PROCEEDINGS OF THE ictoria Institute OF TRINIDAD. ^US- FOUNDED 1887 . Pal 1 ! 3. IVXaioli 1800. CONTENTS : Page. Pack. Report for 1805 Balance Sheet Report for 1890 Balance Sheet 1890 ... Guppy, F. L. on Butterflies ... Guppy, R. J. L. on Siliceous and Calcareous Organisms ... ,, on Corals in Port-of -Spain Harbour ,, on Fossils from Eocene of Naparima ,. on Foraminifera Beds and Radiolarian Marls of Naparima ,, on Globigerina Rock from Naparima , , on W ork of Scien ti fic Asso- ciation and on Relation of Victoria Institute to Field Naturalists’ Club and Public Library . 107 108 109 170 173 Appendix — List of Books Proceedings of Inaugural Meeting, 1897-8 ... Carmody, Professor on Food Adulteration R. de Verteuil on Trinidad as an Agricultural Colony McCarthy on Trinidad as Commercial Centre Bidwell on Harbour Works Wriglitson on Water Supply Dickenson on Domestic uses of Electricity Pogson on Care of Horses Prada on Healthy Homes Bert de Lamarre on Resources of Trinidad Guppy on Education ... Report for 1897 Balance Sheet 1897 . . . 234 261 260 298 305 325 328 i ‘Mirror” Office, 3, Abercromby Street, Port-of-Spain- rf 'T VT" ~ r VICTORIA INSTITUTE, TRINIDAD. ♦ ANIVOAI, REPORTS, 1895-6. HE Board of Management have the honour to present to the Members their Report of the working of the Victoria Institute for the year 1895. ^ _ This is the fourth Annual Report presented to the Members of the Institute, and it marks the opening of a new era, as it were, in the history of tho - Institution ; for although the scientific work of this Institute was allowed to fall somewhat into abeyance, substantial reforms have been effected, by which it is expected that ne^v life and energy will be given to the Institute. At the first meeting in January, Mr. R. J. L. Guppy, the Secretary and Treasurer, tendered his resignation, but at the request of the Board he retained the office until the 14th March, when he retired with a vote of thanks for his services. At the Annual Meeting on 21st February the following gentlemen were elected members of the Board of Management for 1895 : His Hon. Sir John Coldney, Kt., Hon. Col. Wilson, V.D., C.M.G., Prof. Cakmody, Mr. Tripp, „ Caracciolo, „ Urich, „ Potter. 154 PROCEEDINGS OF THE VICTORIA INSTITUTE. the Government Members being : © Hon. Dr. Lovell, „ D. B. Horsford, Mr. Bourne, „ R. J. L. Guppy, and the following officers were elected at the next meeting of the Board : His Hon. Sir John Goldney, K t. , President. Hon. Dr. Lovell, C.M.G., Vice-President. Mr. Syl. Devenish, M A., „ „ Mr. F. W. TTrich, Hon. Secretary and Treasurer vice Mr. Guppy retired, but who remains a member of the Board. In July, Mr. F. W. IJrich resigned the office of Secretary and Treasurer, having received a Government appointment in Anma, and Mr. T. I. Potter was elected to replace him. In September the Clerk, Mr. Devenish, also resigned, having obtained a better situation, and from among a number of applL cants, Mrs. Latour was selected by the Board to fill the vacancy. These are all the changes in the staff that have occurred during the year. On the 7th February, Mr. H. C. Bourne gave notice of a motion to amend Article 1 7 of the Articles of Association, and on the 21st of the same month it was seconded by Dr. Lovell and carried. • The amendment is as follows : “ That Article 17 be altered by the addition of the follow- ing words, namely : Provided that any person who shall in the , P r T ? , CUrrenfc / ea . r have subscribed $5 at least to anv hiea! society having for its objects any of the obiects of th« i Victoria Institute shall be eligible for election for membership ‘of the Institute without si»nin<* anv empership ‘ election or becoming liable for anv entrance f a PI^ 1< ' atlou ^ or 1 meail,er including eligibility for the Committee ^ ° f a 1 ana shall not be required to mv -imr o i • 6 .°^ ^ ana gement: ! shall continue to subscribe «5 a t IrJ T 1scu P tlon so long as he ‘ society aforesaid.” dt least P er to such local ANNUAL REPORTS. 155 This had the effect of adding at once to the Institute the whole of the then existing members of the Field Naturalists Club who were not already members of the Institute. It is a question for the consideration of the Board and the members generally whether a closer bond of union with the Field Naturalists’ Club, such as the amalgamation of the pro- ceedings of both institutions, and of the evenings of meetings, would not be beneficial to the Institute. On the 27th March the following Committees were appointed by the Board : Information and Publication. Hon. Col. Wilson, Prof. Carmody, Mr. Devenish, „ Bourne, „ Caracciolo. Industrial and Commercial. Hon. Col. Wilson, „ D. B. Horsford, Prof. Carmody, Mr. Tripp, „ Devenish. Natural History. Hon. Dr. Lovell, Mr. Devenish, „ Caracciolo, „ Guppy, „ Potter. Building and Entertainment. Hon. Col. Wilson, Prof. Carmody, Mr. Devenish, „ Bourne, „ Tripp. The President and Secretary to be ex Officio Members of all Committees. Two members to form a quorum, and Committees 156 PROCEEDINGS OF THE VICTORIA INSTITUTE. to arrange their hours and places of meeting. Two of these Committees (the Industrial and Commercial and the Natural History Committees) made reports at the next meeting of the Board which were adopted, and some of their recommendations have been carried into effect. In accordance with the recommendation of the Industrial Committee, Professor Carmody delivered two Lectures during the year, the first on “ Commercial Products,” and the second on “ Short Hand as a Branch of Education,” but it is to be regretted that the attendance of members and of the public was not such as these two most useful and interesting Lectures deserved. Another recommendation was the formation of an Industrial Commercial Museum of local products and manufactures. This, though not yet effected has not been lost sight of, and it is expected that members will see the first attempt at such a museum in the very near future. Correspondence with the Imperial Institute was advocated, but although our President is a correspondent of Sir Somers Vine, there has been little official correspondence with the Imperial Institute during this year. The publications of that institution have been regularly received, and the local Institute has been nominated the corresponding agent of the English one. It is to be hoped that matters will improve in this direction during the next year. In accordance with the recommendation of the Natural History Committee, a drying box for preparing insect and other specimens has been prepared, and setting boards and Insect Show Cases have been imported. It is expected that the Field Naturalists’ Members will now take the advantage of these facilities, and supply the necessary material to° make the entomological collection as complete as possible. The Natural History Committee also purchase of a Science Lantern. recommended the The President, when in England in July last ordererl * set of apparatus which arrived in January, 1896 and the Institute may be said to be in possession nf tl,. « ’ , o • th Lantern in the island, and perhaps in the West Indief^A 80161106 ments for the use of the ElectricLight with this lantt raQge ' yet quite complete, but it will not be loZg hliol ^Z “7 1 be in a position to afford members and the T* WlU SeCr™ i,,f0r, “ ti0 “ WhiA - <» »= ANNUAL REPORTS. 157 On 29tn October last the Board formed Art and Horticultural Sections for the purpose of encouraging and stimulating artistic talent, and the culture of flowers and ornamental plants. The first result of the formation of these Sections was an Exhibition in Art and Horticulture which was held in January, 1896, and though really a matter for next year's report it may be incident- ally remarked here that their efforts were crowned with success. It is the intention of the Board to hold other and similar Exhibitions from time to time. The financial condition of the Institute is a matter for con- gratulation. The Government grant to the Institute was increased at the beginning of the year to £250 and therefore like other similar institutions in this Colony the main source of Revenue is this subsidy. The next is the revenue derived from rents and last of all is the amount derived from subscription. The causes to which may be attributed the falling off under this last bead of revenue are (1) the motion of Mr. Bourne admit- ting the Field Naturalists’ Club (2) the late time of the year (November) when thesubscriptions for 1895-6 began to be collected. The total Revenue of the Institute for 1895 amounts to $1,482.50 net, and to this must be added a balance of $216.36 carried forward from 1894. The total expenditure of the same period is $809.35 inclusive of the repayment to Government of the first instalment of the debt of £500 on the Building. It may not be out of place to remark here that a second instalment has also been paid on 1st January of the current year, leaving a balance of £400 due to Government. There was therefore to the credit of the Institute on 31st December, 1895, the sum of $889.52 of which $884.03 was lodged in the Colonial Bank. Appended is a Statement of Account and a Balance Sheet. A list of members is also annexed. The visitors to the Museum during 1895 amounted to 2,353. Many of the foreign visitors expressed agreeable surprise at findin" such a fine collection of the fauna of the Island. O In conclusion it may be said that the Institute is now in a fair way to assume its proper position as a public Institution of this Colony, and a fitting Memorial of the Jubilee of our Gracious Sovereign whose name it bears. THOMAS I. POTTER, Eon. Secretary & Treasurer. Victoria Museum, I’ort-of-Spain, 18th February, 1898. statement of the receipts and expenditure of the victoria institute FOR THE YEAR 1895. 158 PROCEEDINGS OF THE VICTORIA INSTITUTE. O (M C5 O N O iA Q 05 CO -M -+< CO 03 GO Eh 52 ; K 2 r* O O CD • fclD * .d ■ ,SF ® ’ i— 1 fcB ~ d o ^3 a. a cd CQ ' CL,^ hr &0 ^3^3 izj ^ ezi ci 0) O 3 CO 03 RO 05 co GO CO CO CO 05 CO r-H CO 05> O * lO CO GO JO JO 05 05 co : oo • • 05 CQ CQ 5 p O > KJ g © 4sl O rt m § C5 -2° « P3 H H H . O TJ C4 g 3 M o » ^ ; Z? ’£ -3 n o 3 §6w © . . odd p% pH h gS f*n o ■ zs CO H >ai & o d 6 ANNUAL REPORTS. 159 Number of Visitors to the Victoria Museum during the year 1895. January 1st to 30th ... ... ... ... 301 February 1st to 17th ... ... ... ... 251 March 1st to 30th ... ... ... ••• ... 250 April 1st to 30th ... ... ... ... ... 21g May 1st to 31st ... ... ... ... ... 196 June 1st to 29th ... ... ... ... ... 86 July 1st to 31st ... ... ... ... ... 143 August 1st to 30th ... ... ... ... 181 September 1st to 30th ... ... ... ... 173 October 1st to 10th ... ... ... ... 60 November 1st to 30th ... ... ... ... 194 December 1st to 30th ... ... ... ... 305 Total ... ... 2,353 ANNUAL REPORT FOR 1898, T HE Board of Management has the honour to lay before the members the following Report of the working of the Institute for the year 1896. An earnest attempt has been made during the year to increase the usefulness of the Institution. No change was made in the membership of the Board or of its Officers at the last Annual Meeting, which was held on the 27th of February, 1896, and the paid staff has remained the same. Owing to the temporary absence of an unusually large number of members of the Board, on the 30th June the remaining members, acting in accordance with Section 7 of the Articles of Association, appointed the following gentlemen to act : — Mr. B. H. Stephens, „ R. H. McCarthy, Dr. Ince, Mr. J. R. Llanos, „ J. R. Murray. 160 PROCEEDINGS OF THE VICTORIA INSTITUTE. These gentlemen were of great assistance, and by their regular attendance at meetings facilitated the work of the Board. On the 4th September the Board appointed the following Committees : — Building and General Business Committee : Sir J ohn Goldney, President, Hon’ble Colonel Wilson, C.M.G., Mr. Guppy, Professor Carmody, Mr. Devenish, „ Tripp. Science, Art and Industries Committee : Sir J ohn Goldney, Hon’ble Dr. Lovell, C.M.G., Mr. H. C. Bourne, „ R. H. McCarthy, „ Tripp, ,, B. H. Stephens, „ H. Caracciolo, „ J. R. Murray. The Vice-Presidents and Mr. T. I. Potter, Hon. Secretary being ex officio members of both Committees. ^ ’ The latter Committee prepared and submitted to the Bmr^ a Report on the Natural History Collections and on the forma tmn of an Industrial and Commercial Museum, which was adopted and ordered to be printed on the Proceeding of the Institute. ° The Board has recently lost an plenty i departure of Colonel Wilson from the Onln' 1160 ^ 61 ' ,b’ t * 10 February, 1S97. In him the Institute A T the 4th original Members, and its Chairman during it^ early ye^s ° f ** At the Annual Meeting the President ^ e proposal for amalgamating the Trinidad Puhlie T .? ferred , to the Institute. Several meetings were held to Llbrar y with the and at a Special General Meeting of tlJ SCUSS V'® question, Institute held on the 9th January & 1897 1 “embers of the agreed that the amalgamation was desirable ^ unanimous1 }' ANNUAL REPORTS. 161 On the question of the best site for the United Institution, a difference of opinion exists, which has prevented further progress towards the end in view. The chief work of the Institute for the year was the holding of small Exhibitions for the purpose of encouraging and stimulating local talent in Art and Horticulture. As mentioned in last year’s Annual Report, two of these Exhibitions were held simultaneously on the 23rd, 24th, and 25th January, and two were held in a similar manner, on 5th and 6th of June. The last two months of the year were devoted to prepara- tions for the Centenary Exhibition of February, 1897, a report of which will be ready shortly, but will be included in the proceedings of next year. Reports with Appendices on the Exhibitions held during the year have been prepared and will be published in this year’s proceedings. It is sufficient to remark here, that although these Exhibi- tions were not successes financially, they have at least brought the Institute in closer contact with the public than hitherto, and have induced many of our young people to pay attention to Art and Horticulture. As stated at the last Annual Meeting the Board enclosed the land belonging to the Institute with a strong iron fence. A small garden has also been laid out in front of the building and a hedge planted inside the fence. In November it was found necessary to re-paint the front and corners of the Building. A sum of $33.60 was spent on the roof and in erecting and keeping in repair the bamboo fence which had been put up pre- vious to the receipt of the new iron fence. The total cost of these additions and repairs and of keeping the Building and grounds in proper condition was $778.75. Owing to the want of apparatus for regulating the electric current the Lantern could not for some time be used for lectures, but thanks to the assistance of the Superintendent of the Trinidad Electric Light and Power Company, this difficulty has been overcome and the Lantern is now at the service of members for the purpose of illustrating their lectures. 162 PROCEEDINGS OF THE VICTORIA INSTITUTE. A number of Natural History and X ray slides also have been received for use with the Lantern. In December the Board decided to have an evening for meetings of the members, and the last Monday of every month was fixed for this purpose. A programme of work has been arranged, and several gentlemen have been invited to read papers at these meetings. In J une a Scientific Reading Room for the use of members was opened at the Institute. Besides the numerous scientific books and papers received in Exchange from foreign Societies by the Institute, the following periodicals were added by the Board : — The Gardener’s Chronicle, ,, Photographic News, „ Magazine of Art. The Hon. Dr. Lovell, one of the Vice-Presidents, also kindly contributes the Journal of the British Medical Association. Although a few do use the reading room, it does not receive the attention t0 the Institute ' At the request member of thf ln^F; T 0r tW ° planters and a Life One of our Vice-Presidents W £ .^ven the Institut able collection of specimens of native timber! * a ^ meeti T ng e fo R rTcL?L the "" Stm in dema -l as a place of sidera^n^the 0 membSs 6 InStitUt6 Submi «ed for the con- As the statement shows the Receinto tv. n to |1, 726.35 inclusive of Government P f ° r tbe y ear amount if deducted, leaves $526.35 as the Recital °! f, 1 1,200 which P ls ot the Institute ANNUAL REPORTS. 163 from other sources. The total Receipts, though more than those of last year, are, however, less than the Expenditure by |541.74, and were it not for a large Balance to Credit from last year, there would have been a serious deficit at the end of the year. There is, however .still a Balance to Credit of $341.74 to be carried forward, and there is every reason to believe that the Institute will be able to pay its way during next year if judiciously managed. As is shown above, the chief source of Revenue is the Government subsidy, and without this the Institute cannot be carried on. The next direct Revenue to the Institute is the subscrip- tions of Members. At the commencement of the last subscription year, 24th March, 1896, in addition to the members who were also members of the Field Naturalists’ Club, whose subscription go to that Club, there were 27 members paying $5 per annum and 3 Associates of 10/- per annum. Since that date seven of these members have resigned or left the Colony. A second instalment of the debt to the Government was paid on 2nd J anuary, 1896, leaving a Balance of .£400 to be paid. In January, 1897, this was further reduced by £50, which makes the existing balance only £350. At the present rate of payment the Institute will be free from debt in seven years, but if it could obtain a larger sup- port from the public, there is no reason why this debt could not be paid off within a shorter time. Both the Revenue and Expenditure of this year are larger than those of 1895. This is owing to increased activity on the part of the Institute. Of the Expenditure a large proportion has been spent on the public, the loss on Exhibitions alone being $284.95, of which $235.70 was given away in prizes. Some 2,600 people visited the Institute during the year. This number does not include those who visited the Exhibitions. It is to be hoped that the public will not, in the year of Her Gracious Majesty’s Diamond Jubilee, allow the Institute, the only Memorial of Her late Jubilee, which exists in the Colony, to be closed for the want of Funds. The Accounts have been duly audited. THOMAS I. POTTER, Ron. Secretary. Victoria Museum, 23rd March, 1897. 164 PROCEEDINGS OF THE VICTORIA INSTITUTE. Statement of the Revenue and Expenditure of RECEIPTS. Grant from Government ... ... ... 1,200 00’ Subscriptions from Members to 31st Deer... 180 00 Receipts(Gate-money, &c.) from Exhibitions 160 75 Reimbursements in aid (Rents, &c.) ... 185 60 526 35 $1,726 35. Balance Sheet , Balance on 1st January, 1896 ... .... 889 52 Receipts as above ... ... ... ...1,726 35 $2,615 87 Checked these Accounts for 1896, with Vouchers, and found correct. (Signed) Geo. Goodwille. ” James Graham Tavlor K ANN0AL REPORTS. 165 the Victoria Institute, for the\ year 1896. PAYMENTS. Salaries and Allowances to Staff . . . 244 40 Additions, Improvements and Repairs) 778 75 to premises Furniture, Fittings and Apparatus.. . 227 57 Expenses of Exhibitions • ••• 445 70 Insurance Premium (3 years paid in advance) 144 00 Printing and Stationery . 52 87 Petty Expenses (Lighting, Postage, etc.) ... 140 84 2,034 13 Refund to Government (2nd instalment)... 240 00 $2,274 13 31 st December, 1896. Expenditure as above ... ... ... 2,274 13 Balance on 31st December ... ... ... In Colonial Bank .. . ... ... 292 31 In Hand ... 49 43 341 74 $2,615 87 John T. Goldney, President. Thomas I. Potter, Hon. Treasurer. Papers Read before the Victoria Institute, 1897. {Read 31st May, 1897.) ON A SMALL COLLECTION OF BUTTERFLIES MADE CHIEFLY IN THE TUNAPUNA VALLEY. By Florian Lechmere Guppy. I exhibit a case of butterflies most of which were collected in Tunapuna Valley. Among them is a specimen of Metamorpha dido which is stated to be a common tropical American insect ; but it is not included in Dr. Crowfoot’s list of Trinidad Butterflies, hitherto the most complete. When flying, this insect might be taken for Victorina steneles, the Green Page. It flies very high overhead and is hard to capture. There are also in the collection some specimens of Ageronia and Heliconius. The four kinds of Ageronia are very remarkable and I think three of them are scarce, but I shall probably get more. In Tunapuna Valley Heliconii are very abundant. Another abundant species in that Valley is Catagramma codomannus (the eighty-eight.) I have found the names of some of those butterflies and I should like to identify the others. They were all caught in Tunapuna Valley except the Helicopes which I got at Woodbrook, and the large dark-colored butterfly near the Nymplialis orion in the case. This large butterfly is the only one of its kind I have seen. Read 31st May, 1897. SUGGESTIONS AS TO SILICEOUS AND CALCAREOUS ORGANISMS. By R. J. Lechmere Guppy. T HE nature and character of organisms secreting and assimil- ating Silica and Lime respectively have often been before my mind. In the course of the studies and investigations I under- took some five or six years ago into the Foraminifera and Radio- aria of the cretaceo-tertiary rocks and at various other time, it has occurred to me that assimilated Lime is characteristic of 168 PROCEEDINGS OP THE VICTORIA INSTITUTE. animals, while assimilated Silica is characteristic of plants Hence I consider that the presence of assimilated Silica is prima facie evidence of the vegetable nature of the organism in which it is found while the presence of assimilated lime is prima Jacie evidence of the animal nature of any organism in which it occurs. This consequence seems to flow from the relative functions of plants and animals in relation to vital force. The Plant absorbs the solar energy and converts it into vital force. The Animal takes that vitality, absorbs it, uses it, and destroys it. Ihe assimilation of Silica appears therefore to be a concomitant o the power to vitalize solar energy, while the animal not hav- ing that power is able to assimilate Lime only and not Silica. The questions of whether Sponges are animal or vegetable was tor a long time in debate — but of late years the opinion has een in favor of their animal nature. If the suggestion I have ventuied to put forward is considered to be well founded, the mot ern opinion will again be opened to question, and it may, after a be decided that sponges are protophytic and not protozoic. u at ail events Radiolaria and their allies must be regarded as ro ophytes while Foraminifera will still be classed as Protozoa. I am inclined to think that Radiolaria perform the iunctions of Plants in relation to vitality, and I would ur iei suggest that Radiolaria are the chief food of Forami- Plankton^r 'lir-ath 0 “ ^ ° aSe ° f the P ela 8 ic forms whether s n™ 0n t ^ s , sub i ect I may further suggest that the nron W- 1 ) ai , e merely lower forms of Annuloidea and do not SrS „ b n e n l0aS - t0 , Pro ^oa. Most, if not all of them are &c. 1 in a Ij 1 anim als and resemble Helminthozoa ( e . g. Flukes, recorded mv m™ 06 habits. I have on previous occasions and Radiolaria 1 ^* 011 j 1 **’ t j 16 yer y nu merous forms of Polycystina by Ehrenbere amT^tR 1111 ^ 61 ^ man y generic and specific names only. ren berg and others are really referable to a few species ON THE DISCOVERY OF CORALS IN THE harbour of port-of-spain. URINp IE By R ' J - Lechmere Guppy. 8 e «p. D GUPPY — CORALS HAEBOUE PORT-OF-SPAIN. 169 just off the old St. Vincent Jetty. An examination of the corals and of the associated shells has convinced me that the corals in. question are none other than true reef corals such as it is impossible could live in such a position or indeed in any part of the Gulf of Paria. Moreover, the shells found associated with the corals are without exception so far as I have observed, the same species as are found in the Gulf and not such as would be found associated with reef corals. The possibility of the existence of a tertiary bed at the bottom of some part of the Gulf has often occurred to me and I have on a former occasion referred to such a possibility. But the conditions of the present coral deposit entirely preclude the possibility of its being such a bed. The corals have evidently been brought here from some other place, probably from Barbados where all the species are found abundantly. Perhaps the lighter or vessel in which they were being carried was swamped or cap- sized. At one time corals were imported here for the purpose of being burnt into lime and it is highly probable that the deposit now found was a cargo of such corals. It is likely that all the massive reef corals of Barbados are represented here, but those I have identified are the following : — Favia ananas, Lam. Madrepora muricata, Linn. Astrea radians, Pall. Manicina areolata, Linn. Porites clavaria, Lam. Read 81st May, 1897. REMARKS ON SOME FOSSILS FROM THE EOCENE OF NAPARIMA. By R. J. Lechmere Guppy. U NFORTUNATELY for Trinidad, my collection of West Indian Fossils has left the country, having been acquired by the United States National Museum. To make a collection to replace this would be a work of time, labor and expense which I could hardly undergo. I have, however, availed myself of all such oppor- tunities as have occurred to me to collect Fossils. I here exhibit a few specimens deserving of notice. Some examples otJSchinolampas ovumserpentis are on the table j and there is one specimen of 170 PROCEEDINGS OP THE VICTORIA INSTITUTE. Echinola mpas which differs so much from this that it would generally be regarded as a different and probably a new species, for in some of its characters it is intermediate between the eocene Ech. ovumserpentis and the miocene Ech. semiorbis. I should be inclined to refer it to the Echinolampas antillarum Cotteau (Descr. Echinid. tert. 1875 p. 19, pi. iii., f. 9-11) but it has more of a subcircular contour and a conical profile. Another Fossil before you is a specimen of Terebratula carneoides. This is the finest I have seen of the species. It recalls somewhat Ter. bicanaliculata, Schlot. (Bayle and Coquand Foss, de Chili, Mem. Soc. Geol. France, 2 ser. t. 4, pi. viii., f. 17- 19) and also perhaps T. haueri, Karst. (Kreidebildung von Sudamerika, taf. vi., f. 1.) The principal distinction between T. carnea of the Chalk and T. carneoides of the West Indian Eocene is the much larger foramen of the latter. From T. depressa, Lam. of the Chalk, T. carneoides is distinguishable by the absence of a Deltidium. These characters it may be admitted seem scarcely weighty enough to separate species, but they appear to be pretty constant. The cretaceous alliances of our Fossil are evidently strong, but too much weight must not be attached to this point because as pointed out by Davidson the form is represented in the living Fauna by T. vitrea. T. carneoides was described by me from the Naparima Beds in quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. 1866 p. 296 pi. xix. f. 2. It was much better figured and described from the Eocene of the Island of St. Barts by Thomas Davidson in Geol. Mag. 1874, page 158 pi. viii., f. 11. Bead 81st May, 1897. NOTES ON THE PASSAGE BETWEEN THE FORAMI- NIFERA BEDS AND THE RADIOLARIAN MARLS OF NAPARIMA. By R. J. Lechmere Guppy. f)N a visit I paid sometime ago (November- l orw \ .v. GCPPY — FORAMINIFERA BEDS, RADIOLARIAN MARLS, NAPARIMA. 171 observe evidence of the fact that a gradual transition takes place from the Foraminifera beds to the Radiolarian marls the junction beds occupying a width of about fifty yards or so measured across the upturned edges of the beds at right angles to the strike. From a diagram kindly furnished to me by Mr. de Verteuil it appears that the line of strike of the junction beds extends so far as known from Beausejour and Plaisance through Cedar Grove, La Resource and Philipine, passing to the north- west of Dunmore Hill. This of course is quite agreeable to all former observations of the strike of the Naparima beds. As regards physical characteristics it may be noted that the junction beds contain a larger proportion of pumice and felspathic material than any other of the rocks of the district that I have examined. Silicous casts of Globi- gerina are another feature worthy of notice in these beds. These casts of the interior of the Foraminifer are of a brilliant white bristling with what look like small spines but which are casts of the pores in the Globigerina Shell. In character generally as well as in position the junction beds are intermediate between the Foraminifera and Radiolarian beds. It is now I think proved by indisputable evidence that the passage is conformable and gradual. Previously we have not been able to assert this fact which is one of very great importance and interest from a geological point of view, and has been the source of much inquiry and discussion. I regret not having been able to make so exhaustive an examination as I could have wished. — Among the Foraminifera I have identified the following. Globigerina bulloides. Biloculina depressa — one moderate example Pleurostomella subnodosa — small and attenuate forms „ brevis — a few Ellipsoidina subnodosa, Guppy Gaudryina pupoides — two fine examples Lagena — several species Polymorphina horrida Nodosaria abysorum and perhaps two other forms Pullenia sphaeroides Pulvinulina pauperata Anomalina grosserugosa „ wullerstorfi (rare and small) The abundance of Lagena is remarkable. Nodosaria is poorly exhibited and small forms only occur. Globigerina is fine and large — Pullenia is nowhere common to my knowledge but it is quite as abundant here as I have ever found it. 172 PROCEEDINGS OF THE VICTORIA INSTITUTE. N. B. — Mr. L. de Verteuil pointed out the junction beds to me in November, 1894, and in February, 1895, I went over the ground again with him and Prof. J. B. Harrison. (Bead Slat May , 1897.) NOTE ON A SPECIMEN OF GLOBIGERINA ROCK FROM NAPARIMA. By R. J. Lechmere Guppy. T HIS specimen given to me for examination by Professor J. B. Harrison came from the neighbourhood of the S. Madelein Factory. It is a Globigerina Rock of blue-grey tinge containin'* a large proportion of mud. It shows signs of brecciation. The residue after washing contains a fair series of Foraminifera, hut none of fine development— sandy forms including Troeha’mina Clavulma, etc., are pretty abundant, and sois Gaudryina pupoides’ but I saw none full grown. Bigenerina is common but small’. shallo I w a water! iDed t0 ^ thk W ° S de P osited in relatively APPENDIX. or determined since mv paner on ^.Naparima described Field Naturalists’ Club/ P P h bjeot was re »d to the Ellipsoidina ellipsoides, Seguenza >j subnodosa, Guppy 0 ,„ » „ ex ponens, Brady fetilostomella rugosa, Guppy Frondicularia flabelliformis. Guppy Gaudryina lobata. Guppy >> pariana, Guppy Gonatosphaera prolata, Guppy The two latter .re from the Ditropabed of Foi»t. picr . ' sh ould be i , a s uoh as subscribe to the Librn v ^ are cbea P enough or otl y ,n . terc hange (which could easilv°V tbera for them- otherwise) it would be possible to secure tb! man , a S ed b J olubs e reading of a very GUPPY — VICTORIA INSTITUTE, ETC. 179 large number of Novels for a very small sum. However 1 do not wish to insist on any of these points. None of my argu- ments need stand in the way of a Government grant for the supply of Fiction. I wish to leave the decision of that point in the hands of those concerned. What we want and what I am now pleading for is a really public Library maintained for the public benefit and not for the benefit of a particular class or set such as the subscribers to the present Library are. Therefore let the novels and part of the subsidy remain with the Borough Council (if it be so decided) for the maintenance of a circulating Library and let the scientific and useful portion of the collection together with the remainder of the grant go to the Victoria Institute for the formation and maintenance of a library for public and national objects. From what I have stated you will see my object in supporting the union or amalgamation of the public Library with the Victoria Institute just as I formerly supported and advocated the union and amalgamation of the Field Naturalists’ Club and the Victoria Institute. It seems a tendency of human nature to prefer division and disunion and this tendency is encouraged by those who wish to profit by disunion and division. Union is almost always for the general benefit ; but the individual frequently inclines to the view that his influence or his glory or his indivi- dual something or another will lose by union. Hence it seems to be that union like the welding of steel mostly requires heat and some force of compression or of impact from outside to perfect it. Individual action seems almost always to lead to disintegration and dissolution. The Irish Union, the Scotch Union,” the American Union (twice) the Italian Union, the German Ur : m were all effected or perfected with the aid of force. An expression of George Washington’s lately quoted in a local newspaper shows that the great statesman appreciated the fact. He says “ Experience has taught us that men will not adopt and carry into execution measures, the best calculated for their own good, without the intervention of coercive power.” In reference to the discussion as to where the “ Challenger” Volumes .should be placed, if it were a question as to where it is most for the public interest that they should be placed there could be only one answer and that is at the Public Museum (called the Victoria Institute). At no other place could they be so freely accessible to students and at the same time under pro- per care. The valuable scientific books stored at the Public Library are utterly uneared for and are fast going to ruin. But the way this question has been discussed shows how every Insti- 180 PROCEEDINGS OP THE VICTORIA INSTITUTE. tution intended for the real benefit of the people of Trinidad is treated. The fact is that such an Institution as ours is viewed with hostility and jealousy by influential classes who are averse to anything intended for the benefit of the people and who employ their influence overt and covert in spreading ideas hos- tile to such Institutions. But however much man may persecute truth his existence and welfare after all depend upon it and the real true object of such Institutions as the Public Library and the Victoria Institute is to keep alive the flame of truth amid the growing fogs of error and falsehood which spread around us. Lpon the maintenance of this light of truth depends our exis- tence and prosperity as a community — those who wish to destroy or pervert these Institutions are those to whom the light of truth and the welfare of humanity are hateful. I exhibit to you copies of some of the old catalogues and lists of the Public Library. In view of those I think it could hardly be said by any one that the person who took the trouble no meie y to preserve and bind these catalogues but to insert in them the leaflets containing fugitive lists of books issued from time Y 116 an i t0 ’ n writing in the appropriate places in the catalogues the additions made from time to time, took no interest “tt Lfbrary. That these catalogues and lists are not hand! of H ,dU ® fir f t] y. to J the treatment they met with at the mitv in1l! n°'' i erS friends and secondly to the want of unifor- precludes theh- > and t l , e Setting up of the catalogues which of uniform if v * m ^i P ro P er ty bound together. This same want vfcSSnSujrSbL 1 wSShi" ‘ he .t tl,eir s“ iS"£ a ephemeral nfa? 7 • *7 ^fluently serve only for the »' «»« the.. J thrown mnpihvSTr f ° r r, t °n“ y ll " t 1 >»™ th > and that it was 3 of Se 7 7 ° f 7° Field ^uralttW Club to place such work great aims of the Scientific Association such an Institution as toe “^Permanent basis by means of Institution and 7,r7!!ng dm r ‘l IaStlt v U r> ^king it a popular the hands of the nromnto™ ( . s P°usible control of it into tin. of .ho VioZST„X. f o“L“tXSr,, infused, while securities were retained'to ° f po P ular control was diversion of the public money to unwortbiTn ^ ^ -7^ Pf sible ■>y or unsuitable objects GUPPY — VICTORIA INSTITUTE, ETC. 181 When I arrived from England in 1892, 1 found the Institute in an anomalons condition. It had been practically swamped by the Field Naturalists’ Club, a condition in which it continues more or less until this day. At that time I was not keen enough to see that this state of things was designedly brought about and continued, and I set to work to endeavour to alter it and to get the Institute freed from the shackles which bound it. In this attempt I failed signally whereupon I resigned the post of Secre- tary of the Institute, a post I sought and held at much sacrifice to myself solely for the purpose of getting the Institute and the Field Naturalists’ Club united and the responsible control of the Institution placed in the hands of the latter. J ust as it was when I was at the head of the Education Department there were secret influences at work sapping and undermining all I could do for the public advantage, and, as in that case so in this, the hos- tile influences were too powerful for me. The very classes I essayed to serve were the ones who became the instruments of the overthrow of the schemes devised for their benefit. Whatever neglect or ill-treatment the Victoria Institute may meet with now or later will be the worse for all concerned. It must in any case be the Public Museum and scientific Institute of the Colony. Neglect or ill-treatment will certainly lead to impairment of its usefulness so that when the necessity for the existence of such an Institute becomes properly recognized people will say, why was such neglect and ill-treatment suffered to be 1 why was such and such a collection or such and such books, &c., &c., not preserved or secured or better looked after ? It is perfectly clear from the constitution designed under Sir William Robinson for the Victoria Institute that the Agricultural Department whether called Board or Society was to be a part of the Institute. But the constitution of the Victoria Institute provided in the governing body for a minimum of seven elected members to a maximum of five nominated members thus securing always a majority on the side of popular control. It is therefore essentially a popular Institution, and therefore it did not command the confidence of the Sugar Planters who conse- quently endeavoured to destroy or cripple the Victoria Institute and to supersede it by a body in which their influence should be paramount. Hence the establishment of the Agricultural Society endowed with £600 a year by the Government to which endow- ment no exception whatever has been taken while the vote of £250 to the Victoria Institute was only very narrowly passed after severely hostile criticism and the insertion of a note against the item on the estimates of the year with a view to the with- 182 PROCEEDINGS OF THE VICTORIA INSTITUTE. drawal of the amount from the next year’s Estimates. I am of opinion that in the present state of our Agriculture the Agricul- tural Department should be reunited with the Victoria Institute. Nothing but a petty jealousy (whatever the excuse may be) can stand in the way of this amalgamation. Thus the Victoria Institute would be restored to the proportions designed for it as a memento of the Queen’s Jubilee by Sir William Robinson, one of the foremost, perhaps I may say the principal one, of its founders. And I may note here that the course of Lectures given within these walls on Agriculture was such that every Agriculturist in the Island would have gained by attending it. There is one point that seems to have been partially lost sight of — it is that the Victoria Institute is the custodian of the public Natural History and other Collections. In language adopted from the report for 1894 of the Natural History Society of New Brunswick (a valuable report from which we could take many hints), “ These collections are not ours, they belong to the people of Trinidad and we hope that an enlightened public spirit will see that such a valuable heritage be preserved for generations to come.” The shape in which the Institute will continue to exist may be doubtful. "With its present constitution it is quite capable of doing all that has been done by the Field Naturalists Club and the Agricultural Society, nay much more, and it can only be by a jealousy carefuly cultivated by those who are antagonistic to the welfare of the community that it is pre- vented from fulfilling all its functions. At the present moment o£ the Institute, all members of the Field -Natuiaiists l>Iub are members of the i Naturalists’ Club are members of the’ Institute and all members re entitled to all privileges of mem- of the Agricultural Society are cuuuca lo Natural® nf\ tutn exce Pt that of voting. It is for the Field miion w H C 'u l) 1° Whether they will complete their done wbhn\ h<5 In , stltute ( &nd this I think could be part tiT fJpil IT 6 ?.* 1 C lange -° f natne ‘) Having done all on our they nrefXn I." 3 Um ? n U remail ? 8 for them to say whether they hold or u d7tl ei " er j‘ l exi «tence in the irresponsible position selvi eiomiht 'i 167 7 °° me forwa rd Ld make them- FwprtTu' and directors of our Scientific Institute. which must otherwise become it purafy ( w' 1 "* 0 ° ? ll " C ” “t am quite sure th >t thn c Government concern. I 1 that the present incomplete and imperfect union GUPPY — VICTORIA INSTITUTE, ETC. 183 is a source of weakness and I am also sure that a complete union would benefit all concerned and none of the arguments put forward on the side of the Separatists can really touch this point. As an Appendix to this paper is submitted a brief account of a collection of books printed in or relating to Trinidad which may be interesting from a bibliographical point of view. APPENDIX. LIST OF BOOKS. Histoire de la Trinidad— Par P. G. L. Borde. In two Parts. Paris 1876 and 1882. 8vo. Guide to Trinidad — -By J. H. Collens, Port-of-Spain 1887. 8 vo. The same — Second Edition, London 1888. 8vo. Trinidad. By W. H. Gamble — London 1886. 8vo. The West Indies — E. B. Underhill — London 1862. 8 vo. The Caribbean Confederation — By C. S. Salmon. London N. D. 8vo. The Colonial Policy of Lord John Bussell’s Administration. By Saul Grey — London 1853. Warner Arrindell— By E. L. Joseph, London 1838. The English in the West Indies. By J. A. Froude, London 1888. Geography of Trinidad and Tobago. By J. A. de Suze Port-of-Spain 1894. 184 PROCEEDINGS of the victoria institute. Bouffonnerie. Some amusing skits (in French by Leon H. de Gannes, formerly Librarian of the Trinidad Public Library) with corrections, etc., in the Author s own hand- writing. These are bound together in the same volume with (besides some scraps not relating to Trinidad) the report on the Nariva Cocal, 1866, by J. F. Rat with M. S. plan. 4to. The Trinidad Official and Commercial Register and Almanack — Sixteen Volumes (1871, 1877-1891) bound in Russia. 8vo. The same bound in three volumes, 1866-75, 1876-83, and 1884-89, except for the years 1869 and 1870 when the publication was issued in a smaller size and is included in this collection in the volume entitled “ Trinidad Almanack 1832-70.” 8vo. The same — another set bound in two volumes containing the issues for the years 1875-84 and 1885-91. 8vo. Trinidad Almanacks 1832-70. Contains the issues for the years 1832, 1834, 1835, 1869 and 1870. 12mo. West Indian Almanacks — Besides some issues of the S. Thomas’ Almanacks this contains Boucaud’s San- Fernando Almanack for 1880, Barbados Almanack, 1848 8 vo. Letters by a free Mulatto (J. B. Philip), London 1824 8vo. History of Trinidad— By E. L. Joseph — Port-of-Spain 1837. 12mo. This was in the first instance published as an Appendix to Mills’ Trinidad Almanac for 1838. Observations on the present condition of the Island of Trinidad. By W. Hardin Burnley. E\ idence collected by the Sub-Committee of the Agricul- tural and Immigration Society in favor of Immigra- tion. London 1842. Svo. Historical and Statistical view of the Island of Trinidad, etc., iL- Dani o l Hart " (Eirst Editi °n printed in London lb6o). 8vo. ldad etc. By Daniel Hart— Second Edition of the above). Trinidad 1866. 8vo. LIST OF BOOKS. 185 Three Essays on the Cultivation of the Sugar Cane in Trinidad — Trinidad 1848. 8vo. Trinidad — By L. A. A. de Yerteuil — London 1858. 8vo. A revised Edition of this Book was published in 1881. Catalogues of the Trinidad Public Library, 1851-1856, 1851- 1873, 1857-1862, also 1886 and 1887 and 1892. These old Catalogues are interesting as showing what Books were in the Library in the years named. The first Catalogue has two curious misprints. At p. 24 the word “Wines” is misprinted “ Wives” and at p. 44 the same word is misprinted “ Mines.” The Reports for the years 1886 and 1887 (in one) in- cluded lists of the Books received in those years ; but unfortunately neither these nor the 1892 Catalogue can be bound together, not being uniform in size. Proceedings of the Scientific Association of Trinidad, 1863- 1869. 8vo. Trinidad Scientific Proceedings.— This Volume contains (I.) A complete set of Proceedings of the Scientific Association so far as published. The second Volume was never completed. (II.) A complete set of the Journal of the Field Naturalists’ Club from No. 1 to No. 11 inclusive, being all published up to date of binding of this Volume. Trinidad Scientific Tracts. This volume contains besides other papers the following: — 1. The Grand Old Man of San Fernando, by J. W. Alston. 2. The Geology of Barbados by Harrison and Japes Browne. It should be noticed of this as of some of the remaining volumes in the collection that the heterogeneous nature of the contents of the volumes is partly due to mistakes on the part of the binder who has committed several serious blunders in binding and in lettering. Miscellaneous. — This volume contains a number of pieces mostly printed in or relating to Trinidad Pamphlets. — The following papers contained in this volume are specially worth notice : — Macaulay — -Emancipation des Esclaves. Hincks — Negro Emancipation; Trinidad Industrial Exhibition, 1853 & 1853; Papers on Educa- tion in Trinidad, 1853. There is also a paper of interest on Porto Rico by Purdie. B 186 PROCEEDINGS OF THE VICTORIA INSTITUTE. Tracts. — Among other papers this volume contains the following : — Report of the San Fernando Borough 1 Council Committee of 1889 : La Lepre est contagieuse; British Honour and Interest in Trinidad and Venezuela; Minor Industries,— By J. F. Chittenden ; Banana Trade — By J. H. Hart ; Impediments to the prosperity of the British West Indies. (By T. MacGrath) ; Guaranteed Mortgages, By Sir John Gorrie. Miscellaneous Tracts — Among other papers contains:— Report of a meeting held in Brunswick Square, 4 April, 1872 ; Les Mysteres de Hie aux Colibris (by Tronchin.); Le Retour de l'Exile (by Tronchin); Lord Harris’s message on Education ; Trinidad Monthly Magazine; Nos. 1, 2, 3 (all published) ; Trinidad Handbook of Everyday Law — By G. W. Greenwood ; Creole Gram- mar — By J. J. Thomas. Miscellaneous Tracts. — Among a lot of papers having no reference to Trinidad there are contained in this volume several curious and interesting Tracts as for instance, “AnalysisofAgriculturalPha.se,” by Fortune; “ Tes Pere et Mere honoreras,” a Play in Creole ; Water supply of San Fernando, by H. Warner ; Minutes of the Trinidad Reform Association, 1856, (fee., &c. Scientific Tracts — Vol. I.-N. These volumes contain among other and general papers a large number of papers on scientific subjects connected with the Island of Trinidad. Naturalists’ Club, 1892-96. This volume contains the remaining Publications of the Field Naturalists’ Club Journal No. 6 February 1892 to No. 12 February 1896, complete to date. History of Trinidad. By L. M. Fraser. Vol. I. (no date) 1<81 to 1813. Vol. II. (1896) 1814 to 1839. of Scientific Memoirs relatin: neighbourhood. YICT0RI4 INSTITUTE, TRINIDAD, 1897 - 1898 . PROCEEDINGS OF THE INAUGURAL MEETING OF THE SESSION HELD AT THE VICTORIA imittsettim:, joth SEPTEMBER, 1897. The Hon. H. A. Alcazar, Q.C., Mayor of Port-of-Spain, (by special request) in the Chair. The Vice-President of the Institute (S. Devenish, M.A,, stated : — I N the absence of our worthy President, Sir John Goldney, now in Europe, it is mj r pleasant duty as Vice-President to welcome your Excellency and Lady Jerningham, to the Victoria Institute, of which you have graciously consented to be Patron. Opened in 1892, in commemoration of the Queen’s 50 years’ Jubilee, at the suggestion and under the fostering auspices of Sir William Robinson, this Institute has hitherto had a long struggling for life and popularity, and would not have lasted so long without the generous subsidy from the Government, but in spite of the interest and special efforts of its founder, it has not yet been able to show the vitality and usefulness which we had anticipated. Your Excellency must, no doubt, be aware how, owing to the well known general apathy inherent to all tropical climates, and to the regretable “ Laisser aller consequent thereon, it is difficult for Institutions of this sort to develop rapidly and throw out vigorous lasting roots. For the last 50 years, several similar scientific and artistic societies have sprung 188 PROCEEDINGS OF THE VICTORIA INSTITUTE. up among us, owing to the energetic initial of a few enthusiastic Colonists, but, like a megass fire, which after a bright short | blazing up, soon collapses and dies out without even leaving any perceptible smouldering debris, they have all collapsed after a few years crawling on, leaving no vestiges after them. To-day, however, we earnestly cherish the hope, even after so many sad trials, that, under your sympathetic patronage, and your enlightened direction, the public will soon realize the benefits which may be expected from this Society, and that the Victoria Institute will, henceforth, cheerfully enter into a new era of popularity and usefulness, and will prove itself worthy of the patriotic ' and happy event to which it owes its birth, and to which have been added, the recent unique National Grand Jubilee of Her Majesty’s glorious and unparalled 60 years reign over the vast British Empire. The Chairman (Mr. Alcazar) said he had much pleasure in acceding to the request which had been conveyed to him in such graceful terms by the Vice-President. He considered it an honour to have the privilege of presiding on this interesting occasion, an occasion which he hoped would mark an epoch in the history of the Institute. He was much afraid that the general public and indeed even the members of the Institute had begun to look upon it as a sort of moribund institution, and they were daily expecting to have been called upon to assist at its funeral. It was with pleasurable surprise that instead of being called upon to assist at that gruesome ceremony, there had been issued a most interesting programme to be carried out during .the coming session — a programme which would not only be interesting to the members of the Institution but a large section of the general public, as even the working men of the community were to be catered for in the form of lectures on plumbing, painting, and other kindled subjects. When they first saw the programme, they all wondered whose was the magic wand that had electrified that anemic and lifeless body, and they now knew that it was due almost exclusively to the very kind interest which His Excellency the Governor had been pleased to take in the Institute and its work. His Excellency had shown by consenting to deliver the opening address, that that interest was to assume a practical form, and he was sure that the Members of the Institute and the publ.c were deeply grateful to His Excellency, for they felt, and the public would feel tint if His Excellency took that interest it was because he had relliled that that Institute was one which ought to exist fV„. +t, " j * the co—iy. .t W He hoped admission to those lectures would be more freely rliot -w j ai Secretary had informed him that that ' The was due principally to the INAUGURAL MEETING 1897 - 1898 . 189 lack of room that existed at present. If that was so, all he had to say was that he hoped, if the Institute was launched upon the successful career foreshadowed for it by that night’s proceedings, that before long it would have a more suitable habitat. In fact, he hoped that before the opening address of the next session was delivered, they would have a lecture room which would enable the Institute to carry out successfully its aims and objects. His Excellency the Governor, on rising to deliver the open- ing address, said it was the habit in the House of Commons, before making a speech, to reply by courtesy, to the speech that had been made before, or at all events refer to it. He would, therefore, with their permission, thank the Vice-Presi- dent for his kind words of welcome to Lady J erningham and himself, and express his regret, in accordance with the Vice- President’s remarks, that Sir John Goldney, the President of the Institute, could not be there. Sir John Goldney took so much interest in the Victoria Institute, that he (the Governor) had not been an hour in the Colony, and had not had time to have breakfast, when he (Sir John Goldney) placed in his hands every document he could find with regard to the Institute. After he he had been sworn in, Sit J ohn Goldney urged him to take up the cause of having lectures for the public benefit, therefore to him was due the initiation of the interest and of the benefit which would be derived from lectures of that kind. He entirely agreed with the Hon’ble the Mayor in his remark that in order to make those lectures more interesting and to. be appreciated in the Colony, there should be a larger locale, and it was quite evident that the people to whom they appealed especially and who wished to be instructed in a pleasant manner, were those who should come innumbers, and be admittedas freely as possible on thenights when there were lectures concerning themselves. He entirely agreed with the sentiments, and therefore he thought he might take upon himself to say that he should certainly work with the Institute to try and provide for that want. Sir J ohn Goldney desired that he (the Governor) should be Patron, and it appeared that the Governor was generally the Patron and after he had told Sir John Goldney that he entirely coincided with his ideas and his views, he was then invited by the Committee of the Institute to become Patron and to do what he could for an institution which they say was in a moribund condition. He thought at the time that a body of men, a noble band, and they he might say, of gentlemen in this Colony who, after a toilsome day, could go and give their leisure, to expound their own know- ledge of subjects, to give to the community the benefit of their experience, who did not grudge those minutes, — those men constituted a noble band, and they should be rewarded for their 190 PROCEEDINGS OF THE VICTORIA INSTITUTE. efforts, for it was an effort in a Country like this, where the sun was so magnificent but at the same time made itself so much felt, it was a toil to come of an evening, after a fatiguing day, and deliver a lecture which, in itself, had required on their part, in order to condense it, so much labour, so much thought, so much work. When he was invited, he was reminded of some beautiful lines that were sent on one occasion by Foster, the great friend of Dickens, to Dickens in London. — Come with me and behold A friend with heart -as gentle for distress, As resolute with fine wise thoughts, to bind The happiest, to the unhappiest of our kind. Those were beautiful lines, which really' in his opinion summed up the desire of the people who were at the head of the Institute, namely, kindness to the poor and uninstructed, and that heart which desired that mankind should be real fellowship, and which desired to impart to others knowledge which they possessed themselves, ungrudgingly and unselfishly ; and therefore they might imagine that it was with great gratitude and a great sense of the honour which was conferred on him, that he accepted at once the position. But the Committee went further. Human nature was never satisfied with one requirement, He had found by long experience that when somebody had got what he wanted he immediately found something else that he wished to have as soon as possible after that. In official life, those officials who were present would bear him out. He had never given promotion to a man that did not want another promotion within six months (laughter). Well, the Com mittee of that Institute then asked him to wive a lec- or at all events, to give an address He a little more discomforting, for he bad bad no idea a lecture, aud with the multifarious duties . .. ln cumbent on the governor of this Colony, he thought the subject would at all events be a difficult one to X e '^°X at ^ t: up - of wha v va : upon which he could personally say perhaps somelhing^therl were orators and lecturers found who knew n • S - ’ and to whom he would listen with much more could possibly deliver a lecture himself particularly unhappy. He did subject could he choose? He though I tV, ''"Tv. 7 uu \ " T would tell them of a subject which nerhaiSt , that Perhaps he before, namelv the <• 1 lha P s had not been treated But several people in ture also, found that of giving which were sht interest than he himself. He was really not know what to do. What WiUCn even e ther he" Jas 6 INAUGURAL MEETING 1897 - 1898 . 191 the colony who had many tribulations. He knew the Director of Public Works had great tribulations, because there was the Ghaguaramas scheme which militated against his own. He knew that the immigrants and the planters had great tribula- tions because a sort of still-born Ordinance had been passed which suited neither one nor the other (laughter). lie knew again that the Municipality had its tribulations, because it had not been able for twenty years to meet its expenditure. When he found so many tribulations, he thought it would be indiscreet to reveal the tribulations of their governor. But the other stroke had to come. Hast Tuesday he had a very able leader, a most able leader he might say, upon that Institute ; and what did that leader say 1 That leader said that the Westminster Aquarium in London was the most successful of its kind, although primarily instituted for the purpose of giving lectures on science, because male and female crowded in every day to see performers. He (the governor) was not a performer, and he did not know how he should benefit an institution in that way. That article went further and said that unless you were a German you could not think even of interesting any one except by amusing them. Well, he was not a German, and he did not know how to amuse. But the crowning feature of the artiole was that, according to human nature, ladies in the tropics wanted particularly to be amused, or they would not come, and that was the reason why the Institute did not succeed. Well he must say that this staggered him to such an extent, that he thought he would not give a lecture, at the Institute again, or at all events begin. But it struck him afterwards that perhaps after all even the writer of that able article might he mistaken, because ladies in this Colony, as he knew from the mouth of the Principal of the Royal ollege, Wanted to compete with men in regard to the acquisition of scientific knowledge, and therefore he desired to see in the future, in that hail as many ladies as men listening to the interesting subjects which had been so carefully selected for their information. Well, it then remained for him to find out some particular subject. Now, the companions of the Governor were the Blue Books and the Census. They might find these very dry companions, hut they are not dry. He remembered Trinidad had a motto, namely, “ Unity.” He remembered that iu the Christian line Trinidad did mean “unity;’ and he remembered that if the colony' had progressed in the past and was progressing, if the colony could be favourably compared, if this colony had a future before it, that was a trinity of hopes that might form the subject of the few words he wished to address to them. In those Blue Books, which were held out to 192 PROCEEDINGS OF THE VICTORIA INSTITUTE them as being so uninteresting there was a curious history of the development of Trinidad. Taking the population of the country as one which was specially indicative of a country’s prosperity, or at all events of a country not receding, they would find that in thirteen years this colony had risen from 84,000 to, at the last Census of 1891 — 200,000, and according to the proportion of it and the rate of progression of the population, in the year 1897, namely this very' year, the population of this Island must be about 250,000 inhabitants. If they compared that with the 84,000 only that existed in 1884, that was a proof that this colony was making progress, because when they were talking of population it did not mean only having a multitude of individuals in the place, it meant housing them, feeding them, it meant that they should find a means of living and all that had to be found. They 'naturally added to the labour market by their intelligence, by their work, by their ability. But at the same time, it was a proof that the colony was progressing. In connection with the population he might Iso say that there was very great hope of every lady in the Island finding a husband (laughter) because it appeared from the Census that there were 845 females to every thousand males, so that there was a margin, and ladies could even select between two and three. This showed that the Blue Books were at all events interesting. The Revenue of the Colony in 1884, which was the first year in which a regular Blue Book was published, was £476,000. It was in 1896, £618,000, namely a rise of £142,000 a year. That, he should say, was conclusive proof that the Co ony was marching, namely, going on progressing. The ™ ' ch in 1884 was •£•590,000 had diminished in 1896 to £38o,000 notwithstanding all the new works which had been begun and probably to which they would add this year, shoi’ihf V iere We ',? son “« > m P° rt ant works, but that the debt itself no >O SO sn| all and the Revenue so good, indicated a sound he con ’!! 101 as he Sieved n0 other Colony could boast of, and fcrStiM U,is (applause). He could not »d L “Ll , l e , t 0, ., h "" d ;C 'if tolk « d f -ore, nature. In human alwavs hannenprl .n <• 1“ n na , ture - Tn human nature it person he •liwiv 1 Y* ' v len OIle had paid a compliment to a - 'ill? had sa y f>mething disagreeable after it, and • 6 ?aoc nam< ‘-iy that that the schools in t.:8, and in 1896 tWr this was the dis 1884 were only of 54 in in 1884 was 24,000. , „ lm in 1896 they were only 192, an increase )eais. orse still, the number of pupils and it was only 27,000 in 1896. £32,000 to £38 00C) U v* 6 ’*. ^ la, d not increased very much, from credit of this Colony 'that thle Should ^^^ 0 ^ INAUGUKAL MEETING 1897 - 1898 . 193 as he had told them, that proportion of children, and that there should not be more children attending school. So far as he could see, that audience was not one that would communicate that fact, probably to the whole Colony, but they would try to do so for their own friends’ sake. This Island, if it was to progress, must mind education. The Government spared no money to give pro- per education to the children of the natives of this Island. It was their duty to look after education, and no money should be spared upon that great and noble object. Education was the means of ennobling man, of making man something, and therefore those who looked after that had to pay for education, and were willing to do so, and the others in the Colony must respond to that. He would return to the subject presently and they would see what a neighbouring island could do in the way of education. The imports had maintained themselves at very high figures indeed for a West Indian Colony, higher in fact than in Jamaica, and exports had done the very same thing, the only difference between the exports and imports being £297,000. It was always interesting to know what exports and imports meant. The exports meant what they produced in the soil and sold outside and got money for. Imports meant that one had to buy that which could not be produced here, and he wanted to dwell upon that, because presently when they came to the second stage of comparison he would show them that in J amaica they understood it better than we had, and we must be careful upon that point. The whole of that £297,000 had come out of their pockets. They must make no illusion upon the subject, £297,000 had been made a present of by this Colony, to Venezuela, to England, to France, to Germany, and elsewhere. It was money out of their pockets, and that money out of their pockets was money which ought to have been in the Island if they had only grown and manufactured that which had cost that amount. Im- ports and exports were for the Governor a sort of weather-glass which told him whether a Colony was prosperous or whether it was not ; it was one which he should have his eye upon exactly ln the same way as the captain of a ship had his eye upon the compass which showed the direction. As soon as the imports exceeded the exports unnecessarily, he meant of course, after making all allowance for the due oscillations between the crops of different years, but if it exceeded it too much it was a proof that the power of spending was not upon revenue but upon the capital of the Colony and therefore impoverishing it, and that was a point that ought never to be lost sight of. Well, as he should show them, it was quite satisfactory as it was at present. It was more satisfactory still when they looked at the shipping. ■Wow, the shipping was a very interesting point. The shipping 194 PROCEEDINGS OP THE VICTORIA INSTITUTE. in this Island showed that in 1896, 2,817 ships, steam and sail, came into Trinidad, representing 623,000 tons cf goods ; that vfas to say, that we imported to the amount, but lie found on the clearing side that there were 2,815 ships that cleared this Colony with 619,000 tons. That was a satisfactory statement. It showed that there was only a slight extra importation, and that they exported 4,000 tons less only than what they imported But what did these 4,000 tons represent ? They represented food. They represented that which they could grow here. The other represented the whole wants of the community, and these 4,000 tons absolutely represented nothing else but food brought into the Colony which might be grown here, and that was a point which he insisted upon because it was probable that the few remarks he had the honour of making might be reported, and he wished the whole colony to know that, since he had been here and had studied it and had seen and taken to heart the position that he had the honour to occupy among them, he believed this colony could produce far more than it did, and he intended it to produce much more. So far as the first stage, namely, the position of the colony and its progressing yearly was concerned, they would allow with him that it really was satisfactory. Tt was not per- haps what they might wish in their sanguine desires to be above all other colonies, but it was satisfactory as it, stood Tf tW amaica boasted of. The INAUGURAL MEETING 1897 - 1898 . 195 revenue then, taking the population of that country and that of Trinidad, the revenue itself was only £825,000 against £618 1,000 of ours, which was not at all in proportion to what it should be, because if it were in proportion the revenue of Jamaica should be over a million, and it was below. On the other hand it, Jamaica, presented a deficit in its accounts and we presented a surplus m ours. The debt of Jamaica was £1,600,000. He had shown them that here it was £385,000, and the people of Trinidad altogether per head of the population— which was a bad calcu- lation because it was not, everybody who paid but he meant for summary purposes like this, taking it per head of the population, they had a burden of £5 Is. to our £4 9s. J that was to say, that if they divided the expenditure of the government plus the debt of the country by the number of the people they had per head what it cost the Colony to keep up its administration and to pro- gress, and that was a difference of 12s. in our favour. But then came the point at which Jamaica led altogether, that was to say, in the question of schools. There were 930 schools in Jamaica as against 192 in Trinidad ; there were 99,000 pupils as against 27,000 in Trinidad, and they cost £45,000 against our Now, that meant that every school here cost the Colony and every scholar £1 8s., whereas in Jamaica every school Cost £40 and every scholar only 9s. a head. That was the point which he commended to their notice. It was a very important point. It showed that there was a screw loose somewhere, and wnen there was a screw loose, they roust discover where the Screw was loose and endeavour to the best o ^ eu a 1 1 ^ to make it firm again and to put that in order. Hie shipping again, in Trinidad and Jamaica, compute mos favourably. In Jamaica they had more steamers than we had here. That was quite evident, as there was the open sea all round Jamaica, and iiere they had got the gulf wine 1 1 re a lake and where there was not sufficient depth of watei an icnce big steamers could not come into the gulf as they won o ei wise do. The question then arose whether it was not desirable or possible, or whether it would not be to the advantage of the Colony to find some place where big steamers would come without injuring a part of the interests that were centred in Port-of-Spain. Those were questions that arose from a cursory look at those Blue Books which were supposed to be so dry that noboc y w is le to read them. But he thought he had said enough in the single remark that there were 681,000 acres of land still uncultivated, to show them that this Island, steadily progressing as it was, pro- vided its finances were properly and judiciously administered, and advancing in every branch except the educational branch, he 196 PROCEEDINGS OF THE VICTORIA INSTITUTE. thought he had shown them enough to make it clear that there was still a margin of progress. It was the idea in this community that people would take an interest only in the illustrations which might there be made of some of the interesting portions of the work which they were called upon to perform. He knew that as was remarked by the Vice-President, there was a certain amount of laziness attributable mostly to the climate, and which was very natural in its way, but at the same time there was in most communities a lack of progressive zeal. There must be a desire to serve under a standard upon which the word “ excelsior ” was marked. He thought that this should be the aim of the poor — he was not talking of the rich — they were none of them rich in the Colonies, they all worked hard, and they were all on the same footing, and the poor man looked to those who led for guidance, and it was the great and noble object of that Institute to show them the way. It did not mean that they wished to enforce knowledge or to press people to come to it to do them the honour of coming simply to hear those that were selected for the purpose of giving information. M hat they wanted, as those lines indicated, was that kindness which appealed to their hearts, to work with them for the unity of this country, to work with them to the end of progress, and to work with them for that great word which was the Christian standard, the word “ excelsior ” (applause). Mr ."riT ?' 1 " 8 concluded his Address, Dr. Knox ant Pont rr n l !J: hl n d , V T S V f the human fram e obtained by tlr who h d wall 2“^ d ! SCk, m d a C0U1 1 y“S oa chest of a ma. mummy and 2fiT d l • ‘'T® were simil ar photographs of ■ “t off came a vi Tl ® skeletons within. As a pleasinj St Paul’s c!ii , V1 T ° f , ? ho S ran( t assemblage in front o brasses “ “rf ^ tx Lovell’s collection in Mauritius. 3 ' Potter from one of Dl kindly entertained theui 'the °Gove to . those who h some life into figures whioli wra,. * einor > he said, had infus them of Mr. Gladstone’s budgets. ? Their ^th" I?’’ 7* to Dr. Knox and Mr Potter / * thanks also were d latest scientific inventions The h eir exhibition of one of t ventions. The proceedings terminated at 9.: FOODS, ETC., IMPORTED IN 1S96. 1. Cereals : — Vainest- Quantities. ,. £127,000 30,500,000 Sis.. 18,000 2,200.000 „ 113,000 20.500,000 „ Dholl ... 9,500 , 2,500,000 „ £267,500 2. Liquors : — Spirits ... £ 31,000* 30,000 gls. 106,000 250,000 „ Wine 41,000* 217,000 „ (Malt 44,000* 180,000 „ £222,000 3. Meat and Fish ; Meat .. £ 70,000 . 6,400,000 lbs. Oxen 43,000 . 3,S00,000 „ Other Stock 8,000 900,000 „ Fish ... 60,000 . 8,000,000 „ - £181,000 4, Milk Products and Fats : — ... £ 24,500 650,000 lbs. Cheese ... 7,000 248,000 „ Milk ... 7,000 — 1,500* — Lard 21,500 .. 1,340,000 „ Olive Oil 14,000 450,000 „ ' Oleomargarine 3,000* 150,000 „ £ 78,500 5. M EDICINES ... £ 10,000 6, Sugar and Beverages : — Sugar . . . 6,000 600,000 B»s. Tea 2,500 60,000 ,. Cocoa . . . — Coffee . . . — ' £ 8,500 7. Miscellaneous : — Vegetables ... £ 30,000 Peas 8,000 Fruit ... 2,000 Unclassified 20,000 £ 60,000 Total ... £827,500 * Averages. N.B.— Duties not included except in the case of Spirituous Liquors (No. 2.) I [Bead, before the Victoria Institute, 88th October, 1897.) FOOD ADULTERATION. By Professor Carmody, F.C.S., &c. TTOU are all very -well aware that a great many things are I adulterated or imitated at the present time. Never before in the history of the world, has adulteration been so extensively practised. Purchasers are, in their own interests, compelled to exercise the most extreme caution m uying an 3 j Diamonds may be nothing but glass ; rubies a ^d P e arls and other precious stones may be the work of some si . U gold and silver articles may be composed large y o ,■ (in this town there is a gang of vagabonds who se bra s for gold); electroplated goods are not the suos an 1 , articles of former years, and they contain the sraallesit possible quantity of gold or silver that can entitle the. m to be sold ^ as electroplate; silk is no longer the pure product of the old- fashioned silk-worm ; velvets, woollen anr men » made largely from cotton and other fibres, an s leather imitation that only experts can distinguish ; even i the leather in our boots may never have been the natural envelope of y known species of animal. In other directions, we find stained pitch pine or deal doing duty for mahogany, oak, or walnut ; steel cutting-instruments that refuse to cut anything much harder than butter, y imitations that are made out of camphor and gmncotton, carpets, and pictures, and china, that are bu pool c P ' prototypes ; horsehair mattresses that are innocent oi ho.sehait, costly feat Urbeds that are made with second hand feathers , and cheap watc.es and clocks that are but poor temponsers. Unfortunate even is the man who claims the sole ^right bo- some successful commercial venture, whether 1 e a 1 y some ailment, a popular food or drink, a cleveL lnven r > even a good book, song, or play. The remainder of his life must be devoted to prosecuting imitators and plagiaus s. , extend the above list very considerably ; but I have said enough to show you that there are good grounds for the widespread com mercial mistrust that exists at the present time. 198 PROCEEDINGS OF THE VICTORIA INSTITUTE. In none of the cases I have mentioned does the Government of a country particularly interfere with the ordinary law of con- tract between buyer and seller. It is only in connection with Food Adulteration that special laws are enacted. And the reason for this is not far to seek. The question of Food Adul- teration is so intimately connected with the health of the com munity, and this in its turn with national prosperity and pro- gress, that the Governments of all civilised countries have found it necessary to take steps for the prevention of practices fraught with consequences so serious and certain. After careful enquiry, it was established, that many articles of food were so tampered with as to be injurious to health, and it was resolved that nothing short of active Government interference could secure for the public that protection which was necessary for their health and prosperity. Food Adulteration was regarded as a national enemy to be subdued by imperial forces. But the Governments did not confine their operations to adulterations injurious to health, they decided also to protect the public against fraudulent adulterations. For these two classes of adulteration they provided different kinds of punishment. Deleterious adulterations were punished by imprisonment, without the option of a fine for second offences ; fraudulent adulterations were punishable by fines only. And the result of the severe punishment in the one case is, that adulterations injurious to health are now comparatively rare and harmless. Fines for fraudulent adulterations have not proved a sufficient deterrent] and they never will so long as the profits are greater than the fines. Having said so much by way of introduction, I think I may with advantage say a few words on the early history of adul- TP ration. J The first case of which we have any record two and a half centuries before Glirici- i i ; i.-’ CARMODY — FOOD ADULTERATION. 199 About two hundred years later we hear of lime, an import- ant article among the Romans, being adulterated with red lead ; and, in the first century of the Christian era, of opium being adulterated with gum and the milky juices of other plants ; Pliny writes of bread adulterated with earth, soft to the touch, sweet to the taste and obtained from a hill called Leucogee, near Naples; and again states that, not even the rich Roman millionaires, could buy the natural wines of h demo, for they were adulterated in the cellars. We hear also of the appoint^ ment in Athens of a special inspector to stop the adulteration of wine ; but whether the recorders were at rest, or adulterators ceased from troubling, nothing more is heard of them till about the 11th century, since which time they have been particularly active. An Act for the assize of bread was passed in the 4th year, of the reign of King John j bakers, brewers, pepperers and vintners were all looked after, and ale-tasters were appointed in the 15th century. The adulteration of wine was so extensively practised in England in the 16th and 17 th centuries, that Addison thus writes in the Tatler “ these subtle philosophers are daily employed in the transmutation of liquors, and by the powers of magical drugs and incantations raise under the streets of London the choicest products of the lulls and valleys ot France ; they squeeze Bordeaux out of the s oe, an raw champagne from an apple.” In France, from very early times (13th century) we find regulations for the general supervision and inspection of pio- visions, flour, bread, wine, butter and drugs, until finally in ISO-, Boards of Health were permanently established in Paris. Similai steps were taken in Germany ; but the punishments were usually more severe. With many of these punishments, the punishments of the pre- sent day compare favourably indeed. In Nurembourg, m 144 , a man was burnt with bis false saffron, and a yeai a er, wo men and a woman were buried alive there for the same o ence. n other parts of Germany, the bread adulterator was placed in a basket at the end of a long pole, and ducked repeatedly in a muddy pool. One wine adulterator was led out of the city, with hands bound and a rope round his neck; two others were branded and otherwise severely punished; a man and his wife were pilloried on the cask in which they sold sour wine sweetened with roasted pears, each being compelled to wear a necklace ot the pears. But this was mild as compared with the punishment inflicted in 1482 on a falsifier of wine at Biebnch. He was con- demned to drink six quarts of his own wine. It killed him. in France, in 1525, a bread adulterator was led from prison through 200 PROCEEDINGS OP THE VICTORIA INSTITUTE. the streets of Paris with only one garment on, his head and feet bare, small loaves hung round his neck, and a large lighted wax candle in his hand, and at each of the principal churches and public places had to ask mercy and pardon of God, the King, and of Justice for his fault. In 171S, a man who had caused the death of one person, and the illness of others by the use of some poisonous plant in wine, and his wife who sold the wine, were condemned to be led by two sergeants for one day through the streets of Berghein, carrying sandwich boards with the words “ frelateurs de vin ” printed thereon, to pay a fine of 130 livres, and 30 livres extra “ pour faire prier Dieu pour le repos de l ame du defunt.” One novel form of wine adulteration occurred in recent years and is worthy of mention. A particular brand of cham- pagne secured a high reputation at Wurtemburg on account of its unusual exhilarating effects. Suspicion was at length aroused, and Liebig, who analysed it, found it was charged with one volume of Carbonic acid gas, and two volumes of laughing gas. I mentioned above that Archimedes did not seem to be an expert analyst; but the method he adopted was a great discovery and is still used by us. Some other tests used (even as late as the 16th century) for detecting adulteration have not so secured the admiration of posterity. Here is Dr. Blyth’s description of the one adopted by the ale-tasters. The ale was spilt on a wooden seat, and on the wet place the tasters si attired m leathern breeches, then common enough If sugar had r*T b6Came JereZ tS considered that the f h l ad J nofe been added > it was then considered that the dried extract had no adhesive property.” merely Tadd thtt ^ lo W but will was passed in ^Engloncf genera! Food and Drugs Act we iS Trinidad^p^tT^S* I *Ti similar Acts, and in 1895. P ‘ fc n lbS0 ’ and further modified it question of our ow n '"f^^uDDl v^ 0 V° the COnsider;i,ion of judge of its importance In- n?, P> T°“ wil1 better be able quantities of the principal imn^T f# th ? Se Tables of values t 1-t year. To eJ!Z7 t L toH l ^ PpUes oonsun annual food supply you must add trwl ° t | le consu mer, of < merchants’ profits and the value of tbls the import duties, I ,h “™ — CARMODY — FOOD ADULTERATION. 201 must correspondingly suffer in pocket, if not in health ; for you can readily understand that the profits of adulteration go to the actual adulterator. So far as I know there are only three forms of purely local adulteration practised extensively, viz. : — adul- teration of milk, rum, and vinegar. If you desire to know the extent and nature of the adulterants that are said to be used in these imported articles, I would recommend you to read the sensational paragraphs that appear in the newspapers from time to time. Food adulteration, and bacteriology, and more recently skeleton photography, have been as great a godsend to current literature in general, as a Director of Public Works and a General Manager of Railways are to the local press. Nothing could be easier for me than to follow in this beaten track, to play the role of alarmist, and to provide you with a literary feast composed of a description of the most gruesome dishes. I might invite you to an imaginary early coffee, and provide you at six in the morning with the following menu : — Bread, bleached with alum and guaranteed indigestible by a suitable addition of plaster of Paris ; Butter consisting of Oleomargarine and other greases ; J ams and J ellies made from turnips, seaweeds, glucose and gelatine and tinted with aniline dyes to any desired shade ; Honey made of glucose and molasses ; Tea made of exhausted leaves dipped in a solution of catechu gum and then dyed with Prussian Blue ; Coffee made from chicory or burnt corn ; Cocoa (if you prefer the imported mixture to the genuine native article) composed of starch and sugar and with not more than 10% of real Cocoa lest the fat in it should inter- fere with your digestion j Milk guaranteed to contain not less than 25% of dirty water, or (if tinned) possibly deprived of a large proportion of its natural fat ; Demerara crystals which consist of the detested Beet sugar disguised by aniline dyes. And to relieve you of any further anxiety 7 , I would give this additional guarantee that all the Butter, J am, J elly, Honey, and Milk consumed on the premises are warranted to contain Salicylic and Boric acids in such quantity that, if you should happen to die soon after, you are already partially embalmed. I m ight invite you to dinner in the evening, but I am afraid you "would not accept the invitation after your experiences of the morning, and I will not hurt your feelings with a description of the contents of the dinner table. I will read you instead an amusing satire on this subject from the pen of a German writer. “There were four flies and, as it happened, they were hungry one morning. The first joyfully alighted on a sausage of singularly appetizing appearance, and made a hearty meal ; but he speedily died of intestinal inflammation, for the sausage was dyed with aniline. The second fly breakfasted upon flour, and c 202 PROCEEDINGS OF THE VICTORIA INSTITUTE. forthwith succumbed to contraction of the stomach, owing to the inordinate quantity of alum with which the flour had been adul- terated. The third fly was slaking his thirst in the contents of a milk jug, when violent spasms suddenly convulsed his frame, and he soon gave up the ghost, a victim to chalk adulteration. Seeing this, the fourth fly, muttering to himself the sooner it's over, the sooner to sleep, alighted upon a moistened sheet of paper exhibiting the counterfeit presentment of a death’s head above the inscription “ Fly Poison.” Fearlessly applying the tip of his proboscis to this device, the fourth fly drank to bis heart’s content, growing more vigorous and cheerful at every mouthful although expecting each would be the last. He did not die, but on the contrary thrived and waxed fat, for even the fly pad was adulterated.” , , f hl .Y s what yo , u Wlil find ia the newspapers, and they are but highly coloured word pictures of actual facts I will endeavour to place before you' this evening the facts, so far as they relate to us locally, without the artistic colouring. difcLtd aif, " tl " S 0rd " ° f “» * SECTION I. — Cereals. Xceo? :iumlfl d 0 Ulterat r f • a f ™ da1 ^ factor ' S presence ot alum ,n flour or bread is now of rare occurrence. SECTION II— Spirituous Liquors. i <«"«■»». ** «* Rum is adulterated with w i l i Ude Um l° ca i manufacture Some persons think his ZTj the ,e S al ^ of strengtl view; but rum isV ' l adVa f«® from a moral point c taken in excess. Of the brand’ ° n ? an iatox > ca nt whei that is not genuine but for UUp ° r \ ed ’ 1 fear *ere is mucl on, this is not often tested T V ich 1 ^1 explain late but much of it consists of of Oleomargarine for every 41b. of butter. At the present time,' the w e tlr d for baC H ° Ur bufcter * ,J PP ] y is the reduced proportion of butter fat, and the correspondingly high proportion of water and and" wfter mav hf ? ma ? ufactured article, the proportion of salt The latter is t iA J i al * e ^ 1110 teased at the expense of the fat. found necessary ‘ tTlLTthl amount^f ‘"h th T efore itbas bee “ be added Tn R^ i u oVw “? unt of salt and water that may average amount hf and 8 ° % ° at is the “mit allowed; but the account ^ « r % 7 o? th ' <£*«" »' imported here we,e P found'”? 0 o°E« 67 T e ° ( bu ““ few contained less than go r - ) b ' P er cer| t. of butter, a per cent, of » tb.t H-U sent the proportions present in butters r Water ’ rep ,' quality but the proportion of salt v, f / air commerc ’ aI salt migh advantageously be I CARMODY — FOOD ADULTERATION. 205 reduced. We have found as much as 27 per cent, of salt, and 20 per cent, of water in some samples ; and it therefore became necessary to draw the line somewhere. We have drawn it at 15% of butter fat, which we consider a fair commercial standard for ordinary butter sold in firkins. Ghee is melted butter to all intents and purposes. It is consumed only by East Indians, and contains neither water nor salt. The amount imported last year (4,0001bs.) was much below the average. This points to piobably adulteration. In 1891, the importation amounted to 160,000 lbs. The £7,000 worth of cheese imported here is, so far as we have examined it, genuine. In some places it is much adulter- ated by being made from skimmed milk or from skimmed milk and lard or oleomargarine and sold under the name of filled cheese. Lard is imported here in very large quantities. In 1896 we consumed 1,340,000 lbs. which cost us £21,500. The most serious adulteration in connection with this article occurred a year or so ago, wheu a mixture containing one-third of its weight of water was imported. Genuine lard contains only a fraction of a per cent, of water. If this mixture had not been detected, the adulterator would have made £7,000 a year from this island alone. Olive oil is with us an important article. Here again is evidence of a large French population. 50,000 gallons of a Talue of £14,000 is our annual consumption. No article ol commerce is more largely adulterated than olive oil. T le pure oil sells at a high price ; and the addition of many cheaper ods irhich admit of being used as adulterants, — is difficult to detect. Of these, cotton seed oil Is most commonly used— the price ot TYhich is about 2/- a gallon as compared with 6/- a gallon lor olhe oil. There is here a large margin of profit for the unscru- pulous adulterator who does not hesitate to sell cotton seed oil 38 11 sublime ” olive oil. To oleomargarine, when sold as such, there can be no objec hon either from a commercial or health point of view. 00 os ® y does it resemble butter in its appearance that it has frequent y Wn sold as butter. Indeed it is said that at a recent Exhibition 3 sample of oleomargarine obtained the first prize in the butter «iou. If the judges W ere experts, as they should ttis seems impossible ; for the two can be readily distin^uis . A great many unfair statements have been made about oleomargarine. It has been said, for instance, that it \ s mi *de river mud; but it is usually manufactured [with the greatest care and attention, from beef fat which is firs m 206 PROCEEDINGS OP THE VICTORIA INSTITUTE. partially, the liquid portion separated, cooled, and then churned j with milk to give it a flavour. As a rule it contains 85 percent* of fat, and only 15 per cent, of water and salt. It keeps well I in this climate with T\- per cent, of salt. Compared with butte;! it is of course very deficient in flavour. SECTION Y. — Medicines. Medicines which amount in value to £10,000 a year call for no special notice. SECTION VI. — Sugar and Beverages. We consume refined sugar to the value of £6,000 a year It or a sugar producing colony this is a large amount. The only adulteration of sugar worthy of consideration a ec s us as sugar producers rather than as sugar consumers. Ains consists in the substitution of beet crystals, coloured with for the well known Demerara crystals. It is j 7 . ec y a fraud; and, although convictions under the Food ana urugs Act have been obtained in many parts of England, Ifc f, a question which should be dealt with under u £?" w i,arkS Act, and dealt with severely. It shows DrotpctPfl V’ i ° Ur stru SS 1] ng industries can be, to some extent protected by the proper working of Food Laws in other countries. infrem, U pni"ll th ° US , h S !J gar itseIf is not much adulterated, it is not a kind of Ji le P la °ed in preserves such as jams and jellies by substitutes If r “ a J le ar ; tlficia % from starch. The use of such might remarl-™! 11118 leS ] f 10 na tural demand for cane sugar. I larcre manufipt 1<3re ’ hough it is not strictly relevant, that* he found it; lmr”' '-! ? f rate< waters stated some time ago that when made inn?* 51 ’.t USe beet , su gar for his syrups, because mouldy flavour ? ,? at ® r tllis s y ru p always developed a cane-sugar producers.* 3 *** 1Slnterested testimony of some value to ported could "bo if a - tbat tbe quality of much that is im- not aware of any serio™ fduKtion.^ jUdiCi ° US 1 extent, I am unable^o^* 36 ’ bufc wh y we do so, and to what am unable to give you any information. parations as cfeo’i tin a^fan Ho,!^’/ f - ™ ° SU ° h sp3 ° i f 1 ^ X for the demand for cacao CARMODY — FOOD ADULTERATION. 207 would be much greater, if adulteration had not been practised to the extraordinary — I might even say shameful— extent it is at present. What words are too strong to describe the sale as cacao of a mixture of starch and sugar with only 8 pei cen ■ 0 real cacao 1 Most of the mixtures sold contain not more than 25 per cent, of cacao, and the best brands do not go above 50 per cent. Of the so-called pure cocoas I shall have somethin 0 to say later on. The great naturalist, Linnaeus, was of opinion that cacao was a food fit for the gods, our modern teachers tell us that it is not fit food even for man. They tell us that nature made a hu^e mistake in putting so much fat into the cacao bean, that we must, dilute this enormous proportion of fat wi s arc i sugar, or express it from the bean, before we can prepare a p sentable beverage. In the long run, however, we s la pi find that nature made no mistake, and that the blame les ourselves because we have not discovered the proper way it. It has often struck me as a very singular fact that the people of tropical countries drink, and I suppose have iur * v centuries, pure cacao with all its fat, without tee mg an worse for it; and yet in cold climates, where fa., w 1L heat giver, would be a very desirable constituent of f°°d, the people complain that pure cacao disagrees with p i of the large quantity of fat it contains. Ant ye () f will consume at a meal a great deal more fa , m ^ - butter or bacon, than is contained in the stionges cup ‘ I think that we should hear fewer complaints of this sort, it it were generally understood that milk, and not wa er,^ t liquid to use in preparing the infusion Another po'n m sup port of the view that cacao fat is not the indigestible ^ £ is said to be, is that children do consume larger T^titms 0^ cacao fat in the form of chocolate creams tnan ls , c , ‘ , j ate cup of cacao, and yet they suffer no ill-effects. n . ’ , . , creams are generally recommended as the ea s sweets by the very people who condemn puie cacao , p "Whether it be false teaching or not adultemtors take taU advantage of the popular belief, and lnfirn e P al “ s „,.. m tities of the mixtures they sell shall not contain iut a short cacao. A well-known analyst, of large expenen , - ■ England time ago that the cacao mixtures comnuon y cons ^ e g xten . contained on an average 15 per cent, ot c e ■ nroducer sive adulteration works incalculable injury o ‘ cocoas and it is impossible to deny . The ^ of cacao pro- cocoa essences is less detrimental to the into ducers. So called pure cocoas contain no added ^ch or sugnr, hut consist of cacao from which half the fat has 208 PROCEEDINGS OF THE VICTORIA INSTITUTE. It would not be possible to sell these as pure cocoas, cocoa extracts, or cocoa essences, if it were not for the popular belief that cacao, containing the whole of its natural fat, is indigestible. Cacao, among foods, occupies a very anomalous position in conse- quence. If a milk seller rob his milk of its natural fat he is heavily fined ; or if butter, cheese, or oilmeal is sold containing less than the normal proportions of fat, it is a serious offence. But with cacao, the manufacturer can say that he expressed the fat in the interests of public health. He has only to print “ public health ” in large capitals, and he may then pose as a public benefactor. This is how it works out in plain figures to his own advantage. He buys the cacao at about sixpence a pound, he expresses from this a quarter of a pound of fat which he sells for medical uses at the rate of one shilling a pound, and then he disposes of the impoverished residue — which he calls an extract or an essence — at the handsome rate of from 2/6 to 3/- a pound. Instead of being an essence, it is a thing deprived of part of its essence ; instead of being an extract, it is the residue of an extract. (Read label s.) As long as the profits are so considerable, manufacturers will probably foster the belief that cacao fat is indigestible. SECTION VII. — Miscellaneous. This section is not likely to be adulterated for fraudulent purposes. It is very remarkable that £30,000 should be spent annually in vegetables. ^ peas. ^ I would strongly tious in the consumption CARMODY — FOOD ADULTERATION. 209 of highly coloured preserved peas. It is an extraordinary fact that they are not allowed to be sold in the country where they are largely manufactured, and are prepared only for exportation. This remark applies also to wines containing salicylic acid, and is a great blot in the Food Laws of the countries which allow so objectionable a practice. We largely consume aerated waters, and as these may acci- dentally contain lead and antimony they are deserving of notice. Lead is a cumulative poison, and small doses taken regularly may cause serious mischief, or may even prove fatal. The lead is derived from the pipes of the machinery, and the antimony from the rubber rings used in the bottles. Some manufacturers use silver pipes to prevent the dangerous lead contamination. Another form of deleterious adulteration is the use of pre- servatives in perishable foods or drinks. In defence of their use, it is urged that they are present only in a very small quantity, less than would be given in medicinal doses. But it becomes a very serious matter indeed when you are regularly and unconsciously consuming even infinitesimal doses in various articles of food. Your preserved milk and peas, y° ur jams and wines, and your butter may each contain salicylic acid. The use of salicylic acid is absolutely prohibited in foods or drinks sold in France, Germany, Holland, Italy and Spain. In England its use is not prohibited unless it is present in excessive quantities. I have enumerated the points of greatest importance m connection with food adulteration. I will now briefly recapitu- late the directions in which food adulteration laws have prove beneficial : — 1. They protect the purchaser against fraudulent adultera- tion— the principle being that the purchaser has a rig it o e supplied with the article he asks and pays for. 2. They protect the public health from injurious adulterants. 3. They protect indirectly the honest trader from unfair competition ; 4. And indirectly also the manufactures and agricultural Industries of a nation. The practical working of these laws is essentially m its character. If you read the annual reports of any Anaiys , you will find that the principal part of his work consis s in examining the foods largely consumed by the poorer classes, ana 210 PROCEEDINGS OF THE VICTORIA INSTITUTE. that very few analyses are made of the expensive wines, brandies and foods of the wealthy. Provision is made for such analysis, but those who can afford the luxury of expensive beverages and foods are expected to pay for any analysis they may desire to have made. But as very few articles are adulterated in this colony, both rich and poor are equally at the mercy of the foreign manufac- turer. Among these are firms of high reputation who supply the same quality of goods to the wildest savage that they supply to the most civilized gourmet ; but I am sorry to say there are others among them who prepare an inferior quality for export, who think anything good enough for people abroad, and who afford abundant justification for the oft-repeated remark that the West Indies is one of the dustbins for the disposal of the refuse food of more civilized countries. And if we think ill of these unscrupulous merchants, what can we think of the Governments that allow certain articles to be exported which they declare unfit for consumption by their own people. France Germany, Spain, Italy, Holland, allow foods and wines con- taining salicylic and boric acids to be exported, while they absolutely prohibit the sale of such articles at home. Even England allows tea to be exported which the Customs’ authorities declare unfit for home consumption. The Governments of these countnes act on the principle that every nation must protect itself. Many countries abroad have no food laws, and the people tLttT rZT eH oonse( l upnfcl y without the means of pro- tection. These are the countries where the food adulterator Cotnms I8 ow P fod h r tingS T ndS i Here ’ and in most English merchants whn Q i & ™ , fact must be known to the sra ~ S’ £ opinion that the various Governm^t ''T, ex P rea sion of his to be manufactured for export which wotld tTco forborne consumption, a’state of thTn^ Speaking of milk adulteration the account of a case of added water A milk th ° followm § 30 per cent, of water to his milk and on H a ve 1 ndor had added he informed the Magistrate there was 30 per fent^f *£?*§ Called ’ pei cent, ot added water. i CARMODY — FOOD ADULTERATION. 211 “ And what is the percentage of water, naturally present in milk 1 ” asked the S.J.P. 88 per cent, the Analyst replied : What, says the S.J.P., 88 per cent, plus 30=118 per cent, water ! Why, that is 18 per cent, more water than is found in water itself. I dismiss the case ! {Laughter.) At the close of the lecture, His Excellency called upon several gentlemen present to offer any remarks they thought desirable, Mr. Wilson, President of the Chamber of Commerce, ex- pressed Lis appreciation of the lecture, and of the fearless manner in which Professor Carmody had handled his subject. It was his opinion, as President of the Chamber of Commerce, that such a lecture would be of enormous advantage to the colony at large, especially the portion relating to cocoa and sugar. As to the adulteration of olive oil, he remarked that the question was discussed by the Chamber six or eight months ago, when the general opinion was that the addition of cotton seed oil was an advantage, giving the olive oil that nutty flavour so much admired in Prance ; in consequence of which opinion he wished, though he scarcely expected to be successful, to induce the Legis- lature to introduce an act, allowing this particular adulteration, upon condition that the bottles be marked “ not pure olive oil. Mr Randolph Rust said he had come to be instructed and amused, and he had been both instructed and amused by the lecture, and did not expect to have to speak, but he W1S “® C ( o draw attention to the common and serious adulteration ot G on- densed Milk, in spite of its asserted purity. He agreed that it was the “only true and natural food for infants,” and argued that for that very reason it was essential to guard against 1 s adulteration. Mr. Hamel Smith did not like the ugly word adulteration. It was the common practice for the public to lay the crime on the manufacturer, and as he was not a manufacturer, he trusted that those present would believe in his complete disinterestedness. He thought it very unfair to expose the manufacturers ot cocoa in the way the lecturer had, for it must he remembered that all they did was to adapt themselves to the public ta_ste, anc so long as Englishmen expected to get a good cup o cocoa y pouring boiling water upon a grated powder, so long wou y dislike pure cocoa. They should learn to thoroughly boil it m milk, and then they would be surprised at the result, hie also desired to say a few words as to keg butter. In t ns 10 c ima it is necessary to have plenty of salt and brine to preserv e le butter, and this extra salt is not charged for as u tei \ 212 PROCEEDINGS OP THE VICTORIA INSTITUTE. manufacturers. He admitted that the article was made very near the limit of the standard, which, however, he considered rather high, but contended that the addition of salt was aa advantage, as it saved the cooks from adding so much to the food. ( Laughter .) Mr. J . H. Hart considered the lecture to have been in the nature of a piece of education, and was very much pleased with it. As to cocoa, he had been able to invent a means of extract ing the fat of cocoa to a more complete extent than even Messrs. Cadbury of London, who had, now, adopted a modification of his plan, which was a great success. But he did not think it was beneficial to extract the fat, in which point he quite agreed with the lecturer. Read November, 1897. TRINIDAD AS AN AGRICULTURAL COLONY. By Rene de Verteuil. fTlRINIDAD has been up to now eminently an agricultura. co ony, and were its great value as the emnorinm of thf . C ? an !£ were great value as the emporium of tl trade between Europe and Western and Southern Venezue. to enr ’ commercial progress would contribute incontestab. to our agricultural advancement. is noSw the maj °, rity of the other We st Indies, this islar tion nm “ • a SU ®. a r . 0o on Y> f° r the importance of its cacao produ stZ'TT™ Wlthm a very shorfc time to be its support in tl are now undet^ 6 ™ 3 ® 1Ch , uu P rote cted cane sugar producei produce the , ,^°‘ n S' ^ adaptability of its soil and climate t Suitural t^pmal staples will cause it to be always a its commercial 1 10 e ® Jrts those who desire to rais be labouring likewise 8 W* T v U enc . our agement, for that woul ° kewise towards its agricultural development. ment/ bt 1 S s iQ a d !!i in J he r feW W °f ds “agricultural develoj without the union of all successfully undertake: especially between those mitt T, lere f^ould be no conflicl for that just interference and the Soil of the same country new country like thfsT eal ]li n “ which government in private initiative can be more profitabl^ 10 ® to , the support o perseverance and determination ^ a Y secured by combine< VERTEUIL — TRINIDAD AGRICULTURE. 213 The two great staples of the colony, sugar and cacao, must go hand in hand, as indeed they have done up to this time, and the cacao planters have shewn by their generous acceptance ot a larger proportion of immigration expenses that they do not merely sympathize with the sugar planters in their di cu les, but have been ready to lend effective help, according to their resources. It is a natural consequence that if in an agricultural country the chief staple goes to ruin, the other agricultural industries will have to assume the burdens it bore, and it sympathy were cast aside, self protection demands a closer union between the agricultural and commercial interests of the co ony when peril threatens any of them. It has been said by some, rather with a light heart that the collapse of the sugar industry, and its extinction in a e\v years would not affect this island to any great extent 1 his can hardly be the opinion of those knowing our conditions who have given a thought to that possibility, and who have before them the condition of the Leeward Islands, St. Vincent, 't. ucia and Tobago. It is no easy matter to build up other industries in the place of sugar, which to-day represents invested capital to the amount of two-and-a-lialf million pounds sterling, an w ic , even now in a day of extreme depression, pays out m wages to the labouring classes about £350,000 yearly, with £lo , m in salaries to managers, overseers, engineers, and in purchase or supplies locally. Strict economy has been obligatory to prolon existence in the hopes of better times, or until soine combination can be effected which will fill up the gap created by the decay or the main industry. Up to the end of the Seventies sugar was indeed the > main- stay of Trinidad. Prices ruled at £18 per ton for m'lscovadoes which are this year worth under £7, and molasses fetched 1- to 16 cents a gallon, whereas now 3 cents is the extreme v a ue. It is suggested that had we then possessed brctones which no,, produce the best class of sugars, ;' ur I ,t f 10 ' ° i be stronger" to-day. Yet British Guiana which had to advance of us by many years in the line of progr^s, with many advantages over us, is to-day no better off an w ’ dear enough that even with all improvements id and a full yield of cane in the field, however a e o West battle on ^ — nmlnmne countnes, n eso yield ot cane in the neiu, now West on equal terms with other producing c Indian sugar cannot compete first against >ou >> a t ^ e European beet producing countries winch posse's j anc j advantages of science, but proximity to markets, ch - p 214 PROCEEDINGS OF THE VICTORIA INSTITUTE. other necessaries for manufacture on the spot, nor again with American sugars enjoying protection to the extent of the full value we get for our produce. The great energy and perseverance shewn by Trinidad sugar planters since the crisis began in 1884 does not appear to have been appreciated, and yet its effect has been beneficial upon all agricultural classes. . Economy has been taught not only to those directly concerned in sugar, but it has spread to the other in- clustries as well. We have witnessed those engaged in coconuts su tiering ^ likewise from an unexpected fall in prices, and seeing ow p uc -ily their sugar brethren had put their shoulders to the , eel, they imitated them by introducing improved machinery or the production of oil, trusting to progress to save themselves. . Af } aS f 0 ! 1 ' „ 0 at g««t cost of capital, and it is discouraging n sue intelligent efforts threatened again with failure. the li'l'f c ? ca ° Pinters too had their moment of anxiety during i, l( . , f 1 ® f en nionths, and if matters have brightened up little m-’nr] 10W on S these improved prices last, for with very benefits of U tK S ® gr0wers have reaped but very partially the wavfo dkl reC ° Very - Fort unately J they too have not given has 3 tried lsc °“ rage ment, and to meet the fall in values each one condition of lm P rove his cultivation and his preparation. The how manv Le nterS is , howevei ' ^ill one of anxiety, for cacao wi a n- lI on the value of properties when danger in tfZ 8 80/ ‘ and 90 A tb e owt This is the chief reparable nn l^ Z lt V onI T ' vith the help of cheap money Mortgage Z T 8 ^ that d ^r " ill be averted. The Land desideratum con , tem Plation would bring about that than high prices lasHnc^ fW the advaa cement of the colony meat to lend Te! g . ° Ver man T Tears. If we ask Govern- capital to reduce ^l* aran ee 111 orc * er that we may obtain cheaper of our properties Z mort S^, we offer with the security the Royal Commix' energy and spirit which have elicited from sary resources to emK? 6 '^ V" 3 ?P* n * on that we possess the neces- 4 ources to enable us to tide over the present depression. made by these "entlemi " ' Pr *J aidad can endorse the reproach unfits the peoplt or at anv l n r! he; T 8tat ? that “cane cultivation management or cultivation^' the soiZZ™ no , trainin - for the that of growing sugar cane ” pr s „ f r an T other purpose than properties been formed by our peas-, ’T" 0 of the finest caca ° but " ha t they obtained du^ina- ^h°' Wh ° had no other train I Cannot the good class of our T r Stay °n sugar estates ! cacao as those planted bv the . ndlan s shew as fine plots of enezuela, given equal condition.wS^ 11 ^? who came over frotU S0ll > and when that soil VERTEUIL — TRINIDAD AGRICULTURE. 215 is inferior, or requires energy to cultivate it, whom do we find upon it but the Indian trained on a sugar estate, or the negro laborer who in his younger days knew no other work but what his cutlass and his spade secured him on the cane plantations 1 Have not the Barbadians the justly earned reputation of being splendid growers of ground provisions, and raisers of poultry and small stock, but yet they had no training for that branch of industry, merely what they got in the cane fields 1 The cacao plantations of Grenada have likewise been established by those same laborers who learnt field work in the cane fields of their own island, and in those of Trinidad. Have fresh Africans been introduced in Jamaica to start and keep up the fruit trade which has obtained for that island along with Trinidad the honour of being considered strong enough to tide over the sugar crises without extraneous help ? I think it is rather that same class which received its first training on the sugar plantations, and left them when they became independent., and the industry ceased to be remunerative. Our experience here is that training on a sugar estate is the best to secure discipline not only amongst labourers, but for the young men whose calling is outside of Government or Merchants’ offices. That sugar is still necessary to the progress of the Colony the great majority of those who consider impartially the position must admit, and a supreme effort in favour of maintaining it deserves the co-operation of all. Is it too much to expect the Imperial Government to join us ? The commercial principles of the Mother Country are a bar, it is said, to the imposition of countervailing duties on bounty fed sugar imported in British markets. Yet would the advocates of the free breakfast table accept that bounties on wheat be given by the United States, Prussia, Argentina, which would give cheaper bread to the poor, but annihilate the cereal production of Great Britain ? I cannot say, but I do know that the importation of live stock is virtually prohibited from foreign countries under the pretence of preserving British herds and flocks from disease, though it is well known that the various breeds of cattle, sheep and pigs of the European continent are as free from disease as those of the British Isles. Must we also see in the duty of 4d. per gallon or 33 per cent, ad valorem on ordinary qualities, imposed on colonial rum, a measure to protect the British public from the injurious effects of that spirit, and to preserve to it the beneficial influence of scotch and Irish Whiskies ? However, whether we receive aid from the Home Govern rnent, or are left to ourselves, we must still struggle and we must therefore consider what means we have at our disposal to face the 216 PROCEEDINGS OP THE VICTORIA INSTITUTE. near future. Cane cultivation is attractive to the peasantry, ml if many have retired from the estates recently, it is on account of the facility to get employment on the Roads and on the Pubis Works which have recently been executed. Unlike the pockets of planters, the Treasury has been full, and Government have always paid higher wages than private enterprize. Nevertheless, there has been a great attraction offered to laborers, especially to the negroes, in Cane farming, and the earnestness with which the majority have taken to the industry shews it to be a remunerative one, even when the cultivation of the planters is carried on at a loss. The principle of Cane farming brings about the division of labor, and is undoubtedly sound. Division of labor implies division of risks, and in a threatened industry requiring such considerable recurring outlay as sugar, this becomes effective relief. Our Factories are fitted out with all modern improvements, and can increase their output if work is carried on night and day as in the Beet Factories. Equipped as they are, they can adopt all new methods without difficulty, and maintain their present excellence. But no one will deny that our cultivation . not kept pace with our manufacture and that it can be improved. The reason for this is that the planters have failed to secure a sufficiency of labor to cultivate as they should. Estates have kept up a larger cultivation than they had labor to main am, with the result that disappointment has always cofltf With unfavourable seasons. It is not correct to say that there is p ent-y of labor available, if planters had the means to pay for u el - „ Guiana, the proportion of indentured labor is, I i , , ’ as ° ln Trinidad for the same extent of cultivation, a P^ eai to be four free laborers willing to work in the cln ohft eve, ' y ° ne here - Sure ‘y if at Demerara a planter his collea \ anc ®f , to . P a y f° U1 ' laborers when he requires then), advances to tr? ° aQ lik ™, for he has lrad those in the other t a 1 nsfoI ™., hl 1 s manufacturing plant as his neighbor duced i T i d,d , before him - T1 - quality of sugar pi* Guiana and M ,* 0 ~ da y ec l" al to that produced in British Se labor te w^, 8 , the . Sa “ e price ' If ™ bad the same avail- acre but nroh ihl U ' '" 6 ’“tonly the same return, of canes per advanta"es P 7 6X066(1 * as "ur soil has many natural said, and yet om-^India n sinc0 1870, it will however be borne in mind tha^the^ 0 ?- ^ doubled - I(i m of land in 1871 was 83 811 acres ® estimated cultivated acre In the first period not only th’e " "T 5 1896 ifc was 198 ’° y a re a ter majority of the ini VERTEUIL TRINIDAD AGRICULTURE. 217 grants worked mainly on the sugar estates, but we had in addition a plentiful and useful supply of labor from Grenada and the Grenadines who did the cane cutting on the different estates at 20 and 25 cents per task, manned the boiling houses, and before returning home, relieved the cane fields. The rapid alienation of Crown lands began about 1870, and not many years afterwards, when with the extension of cacao cultivation a considerable rise took place in the value of the product, not only the coolies, as their term of indenture expired on the sugar estates became purchasers of Crown land, or were granted free tracts in commutation of return passages, but they withdrew a large number of their comrades from the plantations to assist them in their enterprises. This policy assisted the opening up of the country, and contributed to the rapid progress made by the colony, but deprived the sugar planters of their best laborers. Moreover about the same period Grenada took largely to planting cacao, and the laborers who used to come over here remained at home with the improved conditions caused by the new industry. Thus at the same time the sources of creole and coolie labor were considerably affected, and the stream of indentured immigration had to be kept up as regularly as in the days of prices, and will in all probability be necessary so long as cane cultivation is carried on. There is no doubt that the labouring population available to the sugar estates at present is not industrious, T * lfl ' greater number are content with the wages of two or three days a week, and can live comfortably so long as sickness does not overtake them, and then they are liberally provided for in the public hospitals. Cane farming so far as we see at present not only cannot help to do away with coolie immigration, but will necessitate its continuance should prices improve sufficiently to continue the sugar industry. A large proportion of the present floating agricultural population will in that case take to cane farming, and starting with modest means and a small cultivation they will as soon as successful increase their sphere, and the iami y that could amongst its members cultivate three acres wifi Squire labor, just as the more important grower or planter, when he has increased his holding to ten acres and more. The small peasant proprietors or renters are not the only ones who will be benefited by cane farming. The success ot the division of labor and of risks will be better attained with large growers owning from say 100 to 500 acres. t is a manifest advantage to the factory to receive a large and regular supply of cane from five or six growers than from forty or ty small ones, whose deliveries may not be as regular as must be to unsure the mills being regularly supplied. 218 PROCEEDINGS OF THE VICTORIA INSTITUTE. The cultivation of the cane carried on apart from tk tnanufaeture of sugar ought to improve, for the grower will have all facility to till the soil at the proper time, and to give it full attention and care during the dry season whet under present circumstances it is next to impossible for the manager of a, factory growing its total supply of cane to do so, as his attention must be bestowed chiefly on the manufacture, and the main part of his labor in gathering the crop. Let the cultivation, even if it be in the same ownership, be in the bands ot men unconnected with the work of the factory, and attention wi e profitably given to the necessary trials and experiments ,° , a - ) °ut an increased yield. We require special attention to the application of manures and selection of plants. Although ^ is e c ut> of the Agricultural Chemist to prepare the former, his formula will be eagerly experimented upon by all growers f 111 e the scientific Botanist will always find cus- ° ^ a . su PPty plants from him if he succeeds in cultivated** ^ 10 any way su P erior to those now commonly and tir f :.^ min % "'*11 again lead to the growing of provisions “th mea 1, 7 I'T. ’ and after a «me supply the country neighbours. ve S eta bles, upon which we now depend on onr when "i vTn ia others again, Want of supervision after the D eonl« . , People too isolated- o ge out their produce led to di - Were loca ted, want of roads lstair ip m? e and b ^u.strious Lw7T aS r enb - and they lost D j. P le A ce ased gradually to lad acquired on the plantations, upon which it ^ T ^neighbouring u r,nt they would I, mm VERTEUIL — TRINIDAD AGRICULTURE. 219 tinned to labor, and finally attracted to their holdings former comrades, both free and indentured, thus creating the spit it of desertion, now so prevalent. This unsatisfactory state of things could hardly have arisen had these settlements been laid out along established metalled roads, and in already settled centres. The soil of the abandoned sugar estates will certainly give better results than those obtained in most of the old settlements. The land has been laid out for cultivation, drained in the majority of the estates, and been lying fallow for many years, and with tillage and manure will yield excellent returns. the ' small cultivator will work indifferent lands more successfully probably than large and wealthy owners. He loves tilling his land, and will sometimes get wonderful results. He counts his day’s work for nothing, and does for himself double the work and produces a much better result than if he worked for hire. Cane farming will under these conditions be successfully carried on, being in proximity to factories. Provisions of e\eiy m , live stock, poultry, &c., will be raised readily and disposed of on account of easy communication with the best markets. ese facilities cannot be obtained on Crown lands, where health is exposed, living more difficult, social and m°ra 3 v f’ n 3 o e ® altogether wanting. If all the money expended in laying out the early settlements, the cost to . the colony m lospita s an accessories caused by the injudicious location o t epeop e, and the final abandonment by many of their holdings be taken into account, the thirty shillings which the acre of Crown land is valued at have been supplemented three or four t ri es over. The colony has in addition witnessed the fruitless labor and deaths of many industrious people. The purchase of these now idle lands could likewise be facilitated to others, if Banks in aid o agticu established, through which advances would be nuide, repayable in instalments. A large amount of the fun s . " t ed in into the Savings Bank could be mow * b J Government agricultural institutions of credit, protec ■> , guarantee of interest. Depositors would get more than the 3 per cent, which are paid in the Savings an 's, y j. )e Institutions would be in working order, an su cent, entitled to borrow from them, advances at <• e ra People’s banks would save the small proprietors here as tt ley have done in Europe. I fail, however to see how they are to be started without Government aid in the eg 1 j j thropic Mayors, the clergy and large proprietors started and managed these Banks in Europe Here our the Wardens, who are servants of the State. O oi 220 PROCEEDINGS OP THE VICTORIA INSTITUTE. remain in the same district long enough to place themselves at the head of such institutions, and, with very few exceptions not being natives of the country, take less interest in its material welfare, whilst our large land owners are differently situated to landlords in Europe. There are also two classes of peasant proprietors in this country, one of which has grown up out of its own merit and labour, the holdings of which may rightly be said to have been purchased at the sweat of their brows. Amongst these will be found the pioneers of our cocoa industry, men who would have been comparatively wealthy to-day, had they not been handi- capped by heavy interest, to which they consented partly through necessity, partly through ignorance. They can use their arms well, but they are seldom men of business. Some unfortunately have suffered in consequence of the confidence they reposed in the merchants with whom they dealt. There is however another class, less worthy of sympathy. They acquire land more to evade regular work than to advance in the social scale. They' are proprietors in name, and beyond the payment of taxes when that can without inconvenience be done, contribute but little to the welfare of the island. They are not uncommonly, if not themselves, at all events through their relatives whom they refuse to support, a charge on the hospitals and charitable institutions of the country. This class is most common among the East Indians. It could be reformed I think, if subject to control, and under Government supervision’ who by facilitating the purchase of lands to them on certain conditions in already established districts, would reserve the right to exact that these holdings were cultivated in useful products. Agricultural Instructors appointed to supervise and guide these people would probably obtain results that would p,«priet.m- I .hint i.b&lj agricultural prosperity can be incre-jsprl tnat our the .preponderance of this class It i s ’ an ’ ,’ y undoubtedly towards the development of the faC f r main factor of its progress. lsland > but not the It is generally conceded, I believe that tl,„ v , is a model of energy, thrift and patriotism \v*‘ ““f f P easan , t P’ part it took in the payment of the' war ,,„1 ' ' \ - know the France by Germany after the disastrous W »TA' T“ the present power of Franr»A 0,1 ot Yet has obtained by the preponderance of its P ros P ei % been t .ance ot its small proprietors? The VERTEUIL TRINIDAD AGRICULTURE. 221 most enlightened peasantry cannot be more than the arms of the country, but what will be the arms if the body be without its head 1 The fable will tell you. May I ask our officials who draw their income from the revenue of the colony whether they think that a peasant pro- prietary can save Trinidad in the event of a collapse of the large sugar and cacao proprietors 1 CACAO. If we follow the condition of the country during the last fourteen or fifteen years, we find that the cacao industry has doubled its production within that period, and it is to its present importance that we are better off than our neighbours. Its rapid extension dates from the administration of Sir Arthur Gordon, who in 1869 suppressed squatting and threw open the Crown lands of the colony. The position of squatters, whose cultiva- tion was chiefly cacao in the richest lands of the interior, was legalized, and their holdings extended rapidly as roads were established. The present district of Montserrat stands out as a brilliant result of that wise Governor’s policy. The agglo- meration of several small properties formed the splendid planta- tions so much admit ed to-day. The former proprietors, a ter selling out, betook themselves further in the interior to begin afresh and to form the nucleus of future large properties, avoiding the approaching civilization. In 1869 the lands extending behind the Couva and Pointe-a- Pierre sugar estates were in high woods. Twenty-five years later the stretch of cacao plantations had extended twe ve ini es or more eastward, and formed, as it were, one vast p an a ion interrupted merely by the Burnley group of sugar estates, irom Caura and the heights of Arouca to Poole and i Wna Grande The opening up of a younger district soon fo owe e 8 from the left bank of the Caroni, and comprising the valleys of the Tumpuna, Talparo, Cumuto, Canape and Sangre almost uninterrupted cultivation to Tamana on ‘ ^ vanilla on the east, and the vegas of the Oropuche to the mo. th and north-east. With the opening will have Caparo Valley railway extensions, before ™ a > > with an d elapsed the stretch of cacao just described will meet with ana disappear in the plantations of Montserrat. _r island was about . In 1869 the estimated cacao crop ot urn ^ on from six million lbs., and possibly in it w , j at t p a t time Grenada, as the small production of '• Europe. That was in great part sent over here for export to Europe 222 PROCEEDINGS OF THE VICTORIA INSTITUTE. quantity has now been increased four fold, and with the large extent of new cultivation, it is easy to predict a continued increase in the future, even allowing for a falling off from the old plantations. It is wise under these circumstances to make serious trials of new industries, for we must not expose ourselves after avoiding being wrecked on sugar to be engulfed in a cacao crisis of over-production. Indeed the collapse would be still more serious than that we. are threatened with to-day. For the cacao industry is connected chiefly with the old families of the island, many of whom entered upon the new venture after the sugar estates which they owned had been taken away from them, and with the interests of a middle class who have success- fully risen above the rank of peasant proprietors. The gains of these two classes are spent in the island, and they form along with their labours, and the small planters, the chief local clientele of our dry goods merchants. The value of our cacao exports is fast approaching that of sugar, and with the rise in prices of the former staple it promises to take the lead for the first time this year. Unless the very desirable improvement in the sugar market takes place, that lead is likely to be kept for the future. Being therefore at present the chief factor of the agricultural prosperity of the country cacao has a right to equal attention with sugar. This product has been cultivated in Trinidad from its earliest days, and it would appear that a veiy superior quality was grown, known as the criollo (a few stray trees are said to be still growing in the woods about Manzanilla) but we read in Boi-de’s interesting History of Trinidad that some time last century the trees ceased to bear fruit, and many died out. He adds that only one estate m the whole island which was said to be planted with forastero, a more hardy though inferior variety, escaped the blight, or whatever it was, and bore as plentifully as usual. The result was that forastero was introduced, and is still the chief variety m cultivation There are many strains of it caused in great part by hybridisation. Selection of plants for raising new plan- tations is being attended to, and the best seeds of the favourite trees 90 two ;P r T‘# a . tio \ fruit from strong and healthy trees 20 to 40 years of age being chosen by the more observing planters. Besides the propagation of the best home varieties seed is introduced from other districts where the best results are known to have been obtained. Frequentlv j from Venezuela, especially the Truiillano the h t ^ lm P orted of forastero. and lL Ji i„ Slot k '"'I comparison. Mr. Hart introduced some DlanS f P" r P oses of some years ago and his available supply Was TuicklTt f planters, .any b,i„ 8 ttnttble to s.cuKj.’C' 7 ““ .°S£ VERTEUIL — TRINIDAD AGRICULTURE. 223 plants growing in good vega soil, but they are not very forward. They appear to be delicate and their growth is decidedly slower than that of any of our varieties, or of those imported from Venezuela. I doubt whether they will be useful, except as hybridisers to our local and Venezuelan kinds. It may be said that there are two qualities of cacao intro- duced in Trinidad, estate and conuquero cacao. The preparation of the latter leaves much to be desired though it receives some further treatment in merchant’s stores before shipment, and it will probably continue defective until central drying houses are established, in which the raw beans purchased from the small growers could be cured on improved methods. Greater care is being given to the preparation of the article than ever before, and estate marks are being brought to a level. The twenty or thirty shillings difference that existed between San Antonio and Soconusco and other brands is now reduced to three and four shillings, and several other estates are obtaining the same price as these two favorite marks. Indeed it is not certain that the difference which now exists between the several estate marks is not due to greater garbling, by which two qualities are prepared, the inferior selling at much reduced value, rather than to intrinsic superiority. Owners of estates pay great attention to fermentation, and year after year we find modifications introduced with the object of attaining excellence. Artificial drying has also been introduced, not always with success, I fear, but out of the numerous trials made, a sure and economic method will probably be discovered. So far the best dryer has been King Sol, and it is only when he refuses to shine that science is allowed a trial. A full extent of drying space is an absolute necessity, and we seldom hear of weathered cocoa on estates where there is plenty of drying space. It is the same as in the days of muscovado, when the planter wjth most megass houses and the best supply of megass made the best sugar and molasses. Greater attention has also been paid to the cultivation of ite. This was a natural consequence of owners un ei taking ie management of their properties in person Overseers with >me knowledge are employed in lieu of uneducated peons o rivers, and there is now a tendency to take over ovei seers an lanagers who have served on sugar estates. From ieir • ealing with labourers and from general experience obtained in mnection with engineers, tradesmen, hospital management, ttiey re likely to become a valuable acquisition. 224 PROCEEDINGS OF THE VICTORIA INSTITUTE. The best economy we can aim at is that which will tend to increase the yield of the cacao tree. It is altogether too small, only 4 to /i cwt. per acre and it is only the great cheapness with which an estate can be worked that makes it a profitable investment. The prosperity of the cacao industry must therefore be considerably affected by the collapse of sugar, unable as it will be to assume any great part of the charges indirectly borne by sugar, and this is a point well worthy of the attention of (government as it is of our planters. Grenada at the present time is dependent mainly on cacao, a paying industry from the time it became of any importance and yet we hear that there is more distress there than in Trini dad. Are we certain that it will be different with us should sugar fad altogether? Our security depends much indeed on what new industries we can implant successfully, especially such as will thrive on old cane ands, and as this must be a question of time oui welfare demands that the sugar industry should live till we discover those alternative products which can replace it. Should ined ' with Ve 1106 m ° r a “ faV0 ? r o£ 8U 8 at ' mUt:h wi*U h *ve been gained with the new industries introduced, and though it may w 16 pnde ° f pkce ’ Trinidad is certain of greater prosperity if sugar continues to be one of its chief exports for tir rS P ° Wer <* industry must notLy’bfa ofThe colony reS ° UrC6 ’ “ lmpetUS to the general trade COCONUTS. — Conclusion. the t hnd'LTb • a3 V,' lUCh °. n l , he coconut industry, though it holds be third lank in the agriculture of the island It comes more fsX L^ r io the t Pad i° f SUbsidiary industries, and this paper address TOu°on°thp i° T / P °a that question. Mr. Hart will authority. . SU 1J6C ’ and no one can do so with greater nuts irTlSr^to"] 0 ! Wotool^TsgVrr “ eXp ° rfc ° f of the agriculture “ la, S <: quantities and consumed entirely |n " man " faotu , r f C importance of the trade cannot, he gaugedmernt \ 0ny ’ * Ihe excellent food for stock contained in the meal 7 T “ST been extracted is another valuable nrodner u’ after 0,1 haS and the demand for it is considerably in excess”^ S0U « bt after ' although its use is not yet general on „ „ f of the production, m coconuts is 14,000 aires.^boufone-th rd^f J he total acrea g e yeai ly m cane. d of the acreage reaped VERTEUIL — TRINIDAD AGRICULTURE. 225 To sum up. It appears to me that every effort must be made to maintain the sugar industry in Trinidad, until such time at least, as sound subsidiary products will have been esta- blished to replace it. What are. those products, and in what space of time will they be capable of answering the object for which they will be introduced 1 I confess, although the subject has had my consideration for several years, I feel discouraged at the difficulty. Cane-farming I am a strong advocate of, because it can assist the sugar industry most effectively, and because it will be the means of extending a useful peasantry, offering a guarantee of stability, as it will establish, in addition to cane, those minor products which we now import from Venezuela and the neighbouring islands. I fear it will be no easy task to prepare Agricultural Banks to assist in making advances on growing crops. It will be less difficult to start them with cane farmers when advances made to them will be endorsed by the factories reaping their canes, thus giving full security to the Bank and facilitating its work. Although cacao appears destined to take the leading part in the agriculture of the island, it is not probable, indeed it is not desirable, that it should have that preponderance over other exports that sugar had in the past. I admit lam haunted by overproduction, and my alarm has some reason, for in 1871 with an acreage o ,o ’ exported cacao estimated to be worth £120,000, whereas in we exported from 94,500 acres a value of only £452, OOO . l am aware that a certain proportion of that increased acreage consis s of trees not yet bearing, and of trees just beginning to bear, still the fall in prices of the last two years points that we must not trust any more in values of the past. We can ace ie rl /* over production only if we obtain a larger yie 1 on ^ ? ur . * but not if it is caused by an unchecked increase of cultivation. We must arm ourselves with agricultural education torowb further depreciation in value. It is a question winch has the attention of the Agricultural Society, and we no Povernor find a powerful and trusty ally in His Excellency the Governor. A committee of the society has been the best method of teaching the elements o a » ' forth- p rim ary schools, and I have no doubt assistance will b^tort^ coming from the Laboratory and the Botanic . . persons of the active and capable heads of these institutions. 226 PROCEEDINGS OP THE VICTORIA INSTITUTE. The moment has also come when special scholarships ait required to be granted to students of agriculture, open not onlj to the pupils of the two colleges, but to all natives of the island, o ena ie them to pursue a technical course of studies in Europt an . menca, for it is only with the aid of young men with sound eoietica training, that we can expect to progress scientifically wmi existing industries, and to hope to establish new ones with reasonable chances of success. The Chairman said they had all listened to a most admirabif an a e paper upon the agricultural capabilities of this colony nr ie rusted that it would be followed by an in terestim; dis- cussion. e called upon several gentlemen to come forward. ^ J ' H- Hart . sa id that to tell them all in which he agre all in wM G J r . tRuil W0U ^ ta ^e ten minutes, but to tell the a timp Th 6 lsa S ree ^ with him could not be done in so sho which fiins 6 ° ne which he agreed was on the benefi before the m ^' ef f I 1 n o s . lla d in ventilating questions and placir Aereement^ 1 ?' Vlews different sections of the com mu nit personal ^agreement was sometimes a matter of mei because he P haH° n ; did not wish to enter into a discussic be trench in cr n ° lea, d a paper on the same subject and woul speakers andTh h * s ° Wn gTOUnd - He therefore left it tooth agriculture at a future® mee^ng. t0 Say °“ ^ what har)^'i? SeP r^ Urra, y sa ‘ d a g re ed with a great deal o ditltd w ,th n Mr d e Verte but atthe g sametim eh on the C ocoa h industry dea He h feil^ ^ “ P ast discUSSI °' 1 had deterim -. \/ , failed to see in what way coco tree was the' small 1 ? st P laQters knew that the younger tb the colony there had h 6 D ? ring M r - Hart's residence ii tion of cocoa and tl, 6611 t VS P' ar g° increase in the cultiva proportion of sm aller 1 r6SU k , of . t !le increase had been a largei of bean would hail ‘ ^ in the next <5™ years the si* bean was made tn immensely. Whether the sail* might be demanded grades or Jower S rades ’ * paration, not so much . rk:et ’ Was only a question of pro °f the bean. He thouo-h^ i '* 10n ,° deterioration of the quality the fruit trade. If they read the^ t0 b , nng "P the g ° a ' most hopelessly roving abo get some information on t^sub^ He should be very bap! Mr. " looking t y r Ve °' !i , ttle on fc he subject. ! to find him. (Laughter^ ° F a Work tog man and I have oomffiaine c t d t ‘u a gallon on West In 1 -*° the Imposition of the plained that Great BritaffiVaxS “ ^ in England, sai taxed our rum in order to pr, VERTEUIL — TRINIDAD AGRICULTURE- 229 her whisky, but in order to protect West Indian rum we nn posed a duty on British whisky of 10/6 per gallon. deVerteuil might find that an agricultural bank was no a panacea for all loss on cocoa and sugar. He had not >een a colonist long enough to follow the question out in all its beai ings out it appeared to him to be a new way of paying old de s, »>dch he had no doubt would bring trade into Frederick street, »nd which in the face of a recent circular, a great many officials *oold be glad of. (Laughter.) Some people thought it a great reproach to Trinidad that vegetables were imported, but 1 11 “■dad should get her vegetables cheaper from Venezuela, w ly dioold she grow them? Now she got vegetables from P ac * ere wages were very low, and lie thought Mr. A e " ou ' (j them that wages were very high here. It was not consisten n °rse fresh industries and to nurse sugar in such a way require more labour. Take 500 labourers away from the su 0 c 'states and they would have to replace them by 500 coo lea. • **nied to him they were on the horns of a dilemma. 1(1 cultivation of minor industries was wrong, or lmmigra "as wrong. If they had a superfluous population to cu i mi °r industries, why bring immigrants from India. Professor Carmody said that some of Mr. Russell ® •'tperiences should receive attention, but the easiest w ay to get his factory into legal condition would be to build _ twenty Reuses in its immediate neighbourhood, and as the Ordinance not define what a house was, he might build em ' ^ ^ Hked. Most of them were agreed that 1^ , n U ' f 1)6 encouraged in every possible way. - "exchange f advantage to get vegetables from other coun ,ls ' p t ? r 'he goods that we had here, there was no d loubt that the * r Sect of every country should be to provide as much tooa J7 b l« for its inhabitants. All that was necessary 'bp Mirers we had at present to work Bi* day two, and if they gave them inducements he was ey would be quite willing to work, hvety ’ > saw a fair ®?ro labourer was very willing to worj. ' fficient importance ^ompense for his labour. He did not think ■ cocoat cu ltiva- M attached to tillage in Trinidad. reg< but w ith regard ° on tl >ere was practically no tillage nec , es f ' ie rience in other •' suga,. it must strike everybody who ha -P q{ t ju a g C . Mr. ' Entries that there was an extraordinary . en that should \ e ' 7e carried on the manager was taken P the approach ot '’potations. The proper time for tillage t |, e use of me- l l ° dry season. Thev would get more wo. k farffling . There Cnatiical appliances. 'There was also a «ai 230 PROCEEDINGS op the victoria institute. was no cattle-rearing, no manure producing. They might econo- mise y the introduction of more than the one industry. There was oo much reliance on artificial manure. Farm-yard manure was a oon. Any planter who depended on artificial manure to oo a reat an extent would suffer from it in the long run. The o ony should guard itself against the adulteration of cocoa. II , . e ai u tera -tion was reduced the consumption would increase |? e ’ and there would be no fear of over-production. Agri- . uta education was necessary, so that people should under- cmiUl V, 6 P n “ ci P le underlying the work they did and how much Droiier ® save % doings things at the proper time and in tj e n The T C0U W not hope to gain much from the ordi- nary work that was carried on a£ present. tulated l£ M^°T 3 em01 i,* n tbe course of his remarks said he congra- for the fir^ ® U83el » Mu ^ay on the fact, of which they had heard factory for h” 6 ’ tbat there was in the Colony the most perW wanted to , . r - Iu a cc>coa that they had ever known. ^ “Twenty ho 1SCOV ® r that factory. Mr. Murray had said build n ,lm 7e S t S71. 1 W a ™ nd me, but I will no 1 factory will benefit tif ^ernment build thera and tllW “'I to build them b, t 7 C ° lo uy.” Tbe government was not g®”? nance and trv ’if it 16 b,0 . vernment would look at the On- going to do ble to relieve that factory which w '» s served the Govern °. 10 Colony. He had also seen how loyally ments ; he had lisle* "i* 8 b ? tbose who were heads of ' 1 “ ri!ir tor of Customs, who7as7il- he8reateStpleaSUre t0 the Go tor of Customs Wltl1 the greatest pleasure tc — portation of .roods n °t going to let one penny off the money which lie woi ll? °. Utslde ^ was to be at the cost o ^intelligent and bl Sh ,°' V “ ™ue ; still, Mr. McCr would find that if ’ ij nd ln discussions of this kii buying from outside th» C ° U d P roduce that which they was at the present mm!' °? Un wiT m ight be richer inside th out number, which slmre U | J hey had heard conundrums be in the future He <■ ° 'n V use tul these discussions v had been full y ; at " fi e ™> ll ke themselves, to listen, and ie lecture would be retmrt ud y instructed, and he hoped ? °bance of reading and Hi ° , - n that they might all {■nportance to the Colom- f H ?- that which was of parana y Mr. de Verteuil. * ** ' v b 10 h had been so ably devel n-it7 '{ ll ’ r no °pinion. Ho miJhf cocoa was concerne t. H r ° ^ ue farming in. this (V,i ° alm to have been the o on a T-7 een >’ ea '“ ago b v ; n l; He was instigated tl “ L«bbo.kAl,o . the advantages w VERTECIL — TRINIDAD AGRICULTURE. 231 would be derived by the encouragement of such an industry, from the various blocks of land that he saw, of land leased 0 some Barbadian immigrants, and it was at Mr. Lubbock s re- quest that he gave every possible encouragement to a number o settlers about the district of Guaracara. Very many people were under the impression that cane farming was really to be the saving of the sugar industry, if anything at all would save it, and many theories had been “built upon the subject, but he thought that if the question was looked into closely from a prac heal point of view it would bo seen that it was utterly a isur o suppose that cane farming alone could ever save the sugar in dustry. It would be a valuable auxiliary at all times and was ali’eady a most valuable aid, but, to begin with, no sugar estate <* any size, which had been established perhaps at great cost, w hich ^d on it machinery to the value of many thousanc s pounds, could ever dream of depending entirely on a s *tpP y . uanes from small and independent growers. It would be he 'R ht of madness to do so, nor could they ever depend upon a re " l ’ ar supply to keep that machinery steadily at work and th J would all easily understand that, with machinery such as was quired on large sugar estates, the only possible means of wor g with economy was to keep it in constant and regular work, i also contended that the supply of canes from farmers C ieve the planter of the greater part of his work o cu j n therefore enormously reduce his demand f° r a , ‘ se ? 0re w ? s ma de of that point than of almost any other, b e y said, instead of introducing a number of ltnniigi' od, a every year, all you want to do is to give out your fields^ to 'e-farmers ; but to give out your fields to cane . , was to ‘ _ ’ can ®-farmers to grow the canes on your own a - t jj’ ose a legal term, changing the venue for the gio » colony, es and changing the employment of labour 1 quan- e mere fact of their growing canes did no ie ' ^erefore y of labour required to produce those ca “e ; ne( j at its °ng as the whole cane cultivation was nr .j was P r «ent rate, so long would there be the demand that the ^ nlfay for labour. That demand has been cons a ^ to sa y er yet been sufficiently supplied, and ie . ^ f or some J‘ 6re se <^d to be little hope of its being J u P£ iMio f,ers to years to come. They had been urged by th ropr ietors as ^hout establishing the labourers as •T^‘ ruiu which they fiuicldy as they possibly could, in view of th ° sofar as sugar * ( ; m to have come to the conclusion was in. , een ’ reproached for u Ration was concerned, and they ‘ a 3 establishment of ' a .' mg done nothing towards encouiagui„ ^ fully and lr >or industries. It would take a Ijiig Fenwick) wished Properly int0 8Uch a sub ject, but he (Mr- * 232 PROCEEDINGS OP THE VICTORIA INSTITUTE. ■ J ,01nt ' 0U ^ this, that by no possible means would they ever induce the labouring classes to establish minor industries on their own initiative. Even with all possible encouragement from tie Government or elsewhere, in no country had such a thing ever yet been done Th» ...u- 1 „ . • ye jeen done. The only way in which so-called minor indus- ries were established was when the initiative was taken by the arge proprietors. The labouring classes were accustomed to worn perhaps the greater part of their lives upon estates growing sugar or cocoa. That particular kind of work became to them* seconc nature, and it was impossible when those men came to acquire sufficient funds to purchase lands of their own, or to send tneir sons out to work, those people naturally applied themselves t° the Particular work which they had been born and brought up to, and it was almost impossible for them to take to any other, l fu a . 1 eo e or Venezuelan labourer cultivated a portion of land he took naturaHy t° either sugar or cocoa. The Indian o le when he came here naturally took to rice or maize, ft I- j ru ^ * le ^ ar badian labourer would, when he cultivated saw tvT.ff ,taport ' ion <>f it in vegetables, but there again the; had alw«v fi ° f be lar S e proprietor, because in Barbados it estate to he ? 6n , 1 ! e cl,stom for a large portion of each sugar which Wlth §round Provisions. The only way* by the armH *?• ustl ’ les cou ld be established in Trinidad would be the su"ar nH l T* 1 ° f Capifed by large landed proprietors, come W N^T Wa9 , t0be ruined "'here was that capitals If they l.ar) ,0 m those men who were ruined, undoubtedly- certainlv woiffi?? g , 0t ' cap ’ ta l to carry on sugar estates they The same remark mi 'hi 6 ! Capital t0 establish minor industries- ing, and the reason be applie d to the question of fruit-gro*- vation was simply 'V" V ° U ' pe< . )ple did not take to fruit culti- U P to it had U* Cause . 'bey had never been brought to go about it '''i *? en . done, -and did not know bo* properly established « , -i 16 ^ r uit trade here would never b* established large estate * T” With C!lpital came forward an employ perhaps thousands ° £ years those estatRS W °l t with 8 uffi c i en ( In Sa “ fls of la bourers who might be sent out perhaps the.se men would” 1 *? h L,^ e , lands of their own, and then accustomed to, and that *'* ab , ls 1 t * le cultivation they had been veloped in Jamaica Wj.r 8 wby tbe fruit trade had been de - »nd a great many of oth,.,' rega , rd 10 the Cocoa Ordinance, » Murray’s opinion. The h t P, e . op e differed from Mr. Busse would have immediate r menfc of a central drying house ceny and give direct eneoiir-i " open * n S the door to prsedial l* r ‘ who were mostly responsiblef^Tk 4 40 it ‘ The cocoa contractors greeny in the cocoa gn.w t^^^'^tep part of the pn*^ Period of years and when f h l? r not *> held th eir contracts for * cocoa came into bearing, their VERTEUIL — TRINIDAD AGRICULTURE. 233 than twelve months to run, slight advantage, to In conclusion, most interest- that there had 0 E the Colony. Jlr. Ernest later, when contracts had probably nob more and it would he a pity for such a very amend the Ordinance in the manner suggested, their thanks were due to Mr. de Verteuil for his ing and admirable paper. Mr. de Verteuil said he was amply satisfied been a discussion which would be for the good In speaking of the labour difficulty lie presumec Clarke alluded to this time of the year or a hit e , those labourers would not accept the work offeree o 1 , Clarke had not said whether lie offered those, poop c whether they would have accepted it. Wit 1 itgA* McCarthy’s remark about the protection of rum reC eive regard to .Mr. 'immigration and minor industries he said it must be remembered that we had a p tion that would only work two or three days in -,^1 i ^n in- that was why the sugar industry was bound 0 P Ventured labour. land was altogether a free trade country and everything exactly on the same footing. ” ith McCarthy’s objection to having both TO THE EDITOR OF THE “ POBT-OF-SPAIN GAZET Hear Sir, -At the lecture on ek stated it to be an interesting fact tti j J(;en f or the ies in Jamaica would not have thriven tat i ^ are just the r ger proprietors taking them up. Now e ‘ ^ om t j ie ou t- verse. The minor industries of Jamaica t . and it t, and still remain so the work of the , an ’ a .•'..I' ,, w ^e to the only within the last few years when capi • y iave been •Jing character of the business, that ' - n ' t i, a t the pea- anted. It has been shewn over and °' e * pa y more taxes utry who are now settled on abandouea while t an the estates formerly paid when in “ f,. 0 m the State. S> r king as many concessions or privileg ■ t p e gmall proprie- enry \V. Norman has more than once ca of general rs the backbone of the colony, m' *!’. are the strength istice they constitute the medium. »« 1 _ t0 “ pink ofl 1 10 • «» nr,:,,. The first class shots waitm^ urns”— while third class shots aie houseless me no The latter are labourers, "ho l»»g „ t on ce raise them se at all, in pursuit of minor 1,1 ' u t , ’ led upon to develop ‘to the second class and they can he clepe iuor industries. PROGRESS. Thursday , 6th January, 1898. Hugo Hoffman*, Esq., in the Chair. The following Paper was read TRINIDAD AS A COMMERCIAL CENTRE. y Robert Henry McCarthy, Collector UL VUSbUIUO. 0 fiuities; a^ Thtfme f,efinetI as f i >o exchange of sup - the consumer. In tbe medium bet ween theprodm form of barter one nnn! s ® al>i y stages commerce was thesimpli another man in exclm n V r' 1 ^ SOme wbal ho had too much of, As society became ,nr„.« D ° , 80I ? etb ‘“ff which ho had to spa. step in civilisation his import- ^ ^ tm and with eve ls importance has increased. before the invention^ of* ' V) 1 S discovered the Western Continen steer across pathless or ? marm ® r ’ 8 compass enabled ships hugged the shore and , ans ’ ' vl,lle 7 e t maritime explore had carried men to the Ihn T W ni « ht . the trading spu fent his ships from the t J ° ^ tben ,:no » 11 world. Solornc before the birth of Clndsf P^V- 0 "’ 11 the east coast of Africf on the one side and Pritub ° ni ? arl traders had reached J.nd eud, and I might probal h 1 n \ - e 0the ‘' '> ! ' uro P p from end I pedlars or packmen before the 10th "T ,mb l tualJ T travelled h out own time, the wealth of th > i r centni 7- Coming nearer t Tow 1)s of Germany, of Venice U 'fn S ,e P ub]ics of Italy, theFm eve T hnown sea, aroused i j, nd <3,en f a » ''fyosp argosies 'corere monarchs whose sole wealth ln' L ’ " 0n< ei ’ au d the cupidity c am > lay in agriculture. Reflection on thpa* mercial prosperity, namely t r ^ nn . dfs us of one feature of com wu.h which it can rise and’ fall Iff t ‘"? character — the readines i«g contrast to agriculture that ^Pect a strik have tunes beyond number- been T 7 ’ TuSCan T. aa d Fiander c stdl the richest agricultural ated b - y u ' ar . but the) **" h “ d ’ >«•"»» or Z“, “ * on or nscal oppression has per- MCCARTHY — TRINIDAD AS A COMMERCIAL CENTRE. 235 manently destroyed the commercial greatness of Ghent and Bruges and of the Italian cities, and for centuries that of Ant- werp; the glorv of Venice faded almost insensibly; and of many of the wealthy Hanseatic towns the very sites are unknown. We are all familiar with the rapid rise of Hong Hong and the rapid fall of St. Thomas. The removal, therefore, of commerce from one country to another is an operation with w uc y is familiar. The explanation is obvious— it is movable wealth which will not bear constraint. The moral is, I thin , e q ua J obvious — it is that commerce requires to bo studiec an assi duously nursed. No community — no individual is independent of, or in different to, the -affairs of his neighbour. Similaily, a lancies of industry are more or less interdependent. The agricu uris provides food and raw material for the manufacturer an ia ei , and they supply him with a market for liis produce. ia ® 1 '-> too, here as in every community, have a large sta ~e in le land, and everywhere they are among the most enterprising and enlightened agriculturists. But a trading community can flourish without any direct aid from agriculture. Hambutg ana Antwerp would still be wealthy if the adjacent country were or a hundred miles inland a desert; and a very large proport on of the prosperity of the great English ports has uo connection with English agriculture. Such places are, in t en com . aspect, merely centres for distribution,— forwar mg » .’ so to speak ; and in that capacity they have no goo^ of them own; they only handle those of other communities. Yet ^ many ramifications of their business a host of peop ^ ployed, and through them a stream of wealth poms producing part of the community. Broadly speaking, all industries have a ; Q 1 but there are some peculiar to foreign » wol . ke d wonders in telhgent and progressive class, and it • - r i gtuart spreading intellectual as well as material riches John Stuart Mill mentions one advantage it confers w m especial oribe in hi, own words, and upon winch I stress “ Another consideration, he s, y 1 P bo i& a early stage of industrial developmer . P P^j lbcil . tastes quiescent, indolent, uncultivated state, f a il either fully satisfied or entirely undeveloped l and they^m & y q£ P ut the whole of their P rodu ^ reis;n tr ” de> by making, any sufficient object of desire.........— te ” pt j ng .them by the them acquainted with new' objects, Pj ' not previously easier acquisition of tilings whic 1 -3 ‘ f ; adus trial revo- thought attainable, sometimes works a SO A at mai 236 PROCEEDINGS OP THE VICTORIA INSTITUTE. lution in a country ■whose resources were previously undeveloped for want of energy and ambition in the people ; inducing those who were satisfied with scanty comforts and little work to work harder for the gratification of their new tastes, and even to save and accumulate capital for the more complete satisfaction of those tastes at a future time.” The other day in that most delightful book, <; Tom Cringles og, I came across the following reference to Jamaica in the first year of the century. “ At the period I am describing, the is and was in the heyday of its prosperity, and the harbour of fiangston was full of shipping.” The author then tells how at the tune a large part of what we call the Spanish Main trade was centred m Jamaica, and goes on: “ The result of this princely t rathe, more magnificent than that of Tyre, was a perfect stream of gold and silver.” Alas, Alas, he says “ where is aU T U j ' the e °ho of the empty stores might answer, Where ■ U , bin ^. r0 . rn the neglect of which it has been the victim in If" 3 ga trade is bought lightly Of here, and I happen to wirlpo m -i c* " e g al 'ds, say, the Venezuelan trade there is * J'Tt feeh . n S th at only a few individual traders are con- a ' 1 ? w > !t is one of the common-places of economics tha the c]ii*pf U K ing c^"^ l t ^ 0n the community, not the dealers, g et3 instrument e - nefi K fr0rn fore, S n trade, which, further, is a poten instrument m cheapening production. persons w sit r trade ."Specially is held in contempt by many cillors h-tpi v wl30 ?^ght to know better. Two honourable coun- the transit lJ OVa r md in one 8c °™ful reference asphalt an paid to he rf- Let , m8 sa y in passing that last year aspbal r about £42,000 and left in the island fo steamers to Am ’ r* 0 ,” aboufc £50,000, besides enabling g° od thesH nUe2n’ reg u la '- y to New York at low rates. Beside f,,p„ i: .L Uemens allusion to the transit trade, an impoff ago gravely wrote as follows in an oflk ,a ’CeJv Sfl.v i p ftcrellCj tl 1 xeguiarly to functionary 6 not^fir f Husion to the trapsitlrlde/ an report; “T np „,i * lg a ”,° S rav ely wrote as follows in an oft* fees, the Colonv heyond a few trifling agei this important trail * neit, her direct or indirect benefit f> pf i aut trade, any more n ,i„.. * _ .r.„, norti this important t,-a V es nenher di - °f our export trailo’ A’ 010 than it does from that pi arriving here from v " C1 00 ' ,s ‘ s, ' s of goods for V enezn transhipped in our 1 > ■ U |’P° or America, and which are eh then rlshipped ° harbour- or bonded for a day or two i absolutely incorrect, f'ftl SCarcel y sa y that this statement a “y distinction between trm? V lace : economically speak 1 trade is fictitious. Tim A c U anc ordinary import and exp though not necessarilv so -^7' tS the latter may be g reil ' commission on the trnnsaoHo *” ° it,ler case the profit is bD 11 ’ and in both cases shipping 1 McCarthy — trinidad as a commercial centre labour benefit equally. At least half the g„ oc f s are European ports is merely a transit trade , < ’ confrere’s consigned to somebody elsewhere, and to quo \ on( j e d for ■words, “are either transhipped in the hariou , * people a day or two and then re-shipped." Tens of thousands of people in Southampton depend on the shipping tra e, l 1 . 1 .. . erlinm company lately spent there on docks some e T, “aS-grown were it Eut. the quays of Southampton would be & *■“ © not for her transit trade In Plymouth at Pf sent J“ Corporation are seeking Parliamentary powei- « e of £600,000 to build deep water quays ia the getting the ocean passengers to land theie, a , there in hope of getting the steamers to discharge 4h£ 'goods ther^ transit. I have a still stronger illustration. Hon- t, Britain a sixtieth of the size of Trinidad, and when ceded to ^ 50 years ago it was inhabited by a hand u o „ ten now has a trade worth 40 millions sterling annually, times as much as ours ; and its shipping is fi ecl \ , shipping, It has five influential local banks ; it has laige practically and insurance companies; and Hong Kong . ^ the control the tea and silk trades. There are ^tonesjor ^ manufacture of all kinds of ship stores; theie a shops. Its three slips, and every description of ship-repai o g ra ther population, about as numerous. as ours, as • Customs, larger than ours, without receiving one f ro m the This reads like a romance, but the informa i exp l a ins the Rnromantic Colonial Office List, which v°mme duces marvellous record of 50 years’ progress , „^. en tre°of trade.” little or nothing, but its position has mac e « these are The story of Singapore is just as won er • millio ’ ns sterling essentially ports of transit, as is Colombo, liave been expended on harbour works. t , ., smaller scale, but which is Let me take an example on a sn „ r tni ene “* diture of repairs, stores, &c., there is a l° cal Q ;? 0 oo or about £11, 000 year, and on lighterage and laboui , b > ’ passe ngers a y ea *> altogether. Then, she brings us abou V’ on y .n average £10 and if we count each of these a \ s P," 0 ben efit to us from the during their stay in the island, t ie i , owing to easy com Bolivar amounts to £26,000 per annum. ariC l other vesse s tnunication with the Main being provided oy 338 PROCEEDINGS OP THE VICTORIA INSTITUTE, their money'her/ ^n# 1 ^ Venezuelans live and spend the most obvious is ti - *. 1 T ‘l c ‘ lrecfc benefits, which are numerous, or America ' 118 •' “ a steamer comes here from Europe Venezuela our '?°° tons of ca G?o for ™ aad 500 for Venezuela. a u 8 P a y less freight than if she had nothing for because I behW^ ^ S ° me on Hus portion of my subject, trade is needed nr, P ^°P er appreciation of the value of the transit of time we should n - + \ eoauso T see no reason why in the course goods within the rP° i 6 twenty “Bolivars” here, distributing Guiana on the south a bounded by St. Yincent on the north aud To summarise w-W t i . , , merce alone wealth J have. said : — By commerce and com' been created • com,/ , c ? n 1 lmuni 'ti e s have from the earliest time be readily attracted Ltc,d wealth, being easily transferred, maj consumer and chcan ° l reat ‘ly repelled ; commerce benefits th< and , i, cneapens production • ,.n profitable consumer and ch ear, a <>l readb y repelled ; commerce fc and therefore S faction; all commerce is Y of encouragement. and impediments to' ■[’ ^ et P s glance at the various inducemen 1 4 to trade and see how far they operate here. First xij * a sheltered position combined wit adjacent countries m'uvf l the .P ]aee itself has not wealth th *w ' C( '' 1 Weal thy centres ’T ^ ° r ft must be on tbe Mg**®* sufficient to say that not enumerate instances; iM great port in the world . . se two conditions applies to ever' enient harbour geo^ranh; ? ain >. un less there be a safe and con Tn position, Trinidad is*?* P P sltlon alone is not of much use ^ n . r ;«°gnisedbyeve 4 autf eP v na11 ^ *»*»«*, a fact that h« fu^her harbour is not .,i| l0 ,7 y wl, o has spoken on the subject; the I' 4 Na %e. George C ^ U ^ hb be d «sired it is not the Oon[ln U ‘\ e ° f Gommons^as the 'f S * ° nC8 re ^ erred to Trinidad in So^S J^ton, the first / a U ^ ^ Ver P° o1 of tbe Western — ncri m 1,98 The id.,,, P r - bsb Governor of the Colony, wholly f PS °? e of Hie best and fi P ° SS6SSes tbe JP osfc extensive, cornmi ! rea c fro ® hurrica 4 e V Tr i^'-T-barbours in all America, Secretary of St l 111 ™ 61380 8 j Ua ‘ ed aa to command the Your rJUi ^ ta , te 111 1848 * .< t i ^ord Harris wrote to the island if „ * *‘ p tb e very great benefif^ 0 , alreaf ly pointed out to trade with otkp 0 lbera *. policy could* j V llcb would accrue to tbi5 hoping that P \ c< j Untr, es bo adopted respecting the of the trade °f Spain evenin' TJ* 01 ? are man y reasons for Of that vast tract Of con nf a% , become ‘he receptacle country f rom which th(J o P |l0ca MOCARTHY — TRINIDAD AS A COMMERCIAL CESTE draws it waters Under the fostering caie ,^ t ^ ay prove of ttis Colony may become not oniy prosperoa., ^ ten ? Ye Cont i- vast importance in assisting to civilise tlio wise nolicy sent in its vicinity." Kingsley thought that ■ ^ Wcat Iadies . Trinidad ought to be the commercial entrepo commercial t™d, harbour v»»H “Suture “o to tho of the world, and seems formed by j^biuson dr? 6 t one day of an enormous trade. » elastic Customs vias sanguine that with liberal fiscal laws i regulations Trinidad w'ould have a great future. The chief reason, I need not say, for riches of cieswasthe proximity of this island to the ' • ° aj , ea ^ r iver Venezuela, and its forming a breakwater 01 a ntldes Orinoco, and a natural storehouse for the P 1 ° Ece ., j which which that river washes in its course of -oO a. practically «e separated from the ports on the Canb uea "_ oduc t of the impassable chain of mountains. Almost eveij p - f oun( J in ^n’id and temperate zones — vegetable unc mm « cocoa, ^ enezuela. It has rich mines, boundless supp 1 w l,; c h support and rubber, grain of various kinds, v ast p al • ou tlet for innumerable cattle. But the Orinoco is also < tfae san30 Columbia which has four million inhabitants, ^ Colomb ; a) physical characteristics as Venezuela, the ca) merchandise Bogota, has 84,000 inhabitants. Though some o lie3 by passes through Trinidad, it receives ^ distance from die Magdalena via Honda, which is .about > area t navigable Bogota as is Orocue on the Meta, which rn ^ reacb i n g the tributary of the Orinoco, and the easiest mean ent t0 the ■whole of Eastern Columbia. The chief o s < be tween the two development of this trade is a frontier (lisp* tra ffi c sprang ^publics, During the last century a eonsi ‘ ^ was crushed JP between Columbia and tho lower Ormoco, ^ c . lI . tbage na. by the jealousy and influence of the melL . Orinoco and the Bo you will see that the struggle between same obstacles Magdalena is an old one. In both republic ia the world exist to their becoming two of the nc '® s f 0 r capital, the need of stable government and ox ^ However, no government can continue when the basin Mid extensive regions, and the day is not “Ground for the com- the Orinoco will be a favourite i»" “ j 0 ;ted for the pany-promoter, and its teeming ; . employed there, of mankind. Even liow capital is a g f managers ge &*»** <• ~r) » » n h 1 , t:rir 8 ».po-»»“iS»s labour and supplies in Trinidad, I ter ii u g have been 13 the gold region, from which mi i° 240 PROCEEDINGS OF THE VICTORIA INSTITUTE. to the great benefit of Trinidad, and which is certain to have a important port here at Las Tablas. Here are iron mines oi extraordinary richness. Here are virtually inexhaustible supplies of balata gum. There is the tonga bean country, a valuable product which, I am told, fetches $2 a pound in New York; over this area is found the almost as valuable rubber, the only limit to whose supply is labour for collecting it. Away up here is some of the finest coffee in the world — Trujillo coffee, — which is at present exported at great expense through Maracaibo. That pors exports nearly 30,000 tons of coffee a year, about 5,000 tons oi which comes from this district, and there is every reason to hop# that at least that much will before very long come through Trinidad. There are steamers trading from Bolivar upwards, by the Apure and Meta. An English company has now acquired these, and it is intended to increase the fleet a , and at a heavy between Europe and Trinidn * VvInle S 00(is are often conveyed landing costs Z ^ *? Utth - .15/ a ton, their Qf our transit trade thpv o* Cl °wn ; and if they form pad? another half crown per ton 'ia re-shipment burdened with P t0n ’ a “ d tb °y are in addition injured by MCCARTHY— TRINIDAD AS A COMMERCIAL CENTRE. 243 exposure and the double handling. It is surprising that no demand has been made for a deepwater quay, which would enable us to conduct our trade in a manner worthy of a progres- sive community, or for a dock and coaling facilities. The fact that a large vessel could not be repaired nearer than Martinique must increase freights to this locality, as owners and underwriters naturally take into consideration the risk of a breakdown and its possible consequences. Let me mention in this connection that under the Colonial Docks Act the Imperial Government can assist, and has assisted, in such works. Again at present a steamer trading lie re is obliged either to lose some days in going to St. Lucia for coal, or to carry enough for her return voyage. Were she able to,coal here on reasonable terms, much of the space now occupied by coal would be utilised for cargo, and freight proportionally reduced. These are most important considerations in the shipping trade, and vital if we aim at making this a great distributing centre. The exactions with which wo burden our transit trade do not stop with lighterage. Sixty per cent, of our imports are dutiable, therefore the larger part of the goods coining here in transit have to be bonded ; and we charge a rent on these three times as great a s if they were, intended for heme use, and sometimes as much as the whole invoice value. I once asked an important official for an explanation of this and ho replied • — “ Well, you see, we get no other revenue from them, so we charge a still rent. e whole civilised world condemns taxation of exports, for M simple reason that it diverts trade, and loses for you other benefits. Demerara acts much more wisely in charging O oo s for exportation only half the ordinary rates of rent. , Customs duties are a well recognised impediment trade, dong Kong and Singapore could not possibly * ave , ^eat and rapid rise were they not free ports, w ere s ■barged and landed without any interference whatever. T fo kinds of Customs taxes-those levied for revenue only , and hose intended for the protection of local mvuy ri - ^ bat under existing conditions, it would be ch ... tbe bs(j i free port, but a great deal might be done m cu . ® o£ our 4 dutiable articles and releasing a large P r P j Seore- mports f rom revenue restrictions. In the year ^ be of State directed that a drawback of the i du ■ tha ganted on goods exported to Venezuela. * tbe Council bief experts were dry goods and har b g f ree d from duty ecommended instead that these goods should he ire 244 PROCEEDINGS OF THE VICTORIA INSTITUTE. altogether. To repeat and extend that exemption as far as practicable would in my opinion be wise. I know that some hold a multiplicity of duties to be equitable, as reaching every class of the community ; but that can be done with a comparatively short tariff. In England we used to have a great number o£ articles subject to taxation, Here is what Sydney Smith said of the burden : — “ We have taxes upon every article which enters into the mouth, or covers the back, or is placed under the foot. Taxes upon everything which it is pleasant to see, hear, taste, or smell. Taxes upon warmth, light and locomotion. Taxes on everything on earth, or under the earth, on everything that is brought from abroad or grown at home, on the sauce which pampers man’s appetite, and the drug which restores him to health; on the ermine which decorates the judge and the rope which hangs the criminal ; on the poor man’s salt and the rich man’s spice ; on the brass nails of the coffin and the ribbons of the bride. The schoolboy whips his taxed top ; the beardless youth manages his taxed horse 'with a taxed bridle on a taxed road ; and the dying Englishman, pouring his medicine which has paid 7 per cent, into a spoon which has paid 15 per cent., flings himself back upon a chintz bed which has paid 22 per cent., and expires in the arms of an apothecary who has paid a licence of £100 for the privilege of putting him to death. His whole property is then taxed from 2 to 10 per cent. Besides the probate, large fees are demanded for burying him in the chancel. His virtues are handed down to posterity on taxed marble, and he will then be gathered to his fathers to be taxed no more.” Of course, all that has long since been done away with, and the British Customs tariff is now simplicity itself. Protective duties are a less warrantable interference with freedom of trade. Let me show the effect of two of our taxes of that character. We refer to European bounties as " iniquitous," but a protective duty is the same in principle, each being intended to unfairly handicap a rival producer. We charge an. import duty of £11 5s. per ton on sugar, and in consequence the consumers of sugar contributed £3,000 last year to the revenue. 1 believe this an unwisely large sum to levy, but at least it went into the public purse. Well, there is a local sale which may be estimated at 5,000 tons. Theoretically, the price charged for this by the producer would be £11 5s. per ton more than the natural price. Let us put it down at 15 and we find that the import t 0n ? Umer >-^ 0 °0 which goes to the revenue TrinSn / • S ° e V\ tb r P roduoer - Take rum, again. The ai fr lr rT 18 C T lf be S ets in England 8d. (10d. less 2d. freight and charges) per gallon— yet he charges 15 d. here; MCCARTHY— TRINIDAD AS A COMMERCIAL CENTRE. 245 ? and as the local consumption is about 250,000 gallons a year we have £15,000 unfairly extracted from the consumers of rum. The results of protecting these two articles, then, are that the producer could sell his goods more cheaply in the Arctic regions, after paying the carriage thither, than he sells them at present at the gates of his factory ; and that in order to help one interest the purchasing power of the community is diminished by £40,000 a year. There are other protective taxes, but these, which I have selected for their importance, sufficiently illustrate my argument. The reason usually assigned for the protection of the articles named is lest Demerara rum and sugar should flood our market, but it is curious that Demerara, presumably having the sane fear of Trinidad, has similar protective duties. Such duties W in essence wrong, as every man has a natural right to spend \ his money to the best advantage, and they are equivalent to a I COI[ ipul3ory reduction of wages. Further, they interfere with other industries. For instance, while sugar is at its present high price in the local market a jam factory would have no chance of success. Nor is a protected industry in a dignified position. The producer is, of course, too proud to go hat in hand to the humble consumer, and say, “ pity a poor producer and drop in a penny,” but he persuades the Government to do it for him. Another example of mistaken legislation which is injurious trade is to be found in the prohibition of the importation of cocoa, except from Venezuela. The idea was to prevent the n rr, . . , 1 ■ • 3 V»xr + Vi£» orlmiY- reputation of Trinidad cocoa from being injured by the admix- rare of inferior cocoa with the superior local article, but 1 believe that every producer of good cocoa protects himselx by a, brand, so that the prohibition only protects cocoa which is not Worth Drotfinh'nrf Tim r: -.wLi or St. Vincent peasant sends us l bat we have probably by this step done ourselv as Venezuela does with her 30 per cent, duty, t protests against which make the heavens ring. 246 PROCEEDINGS OF THE VICTORIA INSTITUTE. I have shown that the natural advantages of Trinidad for commerce are very great ; that the expansion of the neighbour^ conf iiient is certain to be enormous, and must benetit us ; and that our trade has not advanced as much as one would have expected from the promises of the past. I have shown that though this disappointing state of affairs is to some extent due to extail causes, our own inertia, and our fiscal arrangements and tk restrictions consequent thereon are not free from blame. Some apology is due from a stranger who ventures to criticise M customs and policy, but it may be pointed out (hat a stranger, free from prejudice or prepossession, is often able to takes clearer and more impartial view than those who have grown >p among the conditions criticised and who have insensibly comet) regard them as natural and unquestionable. I criticise only t) stimulate the citizens of the colony to help her to fill the part of which she was destined by Nature. Not a great deal of iniagins- tion is needed in order to see the boundless wealth of the OrinW pouting into her lap, to see her the market and centre of distri- bution for a large area, her ships crowding the gulf, a forest of masts beside her long quays, her warehouses filled with tk products of Europe and Both Americas ; to see the certainty of employment att racting a large population, and with reduced cost ot Jiving wages lowered and the cost of production decreased; fac- tories called into existence by the needs of commerce ; agriculture on a sounder, more secure footing— a Trinidad, in fact, twice as populous, twice as rich, twice as useful in the world as she is at present. -^ le Chairman said lie felt that he was expressing the sei . , meeting in thanking Mr, McCarthy very much for lecture. As a stranger Mr. .McCarthy had put before them ii Y ay J he state of theil ' trade, and had unhesitating thlt TS 113 ^ exposed their shortcomings and also prorid be midp ^ £° r re ^ ect, ' orl on (he improvements that were should he 1 ', 1 , e fu , fc , UrG ; The object was a verv grave one* sliouid be thoroughly discussed. ' Institute V ' that , t ! i< ; now departure at the Vic condemned In, er 0,1 w hich all did not agree and it when they he!rd 0 “ e , n r mb ?’i S ° f . the Legislatfve Council, efforts were beino- v fe (bey must feel that eai of the people to°those° 1 .?• bear in order to direct the attet cerned. There was unf? w° S '°? S | in ' Tll icb they were mostly on these very interesting lIaa '“J-V n ° method of public discus slightingly o J f & F? did »* to S ) paper could do, because one pape/ffi not f£Z MCCARTHY— TRINIDAD AS A COMMERCIAL CENTRE. 247 itself, but there was an absence of that keen discussion on vital questions which they were accustomed to see in England and other places. We must hope that things would improve as time wnt on, but the Victoria Institute had struck out a new career of Mr iw p lQeSS ^ 1 . S colon y aac * be was sure they must all wish ^ McCarthy and those gentlemen who were associated with w“ h m . 3Tin ° o' v en new life to that Institution, every success. lectu° U ^ t Meeting on the gentlemen who had delivered other l>e«i 6S ’ ’ ! vas sure everyone would agree that none of them had fememf 01,6 im P ortant than this particular lecture. Let them speakinct^ ^ le ^nation of Trinidad on the map. He was koen t,,,' 1 ' t0 atl audience which comprised a large number of very knew tw ^ business who appreciated a good business site and fa'sonie' 4 ] 1Q sett hig themselves up in trade they naturally looked tion of P‘ ace where roads met and there was some congrega- Sll 8gested r ^ &ns ‘ 't'he position of Trinidad on the map at once s °uthern lt:se Jf as being the prime business site of all that light aerrr ° r ^° n °f *be wes tern hemisphere, standing as it did South . t ^ le threshold of one of the greatest waterways of Jn< Jiflfe ren p ^ ri0a , and, unless they were absolutely careless and ttust Ca( , 0 the trade which nature meant them to have, they ^ars t],; ° n a huge trade in the future. For one hundred relate ,!i fa et can- / 0 the trade which nature meant them to have, they - 0r > a huge trade in the future. For one hundred cion s ^C^.bad 1 been fully realized, and yet this colony in its s bll. rpj yb Venezuelan trade seemed to have been at a stand- S Ver *tah] 6 r Tr Was only the hope that this place would become SUc b ocp, as j *-ong Kong of the west, and it behoved them all on a?* 1 man t ' Jni 5 to make up their minds that it was necessary for 0 T °ount t ° ( 0 ' vhat be could to develop the trade relations of ^ooo Jj and attract the commerce that came down the was something in this whole question which of.****,,',, to whatever imperial instinct there was in them, j . ? pml .* Undertaking. Barbados had arrived at the zenith n'^tul ; et '% and might be said to have no future, whereas V 1,1 Up 3 country with a great future, and that should stir 'bai - Uel; i ' ei 'e had unfortunately been a rupture between do;.,’ b \v a J “'b Great Britain, but they were happy to think S(Jf i.fti - llo 'v ended and that there was an opportunity of Utfi g to make this great question one step forward. of 5^ Liw! 11 ?aid he had listened with a great deal of attention n -' ’ esi. . as a large part of the transit trade lQ dai-» i lecture, u,o c* x — - . , , ‘‘pro ^^'v .' vi tb Venezuela passed through his hands and . he increase in four years, and the great possibles ^-i n : Ic CaM, f ° r Trinidad. He wished to express his thanks to [ ^ 250 PROCEEDINGS OF THE VICTORIA INSTITUTE. •world there lay first of all, the produce of the countr}’. Develop that and you would make your port. Produce what you can and put your produce before the world. A great deal had been said about the difficulties placed in the way of trade by the imposition of duties. There was something more sacred than the strange laws of the Medes and Persians, more sacred now even than the gospel, but in his own opinion he did not think it even should have been sacred. He did not think that the principle of free trade was ever a true principle in any country. He thought that his countrymen could claim their shares in the glories of the Empire, but they and their fellow Celts, the Scots, were junior partners iu the firm, and whilst admiring the Empire as one of the greatest that ever appeared, he could not claim for the Empire the exclusive possession either of all virtue or of all knowledge, and he found that other Empires had reasons for differing from us on that very important point and rejecting the principle of free trade. It was all very well to talk of free trade, but even accepting the principle of the trade in the sense •of its first apostles, Cobden and Bright, what gave them force was pressure on the poor brought about by taxation on bread- stuffs. But it was one tiling to allow grain to enter free from the wide fields of America, Russia and elsewhere, and it was quite another thing to allow flour actually manufactured in America to enter. No man in his senses would impose a tax on grain. If Cobden or Bright were alive at the present day and not their small disciples, lie thought they would put restrictions where the absence of these restrictions had the effect of impover- ishing the people. The importation of manufactured flour had led to the closing of thousands of mills in the three kingdoms and he doubted whether cheap bread was not more thnn paid for by the increased burdens thrown on the Boor Law bv the stonnage of the factories. ' “ r - McCarthy expressed his thanks to the other speakers and said he would not trouble the audience with his views on free trade versus protection, feeling sure that ho was as comfortable in Ins raith as the Rev. gentleman was in his. ON HARBOUR WORKS. By H. Shklford Bidwell, C.E. Harbour Works . — The term “ Harbour Works,” which has been set down as the subject of the paper which I am to read to you to-night, covers a somewhat wide range ; wider than could be dealt with in detail within the limits of a paper such as this. I propose therefore to divide my subject into two heads, viz. : (1) Harbours of Refuge ; (2) Commercial Harbours ; and to give a short description of works undertaken for these purposes. Preliminaries.— -Whatever may be the class of Harbour that it is desired to make, the first step is to have an accurate survey made of the proposed site, including soundings, observa- tions of tidal and other currents, range of tides, direction and height of waves, direction and force of the most prevalent winds, and so on. It is usually desirable also to take borings at inter- ' al » over ground upon which it is intended to place any struc- ture, in order to ascertain the composition of the bottom for some depth. I need not of course describe the method of taking soundings and borings, but perhaps a short description of tidal current observations may be interesting. For these a float or uoy of wood is made, somewhat in the shape of the feather-end o an arrow ; it is weighted at one end so as to float in an up- jjjpt position and to the other end a small flag is usually attached. 06 observer places the float in the water at a known spot, and w lows its course in his boat, fixing its position at intervals by taumg angles with the compass or sextant between known objects on the shore. On the Tyne Harbour and River Works, * lore I was employed for some years, a very elaborate set of *udi observations were made every five years in order to ascer- ain die effect of the elongation of the Piers at the Mouth of the "Of upon the currents within the Harbour. There, besides 5 w 6 observers with their floats, there were lines of anchored 7 s from the mouth of the River to a point some miles up m. and on these were men employed in taking and recording irength of the current at their respective stations; while 7 rs were stationed at the various tide-gauges along the nvei ? ot ‘ng die rise and fall of the tide. These observations continued 7 weeks, trips with the float being made 4 times on the f°° a “ feand the same on the ebb ; and as work was c J , " 1 " Qen ®^ 0r before dawn and continued till after ar ’ " 0D f our floats painted with luminous paint, to e “ able US J7 See in at these times.— Of course at these times it was not 252 PROCEEDINGS OP THE VICTORIA INSTITUTE. possible to fix the position from objects on shore, and this was > only done by noting at what time and at what point any one of ^ the above-mentioned lines of anchored boats was passed. Tide-Gauge . — The range of tide is observed by means of tide-gauges of which the most accurate is one such as is in use here, which has a float in a tube to which the sea has access;, this float actuates a pencil which marks on paper the movements of the tide, the paper uncoiling from one cylinder, moved by clockwork, and coiling itself, when marked, on another. The 1st cylinder is marked with the hours and records the time by punc- tures on the edge of the paper, noon of each day being registered by a special mark. T Vaves and wind . — The direction and force of the waves being in all ordinary cases determined by that of the wind the observations for each go, so to speak, hand in hand. ' The usual method of ascertaining the prevalent winds and their force at any place is to take an observation at a fixed time every day, for as long a period as possible, of the direction and velocity of the wind at that time, noting also during the day any sudden changes that may occur. For very accurate records the anemograph is used, which registers upon a paper the direction and velocity of the wind in a manner somewhat similar to that of the tide- gauge mentioned above. The direction of waves is of course readily observed ; their height is ascertained, bylines of sights at known levels. An- other feature with regard to waves that must be noted is what is known as their “fetch,” i.e , the distance that waves may be driven by the wind before reaching the shore on which they break ; thus, when we say that at such a place there is a “fetch 1 of so many miles we mean ordinarily the distance from that shore to the opposite shore. This affects both height and velocity. Design . — Having obtained all the information possible the design of the Harbour is proceeded with, site for work-yard selected, and preparatory work commenced. Taking first Harbours of Refuge; these are formed by the enclosure of an area of water, more or less deep as required, within protecting moles or breakwaters, leaving an opening by which vessels may enter. A Harbour of Refuge, as its name implies, must be in such a position that vessels may enter it for shelter under any conditions of wind and sea, and on a part of the coast that is much frequented by shipping and is without any natural place of safety into which vessels may run in bad weather. There are determined m - l "f 1 " ', harbours of refuge whose position is P 1 18 t * lere are various methods, one tp erect a wood-woi k f r ™ a T ers bags of concrete ; another and having b 7 bolts let into the rock and then filling this framewn t >' adjusted to the required level method is to make U p th e T°?„J ,tk COncrete in mass. A third layer of broken stone similarTo rrf ° f tke TOcfc surface by a escaping sideways by sealing f ho vr^ m . eta, i> preventing it from The two first-mentioned methods^w^b^h 8 ™ 8,11 bag8of D conC ^ - e both m use at Peterhead B1DWELL — HARBOUIl WORKS. 255 during my service there, and the third method was to he em- ployed for levelling the top of the mound of rubbio stone upon which the blocks would be founded when the rock was passed and a sand bottom reached ; this point had not been reached, however, at the time I left. Where the sand bottom occurs a foundation is made by depositing Rubble stone as mentioned. This is sometimes done from staging on to which wagons are run and their contents tipped into the sea, sometimes from Hopper- barges, and in some cases both methods are employed. The bags of concrete, the size of which varied from one ton to 20 tons, were deposited, the smaller from a special frame to which they were hooked and lowered down to the divers, who unhooked them when in place, and the larger from iron skips, of which the bottoms opened and allowed the bag to fall when over the spot in which it was desired to place it. When this foundation is levelled the blocks are placed upon it; at Peterhead this, aud the lowering of the bags, was done by a large horizontal-armed crane, known as a “ Titan, ’ with a power of dealing with loads of 50 tons at a radius of 100 feet, the largest blocks used there being of that weight. At the Tyne the blocks were set from staging until 1883, when a crane similar to that above, to set blocks of 46 tons weight at 92 feet radius, was erected on the North Pier and a similar one on the South Pier in tbo following year. Several other breakwaters have also been constructed from staging, among them those at Holyhead, Portland, Table Bay, &o. Staging has certain advantages, such as the fact that work can be carried on from it at more than one spot, lines and levels for the. " oi v can e ver y readily given and checked, work can ho carried on, so tar for instance as the depositing of a rubbio mound, in almost any weather. The heavy weight also of these large setting machines ls apt to cause unequal settlement of the new work as it act vances “Pon each succeeding length of it, unless the foundation is very sound, and I have seen a case where each successive length i ot »ew work was visibly broken off from the preceding K j after the crane had forked upon it for a time. f e '' er ^‘® J v . large machines have many advantages such as speedy handling, & c . Blocks are also sometimes set from bar 0 es, for this comparatively smooth water is of eourse ncccssaiy.^o^ they are more frequently used in river work i proper. The succeeding courses of blocks having been bro^o^ J? the required height the breakwater is usua y. ^ hjgh and the seaward side with a parapet, from intervals in this about the same thickness, and at regulai 256 PROCEEDINGS OF THE VICTORIA INSTITUTE. parapet, on the landward side are alcoves, to give shelter to persons on the road level when the sea is -breaking over the parapet, as it very frequently does. The roadway is paved, and usually has one or more railway lines on it. I have so far tried to give a slight account of some pro- tective or refuge works. Turning now to harbours intended purely or mainly for commerce, those in England are mostly formed by the lower reaches of rivers, and their adaptation for trade consists in the construction of docks, ouays, shipping places for coal, should that be one of their exports, deepening if necessary the channel, and so on. Docks . — For a dock; the site having been selected, trenches are sunk on the lines of the enclosing walls and when excavated to the requisite depth the walls are built therein, usually of concrete blocks, backed with concrete in mass at the same time the excavation of the inferior of the dock proceeds. This is usually done by means of steam navvies, as they are called, which consist of a digging bucket capable of lifting about a cubic yard of material, on the arm of a special steam crane. A steam navvy with its 4 or 5 attendants will do the work of * gang of some 60 human navvies and at a considerably smaller cost. In constructing the Manchester ship canal, several dif- ferent kinds of diggers were used, including some very large ones with an endless chain of buckets, on' the principle of a dredger. The outer walls of a dock are sometimes constructed in the water on the same lines as sea-works. Docks have usually two entrances, side by side, one a tidal entrance, through which ships can enter only when the water outside is at the same level as that in the dock, and the gates of which are opened at about half flood tide, remaining open till the tide falls to this level again; the other a lock through which ships can be admitted at any time, by first raising or lowering the water in o t ie evel of that- outside, and then goin# through the opposite process till the water is the same level as that in the after "tt * rf - dock ! it Coble Dene on the Tyne, afterwards call Dock ’ \ nCe of . ^ales, who opened it, the “ Albert Ed« w de^, ^n1- \ tl , dal entrance SO feet wide and a lock 6U f eutVance f , ^ The dfi P th water on the sill of « P “ rii; ' ( mnfir f SOI of the lock is 30 feet. at high wa^ an aL of Acres' The dee P e " Thi * dock 1 self-actin" ’ J 1 ? P rmCi pal export is coal, and for tl shipping °1 000 tor °* f ^PP, 111 ® Peaces are provided, capable PPmg 1,000 tons of coal per hour. For the import tra BIDWKLL — HARBOUR WORKS. 2,57 there are 157 acres of wharf space and standage ground, with wrehouses for grain, Esparto grass and general merchandize. The gates are opened and closed, and many of the quay cranes, and all the hoisting machinery in the warehouse worked, by hydraulic power. There are of course several miles of railway sidings on the wharves and standage ground, and these connect with a main line, and with several local colliery lines. There are two other docks upon the River Tyne, but I have chosen this one to give a few particulars of, as it is the last constructed. Quay and river walls if constructed in the water are, as I have said, carried on much on the lines, previously described, of sea- works. I may mention that a portion of the river quay wall at the Albert Edward Dock was constructed by means of twin barges, bearing a bridge-crane from which was hung, between the barges, the block to be set. The making of quays and whavves may consist in building the quay wall in the water as above and afterwards reclaiming the land behind it by means of filling in, or of building it behind land which is afterwards to be removed. The actual quay is sometimes constructed of timber, but in this case it is a ways done, at any rate the front portion of it, in the water ; the law-i) tf any, necessary to be removed, having previously been dte ge awa y. And this brings me to dredging. There are various types of dredgers ; hopper-dredgers, which load themselves ana carry away their spoil to sea ; barge-loading dredgers with single double chains of buckets; suction dredgers, which act witti a powerful pump; and single-bucket and grab-dredgers. these the most common type is the barge-loading re » ’ . as we have here at Port-of- Spain, and on works w ler ttnich dredging to be done there will be several o iese. Where the material to be removed is ^artb clay sand or aud, the dredging proceeds without any prevmus operatK n but w here rock is to be dealt with it is first broken up 1 oy blasU ng with dynamite or kindred explosives, and a c ° , certain doing this is to place several charges upon the bottom at c^tam distances from each other and firing them, rock, forming a number of basins, as i ’ crac ked and other and with the portion between each ab» up the shaken ; the dredger then goes over e S r , t q ic required shattered material. This process is rep , owu ^ « patch- depth is reached. This system of blasting ; i „ charges of blasting,” and I have seen it used wit i 8* ' , circular »» io is P =»d, of Ld * excavations in the rock of some - dredger and also a deep. There is a form of single-bucket dred s er 258 PROCEEDINGS OF THE VICTORIA INSTITUTE. suction-dredger of which the actual dredging gear is made very heavy and is used as a hammer to break up the rock. These have been used a good deal in America. In carrying away the dredged material care must be taken that it is deposited in such a position that if solid material it may not thereafter form an obstruction, or if soft may not be carried back by currents to the harbour from whence it has been removed. The spoil is sometimes used for assisting in reclaiming land. Reclamation . — Reclamation of land, besides being accom- plished by the processes previously mentioned, is also effected by warping, that is, by securing the sediment deposited by the tides, and this is done by running out groynes to check the receding tide and cause it to drop the solid matter held in sus- pension. When the ground has been raised as far as practicable by these means it is filled up to the height that may be desired by material deposited from the land. Jetties . — In cases where it is not possible, or would be too costly, to make quays and wharves having sufficient depth of water alongside, and where the sea will permit with safety of vessels lying alongside a jetty, in deep water, such a jetty is sometimes constructed. This may be either of timber or iron ; in many waters, however, timber does not last a very great length of time, being attacked by boring “worms,” as they are commonly called, the -teredo navahs being the most frequently found of these. In ng ish waters, though the Teredo is found, it is not nearly so arge 01 so destructive as the variety found in waters of warmer cJimates, and T have seen some piles which had been a consi- aerable number of years in the water, which when drawn were oun to e airly sound except for a few inches from the surface. Oreosoting timber protects it to a certain extent, but even this will not protect it where the worm is very voracious. r ™ n , JettieS are constructed of girder-work supported upon sunk ro il 61 ' SCrew -P lI f ° r , hoIJo ^ cylinders which, after being with con c ;L reqU1 6Pth bj excavati °S inside them, are filled have ’i h f a / en ° raI ske *° h of some of the work that may harbour InZ^l °'\ ^ Creation or improvement of a tt now Z 1 / 1 glance at the scheme of improvement mat is now being carried out at Port-of-Sm I r, t n starting from the corner of the Custom I • n f ’ angle a t a point in the line of the old St T T "5 then be carried in the direction a ~ • * , ncen t Jetty, and west of the corner of Hip p • a P. 01nt a k° ut 150 feet south- corner of the Commissariat Wharf, usually known B1DWELL— HARBOUR WORKS. 259 » ''Turnbull's corner.” The iron jetty will run from a point 120 feet west of the old jetty 400 feet sea-ward, it will have a width of 35 feet, and have two lines of railway on it. . It was »t first intended that the wharf wall should be carried as a return wall from a point 80 feet west of the new jetty back to Met the St. Vincent Wharf at its junction with the South Quay, thus forming a spur of land with the jetty projecting tom it. But it was afterwards determined to continue the wall straight on as described. The total length of quay frontage being 1,400 feet. The Reclamation at the back of the wall will give an additional wharf space of rather more than 11 acres, in Edition to that portion reclaimed in 1894. The wharf wi h's a depth of water alongside of 8 feet at low water spi ing tides at that portion east of the new jetty and of 10 feet ,on * “ e jetty to the west end. The jetty will have at least 10 teet Mi of water alongside for the whole of its length and this probably be increased for a portion of its length . The dredging is being carried to a depth of 8 feet below 7 wter over that portion from the new jetty to the ^ueen s from thence to the Petroleum Warehouse groyne a depUl of from 6 to 7 feet has been made, while westward ot the new the depth is taken to 10 feel. And here I may say some- “ lln g which I know is not in accordance with the general beliel “*«> and that is that, up to the present at any rate, it « no® Wd that the dredged area silts up. Careful soundings - en periodically taken over the dredged ground, ' om 'Y wag ha «bee Q ascertained that the depth to which the dredgi 8 tar ned is maintained, and in no part has it been S4r 7 h) dredge a second time. Possible future extensions . — With regard to P 0 ***' 3 t tbe “tensions of the harbour, these will, I take it, ;estward ; though it should be P'®* 1 ® '^^um warehouse “considerable tract of land eastward of the P etr °^" „ roV ne be ? ro Jne, extending indeed in time, if the. interc p o o an y Wade long enough, to the mouth of the Carom ^ ^ pensions with a view to obtaining deep ■ wate« be wards the Maraval mouth, and I bel tQ 35 f e et in practicable to make a wharf having a dep ater • 0 r, a less rorit °f it; dredging out to meet the <- e< P. , depth in front expedient, dredging a basin of the of the quay and a good wide channel as an app ... 4 - /-vF trade is such to . Whether the anticipated developmen m y province to justify the outlay upon such worlds it is reasQ n why Port-of- d '^ss, but I say that I see no engineering reason Vm should not be made a deep water harb Thursday, 3rd February, 1898. The Hon. F. Lovell, C.M.G., Vice-President, in the Chair, The following Paper was read : — ON WATER WORKS FOR PORT-OF-SPAIN. By Walsh Weightson, M.I.C.E., Director of Public TT7ITH regard to the Port-of-Spain Water Works I daresay all V f of you are well acquainted with them. The works them- selves are of the very simplest nature, small streams flow into small service reservoirs and thence in pipes to the town. There • is no storage of water, and no filtering of it. I may perhaps be pardoned for stating that the system of water supply to Port-of- Spain is in every way unworthy of the city. The water is liable to constant and serious contamination, and of the results which may follow one has only to refer to the recent cases of typhoid fever in Maidstone and King’s Lynn. In the first case it appears that the sources of supply were not protected, and they were, therefore, fouled by hop pickers from London. As there was no filtering of the water, it passing in much the same manner from the springs as the water of Port-of-Spain does from the Mat-aval river, the results of such fouling have been appal- ling. Out of a population of a little over 30,000 there have een nearly 2,000 cases of typhoid fever. Maidstone has received such a warning as will not be readily forgotten of the necessity for a pure water supply. With regard to King’s Lynn there are some spectal features connected with it which I think may well be taken to heart by the people of this city. In 1892, 1 think, there was an outbreak of typhoid fever in that town. A local government Board Inspector was sent down— you see the Govern- n^° eS 11 ° t il a ow municipalities in England to do altogether ou fch rpa em— -to make an enquiry into the causes of the out that tl 6 malr. Chairman and gentlemen, I have detained vou for a ThTsubiec't E 6 ho four that I have been somewhattiresome. subject is, however, a very important one. I f oe ] that I WRIG1ITS0N — WATER SUPPLY. 263 be left unsaid a great part of what I Rhould have liked to ha-^e aid, more particularly about the abuse of water and the methods •kith will sooner or later have to be adopted to put an end to it, unless indeed the people of the City deliberately make up Asir minds to spend h a million sterling in going to the Oropuche we prepared to pay the piper in the shape of heavy water Dr. Lovell said he felt and appreciated much the honour Ibt had been paid to him by having been called upon to take chair, as well as to take part in the discussion on the paper which had just been read by Mr. Wrightson, and which he ‘assure from the importance of the question dealt with they ™ all, like himself, followed with the deepest interest. It was jot merely a personal interest which he took in this matter, but “ felt that it was but right that the department of which he ! rjs die head should always go hand in hand with the Go\ ernmen^ “ 1,1 matters connected with the water supply of the Colony, “cause upon the purity or otherwise of that supply the health oi ! « community mainly depended. He could assure “J "as considerably interesting to him to hear what Mr. n S 1 8 ! !lstl said about the steps which were likely to be taken in connection with our water supply. Shortly after lus ai 1 1 \ a Colony, he thought it his duty to draw the attention of the Wnment to the danger of having unprotected "water-shed Ann’s and Maraval. Observations at the time had pro ^t they were more exposed to danger trom c ® 0Ur< * than the former, from the fact that having had seve a Samples of the water from that source of supply brought toh.m, lle Wnd that if it was allowed to lie undisturbed for y ^ ^ aunutes, its impurities were plainly to be 8ee ' n . , . ° double to lie combatted with in England was yp 1 contend tlie }’ had not only typhoid but malarial ^ e • ent t0 a gainst, as well as all those diseases which wen; was no t < onsiderable extent upon an impure water ^ u pp .v ( ; ! 0 i ss ;. ms j? much to sav that from 25 to 30 per oent thb «« ^ ^ ! to our hospitals were of this class ot disease.. , iiny , V c e dilate to say that if the water supplies o ^ uioh ; t„ y Ntected as they should he from the J*?, ,» -ulmission s into our "ere at present subject., not only won > j e> death ive hospitals be considerably diminished I, bu an{1 l)t , J, roug.it "Mi now exists would likewise be ec • i? n , T ; ,. in d which v. ni,ire imo conformity with the death rate <» . * ^ ,,„i ^Umatecl at something like 20 per 1 . 000 , J ^ , 1 pi c thousand. With the protection ot ■ V1 . l , u ’„i ■■ damage in Portrof-Spain he believed tha ,, would..- 16 die healthiest colony in tlie British b F 264 PROCEEDINGS OP THE VICTORIA INSTITUTE. Mr. Wrightson if he had considered the question of supplying the various villages with- water by means of artesian wells as was done in Mauritius. He had had some years experience in that colony having been at the head of a similar department to this over which he presided here, and his experience was that owing to the distribution of purer water among the villagers by means of these artesian wells the death rate was considerably diminished. Port Louis had rfow become a very healthy town owing in a great measure to the quality of the water supplied to that town. Seeing what good it had effected by the adoption of those wells, had been the reason why he would ask Mr. Wrightson if he had considered this question. He firmly believed that if these wells were introduced here it would be far better for the villagers than their having to obtain their water supply from polluted rivers or springs. It was a subject worthy of consideration to see that the villagers got a pure supply of water as much as the town folks. As he knew that there were others who would like to take part in the discussion of this interesting question he would not detain them any longer. Mr. Randolph Rust., who on ascending the platform took a glass of water which created some laughter, said he did not no.i w 13- it was that he was called upon to address the meeting, but it was no doubt owing to his having taken for a length of time considerable interest in this question. Of course, he had always objected to meters. Now he did not mean to take up their time by making reference to what they had heard about the mode adopted by the ancients for securing a goodly supply ?; ater l * K '- v had heard all about that in the very interesting lecture delivered by Mr. Wrightson. He was bound to confess but the r Wate, 'T Wheu 1,6 heard of thllfc splendid supply tribnHn :°\ ein . ment ieie > Hke those of old, had levied a con- tabutwn from the people, but they had not got the water works nlentv 1 of “ n , V ! US , a ( l uestlon of want of water, We had They had Tr >UL • t * le 'lotion was how to conserve it, Sir aud e ° m t,me t0 ' ime What *0 be done for im- buih “cfos S ,h fi M rV,ng i°“ r “"PP^- A bridge was to be but thev^iad n ; T n T er and this and that to be done alwavl Ven T ' ,h(!Se W!xter ^orfa yet. It had extensive " epidemic* t0 . I 10 "" they escaped from more drank was oont.-uninatedHfro.ntts viu-y' sou rc^ told them in Ids lecture that the r , The lecturer had found it necessary to s J l! ? m ” ent in England had to trace the cause which led To the *° Kin ."’ s L >’ nn ill that place in IS!) ’ Tim T out breuk of typhoid fever but no stops were take,, to ““ d re P° r , ted) .euitoy the evil that existed. VVRIGHTSON — WATER SUPPLY. 265 Only recently he had received a letter from a friend in King’s Lynn stating that for the want of water they had had a most destructive fire there. The fact was that the water was so foul that it could not pass through the hose used by the Brigade. So that as one saw things were sometimes even worse in England than here. The lecturer had stated that in England the Government did notallow the Municipalities to do as they liked. Butin this instance the Government had. Here it could not be said that there was a municipality at all. Through the action of the Government almost everything was controlled by the Government from beginning to end. They had been told that the water here ran to waste. Why should not this waste be conserved ? Why should not proper reservoirs be erected for the storage of our water ? They were told that the hills behind Diego Martin and Maraval were very porous. Where was the water which passed into these hills ? It must be there somewhere “bout. Why was not the water engineers requested to tap these mountains by means of artesian wells, and he was sure if the water was there it would be found. ISow as to the storage of tbeir water. In America the reservoirs were asphalted, not con- creted, and as asphalt was indigenous to Trinidad the cost of constructing a reservoir of proper dimensions for storing a large supply would be considerably lessened. He must confess that Le considered the suggestion to utilize the Oropuche river and wt aside its. water for the future supply of the Island, was one °f the best ideas ever conceived in connection with this question und it was to be hoped that the Government would carry out the suggestion. They had had experts from England to report upon their water supply ; those gentlemen had been handsomely paid, hut all that they had ever recommended was just as far off of being carried out as the day of the discovery of Trinidad years »go The Water Works of Port-of-Hpain were good enough, but let them ask themselves whether they could say the same with regard to San Fernando? They could not. In San Fernando the supply was exceedingly limited and the people there were •>y no means in as good position as those who lived in Fort-of- •Vin. The Borough Council of Port-of-Spain did not mean to hit the consumption of water be curtailed in Port-of-bpam as the Government seemed disposed to do in -San Fernan o. *• ome ime ago the Board of Health no doubt with a view as they thought °f consulting the health of the people there, ordered the closing of the various wells on 1 Voodbrotik village. ® '' n ** agreed with this step. The people did not .use the water from the wells for drinking purposes but for washing their clothe and for watering their small gardens. For dr. .iking H.ey use the pure,- water Which they obtained from the hydrants. ( Dat he failed to understand was that while so much solicrtu - was o 266 PROCEEDINGS OP THE VICTORIA INSTITUTE. evinced on behalf of these poor people, and thej r were ordered to close their wells, the authorities allowed a certain company to dig wells around their buildings. He failed to see why a big corporation like the Electric Light Company should be favoured in preference to the poor people who lived in Woodbrook. Professor Carmodv said he should address himself to one part of the lecture, and that was the water supply of Trinidad. It was the habit of some persons to run down the character of the water supply of the colony. And no doubt those who had lands above the present reservoir for sale were interested m doing so, because they always found the Government a good purchaser. But from his experience of the water here as well a* in England he could say with confidence that the natural condi- tion of the water here was equal to if it did not surpass that or most of the towns in England. It was necessary to take their water supply from the upper part of the river to avoid contain' nation. Filter beds would be much more costly to maintain m Port-of-Spain than at Arima. Mr. Carmody then referred to the. fact that for very many years he had made monthly analyses <> samples of water from St. Ann’s and Maraval, and it was only occasionally that any abnormal conditions were found. Min' he wanted fo point out and draw special attention to was t ie polluted water in the wells. He noticed an instance where he tad made an analysis of water from a well, which was in suci condition as to cause him to wonder how some of the people wno drank from this well had not committed suicide. Mr. Carrno y also drew attention to the milk supplied to Port-of-Spain which came principally from Peru Village where people washed, dean and cooked with water from polluted wells from which then* •cattle also drank, lie instanced the fact that recently in ° ae yard m that village some four or five persons were struck •down with dysentery which it was proved had been caused by drinking bad water from the well. Mr. Rust drew attention to the fact that he had alluded to xi brook 9; than the interest upon that sum could have amounted to. He saw no difficulty in the Government s raising the amount. They - .i,., n 4 ?on 000 a year upon insurance rates, were paying far more than ±.-.u,uuu y p , • which as everyone was aware, had risen from J to 1 J per cent, since the fim Noting was more likely to cause Insurance offices m England to lower their rates than the knowledge of °ui ha^n„ au abundant supply of water. ^The h»g ^ i|lsm>able property in°the inland 1 16 At'preeent the people in England were told that me island . 1 a( l which was not true. He felt lere was no w <_ Qropucbe water was utilized not only again the water might be used for irrigating purposes. Mr. Hamel Smith suggested that water be taken from the lulls above Mobo instead of going to Oropuche. Dr. Laurence spoke of the pure supply of water, if they ev |, ning that he had been of the community. It was on y ■ f tvnhoid fever which was at- iuformed of an undoubted case .of typhmd tme^ tribu table to the drinking of \iatei , Up with regard to the sug- Mr. Wrightson it was doubtful whether gestion to introduce artesian wens > . 0 f the substratums they would succeed. Levels and ~nd*« tw0 parts of this had to be carefully considered. . And beyond the lulls island where the conditions were * 1 be me t with as was of Montserrat the same contaroinat Go = ernraent (licl no t pro- uow complained of at Maraval. _„ tc h the underground Pose going to Moko but intent . water With regard to springs in order to get a pure supp } 1 scarcely follow him "’hat had fallen from Mr. Kn f’ n „ htfu i remarks, but with through his well reasoned and ^ reservoirs for regard to wliat 1m had' said about e o ’ asthat some time storing their surplus water what ne . that a concrete *5° he found it Suggested m a { a :?0 days’ supply reservoir Should bo built capable of containing 268 proceedings of the victoria institute. of water. Now «« ,1 300.000 Gallons n rr.,, , al v consumption was something like cover quite two' thirds 7?)' * l ° conta,n thirty times that would be built S an tnl ° f the area 0f the and was quite aware thaTth* 8 C ° St Re « ardin S the use of metreslhe when the proper me^ w oh V**» *> them. But tributing water Tn ii V scd 11 ' vas ttie Purest way of dis- In Trinidad thev wo U C ? ntlnenta l countries they were used, yards where thfwlfi ™ not in the barrack quartern ^ was in the well-to-do and the overflow of ar ° e baths were constantly kept filled supply of water hi ° Ut ' No 0ne - i8hed *> tfae shS ^ arrange was that there which frequently occurred” 1 SUPP ' y S ° aS t0 avoid tbe losing off the domestic uses of electricity. By E- W - Dick enson, Electrical Engineer. I N the ease bv whiVE i?i . . . assume that form of Pno . ect . n . cit y can always be made ful, lies its great and nv rgy WlI ?k happens to be the most u: borne out by the wonderf^ 1 * * * ”?^* 118 ini P or tance. This is ful 25 years in & appSS t ifc ha8 “ ad « during the la art J and the amazinf m nearl T every branch of science at quarters of the s ]6be ™™" er l ” which it has penetrated to a help to man, Trinidad / h? "'herever it goes a blessing at partly «ee what it can do Th ?° W quite used to ifc ' ac ? on & Wa y ahead in this r#* to proud that they ai better facilities, and as ° f man T P laces in England wit may be said “ we see what m?' . greater a population. ] Electricity, I wish “ at Electricity can do. but what ' I only wish ElectricLans k l get r° know what i‘ «»Hy ia ? 2 redT‘ S '** * " !al conundrum t know, 6 1? est, ? n ~“ what is li„h, whafc 8eeim to he » ver . not .2 difference between r u ^ roni OUr infancy we hav KraviV^’^n 08 bere H 'ho can 7 and darknfcsa, but there i and w. , ^hy does the criekef iTn* 1 * **8ht really is. What i Hut tU <; i a good sfeyer ? The 80 heavy when we tr; wires we * know Th w„ qUeS i t,on ■seems unanswerable J ma «netsso as to »( pf "“pretend bow to jdaee oui g Electric, ty into a convenient forn DICKENSON — ELECTRICITY. 269 and when so formed how to make use of it. We must fully understand that Electricity in one form or another is now and always has been part of nature, as one of its great forces, and is no new invention as some people erroneously suppose. We are apt to forget that thunder and lightning were the fear of the savage thousands of years ago. To forget that Pliny described the peculiar Electrical properties of Amber, as being known long before the Christian Era, and that when rubbed off having the power of attracting certain objects to it. We must not forget that the Chinese were acquainted with the directive properties of the magnet as early as Anno Domini 121 , when they used it on their journeys by land, and that gradually from these early times our knowledge of the subject has been getting greater and greater, through the work of experimenters of several countries, until we come to Queen Elizabeth’s time when the great Dr. Gilbert made a series of fresh discoveries, which gave him the title of the founder of the science. The brilliant experiments of Faraday, however, in the autumn of 1831 when he discovered what is known as induc- tion, form the real commencement of the rapid rise and develop- ment of this science, but it was not till 25 years ago, when the knowledge of the few became that of the many, that its impor- tance came to the front so rapidly, and its usefulness was so clearly demonstrated. I cannot pass here without trying to give you some idea of Faraday’s discovery, for on it is based the principles which underlie the design of all our present electrical machinery. * * * * So you see that a length of wire and a piece of steel can, under certain conditions, immediately produce electricity. If there is anything useful or interesting appening m outside world you may be quite sure that it will not be long before it is known indie home. When ^ heard how Electricity could help her it was not long before ^she sought to know more about it, and the > r esu ^ j J t ablished which at first was more used out ot dooi became nr j in the home, where it is daily proving more anc heads The domestic uses of Electricity maybe classed unde. 3 heads 1st. Its use as Light. 2nd. Tts use as Power. 3rd. Its use as Heat. 270 PROCEEDINOS OF THE VICTORIA INSTITUTE. Its use as Light . — Very little beyond what is already so well known to the audience can be advanced to demonstrate the advantages of the Electric Light over those of any other ulunnnant. To begin with it is clean and this attribute cannot e applied to any' other light within my knowledge, and is one that is sure to be appreciated by every careful house- wife. It is a so convenient, as with a proper arrangement of switches, there is no c angerous and often disastrous navigation of a furnished room w tile endeavouring vainly to get to the matches and the unwary uiglar also can be startled into semi-unconsciousness on its quiet but sudden switching on. When properly installed, the danger from fire is very small, and it has been proved repeatedly rrom published returns of Insurance Companies that it is the very satest kind of light. This I think must appeal especially to i 'V nS , tbe tropics where the houses are for the most pai built of timber dried by' the heat to matchwood and liable 4 *** moment to catch fire. A very simple experiment will W 1. 011 Iat eve n the burner or bulb from which the light comes is quite harmless. homes h Ti k many errors are made in the method of lighting ou the # c T nnn " wa y inartistic, though effective, of hanginj theliSbr ' 0m th - 6 cei!ln S cannot be commended nor the one o this 1-iffp P. lo J ectln S from the wail at the end of a bracket, yet itself on® r p, ' eferable - 1)1 fact any method in which the bull that i, ?), to. is wrong. The ideal method is by refection but unc-i !l gh 1 thrown on t0 »he wail, ceiling, or some Hgb throueho fr l SUrface ’ and ^en reflected in a kind of glo" this manner h ^ r ° 0rn ' ., To diustrate this I have fired a light it proves Th p a '! 'T° U WI s . ee how pleasant such an arrangement colour of tin. r r° can °f course be altered to suit the that used in thp' 0 ? 3 .' / c t?' C hght similar to, but smaller than with very « « ®ore interesting, b ut ' doers than talkers. = 1-15 Thursday , 17th March, 1898. His Honor Sir John Goldnuy, President, in the Chair. The following Paper was read : — ON THE CARE OF HORSES. By Frank Pocson, M.R.C.V.S., &c., &c. W HEX asked by the Management of this Institution to read ' ' a paper on the care of horses, my first thought after I had consented to do so, was “ Where shall I start and where shall I stop ? my second thought was, “ Who am I going to lecture to — owners of horses or coachmen and grooms V After due con- sideration I decided to try and speak on subjects which l thought might interest, both" parties. I shall first speak on the subject of buying a horse. There is no one who has mixed much in general society but has found, front prince to peasant, that one of the tenderest points of a Britisher’s self opinion is touched by the bare supposition that he “knows nothing about a horse; yet how few have really studied the subject .closely, anti how many less have possessed the opportunity of a technical ac- quaintance even with the leading points necessary to form a fair and just judgment of a horse’s capabilities, powers and suitable- ness tor which he is required. Next to choosing a wife, miying a horse to carry you “for better or for worse” is the affair in i e that requires most deliberate circumspection. True, the tormer is proverbially “ » lottery,” but there is no reason that the attei need be, for the man who will study the subject, need not, in suiting himself with a horse, buy one with such serious defects as. may make him feel he is sold again and money paid Let me say here that any “person in search of* r se, should look rather for the good qualities, as you wou t, ' lend or trust y servant, than mere beauty for "Whoe'er expects a perfect 'horse ’ to see. Kxpects what never was, or is, or e’er will be.” over ^J l00 ^ n y a fmrse. Firstly, we will suppose that you are not e-ood ICU fU ' as to colour > and that the venerable saw, ‘ * fensil r’™. 1S ° f il bad colou '--” has its due weight with a are food of 3 ’ ll T/ ’ c ^ estnut . roan, bay, brown, or black, there and °white t. •' , Jl ' e T s are handsome, but as they grow older much more s . am . t h e msel ves so frequently by lying down th® Xnwht T1 w neeessar yi add to which, their hoofs are horse 3 Whl T e ’ 7 *° teV and d «nse than those of blackfooted difficult. 1 l e !?;: be a g° ud *ort of horse is perhaps not y good sort of horse cannot well be put q« lte POGSON— CARE OF HORSES. 275 out of place, he is capable of all services ^'“and ev^n^that, he him, with perhaps the reservation of racn^and^ ^ ^ ^ can at a push, often make a g"o cheerful eyes, are in- » «w», ■*»», .good »i» dicative of good, and (it I iab]e and generous temperament horse) indicative also of an at ‘ ,|| T betoken free- •»d dupociitioo. I.™« ““rCw S" re c“ S„S. . A deep dorn of action, so loins: wide girth and long back mbs den ^ lh ? h( , and Urg0 clean hocks, hips, freedom ot action , long „ ■ energetic horse has *» -™* pmp.iiing generally a large eye, «n« “ ‘ g ’ d bas usua lly a small sunken skin, and clean limbs. ‘"'i “ears are large and sloping, and eye, in a large heavy hear ' alrn0r4t always small, muzzle fleshy, seldom move, the nostril tai | drooping and not unfre- ribs flat, belly P ( ’ n 'j: u ' \ preliminary remarks we will proceed quently very full. '\ 11 ' ( . base . The best time to view a horse to the examination foi 1 . stable, as if there is any b early in the morning, m the^^ ^ ^ it will tendency to swolle => horse should always be ex- then be most apparent. _ pc | a ily if he is being examined amined from a state ot , V; there are any symptons by a non-professional or a i ' exerc ised, such as sweat of his having been Pf^ ous ‘> ' been recently washed, it is about his withers or hu legs, h. ^ ti „ <;00 |. There is advisable that he should be lott i beoom es less apparent more than one species of auien > tendenC y to swollen legs, a after exercise, and where t »«* . ‘ gne |,; s legs and render them smart trot and grooming will of t - dness system should be clean. In examining a horse fo • d _ The prospective observed, otherwise defects n"c < ; . imme diately note how buyer should, on walking into the h {or the space of a the horse is standing ond ^ ^ on all four leg* few seconds, whether he s an ' {eet one will P>° ,a . ’ ^ f If there is any complaint in the t other> or he > ll e “pointed,” that is, Rxten ^, d p S k in- one up and setting theot her quently alter the position <* ■ 1 ) u ,, bt under the body o down for the hind legs wdl be A ny of these -symp the fore feet of some portion t> feet when you see toms should direct your attention ^ s (k) noD allow the horse out. During these casual obse ^ ^ Note also horse to be touched or mterf Qr win dsuoks , jfc during this time whether the vhilst you are '^‘ fa r h * n " llwse he does not show those sy m P 1 ' Qr n()t he is addic e can easily be ascertained w _ the manger ot d habits, by careful examination ^ him roun d, watching Now let the groom go to tl 276 PROCEEDINGS OP THE VICTORIA INSTITUTE. caietully now he turns, stiffness, especially in the hock, being better detected at this time than any other. On bringing the loise out of the stable take a general survey of him first, noticing t ie condition of his skin for mange, &c., whether he has any emishes, or whether he shows any temper or stupidness. Take up your position in front of the horse about 8 feet away and notice the eyes if they are bright and clear, then look at his fore egs and notice if they are in proper position, that there are no en argements of the fetlock, or abrasions on knees : and that the eet are the same size and stand square to the front. After taking note of any defects or irregularities ; move along the near aide, and note the confirmation of the ribs or loins, also the double action of the Hank, indicative of broken wind. Keeping e same distance, stand behind the horse and run the eye down rom the croup to the feet, noticing any defect and noting same- follow the same course on the offside and finish where you began. bis general survey finished, start again by examining the head- Pirst examine the horse for age (about which if I have time 1 shall say a little later on). 2nd. Examine the tongue and molars. 1 Examine each nostril carefully’ for any suspicious discharge or inflammation. 4th. Feel the poll, for poll evil. 5th. Pass the hand along the channel of the jaw. 6th. Cough the horse. Ko* go to the near side, keeping your face towards horses ear with hand on the crest and passing it to withers. If oise las a sore or a gall there he will immediately shew it ) / nc , * n £\ Pass your hand down the shoulder and over t e ou c ei joint, noticing if there are any old galls or seton 111:11 ts, continue your hand down the fore arm, over the front of knee, teeimg particularly for old scars or broken knees. Pass your hand • -L of shank bone, and then pass it on to the fetlock and “ e , n a ny enlargement, splint, ring bone, side bone, other- fj.- , . a , ossified cartilages, ought to be felt. Fow turn round, left i, UnC i mvi “K y° ur back to the horse’s head and with t’ p ' ortpnA examine the back part of the same fore leg, for sprains ^alU b US tl xt , ^ amentSj mar ks of speedy cut, brushing, and win horse t j , N °" W ? C0| ne on to the foot, the foundation of the the npavf "°. mu °b attention cannot be paid to it. P' ck “I fetlock wiiw T a , rU ^ bend the knee to see if the front of the all r jc,|, t ,,°! )C . 1 'he forearm as it ought to do if the knee 18 abdomen’ ,d lIe - y ° U have foot up, stoop and see if M examine the t ”' 0 ' n are clear of any swelling or fistula. Ao*j say inw “ no 1 atK * examine it very carefully, for theo spoken and T T is as tl ue to-day as it wls when important part of ft th ? refore circular form destroyed by narrowness o , g A good hoof is circular in the trcad > ™ tTtob2. measuring as much from side to side, as smooth and The wall of the hoof should at all ifaes be perfectly free from ridges, and of ! a shiny (] | es wit h the The proper obliquity is an materially less, the shoe is plane of the shoe. If the ., a "f‘ an „ le exceeds it the foot is con- hat, or perhaps concave ; if the a pliable and tracted . The jrog. The heah ^ “ .LeU" the frog matter elastic. Should * lie re if ^ , m v peoples considered of exudes, there is thrush Thru^ . f there is puru i e nt htte im^riancebutitrau^tion and wh eve there is inflamma- matter there must be infl a horse with thrush steps on to a bon, there is pam, so tha , . to the sudden twinge that stone he is liable to Ml the ruin of the knees. It occurs!) to the pen o thrush is a serious objection must therefore be admitted tha ^ ^ fche sub j eCt especially in a riding hors - . - t j s i nc lined to be con- of close inspection : m its hca . hee | Si an d extraordinary cave, but if in connection wi f n ternal contraction. If the concavity is present it is a sign during exertion, sole is unusually thick, and ' ^. diminished." If the sole is less the elasticity of the foot must bed i thfl {oot is weak, concave than natural, or approa n w m now proeeed to Having now finished the fore ' \ annel , In this limb the examine the hind limb in a ? , llwaV s undergo a most rigid chief joint is the hock, ant 8 ' s tructure and the wor - 1 examination, as from its compbcrtted 8tr , nI ne cases has to perform it is the seat of ^ « me wh<)!e „f the evening to out of ten, and it would take m . jf t hafc joint, and I shal describe minutely the ditlerent 6 ' eese * me The first thing to therefore deal very briefly Xhere are two kinds of look f„r in the hock joint w «£.'“• the latter can generally be spavins, bone spavin and >°o s P‘ S j nC jpient stage can y easily detected, but bone spavin » used to examin- fonnd by experienced bnrtrttom , ^ that if two veterinary lug hocks frequently, an oat n f a hundred w ’ surgeons disagree it is in y 1 . ft r looking for s P v '! n ; ’ y H vi ,g horse has or has not spavin , ^ urbs , au d old strains. Having look for thorough pin «*PH h ^“ e the shank boneaand^. ~ finished the hock, proeeed _ i; m b. Having" 0 ' ,ni1 ^ 1 . . tendons the same as in the ° f t he hea side of the horse return to the on V j 4. i,id examine tu 278 PROCEEDINGS OF THE VICTORIA INSTITUTE. side in a like manner. This examination finished the next thing to do is to examine the horse to see if he is lame. Let him at once be trotted (don’t walk at first and then let him trot), and let the groom hold t he rein very slack. There is no occasion to trot fast, let him go quietly at about the pace of G miles an hour. Let him g» a tout fifty yards in a straight line from you and then return, careful note being taken to see if ho goes level and also how ho turns. Now back him to see if he is Vocked or not. The horse should now be tried for his wind either by galloping or by what is termed ‘•bulling.'’ Next have the fore shoes taken oil and cai etully examine the feet for corns, false quarter, seody thrush, pumice sole, £c\, &c. If these directions be carefully followed, and you miss seeing anything wrong, it will be not because you c 1,3 110 1 look for it, but because you failed to see or feel it, when you were looking or feeling for it. We will now imagine you ia\e satisfied yourself and got a horse ; let us now see how be should be kept. “ Grooming ’’—The objects aimed at by gl ooming aie to get rid of dust, dirt, and the superficial layers of the skin winch are constantly being cast oil'. The neglect of grooming produces skin disease, particularly the parasitic forms caused by pediculi and acari. The process of dressing horses requires great practice, patience, and experience, the brush should be used with one cross the hair, it should be drawn firmly through the hair to ensure its penetration to the skin. Few men are willing to pend Urn time and energy required in grooming a horse properly ; le Jrus i is generally applied in such a manner that the super- ficial and “ not” the deep seated dirt is removed. They trust note to the curry comb than the brush, and scrape the dirt out c r ‘rfbnwlnng it out. The legitimate use of the curry an in,! “ c ean l . le finish, and no other. Cleaning the legs is b™ 1 ■ P0r ? ant l 30 “to of grooming. In dry weather a simple weatC 8 ! S " Ufficie 1 llt - followed by hard rubbing : but in wet at wet ,m!\ e la \ e the element mud to contend with To brus ^ wash in i , • " ou d be to make matters worse; as a result of this which generally resorted to. Leg washing is a practice It is ’ not S H ne '' a y P ei ' fo ‘mcd, must be wholly condemned, are LCiablv IT" "' ashin & ,)ut ‘he fact that the legs that thi- ;• ^ ett damp, or oven wet. Experience shows matism wJ- pl '° lf,u sourc « of skin affection and rheu- differen'ce * « l^.ice that there is non about, especially in Great Britain. to justify it 1 " 1 it alt0 " ether ' “Vine that there WVnenl of the Feet. lamp, or even wet. Experience W. J ■ P , U sou rce of skin affection and r. ence 0 £ S un .g horses is a liranG™ tl..,, tlmw is much is notWng' to l justifTTt mn ¥ alto S eth er, saying . , Management of]k* pL hpj 1 " 11 that ,fc ls » l )lea for 1;ume ^; comprehended in a few w du ^““Sement of the feet can W dirt wasjied out. f r „, r Have them picked out after woiv, avoid stoppings as being _ ua ‘ tso be regularly ''shod i i‘tto> necessary if , d ,‘' ied J “void 3, n not harmful, let the horse POGSOX — CARE OF HOUSES. 279 ■ or no interference with the foot permitted, except the removal of the month’s growth ; the shoe should be made to fit the toot and not the foot to fit the shoe ; nails to be kept as low as possible, the wall on no account to be rasped, the frog to receive pressure and nothing but the loose portions removed with the knife. The results of neglect are often very troublesome and sometimes incurable. Thrush is the most common result of neglect due to not living the frcg pressure and keeping the teet dean and dry, and I can assure those here present to-night that a very large percentage of the horses in Port-of-Spain to-day are affected with that disease. Some feet are unnaturally brittle and sometimes hoof ointments are applied to prevent this. Such cases are best treated through the system ; brittle feet are often due to digestive derangement. Clean stable flooring is essential to sound and healthy feet. Water, -I think I may safely say .hat it is only within recent years that the necessity for the supply of pure water for use of both man and beast has been recognized. Before the light of scientific investigation into obscure causes of epidemic diseases was brought to bear, but little attention had Wei paid to the subject. The first point that natural y rises in dealing with the subject of water is the quantity required. Quoting from Veterinary Captain F. Smith who says from experiment made in India, the average amount was about S. gallons daily taken as follows : m, . ... 1.9 gallons. The morning water ... ••• M id-day - - - ' ' ” p . ... ••• 3.15 „ For myself I am of opinion that of Ex^pti qg in b'tjen, the horse himself is gcneuvllj exce ’ssively hot or ex- a few cases, such as where the > without" water for an liausted, or has from any cause been » 1 . . , y tM purgation tisdue length of time or where t .here j^j'to drink as much as ^ diuresis the horse may be sa * c 1 stables that horses likes. It is the rule in all well f^^nSary practice •jlioulcl be watered before being ec . . a f te rwards, the ! s followed, namely, feeding ll,st iU1 f lie or ° other abdominal Wse is liable to have an attac - , jf the physiology derangements, the reason w simp seen that the water of the horse’s stomach be studied, through it on does not stay there, but passes '«»> 'j - the horse has just ' Va y to the caecum or large gut. - .... fnw ' ns yay to the caicum or large „u.. * j u been fed, the stomach is consequen ^ jherefoie the water passing through w- f< 1,1 to the small intestines, some P ’ Properly prepared for transmission. undigested food, to carry with it , w ,._ _Dod before it is This "food, not being di- 280 proceedings op the victoria institute. rce S d irriUt1on a n f0r i eignb0dyia the . smaI1 intestines, and pro- intj The nrineinl con ^? ( l ue,ui y colic. The principle s of feed- a”£ determined! ft whlch g^e us in the feeding of animals system and bv th ° auatoi11 ical arrangements of their digestive matter from f ^ ^ they are P ut ‘ Poking at the sidered as a msJh' ^ ractlca P°i nt of view, a horse must be con* the gi a t: st a a “" C u b ‘ n %° Ut , 0f Which ifc is desired to obtain least risk • a onw " 0 , r ^ at the smallest expense and the breeding machine oxenTas ^ rega, f ed , as a milk-making and as mutton making and dL general ruIe ) °f meat making ; sheep therefore necessarv th j Sf)0rk and baco “ making. It is several requirement mUSt ^ « iven *° meet these abundant clean anrl ’ mUSt 10wever ‘ n ad cases be wholesome, and the auZ’v SWeet « and ‘he hours of feeding regular, viscera of the diftp glV f 11 P r0 P0rtional to arrangements of the to the amount of nit 1 bor ? e ls generally in proportion passes out of the stomach 86 ” , confcained >'> the food, thus hay disadvantageous themY . mUC 1 more ra pidly than oats. It w digestibility for the re ° re, # f° mix ^°° d of different degrees of together, much of the lS °? tlat as tbe }’ ad P a!iS into the intestines by the gastric iihce.” The t f e, Y n on „ e , food remains unacted upon mined by the natm-o V feeding of horses is or should be deter- performed should re an d the food given or moderate work th^ * character, such as oats. With slow with regard to abstinent hofr* 16 - C!lre need nofc bo exercised wise not to allow the . , 0re g° ln g out , but even here it w bulky food. I ] )ave ' 1 maeb to be too much distended with tured stomach thrum,], 11 ' s< - ver;d cases of horses dying from rup- feed. Hegularity >,,%■ ,ein g worked immediately after a full diseases, three or if * * reat Preventative of dietetic practised, j a small „„ V- • ° Ur ’ tbnes a day should feeding be mpally be giv eu to saddle ! re il time - Y.dder should prin- pet tunned, and arramre I * Y ,aFneiis horses after their work i» quietly during the e\vi,;„Y m . t so,ne thing i s left them to take greater part of the dav niii 0 r i ,d i. n ' g * ,t * hiorses that work the regularity i„ tlli re , b , ted ***» opportunity offers though tr!Y ;• Sudd «n changes 1 in 'Y ’ “ S fal a * Possible, he raain- resh i rom the .pastures she!.. W d i let should be “voided, horse t0 t j ie bushel of 5 1 chaff, and weighing not < ss ^ an d almost metallic to the gallon, they should ha ' m ,),« f ,afc should have Ire; the hard pressure of th^ ^ oats is earthy and le or no impression. 1 1 - ■ weight of oats is an mdi- flower sweetish to tl* taste of 0; -ts depends on ion of their value. H' e ^„d hunters receive as much as ’ work required : race 16 H* P er diem, v can consume, which '' Worses 10 lbs.; ordinal y idle horses 10 to 12 " w - > . yiaize contains less nitro- rking horses about 10 >s. s v r ; c h in fats. Maize m my ious matter than oats, but is . , { it) !e mixed willi chart uion should be given c,ushe .• alion , otherwise it is likely to- chop-chop so as to ensure n t {^ever in maize myself, iduce indigestion. I am 11 \ ” horses’ condition and toa s, though it generally imp 10 '®' ,j iell1 s weat profusely " > en luces their energy and makes them 282 proceedings of the victoria institute. woik. Bran. This is the envelope of wheat after grinding. !ke molasses, bran has very much deteriorated in quality dur- ing the last few years, owing to the great improvement in mill- ing machinery which leaves very little else except the bare outer s ’in of the wheat grain. Bran is generally given as a gentle axative and forms also an important article of sick diet, and the practice of administering it to horses weekly, is attended with good results. The proper way to make a bran mash is to poui boiling water over the bran, and let it remain covered up * en °ugh to eat. Linseed. Linseed is excellent for sick or e nutated horses. For animals out of condition it acts -sometimes in the most surprising manner and is well known to have a good effect on the coat and skin. For ordinary purposes Jib per diem mixed with other food will be found sufficient, in boiling linseed it should just be kept covered with water and boiled until it assumes a sticky mass ; it can then be mixed with the otlmr food. 1 lay. (Jood hay should be about one year old an o le well known palish greenish tint, hard and long, clean and tresh and possessing a well known aroma and sweet taste. ' . gre . a * do S re ® of difference exists in the amount of proximate punciples contained in bay. This depends upon the growth, m Which perhaps the soil plays the chief part: it is a well known met that certain pastures (or the hay grown on them) are cele- f f or fattening properties whilst adjacent lands of the - orma ion produce grass or hay verv inferior in nutriti'® Riue. It is therefore advisable if possible to purchase bay that has come from off good pasture grounds. As regards the relative mef'lbwr t Pa J- 1 S '' aSH aud Cuinea grass I will leave it for th« oonti-i T 1 i° USS ' r * wo years ago I recommended that in 1 ,e Ci t -- SUPP ! y ° f gra '" i to Government animals, Guinea oniriiim ' i"’- UU u b !° no ' v ’ I see no reason to change ti» a few f ii 1U ln * ended 111 Gie first part of my lecture to exph' 1 " dealers to ^ ™ osfc ® Hram °h tricks of English' and Irish li<-» -s “ thoughts T ; m i 11 “ W, '° ng 11,1 ” 011 'he unwary, baton second so ne' b f the at:C ,‘, ed not t0 dl ' «<>. as I thought that if I did * they aL n?,r enC " mi « ht tr y to practice Those tricks of which that when vl 1 § noril,nt - Itl conclusion let me again remind y° ( -andalwavs^e bUJ I a T Sey ° U ' vanta11 voul- -senses abou V°-n let vou in VI T" lK 7, lhat a horse deal your best friend will other friends wduT' a . nd if he succeeds in doing so, y a |" fool for being let in ’' 1Slder he l!i ^ there was enough heat it himself in a hot climate, bu g 1 temperature and avoid ia the water to take it up to the to**** g Mr Meaden the ill-effects such a practice would create ^ ^ , as( . part of here joined in the discussion at o go or qq degrees and Mr. Mr. Pogson s as U,ei 5 ^ as ^commending the giving of O’Connor cited Captain Hayes as Mr . Pogson here water under such circumstances i Everybody, he got in a professional shot at CupU U . fc Wmself ) but a said, here appeared to have . rec j b ; m a quack. He was great many of the t00 mU ch (laughter), too fond of letting outsiaeis Know 1 nr] travelled all over the Mr. Meaden said the 1 « ct " re J b a horse but what they ground. He had told them how to W ^ motor cars was wanted to know in these )■ regards washing »" d a a ^ in frinidad who could perfectly. Bat he had n *oake a proper hay W ^P* The Chairman : Nor have I. 284 PROCEEDINGS OF THE VICTORIA INSTITUTE. Mr. Meaden said they bought a great deal of rubbishing grass too in Port-of-Spain. Para grass, lie did not think good fod- < ei. Guinea grass lie thought essentially the better and Professor Carmody s analysis proved the weakness of Para grass’s food 'a ue. . Guinea grass had a very high food value. He found it grew 120 per acre; Para grass about 107 and Trinidad natural grasses (which were very poor) about 7 or 8 tons. Pi* lecture was most interesting and instructive and he would like to iear Mr. Pogson further on the subject in another lecture. 1 he Chairman said in the Windward Islands thev fed their ponies on maize and cane tops. Practically speaking they gave them no grass and never got hay. Whereas in the Bahamas lev used Para grass and Indian corn and in the East grass and pa cy. lnnidad was the only hot country in which he had seen uj used. \\ as it useless extra valance 1 In Singapore two veterinary establishments had taught the Malays perfect s oeing with the very malleable iron they had there, and never hud a horse lame. Mr. Meaden suggested it would be a I Cl OP tn.norhh +/-» • m • • i . ■ mr j*- 1,1 „ n „i 1 7“ suggested it would be a good thing a ho f ? g r i t0 * hoe in Trinidad in the same way. Maize <» horse food did not answer in Trinidad. Trim ?T’ n T!r £ 00rabs asked if bay was a necessity be not llnd 1 Mr ; Po S sori said he would merely answer by sa.vn to in i ’ USeC i lfc hefe himse]£ - The only thing he had to ohje to in too much green grass was it was apt to prove laxative. .•ovain U ,' w CI r HC tIle raulc disposed of the argum® but wl ha 'h^ inS horses - He tvas never curry combi what abom th , ef i tW ° ° 0 r tbree times a week. Mr. Bulmer aski question AM° ' LSSe< ' ^ r - Pogson replied that was a diftt' 1 eat some'thini tlse 6 - Cn*™ ^ Trinidad to make the harm in b bad . I,a y or chop chop. He did not see a' use H I* l ™ “"I be Singly. Ho did »< he preferred P answer to Mr. de Montbrun the lecturei thanLd m" ]W a g ; aS l t0 ha y. in Trinidad. The Ch»ir»« himself and tho -n '* ,° r m vei ^ interesting lecture on behal some lectures ^e present and suggested they should arrange f and thought dif^r- Were in the hands of the gr®* not. the knowledge t " 'l' tc ! sa T a wo, 'd against them the) 1 sonic practical instruct'* 1 ,6nd to horses properly. He thoug °f the lecture. truot, °ns to grooms would be a wise out eon HEALTHY HOMES. By E. Prada, Esq., M.R.C.S. j ,, nvio-mallv drawn up for these lectures, P r T a “?the Sn chosen to lecture on “Healthy Pr- deWoR was the person t ure for B thafc I stand )mes, and it 18 ^f^^ar more pleased would I be to be ore you here to might- i cxp osition of this subject by ting listenmg with you ^ f P, of knowledge and ripe 8 old servant of the^ y ctures have been delivered by oenence. subie cts which they treated. I lay no perts on the differe ^ J t in sanitation, and my only mi whatevei toner « is t lie interest which, as a alificatipn for ' bei £ * me dical man, I take in all matters izen of For E health of the population. It is true that ,ieh concern tl health of the people has been denied terly any concern for tile h™ ^ have accused 3 medical profession c i 0 uds of dust which sometimes of seeing with delight the j . C ‘° f U the profits which may result « from our streets . 0n .“?®°^ noraIlC e that speaks in that way. erefrom. But it is on y » present day is to discover le tendency of the medicin P science during the last earns of preventing disease. ^ disease, and lengthened ity years has decreased m ° lt aiiy . and development to medical le span of life, and it owes its ■ ong gcience but the progress ien. Sanitary science is not a very { ^ ( whio h is well exem- lat has been made hasbcen P ’ red with the London of lifted in the London of to-day a gtreetg were unpaved or he last century, in those J There were no sidewalks, aved only with rough cobble and were unprovided 'he houses projected over th during a shower the rain fel rith rain water gutters so that dunn^ The streets were rom the roof to the nm 0 £ s i 0 ps and orduie ilthy from constant contribut m scavenging being i-nimals. and human beings , ^ oun( j drains, and the s mknown. There were no undergroun The rooms he town was soaked with the human habitations, if the poor were more hke which were seldom changed, anventilated, and strewn wi ,i ose ly packed in these mist ■ md the wretched inhabitants closely P guffer from infections of hovels must have been ' e ‘ y ^ d ered at that black c ? ea all kinds.” It is not to be /“Solera found a congenial atmos sweating siclfness, typhus an 286 PROCEEDINGS OF THE VICTORIA INSTITUTE. phere iri the London of that day. To-day London is thi healthiest of the large cities of Europe, and epidemics such a: those which decimated the population in the past are unknown But, to come to our subject. The subject of “ Healthy Homes’ may be treated from different points of view. A membei of this Institute translated it into meaning “The Housing of the Working Classes” — an important subject which has e ugagf:d the attention of Royal Commissions in England ana which may engage our attention at no distant date.' One cor respondent calls my attention to the fact that our meat supplj is not inspected and adds “No home can be healthy which is compelled to eat diseased meat for want of protection by in- spection. ^Ve have been promised a medical officer of health; let us hope that the inspection of our food-supply will be one of his most important functions. Ibis my purpose, however, to limit these notes to a consideration of the conditions which affect the health of the dwelling, and finally to refer briefly to certain conditions which affect the health of our homes in the aggregate, viz. ; the town of Port-of-Spain. There are three things which are indispensable for the health of the dwelling! viz. pure air, pure water, and pure, soil, and the following fi ve conditions which arise from them are those generally laid down as necessary to the healthiness of the dwelling 1st, The site must e ry. 2nd, There must be free and efficient ventilation. e sewage must be removed immediately and 'perfectly so that ere may be no chance of contamination. 4th, A pure supply o water, and proper means of removal of water by means of which perfect cleanliness of all parts of the house can be insured- »th, A construction of house, suitable to the climate, which shall atmosphere ; thus it v. ,s charged with the ounrl air which is still warm rises into th® is that in malarious districts the night Bit miasm of malaria which it brings with PRADA — HEALTHY HOMES. 287 from the soil. When it rains where it ' best may, soil and drives the ground an to fir rain-water, viz. : and this exit is found in the P a< ’ es . 16 re tb j s a ; r comes under our houses, and into our it t n“t exactly from a filth-sodden soil you can ima ? irl j j j tbe ; n testices of the soil. Different soils h absorbin „ p 0Wer . In digging moisture, and our soil has a st o ' ' rv j ng depth — this surface-well „ »« » <• * water is the ground water level which varies according large underground lateen . r congtant movement endea- to circumstances. AMH , tbat when contaminated by the vouring to find an ou ^ stationary| but travels about in soakage of a cess-pit , n ade my meaning clear you will different directions. , t health of a house. Its liquid easily see bow a cessjpi £ tbe y ar d and contaminate the contents soak into ® j a j r a shower of rain raises the ground water and tQ the gur f a ce and drives the con- level of the gr our bedroom. This is the process by taminated ground health of a house through the soil, which a foul cesspit Council the petitioners seem to In a petition to the Le^isl cQntents of a cesspit into the soil think that the soakage ot demonstra ted the very contrary is is beneficial-but as I have and ^ easily surface wells like the case. You will a ^,Xook Ld St - James ca " be those that exist iQ^ 00 ^ h neighbouring cesspits. There is inated by the contents of t ” sib i e contamination from in addition in Woodbrook the P^ cemjetery . How can we decomposing bodies in the < . contaminated ground air pr v“nt dampness and the »** of. • ^ a certain height Lto our houses 1 The house m ‘ free ventilation under the *«•£*£ I*- should be covered with so the access of a make it perfectly J £ norete or asphalt -uldm^ ^ ground. A thick . e en this done i ... . tb e health requirements— I have s wou ld add materia} . t he but there is no doubt thaWt ^ froraconUm. ^ ^ of a house, lo keep ete it. Free dra => j ree and air the best thing lb ° condition that there »» obviously soil dry. The second condffi^ ^ ^ ^ efficient ventilation exception of the c many necessary that with the a house must have ^ most ignorant carpen , In cold c fireplace doors and windows as it P" y and the position of tion of a house is a 288 PROCEEDINGS OP THE VICTORIA INSTITUTE. relatively to the window is a question for expert consideration. In time of sickness, however, ventilation in any shape is strongly objected to by a good many people in Trinidad. Every door and window is hermetically closed and every chink and crevice is carefully packed with old linen, and woe betide the young inex- pei lenced practitioner who dares to condemn these time honoured piactices. Our houses are generally detached so that there is lee circulation of air on all sides, and as they are seldom more than one story high we get the full play of the sunshine. The in condition is that the sewage be removed immediately and pei tectly so that there may be no chance of contamination. This . can only apply to the water-carriage system which is the only one which can remove sewage immediately and perfectly. In us town we have different ways of disposing of excrement. We ave a \ery imperfect sewer system; we have the abominable cesspits ; and we have the pail system. In spite of the itnper- ection of our sewerage system I do not hesitate to say that the sewei district is the healthiest part of the town of Port-of-Spain. Uut of 83 cases of typhoid fever admitted into the Colonial ospita in the years 93-94 and 95 only 5 came from the sewer < is iic . Later on I shall refer to the advantages that will result tom in introduction of an efficient sewerage system. I may ca attention to one or two things in reference to our sewer sys.em. Two years ago there were complaints that the water 8U PP y m the houses was at times contaminated with sewage ; on examination it was found that this was due to the fact that as ie water pipe opened directly into the closet-basin, it was asy oi sewage to find its way into the pipe by suction, — and an interimttent water supply favours this suction action. The au o Health, or some other authority, immediately ordered , . ® , P ‘Pf t( ? ,JC removed from the basins and to be placed away is tl t • , 111 at a certain distance from it. The result c m . g re ater part of the sewer district very little water nn . 0 j 1 ' 1 lt0 basins. An occasional pail of water may be the pGi basm b y , a ver y energetic servant. We have escaped Doisonerl°v. "'i contamination of our water, but we are now being closets tl 'u r; wei ' " as coming from these waterless water- to be nrnv'.f i ea tb authority ought to have provided, or caused certain^ l.n,' 1 ) T ’i. a se P ara te cistern, or flushing box, placed at a be effect-,]' '"’ll" t !' 0 c ' osot basin from which the closet could vativ?m"S y K fl f USl !f and cleanse d. Pails . — Of the . conser- lesser of the + f ° r ^ 6 disposal of excreta the pail system is the out with rI llS ' ^ is a si 'nple system which if carried objection. ^ Thp U l 1 ^ t ^° r . 0U ^ Iiess °^ ers no very serious to be provided ' >* 1 ?^ ao . e , 18 an b'on or galvanized pan and ought every d P U ; h a tlg , h, i fitti “S JM- ^ ought to be removed y ay, or every second day, and the hour of removal ought to PKADA — HEALTHY nOMES. 289 be as early in the morning as practicable. While, in the V ' * contents must be kept dry by charcoal-dust, as les, oi J { The new pan ought to have undergone a thorough process disinfection. Cesspits . — With regard to cesspits it cannot be too strongly insisted on that in the vicinity of houses to [f^nrn anyrece^p tacle, however well-constructed, a atge , 1 liquid excrement the, undergo^rja^n -t^ the^for matron of offensive gases ib the contents of. a cesspit principle. I have already jj>^ ^ the dwelU ng. Most of soak into the soi a odours which pervade our atmos- us have experienced are dwellings where such smells pkere inthee\enin 0 • * , Pcecal odour, if it does not actually are a constant C °“‘P. a sta te of depressed vitality which easily produce disease P 1 ° a " model bve-laws of the local Government leads to disease. • A cesspit should be at least 50 feet away Board r ®9 ul '? r d 6 q to 80 feet from a well, spring or stream, from a dwe g e xperienceof our barrack yards and even of »7re awelling. .ill » the some of our 1 local regulation. Some time ago urgent ne® esalt y ffering from typhoid fever in a yard in I attended a child • & room of a long row of rooms, George street. It was - t hat room enter the foul stink- and one could with one s p pretty little cottage recently ing cesspit directly opposi . i ^ of the bedrooms is not built, and not very far ft o ces8p it (which by the way more than five or six teen i thp result t ,hat the occupant is shared by the next house) awa y by a severe attack of of that bed-room was nearly c things that prevails dysentery. These are example. the Local Government all over ihe town. The model bye la „ £ & should be “ of Board enact that the wal Y“ n dered in cement.” L^terly we good brick work in comenb « 3 ition to the Board of Healths have heard a good deal of *eopp of cessp its. It is obviou order in reference to theconcreu g Buttherea ^. for build- that it is a sound and sanita^ ot cesspit. — oraer inww^ . forv order. But the reasons tor Duiiq- that it is a sound and sanitary ^ he gr0 und are not so in„ th ese new cesspits four feet abo j inaova t a0 n of ing mese tr t ^ a0 w this «* should be a obvious and as far as condition that there . doubtful value. The « h time proper means for pure supply of water, an , d us to a considers i its removal from the P"*"**. supp lied to the dwelling, different ways in which water is supp get water : ^ shallow, deep, or artesian. 1. From wells which may 2 From the storing of ram 3 From public water-works. 290 PROCEEDINGS OF THE VICTORIA INSTITUTE. II ells. A surface well is one which derives its water from e ground water, and is very liable to contamination from the soakage from cesspits. Such wells exist in Woodbrook and ames, and in many yards in Port-of-Spain may be seen the pumps and the remains of the old wells which have since been e witn rubbish. That surface wells are a source of danger is proved by a reference to the historic Board street pump which eing contaminated from a cholera cesspit in its immediate • i ourhood was the cause of a formidable outbreak of cholera in Soho which resulted in the death of over 600 persons. The people affected were supplied with water from this well. Deep we s co not derive their water from the ground water but go roug an impermeable stratum into a water bearing-layer . e ovr. An artesian well is a deep well in which the water is under sufficient hydrostatic pressure to well out at the sur- a< j e ' , e w ®ter from these wells is very wholesome and , a d , 6 and liable to contamination. Rain water ec ed f>om the roofs of houses and stored in large iron * 8 „ ls . a ! ° e y use( I in tbe country. Such water is liable A., i? U the excr ements of birds and vegetable spores. C0 e ° c ed 111 the tanks it is difficult of inspection on bowo™ ,, e , v ® r y sm all openings in these tanks, which, _ a . ow fouling of the water by dead mice, etc. Rain i a s0 , collected in shallow concrete cisterns which are „n S '? . collecting dust and insects and occasion- from tkl miC , e - , Water is supplied to Port-of-Spain mainly „„ j f ^ araval River, about which I shall have something to amltTcf 61 °?‘ • ^ fcS qu ^ Ut y generally reported by the chemical chemiValT Cln ° g ? od * I m ay here remark that water may be With no/ ,P ure ,u t baoteriologically unfit for human use. thaf ok ° al |i ° c l uan tity it has been computed by some authorities do“e,‘L 8 S°“ B P r ““ " * f » <’ ml> Drinking and Cooking Ablution and general weekly baths Washing and laundry Water Closets Flushing and waste 1 gallon 7 „ 6 „ 6 „ 5 „ j . 25 gallons. co ns id e ratio n °1 //j al . nount °f water per head we must take info and the proportion “o CUmstances >. the habits of the community must not be P iud e ed bv w°° p e USlng baths - 0ur water wantS we drink more water • iL° P ( f a 8taQdards - In this hot climate > e bathe more frequently, and the lower PRADA-- HEALTHY HOMES. classes -which in England are sometimes t< j n( j on has a supply washed, in Trinidad are fond of hat ning. ' ' , j think we ought of 40 gallons per head, and Glasgow o » > o£ these towns. In to have at least double the supply ° water. The city of America they are more generous wi > . ;l nd New York Washington has a supply of 105 gaUonsi' s ’ bou ld be liberal of over 100 gallons. In any owe the soppy . si( j e 0 f 291 merica ttiey are more v, fi »d and ixew ashington has a supply of lOo ga on * P , should be liberal of over. 100 gallons. In any case the h on the side of and not niggardly and it is be er , wan t of water, excess than to run the risk of disease 1 or 2 in the We must however not waste "aer. j after that time morning every bath in this to" n is u • twice its own every bath in the town wastes once efficient sewerage volume of water. If we are to ha ‘ ^ w0 mU st be- system, we require an adequate supp ^ 0 baths are much too gin to limit waste as much as possible. and tbey are too large ; they are not large enough o gm all bath a large for the ordinary purposes of a b* • d dea l of waste could be filled in half an hour would save B impro vement— it and on aesthetic grounds would e . tes of a dwelling isn’t unusual for four or five of the 1 l “ er j suppose that take their turn in bathing in the sail would serve no o s public opinion has killed the meters Meters would ca ful purpose to waste much time ov e , among whom ° ,, economy of water in the very class of People^ ^ wa?er should general good of the community i - 1 . and vigilant msp . Q f be freely used. With good regu while on the su J . gd waste will be reduced to a nainimu- household should be suPP 1 ^ water I may recommend that eve y ^ supplied to us Tbe with an efficient filter, f +; 0I1 at the reservoi • g. ffl8 Undergo any process of investigated by - we!b subject of filters has lately bee submitting all t Wodhead and Cartwright who after ^ to the conclusi^ known filters to most rigor ' n fer protection o that the only filters which -cou ^ wer e : — communication of water borne 1. Filter Chamberland— SystemeFa 2. Filtre Mallie-Theories Paste • 3. The Berkefeld filter. suitable to the . construction of bo foundation, The 5th condition — A er f e ct. dryness v ; n ce of the climate, which shall secu ' P fflore within conS idered. walls, and roof.” This the site we have equalizes the architect. The concreting of^h of the h °" dan) p nes s more A verandah or gallery ° t walls keep thatch is cheap temperature within. Concrete ^ ^ the roof, effectually than porous br 292 PROCEEDINGS OP THE VICTORIA INSTITUTE. and picturesque, but harbours vermin, insects, and damp. Gal- vanized sheets which are used so largely lead to excessive heat of the house in the day, and on account of the rapid evaporation to excessive cold at night. Slates are the best material for roofs. There is a good deal of opposition, and from influential quarters, against the introduction of a proper system of sewerage in this town. An enumeration of the advantages that will result from such a change will I hope show the opponents of the scheme how unreasonable is their opposition. (1.) It will do away with the cesspits, abominations which no progressive community such as ours ought to tolerate. Cesspits pollute our soil, poison our air and kill or sicken our people. (2.) The subsoil will be drained which will result in drying of the soil and freedom from damp- ness. Dampness of the soil is a great factor in the causation of Phthisis and other pulmonary diseases. In Port-of-Spain one out of every 9 deaths is due to Phthisis. After the introduction of sewerage works in the following towns the rate of Phthisis mortality showed the following percentage of decrease : — Macclesfield 31 per cent. Leicester 32 per cent. Banbury ... 41 do. Rugby 43 do. Ely ... 47 do. Salisbury 49 do. In the reduction of the typhoid fever mortality the results were still more striking — • Cardiff ... 40 percent. Banbury 48 per cent. Merthyr Tydvil 60 do. Croydon 65 do. Salisbury ... 75 per cent. (3.) The waste waters from our houses, and yards are com- posed of animal and vegetable substances which rapidly putrify. ir John Simon says that “ Such refuse at its worst is a very condensed form of sewage, and even at its best is such as cannot without nuisance be let loiter and soak by the wayside." WHh a proper sewerage system these waters would find their way into the sewers. To recapitulate. With a proper system of sewerage the waste waters and water-closet sewage will be removed immediately and completely, thus excluding all danger ot disease from these sources; our water-logged soil will be drained, rendering it dry and healthy, and our death-rate from Seab -? S ’ typkoidi etc., will be materially reduced ; our DrodT 7 , ev , W1 not find its wa y into our street gutters to cessnit! fo ^, od „ and P ollute our air ; we shall get rid of the can be effe t ^ ^ urdc h is a good example of the good that c e by sewerage works. These works were completed PRADA — I1EALTHY HOMES. 293 in 1881. From 18GG to 1881 the average yearly admission to hospital of cases of typhoid fever was 594. 1' rom 1 8 to it had been reduced to an average of 104 though the pop u Ji had in the meanwhile increased from 152,000 to 2 i 8 , • parison of the death-rate before and after the introduction ot sewerage works in the following towns will show the beneficial results to be derived from such works : Croydon Macclesfield Salisbury Newport Cardiff from 23.7 29.8 27.5 31.8 33.2 to 18.6 23.7 21.9 21.5 22.6 So that we can reasonably expect that our present death-rate of over 31 may after the introduction of sewerage works be reduced to 21 or less- I shall now proceed to consider certain conditions con- «pcted with the town of Port-of-Spain which must affect the health of our homes. The Water Supply. The stream which • xnnnlies us with water is totally unprotected above tne mainly supplies us ( ^ ^ ^ necessary reservou , 1 ‘ ,® . j liable to contamination from cattle. cess pits and above tfiat it * ^ ^ ^ ^ >uch a It ought to be a • ^ f ew months ago in the town of condition of thing* • ‘ () f .otilv 12.4 there occurred nearly Maidstone with s* ' 1 . 1 1 . i ou t of every 15 of the population 2,000 cases of typhoid te ji seas e.‘ The cause was the in that town was attacEet . I above tho reservoir by typhoid contamination ot tne *r & hop-pickers who had encamped excreta from a case among • • ]lospita l not very long ago near the spring. In the C 1 canje from Maraval above there died a young coo p wftS undoubted typhoid fever, the reservoir and whose d seas <(ir is ser ved out to the The water after collection 1 » “ . rece ived. It does not undergo town in the same condition as it As diarrhoea and -,nv nrocess of sedimentation , 4 . 5 th of the number of dysentery are answerable for n' 0 ™*; we should be careful that in any future scheme <***“,. me ans of science swwE&atf SEsg.£«st lutely ineffectual m - 294 PROCEEDINGS OF THE VICTORIA INSTITUTE. To see a gang of men cutting the bush on each side and burning it up— while the pools of putrid filth are respectfully left alone is a surprise to one but primarily acquainted with the rules of sanitary science.” He suggests the following remedy. “ This main sewer should be made into a proper concrete channel for its whole length commencing at the Belmont Bridge and doing a piece each year. In 10 years at £1,000 or £ 1,500 a year the work would be completed — or the money might be borrowed and the work done at once. All the gravel is there and the builder would only have to buy cement and fill it on the outside. 3. — There is a spot between Woodbrook and the sea at the back of the Electric Light Works which so far as I know bears no dis- tinguishing name. It ought to be called the Blague Corner. I shall attempt to give you an idea of the awful conditions which are collected at this one spot — First there is the heaped up refuse of the town dumped there by the scavenging carts. With careful observation you will see that attempts have been made to destroy the rubbish by burning. Next to this seems to be a place, reserved for depositing the contents of the pails. Even as I stood there at 9. BO in the morning a covered cart brought its load : the pails were emptied, slightly washed and carted, away. Then came a coolie with a pail on his head. The pail had no cover. He went through the same process and went away. Just beyond the pail region the two main sewers of the town empty their contents into the shore to the apparent delight of scores of corbeaux which hover about the spot. At low tide there is a large tract of open shore; the sewers, however, empty their contents into the edge of the shore, the solid parts deposit and bask in the hot sun, and the liquid parts form sluggish streams to the sea. Between these two sewers is a large drain with foul stinking black contents. And' to end up the picture beyond all this is a mangrove .swamp. I do not know what the death-rate of Woodbrook is, but it ought to be very high. Why should these conditions be allowed to exist in the immediate vicinity of a large town like this ? Why can t the rubbish of the town be destroyed by an incinerator such as exists in the Colonial Hospital? The powder resulting has some value as a manure and might be made a source of profit. Why are these main sewers not prolonged into the sea so as to be below the level of the water at all states of the tide? Why isn’t there a propei system for the disposal of the refuse from the pails- was informed that pails are emptied there at all hours of the a } , that they are brought there with or without cover in carts or by coolies. , The large swamps to the south-east of the town are e Ctluse of a good deal of disease in the neighbourhood n must affect materially the health of Port-jf-Spain. PRADA— HEALTHY HOMES. 295 us hope that at no distant date we may be able to write as was written of an American town under the same 01 ' ’ “Thousands of acres once nearly covered with water, sw py, and grown up and covered with reeds, brake, and T^lewood terspersed with knolls covered with sma . sees anc forth over the favourite haunts of reptiles and muskrats sending foith over the adjacent country a noisome and pestilential 'asrn^e become converted into dry land, rich pastures and meadows where vast herds of cattle may be seen cropping the rich luxuriant grasses.” T feel that I have treated the subject imperfectly but with r •/., , qnf l the short time at my disposal it could limited knowledge and the ^ j have SUC ceeded not be otherwise. P g ’ fc in the health conditions of your in stimulating ; y - n which you ii ve . Our aim should always be toltuln to that ideal of civism-a healthy citizen in a healthy city. . a f ihe reouest of the Chairman Mr. Guppy opened the dis- KTr«““-8^" BS the, coaid ». cry il out without money to do it with. . „ t. i Lari nrefaced his interesting Dr. Lovell observed Hr. Pradah d^P ■ Dr de Wolf address with a regret he had to bgenc ^ f IO m the Colony, now through ill-health on leave > the papers as he un- But when Dr. de Wolf came to read ^ agre e that he had doubtedly would Dr. P rad as addr an d that Dr. Prada had a most able representative ( PI { afactory manner. For had discharged his duty in » address on such an impor- himself he had seldom listened to^n c ^ ab ly delivered. tant subject with so much er .Me number of subjects Dr. Prada had touched upon a “ idel . ing the necessarily limited very successfully, particu ary - ' var ied number <> F’ 1 ” * time at his disposal, and ^ 1 “t here in Trinidad. D.Prada of the greatest interest to th - P P d exhaustively, had dealt with the Util® inclined to contest (the speaker) were^ne or two pomts^h any of his arguments. t perhaps as m< ) influence that though not so imp • ^ t0 so nie e *^ ent fi . was the had mentioned, appeared Trinidad. The pr0 vide the health of their ho™e s m abo ve the grnond to pi ^ necessity of raising ® underneath and keep ' . p 0rt _ o f-Spain for the circulation o ai people coining ■ the there was the question of tiees. ^ {he to wn looked were invariably astoni 296 PROCEEDINGS OF THE VICTORIA INSTITUTE. Gulf which was owing to trees having overgrown the whole city. Too many trees should not be let grow near the houses and he pointed- out both these things made for disease. He pointed out that in most of the h.ouses occupied by gentlemen from the Main in Port-of Spain precautions were taken not only to concrete the foundations but also the yards. This was a most wise precau- tion as it prevented not only rain water soaking into the houso but subsoil water from getting into it and the universal adoption of this precaution was well worthy of consideration. He thought Dr. Prada dealt with the sewerage question in a very happy manner, and he supported the idea of such a system. He instanced the case of Port Louis, Mauritius, as a city where the advantage of a sewerage system had been proved. The work was done by Mr. Chadwick, whose plans were very similar to those he had prepared for the drainage of Port-of-Spain and in reply to a question previously asked by the Chairman, Dr. Lovell said that Mr. Chadwick’s scheme provided for the separation of storm water from sewerage water, and between the two there would be no connection. There was no storm water admitted to enter the sewerage pipes whatever. To allow this would be a very great objection indeed. Dr. Lovell went on to speak of the enormously good work done in Port-of-Spain in scavenging by the corbeaux and expressed his pleasure that these invaluable birds had not become less prevalent since their Government pro- tection had been withdrawn. Mr. Bourne said he had not realized as he perhaps ought to have done that the chemical analysis of water gave no infor- mation whether as to bacteriological contamination and perhaps should not have been aware of it until an actual outbreak oi epidemic. He wished to know how far the human animal coul< have bacteria communicated to him by cattle. Very little** he supposed. And Dr. Prada he noticed only recommended one filterer, the Pasteur. Was this an adequate substitute for the boiling of water or would not the boiling of water always be a judicious precaution even where the Pasteur filter was used r The lecturer said contamination from cattle would be p u,e J-' organic and by them he did not think any disease germ would be communicated to man. With the Pasteur filterer it was un- necessary to boil water. It was a perfect filterer and it bj been tested with bacteria and most thoroughly and impartia V in every way. Mr. Mntlian confessed that from being a sceptic he h a< i become absolutely convinced of the positive necessity ° ® sewage system for Port-of-Spain. At first he was frightened y the knowledge that the town was perfectly saturated PRADA— HEALTHY HOMES. 297 fecal matter and to make excavations for a sewage system, would undoubtedly liberate a considerable quantity ot germ disease. But he proceeded to show how completely Ins views had been changed after a practical knowledge of the sanitary conditions of Port-of-Spain by- advocating a complete sewage system. Of course the question of expense was a '<'■} 1 cu one to deal with but lie thought they might take it as settled that a great deal of Port-of-Spain would be put in a position in which all f cecal and refuse matter would be carried away by water carriage right out to the Gulf away from the shore. Such a system was absolutely necessary to their safety. r- t „ nifpfl a lance at the Government, the Bor- »«»h Cou^rX r»d o»ner, end occupier,, tat e.pcci.ll, M the ttS i'rr-uld etate op to fee . .e.rfo, epidemic. Mr Syl Devenish closed the debate with observations on the sanitary building of houses which he said was greatly needed in the city. . • ti,„„i-orl fir Prada for his paper which Then the Chairman 1 • ^ observed Dr. Laurence- he again highly praised and lnc-ic. • sanitary point of view had denounced the barrack S}» e ra [ p () ; u t of view for he but it could also he denounced 1 -y e a great deal of found the barrack yard system resp^^^ t i, e barrack yards the crime of Port-of-Spam. Hq < them s0 that the police being made with thoroughfares " to the immorality could pass through and so act as a and crime that went on in them. r Read 5th May, 1898. THE RESOURCES OF TRINIDAD. By L. Bert de Lamarre. I N attempting to address you on such an important subject as the Resources of Trinidad, I must ask your kind indulgence, to the many defects that will no doubt be apparent to those whose knowledge of the subject is far more extended and varied, than I can possibly lay claim to. My residence here has not beeii of sufficient duration to enable me to study out in an entire prac- tical way the complete resources of this magnificent Island. However, in deference to the wish of your indefatigable Presi- dent (Sir John Gold ney) I shall endeavour to the best of my ability to give a short sketch of what those resources are. Trinidad is essentially an agricultural country and its main industry continues to be the cultivation of the Sugar Cane. This industry has given employment, to many in the past, and still does so, but unfortunately competition of Beet Sugai, largely supported by artificial means, is causing a rapid decrease of the area under cultivation. Many of us can remember the palmy days of the West Indies when “ Sugar was King” and a of us know only too well the serious depression under which an industry of such vital importance to the .well being of t us colony now’ struggles for existence. So far we look in vain to the Mother Country for that help which is required to counteract this outside competition, u there are not wanting indications that the European bountie^ will eventually be abolished, and we may yet see a return that prosperity which once prevailed. There is considerable difficulty in the way of getting * proper system of tenant farming established, mainly on count of the facilities enjoyed by the labouring classes 111 Island of existing from day to day without the trouble o ing themselves to work, and when obliged to do so they un ^ cocoa and rice cultivation are preferable in a great me ' lsm h eS that of the sugar cane. I can understand that amongst the here a preference should be shown for cocoa cultivation as ^ have from an early time been accustomed to it, and t my B ERT — RESOURCES OF TRINIDAD. 299 generally be found settled in larger numbers in 1 , -cocoa estates than elsewhere. As a matter o ac , with a sugar estate we are not able to count muc. 1 U P labour, as the greater part of them find , -estates; and those that remain. for employment ^y the su planters, with few exceptions are those for whom it might be well to have a Vagrancy Act established. To e su Q £ the tenant farming the cultivation and m sugar must be kept separate, and distinct. With regard to the bounties, it ought to be borne in mmd that the Continental Governments of to-day b^e /iot only to keep these bounties going merely as a measure fj^onof urgency, but also as a political measure. P o t ’ oa J re f the Continental Governments in keeping up > ense thev are able to employ an immense through tbeir Agency y ^ ^ g . ve them their votes at number of lab °™ el . f * the beet SU gar factories were to be shut, the elections, . ^ who are nearly all voters under the people e “P J , suffrage, would join the opposition and the regime 0 ic gi( j thereby endangering the safety of vote on the s t he best sugar factories were the. community ™ f“8®- wou ld probably be compelled ■closed the various o\ labour occasioned thereby, under to give relief to the unemp } - ‘ opening up Government the form of huge workhouses or by open 0 P works, such as railways etc., etc. i +l,nt the Government bounty givers Itisontbis account tha tliey have a desire to be find it so hard to abolish w ia. relatively exists here, created rid of. The same state ot attain plante rs in the shape of by the Government giving aid to are nQW s0 desirous to imported Indian labour, but which tney bring to a close. ^ Government reduce It is to be feared that it ^ J w gl . adu aUy doing, they Planters to extremities as they sojne way the whole of the will have some day to sa PP ( ’ fc ex i 8 ting here. imported Indian labour at presen „ follo . By wetting rid of the existing b ° u “ he sUgar market, but it that we “shall see an immediah 3 in the acreage _ under »„ possibly bring .*»* of labor. U» b~ 1*- sugar, cultivation, throug day by day. coming more and more sc Indian labourers AsarattaroffeotiS I‘^”“'h.r.fromP.-««- S I“^ indentured or otherwise, n > >■ o sn g a r cultivation, to San Fernando could continue si 0 300 PROCEEDINGS OP THE VICTORIA INSTITUTE. This state of affairs it appears is not so disastrous in the Napariina district but yet it is to be supposed that there will be some day short-comings there as well, necessitating a reduction in acreage, and probably causing the closing of some factories, which had been originally started to cope with a certain output, and which will not be able to attain this on account of the deficiency of labour, or through tenant farmers not coming forward to work and plant up the land. The labour question is now as it will ever be our most difficult problem to solve, but it is to be hoped that eventually the Home Government will see its way to give relief to the Sugar Planters, to whom the. Colony is indebted yearfy for over half a million sterling put into cir- culation by them. Prom the foregoing it must not be gathered that if the sugar industry fails entirely that the Colony of lnnidad will be ruined, as we have here many great factors which even should the sugar industry be entirely blotted out, vrll gradually help it to become the most magnificent of all the est Indian Colonies, a position which it is already on a fair way to attain. At not too distant a date we shall see that the prosperity of Trinidad lies in the multiplicity of properties by f < L 1 . enation of Crown lands or otherwise and the greater part of Trinidad’s agricultural resources shall in time to be due to the divisibility of landed property into two main classes, those a ieady in possession, and peasant proprietors. The peasants or creole labourers who are willing to work will eventually form a body of small proprietors who by their numbers and the Varied collection of their products, will in a tew years have the command of the market. hi o matter to what class they belong, these owners of small properties must necessarily become producers, who will un- doubtedly form a majority and the future wealth of Trinidad will then to a great extent lie with them. There are many errors which may perhaps retard their suc- cess and advancement as a class, such as the forgetfulness ot ieir ongin, and instead of making of their sons and daughters, good agricultural labourers (whereby they may be able to help their advancement) sending them to'follow schools, where incom- plete education is given which mostly results in turning out in- complete professionals and idlers instead of good agriculturalists who can plant and work their own lands. The fault here docs " ot,w so much with the labourer, as with those who have the management of the education of the Trinidad working i 10 1 ,n y "pinion is based on a wrong principle, and tends a ' v lin aw ay front his natural calling. In presence of BERT — RESOURCES OF TRINIDAD. 301 actual state of the labour question here, what the J d the ' fear is that, if we can only rely upon the Indian kto™ very small quantity of agricultural labourers, a " _ t[ existing cultivation on account of the y labourers to work the land. On the other hand I believe cocoa will perous, barring some unexpected diseases, as conditions of do not require what a sugar planter does, and the conditions labour are by no means the same. All the large cocoa plantations i are , in ^ the hands r i p- ducte - be said on the future ottn an industr y which is pros- it is of no practical use ^ yalue every day. Now let us perous and which M ine minor n0 £, but which with pass to the minor ^ developed> into major industries. it is , h ° P ® d ess a magnificent soil, in some places, well In Trinidad we possess ° f ora e and ii me trees; some adapted for the cu . during the season, but a large beautiful fruit are collect® ^ , £ the fruifc not findi „ g quantity is entirely lo e established het-e, a line a market. If orange purpose of carrying fruit of Steamers properly fltfce ^ . ° , producer to send his fruit to ought to be subsidized enabling the proem the American or English mar , „,.„ht only to contain grafted Orange fields if established 0^^ must be borne in oranges, and those of the bes , usually bear a fruit which mind that oranges not g .„ r „f ted fruit. The latter is hardier, does not keep so well as the g d and is also of a bettei u ^ brought Grafted orange trees of planted here, will after 4 P y^?gfte r a d g^d He isfhe repay handsomely all cu 1% £ minor industries, ® manner. Now in the same lmeot ^ and ht to have lime (Citrus limetta) whlch f ^ W - uice for the Enghsh marke^ produced large to see has not succeeded as but which so far as I have oee an industry up to now. x p a ve seen to the This non-success «j ; defective process employ ^ West Indies fruit. In the common hme ot 302 PROCEEDINGS OF THE VICTORIA INSTITUTE. composition varies according to the solid and the altitude in which the lime is grown, the products to be extracted are as follows : — Lime juice to be shipped as raw juice, or as cordial lime juice, or as concentrated lime juice, used in England and America to manufacture citric acid. Essential Oil of Lime shipped to England and used by per- fume manufacturers. r The extraction of lime juice in a factory especially put up for that purpose ought to have a steam three roller mill, an hydraulic press to obtain the balance of extractible juice from the pulp after leaving the mill, a still to extract the essential oil from the expressed lime juice, and lastly a Battery of copper tayches to boil the juice if it is to be manu- factured into concentrated’ lime juice. The extraction of oil can be made also by hand, worked by the Sicilian process which will make an oil of a better quality but in a smaller quantity. The oomplete process to manufacture lime juice and essential oil is as follows. The limes are collected from the fields and accumulated near the mill, where they are passed through the rollers, the juice being collected from the mill bed, and forwarded to the still. The pulp from the mill is forwarded to the hydraulic press which completes the extraction of the juice, and essential oil remaining in the pulp. The juice from the hydraulic press is forwarded to the. still, and there mixed with the first juice as received from the mill, then the juice is boiled in the still, delivering during its ebullition some water from the juice and essential oil, after about one hour’s boiling all the essential oil has passed through the condenser and is received in jars ; then separated after a certain time from the water from the condensed liquid which had passed through the condenser. The juice remaining in the still is forwarded to the copper tayches where it is boiled to make concentrated lime juice. Cordials are made with the first raw juice from the mill and require special preparation. In a well equipped factory the manufacture of lime juice is a paying concern, but the first con- dition to success is to have enough limes and a complete well equipped factory with all the implements required. After the lime and orange industries we come to an entirely new industry for Trinidad which is that of tlje India Rubber. The plants uinishing rubber are legion, but as we are supposed to work for 1 generation, leaving to the future the care of itself? the difficulty of forming such a plantation is the choice of the B ERT — EESOUBGES OF TEINIDAD. 303 plants. We must choose accordingly a plant winch is suited to the soil in which it has to grow, the conditions of climate,, having likewise to be taken into consideration. Rubber is produced by plants which begin to give a return, some at 5 years and others between tO and } e ' ' o The two plants which I think answer best to the elimatic conditions of Trinidad are the Castilloa elastica and the Man hot glazowii. Gastilloa elastica is not a very hardy plant but grows we on undulating lands, in the shade of hi Is, and where the considerable amount of moisture in we 1 drained soils. ^ magnificent specimens can be seen at Mr. Adrien deVerteuU m These are on very good cocoa laflfls, wim-u i uga . „v.i ’ a( ] a pted to the complete growth of that descrip- » tt„y oannh ,uSd , prolonged dronght. rrn ti rrlont which I have chosen to plant on lands sub- and somTn.es also inundated by the Caroni river jecttodio „ se ^ by the Railway embankment, is the and the bac deliberately chosen that plant, as it Manihot glazowii. i have aeiiv j . A - at . a description accqramg ‘•'J ® a ^ a success in India as it authority on rubber, has pt for ° be very justly called the has in Ceylon, and i y qq ie principal habitat of this India rubber tree of the tutu • ome objections have been tree being the province ot plantation on account of the raised against its adoption tor, frQm ^ but on looking commercial value °f tl find that quotations are, for fine over a late prices current I ™ best obtainable) 3/10 Para (which is supposed to be o t difference when we and for Ceara 3/2* P« methods for preparing it for the take into account the diffu a i 0 ne causes the difference in market. 1 am informed that m ^ collecting am l preparing in value, and if more ca ' r ®ff® ch as good a price as that of I a . Ceara, its produce wou ought to thrive • Tobacco culture is another ^ZoToi Z soils. The J 6 ” “ Tee * “have no-one “indus- stand anything and ^^JZd'onl tries this requires P lantat ioii would have t inc i u ding of to make it succeasf , P u i p p e d in every , iraC ti 0 al expert, large scale, and P rop / thoroughly q uah e i b expected is course, the services of ^tn » dea i ma y yet be 1 Another industry of which „ 304 PROCEEDINGS OF the VICTORIA institute. . Rice , and I notice it is being rapidly extended. ‘ , , a i®. produced is treated for local consumption in a somewbat primitive fashion, but if the industry grows as it pro- Demerara 1Ila ^ ^ 866 ^ r * C6 our midst, as they now have in crnw^f*? 8 i t0 me that ltfuch more provisions ought to be vnul . i° r l0Cal cons umption, and from what I see in all the i 8 y "‘ s neai t !e populous districts, any industrious man, „ i ™ a 'e a very good living by turning his attention to this, stuff. * 7 entreating the soil. Why should so much food i V e ?i UUe ° i )e nnp oi 'ted, when they can profitably be raised here by the people themselves ? p Th 1 e ! e , ar ? other , Agricultural products which might be * red t0 . hut tmie does not permit. I will say nothing of the frn Ur ff s 0 .-Trinidad as a commercial centre, these are great “ m t he geographical position of the island alone ; and I hope the Matn'land 866 ° Ut Ca T^ ta ^ tbe emporium of great trade with ^ I 3 ” 1 a ^' ;U< ^ J 10w I? ver ’ that if the proposed scheme of under- groundsewerage for Port-of-Spain is carried out, with the inevit- • onsequence of typhoid and other fevers, which must re- n a r0 P lc al city where there is not a very large supply of t ’ - ?nc " ®£ e germs will luxuriate in the obscurity essential 1 , e ” ® r ,°. w 1 a " d . reproduction ; this dream will take a long p, 1 ea ize. This matter is one which greatly interests me 16I +e S ’ ‘i n< * may P oss 'hly ask your permission to give a paper on the subject at some future date. bifnJ; he m ' nei ' a l resources of Trinidad are so far confined to U1, 0US ffia er f L AH of you know better than I can say e vast amount of wealth contained in the famous Pitch Lake errin’ a v d fr °“. the geological construction of the island I manv ^ S °e j n various forms can be found in w on in . 0 *he island, but whether in such a form as reauires fn t, 1 i, U ° j ta ’ f to w ork them, is a problem that still inp n ii , e so ve d. A great deal more could be said regard- allow n er '" r0Und resources i than the limits of this paper will more, 1 narHnn?Pi inade( l uatel y endeavoured to give you my ideas, mainlv rpl 1 P re g a rdmg Agriculture, on which we must and the annl^ “ n ° doubt > bufc with proper cultivation expected TnmfT ° f knowledge, much more may be In dfe pLt r S 6 ?!, m the futUre than bas b een obtained permission coni' i • ave nofc wearied you and may with your pei mission, continue this paper at a later date. 19th May, 1898. The following paper was read : — ON EDUCATION IN TRINIDAD. By R. J. Lechmere Guppy, Late Chief Inspector of Schools, j General Considerations. r have been asked to read a paper on Education at the -Vic- . ■ T nq titute It is with reluctance and nnsgmng that 1 toria ^statute. J. when asked tQ read such a paper, iccept the task, for,^ ^ ^ subject are so different from those my views P rful classes i n this community, that I fear S ittle cood will arise out of anything I may put forward, dmt little „ been as8Ure d otherwise, for I had on a former However, j would not mind sacrificing my ease and occasion sa ar ise therefrom ; but I do not feel encouraged :onvemence if goo 2a ined. And . then again, I must ask to do so if no goo i J’ f m „ health which has of late your indulgence on th ® mp f ro f n literary work of any sort, almost entirely lncapaci < : nrurre d the obligation, I must do However I feel that having l os t only at the last moment what I can to fulfil it. A ^ o e ndeaVour io do so. These pre- that I have put pen to paper roco i ve a most imperfect and liminaries will I hope dispose y j indulgence you might not hastily gotten-up papei Wl 1 otherwise find it easy to accor . pncvclo- Eor the history, of education I l\\ communities pedias and standard works on d forra and means of even the most rude there ^society such form or means education and in the grow adapted for the bringing up must have assumed de fi mte ® h ^t h the conditions under which of the individual in conformity that in all fully orga his life had to be passed. C ^, fc tiona i institutions to have nized communities we fin up your time with any ur existed. I cannot however take up y ^ discussl0 n of those reference to these but proceed at « nce ards the education points which immediately conc er ^ ‘ part ° The fundamental of the community of ^ichweform U ^ must be and immutable principles o ar ticle on the su je t based are so well indicated in * bdsbed g0 me sixty or seven y Standard Library Cyclope m tbatt quote it here, years ago that I cannot do better 4 306 PROCEEDINGS OP THE VICTORIA INSTITUTE. “In every nation even those called uncivilized there are and necessarily must be certain practices and usages according to which children are instructed in those things which are to form the occupation of their future life, and every civilized nation {and we may 'presume nations also called uncivilized) have some general term by which they express this process of instruction. In the European languages derived from the Latin and in others that have a mixture of that language this general term is Educa- tion. It is not important to consider the more or less precise notions attached to this or any other equivalent word ; but it is enough to observe that as the language of every nation possesses such a term it is a universal truth that all nations admit that there is something which is expressed by the comprehensive term Education or by some equivalent term. But like all other general terms which have been long in use this term Education comprehends within the general meaning already assigned to it a great number of particulars which are conceived by various people in such different modes and degrees that two or more per- sons who agree in their general description of the term might very probably in descending into the enumeration of the par- ticulars find themselves completely at variance with one another. “ In every society Education (in what particular manner conceived by any particular society is of no importance to our present inquiry) is as a general rule and must necessarily be subjected to the positive law of the society and to that assem- blage of opinions customs and habits which is not inappropri- ately called the positive Morality of Society. This Truth is the basis of every inquiry into Education. In no country can theie exist as a general rule an education whether good or bad no subordinate to the law as above explained for if such Educa tion did exist the form of that society or political system G0U .. not coexist with it. Education then should be in harmony wi and subordinate to the political system j it should He part o i ■ “ Every person has two distinct relations or classes relations towards the State : one comprehends his da ie as a citizen wherein ho is or ought to be wholly subordina to the State : the other comprehends all his function^ as a producer and enjoyer of wealth wherein he has ought to have all freedom that is not inconsistent w * the proper discharge of his duties as a citizen. It is , T necessary to state this proposition in order to perceive t a Education as a citizen should be directed. by the State. 1° ® pose any other directing power any power for instance wnic j g t0 educate him in principles opposed to the polity of which e form a part is to suppose an inconsistency which in disco o any question involving principles we always intend to avoi GUPPY — EDUCATION. 307 “ How then ought the State to exercise superintendence over the education of the citizen ? It is “Aue consideration attempt to answer this question which invo \ - su ffi- of some of the most difficult questions m ^^^'.fcTviS- cient if we present the question which 1 e n » „ ma y tion of the present and future ages answer the question so far as tins : the ^ superinten- tendence of the citizen’s education must hav *the ' dence of those who direct that education in . . . The body- direct those who are to carry its purposes into effect^ The b £ of teachers therefore must be tal truth under the control of the State Unless \ his ““ direct the be admitted and acted on the State cannot effectua y education of its citizens. ‘•We may further recognize the principle that individual ■ n ; n education must nOt be destroyed. It is possible to competi principles of state control and individual com- reconci e ^ ma y allow no person to teach without being petition. T j . c p register will show if he has been examined and \ U pn dence of state or not. This fact trained uncei riC s P bg le f t to individuals or associations of being established it J ' . hers they please. In all schools individuals to employ wl ‘ it follows as a matter of founded or supported by .’trained by the State should be course that none but teachers ‘"?y appointed . — Standard Library Cyclopedia. . „„ npr * read before a meeting of So long ago as 1867 m a pap ^ Exce]lenC y Sir Arthur the Scientific Association at wi ^ defective state of Gordon was present I rem k the means of pro- education in this island an n e d the “ tribal Conscience!, perly developing what lias been called ^ taken p]ace since Immense .changes and impro t day thoug h excellent in then. The education system ot ^ by the influence of principle had been rendered utte^ preV ent its existence the dominant classes. a , use fulness. It was e they almost entirely destroyed ^ schoo ls to such a co " dlUo “ fluence I speak of that reduced the ^ ^ that of that it was possible t0 .2JV , n then anyone w 10 c o ■ Sir Patrick Keenan. Though even ^ ^ faoW much better read between the lines ;of that ^ were than their (bad as they were) the -uo _ — Trinidad 1867 Pa S e 92 ' ' * Proceedings Scientific Assocm 1 han this . Those unac- U able to find a better term ‘^particularly the one f I have not been able t Lec tures. S P juainted with it can con ..Morals.” in the “ Scientific Basis of Morals 308 PROCEEDINGS OP THE VICTORIA INSTITUTE. rivals (see speeches of Andre Knox at the Town hall and Grey- friars Church January 1870). It is not the object of this paper to dwell on the changes and improvements in education from 1868 to 1890. Whoever cares to trace them will find them specified in my published reports. I have only to remark here that in introducing the various improvements mentioned into our schools I was met by the bitterest hostility at every step and I was practically fined £400 a year for the efforts I made to preserve and improve our education system — a sum representing roughly about one per cent, on the money I saved to the Govern- ment by my recommendations and exertions. But for me to have acted otherwise than I did would have been treachery which I could not have been guilty of. Since my retirement from office I have as an employer of labour in a small way been brought into a closer contact than previously with certain classes of our agricultural population. I have thus been able to see in a clearer light one or two points always more or less evident to me as I have partly indicated. Of the lower classes of the town, population I do not now speak for I have little acquaintance with them otherwise than from having had to deal with the children of those classes in the course of my duty as Inspector of Schools. No doubt however that what is applicable to the one is partly applicable to the other also. I think that any one really ac- quainted with our country population must be more or less aware of the state of ignorance, vice and superstition into which it is plunged. It is true that there exists “ a little Christianity- which is what one of the most eminent men in this country declared to be the only education necessary for our people. But moral principle seems deficient. Truth, honor and purity if they exist in any form are not evident in the family life. A rude species of honesty is sometimes found and it is true that other good qualities exist but' they are usually individual and there is no consensus of opinion in favour of right tendencies. There is in fact no encouragement to the growth or developement of tha tribal conscience I have referred to. In a most admirable book published near sixty years ago we read : “ no attention to t e health and comfort of the working people will be effectual wit out their own discretion. Intemperance, waste and ignorance will destroy the sources of health and happiness faster than any hand can replenish them. It is in vain to guar against external ills, while in the man himself early corruption is suffered age after age almost to preclude the existence of ® moral sense, and gross ignorance leaves him incapable of ration® conduct. There is no substitute for early education, not mere y directed to the rudiments of learning, but calculated to awaken * Woman’s Rights and Duties. By a Woman. London MDCCCXL. GUPPY — EDUCATION. . 309 the kindly feelings and to form good habits ( V ol. i. page -1")- The author proceeds to ask (Vol. i. page 220),“ above 200 years the education of the people has been under the control ot the- church, yet what are the results among the people ? Have they been led to sobriety, morality and peacefulness . Unfortunately it is not only among the lower classes that we meet with sordid views and aims and the want of a proper appreciation of what is true and right and good. I quote again from the same author as before (page 133), “ It is unfortunately but too true that except as to manner, the vices of the highest and thelo west classes have a close resemblance and the state ot mind in both, in the one from their power in the other from their numbers, opposes the greatest obstacle to the progress ot real civilization. ” The book I have quoted from which is one of the finest ever written should rather have been entitled “ Directions for the Guidance of the conduct of every community as regards social and moral relations.” It ought to be known to and read by every woman and every man also. Here is an extract from it which shows the principle on which Education should be based. “ When we represent Knowledge as one of the best means of moral Improvement we do not mean the knowledge of trifling facts or insignificant Adventures, however sanctioned by Antiquity ; nor a great .acquaintance. Stt thC°that are true and which it is important to know because of their .pptoWHty m^or our Conduct. ^Such are first all great and general 1 ^ 0 j see P mingtofoster in in itself gives growth and expansion to^, ^ another . this world the geim o routined sort which relate to our Secondly, the truths o a nu business which it is our lot to social condition and the P< j seventh book of the follow.”- (Vol. 1, W ^°,„1 «IK1 more Republic ot Plato.) it brought to take higher views, part of the community cmfid We niay hold we might he more hope But to take any and that to take a fair advantage ^ only to aim at one’s own every advantage howe'er u cons ideration for others is a far- aggrandizement and ease "i ()Ur education must be too-prevalent !l ! 1< , existing state of things it is very designed to correct, tii nm > « mogt serloU s import. A hard to get at the evil which i with compulsory attend- systen, of secular education con b.ned ^ ou t effect the ance at school wouldno f a sptem which wilt encourage bject. W we 310 PROCEEDINGS OP THE VICTORIA INSTITUTE. and promote the development of whatever there is of truth- fulness and honesty in the human nature, and the experience ■of centuries' shows us that this can only be a truly national and secular system of education. I have said these things almost daily for years while in office. The first object of national secular education is the inculcation (not teaching) of the first Commandment and the second is the inculcation of the second Commandment. The fundamental basis of Education must be the Rule of Life. However grand your education may be, it is nothing without this basis, namely, the moral Law and this must be inculcated not taught. This can only be done in secular schools or in such schools as are practically secular whatever denomination they may assume. The virtue, happiness and freedom of every individual depends on education, and it must be the aim of every friend of the people (using that word in its widest sense), to secure a thoroughly sound system of education for the people just as it is the aim of every one hostile to the people, their freedom and happiness, to prevent if possible such education being given and when that is impossible to pervert and destroy it or to nullify its effects and results. In pursuance of such views I always endeavoured to bring home to teachers that the inculcation of honesty, industry and thrift was an essential part of national and secular education. These virtues indeed flow from the principles already laid down and it also follows that the object of public education is not the benefit or aggrandizement of any class or particular set of the community nor the extension of the power or influence of any class or set. Hence in my report for 1885-6-7 I wrote as follows : If the Education Department were as autonomous as other branches of the public service are, and if it had the same power to make its work effective, its efficiency would be greatly m- creased. In every other sphere of human activity it is recognized that business can only be successfully carried on by those to whom it is of first importance and not subordinated to any.othet function. When this truth is as fully recognised with regard to education as it now is in regard to all other functions, a vei> great amelioration may be expected in this most important an vital one. Points now looked on as hardly attaching to educa tion, but in reality as necessary as any others .to the welfare 0 the individual and of the.community, will have to be . include within its scope. The business of national. education is not alone the Teaching of the. three Rs, but everything that concerns t ie life of the individual as citizen and subject It is certain t a GUPPY — EDUCATION. 311 the great aims of national education cannot be achieved until the rightful place of that education is admitted and the fullest powers conferred upon it to enable it to carry out its objects. In my report for 1881-82, I copied a portion of President Garfield’s reference to education in his inaugural speech. I un- fortunately omitted to take a note of President Grant’s which was even more apposite and I cannot now lay my hand on it. Garfield’s was as follows : “ There- is but one remedy. All the constitutional power of the nation and of the states and all the Volunteer Forces of the people should he summoned to meet this danger'"' by the saving influence of universal education : it is the high privilege and the sacred duty of those now living to educate their successors and fit them by intelligence and virtue for the inheritance which awaits them. In this beneficent work, sections and races should be forgotten and partizanship should be un- known.” That the principles I have above indicated as lying at the base of public education are widely acknowledged is obvious from the educational policy of many communities. I am now citing the case of the United States which will have none other but secular State Schools. The case with them stands thus When the denominationalists demand that public education should be placed in their hands on the plea (among others) that they can give education cheaper than the State does or can, the reply is “ no doubt, but it does not matter how cheap your education is, we do not want it. What we want is really national secular education, and we are willing to pay what it costs. ” Now some of the denominationalists keep very good schools— m fact some of them spare no pains to achieve success in this as in other di- rections. They point to these schools and say ‘‘ compare our schools with the national secular schools, see 1 ]e ;> aie no l least as good if not bettor.” The State simply replies We do not care how good your schools are, they do not serve the end of national education and we must have schools that will serve that end.” It would lead me into too intricate a task for my P^^ent purpose to .attempt «u aoaly* of the Wei, Indies. Nearly EtSfST ££ ana .some of them such as ■, ov Mn«?ivelv secular. nominally denominational, practical y a mo,. .. ■ s j But only one Colony in this part of the wo Id has o far*, i know, a thorough system of avowedly secular schools. ~ * The danger deferred to isTbe political Degeneration of ihe people. 312 PROCEEDINGS OF THE VICTORIA INSTITUTE. Surinam, and of it Mr. H. C. Ten Brocke wrote in the West Indian Quarterly for April 1886 : — “ As in Holland, so in Suri- nam, the education of the people is the chief care of the Govern- ment. Every estate has its school or at least one in its direct vicinity and all the school-masters are paid by the Government. It is very rare that one meets in Paramaribo with anybody belonging to the lower class who does not understand his three Rs. One thing however, particularly strikes the British visitor to Suriman namely, the absence of all religious instruction in the schools.” The inculcation of religious ideas is left to the Church. The result as stated by Mr. Ten Brocke is as follows : “The statistics of the Magistrate’s Court in Surinam will bear a favourable comparison with those of other places under the same circumstances. As an instance may be quoted the celebration of the King’s Birthday. From before the dawn of day till long after midnight there are thousands of people who are keeping up the anniversary of their beloved Sovereign. But no fight dis- turbs the harmony of the throng, no abusive language is heard, very little drunkenness is seen.” To meet the necessities of our case the- enactment of a shoi t and simple law like that proposed by pie in 1889 might be a step, but only a step. And the position of the teacher must be im- proved by making him a public official appointed and paid in the same way as all other public officials. II . — School Fees. In dealing with the subject of school fees T have not to deal with any abstract or theoretical notions nor with anything ■beyond our own experience and the operation of the school tee system as worked in our own schools. In other countries there is a maximum limit to the school fee with ample powers o remitting it and of establishing free schools and in the Unite! States and elsewhere the common school is absolutely tiee- I do not suppose that in any country so pernicious a system as that in force here could have been devised. The experience o my last fourteen years of office clearly proved to me that exaction of fees under the system then in force was nl0S , detrimental to education. The attendance was greatly injure^ thereby, and consequently the efficiency of the schools, believe that some mixlificaf.ions have been introduced since m) time, but I cannot believe that a fee system retaining any o features of that I left in operation in 1890 can be other" 1 * than hurtful. The compulsory exaction of fees in all k°' er ^ merit schools was enacted in 1876. Previous to that fees we .^ not charged in any but the model and borough schools. I ^v^ols Government schools because it is only in Government sc 0 GUPPY — EDUCATION. 313 that the exaction of fees can be really made compulsory. In 1885 at the request of Government I made some special reports on the question of school fees. On Sir A. Havelock’s leaving the island, he left these reports to be dealt with by Sir William ■ Robinson, who, 'on their perusal proposed the abolition of school fees. In these reports I made various suggestions as to ways and means of making up the supposed loss which would result from the abolition of the compulsory exaction of school fees. Rut a prolonged examination and consideration of the subject cleaviy showed that not only would the supposed loss be a gain, but that a far larger revenue could be obtained from school fees by the adoption of the principles I laid down, and which had been partially carried into operation under my recommenda- tions in Port-of-Spain and San Fernando. Notwithstanding that I made these (and indeed several other points), quite clear to Sir William Robinson ; this and other obnoxious features of our educational regulations were retained. To this part of the question I may recur later, but now I pro- pose to show where the injury to the school work by the com- pulsory exaction of fees in all schools comes in. In the first place the injury to the teacher’s work is very great for in order to collect a matter of one-tenth or even less ot the cost of education, he has to devote at least one-half his energies to the task of collecting small sums of money from his scholars. It can readily be seen that this is' most harassing to the teacher and injurious to his own proper work, which is teaching and not the collec tion ofTnd accounting for revenue be and often is tendered at all times, m season an, I out > of sea, ,on and which he must receive whenever a tender it. Further in some parts of the s > fflf th jj| ir p r0(JucP) have cash at that time of Vj£ h f the year the children are and, consequently, at all other tun monevt0 pay the school fees, kept at home because there is X upo/tha Government The brunt of this difficulty of corns < I collected, schools because in them the ^^f feasu^v and the/ must except for they have to be paid into ® Relatives of the children for in rare instances be paid by the case of assisted schools, there is no one else to pay them. f ees j n these, not hav- it is different, for the payment oi Jodte^s ^ ^ be nl!M , e ing to be accounted for to P« 1 ' h ’ com p U ]sory exaction a bar to the attendance of children, m toe Mon . of fees by law is an incentive to ' = when it is not, if day is often a holiday in this is ‘ t - c hild stays away from the cash is not at hand on that mornmg, ^ J ^ school. On Tuesday moinin 0 paying for a whole parent or child says, “0 tvhat js the good PJ f 314 PROCEEDINGS OP THE VICTORIA INSTITUTE. week, when one day of it is already gone.” So the child misses school for a whole week at least, thereby dropping out of its place in class apd school work, and falling into habits of irre- gular attendance. Not only the individual child’s progress hin- dered but that of the whole class and school, for what teacher can carry out a regular program of instruction where half of his scholars are irregularly present for half their time thus missing their lessons and losing the coherency of the course of instruction they should be following? The injury therefore to the teacher s work from the causes named is far greater than the value of the fete. Further, school fees are in no way either in amount or in effect a substitute for an education rate and as it is the imperative duty of the State to provide for the education of the people so it is the duty of the State to bear the whole cost of making the school efficient. As a matter of fact, the people know that they pay for education by means of taxation, and they do not consider that the public school is a charitable in- stitution. The public school is looked on in the same light as the street hydrant, the street lamp, the public road or bridge, and all such public conveniences as are 'provided at the common cost for the common use. There is no part of the public taxation so popular among the people as that part of it which is devoted to education. Tho abolition of school fees will not degrade either parents or children any more than the abolition of turn- pike tolls degraded travellers. On the other hand the exaction of a direct contribution in amount one-tenth only of the cost of education in the shape of school fees most. certainly tends to the pauperization of the people. If it were possible to imagine that Education were not a public duty and that it was not an abso- lute necessity for the State to educate its subjects in 'conformity with the conditions under which they have to live the whole burden of education and not one-tenth of it would have to be borne by parents just as the whole burden of providing for the material existence of every child not a pauper lies on its parents. HI . — Technical Instruction. The foundation of technical instruction is laid in the Kinder- garten, where the child is taught the use of his hands and eyes as well as of his reasoning -faculties. Sir Philip Magnus, one of the Royal Commissioners, and an acknowledged authority on the subject, agrees with this. He says : “ The method of the Kinder- garten should be extended to the Elementary School. As regards technical Education nothing else is needed. All that is wanted ollows from the application of this principle ” Lord Armstrong in a. recent piaper observes with reference to the question of pioiiding greater facilities for technical training that “such GUPPY — EDU CATION . 315 new facilities should await the demand for them and be supfdted gradually and tentatively, for it would be folly tiQ^rush^ _ new ancl costly projects without a certainty of their result 0 adequate benefit.” Hitherto when the child is drafted from the infant class to that for older children the developement of manual traimn discontinued. Here is room for improvement. What is wanted is not instruction in any particular handicraft but wrtruotaoa examples for imteto m «««-» erenceot Education. But all the authorities are * e Sl° f J e e t“ t that Technical Education of a practical and useful kind cannot be given unless the learner has at Ins command the elements of general education. Huxley says “ In my judgment the preparatory education of ought .o tav. nM St”.' arily understood by technica a education which precedes only real school for a handicraft The^duc^ ^ ^ that of the workshop s p ..ation of the moral faculties strengthening of the body, _ ... an d especially to the and the cultivation of the > mtell ,w of .tl be laws of imbuing the mind with a broa 0 f which the handicrafts- that natural world with the ComFOi^t * the period of life at man will have to deal. And ^ en ter Vto actual practice of which the handicraftsman tas should devote the his craft the more important it _ ‘ tQ lh ings of the mind precious hours of prelitnmaiy e bearing on* his branch of which have no direct and tmm - ■ Q f all realities.” The industry though .they lie at 'the fo “ d hnica i a „d agricultural United States have highly efieaiv ^ fey competent schools the excellence of wmen ; lhe American reports authorities, English and ‘ j or admission into schools o it appears that as a rule cani.date he well . gr0 unded in Mining, Engineering and A S rlc ^ ten dency to increase the Mathematics. There is a nO^ceaUeten^ ^ h d requirements in English »nc • Q an didates must have g on German is thought de ^ academical course before they ca. through the regular school or acaaei enter the industrial schoo s. fae Workingmans’ A, . M. Of •- l..r X 01 r»5y School in New York may 1 , the branches , from the Free Kindergarten where Geography, pursued include Reading, 316 PROCEEDINGS OF THE VICTORIA INSTITUTE. Natural Science, Ethics, Drawing, Modelling, Ac. The plan of education consists of a series of exercises so arranged that the different tools and materials of construction employed are successively introduced according to the ages und abilities of the scholars so that the actual practice necessary for the skilful manipulation of tools may be given simultaneously with the education of the mind. The exercises for the lower classes involve the rudiments and principles of geometry and the most useful laws of mechanics and physics. For the eighth and seventh class the exercises introduce the use of paper, pencils, triangles, compasses and rules in the drawing room. In the workroom small toy chisels are employed for carving geometrical forms from pieces of clay. Turning to European Technical Schools we find that the authorities of the city of Paris in their experiment* in the introduction of manual training into ordinary Primary Schools have confined themselves to teaching more advanced drawing from models and the use of ordinary tools without attempting to teach .special trades. There are about fifty schools where these experiments are in progress. At the Rue Tournefort School, which may be taken as the type, drawing, modelling, moulding and carving are among the chief technical subjects. In the Paris Municipal Apprenticeship Schools the subjects of study are similar to those of the American and German Technical Schools including French, English, Mathematics, Mechanics, Drawing, Chemistry, Physics, History and Descrip- tive Geometry, and of course the use of tools and machines. The German Technical Schools are of various kinds. In those which promote cottage and village industries modelling, and drawing hold an important place. Of other Technical Schools in Europe a few examples may be cited to show the subjects of study. The time devoted to the workshop varies much and in the Russian Schools they go so far as to construct steam engines. But of these higher Technica Schools there are very few, for instance, only two for the whole Russian Empire. In the Polytecnic Schools of Germany there are only about 2,000 students (though there is accomodation for three times the number) for its population of over 45 , 000,00 , and the cost to the State is about £100 per annum for eac student, exclusive of interest and capital. In the Polytecnic School at Dresden the following are the subjects of instruction • Analytical Geometry, Elementary Mathematics, Optics an Acoustics, Chemistry, Heat, Electricity, Magnetism, Freehan GUPPY — EDUCATION. 317 and Mechanical Drawing, Shading and Colnurmg, Omamenta Drawing, Differential and Integal Calculus A^itecture^ Elasticity and Stability, Machinery, Geology, in^igher &c. Such with many variations arc the su jec s o Technical Schools. The lower grades of Technical School do^not go so far, but in all, drawing and umdelhng hold a promment place. In the Vienna Trade Schools drawing basket- clay claim an equal portion of the studen s in . ^ *f i»S. This*portion ol a,y —"“J on reference to the conclusions of the i>oy P vt P nsion of Technical Education who strongly insis up Schools as instruction in drawing and modelling in em . further a part of Technical Instruction and preparation for advance in that branch. But whatever variation of opinion may be subject of Technical Education, °n may afford all definite conclusion, namely that thou & 1 c j s bould be facilities the cost of special education of Writhe borne by parents The State skoul n s*for gaining a liigher education specially needed to fit p • ; persons for its rate of pay than others unless indee ... rr| . eaLpl . force own service. And this proposition a PP g and who , therefore do where the parents are paupers oyc whic h the schools are not merely not contribute to the fu . c j ia ,.„ e U p 0 n that supported but whose maintenance is ac dishonest fund. That would be in my opinion only enabdng^ ^ honest and incapable to better himsel discouragement to the and capable which must needs bo instruction given to latter. Therefore I think that in ^ ■ .j - oe 0 f t he kinds only the children of paupers and crimina t p 0 j owe st pay. The that demand the least skill and epm it may be desir- Preceding propositions have laic i pnera l kind be given in able that Technical Instruction o » , g j b j g possible that schools and in particular kinds ot - ' whiie it i s admitted Industrial Instruction may be given. t j, e mechanic, it that the workshop is the proper ■ ig tlie proper school would seem also that the cane or . ble whether trades for the field labourer and that 1 *. ^reformatories or Industria demanding skill should be taugli se inasmuch as the Schools maintained at the Public expens to disp]ace the persons to whom those trades a. ■ tion a t his own expense, honest artisan who has gained 1 . » . So many delusions Technical and Industrial Insti ’ tfoular that such mstruc subject at some length to show 318 PKOCEEDINGS OP THE VICXOKIA INSTITUTE. tion is no substitute for, but a complement to the ordinary course of education and that Technical Instruction given in Ele- mentary or other schools, must be of a general and not a special character. The antipathy to field labor which is alleged, no doubt with reason, to be so prevalent in this country, is the conse- quence of the degradation of labor, and this is the result of slavery and superstition. This truth may be, and no doubt is, unpleasant, nay, bitter to many — but your Patron told you that the independent man speaks truth — and I, though not independent (as indeed who is), am here to speak truth. The establishment of school gardens if compulsory, would not diminish the distaste for work ; but it would, increase the distaste for going to school and the irregularity of attendance already so much complained of. Parents would say, “ I have my own garden, when I want my child to work in it, I keep him away from school to do so. I send him to school to learn and not to dig garden.” Again in many of the schools especially in towns and populous places, a large number of the scholars do not belong to the class o’f agricultural labourers, but are the. children of clerks, artisans, shopkeepers, domestic servants and others to whom agricultural education would be inappropriate. I say nothing of the waste of money and the utter failure to produce useful results which would follow • for these, though weighty, are of less consequence than the ill effect upon school attendance. School gardens have, from time to time, been tried, and I have in my mind a picture of a very neat one, in which teacher and scholars took much pride. The work was purely optional, and it was done out of school hours. But I cannot imagine that any one can seriously propose to teach work or agriculture by means of school gardens. It is of no use devis- ing remedies .until you have removed the cause/ The cause in this case, is the degradation of labor and the laborer. The tiue remedy is to raise labor by raising the laborer, and until you c o this, all other remedies will be unavailing. The constant endea vour has been, not to raise but to degrade labor. How often, have sugar planters and others said to me, “wliat do you wan to educate little niggers for 1 put lioes into their hands an send them' into the cane piece.” Can you wonder that the tree bears the fruit of which you have sown the seed ? In combatting the hydra-lieaded errors which constantly, develop themselves around us, I am obliged to call attention facts. Those required for my present use are neatly set out ia statement published some time ago in one of our newspape^ from which I extract the following : “ Our population is GUPPY — EDUCATION. 319 the square mile. Several European countries have a less dense population than this. Only a few of the oldest settled parts of America, such as Massachusetts, Connecticut, and -New Jersey, "'here there are important manufactories and seaports, have such a population. The average for the United States (excluding Territories) is 25 to the square mile, and no other American couutry has a population anything approaching to this. It was suggested a short time ago that we should take some of the Chinese off the hands of the Cubans. But the population of the island of Cuba does not exceed 36 to the square mile as compared with our 115, and they have in that island an ample area of the most fertile soil to allow of the development of a population ; while at least one half of our countryi s too sterile to bear a crop, and of the remainder only one-half can be said to be really fertile.” f I think our population is rather denser than stated being over 120f to the square mile. Having traversed and retraversed the Island in every direction year after year and having studied its'Geology for more than thirty years I can affirm that the statement above made is not far from the truth. As the writer of it truly remarks “it can do us no good to live in Fool’s Paradise” and I may add our good old English saying “Fine words butter no Parsnips.” IV. School Organization. In the Elementary School it is in the infant class that the foundation and basis of education is laid. This is the most im- portant class in the school and scarcely behind , t comes the first standard class. No school is a good school where these classes or departments are not efficiently taught and organised. It was the daily struggle of my life when m office to get this fact recognized 8t I found a constant tendency on the ^ of fers to shirk the instruction of these classes, upon the whole efficiency of their schools depends. Any one who will glance over my printed general reports on eduration^dl^ with what persistence I called attention o i * p ; ;d of the Government in the matter was of epu^e to provide proper accommodation and efficient teachers or » - t bub aver that the teaching staff was most] y Je °w^m.er ne ,n in some schools where it was not so, the teachers co their' work for want of the proper accommodation. A he im p _ •The large extent of poor Soil is faintly indicated in the Geological port, pages 8 o, 82 and elsewhere. t It: IkvJ . stated at 145 in Ellens’ Almanack for 1898 , page 9 . 320 PROCEEDINGS OF THE VICTORIA INSTITUTE. Education Department in its Report for 1889 remarks that “the methods of instruction for older scholars and infants are very different, and cannot be efficiently carried on in the same room. Every school therefore, except the very smallest requires a separate department for infants.” Furthermore, my experience fully bore out the experience of other countries that the instruc- tion and care of young children, can, as a rule, safely be confidec to women only and that it is only trained women that are really competent for the. work. The neglect of the most important part of the school work is partly due to the preference the teacher feels for conducting the instruction of more advanced scholars. But it is simp y building without any foundation. Many of the teachers w 10 persisted in this course in spite of advice were simply incompeten to teach advanced scholars hence their schools exhibited every year the same dismal failure the cause of which they cou not understand and indeed which they would not admi • In some cases where by dint of incessant hammering anc better still by stopping the merit grant (called results ees) I managed to drive the teachers to attend to the point, a cons an and steadyimprovement followed. But I think that in all sue cases the Inspector should have power to restrict the teaching ^o the lower standards so as to avoid the waste of the w o»e . teaching power of a school upon two or three . children who av e passed those standards. In many country schools it is simp y a farce for a teacher to profess to teach fifth or sixth btanc ar and the mischief wrought to the school by such pretence is very great. In making these observations it will be understood that I am not criticizing the schools as they now are. I speak o w ' I found in my experience and it is possible that , im ?^ or . ments may have been made in these matters. (High y i P taut suggestions on the points alluded in this and othei of this paper will be found in my general report for 18 -‘I- Into details of school organization and management, I s notenter now. If any one desires to know what oug the routine of school work, I can refer him to the loti P al _ » , £ of my special report of 7th May, 1889, or the 17th P a |’ a » , v my general report for 1889. This will serve as a mo e , the daily work of a school should be carried under a we „y.j; s h time-table. What is required in the first place, is 0 n y a sound system of public education, as the preliminat j iave further improvement. Under such a system you wo . , graded schools, such as I partially obtained in °i GUPPY — EDUCATION. 321 under which the people grade themselves according to their means and necessities, as suggested in my Special Report of Oth May, 1885—“ Free instruction for all who choose to avail them- selves of it being. provided in the Elementary Schools, it may be only fair that those who desire a higher kind of education should pay additionally for it.” In the lower grade schools education is free, while in the higher grade schools fees are charged according to the grade of the school. Under this system the tees received amount to a large sum, they are easily collected and regularly paid They are paid by every sclwlar on the first day of each month, so as to avoid loss of the teacher’s time in keeping accounts. Another advantage of such a system is that the educa^ fcion rdven in each school is exactly adapted to the cla,ss ot children usin-' it, the power referred to already of restricting the instruction to the lower standards being exercised wher.e desirable. y Corporal Punishment. As the subject of corporal punishment in schools was rather fully dealt with a few years before I left ofhce it may not be out of place here for me to introduce a summary of the conclusions at which I arrived on the point. These are mostly m accordance with the opinions of the principal educational authonties. At the beginning of my official life in connection with At tne oe n u &• .--instances of the misuse or abuse of education I observe ■ > Being then inexperienced, the so-called corporakpunshment tfc perhaps to have I did not at first interfere to the^ext^ JP more decided done But as. f f/^j^ed to be mere exhibitions of bru- stand against what I consid . ot her matters, I often tality, and although in th- han( j 8 0 f the Government, suffered for want of supp ’ .■ considerable change for the I managed gradua ly to efte- - tl iat corporal punishment better The opinion I ^ ro o r e harm than good- The was, generally speaking, hk . in which it is never used, best schools m all respect. , , , children often deserve it, but It may readily be admitted is ; b wise or beneficial that is not the question which realb e i.. n ^ ^ The object to employ it. I believe this is '®U 8 . scarcely doubtful that of ,hool is to improve children and it ^ indiscriminate cor: •oral punishment can no “ ^ ^ p| . ac tised, it is most striking in schools, s8cll ," t . e achftr and scholars The most injurious iu its effects, both on , ' j t j have seen were those disorderly and ill-conducted sch a o ^ ^ Punishment in which the strap or rod " as ^ the head teacher with should I think, be be administered until only a few witnesses. It stioum K 322 PROCEEDINGS OF THE VICTORIA INSTITUTE. some interval after the offence, and it should be confined to two or three strokes on the hand with a small strap. The offences for which corporal punishment is to be inflicted may be stated as serious and repeated misconduct, lying, theft, cruelty, insubordi- nation, bad language, etc. VI . — Training of Teachers. As regards the training and examination of teachers, I have •expressed myself so fully in my general reports, that I can only repeat what I have said in them. On this, as on nearly all points, my experience of twenty-two years at the head of the •department, almost exactly coincides with that of the educa- tional authorities of England, the United States and other countries. All rules as to Teachers’ Certificates must recognize • the principle that approved service as a teacher is of at least as much value as the ability to pass an examination. All certifi- cates must be subject to the condition that the candidate has passed a certain period of probation in actual charge of a school oi department of a school. I cannot say what the case now is, but in my time, the examinations for certificates were notwith- standing my efforts to keep things within due bounds crowded by two undesirable classes of candidates. The first of these was the town candidate whctse aim in attending, the examination, was not to fill the useful but unattractive post of a country teacher, but to flaunt his paper certificate as a kind of diploma. The candidates of this class though useless as members of the general teaching staff of the department having had the advan- tage of town life and education, usually took good places, sometimes the best in the examination. The other class was chiefly composed of persons who had little chance of ever passing an examination and even less if possible of satis- factorily conducting a school. They were mostly persons "h° bad tried other ways of making a living and failed therein and who took to teaching as a last resort. The candidates forming this class were those for the most part who peipetrated .the errors held up to ridicule in the examination teports. It is of the highest importance that admission to examination and the issue of certificates should be confined as strictly as possible to those who are actually likely to become teachers, ready and willing whenever and if required to go through all the grades of the service and to owe their promotion to merit and ability. Upon those who really intend to, become teachers and who have the qualifications for the office it is no hardship to be required to undergo a period of probation to prove their fitness for the office. To those young teachers in town schools who do not mind spending a few years at those institu- GUPPY — EDUCATION. 323 tions with a view of improving their own education and at the same time being paid for doing duty as Assistants and Pupi Teachers, but who have no real intention of permanently devoting themselves to the work of teaching or of undertaking the charge of country schools it is no doubt a hardship not to be allowed to go up for examination and not to have certificates issued to them without probation, but the interests of the Department must be considered before the convenience of such persons and it must ever be borne in mind that Teachers Certi- ficates are intended for teachers only and not to serve as a kind of academical degree. Some have imagined that the Teacher can gain a sufficient knowledge of the art of teaching by the study of a Manual o t School Management. But this no more supplies what is required than a study of Works on Anatomy can take the place of actual practice in Surgery. This is amply proved by experience ; and of the two conditions of study and examination on the one hand and of training and actual service on the other the latter is it anything more indispensable than the former. In any case it is a serious error tb take the mere ability to pass an examination as the sole test of the fitness of a person for the office of Teacher. No person ought to be allowed to have charge of a public school unless trained and certificated after probation to the satisfaction of the Educational Authorities. VII.- - Concluding Remarks. 1 om- the^ast'two^publilhed 1 Reporte* of our Eduction Department. The last /^^"diL” on in report was 1889. The total cost “ , scholal . in that year was .£23,500 or at t e ra^ ^ £30,994 or at the average attendance. In 1S95 , j n 1890 the cost rate of 44/- per scholar in average attendance average was £32,757 or at the rat* >0^45/- was 13f890 . It attendance in 1889 was lt-,-1 ■ . e 0 f 1 675. In 1896 therefore cost £7,494 to obtain -y ]ie j acre ase of 2,289 the average attendance was > \ that previously to thus cost £9,257. This \ vom 5 P >541 in 1881 1890 a steady increase of at tend s /eady decrease in the to 12,215 in 1889) was accompanied by ^steaoy ^ ^ si[ice cost per scholar (namely trom / , jo 215 in that year to 1889 the increase of attendance^ by an increased cost per 14,500 in 1896) has been accompan scholar — this being now 45/-. ANNUAL REPORT FOR 1897, rpHE Board of Management have the honour to submit ; the- I following report of the work done by the institute durn „ the past year. * At the Annual Meeting held on the 1st April, 1897, the- following members were elected, as the Board of Manage Sir John Goldney', Professor Carmody, Messrs. R. H. McCarthy, Henry Caracciolo, „ Edgar Tripp, F. W. Urich, T. I. Potter, and the following gentlemen were ijominatad to the Board by His Excellency the Governor : The Hon’ble Dr. Lovell, C.M.G., H. C. Bourne, Messrs. Syl. Devenish, „ R. J. L. Guppy, J. H. COLLENS. , The Board elected Sir John Lovell, O.M.G., and Mr. Syl. DeW >, McCarthy, Treasurer, and Mr. Potter, > . The year 1897 being the 100th y ear J^f^purpose of Colony, a public Committee was app At t ), e request organizing a suitable celebration ot tms*. ■ Centenary of this Committee, the Board undertook to Exhibition, during the Centenary " ee , The Board with the view of .““^^^en^iTO^possibl® by them to organize the Exhibition families of the a sked several gentlemen belonging i iap py result, that the Colony to join the Committee, wi i ,. feature of the Cen Historical Exhibition was quite J® J““t„ r al Exhibition -vas oel.br,ao,. An Art t. over held at the same time at which p 1 1 Were given. 32G PROCEEDINGS OF THE VICTORIA INSTITUTE. The Exhibition was opened on the 1 5th, 16th, 17th and 19th of February and on two extra days by special request. Exclusive of Members and Exhibitors upwards of 1,600 persons visited the Exhibition. A very interesting descriptive Catalogue of the Historical Section of the Exhibition was prepared by Mr. L. M. Fraser. Those who wish to possess what is really a brief history of the Colony can obtain copies of this Catalogue at the Institute. _ Considerable additions to the Industrial and Commercial Museum have been made during the year ; the Board thank the donors of samples for their contributions, a list of which is appended. If photographs of the cultivation, preparation and manu- facture of our staple products could be obtained they would form an interesting addition to the Museum. At a meeting of the Board held on the 29tli of June, 1897, a Special Committee was appointed to draw up a programme of work. This Committee submitted to the Board a report suggest- ing that there should be a Special Session from October to May with a fixed programme of work. This was agreed to and a copy of the programme is appended. The Gov’ernor, Sir Hubert Jerningham, the Patron of the Institute, opened the Session with an inaugural address. The great interest His Excellency has taken in the welfare of the Institute and the influence he has exercised both by his presence and by his advice at the many meetings attended by him largely contributed to the success of the Session. The Board desire also .to express their high appreciation of the co-operation of the following gentlemen who prepared papers for the fortrfightly meetings : — Mr. Rene de Verteuil, an experienced planter, „ H. S. Bidw ell, Engineer in charge of Harbour Works, ,, J. H. Hart, Supt. Royal Botanic Gardens, Hon. W. Wrightson, Director Public Works, Mr. E. W.. Dickenson, Engineer Electric Light and Power Company, Dr. Prada, Mr. F. Pogson, Government Veterinary Surgeon, ,, Bert de Lamarrk, Chemist and planter of long ex- perience. So popular were the meetings and the subjects discussed at them, that it was found necessary to enlarge the lecture room by the addition of one of the rooms at the entrance, to give more accommodation to those who attended the meetings. ANNUAL REPORT. 327 The introduction of readings and recitations from the great dramatists was a peculiar feature of this Session, the Board wish to express their thanks to their Honorary Treasurer, Mr. McCarthy, the organiser of these readings, and to gratefully acknowledge the services of the members of the Dramatic Club and the other ladies and gentlemen who took part in them. A musical competition was held in December, but owing perhaps to its novelty, it did not meet with the success antici- pated except among the school choirs. The Board having decided to include a course of lectures on Ambulance work and Home Nursing, sought the assistance of Dr. Inskip Bead, who agreed to deliver the first course of lectures. Towards the end of the year, Sir Vincent K. Barrington, Vice- President of the St- John Ambulance Association, who was then in the island, called a meeting of the local centre of that Asso- ciation (which had been in existence for many years but had ceased for some time to do any active work) for the purpose of meeting the Board of Management of this Institute. The result of this joint meeting was that, with the consent of the parent Association the Local Committee joined the Board of Manage- ment, and the Victoria Institute became the local centre. It is a matter of congratulation that the Board were able to obtain the services of Dr. Inskip Bead as their first lecturer, and of Drs. Knox, Eakin,'and Laurence, as examiners for award- ing the St. J ohn’s certificate. Lectures on nursing are now being given to a very large number of ladies by Dr. Inskip Bead. Eighteen new members and ten associates joined the Institute during the year. The debt due to the Government on loan account has been reduced to £300. • • The Board have again received from the Government a ;rant of £250 towards the expenses of this year. A Statement of the Revenue and Expenditure up to the list December, 1897, is appended. Exclusive of those ^ W were .4,414 ^ lontinues to be the meeting place 101 t * • v. +n acknowledge the services The Board in conclusion wish to ack ^ rest 0 f the if Mrs. Latour, their Assistant ^ ^ them during the, staff. Much extra work has been th cheerfulness, pastyear, they havedone their duty well and with 328 PROCEEDINGS OF THE VICTORIA INSTITUTE. Statement of the Revenue and Expenditure of RECEIPTS. • ■$