, M.A. F.R.Met. Soe. ; Henry T.
Manne, F Lb. 3 Henry. G. Weahisacnt M.D., F.R.MS., oP.
Epwarp Loverr; and H. Franxiin Parsons, MDa E.G:Sgmee
Treasurer.—Epwarp B. Srurax.
Librarian.—Axrrep Roops. — |
Committee.—J. H. Baupock; J. War apes ; Pines Conair
J. H. Draew; James Epps, Jun.; C. H. Goopman; H. D. Gower ;
N. F. Rosarts; and C. H. Burwasy Sparrow, __ A
Hon. Secretary.—R. F. Gnuxpy (112, Lower Addiscombe Road, —
a ae gore to Mee all commruieations “abe be addressed. .

5

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