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4*

THE

FOREST PRUNER ;

OR,

TIMBER OJVNER'S ASSISTAI^^T:

A TREATISE ON THE TRAINING OR MANAGEMENT OF

BRITISH TIMBER TREES;

WHETHER INTENDED FOR

USE, ORNAMENT, OR SHELTER

INCLUDING

AN EXPLANATION OF THE CAUSES

OF THEIR

GENERAL DISEASES A ND DEFECTS,

■WITH THE

MEANS OF PREVENTION, AND REMEDIES,

WHERE PRACTICABLE :

Also, an Examination of the Properties of

ENGLISH FIR TIMBER ;

WITH REMARKS ON THE OLD AND OUTLINES
OF A NEW SYSTEM FOR

THE MANAGEMENT OF OAK WOODS.

BY

WILLIAM PONTEY,

Niirsenman and Oinamental Gardener'; Autlior of The Profitable

Planter , and Planter and Forest Pruner to

THE LATE AND PRESENT DUKE OF BEDFORD.

THE THIRD EDITION.

LONDON:
PRINTED FOR J. HARDING, S6, ST. JAMES'S STREET ;

J. WHITE, FLEET STREET; AND J. MAWMAN, POULTRY.
1810.

Harding and Wright, Printers, St. John'g-square, Londou.

TO HIS GRACE
THE DUKE OF BEDFORD.

My Lord,
However patronage may be made to
serve unworthy purposes, it has frequently been
■beneficial, both to authors and the pubhc, by
stamping a consequence and currency upon
what is, in itself, useful. — Had a doubt been
entertained, whether Rural Science required
such an addition as the present performance;
so far from your Grace's patronage being re-
quested, the book itself would not have ap-
peared.

How much the example and influence of
your illustrious Brother and Predecessor added
to the improvement of almost every branch of
Rural Economy, the faithful pen of History will
record ; — nor will it be forgotten, that the im-
provement of Timber was an object of his soli-
citude.— To have been deputed, by him, to
superintend that object, will always be consider-

IV

de, by myself, as the highest honour, and next
to it, that of being continued by your Grace in
the same appointment.

The example of a Character which will ever
be dear to thiskingdom and mankind, the situa-
tion of your own Timber trees, — your stake in
the country, with the allowed distinction of be-
ing hereditary Patron of Rural Science^ all
seem to claim, from your Grace, steady per-
severance in the honourable and beneficial path
of improvement; as it must not only have a
tendency to check the present increasing scarci-
ty, but to shew what improvement Timber is
capable oi generally ; — and, moYe particularly ^
the real prope.rtieft of that unjustly degraded
part of it — English-grown Firs.

I am, my Lord,

Your Grace's
Most obedient humble Servant,
William Pontet.

Huddersfield^Bec. 16, 1805.

ADVERTISEMENT

TO THE SECOND EDITION.

Ix sending a Second Edition of this work
into the world, the Author has great sa-
tisfaction in announcing the verj favour-
able reception the first has met with:
not so much because it may have served
to gratify or benefit himself, as because
3t is a convincing proof that men are
beginning to observe how defective the
general management of Timber is, and
hence are disposed to receive any infor-
mation which has a tendency to improve

As care had been taken, in the first in-
stance, not to disseminate crude opinions
so the mcreased experience of two years'
has presented the author with little that
seemed to require correction, except a
few inaccuracies, and some triflm^ errors
of the press. The additions, which are
chiefly explanatory, will be found amonc

to

VI

the notes ; — had they been large, he
should have thought it right to print them
separate, to accommodate former pur-
chasers; and should they ever become
so, he means to pursue that course.

For the present, his leisure is almost
exclusively devoted to the reprinting of
The Profitable Planter, with large addi-
tions— which has been long promised,
but much longer called for; and delayed,
principally on account of the present
work. If to furnish a book, no other-
v,'ise valuable than to sell, had been the
heightof the author's ambition, Mo^ might
have been easily gratified long ago: but
not such is the fact; he feels his Reputa-
tion and Interest equally concerned to
produce what will be also extensively
useful.

Under these impressions it is probable,
that at some future period, he may give
his ideas upon the Principles and Practice
of Ornamental or Landscape gardening.
At present, however, he has no leisure
to do justice to his own ideas ; nor, in-

va

deed, does the present moment seem iHr
most favourable, as two authors, greats at
least in pretensions, have lately volun-
teered their services as teachers of this
delightful science ; and some time must
elapse, before the public can be pro-
perly apprised of their real merits. If
it should prove that, instead of ascer^
taming and fixing the Principles of the
Art, they have merely talked about them ;
and that they have left the Practice, not
only tmimproved but untouched, then the
public, sensible of such deficiencies, may
be supposed duly to appreciate more
substantial instructions.

Alike unknown to the Society of Arts
and their secretary, the author thinks
himself honoured in being enabled to
publish the annexed documents.

Socicti/ ofJrls, «5)C. Adelphi^
Sir, London, Oct. 30th, 1806,

The Society for the Encouragement of Arts,
Manufactures, and Commerce, have directed me to
return \ you their thanks, for the present of your valu-
able and useful publication, called the ForestPruner.

YIll

I liave read it with great pleasure, and think it will
be productive of very considerable advantages to all
persons, -vlio follow your instructions.

Your treatise is carefully deposited in the Society^s
Library, and has met with much attention. 1 am,

Sir,
Your obedient servant,

Charles Tayloh, Sec.
Mr. William Pontei/, Huddersfieldy Yorkshire.

Extract from the Preface to the 24:ih Vol. of the
Transactions of the Societj/ of Aris^ 8fc. page 8,
published in Feb. 1807.

" The mischief and damage arising to plantations
in general, from a bad system of pruning, or neglect,
induced the late public-spirited Duke of Bedford to
direct a series of experiments to be made, at his ex-
pence, by W. Pontey, ofHuddersfield, on his extensive
plantations in the neighbourhood of Woburn. Mr.
Pontey has shewn great industry and judgment in his
selection of specimens, and in the clear detail relative
to pruning Forest Trees, which he has communicated
in a publication, intitledthe Forest Pruner, presented
by him to the Society.

^' This system has been pursued by Mr. Salmon,
agent to the present Duke of Bedford, under his
Grace's auspices, and confirmed by his certificate, as
noticed in the present volume. We are happy to
add, it is continuing with spirit under his Grace's par -
ticular protection and attention."

PREFACE.

As the author has, for many years, devoted
a great proportion of his time to investigating
a branch of Rural Science, hitherto much ne-
glected, though equally connected with indivi-
dual and the National Interest, he thinks himself
entitled to that protection which it would be
injustice to refuse, — namely, not to be incon-
siderately classed with a description of writers,
who send books" into the world, much better
calculated for sale than use.

Presuming this to be granted, the reader is
informed, in return, that if he expect the fol-
lowing sheets to be principally composed of
Theories, or to furnish little more than his
library can already afford, he will be equally
disappointed. — In this, however, the writer
takes no credit; for, so far from highly appre-

b

dating the value of what he could gather from
books, apart of the merit of his own (if such it
have,) is in demonstrating the absurdity, the in-
utility, and even the baneful tendency of much
which they furnish, under the imposing name

of INSTRUCTIONS.

In one point of view, books have been use-
ful; by giving an idea of what was known of
the cultivation of Timber one or two centuries
back ; and thus exhibiting the lamentable imbe-
cility of modern efforts to increase that know-
ledge.

If trees were, indeed, cast by Nature, in a
mould, whicli it would be fruitless, if not im-
pious, to attempt to alter, as some authors
have gravely asserted ; then might we say to
Improvement, " Here shall thy proud efforts
"be stayed." -The doctrine, however, betrays
an extreme ignorance of the natural and acfi-
dental forms in which trees are every where
found ; as no link in the chain of nature ap-
pears more susceptible of improvement by Cul-
tivation. Should, however, k doubt of thi^

important fact remain, a glance at the Frontis
piece (tlieform of which tree has been improved
by culture) must effectually remove it.

The leading object of this performance has
been to ascertain how far the progress of na-
ture could be traced with certainty ; so as to
furnish an unerring rule, for improving the
form, increasing the weight, and preventing
the defects of Timber Trees. If this point have,
fortunately, been established, there cannot be
any great failure in the subordinate ones; as
they are (technically speaking) no other than
the branches of the same tree.

The Plates will, it is presumed, considerably
facilitate the understanding of the subject. —
To the Engravers, the ingenious Messrs. But-
TERWORTHs of Lccds, thc autlior feels consi-
derable obligations, for their masterly execution
of the subjects, supposed n2i\.ux[x\ and their very
striking and correct delineation of such as are
really so.

In the execution of the work, the autiior has

xu

no otlier claims to superiority, than what have
been afforded by industry, opportunity, and an
luiconmion degree of attachment to the subject.
But simple means are not always the least ef-
fectual ; and the country has much to regret,
that no public proof has yet appeared, of simi-
lar means having been used by. others.

The doubts, which rest upon the mhids of
most men, both in regard to the propriety of
cultivating Timber, and the methods to be em-
ployed, are the best proofs of the necessity for
investigation. On a subject of such im.portance,
the uncertainty of public opinion is equally
detrimental and disgraceful. It is against such
uncertainty that the present effort is principal-
ly directed. If the author have furnished ma-
terials or evidence sufficient to distinguish be-
tween truth and error, he has done his duty j
and, whatever may be the event, as to the pre-
sent generation, posterity will remember the
feffort with gratitude.

THE

FOREST PRUNER.

The present is an age of improvement :
so says the concurrent testimony of every
person of observation, who has attended
to the recent and amazing advances in dif-
ferent sciences ; such as Agriculture, Me-
chanics, Chemistry, &c. &c. — ^nor can w^e
consider those objecls without being struck
with the astonishing powers of the human
mind, when stimulated to pursue particu-
lar objects. — The genius and enterprizing
spirit of the present period, aided by libe-
ral patronage, have, in numerous instances,
effected what, in times past, would have

B

10

been considered as the visionary schemes
of a disordered imagination ; — as matters
improper to be attempted, because, in
themselves, impossible.

In descending from general to particu-
lar objects, it is gratifying to notice the
successful exertions which have, for seve-
ral years, been made in the improvement
of the soil. — Agriculture, in all its
branches, advances with rapid step, while
an object so nearly allied to it as the im-
provement of Timber remains nearly,
if not absolutely, stationary. — The objects
of Horticulture too, (its other kindred
science,) are studied with every possible
degree of attention; — even our Mush'
rooms are tended with a nurses care; —
while the Oak, the pride of our woods,
the chief material of our navy, and con-
sequently, the Bulwark of our Country,
is left to thrive or rot by chance; unheed-
ed, if not forQ'otten !

11

That the quantity of Timber, in this
Island, keeps constantly upon the de-
crease, is certainly a very old, and not less
common observation, and such a one as,
I think, no persons of experience and ob-
servation will pretend to dispute; the
rapid increase in the value of the article,
and the large quantities imported, seem
evidence sufficient to ascertain the fact.
Nevertheless, of late, I have observed,
with some degree of national pride, that
such importation must, in a reasonable
time, receive a considerable check, pro-
vided the exertions which have prevailed
among our planters, be continued * ; and
followed up by the necessary attention to
Pruning.

* It being an indisputable fact, that, for the last
three or four years, Planting has increased astonish-
ingly, in most parts of the united kingdom, we arc
authorized from thence to conclude, that the number
of Timber Trees is increasing, will increase, and never
more (by the friends of Britain) be niaterialli/ dimi-
nished.

B 3

V2

To suppose that, when a tree is esta-
blished in the ground, tlie planter's care
is ended, is an error equally common and
pernicious; for it ought never to be for-
gotten, that a man may understand the
planting of a tree, while he is totally ig-
norant of its culture ; though both are
essential to the planter's ultimate suc-
cess. Indeed the former may now be
said to be, in some degree, common; —
every gardener knows something of it,
and every planter more ; — it is also found
diffused in books, so far, as he that reads
with attention, may be able to practise
with some tolerable degree of success.
But is that the case with the latter? — I ap-
prehend not. Hence the necessity of in-
vestigating the subject ; when it will pro-
bably appear, that the scmxity of such
knowledge is, in a considerable degree,
the true cause of the scarcity of timber,
Cei tain it is, that nature has been abun-
dantly bountiful to us, in regard to the
production of Trees; and our wants

13

call loudly upon us, to improve that
bounty to the utmost : — therefore the in-
quiry is indeed important, Where shall
we find the much-needed instruction?

It is now many years since the subject
struck my mind, in the manner above
stated ; the consequence of which was,
that books were resorted to in the first
place; — there, however, I experienced
nothing but perplexity and disappoint-
ment; as scarcely any two [of them
agreed in one opinion. Plowever, it soon
was evident that little assistance was to
be e>;pected from that quarter, as no wri-
ter, that fell \vk my way, seemed to have
studied the subject sufficiently to assign
a satisfactory reason for his own practice.
From books I naturally turned to men
(woodmen), and with much the same sort
of success. Their practice, it is true, did
not materially contradict each other;
but to me, at least, it seemed that they
were all at variance with Reason and Na-

14

iure. The point indeed was soon so ob
vious, that, rejecting the two former sets
of instructors, I had recourse to Reason
and Nature only : from which sources
alone have been collected all I know,
with any tolerable degree of certainty up-
on the subject.

However, though neither books nor
7}ie?i have been serviceable in elucidating,
still it is confessed, they have thrown
considerable difficulties in the way of dis-
cussing the subject. Men's minds are
generally prejudiced in favour of old
established opinions; assertion from one
quarter is equal to the same sort of ar-
gument from another.— Therefore, before
WG^ <:an work conviction, we must resort
to a better species of evidence; we must,
in fact, show the reader, by reasoning
from what he already knows, on w^hich
side the truth lies. The Book of 'Nature
is open, and we must study it atten-
tively ; otherwise we shall in vain expect

15

the intelligent part of mankind to study
ours.

To say that the opinions and practices
of the bulk of mankind, in regard to the
training of timber, have been hitherto
generally erroneous, may, and will, to
many, appear a very bold assertion ; and
one for which we have no right to expect
credit, except we can give some proba-
ble account of the cause, or causes, why
it has so happened. — For it is not pre-
tended but men are, in seneral, suffi-
ciently ready to adopt what makes clearly
and indisputably for their interest, pro-
vided the matter stand fully demon-
strated ; which it must be confessed has
not been the case. Indeed, it appears,
that the persons who have treated the
subject, had but very slight ideas of its
importance. Generally content with de-
tailing old opinions, without examining
their tendency, they have, hitherto, done
little more than unsettle men's minds,

16

not only as to the method, but the expe-
diency of Priming at all. We adduce a
few examples.

Evelyn, the honest and eloquent advo-
cate of planting, whose name can never
be mentioned without the highest degree
of respect, by any man who is attached to
its interests, falls unluckily into the ge-
neral error ; for though he extols Pruning
highly, he is sometimes contradictory,
and treats it in the detail too generally
and loosely.

It is of little use to tell a man totally ig-
norant of such subjects, that it " is by the
" discreet leaving the Side Boughs in con-
" venient places, sparing the smaller, and
** taking away the bigger, that you may ad-
*' vance a tree to what determined height
** you desire," (which is by far the best hint
I have found in him or any author upon
the subject ;) as he advances no reason
upon which it is founded. Indeed, if he

17

had been aware of the reason for lea-
ving the side-branches, he could not have
inserted what immediately follows; he
says, " Thus bring up the pleader, and
" when you would have that spread and
" break out, cat off all the side-boughs, ?nd
" especially at midsummer, if you espy
" them breaking: out*/' Plere w^ have a
sudden change of S3^stem, without any
cause assigned, except that of making
the top of the tree " spread and break
out;" which to a man of experience, ap-
pears the worst that could have been gi-
ven ; as he well knows, that nature per-
forms thatoperation much better without
such interference; and he knows, besides,
that its immediate visible tendency would
be, to create a necessity for the extra
Midsummer-Pruning there mentioned,
with other subsequent ones : — a very im-
portant consideration; for, if the business
cannot be done v.ithout such attention,
it will rarely be done at all.

* Hunter's Evelyn's Silva, p. 475.

18

We shall not here point out the conceal-
ed bad tendency of the method, as that
will come in, more properly, elsewhere;
but we may remark generally, however,
that such directions, from such an author,
could not fail to do immense mischief;
for, as has been before intimated, if it
were discovered that Evelyn had not hit
upon a practicable and desirable method
of training timber, it was natural to infer
the matter impracticable in itself, and
hence generally neglected.

It has been on all hands allowed, that,
as the advocate of planting, he was
singularly successful. How much has
his country to regret that he was not the
same in regard to pruning ; as, in that
case, the benefit must have been im-
mense. The different results may, how-
e\3r, be very naturally accounted for:
— the former required only such argu-
ments as any man of abilities and obser-
vation might furnish j — the latter, a de-
3

19

gree of experience, perfectly incompati-
ble with his very numerous avocations. —
That he erred, sometimes, creates no sur-
prise ; but that he erred so seldom, is tru-
ly astonishing.

It is highly probable, that, when wri-
ting upon the foregoing subject, Evelyn
was influenced by the opinion of Law-
son, who wrote above two hundred years
ago, and whom he quotes, at some
length, with great commendation. In-
deed, if Lawson's knowledge had been
equal to his zeal, the whole would have
been well applied. — We have, however,
to observe, that the very title of his book
(A New Orchard and Garden) implies
that Forest Trees were by no means a
leading object with him ; and his man-
ner of treating the subject speaks still
more decidedly to the point; for his
directions, in regard to pruning fruit'
trees shew clearly he had studied that
subject ; but his method of training

20

forest trees convinces us, that he had no
experience in that branch. — His obser-
vations, however, upon the state of the
Woods and Timber Trees, at that time,
were, no doubt, just, and unfortunately
apply but too closely to what they are

now. ^Two hundred years is a long,

very long period. They are past; and,
in all that time, no improvement has been
made in the Woodman's art ! The fact is
incontrovertible, let the disgrace rest
where it may.

It should seem, that from the year
1662, when Evelyn wrote his " Silva,"
to 1776, when Dr. Hunter republished it,
■with notes, nothing had appeared upon
Truning, which attracted any considera-
ble degree of public attention : for had it
been so, the latter would scarcely have
suffered such an important part of the
subject to pass over without any note
whatever.

21

We do not know whether this edition
of the "Silva" preceded or followed the
book we have next to notice, as they
both issued from the same press, in the
same year, namely, A Treatise on Plant-
ing, Gardening, <^c. by J. Kennedy, Gar-
dener to Sir Thomas Gascoigne, Baronet.
The author tells us, in his preface, " the
" instructions there given are the result
*' of many years' experience;'' which, pro-
bably, may be very true, so far as apply-
ing to any thing done within the garden
walls ; but beyond them, we find no do-
cuments sufficient to warrant the asser-
tion. For though experience does not
always lead men into the best methods,
yet it will always enable them to correct
gross mistakes.

Suppose, for instance, we have trees
planted six feet apart, and afterwards add
an equal number to them, a person of no
experience would suppose they would
then stand at the distance of three feet ; or

33

that each tree would occupy nme feet ot
surface. Suppose again, we have trees
planted at three feet distance, and half of
them thinned out ; a person of the same
stamp would suppose the remainder then
to stand at six feet distance, or that each
would occupy thirty-six feet of surface ;
when in fact, the quantity, in both cases,
would be just the same, namely, a surface
of eighteen feet. Such mistakes, how-
ever, experience never fails to correct: it
is quite sufficient that a man shall once
in his life have either to plant or prune,
in the ways mentioned, or any other,
where the distances do not materially dif-
fer, and he will find the result so far con-
tradict his theory, that he will be set
right ; and it is next to Impossible, he should
ever afterwards forget it.

Both these errors, our author has not
only fallen into, but persisted in. We have
noticed them in p. 6, 7, 36, 37, 97, and
110, where they are asserted as facts, and

^3

followed by a corresponding chain of rea-
soning ; — but, the asserted facts are false,
consequently the reasoning is without
foundation.

It would be easy to add proofs in abun-
dance, that, beyond garden practice, our
author had no experience ; as within such
limit all is consistent ; beyond.it, every
thing the reverse. For instance, though
he directs a tolerable method of pruning
forest trees, while they are very small, yet
for want of experience he supposes that me-
thod would be attended with the necessity
of a midsummer-dressing, w^hich certainly
would not be the case. He supposes, on
the whole, that such trees would require
two prunings every year, when one in two
years^yo\l\& be quite enough. Indeed, it
is sufficiently plain that he was afraid of
meddling with trees somewhat large ; as,
in such cases, he recommends pruning ei-
ther by leaving snags, or by leaving trees
to prune themselves; he says, " Firs at

u

" ten feet apart will do so -/' — and all this
we are to consider as eiperienpel The poet
had an eye to something of the sort, when
he said,

" A little learning is a dangerous thing."

We next come to the celebrated au-
thor of Observations on the Diseases, De-
fects, and Injuries of all Kinds of Fruit
and Forest Trees; with an Account of a
particular Mode of Cure ; — whose book,
it is true, has raised high expectations
among a certain description of persons.
Its title, as well as the table of contents,
gives us reason to hope for important
information, in regard to the Pruning
of Forest Trees; but, when we come to
the point, " 'tis disappointment all." —
He tells us, indeed, much of his good
wishes to the subject, and drops some
loose hints, in regard to what has been
the opinions and practice of others ;
and sees, or thinks he sees, destruc-
tion lurk behind, as the natural con-

25

lequence of them all, mean-time he
seems very shy in giving his own. Ulti-
mately it comes out, that, — " as a most
" efficacious remedy to prevent the evils
" that I have described, with all their de-
" structive consequences, and to restore
" sound timber, where the symptoms of
'* decay are already apparent, I confi-
" dently recommend the use of my Com-
" position," &c. &c. — being part of a
string of bold assertions, unsupported by
any thing like the shadow of proof, but
all tending to make his book appear ne-
cessary to thousands, at the same time ta-
citly denying the existence of what any
one may see who will look, namely, the
astonishing and successful exertions of
simple nature, in healing tne wounds of
trees. On such a conduct we may ob-
serve, (for we cannot do less,) that if the
writer really knew no better, his meddling
with the subject was highly presumptu-
ous ; but if the reverse, completely unjus-
tifiable.

26

Should any one object to the forego-
ing observations, as ill-naturedly pointed
or unnecessary ; to such we would observe,
that respect for the ashes of the dead can-
not justify us in sacrificing the interests
of the living, and, with them, our own in-
tegrity. The advocate of Truth and Na-
ture is bound at once to oppose, and ex-
pose, every doctrine which intrenches
upon their just prerogatives ; because he
is sure it is for the interest of the present,
as well as future ages, to have " the ti uth,
" the whole truth, and nothing but the
" truth," laid before them.

The substance of what Mr. Forsyth
has advanced, in regard to pruning forest-
trees, is briefly this: — No wound can be
healed, effectually, except it be dressed
with his composition. A sort of reason-
ing highly detrimental to the interests of
timber-owners ; as no one that believes
him will care to prune a single tree, much

27

more a great number ; the remedy being
abundantly worse than the disease.

Here the following question naturally
presents itself: CaJi forest-trees be pruned
without damaging the timber f — which
may be satisfactorily solved, by consider-
ing, how it comes to pass that we have
any clean sound timber at all. — Nature,
unassisted, certainly produces none of
the former ; and according to Mr. For-
syth, we can have none of the latter with-
out using his composition; whilst facts
prove we have a large quantity of both.
Consequently, we may safely assert, in
contradiction to all such cobweb argu-
ments, that we are indebted io pruning, of
some sort, for all the clean timber we have;
and that it is a safe operation, if properly
performed.

Much has been said concerning the ef-
iicacy of the composition, that is truly
wonderful; language has been ransacked
c 2

28

to extol its merits^ while of the thing itself
we have nothing certain. In the first
place, we are directed to use no less than
five ingredients, in certain proportions,
without the addition of any liquid ; then,
in order to keep it moist and preserve its
efficacy, we are directed to keep it co-
vered with " urine of any kind ;" after-
wards we are directed to " use it in a li-
" quid state, or about the consistency of
" thick paint," by mixing it with urine
and soap-suds : still we are not told what
kind of urine is to be used.

But after amusing his readers for
twelve years, with accounts of the merits
of his discovery; in the Postscript to the
Third Edition, the author informs the
reader oi another discovery , which, he says,
he has " recently made ; and which, as
" being calculated to save time and la-
" bour, may deserve attention/' (It
would certainly have saved |much of
both, had he always been as considerate.)

^9

He then goes on to inform us, in sub-
stance, that most of the labour hitherto
bestowed in executing his directions,
was labour in vain; that the soap-suds
are useless ; the sand unserviceable ; the
lime-rubbish a fiuisance ; and both sorts
of ashes merely capita mortua: and
therefore the whole of these articles are
quietly dismissed the service, and sent
(pauper-like) to their proper settlement,
the dunghill : and thus we have five of
the seven of his wonder-workers sacri-
ficed, at once, upon the altar of truth;
while two only remain, — the sad memo-
rials of the ruthless deed*!!

* <^ I also avail myself of this opportunity," (says
Mr. Forsyth,) *' to add a discovery Tvliich 1 have re-
*' cently made ; and which, as being calculated to
*' save time and labour, may deserve attention.

" Instead of paring away the bark, as had hereto-
*' fore been the practice, and covering the stem with
*' the composition : I now merely scrape off the loose

30

Seriously, he has left nothing in the
composition capable of producing the ef-
fects ascribed to it ; for whatever may be
the virtues of cow-dung and urine*, still
the manner of application precludes them
from operating to any beneficial purpose ;
as the first or second heavy shower of rain
must inevitably displace them complete-
ly, when laid on of the consistence of

*' bark, and apply a mixture of coxa-dung and urine
*^ only, (made to the consistence of a thick paint
*' with a painter's brush, covering the stem carefullj
'' over. This softens the old scabrous bark, which
" peels off during the following winter and spring,
*' £uid is succeeded by a fine smooth new bark." On
which we need only to remark generally, that if such
astonishing effects may really be produced by such tri-
fling means in this case, it would be similar in any
other; and therefore, all the extra means " heretofore'''
used, were perfectly useless.

* In the Preface to the First Edition, the author
mentions Cow-dung, as an article applied by others
to the same purpose; and by himself, " but witk very
*^ litlde success."

31

paint, as directed ; and yet we are taught
to believe, that this far-famed composi-
tion, " whenj applied to Fruit Trees, has
" prevented further decay, excluded wet
" and moisture, restored vegetation, and
*' increased fruitfuhiess, in such as were,
" apparently, barren and decayed.

" When applied to Forest Trees, it
" has restored them to soundness of tim-
" ber and healthful vegetation ; cover-
" ing, as it were, visible nakedness and
" increasing decay, with fresh and vi-
" gorous foliage : — It is of a soft and
*' healing nature ; possesses an absorbent
" and adhesive quality ; and, by resist-
" ing the force of washing rains, the con-
** tractions of nipping frosts, and the
*' effects of a warm sun or drying winds,
" excludes the pernicious influence of
*' a changeable atmosphere*/' — In fine,
the author expresses his belief, that

* Second Edition, p. 418—410.

352

** the discovery he has made and divul-
" ged to the public, will facilitate th«
" good intentions of planters, to the
" essential advantage of the British em-
" pire/'

Indeed, as the author modestly asserts,
that the composition " seems to have the
" same effect on trees as a top-dressing of
" dung has on land* ;" we have nothing
left to be surprized at, but the astonishing
stupidity of persons of his own profession,
who are found, almost to a man, so ex-
tremely faithless, that they never willing-
ly adopt his practice; nor does it appear,

* Preface to the First Edition. Upwards of

thirty years ago, Baron Vanhake invented and adver-
tised a composition, a few pounds of which was to fer-
tilize, or act as a dunging for, an acre of land ; but
after making a noise for a short time, and raising high
expectations among the credulous, it suddenly fell in-
to disgrace for a very trijling fault ; It was found

to be useless. Tb« reader will make his own ap-
plication,
5

33

that one solitary individual of them has as
yet come forward, to certify a conviction
of the usefulness of the composition.

Under all the circumstances of the
case, some persons may think the author's
success (his principal certificate being
above suspicion,*) exceedingly difficult
to account for. It is admitted that such
certificate proves that appearances were, in
every respect, as there described ; but it
certainly has not proved by what means
they came to be so. — The application of
a plaister, and the healing of a wound, do
not go the length of proving that such
plaister effected the cure.

But while we admit such certificate to
be above suspicion; and likewise, that it
bears evident marks of both the integrity
and industry of the " very honourable per-
" sons" who have signed it ; still, we can

* Second Edition, page 449.

34

never admit, with the author, " that they
" were selected as being the most compe-
" tent judges of the subject that could be
'* named in the kingdom*" — because the
document itself furnishes evident and
abundant proof, that they were by no
means conversant with the subject; and
therefore could not possibly distinguish,
between appearances extremely common,
and such as were exti^aoixlinari) : indeed,
we do not find an attempt to discriminate
between them. On the contrary, in eve-
ry part, they seem to consider all the fa-
vourable appearances exhibited, as en-
tirely of the latter sort.

In speaking of forest-trees that had
been cut down, they tell us, " the uni-
*' form result of these experiments ap-
*' peared, that those stems to which the
" Composition had been applied, had shot

* Preface to second Edition.

* a.
OD

^' up into healthy, vigorous trees, in far
" less time than they could have con-
" ceived possible ; while those left to un-
" assisted nature, had only produced ir-
" regular, unhealthy shoots, and were
" apparently in a state of decay." On
which we may shortly observe, that the
gardener, the woodman, and even the
hedger, well know, that such trees cut
down (though left to " unassisted nature")
seldom fail to shoot up most rapidly af-
terwards ; and tliey know, also, that when
they do not, it is occasioned by either a
defect in the root, the soil, or maltreat-
ment.

Whathad happened to the trees that pro-
duced only "irregular, unhealthy shoots,"
we know not; but we know many ways*

* If it be asked what such ways are ; the answer
is, they are already known, (perhaps too well,) among
Gardeners ; and we do not choose to instruct mankind
in the means of doing private mischief.

36

of producing such appearances, upon
trees whose roots are otherwise in a heal-
thy state, with little trouble, and without
the assistance of a second person : and it
is impossible to mistake in regard to the
good purpose such a striking contrast was
intended to serve. In fact, the only
UNCOMMON APPEARANCE here, is, the
state of these unhealthy, decaying trees.

That " a tree cut down to the stump,"
produces another, whicli at " six, seven,
" or eight years growth, attains to a
" size and height which trees sown, or
" planted, seldom attain to in thrice the
" time,'' is a fact extremely well known ;
our reporters, however, attribute it to
the efficacy of the composition only ,;
and they do the same in regard to the
quality of the wood, formed in and upon
the wounds of trees, when in a healing
state; they say, " we cut pieces of it out,
" and compared them with other pieces
" cut out of the original wood of the

57

" same trees ; and after as accurate a
" secreting and comparison as we were
*' enabled to make, we could not disco-
" ver any difference either in the colour
" or texture :" but certainly there is no-
thing UNCOMMON in such an appearance;
for it could not be otherwise, unless the com-
position had suspended the common ope-
rations of nature, and introduced in their
stead, methods of its own. In short, the
above, with other previous and subsequent
remarks, furnish abundant proof of our
first position, viz. that the reporters were
by no means conversant with the subject;
and hence, with the best possible inten-
tions, they have been led to impute ef-
fects to wrong causes ; consequently the
operations of nature are degraded, in
proportion as the merits of the composi-
tion are exalted.

For the truth of the above observa-
tions, we seriously appeal to the experi-

dice of every person who has devoted
much time to the subject ; and to such
as cannot be biassed by the opinions of
others, we would say, Form your own, by
carefully observing nature's " unassisted
operations'* in any wood, two or three
years after it has been fallen. There you
may see, not only how rapidly new
trees rise from old stumps, where the
soil is tolerably good, and proper atten-
tion paid to displacing superfluous shoots j
but likewise what astonishing exertions
the same power makes in healing
wounds, whether occasioned by branches
taken off, (provided they are cut close,)
or by the drawing or dragging out the
timber. In the latter business, many a
2;hastly scar is inflicted, and yet they
heal unnoticed ; indeed it is the faci-
lity with which the operation is attend-
ed, that occasions it to be so little
observed and known. In the subsequent
pages, we shall have to treat somewhat
largely upon the nature of wounds in

39

forest trees ; when, we trust, it will aj.)-
pear to every unprejudiced mind, that
they are a part of the creation which
can very seldom be benefited by means
of Quackery*.

* It will be observed, the foregoing observations relate
chiefly to forest-trees, as my present business is with
them. — We may remark, liowever, in regard to fruit-
trees, that much of the same sort of reasoning will apply ;
though it is obvious that the writer we have quoted un-
derstood the culture of the latter much better than that
of the former; still his merits, in regard to them, seem
to hinge upon one circumstance : — he had attentively
©bserved what " unassisted nature" could do, provi-
ded obstructions were removed out of her way ; and
these efforts, by a happy sort of dexterity, he all along
exhibits as the effects of his composition.

The powers of nature being thus impressed into the
service, he then, very consistently, ^\\U\}ig practices of
the trade into requisition, by representing himself (in
many parts of his book, but more particularly under
the head " Pears") as the inventor of cutting down
firuit-trees, in order to renew their strength and fruit-
folness ; — with how much truth, gardeners and nursery-
men can easily teU us. If such discovt-ries are to pass

40

As we do not conceive it necessary to
notice the opinions of any other writers
than such as are, in some degree, popu-=
lar, and who may be supposed to have
influence with the public, we shall have
to produce only another authority, viz.
Nicol, the author of — The Practical
Planter y comprehending the Culture and
Management of Planted and Natural Tim-

for NEAV, we shall expect, by-and-by, some dashing
genius to claim that excellent invention — ^the Plant-
ing of Cabbages.

Taking the whole together, I presume a very natu-
ral answer is furnished to a very proper question,
which has often been asked, viz. Why were not pro-
fessional men employed to report upon the merits of
Mr. Forsyth's discovery? — the answer to which i»,
that such, having professional reputation at stake, must
have been under the necessity of tracing effects up to
their true causes ; they must have known what was
old or common both in nature and practice ; and there-
fore could not possibly have suffered the author to
avail himself of it as matter of New Discovert/.

41

her, in every Stage of its Gi'owth. — How
WELL experience and observation had
qualified him to perform the task thus im-
posed upon himself, the following speci-
men will in some measure evince.

He says, " It can never be proper to
" lop the branch of a Fir-tree by the bole.
*' From the resinous juice which follow*
" the tool at any season of the 3'ear, all
*' wounds become, and continue to be,
" blemishes. When it becomes neces-
" sary to remove a branch that is doing
" injury to plants around it, the best me-
" thod is to shorten it back to the last
*' pair of laterals or wings; the remain-
" ing part will soon decay, rot, and drop
" off/'*

How soon it would decay, or how far
such decay would affect the tree ingrowth,
or the timber afterwards, or how such

* Nichol's Practical Planter, page 213.

D

means were to remove fche principal
defect of English Fir Timber, namely
KNOTTiNEss, wc are not told ; neither has
he brought one single argument, or fact,
in support of his notable assertions, that
" all wounds upon the bole, inflicted at any
" season, become, and continue to he, hle-
" mishes."

As we shall have an opportunity of
examining the tendency of the wary ex-
traordinary sort of management here re-
commended, we may pass it over for the
present, with generally remarking, that
such instructors are like Job's comfort-
ers; finding us in a bad situation, they
console, by assuring us it is hopeless.
It is for the reader to judge how much
we benefit by such consolations.

The above information, however, is
equally valuable with the author's discove-
ry of a new method of growing bends for
ship timber ; which is, to cut off the head

43

and all the side-branches of a tree but
one, which he converts into a leader, not
doubting that, in time, it will become a
capital bend, for the ribs of a ship. Thus,
in his rage for hencls, he evidently sup-
poses that the course of nature will
hcnd to establish his theory : — but not
so, friend Nichol ; she will certainly
keep her own track, which is, constantly
to hend her course towards the per-
pendicular; and, therefore, long before
a scantling would be produced large
enough for the purpose, the bend would
disappear: except a small curve at the
base.

His general method of pruning deci-
duous trees is equally new and curious :
(It is just the reverse of Lawson's. He
directs us to cut off all the side-branches ;
Nichol, none :) and only wants the trifling
epithet usepul, to complete the climax.
The sum and substance of it, in his own
n 2 .

44

words, is this : " Nor is it necessary to
" exercise the knife much, or lop a sin-
" gle branch by a bole, unless decay-
" ed, or broken by accident ; all that is
" necessary" (the reader will mark the ex-
pression,) " is shortening strong branches,
" such as in any considerable degree
" seem to cope with the stem. And this
" must be persevered in, so long as the
" intention is to produce straight timber^.**
He does not use the word clean, and
there seems peculiar propriety in the
omission, as the method he has pointed
out, though tedious in the extreme, would
never teach us how to produce a foot of
the article ; and, as to length of stem, we
find no instructions how to obtain so de-
sirable a property, except shortening the
branches, and then leaving them to
'* decay, rot, and drop off," deserves the
name.

* Page 199.

45

or plaistering and smoothing wounds,
our author is a decided advocate, yet we
will venture to assert, that whoever fol-
lows his directions on this head implicitly,
must spend much good Time and Tar in
vain.

The detailed consequences of such me-
thods will be considered in their proper
places ; our object here being chiefly to
exhibit the discordant opinions of differ-
ent authors.

From the foregoing we gather, that the
opinions of writers upon the subject, to a
very late period, may rather be said to be
founded on floating ideas than on fixed
principles; and that such must rather re-
tard than forward the business of improve-
ment. We shall leave them for the pre-
sent, and advert briefly to the importance
of the subject.

46

Tiiat the good hushandry of timber is
an object of national as well as individu-
al importance, cannot be doubted. The
ways in which it contributes to our com-
forts and convenience are so many, that
it would be equally impossible and use-
less to recount them. While considered
merely as an article of property, it is
difficult to say, what other species keeps
so constantly upon the advance, in va-
lue; independent of the increase, in
quantity. Considered in another light,
trees give a particular sort of dignity, or
consequence to an estate ; such as are
well wooded rarely missing to find pur-
chasers: which proves that, as matter
of ornament, their value is incalculable.
A single tree may be highly valuable in
a threefold point of view, namely, for
shelter, ornament, and use. And it hap-
pens not unfrequently that, in particular
situations, its ideal may exceed its real
value, in a tenfold degree. In fact, taste,
which may be said to be founded only

47

upon the fashion of the day, in many
things, is always, in a great measure, sta-
tionary in regard to trees ; as we find very
few persons indeed who do not feel plea-
sed with them ; many, it is true, without
knowing why : and therefore we may
venture to assert, that taste, in this in-
stance, is founded upon reason and na-
ture.

If such then be the uses and import-
ance of trees, surely their culture de-
serves our best attention. If, by expend-
ing a few pence, we could cause an oak-
stump to produce more and better tim-
ber in twenty-five years, than it would
otherwise do in forty ; and if, by slight
attention, we could not only increase the
stature, but improve the form of trees in
general, and prevent the premature de-
cay of a great proportion of the finest
oaks in the kingdom, it would be ad-
mitted that some good was likely to
be done.

48

The importance of the subject will ap-
pear in a still more striking point of
vievr, by considering the present state of
our timber, its common defects, with
their causes, and consequences, in the fol-
lowing order: generally reserving, to
prevent repetition, the method of ma-
nagement applicable to each, to be treat-
ed upon under the general head of
Pruning.

1. Knottiness.

2. Rottenness and hollowness.

3. Withered or decayed tops.

4. Short stems, with thick branching heads.

5. Shaken timber, or wind shakes.

6. Trees ivy-bound, &c.

To assist the reader in understanding
what we shall advance under the fore-
going heads, it will be necessary previ-
ously to explain, in some degree, the
course of the sap, or the manner in which
a tree is fed and increased. A great deal
of discussion has taken place among phi-

49

:> I

losophers, about the motion of the
generally, and still some difference ot'
opinion prevails ; yet, I conceive, that part
of the subject, which more particularly
applies to the present purpose, is so far
obvious, tiiat the attentive observer may
sufficiently satisfy himself on that head.

If a tree were principally fed either by
the means of vessels in the wood or pith,
or both, (as some have contended,) the
bark might betaken off without material-
ly injuring it; a circumstance that never
happens. On the contrary, one so treat-
ed, always appears in a languid state
afterwards, if death be not the immediate
consequence : this may happen sooner
or later, according to the vigour of the
tree, the hardness or softness of its wood,
ts situation as to moisture, and the sea-
son of the year when the bark is taken
off; but we do not recollect a single
instance where a perfect recovery has
been effected, whether left to nature.

50

or means were used, which might be sup-
posed to assist its operations.

That the principal current, or course
of the sap is immediately under the bark,
or between it and the wood, seems ob-
vious, from the appearance which always
follows the taking off a branch close to
the stem, either in or before the growing
season; for soon after that commences,
a ring or swell may be observed round
the wound, by some called a cicatrice,
which is no other than the ends of the
sap-vessels that fed the branch, sealed up,
as it were, by a Composition, superior
both in quality and mode of application,
to any the art of man ever did or ever can
invent.

Another proof of the point in hand is,
that some time after such branch has
been taken off, if the tree be vigorous,
we frequently may observe a trifling swell
above the part, the old bark being crack-

5

31

ed, and a new one (of a lighter texture)
appearing to grow under it; which is evi-
dently occasioned by the extra quantity
of sap, which used to feed the branch as-
cending in that direction.

One of the bad consequences that usu-
ally follow the taking off a branch in a
different manner from that just mention-
ed, is a proof in support of the present
argument. The inequalities or furrows
on the trunks of trees, (by the carpen-
ters called TROUGHS,) are occasioned by
leaving stumps or snags, in that opera-
tion. In such a case, if the stump do
not produce a branch, it dies ; and, con-
sequentl}^, obstructs and diverts the cur-
rent of the sap to both sides of it, so
that, ultimately, a furrow is formed,
deepest and widest at its base, and de-
creasing gradually upwards, till it dis-
appear. Sometimes we find a hollow,
somewhat similar, under the branch, and
both are undoubtedly occasioned by the

same cause, namely, by the sap being di-
minished in one part, and the quantity
increased in another: which shows not
only the situation of the principal cur-
rent of the sap, but likewise that the sur-
face of the stem is enlarged in proportion
to its quantity.

It would be easy to multiply proofs,
were they necessary : but as this is not
the case, we shall produce only another
for the present, namely, the common
operation of plashing or laying hedges.
By this operation, the whole plant is
made to lie in a sloping direction;
often nearly flat, in consequence of a
deep cut, which separates almost the
whole of the wood, and more than half
the bark; yet such plants are found not
only to grow, but thrive afterwards,
which could not have happened, ex-
cept the doctrine now asserted were
true.

53

Knottiness in timber is an evil of im-
mense magnitude, and may justly be
considered as the baneful source of near-
ly all the other defects, common to that
article. And yet how little are their
causes and consequences attended to ;
though it may truly be said, that, for
want of such attention, the greater part
of it is retarded in growth, and misap-
plied in use ; and not only so, but its
premature decay is much oftener to be
imputed to this circumstance than the
soil, though it has always been the
standing ide^, the cuckoo-song of all
ages.

The causes of knots may be shortly
explained : — Every tree, by nature, pro-
duces branches, and the baseof every one
of these is a knot; which annually in-
creases in size, as long as it continues to
grow upon the tree. Their uses will be
developed as we go along. — The above
we call natural knots. There are others,

54>,

which we choose to call unnatural ; be-
cause they are the effect of mismanage-
ment. These will also be noticed in their
proper place.

To prove that knottiness, or superflu-
ous branches, retard the growth of tim-
ber, we may suppose a tree, witli a con-
siderable number of large branches, such
as fig. 1, and contrast it with fig. 2, on
Plate II. Taking it for granted, circum-
stances are equal, so far as soil, age, and
situation are concerned ; let us consider
how much larger a quantity of leaves,
and smajl wood, the one has to support
tlian the other. A moderate portion of
both is necessary to the free growth of
every tree ; but we think it will be admit-
ted, that such a figure as the latter would
be deficient in neither; and if so, then
all that! the former has to support be-
yond that quantity, is as so much sap
deducted from what ought to go to the
support, or rather the increase oj

55

THE TRUNK. It Certainly then must
be obvious, that the one, with the same
means, must increase much faster, both
in height, fgenerally,) and thickness of
trunk, than the other.

Knots are also the principal cause of
the stems of trees growing much tapered ;
and every workman knows something of
the immense loss and waste occasioned
by that circumstance. We need spend
but little time in proving this point, as
the form of any tree of considerable age,
that grows with one principal leader, and
has long had a clean stem, demonstrates
all we assert; as such stems, from a lit-
tle above the base to the part where the
branches break out, are never found to
taper more than what is occasioned by
the lower part being oldest ; while, from
the top of them upwards, the leader de-
creases in thickness, in proportion to
the number of branches produced upon
it.

56

Further. Knots not only retard the
growth of timber in the ways just men-
tioned, but also by obstructing the sap.
— A little reflection must convince us,
that it is impossible, either plant or ani-
mal, whose juices are obstructed, can ad-
vance as fast in size, as one which has free
circulation.

Where the timber is knotty, the grain
or veins both of the wood and bark are
found curving in different directions.
This, however, would do little harm to
the ascent of the sap, were it not that it
occasions a contraction in the vessels. —
If the grain be finer, the sap-vessels must
of course be smaller. — We may be cer-
tain of the fact, though we cannot see
them.

It is true, that while a tree is young and
vigorous, ( which is in effect saying, while
it has a plentiful supply of sap,) its quan-
tity may b€ such, as to act with a force

57

sufficient to keep the vessels moderately
open, in all the parts of the tree; in
which case, it will be found in a tole-
rably growing state. But this is not all
we have a right to expect from a tree,
in a good soil, and properly treated;
for, in these, as well as in men, youth
is the season for exertion: and if we can-
not make the former thrive apace at that
period, it is seldom in our power to do
so afterwards, otherwise than by cutting
them down, and beginning the business
afresh.

Reasoning from causes to eifects, it must
be obvious that such thriving can never
be expected, while the sap is either too
little in quantity, or is obstructed in its
ascent; and slill less, when both evils
co-operate. They may be called distinct
evils, though occasioned by the same cause,
namely, suffering the tree to retain too
many branches.

£

56

The situation of such branches will
make a considerable difference, as to the
quantity of obstruction. When several
large ones are placed at or about the same
height, and so as nearly to enclose the
stem, it is obvious, that they must so far
obstruct the sap, that the principal leader
will have only a small proportion, and
consequently can grow but slowly ; though
in young trees, and in soft woods, the da-
mage will be trifling, in comparison of
that where the case is reversed*.

Having seen that a tree, tolerably free
from knots, is likely to give us the greatest
general height and thickness, the deduc-
tion is plain, it must give us likewise the
greatest length of stem : and all will admit
that to be an essential point in the value

* The sap-vessels in firs, are larger than in any other
wood we have noticed ; a circumstance that seems to
account for their heads growing freely, though their
stems are beset with very numerous branches.

59

of timber, as it is usually accompanied
with the property of cleanness, or being
free from knots. When that is the case,
we say, a piece of timber is strong ; and
it is observable, that great lengths are sel-
dom used at once, but where considera-
ble strength is required. When the knots
are large, the wood cannot be strong.

The difference in value between a clean
length of thirty feet, and another of eight,
the scantlings being the same, will be ve-
ry considerable to the carpenter, foot for
foot, in two points of view. The former
being applicable to so many more pur-
poses than the latter, renders so much
less stock necessary. He may likewise
use all the former, without incurring any
more waste, than he would do in using
the latter : — it is only the latter part that

admits of any. Besides, knots divert

the grain of the wood in a greater or
less degree, according to their size.
E 2

60

If any beam under a floor, intended to
support great weight, has large knots in
it, it very^ probably will break, some time
or other, at one of them. We frequent-
ly see beams of large scantlings, put in-
to such places, in order to give strength ;
which, upon examination, may be found
not half so strong, as if tolerably free
from them. A large knot near the cen-
tre, is an extremely dangerous circum-
stance : as thej^e the pressure will of course
be greatest. Often, however, we find two,
three, and even four such knots, in foreign
Fir timber, and these placed opposite to
each other ; every one of which increases
the danger of breaking*.

* Where the beam is so large as to take the whole
thickness of a fir log, whose branches have grown in
annual sets, or opposite to each other, as is the case
with foreign red deal, all such logs produced from the
higher parts of the tree, are extremely liable to this
sort of defect. To put such in places where much
strength is required, is one of the worst species of
deception.

61

J might here remark, by the way, that
there is an art in the application of, or
the manner of placing, knotty timber.
The same piece may be much stronger
in some positions than it would be in
others: the rule is, always to lay that part
downwards which has the most of, or ap-
proaches nearest to, a straight grain. A
piece of clean wood cannot crack till
it be considerably bended ; — one that is
curled, cracks almost as soon as bent.
1 mention these things here, because,
if known, they seem little attended to by

workmen. If, indeed, we w^ould avoid

the numerous evils that knotty timber
subjects us to, we must add one more
condition J to the two generally required
in bai^ains, namely, strength, to scantling
and soundness ; for, it is true, that whcr
ther the beam of a warehouse, the
axletree of a cart, or the shafts of a car^
riage, break ; still, in at least nine cases
in ten, the accident is to be attributed

62

to knots; — thej break the grain of the
wood or cause it to be what is called cross-
grained, in cases innumerable, where thej
do not appear.

By some persons, the treating of the
defects of foreign Fir timber will be con-
sidered as an unnecessary task ; for, no
doubt, so long as we want it, so long
must we take it " with all its imperfec-
tions on its head." We cannot improve
it; and so far the case is hopeless; but
this suggests some very important que-
ries, such as these : What are the real or
supposed defects of our own ? and. Can-
not they be managed, so as to be a sub-
stitute for it ? — Probably, there can be
no impropriety in examining the matter
here, as it is presumed, their principal,
or only natural defect, will prove to be
no other than that under consideration;
namely, knottiness. The reasons for such
opinion follow of course.

63

We know that, with vegetables as well
as animals, a certain degree of age is gene-
rally necessary, before they come to what
is called maturity ; or, in other words, be-
fore they become possessed of the proper-
ties, for which they are deemed the most
valuable : — Timber for instance, with the
exception of the Fir tribe, is a case in
point, as almost every carpenter knows,
at first sight, for what purpose most of the
other sorts and scantlings of our own
growth are proper. The experience of re-
volving ages has reduced the matter to so
much certainty, that if he err in respect
to their application, he will be considered
as a person unacquainted with the com-
mon maxims or rules of his profession, —
while, with regard to British Fir Timber,
no such maxims or rules exist, and there-
fore he can proceed only by guess; and
in so doing it is almost certain that, in
some degree or other, the article will have
injustice done to it.

.64

That the prejudices against such Tim-
ber are strong, and ahuost universally
prevalent, is readily admitted, and at first
sight it seems natural to suppose they
must be well founded ; though in fact,
they rest upon no better foundation,
than the prejudice that prevailed, less
than a century ago, against Foreign Fir
Timber, namely, a prejudice, the effect
of inexperience. At that time no work-
man could be found credulous enough
to suppose that a roof made of it, would
answer the purpose as well as one made
of Oak, and yet, now, the tide of opinion
is completely turned. — An article, which
apparently has but little of either
strength or durability, is found by expe-
rience, to possess a very extraordinary de-
gree of both.

But while we admit that such timber
possesses these properties, it must be allow-
ed, that the article has had every possible

65

degree of justice done it ; no one ever
suspected the young, small Timber equal
in quality to the old ; therefore, that on-
ly is used, where much of strength or
durability is required ; while in regard
to British Firs, in the South part of the
island at least, we rarely see any used
but what are at once young and small.
The absurdity of using sapUnga of any
sort, (Firs excepted,) where durable
Timber is required, every one will admit :
but why thei/ should not be entitled to
the same allowances as other saplings,
has not hitherto appeared.

To be consistent, we should consider
that a Fir, planted in a suitable soil, in-
creases very fast in size, and therefore,
for some time, the Wood must be less
hard and dense, than such as grow slow-
er ; of course, to expect it good in
such a stage of growth, is highly unrea-
sonable ; the general law of nature, which

66

admits of but few exceptions, certainly
does not warrant such expectation.

In pursuing the present examination, it
will not be attempted to shew the differ-
ent properties of each sort of Firs, as
opposed to each other ; probably, a long
life would scarcely be sufficient to fully
investigate the subject ; nor can we be
certain that much good would result
from it; as sufficient facts have been col-
lected, to enable us to stHte with confi-
dence, that all the sorts most commonly
cultivated in the island would be good
TIMBER, provided they were properly
trained, and grown to a competent
age.

The sorts just alluded to, are the
Scotch, the Common Spruce, the Black
and White American Spruce, the Silver,
and the Weymouth Pine. The Balm of
Gilcad Fir is not included in the list, be-

67

cause whatever be its properties, it sel-
dom lives long enough to grow to any to-
lerable scantling; and the Larch having
several valuable properties, peculiar to
itself, entitles it to be considered as a se-
parate article.

To give an opinion upon a subject of
such importance, without due considera-
tion, would argue a degree of rashness,
which no man who values his reputation
would be guilty of; under such impres-
sion, every specimen, presented by acci-
dent, has been carefully examined, while
numerous others have been procured for
the same purpose; the whole of which has
tended more or less, to support the ge-
neral reasoning, and warrant the conclu-
sion as above.

The opinions of workmen have like-
wise been attended to, and the result has
been remarkably uniform : — all such as
had worked only upon young free-grown

subjects, entertained an opinion, that the
Timber was of an inferior quality ; but
-such as had worked upon old trees, hav€
as constantly admitted the advantage of
age, — ^while all agree, that their knots are
a very serious defect.

If we contrast the circumstances un-
der which Foreign and British Fir Tim-
ber are usually brought forward, we
shall find many reasons for the general
prejudice in favour of the one, and
to the detriment of the other. The first
is uniformly brought from climates, that,
compared with ours, cannot be called
warm, and such as we call Timber, is
always of a good size and age, before
cut down ; indeed we never see the worst
part of it, say — that which grew near the
tops. Besides, in reducing it to Logs,
-the greater part, or the whole of the sap
is cut away ; as both ends are brought
to one scantling; and what we have in
Plank is necessarily still more reduced, to
5

69

bring it to the usual breadth. We may
add too, that such have always a reason-
able time for seasoning, generally a very
long one; and we may be sure they are
taken down at a proper season.

The above, which may be called fa^^
vourable circumstances, forma verystri-*
king contrast with the state of our own.
It is generally produced in situations
somewhat warmer, therefore it grows
quicker; it is cut down young and small,
atid used with the greater part of the sap,
or later years' growth upon it; and as to
the time for taking down and seasoning,
neither seems yet to have been attended
to. We do not expect to reap the other
products of the Earth in perfection,
without bestowing somewhat of care
or management upon them; and it is
equally disgraceful to the national in-
dustry and intellect, to condemn the
atticle, as radically bad, till every pro-
bable, and even possible means have

70

been tried, t© amend it, — and tried in
vain.

If the foregoing be the true state of
the case, it must be obvious that the real
defects of the article are reduced to a
small compass, namely Knottiness, the
consequence of the natural form of the
plants, and want of density, the conse-
quence of quick growth. For the

sake of order, the reader is referred to
the article pruning, where a preven-
tive for the former defect will be clearly
pointed out, and therefore, for the present,
our attention must be principally direct-
ed to the latter.

Dr. Smith observes, in his Essay on
the Production of Timber, in the first
Vol. of the Transactions of the Highland
Society, ]85, — that " the Scotch Firs
" growing naturally in the upper part of
" Argyleshire, and also in the North
" Highlands, as also at Braemar, at the

71

?* Head of the River Dee, are so excel-
" lent in quality, as not to be surpassed
" by any Fir Timber in the world," and
adds, " he has seen some of it, which,
" after it had been 300 years in the Roof
" of an old Castle, was as fresh and full
'* of sap, as new imported from Memel,"
and " that part of it was actually wrought
" up into new furniture/'

From the above, one would be led to
suppose, the Timber so " excellent in
" quality ,'' grew only in situations equal-
ly EXPOSED and elevated ; as the
lands in question are said to be the high-
est in Scotland ; and consequently, that
such places only could produce good
Fir Timber : but this, I am well as-
sured, is not the case, as a communi-
cation, (for which I have to thank that
enlightened Planter, Sir Archibald Grant,
of Monyrausk,) puts the matter into a
different light. He says, " — In the high-
'* er parts of this county, (Aberdeen-

72

" shire,) fnom the source of llie Dee,
" and many miles down that river, also
" along a great part of the length of the
" river Spey, there are extensive forests
" of the Scotch Fir, which there grows
'* to a large size, all natural wood. The
" ground, in the vicinity of these rivers,
" is the most elevated of any in Scot-
" land. But, it is not thence to be in-
" ferred, that the Firs grow on these

" Alpine regions It is only in the val-

*' lies, on the borders of these rivers, and
" the smaller dales on the banks of tri-
" butary torrents, consisting of alluvial
" soil, formerly brought doAvn from the
'^ mountains ; in the gentle slopes at
*' the bottoms of hills, or the elevated
" recesses of the mountains, that these
" trees thrive, and become valuable ;
••' not only on account ol their very
" great size, but also for their excel-
" lent quality, which is often not in-
" ferior to that imported from the Bal-
« tic."

73

Here then we have satisfactory proof,
that Fir Timber is produced within the
island, grown in situations elevated,
but SHELTERED, Sufficiently good to be
a substitute for the foreign ; which does
away the idea, that none but the, coldest
situations produce such an article.

These accounts agree, in representing
natural grown timber as superior to
planted. Dr. Smith assigns no reason
for it; only concludes, such Firs are a
superior species to what arc found else-
where.— Sir Archibald inclines to think,
that it is occasioned by the trees ma-
king a tap root, and consequently, ta-
king firmer liold of the ground than
the planted ones. — On this point, I
cannot help differing from both ; being
decidedly of opinion, such superiority
is no other than the efl'ect of superior
age. We have good reason to believe,
that all the Scotch Firs in the South
part of the island, were originally pro-

F

74

duced from the natiiral Woods in the
North, as there are no such Woods in
the South : indeed, the term Scotch Fir,
seems to fix that as the place ; and, there-
fore, the idea of a superior species can
have little weight. As to the timber
being superior in quality, we know of
no natural reason which can be assign-
ed to countenance the supposition, ex-
cept it be, that a tree, never removed
from where the seed was sown, produces
fewer roots than a transplanted one ; and
when, as is supposed in this case, one
of the principal strikes into a soil less
fertile than the surface, the tree must

grow slower. The plain inference

from which is, that the Wood must
be more dense, and of superior qua-
lity.

But admitting that no such reason as
the foregoing existed, (for probably many
who look only at the surface of things,
may be inclined to dispute the point,)

75

still there is a cause^ which must always
have some influence upon the growth
and quahly of the article. Planted Firs
rise as it were in a mass, and, by shelter-
ing, promote each other's growth, in a
much greater degree than can happen
to such as are self-sown ; and, therefore,
equal scantlings will be different in age,
and hence the difference in quality.

In order to show how far the article is
improved by age, independent of size, a
tree, about forty years old, was selected
that had grown very slowly nearly half
the time, in consequence of having a
very small top, and being almost over-
hung by others. On examination, the
Wood w^as found exceeding good, though
the scantling did not exceed seven
inches: — ^compared with some of the
best PetersburghDeal, it was found both
tougher and harder.

f2

76

As most of the foregoing observations
prove, that English Firs grow rather too
fast, than too slow ; it will scarcely be
doubted, that they may be produced suf-
ficiently large. Indeed the fact is demon-
strated in so'many places, as to silence in-
credulity. We shall, therefore, mention
only two instances, where the trees are
certainly large enough ; not only for ordi-
nary, but extraordinary purposes, not ex-
cepting masts for ships. The first is in the
park at Woburn, where we find very large
ones ; — the largest, a Silver Fir, may be
seen, for many miles, rearing its tall head
above any other tree around it. The di-
mensions in March, 1805, were as under:

Feet. Inch

Circumference just above the swell

of the roots 9 9

Ditto, at 27 feet high, being where

the first branches break out . . 8 2

Whole height of the tree 107 0

77

It IS to be remarked, that this tree grows
upon the summit of a hill, (Stump Cross,)
and that in consequence of getting higher
than any other, its head has been for ma-
ny years completely exposed, and there*
fore is in every part exceeding stiff, in
proportion to its height ; had it been shel-
tered, it is probable it would now have
been considerably higher.

The other instance is found in that
well-known pleasurable resort, Stud ley
Park, near Rippon, Yorkshire, where
many Spruce Firs measure nine feet in
circumference, just above the swell of the
roots, and taper oifgradually to the height
of more than a hundred. As they are
sheltered and growing freely, it is impos-
sible to guess what height or scantling
they may ultimately reach.

On the whole, it is presumed, that such
persons as will give themselves the trouble

78

of investigating the subject, as far as the
Writer has done, will come to the same
conclusion, — namely, that it is very easy
io grow Fir Timber in this Island, proper
for every purpose^ to which Foreign Fir is
usually applied: — and such as will not so
inform themselves, must submit to be
told, that their opinions, if opposite, can
have little weight*.

* The consideration that the Scotch Fir, one of
the articles in question, Avill grow freely upon almost
any soil in the country, (the most barren heaths
not excepted,) adds not a little to the importance
of the subject : — and yet, with such facts constantly
before their eyes, many people seem to decide
upon the point witliout consideration, as dogmati-
cally as they would pronounce between white and
black. — Dr. Smith, just quoted, who is in other re-
spects sufficiently zealous in advocating the cause of
planting, is an instance in point. — He says, " Tbe
<' Timber of the Scotch Spruce, and Silver Firs, is
" notof great value ;" — he //A'e?a/se says, that " every
" branch and leaf is a caterer for food, as well as every
" root and fibre, and the tree is deprived of nourish-
^' ment, by the loss of the one as well as the other ;" and

79

AVhile on the subject of Firs, it would
be highly inexcusable not to pay parti-
cular attention to the Larch ; an arti-
cle which grows rapidly upon some of the
worst Lands in the Empire; and is, at
least, equal to Foreign Deal, for all the
purposes to which that article is usually

accounts for it by saying, that " Trees probably de-
•' rive much less nourishment from the ground, than
*' they do from putrid vapours, air, rain, and sun-
•' shine;" which circiuustancc, he says, suggests av hat
experience proves, that " Trees ought seldom or nc-
" ver to be pruned, except the branches that decay,
'*' or wither." On all which we may briefly observe,
that it docs not appear he has made himself acquaint-
ed with the different circumstances, that influence
the quality of Fir Timber : — nor do the other re-
marks exhibit him, either as a person of much observa-
tion or experience; for a little o^ i\\e former would
have shown him, that both the form and strength of
Fruit Trees are astonishingly improved by pruning ;
and he might reasonably suspect Foresf Trees were
subject to the same natural laws. — The latter would
have made him sure of it, by proving, that a great
proportion of tiie caterers, for whose preservation h":

66

applied, and much superior for many
others. — The reader will observe that,
whatever is asserted unequivocally, in the
course of this investigation, is the result
of experiment; where I have not had that
advantage, the expression is qualified ac-
cordingly.

Larch excels Foreign Fir in all the fol-
lowing respects :

First, it is much clearer of knots,
provided a very small degree of attention
be paid, in the first twenty years of its
growth. Indeed, I know of no tree which

seem so solicitous, are little better than a species
of Robbers, who are much oftener found " cater-
(i jng*'' for Self, than the common interest. — In
due time their delinquency will be made manifest;
in which case, we are sure neither Dr. Smith, nor
any other patriotic Scotchman, will object to their
being dealt with in a manner congenial to the mild
spirit and practice of Caledonian Jurisprudence,—
namely, by Banishment.

81

can be grown with a long clean stem,
with less trouble ; nor any that thrives
better wilh a very small head. Com-
pared with English Firs, it has, in both
respects, greatly the advantage.

Secondly, It is more durable; for though
it produces dead knots, when neglected,
still it produces no rotten ones, or what
Carpenters call Cork Knots. The fact is,
that not only the heart and sap of the
wood, but even the bark is of so durable
a nature, that we know no means of es-
timating when any one of them will de-
cay ; except under some species of mis-
management.

There is a particular criterion by which
Larch is distinguishable from any other
vv'ood ; which is, at the same time, a
decisive proof of its durability. — The
dead knots, or branches, wood and bark,
being always found fast zi'eclgfd as it

82

were, in the timber ; so that every knot
of that description has a sorl of ring round
it, nearly black.

Any person who has Larch Firs grow-
ing, of some tolerable age, may convince
himself of their durability', by examining
their dead branches ; which, whether great
or small, are never found rotten.

The foregoing would have been thought
sufficient, if 1 had not found tlie durabi-
lit'if of the sap considerably discredited
in a most respectable publication.* —
There we have the particulars of an ex-
periment, to ascertain the durability of

* The Bath Society's Papers, vol. iii. p. 115, and
copied into the Annals of Agriculture, vol. vi. p. 256,
and the Encjclopadia Britannica, under the article

'' TnEEs." The celebrity of these Avorks is the best

apology for examining the accuracy of the result,
Tfthich, if erroneous, is calculated to do considerable
mischief. — Undoubtedly tliere are many hundred mil-
lions of the Larch now growing in this Island, •\vhicli are

83

twelve difl'erent sorts of timber, when
exposed in all weathers; by which it
appears, that, after being so exposed
for ten years, the " Heart of the Larch
" was sound, the Sap quite decayed;"
a result completely incompatible with
every observation I have been enabled
to make upon the subject, which are
by no means few. — It seems, indeed,
perfectly unaccountable, under any other
idea, than that of supposing a mistake.

The experiment was made by order of
a Nobleman, with an intention highly
honourable to himself, yet it is obvious
that the value of such experiments must
depend entirely on their accuracy, and of
that we can have no great dependence,

large ciiougL to be useful for numerous purposes.
Surelj/ then it is of importance for tlic proprie-
tors thereof, and the public, to know with perfest cer-
tainty, what are the essential properties of the article;
as that alone can fix its xalue, and proper mode of ap-
plication.

S4

where the business is somewhat complex,
and must, as in this instance, go through
the hands of Saw3'ers and Carpenters.—
Here were twelve sorts of wood to dis-
pose of; with not more than half of these
the workmen could be much acquainted.
If a log or a board of the others got
misplaced, in any part of the business,
it is difficult to conceive how it could
be put right again. We cannot possi-
bly admit a solitary experiment, thus
conducted, to contradict the evidence
resulting from the most assiduous re-
search into the subject for several years ;
for if it be admitted, that by such means
the Larch had got into the place of some
other wood, (probably the Beech,) the
result as to both would be exactly
what might be expected, and the Larch
be restored to the credit and conse-
quence to which it is justly entitled.

'Hie late Duke of Bedford had an ex-
periment- made somewhat similar, but

8o

liaving; afterwards discovered some inac-
curacy in the process, the result was never
noticed.

To meet the experiment in a satisfac-
tory manner, Fig. 4, on Plate IT, is in-
troduced. The ensjravintT- is made di-
rectlj from the end of a Larch board,
which has been some years in my posses-
sion. A, shews the core of the wood,
and the origin of a branch : B, the part
which was the outside of the tree, when
the branch died, and likewise, some re-
main^ of the woody part of it. The dark
part, C to C, is the cavity made -in the
wood, by inclosing the branch with the
bark upon it, after it zs/as dead ; part of
the latter still remaining in it, as the saw
has accidentally gone exactly in the line
between that and the wood. If we count
the annual circles of the wood, or curved
lines, we find it remained in that state
at least thirty-two years upon the tree ;
but how much longer we cannot say, as

86

the board has not all the sap left upon

it. It must have been sound all the

tmie, otherwise the pressure of the wood,
in enclosing, would have displaced it ;
and from its size, it could not be other-
wise than most of it Sap. — It is likewise
worthy of remark, that the board is from
the root end of the tree; the situation of
the branch having evidently been within
a foot of the ground, and, of course, more
exposed to moisture, than one more ele-
vated.—-The board will be left with
the publisher, for the inspection of the
curious.*

Thirdly, Larch is much less liable to
shrink than Foreign Deal. — It is well
known that the latter is exceedingly lia-
ble to that defect, in the first instance ;
and the Joiners tell us, that when a board

* Though the engraver has done great justice to
this subject, the boarditself exhibits the matter much
clearer. — If this sort of proof do not work conviction,
we shall despair of demonstrating any thing.

S7

of it has been twenty yeai's in use, if
planted over again, it will again shrink:
but not so with Larch: for, if well dried
at first, it never shrinks at all.

I had a Desk and Bookcase made of it
five years ago, every joint of which is
now as good as when put together,
though the room where it stands is ra-
ther damp, except when a good fire is
kept, near to which it stands, w^hich
must be allowed to be a very trying
circumstance. The workmanship was
very good in the first place, and there-
fore left no room for deception on that
head.

A piece of Larch Wood, split from the
root end of a slab, was weighed at dif-
ferent periods. The tree having been cut
down in August preceding, and sawn up
a few days previous to the first weighing,
gave the following results.

88

Date whea weighed.

lb.

ox.

1799, 1st October

12

Jl

19th October ....

10

4

25th October ....

9

0

I3th November ....

7

13

9th December. . . .

7

11

30th December ....

7

9

1800. 31st January ....

7

9

The weighing has often been repeated
since, but no variation was found while
it was in the same place, namely, a dry
room over one where a good fire was
kept. — ^The piece is nearly all sap. — From
which we gather this important informa-
tion ; the Larch may be perfectly season-
ed in three months, with a very mode-
rate heat, and probably much sooner, as
the next circumstance to be noted seems
to shew. — When wood can lose no more
weight, we take it for granted it is per-
fectly seasoned, and as this is so soon at-
tained by the Larch, there can remain no
just apprehensions of its shrinking.

89

Fourthly, Larch will not crack with
any degree of heat that can be called
tolerable, when in plank or boards, or
when the poles are split as rails. When
in bulk, I have not observed that the
case is different, provided the bark re-
mains upon it, but if that be taken off
while the article is green, it cracks con-
siderably, as will be noticed under the
seventh head.

Fifthly, Larch is much more tough than
Foreign Deal. It splits with great diffi-
culty, and never in any length with the
grain. Foreign Deal being so exceedingly
apt to slipt, can seldom be used very thin ;
but the Larch may be used as thin as
the sawyers can cut it, without any dan-
ger on that head. This circumstance
must greatly enhance its value, as, in nu-
merous cases, a board of it dressed to a
quarter of an inch, will answer as well,
frequently better, than a Deal one of twice
the thickness. In turned and carved work

G

90

it must be admirable, and more particu-
larly so where the members are small.
It will likewise prove one of the best
woods yet known, as models for iron or
brass-founders, as it may be worked to as
great a nicety as metal itself, and will be
in little danger of damage, either in ma-
king or using ; or the intervals between its
being made use of.

In the sixth place, we have to notice two
properties, the first of which the Foreign
Deal does not possess, — and the latter but
in a very inferior degree, namely, its
beautiful colour, and being capable of re-
ceiving a degree of polish equal to any
wood 3 et known ; and much superior to
the finest mahogany. It is, indeed, dif-
ficult to say for what article of useful, or
ornamental furniture, it is not proper. Its
heart is of a faint salmon colour, and the
sap white, when raw from the plane ; but
the application of raw linseed-oil only,
brings both, gradually, to a beautiful 'Nut--

9^

BroK'ii, and so nearly alike, that it requires
a very good eye to discover the difference,

It likewise admits of being stained

the colour of mahogany*. — In Bed-Posts,

* The method of turning Larcli a mahogany colour.
Provide two small painter's brushes, which must be
clean, with a quantity of the best Aquafortis, and raw
Linseed Oil ; one of the brushes must be prepared, to
prevent its burning, by soaking it in the oil, and then
squeezing it tolerably dry ; after which the spirit is to
be laid on with it upon the work, making the whole
equally moist. This must be done as expeditiously as
possible, and followed up by holding it a few seconds
before the fire, when the required colour will be
produced. The operator will judge when it is high
enough. Then oil the whole well oyer with the
other brush to stop the effect of burning ; which
must be repeated as soon as tlie oil is absorbed.
Observe, that the staining is to be applied to ar-
ticles in a raw state, as oil resists the spirit, and the
same reason makes it necessary to be cautious not to
oil after staining, beyond its effect: Generally, ib^
best way is to do the whole of one surface, or as many
more as convenient, at one operation ; never leaving

a part of one undone. The strength and eflfect of

the aquafortis should be tried in the first place, on a

r. o

Staircases, &c. the stained work looks ex-
cellent; but, in my opinion, not so well in
Doors, and such articles as directly meet
ihe eye, and present a large flat surface ;

piece of the same sort of wood. If the colour prove
too high, the spirit may be reduced with water. — To
prevent the brush burning, it must go into the oil after
every ihird or fourth operation, as at first. — The
operator must have the spirit in glass only, and con-
sider he is using Fire, though in a liquid form. — Ob-
serve also, the heart and sap of Larch do not stain to
just the same colour, and therefore in such work they
should not both appear on the same su» face.

Cabinet-makers ought to considoi how far the Larch
might be useful, in Bookcases, Sideboards, Drawers,
or any other ornamental Furniture, intended to be ve-
neered. At present, these articles are only a sort of
sham or patcliwork, as a very small part of them, the
veneering only, ia made of ornamental mahogany ; the
rest being usually of an ordinary sort, with the addi-
tion of oak and common deal. — Jf instead of this med-
ley, which always offends the eye, when a door or a
drawer is open, the whole basis was Larch, such open-
ing would present a neatness, and uniformity, greatly
superior to any tiling usually exhibited in sucli cases.

for there, the only respect in which it is
inferior to mahogany, is most conspicu-
ous, beins: somewhat deficient in varietv.
In the two former respects, and all otiicr,
where the members are small, such varie-
ty is not expected. — In its natural co-
lour, the idea of mahogany is not pre-
sented, the appearance being much nearer

By proceeding as above, little of staining is required,
the outsidcs of the ends, with the cornices, and feet,
comprising the whole. — It certainjy would look well in
the two latter situations, and in the former be much
superior to the sombre sort of mahogany, generally
used, as its colour would match abundantly better
with the light veneered work. — Taking appearances
altogether, there would certainly be an improvement,
and as to other circumstances, I have no doubt, but
the Larch must, upon the whole, deserve the preference,
independent of the important consideration of saving,
at least, one half in the value of the wood.

We might observe, that Larch Furniture, after once
brought to a good polish, requires not one quarter
so much attention as Mahogany ; the very best of the
latter has a rough, uneven surface, when magnified ;

94

thatof Ox\ K, but greatly superior, in every
point of view.

The seventh and last point of superio-
rity, to be noticed for the present, shews
the Larch to be qualified for extensive
usefulness, in a situation that few persons
would suspect, as it is known, that in it
the best Foreign Fir proves of very short
duration, — namely, as posts for every de-
scription of fencing. — The facts I have to
detail upon this subject are as follow.

About four years ago, being then cut-
ting up a quantity of Larch, for rniling
and other purposes, a part of the knotty

which accounts for the dust it holds, and hence the
perpetual rubbings, absolutely necessary to keep it in
order. Larch, on the contrary, when submitted to
the same test, presents a surface perfectly smooth, and
even, consequently, after being once well polished,
it assumes a shining, glassy face, from which the dust
is as easily removed, as from a polished mirror.

95

tops was sawn into scantlings of about
one inch and a half square, for the pur-
pose of staking, or tying up plants in
the nursery. On examining their condi-
tion a few weeks ago, the whole of them
were perfectly sound above ground, and
all that had been used with bark upon
them, the same, so far as they were co-
vered by it, whether near the surface or
considerably below it ; indeed the wood
under such bark appeared as smooth a?id
sound as when first cut up. The only
symptoms of decay which appeared, be-
ing upon the CUT surface of the sappy
parts of the Wood, that had been in the
ground.

The above interesting result is render-
ed still more satisfactory, by considering
that it may be accounted for upon natu-
ral principles, in the following manner. —
The sap of Larch is composed of a resi-
nous matter, which, no doubt, is the prin-

96'

cipal cause of its durability ; and that
article is much more abundant, near and
even upon the surface, than farther within
the wood, as it was the situation of the
pricipal sap-vessels, the year before the
tree was taken down. The quantity of the
article is clearly observable by the naked
leye, in the sun, after the wood has been
disbarked and somewhat dried, but much
better with the assistance of glasses ; in
which case, it appears so extremely full of
resin, that it is ver}' easy to conceive it
impenetrable by moisture, and hence the
particular sort of durability now noticed.

The result of the foregoing observations,
wevy naturally led me to a careful exami-
nation of the state of a Larch Post, which
had laid " unheeded by," since the year
1800, which, if my information be correct,
liad previously been in the ground upwards
of twenty years. Hitherto it had been
observed, that every part of it which had

3

been above ground, including the mortice-
holes, and the parts under the shoulder-
ing of the rails, where the painter's brush
could not reach, were perfectly sound.
As to what had been in the ground, the
parts near the surface, where the bark had
been taken off, with a part of the wood,
are somowhat decayed, but not deeper
than the sap. — It is to be observed, this
post was made from the whole tree, and
that, in squaring, all the outside was
taken off to some inches beneath the
ground ; below that, the squaring was
sloped outwards, by which a great part
of the bark was there retained ; and so
far the wood under it is sound, except
some triflino; decav at the edoes ; it ha-
ring evidently advanced from the sides,
not the surface.

On examining the bottom, and likewise

the sides, where branches were taken

off, it is clear that no moisture has been

imbibed by either, suiHcient to do any

5

98

damage. Taking the appearance of the
whole together, every circumstance goes
to establish an opinion, that, had all the
bark been left on the part within the
ground, the post might have lasted for
ages.

The useful inference from the above is
this. Larch posts, to have the greatest
possible degree of durability, must be
made of the whole wood, retaining the
bark upon the part to be put into the
ground. In all cases, where simple useful-
ness only is required, the best method
would be to retain the whole of it ; except
what may be displaced by morticing, &c.

Where neatness is required, squaring or
rounding becomes absolutely necessary ;
and therefore, care should be taken to
have the wood seasoned ; for otherwise, it
will crack considerably after the hark is dis-
placed. Perhaps the best method of doing
it, would be to have the trees taken down

99

iu Autumn, at the expiration of the
growing season, and exposed to the wea-
ther for twelve months at least; by which
time, it is presumed, they would be so
far gradually dried, that little of cracking
could afterwards take place. — The ne-
cessity for seasoning is obvious ; but it
is not pretended the above is positively
the best method of effecting it, as no time
to make experiments has elapsed, since
the durability of such posts was disco-
vered ; every one will, therefore, use his
own discretion in that point, being fully
assured that such cracking must be
avoided, or the article will be very ma-
terially damaged.

In proof of the last assertion, we may
notice the state of great numbers of Larch
Rails, in this neighbourhood. Here, very
unfortunately for the purchasers, an idea
has been prevalent, that the best method
of making Fir Rails durable, (the Larch
included,) is to take off the hark; and hence,

100

it has been common to have them cut
down, when the sap flowed most freely.

Whether the time of cutting down, and
the taking off the bark, was right in re-
gard to Firs, generally, I am not pre-
pared to decide with certainty, but am
inclined to believe, that it is wrong ; as, if
not immediately split, the sort of cracks
we have been speaking of, must follow
as the certain consequence ; yet, if the
poles were used in a perpendicular direc-
tion, or were not exposed to moisture,
such cracks would do little damage ; but
when exposed to the weather, in an ho-
rizontal position, as every crack, whose
opening is upwards, must not only collect,
but hold water, the sap, or least durable
part of the wood, is constantly exposed
to the extremes of drought and mois-
ture. The bark is certainly taken off,
to prevent the moisture lodging be-
tween that and the wood, and there-
by occasioning rottenness; but whether

101

tbe evil intended to be prevented, is not.
generally promoted by such means, must
be left to the intelligent.

As to the particular case of the Larch,
I can have no doubt ; indeed, the only
case, in which 1 have yet found any
Larch wood rotten, that had not been
in the ground, or exposed to alternate
drought and moisture, is that of rails, <^^c.
managed as the above, namely, cut
down green, then disbarked, and after-
wards used whole. Within a few hun-
dred yards of where I am writing;, there
are many such, decayed less or more,
in and about the cracks; in some few
instances, all the sappy part is gone
from one side, for more than a foot in
length ; while, on other parts of the same
rails, where no cracks appear, or where
parts of the bark have been left on, the
wood is as sound as when first put up. If,
after this, people will persist in the prac-
tice, I can only say, the fault is not mine.

102

Having thus far noted the excellence
of the Larch, I shall now advert to what
may be called its defect, one only being
known, and that of a late standing ; for,
tliough the plant has been introduced
into the kingdom, at least 150 yeas's,
it is onl}^ within the last ten that its
particular enemy has attracted notice.
This is an insect ; (probably one of the
numerous tribe of the Aphides;) the
same which has frequently been observed
upon the Scotch Fir, but never to remain
long, or do any material damage. Up-
on the Larch, the case is very different,
as there, tliese destructive creatures ap-
pear in innumerable myriads, reducing
trees, previously vigorous, to a state of
languor, and not unfrequently killing
them, as it were, by inches. Of these,
as of the insects which infest Fruit-trees,
we may observe, that they are uniformly
most numerous upon plants previously
in an unhealthy state, and seldom fail
to increase the disease, As a general

103

observation it may be noted, that on ele-
vated situations, where the soil is sandy,
or otherwise light, the damage has not
been nearly so considerable as where the
circumstances were the reverse. It seems
that, in some parts of the country, the
insect is still but little known.

Of this evil, from its first appearance, I
have been by no means either an idle, or
an unconcerned spectator; and yet have
NOW the mortification to confess, I ha.ve
discovered nothing respecting it, which
can be called useful. It does not appear
that the insect feeds upon the plants, but
yet where they live, there they must
feed, in some way or other. The}'
seem either to suck the juices, or ob-
struct the atmospherical influence, or
both.

Amidst an extraordinary degree of anx-
iety, for the future destiny of this, my
favourite tree, I feel some consolation in

J04

reflecting upon a circumstance some-
what similar. The curled top made its
appearance among potatoes about thirty
years ago ; and for several succeeding
ones the evil seemed to increase. The.
cause was then-, and still remains un-
known, though every possible exertion
has been made to discover it. It appear-
ed gradually, and got to such a height,
in about ten years, as to be tridy alarm-
ing : from that period it seems to have
been upon the decline, so that now " the
'•'- Pestilence that zs)alked in Darkness" ren-
dering useless the efforts of human indus-
tr}^, is subdued by that invisible Power
which " rides in the whirlwind and di-
** reets the storm/'

Of the Larch insect, we may remark,
that it was by no means so prevalent last
summer, as in that preceding, nor is it in
the present, (1805;) I attribute this to
the seasons being more moist. It is ob-
servable, we have had na long frosts, of

105

two or three winters ; mild ones are high-
ly favourable to the increase of insects,
and severe ones the reverse. Probably,
we have much to hope in favour of the
Larch, from the first which may happen.
The insect seems of a very delicate
texture : — one can scarcely suppose it to
be a native of the cold quarter, of which
the Larch is said to be, namely, the
Alps and Pyrenean mountains*.

* The following had been mislaid, but I think it
'w'ould be unpardonable to omit it.

Perhaps there is no situation where the Larch
would appear to more advantage, or occasion a greater
saving, than in the fitting up the interior of what may
be called an elegant sliop ; — being equally calculated
for shelves, drawers, and counters, without the addi'
t'lon of paint. In that case, the cornices and edges
of the shelves only would require staining, after which,
three or four times oiling, in common with the count-
ers, drawers, &c. would complete the business, and
produce an effect superior to cithet paini, common
mahogany, or both.

JI

106

Upon the subject of English Fir Tim-
ber, (the Larch included,) I have been
somewhat diffuse, for this plain reason ;
the credit of most other sorts of timber
is sufficiently established, while the va-
lue of Enolish Fir is so little under-
stood, that, wilh many pretended judges,
it is still a question, whether it is entitled
to any credit at all. To such I would
say, Continue to doubt, if you please;
but by no means commit yourselves, by
presuming to influence the opinions of
others, or joining in the cry of deprecia-
tion, till you are well informed in all the
following points, viz. The specific dif-
ference which age makes in it, — the mode
of improving it by culture, — the time
of cutting down, — the manner of sea-
soning,— and the proper mode of appli-
cation.— Apply th^sc to the case of
other timber, and we find all the cir-
cumstances (the second excepted, and
who can estimate the loss in conse-
quence ?) pretty well understood; and

hence the business goes on rathenmootli-
\y. If men were really as ignorant in
these matters, as they are in regard to
the others, every sort of timber would
be disgraced by turns, the Oak not ex-
cepted*.

* When the press had proceeded thus far, an op-
portunity occurred of examining some Larch Spars or
Rafters, which had been in a mill about twenty-four
years ; and, liltewise, an English-grown Spruce Fit
Log, of about fourteen inches square, with some balks
or summer-trees, made from the same, or a similar
tree, cut down the middle. The former have the
bark upon them, and are all sound, except in a few
places where wet has fallen. The latter are perfectly
so, including the bark ; much of which still remains
upon them, as firmly united to the wood as when first
used. This circumstance sufficiently proves, that my
conclusions, respecting several sorts of Firs, are per-
fectly correct as to one of them. It is indeed to be
lamented, that such proofs are not every where to bv^
met with; as they would have a direct tendency to
remove prejudice, instrffct the ignorant, and silence
the cavils of self-inteuest.

Perhaps, at first sight, a true Briton will scarcely
believe any of his countrymen so destitute of patriot"
H 2

108

We ^ome next to treat of a defect id
timber, at once extremely common and
pernicious, namely, rottenness, and holhw-
ncss^ — the latter being only the effect of
the former. This defect is sometimes oc-
casioned by the soil, sometimes by ex-
treme old age, sometimes in consequence

ism, as obstinately to depreciate the produce of his
native soil ; — yet (" O Shame, -where is thy blush !")
such are to be found ! — as the following short account
will sufficiently evince.

A person, who happened to be near when the above
were examined, could not be persuaded to look at
either, yet stiffly asserted the former were all rotten,
and that it was impossible to make a roof of English*
grown Firs, which would be either straight or durable ;
consequently concluding that the whole family were
worthless sticks , fit only for the fire. It was in vain
to attempt to refute such well-founded assertions ; be-
sides, truly, the man was wroth, and would not listen :
no mean proof this, that he was in earnest. The
Craftsmen, at Ephesus, were in a simitar panic, when
fliey died out, " Great is Diana of the Ephesians."

From many observations, made since the above was
written, I see no reason whatever to change my opi-

109

of branches being torn off by the wind,
and sometimes by the woodpeckers ;
though, in most cases, it is clearly the ef-
feet of neglect or mhmanageynent. What
we have to advance upon the subject, so
far as it respects the extremities, will come
forwards most properly under the next
head; and, therefore, we shall here prin-
cipally notice their causes and effects, as
operating upon the Stejn and larger
Branches or Arms,

Rottenness, where no external injury
has been done or happened to the plant,
presents, at first sight, the idea of stinted
nourishment; the tree must be generally

Bion with regard to the valuable properties of the arti-
cle. Indeed, -with the generality of intelligent pur-
chasers, the 5?/a//</e^ of the Larch is wotW less frequent-
ly a question, than zchei'e it mai/ he proan^ed. It is
also consolatory to remark, that the ravages of the in-
sect continue to decrease. Should it, indeed, never
become more numerous than it has been through the
present season, it would be considered of little or no
consequ^ce.

110

or partially deficient of sap. The effect,
in either case, is, in the first instance, the
same; the branches which are worst si-
tuated, receive the least support, and
therefore die first. When a branch dies,
the next consequence to be expected is
its rotting. Different subjects, and an
innumerable variation of circumstances,
may make the time shorter, of longer, but
with all that I know of, (the Larch ex-
cepted,) it follows of course. And we may
remark, generally, of the Oak, that it is
one of the first " to see corruption :" nor
do I know a subject among the inhabi-
tants of the forest, upon which it after-
wards works with more effectual speed.
To trace its effects, we may suppose the
case of a tree with a rotten branch, and
that placed in a direction inclining up-
wards. In this case, we must observe, that
the decay does not end where the branch
joins the stem or arms; as it does not stand
upon them like a nut, or an acorn, in its
husk, except when produced by imnatitral

Ill

meanSf and even then, its origin will He as
deep as that which was the surface, when
soprodnced. For natural branches origi-
nate directly at the core of the part from
whence they spring. (See Plate 111.) An
extreme branch, for instance, is directly
connected with the core of that which pro-
duced it, and so on, through the different
gradations, to the stem ; consequently,
rottenness bcgiunins: in tlie former, de-
scends as naturally, and certainly, (if not
prevented.) to the root, by means of the
core, as the rivulet, gathered upon the
mountain's brow, finds its way to the river
in the plain below ; the only difterence
being in the degree of expedition.

When a rotten branch falls, it leaves -a
hole, equally calculated to receive and ret
tain moisture, which, acting upon the core
orpith, as wellas the end of the wood, car-
ries on the business of putrefaction, with a
rapidity scarcely to be credited. Hence
we see, that the rapidity under considera-

112

tion, IS often occasioned by neglecting
to take off such branches, while they are
only partially rotten, though certainly
much oftener by the careless, or over-cau-
tious method of lopping trees, which we
arfe next to notice.

The method alluded to, is that of lea-
ving stumps, or snags, of a few inches in
length, instead of taking off the branches
close by the stem. The careless do it,
merely because it is a more convenient
and expeditious method, than close cut-
ting; and the cautious, because they sup-
pose such cutting would occasion a scar,
or rottenness : how truly, will be examined
in due time. Here, we readily admit the
careless man's reasoning, if he will allow
©s to sa}^ a method may be extremely had,
that is both easy and expeditious. — And
if it be bad, Carelessnesa and Caution must
equally look to it; for it is practised by
both.

Weadmitthat caution, in adopting such
method, does its duty as far as understood.
It is meant io prevent scars and hollowness.
The only question then will be, — Is the
cautious man's theory right ? for, if so,
his practice would not be materially wrong.
To which we answer, certainhj not. If
indeed such operator could insure every
stump he leaves, to produce one or more
branches; then the method would have
less harm in it ; a little produce of timber,
and that little had, would be the worst of
it. But he can insure no such thing:
some stumps will not be productive, and
therefore they must die ; — when Kottenness
and Hollowness follow of course : — the
operator is the cause, these the etfects.

When a tolerably healthy tree is so
lopped, nature may be observed to make
an effort to cure the wound, as soon as
the sap begins to circulate ; and such
would always be successful, were no
^tump left in the way to prevent it; but,

114

as the case stands, the effort is spent in
forming a sort of swell round, which, in
time, may grow over and inclose it, pro-
vided such stump be short. And, there-
fore, instead of an even surface, upon the
stem, and a very trifling crack, which
might ultimately be found in the wood,
we have a stump, more or less rotten, in-
closed within a protuberance, similar to
that on PL IV. l.—A.

It must be evident that, in such a case,
the damage will be always in proportion
to the length and size of the stump, as
well as the vigour of the tree: where the
former are short and small, and the
tree in health, little harm is to be ap-
prehended, as they will be grown over,
before any decay can take place, but
not so where the case is the reverse.
A stump somew^hat long, cannot soon
be grown over, on any tree; if it be
likewise thick, that will further pro-
tract the operation, while, if the plant

115

is weak, it will be always tedious, of-
ten impracticable; so that, ultimately,
here, as well as when a stump is too
long to be grown over, by any effort
which nature can make, we have an
appearance, something like that marked
B, (PI. IV.) being a rotten stump, or the
remains of a branch, which must fall oiF
in time, leaving a cavity, the mouth of
which is formed, as it were, on purpose to
collect moisture, being usually, at least,
twice as wide at the entrance as what was
the diameter of the stump. And thus na-
ture's benign effort*^, primarily intended
to heal the wounds, are perverted, by ig-
norance or inattention, to the worst pur-
pose, namely, to accelerate the destruc-
tion or the rotting of the trees.

If theit, one single rotten stump may, in
time, occasion every part of the tree belov,
it to become hollow ; how much sooner
must a number of such, situated on dif-
ferent parts, expedite the business ? Cer-

116

lainl}', under the present systematic ne-
glect, it is unreasonable to expect to find
an Oak, of considerable age, perfectly
sound; indeed we rarely see one that ap-
peal's so. Where something of the kind
is discovered, more will with good reason
be apprehended ; and even where nothing
of the kind appears, still such a subject
cannot escape suspicion. As a tree in-
creases in thickness, holes, which have
long admitted wet, may grow over ; and
the same means often swell the stem, so
far, that protuberances, once considera-
ble, may partiallj'^ or wholly disappear.
— We cannot often determine the extent
of rottenness, in part apparent, much less
that which may be concealed under such
protuberances.

The adage says, " An old oak tree is like
" a merchant ; you never know his real
" worth till he be dead :" intimating, that
noone can discover with certainty, whether
)t be sound or otherwise, till taken down

117

and cut in pieces. And every man, acouv
tomed to purchase such trees while stand-
ing, will subscribe lo the matter of fact.
Nobody, however, can suppose, that a
doubtful article will ever fetch as much
money, as one whose soundness can be
depended on. Of course, the proprietors
of timber suffer, not only because their ar-
ticle is really defective, but because what
appears otherwise, is suspected to be so.
A good system of management would,
among other beneficial effects, go far to
reduce the matter to a certainty.

Tlie woodpeckers frequently make
holes in trees ; but such are, in the first
instance, materially different from what
are left by dead branches; having but sel-
dom a downward tendency, and never
any swell around them ; nor do they
often reach the core. In a young vigorous
tree, they sometimes grow over ; in one
the reverse, very seldom ; and, therefore, in
time, the wet they receive, will pejietrate

118

to the core; after which, the defect will
operate the same, as if it had been occa-
sioned by a rotten branch.

The wind sometimes tears the branches
from trees, and thereby occasions conside-
rable scars : when they leave a part be-
bind, it will introduce rottenness in the
same manner as snag pruning. When it
splits off close to the stem of a tree, to-
lerably vigorous, the wound generally
heals without help, as here nature has
free scope ; in old subjects the case is
otherwise : but even there, a little atten-
tion will prevent rottenness taking place,
for a very long period : — this, as well
as the preceding case, will be attended
to, under the general head. Wounds.

In treating of Rottenness, the effect of
a wet soil, we rnay be indulged in some-
what of speculation, as the first cause or
causes of the evil lie deep, and must

119

have made considerable progress before
it can attract notice.

That the rotting of the roots is the
first cause of this defect, we have little
doubt ; but how they happened to be so,
forms the difficulty. Whether from acci-
dental circumstances, an unusual quan-
tity of moisture had been lodged in the
soil, where a particular root or roots may
be said to have made their abode; or
whether such might have penetrated into
a stratum, always surcharged with water
in winter ; it is not difficult to conceive,
the vessels destined to carry on the busi-
ness of vegetation, may, by such means,
be rendered incapable of performing their
functions; and if so, the death of such
part is inevitable, after which, all that
follows may easily be accounted for.

As the connection between the roots
and the stem is exactly similar to what
exists between that and the branches, as

no

iilready described, therefore rottenness in
the root will ascend to the stem ; but not
so speedily as the same evil beginning in
the upper extremities, and descending ;
because moisture, in the former case, has
only the power of attraction to forward it;
in the latter, it has both that and its own
specific gravity to assist its operation.

In giving the above account of tho
cause and progress of the disease, certain-
iy is not pretended ; the nature of the case,
as has been intimated, precludes the idea.
But however we may err, as to the pro-
gress, there can be no doubt as to the first
cause of the evil, namely, a wet soil ; nor
can we be mistaken as to the remedy, or
rather preventive, Draining : — a specific
which answers so many good purposes, in
woodlands of such description, that no-
thing short of dire necessity can justify
any proprietor in omitting it. Itcertain-
1}^ is no uncommon circumstance, for
such to be more damaged, annually, by

121

wet, than would drain tliem, by the
means of open drains or ditches, which
are not only abundantly the most cheap,
but the only sort that can be effectual,
except very large covered ones, as the roots
would soon close up any other*.

* Part of a stone conduit of nine inches square,
made to convey water to the town of Halifax, was
completely closed up in three years, by the Roots of
some Sycamore Trees, which grew near it. The stone
was then taken up, and a wood trunk, of the same di-
mensions, put in its place, wlien that also got filled
up by the same means, in a like space of time. In some
places, it Avas eflected by a single fibre getting into a
joint, no larger than sufficient to admit a crow-quill,
many hundreds being produced from such fibre, as
large as itself. In some instances this happened at a
distance, more than twice the whole length of the
trees.

Perhaps some persons may think this account dis-
credits the theory" just advanced, in regard to wet
soils ; but such is not the case : for as the roots in the
water bore but a small proportion to the whole, the
rest being in a very dry soil, the former would collect
and distribute moisture to the latter ; which would in
turn supply them with what they collected from the

I

122

Dry, barren soils sometimes cause rot-
tenness, by affording the trees only a scan-
ty nourishment, and hence occasioning
them to die gradually, before they attain
any tolerable age. It is not the pruner's
business to mend the soil ; yet his art
may improve, and even increase its pro-
duce. The method of doing so will have
particular attention, under the article
Pruning.

On rottenness and hollowness, the ef-
fects of extreme old age, little need be
said ; as, when they are so produced, every
man, who stands aloof from the tricks of
quackery, must deem them incurable :
most certainly we cannot effectually ar-
rest the slow and silent march of time ;
but means ma}^ be used to retard its
" stealing steps.'' The truth is, that what
is usually called the effect of old age, is

earth ; and both would be benefited, by such an ex-
change of good officegc

123

much oftener purely the result of inat-
tention, or mismanagement ; as is ob-
vious, by some trees being fresh and live-
ly, though some hundreds of years old,
while others of the same species, and upon
a similar soil, not only cease to thrive^
but almost to live, before they arrive at
halt that age. We cannot admit that
trees differ, like men, in strength of con-
stitution, and, therefore, the longevity of
one, beyond another, under equal circum-
stances, may always be traced to a good
form, uninjured by external means. It is
admitted, that a useful, and an ornamen-
tal form, are materially different, but still
none can be essentially good, that is in-
compatible with the free growth and long
life of the tree.

Withered or decayed tops, where the
trees are not very old, nor the soil ex-
ceedingly bad, are occasioned, principal-
ly, either by a bad method of pruning,
or the iieglect of it. The circumstance
I 2

124

is well known to be extremely common ;
and trees, usually esteemed the most
beautiful, are most of all subject to this
sort of decay ; of course, the subject de-
serves more than ordinary attention.

The first remark which offers is, that
the defect is much more common to hard
woods than to such as are softer. The-
reason seems to be, that their sap-vessels
are commonly larger ; and, therefore, the
ascent of the sap through them is not ea-
sily obstructed.

Again. Trees growing singly are much
more liable to the defect, than such as
grow in consort ; the former being subject
to produce branches thickly set, while the
latter must, from their confined situation,
form them much thinner. The defect in
this case, then, may be easily traced to
the branches too closely besetting the
stem, and thereby intercepting the greater
proportion of sap, in its ascent ; — in con-

125

sequence of which, the lower branches
continue to slioot freely, while such as
are much higher grow but little ; the de-
cline being gradual upwards, till ultimate-
ly the top begins to decay. It is not as-
serted that the highest branch always dies
first, for this must, in the very nature of
the tiling, happen to such as are the worst
situated, in regard to sap, which almost
uniformly proves to be at or near the sum-
mit.

To speculate here, upon how long a tree,
so situated, might live, would be entirely
useless, for different circumstances must
so far affect the case, as to render every
thing of the kind perfectly uncertain. We
know, however, that when such appear-
ances take place, rottenness, and the train
of consequences recently mentioned, must
follow ; and that at no very distant pe-
riod : and we are sure too, that, in pro-
portion as decay advances, beauty re-
tires ; — -the scene or source of pleasure is,

126

alas ! completely clianged ;~and nought
but moping melancholy now remains, to
brood on dyings dead, and leafless sprays.

To say that trees, exhibiting such ap-
pearances in a slight degree, have got to
their growth, and can do no more good,
would be falling in with the common sen-
timent, which has no better reasons to sup-
port it, than that it is an old one; and,
merely, the opinion of such as make use
of it. We may say, however, that, as
usually managed, it is of little conse-
quence, whether both are true or false ;
for if once a tree is fully convicted of the
capital crime, s.dead top, it is either spee-
dily executed, or left to die a lingering
death, its case being considered as com-
pletely hopeless.

If the reader can for a moment conceive
to himself a case extremely common ; it is
that of a venerable Oak, once the pride,
now, apparently, the patriarch of the lawn ;

127

its branches decay, one after another; it
droops, as it were, not under the weight
of age, but its numerous infirmities ; a
little longer, and its ample head, so long
the subject of admiration, shall please no
more. Rottenness has seized upon its vi-
tals, and sink it must. The whole life of a
man, devoted to the purpose, could not
rear its fellow, the age of an ephemeron,
so devoted, in proper season, might have
averted its fate. Surely then no reader,
who has eyes to see, or taste to appre-
ciate the value of such objects, will
grudge the time spent in investigating a
cause, which oft " despoils the Oak of
" half its numbered years/'

A tree, past its vigour, may be aptly
enough compared to a poor man ; his in-
come is scanty, and therefore there is a ne-
cessity for husbanding every penny; it is
indeed surprising, what a decent appear-
ance many such make, by practising the
most rigid economy; but, to do that,

1

128

every thing must be systematic ; he dares
not spend an extra shilling upon any
one object; as well knowing another
would want it ; and just such is the case
with our tree. The supply of sap is
scant}', and, therefore, the only possible
means of preserving all its members
(supposing such preservation necessary)
is hy an equal distribution ; for if one gets
more than its proportion, it robs ano-
ther, not of what it can spare, but of its
life : sap being the only means by which
it lives.

Having seen in which way the disease
may be brought on, by the neglect of pru-
ning, we next proceed to shew, how a bad
method may produce the same. We fre-
quently see oaks, of considerable height,
pruned up to a small top, at one operation ;
when the sap not being sufficiently at-
tracted upwards, breaks out in numerous
branches upon the stem, in which case,
after a few years, the tree exhibits some

129

such figure, as No. 3, on PI. II. Here
we see the stem infested with a numerous
set of collateral, I might say, unnatural
branches ; as they are not only pro-
duced in a manner contrary to the ge-
neral order of nature, but are found
directly robbing the stem of what just-
ly belongs to it, and also monopolizing
the property of their elder brethren, the
legitimate offspring of their common pa-
rent.

It is truly wonderful that, with the
two sorts of appearances, which have
been noticed, constantly before men's
eyes, they should as constantly impute
the disease to the trees getting into an
improper soil, and therefore deeming it
a hopeless case. That it arises from a
limited quantity, and an unequal distri-
bution of sap, in the case of old trees,
and such as are in a bad soil, is suffi-
ciently obvious; while in young subjects,
upon a good one, it is plainly imputable

130

to an unequal distribution, only, occasion-
ed by the bad form of the trees. It is
ho matter how handsome such may be,
according to current opinion; the form
is bad which has a tendency to shorten
the life of the plant. When we see the
lower branches of a tree growing freely,
it is obvious the disorder does not lie in
the root ; and, therefore, it must be sought
somewhere upon the stem, and a remedy
applied accordingly.

That dead-topped oaks are very com-
mon, cannot be disputed, but certainly
most so in woods where the soil is some-
what unfavourable to the article. There^
one would suppose, the assistance of art
or management would be called in to
atone, as far as practicable, for the de-
fects of nature; but is that the case ?
Most certainly not : for the woodman's
system never bends to circumstances ;
and, therefore, the produce of every soil

3

131

is treated alike ; no matter what the con-
sequence.

But custom cannot alter the nature of
things ; means which may only retard the
growth of the timber on a good soil, will
ruin it upon a bad one. The woodman's
method of leaving the whole produce of
an oak stump upon it, till the next fall,
operates thus. On a good soil, though
the wavers are found not large, still, as
no obstruction takes place, they are in a
condition, to grow tolerably freely, as
soon as the stump is disburthened of its
unnecessary load. On a had one^ such
wavers are all found to be what is called
stunted, or hide-bound ; in consequence
of which, the quantity left upon a root
seldom attracts the whole of its sap, and
therefore it breaks out in new shoots at
tlie bottom ; and these, having larger
sap-vessels than the wavers, soon engross
the greater part ^f that article to them-
selves ; soon after which, their poverty

132

and ruin is proclaimed by dead tops :
the badness of the soil is re-echoed from
all quarters, and the goodness of manage-
ment never once suspected. When we
come to treat of woods, it may probably
be made appear, there are faults on both
sides.

Short stems, and large spreading heads,
though considered as beauties in single
trees, are undoubtedly considerable de-
fects where the article is grown for
profit. Under the general head, Knot-
tiness, (see p. 58), the advantages of a
long stem have been noted ; the dis-
advantage of a short one follows of
course.

The first obvious remark here, is the
disparity in value between the diffe-
rent parts of a tree, the stem and its
head. It has been noted, (p. 54), that a
moderate quantity of leaves and small
wood, is necessary to every tree, but cer-

135

tainly, all above that quantity are of no
use to the plant, and of little value to its
owner ; and therefore, a large head is, on
that account, a considerable loss.

The value of the tops, or branches of
trees, differ so much in various places,
as well as such tops themselves, that it
is impossible to fix upon a general rule,
by which to estimate their worth, in pro-
portion to the stems, with any degree of
accuracy; but certainly, taking trees
as we find them, in one place with ano-
ther, it cannot offend probability to
suppose their value is not more than one
third; and, therefore, if, as may be safe-
ly asserted, the tops are, upon the ave-
rage, twice as large as necessary, the loss
upon that account must almost exceed cal-
culation.

The next disadvantao-e attending this
sort of defect, is the damage such trees
do^ to every kind of produce, growing be-

134

low and near them. A top elevated
twentj-five feet from the ground, will not
do half so much damage as another of
the same extent, that is only elevated
ten ; and supposing the elevation the
same, a top, properly formed by atten-
tion, would not occupy more than half
the space, or be near so close as one
left to form itself. A tree, extending
five yards each way, only occupies about
half the space of one that extends
seven. Indeed, taking the circum-
stances of elevation and extension toge-
ther, the difference between a good and
a bad form, will, in regard to produce be-
low them, be much the same as one to
four.

Again. In hedge-rows, dividing fields,
where grain, &c. is cultivated, the mat-
ter is of still worse consequence; as there
the shade alone, beyond the limits of the
drip, frequently does more harm than the
drip itself. Shade prevents the graia

135

filling, and ripening sufficiently, and also,
has a direct tendency to promote the
mildew ; an evil, under which the coun-
try is, at this moment (1805), suftering
severely.

If required to give an opinion of the
policy of planting trees in such situations,
we should say, that it was worthy of the
times which gave it birth : we cannot fix
the date, but know their character, which
was that of extreme ignorance, so far as
regarded agricultural pursuits.

When a timber-owner occupies the land
himself, the loss falls in its proper place,
but not so when, as is much more com-
mon, it is let to a tenant, who must pay
both rent and taxes. By him these in-
mates may be considered as soldiers at
free quarters, who will be served first, re-
gardless whether an}' thing is left behind ;
while the tenant is put upon doing, what
human nature, in its present imperfect

136

state, can scarcely be supposed capable
of; namely, standing by, as an uncon-
cerned spectator of the ruin of his hedges,
and the spoiling of his corn.

Often, however, while the hedger is
racking his invention, to find wa3^s and
means to repair the damage made by
these very treeSf the great command —
" Thou shalt not lop or crop," — is for-
gotten: their branches are hacked off,
for the purpose; and hence we have
pi'otuberances, knots, rottenness, hollowiiess,
unnatural branches, and dead tops.

It is not said, that it would be desira-
ble entirely to discontinue the growing of
trees in hedge-rows, even where grain is
grown ; for a few may be permitted, under
a good system of management, aw?/ where.
Among grass fields, it is the excess, and
abuse, in the practice, which are princi-
pally complained of. Certainly, so far as

137

appearances are concerned, a few are
abundantly preferable to many.

To such as have hedges to make, it may
be suggested, that the' policy of planting
many trees in them is essentially bad; as,
independent of the damage they do, such
are in the very worst situation for making
a profitable return, if left to themselves ;
and, if otherwise, they would require
three times the attention, of the same
quantity of timber in a TVood or Flanta-
tion. Their form, too, must be of the
worst sort to yield any beneficial degree
of shelter. Every thing may be good or
bad, in certain situations; the shade we
are condemning in one place, is easily
converted into shelter in another. When
we come to treat of plantations, its bene-
ficial effects will have due consideration.

That the defect we have been noticing
is very common, must be admitted ;
though no where, within my observation^

138

so universal! J, as in the New-Forestf in
Hampshire ; the timber of which has
long been a subject of national boast.
The quantity of trees is indeed very great,
and the quahty off the timber good, so
far as it deserves the name; for fire wood
is notTiMBER. Here, we may truly say,
nature planted, the cattle pruned, and the
soil gave an abundant increase, while
MAN did — NOTHING. And what is the
consequence ? Exactly what might have
been expected :— We do not find one tree
in a hundred, with a stem two feet higher
than an ox can reach. So that, instead
of their being twice as long as the head,
the latter is generally three to five times
as lono; as the stem. The character of
the place naturally creates high expec-
tations ; with such I visited it, and, am
sorry to say, was completely disappoint-
ed. To a nation situated like this, a large
forest of fine timber would be a proper
object of national pride. As the case
stands, it is not said, that the New Forest

139

is matter of disgrace; but, certainly, it
reflects no credit on any body.*

In reflecting upon the wide-extended
waste occasioned by the defect just no-
ticed, some interesting considerations
present themselves. First, something is
wrong. Nature qualifies our trees to pro-

* From the following paragraph, extracted from
the public Newspapers of the present year [1807],
■we may form some idea of w hat has been, for many-
ages, the management of Timber in the New Forest. —

" It appears, by an order from the Lords Commis-
sioners of the Treasury, that an act passed in the
reign of William 111. for the increase and preservation
of timber in the New Forest, and that two thousand
acres of that fo est were enclosed for the growth of
timber for the public service. As this timber becomes
past danger from the browzing of the deer, &c. the
inclosures arc thrown open, and more waste land in-
closed to keep up the continual number of two thou-
sand enclosed acres. Agreeably with the above men-
tioned act, the Gazette gives notice that 1022 acres
are become past danger, and are thrown open, and
that an equal quantity of waste land is to be enclosed
in lieu thereof."

140

duce, at least, three times as much weight
in timber, as boughs; yet, as things are
managed, or rather neglected, the quan-
tity produced seldom exceeds an equal
proportion. In the place just mention*
ed, it rarely amounts to one third. Se-
condly. The amazing quantity of fine,
though short stems, produced in the New
Forest, suggests the idea, that the means,
by which such are produced, must be
exceeding li/ simple in itself, and of course
easy to practise ; for we are sure, that
there the premeditated assistance of man
has not been made use of; except, haply
now and then, the necessities of some
poor shivering cottager* occasioned the
removal of a ^cw dead branches, which

* To slide over the present occasion, without drop-
ping a word on behalf of those distressed creatures,
would, I conceive, be an unpardonable act of inhuma-
nity.— It is the custom in many places to banish them
entirely out of the Woods and Plantations^ under an
idea that they break the fences and damage the trees ;
but that, I believe, seldom happens, except where they
are not treated with confidence.

141

the Family of Truncrs before-mentioned
could not reach.

Shaken Timber (or what are called Wind
Shakes) is a very common defect, but not
in every case easy to be accounted for.
Its name points out the general opinion
concerning it; which is allowed to be
correct to a certain extent. Undoubt-
edly, this sort of defect may be sometimes
found in trees, that never came under the

The displacing of rotten boughs can in no case do
harm ; on the contrary, in manj/ it must do much good.
Give them liberty to do thaty as well as to pick up
such as fall spontaneously, and make an example of
such as break the rule, by expelling them the premises
in future ; or by legal means, where the offence is
flagrant. I do not call upon the proprietors to sacri-
fice any thing, I only ruquest them not to let a mis-
taken notion deprive them of the opportunity of doing
good. Itwastheprecept of unerring Wisdom, " Let
♦* nothing be lost." If, indeed, we can contribute to
warm these our fellow-mortals, without at all dimi-
nishing the comforts of ourselves and families, surely
the epithet Human would be much too good for the
mortal who could rtfuse it.

142

woodman's hands, yet it may safely be
presumed to be more common to such as
have. For when they meet with a subject,
pliable enough to bend, it usually gets
M hat they call a Dressings (we should call
it a Trimming, all the Branches being
lopped off;) after which, if it be free-
grown, the greater part of the sap will
ascend, and break out in shoots, at and
near the summit, so as to occasion the
tree to be top-heavy in the growing season.
Should the wind blow furiously against
one so situated, if it docs not break, it
may be expected to split; so far as
amounts to a shake, or internal w^ound;
■which having once happened, can seldom
heal ; as the same cause, frequently re-
curring, will generally continue to enlarge
it, in proportion to the increased size of
the tree. But should it not recur, still
the healing of the wound mAist take place
the same season the misfortune happened,
or not at all; as, before another, the two
sides of the fissure would become too dead

143

to unite; and, therefore, though no en-
largement took ])lace, such tree woukl
shew an internal blemish when cut up.

If a tree, top-heavy, is subject to this
sort of defect; certainly one which is not
only so formed, but has the top more on
one side than the other, must be much
more liable to it ; as the action of the
wind, operating on one side only, will
twist rather than bend it.

It seems a prevailing opinion, that wet
soils frequently occasion this sort of de-
fect; but how that should happen, except
the situation is likewise exposed, seems
difficult to prove. — On such, a young tree
may be expected to grow more freely,
than upon a dry one, in consequence of
imbibing more moisture; and therefore
it must be less of a woody nature, and, of
course, more liable to be shaken or split
by the wind's tempestuous blast. The
method of drainins; wet woodlands has

been mentioned, (p. 120,) and the method
of pruning to be recommended, will, if
adopted, go far to prevent the defect be»
ing produced by other means.

Tj-ees, ivy-bound, may be considered as
in a sort of imprisonment, and deprived,
in some degree, of both bread and water.
If we properly understand the manner in
which a tree is enlarged annually, and the
situation of the principal sap- vessels, we
shall readily comprehend the nature and
extent of the damage done by Ivy.

The situation of such vessels has been
explained, (p. 49 — 52,) and the annual
circles have been mentioned, (p. 85,) but,
as some persons still doubt if ti'ees add
one more annually, to the circles observed
upon their ends, on being cut crosswise,
it may here be well to explain how the
fact may be demonstrated. — The method
is this : take a piece of bark from a free-
growing tree, in spring ; sa3^ three or four

145

inches broad, and as much in length ; af-
ter which, no more is to be done to it, till
the autumn or spring following, when,
upon taking off the bark all round the
wound, it will be observed, that the tree
has got an additional covering, or coat of
wood, occupying the place the bark did
the year preceding, the edges of which
will project somewhat over the wound,
and shew its shape, as clearly, now in the
wood, as previously it did in the bark ; the
thickness of the covering will always be
in proportion to the vigour of the tree.

Now, except it could be shewn, that
the situation of the sap-vessels, and the
manner in which trees are enlarged, are
different from what has been described,
(which we believe will not be attempted,)
it will be obvious, that after the Ivy has
completely invested the stem, in all direc-
tions, its annual swell will soon occasion
a tightness sufficient to prevent the sap-
vessels from performing their functions;
2

146

when the death of the tree must follo^r :
its exit may be slow, but is not, on that
account, less certain.

Of the remedy for this evil, it may be
sufficient to say here, — Remove the cause,
and, in most cases, the effect will cease;
but should the obstruction, thus brought
on, continue afterwards, the trees are to
be treated as will be directed for others
that are hide-bound.

PRUNING.
1 HIS important part of the subject has?
thus far, been treated in rather a negative
point of view ; as almost every thing ad-
vanced serves, in some degree, to shew
what it has not done, or rather the loss the
country sustains, in consequence of its
being little practised, and less iinder-
siood. We come next to treat of it more
directly, by shewing ZDhat it may do, in,-
eluding the means to be adopted, under

147

different circumstances. — If, byattendino*
to nature's operations, equally simple and
uniform, we have been enabled to discover
what is wrong; the same sort of atten-
tion can scarcely fail to furnish clear ideas
of what is RIGHT ; the latter being only
the reverse of the former.

Consistent with the above, it may be
observed, that, as the wisest in all asres
have deigned to gather instruction where-
ever they could find it ; so I am by no
means disjDOsed to reject it, nor to think
the subject degraded, whether such in-
struction comes from the cuttino; of the
woodman, the hacking ofthehedger, the
yiecessities of the cottasfcr, or the hromsins:
of the ox.

On this point it may be likewise ob-
served, as a well known fact, that we are
often indebted to extremely common, and
even trivial circumstances, for the most
useful discoveries. The rooting of a swine,

148

for instance, is said to have furnished the
first idea of a plough. The hfting of the
tea-kettle's lid, by the power of steam,
and the scorching of the incautious hand
bj^ its heat*, had undoubtedly happened
thousands, nay millions of times, before
any valuable hint was taken from either.
Miry roads too have certainly been com-
jnon, ever since the infancy of society, and
yet it required the penetrating genius of
a Brindley, to turn the hint to advantage.
From them he discovered, that earth and
ivaler, intimately mixed, when sufficient-
ly dried, became impenetrable by the
latter. Hence the business of what is
called puddling, in the construction of
canals ; earth being every where substitu-
ted for clay.

The use intended to be made of the
foregoing observations is, to remind the

* An ingenious Brewer, in this neighbourhood, has
lately applied this property to the cleansing of Foul
Barrels, with the most complete success.

149

reader of the incalculable benefit society
has received, by attending to, and acting
upon, the hints furnished by such common
circumstances. Itis not said that the train-
ing of timber is of equal importance with
the invention of a Plojigh; but it may be
asserted that the country is quite as much
interested in it, as intheuse of puddle, or
the application of steam. Indeed, its use
and good effects areas fully ascertained as
either of them. Every tree with a clean
stern f from four feet and upwards in length,
being completely a trained one ; as unas-
sisted nature forms none of the sort*.

* We expect numerous objections to be raised io
this doctrine :— but such as are inclmed to make them,
should first consider, a7i(?« and tt/Ziere tliey have seen
trees, absolutely in a state of nature. — Four means have
been mentioned, by which trees, usually supposed io
be in such state, get pruned ; and we may add a fifth,
which does more than they all, namely, a limited
quantity/ of air ; the consequence of trees standing
near each other. — This certainly is one means of im-
provement ; but we cannot admit trees under its in-
fluence to be strictly in a state of nature ; as that can

150

It is proved then, that such practice has
been abundantly successful, so faras it has
been extended ; to it we are obviously
indebted, for most of the good timber we
possess. Sure V then, that success is a
sufficient reason to eoctend the practice.
If a tree has been benefited in a ceriain
degree, by clearing the stem, a few feet
in length, undoubtedly the same, or si-
milar means, extended higher, would have
increased the effect.

In order to give a clear idea of what
may be expected from a good method
of training timber, the frontispiece is
introduced ; being a drawing of a Beech
in AVoburn Park ; to which the Grand-
father of the present Duke of Bedford is
said to have paid very particular atten-
tion.

only imply free space on every side, for all tlic branches
to grow ; none being taken ofi, except by the winds.
Firs in such a state, may rise, Avith a single stem, to a
great height, but produce no clean timber.

151

It has evidently been a favourite ; as
the trees all around it have been cleared,
for about twenty-six yards, to give it space.
We may observe also, that the stem is in
no place either fiat, ox furrowed ; a suffi-
cient proof that the branches were taken
off at no late period. It is now in full
health and vigour, and likely to continue
so, for a century to come. There are se-
veral other Beech Trees in the Park, that
seem little, if at all, inferior to it in
weight, while, in every other respect, this
maintains so clear and decided a superi-
ority, that it furnishes as decisive proof
of the beneficial consequences of trainino*
timber, as the most sceptical mind can
require.

But, probably, the reader may ask.
Will Pruning cause any deciduous tree to
assume such a form ? The question is fair,
and the answer shall be explicit. Yes, any
one that will grow ; provided the business
be commenced in due time. And we will

152

add, that the process is quite as easy as to
form the worst fissure that could be sketch-
ed ; and what is more, we have abundant
reason to suppose, that the general weight
of a tree will increase faster in such form,
than any other.

We know that, in the case of any speci-
fic manufacture, the man, who can make
the most and best work, of a given quan-
tity of the raw material, is justly esteem-
ed the best workman. Sap may here be
considered as that meterial. Nature fur-
nishes a certain quantity of the article,
which, without our assistance, operates
in producing either a tree or a bush ; but,
in most cases, its form must depend upon
accidental circumstances.

It has already been intimated, that the
natural form of trees is unfavourable to
the production of good timber, because
they produce branches as low as the head
of the first year's growth ; and they again

153

produce more. Of course, the timber of
such must not only be exceedingly knotty^
but small in quantity ; the sap being ra-
ther expended upon the branches than
the stem ; and hence, we see clearly the
necessity of iiswg means, in order to im-
prove the quality, and increase the quan-
tity, of TIMBER.

A slight inspection of PI. Ill, A. A. A,
will shew the manner in which the sap is
intercepted by the branches, in its ascent.
It is to be noted that the curved lines were,
all in turn, at different periods, the situa-
tion of the principal sap-vessels. No. 1.
gives a very clear idea of the manner in
which either a branch or a tree is en-
larged, by one coat of wood being annu-
ally laid upon another; likewise, we see,
by the top of this figure, the manner in
which the branches cause a contraction
in the sap-vessels, as noted at p. 56.

Here it is well worthy of remark, that

To4

so long as the branch es are alive, and of
course in need of support, so long nature
administers it, by the sap- vessels going
along, and round them ; but so soon as
they aie dead, though remaining in the
same place, such vessels, or caterers, take
a different direction. See the top-parts
of No. 2 and 3, where the branches have
the bark remaining upon them, an evi-
dent proof that so far they were dead. —
In a subsequent plate we shall be ena-
bled to shew, that the direction the ves-
sels take in the last instance, is directly
calculated to heal the wounds, made by
taking off branches.

This plate is an exact representation of
d Larch Board ; but it makes no differ-
ence, what is the subject, as the internal
structure of all the trees we know of rs
the same. No. 4. is the curving, occa-
sioned by a branch on the other side of
the board; the dark part, on the right of
the figure, is some bark which the plane

155

has uncovered ; we observe the curvincr,
at and about that mark, is trifling, but
very different to the left of it; which evi-
dently shews, that the branch was living
in one case, and dead in the other. No.
5 — 5, are the bases of branches, that grew
in different directions. No. 6' — 6, is the
core of the tree, which happens to appear
in these places only. No. 7- 7- 7, is the
core of the branches.

Nothing perhaps more clearly demon-
strates the first sort of damage done
hy useless branches, than the plate
which has just been explained. We
may, therefore, proceed to inquire, what
purposes nature meant to serve, by
placing branches upon trees ; for if we
possess clear ideas of that point, it will
be known when they may be displaced with
advantage.

Branches seem to be the means of pro-
ducing, and maintaining a certain quan-

l2

156

tit}' of leaves ; which act in a way nmcli
easier to conceive than dejine, in attract-
ing the sap upwards. We know that
through them, a communication is kept
witli the atmosphere; probably, they
collect a considerable portion of matter
from it. In fact, we believe that their as-
sistance is absolutely indispensable ; not
only to enable the roots to seek what is ne-
cessary for themselves, and the other parts
of the plant in the earth, but to enable
them fo }jiakc use of it. In theory,
we cannot possibly suppose that Nature
j)laced leaves on trees only to amuse
us; — in practice, we find directly the
contrary.

To prove the point, as shortly as pos-
sible, we may note, generally, that a tree
divested of a considerable portion of
its leaves, in the growing season, after-
wards vegetates slowly. The case of
gooseberries, infested by caterpillars, is
directly in point; for though the fruit

157

may have got to its proper size, when the
evil takes pUice, yet, if anv considerable
portion of the leaves are destroyed, such
fruit never ripens, so as to have its pro])cr
flavour.

The point too is recognised by every
gardener, in managing his wall-trees. If
he find any fruit upon a branch, beyond
where leaves appear, he disregards or
displaces it, knowing such cannot have
a sufficient supply of sap, to bring
it to maturit3\ The case of trees, infest-
ed by insects, again proves the point. —
As soon as the leaves get unhealth}', and
beo;in to curl, so soon the business of
vegetation may be perceived to decline ;
and, as the mischief increases, that de-
creases, so as frequently to stop it entire-
ly ; in which case, the death of the plant
follows of course.* The case ofthe Fly,

* The autlior had several hundreds of free-growing
young Cherry-Trces killed, in this manner, in thi.'
summer of 1803.

158

in the hop-gardens, likewise announees
the same truth : — trees being only a vege-
table of a larger species.

Seeing then the uses of leaves, and ap-
plying the principle to the case of Forest
Trees, it is obvious, such are necessary
to promote not only the growing, but
the towering of the plant ; for the latter
cannot be eftbcted, except accompanied
by a certain degree of strength, which it
cannot have, unless some branches be
suffered to remain to form a head, pro-
duce leaves, attract the sap, &c. as be-
fore intimated.

If such be the purpose which nature
mtended principally in the formation of
branches, it is obvious that, every suc-
ceeding year, the lower tiers, or annual
sets, become less and less necessary to
the plant; ultimately they must become
useless, and not only so, but a nuisance,
which ought to be removed; for other-

159

wise, like the younger branches of a
family, with wants increased, each would
set up a sort of opposition to the stem :
not with their own means, for such
they can have none ; but by intercept-
ing, and converting to their own use
the means that would otherwise nourish
their younger brethren, and likewise pro-
mote the towering consequence of the pa-
rent plant.

Observe, it is not said that trees re-
quire all the branches, and leaves, natu-
rall}^ produced, to be retained to form
a head, but some ; for experience informs
us, that strength is gained as effectually
by a few branches, so situated, as by
many. And, upon considering what has
been advanced, upon the subject of dead
tops, it will be obvious, that a stem
crowded in any one place, must always
be detrimented in a greater or less de-
gree ; and that though branches are ne-

160

cessary in the way above stated, yet such
as are somewhat small, if free grown,
have uniformly answered the foregoing
purposes, as well as the larger, and in
other respects they must be preferable,
as taking less support. The reason sctms
to be this ; a quantity, just sufficiei;t in
the first instance, must, from its daily
increase, soon become abundant; be-
sides, every season, the plant gets an a<l-
ditional set.

It is to be noted, however, that weak,
hide-bound trees will require much more
head than free grown ones : as, in the for-
mer, the circulation being obstructed, the
sap • requires a greater degree of attrac-
tion, than in the latter ; and the ina^ease
cannot be great, so long as such obstruc-
tion continues.

Consistent with the above principles,
there seems no difficulty, in directing a

161

good and safe method of pruning such
young trees as are intended to grow into
long, clean, and straight timber. For,
knowino- that our business is toconsohdate
nature's elForls, as much as possible, to
one point, we consider branches as no
further useful, than as subservient to the
purposes of the stem; and finding that
small ones are every way preferable to
such as are large, the head and stem of
the plant are constantly kept light, by
thinning out all the largest branches, every
time the tree is pruned.

PI. V. is intended to give a more clear
idea of the method of pruning such sub-
jects. No. 1. is a supposed figure of a
tree which has been planted small, and
grown three or four years. No. 2. exhi-
bits the same figure pruned. No. 3. is a
supposed figure of the same tree, three
years afterwards ; and No. 4. is the same,
or any similar figure, pruned. .

16^

It may be observed, that the round
head of a leafless tree, with but a few
branches, cannot be correctly delineated
on paper, nor is it at all necessary ; for
these sketches, such as they are, will
sufliciently shew what is principal!}^ in-
tended ; namely, to convey an idea of
the quantity, sort, and situation of
branches which ought to be either dis-
placed or retained ; and, consequently,
the proper and usual form of trees, both
immediately, and some years after pru-
ning. It is not at all necessary to be
exact, as to the quantity of such branches,
provided some general ideas are attended
to ; such as, that the large?' branches only
are to be taken off, while the smaller
are to remain, not upon a few feet only,
but a considerable length down the lea-
der, never suffering a branch to remain,
that is at all likely to attract an equal
quantity of sap, and, consequently, be-
come its rival.

163

It is unnecessary to give directions for
the subsequent prunings, as the method
above directed will be applicable, whe-
ther the trees are five or fifty feet in
height; supposing them such as have not
been previously neglected.

Probably, we may be here anticipated
by the reader's observing, that the means
directed are exceedingly simple. Un-
doubtedly, they are so ; and we trust
too he will likewise observe, that much
of their value must depend upon that
circumstance. We are not to expect
the nicety of Garden practice to be
introduced here ; and therefore, in re-
commending what is useful, we have
to consider how far it can be called
expedient, or practicable, upon a large
scale. A method, that is not at once
simple, expeditious, and effectual, can-
not be highly valuable, because few
have the means, and fewer would find

164

the inclination to practise it to any con-
siderable extent.

We next proceed to notice the conse-
quences, or advantages of this 'very sim-
pie method, in order to shew whether or
not it possesses the other requisites, be-
fore mentioned. In doing which, we ob-
serve, in the first place, that the real, or
pretended, danger, incurred by taking off
large branches, is completely done away ;
provided the business is begun in pro-
per time, namely, when a knife will per-
form the operation, and repeated every
second or third year, till the stem is
cleared to the desired heioht, as then the
branches to be displaced must always
prove somewhat small ; and, therefore,
when taken off close to the stem, the
wounds will heal very soon.

In the second place, the stem and sum-
mit of the tree, having the advantage of

165

the greatest part of the sap produced by
the roots, will be abundantly better fed,
than trees otherwise under similar cir-
cumstances, but not so pruned ; and con-
sequently, such plant will not only rise
freely, but be strong in proportion to its
height ; and, as it rises, the length of stem
will rise gradually, though not quite so
fast as the top; however such stem will
soon get a considerable length, upon any
soil which can be called proper for the
plant, as every pruning will increase it
more or less.

Thirdly. Such stem will not only be
long, but straight, sound, and clear of
knots; to which we may add, that, in con-
sequence of converting the sap into stem,
rather than head, the greatest possible
quantity of timber, which the soil is ca-
pable of, must be produced ; in short,
such method is directly calculated to in-
sure to a tree the best, or most profitable
form.

166

Fourthly. Trees grown in this manner
require the least possible space ; the
branches displaced being not only the
largest, but the most extended. Besides,
when branches stand thick upon a tree,
the head of which is of considerable
length, the greater part must grow in an
horizontal position ; when they stand
thinner, they will have so much more air,
and light, above them, and hence, must
grow proportionally upright.

Fifthly. Pruning not only improves
the form, but increases the size, or ge-
nera/ weight of a tree. To some persons,
it is presumed, the assertion may appear
paradoxical, but not so to such as will
give due w^eight to the following conside-
rations.

When a branch, or a number of such,
are displaced, an extra quantity of sap is
thrown into the remaining part of the
plant; of course, it must increase its

167

vigour. And not only so, but we are to
consider, that any branch so displaced is
a certain degree of obstruction removed,
so far as the quantity of branches is more
than necessary to the feeding of the stem.
AVliatever causes an increase in the vi-
gour of the top of a tree, must do the
same to the roots, which are in some
sense no other than the mouths of the
'plant. The branches would not be seen
extending themselves, quicker and fur-
ther than ordinary in the air, if the root
had not previously done the same in the
earth. They are, by such means, not
only increased in quantit}^ but have ad-
ditional pasture, where they collect an
increased portion of nutriment, which,
converted into sap, will ascend to the
head, and in doing so enlarge the ves-
sels or conductors. An increased quan-
tity, with an amended circulation of
sap, amounts to what may not unaptly
be denominated, an improved consti-
tution; which repeated attention could

168

not fail to preserve ; and therefore, we
are warranted in asserting, that, under
such circumstances, the general weight
of the plant would increase much faster
than before.

To support the above conclusions, we
may notice the gardener's old and stand-
ing maxim, as exactly in point: — '* Cut
" wood and have wood," or " Cut wood
" to have wood," — is an idea, the proprie-
ty of which no one ever pretended to dis-
pute ; though the reason of it has not
usually been inquired into. When trees
are weak, they prune them severely, to in-
crease their strength ; and when they are
the reverse, so as to be unfruitful, they
are extremely sparing in that operation;
knowing that otherwise an increased
quantit}^ of wood would be the conse-
quence; and serve to increase the evil.
Of course, we find the principle admitted,
both in the case of strong and weak trees.
It may indeed be considered as the polar

169

star, by which every gardener does, or
should, shape thecourse of his operations,
in pruning fruit-trees; and yet Mr. For-
syth, in his celebrated treatise on renova-
ting trees, has either done, or seems to
have done, his business without noticing
it. But probably the omission was not
altogether accidental, for had he once
admitted the light such sta?' or principle
would have cast upon the subject, the in-
tellicrent reader would have seen enough
to develope the causes of his extraordinary
sort of successful practice. Certainly
such success was no mean testimony in
favour of the point under consideration.

The practice of the agriculturist, like-
wise, supports the maxim. — In the treat-
ment of his hedges, he cuts down and
plashes (lays) both young and old, for
nearly the same purpose, namely, to
strengthen and renew them.

And the same truth is exemplified in

M

170

the business of woods. An old tree, in a
languid state of growth, is cut down ;
such, for instance, as had made no visible
increase, for many years ; and yet its
stump is afterwards found to have assum-
ed fresh vigour, so as to produce, in a few

years, a new and flourishing tree. We

easily account for all these results, upon
the principle that pruning increases the
general weight of a tree, while they are
perfectly inexplicable upon any other.

Having now shewn how pruning con-
tributes to increase the gejieral weight of
trees, we are next to examine how it^ar-^
ticularly operates upon their most valua-
ble part, the stem. And we cannot do
it better, than by requesting the reader's
attention to matter of fact, at once curi-
ous and interesting, mentioned p. b5. —
We there assert, what almost every tree
of a tolerable age proves, namely, that
they never taper more in stem, (except
what is occasioned by the branches,) than

171

what naturally follows from the bottom
part, (say that above the swell of the
roots,) being older than the top ; which
clearly demonstrates, that extra branches
arQ a detriment. Most certainly, unas-
sisted nature would form trees with little
orno clean stem: and of course very lit-
tle'good timber would be found in them ;
while, on the contrary, we observe every
tree clean, and nearly of one thickness,
as far as mtans have been used to make it
so; whether it be a few feet only, as in
the case of those in the New Forest,
Hedge Rows, &c. — or a great many, as in
that represented in the Frontispiece.

Had we been X^ii io guess only at the
method, in which the stem of a tree is
•fed, or increased, the lower parts would
have been thought to have monopolized
by far the greater quantity of sap; and
that its circumference ther^^ would have
increased much faster than \yhere more
elevated ; but facts shew clearly the

M 2

172

contrary ; of course, every part is demon-
strated to have been fed and increased
exactly alike ; and hence we have the
sort of form and substance, most of alf
calculated to benefit.*

* Notwithstanding the stir most authors who write
upon Timber make, about growing bends for Ship-
Timber, we believe little is hazarded by saying, that
if plenty of long^ clean, straight, free-grown trees
could be got, there Avould be no want for crooked
purposes. For as to knee timber, much of ;7 must be
produced under any system of management ; and as
to ribs, and every other article requiring a moderate
curve, they certainly may be made not only stronger,
but every way better, from straight wood than crook-
ed ; and provided that sort of wood w as not so very
scarce, they would also be made much cheaper in two
respects ; the first is matter of labour ; they might
usually be sawn at once, so as to require very little
hewing ; and certainly under such a process, much
■weight of wood might likewise be saved. The refuse
of a ship-carpenter's yard shews the immense waste
occasioned by cutting irregular bends to the desired
curves. Boiling, and a screw apparatus, to form the
beads, would at once make the ^^ straight crooked"
just in the way required; while the strength of the
wood would be retained, instead of being cut across,

173

From the circumstance just noticed, we
see distinctly the advantage of a clean
stem ; and, in part, the disadvantages of
the reverse; which may be further eluci-

as must be the case, less or more, under the presfnt
practice. Indeed, this method would frequently occa-
sion two other savings ; as such, from their strength,
might often be made lighter than the others— this
would reduce the expence of carriage ; an item alone,
in the case of ship-timber, that is sometimes equal to
the first cost.

We have tried oak, ash, and larch, and find that
with but little boiling, they easily bend to any given
curve ; and fix in it, as they cool.

Perhaps it may not be generally known, that boiling
seasons timber effectually. 1 have always heard such
was the fact, and the following circumstance seems
to prove it. — When building a mill, about fourteen
years ago, an oak, of about nine inches scantling,
which had stood in the ground, intended for the re-
servoir, was cut down and left there, to take the be-
nefit of Watering; where it remained upwards of five
years. \i was then taken out, and directly cut up,
and boiled, for the purposes of cogging an iron wheel,
which had previously required a new set every year. —
?*^ot more than four or five of the number (sixty-four)

174

dated, by shewing that the qii amity of
branches may be such, as nearly, if not
absolutely, to prevent the stems increasing
in circumference. On this head the fol-
lowing experiments are submitted.

have yet failed ; nor is it easy to guess tvhen they will,
as they wear much more like metal than wood;—
perhaps, some part of the effect may be imputed to
the Watering ; be that as it may, the circumstance
deserves attention ; and the more so^ because thfe tree
was very young and free-grown.

"We know of no way by which bends of tolerable
scantlings (knees excepted,) can be produced, with
certainty, and little trouble ; but that sketched on
PL VIII. — The bend is produced from, a side-branch
only, and 'ke'pt in that state by the branches of the
centre tree overhanging the stems of the others. The
former should of course be trained with a flat bushy
head. — If five trees were placed round one centre, and
five yards from ?Y, they would stand about six j-ards

apart from each other. -This hint is given as rather

curious than useful. Evelyn, Marshall, Nicol, and

Loudon, have all, in turn, advocated this business ;
Nature, however, has always, hitherto, frowned disap-
probation ; for in this respect, she is like the hunted
hare ; which ma^ be driven from its haunts, but con-
stantly returns, or tries to return, so long as life remains.

175

In the spring of 1803, a Poplar was
disbranched, and its head taken off about
fourteen feet from the ground, but no
notice was then taken of its girt. — ^That
summer it 'produced a large quantity of
shoots, from every part of its trunk. — In
the following winter they were cut off,
and the girt was measured, being then
two feet one inch, four feet from the
ground ; in order to ascertain how much
it would swell under that mode of treat-
ment, inone season. — The following sum-
mer it produced much the same quantity
of shoots, as in the preceding ; and in
the same manner; which continued to
grow very freely, till late in the season ;
during which time the trunk was frequent-
ly measured, without being able to dis-
cover that an}^ enlargement whatever had
taken place ; nor did the least crack ap-
pear upon any part of it, except at the
base of the shoots.

All the shoots being again taken off in

176

winter, as before, the produce of new
ones proved much the same as in the two
years preceding. The girt was again taken,
October 3, 1805, and proved rather short
of two feet one inch and a half. The in-
crease of nearly half an inch this year,
was evidently in consequence of its being
scarified, by having the point of a knife
drawn through the bark, to the whole
depth of it, from two or three feet above
the girting-place, to the root; the width
of the niche, the effect of that operation,
corresponding exactly with the increase

of girt. This tree grew quite detached

from an}^ other, and had abundance of
good soil and moisture.

Another Poplar, the girt of which was
two feet two inches, three feet from the
ground, was measured about the same
time as the foregoing; its head and all the
branches being left upon it. Thegirting-
place being some feet below any of the
latter, swelled in the course of the summer

177

to two feet five inches ; ils bark being all
along full of cracks, evidently the efforts
of nature to effect such purpose. — ^This
tree was again measured, at the same time
with the above; when the girt proved two

feet seven and a half inches It grew in

a pretty close plantation, where it had
much less of soil, air, and moisture, than
the other. *

* The treatment of the two poplars continued the
same for two seasons longer, viz. until 22d Sept.
1S07, when they were again measured, and it was
found (hat the dimensions of the former were the same
as beforcy while the latter had increased in girt to three
feet one inch . It had of course, in four years, consi-
derably more than doubled its size, while the former
had produced nothing but small branches, except a
trifling increase the summer after it was scarified.
This experiment certainly furnishes abundant matter
for reflection ; probably the attentive reader will like-
wise find instruction in it : it is, at any rate, a striking
proof of the quick growth of the Black Italian Poplar
in a situation g-enerally considered as improper for
the species, viz. on a dry hill, the soil of which is not
more than a foot deep, with a strong clay bottom.

J7S

Now, taking it for granted that nature
is uniform in her operations, we may as-
sert, upon the above authority, that to
have the trunk of a tree increase fast in
circumference, the sap must be prevented
from having too many outlets, or ways to
escape ; these we conceive to have been of
the very worst sort, being through young
wood, where the vessels were particularly
open. — ^The first case was full of such
outlets; and the stem did not swell at all,
till the following year; and then but little,
and only in consequence of the scarifi-
cation ; the latter had none, and it swelled
abundantly. The former had all the re-
quisites necessary to its thriving; and the
latter had them only in an inferior degree;
we see, however, that the most favourable
circumstances balanced nothing against a
fundamental error ; the method of pruning
was had; inasmuch as it produced small
branches and leaves only.

Numerous instances might be adduced.

179

where ignorance or inattention produces
cases wholly, or in part, similar to the
above ; but as they must all depend upon
the same principles, it may be sufficient
particularly to notice the case of Elms
pruned to a very small head, which inevi-
tably occasions this sort of obstruction.
The plant is certainly so notorious for pro-
ducing numerous branches upon its stem,
that most people suppose the circum-
stance unavoidable ; they tell us, that if
such were cut off, another crop, not less
plentiful, would succeed ; and doubtless it
must be so, if means were not used to
pi^vent it. — To avoid the evil in an early
stage of the business, would have been
easy; the method of pruning previously
recommended, being effectual in all such
cases, provided one point be attended to;
which it may be useful to remember in
numerous others. When a free growing
tree is observed to make shoots from the
stem, it is a proof /Ae head is too littk ; and

180

therefore, at the next pruning, it should
be left larger than before. — Experience
is the best instructor in the matter of
quantity.

The only way to obtain a clean stem
in such cases, is by resorting to first prin-
ciples. The violent means previously
used, having turned the sap not only into
new channels, but to purposes the least
of all beneficial, nothing but gradual
means can reinstate it in its proper course.
The business may be tedious, but cer-
tainly not impracticable. — It is this : take
otT, very close, more than half the number
of the largest branches, toabouttwo-thirds
of the height of the plant ; and above
that, the same or a greater number of the
smallest ; that part being intended to form
its future heap. This is to be done when
they are not less than two years old. After
another year*s growth, the same sort of
operation may be repeated upon the part

181

intended to be the stem, and that may
be followed by another annual dressing;
when the whole of the remaining branches
may be displaced.

It is not said that the above business,
which is indeed like brino-insj order out of
chaos, can be always effected in a given
time; as subjects will materially differ ;
but that, if the means be persisted in,
they will never fail, where the tree is
young, or vigorous enough to deserve such
attention.

If the object were the growing of Fire
or Hedge-Wood only, perhaps the fore-
going method of lopping Elms might be
thought a good one, in some respects ;
but certainly it is one of the worst that
absurdity could have invented, for the
increase of Timber. Were there no other
means of preventing trees overshadowing
the land, it would be some apology for

182

persisting in so barbarous a practice, but
as the fact is otherwise, it must be consi-
dered as evincing at once the want of
taste and skill; the custom being equally
disgusting and absurd.

We frequently see ashes, and sometimes
oaks, trimmed^ so as to appear no better,
but often much worse than No. 2 on PI.
IV. — Here, every additional lopping
leaves additional stumps ; so that, at last,

deformity stands conspicuous. Such

subjects, however, may easily be trained
into ornamental figures, by thinning out
part of the shoots, and letting the others
remain to form a head. Every other at-
tempt to prove them would be unavail-
ing ; because, though it might be possible
to enlarge the length of stem in some
cases, stiii such enlargement must ever
remain too knotty, and otherwise defec-
tive, to be of much value. — ^The stem,
usually a short one, is all the^ timber this
sort of 7najiageme7it produces.

18;

PLANTATIONS.

Having said thus much of pruning, as
applicable to the growth and improve-
ment of Timber generally, we now come
to mention some circumstances peculiar
to Plantations, but shall first notice the
reasons or inducements which Gentlemen
have to attend to the business.

Plantations form one of the first orna-
ments upon an estate, and fortunately in-
clude likewise the comfortable and bene-
ficial property of shelter; and, also, what
is still more important, prove the best
of all situations for producing a large
quantity of valuable Timber.

To those who have been at the expence
of making Plantations, few arguments
will, I trust, be necessary, to induce them
to follow it up with adequate attention.
The act is certainly evidence of a portion

184

of public spirit, as well as a proper sense
of private utility. We trust there are
thousands in the United Kingdom actua-
ted by such laudable motives ; nor can it
be an arrogant presumption to suppose,
that what has been advanced, will attract
the attention of a few hundreds of them, in
the first instance ; and, if so, the business of
improvement will most assuredly spread:
a beneficial example will be a moving
principle, where a precept, equally good,
would be a dead letter. — To such cha-
racters the author looks, with a peculiar
degree of complacency and expectation.
The spirit that first induced them to plant
must, to be consistent, induce them to
give his precepts a faie trial.*

* From the number of copies which have been sold,
and the opinion entertained of their utility, by many
of the first characters for rank and intelligence in the
country, we may be assured that not a few only, but
many hundreds, are now reducing the precepts, here
delivered, to practice. Certainly, many such have
already, in part at least, seen their beneficial effects ;

185

To such as have inherited Plantations
from their ancestors, we may likewise
drop a word. For, independent of the
ideas of public spirit and private utility,
they have a call (a powerful one !) to
tend with care the objects of their alices-

and hence the practice spreads in every direction.
One, and one only, who comes forward as an author,
propria persona, has lifted his pen against it in the
way of argument. lie gives us to understand, as a
general maxim, (what we certainly should neither have
understood, nor believed without some such help) that
«ucJi a method must damage the timber, because it
causes the trees to grow too fast. But verifj/, if the
*' Forest Primer''^ has paddled upon the surface oi
error, our author has plunged into the stream; — for,
among numerous passages equally 'culuable, lie treats
us with the following: — " If we suppose that trees
grow only twice as fast where the soil is prepared,
as where it is not, then a plantation worth 100/. in
fifty years, had the soil been prepared, would have
been worth 2(X)/. in the same time, or worth 100/,
in twenty-five years. But every one will allow that
all kinds of deciduous trees willgrow/o?/?- or six times ,
and often ten times, faster in prepared than in unpre-
pared ground ; and of course, the return of profits xpiU
b 9 correspondent V^

186

tors' solicitude. If they had left a clause
in their wills, that it should be done, the
omission would indeed be considered as un-
pardonable; but certainly no such docu-
ment is wanted, to shew that such was really
their will ! as every tree, so planted, is a
living evidence of the interesting fact. —
How often must such have gratified them-
selves with contemplating the gran-
deur, shelter, and worth, which their
works were adding to the domain. It is
indeed obvious, that a planter's principal
gratification must often be in the idea of
benefiting posterity; and, therefore, that
posterity must be truly ungrateful, which
thwarts or defeats such benevolent design.

That the foregoing digression is not
causeless, will appear, by considering the
wretched state of plantations, generally.
Their three essential properties are. Or-
nament, Shelter, and Use; and,
therefore, we see clearly to what points
theirmanagement should tend. They are

187

perfectly compatible with each other ;
and, hence, where they are not all at-
tended to, less or more, according to
situations and circumstances, we are ful-
ly justified in asserting such a place is

MISMANAGED.

It is true that, in some cases, these
properties are not alike requisite; for
instance, in low sequestered situations
ornament is of little consequence, nor is
shelter of much, so far as the surrounding
lands are concerned ; but even there^ the

trees should shelter each other. ^The

short rule, therefore, will be to consider
how far the above essentials are necessary
in any given case, and to regulate the
species of management accordingly.

Suppose, for instance, a plantation,
upon an elevated scite : — there, we are
certain, shelter is necessary, in a twofold
point of view, both to the trees, and to
the adjoining grounds. And it may frc-
k2

188

qaently be wanted to serve other pur-
poses ; as where it is wished to conceal
the outHne of an estate, a park, lawn, or
field, or even that of the plantation itself;
-^to hide disagreeable objects ; or make

a cover for game, &c. Here we have

three distinct reasons for preserving shel-
ter; and, therefore, one would suppose
different management to be adopted, than
where only one of them existed in a very
slight degree. Instead of which, under
the present system, the hill and the valley,
the clump and the screen, are planted ex-
actly alike, and similarly treated after-
Avards.

There is something in a plantation, pro-
perly sheltered, so extremely captivating,
that it strikes alike the taste of the man
of refinement, and the mere rustic. The
first can always explain the reason of his
pleasure, while the latter can probably
do little more than feel it: — still their
sensations prove the same point; — for the

189

peculiar taste of each is gratified, in some
degree; which leads to the obvious con-
clusion, that good taste is nearer akin to
utUitij than is generally imagined. It is
indeed next to impossible, that the mind
accustomed to consider the difference be-
tween right and wrong, can be truly sa-
tisfied with any thing that does not, in a
considerable degree, answer the purposes
for which it was first intended. When a
plantation, or a screen, requiring the fore-
going properties, has got into §uch a situ-
ation, that the wind and the eye meet
with but little obstruction in traversing it,
from one side to the other, much of its
beauty and utility is gone ; and, there-
fore, good taste disowns it.

Now, as not only general taste, but the
nature of the thing itself, points out the
utility of shelter, it is, certainly, to be re^-
gretted, that due attention is not paid to
make it permanent, in every place where
required, so far as the soil will produce

190

the means. — If I were asked the abstract
question, " Which way can you most be-
" nefit plantations, at the least expence ?"
the answer would be — ." By shelter/'
— ^To effect it, in the best possible man-
ner, a planter should have a number of
suitable plants, to grow under the princi-
pal ones, namely, sorts that will not only
grow when so situated, but spring afresh
upon being cut down or beheaded ;* as,
by means of such, the shelter may be pre-
served so as to be permanent.

But we are not to expect them to
thrive sufficiently, to answer the purpose,
without some small degree of attention.
If they were cut down three or four years

* The sorts proper for this purpose are the Beech,
Birch, Oak, Hornbeam, Horsc-Chcsnut, Mountain-
Ash, Barberry, Holly, Box, Privet, &:c. The Silver
and Spruce Fir are valuable for the purpose, by ha-
ving the leaders only displaced repeatedly. The de-
tailed method of planting such shelters may be found
in The Profitable Planter,

191

after planting, and the other trees suffered
to grow over thera, they would be so far
smothered, as to grow weak, and conse-
quently do little service. It would, there-
fore, be better to let the whole grow to-
gether, for about six years; when the
cutting of the underwoods down would
be a sort of thinning for the others; by
which time, the roots of the former would
have got such a degree of strength, that
if any tolerable attention be afterwards
given to pruning and thinning the latter,
the underwoods will grow sufficiently, to
answer the desired purpose.

It will be obvious, that attempting to
grow too many principal trees, must de-
range the idea of obtaining underwood ;
— indeed it may be demonstrated, that
such means not only do so, but defeat the
intended purpose. Strength of stem is,
as has been observed, essential to the
thriving of every tree ; which it cannot
have except its head has tolerable free

space; — of course, as soon as the branches
begin to interfere with each other consi-
derably, it is time to thin or prune a
plantation, but more commonly both.

The error of planting too thick is ex-
tremely common, and that as frequently
leads to another; namely, the neglect of
thinning ; as b}' the time it becomes ne-
cessary, the thinnings can only be fit for
hedge-wood, or the fire; and, therefore,
in such cases, it is seldom done either ia
proper time or manner.

The difference between planting at
three and four feet apart, is as 4840 to
2722 ; and still it remains to be shown,
for (it has never yet been done,) in what
beneficial respect the former exceeds the
latter ; except on exposures and very bad
soils, for a few of the first years, and pro-
ducing the sort of thinnings we have de-
scribed ; which of course must be charged
for exhausting the soil ; and expence of

393

taking away, before any real profit can
arise from them. Nor can we thin trees,
of three feet apart, to leave them regular,
at nearer distances than six feet; of course,
three would be taken down, for one left.
This would be doing by far too much,
and therefore, the better way is to do it
irregidarljf ; and repeat it either the next,
or the following year at furthest.

To treat upon distances here, may at
first sight be considered as stepping aside
from the subject, but certainly it cannot
be altogether irrelevant to guard the
reader against a capital and common er-
ror, in the very outset of planting. The
real friends of the business can neither
recommend, nor overlook what unneces-
sarily enhances the expence or leads to
future mismanagement; because both
operate directly as discouragements.

It has been said, that no parts are equal
to plantations for producing a large

194

<][uantity of the most valuable timber,
and the matter is not difficult to prove ;
2iSthere we have always plenty of subjects,
placed in proper situations, or at suitable
distances to work upon, which is never
the case elsewhere. — The thinnings may
be of considerable value, when the trees
are only four feet apart ; we can then have
rails, spars, &c. At a further thinning,
such value is a2;ain increased ; which
circumstance will be repeated, as the
plants continue to increase jn size; be-
cause a foot of thick, is of more value than
one of small wood : the former is likewise
much more saleable.

It is difficult, if not impossible, to make
an estimate of the quantity of timber
which may be produced from a certain
quantity of good land, in a given time ;
but it is evident, that such circumstance
will be affected by the depth, for two
reasons : — the first is, the increased quan-
tity which the roots have to work upon ;

195

and the next, the dilFerent quantities of
moisture. On thin soils, a tree will often
be much stinted, in ihat respect, in the
principal growing season, which can never
happen in deep ones ; cerlainly, on the
latter, the plants will grow largest upon
a given surface. — The subject is here
brought forwards, to furnish some hints
for fixing the ultimate distances of trees.

The current opinion upon this point,
is, that, to grow large, they should be not
less than forty feet apart ; and if we are
to take the idea, with the current practice,
or rather the prevailing neglect attached
to it, there may be good reason for such
ideas ; but, certainly, nothing which I have
yet seen, has given reason to suspect, that
any tolerable-sized tre^ could requirenear
so large a space, in a good deep soil ; yet,
undoubtedly, if allowed so much, a head
would soon be formed to occuj)y the
whole: but there is no reason \\ hy the
business of vegetation might rot be as

196

well carried on by a conic top, as a flat
one ; pruning naturally produces the for-
mer, while it increases the height ; and,
therefore, exposes more surface to the
atmosphere, than neglect. — It may be
observed too, that, provided the leader be
kept somewhat clear, we have as yet no
rule by which to know what height a tree
may attain on a good soil.

It can be no matter how fast it tOAvers,
provided a proper degree of strength be
taken along with it ; and there can be no
danger of that, where the head is never
.buffered to remain long, either close in
itself, or crowded by others. On the
whole, we think forty feet distance seems
to rest on no better foundation, than an
opinion, entertained in consequence of
observing the large spreading heads, that
are made by trees nearly in a state of
nature ; which is generally four times more
than necessary ; and, therefore, have little
doubt but twenty-five feet distance would

197

be preferable to forty; — the former would
contain about seventy trees upon an acre,
the latter only twenty-seven.

Perhaps, nothing relating to Pruning
requires so much experience, as the ma-
nagement of thinning, or distances ; — and
it is among the advantages which planta-
tions have over other situations, that,
where it is judiciously attended to, much
of the work of the pruner is superseded.
If the plants stand too thick, they will
rise quickly, but slender; if too thin,
they will rise but slowly, and produce
spreading, bushy heads : these are the
extremes of the case, and all our art lies
in steering between them.

In judging what strength is proper for
young trees, regard must be had to situ-
ations. In some they are liable to be
much agitated by the winds ; in others,
very little. In a thick plantation, they
may always be trained much weaker than

198

in single trees, or hedge-rows. General!}',
tvhen a tree is not overtopped by others,
has a clear space all round it, and is so
stiff as not to be much affected by the
winds, it may be said to be strong enough ;
but of that the eye will be the best judge.

When trees have been neglected, and
are grown too weak, by standing close
together, Thinning is the only present re-
medy, and should be done gradualli/ ; for
if the plants have long sheltered each other,
to remove that shelter all at once, would
let in the wind, and otherwise starve them,
so as \,o stint their growth iox SQweioX ye2LVS,

It has alwrys been thought difficult to
explain clearly how trees are affected by
sudden exposure, that have previously
been sheltered. Undoubtedly, when the
wind gets among slender plants, it not
only bends and twists their stems, but
sprains their roots, so far as in some degree
to sprain, break, and disorder the sap-
4

199

vessels. — We may observe too, that the
bark of trees, which grow sheltered, is
thin ; and iience, the sap-vessels are near
the surface ; of course, many of them may
suffer from exposure. — We know, besides,
that heat is absolutely necessary, not only
to put veo^etation in motion, but to keep
it so ; and therefore, its increase will always

be effected by the degree of heat. We

may observe, also, that furious winds never
fail to damage the leaves of trees, in pro-
portion to their flexibility. And, there-
fore, in this warfare, the youngest natu-
rally suffer most; wliicli is peculiarly
unfortunate, because thc}^ are the princi-
pal agents in forwarding the business of
vegetation. On the whole, it is presumed,
much of the damage done by sudden ex-
posure, may be naturally traced to the
above causes. But whether such be the
case or not, the effect is exactly asstated.
and the means of prevention the same;
namely thinnings and afterwards priming,
gradually.

200

When plants stand thin, so as to have
short stems, with spreading busby heads,
the remedy is the business of Pruning
only. Cutting oft' all the largest side
branches, and encouraging but one leader,
as has been directed for young plants,
will, if repeated periodically, soon show
the advantages of such means in a very

striking point of view. Sometimes

persons are perplexed in choosing leaders
for trees ; one may be the straightest
and another the strongest. In this case,
the point should be decided by consider-
ing, that we want one the most capable
of attracting the sap sufficientlj* ; for if
that be done, it is of very trifling conse-
quence, whether the leader stands only
half upright, or perfectly so; as, by grow-
ing freely, it will soon cease to bend; and
therefore we usually choose the strongest.

In pruning large neglected plants, for
the first time, and frequently one or two
further, we do not attempt to make good

3

201

forms, but to put them in a condition to
grow into such ; and that can never be
effected otherwise than by pruning, and
uniformly admitting air sufficient to per-
mit them to grow stiff, but not enough to
cause them to grow bush3\

Plantations of deciduous trees are too
thick, when many of the lower branches
die annually ; and too thin, where 7ione of
them are found in a declining state. The
stem may be sufficiently fed, though the
side-branches grow but slowly.

It is impossible to be too particular in
pressing upon the owners of plantations,
the propriety of calling in the aid of so
useful, industrious, powerful, and cheap
an auxiliary, as Air. Too much, or too
little of this article may be ruinous ; while
the due quantity, introduced, and kept
properly in action, by judicious thinning
and pruning, may so far influence the for-
mation of the trees, as to reduce the latter

o

202

operation more than one half; and, at
the same time, materially forward the
growth of the most valuable part of them.
We may be sure such increase is consi-
derable, when they are not only stiff, but
towering fast; while very few branches
require to be displaced. I L is to be un-
derstood, that the benefit of air chiefly
applies to the heads of trees ; as we could
never discover that a moderate share af
underwood, growing among the stems, did
any damage, by reducing the quantity of
o/r, but the contrary. It is admitted,
that such must, in some degree, exhaust
the soil, but this is abundantly overba-
lanced by the advantages before noticed.

If the training of timber were really as
troublesome and expensive as some per-
sons believe, still there is a partial mode
of doing the business, which may be
practised to very great advantage. The
method is to select, and marksuch trees
a« are wished to stand longest, before the

203

first pruning takes place. This, however,
must be understood to apply, principally,
to very thick plantations, as no doubt is
entertained, but that trees, at four feet
apart, would all pay for such attention ;
as, when pruned, they might stand to
grow tolerable poles, — but those who
choose it, may, however, attend to the
selected plants only; thinning out or ta-
king off the heads of others, from time to
time, in the way that has been directed.

As it would be tedious to thin the heads
of Firs, in the same manner as deciduous
trees, there is so much the more necessity
to attend carefully to the matter of dis-
tances ; for, where they are properly ma-
naged, the former may be trained with
less trouble than the latter ; because, in
consequence of growing with closer heads,
the lower branches do not enlaro;e so
freely, in the first place; and are, like-
wise, for the same reason, subject to decay
nmch sooner ; and besides, they do not
Q 2

204

oft«n form separate heads. To these wc
may add the circumstance of their sap-
vessels being so large, that the ascent of
the sap is not so much obstructed by the
branches. — If the first pruning took place
when the plants were about eight feet
high, it might then be necessary to dis-
place two, or at most three tiers of the
lower branches ; and two years further,
two sets more of the same description :
after which, intervals of three years might
elapse between the prunings; never dis-
placing more than two tiers at once, ex-
cept more should prove dead.*

* In the " Transactions of the Society for the En-
touragement of Arts,Sfc.''* Vol. XXIV. p.68,wehav€
a paper on the advantages and method of" Pruning
Fir Trees j" by '' 3Ir. Salmon^'''' surveyor and wood-
agent to his Grace the Duke of Bedford, which clearly
cvmces the propriety both of pruning and cutting
close. The opinion of a person so intimately ac-
quainted with the application of timber, cannot fail
to be conclusive on these points. Still I think his
theory, both with regard to the quantity of tiers of
branches to be taken off at once, and the periods to

205

it 'vfill be obsen^d, that this method is
calculated to grow the trees with a long

•elapse between the prunings, is highly objectionable.
For long observation Las convinced me, that taking a
targe quantity of branches from a fir at once, dis-
orders it so far as considerably to retard its growth,
•even in shelter, and certainly, reducing such to two
tiers of branches would, in exposures, be com pletely
ruinous. The tliird tier from the top will certainly
do more in the way of shelter, and in attrac ting sap?
than the two higher ones, and therefore a tree o '
plantation piuned to three tiers, might be said to b^
in tolerable condition, while plants of the same age'
docked to two, would be in a ruinous one. Gen eralf^t
however, 1 conceive four tiers to be preferable to
three, where shelter is little of an object, but where i^
is much soj have no doubt of it.

If a fir would grow as fast with tz»o tiers only as a
greater number, it would be highly improper to defef
the pruning till they increased to sir or seven, as di-
jrected ; for even at Wohum, where the prunings from
young firs double the expence of the labour, a ton of
poles is of much greater . alue tha i one of branches.

It may be observed, from tie Duke of Bedford's
certificate, annexed to the abovementioned paper,
•thathis Grace had j)r«>/oj«/y entertained doubts ofth^

206'

conic head; and hence they would have
every possible benefit from the atmosphere,
which the space allotted them can admit.
What has been already advanced upon
the damage by sudden exposure, will
more particularly apply to Firs, (except
what relates to the leaves ;) for as the}^
grow close, the air will be proportionably
warm among them ; and as their tops are
heavy, of course the wind will act upon
them most forcibly ; for these reasons,
they require more space than deciduous
trees in shelters; otherwise, they would
grow too quick and slender.

propriety of pruning firs, &c. These doubts his
Grace has frequently intimated to myself, particularly
in the year 1804 ; and hence the reason for ordering
Mr. Salmon to collect the specimens alluded to. To
me such doubts -were then discouraging; nozVj how-
ever, 1 have the satisfaction of knowing that they are
not only removed, but that their existence may pro-
bably be the direct means of convincing hundreds,
that ray method of pruning Timber Trees will stand
the test of experiment.

SOT

On very cold exposures, where nothing
but Firs will grow, the means of shelter-
ing plantations, by keeping down part of
the plants, would be particularly service-
able. AVhere spruce firs will thrive, they
are excellent for the purpose, being very
easily kept down as bushes ; indeed, where
much wind prevails, they are usually far
behind the Scotch in growth. Where
there is no Spruce, the current of the wind
may be broken, by keeping a quantity of
the Scotcii Firs short, taking off their
leaders from time to time, within the
plantation, more particularly the exposed
sides ; and likewise doing the same to
every third or fourth plant, on such sides,
and never pruning the other front trees at
all, except taking off the dead branches.

The trouble of doing this business
would be trifling ; a common labourer,
emploj'ed a week every second year
might preserve the shelter of twenty acres
for many years ; — his only tool, a light

208

bill, with a handle of a length suitable to
his work :— this business can require no
nicety, and hence the expedition ; as
€very stroke may be made downwards.

It is impossible not to smile at the
absurdity of writers, who tell us either not
to prune firs at all ; or not to do so, till
" the branches shew evident marks of
" decay ;" — as a little of that much-neg-
lected article, expeeience, would teach
them, or any others, that if a branch
were cut oiF while alive, the sap-vessels
would send out resinous matter enough
to seal up the wound, in a way infinitely
superior to human ingenuity. Nor need
we be afraid of wasting such sap b y a
too copious discharge; as, if the winter
operations be discontinued at least a
month before the sap is stirring, and the
summer pruning do not commence till
three months after that circumstance
takes place, there is no danger to be ap-
prehended.— For not only is the end of the

209

stump sealed up, but such sealing keeps
it so much alive, that the wood, which
afterwards grows over, always unites,
either wholly or in part with it ; so that,
instead of defects, we have usually health
and soundness, but never, except in the
case of very large wounds, any thing of
consequence enough to merit the name of
detriment.

The bleeding, which seems to have
alarmed Fir Pruners so much, has certainly
been in consequence of taking off too
many tiers of live branches at once ; and
that frequently in spring. A healthy de-
ciduous tree, so treated, would ex pend
part of its sap in branches iipoji the
stem ; — a Fir throws it out in a crude
state. — Firs are sometimes seen so severely
trimmed at one operation, that the heads
are left too small to attract a reasonable
quantity of sap ; which circumstance, the
sudden exposure fails not to increase.
Frequently, trees, previously growing

210

freely, arc stinted in this way, and nevci*
afterwards resume their former vigour.

When Fir branches are left upon trees,
for years after they are dead, it occasions
rotten or Cork Knots, and a number of
dead stumps, to be buried in the wood ;
"which not only obstruct the sap, (as is
evident, by the parts over the annual sets
of branches being thicker than those be-
tween them, for many years after their
being displaced,) but divert the grain,
and consequently reduce the strength of
the wood.*

* The Sellers of British-grown Firs, well know that
the Buyers make knottiness the leading objection
against the article. — What shall we say then to the
sort of teachers that have been just alluded to ? — Only
this; Begift at the right end of your work in future ;
practise Jlt'sl, and write afterwards ; and then there
will be little danger of your opposing, as in the present
instance, not only the interests of the country, but
TRUTH itself.

211
ORNAMENTAL TREES, 4'C.

In regard to the general melhods of
pruning, recommended, it may possibly
be suspected, that tiiey are oidy calcula-
ted to produce a sameness of form, w hich,
it is adiiiiiled, would, in some situations,
be highly disgusting ; but certainly such
idea is completely groundless, as the same
principles, which instruct us how to con-
duct the greater part of the sap to one
part of a tree, will naturally sugo;est the
means of doing the same to another; and
hence we easily cause it to grow freel}^
(the soil being supposed proper,) in any
form the mind can conceive, or the pencil
sketch: provided such form be nol in-
compatible with the free circulation of the
sap. Hence, in works of fancy and orna-
ment, we have very superior advantages.

It is unnecessary to wait till blind
chance shall dictate what sort of figure
any favourite tree, or a number of such.

212

shall assume. For, if it be present to the
mind, a slight operation upon a young
plant seldom fails to cause nature*s eftbrts
to tend, principally, to the desired point;
after which, a few minutes attention, be-
stowed periodically, generally completes
the business. Every single tree will be a
living picture ; nature will appear in her
most imposing attitudes ; while the skill
which directed her efforts remains where
it should be; — unseen, — almost unsus-
pected. Examples follow.

Short Stems, uith Flat Heads. — ^Trees,
for this purpose, must have no othei
branches taken off, than so far as is ne-
cessary to clear the stem to the intended
height ; as the side-branches alone are, iu
this case, to form the head ; therefore,
when a tolerable quantity of these are
from three to six feet long, the leader or
leaders above them may be displaced ;
and if others afterwards take an upright
direction, &o as to overtop the rest consi-

213

derably, their leaders must be treated in
the same manner. We are not to expect
the head can be kept exactly flat ; but
this treatment will so far encourage the
side-branches, and increase the number
upon the summit, that the required form
will not only be obtained, but easily pre-
served. If it be wished to cause such
head to grow particularly thick and
bushy ; a few of the more extended ex-
tremities must be shortened, from time
to time, to cause them to divide, and
subdivide into numerous others. But if,
on the contrary, such head is wished to
extend considerably, then the interior
part of the head must be thinned of some
of the shorter and smaller branches; in
consequence of which, more of the sap
will go to extend the extremities.

When we want two or more stems to

be produced from one ; whether near the

ground or otherwise; the best general

method is to train them from side

4

branches; as in this case, they will al-
ways retain some degree of curve at the
bottom ; and, consequently, not only ap-
pear more picturesque, but be in no dan-
ger of taking water, where they divide.
Where such heads are intended ultimate-
ly to appear distinct from each othci', it
will be necessary to preserve the princi-
pal head of the plant, to grow, and keep
them separate, till they have got consi-
derable length and weight; both of
which have a tendency to keep them so,
afterwards; as nearly the whole of their
larojer branches will orrow outwards;
where they do not, a few of them may be
displaced, to increase that sort of effect.

The spiral head is formed by the me-
thod adopted for growing timber;
namely, displacing all the longest
branches. The higher part of most trees
which grow freely, in rising, naturally,
forms a cone. When it happens other-
wise, if such be the required figure, it

215

may usually be obtained by thinning the
summit of the leader. If \vc want a tree
to grow particularhi open, andjjicturesquef
it is easily effected by displacing all, ex-
cept a small number of the largest
branches.

If we want a tree to exhibit tz^o distinct
heads, (the one above the other,) it in
done by leaving some branches upon the
stem, at any required height; and then
clearing it so high as where we wish the
others to spring. But in doing this, one
caution is necessary ; never let the lower
set of branches invest the stem closely in
any one place ; as in that case, if a dead
top were not ultimately the consequence,
the higher tier would grow much slower
than that below it. The safe rule is,
never to retain more than three for the
latter purpose, which stand at or near
equal heights; the whole quantity should,
of course, be in some degree proportion-
ed to what may be supposed will be the

216

ultimate height of the tree. Another
hint, in regard to such a figure, is, that
some attention should be paid to the
forming of its top ; this would best be
done by selecting three or four side-
branches, which grow nearly at the same
height ; as, by that means, the sap, much
reduced in quantity by the lower tier of
branches, would require to be equally di-
vided among the top ones. When treat-
ing of dead tops, it was remarked, that
the danger from such circumstances was
chiefly applicable to hard woods, such as
the oak, &c.

The causes of dead tops have been
particularly attended to, (p. 123 — 132).
Their cure, where practicable, may be ef-
fected by the following means. When
such happen to trees infested with unna-
tural branches, they must all be taken off
as close as possible; afterwards, the trees
should be scarified all the length of the
stem. The track of the knife, or tool,

217

made use of, must be through the bark,
where it has been clear of branches ; no
matter though it may curve considerably.
There should be at least as many inci-
sions, as the tree is half yards round.

This operation can only be performed
upon old, thick-barked tfees, when the
sap is stirring. Its effect is, the loosen-
ing of such bark ; and thereby not only
assisting the circulation of the sap, gene-
rally ; but likewise opening it a free pas-
sage along the incision; as such would
soon be filled with new free-gjrown bark :
underneath which, that fluid would pass
readily to the head.

PI. VII. is an oak board, cut from a
tree, infested with unnatural branches.
The dark marks are their roots in the
wood. The grain, or sap-vessels appear
curving in every direction ; in many
places, more particularly near the bot-
tom, they lie nearly across. On breaking

p

218

the wood, just below this part, it was
found the grain laid almost in an hori-
zontal position, instead of perpendicular;
consequently, very little sap could find
its way to the head of such a tree, as,
notwithstanding the root might furnish a
mc derate quantity, most of it would es-
cape out of the stem. Every thing here
shews that nature's efforts had got an im-
proper bias; and that it was impossible
any thing short of human means could
have set them right.

When more unnatural branches ap-
pear, after the first set are displaced, they
must be discarded also ; and Avhen such
means do not prove effectual, the head of
the tree should be thinned, by taking off
part of the most extended branches,
where they fork. In every case, the
branches dead, or nearly so, must be
taken off to the quick.

When dead tops appear on trees which

v^ 219

have none but natural branches, the Jowcr
tiers must be examined : if they prove in
heahh, the case is evidently to be im-
puted to their intercepting the sap ; and,
therefore, some of them must he thinned
out ; by which means, not only a passage
would be opened to, but an additional
supply of it would be furnished for, the
head. The latter circumstance mis^ht
likewise be promoted, by first thinning
the extended parts of the lower branches;
and the head, generally, afterwards; if
the foregoing should not prove effectual.
In this case, the tree will prove bark-
bound, above the obstruction; of course
it should there be scarified, as in the for-
mer case. It will be obvious, that the
means here recommended may be ap-
plied to the invigorating of weak trees in
general.*

* This very serious evil is often occasioned by the
Designers of Grounds. Frequently they expend hun-
dreds, sometiftios thousands, in removing earth ; in

P 2

220 .^

From what has been said on the de-
fect, it is clear that the best forms for
single trees, (on bad soils especially,) are
such as divide into three or four principal
branches, at or about the same height;
having no general leader: for such will
divide the sap most equally among them.

Sometimes we find young single trees
of quick growing sorts, such as poplars,
grown top-heavy. In this case, the more

consequence of which, it happens that the trees left,
or such as are ordered to be planted, appear more like
the trees on the confines of a Desert, than such as
ought to grace the cheerful haunts of Affluence.

It is easy to talk about producing effect, as men do
about pictures ; it would not, however, be easy to
produce a good one, if the colour-shop were shut
ag^ainst the painter. The spoiling of the soil, or the
introduction of improper sorts (or even sizes) of trees,
puts the Planter in a similar predicament; which
suggests this query : — Are not Designers, who have
not a considerable hnowledge of execution, as likely to
waste their employers' money, as to produce the ejfects
which thej/ hitended ?

221

extended branches are to be shortened,
close to the lateral ones. AVhere the
branches stand thick, it may sometimes
be necessary to thin them, by taking off a
few of the larger, close to the stem. The
head is thus not only easily made, in pro-
portion to the present strength of the
stem, but the same operation causes that
strength to increase in an especial man-
ner.

Frequently, the application of this art
will go far to retrieve mismanagement, in
regard to single trees, and groups, though
considerably advanced in growth. It is
not every planter that is skilful, either in
the choice or distribution of his plants;
nor do they always assume the expected
form. To remedy such sorts of disorder
is peculiarly the pruner's business; be-
cause he can in a great measure control
the power of vegetation, by reducing
the size, and altering the form of most
subjects which come under his hands.

222

Nor are the advantasie's of such scien-
tific management at all confined to sin-
gle trees, or groups, in ornamental sce-
nery; for they extend equally to the
close plantation. If we want certain
species, or a number of such, to tower
above the rest; and others to crouch be-
neath, the means are easy, and the effects
certain. The closeness of front, the pic-
turesque of summit, the shelter, and va-
riety of the interior, are alike at its com-
mand.

In the Shrubbery too, its effects are
powerfully apparent; as, where judici-
ously applied, these delightful combina-
tions of art and nature are always verdant,
— ever young. In short, whether we con-
sider the facility with which a knowledge
of the principles of vegetation can create
— the certainty with which it c^n preserve
—the means by which it can renovate — or
the immense pecuniary advantages it is
calculated to secure; it may truly be

223

considered not only one of the most de-
lightful^ bat the most useful of human at-
tainments. And, certainly, whoever
wishes to practise, either as a Designer, a
Planter, or a Superintendant of Ornamen-
tal Gardens, or Plantations, or even as a
^Voodman, must either study the means
of directing, assisting, and occasionally
controlling the powers of vegetation ; or
he can neither acquit himself with full
credit, nor properly to the advantage of
his employer.

Wounds. — The word conveys a very se-
rious idea to the mind ; and hence, we
find them treated by superficial writers,
with an attention, always tedious^ often
absurd, and generally useless. But
though wounds, dangerous enough to de-
serve attention, may be inflicted some-
times, such never happens under a regu-
lar Virn^. good system of pruning, for three
reasons. First, they are always small:
secondly, they are inflicted upon healthy

224

subjects: and, thirdly, they are made in
a good form; consequently, none of
them can require a plaister; because they
ivill heal quite as well, most of them much
better, without one ; and, eventually,
either leave the plant not damaged at all,
or too little to deserve notice. Plate VI.
shews the effects of wounds; one of which
is of such description. No. 1. is a beech
board from a very old tree ; A and B, are
the remains of two branches, taken off
when it was small; as is proved b}- the
situation of the core, C. C. — A. has been
cut off, not very close, and therefore, a
dead stump remains in the board, some-
what rotten ; in consequence of having
been partly exposed, about seven years.
B. has been cut off pretty close, and ap-
pears to have been completely inclosed
in three years ; and hence, though there
appears some little deadness, all is sound.

No. 2. is a Larch board, that has in-
closed the remains of a branch which

225

seems to have been broken oft*, while
alive ; and such breaking occasioned the
death of the stump, as it produced no
slwots, but remained dead upon the stem,
ten years, before it was completely in-
closed. The sound wood joins closely
to the end of the stump, and we have no
more of defect than just its size. Had
no stump been left, in displacing the
branch, it is evident the defect would liax^e
been no detriment at all.

Here some of the advantages of pru^
ning are clearly demonstrated, more par-
ticularly that of close cutting ; as such
wounds readily heal over, and in doing
so, completel}^ exclude the air, and hence
prevent or arrest the business of putre-
faction. A. would have been complete-
ly rotten, long before the tree was taken
down, had not that been the case. We
see too, how soon, after amputation, the
veins or sap-vessels take a straight direc-
tion over the stumps ; after which, all the

226

wood produced must be perfectly straight,
and equally clear of knots; exctpt mis-
management should afterwards occasion
the production of unnatural branches. —
From such documents it may likewise be
learned, that jto mound, of a moderate size,
and 'proper Jorm, hflktcd upon a healthy
tree, can possibly require the use of a plais-
ter.

The exclusion of air and moisture is
certainly all the real service a plaister
can render to a tree ; and, therefore,
where there is no danger from tlie one,
there can be no need of the other. A
wound, oiyi-oe or siji: inches diameter, upon
a healthy tree, will heal over before the
stump decays ; and such healing effectu-
ally prevents decay afterwards.

It follows from hence, that no other
tl an large wounds, or such as are upon
v/eak trees, can require plaistering ; and
even in such cases, the lime of applica-

927

tion oiifjht not immediately to follow
upon the infliction of the wound, except
the stump or face of it has been previous-
ly dead ; in which case, the same treat-
ment will apply, that we have to recom-
mend forothers, some years after ampu-
tation.

Where plaisters are necessary, they
should also be somewhat lasting. We
cannot expect people to renew them of-
ten on forest-trees ; and^ therefore, our
business is to apply something-, to effect
the purpose at once. — Lead, admits of
air, and often water ; so that it is not al-
ways effectual : nor can Paint, Tar, or
any such body, be of material service, if
applied to a recent wound ; because the
end of the stump shrinks and cracks af-
terwards so as to admit both air and
moisture ; and besides, such means ob-
struct the first efforts of healing. Witli-
out them, the first year's produce of wood
must either unite with the end of the

22S

stump, or grow very close to it ; and so
far compositions can never do good.

For these reasons, it seems better to
defer using any means to a live stump,
till, at least, two summers have elapsed,
from the amputation ; as, by that time,
nature would have healed part, and it
might be judged how far such means
were likely to effect the rest, before de-
cay could take place. — I'hen, in doubtful
cases, and not before^ would be a proper
time to fill the fissures with good Putty ;
after which, two coats of thick Paint,
applied to the end of the stump, would
eftectually prevent decay for many
years ; generally, till the wound itself dis-
appears.

The foregoing will equally apply to
wounds, made by disbarking trees, or
branches blown off: it must indeed be a
large wound, of these sorts, that will not
grow over, upon a vigorous tree,provided
2

229

all the loose bark is displaced, and the
surface of the wood made somewhat
even.*

* At Longroid-Bridge, near this place, there is an
Oak, which some years ago lost its bark on the south
side, probably by lightning, seven feet six inches
in length, and eighteen inches broad, in the widest
part ; the wound is now reduced to six feet long, and
somewhat less than three inches, where broadest ; the
whole diameter of the stem, at the middle of the
wound, is about four feet.— We are sure that nature
has proceeded thus far without the help of any com-
position ; if the advocates of such .v/w^ could sIicat
they have ever done one tenth part as much without
tlie help oi nature ; then they might have something io
boast of.

If a public proof were required of nature's unremit-
ting eftbrts, in this sort of business, the New \\'alk at
Vork furnislies an excellent one. There the floods,
bearing down the ice, have made terrible havock, at
difterent times, in disbarkiug the Elms ; and yet the
wounds are all in a healing state, without the aid of
Plaisters.

In quitting the business of Wounds, we may men-
tion a circumstance, wliich furnishes a useful hint to
persons, who may experience the misfortune of having

230

To arrest the progress of HoJIowness,
the effect of rotten stumps, may be some-
times desirable. In such cases, the space
must be probed to the bottom, and any
quantity of water found in it, may be

Taluable trees disbarked, eJl round the stem; a case
hitherto deemed incurable. — Mr. Hargrove, Bookseller,
of KtiaresboroTigli, had an Apple Tree so treated, to the
length of half a yard, in September, 1802; — the onlj'
application then used, was a piece of matting wrapped
round the wound ; in which state it remained till the
May following; when a curious expedient suggested
itself to Mr. Lewis, an ingenious person in that neigh-
bourhoorl. He cut a small scion from the tree, four
inches longer tlian the wound, and inserted one end
of such scion in the bark, at each extremity of the
wound, in the manner of grafting. It was then covered
with clay, whicli was tied round with a mat, and
fortunately succeeded, so as to be a conductor for
the sap. I examined it in October, 1805 ; found the
scion considerably enlarged, the tree heaitliful, and
was told, that it bore as much fruit this year as in any
one preceding.

Undoubtedly, this instance proves what we have
imiformly asserted, as to the situation of the principal
sai^-vessels : and, likewise, exhibits the advantages of

231

either let out with an augre, at the bot-
tom of such space, or dried out with
cloths, where they can be apphcd. The
hollow may then be filled with v^ery dry
sand, and its mouth plugged with wood.
The plug should be driven, so as to be
level with the inner bark ; as, by that
means, nature's efforts would not be ob-
structed, in growing over it. The fitting
of the plug is not material, as it should
be calked with oakum, to exclude the air
and moisture, and afterwards painted
over, as directed in the last case.

There is one standing and general pre-
judice, in regard to pruning, which ope-
rates very much to its disadvantage, by
limiting the business to comparatively

scarifying bark-bound trees, in a very striking point
of view. If sucli means could support the tree in
the first instance, and afterwards invigorate it, so as to
produce what has been described, we may easily sup-
pose a large quantify of sap to ascend in the new wood,
grown in the incisions made in the latter operation.

232

few hands ; such as woodmen and hedgers ;
for no others are dextrous in the use of
the Bill or Hatchet.

It is constantly asserted, that the use of
a Saw is dangerous, except ^the wounds
are afterwards smoothed with some other
instrument; as, otherwise, they would
never heal. In opposition to which we
can safely affirm, that such danger
amounts to little or nothing, when ap-
plied to the hardy foresters.

Indeed we know of no case among them
where such smoothing becomes necessary,
except where the head of an old tree is
taken off somewhat level with the horizon ;
in this case, the roughness, left by the saw,
must retain some little moisture, and there-
fore, would sooner induce rottenness.
But this is completely different from ta-
king off a branch, slopingly, either from
the stem of a tree, or the side of another
branch ; as, in either case, the parts be-

233

yond the operation, attract the sap to the
very edges of the wound, as ah'eady de-
scribed ; while, in the former case, we
have nothing beyond the wound to cause
such attraction ; and, therefore, in old
trees, they cannot heal. Wiien such are
made into Pollards, the idea of tun')or is
gone; and, therefore, it is of little conse-
quence if they afterwards grow hollow, as
they may live in that state for ages. How-
ever, when persons are particularly careful
of such subjects, cutting off the head,
dopingly^ as near a live branch as possible,
and afterwards capping the wound with
lead, is the best preventive of decay.

In every other case, where branches
are too large for the knife, we find the
saw not only the best, but the only prac-
ticable tool for pruning upon a large scale :
(cutting down trees is another thing;) be-
cause it is expeditious, and any one may
soon learn the use of it, so as to cut otf
the branches exactly to the required de-

234

gree of closeness ; which no person,
however dextrous, can do with either a
hatchet, or a bill. If we cut too close,
the wound is much larger than necessary ;
if too distant, we leave a stump ; the ef-
fects of which have been described ; — and
therefore, the cut is always made with
some regard to both circumstances. Al-
most every branch has a little swell at its
base; at the end of which the cut is in-
variably made, on small ones ; on larger,
where the swell is greater, we take part of
it ; see D. on pi. IV. marked in the man-
ner such should be taken off; C. on the
same plate, has less of swell, and, there-
fore, it is marked to be taken oft" closer.

For large work, the common carpenter's
saw is the best; for smaller, one with
somewhat finer teeth, the plate being
about twenty inches long, is preferable.
— It is almost unnecessary to observe this
should be Steel; to prevent the loss of
time in sharpening.

^35

Another objection to the using of a
hatchet or bill is, that branches cannot be
thinned by them, without frequently da-
maging others by their back-strokes as well
as their edges. — On the whole, as almost
every wound, made under a good system
of pruning, is so situated as to cast off
wet, and have the sap flowing all round
it, the smoothing of saw wounds is totally
unnecessary. For these reasons, we know
no way of doing the business, expeditiously
and a2;e//, with any other instrument, except
so far as may be performed with the knife.

In regard to the proper season for pru-
ning, there is only one difficulty ; and that
is discovering the wrong one, or the parti-
cular time when trees will bleed. Con-
siderable pains have been taken to ascer-
tain this point, by pruning all sorts at all
seasons, repeatedly ; and only two have
been discovered which bleed uniformly,
at certain seasons, namely, the Sycamore
and Firs, as soon as the sap begins to

236

move. The best and safest way is, to
notice, in spring-pruning, if the trees
bleed, (for it never happens at other sea-
sons ;i if the}^ do, to desist, till, upon trial,
it be found to have ceased.

As a general rule, we think summer is
preferable to a^m^er-pruning ; because, in
proportion as wounds are made early, they
heal so much the more in the same sea-
son. From this rule, however, the case
may be excepted, where the branches to
be displaced bear a great proportion to
the whole weight of the head ; as there
might be danger of the rest not attracting
the sap sufficiently ; yet that would hap-
pen only to hard woods, and trees not
vigorous.

OAK TIMBER WOODS,

These are, confessedly, a species of
property of much consequence to their
2

2«7

owners and the nation. Their manage-
ment seems to have been systematic and
stationary for centuries ; and, therefore,
at first sight, might be supposed either
too good to be improved, or not easily to
admit of it.

The facts are presumed to be com-
pletely the reverse; and, if so, to shew,
not only what is the operative part of
such system, but its natural and uniform
tendency, may be useful. If it be good
it will stand that test; if otherwise, the
sooner it is exploded the better.

Taking it for granted that the manage-
ment of a wood should be influenced by
the principle of Grain only, it will not be
difficult to discover, that the system gene-
rally acted upon is not the best to prouiote
that object ; because it is materially de-
fective in three essential points, besides
others of less importance, viz.

238

1. The economy of sap,

2. The management of shelter,

3. The means of preventing defective
timber.

The importance of these particulars
has been already mentioned, and, we
trust, established ; so that here it is only
necessary to remind the reader of the cir-
cumstance.— If important in other situa-
tions, they are undoubtedly the same in
a wood ; this, however, seems the place
Avhere the two former are most of all dis-
regarded.

Every thing we find in books, upon the
subject, conveys the idea, that the system,
as now practised, is some centuries old,
which may be supposed a proof of its
value. But this is erroneous ; as it is
evident, from the masses of timber found
in old buildings, that, in this country, it
was o/ice plentiful. And, if such plenty
were produced without attention, where

"259

was the need of cultivation ? Under such
circumstances, there was convenience, and
hence propriety, in sweeping obstructions
out of the way, at every fall. It was then
of little consequence either when another
might be ready, orwhat its produce ; and,
therefore, such things as the management
of shelter and sap were never practised ;
probably never thought of.

Now, however, the case is materially
different ; the scarcity, and consequent
value, of timber, are seen and felt every
where ; of course, the management which
formerly was proper, is now exactly the
reverse.

Supposing the scarcity and value to be
as asserted, common sense seems to dic-
tate that, when a tree is cut down, the
root of which is capable of producing
another, some means should be employed
to forward its progress. To the owner,
it cannot be matter of indifference whe-

240

ther, before the period of the next fall,
such stool produce one or two stout
healthy trees, from twenty-five to thirty
feet high, or many weak itl-formed shoots,
the best of which are aptly enough deno*
niinated Wavers.

Fig. 1. pi. VIII. gives some idea of the
produce of an oak stool, growing on a
tolerably good soil. It is supposed to
have grown from the last fall, without any
sort of attention ; and, therefore, supposing
it a period which is common, about
twenty-one years, or, at least, two-thirds
of the average time which individuals
enjoy their estates, we regard it as the
beggarly produce of a system ofabsurdity,
equally disgraceful to the national intel-
lect and industry.— The sap which would
have supported one or two stout, free-
growing, young trees, has been squander-
ed among a great number of shoots, col-
lectively, and, individually, of little value
upon any soil, but move particularly where
it is bad ; as there such produce, the bark

24i

excepted, is intrinsically worth no more
tlia 1 wlmt it would fetch for hedging, the
fire, chtiicoal, &c.

AtV. 130—132, we have particularly
noticed the way in which such method
operates, in these cases, and ihe result we
have as above. We cannot allow they are
otherwise of value; because a tree worth
five shillings may be raised much sooner,
by displacing the whole, and paying at-
tention to the next produce of the same
stool. Under the present custom, how-
ever, the woodman has no choice, but to
adopt the best shoots; or he will be no
nearer his point the next fall than the
present.

On better soils, the case certainly is
somewhat different ; but, even there, the
value of produce, in proportion to what
it might be, is trifling indeed; not only
on account of being very small wood, but
because the best of such is usually too

U2

slender to resist the wind effectually, and
too much hide-bound, to attract the sap
sufficiently. Hence, for both reasons,
they are not in condition to increase nearly
as fast as a pole, which has previously
been trained with some degree of atten-
tion.— No. 2, on pi. VIII. gives some idea
of such produce, (technically Wavers,) as
usually dressed and left by the woodman.

The attempt to convey accurate ideas
of produce is here unnecessary, as well
as impossible; for every specific case must
differ from others, less or more. But if
inattention wiil, in any given soil, and, in
a certain time, produce such figures as
No. 2, attention would, in the same time,
produce one equal to No. 3; and how
much the latter is calculated to improve
faster than the former, is left to be deter-
mined by the intelligent; supposing the
constitution of each to be the same ; but,
knowing that this can never happen, we
hesitate not to say, that, for several years,

243

the latter must improve in value, at least
three times as fast as the former.

Here we are willing to allow as much,
in favour of neglect, as the friends there-
of choose to claim, respecting the pro-
duce cut down in order to reduce No. 1.
to the fio-ure of No. '2. if thcv will allowa
proper value for what must have been
previously taken from the stool. No. 3,
as that would at least have produced o;2c
good pole. But more of this when we
come to show the manner in which such
stool should be treated.

In the next place, we state, that under
thissystem, the important matter of s^e/^er
is completely overlooked.- -It is admit-
ted, that Woods are not only sheltered
for a few of the last years before a fall,
but usually too much so; hence the greater
damage is sustained, after the woodman
has been introduced, with Starvatiox
at his heels.

244

At p. 198, an account is given (confes-
sedly, in part, theorelical,) of the manner
in whicfi Wuid and Cold operate on trees,
so as to retard their growth; but we need
not be anxious, whether such reasoning
prove perfectly correct; as the fact now
asserted is too obvious to be denied, —
nainel}^ that the starvation introduced
into woods, at the falls, sthit.'i the growth
of the trees, particularly the younger part
of them, for several years afterwards.

That the warmth of the atmosphere in
a wood, thick enough for the trees to
shelter each other, but not so as to exclude
a reasonable quantity of air, will be much
beyond that of an open situation, cannot
be doubted; no more than that almost
every wood is, from its nature, capable of
being maintained a permanent shelter.

The epithet hardy has been so con-
stantly applied to the oak, that what is
only true of the wood, is generally be-

245

lieved of the vegetable; hence, we very
naturall}' overlook the mal-trcatment to
which inattention exposes it. But cer-
tainly the season in which it vegetates, or
the circumstance of its first shoots beins
frequently destroyed by Frosts late in
May, exhibits no proofs of hardiness; and
the same may be gathered from the wood-
man's remark, that the bark is frequently
difficult to take off in cool weather. — Nor
docs its being found upon very cold ex-
posures prove the fact, but much to the
contrary; " the starveling oak upon the
" mountain's brow," is almost proverbial;
it will live, but can never thrive in such a
situation. The truth is, that the plant
requires a considerable portion of warmth,
not only to put its juices in motion, but
to keep them so ; as is proved by its ap-
pearance and progress in different de-
grees of elevation. The contrast between
the plants, produced in the extremes of
shelter and exposure, is indeed striking;

246

every thing being different, hut the form of
the leaves.

On the whole, little is hazarded in as-
serting, that an indifferent ^soil, properly
sheltered, is capable of producing more
oak timber than a good one, without this
advantage; and if so, how can the wood-
man's system be defended? Most cer-
tainly, it starves the trees for nearly twenty,
out of the first thirty years of their growth.

In the third place, we are to notice the
defects which under this system the timber
is subjected to. Here, to prevent repeti-
tion, we must refer the reader to the cata-
looue of the common defects of timber,
exhibited at p. 48; — which are afterwards
explained in order. When these have been
carefully attended to, we may ask this
important question. Whether the whole, or
any part of them, is guarded against by the
system under consideration ?

247

We need not, however, leave the mat-
ter in uncertainty, as it is notorious that
abundance of such defects are found in
every wood; and so far from means being
used to prevent them, their causes are so
little known, that they are generally con-
sidered as natural, and of course unavoid-
able. If we could trace events to their
causes, we should certainly find Jtiuch of
the present scarcity of oak timber occasion-
ed by the species of ignorance now spoken
of.

Ft fortunately happens that however
muchtlie three circumstances, which hav^e
been noticed, retard the growth, and de-
preciate the value of trees, yet they are all
such as may he avoided by a very moderate
share of attention. — We begin with the
hrst, the husbandry of sap; which can only
be effected by bestowing some attention
to the stools, and trees, periodically.

The first dressing of the former should

248

take place after two summers' growth ; at
which time, from two or four shoots only
should be left upon them ; and these the
strongest. Their situation should be such,
as to divide the space round the stool,
somewhat equally ; as, in this manner,
they would attract most of the sap ; con-
sequently, few others would appear after-
wards.

The shoots to be displaced must be
slipped, not cut off; for otherwise some
part of them would be left, and readily
produce others. The best tool for this
purpose is a sort of narrow spade ; straight,
stiff, and well steeled ; as the edge is to
be constantly kept somewhat sharp,
though rather thick. With this the shoots
are readily slipped off, as far as the person
can see where they spring: where he
cannot, he has only to bend them down
with his foot, and then he will easily see
how to proceed. In this manner, a com-
mon labourer may perform the necessary

U9

operation upon a great number of stools
in one day ; it would seldom require two,
to thin an acre.

These stools will require no further at-
tention, till the end of two years ; when
they should be gone over, in order to dis-
place any additional young shoots that
may have appeared, and to take off a few
of the largest branches from the others,
with such as appeared to rival the leaders.

Two or three years after this, they may
be thinned, by displacing the worst from
each stool, w4iich has more than two;
and, likewise, one of the two, where the
stools are small, or not vigorous.

At this time, they may be pruned in
the manner which has been directed for
plantations : indeed, afterwards, their
management may be the same, with this
addition ; the stools are each to be reduced

250

to one shoot, as soon as one is supposed
capable of attracting all the sap.

When intended for timber, the best
general method is, undoubtedly, to divert
the whole sap of the stool into one tree,
as soon as possible ; because, as before
intimated, the value of the article is in-
creased in proportion to its thickness,till it
gets to a tolerable scantling. At p. l66 —
170, has been shewn, how Pruning im-
proves the general weight of trees ; — re-
moving rivals from the same stool, will
operate, in that respect, the same as
pruning; and, therefore, the arguments
and proofs brought forward upon that
occasion, exactly apply in the present.

Unfortunately however, the woodman's
system, in ihis^ as in most other matters
essential to the free growth of the article,
is defective. When he finds a large,
healthy stool, being well aware one or

251

two wavers would not attract all the sap,
he very properly leaves more ; the quan-
tity being in proportion to the supposed
strength; but here the matter ofpropriety
ends ; as, be they more or Ie«>s, the whole
are left to grow together, till the next
fall.

The management of the Wavers is
next to be considered.— — The improve-
ment being supposed to commence at
a fall, the number of the Wavers to be
left upon the stools, may be somewhat
less than usual; because the means to be
adopted, in conjunction with the preser-
ved shelter, must occasion such to attract
considerably more sap than common ma-
nagement. They may then be pruned
as directed for plantations. — These must
afterwards be reduced to one, on each
stool, in the same manner as in the last
case.

The Reserves, or trees one fall older

252

than the last, may be treated the same as
such subjects in plantations ; and the same
may generally extend to the trees which
are older, with this addition, — that such
as have large spreading heads should have
them reduced, by taking off part of the
most extended branches, where they di-
vide.

At p. 132, the nature and tendency of
this sort of defect is sufficiently explain-
erd : and, therefore, it need only be noted
here, as particularly common and detri-
mental in woods already thin ; for its
constant tendency is to increase the evil.
Reducing the heads, not only prevents
such increase but benefits the trees, (see
p. 166 :) while the Bark and Wood, thereby
produced, create a fund, to discharge part
of the expences to be incurred by the
general improvement.

The shelter of a wood is to be preserved,
first, by the partial cutting of the under-

253

wood ; that ar^zc/e should, in every case,
be made subservient to this purpose. No
other rules can, or need, be laid down for
the business, than that so much is to be
constantly left, as will materially check
the currents of the winds, while none is
to be suffered to overhang or crowd the
produce of the stools. — If the latter,
jointly with the underwood, produce
shelter below, the trees would shelter each
other above ; as, under a good system,
there would be many of different heights,
each having a moderate top, none a large
one.

If the management of sap and shelter
be properly attended to, they will include
the third point, namely, the prevention of
defective timber ; except so far as relates
to Draining, &c. which has been adverted
to, p. 120.

As this outline includes the idea of
taking down the timber, whenever either

254

its own fitness^ or other circumstances
make it desirable, rather than at regular
periodical falls ; to bring such obvious
advantages within reach, it would be
necessary to have a few permanent Roads
in a wood ; some principal, and others
inferior ;^ both for the purpose of inspect-
ing the timber frequently, and getting it
out when fallen. The space sacrificed by
making such roads would be extremely
trifling, as the roots would occupy the
whole of the ground, and the tops of the
trees nearly all the space above them.
The roads should curve, so far that the
wind could not traverse them any consi-
derable length. With the help of these,
every thing recommended becomes easy ;
without them, all would be difficult, if not
impracticable.

The Roads or Rides in a Wood are
likewise no small acquisition, when in the
neighbourhood of a Mansion; being
equally a refuge from the summer's heat

255

and winter's cold. They also bring the
proprietor acquainted with what his
woods contain. In short, to persons of
opulence, who are proud of such property,
a system of this description must be pe-
culiarly gratifying ; as, in addition to
every other advantage, it affords tlie
means of producing, in a given space, the
greatest possible quantity of fine timber.

To proprietors, under different circum-
stances, it has also strong recommenda-
tions ; as, in addition to increased pro-
duce, as before-mentioned, it gives the
facility of taking down, annually or other-
wise, just so much as may be deemed
prudent, without the reproach of poverty
following it : for if a Wood, on a tolerable
soil, and not deficient of plants, had been
managed a dozen years according to this
system, no man could say, with truth, it
was in bad condition ; though there might
not be a tree left in it worth fort}- shillings.
It could not, indeed, be said, to be then

Sod

highly valuable; but we might affirm it
was in such a state of cultivation, that it
could not fail to become so, in a short
period.

Having now given what may be called
the Outlines of an improved System for
the Management of Oak Woods, it may
just be observed, that the advantages are
by no means confined to these of a pecu-
niary tendency ; as a wood, so managed,
would perpetually present a piece of na-
tural Scenery, every way perfect in its
kind. It is true, it would want, what a
certain Improver improved would call —
Sublimity, — namely, rotten trees ; — and
so much the better. An object naturally
Beautiful, or Grand, is doubly so when it
is also useful.

In considering the immediate and more
distant tendency of such a system, with a
view to anticipate the objections to which
it may be liable, we do not discover any,

257

(the idea being strictly confined to Tim-
ber Woods,) except the matter of Ex-
pence. — On this head, it may beobserved,
that such cannot be considerable ; but,
even supposing it were so, still the im-
provement proposed is so far permanent,
as to be tantamount either to the purchase
of an estate, or the improvement of on€
in possession ; the returns from which are
never iminediately looked for. In this
point of view, we know of no improve-
ment, usually practised upon estates,
likel3' to make such an abundant return,
yet, if the matter rested here, it would
want a prevailing recommendalion,-^that
of being immediate.

Fortunately, however, this improve-
ment requires little from the proprietors,
except the resolution to do it justice ; for
if a particular expencebe incurred, there
are also certain sorts of produce to be
reaped, which would not at all reduce
the general one. These alluded to are,

2.58

lirst, The value of the bark and wood,
produced in reducing the heads of the
larger trees : — secondly, The value of the
whole of what is pruned from the other
descriptions of trees, the stools included :
— thirdly. The amount of the sales of
poles, produced by reducing the shoots
or wavers, on each stool, to one only.

On these three species of profit, we
may generally observe, that as, in every
case, the sources from whence they spring,
would be much improved by their being
so removed, they are clearly the produce
of the new system, and ought to be ap-
plied to its support.

We have, likewise, a fourth species of
produce, which the system naturally
creates; namely. The accumulating in-
terest upon the sums produced by the
sale of trees, taken down before what
would have been the regular fall. The
matter will be best explained by suppo-

259

sing that fourteen years before the regular
period of a fall, many trees are discover-
ed, which are no longer improving. In
that case, if they be taken down and sold
for any given sum, a hundred pounds for
instance, there would be a clear hundred
pounds gained; as the accumulating in-
terest upon any sum doubles it in fourteen
years. If it be objected here, that by
taking; down the trees early, we lose the
increasing value of the article; the an-
swer is, We have the space they occupied,
and the produce from their stools, to
balance against that circumstance.

We state the extra species of produce
the system must naturally create; not
with an intention of estiniating its value,
for that is impossible, as it will scarcc^ly,
in two cases, be alike; but in order to
give proprietors an idea of the real cur-
rent expences; it being necessary to fur-
nish as correct an estimate of them, as
the nature of the case will admit of.

260

f It being obvious that such expences
must depend much upon the quantity of
the trees and underwood, as well as on
the quality of the soil, and the price of
labour, very considerable latitude must
be allowed to meet these circumstances.
On mature consideration, we think cases
may differ, as much as one to three, and,
therefore, three shillings is mentioned as
the lowest, and nine as the highest, an-
nual expence, per statute acre, upon this
species of management. Of course, in-
termediate cases would require different
sums.

We may, certainly, consider the greater
expence as the least formidable, for where-
ever a wood is so situated as to require
such expenditure, there can be no dan-
ger of its being more than defrayed by
the means mentioned. Indeed, we see
no reason to suspect any woods, so ma-
naged, would be found in debt at the
end of twenty years, except such as are
2

261

on very bad soils ; and, as to them^ it is
certain they never can be of considerable
value, without some such species of ma-
nagement.

The subject being now brought to the
close, the reader is apprised, that, as it
was not undertaken upon any other con-
sideration, than a full conviction of its
utility, the writer feels a considerable de-
gree of solicitude to impress the same
sentiment on others.

Conceiving that, in the British timber-
owners, he is addressing a body of per-
sons, whose education and rank in life
place them above the suspicion of nar-
row prejudices; to these he can appeal
with confidence ; no argument is neces-
sary to shew that they have an interest at
stake, and, therefore, a duty to perform;
— namely, to use such means as are al-
ways within their power, to determine
this very plain question : Is their timber

262

properly managed, or is it not ? — They
will consider, that, though the author has
an interest in promoting the cause of
truth, he must inevitably forfeit his pro-
fessional reputation, by disseminating
the contrary. He therefore maintains
the negative of the question, and has
given his reasons, at length ; — these are
such as every intelligent timber-owner has
an opportunity of comparing with the
continual operations of nature and neglect
among his trees. The spirit which dic-
tated the work naturally wishes for pub-
licity; but if it bear not every impartial
test, to which it is subjected, let it sink
into that oblivion which such temerity
deserves.

The last point to be noticed is one
which has had considerable weight with
the writer, namely, the present scarcity of
Oak Timber. For if the channels of pub-
lic information be correct, there not only

265

exists a gi\^at, but an alarming deficiency*
of this article, for the supply of the
Navy; and if so, the yards of the mer-
chants, we may be certain, are but scan-
tily supplied. Now, supposing this the
fact, (and we think the document insert-
ed below, reduces the matter to certain-

* The following is extracted from a report of Lord
Melville's speech, in the House of Peers, (1805,) re-
specting the State of the Navy.

" He would say one word on the supplies of stores
*' in his Majesty's yards. He wished ever to have
" three years' supplies in hand. He had used his ut-
'* most exertions with that view ; but all that he or
" any one could do, for the present, was only pallia-
" live. The evil which threatens the navy is prodi-
" gious : — one great cause of it is even connected
" with our prosperity and greatness. The growing
" state of agriculture is injurious to the nurseries of
" timber ; whose slow produce is not so tempting as
" the produce of grain and cattle. The danger
" presses hard. All men should come to it with one
" hand and one heart ; willing to make sacrifices, not
" only of their other interests, but even of their par-
" tialities."

^64

tj,) something is necessary to be done in
order to arrest an evil, which appears not
only increasing, but to threaten conse-
quences too serious for an Englishman to
contemplate with indifference.

If the circumstances disclosed in the
last two months be attentively consider-
ed, they lead to this interesting conclu-
sion, that if our country cannot, or do not,
maintain the empire of the seas, we shall
soon have neither country nor empire to
maintain.

The plain fact is, that we cannot exist,
as a nation, without ships, both for War
and Commerce, and these cannot be con-
structed, nor maintained, without im-
mense masses of Oak Timber.

It will be observed, that while the
statesman (whose opinion we have quo-
ted), asserts the prevailing scarcity, he
attempts to explain the cause; but

265

here, we presume, his con elusion is erro-
neous; because it cannot be shewn, either
that any considerable portion of Land is
now devoted to Agriculture, which previ-
ously produced Timber, or that the arti-
cle is now worse attended to than former-
13^ ; nor does it appear that any consider-
able part of agricultural implements is>
made of Oak; nor tliat Agriculture has
so engrossed the labouring part of the
communit}', that less of the article has
been planted in the late than former ages:
and, therefore, it is evident the scarcity
is not to be imputed to our " Agricultural
Greatness/'

The fact seems to be this : — there has
been no material increase in Tlanting it^
(certainly no improved general manage-
ment has been adopted) within the last
loO years; in w^iich time, it is indispu-
table, that we have increased prodigiouslij
in Naval, Commercial, and Manufacturing
Greatness; all of which occasion con-

s

266

slant and large demands for the article ;
while it does not appear that the supply
has increased materially, if at all; and,
therefore, the scarcity is the natural con-
sequence of such demands.

Still, with a full conviction of increa-
sing scarcity, we think that Government
has the means of retarding, and ultimate-
ly arresting its progress, by a proper ap-
peal to the spirit and interests of the
country. I'he means may be mentioned,
without having too sanguine an expecta-
tion of their being adopted.

Suppose then, a Committee of Timber-
Owners were appointed to examine into,
and report their opinion of the present
method of managing Oak Woods ; and
also, what appeared the most speedy means
of improving them. If improvement
were thought practicable, returns might
be made of the quantity of such woods in
every township, with the names of the

267

proprietors ; each of whom should have
the substance of the committee's report
transmitted, with an invitation to sign an
engagement (no otherwise binding than
upon honour), stating the quantity of
acres he proposed to cultivate, in the
manner recommended. A good method
once adopted, through such influence,
would afterwards sufficiently recommend
itself.

Government should, of course, set the
example ; by putting the whole of the
Royal Forests under such management,
so far as applicable.

It is almost unnecessary to mention,
that such Committee should meet in the
country, where Woods, of different ages,
were near at hand ; and that they ought
to call in such persons, to assist in their
inquiries, as they might deem necessary.

There is nothing in the business propo-

S2

26b

sed, which presents the least difficult}' to
Government, nor any thing objectionable
to individuals; and 3^et it seems, at least,
highly probable that much good might
result from such an enquiry; as, in Woods,
it is not only possible, but easy to demon-
strate the impropriety of their general
management; and, consequently, that
improvement is equally necessary to the
National and Individual Interest.

It is admitted, that such means would
not produce immediate plenty or cheap-
ness ; for nothing short of coercion (ever
hateful) could do that ; but they would
very soon exhibit an abundant supply, in
succession; which would not only be an
inducement for proprietors to take down
timber more liberally, but, in some de-
gree, be the means of keeping down the
price. With abundance in prospect, it
could notadvancesofast, as with nothing
but increasing scarcity in view.

^69

The encouragement of planting the ar-
ticle is certainly desirable; still that is
only a distant resource ; — it might, at some
period, help the above measures, but can
neve?' be a substitute for them. It is im-
possible to assert with truth, either that
there is a scarcity of Oak Plants or Trees,
of some description ; or that the soil and
atmosphere are not generally favourable
to the production of that species of Tim-
ber. The truth is, that the scarcity is
clearly to be imputed to the neglect of cuU
tare, with an increasing demand. It is,
therefore, necessary, that'* all men should,
" with one hand aud one heart," adopt
improvement. Certainly, themselves and
posterity have much to gain by it, while
nothing is required of them which is dif-
ficult; little to be parted with, except
their prejudices.

Finally, in addressing Timber Owners,
it may be observed, that should the in-
fluence of Government be wanting, an(^

270

no general improvement take place, indi-
viduals will have so much the more inte-
rest in attending to the business. If a few
improve the quality of their Timber, they
will improve their own market, in propor-
tion as they depreciate that of others.

But they have a much higher induce-
ment.— The splendid Victory, lately
achieved, has proved our Wooden Walls
to be an essential part of the Title, by
which, not only Estates, but every species
of property, is held. Let, then, all, who
are anxious to preserve their property,
remember the last order of that Patriot
and Hero — the immortal Nelson : —
Let it be considered as addressed to every
individual, as well as to our invincible
Tars : — Let it be re-echoed in every part
of the United Kingdom : — Let it heespe-
daily, and perpetually, sounded in the
ears of British Timber-Owners : " Exg-

" LA]!fD EXPECTS EVERY MaN TO DO

" HIS Duty!"

INDEX.

INDEX.

AGRICULTURE much encouraged, 10.
Agriculturists, their Practice quoted, I69.
x\ccidents, suggest the i\f ode of Pruning, 140.
Air, an admirable Auxiliary in Pruning, 201.
Ashes, how spoiled in lopping, 181.
Authors have usually detailed old Errors, 15.
Beech, the frontispiece, account of, 150.
Bends, the best made from straight wood, 172

formed by Boiling, &c. 173.

new method of growing, 174.

Books contradict each other, 13.
Branches, natural, what, 110-

— ■ unnatural, their causes, &c. 129,218,

their uses explained, 155.

■ superfluous, what, 53.

Carelessness in Pruning, condemned, 112.
Caution, one species of it condemned, 112.
Cottagers, their cause pleaded, I40.
Dead Tops, their causes, 123.

272

Dead Tops, the method of cure, Q\6.

Defects, general, in Timber, 48.

Distance of Trees, what a proper one, 19^-194.

Draining of Woods, &c. 120.

Effects, imputed to wrong causes, 37.

Elms, absurd mode of treatment, 178.

, how to clear their stems of branches, 179.

Error, general, in regard to Trees, 12.
Errors, in regard to pruning Firs, gross, 23, 41.
Evelyn, Mr. 16.

Exposure, sudden,liow it operatesupon trees, 198.
Experiment, important one, in regard to the

increase of the trunks of trees, 175.
Firs, their Sap- Vessels large, 58, 204.

Foreign, remarks on, 60, 62, 64, 68,

-——British-grown, their defects, 62.
'—British-grown, substitutes for foreign, 78.

British, prejudices against, and why, 65*

' sorts most worth cultivation, 66.

excellent ones, grown in Scotland, 70.

•their timber improved by age, 75.

large ones, at Woburn & Studley Paik, 76.

— — pruning of, 203.

why they sometimes bleed, 209-

Forsyth, Mr. 24, ]69.

Furrows, on the Stems of Trees, 5 L

275

Gardeners, their Practice quoted, 168.
Gentlemen, particular reasons why they should

take care of their Plantations, 183.
Grant (Sir Archibald), his Account of Fir

Timber grown in Scotland, 71.
Ground Designers, often spoil the soil, 219,
Horticulture, much encouraged, 10.
Hunter, Dr. his Edition of Silva, 20.
Hedge-Row Timber, 124.
Kennedy, Mr. 21.

Knotty Timber, the causes of, explained, 53.
Knots, natural, what, 53.

unnatural, 53, 217.

obstruct the Sap, 56, 58, 153.

Lawson, Mr. 19.

Larch, its properties, 79 — 102.

method of Staining o j .

its defect, 102.

specimens of, examined, 107.

Leaves, their uses in vegetation explained, 155.
Leaders for Trees, proper choice of, 200.
Man, a poor one, compared to an old Tree, 127.
IVIill Coggs, excellent ones, made of Oak, 173.
Mushrooms cultivated. Oaks neglected, 10.
Nature, the Authors instructor, 14.
, averse to growing Bends, 13, 1/5.

274

Nelson, Lord, his order at Trafalgar, 270.

New Forest, its Trees neglected, 139.

Oak Timber, its Scarcity, and the causes,262,

Method of arresting such Scarcity, 266.

—Timber Woods, ^36.

Trees, the vegetable tender, 244.

how to reduce their heads, 251.

— — Stools, how dressed, 247.

Wavers, their management, 250.

Reserves, their treatment, 251.

Woods, how to preserve their shelter, 252.

Roads in them necessary, 254.
Oaks, their Culture neglected, 10.

healthy ones, why often found hollow, 113.
old ones, generally defective,and why,l 15.
Oxen, a species of Pruners, 138.
Planter, often in a curious predicament, 220»
Plantations, peculiar properties of, 183.
' — almost uniformlymismanaged, 187-

shelter in them important, 190,205.

-why qualified to produce more

Timber than other situations, 194.
Planting, much encouraged, 1 1.
iPruning, accidental, its beneficial effects, 149.
—to produce long, clean, straight, and
sound Timber, 161.

\

1275

Pruning, regular, its consequences, 1^4*

improves the constitution of trees, 1 67

increases their general Weight, 16'^.

large neglected plants, 200.
partial mode of doing it, 202.

its effects in Shrubheries, 222.

Quackery, specimens of, 25 — 31.

Rottenness and HoUowness, 108.
' ascending, accounted for, 418.

Roots of Trees, extraordinary length of, 121:

Sap, the course of, explained, 48.

Sap Vessels, large, in Firs, 58, 204-

Saw, the best Pruning Instrument, 2S2.

Scarifying recommended, and why, 216.

Sliaken Timber, 141.

Shelter, the management of, 19O, 205.

Smith, Dr. 70, 73, 78.

Soil, the depth of, increases produce, 195,

Soils, bad, occasion Rottenness, 122.
■ bad, occasion Dead Tops, I30.

Stems of Trees tapering, why, 55.

Stems of Trees, particularly valuable, 59.

short, how lengthened, I6I, 200.

how enlarged by Pruning, 170.

■ short, with spreading Headl32.s,

Stumps, long ones highly prejudicial, 1 14.

2

^76

Teachers, a word of advice to, 208.
Thinning, attention to, reduces Pruning, I98.
' ' — general ohservations on, 199, 203.
Timber decreasing in Quantity, 1 1 .
' apparently strong, weak in fact, 59-

— knotty, proper application of, 61.

— seasoned by Boiling, 175.

Training applicable to Ornamental Trees, 211.
' of short Stems, with flat Heads, 212.

conic Heads, 214.

spiral Heads, 2 14.

two or more Heads from one stem, 2 1 3.
-" two Heads, one above the other,214.

Trees, their importance, 46.

clear of knots, grow tall, 58.

singular opinions respecting, 78.

« good form of, prolongs their lives, 123.

Ivy-bound, 144.

enlargement of, how demonstrated, 144.
when in a state of nature, 149.

their natural forms knotty, l53.

their internal structure described, 153

tie best forms of, grow quickest, 164-

sorts of, proper for Underwood, 29O.

weak^ method of invigorating, 219.

top-heavy, method of cure, 220.

277

TreeSjdisbarked all round, method of cure, 230,
Vegetation controlled by Pruning, 222.
Wooden Walls, part of title deeds, &c. 270.
Woodmen, bad teachers, 13.

■ — their practice quoted, 170.
Woodpeckers, damage done by, 1 17-
Wood Management, ruinous on bad soils. 111.

System meansjto defray its expences,257,

System, estimate of its expences, 26o.

Wounds, general observations on, 223.

DIRECTIONS to the BINDER,

Wobnra Beech, to fece the Title.
PI. II. p. 5.

PI. III. 153.

PI. IV. 114.

PI.V. 261.

PI. VI. 2f4.

PI. VII. 217,

J>1. VIII. 240.

ADVERTISEMENT.

THE Author gives Directions afid Designs
in exery Department of Ornamental Garden-
ing ; and likewise^ directs the Business of
Planting, of every Description, as well as
the Objects of the present Treatise, in any
Part of the Kingdom.

Where more agreeable^ will undertake the
Superintendance of the above Objects, either
hy periodical or occasional Visits.

Ornamental Gardening undertaken by Es-
timate ; — including the finding of Plants,
where required.

^::^ Letters addressed to Huddersjield, to
No. 15. Norton-Falgate, or to J. Harding,
St. James's Street, London, will be duly at-
tended to.

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J'.uo

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