THE

“DAIRY HERD

KHAKI UNIVERSITY OF CANADA |
3 Series 1.—No. 2.

KHAKI UNIVERSITY OF CANADA

AYRSHIRE COW

Reprinted, with adaptations, from ‘““THE DAIRY HERD,” by
Henry H. Wing, in ‘‘ Cornell Reading Courses.”

THE DAIRY HERD
Henry H. WING

The products of the dairy cow are fourfold. The
first and chief product is naturally the milk which she
secretes, and which is used as milk or for butter or cheese

Fic. 16.—The spare, angular, wedge-shaped form desirable
in adairy cow. The teats are well placed. Compare with
Fig. 17.

making. The second product is the calves which she
bears, and which may be of more or less value. Third,
the carcass of beef which she will yield when she is no
longer useful for the production of milk, should be taken
into account. Lastly, the manure she produces is
of considerable value.

The milk may be called the main product, and the

3

calves, the beef, and the manure the by-products, of
the dairy cow. It has been asserted that the milk is
the only product that should be taken into consideration
in estimating the value of a dairy cow, and that the
calves and the beef should be entirely ignored by a
successful dairyman; but in these days of strong
competition it is not possible to ignore the by-products,
and in any scheme of successful dairying the calves
and the beef must at least be taken into consideration.
This does not mean that in any case milk-producing
qualities are to be sacrificed for thesake of the by-products.
It simply means that of two animals of equal value for
the production of milk, the one that will give the greater
return in production of calves and value of carcass is
the more profitable.
THE SELECTION OF THE HERD

There is no one best breed of dairy cows.—In the forma-
tion of a dairy herd one of the first questions to be

Ss = —

Fria. 17.—The square, beefy type of cow, usually a poor
milker. Note poorly placed teats. Compare with Fig. 16.

—_—— se a

—

considered is the choice of a breed and whether the herd
shall be made up of pure-bred or grade animals. There
are several well-known breeds of dairy cattle in “anac.,
each having distinct qualities and each having strong
partisans. While, undoubtedly, some breeds are better
fitted for certain conditions of soil and climate than
are others,still the matter of the choice of a breed may
well be left to individual preference. In almost any
location one may choose a breed for which he has a
strong liking, either real or fancied, and be assured that
he can establish with it a successful herd. Jerseys,
Guernseys, Holsteins. Ayrshires, and eyen Shorthorns,
make a varied and fairly long list of breeds from which
to select.

_ Phe comparative merits of pure-bred and grade cows.—
Whether pure-bred or grade animals should be selected
is a matter on which there may be more difference
of opinion. By purely bred animals are meant those
that are recorded in the herd-books of their respective
breeds. This is the narrow, restricted sense of the term
pure-bred, but it is the one in common use in Canada.
A grade animal is the produce of a pure-bred sire on a
common, or grade, dam. The produce of a pure-bred
sire and a common, or “‘scrub,’’ dam is called a half
blood; the produce of a pure-bred sire anda half-blood dam
is called a three-quarters blood; a three-quarters blood
bredin turn to a pure-bred sire will produce aseven-eighths
blood ; and so on ad infinitum. Since only the offspring
of pure-bred parents on both sides are eligible to registry
in the herd books of any of the dairy breeds, it follows
that, no matter how far the process of grading up by
the use of pure-bred sires on grade femalesis carried, pure-
breds, in the technical sense, can never be produced.
Since pure-bred animals are sought for breeding purposes,

5

the offspring of pure-bred animals are therefore more
valuable and command a higher price than the offspring
of grades. Hence, if the value of the calves is taken
into consideration, a pure-bred herd is a more productive
one, other things being equal, than a grade herd. On
the other hand, by the grading-up process referred to,
continually selecting the cows that are the best producers,
it is entirely possible and by no means difficult to estab-
lish a herd of grade cows that will equal in the production
of milk any herd of pure-bred animals. Hence, if the
main product alone is sought, a grade herd may produce
as largely as a pure-bred one; but if the by-products
are to be taken into consideration, as it was stated at the
outset that they should be, a pure-bred herd certainly
has an advantage over a grade herd of equal productive
capacity.

Maintaining the herd—A dairy herd may be
maintained in two ways. First, by continued purchase
of mature animals to replace those whose period of
usefulness has passed. There are many conditions
under which this may be a wise practice. Ifitis desirable
to have the whole herd composed of cows in their full
productive capacity, if there is abundant opportunity
for selection and purchase near at hand, if there is a
reasonably good market for cows that are undesirable,
and if one has reasonable skill in selecting and good
ability in bargaining—a herd of high productive capacity
may be more easily and more cheaply maintained in
this way than by attempting to raise young animals
to replace those that are worn out.

The other method of maintaining the herd is, of course,
by raising calves to supply the place of old cows that
are no longer profitable. Such a herd will always
contain a considerable number of young animals that

6

have not yet reached full development, and therefore such
a herd will seldom equal in average production per
animal a herd that is maintained wholly by purchase,
At the same time a greater degree of uniformity of tyre
may be maintained where the animals are raised. If
land is abundant and cheap, the cost of raising a heifer,
up to the time that she becomes a fully developed cow,
will be less than that of buying a similar animal outright.
Through force of circumstances, by far the greater
number of dairymen must rely on raising the calves
necessary to maintain the herd. This being the case,
the ordinary dairyman will need to provide himself
with the services of a bull suitable to produce useful
dairy cows. In most cases he will need to own this
bull, so that the question of the selection and care of
the breeding bull has an important bearing on the
maintenance of the dairy herd.

The selection of the breeding bull.—It goes without
question that such a bull should be purely bred. There
are still far too many immature and ill-bred bulls in use.
As a matter of convenience, a yearling bull is turned
with the herd about the first of June, and in the
course of two or three months when all or nearly all
of the cows have become pregnant and he has fattened
up, he is sold again at a price little, if any, below his
cost, and the dairyman is without the trouble of the care
of a bull for several months. If, in addition to this,
little attention is paid to the breeding of the bull, it
is easily seen that little, if any, improvement in the
character of the herd can be expected from his offspring.
The progeny that a bull has already produced is by far
the best index of his usefulness that a prospective
purchaser can have. Cattle do not reach full maturity
in either sex, until they are about four or five years old.

7

Consequently the best bull to select is a bull not less
than four years old that has already begot cows of a
high productive capacity. Such a bull is, of course,
more difficult to control and more expensive to keep,
but he is worth many times the trouble and expense
as compared with an immature yearling.

In the selection
ot a bull, much has
been made of various
so-called milk signs :
rudimentary teats,
milk veins, escut-
cheon, and the like.
While each and all
of these may be
of scme value, they
are by no means
to be set against the
record that a bull
has made in the
production of his
daughters. Other
characteristics of the
bull that indicate
vigour of constitu-

‘Fic. 18.—A poorly formed udder, eh. pe sere
not reaching high up in the rear, OT8ANs, and vital
Compare with Fig. 19. activities in general,

are a loose, mellow

hide, a bold, bright eye, an active gait and dis-

position. These are of great importance as indicating

capacity to reproduce similar characteristics in his
offspring.

The management of a breeding bull. ie management

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of a bull on a dairy farm is often a matter of a good
deal of trouble and perplexity. In a herd of ordinary
size a single bull is sufficient, and it is usually necessary
that he be kept from the herd during the greater part
of the year. This means that he must be kept in solitary
confinement. The result of this is, too often, that his
temper becomes uncertain and his breeding powers
impaired from lack of exercise. In all cases where

ric. 19.—A well-formed udder, reaching high up. Com-
pare with Fig. 18.

it is possible to do so, it is better that the bull should
run with the herd of cows. With a little care this can
frequently be done. particularly during the summer and
fall, when the cows are all pregnant in a spring calving
herd, and in the spring and eaily summer, when the
cows are all pregnant in a fall calving herd. ~

The powers and the temper of a bull may also be

9

safeguarded by giving him exercise on a tread power,
or hitched by a long rope or chain to a wire between
two upright posts, or attached to a pole balanced on a
post so that he may move around it. Occasionally,
also, the labour of a bull may be utilized on a tread
power for cutting feed, pumping water, or separating
milk. Sometimes a particularly handy owner will break
a bull to work to harness or in a cart. It may even
be time and labour well spent to give a bull walking
exercise. A good, vigorous animal, carefully kept, should
retain his breeding powers up to eight or nine years of
age, or even beyond.

Weeding out the scrubs.—According to the census of
1910 the production of the 1,509,594 cows in New York
State. amounted to 6,657,309,540 pounds of milk,

Fig. 20.—The prominent milk veins of this cow would lead
one to believe her to be of a good dairy type, if there were
no betier way of judging her.

10

or 4.410 pounds per cow. This indicates that the average
cow of the State of New York is of little or no profit
to her owner.

In order to determine whether or not the average
vow is profitable to her owner, it is necessary to make
a calculation of the value of her product and the cost
of maintenance for a year. Lacking accurate data
for a large number of individuals, such a calculation
must be largely in the nature of an estimate, and it is
governed to a considerable extent by local market
fluctuations in prices of feed and dairy products. The
following is therefore given only as an estimate, to be
varied in any respect as particular conditions seem to
warrant. In other words, it merely gives a basis for
any estimate that an individual dairyman may see fit
to make in regard to his own herd.

VALUE OF PRODUCTS FROM THE AVERAGE DAIRY
Cow In New York STAte

4,410 lbs. milk at $1.50 per 100 lbs............ $66.15
4,410 Ibs. milk (3.8 per cent. fat plus &) =195.5
EMME, 2b ce) COMES. o.oo c et ce swce cee 68.43
4,410 lbs. milk (9 lbs. milk for 1 lb. cheese) =
pane. ehneesc, at. 13 cents..........2 ec ccee 63.70
Ela nist» (a eS ne 5 ob. d te See Oss ennss $66.09
Cost or Foop AND MAINTENANCE
26 weeks’ pasture at 30 cents. ae $7.80
40 lbs. ei per day for 180 ae at $3. 50 oS
ton. : 12.60
10 lbs. ay per ae ce 180 Ess = $12 oe ‘ten 10.80
1,470 lbs. grain at $30 per ton. : 22.05

(1 lb. of grain for each 3 lbs. ar aes or 7 te
per day for 7 months)
IBS he Poa ens ok 6 tale eo te cb s. $53.25

11

Depreciation, $25 in five years, per year....... $5.00
Interest on investment, $60 per cow at 6 per

CORA 65. cake es ows Se ee 3.60
Balance mmiiabic 0. =e fae: lak <a tale Sram 4,24
ata 6 ois) o's oe oa ose ne veh = oy oie ee

From this estimate it appears that the owner of the
average dairy cow will have about $4.25 to pay for
labour. Whether or not this is a sufficient amount,
each owner must determine for himself. On the basis
that it would require the entire labour of one man to
feed, care for, and milk twenty cows, it would mean
a labour return of only $85 for the year, which is far
below the lowest wage paid to ordinary farm labour.

It will be observed that the above figures refer to
New York conditions and pre-war figures. The condi-
tions revealed, however, are approximately the same
as found in Ontario and Eastern Ontario, and practically
the same results would have been secured if Canadian
figures could have been used. The illustration shows
the principles involved in finding the returns from
dairy cows no matter where they are found—the
figures and prices would have to be changed according
to local markets.

The first problem, pe of the successful dairyman
is to separate the poor cows from the good ones. There
is no means of determining the difference between
a good and a poor cow except by keeping a record of
her production. The knowledge of what a cow has
already produced is of far greater usefulness as indicating
what she is likely to produce in the future than any
correspondence of her outward form with any standard,
no matter how carefully the standard is devised or how

12

skilfully she is judged by it. The successful dairyman,
then, keeps careful records of the production of his cows
and bases nis selection on, them. Since fat is by far
the most valuaole constituent of milk, the usefulness of
a cow is largely indicated by the number of pounds
of fat that she produces in any given period of time.
The number of pounds of fat that a cow produces is
readily determined by knowing the number of pounds
of milk and the percentage of fat that it contains.

In order to obtain a complete record of a cow, it is
necessary that the milk be weighed and the fat deter-
mined at regular intervals. In dete.mining the produc-
tion of a cow the record may be complete or incomplete.
A complete record requires a greater expenditure of
time, labour, and care, but it gives an absolute record
of the production. An incomplete record, requiring
considerably less time, labour, and care, may enable
one to make an estimate of the production that will be
nearly or quite as valuable as an absolute record. The
most perfect record is made by weighing and recording
each milking, taking at the same time a small sample
which is kept in a common receptacle during the period of
a week, after which the fat is determined by the Babcock
method. If this is too much trouble, the milk may be
weighed at each milking and the fat determined in the
milk of a single day at intervals of a month. This
method has been shown to give results that are sufficiently
accurate for all practical purposes.

Judging a dairy cow.—The regular use of the milk scales
and the Babcock testis an indispensable part of the labour
of the modern, progressive, successful dairyman. Still
there are many occasions when it is desiraole or necessary
to form some estimate of the qualities of a cow where the
information given by the scales and the Babcock test

13

is lacking. ‘There are certain characteristics of form that
more or less certainly indicate the capacity of a dairy
cow. Many become so skilful in recognizing these
characteristics that they are able to separate good from
poor cows to a highly useful degree. A knowledge
of these characteristics is indispensable to a skiltul
dairyman.

It is generally recognized that a cow should be wedge-
shaped, that is, the skeleton of the hinder portions
of the body should be distinctly more largely developed
than that of the forward portions. She would stand
from half an inch to an inch and a half higher at the
hips than at the shoulders. The width, as viewed from
the front, should be distinctly wider behind than betore,
and the depth of the body as viewed thom the side should
be distinctly greater behind than before.

In order to produce large quantities of milk the dairy
cow must also have vigorous powers of respiration and
circulation. Since milk is formed fiom the blood,
vigorous circulation is required to cairy the blood in
large quantities to the udder, and particularly to the
minute capillaries. Vigorous powers of respiration
are necessary to purify the large quantities of blood which
must pass through the lungs. Vigouw of respiration is
indicated by a large, deep, full chest, particularly wide
on the floor: and oy large, clean, open air passages,
particularly the nostrils and the throat. Vigour of
circulation is indicated by prominent exterior blood-
vessels and by bright, pink complexion of the thinner
portions of the skin and visible mucous membranes.

In order to secrete large amounts of milk, a cow must
digest and assimilate large quantities of food. She must
therefore have large powers of digestion, assimilation and
secretion. Capacity to digest 1s indicated to a certain

14

extent by the size of the digestive organs, since a large
part of the cow’s food is bulky, and she must have
capacity to take in large amounts of food in a short

Fre. 21.—An ercelleni three-quarters bred cow, showing
what a pure bred sire can do in two generations. The
grandmother of this cow was a rather poor milker. She
herself produced in nine years, beginning when she was
two years old, 96,800 lbs. of milk and 3,814 lbs. of butier.

time. Vigour of assimilation and secretion is seen in
the abundance and healthy condition of the hair, and in
the softness and pliability of the skin and the abundance
of secretion from it.

Good points in the udder.—More useful than any other
outward characteristics of the cow, as indicating her
capacity to secrete, is the size and condition of the
udder. Naturally, a useful cow must have a large udder,
and, from the esthetic point of view, the more regular

15

in form it is, the better. The actual size and capacity
of the udder, however, may not be indicated by its
apparent size. In some animals the udder is held so.
close to the walls of the abdomen, and so great a part
of it 1s hidden between the legs, that it may appear
smaller than a more pendulous udder of the same size,
or even smaller. So, too, in judging of the quality of an
udder, its so-called fleshiness must be taken into con-
sideration ; that is, in some udders the connective and
fatty tissue is so much more abundant that it occupies
room that would otherwise be occupied by true milk-
secreting follicles. Such an udder will be tense and
firm, especially when empty, and will have little secreting
capacity in comparison with its size. A so-called fleshy
udder is approximately of the same size when empty as
when full. An udder in which the greater part of the
tissue is made up of milk ducts and secreting follicles
will shrink rapidly as the milk is drawn from it, and
when empty will be particularly loose, pliable and
flexible.

Popular milk signs.—In the cow, as in the bull, there
is a considerable number of so-called “ milk signs ”’ that
are relied on more or less implicitly by various people
in judging or selecting cows. Foremost among these
are the so-called milk veins. These milk veins never by
any possibility contain milk, but form a system of
exterior veins on the lower part of the abdomen that
serves to convey a part of the blood from the udder
back toward the heart. They vary in size, in length,
in sinuousness and in simplicity or multiplicity of
branches. Inasmuch as their size indicates, to a certain
extent, the amount of blood circulating in them, they
may be considered as useful signs. The larger the veins,
naturally, the larger the amount of blood flowing through

16

them. A cow witha large, elastic, tortuous and branching
milk vein is likely to be a better cow than one less well
developed in this respect. However, the milk veins

. cannot be relied on implicitly as indicating the capacity
of an animal to produce milk.

The milk veins usually enter the abdomen by one or
more distinct perforations on each side, called milk wells
or holes. A large perforation offers less obstruction to
the vein, and so impedes the circulation less—and_ to
that extent is a useful sign; but to judge between the
merits of two cows merely on differences in the size of
milk wells is to carry the matter much too far.

It is now scarcely necessary to more than mention
the milk mirror, or escutcheon, as the area of up-growing
hair on the rear of the udder, thighs and perineum is
called. Variations in the size and shape of this area
were seized on by the French writer Guenon as indicating
the amount and duration of milk secretion. On these
variations he constructed an elaborate table, showing
the amount of milk that a cow possessing an escutcheon
of a certain size and shape would give. Guenon had a
large following for many years in this country, but at
the present time scarcely any attention is given to the
escutcheon. |

It has been observed that an animal in which the
joints of the skeleton are not too closely knit is likely
to have good powers of assimilation. This has been
seized on by those who consider what is known as the
“open organization,’ as indicating great capacity to
secrete. This loose-jointedness, or open organization,
is well indicated by the distance between the vertebre
in the spinal column, so that the open, or loose, chine is
taken to indicate good capacity to secrete. Doubtless
it is of more or less value, but there are many animals

17

that are highly satisfactory as producers that are not
at all remarkable for looseness of chine, or open
organization.

The size ot the umbilicus is also taken as an indication
of the capacity of the animal to give milk. The argument
of some is that a large umbilicus indicates that the
umbilical cord in the foetus was large and the fetal
circulation strong; and that such an animal, being

3
=
3

Fia. 22.—The beefy type of cow, usually unprofitable in the
duiry. She uses too much feed for laying on flesh, and too
little for making milk. Compare with Fig. 21.

strongly nourished in the womb by its mother, has
thereby a stronger constitution than one with a small
umbilicus. Careful observation has shown, however,
that the size of the umbilicus is more of a breed than an
individual characteristic.

There is a cord or fibrous band in the flank that varies

18

in prominence and rigidity in different individuals. A
strong, prominent band is taken as an indication of good
powers of secretion. On the front part of the bone of
the tibia, just below the stifle joint, there may be
detected a depression that varies in size in different
individuals. A large depression at this place is supposed
to indicate great powers of secretion. Its value, however.
has never been conclusively proved.

Standards in judging dairy cows.—In order that a cow
may be carefully examined in respect to the various
characteristics just discussed, various standards or scales
of points are in use, particularly by students in the
agricultural colleges. The application of such a scale of
points to any individual is called scoring, and skill in
making judgment is attained only by carefully sco1ing a
considerable number of animals. Such scales, or stan-
dazds, while they correspond in the main features, differ
more or less in minor details, according to the judgment
of those who formulate them. Such a standard is given
on page 20 as a sample of those in ordinary use.

GRADING UP THE HERD

The successful and progressive dairyman will not only
give his best efforts toward obtaining a herd that will
make a satisfactory production, but will look to the
future and bring about still further improvement by
breeding from his herd succeeding generations that shall
be even larger producers than their ancestors. Such a
dairyman may, if he chooses, obtain as the foundation
herd pure-bred animals that may be depended on to
transmit their qualities to their descendants. But with
even the highest-bied animals there will be the necessity
for selection it the original standards of production are to
be maintained, to say nothing of being increased. On

19

CORNELL UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE
SCORE CARD

Dairy Cattle Points deficient
Scale of Points F Student’s
Perfect esti- Cor-
GENERAL APPEARANCE— score. mate. rected.
Weight, estimated.......... pounds; actual... ......¢s s,s eee «

Form wedge-shaped as viewed from front, side, and
to

Biel nec Slain ss o's om Maud Gpeya teeta clei ace See Serer
Form spare, as indicated by prominent joints and

clean bone, and lack of muscular development

along Tibs.and: loins ..... os «<\s-aocs sweeten sees eS Se
Quality, hair fine, soft; skin pliable, loose, medium

thickness; secretion yellow, abundant........... S. nes Se eee

Constitution vigorous, as indicated by alert expres-
sion, evidently active vital functions, and general
healthy APDPCATAINCE. 050 oe oe'sias aes Gale eee G- eee
HEAD AND NECK—
Muzzle clean cut; mouth large; nostrils large.... )
Eyes large, bright RS ee eee or ees
Face lean, long; quiet expression.. 0 bee ee
Forehead ’broad, slightly dished... -o..cs<tsse shee | Goes

Ears medium size; fine texture.................
Neck fine, medium length; throat clean; light
Gewiapsn sco. over Seo ee oe ee ee
FORE AND HIND QUARTERS—
Withers lean, thin; Shoulders angular, not fleshy. . Oe stpine
Hips far apart; not lower than SPINE? nck t- aeine te )
Rump long, wide, comparatively level........... 5
Thurls or Pin Bones high, wide apart............ j
anipns thin, IONS. ocece is res cele ene eee eee 2
Legs straight, sick shank fine.. SS a Sigs See uf
BODY—
Chest deep; with large girth and broad on floor of
chest: well-sprung £10624". 6 Jet. cok Vsrste solv at ee 10
Abdomen large, deep; indicative of capacity; well
SUPPOLLO v-2 5 civd big wows couiad eeedese we de eon 47 done
Back lean, straight; chine open. Tail long, slim,
With fine switeh:.*~ <<. <0 ..42 ses snk we sos eb eee 4
Loin BEOAG 6s 6s Seb Sees cece eee eee ee doe ee ee 2
MILK-SECRETING ORGANS—
Udder large, long, attached high and full behind,

eevee

extending far in front and full; quarters even. st een aor
Udder capacious, flexible, with ‘loose, pliable skin

covered with short, 1G NAPE. se eee OR 10.- ( Swekid a eed
Teats convenient size, evenly placed.............. ) ee re

Milk veins large, tortuous, long, branching, with
large milk wells. Escutcheon marae over

_ thighs, extending high and wide.. Perere Tree Se

2 a ee errr ea 100- |. sens wenn

pS Ee eer eo > Date. 2... 0s cece neues veh baeseeeeeues
Stade. ooo. cca ds conc ewiceve snep es Total score cece

the other hand, the large majority of dairymen seeking
to improve their herds must depend more or less upon
the individual animals they have already on hand as the
basis from which to start the improvement. In either
case, careful selection must be practised, and a knowledge
of at least the elementary principles of selection is neces-
sary for progress along this line. It is proposed, then,
briefly to indicate the lines along which an attempt to
breed up or improve a herd of common native or mixed
cattle is most likely to prove successful.

The first step in such improvement is in the selection
of a suitable bull. Such a bull, besides being a well-
developed individual with strong constitutional and vital
powers, must be purely bred in order that he may have
sufficient prepotency to transmit his characteristics to
his offspring, no matter what may be the qualities of the
females with which he1is mated. He is likely to be found
in a herd all the members of which are uniform in pro-
ductive capacity and have been bred under the same
conditions for anumber of generations. A bull useful as
a prepotent animal to mate with common or mixed
females is quite as likely to be the son of parents
of something more than average merit as the off-
spring of what some are pleased to call ‘“‘ phenomenal ”
animals.

Select calves that show the good qualities of the bull.—
In the improvement of a herd of cows it has been very
common to recommend that the practice should be to
use a pure-bred bulland to raise the heifer calves from
the best cows in the herd. Whether or not this practice
is correct will depend, to a great extent, on what is meant
by the term “best cows.”’ If it means merely that the
heifer calves trom the common cows that are the highest
producers are to be raised, it cannot be accepted without

21

qualification. The first and great step in improvement
under such a course of breeding comes from the pre-
potent qualities of the bull. Logically, therefore, the
best calves to raise are those in which the prepotent
qualities of the male are most clearly shown at time of
birth, such as in colour markings or similar charac-
teristics. These may or may not be the offspring of —
the highest-producing cows. Often the foundation herd
of cows is admittedly inferior, even the best of them.
If the proper judgment in selecting the bull has been
exercised, there is in him greater chance for improve-
ment than in any of the cows, even the best. It would
therefore seem to be good logic and safe practice to dis-
regard the qualities of the cow entirely in the first genera-
tion and depend on the prepotency of the bull.

A great advantage in the rapid improvement of a
herd of cows under this grading-up process is the ability
to raise a large number of individuals up to the time
they begin to produce, so that a greater number may be
available trom which to select. In the first generation,
therefore, it is a great advantage to be able to raise all
of the halt-blood heifer calves that are born strong and
with good vital powers, irrespective of the qualities of
their dams. In many cases, however, the circumstances
of the owner do not admit of rearing so large a number,
and some selection must be made at the time of oirth. —
If it is conceded that it is not an entirely safe practice
to base this selection on the producing capacity of
the dams, some other basis of selection must be
looked for.

Breed from cows that show variation, particularly toward
improvement.—It is a generally accepted principle oi
heredity that an animal which shows a tendency toward
variation 1s one that is not likely to be prepotent.’

22

Calves should be raised from cows that are not prepotent
in order that the prepotent qualities of the bull may have
full scope. Cows, then, that show tendency toward
variation, particularly toward improvement, are logically
the ones over which the male is most likely to be pre-
potent and at the same time the calves show the greatest
tendency toward improvement. It is comparatively
easy to determine in any herd of cows those which
show the greatest tendency toward variation, and more

Fic. 23 —Prominent veins on the udder are thought to 6e an
indication of good milking qualities.

particularly those which show the greatest tendency
toward improvement when their conditions are made
more favourable. It can be determined then the cows
from which it is likely to get the best half-blood heiter
calves by giving the herd more and better feed and
selecting calves from those animals which show the

23

greatest improvement under such a change of treat-
ment.

In actual practice it will be found that the animals
that show the greatest increase in production under more
liberal feed are not necessarily those that were either
the largest or the smallest producers under scant rations.
This is shown in the following actual occurrence. A
record was obtained of the yearly production, in pounds
of butter-fat, of a herd of nine cows that had been kept
for a considerable period of time under scant rations.
The succeeding year these cows were fed liberally—
‘liberal ’’ in this case meaning practically all the food
they would eat regularly—and a record of production
was kept as before. The results are seen in the follow-
ing table, the cows being arranged in the order of their

greatest production the first year :—
Pounds of butter- Pounds of butter-

fat produeed fat produced Percentage
under scant’ under liberal of gain or
Cow feeding feeding loss

No. 1 177 303 gain 71
No. 2 174 258 gain 48
No. 3 172 314 gain 83
No. 4 169 108 loss 36
No. 5 157 276 gain 76
No. 6 154 274 gain 78
No. 7 132 148 gain 12
No: 8" & 2 129 267 gain 107
No. 9 125 232 gain 86

Now adore that these cows the second year had all
been bred to a pure-bred bull and that they all dropped
heifer calves, but that it was possible for the owner to
raise only four calves of the nine. If he had based his
selection on those that were the highest producers, he
would have raised the calves from Nos. 1, 3, 5, and 6.
If, however, he had based his selection on those that

24

showed the greatest capacity to improve under more
liberal treatment, he would have raised the calves from
Nos. 8, 9, 3, and 6. It is for each one to determine for
himself which is the more logical practice.

Experience has shown that where the principles stated
have been carefully carried out a very satisfactory im-
provement has been obtained in the first generation.
It is not uncommon to find an increase of fully fifty per
cent. in the average production of half-blood cows over
their common mothers. Experience has also shown
that in the second generation the three-quarters bloods
are not nearly so unitorm as the half bloods and fre-
quently show little, if any, increase in average production,
though a few individuals will show a marked improve-
ment. The question then comes as to how to obtain
a greater uniformity and a higher average production
in the second generation, or the three-quarters bloods.

Breeding the second generation. —If the selection of the
original pure-bred bull has been a wise one and if he was
a young animal at the time of his purchase, there will
be a considerable number of his half-blood offspring
ready to be bred while he is still.in the zenith of his
powers. Most breeders hesitate to breed such an animal
to his own offspring, and it is seldom recommended.
But if inbreeding is ever likely to be followed with useful
results, it will be under just such conditions; and in
proportion as both the bull and the half-blood heifers
show strong individual vital powers, the practice is to
be recommended. In a majority of cases, the very best
bull to breed to a lot of high-quality, uniform, half-
blood heifers is their own sire, if it is desired to obtain
greater uniformity and greater average production in
their offspring. The reason for the lack of uniformity
in the three-quarters-bred offspring is the fact that

25

reversions occur to the qualities of their common and
mixed grandmothers. It will require, then, even stronger
prepotency to overcome this tendency to reversion, and
the animal that is most likely to be prepotent over such
half-bloods is their own sire.

Continued judicious
selection the means of
improvement.—It must
be remembered that the
improved production in
the first place was
obtained by improving
the conditions of en-
vironment, which, so
far as the ordinary
dairy herd is concerned,
means simply more
food; and that it was
perpetuated in the case
of pure-bred animals by
selection. Having
obtained improvement
now by the use of a
pure-bred male = on
common or _ mixed
females, it is, of course,
necessary that it shall
be maintained by liberal
care and feeding. A
pure-bred animal can Fria. 24.—Good hind quarters ,
transmit only its in- and a perject udder. Com-
herited tendencies, and pare with Figs. 18 and 19.
if these inherited tendencies are not backed up by
abundant and nutritious food the improvement obtained

26

is sure to be lost. Having now obtained a marked
improvement in two or three generations by the use
of a pure-bred male on common or mixed females,
with intelligent selection and intelligent inbreeding,
the further course of improvement is the maintenance
of proper conditions of environment and careful selection.
_As generations come on, characteristics of the original
pure-bred sire will become more and more fixed and

Fig. 25.—An ideal type in a young dairy cow. Note the
fine head, horns and legs, the well developed chest, the
strong hind quarters, and the large, well shaped udder.

uniform, reversions will be less and less frequent, and the
herd will be purely bred from the standpoint of the
capacity of individual members to produce their charac-
teristics, though they never become eligible to registration
in a herd book. This is a course that has been success-
fully practised in the improvement of a large number

27

of herds of dairy animals, and is entirely within the
reach of any one of ordinary skill and intelligence.

A specific case in grading up aherd.—As anillustration
of this practice there is shown the improvement that was
obtained in the case of the descendants bred from a
single animal according to these principles.

The table shows the improvement in the descendants
of an inferior cow by pure-bred bulls. Underneath
each individual is given the number of years she was
in the herd and her average yearly production in pounds
of fat. Those indicated by a star are in the herd at
the present time.

While the practice outlined has been particle
applied to the development and improvement of a herd
starting with inferior or common cows as a basis, it
should be remembered that the same principles apply
equally well to any herd. There are very few herds,
even the best of purely bred animals, in which the
intelligent application of these principles would not
result in marked improvement.

Gl. Fatinitza: ...5....
1 Yr. Av. 281 Ibs.

Gl. Francesca........
2 ¥rs> Av. 322) Ibs.

*Fenella
4 Yrs. Av. 405 lbs.

ars Age
291 lbs.

Gl. Galatea
Do ESE “AVS
330 lbs.
*Gl. Godiva
Zr VES AW:
270 lbs.

GINDeKoly.- 0. ce.
6 Yrs. Av. 303 Ibs.

Glista 2nd.... Gl. Netherland \
if ALN aay 5 Yrs. Av.
188 Ibs. 286 lbs.
GIVAlghas ec), ca erate
10 Yrs. Av. 2941bs.
Gl. Epsilon.........
9 Yrs. Av. 312 Ibs.
Glista........ /Glista 3rd Gl. Lambda........
3 Yrs. Av. / 2 Yrs. Av. 4 Yrs. Av. 292 Ibs.
188 lbs. <¢ 252 lbs.

) Gl. Carlotta
3 Yrs. Av. 299 Ibs.

/Gl. Beta..... |
10 Yrs. Av. | *Gl. Cora
309 Ibs. 5 Yrs. Av. 433 Ibs.

*Gl. Coreva........
5 Yrs. Av. 314 lbs.

Gl. Delta
9 Yrs. Av.
348 Ibs.
Gl. Rho
4 Yrs. Av. 801 lbs.
Glista 4th.... |Gl. Theta GIRPsifies eee

8 Yrs. Av. 325 lbs.

Gl. Candida
5 Yrs. Av. 273 lbs.

BS¥reuAyer eo Yas

Gl. Coriander.....

| 1 Yr. Av. 233 Ibs.

Gl. Corinne.........
Gl. Eta...... 3 Yrs. Ay. 253 lbs
10 Yrs. Av
327 Ibs, } Gl. Xi

1 Yr. Av. 180 Ibs.

Gl. Sigma
5 Yrs. Av. 341 Ibs.

Average by
generations. 188 lbs. 238 lbs. 314 lbs. 296 Ibs.

Gl. Gamma.........
$8 Yrs. Av. 336 Ibs.

*Gl. Omicron.......
10 Yrs. Ay. 360 Ibs.

| Gl. Phi....

1 Yr. Av. 231 Ibs.

Gl. Alpha 2nd
1 Yr. Av. 204 lbs.

Gl. Nu......

J) iia Be
Gl. Upsilon

3 Yrs. Av.

Gl. Chi.....
4 Yrs. Av.

317 Ibs.
163 Ibs.
281 Ibs.

Gl. Dora... .

1 Yr. Avy. 239 Ibs.

*Gl. Dinah

2 Yrs. Av. 294 Ibs.

Gl. Duchess

1 Yr. Av. 220 lbs.

*Gl. Dorothea
( 4 Yrs. Av. 301 lbs.

| “Gl. IDraharentrtetes
5 Yrs. Av. 401 Ibs.

Gl. Dewdrop........
3 Yrs. Ay. 256 lbs.

277 lbs.

s. | Gl. Eleanor

1 Yr. Av. 281 Ibs.

Gl. Fatinitza.........
7 As
291 Ibs.

\*" Muvissrtsec- a
6 Yrs. Av, 285 Ibs
2 Yrs. Av.

Gl. Francesca........ J 330 Ibs.
3 Yrs. Ay. 322 Ibs. | *GI. Godiva
2 Yrs. Av.

270 lbs.

(ns Galatea

*Gl. Esmeralda
\ 4 Yrs. Av. 298 lbs
*Gl. Ernestine...
6 Yrs. Av. 443

*Fenella
4 Yrs. Ay. 405 lbs.

*Gl. Eglantine
| 6 Yrs. Av. 345

| *Gl. Eudora

4 Yrs. Ay. 326

‘GI. Eloise
| 2 Yrs. Av, 283 lbs.

[Sit wigs NZ
Gl. Omega
3 Yrs. Ay.

*GlEeho.......
6 Yrs. Av. &

| Gl. Ebony

Gl. Flora
3 Yrs. Av. 274 Ibs.
*Gl. Fantasy
2 Yrs. Av.

198 lbs.

1 Yr. Av. é

Gl. Eva.....
4 Yrs. Ay.

*Gl. Fancy

270 Ibs. 2 Yrs. Ay. 209 lbs.

*Gl. Elora
5 Yrs. Av. 338 Ibs.
Gl. Elaine

2 Yrs. Av. 370 Ib

Gl. Erato
1 Yr. Av. 246 Ibs.

*Gl. Eli
2 Yrs. Av. 296 Ibs.

318 lbs. 281 lbs. 297 lbs.

ADVANCED READING ON SUBJECTS CONNECTED WITH DAIRY
FARMING.
General.

Eckles, C. H. Dairy cattle and milk production. The Macmillan
Company, New York.
Wing, H. H. Milk aller products. The Macmillan Company, New
or
Harper, M. W. Manual of farm animals. The Macmillan Company,
New York.
Lane, C. B. Business of dairying. Orange Judd Company, New York.
Plumb, C. 8. Types and breeds of farm animals. Ginn & Company,
Boston, Massachusetts.
Winslow, K. Production and handling of clean milk. W. R. Jennings
Company, New York.
Eckles, C. H., and Warren, G.F. Dairy farming. The Macmillan
: Company, New York.
Dean, H. Hs Canadian dairying.
Rose, Laura. Farm dairying.
Structures.
King, F. H. Physics of agriculture. F. H. King, Madison, Wisconsin.
King, F. H. Ventilation. F. H. King, Madison, Wisconsin.
Farm buildings. Sanders Publishing Company, Chicago,

ois.
Shawver, J. L. Plank frame barn construction. David Williams, 232,
William Street, New York.
King, M. L. Silos—Construction and service. Webb Publishing Com-
pany, St. Paul, Minnesota.
Feeding.

Henry, W. A., and Morrison, F. B. Feeds and feeding. The Henry-
Morrison’ Company, Madison, Wisconsin.
Jordan, W. H. sige of animals. ‘The Macmillan Company, New

Smith, H. R. Profitable stock-feeding. H. R. Smith, St. Anthony
Park, Minnesota.
Breeding.

Davenport, E. Domesticated animals and plants. Ginn & Company
Boston, Massachusetts.
Davenport, E. Principles’ of breeding. Ginn & Company, Boston,

Massachusetts.
Harper, M. W. Breeding of farm animals. Orange Judd Company,
New York.
Diseas
tay, ¥: The farmers’ oS eae ey adviser. W. R. Jenkins Company
or

Mayo, N.S. Diseases ‘Of animals. The Macmillan Company, New York.
* Diseases of cattle. U.S. Agr. Dept., Bureau of Animal
Industry, Washington, D. C.
* Diseases of the horse. (Same as above.)
Judging.
Gay, Carl W. Principles and practice of judging live stock. The
Macmillan Company, New York.
Plumb, C. 8. sit >a animals.. Orange Judd Company, New

ork.
Craig. Judging live stock.

Yaa be bought from the Superintendent of Documents Washington,

.

29 - -

THE DAIRY HERD
DISCUSSION PAPER.

The Discussion Paper is planned to help the student
by drawing his attention to the important points of
the subject he is studying. It is intended to develop
thought and self-expression of his own ideas. Each
Discussion Paper, when answered and raturned, is
carefully read by the staff of the Department of Agri-
culture, and a personal statement is given in connection
with any question that the reader thinks the student
has not fully understood. . The student is invited to
ask any questions that will help to give him a more
complete understanding of the Course.

GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS.
Always express your ideas in your own words.
Finish one paper at a time.

See that the subject is placed at the top of the
first page of each paper answered.

4. Do not forget to write your NAME, NUMBER, and
COMPLETE ADDRESS, on each set of answers.

5. Number each question, and also each sheet, and
pin them together in their right order.

6. Send in each paper as soon as completed.

QUESTIONS.

1. Name, and discuss briefly, the relative value of
the four products of the dairy cow. .

30

10.

There is a saying: “ The bull constitutes one half
of the herd.’’ What is your opinion as to the
truth of the saying ? Give a few reasons for your
opinion.

In selecting a bull as. a sire what information would
you seek to secure about him ?

In starting in to improve your herd’s milk produc-
tion what is the first step you would take ?
Describe in detail as far as possible.

Describe the ideal udder in a dairy cow.

What characteristics are indicated in a dairy cow
by the following :—

(a) Wedge-shaped form.

(6) Openness in vertebre, ribs, and chine.

(c) Large bright eyes—quiet expression, fine
neck, clean throat.

(d) Deep, broad chest with well-sprung ribs.

(e) Large barrel or abdomen with well-sprung
ribs—well supported.

How would you select from among your home-bred
calves those that you wished to rear for your
own future milking herd ?

What is the reason for lack of uniformity in the
three-quarters-bred offspring.

If you were about to start up a dairy herd what
breed of cattle would you select? Give your
reasons for your answer.

What indications would you look for in order to
estimate the condition and health of a dairy cow ?

31

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