^ Public Parks:

THEIR EFFECTS UPON THE MORAL. PHYSICAL AND

SANITARY CONDITION OF THE INHABITANTS

OF LARGE CITIES;

WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE

CITY OF CHICAGO

By JOHN H. RAUCH, M. D.

Mkmber of the Board of Health, Sanitary Superintendent, and
Registrar of Vital Statistics, of Chicago.

1S69 :
S. C. GRIGGS & COMPA'NY,
Chicago.

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Public Parks :

THEIR EFFECTS UPON THE MORAL. PHYSICAL AND

SANITARY CONDITION OF THE INHABITANTS

OF LARGE CITIES;

WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE

CITY OF CHICAGO

«v^

By JOHN H. RAUCH, M. D.

Member of the Board of Health, Sanitary Superintendent, and
Registrar of Vital Statistics, of Chicago.

1869 :

S. C. GRIGGS & COMPANY,

Chicago.

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At a meeting of the Chicago Academy of Sciences, held
November loth, i86S, the following resolution was passed :

" Resolved, that Dr. John H. Rauch be requested, at his
" earliest convenience, to prepare a paper on Public Parks, to be
" read before the Academv."

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Public Parks.

In compliance with the resohition of the Academy, I propose
this evening to call your attention to the question of Public Parks,
and their influence upon the moral, physical, and sanitary condition
of the inhabitants of great cities. The benefits resulting from such
dedications to public uses, have been known and appreciated by all
civilized nations. And in this connection I trust that it will not be
deemed out of place, if I give a brief sketch of what has been done
in other cities, both ancient and modern, both at home and abroad,
with a view of adornment, and of affording to the inhabitants,
not only agreeable places of resort, but pi^oving efficient aids in
promoting public health.

At no period in the history of this city has this question excited
so much attention as at the present time ; and it is with feelings of
the deepest responsibility that I enter upon the consideration of the
subject, not alone as a member of this Academy, but as the repre-
sentative of the Board of Health, and as a private citizen, deeply
interested in the future growth and welfare of Chicago. In treating
of this subject, I lay no special claim to originality, but I shall simply
state facts, allowing you to draw your own conclusions ; while, at
the same time, I shall apply well-established laws and principles,
which are necessary to the proper elucidation of this question in
connection with the climate, topography, and diseases of this city.

The necessit}^ for creating public parks, and on a scale commen-
surate with the prospective greatness of the city, is recognized by all
classes of our citizens, and it is to be hoped that the action of those
who are charged with the responsibility of selecting the locations,
devising the plans, and providing the means for securing these
results, may prove wise and judicious, and thus receive the commen-
dations of posterity.

" Best is Pelasgicura empty,"

was wisely expressed by the Pythian oracle, thereby denoting that
every large and populous city, as well as Athens, should have its

6 Public Parks. *

Pelasgicum,or vacant pieces of ground, serving as so many reser\^oirs
of pure air, for counteracting the contaminating atmospheric influ-
ences incident to cities, and the effect of epidemics and contagions.
In order more thoroughly to appreciate the full import of these
words, it may be proper to refer to the circumstances from vs^hich
they derive their origin. According to Pausanius, Pelasgicum was
the name given to the most ancient part of the fortifications of the
Acropolis at Athens, from having been constructed by the Pelasgii,
(or "wall builders," as they were called,) who, in the course of their
migi'ations, settled in Attica, and were employed by the Athenians
in the erection of these walls. The rampart raised by this people,
often mentioned in the history of Athens, included a portion of the
ground below the wall, at the foot of the rock of Acropolis. This
had been allotted to the Pelasgii while they resided at Athens, and
owing to the conspiracy formed by them against the Athenians, they
were banished ; and such was the abhorrence with which this con-
spiracy was regarded, that an execration was pronounced on any
who should build houses on this ground. In consequence of this
execration, it was not built upon ; and thus being necessarily left
vacant, the beneficial effects of this open space in the course of time
became so apparent that the Pythian oracle uttered,

" Best is Pelasgicum empty;"

and what was supposed, at the time, to have been a great curse,
proved ultimately to be a blessing in disguise.

May not such be the case with regard to our own city? We
have already built up its surface from a morass, thus securing a well-
devised system of drainage, and it is believed, and I think I am not
stating too much, that, by making use of our local topography, we
can create parks which shall become the ornament of the city, and
a blessing to its inhabitants.

Parks have been aptly termed "the lungs of a city." They are
emphatically the people's gardens, — places to which the overtasked
laborer and mechanic of the overcrowded city can, with his wife and
children, resort to breathe the breath of God's pure air, inhale the
odors of fresh, blooming flowers, and enjoy the pleasures of a rural
retreat on a larger scale, amid far richer vegetable forms, than in
the gardens created by mere private opulence.

That the people of this country have a keen love of nature, and of
the beautiful in art, is evidenced by the general interest taken in this

Public Parks. 7

subject, and the success which has attended the laying out of the
Central, Fairmomit, Prospect, Druid Hill, and other parks in this
country. This feeling is extending, and as the squares which are
found in nearly all our cities no longer satisfy the longings of the
inhabitants, who now demand the laying out of hundi'eds of acres
in a style proportionate to the hopes and expectations of the future
of the locality. The immense throng that daily resort to such places,
— not simply the millionaire, or the aristocratic merchant, but the
laborer, the mechanic, and those from the humblest walks of life,
coupled with the decorousness of their behaviour, and their cheerful
compliance with the necessary regulations, — all attest the popu-
larity and beneficial influence of such dedications. Can we not
have such resorts in Chicago ?

It is true that we have not that relief and depression of soil, of
ledgy rock and deep valley, which are to be found in the Central and
other parks of this country ; but we can have ample drives, graveled
walks, fountains, lakes, and all the forms of vegetable and animal
life which have been acclimated in our latitude. We can have parks
which shall be the ornament and pride of the city ; where, by easy
access, our people can enjoy the beauties of nature, and all the
pleasures of landscape gardening.

If we analyze the sources of our happiness, we shall find that they
are reducible to two — external and internal ; but while it is from the
external world that we derive all our ideas, the office of reflection
and of imagination is performed in the interior world of thought.
Man, however much he may boast of the superiority of mind over
matter, is as sensitive to external changes as the barometer is to those
of the atmosphere. A pleasing landscape or a bright sunshine
exhilerates his spirits, while a dreary waste, or a leaden sky pro-
duces depression. We associate these ideas of external nature with
our present sources of happiness or misery, and carry them into our
conceptions of a future state.

Hence, in every age, and among every nation, whether Christian
or Pagan, who have made any progress in intellectual development,
the idea of Paradise has been one not purely of mental culture, of
converse and friendship, but one in which the sensuous nature was
largely to participate.

Milton has described the abode of our first parents as a combina-
tion of sensuous delights, with a gorgeousness of word-painting

8 Public Parks.

which has never been surpassed. — trees of noblest kind, amid which
stood the " Tree of Life,"

" High, eininent, blooming ambrosial fruits of vegetable gold ; "

fresh fountains, watering with many a rill, flowers worthy of
Paradise, and

" Rolling on Orient pearl ; "

groves whose trees wept odorous gums and balms ; lawns, and
palmy hillocks, and flocks grazing the herb ; and

" Flowers of all hue, and without thorn the rose ; "

umbrageous grottos, and caves of cool recess, o'erarched with
mantling vine ; murmuring waters falling down the hill-slope, with
banks myrtle-crowned ; birds making vocal the woods ; and vernal
air breathing the smell of field and grove. Such was deemed the fit
residence of our great progenitors before the Fall.

The Elysium of the ancients was a union of leafy bowers, flowery
meads, and murmuring brooks, fanned by a genial air, and lighted
by another sun and other stars.

Mahomet, while creating a voluptuous paradise, has brought in
as accessories, groves, fountains, and rivers of bliss ; and Christian
congregations do not hesitate to join with fervor in singing that
beautiful hymn,

" Sweet fields beyond the swelling flood,
Stand dressed in living green."

These examples show how intimately the forms of external
nature are associated, not only with our happiness here, but here-
after ; and how deeply they are impressed upon man, whether in a
savage or civilized state.

From the earliest period of history, a love of nature and landscape
gardening has been fostered and encouraged in the same ratio as
civilization has advanced. The Jews and Egyptians had their gar-
dens ; and Nebuchadnezzar, to gratify his wife Amytis, a daughter
of the king of Medea, who was home-sick, and longed for the pictur-
esque scenery and mountains of her native land, constructed the
famous hanging gardens of Babylon. The captive Jews, Phoenicians,
Syrians, and Egyptians were engaged for years in building such
works ; and, according to Diodorus and Strabo, nothing had been
attempted prior to their time to compare, in magnificence and
grandeur, with what was then accomplished. Among the ruins of
Ninevah, Layard found traces of gardens ; also, a large tree, which,
from its surroundings, he inferred had been an object of adoration.

Public Parks. 9

The Chinese paid considerable attention to the ornamenting of
their gardens, and at one time their attempts at landscape gardening
were more successful than those of any other nation. To them may
be traced what is now called the natural system, so much in vogue
in England, and which has been generally adopted in this country.

A deep love of nature pervaded the minds of the Hindoos, as is
manifest in their public grounds and gai"dens. There was nothing
striking in the gardens of the Persians, no doubt owing to the want of
grand and natural scenery. They were regarded as places of luxurious
repose, and were constructed wholly in reference to this end. Trees
were planted in rows, in order that the wind might draw its currents
through them ; fountains were interposed, and streams ran through
them to increase the sensation of coolness. Flowers were cultivated
for perfume and beauty, with here and there a terebinthinate ever-
green, which was regarded by them as a great luxury. These
gardens were genei'ally surrounded by an enclosure.

" The Greeks," according to Humboldt, " regarded the vegetable
world as standing in a manifold and mythical relation to heroes and
to the gods, who were supposed to avenge every injury inflicted on
the ti'ees and plants sacred to them. Imagination animated vegetable
forms with life, but the types of poetry, to which the peculiar
direction of mental activity among the ancient Greeks limited them,
gave only partial development to natural scenery."* Homer, Pinder,
Sophocles, and Euripedes occasionally indulge in descriptions of
nature.

Their ideas of landscape gardening, while derived from the Per-
sians, were much improved upon. They encouraged art more than
nature. Athens had its public park, called Academia. It was laid
out by Cimon, who formed pleasant walks, introduced water and
planted groves. At the entrance an altar dedicated to Love was
placed, and scattered through the grounds were statues and monu-
ments of the most worthy citizens. One portion of this park was
devoted to the exercise of athletic games, and another to contempla-
tive recreation. Greek civilization made its impress on the Romans,
and in many respects they were similar, showing that their love of
nature was not entirely lost sight of by their love of art. Cicero and
Pliny delighted in descriptions of nature ; and in the poetic works of
Virgil, Horace, and Tibullus, frequent allusions to natural scenery
occur. Lucan gives an admirable description of the desti-uction of
a Druidic forest on the now treeless shores of Marseilles. Rome,

*" Cosmos."

lo Public Parks.

when in her glory, was proud of her rural retreats and .. pleasure
grounds, which were laid out with walks and drives for chariot and
horseback exercises, with enclosures for wild beasts, apiaries, flower-
gardens, and fountains flowing from marble vases. The park proper,
in the immediate vicinity of the houses, was formal and symmetrical
with the architecture, and the walls were lined with box and plane
trees, sheared to the shape of the walls. From the description of the
younger Pliny of his Tusculan villa, we are led to infer that the
principal object of Roman landscape gardening was its effect upon
the perspective ; as here everything was arranged with reference to
the best distant views of the Campagna. In fact the same is the case
with the grounds and gardens of Italy at the present day, the artistic
preponderating over the natural.

The Arabs, when at the height of power and civilization, paid
some attention to landscape gardening, and carried w^ith them their
tastes into Spain. This is shown by the fact that the Caliph Ab
durrahman I, himself laid out a botanical garden at Cordova, a;nd
caused rare seeds to be collected by his own travelers in Syria and
other countries of Asia. He planted, near the palace of Rissafah,
the first date-tree known in Spain, and sang its praises in a poem,
expressive of plaintive longing for his native Damascus.

Prescott, in his "Conquest of Mexico," says, "There is no doubt,
from the accordant testimonies of Hernan Cortes, in his reports to
the Emperor Charles V., of Bernal Diaz, Gomara Ovieda, and
Hernandez, that at the time of the conquest of Montezuma's Empire
there were no menageries and botanic gardens In any part of Europe,
which could be compared with these of Huaztepec, Chepultepec,
Iztapalapan, and Tezuco." Humboldt saw two trees ( Taxodiutn
disticha — Linn.) near Chepultepec, which he supposed to be the
remnants of an ancient garden or pleasure-ground of Montezuma's,
which measured thirty-eight feet In circumference.

In France, Germany, and England, landscape gardening received
but little attention for many years, and their imitations of the Roman
and Italian styles were poor, leaving but little of the artistic. The
Dutch school at one time was foremost. It was a revival of the
ancient or geometric style, in which statues, vases, and busts were
interspersed with fountains, and the various forms of the vegetable
kingdom.

Landscape gardening is a word of modern coinage, first used by
the poet Shenstone. In England but little attention was paid to the

Public Parks, ii

art of gardening until the time of Addison, when Bridgeman, the
court gardener, in the palace grounds at Kensington, acted upon the
suggestions received from the descriptions of travelers of the imita-
tions of nature w^hich the Chinese made use of in their gardens.
Pope, in his garden at Twickenham, laid aside formality, imitating
the natural. Addison's garden at Rugby was informal without
being picturesque. " Kent was the first man who really formed a
landscape, sweeping away the rubbish which represented the ancient
st3de. He undertook the creation of scenery upon the ground at his
command, on the same principles that he would select a subject in
nature for his canvas. The radical change which followed witnessed
the destruction of noble avenues and terraces by the imitators of
Kent, in order to demonstrate the capabilities of the ground, and
landscape gardening soon became a mechanical business instead of
an art, which Kent had made it." *

It was not until after the publication, by Gilpin, of his various
"Picturesque Views," and the "Essays on the Picturesque," by Sir
Uvedale Price, in which the true principle of art applicable to the
creation of scenery, was laboriously studied and carefully defined,
that a revival of the art took place. The poetry of Shenstone,
Mason, and Knight assisted in bringing about this result. The
most distinguished English landscape gardeners that have flourished
since the commencement of the last century, have been Humphrey
Repton, who died in iSi8, and John Claudius Loudon, who died
in 1843. They developed and carried to its greatest perfection the
modern or natural style of landscape gardening, as is evidenced at
Blenheim, the seat of the Duke of Marlborough ; Chatsworth, the
seat of the Duke of Devonshire, where there are scenes illustrative
of almost every style of the art ; and also at Woburn Abbey ;
Ashbridge ; and Arundel Castle. More recently the writings of
Paxton and Kemp have done much to improve and foster this taste
among the English. Soon after the adoption of the natural style in
England, it became fashionable upon the Continent; "yet, in the
neighborhood of many of the capitals, especially those of the south
of Europe, the taste for the geometric or ancient style prevails to a
considerable extent ; partially, no doubt, because that style admits,
with more facility, of those classical and architectural accompani-
ments of vases, statues, busts, etc., the passion for which pervades
a people rich in ancient and modern sculptural works of art.
Indeed, many of the gardens on the Continent are moi^e striking

•Downing: ^^ Landscape Gardening^

12 ' Public Parks.

from their numerous sculpturesque ornaments, interspersed with
fountains and jets d' eati, than for the beauty or rarity of their
vegetation, or from their arrangement."*

The name Park is derived from the French parg?ie, pare,
{i. e., a loe2cs inclusus,) formerly a large quantity of ground inclosed
and privileged for the keeping of beasts of the chase, particularly the
deer, by the King's grant or prescription. These grants were made
by the kings of England to the nobles ; and as the country became
populated, these parks were selected as residences, and in the course
of time were considered as luxurious appendages to the dwellings of
the I'ich.

The word park has different significations, but that in which
we are now interested has grown out of its application, centuries
ago, simply to hunting grounds ; the choicest lands for such pur-
poses being those in which the beasts of the chase thrived best, and
consequently were most abundant. Sites were chosen, in which it
was easy for them to turn from rich herbage to clear water, from
warm sunlight to cool shade ; that is to say, by preference, ranges of
well-watered dale-land, broken by open groves, and dotted with
spreading trees, undulating in surface, but not rugged. In some
parts of Britain the word park is still employed in its original sense —
to denote a field or enclosure ; but more generally applied to the
enclosed grounds around a mansion, designated in Scotland by
another term of French origin — policy. The park, in this sense, not
only includes the lawn, but all that is devoted to the growth of
timber, pasturage for deer, sheep, etc., in connection with the
mansion, and to pleasure walks or drives, or to purposes of enjoy-
ment, in contradistinction to those of economical use. Gay parties
of pleasure occasionally met in these parks, and when these meetings
occurred, the enjoyment otherwise obtained in them was found to be
increased. Hence, instead of mere hunting-lodges and hovels for
game-keepers, extensive buildings and accommodations, devoted
frequently to festive purposes, were, after a time, provided within the
enclosures. Then it was found that people took pleasure in them
without regard to the attractions of the chase, or of conversation ;
and this pleasure was perceived to be, in some degree, related to the
scenery, and in some degree to the peculiar manner of appreciation
which occurred in them ; and this was also found to be independent
of intellectual gifts, tranquilizing and restorative to the powers most
tasked in ordinary social duties, and stimulating only in a healthy

♦Downing: " Landscafie Gardening;."

Public Parks. 13

and recreative way to the imagination. Hence, after a time, parks
began to be regarded, and to be maintained with reference, more than
to anything else, to the convenient accommodations of numbers of
people, desirous of moving for recreation among scenes that should
be gratifying to the taste or imagination. Hagley Park, for many
years, was considered the finest in England, although there are many
there now much handsomer, averaging from one to five miles in
diameter ; and many of them are open to the public with slight
restrictions. As the power of the people has increased the Royal
Parks have been more adapted to their wants.

In the present century, not only have the old parks been thus
maintained and improved, but many new parks have been formed
exclusively for the purposes of recreation, enjoyment, and health,
especially within and adjoining considerable towns ; and it is upon
our knowledge of the latter that our simplest conception of a town
park is founded.*

Nearly all the towns, villages, and cities have their pleasure-
grounds in some form, or private parks open to them. In addition,
all have their cricket-grounds and commons, where the old meet to
gossip, and the young to indulge in various athletic games.

PARKS OF GREAT BRITAIN.

The public parks of London are Kensington Garden, 262 acres ;
Hyde Park, 3S9 acres ; Green Park, 55 acres ; St. James Park, 59
acres (all of which are connected in a chain, though partly sepa-
rated) ; Regent's Park and Primrose Hill, 473 acres ; Battersea Park,
175 acres ; and Kensington Park containg 55 acres.

The Royal Parks in the vicinity of London are also much resorted
to : — Windsor, 3,800 acres ; Hampton Court and Burley, 1,812 acres ;
Richmond, 2,468 acres ; and the Royal Gardens at Kew, 684 acres.
Epping Forest and others are easily reached, making 3,000 acres in
the city, and about 11,000 in the vicinity that are open to the public.

The grounds of the Horticultural Society and the Crystal Palace
are open to the public for a small entrance fee. Victoria Park is
among the most frequented ; here 130,000 visitors have been counted
in one day. The fashionable drive of London is the Ring-Road, in
Hyde Park, three miles long and from twenty-seven to sixty feet
wide ; and another of a mile long and thirty-six feet wide. The
fashionable riding avenue is in this park, and is ninety feet wide and

• Olmsted.

14 Public Parks.

a mile in length. There is not much room for riding or driving in
the other parks.

PhoBnix Park, in Dublin, contains 1,752 acres, and is one of the
best natural parks in the world, but is not well laid out or well
kept. Birkenhead Park, near Liverpool contains 182 acres, designed
and constructed by Sir Joseph Paxton and Mr. Kemp, and is one of
the best laid out and most complete, for its age, in Europe. Several
new ones have been laid out, with villa districts about them, con-
nected by broad pleasure drives, upon which, in 1867, $1,640,000
were expended.

Birmingham has a park recently laid out, where an entrance fee
of a penny is charged, by which funds are raised to defray the
expenses incident to its purchase and maintenance. As soon as
paid for, admission will be free. Halifax has fine parks, Derby and
Arboretum, both of which were provided by benevolent citizens.
Manchester, Bradford, and other manufacturing towns have recently
laid out parks, the result of subscriptions or joint-stock companies
Public promenades are common in England, among which may be
cited the old city walls and the river bank above the town of Chester,
the common and old castle grounds at Ludlow, the castle garden and
cathedral grounds at Hereford, the river banks at Lincoln, and the
cathedral green at Salisbuiy and Winchester.

PARKS ON THE CONTINENT.

The garden of the Tuileries, with the Champs Elysees, in Paris,
makes the finest urban promenade in the world. In the centre is an
avenue of horse chestnuts three miles in length. On either. side, in
the gardens, are groves, shrubberies, and parterres of flowers. The
garden of the Luxembourg is another interior promenade laid out in
formal style, with an avenue, groves, flower beds, and a rose garden
of a mile in circumference. The gardens of the Louvre are also very
fine. There are also many other gardens and squares in Paris.
Many of the streets are planted with trees. Some of the boulevards
are the levelled ramparts planted with trees. The boulevards
exterieurs are an interupted series of broad streets, of an aggregate
length of seventeen miles, lined with trees.

The avenue de L' Imperatrice is a straight promenade between
Paris and the Bois de Boulogne, three hundred feet wide. It con-
sists of a carriage way sixty feet wide, a pad for saddle horses, and

Public Parks. 15

a graveled walk on either side, each forty feet wide ; on the outside
of all is a slope of turf, planted in the rear with a group of trees and
shrubs in the natural style ; back of this, on both sides, is a narrow
I'oad adapted to traffic, which also gives access to a line of detached
villas.

The famous Bois de Boulogne is an ancient royal forest in the
suburbs of Paris. It remained nearly in its natural state until 1855,
when Napoleon III. commenced its improvement, and this work is
now regarded as one of his most popular acts. It contains 2,158
acres, thus divided : wood, 607 acres ; open turf, 875 acres ; water,
174 acres; roads, 365 acres; nurseries and flower-beds, 171 acres;
length of carriage road, 36 miles ; bridle path, 7 miles ; and walks,
16 miles. The Bois de Vincennes is a natural forest, the improve-
ment of which was commenced several years ago, but discontinued,
and is now chiefly used for reviewing troops and for artillery-
purposes. Work has recently been commenced on it again. Men-
ceau and Buttes de Chaumont are new parks, which are very
popular — the last being quite unique in design. The Jardin des
Plants, a zoological as well as botanical garden, near Paris, is much
frequented.

At Frankfort, Leipsic, and Vienna, pleasure grounds have been
provided by razing the wall, and filling the moat, and by the skillful
arrangement of the materials, making the ground-work of a garden
in the natural style. In other cities the leveled ramparts have been
made into broad roads, bordered with trees. The Boulevards of
Brussels are straight streets, 125 feet wide, with rows of trees
between them, a walk 21 feet wide ; carriage-road, 36 feet wide ; a
soft graveled horseback road, 21 feet wide ; a business road, 30 feet
wide, with a flagged walk for rainy weather. Houses are on these
boulevards, in front of which are private gardens, or fore-courts.
Brussels has also an old park, and two botanical and zoological
gardens.

The Prater is the principal rural promenade at Vienna, and has
a straight carriage-road over a mile in length, with a walk on one
side, and an equestrian pad on the other. Near the city it contains
a great number of coffee and play houses ; but being five miles in
length, portions of it are thoroughly secluded and rural. At one
time it was the most frequented park in the world, the Bois de
Boulogne and the Central Park being more frequented at this time.

1 6 . Public Parks.

Munich has its Hofgarten, or Royal Park, and the English gar-
den which was laid out under the direction of Count Rumford, and
is about four miles long, and a half mile wide. The Sonnenstrasse
in this city is a beautiful street — in fact one of the handsomest in
Europe.

The Thiergarten, at Berlin, contains over 200 acres, laid out in
straight drives and walks. The Prussian Royal Gardens of Sans
Souci, Charlottenberg, and Heiligensee, are extensive grounds,
though rather stiff' and formal in appearance. Fine public grounds
are also* to be found in Dresden, Stuttgart, Hanover, Brunswick,
Baden, Cassel, Darmstadt, Gotha, Weimar, SchwcEtzingen, Toplitz,
Prague, and Hamburg. Those of Antwei-p, the Hague, and War-
saw are remai-kable for their beauty. In all German public gardens,
coffee-houses are an adjunct, and music is furnished by the govern-
ment.

The summer gardens of St. Petersburgh are very fine, though
not large, and are kept in the most careful manner. Among these
is the Catherinehoft', a perfect gem, and the fashionable promenade
of the city. Many of the islands of the Neva contain pleasant
gardens, and the Tzenskoe Selo is one of the most remarkable in the
world. It is the residence of the Imperial family, and consists of
350 acres.

Stockholm has many pleasant walks, and the Djingard, or deer
park, is beautifully kept and three miles in circumference. The
Haga Park is picturesque, having water communication with its
different parts and with the city. Copenhagen contains many places
of public resort, but the most notable promenade is the royal deer
park, (Dyrhave,) a noble forest.

In Italy the chief public resorts are the gardens attached to
the villas. The Cascine of Florence, on the banks of the Arno,
commands fine views, and the drive on the Pincian Hill at Rome,
has magnificent views in the distance. The fashionable drive at
Naples is on a broad street called the Riviera di Chiaja, near the
bay,, but separated from it by a public garden.

Nearly all the Spanish and Portuguese towns are provided with
promenades.

LANDSCAPE GARDENING IN THE UNITED STATES.
In this country, until recently, but little attention has been paid
to landscape gardening, and nearly all the improvements of the

Public Parks. 1 7

grounds of our finest country residences have been made under the
direction of tlie owners themselves, suggested by their own good
taste, in many instances improved by the study of European authors,
or by personal inspection of the finest places abroad. The first
botanical garden was laid out and planted by John Bartram, one
of the pioneer botanists of this country, near Philadelphia. Some
of the trees planted by him are still to be seen ; among them the
enormous cypress, the destruction of which he feared by the British
army after the battle of Brandywine, which so much preyed upon his
mind that his death was hastened by it. Humphi-ey Marshall also
laid out a botanical garden near West Chester, Pa.

One of the most celebrated places, known as the " Woodlands,"
the seat of the Hamilton family, near Philadelphia, was perhaps the
best specimen of landscape gardening in this country in the early
part of the present century. These grounds were for a long time
under the care of the distinguished botanist Pursh.

Judge Peters's seat, five miles from Philadelphia, was, fifty years
ago, the finest representative of the geometric, or ancient style, in
America. One of the chief attractions of this place, which still
exists, is a fine avenue of hemlocks, planted 120 years ago, several
with English ivy, also a chestnut tree planted by Washington, still in
full vigor.

Lemon Hill, a short distance above the Fairmount Water Works,
on the Schuylkill river, was, thirty years ago, the most perfect speci-
men of the geometric mode in this country. Through the liberality
of Mr. Pratt it was open to the public.

Clermont, on the Hudson, then the residence of Chancellor
Livingston, was laid out in the geometric style, with a decided
French impress, and at one time was quite noted.

Waltham House, about nine miles from Boston, was, forty years
ago, one of the finest places in the country. The park, in addition
to clusters of native wood, was enriched with English limes and
elms, watered by a fine stream, and well stocked with deer.

The first work published in this country on landscape gardening
w^as the American Gardener's Calendar, by Bernard McMahon, of
Philadelphia ; and the only practitioner of any note was M. Parmen-
tier, of Brooklyn, who emigrated to this country in 1S24. He gave
to landscape gardening quite an impetus, and to his taste and skill
we are indebted for many of the magnificent places on the Hudson ;
also others in difterent States and Canada. The taste for rural

1 8 Public Parks.

improvement was slowly and gradually increasing, and the evidence
of the growing wealth and prosperity of our citizens manifested itself
in the increase of elegant cottages and villa residences on the banks
of our noble rivers, along our rich valleys, and wherever nature
seems to invite by her rich and varied charms. This feeling or taste
for improvement is contagious, and once fairly appreciated and
established in one portion of the country, it soon became disseminated
in other portions, until it has now become quite general.*

The pi'ogress that landscape gardening has made during the last
twenty-five years is truly astonishing, and to no one are we so much
indebted as to the lamented Downing. The impress of his genius
is visible everywhere, and monuments to his taste and skill are to be
found throughout the entire land. On the Hudson are to be found
some of the finest specimens of the art, and nowhere in the Union
is it so far advanced.

The environs of Boston are more highly cultivated than those of
any other city in North America ; in fact, in certain directions the
whole neighborhood may be considered a landscape garden. In the
neighborhood of Baltimore are found a number of fine old places,
several of them being as elaborate and magnificent as any in the
country. Others are to be found scattered throughout different
States, even in sections comparatively new, showing conclusively
that a taste for the beautiful in art and nature is fast being dissemi-
nated among the people.

It is only a few years since the establishment of rural cemeteries
was commenced in the United States, owing to the crowded and
confined state of our burial grounds within the large cities and
their manifest injurious influence upon health. Such has been the
progress of this movement, and its importance and necessity so
apparent, that it has been almost universally adopted, and intramural
interments, under any circumstances, in many of the cities are totally
prohibited. As a legitimate result, arising from the growing taste
for landscape gardening and the promptings of affection and respect
for the memory of the sacred dead, we have in the United States
the finest rural cemeteries in the world, which we think may be
regarded as a sure evidence of our advancement in civilization and
enlightenment.

* Tyovmm^'n " Landscape Gardening; "

Public Parks. 19

PARKS AND PUBLIC GROUNDS IN THE UNITED STATES.

We have, however, no finished parks in the United States, and it
is only within recent date that much attention has been paid to this
subject. It is true that there is scarcely a town that does not have its
square or promenade, but in its European signification there are but
few that desei-ve that appellation. Although there is probably not a
village, town, or embryo city laid out that does not devote a portion
of it for public uses, still the importance of such resorts and their
proper improvement is not thoroughly appreciated. This, no doubt,
arises from various causes ; among them, in cei^tain sections, the
sparseness of population and the absence of wealth and the active
life led by a majority of our people, who take comparatively no time
for recreation or pleasure, little dreaming of the expenditure of
mental and physical force incident to such a life, and the premature
decay which inevitably follows ; also, the false utilitarian views taken
by many of the subject.

BOSTON AND NKW ENGLAND.

The " Common," so long the boast and delight of Boston, is a
small park of forty-eight acres of ground, of an undulating character,
surrounded by an iron railing, in which are found about 1,300 trees,
nearly all of them having been planted. It dates to 1634, and by a
clause in the city charter it is made public property forever, and
cannot be sold or exchanged. There are many walks in it, laid out
more with a view of communicating with entrances from all direc-
tions, than any attempt at the picuresque. The walks are spacious,
shaded by magnificent trees over a century old ; the one on Beacon
street being particularly unique and pleasant. The pviblic garden,
which was once a portion of the Common, is now separated from it
by Charles street, and will soon rival it for beauty and usefulness.

Throughout the New England States the public grounds of many
of the towns are planted with trees without much arrangement or
order, showing chiefly the beauty and value which the trees acquire
by age. This is particularly the case with Cambridge, New Haven,
Springfield, Portland, Hartford and Northampton ; in fact, the prin-
cipal charin of many of the villages is the trees that line the streets.
Among the most striking may be mentioned Hadley, Deerfield and
Norwich.

The many noble elms that are found in the public grounds and
streets of New Haven, which were planted mainly through the

20 Public Parks.

instrumentality of Hillhouse, at the close of the eighteenth century,
have justly obtained for that city the soubriquet of the " City of
Elms." There are at New Haven several public squares. The
Wooster, containing five acres, is laid out with taste ; the Green,
containing sixteen acres, shaded by its graceful and elegant elms :
and the Brewster park, containing fifty-five acres.

At Providence thei^e is a park planted with elms, nearly a mile
in circumference, around a cove of the Providence river. The pub-
lic park at Hartford has not been what might be termed a success,
owing to its being laid out on a difficult piece of ground, with an
ill-digested plan.

PHILADELPHIA. ..'*

The public squares of Philadelphia have long been the pride of
that cit}'. Independence Square, in the rear of Independence Hall,
is one of the oldest and finest. Washington square, in olden times,
was the Potter's Field, where, during the Revolutionary war, over
two thousand soldiers of the American Army, who had died from
wounds and camp-fever, were buried. It was last used as a place of
interment during the prevalence of yellow fever in i793? ^J^d was
finally closed in 1795, and laid out as a public square in 1815. In
this square is laid the foundation of a monument to Washington.
Franklin square is kept in good order, and is mainly distinguished
for the deer, squirrels and peacocks that are kept in it. Penn, Ritten-
house, Logan, Fairhill and Non^is squares are of more recent origin,
all being vv^ell cared for and kept in a tasteful manner. The grounds
in the vicinity of the Fairmount Water Works, on the Schuylkill
river, are tastefully laid out, and for years have been a favorite resort.
Several years ago, Lemon Hill, about a half mile from the water-
works, was purchased and laid out as a public park. It was at one
time the handsomest villa in America, containing 120 acres, to which
additions have been made of 80 acres. The alterations were designed
by Messrs. Sidney and Adams. These, with the magnificent
trees and fine natural position, make it already a delightful place.
Additions to the grounds have since been made on the opposite side
of the river, which are being improved, and will soon be connected
by a bridge over the Schuylkill.

An act was passed at the last session of the Legislature of Penn-
sylvania, increasing the boundaries of Fairmount park, on both sides
of the Schuylkill, and including a portion of the ground lying on the
banks of the romantic Wissahickon, making a total area of 2,700

Public Parks. 21

acres. Philadelphia has lately received as a " Christmas gift" from
Jesse George and his sister, Rebecca George, eighty-three acres,
known as " George's Hill," on the west side of the Schuylkill. With
these additions it will not be presumptuous on the part of Philadel-
phia to claim that no city of this continent, and probably of the
world, has more natural advantages and unsurpassed beauty than
are included within the limits of Fairmount park.

WASHINGTON.

Recently, considerable attention has been paid to the improve-
ment and care of the grounds attached to our colleges, hospitals, and
other public buildings. We are greatly indebted to the late Downing,
for the taste and skill displayed in the arrangement of the public
grounds at Washington, particularly those of the Smithsonian Insti-
tute and LaFayette Square. The grounds of the Capitol and those
of the White House have long been favorite promenades.

The project of a new mansion for the President, and of the estab-
lishment of a great National Park, has been frequently agitated, while
the engineer officers have already examined the topography of the
country adjacent to Washington for this purpose. Mr. Corcoran has
otrered to donate a large tract of land upon certain conditions. It is
thought that at least 1,800 acres of ground lying east of Rock Creek,
and north of Columbia College, will be selected, as it is well adapted
by nature for the purpose contemplated, and can be improved at
comparatively small expense.

It has also been proposed to make this park a working model of
the United States, "to delineate, if not reproduce in miniature, the
topography of the Continent ; to set Huron and Ontario in reduced
scale upon a living map some two miles long, not in water colors,
but in the element itself; to lead a toy Mississippi from its baby
nursery through a little continent to a small Gulf of Mexico. The
St. Lawrence and the Colorado, and all other great rivers, are to be
represented by mimic streams, and all the States and Territories are
to be represented, preserving their relative position and proportion.
It is also proposed that museums shall be erected upon each of these
little representative tracts, and the States and citizens shall be invited
to contribute to their cabinets, specimens of the natural and artificial
productions of the States represented."

I hope that nothing of the kind will be attempted, for it will most
surely result in failure, as landscape gardening cannot be successfully

22 Public Parks.

restricted to such arbitrary rules. There are plenty of other ways
by which its national character can be shown, and every portion of
our country represented, in full consonance with the beautiful in art
and nature.

NEW YORK.

The Central Park of New York is one of the largest and most
important works of the kind, not alone in this country but the world.
The genius of Downing laid the foundation for it, but it was not until
after his death that the ground was appropriated for this purpose by
an act of the Legislature of New York, and it was not until the
close of 1857 ^^^ the actual purchase of the land was completed.
Premiums for designs amounting to $4,000 were at this time offered
by the Commissioners intrusted with the conduct of the enterprise,
and early in June, 185S, the plan svibmitted by Fred. Law Olmsted
and Calvert Vaux was adopted by the board, after extraordinary
competition, thirty-five studies having been presented, and some of
them from Europe.

The park is two and one-half miles long and half a mile wide,
and is being formed in two parts, connected by a narrow strip of
ground containing the old and new reservoirs for supplying the city
with water ; the former a quadrangular basin of mason work, the
latter of an irregular curved ovitline, with an earth embankment to
retain the water — in all covering about 150 acres. The original park
inclosure contains 776 acres, to which have been added 68 acres at
one time, and more recently Manhattan square ; so that it now con-
tains 862 acres. It is laid out in the first place, to obtain a large
unbroken surface of smooth meadow-like ground, even where the
natural obstacles to this mode are to be overcome by heavy expen-
ditures. The immediate borders of these spaces are planted in a
manner to hide or disguise any incongruous quality in the grounds
beyond. The rocky and broken surface which originally charac-
terized the whole site, however, admits of the application of this
evident preference of the designers to but a small poilion of the
grounds, while elsewhere its capacities for picturesque effect have
been revealed. The diflerent classes of communication are so
arranged that by a peculiar system of arched passages, it never
becomes necessary for a person on foot to cross the surface of the
carriage track, or the horseman to cross the carriage roads, though
he may ride on them if he prefer.*

♦Olmsted.

Public Parks. 23

The following statistics show how the land is appropriated.
Area occupied by carriage roads 49 acres, 9 miles in length ; by
bridle roads 15 acres, 5 miles in length ; by walks 38 acres, 25-^
miles in length ; making a total of 103 acres ; by rock surface,
mainly without soil or shrubbery, 24 acres ; by park ground fertilized
or chiefly fertilized, and in trees, shrubbery, or in open lawns,
exclusive of reservoirs, roads, walks, pads, rock surface, &c., 536
acres.

The subjoined statistics show that the enhanced value of property,
by the laying out of such works is more than ample to meet the
interest on the cost of construction :

Increased value of property in XII, XIX, and XXII

Wards since 1856, $75,675,750.00

The rate of tax for 1867 is 2.67, yielding in the

increased valuation above stated an increased

tax of $2,020,542.53

The total expenditures for construction from May

I, 1S57, to January I, 1868, is $5,185,299.11

The cost of land of the Park to the City, is 5,028.844.10

Total cost of Park up to this time, $10,214,143.21

The annual interest on the cost of the land and
improvement of the Park up to this time at six
per cent $612,848.58

Deduct one per cent, on $399,300 of the above

stock, issued at five per cent $3,993.00

$608,855.58
Excess of increased tax in three wards over

interest in cost of land and improvements,. . . . $1,411,686.95

These tables show an extraordinary rapidity of increase in the value of
the real estate in the upper portions of the Island — the Nineteenth Ward
being chiefly conspicuous for the advance in its value. This is not entirely,
but largely, attributable to the improvements of the Park.*

The other public grounds in the city of New York are the
Battery, containing 30 acres ; City Hall Park, \o\ acres ; Washington
Parade Ground, 9^ acres ; Union Square, 4 acres ; Stuy^^esant Park, 4
acres ; Tompkins Square, iOtV acres ; Madison Square, 7 acres ; St.
John's Park, 4 acres ; Gramercy Park, i| acres : — making a total of
943 acres of ground devoted to park purposes in New York. It may
be said to the credit of the Central Park Commissioners, and in fact
this may be said with regard to all the different Park Commissioners
throughout the country, that although their expenditures have been
enormous, they have never been charged with dishonesty.

* Eleventh A nnual Report of Commissioners of the Central Park.

24 Public Parks.

BALTIMORE. ^

Druid Hill Park, at Baltimore, was opened October 19, i860, by
a grand celebration, and an address by Mayor Swann. This site is
one of the most ancient estates in Maryland, the patent bearing date
16SS, and is situated in the northern part of the city, containing 550
acres. The name was suggested by the great number and magnifi-
cent oaks which abound everywhere upon it, and was selected on
account of the " suitability of the location to the wants of the people,
accessibility to the great masses of the community, and its facilities
for conversion to the plans and uses of a public park ; also its natural
beauty and attractiveness, and the cost of placing it in a condition to
meet the demands of the public." *

A large portion of the Park is covered by a primitive forest of
oak, hickory, tulip, linden, maple, dogwood, &c. The ground is high
and gently undulating, with here and there a deep ravine, in which
are found springs and running brooks. It commands a fine vie-\y
from its height of Chesapeake Bay, Fort McHenry, and the city of
Baltimore.

This park has its origin in the prudence and forethought of Mayor
Swann, who was impressed with the idea that the city passenger
railways should pay something as a compensation for the use of the
streets, and, in his address, he says, — " While Baltimore desired a park,
and while she was in no condition to impose additional taxes upon
her people, it occurred to the friends of this measure that she could
do nothing more wise or beneficial, after placing her tariff on an
equal footing with her sister cities, to avail herself of the only oppor-
tunity likely to secure an adequate bonus to be applied to the
purchase of a public park. Accordingly, when the ordinance
creating these passenger railways was presented for my approval, I
deemed it my duty to insist, as a condition of the franchise, that one-
fifth of the gross receipts should go into the treasury as a fund for
this purpose."

This was done, and up to December 31, 186S, the sum of
$547,546.19 has been received from this source, which has been
applied to the payment of the interest of the park bonds, and its
improvement. The original cost was $512,193.44; this, with the
additions, improvements and interest, amounted, as the total cost,
December 31, 1868, to $1,302,410.61.!

* Mayor Swann's Dedication Address.

t Ninth Annual Report Park Commission.

Public Parks. 25

Druid Hill Park has been slowly and steadily improved, and will,
no doubt, ere long be one of the most delightful resorts in the country.
In 1863, Silver Spring was highly ornamented by the liberality of
Gerard T. Hopkins ; and in 1864, Edmund's Well was adorned by
the munificence of John A. Needles. Various works of art, and
specimens of natural history, such as swan and deer, have been pre-
sented by liberal donors. In 1863, additions were made to this
park — among them Mount Vernon Cemeter3^ Chapman Lake was
completed in 1866, and covers sixty-five acres.

Mr. Daniels, who had laid out a number of rural cemeteries, was
first employed to adapt this beautiful old private park to public pur-
poses. The purchase and improvement of this ground has enhanced
the value of property in its vicinity more than 250 per cent.

Patterson's park was purchased in i860, for $43,642.50. It is
situated in the eastern part of the city, and commands a fine view of
the harbor and bay. On it are the remains of a fortification erected
for the defence of the city in 181 2. It contains thirty-five and one-
half acres, six of which are covered by fine trees. The cost, to
Dec. 31, 1868, with interest and improvements, was $130,593.78,
making the total expenditure for park purposes, by the city of
Baltimore, to that time, $1,433,013.30. Both parks have, for the last
five years, been under the management of August Faul. Although
the expenditures have not been lavish, great improvements have
been made, reflecting the highest credit upon the commission for
judicious and economic management.

It is said that Mr. Hopkins has donated Clifton Park to the city
of Baltimore, for public purposes. This is one of the most elaborate
places in the United States. In addition to a fine and costly house,
there is nowhere in this country, probably, so large a range of glass,
with such diversified grounds, great variety of trees, shrubs, walks,
lawns, and large pieces of ornamental water, containing numerous
islands, planted with masses of rhododendi'ons and evergreen shrubs,
connected by tasteful and appropriate bridges.

BROOKLYN.

Prospect Park, Brooklyn, although of more recent origin, bids
fair to become a formidable rival to the Central Park of New York,
as the ground in some respects is better adapted for the purpose.
The land had been selected for some time prior to the final pur-
chase,in 1864. It was not until 1866, that much improvement was
made, when those accomplished landscape gardeners, Olmsted and

26 Public Parks.

Vaux, were placed in charge. The design is truly beautiful, and if
carried out as commenced, with the park-way, will make Prospect
Park and its vicinity one of the loveliest spots in this country.

Since 1866, 250 acres of the 550, of which it is composed, have
been imder treatment, and 19,000 feet in length of carriage, and
17,000 feet of walk completed, and over 100,000 trees and shrubs set
out ; and since October 20, 1866, when carriages were first admitted,
it has become quite a favorite resort.

The land originally cost the city June 15, 1864, $1,357,606.27

First addition, Feb. 4, 1866, 158,558.41

Second addition, May 27, 1867, 752,745.02

Total cost of land, $2,268,909.70

Cost of improvements to Dec. 31, 1867, 1,169,604.70

Total cost, $3,438,514.40

The interest, payable semi-annually, is raised by annual tax on the First,
Twelfth and the Twentieth Wards of the city. Soon after work commenced
in the park, the price of lots rose rapidly in the neighborhood, and recent
sales show increasing value. The assessed value of the real estate in the
Eight Ward, exclusive of the amount assessed for buildings, has increased
over 30 per cent, during the last year, while the increased value of the real
estate of the Eight and Ninth Wards, being the two wards immediately
contiguous to the park, has for the same time, amounted to nearly two-thirds
of the increased value of the entire city. A similar increase from the same
cause, though not to the same extent, is perceptible in the Twentieth Ward,
which comes next in contiguity to the park, and doubtless an increase exists
in several of the other wards, particularly the Tenth.

The records of the Board of City Assessors show that the assessed value
of real estate in the year 1864 was :

In the Eighth Ward, $4,913,274 '

In the Ninth Ward, 7,966,471

In the Twentieth Ward, 7,069,650

Total, $19,949,395

The same record for the year 1867 shows :

In the Eighth Ward, $ 7,983,200

In the Ninth Ward, 10,743,797

In the Twentieth Ward, 8,705,090

Total in three wards, $27,432,087

Increased in valuation since active operations

commenced in parks, $7,482,692

The additional tax which was raised from this increased valuation for the
year 1867, was $280,692, while the annual interest on the whole park debt, as
it now stands, is $229,219, showing an annual increase of revenue to the
city, from three wards alone, of $51,473.*

* Eighth A nnnal Report of Commissioners of Prospect Park.

Public Parks. 27

At the request of the Common Council, the Legishiture placed
four of the smaller parks under the charge of the Board of Prospect
Park, viz., the Carroll, City, Washington (thirty acres), and City
Hall parks. In the latter are to be placed the remains of the Prison-
ship martyrs. Washington Park was laid out in 1848, and although
plans have been made for its improvement, it has been proposed to
lay it out in lots, and sell them for the benefit of the city. There is
a cemetery included in Prospect Park, from which the bodies are,
however, to be removed.

SAVANNAH, NEW ORLEANS, SAN FRANCISCO, DETROIT, AND
'^- CLEVELAND.

Savannah has a great many small public squares, some of which
are laid out with much taste, and many of the streets are lined with
the Pride of China trees, presenting a beautiful and unique aspect.
New Orleans has its Jackson Square, formerly the Place d' Ar}nes^
which was laid out at the foundation of the city, and which has
recently been much improved. In it is the equestrian statue of
Gen. Jackson, by Clark Mills. Upon the granite block whereon it
stands, Gen. Butler, while in the military occupation of the city,
caused to be engraved, "The Union, it must be preserved." La
Fayette Square, in another portion of the city, is pleasantly laid out.
There are also several smaller squares. Owing to the peculiar
manner in which Detroit is laid out, there are many pieces of ground
of different sizes and shapes, intended for the public use. Some ot
them are now being improved, and when completed will add much
to the appearance and beauty of that city. San Francisco has
twelve squares, but the Plaza, or Portsmouth Square, is the only one
improved. Cleveland has a fine public square, ornamented with a
statue of Perry. Mr. Nicholson proposes to give to this city, for the
purposes of a public park, from two hundred to two hundred and
fifty acres of ground, lying on both sides of Rock river, provided the
city will expend in its improvement, the sum of $50,000 per year
for ten years.

CINCINNATI.

Until recently, Cincinnati has had no place that could be called a
park. The first eftbrt in supplying this want was the conversion of
an old cemetery into Washington Park, containing four and a half
acres, almost in the heart of the city ; and it looks very prettily, with
its lake, fountains, walks, slopes, and venerable trees. The next

28 Public Parks.

step was to form Lincoln Park, first called West-End Park, contain-
ing seven acres, with its large, handsome lake, and beautiful green
island, and which was a great improvement to the West End.
Hopkins, containing one and a half acres, and the City Park, one
and a fourth acres, are within the built-up parts of the city-
It was not until the water supply question was agitated, and the
necessity for a new resei^voir of fair capacity became imperative,
that the idea of combining a large park and resen^oir became
popular, four years ago, A portion of the high grounds boldly over-
looking the Ohio river, in the eastern part of the city, was selected,
known as Longworth's Garden of Eden, as the proper location for
the resei-voir, to give sufficient head to the water suppl3^ Combined
with this advantage was another — that nature had so formed the
ground as to leave it susceptible of easy landscape improvement. It
contains 156 acres, 14 of which will be covered by water. There are
at this time over three miles of avenues laid out, two of which are
nearly graded, so that early in the spring the broken stone and
gi'avel can be put on, forming one of the most delightful drives in
the vicinit)'^ of the city. The grades of all the avenues are very easy,
most of them being scarcely perceptible. Nearly the whole ground
will be laid oft' in landscape, and the reservoir adding to the beauties
of the scenery, will form a very conspicuous feature. There is no
stiff outline or geometrical form to the boundaries of the reservoir,
the water forming its own outline by the natural slopes of the
hills. There is no point at which a view of the entire lake can be
seen, some portions of its surface being lost in the meanderings of its
course.

The ground has been leased by the city, and whenever the City
should wish to purchase, it can do so, for the sum of $3,000 per
acre, but until then it is to pay an annual rent on the above amount
at the rate of six per cent, per annum. Work was commenced in
May 1867, and up to this time $245,000 have been expended.
The improvement is expected to cost $1,400,000,*

ST, LOUIS,

In St, Louis, the subject of public parks has occupied much
attention for the past few yeai's, the same diversity of opinion and
interest existing as in our city. The city was the owner, in 1866, of
287 acres of land, distributed in various parks, places, and squares
throughout the city. In the same year the Mayor recommended the

*Dr. Wm. Clendenin, Health Officer, Cincinnati.

Public Parks.

29

passage of an ordinance authorizing the City Cemetery to be declared
a public park, and the purchase of the following additions, so as to
increase the City Cemetery to 35fVo ^^cres, Lafayette Park to 47yVu
acres, St. Louis Place to 35yVo acres, and Hyde Park to 20^/5
acres ; also, the purchase of fifty acres outside of the city limits.
This, I believe, was not done. The following are the names,
locality, and area of the parks : —

Carondelet Park

Laclede Park

Gravois Park

Lafayette Park

Washington Square

Missouri Park

Carr Square

Jackson Place

Clinton Place

Marion Place

St. Louis Place

Hyde Park

Exchange Square.. .
Tower Grove Park .
Benton Park

LOCALITY.

N. Dacotah street, E. Michigan avenue.
N. Gasconade street, E. Iowa avenue.
Potomac street and Kansas avenue. . .
Park avenue and Mississippi avenue. .

Market and 12th streets

St. Charles and 13th streets

Carr and E. i6th streets

Jackson alley and nth street

Clinton alley and nth street

Marion alley and nth street. .'.

Herbert and 17th streets

Bremen avenue and 12th street

Warren street and Wharf

Magnolia and Grand avenue

Arsenal st. & McHose & English Cave.

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Mr. Henry Shaw several years ago offered to donate to the city of
St. Louis 200 acres, on condition that a certain strip surrounding the
tract be resei-ved by him and sold for residences, the proceeds to
constitute a part of the endowment of his "Botanical Garden."
On March 9, 1867, an act was passed by the Legislature of
Missouri creating, and providing for the government of Tower-
Grove Park ; and on July 3, 1868, the City Council passed an
ordinance to raise the requisite funds, for carrying out the provisions
of the act. Owing to the fact that provision is made in the act creat-
ing the park for its improvement, Mr. Shaw donated 76 acres more
than he originally intended. He is constituted a Commissioner
during his life, and he also appoints the remaining four Commissioners.
The grounds are partially improved, and with the arboretum, botanical
garden, &c., constitute one of the most liberal gifts ever made by a

30 Public Parks.

private gentleman for the public benefit. I am informed that the
necessary funds have been raised for its improvement, and that as
soon as possible work will be commenced, *

CHICAGO.

Coming now to Chicago we find her public grounds distributed as
follows : in the North Division is Lincoln Park, containing about 50
acres, 35 of w^hich may be said to be improved, whereon the sum of
$60,000 has been very judiciously expended during the last three
years, making it a truly beautiful place. With the lake and the
character of the ground, there is here afl:brded a fine opportunity for
landscape gai'dening. Many trees have been set out, and two and a
half miles of carriage drives, and about the same length of graded
walks, have been constructed. Unfortunately the carriage drives are
not wide enough. Several picturesque lakes are also found in it.
Washington Park is also in the North Division, situated between
North Dearborn and North Clark streets, and Washington and
Lafayette places. It contains 2y\ acres, upon which a few trees
have been planted, and improved by two conci'ete walks running
through it, and is enclosed by a common fence. Lake Park, is a
tract lying along the lake in front of Michigan avenue, extending
from Randolph street to Park Place, and when filled will contain
about 40 acres. Dearborn Park is between Washington and
Randolph streets, fronting on Michigan avenue, containing lyVo
acres, and is surrounded by an iron railing with a few stunted ti'ees
scattered here and there, together with an occasional evergreen. The
attempts at improvement of this piece of ground have been singu-
larly abortive, and in a sanitary point of view much more benefit
can be derived by the sale of this property for business purposes,
and the application of the proceeds to the purchase of grounds
elsewhere, — as for instance in the 5th Ward between 26th and
31st streets. The Court House Square contains 2yf„^ acres, but
with the extension of the public buildings the area which will be
left for decoration will be insignificant. Several unsuccessful
attempts have been made to improve this square. Ellis Park has
an area of about 3 acres, and is situated near the Douglas Monu-
ment, and is covered by a few forest trees. Union Park on the
West Side contains 17 acres whose improvements have cost the
sum of $42,584.74. The attempt at landscape gardening in this
park has been unfortunate, as the extent and character of the

* Dr. P. v. Schenck, Health Officer, St. Louis.

Public Parks. 31

ground is such that it will not admit of anything of the kind.
Jefferson Park containing <^^-^ acres, is situated between Monroe
and Adams streets, on the north and south, and Rucker and Loomis
streets east and west, and is surrounded by a wooden fence, and
has been laid out in walks, and a few trees have been planted in and
around it. The same may be said of the Vernon Park, which
contains four acres. Wicker Park, is a projected one in the extreme
north-western part of the city. The whole area within the city,
devoted to park purposes, amounts to 1 25 ^^^ acres, of which only
one-third has been improved, and upon the improvements about
$105,000 have been expended. *

I have thus passed in review the history of parks and public
grounds, from the earliest period to the present time. Apart from
considerations of sanitary economy, of which I shall treat hereafter,
it will be seen that public parks may be regarded as an unerring
index of the advance of a people in civilization and refinement.
They form an attractive feature in the surroundings of an}^ great city,
and constitute, even, the peculiar charm of many a country village.
From the foregoing it will be seen how much has been accomplished
elsewhere, and how little here. This is owing, no doubt, to the
rapidity with which Chicago has sprung up. But it is singular, that
with all her characteristic business energy and forethought, she has
so far neglected to secure ample grounds for park purposes ; but
the time has now arrived when it becomes necessary to act, and act
in a manner that will not leave her behind, as compared with other
cities, in those arts which embellish and render cities attractive as
places of abode ; in other words, we want, not alone a place for
business, but also one in which we can live.

* In this connection, it may not be out of place to call attention to the suburban village at
Riverside, located in a bend of the Aux Plaines Rivei', nine miles south-west from the business center
of Chicago, and six miles west of the city limits. It is a private enterprise, and is intended as a resi-
dent park, comprising an area of i,6oo acres, which has been laid out, and is now being improved,
under the direction of Olmsted and Vaux, formerly architects and landscape gardeners of the Central
Park, New York, and now of the Prospect Park, Brooklyn. The greater portion of the ground is
admirably adapted for this purpose, being about twenty feet above the river, making it easily susceptible
of good drainage, while the banks of the river and the more elevated portions of the ground are covered
with groves of thrifty trees, consisting of oaks, elms, hickories, walnuts, lindens, and ashes. Here are to
be combined the comforts of the city, in the way of gas, water, drainage, with all the beauties of land-
scape gardening ; and I have no doubt, judging trom the report of the architects to the owners, and the
work already accomplished, that it will be made one of the finest suburban parks in the country, and
one of the most pleasant and healthful places of residence in the neighborhood of this city. To facili-
tate access, it is also intended to connect this park with the city by a broad and well improved avenue,
lined with trees. If it were for nothing else, this enterprise cannot be too strongly commended, on
account of the trees that are to be planted along this avenue, which, in the course of time, will exercise
a vast influence in moderating the e.\trenies of our climate, and go far to protect the city from the inju-
rious effects of the south-west wind at certain seasons of the year. As the approaches to the city in
that direction are an open waste, and exceedingly uninterestmg, and, at times, positively dreary and
difficult, owing to character of the roads, Riverside and the avenue will soon cause the improvement of
the intervening space, and thus obviate this objection.

32 Public Parks.

HOW FAR MAN CAN MODIFY CLIMATE.

Marsh, in his work on "Man and Nature," says: "The influ-
ence of man in changing the climate and the physical condition of a
country needs no argument to substantiate." Withdraw man, and
you remove the disturber of all laws. People must be " awakened
to the necessity of restoring the disturbed harmonies of nature, where
well-balanced influences are so propitious to all her organic off"-
spring, of repaying to our great mother the debt which the prodigality
and thriftlessness of former generations have imposed upon their
successors — thus fulfilling the command of religion and of practical
wisdom, to use this world as not abusing it." He further says :
" I am satisfied that we can become the architects of our own abiding
place, as it is well known how the mode of our physical, moral, and
intellectual being is affected by the character of the home Providence
has appointed, and we have fashioned for our material habitation."

Such is undoubtedly the case, and it becomes our duty to restore,
as far as possible, this harmony, which is destroj'ed by the accumu-
lation of such a mass of human beings, as are now congregated in
and around this city. The collection of many people in a small
space, no matter for what purpose, is unnatural and artificial. It is
therefore necessary, in order to prevent the ill effects of such accu-
mulations, to resort to artificial means to equalize the disturbing
agencies. Will we then intelligently use what knowledge we have,
and avert the result, or fold our hands, and depend upon blind
chance, bearing in mind, however, that

" Death lives where power lives unused."

In the discussion of the questions involved, in order to arrive at
satisfactory results, it is necessary to examine into all its aspects and
relations systematically ; and when conclusions are arrived at, their
application must be made in like manner, in order to produce the
desired result.

"Science," says Whewell, "is that precise and comprehensive
kind of knowledge which results from the application to facts, which
are sufficientl}'^ numerous, of conceptions clear and distinct in them-
selves, and so suited to the facts as to produce an exact and uniform
accordance ; and the construction of science is a process which
comprises methods of observation, methods of obtaining clear ideas,
and methods of induction."* " Science," says Lord Bacon, evidently
following the definition of Pliny, "is the interpretation of nature,"

* Bain on the Senses and the Intellect

Public Parks. 33

"a comparison," says Bain, "that transfixes the mind with the idea
of observing, recording, and explaining the facts of the world."

This definition I shall apply to sanitary science, in connection
with public parks, and, as best I can, explain general laws and draw
deductions from the facts within my reach, with regard to the climate,
topography, and diseases of this locrdity. Although some of the
facts collected during 1866, and the f^rst half of 1867, are not as full
nor as accurate as those collected since, still they are sufficiently so
to indicate the general laws governing and controlling them.

VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY.

In order to appreciate the important part that the vegetable
kingdom performs in the economy of nature, and particularly its
effects upon animal life, it will be necessary to call attention to the
elementary composition of plants, the nature of the food by which
they are nourished, the sources from which this food is derived, and
the transformation it undergoes in their system. In the process of
digestion or assimilation is found the nature of vegetation, as in this
process alone mineral and unorganized matter is converted into the
tissues of plants and other forms of organized matter, the vege-
table kingdom occupying a position between the mineral and the
animal kingdoms. In living bodies there is a state of internal
activity and unceasing change — particles which have served their turn
being continually thrown out of the system as new ones are brought
in, thus constantly undergoing decomposition and recomposition.
Plants are organized beings that live directly upon the mineral king-
dom— and upon the surrounding earth and air, and, as a necessary
result of assimilating their organic food,they decompose carbonic acid,
and restore its oxygen to the atmosphere. Animals in respiration,
continually recompose carbonic acid at the expense of the oxygen of
the atmosphere and the carbon of plants. Plants absorb their food
entirely in a liquid or gaseous form, by imbibition, according to the
law of endosmosis, through the walls of the cells that form the
surface — as when liquids of unequal density are separated by a
permeable membrane, the lighter liquid or the weaker solution will
flow into the denser or stronger with a force proportioned to tlae
difference in density ; but at the same time a smaller portion of the
denser liquid will flow out into the weaker, which process is called
exosmosis.

34 Public Parks.

The fluid absorbed by the roots, is thus carried from cell to cell,
rising principally in the wood, and is attracted to the leaves, or
other parts of the plants exposed to sun and light, by the exhalation
which takes place from them, and the consequent inspiration of the
sap. Here the crude sap is exposed to sun and light, and assimilated
and converted into organizable matter. Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
and nitrogen, are indispensable to vegetation, and make up at least
from 88 to 90 per cent, of every vegetable substance ; the proper
vegetable structure, however, is only composed of carbon, hydrogen,
and oxygen.

Plants also receive nitrogen in the form of ammonia, which is
always produced when any animal, and almost when any vegetable
substance decays, and which, being very volatile, continually rises
into the air from these and other sources. Ammonia is soluble and
is greedily absorbed by aqueous vapor, and is brought to the ground
by rain and snow. The carbon of plants is derived wholly from the
carbonic acid of the atmosphere, and it makes up jaV-g- ^^ its bulk,
from which it is directly absorbed by the leaves. It may then be said
that the atmosphere contains all the essentials to plant growth, viz.,
water in a state of vapor, which is not only food itself as it supplies
oxygen and hydrogen, but is likewise the vehicle of the others,
carrying to the roots what it has gathered from the air, namely, the
requisite supplies of nitrogen, either as such, or in the form of
ammonia, and of carbon in the forin of carbonic acid.

In fact, all of the essential elements of plants or proper food
may be absorbed by the leaves directly from the air, and no doubt
most plants take in a great part of their food in this way as droop-
ing foliage may be revived by sprinkling with water, or exposure to
a damp atmosphere.

Air plants live on the atmosphere, and a branch of the common
"•Live Forever" will grow when pinned to a dry and bare wall.
All leafy plants derive their carbonic acid from the air, and many,
as has already been stated, derive their whole food from the air
or part of it. It is found, that when a current of carbonic acid
is made to traverse a glass globe containing a leafy plant exposed to
full sunshine, some carbonic acid disappears, and an equal bulk of
oxygen gas supplies its place. Now since carbonic acid gas contains
just its own bulk of oxygen, it is evident that what has thus been
decomposed in the leaves has returned all its oxygen to the air.

Public Parks. 35

Although phmts may derive their food from the air, they receive
it mainly through the roots. The aqueous vapor., condensed into
rain or dew, and bringing with it to the ground a portion of carbonic
acid and of nitrogen or ammonia, &c., supplies the proper food of
the plant to the rootlets, and imbibed by these it is conveyed thi^ough
the stem and into the leaves where the superfluous water is restored to
the atmosphere by exhalation, while the residue is converted into
the proper nourishment and substance of the vegetable.

The water exhaled may be again absorbed by the roots laden
with a new supply of the other elements from the air, again exhaled
and so on, as illustrated by cultivated plants in Ward's case, where
plants are seen to flourish for a long time with a limited supply of
water, every particle of which (excepting the small portion actually
consumed by the plants,) must repeatedly pass through this circula-
tion ; and here is exhibited the actual relations of water, &c., to
vegetation on a large scale in nature, where the water is alternately
and repeatedly raised by evaporation and recondensed t o such an
extent that what actually falls in rain is estimated to be evaporated and
rained down on an average ten or fifteen times a year. In this way
the atmosphere is repeatedly purified by the rain, and those vapors
washed out, which else by their accumulations, would prove injurious
to man and animals, and are conveyed to the roots of plants which
they are especially adapted to nourish.

During intensely hot weather the effect of rain is apparent, and
the common saying "We have had a refreshing shower," is appre-
ciated by all. A shower of rain has been known frequently to stop
epidemics, particularly of cholera.

The lower order of plants, such as the Lichens, Mosses, Ferns,
&c., which grow entirely at the expense of the air and are generally
found in damp and shady places, gradually form a soil or vegetable
mould during their life, which is increased by their decay, while the
successive generations live more vigorously upon this inheritance,
being supported partly by what they draw from the air and partly
from the ancestral accumulations of vegetable mould. It is in this
way that, what are called the useless plants create a soil which will in
time support the higher plants of immediate importance to man and
other mammalia, but which could never grow and perfect their
fruits if left like their humble predecessors to derive an unaided
subsistance directly from the inorganic mould. The harmony of
nature is such that it cannot be disturbed. The greater part of

36 Public Parks.

Fungi live upon decaying organic matter, and have not the power
of forming organizable products from inorganic material.

We now come to that part of vegetable physiology in which we
are most interested. Under the influence of light, takes place the
chemical decomposition of one or more substances in the sap,
liberating the oxygen at the ordinary temperature of the air,
and transforming the mineral, inorganic food into organic matter —
the organized substance of living plants and animals. The chief
material given back to the air in this process is oxygen gas, that
element of our atmosphere which renders it fit for the breathing and
life of animals. That the foliage of plants in sunshine is continually
yielding oxygen to the surrounding air has been known since the
days of Ingenloup and Priestly. By exposing a few freshly-
gathered leaves to the sunshine, in a glass vessel filled with water,
air-bubbles will presently arise but cease to appear when placed in
the dark.

There is no doubt but that all leafy plants obtain part of their car-
bonic acid from the air, for when a current of carbonic acid gas is
made slowly to traverse a glass globe containing a leafy plant exposed
to full sunshine, some carbonic acid disappears, and an equal bulk of
oxygen gas supplies its place. Carbonic acid gas contains just its
own bulk of oxygen. It is evident that what has thus been decom-
posed in the leaves, has returned all its oxygen to the air. Plants,
therefore, take carbonic acid, directly or indirectly ; they retain its
carbon, and give back its oxygen.

Generally speaking, the plants may be said to be in a passive or
or state of rest at night, sometimes even throwing out carbonic acid
and consuming oxygen, and this is undoubtedly the reason why more
deaths occur at night, and the fatality incident to epidemics is
greatest.

In fact vegetation is the only operation in nature which gives to
the air free oxygen which is indispensable to animal life, as all
animals consume oxygen at every moment of their life, giving to the
air carbonic acid in its room, and when dead their bodies consume a
further portion in decomposition, such being the case also with
vegetables. While animals consume the oxygen of the air, and give
back carbonic acid which is injurious to their life, this carbonic acid
is the principle element of the food of vegetables, is consumed and
decomposed by them, and its oxygen returned for the use of animals.
Hence the perfect adaptation of the two great kingdoms of living

Public Parks. 37

beings to each other ; each removing from the atmosphere which
would be noxious to the other — each yielding to the atmosphere
what is essential to the continued existence of the other.* Little does
man think how dependent he is upon vegetation, for while the
vegetable kingdom is entirely independent, and might have existed
alone, yet it is absolutely essential to the life of man.f

I

AQUATIC VEGETATION.

The remarks thus far made, generally apply to the vegetable
kingdom, and have mainly had reference to the higher orders of
plants. I now propose to advert to the lower orders which occur in
water, both fresh and salt, and play the same part in the economy of
nature as those found on land. They have been found in countless
myriads in the depths of the ocean, far down as the plummet has yet
sounded, and in fact, may be said to be found in every climate under
one phase or another. | The sea teems with animal life, and without

* Gray's Structural Botany.

t It has been found by experiment that plants will thrive in ak containing more carbonic acid than
that usually found in the atmosphere when exposed to a strong sun-light, or in climates where the solar
light is not much obscured by clouds. The floating islands which are constantly being found in the lake
of Solfatara, in Italy, according to Sir Humphrey Davy, exhibit a striking example of cryptogamic
vegetation in an atmosphere impregnated with carbonic acid. These islands consist chiefly of confervs
and other simple cellular plants, wliich are copiously supplied with nutriment by carbonic acid tliat is
constantly escaping from the bottom of the lake, with a violence that gives to the water an appearance of
ebullition. Dr. Schleiden, Weigmati's Archives, 183S, mentions that the vegetation around the
springs in the valley of Gottingen, which abound in carbonic acid, is very rich and luxuriant ; appearing
several weeks earlier in spring, and continuing much later in autumn, than at other spots in the same
district. Humboldt says that "exhalations of carbonic acid (mofettes) are, even in our days, to be
considered as the most important gaseous emanations, with respect to their number and the amount of
their effusion. We see in Germany, in the deep valleys of Eifel, in the neighborhood of Lake Laach, in
the crater-like valley of the Wehr of Western Bohemia, exhalations of carbonic acid gas manifest
themselves as the last efforts of volcanic activity, in or near the foci of an earlier world. In these earlier
periods, when a higher terrestrial temperature existed, and when a great number of fissures remained
unfilled, the processes we have described acted more powerfully, and carbonic acid and hot steam were
mixed in larger quantities in the atmosphere, from whence it follows, as Adolph Brongniart has
\n%^xi\ovL^y A\Q\sxi,fyci\}a^ Aiinales ties Scietices Naturelles,) \\\3.\. the primitive vegetable world must
have exhibited, almost everywhere, and independently of geographical position, the most luxurious
abundance and the fullest development of organism. In these constantly warm and damp atmospheric
strata, saturated with carbonic acid, vegetation must have attained a degree of vital activity, and derived
the superabundance of nutrition necessary to furnish material for the formation of the beds of lignite,
(coal,) constituting the inexliaustible means on which are based the physcial power and prosperity of
nations." # # #

"That portion of the carbon which was not taken up by the alkaline earths, but remained mixed with
the atmosphere as carbonic acid, was gradually consumed by the vegetation of the earlier stages of the
world, so that the atmosphere, after being purified by the processes of vegetable life, only retained the
small quantity which it now possesses, and which is not injurious to the present organization of animal
life." — Cosmos. Daubney, in his work on "Volcanoes," says, speaking of the Lake of Laach, that
"the thickness of the vegetation on the sides of its crater-like basin, renders it difficult to discover the
nature of the subjacent rock." The same writer, in his " Report to the British Association," for 1849,
of experiments made by him, confirms, to a great extent, the ingenious hypothesis of M. Brongniart.

t Although the surface of the ocean is less rich in living forms than that of continents, it is not
improbable that on a farther investigation of its depths, its mterior may be found to possess a greater
richness of organic life than any other portion of our planet. Charles Darwin, in the agreeable naiTative
of his extensive voyages, justly remarks that our forests do not conceal so many animals as the low,
woody regions of the ocean, where the sea-weed rooted to the bottom of the shoals, and the several
branches of foci loosened by the force of the waves and currents, and swimming free, unfold their
delicate foliage, upborne by air cells. — Costnos.

38 P7M{c Parks.

these, vegetable forms they could not live.* They keep the water
pure, and yield oxygen to the atmosphere. In every pool and stag-
nant ditch, under the influence of heat, algae are quickly produced,
forming the green scum over them, w^hich instead of being injurious,
are beneficial, and emit oxygen in the shape of beads that can be
seen on any sunny day. It is only after the pool is dried, and
these conferviE are wafted away by the wind, that places of this
character become injurious. The amount of benefit derived from
these apparently insignificant plants, is great when we take into
account the many extensive surfaces of water dispersed over the
world, which are thus kept pure, and made subservient to a healthy
state of the atmosphere. It is not only vast, but part of the harmo-
nious whole, and worthy of Him who has appointed even to the
meanest of His creatures, something to do for the good of His
creation ;f and well may it be said —

" Call us not weeds, we are the flowers of the sea."
INFLUENCE OF VEGETATION, PARTICULARLY TREES, UPON HEALTH.

Having thus shown the actions and reactions which take place
between animal and vegetable life, and how dependent the former is
upon the latter, we propose to call attention to a series of facts,
gathered from different sources, which illustrate in a marked degree,
the application of these principles, clearly proving that the infection
and diffusion of malaria or noxious emanations are arrested by trees,
whose structure and canopy of foliage act in a three-fold capacity ;
— first as a barrier to break the flow, second as an absorbent of those
emanations, and third as eliminators of oxygen.

Lancisi cites a number of facts showing the protection afforded
by belts of trees against the effects of malaria, and the danger
resulting from their removal. He calls attention to the fact that, in
former days, there existed on the south side of Rome a thick forest
which extended from Frascati and Albano to the Tiber, and pi'otected
the southern portion of the city and the neighboring district from
the baneful influence of the effluvia of the Pontine Marshes. This

* " The parlor aquarium has taught even those to whom it is but an amusing toy, that the balance
of animal and vegetable life must be preserved, and that excess of either is fatal to the other, in the
artificial tank as well as in natural water. A few years ago, the water of the Cochituate Aqueduct, at
Boston, became so offensive in smell and taste, as to be quite unfit for use. Scientific investigation found
the cause in the scrupulous care with which aquatic vegetation had been excluded from the reservoir,
and the consequent death and decay of the animalculae which could not be shut out nor live in the water
without the the vegetable element." — Man and Nature: Marsh.

'^Contributions to the History of Marine AJgce of North America: Harvey-

Public Parks. 39

rampart has since been removed, and the country has become
proverbial for its unhealthiness.*

Lancisi did not for a moment doubt the utiHty of these belts, and
expresses the opinion that the consecration by the Ancients of woods
and groves had no other motive than guarding, through their means,
against the diffusion of the febriferous poison. Among the Romans,
the advantage of such barriers had long been recognized. Trees
were planted in rows and masses to guard against the diffusion of
malaria. The practice was enforced by law, and recorded in the
Roman tablets. This law, which was reported by Cicero, — " Lucos
in agris habinto," — evidently had reference much more to the advan-
tage in question than for the purposes for which trees are usually
planted. In order to insure their safety, such collections of trees
were placed under the protection of some divinity, or under the
responsibility of the Roman Consuls.

Bapt. Donus, in his work " On the means insuring Salubrity to
the Soil of the Roman States," recommends the planting of pine and
other trees between Rome and the Pontine Marshes, to intercept the
miasmata wafted from there by the south-west winds. At Velletri,
as also at Campo-Salino, the destruction of belts of woods was
followed by the prevalence of fever.f

Dr. Lewis, in his Medical History of Alabama, says, "Mr. P. E.
had negro-quarters situated on the first prairie elevation above the
low lands of a small creek, the fourth of a mile from the houses.
The belt of low ground frequently overflowed, causing water to
remain in holes over its entire breadth, in the subsidence of the
stream ; but it was well shaded by a dense foliage, the plantation
lying on the prairie in the rear of the cabins. In the winter of 1843
and 1843 the trees between the houses and creek were cleared away,
and up to that time, some eight or ten years, the negroes living in
this quarter had enjoyed uninterrupted health — a case of fever scarcely
occurring. During the summer of 1843, the first after the forest had
been cleared away, fever prevailed among the negroes with great
violence, continuing until frost. The negro-quarters were afterwards
removed to the opposite side of the creek, about the same distance
from it, but with an intervening growth of timber, and no fever has
occurred on the place since." \

* La Roche, on Pneumonia and Malaria.

t De Restitueuda Salubritate Agri Romani, 1667.

% New Orleans Journal.

40

Public Parks.

"Whole families," says Mr. Bartlett, "have resided near the
Pontine Marshes, and, by the intenvention of shrubs and trees, have
escaped for years the noxious effects of the mephitic vapors v^hich
these putrid waters engender."* Dr. Hosack states that a famil}^
in New Jersey was attacked with fever in consequence of cutting
down a wood that separated them from a morass in the neighborhood.
Befoi'e the operation they had been healthy. f "Army physicians,
therefore, recommend," says Dr. Wilson Philip, "having a wood, if
possible, between marshy grounds and an encampment." % Rigault
de Lisle calls attention to the fact that, upon Mount Argental, above
the village of St. Stephano, there is a convent which has lost all the
reputation for salubrity which it once enjoyed, since the lofty trees,
by which it was surrounded, have been cut down. " I have been
informed," he adds, "by persons worthy of credit, that in conse-
quence of the felling of the wood before Asterna, near the Pontine
Marshes, Veletri was visited for three successive years by diseases
which made much greater havoc than usual throughout the whole
country, and peneti^ated to many places which they had not pre-
viously been accustomed to reach. Rigault de Lisle cites other
cases, and refers to Volney, who states that Beyroot, formerly very
unhealthy, has ceased to be so since the Emir Fakr-el-din planted a
wood of fir-trees, which still exist, a league below the town.

By Pliny and others, among the Ancients, it was supposed that
trees absorb the exhalations extricated from insalubrious places, and
that the beneficial effects obtained from woods are to be accounted
for in this way much more than the obstacles they offer to the diffli-
sion of these exhalations. This opinion has, to a certain extent,
received the sanction of Thouvenelle, Copland, and other modern
writers ; and it is is undoubtedly correct, as the results of certain
experiments made long ago, and ixpeated more recently, prove.
Dr. Lewis, of Mobile, says, "It is the received opinion that living
vegetation protects the human system from the deleterious effects
of malaria ; and, reasoning by analogy, it would appear that experi-
inents made by scientific men have satisfactorily explained the mutual
dependence of the animal kingdoms on each other for support. It
has been ascertained that if air, rendered pernicious by respiration,
be confined in a bottle, into which some green plant has been intro-

* Thompson's ^«7;a/j.
t Practice of Medicine.
X Treatise on Feb. Dis.

Public Parks. 41

duced, and exposed to the action of the sun, the carbonic acid will
be absorbed, and the air restored to its original condition. The
putrefaction of animal matter, and the decomposition of vegetable
substances, would cause a sufficiency of carbonic acid vapor, when
united with atmospheric air, to destrov every living being, were
it not for this wise provision of nature. This gas, which is
poisonous to the human as well as animal species, is a source of
nutriment to every variety of plants ; and thus, it would appear,
exercises a benign influence in protecting man from the deleterious
effects of poisonous vapors. And if the effect is obtained, so far as
regards one species of poisonous vapor, it may be equally so in
reference to that giving rise to fever." *

Dr. Cartwright ascribes to the yussicea gtandijlora., a plant
found in great abundance in marshy or swampy places in the
Southern States, particularly in certain regions of Louisiana, which
present the usual characteristic malarial surfaces, the cause of
their exemption from fever, f Aquatic plants and those found in
swampy or marshy soils while growing, exhale a large quantity of
oxygen ; but when they have their growth, this action ceases and
those regions become imhealthy. It was at one time supposed that
no ozone could be found in swamps ; but I have discovered its
presence in June, near the surface of the water of a lake in which
the Chara were growing abundantly, but could not detect it in the
same place in September. It has also been ascertained that fish are
healthier and thrive better in water where aquatic plants are found
than where they are absent.

A distinguished natural philosopher, Changevix, inferred from
the results of his experiments, that the action of trees in producing
the effects under consideration, is two-fold. "Plants," he says,
"whether odoriferous or inodorous, give issue to emanations which,
when mixed with poisonous vapors exhaling from marshy or damp
soils, neutralize their pernicious influence. But the former exercise
a greater effect through means of the neutralizing process than by
the power of absorption just mentioned, their emanations mixing
with the air we breathe and correcting its deleterious properties by
virtue of the particular qualities with which they are endowed.
The second class — the inodoriferous — on the other hand, act more
evidently through means of their power of absorption than of the

* Medical History of Alabama,
t Western Medical Journal.

4a

Public Parks.

neutralizing propei'ty of their emanation, and remove from the air
the vapors by which it is contaminated."*

M. Carriere, in a work on the climate of Italy, adopts the views
of Chevreul and Fontana, in relation to the febrific poison through
means of the action of organic matter on the sulphates contained in
the earth, or in water with the aid of the oxygen derived from the
former. The leaves of plants and of trees, as well as the green
substances that cover the soil, are all inexhaustible sources of
oxygen, which is so important to sustain life and preserve health.
"Hence," he says, "to cover the fields, the edges of marshes and
the whole extent of the soil with an abundant vegetation, is equal to
placing on the surface of unhealthy regions a reparative apparatus
of the greatest power. Trees, therefore, must have a large share
in the amelioration of the country, in consequence of the quantity
of leaves they furnish." t

Others have supposed, before vegetable physiology was as well
understood as at this time, that malaria was collected by plants,
particularly those of a dense and entangling foliage, and was
disengaged in cutting them down or rooting them up, thus exciting
fevers and disease. Dr. Ferguson, calling attention to the atti"action
of marsh poison for, or rather its adherence to, lofty umbrageous trees,
says that "this is so much the case that it can with difficulty be
separated from them ; and that in the territory of Guiana particu-
larly, where these trees abound, it is wonderful to see how near to
leeward of the most pestiferous marshes the settlers, provided they
have this security, will venture — and that with comparative impu-
nity— to place their habitations. The town of New Amsterdam,
Berbice, situated within musket shot to leeward of a swamp
extremely offensive at a certain stage of dryness, owes evidently
its exemption from fever to this cause." " A still better instance of
the same, and with the same results, may be seen at Paramaribo,
the capital of Surinam, when the trade-wind, that regularly venti-
lates the town and renders it habitable, blows over a swamp within
a mile of the town, which, fortunately for the inhabitants, is covered
with the same description of trees." \

"It has been obsei-ved," says Becqueral, "that humid air,
charged with miasmata, is deprived of them in passing through

* Journal de Physique.
t Le Climat de V Italie.
% Marsh Poison.

Public Parks. ' 43

the forest. Rigaud de Lisle obsei-ved localities in Italy where the
interposition of a screen of trees preserved everything beyond it,
while the unprotected grounds were subject to fevers."* The
belief that rows of trees afford an important protection against
malarious influences is very general among Italians best qualified by
intelligence and professional experience, to judge upon the subject.
The commissioners appointed to report on the measures to be
adopted for the improvement of the Tuscan Maremme advised the
planting of three or four rows of poplars, in such directions as to
obstruct the currents of air from malarious localities, and thus intercept
a great proportion of the pernicious exhalations." | Lieutenant
Maury believed that a few rows of sun-flowers, planted between the
Washington Obsei"vatory and the marshy banks of the Potomac, had
saved the inmates of that establishment from the intermittent fever,
to which they had been formerly liable. These experiments have
been repeated in Italy. Large plantations of sun-flowers have been
made upon the alluvial deposits of the Oglio, above its entrance
into the lake of Iseo, near Pisogne, and it is said with beneficial
eflects. I

"In Southern Burmah the inhabitants place their houses under
trees with the best effect, and it was a rule with the Romans to
encamp their men under trees in all hot countries." §

Many more instances of a like character might be adduced that
have occurred in this country, particularly in the West. In the
settlement of all new countries much sickness follows, owing to the
destruction of the trees and the upturning of the vegetable mould
which has for ages been collecting and lying dormant, and thus
exposed by the influence of heat and light to decomposition. The
" balance of nature, " as Dumas significantly expresses it, " is
destroyed," and as a necessary consequence the harmony is disturbed,
and sickness and death are the result to the disturbers. All the
operations of nature tend to produce unity and harmony in their
results ; and whenever man interferes with that order, it is at the
expense of his health and well-being.

While preparing an article on cholera, as it appeared at Burling-
ton, Iowa, in 1850, I was forcibly struck with what I could not but
regard as the preventive influence of trees. In the houses on the

* Becqueral, Des Climats.

t Salvagnoli, Rapporto sul Bonificamenio delle Marennne Toscane.

X II Politecnico, Milano, 1863.

§ Parkes' Practical Hygiene.

AA Public Parks.

west side of Main Street, north of Court, more deaths took place
than in any other portion of the city ; and that more occurred in
proportion to the number of inmates in every other house, than in
the one in front of which were trees ; and what is still more con-
vincing, the natural predisposition to cholera existed to a greater
extent among the inmates of this house, than in any other. Another
and more striking instance occurred in the two houses nearest the
" Old Saw Mill." The house adjoining the mill was surrounded by
trees and not one of the occupants suffered from cholera ; while, in
the other house, which was exposed and stood upon the bank of the
Mississippi, three deaths took place ; and what is more to the point is,
that the family which escaped, were new-comers and suffering frojn
nostalgia and the effects of a change of climate, which act as a
predisposing and exciting cause of the disease ; while those who
lived in the other house, were old residents, and had been thoroughly
acclimated. Dr. Buckler notices similar facts in his account of the
cholera as it appeared in the Baltimore Aims-House, in 1S49.

In the summer of 1852, the trees on the high bluff' in the northern
part of Burlington, were cut down. It was not until the months of
August, September, and October, of the following year, that any
apparent effect of this destruction of the trees took place, when nearly
all who lived in that portion of the city suffered with fevers, and
several of them died.

During the late war of the Rebellion, much of the sickness of the
army of the Potomac in the summer, autumn, and winter of 1861,
while encamped near Washington, was the result of the destruction of
the trees for purposes of defence, as a military necessity, and for the
use of the troops. The same was also noticed in Louisiana, where
troops had been encamped for some time, and many trees were cut
down. This was strikingly illustrated at Port Hudson,' where, for
purposes of defence, the rebels cut down nearly all the timber
adjoining the outer fortification. It became necessary, in several
places, to cut down more by our troops, and in a very short time
the effect was quite marked in the increase of sickness, exclusive of
casualties, in the regiments camped upon or near this ground.

TREES MODIFY CLIMATE.

We next propose to consider how far trees modify climate. Their
shafts may be i-egarded as so many pipes for conveying heat from
the earth to the air in winter, and from the air to the earth in the

Public Parks. 45

summer ; and this effect in modifying the range of temperature, as
indicated by repeated experiments, is far from being insignificant.
In summer, plants and trees, in addition to their conducting powers,
render the atmosphere cooler by the great quantity of water that is
exhaled from the leaves during foliation. Hales found that a sun-
flower tliree and one-half feet high, with a surface of 5.616 square
inches, exposed to the air, perspired at the rate of twenty to thii'ty
ounces avoirdupois every twelve hours, or seventeen times more than
a man.* A vine with twelve square feet of foliage exhales at the rate
of five or six ounces a day ; and a seedling apple-tree, with eleven
square feet of foliage, lost nine ounces a day.

An experiment, performed by Bishop Watson, will assist in
giving an idea of the extraordinary amount of change effected by
this function in plants. He placed an inverted glass vessel, of the
capacit}'' of twenty cubic inches, on grass v\^hich had been cut during
a very intense heat of the sun, and after many weeks had passed
without rain ; in two minutes it was filled with vapor which
trickled down its sides. He collected these drops on a piece of
muslin, which he carefully weighed ; and repeating the experiment
for several days, between twelve and three o'clock, he estimated as
the results of his inquiries, that an acre of grass transpires in
twenty-four hours, not less than 6,400 quarts of vv^ater. This is
probably an exaggerated statement, as the amount transpired during
the period of the day in which the experiment was tried, is far
greater than any other, f

When we consider the vast perspiring surface presented by
a large tree in full leaf, it is evident that the watery vapor it
exhales is immense. " The Washington Elm," at Cambridge, a tree
of no extraordinary size, was some years ago estimated to produce
a crop of seven millions of leaves, exposing a surface of 200,000
square feet, or about five acres of foliage. %

The refreshing coolness, then, of a grove on a hot summer day is
not to be wondered at ; and how often have we, while enjoying it,
inquired what was the cause, simply supposing it was the result of
shade. This exhalation is dependent on the capacity of the air for
moisture, at the time, and the presence of the sun, while frequently it
is scarcely perceptible at night.

* Vegetable Statics.

t Carpenter's Comparative Physiology.

X Gray, — "How Plants Grow.''

46 Public Parks.

In like manner, trees act as conductors of heat from the earth in
winter, because the surrounding atmosphere is cooler than the eai-th
in which they grow. It is true that the conducting power of wood
is slow, which is much less transversely, to the direction of its fibre,
than with it,* which would prevent the interior of a large trunk from
being rapidly affected by the change in the heat of the external air ;
and accordingly, it is found that the larger the trunk in which the
observation is made, the greater the difference.! Trees possess a
specific temperature of their own, independent of their conducting
power, — an organic activity for generating heat, like that with which
the warm-blooded animals are gifted, though by a different process,
which has undoubtedly some influence in estimating the action
of the forest upon atmospheric temperature. The range of trees,
apart from moisture, is restricted by temperature, and they have the
power of withstanding the ordinary changes which take place during
the year ; but there are cycles of cold when, in certain species, the
internal heat is overcome, and, as a necessary consequence, the life
of the tree is destroyed. This is also shown in the protection that is
necessary to young trees that are cultivated, to prevent their being
destroyed by the ordinary winter temperature, owing to their vitality
being insufficient to resist the depressing effect of cold ; and such is
also the case with young forest trees, as they will not grow unless
protected by other and larger trees. It will therefore be seen that
the same law obtains in the vegetable as in the animal kingdom.

After the leaves fall in the autumn, the rootlets continue to collect
sap, and there is no doubt that some, motion of the sap takes place
even in winter, although the tree may be said to be asleep, as there
is in reality only a diminution in the activity of its vital processes,
which is a characteristic of all living beings, some heat must be
evolved, which is greatly increased when the sap begins to flow
actively and the terminal buds begin to swell. \ It will, therefore, be
seen that trees are the source of heat, in addition to the fact that they
act mechanically in checking the force and movement of the winds,
and thus cause the atmosphere surrounding them to be milder and
less subject to sudden changes of temperature. It is the uninter-
rupted sweep of the winds, rather than the intensity of the cold,
which abstracts from the vital energy of the system. The trapper

• Dr. Tyndall, Phil. Transact., 1853.
t \ Carpenter's Comparative Physiology.

Public Parks. 47

in the Hudson's Bay region, amid the stillness of the forest, day after
day, pursues his accustomed round with the thermometer many
degrees below zero, with little or no inconvenience ; and so, too,
with the lumberman in the pineries of Maine and Wisconsin. The
human system is constantly giving out a volume of heat, which is
abstracted more readily by the movement of the air than by mere
radiation into space. This deprivation of carbonaceous matter, and
the chilling and exhausting effect incident thereto, is but too well
known and appreciated by the prairie traveler in winter. The same
effect is apparent in operating a locomotive during very cold or
windy weather, as it is found much easier to keep up steam while the
engine is passing through woods than over the wind-swept ground,
although the thermometer may indicate the same temperature. As
soon as the train emerges from the shelter of the trees, the steam-
gauge falls, and a more liberal supply of fuel is necessary to bring
it up again.*

" Observation shows," says Meguscher, " that the wood of a
living tree maintains a temperature of from 54° to 56^ Fah., when
the temperature stands from 37° to 47° Fah. above zero, and that
the internal warmth does not rise and fall in proportion to that of the
atmosphere. So long as the latter is below 67'^ Fah., that of the
tree is always highest, but if the temperature of the air rises to 67*^
Fah., that of the vegetable growth is the lowest. Since, then, trees
maintain at all seasons a constant mean temperature of 54*^ Fah., it
is easy to see why the air in contact with the forest must be warmer
in winter, and cooler in summer, than in situations where it is
deprived of that influence." f

While engaged in investigating the nature of ozone, during the
winters of 1851 and 1S52, at Burlington, Iowa, I found that there
was a difference of temperature between the western or Iowa bank
of the Mississippi, (the wind was from the west, and the river frozen
at the time,) and the eastern or Illinois side, of 2"", and penetrating
the heavy forest that covered the bottom at that time, I found the
temperature rising, initil I reached about midway between the river
and the prairie, where I found the temperature 16° higher, and it
began to lower again upon approaching the edge of the prairie,
although the wind was from the west, and, arrived at the prairie, I
found the thermometer 4° lower than in the middle of the timber.

* In applying to the most prominent Railroad Superintendents of this city, their statement is
unanimous, that during winter a far greater amount of fuel is consumed by a locomotive running through
a prairie region than through one that is densely wooded.

t Mentoria s-ui Boschi di Lotnhardina.

48 Public Parks.

During the last six weeks, I liave had three daily observations
made of the temperature at the western, the middle, and the eastern
portions of Wright's Grove, in the northern part of Chicago. I find
as a general rule that the difference between the three points depends
upon the direction of the wind, and the sudden changes of temperature ;
the middle point being less affected, and ranging from one to seven
degrees higher than either of the others. Some days there was no
change perceptible in the three points, depending upon temperature
and the activity of the wind. The period over which the observa-
tions extend has been remarkably mild, and one in which no sudden
or great changes have taken place.

In comparing these observations with others made near the Ar-
tesian Well in the western part of the City, I find that only upon one
occasion in a month, was the temperature as low as at the Well, while
it ranged from one to nine degrees higher. In the month of Decem-
ber the thermometer, at 119 Randolph St.,* indicated 10° below zero ;
at the x\rtesian Well, 17 ;t at the Observatory, 14 ;J and at Wright's
Grove, 1 2 ; at the same time, the wind being from the south-west.

Trees and plants exercise a marked influence on the humidity of
the air, causing its moisture to be more equally distributed. They
also act as excitors or conductors of electricity, § and it is supposed
in countries where hail storms are frequent and destructive, that they
occur in proportion as the forests have been cleared. || "Electrical
action being diminished," says Meguscher, " and the rapid congela-
tion of vapoi-s by the abstraction of heat being impeded by the
influence of the woods, it is rare that hail or water-spouts are produced
within the precincts of a large forest when it is assailed by the
tempest." % May not the tornadoes which were so common throughout
the North-west several years ago, be owing to our treeless prairies .''

Trees may be regarded as climatological land-marks, ** the
destruction of which causes changes that may be restored by planting
them. It is a well established fact that the climate of the older States

* J. G. Langguth.

t Wm. Giles.

: Prof. Safford.

§ Pouillet, '''' Annates de Chimie"

II Le A Ipi die cingono V Italia.

IT Metnoria stti Boschi, etc.

** It has been a reproach to the aristocracy of England, that in a country where the agricultural
capacity of the soil is so limited, and vvliere population presses so closely on the heels of production,
that vast tracts of land suitable for agriculture, should be appropriated to forests and the chase ; but
those who make this charge, are little aware of the important part which these forests play in the
climatology and health of the British Isles. They do not appreciate that forests make the atmosphere
purer, and render the climate more equable, thus protecting them from sudden changes, and diminishing
the amount of fuel and clothing necessary to their comfort,

Public Parks. 49

has undergone a marked change in consequence of the destruction
of the forests ;* viz., in the greater extremes of heat and cold, and in
the perennial flow of the springs. This is manifest in its influence
on man, in the altered character of the diseases, and also by the fact,
that many manufacturing establishments which, a quarter of a century
ago, had a water-power ample at all seasons to drive their machinery,
are now compelled to resort, during the summer months, to the
auxiliary aid of the steam-engine.

Trees are the highest type of vegetable life, and in many
respects the greatest of living forms. What more imposing than one
of the these monarchs of the forest, like the Sequoia of the Nevada
Slope, towering up into the upper air for 400 feet, and with a shaft 30
feet or more in diameter at the base ! And then too, their antiquity.
How many generations of men have disappeared, since first the germ
of such a tree burst its seed-vessel ! Kit. North, than whom no one had
a keener eye to the grandeur of the external world, thus speaks of
these vegetable forms :

'^ Trees are indeed the glory, the beautv and delight of nature.
The man who loves not trees — to look at them, to lie under them —
to climb up them (once more a school boy) — would make no bones
of murdering Mrs. Jefts. In what one imaginable attribute, that it
ought to possess, is a tree, pray, deficient? Light, shade, shelter,
coolness, freshness, music, all the colors of the rain-bow, dew and
dreams dropping through their umbrageous twilight, at eve or morn,
dropping direct — soft, sweet, soothing and restorative from heaven.
Without trees, how in the name of wonder could we have had houses,
ships, bridges, easy chairs or coffins, or almost any single one of the
necessaries of life. Without trees, one man might have been born
with a silver spoon in his mouth, but not another with a wooden
ladle.

'•Tree, by itself, tree, 'such tents the patriarchs loved.' Ipse
nemus ' the brotherhood of trees ' — the Grove, the Coppice, the
Wood, the Forest — dearly and after a different fashion, do we love
you all ! And love you all we shall, while our dim eyes can catch
the glimmer, our dull ear the murmur of the leaves, or our imagination
hear at midnight the far-off' swing of old branches groaning in the
tempest. Oh ! is it not merry, also sylvan England } And, has not
Scotland, too, her old pine forests, blackening up her highland

* It has been observed in Sweden, that the spring, in many districts where the forests have been
cleared off, now comes on a fortnight later than in the last century. — AsbjOrsen, Otn Shovene i Neye.

5o Public Parks.

mountains? Are not many of our rivered valleys not unadorned
witli woods — her braes beautiful with their birkin shaws ? And does
not stately ash, or sycamore, tower above the kirk-spire, in many a
quiet glen, overshadowing the humble house of God, the dial stone,
aged and green, and all the deep sunk, sinking, or upright array of
grave-stones, beneath which*

'The rude forefathers of the hamlet sleep.' "

LOCAL CONDITIONS.

We now come to consider the local conditions by which we are
surrounded, both terrestial and atmospheric, in connection with their
influence upon man, particularly in causing disease. In these are
included the topography, nature of soil, temperature, winds, rains,
and humidity of the atmosphere, all being more or less intimately
connected, as there is no doubt that the surface controls the
atmosphere, as much as the atmosphere controls the surface.

Chicago is situated in latitude 41" 52', longitude 78° 35', and is
591 feet above the level of the sea. The surface is nearly a flat level
and treeless plain, on the south-western shore of Lake Michigan.
The highest point above the level of the Lake for fifteen miles north,
is 38 feet,t and south-east for the same distance, 33 feet,J near the
Chicago University; from thence there is a gradual descent to the
Calumet, when the ground gradually rises. Directly south of the city
the surface is almost level, as the highest point in sixteen miles is
only 22 feet.§ The topography south-west is still more remarkable,
as for twenty miles, the highest point above the level of the lake is
at Summit, only 10 feet, where the waters of the St. Lawrence run
north-east. From the Summit there is a gradual descent, until the
ground is lower than the surface of the lake. At twenty miles
it is only i foot above the lake. || Three miles directly west,
the surface is 17 feet; five miles, 20 feet; seven miles, 27
feet ; at Austin, where no doubt was once the shore of the lake,
and continuing z\ miles farther at Hai'lem, we find an elevation

* "Nodes Ambrosiance."

t Milwaukee R. R.

X City Engineer.

§ Rock Island R. R.

II Alton & St. Louis R. R.

Public Parks. 51

of 48 feet, the highest point in any direction within ten miles
of Chicago. Continuing to the Des Plaines there is a descent,
the bottom of the river being 26 feet ; then there is a marked
increase in the ascent, so that at fifteen miles the surface is 102, and
at twenty miles 125 feet above the level of the lake.* North-west of
the city, at four miles, we only find an elevation of 10 feet ; at seven
miles of 27 feet, where we again strike the original lake shore ; at
ten miles, 40 feet ; at eleven miles, 65 feet ; at twelve miles, 82 feet ;
from this point there is a gradual descent to Des Plaines River, where
the elevation is 33 feet ; thence the ascent is gradual and at twenty
miles distant it is 96 feet.f It will be seen from the foregoing that the
highest point within five miles of the mouth of Chicago River, in any
direction, is only 23 feet, and for ten miles, 48 feet above the level of
the lake ; and that a large portion of this ground is low and swampy,
with but little surface drainage, and an average elevation of about 12
feet. As a necessary consequence, as in all plains, great and sudden
changes of moisture and temperature take place. The winds, meet-
ing with no obstruction, have full sweep ; in fact, the topography of
the surroundings of the city tends to this result, favoring even the
prevailing winds of this latitude. The only interruption in this open
plain to the winds, may be said to be the narrow belt of timber on
the Des Plaines, and with here and there an occasional patch of thinly
covered wood-land, on the elevations which once were the shores
of the lake. With this exception, the open plain may be said to con-
tinue for a great distance north-west, west, and south-west. It is true,
timber is scattered north and south, but unfortunately not enough to
materially influence the climate, in addition to the fact that the
winds are rarely from either direction. In an area of 400 square
miles surrounding Chicago, there are only about 20 square miles
thinly covered with timber ; ten of these are found on the north side
of the city, and along the North Branch of Chicago River ; five
south and south-east ; and ten on the ridges six miles west, and in
tlie valley of Des Plaines River.

LAKE MICHIGAN.

Of all the local conditions that obtain at Chicago, none exercise
a greater influence on the climate than Lake Michigan. It
moderates the extreme cold of winter, and the oppressive heat of
summer ; increases the humidity of the atmosphere, and tlie

• Northwestern R. R.
t Galena R. R.

^2 , Public Parks.

quantity of rain that falls, and causes local currents of air, thus
partially changing the prevailing winds of this latitude, producing
necessarily local changes of temperature. These local undulations
are most marked in the spring, owing to the fact that the specific
heat of land is only one-quarter that of water, and it both absorbs
and gives it out more rapidly ; while water, on the other hand,
absorbs it more slowly, stores up a greater quantity, and parts with
it less readily, owing, no doubt to the difference in the conducting
and radiating properties of both. It is mainly owing to this fact
that our springs are so cold, raw, and long continued ; that is, the
water is not as soon heated as the land, thus giving rise to local
changes of temperature, and of winds. In the autumn the heat
of the water is less readily abstracted than that of the land, thus
causing the temperature in the immediate vicinity of the lake to be
milder than even at localities further south and west, as, during
last September, October, and November, the mean temperature
of Springfield, was nearly the same as at Chicago.* This was no
doubt owing to the fact that the temperature of the lake was more
than ordinarily high in July and August ; as, on July 20th, the ther-
mometer indicated 72°t at a depth of thirty feet, while the mean
temperature of the air, on the same day, was 83% and even
later the extraordinary warmth of the water that passed through
the Tunnel attracted attention, and it was supposed that the water
supplied to the city, did not come through the Tunnel, and that an
accident had occurred, and the supply was being pumped up from
near the shore. The mean temperature of the lake is no doubt the
same as that of the land for the year, differing only in the absorbing
and parting power of heat ; as is evidenced by the fact that the
freezing point only obtains a short distance from the shore. It will
therefore be seen how, for eight months of the year, and sometimes
even nine, the lake exercises a wholesome inffuence upon the health,
counteracting, to some extent, the great and sudden changes incident
to our level and open topography, while during the remaining
months it is injurious to health, on account of the cold and chilling
eflfect it has, in addition to causing sudden changes. Owing to its
large evaporating surface, it supplies a large amount of the oxygen
that is consumed here, thus purifying the atmosphere.

* A gricuUural Bureau Reports.
t Langguth.

Public Parks. 53

GEOLOGY.

The geological structure of the region embracing Chicago and the
surrounding country is exceedingly simple. The underlying rock
is the Niagara limestone which has a general dip to N. N. E., and
consequently sinks deeper as traced lake-ward. This rock is seen at
the surface at several points in the city and vicinity. Upon this floor
was originally deposited a mass of blue clay, not less than one
hundred feet in thickness, but as traced toward the former i"im of the
lake it rapidly thins out. This rim is clearly defined in one or more
terraces, which are traceable from the head of the lake far into
Indiana, but to the west of the city 8^ miles distant, at Harlem, they
constitute the divide between the waters of Lake Michigan and the
Mississippi. While the lake has receded far below its former level,
it has left behind a series of sand ridges, the intervals between which
are occupied by ponds, which by reason of the sluggish flow of the
water and their sheltered position, have proved favorable to the
growth of peat-producing plants, from whose decay have resulted
large accumulations of humus or vegetable matter. It is upon this
ancient lake-bed that the city is founded. The original surface was
diversified by sand banks, most abundant along the lake shore
extending occasionally to the depth of 16 feet, by partly filled
lagoons, and a vegetable mould (which covers the greater portion
of the city), resting sometimes on blue clay, and sometimes on
beds of sand and gravel, and occasionally mixed, — the depth of
these being governed by their proximity to the Chicago river and its
branches. The whole region was originally low, flat and ill-drained.
Some of the business blocks are built upon partly filled lagoons. In
the soundings made by Mr. Chesbrough, City Engineer, prepara-
tory to completing the Tunnel for the Water Works, it was found
that the lake-bed was composed of blue clay v\^ith superficial sands
above, which shifted in every heavy storm.

Such a soil must necessarily exercise a decided influence upon

the health of those living upon it, depending of course whether their

houses rest upon sand, clay, or humus. Sandy soils absorb and

retain heat much longer, while the clays and humus are cold, and

absorb heat slowly. Sand absorbs and retains little water ; clays

twenty times more ; and humus, or surface soil, fift}- times more than

sand ; and in this way, to some extent, the relative healthfulness

of different portions of this city, and even of wards, can be accounted

for.

5

54 Public Parks.

WINDS — Their Influence on Health.

Winds are the result of changes of temperature and the pre-
cipitation of moisture, acting as changes of density, and as the
movements of bodies would act to produce currents and movements
in a mass of vv^ater.* This is the strictly meteorological definition,
but in a sanitary point of view, there are none of the atmospheric
phenomena that exercise a greater influence for good or evil. The
free movement of air in summer, in certain localities, is beneficial in
dissipating noxious emanations, and purifying the atmosphere, while
in the same locality, in the cold season, it abstracts heat, depending,
of course, on its velocity and humidity, and thus acting injuriously
upon life. The seeds of disease are frequently wafted by winds
over unhealthy localities, and thus causing those who live quite
remote from the exciting cause to suffer. Fevers and acute pulmo-
nary and inflammatory diseases do not usually manifest themselves
under the influence of the same wind, although fever and certain
other diseases may occur in connection with any currents which
waft the air from the neighboring surfaces, where the elaboration of
the morbific cause is going on.

NORTH WIND.

The north wind is less frequent than any other. It generally
exercises a beneficial influence, and in winter is the mildest, with the
exception of the south-east and east, owing to the lake and the trees
found north of the city. In summer it is cool and I'efreshing. This
wind, like all others, is influenced by locality in its eflects upon
health, as in New Orleans, in summer, it always causes sickness.

NORTH-EAST WIND.

The north-east is the most common wind in spring and summer.
In the months of March, April, and May, it is a cold, moist wind,
and continues so until the temperature of the earth is higher than
that of the lake, when it becomes cool and pleasant, remaining so
until November, or until the temperature of the earth becomes lower
than that of the lake. This wind increases pulmonary, rheumatic
and inflammatory diseases in spring, and is the main reason why
that season of the year is so long-continued and unpleasant ; but
during extreme heat and cold it is beneficial. The north-east wind
blows malarial fever into portions of Rome. In Batavia this wind

* Blodgett's Clitiiatology.

Public Parks. 55

is highly unfavorable to health. On the west side of the town of
Marenne, in France, are situated vast marshes, and when the wind
blows from the north and north-east, fevers are rare ; but when the
wind blows from the west, south-west, or south, so as to pass over
these surfaces before reaching the town, fevers make their appear-
ance. On the contrary, at Saint Agnant, situated opposite to
Marenne, and on the other side of the marshes, the conditions are
reversed, and during the prevalence of the east wind the town
becomes sickly.

EAST WIND.

The east wind, with the exception of the north, is the least
frequent, and is more common in spring than any other season of
the year. In winter it is warm, and while from this direction there
is a diminution in the number of cases of acute inflammatory
diseases, and only a short time in spring is it disagreeable. The
lake exercises a marked inflvience upon this wind, and that from the
north-east. Edinburgh is supposed to be subject to fever through
the agency of the east wind which wafts it from Holland, and the
same wind wafts malaria from Essex to London.

SOUTH-EAST WIND.

Of all the winds, none is so depressing and enervating as the
south-east. It is a warm, moist wind, oppressive to man and beast,
in consequence of checking evaporation, thus raising the temperature
of the body, and causing the lungs to exhale a larger amount of car-
bonic acid than usual,* and in this way exhausting the vital energies.
In addition to the ordinary effect of a warm, moist wind, it is loaded
in the summer and autumn with the noxious exhalations of the
swampy region south-east of the city bordering on the lake and
Calumet river. The topography of the country south and south-east
of the city is such as to promote currents of air from this direction,
and even to direct them toward the city, as they meet with but little
obstruction, causing this wind to be more frequent than if such were
not the case, it being here more of a local than general wind. When
the weather has been intensely cold for a number of days, a change
to this direction, will diminish mortality, but for at least nine months
of the year it is the most fatal wind. In the summer and autumn,
even when no epidemic tendency exists, a change to this direction
generally terminates fatally to nearly all diseases, where the patient

*jLehmann.

^6 Ptiblic Parks.

has been hanging, as it were, " in the balance." It also increases all
infantile and bowel atfections. The most marked change that I have
noticed, occurred on July i6th, 1868, when the wind blew from the
north-east, and the mortality was 21 ; on the 17th it changed to the
south-east, and 38 died ; iSth, wind continuing from the same direc-
tion, 63 deaths (the highest mortality in a single day for two years,)
occurred, the mean temperature of the two days being nearly 86
degrees. On the 19th, the wind changed to the north-east, and
the mortality diminished to 35, with a mean temperature of 77.66
degrees. It was at this time that the greatest mortality occurred in
the 1 2th ward, in the extreme north-western ward of the city. This
fact clearly shows that its poisonous qualities, were added to the nox-
ious emanations of the city, increasing in its intensity as it progressed
north-westward. This wind carries with it the plague to Constan-
tinople and various parts of Russia and Poland, in fact, to all the
countries of Europe bordering on the Mediterranean. It produces
an unfavorable influence on the health of London and Dutch Guiana.
At Burlington, Iowa, in July, 1S50, the wind was in this direction
dvu'ing the prevalence of the cholera as an epidemic, but upon its
changing to the north-west, the disease immediately abated, and the
cholera re-appeared a few days after, when the v^ind changed again
to this direction. Here the wind passed over the Mississippi bottom
on the Illinois side. In 1851 the cholera broke out at Oquawka,
Illinois, fifteen miles above Burlington, while the wind was from
the w^est. Here the low lands and swamps are on the Iowa side.
At this time there was no cholera at Burlington.

SOUTH WIND.

The south wind is more common than either the east or north. It
is most frequent in winter, and it is rarely that it is for a day from this
quarter, and then only when the wind is shifting from the south-west
to the south-east, or from the south-east to the south-west. The
ground directly south of the city is unfavorable to this current, as
the surface of the country rapidly rises beyond Blue Island, forming
depressions both east and west. In winter the south wind exercises
a beneficial influence in moderating the extreme cold of the westerly
winds, diminishing the mortality, and the same result is observable
in spring. In the summer it prevails only when great changes have
taken place, and its influence is quite marked, as between the damp
south-east, and the dry south-west. In autumn its eti'ect on health is
not apparent.

Public Parks. 57

SOUTH-WEST WIND.

The prevailing wind, not alone of Chicago, but of the greater por-
tion of the valley of the Mississippi, is the south-west. In iS68, it was
the hottest and coldest,* and, when great disturbances take place, the
same has been observed to occur within the short period of a month.
In the summer it is hot, dry and relaxing, causing at first free evapo-
ration ; but if long continued, it produces harshness and dryness of
the skin, and general malaise ; in w^inter it is dry, cold, and sharp.
It partakes of the character of the country, and of the seasons ; the
surface being a flat, level plain, with an altitude of only lo feet above
the level of the lake at the highest point, necessarily a large portion
swampy, with nothing to impede its sweep, plainly showing how it
may alternately be the hottest and coldest, even in so short a period
as a month. It is the normal wind of the summer and autumn in
this latitude, but owing to the local topography, and the great and
sudden changes incident thereto, it alternates in frequency, between
summer, autumn, and winter. This wind having a greater elabora-
ting surface than any other, necessarily exercises a great influence upon
health, in addition to its wafting the malarious exhalations of Mud
Lake, and the region contiguous to the Illinois and Michigan canal,
over every portion of our city, and next to the south-east is the
most fatal ; and, owing to its being the most prevalent wind, causes
the greatest mortality, f

* In I867 a very able and interesting memorial was presented to the Michigan Legislature, in
obedience to instructions received from the State Board of Agriculture by T. T. Lyon and Sanford
Howard, Esqrs., on the change of climate caused by the destruction of the forest trees, and the conse-
quent injurious effect upon crops and fruit trees, petitioning the Legislature to enact laws to prevent
the unnecessary destruction of the forests, and to encourage the planting of trees, as a means of shelter
and protection to crops and fruit trees. In this report they alluded to the change that had taken
place in the older portion of the State, within the last thirty years, in the extremes of heat and cold ;
the greater prevalence and force of the winds ; resulting in the destruction of peach trees, wheat, com,
and the winter killing of clover. The memorial says: " Last year the loss in all that part of the State
lying south of the Michigan Central Railroad,-a region deprived of the ameliorating influence of Lake
Michigan, or the south-west wind, and composing the richest agricultural portion of the State, was
estimated at no less than three-fourths of the entire wheat crop ! From what enquiries your committee
have been able to make, the loss on the wheat crop alone, of this State, for the last four years, is not
less than §20,000,000. Your committee would be most happy to believe that this enormous loss springs
from causes evanescent in their nature, and destined speedily to pass away, to return nevermore. But
vour committee are fearful that these vast losses "are but the beginning of sorrow," and that the improv-
idence which laid our open fields to that scourge of God, the south-west wind, by the wholesale destruction
of our forests, is now only beginning to reap the fruit of that want of forethought, and that these losses
can be avoided only by restoring, in part at least, the natural barriers against the wind."

Diagrams are given showing the influence of the winds on temperature and rain, for four years, at
Lansing, clearly demonstrating that the conclusions of the committee were based upon facts. An
examination of the topography of the lower and central portions of Michigan will show the cause of
the frequency and influence of the south-west wind. The Legislature, with commendable judgment
and foresight, passed a .law encouraging the planting of trees and shrubs along the highways, also
providing for their care and protection.

t The effect of this wind on the health of the city, particularly in summer and autumn, will be
appreciated, when it is borne in mind that a large extent of the surface over which it passes before
reaching the city, is covered by water in the spring, which is evaporated during the sumrner and autumn,
leaving the large quantity of humus, or vegetable mould that covers it. exposed to the influence of the
sun and air, in addition to liberating a large portion of the carbonic acid that is held by the soil. What
makes it still worse, is the fact that but little of the soil for miles in this direction is cultivated.

^8 Public Parks.

WEST WIND.

The west wind is more common than any from the direct points
of the compass, and is most frequent in winter, when it is generally
the coldest and driest, owing to the tact that the ground is higher
and drier than in any other direction. The greatest mortality, when
this wind prevails in winter, is by acute inflammatory diseases, and
occasionally in autumn and spring ; but in summer a change to this
quarter from the south is cooling to the atmosphere and invigorating,
and its influence is marked in a great diminution in the number of
deaths. Generally speaking, less mortality occurs than from any
other direction, and it may be said to be the healthiest wind during
the entire year.

NORTH-WEST WIND.

The north-west wind might with propriety be called Boreas, as it
is a cold, fierce, and penetrating wind in winter ; in spring cold,
blear and bleak ; and in summer cool and refreshing. The topog-
raphy of the counti-y north-west of the City tends to the formation
of currents in this direction, at the same time there being no obstruc-
tions to their full sweep, their velocity is greater than from any other
quarter. In fact the character of the country over which it passes
is impressed upon it, as it is occasionally the coldest, but never the
warmest. It is pretty equally divided in frequency between winter,
spring, and autumn, and is least prevalent in summer. Its influence
on health is most marked in winter, and particularly in spring when
it causes great changes of temperature, resulting in pulmonary,
rheumatic, neuralgiac, and inflammatory diseases, while in the
summer it diminishes mortality, and exercises a wholesome influence
upon health.

I do not wish to be understood as saying that winds alone are the
cause of death, but that owing to local causes they increase mor-
tality, which would not be the case if these conditions did not obtain.
While I fully appreciate the important part they play in purifying
the atmosphere, I do mean to say that in some seasons certain winds
increase mortality, or, in other words, that there are times here
when we have too much wind, as I have already shown that this
may be the case in winds from any direction.

The following tables have been prepared with much care, the
facts having been obtained from all sources at my command, and
will corroborate what I have said with regard to the prevalence and
influence of winds.

Public Parks.

59

Table Showing Direction of Wind, Highest, Lowest, Mean, and
Range of Thermometer, with Rain, Snow, and Mortality, by
Months, for Five Consecutive Years.

1859. Population -101,V80.

DIRECTION OF WIND.

TEMPERATURE.

^

^

Z

H

9
4
3

■"5
2

2

'"4
6

8

1

2«
20
27
10
21
14
10
8
16
17
10
17

i

13
8
8

14
2
9
1

'"2

18
18
16

i

•A

5
9
2

■■■4
1
2
4
9
6
7
14

m

a
t« 0

o'S

^^

62
56
62
60
62
60
62
54
60
62
60
62

W

■44
58
62
58
82
90
95
91
74
76
70
36

Eh'
1

26
26
42
41
52
55
46
26
16
20

'A

0

<

0

f5

No. Days

0

January

February . . .

March

April

1

\

5
3
2
7
4
2
8
2
3

8
4
8
24
22
20
18

14

10

5

1

"3

4

'"i

4
7
17
2

"2

6

7
4

8
15
14
11

2
13
10

27.8

32.4

41.7

41.6

59

62.3

75.5

68.8

02.6

49.4

40.2

19.4

52

57
36
32

40
49
43
36
28
50
54
16

5
6

8
11
8
6
4
7
5
8
9
2

79

4
10
3

■"4
"'"i

4
11

37

131
115
132
155
115

June

July

112
164

August . . .
September..

October

November...
December...

325
190
KiO
103
125

Total

38

141

40

96

44

196

104

63

722

1,826

X860. Popialation — 109,S60.

1
4

4

7

"2

27
IS

21
13

9
13

62

58

50
54

-21

-5

23.3
.30.6

71
59

3
6

7
7

115

February

1

128

March

14

3

7

4

16

15

3

62

71

23

42.6

48

4

3

180

26
15

5
10

9

6

I

6

10

6

7

5
11

60
62

76

87

32
34

47.8
61.5

44
53

8
7

2

131

M^y .

1

102

June

8

14

6

8

8

6

8

60

88

50

65.

38

7

155

July

• 2
3

21
21

2

7

8
10

14
13

3
2

2

7

52
62

89
86

58
58

73.2
72.2

31

28

14
7

WS

August

308

September...

4

8

3

16

3

12

4

9

59

84

43

62.7

41

lU

174

October

5

12

8

5

4

9

2

17

62

77

35

53.7

42

7

149

November. ..

2

6

10

4

14

13

13

62

55

4

37.3

51

12

3

170

December

4

1

5

6

3

10

16

17

62

46

8

25.5

38

3

88

11
33

158

Total

43

132

46

96

27

157

108

114

723

2,056

1861. PopTalation-123,623-

January

2

3

8

4

13

15

16

61

40

-3 24.4

43

2

7

173

February

1

6

7

2

21

8

11

56

60

-5 31.3

6b

2

8

135

March

5

7

3

5

6

10

4

22

62

W

34 35.2

34

9

3

173

April

4

9

12

2

8

14

8

8

60

78

34 45

44

7

126

May

3

4
2

21

23

9

9
1
5

6
5

8

3
2

5
14

28

6
2

4

10
9

8

63
60

82
86
93

35
52
55

54.5
69.8
71

47
34
37

11
4
4

134

131

July

239

August

1

22

8

1

17

1

12

62

95

66

73.1

35

5

262

September. . .

1

15

2

3

3

17

6

13

60

83

50

64.7

33

12

24';

October

1

7

3

3

13

13

6

17

63

74

34 54.5

40

5

120

November

4

7

1

8

6

10

3

21

60

57

13

41.7

44

10

3

155

December

3

2

1

3

8

20

10

14

61

66

2

30.7

64

3

74

2
23

195

28

125

46

66

51

182

73

161

732

2,089

6o

Public Parks.

Table Showing Direction of Wind, Highest, Lowest, Mean, and
Range of Thermometer, with Rain, Snow, and Mortality, by
Months for Five Consecutive Years. — Continued.

1863. Population — 138,186.

DIRECTION OF WIND.

TEMPERATURE.

i,

I

oS

H

<

^

■<

>5

f5

»'

m

i

i

f5

38

-11

28.2

K

m

K

No.Daye

O

January

12

2

8

3

w

7

19

62

49

4

11

174

February . . .

fi

6

10

8

2

24

56

45

-8

24.3

53

6

197

March

10

21

4

3

4

6

4

10

62

50

16

36.8

34

2

199

April

8

23

8

2

7

7

2

3

60

72

32

46.9

47

i4

m

May

3

19

12

8

4

11

3

2

63

82

40

55.9

42

13

IBS'

June

7

33

4

5

3

12

2

4

60

84

48

62.7

36

13

156

July

5

22

2

2

3

23

1

4

62

96

59

76.3

37

11

274'

August

4

10

4

10

13

17

4

63

87

59

75.3

28

6

80*'

September..

5

7

6

7

21

9

3

2

60

83

46

65.2

37

12

271

October

4

fi

1

8

5

24

1

12

61

82

30

55.2

52

3

2

246

November. .

5

9

2

4

2

19

6

13

60

68

28

39.9

40

6

3

196

December . .

6

5

1

4

18

14

11

3

62

56

5

34.5

51

4

85

24

203

Total

57

163

46

67

93

161

42

100

729

2,575

1865. Population — 178,493.

January ....

6

1

2

37

4

12

62

50

-2

52

2 225

February . . .

1

14

6

5

16

5

10

57

46

-16

30

1

8

256

March

4

9

fi

5

25

4

9

62

70

3

67

3

3

279

19
32

2
4

6

4

18
12

4
4

11
4

60
62

76
85

18
42

58
43

15
5

2

250

May

9.

229

June

2

18

4

32

2

3

61

94

54

40

6

195

July

1

23

2

2

21

4

7

60

90

54

36

17

425

August

September..

1

31

2

1

6

20

1

62

90

54|....

36

16

464

6

1

4

4

12

27

4

2

60

1 90

53

38

10

346

October

7

13

4

4

14

8

7

5

62

1 78

30

.... 48

8

1

360

November..

7

fi

2

6

14

13

6

6

60

64

26

....: 38

8

2

299

December . .

6

5

1

4

18

14

11

3

62

46

-10

... j 56

2
91

5

333

Total ....

37

177

27

47

71

243

55

73

730

23

3,661

Tot'l 5Yrs

203

738

205

372

286

939

382

611

' '

' '

The above table w^as partially compiled from a very able and
interesting " Report on the Climate, Topography, and Epidemic
Diseases of Illinois," by Dr. R. C. Hamill, of this city. I regret
that the facts for 1863 and 1864 could not be obtained, this gap
necessarily detracting from the value of the table. From even these
imperfect data, it w^ill be seen that owing to the constant climatic
changes, great fluctuations of mortality occur ; one year heavy and
the next light, modified occasionally by epidemics. This fluctuation
is the more striking when the constant increase in population is
borne in mind, and they have been more marked since i860 than
before, particularly during the last five years.

Public Parks.

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Public Parks. 67

In the table on page 61, is shown the frequency of the wind from
the different points of the compass, the number of days in which the
winds prevailed, and the mortality that occurred on the days that
the winds blew from the respective directions. It must necessarily
be approximate, as the effect of the daily changes is not always
manifest, and the fact, that frequently when the observations were
made (three per day), the wind was from different directions,
necessitating the study of each day separately and connectedly ;
representing in figures, as near as possible, the effect of the different
winds on mortality. While there may be mistakes in single days, I
am satisfied that in the main they are correct.

The following figures represent the average daily mortality for the
last thi'ee years, w^ien the wind prevailed from the different directions :

N. N. E. E. S. E. S. S. W. W. N. W.
11.96 16.1S 11,13 18.59 13-35 13-35 12.25 13-94
It will be noticed that the daily mortality for 1866, while the
wind was from the north-east, was nearly as great as when it blew
from the south-east. This result was caused by the cholera, which
became epidemic in October. For four days, that is, from the 5th to
the 9th, the wind was from the south-west, and dry, with a mean
temperature of 65°. In the afternoon of the 9th, the wind changed
to the north-west, reducing the temperatiu'e to 59°, the mortality
increasing from 37 on the 6th, to 67 on the 9th. On the loth, the
wind changed to the north-east, with an increase of temperature of
3°, and the mortality reached 98 ; on the nth, the temperature was
4° lower, and the deaths reached 71 ; on the 12th, the temperature
rose 1°, and there w^ere 82 deaths ; on the 13th, the temperature rose
3° higher, and there were 73 deaths ; on the 14th, the wind changed
to the south-east in the morning, but veered again to north-east, when
there were 61 deaths ; the same occurred on the 15th, with a lowered
temperature of 4°, and 68 deaths; on the i6th, the wind changed
to the south-east, and there were 53 deaths; and on the 17th, the
wind changed to the south-west, and there were 43 deaths ; and from
this time the number gradually diminished. It will be seen that, for
four days in succession, the south-west wind prevailed ; and for foin*
days the north-east; and for two more, its influence was felt, with a
higher temperature than has since been observed for the same length
of time. On the loth, nth, and 12th, the motion of the air was
barely perceptible, and was saturated with moisture, to such an
extent as to partially obscure the sun, hanging over the city like a pall.

68 Public Parks.

The high temperature and dry south-west wind had already
paved the way for this great mortaHty ; and when to this was added
the moist warm north-east wind, all the atmospheric conditions were
prepared, and it onlv needed the presence of cholera to make it
epidemic. Secretion of the skin was checked, the lungs were called
upon to throw off an unusual amount of carbonic acid, thus reducing
the vital powers, and the bowels were necessarily requii'ed to excrete
more, and with what effect is but too well-known. This stillness of
the atmosphere continued for three days, when, on the 14th, more
activity was perceptible, with an abatement of the epidemic. The
ratio would still be more marked, had a record been kept of all that
died. That portion of the table referring to 1S67, may be regai'ded
as nearer the normal condition than that of either ''66 or ^6^. The
general health was remarkably good, but in 1868, there was a great
increase of mortality, without any epidemic tendency, and the causes
of which will be alluded to hereafter.

The table on page 62, shows the influence of Lake Michigan
and of the cardinal winds upon life. It will be seen that more
deaths occurred in 1866, when the westerly -winds prevailed, and in
the autumn, than at any other season ; also, in winter and spring, and
that the greatest mortality occurred in summer by the southerly
winds, and the least when easterly winds prevailed. In 1867, the
mortality was more equally distributed between westerly and easterly
winds, and the greatest number of deaths occurred during the pre-
valence of westerly winds, and in summer ; and that the least
mortality took place in the spring, the season of the 3'ear when the
causes of death are less rife than any other, unless more than
ordinary conditions obtain. In 1868, the greatest mortality occurred
during the prevalence of easterly winds, and in summer. This year,
also, differs from the other years by the unusually great mortality
that occurred in winter.

By reference to the table on page 63, will be seen the influence
of temperature and rain on mortality, by seasons. During the
winter of 1S66, it was cold, and great mortality occurred during the
westerly winds, not much rain falling ; in spring, it was warm, and
the mortality was greater than usual, particularly when the north-
west wind prevailed ; the summer was cold, and a large quantity of
rain fell, and deaths took place proportionably ; and in autumn it
was unusually warm, a large amount of rain also falling; cholera
prevailed, and the greatest mortality took place when the wind was

Public Parks. 69

from the north-east. From the ist to the 21st day of October, the
mean temperatm^e was 63°, The winter of 1867 was milder than
that of 1866, and, although there was a great increase in population,
80 more deaths occurred; the spring was colder, and the mortality-
still less ; the summer was warmer than 1866, and the decrease in
the number of deaths was still more marked ; the autumn was colder,
and the mortality was not much over one-half as great. It will be
observed that in this year (1S67,) the mortality was more equally
distributed between the westerly and easterly winds, and that the
difference between the number that died while northerly and south-
erly winds prevailed, was nearer the normal number, and that the
deaths wei'e more equally distributed among the seasons than
during either of the other years.

In 1868 the extreme cold of winter, with the exti"eme heat of
spring and summer, and cold of autumn, with the unusual amount
of rain that fell, greatly increased the mortality, although no
epidemic prevailed. In the winter the mortality was unusually
heavy, particularly during the prevalence of the north-west and
south-west winds.

The tables on pages 64 and 6^., illustrate the frequent changes
of temperatvire in the direction of the wind, and in them may be
found a record of the great climatic changes that have taken place
here within the last three years.

A careful examination of the table on page dG.^ will show the
influence of temperature and rain upon health. In that for 1866,
will be noticed the mildness of January, the cold of February, the
warmth of March, April, and May, the coldness of Jvme, and
extraordinary range of temperature, the warmth of July, and cold-
ness of August, and, still more marked, that of September, with the
extraordinary warmth of October, November, and December ; also,
the great amount of rain that fell in the last half of this year, and
all conditions conducing to and explaining the great fatality incident
to that season of the year. In 1867 the temperature during the entire
year was seasonable, — cold in winter, milder in spring, warm in
summer, and pleasant in autumn, without any great extreme.
About the usual amount of rain fell in the first half of the year,
but in July, August, and September, an unusually small quantity fell.
This season of dryness, in a sanitary point of view, was beneficial,
owing to the want of drainage in a large portion of our city, in
diminishing mortality. The influence of this equability of temper-
7

70

Public Parks.

ature, and the small amount of rain that fell, is marked in the great
diminution of deaths in all the months but January and December,
as compared with 1866, although a great increase in population
had taken place.

A striking contrast is, however, found in 1868, when the extremes
of heat and cold were very marked, with the fall of an unusually
large amount of rain. January and February were very cold, March
warm, April cold. May warm, and June cold, July and August
intensely hot ; and from this time, the temperature gradually low-
ered, until the early part of December when it became intensely
cold. The increase of mortality this year, compared with 1867, is
great, although no epidemic prevailed, clearly demonstrating the
influence of temperature and moisture upon health.

TEMPERATURE.

The frequent and sudden changes of temperature, at Chicago, are
caused more by the winds than any other cause, owing to the open
treeless plain upon which it is located, assisted by the evaporation
from Lake Michigan. In the northern hemisphei'e the coldest month
is January. In some parts of Canada, at Mackinac and Detroit, it is
February ; at Fort Snelling and St. Louis, in January. Here the mean
temperature is coldest in January, rarely in February ; in thirteen
years the temperature was lowest for five years, in January ; five, in
February ; and three, in December. The hottest month in most places
is July ; in a few, August ; and at sea, it is always August. Here it is
generally July, but sometimes it is August ; and the highest tempera-
ture for thirteen years, was in June, four ; July, six ; and August, three
times. The undulations of teinperature ai'e greatest in the interior of
continents, remote from large bodies of water. Here, as well as at
Toledo, Detroit, Mackinac and Milwaukee, the range is not as great
as in the country south and west.

From observations made in the outskirts of the city, north, south
and west, during the past year, I am satisfied that the range of
temperature has increased at least two degrees, since the observations
were made at Fort Dearborn, from 1832 to 1836, and that this
increase in range is not as great north of the city, as south and west.
The range north, for 1868, was 117° ; south, 120° ; west, 121° ; while
at 119 Randolph street, it was only 111°. The mean annual temper-
ature has also increased about two degi-ees, although the observations
made at 119 Randolph street, for the last three years, indicated a

Public Parks.

71

mean temperature of 50.2°. The extremes of heat and cold are more
marked in the outskirts, than in the city, where, no doubt, the build-
ings have some influence in moderating the temperature ; as, by
comparison, I find that in May, June, July, and August, it was colder
in the heart of the city, but the remainder of the year it is colder on
the outskirts. The only way in which this change of climate can
be accounted for is, tliat since 1S36, at least two-thirds of the timber
that covered the country on which Chicago now stands, and its
vicinity, has been destroyed, and that the region directly north of the
city approximates nearer to the conditions that obtained, when the
observations were made at Fort Dearborn, and that less timber has
been destroyed ther^ than in any other direction.* The following
table, compiled mainly from the Army Medical Reports, for i860,
will give some idea of the relative temperature of the different
localities, as compared with Chicago. Many of the observations
extend over a long period, and were made before the settlement of
the country had any influence upon the climate of the locality.

Annual Mean and Eange of Thermometer.

St. Louis

Detroit

Mackinac

Sault St. Marie . .

Fort Howard

Prairie du Chien.

Kock Island

Port Ripley

Fort Snelling

Council Bluffs...
Fort Laramie —

Toledo*

Milwaukee t

Chicago

Chicago $

Near Chicago 1| ....

Chicago

Lansing §

MEAN. KANQE.

Mean of Thermometer hy Seasons.

SPRITSrG. SUMMER AUTUMN 'WINTER

54.15

45.75
36.73
37.53
43.52
4S.6fi
50.52
39.33
45.54
49.28
46.84
48.17
43.68
44.90
46.80
47.00
48.30
43.77

76.36
67.60
61.95
62.21
68.51
72.28
74.12
64.94
70.61
74.76
71.94
70.86
67.44
67.. 33
71.38
75.00
73.66
68.98

55.44
48.67
44.85
43.54
46.01
48.53
51.42
42.91
45.89
51.36
50.32
51.39
48.81
48.84
54.60
48.60
52.66
48.46

32.27
26.84
20.04
18.32
19.91
21.25
24.88
10.01
16.05
21.73
30.54
28.91
20.47
25.90
26.13
20.40
24.30
23.87

12Yrs.
13 "

24 "

31,:,"

21 "

19 "

11/2"

6 "
35 "

7 "

6 "

7 "

22 "
1833-ia36
1866-67-68
1868

1866-67.

* Dr. Trembly. t I. A. Lapham. % Langgnth.
T Eange for three years.

Brooks. § Kedzie.

* Horticulturists and florists inform me that there is less danger from frost, and that generally
speaking, the products of the garden thrive better north of the city than in any other direction.

72

Public Parks,

RAIN.

With the change of temperature, I am of the opinion that less
rain falls, and that there are greater extremes of wet and drought,
than when the country was first settled, although the observations do
not extend over a period sufficiently long to determine the fact. The
following table will show the quantity of rain that fell at the several
points for three consecutive years :

Milwaukee.
Toledo, . . . .

Lansing,

Chicago,

40.68
39.51
36.65

1867.

24.63

24. 5~
21.86

1868.

29.37*
41.51t

%

37.33

Lapham. + Trembly. % Kedzie.

It will be observed that the greatest extremes occurred at Chicago.
The mean rain-fall at Milwaukee for 25 years is 30.20 inches ; at
Toledo, for six years, is 38.94 ; at Lansing, for four years, 30.56 ; and
at Chicago, for the last three years, is 31.94 inches. The following
table will show the quantity of rain that fell, when the winds pre-
vailed from the different directions :

18 6 7.

July,

August,

September,
October, . . .
November,
December,.

TOTAl,

January, . .
February,.,

March,

April,

May,

June,

July,

August, . .
September,
October,...
November,
December,

Total,

.409

.844
.112
.015
.195

1.575

S. E.

.115

1.760

.411

.341

.627

028

486

775

510
879
089

2.739

.505
.180

.852
.271

2.294

.182

.182

18 6 8

.115

.215

2.165

1.275

1.515

1.216

.388

.168

2.780

.130

1.190

.385

11.543 4.038

.390
.210
.045

.878
.975
.350

.510
.600
.080

019

220-

.118
.550
.030
.420

1.585
.011
.485
.750

1.980
.750
.150

1.830

239 8.659 8.974

.549

2.660

1.095
.210
.310

1.120
.545

2.250

.210
.025

070

435
085

598

.283

.285
.680

1.740

3.068

Public Parks.

73

INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE ON THE MOST COMMON

DISEASES.

The following tables* show the comparative mortality of certain
diseases for the last three years ; and, although the registration
of deaths and the nomenclature of the diseases were very imperfect
until 1S67, when the present system of registration was inaugurated
by the Board of Health, still they are sufHciently accurate to give a
very good idea of the relative mortality, as influenced by climate for
the different years. This will be better appreciated when I state, that
in 1866, 475 deaths were reported from unknown causes, and as near
as I am able to ascertain, about 500 deaths occurred of which no
record has been kept. In 1S67, 134 deaths were reported from
unknown causes, and nearly all in the first six months, and about 100
deaths occurred of which no record has been kept. In 1S6S, only 28
are reported from unknown causes, and about 34 in which no record
could be obtained. In judging of the comparative mortality, the
increase in population must be taken into consideration.

Throat and Lung Diseases.
1866.

S

i

OS

ft
<1

<A

2
3

^-5

£0
<

s>

B
S
&

CO

0

a

p-
0

a

a>
P

<

Bronchitis

3
29
31

18
11

1

13
14

1

16
5

1

9
6

1
9
4

15
6

1
9
9

6
9

1

8
13

11

12

1

7
15

9

149

Diphtheria

134

Pleurisy

1
19

1

8

3

22

48

2
3

1
46

73

1
13

4
43

84

2
13

2
43

83

7

Pneumonia

22

27

25
4
38

89

14

3

39

72

14

4

28

67

15

3

39

76

9

1

31

56

1S3
35

Consumption

25

18

....

34

406

Total

107

69

88

912

1867

Bronchitis

1
8
6

1
8
5

1
10

8

3

7

2

1

3

3

1

2

4

1

1

1
5

1

2
11
10

1

8
18
9
3

4
24
11

3

23

11

8

9fi

77

Laryngitis

10

3
3
2
35

3

Pneumonia

Lung?;, Congestion of

11

2

42

20

7

44

13

1
40

22
2
31

23

3

34

10
4
34

4

2

23

8

1

25

11

1

25

16

1

34

89

32

4

37

115

178
30

404

TOTAi

74

86

()S

74

70

46

55

36

42

61

SI 6

* Valuable assistance has been rendered, in the preparation of all the tables, by J. W. Russell,
Secretary, and H. P. Wright, Clerk of the Board of Health ; and I am indebted to Mr. J. G. Lang-
GUTH for all meteorological observations, not otherwise credited, taken at 117 Randolph Street

74

Public Parks.

Throat and Lung Diseases. — Continued^
1868.

Bronchitis

Croup

Diphtheria

Laryngitis

Pleurisy

Pneumonia

Lungs, Congestion of.
Consumption

Total.

1

03

a,
<

as

a

1-5

<!

o
O

>
o

d

11

12

9

3

8

3

3

3

8

6

9

8

12

11

6

6

8

3

6

11

18

10

13

31

6

4

6

4

1

2

2

13

9

10

9

5

1

2

3

2

2

2

2

2

2

3

2

1

1

1

2

49

58

28

22

19

27

24

1

14

18

22

42

9

5

3

3

3

1

3

3

5

4

4

4

38

41

42

30

37

23

34

42

39

36

34

23

143

138

101

73

79

66

67

59

88

95

88

99

75
112
87
21
12
334
47
418

In the above table it will be seen that Bronchitis was more pre-
valent in 1867 than in 1S66, and that there was a large mortality in
1 868, This diflerence is owing to imperfect registration. Croup, a
more common disease, was more frequent in 1866 than in 1867, and
again, in 1S68. Diphtheria was very prevalent in 1866, the mortality
much less in 1867, and greater in 1868. Of Laryngitis, no deaths were
reported in 1866, 10 in the last six months of 1867, and 23 in 1868. In
Pleurisy, there was not much difference. The cases of Pneumonia for
1 866, I am satisfied are too low, and that not all the deaths were
reported, as there are only three less than in 1867, when the tempera-
ture was more equable and the extremes were not so marked as in 1 866,
or in 1868. The mortality by this disease in 1S68 was very great in
the months of January, February, March, and December, when the
weather was extremely cold. A diminution occurred in April and
May, when the weather was mild, with an inci'ease in June, when it
was again comparatively lower. It was also in January and Feb-
ruary that most died of Small Pox, owing to its being complicated
with Pneumonia, which is a common occurrence in the latter stages
of the disease. In Congestion of the Lungs, the same discrepencies
occur, — as, for the first three months, more deaths must have taken
place in 1866 than in 1867, owing to the changes of temperature, as
corroborated by the observations of 1868. Consumption, the most
common and flital of all diseases, is probably more correctly reported
than any other. It being a hereditary and protracted disease, the
effect of the changes of temperature is not as marked as in the
acute pulmonary diseases, other causes tending to its fatal termina-
tion, such as occupation, confinement to a vitiated atmosphere, and
depressing mental influences. It will be obsei-ved that more deaths

Public Parks.

75

occurred in the latter part of 1866, than the first half of 1867, than
at any other time during the period under consideration. This
would seem to indicate that the depressing effect incident to the
visitation of Cholera in 1866, had some influence in increasing the
mortality of this disease.

Abdominal Diseases.
1866.

s

a

0.
<

0

s

1-5

>.
>?

i

^4

a.

CO

0
u
0

&^
0

i
>
0

12
4
5
2
4

a

Q

5
9

t
0

Cholera

139
15

38
20
15

166
36
21
13
14
1

673
15
21
10

8

C90

80

128

98

95

2

8

Cholera Morbus

10
21
29
11

Diarrhoea

1

3

5
1
1

5

1
2

3
5

3

S

8

2
3

7

3
6

7

Inflammation of Bowels

Gastritis

Hepatitis

1

4

1

1

Peritonitis

251

731

28

15

Total

10

8

9

14

12

16

71

236

1401

1867.

Cholera

5
1
3
11
14
3

2

45

24

13

3

2
1
47
20
9
4
1
2

1

1

11
3

Cholera Morbus ; . .

1
7
2

2
1
5

Diarrhoea

4

1
1
8

5
3

2
2

13
13
13
1
1
4

4
5
1

1
4

5
2
2
1
1
1

137
79

Dysentery

Inflammation of Bowels

Gastritis

6

77
12

Hepatitis

Peritonitis

2

2

1

9

4

1

16

Total

12

12

8

5

11

8

41

88

86

45

16

13

344

1868.

7
14
3
2
1
1
1

29

7

45

20

15

3

1

1

92

13
77
52
14
5
1

161

3

65
41
13
2
4
1

129

17
16
7
1

2
43

1
12

8
4

25

1
4
2
1
2
3

13

31

3

2
8
4
1

2

20

1
4
3

1
1
3

13

4
2
6

4
2
2

20

3
1
2

7
2
5
4

18

952

153

Inflammation of Bowels

Gastritis

80
27
14

12

To TAL

569

This table shows that nearly all the deaths by Cholera occurred in
1866, a few in 1867, and none at all in 1868. In 1866, it will be remem-
bered that all tlie climatic influences were favorable to the spread of

76

Public Parks.

diseases of this character, in addition to the fact that there was a
decided epidemic tendency. In the last half of this year an
extraordinary amount of rain fell, and the mortality by this
disease was greatest in the low and undrained parts of the city, fully
sustaining Pettenkoffer's theory with regard to the influence of the
"ground water" in this disease. In July and August, 1S67, there
was a marked tendency to Cholera, but less rain fell than in 1866,
and every case was promptly taken care of, so that in not a single
instance did a second case occur in the same house, even in those
of patients who came from other cities and died. In 1868 there
were no cases, and there was no epidemic tendency. It will be
seen that cases of Cholera Morbus occur more frequently when great
climatic changes occur. The same is the case with Diarrhcea,
Dysentery, and Inflammation of the bowels. The diflerence in the
number of cases of Gastritis, Hepatitis, and Peritonitis is simply of
registration, for in the first period the registration in 1866, as com-
pared with 1868, was imperfectly performed and the diagnosis was
not accurately determined.

Fevers.
1866.

03

s

0.

0=

cs

Ha

<

ft
m

0
0
0

S3

a

>

0

■<

H
0

1

1

1

3

1
1

13

2
13

4
8
13

1

10

16

17

8

4

61

6

Typhoid Fever

27

14

13

31

18

39

51

23

6

349

Total

38

15

14

15

14

30

32

38

55

68

30

10

319

1867

Intermittent Fever 1 1

1

1
1

4
32

33

9,

1 3

3
3
10

15

3
6
6

15

1
1

37

29

1
30

31

1
15

16

10

Congestive Fever

Typhoid Fever

1

11

20
20

3
9

12

1
19

30

11
12

3

18

31

34

198

Total

15

234

1868.

1

1

14

1

7

1
1

13

3

1

2

29

1

■ ■
33

IT

1

1

3

37

41

2

3

21

20
20

7

Remittent Fever

1
1
8

7

Congestive Fever

Typhoid Fever

6

9

3
10

12
307

Total

16

8

16

10

6

9

13

35

333

Public Parks. 77

This table reveals the fact that the ordinary fevers are not very
fatal here, and that few die of Intermittent Fever, the number being
greatest in 186S. Remittent Fever killed more in 1866 than in either
of the other years. Congestive Fever was most fatal in 1867 ; and I
have no doubt that such was also the case, in 1867, with regard to
Typhoid Fever, as a great many inore cases occurred here during
that year, owing to the dryness of the summer and autumn. I am
satisfied that in 1866, a great many cases of cholera were reported
as dying of Remittent and Typhoid Fevers, because they occasionally
assumed a typhoid or low character and did not die for several days
after the attack. Of the number reported, at least 70 are of this
character, and it will be observed that the number of both diseases is
much greater in the last half of the year than the first, and that there
was suddenly a great falling off in Typhoid Fever for December,
which is not the case in the other years for that month. My personal
experience confirms this position, and when the remarkably small
quantity of rain that fell during the year 1867, and particularly in
summer and autumn, and the prevalence of Typhoid Fever are taken
into consideration, although the mortality was not so very great, I
am inclined to believe that the position assumed by Buhl* is
correct, that Typhoid Fever increases as the water gets low in the
soil. It will, therefore, be seen that a dry summer and autumn con-
duce to fevers, while a wet summer and autumn increase bowel
affections. In a dry season the earth cracks in consequence of the
evaporation of the water it contains, and with this evaporation
are set free gases that are contained in the soil, in addition to the
decomposition of vegetable matter, the necessary result of the atmos-
phere and light coming in contact with it.f These conditions do
not obtain when the ground is covered or saturated with water.

* Zeitschrift fiir Biologic, 1865.

t The normal quantity of carbonic acid contained in the atmosphere is 1.4 volumes per 1000, but
the air in the soil contains a large quantity, derived by absorption, or the action of ram, and in an
enriched soil like ours, more largely from the decay of vegetation. It has been found to amount to 10,
and even 20 per cent. In addition to the carbonic acid, there is also carburetted hydrogen. Cultivation
of the soil, in the immediate vicinity of the city, would cause the consumption of these gases by vege-
tation, and therefore, would materially assist in rendering them innoxious in dry weather, when their
escape into the atmosphere is most marked upon health.

78

Public Parks.

Infantile Diseases.
1866.

p.

B

1-5

"3

1-5

3
<1

s

p.

1
o
O

s

>
o

a

o

p

i

2

17
1
2
3

23

4
5

1

1
23

1
7
14
3

4
26

2
18
11

6

194
59
1
67
30
15

242

37

47
37
63

95
22
5
14
26
40

47

46

3

6

18
19

6

47
1
1
7

17

1

36

1

3
17

592

24

23

380

15

166

Teethino'

8
1

4
2

166

184

Total

33

29

25

33

49

67

366

42S

202

139

79

58

1503

1867.

5

20

1
6
10

43

39

1
3
5
4

58

31
3
8
4
4

50

192
36
25
11
15
6

283

212
28
29
17
40
6

382

84
26
27
10
23
2

176

41

42
13
4
14

1

116

4
27
9
8
5
3

54

41
6

24
3

77

538

38
2

18

1

43

1
12
11

60

389

116

87

12

1

53

9

4

38

148

Whooping Cough

62

Total

1340

1868.

Cholera Infantum .

Convulsions

Marasmus

Measles

Teething

Whooping Cough.

Total.,

82

70 55 60

79

446

454

311

106

66

739
fi05
158
113
190
84

Old Age.

Em

i

p<
<

si

a
e
i-s

"3

p
<

p.

m

o
O

>

o
'A

o

0)

o

15
6
5

O

1866

1867

11
6
4

9
9
1

5

8
8

9
5

7

6
6
3

12
9
3

13
3
8

15
4
6

13
3

8

13
4
11

12
6
10

133
67

1868

74

Total

21

19

'>1

91

15

24

24

25

24

28

27

25

274

Extremes of heat and cold are necessarily destructive to infantile
life and old age. Of all diseases to which children are subject, none
is so fatal as Cholera Infantum. The number reported for i866 is
evidently below what it should be, while the nomenclature and
reporting for 1867 are more accurate. The intensely hot weather,

Public Parks. 79

together with the rain, caused the fearful mortality of 1868, mostly in
the unchained wards of the city. The mortality by Convulsions may
be regarded as a sure index of the influence of climate on children.
The epidemic tendency of 1866 is also shown, with the influence of
extreme cold in increasing mortality, compared with the other years.
Marasmus was imperfectly reported in 1866. The mortality by
teething w^ill give a better idea of climatic influences, and the same
may be said with regard to Whooping Cough. The infantile
mortality during the intensely hot weather of July, August, and
September, was very great.

It will also be seen that the aged suffered severely in 1866, but
the greater number of deaths reported in the first six months of 1867
as compared with the last, incline me to the opinion that the great
difference in the two years is owing partially to the naming of the
diseases, and the absence of any epidemic tendency in 1868, and
also the fact that the aged can protect themselves better from the
effect of cold than children.

From the foregoing, it must not be inferred that the general
health of Chicago is bad, but, on the contrary, it compares favor-
ably with any large city in the country ; and I think it is not
presuming too much to say that the climate of Chicago may be
materially modified, and rendered more equable,* by the proper
location of parks, and the planting of trees,! thereby diminishing
the mortality of preventable diseases, and improving the general
health, t

* The following facts illustrate the influence of equable temperature upon the mortality by pul-
monary diseases ; 1868, January, highest temperature 41, lowest 4, range 45, and mean temperature
20.3, deaths 145 ; 1S69, January, highest temperature 51, lowest 17, range 34, and mean temperature
34.3, deaths 104 ; 1S68, February, highest temperature 56, lowest -9, range 65, mean, 27.6, deaths 138 ;
1869, February, highest temperature 65, lowest 5, range 60, mean, 31.7, deaths 100.

t The environs of Chicago are for the most part destitute of trees, and when we consider the
important part which they plav in the economy of nature, it will appear obvious to every one that tree-
planting would not only break the force of the wind, supply warmth in winter, and coolness in summer,
and thus moderate the 'extremes of temperature, but at the same time absorb to a considerable extent,
the noxious gases which are generated in every populous city,— supplying oxygen, and thus contributing
to the public health. Trees "should be planted in every street in the city, and on all the highways lead-
ing out of it, especially those running north and south ; and should they at any time become too thick,
they can easily be thinned out. What a blessing it would be, and at the same time what an ornament,
if the right of way to every railroad leading out of Chicago, was devoted to tree-culture ! In winter they
would serve as barriers against tlie drifting snows, diminish the amount of fuel necessary to propel the
trains, and in summer they would afford a grateful shade. So intimately are trees associated with man,
and so much do they contribute to his happiness and comfort, that their culture should everywhere be
encouraged. " Persons are sometimes prevented from planting trees, on account ot the slowness of their
growth. What a mistake this is ! It is a strange feeling to feel —a strange complaint to utter— that any
one thinff in this world, animate or inanimate, is of too slow growth, for the nearer to its perfection, the
nearer to its decay." ." Let each young man plant trees that he may have something ever near to bring
back pleasing recollections of his youth,— something, when he is an old man, that will seem ot his own
age, and sympathise with him, and look on him with a familiar face, that he may not feel quite alone
among anew generation. Let the old man plant trees, they will keep him alive m the minds of men,
the memory of one who lived not for himself"

X The location of Lincoln Park is all that could be desired, serving to protect the city from the
north-east wind in spring. A park in the north-western part of the city is needed, extending from
Chicago Avenue north, as a protection from the bleak north-west winds in winter and spring : and, also.

8o Public Parks.

INFLUENCE OF PARKS ON THE MIND.

We have thus far been considering the influence of parks and
trees on the physical development ; we novv^ propose to call attention
to their influence on the mental condition. In fact, such is the
intimate connection between the two, that they cannot well be sepa-
rated, as a sound and vigorous mind is generally dependent upon a
healthy condition of the bodily organs, and without either, the object
of life is but imperfectly attained. Juvenal, long ago, declared
that, '"'•Sana mens in sano corpore^' — a sound mind in a sound
body — should be the aspiration of every one. " Health of mind, as
well as of body, is not only productive in itself of a greater sum of
enjoyment than arises from other sources, but is the only condition
of our frame in which we are capable of receiving ' pleasure from
without."* In order, therefore, to preserve the mind from impair-
ment of its energies and the derangement of its functions, physical
exercise, as well as relaxation and recreation is necessary.

We live in an atmosphere of excitement, more so, perhaps, than
any other community in the world, and it is therefore more neces-
sary that all prudent safeguards should be thrown around us to
prevent the impairment of the vigor of the mind and the inroads of
disease.

We have neither leisure nor inclination to bestow many thoughts
upon schemes much beyond the circle of our ordinary pursuits,
and our happiness consists chiefly in the accumulation of wealth,
and the accomplishment of something that is bold and novel. The
sources of gratification are too few to furnish much relief to the
excitement of our daily life, and our social intei'course is limited to
the same necessities.

This is an age of great mental activity, and nowhere is the mind
more stimulated than in Chicago. While it is true that the judicious

one in the south-western part of the city, extending from i6th or 22d Street to or beyond the city limits
south, to moderate, so far as relates to the south-west winds, the extremes of heat and cold, in winter
and summer, and to absorb the miasmatic exhalations of Mud Lake and the country adjoining the
Illinois and Michigan Canal. A park should also be located south-east of the city, to protect it against
the exhalations of the Calumet swamps, and the depressing effect of the wind from that direction. A
careful examination of the topography of the localities indicated, will reveal the fact, in addition to the
other reasons named, that the ground is low, and the surface drainage is bad, and that the location of
the parks will obviate this objection, while, at the same time, the lands will cost less than if taken at
other places, and that they will be more acceptable to all, than if differently.placed. In other words,
for sanitary and economical considerations, and for purposes of convenience, they are best. There is no
city in the world, with the same population, where the immediate surroundings are so illy improved, as
Chicago. The location of the parks in tliese directions would stimulate the improvement and culti-
vation of the soil, which fact, alone, would act beneficently in a sanitary point of view, but it would
also create a demand for the manure and offal of the city, and thus indirectly assist in improving the
public health, by the removal of offensive materials, while the cost to citizens and the city would be less
than it now is.

* Sir James Mackintosh,

Public Parks. 8 1

use of an organ, increases its power and confirms its health ; but
excessive exercise which requires an undue shai^e of vital energy,
leads to an unhealthy condition.

" Much of the mental activity that characterizes our people,"
says a distinguished writer, ''arises from the abundant opportunities
that are offered for the pursuit of wealth, and the consequent variety
and novelty of the enterprises undertaken for this pui-pose. All are
hoping and striving to make or greatly to advance their fortunes, by
some happy stroke of skill, some nicely balanced combination of
chances, or some daring speculation. The result, all can see and
admire, but few know anything of the wear and tear of mind by
which it was achieved. Indeed, our ways of doing business, our
notions of property, our ideas of happiness, all indicate, as strongly
as traits of character can, that a large portion of our fellow citizens
habitually live and move and have their being under an extraor-
dinary pressure of excitement that brooks neither failure or delay.
If unsuccessful in one attempt, our inexhaustible resources furnish
the means and opportunities of trying another, while misfortune and
disappointment stimulate rather than depress the mental energies."*

With how much truth and force can these remarks be applied
to the inhabitants of our city, and their force is but too apparent in
the rapid consumption of the mental powers, and the tendency to
diseases of this character, f

This is not alone the result of diseases of the mind, but of others,
particularly consumption, as will be seen by an examination of a
table found elsewhere, where the deaths of males during the specu-
lative excitement of 1S56, and the consequent financial revulsion of
1S57 ^^^ 1S58, greatly exceed those of females, and, also, in the first
years of the war of the Rebellion : and, no doubt, such was also the
result of the depressing effect of the cholera on the mind, in
increasing the mortality by this disease, during the last half of 1866
and the first half of 1867.

* Ray, Mental Hygiene.

t Owing to the different spheres in which the two sexes move, the effects of an undue exercise of
the mental powers are more apparent in the male sex, as is evidenced by the foUowmg statement :
Since July ist, 1851, 179 males, and 77 females, have died of apoplexy : 363 males, and 269 lemales, o)
dropsy of the brain ; 1,613 males, and 1,308 females, of convulsions (nothmg unusual m this difference
of the sexes, as more males are born, and there is a greater mortality among males in infancy) ; epilepsy,
29 males, and 16 females; palsv, 93 males, and 58 females. In apoplexy, epilepsy, and palsy, a better
idea may be formed of the effect of the great mental activity that characterizes our people, although
there is no doubt tliat we have an excess of males in this city. My confidence in the statistics, I must
confess, is not what it should be, as, during the period in which they were reported, no less than 3.766
deaths are ascribed to unknown causes. This will, however, be better appreciated by the statistics of
those who have died of old age during the same period. Of these there were, males, 359, and females,
398. The mortality should be about die same, owing to the fact that we have always had a larger male
population than female, giving due credit for the greater female longevity.

82

Public Parks,

We do not seem to appreciate that the highest degree of health
is necessary to insure the most complete success, nor the importance
of the maxim '■'•Festina lente." We need not be in such haste. Our
climatic, independent of our geographical, position gives us vast
advantages over our rivals, and it is a w^ell established fact in
European civilization, that cUmate has exercised the greatest influ-
ence on the physical and intellectual development of man.* We,
perhaps more than any other community, need all the possible safe-
guards against over-work to be throw^n around us, and I know
of no better way than by the creation of parks, that will be an
ornament to the city, and places of resort, where all may enjoy
themselves in a rational and healthful manner. We need parks to
induce out-door exercise, and for the pleasant influences connected
with them, which are so beneficial to our over-worked business men,
to dyspeptics, to those afflicted with nervous diseases, and, partic-
ularly, to the consumptive.!

* Buckle's History of Civilization.

t Contrai-y to the received opinion, I find, upon careful investigation, that the mortality by Con-
sumption is not as great here as in nearly all the other large cities of the United States. It has been
estimated that about one-sixth of all the deaths among the human race occurs from this disease, and
that of 2,771,728 deaths from all diseases, between 1S04 and i86o, 483,728 deaths, or i in 57, were caused
by Consumption. [Dr. H. B. Millard.] In Boston the mortality is great, and not much change in the
rate has taken place, while in New York the deaths have steadily diminished. Females are more liable
than males, no doubt owing to their leading more sedentary lives. It has been found that the disease
is less apt to be developed in rural districts, and that the liability to it is increased by want of exercise
and confined air. The important part that parks exercise over this disease will, therefore, be appre-
ciated, in the inducements they offer to exercise in the open air. The following table will show the
mortality of Chicago, and other cities.

DEATHS BY CONSUMPTION FROM JULY ist, 1S51, TO JANUARY ist, 1869.

Six Months, 1851.

Year of lS.i2

" " 185.3

1854.
1855.
1856.
18.57.
1858.
18.50.
1860.
1861.
1862.
1863.
1864.
1865.
1866.
1867.
1808.

Males.

23
63

103
104
91
174
145
196
127
144
196

>:03

136
216
189
226
223
238

2,797

Females.

18
49
64
91
63
112
108
133
120
128
120
146
131
195
147
180
181
180

2,166

Total.

41
112
167
195
154
286
253
329
247
272
316
.349
267
411
336
406
404
418

4,963

Population.

39,685

49,407

59,130

09,565

80,000

84,113

92,113

96,363

101,780

109,260

123,623

138,186

153,769

169,353

178,492

200,418

225,326

252,054

One
Death in

First nine years .
Last " "

A verage Excess of Males over Females.

484
'Ml
354
357
519
294
364
293
412
402
.391
396
576
412
531
493
557
603

Excess
of Males

over
Females.

5
14
39
13
23
62
37
63

16
76
57
5
31
42
46
42
58

631

.30 per annum.
.40 "

Public Parks. 83

We need parks for our school children, as we have no places
to which they can resort for out-of-door play, and where they can
obtain healthful recreation, with the exception of the limited grounds
surrounding the school houses. They can also be made use of as
the means of instruction, by the arboretum, botanical collections and
the collections of animals that are found in them.

The moral influence of parks is decided. Man is brought in
contact with nature, — is taken away from the artificial conditions in
which he lives in cities ; and such associations exercise a vast influence
for good. In the Central Park, only 56S arrests have been made,
and these of a trivial character, out of 30,731,847 visitors. '''•The
people of Salthnore have been their ovjn conservators of the
-parks. They appreciate and etijoy the?n., and they preserve thefn.
The appeal made to them by the co??i?nissiotz in the first year of
the parks, has been most fully and honorably responded to." * We
have no places of resort on holidays. By creating them, we take
many away from other and worse places, and thus do much toward
encouraging the young in habits of sobriety and temperance. They
also afford a field for the exercise of those robust games which tend
so much to the development of the physical system.

From the preceding observations, particularly on the local
topography and chai-acter of the diseases, there ought to be little
doubt as to the proper positions in which parks should be located, in
order to make them alike convenient to the city, and promotive of
the public health.

There is upon this question a community of interest betw^een
the different sections of the city, which ought to override all consid-
erations of a local natui-e, and lead to harmonious action. All
should cooperate to give each section the full benefits of such public
resorts, bearing in mind, that while one portion of the city may be
locally favored, the entire population share in the advantages. While
one portion of the city may be peculiarly exposed to malaria, the

A verage Excess of Males over Fe7nales, compared luith Population.

First nine years i in 2489 of Population.

Last " " I in 4291 " "

A verage Proportion of Deaths by Consumption.

First nine years i in 367 of deaths from all causes.

Last " " I in 4S4 " " " " "

Philadelphia, 1862, i in 7 7-9, or 13 per cent ; 1S63, i in 7 2-3 or 13 per cent. ; 1864, 1 in 7 5-8,
or 13 per cent. : 1S67, i in 6 1-2, or 15 1-2 per cent. New Orleans, 1867, i in 15, or 6 6-10 per cent.
St. Louis, Mo., 1868, I in 10 1-3, or 9 7-10 per cent. Providence, R. L, 1866, i in s 1-7, or 19 4-10
per cent. Chicago, i868, i in 14 1-3, or 7 per cent. New York, 1867, 12 percent.
* Ninth Annual Report Park Commission.

84 Public Parks,

subtle and invisible influence may be wafted to the remotest parts,
abated in virulence, but still pestiferous.

In this connection, we may use the language of Lucretius, in
reference to the plague :

" When first the air, surcharged with poisonous power,
Moves far remote, we deem it but a mist.
Or floating cloud ; but having reached our midst.
Distils throughout its course a fatal dew
Which blights and kills."

During the past season, in July, the south-east wind blew for
several days, carrying with it the exhalations of the Calumet swamps
and diffusing them over the entire city, causing a marked mortality
in the Twelfth ward. The south-west wind is the prevailing one, as
we have seen, during the summer and autumn months, and the
mortality, for the past year, was greater in the Thirteenth ward
than in the Fifth, where, so far as relates to drainage, cleanliness,
comforts of living, &c., the conditions are far inferior.

Regarding, then, this question in a comprehensive view, it maybe
affirmed that the benefits to be derived from the location of parks
are not of a local, but general character, and such as should enlist,
in their establishment, the efforts of every citizen who has the
welfare of the city at heart.

Park Acts.

NORTH CHICAGO.

An Act to Fix the Boundaries of Lincoln Park in the City of
Chicago, and Provide for its Improvement.

Section i. Be it enacted by the People of the State of Illinois^ repre-
sented in the General Assembly : That all of the land situate and lying
within the following boundaries, to-wit : Commencing at the intersection of
North avenue in the city of Chicago and county of Cook with Lake
Michigan, and running thence west along said North avenue to North Clark
street; thence along North Clark street to North Franklin street; thence
along North Franklin street to FuUerton avenue ; thence along Fullerton
avenue to the west line of the southeast quarter of section 28 in township
40, north of range 14 east of the third principal meridian; thence along said
west line to the northwest corner of said southeast quarter of section 28;
thence along the north line of said southeast quarter to Lake Michigan ; and
thence along the shore of Lake Michigan at low water mark, as the same
now is or hereafter may be, to the place of beginning — be, and the same is
hereby, declared to be a public park, to be known as Lincoln Park, and shall
be deemed to have been taken by the city of Chicago for public use and for
a public park.

Sec. 2. All of said land now belonging to the city of Chicago shall be
and is hereby appropriated for such park without any compensation to the
city, and the title of any of said land not now owned by the city may be
acquired by said city by purchase or condemnation as herein provided. The
Board of Commissioners of Lincoln Park, as hereinafter created, may
purchase any of said lands at fair and reasonable prices, to be determined
by them and paid for out of bonds or money coming to their hands for the
purpose of acquiring the title thereto, and the same shall be conveyed to and
vest in the city, to be used as a part of the park, or the same may be acquired
in the manner hereinafter set forth.

Sec. 3. Three discreet and competent freeholders, citizens of Chicago,
shall be appointed by the circuit court of Cook county, within three
months after the passage of this act, and on application of the Board of
Commissioners of said park, to act as appraisers in relation to the taking
and the value of said lands mentioned in the first section of this act or any
part thereof, and in case of the death, resignation, disqualification or refusal
to act of eithei of said appraisers, it shall be lawful for the said circuit
court, at any general or special term thereof, on application of said Board

ii Appendix.

of Commissioners, and from time to time, as often as said event shall
happen, to appoint ahj other discreet or disinterested person, being a citizen
of the city of Chicago, in the place of said appraisers so dying, resigning or
refusing to act, and said appraisers shall proceed to discharge the duties of
their appointment, and to complete their estimate and awards, as soon as
conveniently may be, and shall file their final report in the office of the
clerk of the circuit court of Cook county within three months of the date
of their appointment.

Sec. 4. It shall be competent and lawful for a majority of of said Board
of Appraisers, designated as aforesaid, to perform the trust and duties of
their appointment; and their acts shall be as valid and effectual as the acts
of all the appraisers so to be appointed, if they had acted therein, would
have been. And in every case the proceedings and decisions of a majority
in number of said Board of Appraisers, acting in the premises shall be as
valid and effectual as if the said appraisers appointed for such purposes had
all concurred and joined therein.

Sec. 5. The appraisers herein provided for in relation to the taking and
the value of any of the lands mentioned in the first section of this act, shall
make just and true estimate of the value of such lands and of the loss and
damage to the respective owners, lessees and parties and persons respectively
entitled to or interested in the same, together with the tenements, heredita-
ments and appurtenances, privileges or advantages to the same belonging or
in any wise appertaining, by and in consequence of the relinquishing the
same to the said city of Chicago ; and in making said estimate they shall not
make any deduction or allowance for any supposed advantages to be derived
from taking said lands as public places or in consequence thereof; and the
amounts so estimated, when duly confirmed, shall be paid as hereinafter in
this act provided. Whenever such estimate shall be completed, they shall
file the same with the clerk of the circuit court of Cook county, and there-
upon proceedings may be had to correct or confirm the same as in this act
provided.

Sec. 6. Said appraisers and any party being the owner of, or interested
in, any of the lands mentioned in this act, may agree upon the value thereof
and upon the amount of damages and compensation to be awarded therefor,
and said appraisers may make special reports in relation to any matter so
agreed upon, and any such special report may be filed and proceedings may
be had to confirm the same, and the same may be confirmed in the same
manner and with like effect, as is provided herein with relation to other
reports of said appraisers; and upon the confirmation of any such special
report, the amount of the awards thus confirmed shall be paid in the same
manner as if such awards had been made in a general report of said apprais-
ers and duly confirmed.

Sec. 7. Before proceeding to discharge any of their duties the appraisers
shall respectively take and subscribe an oath in writing before some officer
authorized by law to administer oaths, honestly and faithfully to discharge
the duties which may devolve upon them, in pursuance of this act, which
oath shall be filed in the office of the clerk of the county court of the

Afpendix. iii

county of Cook. Said appraisers shall proceed as soon as may be after their
appointment to discharge the duties of their trust, and to make and com-
plete their estimates and awards, and reports, as hereinafter provided, and
ever}' estimate, award and report so made, shall be signed by at least a ma-
jority of said appraisers, and filed in the office of the circuit court of the
county of Cook, and notice thereof given to the counsel for the corporation
of the said city of Chicago, within ten days after receiving such notice of the
filing of any report of such Board of Appraisers, said Corporation Counsel
shall give notice by publication for ten days, in at least two daily papers of
the said city of Chicago, that he will, at a term of said circuit court desig-
nated therein, and at the time and place to be designated, in said notice,
present said report for confirmation. And if said Corporation Counsel shall
not, within the time prescribed, cause such notice to be given, and the report
to be presented for confirmation, then such notice may be given, and said
report ma}- be presented for confirmation, as above described, by said apprais-
ers, or by any party whose lands are to be taken, and to whom compensation
is estimated and awarded by such report. It shall be the duty of said court,
at the time mentioned in said notice, to proceed immediately to the hearing
of said report, and it shall have priority over all other causes pending in said
court. The said court shall pronounce judgment on said report, and shall
confirm the same against the several lots or parcels of land described in said
report in respect to which no objections shall be filed, and such judgment
shall be a lawful and sufficient condemnation of the lands and property
appropriated and sought to be condemned and not objected to; and the court
shall hear and determine all objections in a summary way, without pleadings,
and shall and may, on such hearing, when objections have been interposed,
render such judgment as shall seem proper, modifying and changing such
assessment as it shall deem proper, and any appeal therefrom shall not inval-
idate or aftect said judgment, or delay the same except as to the property
described in said appeal. Such judgment, as far as not appealed from, shall
be a lawful and sufficient condemnation of the lands and property appropri-
ated, and any appeal shall not delay the proceedings under said judgment,
except as to the property described in said appeal.

Sec. S. Payment of the damages awarded in and by the judgments
entered as aforesaid shall be made immediately, and the Board of Park Com-
missioners, as hereinafter appointed, may either pay such damage to the
person appearing to be entitled to the same, or bring into the said circuit
court and deposit with the clerk thereof the amount of such damage, speci-
fying at the time of each deposit, in a written report, to be made to said
court, the several pieces of land condemned, and which are paid for by said
deposit, and upon payment being made as aforesaid, the said lands shall vest
forever in the said city of Chicago for the purposes and uses in this act
mentioned.

Sec. 9. It shall be the duty of any person or persons owning cemetery
lots included within the lands in the first section of this act described and to
be condemned by said commissioners, to remove any bodies that may be
therein interred, within six months of the confirmation of so much of the

iv Appendix.

report of said commissioners as relates to said lots ; and if said removal
shall not be made within six months, the Board of Park Commissioners
may, at any time thereafter, make such removal.

Sec. lo. The appraisers shall also, as a part of Lincoln Park, lay out a
drive tvfo hundred feet wide (so the east line shall be the waters of Lake
Michigan), from Pine street to the south line of said park, and shall proceed
to make an assessment for the payment of the land taken for the same,
according to the provisions of the charter of the city of Chicago, in staking
lands for the opening of a street, and shall file their report with the clerk of
the circuit court, when the same proceedings shall be had as provided in
this act in regard to the lands to be taken for the park. The said circuit
court may render judgment against the lands and lots assessed for the seve-
ral amounts assessed for benefits remaining unpaid, and the collection thereof
shall be made and enforced, as is the case for the collection for taxes, and the
money so collected shall be paid to the Park Commissioners, and by them
paid to the several persons entitled to damages for lands taken for such drive.

Sec. II. Such drive, when thus laid out, shall be a part of said Lincoln
Park, and shall be under the control and management of the Board of Com-
missioners to the same extent as herein provided in reference to said park,
and it shall be improved by the same means.

Sec. 12. For the purpose of paying for the land taken for such park,
under the provisions of this act, the bonds of the city of Chicago, to such an
amount as shall be necessary for that purpose, shall be issued by the Mayor,
Comptroller and Clerk of said city, from time to time, as the same shall be
required by the Board of Park Commissioners for the purpose aforesaid, and
shall be delivered to said board upon demand, and said bonds shall be paya-
ble twenty years from the date thereof, and shall bear interest at the rate of
seven per cent, per annum, payable half yearly on the first days of January
and July, in each year; and the said bonds, and the proceeds of the sale
thereof, shall constitute the fund for paying the cost of the lands taken for
the park.

Sec. 13. As said bonds shall from time to time issue, the comptroller
shall cause to be kept in his office, in a book to be provided for that purpose,
a true and correct statement and account of each and every bond by him
executed, showing the number of each bond, and the date and amount thereof,
and the time when due (and said books shall be open for public inspection),
and which books shall be delivered by him to his successor in oifice. The
comptroller shall take a receipt from the person authorized by said board to
receive said bonds.

Sec 14. The bonds of the city of Chicago, which shall be issued by
virtue of this act, may be used by said Board of Commissioners at their par
value, by paying any amount which said city shall have become liable to pay
for such lands purchased or condemned under this act, or the same may be
sold at public or private sale, or subscription, upon such terms as said com-
missioners shall determine; and the said Board of Park Commissioners may
pledge any of said bonds for money borrowed temporarily, at an ordinary
rate of interest, not exceeding 10 per cent, per annum, if they shall deem it
necessary and expedient so to do.

Appettdix. V

Sec. 15. The Board of Park Commissioners shall cause a full description
of the bonds received from the city, to be entered in a record, to be provided
for that purpose, which shall show the date, number and amount of each
bond, the time when received, the time when and to whom sold, and the
amount received therefor, and shall, on or before the ist day of April in each
year, furnish a copy thereof, verified by the oath of the custodian of such
records, to the city comptroller.

Sec. 16. The propertj-^ of the city of Chicago, and the lands authorized
to be taken by this act for a public park, are hereby pledged for the payment
of the principal and interest of said bonds.

Sec. 17. The Board of Park Commissioners hereinafter mentioned, is
hereby authorized, and it shall be their duty, on or before the first day of
October in each year, to fix upon the amount, not exceeding $75,000, that
may be necessary to be expended for the improvement and repair of said
park and drive during the next succeeding year, and certify the same to the
clerk of the county court of Cook county, and said clerk shall apportion
said amount upon the taxable property returned by the Assessors of North
Chicago and Lake View, and compute the same as part of the taxes due and
payable by the owners of said property set down or described in a separate
column headed "Lincoln Park Tax," and the same shall be included in the
warrant issued for the collection of taxes, and collected as other taxes. In
case of a failure to pay the same, judgment may be rendered against the
real estate assessed, and the like proceedings had as for other taxes. The
taxes so collected shall be paid to the park commissioners, and used by them
in improving and keeping in repair the park and drive.

Sec. 18. The appraisers appointed by virtue of this act, shall have
authority to employ surveyors, and to use any map or file belonging to said
city or to said county of Cook, and to cause maps to be made as may be
necessary, and said appraisers shall be allowed a compensation of five dol-
lars per day for their time actually employed in discharging their duty as
such appraisers, and all such compensation and the necessary expenses in
discharging their duties, shall be allowed and taxed by the court aforesaid,
and paid by said city of Chicago, and shall be added to and become a part of
the cost of said park.

Sec. 19. The said Lincoln Park shall be under the exclusive control of
a Board of Commissioners to consist of five persons, who shall be named
and styled the Commissioners of Lincoln Park. A majority of said commis-
sioners (in office for the time being), shall constitute a quorum for the trans-
action of business; but no action of said board shall be final or binding
until it shall receive the approval of a majority of said board, whose names
shall be recorded in its minutes.

Sec. 20. E. B. McCagg, John B. Turner, Andrew Nelson, Joseph Stock-
ton and Jacob Rehm, are hereby appointed and shall constitute the first
Board of Commissioners of Lincoln Park. They shall hold office as such
commissioners for five years. No member of such board shall receive any
compensation for his services. In case of a vacancy within said five years,
the same may be filled by the remaining members of said board, and all

vi Appendix.

vacancies occasioned bj the expiration of the term of office, shall be filled by
the judge of the circuit court of Cook county.

Sec. 21. The said board shall have full and exclusive power to govern,
manage and direct the said park; to lay out and regulate the same; to pass
ordinances for the regulation and government thereof; to appoint such
engineers, surveyors and other officers, except a police force, as may be
necessary ; to prescribe and define their respective duties and authority ; to fix
the amount of their compensation, and to require bonds for the faithful per-
formance of their duties; and generally, in regard to said park, shall possess
all the power and authority now by law conferred on or possessed by the
cominon council of said city in respect to public squares and places in said
city. They may vacate any public street or alley within the limits of said
park, and shall lay out a street not exceeding one hundred feet, and not less
than eighty feet in width, north from Fullerton avenue, along the west line
of said park to the northern boundary thereof, and may exercise the same
power and control over such street as the rest of the park.

Sec. 22. It shall be a misdemeanor for any commissioner to be directly
or indirectly in any way pecuniarily interested in any contract, or work of any
kind whatever, connected with said park; and it shall be the duty of any
commissioner, or other person who may have any knowledge or information
of the violation of this provision, forthwith to report the same to the mayor
of the city of Chicago, who shall present the facts of the case to the judge of
the circuit court of Cook county. Such judge shall hear in a summary
manner such commissioner in relation thereto, and if after such hearing he
shall be satisfied of the truth thereof, he shall immediately remove the
commissioner thus offending, subject to a fine and imprisonment. Every
commissioner shall, before entering upon the duties of his office, take and
subscribe an oath faithfully to perform the duties of his office, which oath
shall be filed in the office of the said clerk of the circuit court of the county
of Cook, and shall each give a bond in the penal sum of fifty thousand
dollars for the faithful performance of his duty, and payable to the city of
Chicago.

Sec. 23. Said Board of Commissioners for the government of said park
shall, in the month of April of each year, make to the common council of
said city, a full report of their proceedings and a detailed statement of all
their receipts and expenses, under oath. It shall be the duty of said com-
missioners to let all amounts exceeding in amount twenty-five hundred
dollars, by contract, in the manner provided in the charter of the city of
Chicago for letting the contracts for public improvements.

Sec. 24. It shall be lawful for the commissioners of said park to let,
from year to year, any building, and the grounds attached thereto, belonging
to said city, which may be within the limits of said city, until the same shall
be required for the laying out and regulation thereof, when the said buildings
shall be removed, except such as may be used for the purposes of such park.
The said commissioners may sell any building or other material, being
within the limits of said park and belonging to said city, which, in their
judgment, shall not be required for the purposes of said park, or for public

Appendix. vii

use, and the proceeds of which shall he deposited to the credit of said com-
missioners, and devoted to the improvement of the park

Sec, 25. None of the said commissioners, nor any persons, whether in
the employ of the said commissioners or otherwise, shall have the power to
create any debt, obligation, claim or liability for or on account of said board,
or the monies or properties under his control, except with the express
authority of said board, conferred at a meeting thereof duly convened and
held.

Sec. 26. The office of either the said commissioners who shall not
attend the meetings of said board for three successive months, after having
been dulj' notified of said meetings, without reason therefor satisfactory to
the said board, or without leave of absence from said board, may be by said
board declared vacant.

Sec. 27. It shall be lawful for the said Board of Commissioners at any
meeting thereof, duly convened, to pass such ordinances as they may deem
necessary for the regulation, use, and government of the park under their
charge, not inconsistent with the provisions of this act. Such ordinances
shall immediately, upon their passage, be published for ten days, in two daily
papers in said city.

Sec. 28. The persons oftending against said ordinances shall be deemed
guilty of a misdemeanor, and shall be punished, on conviction, before any
court of competent jurisdiction in the county of Cook, by a fine not
exceeding one thousand dollars, or by imprisonment, or both, in the discre-
tion of the court.

Sec. 29. Real and personal property may be granted, bequeathed or
conveyed to said city of Chicago, for the purpose of the improvement or
ornamentation of said park, or for the establishment or maintenance, within
the limits of said park, of museums, zoological, or other gardens, collections
of natural history or works of art, upon such trusts and conditions as may
be prescribed by the grantors and donors thereof, and agreed to by said
Boai-d of Park Commissioners; and all property so devised, granted,
bequeathed or conveyed, and the rents, issues, profit and income thereof,
shall be subject to the exclusive management, direction and control of the
commissioners of the park.

Sec. 30. This act shall take effect from and after its passage.

Approved Feb. 8, 1869.

SOUTH CHICAGO.

Act to Provide for the Location and Maintenance of a Park for
THE Towns of South Chicago, Hyde Park and Lake.

Section i. Be it enacted by the People of the State of Illinois,
represented in the General Assembly : That five persons, who shall be
appointed by the Governor of the State of Illinois, together with their
successors, be, and they are hereby constituted a Board of Public Park
Commissioners, for the towns of South Chicago, Hyde Park, and Lake, to

viii Appendix.

be known under the name of The South Park Commissioners; and in case
of the failure of any of said persons to accept such appointment, and to
qualify thereunder as hereinafter provided, within sixty days after the
passage of this act, the place of such person in said commission shall be
thereby vacated, and it shall be the duty of a majority of the commissioners
so accepting, to appoint some suitable person to fill the place thus made
vacant, which appointment, when accepted by such nominee, shall consti-
tute such person a commissioner under this act. And a majority of said
commissioners shall so continue to nominate until the board shall consist
of five persons. Each of said commissioners, before entering upon the
duties of his office, shall take an oath to well and properly discharge the
duties of his oQice for the interests of the public, which oaths shall be
reduced to writing, subscribed to by him, and filed in the office of the
county clerk of Cook county. They shall each give a bond in the penal
sum of fifty thousand dollars, with one or more sureties, to be approved of
by the judge of the circuit court of Cook county, to the treasurer of Cook
county, conditioned for the faithful discharge of their duties under this act.
Sec. 3. As soon as convenient after the said board shall be constituted
as aforesaid, the members thereof shall decide by lot, at a meeting to be
called by any three of them, as to the respective term for which each
member shall hold his office ; the number of lots shall equal the number
of commissioners, and the person drawing the longest term shall serve for
five years from the first day of March, A. D. 1869; the one drawing the
next, shall serve for four years from said date ; the one drawing the next,
shall serve for three years from said date ; and so on until the term of each
one of said commissioners shall be definitely determined, each one serving
for the length of time inscribed on the lot drawn by him — the last of said
commissioners serving for the term of one year only from said first day of
March, A. D. 1869. As soon as the term of office of each of said commis-
sioners shall be determined as aforesaid, said board shall organize by
electing one of their number as president, and one of their number as
auditor; they shall also appoint a treasurer, prescribe his duties, and fix
his compensation, who shall give bond for the faithful discharge of his
duties in the penal sum of five hundred thousand dollars, with not less than
three sufficient sureties, to be approved by the judge of the circuit court of
Cook county. They shall also choose a secretary, who shall not necessarily
be a commissioner, and who shall hold his office until his successor shall
be appointed as hereinafter provided ; and all officers appointed by the
board shall be subject to removal at the pleasure of the board. The said
board shall adopt a seal, and alter the same at pleasure; they shall keep a
complete record of all their proceedings, which shall be open at all times for
the inspection of the public. The said commissioners shall receive no
compensation for their services, except the pi-esident, who may, in the
discretion of said board, have and receive such compensation as may be
fixed as hereinafter provided, not to exceed three thousand dollars per
annum. All vacancies occurring in said board shall be filled by the
appointment of the judge of the circuit court of Cook county, when such

Appendix. ix

vacancy or vacancies shall occur. Said board of commissioners shall be
a body politic and corporate, and shall have and enjoy all the powers
necessary for the purposes of this act.

Sec. 3. The president, auditor, treasurer, and secretary, shall be elected
annually by said board, at the annual meeting thereof, and shall receive
such salary for their services as the said board shall from time to time
determine, not exceeding, for each of said officers, the sum of three thousand
dollars per annum.

Sec. 4. The said commissioners, by this act, are authorized and
empow^ered to, and they shall within ninety days after their organization
as aforesaid, or as soon thereafter as practicable, select the following
described lands, situated in the towns of South Chicago, Hyde Park and
Lake, in Cook county, Illinois, to wit : Commencing at the south-west
corner of Fifty-first street and Cottage Grove avenue, running thence south
along the west side of Cottage Grove avenue to the south line of Fifty-ninth
street; thence east along the south line of Fifty-ninth street to the east
line of Hyde Park avenue ; thence north on Hyde Park avenue to Fifty-
sixth street ; thence east along the south line of Fifty-sixth street to Lake
Michigan ; thence southerly along the shore of the lake to a point due east
of the center of section twenty-four (24), in township thirty-eight (38)
north, range fourteen (14) ; thence west through the centre of said section
twenty-four (24) to Hyde Park avenue ; thence north on the east line of
Hyde Park avenue to the north line of Sixtieth street, so called ; thence
west on the north line of Sixtieth street, so-called, to Kankakee avenue;
thence north on the east line of Kankakee avenue to Fifty-first street;
thence east to a point to the place of beginning; also, a piece of land com-
mencing at the south-east corner of Kankakee avenue and Fifty-fifth street,
running thence west a strip two hundred feet wide, adjoining the north line
of Fifty-fifth street, along said Fifty-fifth street to the line between ranges
thirteen (13) and (14) east; thence north, east of and adjoining said line, a
strip two hundred feet wide, to the Illinois and Michigan canal; also, a
parcel of land beginning at the south-west corner of Douglas place and
Kankakee avenue, running thence south, a strip of land one hundred and
thirty-two feet wide, along the west side of said Kankakee avenue, to a point
one hundred and fifty feet south of the south line of Fifty-first street; also, a
strip of land commencing at the intersection of Cottage Grove avenue and
Fifty-first street, running thence east one hundred feet in width on each
side of the center line of Fifty-first street, to a point one hundred feet east
of the center line of Drexel avenue; also, a strip of land extending north
from the intersection of Fifty-first street with Drexel avenue, one hundred
feet in width, on each side of the center line of said avenue, to the north
line of Forty-third street; thence northerly, a strip of land two hundred feet
in width, till it meets or intersects with Elm street in Cleaverville ; thence
northerly along said Elm street, two hundred feet in width, west from the
east line of said street, to its intersection with Oakland avenue; which said
land and premises, when acquired by said commissioners as provided by this
act, shall be held, managed and controlled by them and their successors, as

B

X Appendix.

a public park, for the recreation, health and benefit of the public, and free
to all persons forever, subject to such necessary rules and regulations as
shall, from time to time, be adopted bj said commissioners and their suc-
cessors for the well ordering and government of the same.

Sec. 5. In case the said commissioners cannot agree with the owner or
owners, lessees or occupants of any of the said real estate selected by them
as aforesaid, they may proceed to procure the condemnation of the same, in
the manner prescribed in the act of the General Assembly of the State of
Illinois entitled "An act to amend the law condemning right of way for the
purpose of internal improvement," approved June 22, 1853, and the acts
amendatory thereof, the provisions of which said act, and the several acts
amendatory thereof, are hereby extended to the park and park commis-
sioners to be created by virtue of this act.

Sec. 6. When the title to the land selected for such park as herein
provided shall have been acquired by said commissioners, by gift, condem-
nation, or otherwise, it shall be the duty of such commissioners to make,
acknowledge, and file for record in the office of the recorder of deeds for
Cook county, a map, showing the said land, with a correct description,
including section, township and range.

Sec. 7. As soon as the amount required for the condemnation of the
grounds selected for said park shall have been ascertained by said commis-
sioners, with reasonable certainty, they shall apply to the judge of the
circuit court of Cook county for the appointment of three freeholders of
the county of Cook as park assessors. The commissioners shall give notice,
in one or more of the daily newspapers published in the city of Chicago, of
the time when such application will be made, and all parties interested may
appear, and be heard by said Judge touching such appointment. At the
time fixed for such application, the court, after hearing such persons as shall
desire to be heard touching such appointment, shall nominate and appoint
three assessors for the purposes provided in this act. The said assessors
shall proceed to assess the amount so ascertained upon property in the
towns of South Chicago, Hyde Park and Lake, in Cook county, deemed
benefited by leason of the improvement occasioned by the location of said
park, as near as may be in proportion to the benefits resulting thereto :
Provided^ that the aggregate of said benefits is equal to or greater than the
amount of said damages ; and in case the aggregate of the benefits is less
than the damages, then the balance of the damages over the benefits shall
be paid from the fund provided for in section eight of this act. Upon
entering on the duties of their office, the said assessors shall make oath
before the clerk of the said circuit court faithfully and impartially to
discharge the duties of their office. They shall give at least ten days' notice,
in one of the said dailj' papers, of the time and place of their meeting for
the purpose of making said assessment, and may adjourn such meeting
from time to time, until the same shall be completed. In making the said
assessment, the said assessors shall estimate the value of the several lots,
blocks, or parcels of land deemed benefited by them as aforesaid, and shall
include the same, together with the amount assessed as benefits, in the

Appendix. xi

assessment roll. All parties interested may appear before said assessors,
and may be heard touching any matter connected with the assessment.
When the same shall be completed, it shall be signed by the assessors, and
returned to the said circuit court, and shall be filed by the clerk thereof.
The assessors shall thereupon give at least ten days' notice, in one of the
said daily papers, of the filing of said assessment roll, and that they will, on
a day therein named, apply to the said circuit court for confirmation of the
same, which said notice shall be published at least ten days before the time
fixed for such application. Said circuit court shall have power to revise,
correct, amend or confirm said assessment, in whole or in part, and may
make or order a new assessment, in whole or in part, and the same revise
and confirm, upon like notice. All parties interested may appear before
said circuit court, either in person or by attorney, when such application
shall be made, and may object to said assessment, either in whole or in part,
provided all objections shall be in writing, and shall be filed at least three
days before the time fixed for the application, and shall specify the lot,
block, or parcels of land on behalf of which objection is made. After the
confirmation of said assessment, the clerk of said circuit court shall file a
copy thereof, under the seal of his said court, with the clerk of the county
court of Cook county, and such assessment shall be a lien upon the several
lots, blocks, or parcels of land assessed for benefits as aforesaid. Ten per
cent, of the amount so ascertained shall be due and payable annually, and
the clerk of said Cook county court shall include in the general tax
warrants of each j'ear, until the whole sum shall be paid, for the collection
of State and county taxes in the said towns of South Chicago, Hyde Park
and Lake, ten per cent, of the said assessments, in an appropriate column,
to be termed " South Park Assessment," with the amount to be collected
opposite the several lots, blocks, or parcels of land assessed as aforesaid;
and like proceedings, in all respects, shall be had for enforcing the collection
of the same as is now provided by law for the collection of state and county
taxes. The money collected under the provision of this section shall be
paid to the treasurer of Cook county, for which he and his sureties shall be
responsible, as fully as for any other moneys by him received as treasurer of
Cook county, and be held by him in the same manner, and be subject to the
same control and direction, as provided in this act for other moneys
belonging to said corporation ; and the treasurer of Cook county shall be
entitled to receive one-half of one per cent., and no more, of said moneys,
as a full compensation for receiving and disbursing the same.

Sec. 8. For any deficiency arising through acquiring title to said park,
and for the payment of the expenses of enclosing, maintaining and improving
the park herein provided for, and the expenses, disbursements and charges
in the premises, the said commissioners shall have power to loan or borrow,
from time to time, for such time as they shall deem expedient, a sum of
money not exceeding two millions of dollars, and shall have authority to
issue bonds, secured upon the said park and improvements, which bonds
shall issue under the seal of said commissioners, and shall be signed by said
commissioners, and countersigned by the secretary of said board, and bear

xii Appendix.

interest not exceeding seven per cent, per annum ; and it shall be the duty
of said commissioners to keep an accurate register of all bonds issued by
them, showing the number, date and amount of each bond, and to whom
the same was issued, and said register shall at all times be open to the inves-
tigation of the public ; and for the payment of the principal and interest of
said bonds the said park and improvements shall be irrevocably pledged,
and the towns of South Chicago, Hyde Park and Lake shall be irrevocably
bound; and said bonds may be sold by said commissioners upon such terms
and for such prices as, in the judgment of said commissioners, can be
obtained for the same in cash.

Sec. 9. The said board of park commissioners shall, annually, on or
before the first day of December in each year, transmit to the clerk of the
county court of Cook county an estimate, in writing, of the amount of
money, not exceeding in any one year three hundred thousand dollars, neces-
sary for the payment of the interest on the bonds issued by said board, and
that, in addition thereto, will be required for the improvement, maintenance,
and government of said park during the current year ; and the said clerk shall
proceed to determine what per cent, said sum is on the taxable property of
said towns, according to the several assessors' returns for the respective
year, and shall, in the next general tax warrants for the collection of state
and county taxes in said several towns, set down the amount chargeable to
the several persons, corporations, lots or parcels of ground, in a separate or
appropriate column, and shall receive such compensation as now allowed by
law; and the collectors, respectively, shall proceed to collect the same in the
manner now provided by law for the collection of state and county taxes ;
and all the provisions of law, in respect to the collection of state and
county taxes, and proceedings to enforce the same, so far as applicable, shall
apply to said assessments and taxes. The said sum of money shall be
placed by the treasurer of the said county of Cook to the credit of the said
board of park commissioners, and shall be drawn by said board from the
county treasury by warrant, signed by the president and secretary of the
board, and countersigned by the auditor, to be appointed as aforesaid, and
in no other way ; the appointment of such auditor or comptroller having
been first duly certified by such president and secretary, and filed in the
office of said treasurer of Cook county.

Sec. 10. It shall be lawful for said commissioners to vacate and close up
any and all public roads and highways, excepting railroads, which may
pass through, divide, or separate any lands selected or appropriated by them
for the purposes of a park; and no such road shall be laid out through said
park except such as the said commissioners shall lay out and construct.

Sec. II. No one of the said commissioners shall be interested, either
directly or indirectly, in any contract entered into by them with any other
person ; nor shall they be interested, directly or indirectly, in the purchase
of any material to be used or applied in and about the uses and purposes
contemplated in this act. And it shall be a misdemeanor for any commis-
sioner to be directly or indirectly interested, or in any way pecuniarily
interested in any contract or work of any kind whatever, connected with
said park.

Appendix. xiii

Sec. 12. The said commissioners, or either of them, may be removed
from office by the judge of the circuit court of Cook county, upon the
petition presented to him in term time or in vacation, by one hundred free-
holders of said towns of South Chicago, Hyde Park, and Lake, if it shall
appear, after hearing and proof before said judge, that the said commis-
sioners, or either of them, have been guilty of misdemeanor or malfeasance
in office under this act; and if the said judge shall remove any two or more
of said commissioners from office for any cause, before the expiration of
their term of office, they are hereby empowered to appoint others in their
stead, who shall fill such offices for and during the unexpired term of such
commissioners so removed.

Sec. 13. The said board shall have the full and exclusive power to govern,
manage, and direct said park; to lay out and regulate the same; to pass
ordinances for the regulation and government thereof; to appoint such
engineers, surveyors, clerks, and other officers, including a police force, as
may be necessary; to define and prescribe their respective duties and
authority ; fix the amount of their compensation ; and generally, in regard
to said park, they shall possess all the power and authority now by law
conferred upon or possessed by the common council of the city of Chicago,
in respect to the public squares and places in said city; and it shall be
lawful for them to commence the improvement of said park as soon as they
have obtained one hundred acres of the premises herein described.

Sec. 14. The office of any commissioner under this act, who shall not
attend meetings of the board for three successive months, after having been
duly notified of said meetings, without leave of absence from said board,
may, by said board, be declared vacant.

Sec. 15. The real estate and personal property of saifl corporation shall
be exempted from taxation and assessment.

Sec. 16. All moneys belonging or to belong to any park fund now in
existence or hereafter to be created, and all bonds, and the proceeds from
sales thereof, now authorized or hereafter to be authorized to be issued by
the city of Chicago for park purposes, in or to which the South Division of
the city of Chicago may now or shall hereafter be entitled to a distributive
share, shall be devoted and applied to the purchase or maintenance and
improvement of the park contemplated and created by this act, under the
direction and control of the commissioners provided for in this act.

Sec. 17. The bonds to be issued under this act may be received in
payment of any assessment, whether such bond or assessment shall have
become due or not, upon such terms as shall be fair, just and equitable;
and upon the payment of any assessment, the land upon which the same is
assessed shall be free from any lien or liability to pay the same: and such
payment shall be reported to the county clerk of Cook county, and entered
upon the record of the assessment.

Sec. 18. There shall be an election held in the towns of South Chicago,
Hyde Park and Lake, on the fourth Tuesday of March next after the passage
of this act, at which election the legal voters voting at such election shall
vote for or against this act. The tickets shall be printed or written, "For

xiv Appendix.

Park," or "Against Park;" and if a majority of the votes cast on the
subject of park shall be "For Park," then this act shall take effect and be
in force, but not otherwise. The clerk of the county court of Cook county
shall designate the place of holding such election, and give notice thereof in
one or more of the daily papers published in the county of Cook, at least
six days preceding such election, and shall supply the judges thereof with
the necessarj" books, papers and boxes, as in other cases of elections ; and
there shall be one polling or voting place in each voting precinct in said
towns, as the same were fixed at the last general election in the county of
Cook. The persons who acted as judges or inspectors of election in the
several precincts of said towns, at the last general election in Cook county,
shall be the judges or inspectors of this election. In case the judges or
inspectors of election shall not attend at the time for opening the
polls, such judges or inspectors shall be chosen by the legal voters
present. The clerk shall be appointed as provided in elections for county
officers. The polls shall be opened and closed and the election conducted
as the elections for county officers. All legal voters of said towns shall be
entitled to vote at such election, without any new registration; and the
judges or inspectors of such election shall use the registry list made for
the general election in November, 1868 : Provided, that whenever any
person whose name is not on the registry list shall offer his vote at such
election, the judges or inspectors shall require the same evidence of his
qualification as now provided by law. The said judges of election shall,
immediately after the closing of the polls, count the ballots, fill out and
sign the returns and tally sheets, as now provided by law in all other
elections, and return the poll books and ballots to the clerk of the county
court, as in other cases of election. The votes shall be canvassed in the
manner provided by law for the election of stace and county officers. The
clerk of the county court of Cook county shall, immediately after such
canvass, cause a certificate of the result of such election to be filed in the
office of Secretary of State, which shall be conclusive evidence of the result
of said election.

Sec. 19. This act shall be a public act, and shall take eftect and be in
force from and after its passage.

WEST CHICAGO.

An Act to Amend the Charter of the City of Chicago, to create
A Board of Park Commissioners, and authorize a Tax in the
Town of West Chicago ,and for other purposes :
Section i. Be it enacted by the People of the State of Illinois, repre-
sented in the General Assembly, That the territorial limits of the city of
Chicago shall be and are hereby extended as follows : That part of Section
30, 40, 14 east of 3d p. M., which lies west of the North Branch of the
Chicago River; Section 25, 40, 13 east of 3d p. m., except that part of said
section lying east of the center of the North Branch of the Chicago river;

Appendix. xv

sections 26, 35 and 36, in township 40, 13 east of 3d p. m. ; sections i, 2, 11,
12, 13, 14, 23, 24, 25 and 26, in township 39, 13 east of 3d p. M., and that part
of sections 35 and 36, in township 39, 13 east of 3d p. m., lying north-west
of the center of the Illinois and Michigan canal, shall be, and are hereby,
added to said city, and shall constitute a part of the West Division of said
city, and of the town of West Chicago, and the said added or new territory
shall cease to be a part of the several towns to which it now belongs or
appertains, and the outside boundary of the West Division of the city of
Chicago, as hereby established, shall be the outside boundary of the several
wards of the city which now extend to the present city limits.

Sec. 3. Seven persons, resident freeholders and qualified voters of said
town, who shall be designated by the governor of the state of Illinois,
together with their successors, shall be, and they are hereby, constituted a
Board of Public Park Commissioners for the town of West Chicago, to be
known under the name of the '-West Chicago Park Commissioners," and in
case of the failure of any of said persons to accept such appointment, and to
qualify thereunder as hereinafter provided, within sixty days after the
passage of this act, the place of such person in said commission shall be
thereby vacated, and it shall be the duty of the commissioners so accepting
to certify the fact of such failure and vacancy to the governor, who shall
appoint some suitable person or persons, possessing the qualifications afore-
said, to fill the place or places thus made vacant, and vacancies shall
continue to be filled in like manner, until the board shall have been filled
and constituted by the acceptance and qualification of seven persons. Each
of said commissioners, before entering upon the duties of his office, shall
take an oath to well and properly discharge the duties of his office for the
interest of the public, which oath shall be reduced to writing, subscribed to
by him, and filed in the office of the county clerk of Cook county. They
shall each give a bond in the penal sum of $20,000, with one or more sureties,
to be approved by the judge of the circuit court of Cook county, to the treas-
urer of Cook county, conditioned for the faithful discharge of their duties
under the act.

Sec. 3. As soon as convenient after the said board shall be constituted
as aforesaid, the members thereof shall decide by lot, at a meeting to be
called by any three of them, as to the respective term for which each member
shall hold his office; the number of lots shall equal the number of commis-
sioners, and the person drawing the longest term shall serve seven years
from the first day of March, 1869; the one drawing the next shall serve for
six years from said date ; the one drawing the next shall serve for five years
from said date; and so on, until the term of each one of said commis-
sioners shall be definitely determined, each one serving for the length of
time inscribed on the lot drawn by him; the last of said commissioners
serving for the term of one year only from said first day of March, A. D.
1869. As soon as the term of office of each of said commissioners shall be
determined as aforesaid, said board shall organize, by electing one of their
number as president, and one of their number as auditor. They shall also
appoint a treasurer, prescribe his duties, and fix his compensation, who shall

xvi Appendix.

give bond for the faithful discharge of his duties in the penal sum of $50,000,
with not less than three sufficient sureties, to be approved bj the judge of
the circuit court of Cook county. They shall also choose a secretary, who
shall not necessarily be a commissioner, and who shall hold his office until
his successor shall be appointed, as hereinafter provided ; and all officers
appointed by the board shall be subject to removal, at the pleasure of the
board. The said board shall adopt a seal, and alter the same at pleasure;
they shall keep a complete record of all their proceedings, which shall be
open at all times for the inspection of the public. The said commissioners
shall receive no compensation for their services, except the president, who
may, in the discretion of said board, have and receive such compensation as
may be fixed, as hereinafter provided, not to exceed four thousand dollars
per annum. All vacancies occurring in said board shall be filled as soon as
may be thereafter, by the appointment of the governor of the state of Illinois.
The said^board of commissioners shall be a body politic and corporate, with
perpetual succession, and power to sue and be sued, plead and be impleaded,
to have and use a common seal, and they shall have and enjoy all the
powers necessary for the purposes of this act.

Sec. 4. The said board of commissioners shall have full and exclusive
power to govern, manage and direct all parks, boulevards and ways author-
ized by this act, and by them purchased, made, laid out or established ; to
lay out, regulate, make and improve the same, to pass ordinances and issue
and enforce orders for the regulation and government of the same ; to levy
special assessments on all property by them deemed benefited by the
purchase, opening and improvement of such parks, boulevards and ways, as
limited by this act; to appoint such engineers, surveyors, clerks and
other officers, including a police force, as may be necessary; to define
and prescribe their respective duties and authority, and fix the amount
of their compensation ; and generally in regard to said parks, boulevards
and ways, they shall possess all the power and authority now bj' law
conferred upon or possessed by the common council of the city of
Chicago in respect to the public squares, places and streets in said city; and
it shall be lawful for them to commence the improvement of the same as
soon as the funds requisite therefor, or any portion thereof, shall have been
obtained. The expenditure for engineers, surveyors, clerks and officers,
except the president, including a police force, shall not exceed five
thousand dollars per annum, without further authority from the General
Assembly; but said board may accept of the services of such of the police
force of the city of Chicago as may be placed at their disposal by the
common council or police authorities of said city.

Sec. 5. The said board shall have power, and it shall be made their duty,
and they are hereby authorized, to select and take possession of, and to
acquire by condemnation, contract, donation or otherwise, title forever, in
trust for the inhabitants of the town of West Chicago and of the West
Division of Chicago, and for such parties or persons as may succeed to the
rights of said inhabitants, and for the public as public promenades and
pleasure grounds and ways, but not without the consent of a majority, by

Appendix. xvii

frontage, of the owners of the property fronting the same for any other use
or purpose, and without the power to sell, alienate, mortgage, or encumber
the same, to the lands, and appurtenances required for a road, or pleasure
way, or boulevard, not less than two hundred and fifty, nor more than four
hundred feet in width, and for the establishment of a building-line, as here-
inafter specified, fifty feet distant from and outside of said boulevard
or pleasure way, beginning at a point in said added territory north of
Fullerton Avenue, and at or near the North Branch of the Chicago River,
and extending west within said added territory to a point one mile or more
west of Western Avenue, and thence southerly to a point at or near the
Illinois and Michigan Canal, with such curves and deviations as they shall
deem expedient; also to the lands required and building-lines aforesaid for
three parks upon the line of said boulevard, and upon the part of the same
between the two last mentioned points, of not less than one hundred nor
more than two hundred acres each, and which shall cost respectively not
exceeding $250,000; the first to be located north of Kinzie street; the
second to be located between Kinzie street and Harrison street, and the
third to be located between Harrison street and the Chicago, Burlington &
Qj-iincy Railroad track; the total cost of said parks and boulevards, with the
easements and building-line aforesaid, exclusive of improvements, shall not
exceed $900,000, and shall be assessed on the property benefited as herein-
after provided. If the said board should locate any part of said boulevard
or parks outside of the said extended territory and limits, each section of
land west of the same, of which a part shall be taken for such boulevard or
parks, shall be and remain, together with the lands and territory between
the same, and the said limits, a part of the said town and city, and of the
several wards thereof as aforesaid, and shall cease to be a part of the several
towns to which it now belongs or appertains. But in no case shall the
western line of either of said parks be over two (2) miles from Western
avenue, unless by voluntary contributions land is added to such parks
outside of said limits. Said lands, boulevards and parks, and the
personal property of said board shall be exempt from taxation. The said
board may contract with the owners of property taken or purchased, for
annual payments, not to extend beyond five years, and in such case shall
only include in the assessment for any year that amount of such annual
payments then due, if any, and the amount of one annual payment, for
that year, or next to become due. They are also authorized to divide
the amount of their assessments, and where it can legally be done, to
make one or more assessments, payable in annual installments, which shall
be a lien on property only for the amount payable each year. The part of
said boulevards between the said North Park and the North Branch of the
Chicago River, and the part of the same south of the said Chicago, Burling-
ton & Quincy Railroad track, shall not be made unless the land therefor
shall be acquired free of cost to said board, and shall not be ornamented or
improved until after the improvement of the parks shall have been com-
pleted, unless the same be done by voluntary contribution.

Sec. 6. The establishment of a building-line outside of said boulevard
G

xviii Appendix.

and parks as hereinbefore required in connection with the condemnation of
the land for the same shall be understood to be the condemnation and
perpetual annihilation of all right of the owners of property which shall
front on said boulevard, or across which said building-line shall run, to
erect any building whatever or any part thereof, between said building-line
and said boulevard or parks ; or it may be accomplished by the absolute
condemnation of the land, with perpetual and irrevocable free license to use
and occupy fifty feet in width of the same for all purposes not otherwise
forbidden, except building, as the said board shall be advised may be
preferable and most effective.

Sec. 7. No subdivision into lots of any lands in said town lying within
four hundred feet of said boulevard, or either of said parks, shall be valid
without the approval of the said Board of Park Commissioners, and they
also shall have power to forbid by general order, and to abate any horse-
racing, gambling, or offensive or obnoxious or dangerous business or amuse-
ments, within four hundred feet of said boulevard and parks, or either of
them, and the right to use the said adjacent lands for any such purposes
shall be deemed to be included in the assessment and condemnation above
provided for. But no lawful business now established and carried on upon
said adjacent lands shall be prohibited or abated without a fair valuation and
due and full compensation.

Sec. 8. The said board shall have power to construct all necessary
bridges and viaducts, over rivers, water courses and railroads within or on
the line of said town, and it shall be their duty to construct the same as soon
as the means shall have been provided therefor.

Sec. 9. The said Board of Park Commissioners are hereby required to
make not less than three topographical surveys and examinations of different
routes for said boulevards and outlines of parks, with complete elevations,
before locating the same, and to invite owners of property to confer with
them in regard to donations of land. They are also authorized to receive
donations or appropriations of money for the purchase or improvement of
the same, and of lands for, or as a part of or to be added to said boulevard
or either of said park, upon conditions to be agreed upon.

Sec. id. None of the main streets and avenues leading to the said
boulevard and parks, and which have heretofore been opened and used as
country roads or highways, shall ever be closed up or reduced in width, in
whole or in part, except streets near the river and its branches, which may be
changed for business purposes or greater convenience of access. The Board
of Public Works are hereby authorized and required, upon the order of the
Common Council, to make and assess, in the manner herein and in the city
charter provided, subject to confirmation by the Common Council, the
benefits and damages resulting from the extension of the road known as
"Whiskey Point Road," as nearly as may be in its present direction, from
its present western terminus at Western avenue, to Fulton street, of the
width of 120 feet, and from Fulton street to Lake street of the width of 80
feet, and tlie widening said road from its present terminus at Western avenue
to the new or extended city limits, to the width of 120 feet, with a building

Appendix. xix

\

line as hereinbefore defined and specified, distant ten feet from, and outside
of each line of said road from Fulton street to Western avenue, and 50 feet
from and outside of said road from Western avenue to the new or extended
city limits, and also the grading and macadamizing said road or the middle
part thereof, to the width of at least 30 feet, and a viaduct or viaducts for
carriages, teams and foot passengers, over all railroad tracks now laid or
hereafter to be laid across said road. The several township load officers and
the Cook County Drainage Commissioners, and all other officers now or
hereafter authorized to open roads on said line outside of the city limits, in
making any assessment for widening said road, are authorized and required
to include the establishment of said building line fifty feet distant from and
outside of said road, as aforesaid The name of the said " Whiskey Point
Road, " both within and beyond said city limits, shall be and is hereby
changed, and shall be known forever hereafter as " Grand Avenue." The
Southwestern avenue, from Madison street to the city limits, shall also be
macadamized, with the consent and approval of the Common Council.

Sec. ir. In case the said commissioners cannot agree with the owner
or owners, lessees or occupants of any of the said real estate, selected by
them as aforesaid, they may proceed to procure the condemnation of the
same in the manner prescribed in the act of the General Assembly of the
State of Illinois, entitled, " An act to amend the law condemning right of
way for the purpose of internal improvements, approved January 22, 1S52,"
and the acts then in force amendatory thereof; the provisions of which said
act, and the several acts amendatory thereof, are hereby extended to the
boulevards, parks and Park Commissioners, to be created by virtue of this
act.

Sec. 12. When the title of the land selected for boulevards, ways, ease-
ments, parks and building lines as herein provided, shall have been acquired
by the Commissioners, by gift, condemnation, or otherwise, it shall be the
duty of such Commissioners to make, acknowledge and file for record, in
the office of the Recorder of Deeds for Cook county, a map showing the said
land, with a correct description, including section, township and range.

Sec. 13. As soon as the amount required for the condemnation of the
grounds selected for said purposes shall have been ascertained by said
commissioners, with reasonable certainty, they shall apply to the judge of
the circuit court of Cook county, for the appointment of three disinter-
ested freeholders, as assessors, one of whom shall reside north of Division
street, one between Division and Harrison streets, and one south of Harrison
street, all in said West Chicago. The commissioners shall give notice in
three or more of the daily newspapers published in the city of Chicago, and
by posting written or printed notices in three public places in said West
Chicago, of the time when such application will be made, and all parties
interested may appear and be heard by the said judge, touching such
appointment, at the time fixed for such application. The court, after
hearing such persons as shall desire to be heard touching such appointment,
shall nominate and appoint three assessors, qualified as aforesaid, for the
purpose provided in this act. The said assessors shall proceed to assess the

XX Appendix.

amount so ascertained upon the property by them deemed benefited by
reason of the improvement occasioned by the location of said boulevard
and parks, with their appurtenances, as near as may be in proportion to the
benefits resulting thereto, and also the damages, if any, occasioned by the
taking, or condemnation of any land, right or easement as aforesaid; and
in general the form and particulars of the assessment shall be as near as may
be the same required by the city charter of Chicago in the condemnation of
land for, and the laying out of streets. From the funds derived from said
assessment, and from the other funds of said board applicable to such
purposes, the said board shall pay to the parties entitled thereto the amounts
respectively due them, and thereupon the title of the said lands, ways,
boundary lines, easements and parks, or that portion thereof paid for as
aforesaid, shall become fixed and vested in said board and their successors
in the manner, to the extent, for the purposes, and subject to the limitations,
hereinbefore provided. Upon entering upon the duties of their office, the
said assessors shall make oath before the clerk of the circuit court faithfully
and impartially to discharge the duties of their office; they shall give at least
ten days' notice, in three of the said daily papers, and by posting notices as
aforesaid, of the time and place of their meeting for the purpose of making
said assessment, and may adjourn said meeting from time to time, until the
same shall be completed. In making said assessment, the said assessors
• shall estimate the value of the several lots, blocks or parcels of land deemed
benefited by them as aforesaid, and shall include the same, together with the
amount assessed as benefits, in the assessment roll. All parties interested
may appear before said assessors, and be heard touching any matter con-
nected with the assessment. When the same shall be completed, it shall be
signed by the assessor, and returned to the said circuit court, and shall be
filed by the clerk thereof The assessors shall thereupon give at least ten
days' notice, in three of the said daily newspapers, and by posting notices
as aforesaid, of the filing of said assessment roll, and that they will, on a
day therein named, apply to the circuit court for confirmation of the same,
which said notice shall be published at least ten days before the time fixed
for such application. Said circuit court shall have power to revise, correct,
amend or confirm said assessment, in whole or in part, and may make or
order a new assessment, in whole or in part, and the same revise and confirm
upon like notice. All parties may appear before said circuit court, either in
person or by attorney, when such application shall be made, and may object
to said assessment, either in whole or in part, provided all objections shall
be in writing, and shall be filed at least three days before the time fixed for
the application, and shall specify the lot, block or parcels of land on behalf
of which objection is made. After the confirmation of said assessment, the
clerk of said court shall file a copy thereof, under the seal of said court, with
the clerk of the county court of Cook county, and said assessment shall be
a lien upon the several lots, blocks or parcels of land assessed for benefits as
aforesaid. The clerk of the said Cook county court shall include in the
general warrants for each year, until the assessments for the purposes
authorized by this act shall have been completed, and until the whole

Appendix. . xxi

sum shall be paid, for the collection of state and county taxes in the said
town of West Chicago, the said assessment, in an appropriate column, to be
termed " West Park and Boulevard Assessment," with the amount to be
collected opposite the several lots, blocks or parcels of land assessed as
aforesaid, and like proceedings, in all respects, shall be had for enforcing the
same as are now provided by law for the collection of state and county taxes.
The moneys collected under the provisions of this section shall be paid to
the treasurer of Cook county, for which he and his sureties shall be respon-
sible, as fully as for any other moneys by him received as treasurer of Cook
county, and be held by him in the same manner, and be subject to the same
control and direction, as provided in this act for other moneys belonging to
said corporation. And the treasurer of Cook county shall be entitled to
receive one-half of one per cent., and no more, of said moneys, as a full
compensation for receiving and disbursing the same.

Sec. 14. If deemed practicable by the assessors, separate assessments
and appraisements shall be made, one for that part of the said boulevard,
ways, building line and easements, and for said park, building line and
easements, to be made and taken North of Division street; one for the same
between Division street and Harrison street, and one for the same south of
Harrison street. The benefits assessed shall be the real and appreciable
benefits, and the assessments shall not, in any case, be extended over any
land, lots or parts of the said West Chicago where said benefits do not exist.
No assessment for boulevard or park improvement shall be made until
further authorized by the General Assembly.

Sec. 15. For the expense authorized herein for surveys and for any
deficiencies and necessary outlays arising and required in the condemnation
aforesaid, and in the purchase of lands and property for the purposes herein
specified, and for the payment of the expenses of maintaining and improving
the said boulevard and parks, and of enclosing the same when deemed
necessary, and for draining and making roadways and walks upon the same,
and for other expenses, disbursements, and changes in the premises, said
commissioners shall have power to borrow, as they shall deem expedient, an
amount of money not exceeding $50,000 in the aggregate, and for a time not
exceeding three years, and at a rate of interest not exceeding ten per cent,
per annum, and to issue therefor the notes or obligations of the said corpor-
ation, which shall be numbered consecutively from number one, and shall
be signed by the president and countersigned by the secretary of said board,
and shall be registered accurately and minutely in a register which shall at
all times be open for the examination of the public, and no note or obliga-
tion made as aforesaid shall be valid for an amount exceeding the sum
remaining of said $50,000 as appears by said register, or until the same shall
have been duly registered in said register. For the payment of the principal
and interest of said notes and obligations, the town of West Chicago shall
be irrevocably pledged, and also the proceeds of the tax hereinafter
authorized.

Sec. 16. The adoption of the proposition for boulevard and parks as
hereinafter specified, shall be deemed and taken to be the consent of the said

xxii Appendix.

town of West Chicago to the imposition of an annual tax of one-half of
one mill for boulevard and park purposes, as hereinafter provided. It shall
be the duty of the clerk of the county court of Cook county to set down in the
general tax warrants ofeachyear, forthe collection of state and county taxes, in
a separate column, a tax of one-half of one mill, to be styled " Boulevard and
Park Tax," which is hereby levied upon all the taxable property in said town
of West Chicago, and shall set down in said column the amount of said tax
chargeable to the several persons, corporations, lots, or parcels of land liable
for taxes in said town; and the collector shall proceed to collect the same in
the manner now provided by law for the collection of state and county taxes ;
and all the provisions of law in respect to the collection of state and county
taxes, and proceedings to enforce the same, so far as applicable, shall apply
to said assessments and taxes. The said sums of.money shall be placed by
the treasurer of said county of Cook to the credit of said board, and shall
be drawn by said board from the county treasury by a warrant, signed by, the
president and secretary of said board, and countersigned by the auditor to
be appointed as aforesaid, and in no other way. The appointment of such
auditor shall be first certified by such president and secretary, and filed in
the office of said treasurer of Cook county.

Sec. 17. It shall be lawful for said commissioners to vacate and close up
any and all public roads or highways, excepting railroads, for commercial
purposes, which may pass through, divide or separate any lands selected or
appropriated by them for the purposes of a park, and no such road shall
ever be laid out through said park, except such as the said commissioners
shall lay out and construct: Provided, however., that neither Lake street,
Madison nor Twelfth streets, nor either of the diagonal avenues or roads
leading into said city, nor any boulevard nor horse railway track of any
person or corporation now authorized to make the same, shall be closed
under the provisions of this section, but the same may be worked and con-
trolled when, and so far as, within the lines of either of said parks, by the
said board, but without interrupting travel over the same.

Sec. 18. The said commissioners, or either of them, may be removed
from office by the circuit court of said county, after trial and conviction,
upon the petition, with sworn charges, presented by not less than ten repu-
table freeholders of said town of West Chicago, and if it shall appear at
said trial that the said commissioner or commissioners have been guilty of
misdemeanor or malfeasance in office under this act; and if the said court
shall remove any of said commissioners from office for any such cause,
before the expiration of his or their term of office, the clerk of said court
shall certify to the governor of the state of Illinois, under the seal of the
court, a copy of the final judgment of removal. The president and secretary
of the board shall certify to the governor all other vacancies arising or
occurring in the same after the organization thereof

Sec. 19. The office of any commissioner under this act, who shall not
attend meetings of the board for three successive months, after having been
duly notified of said meetings, without reasons satisfactory to the board,
or without leave of absence from said board, may, by said board, be
declared, and thereupon shall become, vacant.

Appendix. xxiiif

Sec. 20. There shall be an election held in the town of West Chicago
on the fourth Tuesday of March next, after the passage of this act at which
election the legal voters voting at said election shall vote for or against the
creation of the said Board of Park Commissioners, the laying out and
making of said boulevards and parks, with their appurtenances, the addition
of said sections of land above described by numbers, to said city and town
of West Chicago and the extension of the limits thereof, and the imposition
of the tax hereby declared to be levied, at which all legal voters residing in
the said added territory shall have the right to vote. The tickets shall be
printed or written "For the Boulevards and Parks," and "Against the
Boulevards and Parks," and if the majority of the votes cast on the question
shall be " For the Boulevards and Parks," then the propositions in the first
part of this section specified shall be held to be consented to and voted by
the said town, and all the provisions of this act relating thereto shall take
effect and be in force, with the other provisions of this act, but not other-
wise : Provided, hoivever, That there shall be open in the said territory
added from the town of Jefferson, at the house of Henry Jewell, known as
" Powell's Tavern," a poll for the casting of the votes of said last mentioned
territory separately, at which election M. N. Kimbell, John F. Powell and
John Hise shall be judges of election, and the legal voters resident therein
on the tenth (10) day of February, A. D. 1869, may vote for "City Exten-
sion." and "Against City Extension," and '• For the Boulevards and Parks,"
and " Against the Boulevards and Parks," and if a majority of the votes so
cast shall be " Against City Extension," and " Against the Boulevards and
Parks," then the territory herein taken from said town of Jefferson, shall not
become a part of the city of Chicago, or of the town of W^est Chicago, nor
shall the jurisdiction of said city be extended over the same, but the same
shall remain a part of the town of Jefferson, the same as if this act had not
been passed, and said vote shall not be counted with or affect the vote cast ^ ^
in the remaining territory embraced in this act. The clerk of the county
court of Cook county shall, exept as herein otherwise provided, designate
the places of holding such election, and give notice thereof in three or more 1^0 U

of the daily newspapers published in the county of Cook, at least ten days
preceding such election, and shall supply the judges thereof with the j V^ ^^\
necessary books, papers and boxes, as in other cases of elections ; and there
shall be one polling or voting place in each voting district in said town, ^ . JL
as the same were fixed at the last general election in the county of Cook.
The persons who acted as judges or inspectors of election in the several
districts of said town, at the last general election in Cook county,
shall be the judges or inspectors of this election. In case the judges or
inspectors of election shall not attend at the time for opening the
polls, such judges or inspectors shall be chosen by the legal voters
present. In case it shall be necessary to do so, the said clerk of the county
court shall prescribe districts and appoint places of voting in the added
territory aforesaid, at which the legal voters present shall choose the judges
or inspectors of election. The clerks shall be appointed as provided in
elections for county officers. The polls shall be opened and closed and

M*ei

X^iv Appendix. ,

the election conducted, as elections for county officers. All legal voters of
said town shall be entitled to vote at such election, without any registra-
tion; and the judges or inspectors of such election shall use the registered
list made for the general election in November, A. D. 1868 : and where
necessary to do so, said county clerk shall obtain copies of such registry lists of
the several towns from which the said added territory is taken, and furnish
them in due time at the place or places where the vote of the voters of
the said added territory shall be taken : Provided, That whenever any
person whose name is not on the registry list shall offer his vote at such
election, the judges or inspectors shall require the same evidence of his
qualification as now provided by law. The said judges of election shall
immediately after the close of the polls, count the ballots, fill out
and sign the returns and tally sheets as now provided by law in all other
elections, and return the poll books and ballots to the clerk of the county
court, as in other cases of election. The votes shall be canvassed in the
manner provided by law for the election of state and county officers. The
clerk of the county court of Cook county shall, immediately after such
canvass, cause a certificate of the result of such election to be filed in the
office of the Secretary of State, which shall be conclusive evidence of the
result of said election.

Sec. 21. This act shall be deemed a public act, and shall be in force
from and after its passage. It shall be liberally construed in all courts and
places, and all acts and parts of acts in conflict with its provisions or either
of them, are hereby repealed.

/

TO BE PrBLISUlCO IN APRIL 15V S. C. GRIGGS & CO.

The Mississippi Valley:

ITS PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY,

INCLUDING SKETCHES OF THE TOPOGRAPHY. BOTANY, CLIMATE, GEOLOGY,

AND MINERAL RESOURCES, AND OF THE PROGRESS OF

DEVELOPMENT IN POPULATION AND

MATERIAL WEALTH.

By J. W. FOSTER, LL. D.,

•

President of the American Association for the advancement of Science, joint author of " Foster &

Whitney's Report on the Geology of the Lake Superior Region," Lecturer on

Physical Geography, and the Cognate Sciences in the

University of Chicago, &c., &c.

Illustrated by Maps ,\nd Sections.
One Vokime, Octavo: Price, $3.50.

The above work contains the results of a life-time spent in the observation and investigation of the
Physical Phenomena of the great region known as the Mississippi Valley, including the Great Lakes,
its descriptions of the natural features, undeveloped mineral wealth, varied climatic influences, distribu-
tion of moisture and dryness, and general characteristics, its minute descriptions of the routes of the
various Pacific Railroads, and its very able and original discussion of The Origin ok the Prairies,
will make this book of the utmost interest and importance to every inhabitant of the United Slates,
and especially of the West.

A writer, in the "Evening Post," who has had access to the proof sheets, says nf it: "This
work contains a vast range of information in every department of science. Every page evinces that the
author has observed extensively, and thought profoundly on the topics of which he v.rites. Treated in
such a spirit. Physical Geography becomes one of the most interesting subjects of knowledge. It is
the only work which conveys to the reader a comprehensive idea of the resources of the Great Valley,
and of the extent to which they can be expanded."

S. C. GRIGGS \: CO.. Publisher.s,

117 and Ml) State St., Chicago