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Griffiths New host records of Capillaria hepatica in Florida James N. Layne Deep-water algae new to Puerto Rico Luis R. Almod6var The immature stages of some Chironomini (Chironomidae ) William M. Beck, Jr. and Elisabeth C. Beck Fish fauna of the western Caribbean upper slope Harvey R. Bullis, Jr. and Paul J. Struhsaker Exoerythrocytic gametocytes of saurian malaria Sam R. Telford, Jr. Hyla andersoni in Florida Steven P. Christman NUMBER 2 Vegetational changes in the National Key Deer Refuge Taylor R. Alexander and John H. Dickson III Shell debris and shoreline energy on Florida Gulf Beaches Herbert M. Austin Charles E. Russell and the Root Mission to Russia, 1917 Donald H. Bragaw Phosphorus fertilized pasture and composition of cow bone R. L. Shirley, W. G. Kirk, G. K. Davis, and E. M. Hodges Physical endurance of rats increased by rutin K. M. Brooks and R. C. Robbins Echolocation-type signals by two dolphins, genus Sotalia David K. Caldwell and Melba C. Caldwell The paleospecies of woodpeckers Pierce Brodkorb Officers and members of the Academy for 1970 ili 77 80 81 90 97 lll 119 124 132 137 NUMBER 3 Military march lands, a history and horoscope Duane Koenig Some British impressions of Theodore Roosevelt George C. Osborn Diel periodicity of chlorophyll a in the Gulf of Mexico Walter A. Glooschenko Two new Atlantic clinid fishes of the genus Starksia | Carter R. Gilbert New host records for Azygia acuminata Goldberger 1911 Warren R. Ehrhardt and Susan S. Glenn Live shipping of Florida’s spiny lobster Ross Witham Subspecific variation in two species of Antillean birds Albert Schwartz Post-Columbian birds from Abaco Island, Bahamas Kathleen Conklin NUMBER 4 Pilot whales mass stranded at Nevis, West Indies David K. Caldwell, Warren F. Rathjen, and Melba Caldwell Redescription of Sphaerodactylus stejnegeri Cochran Lewis D. Ober Soil algae of northwest Florida Jon H. Arvik Cyclic erosion surfaces in Swaziland Harm J. de Blij Osmotic equilibrium of marine algae T. R. Tosteson, E. Montalvo de Ramirez, and A. Rehm Occurrence of Brevoortia gunteri in Mississippi Sound William R. Turner Reproduction of the clingfish, Gobiesox strumosus Robert A. Martin, and Catharine L. Martin Recent coyote record from Florida Vernon D. Cunningham and Robert D. Dunford Herpetofauna of Dauphin Island, Alabama Crawford G. Jackson, Jr., and Marguerite M. Jackson Breeding of a pair of pen-reared green turtles Ross Witham The possible evolutionary history of two Florida skinks Steven P. Christman The effects of different ratios of force on aggression James Tindell and Jack E. Vincent iv 161 iia 187 193 207 211 221 237 241 244 247 253 262 273 275 279 281 288 291 294 Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences Vol. 33 March, 1970 No. 1 CONTENTS Dyslexia: symptoms and remediation results Anita N. Griffiths 1 New host records of Capillaria hepatica in Florida James N. Layne 18 Deep-water algae new to Puerto Rico Luis R. Almodévar 23 The immature stages of some Chironomini (Chironomidae ) William M. Beck, Jr. and Elisabeth C. Beck 29 Fish fauna of the western Caribbean upper slope Harvey R. Bullis, Jr. and Paul J. Struhsaker 43 Exoerythrocytic gametocytes of saurian malaria Sam R. Telford, Jr. 77 Hyla andersoni in Florida Steven P. Christman 80 iTHSOA™ ZGANTHSON ie JAN 15 197} Mailed December 21, 1970 QuaRTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLonipa ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Editor: Pierce Brodkorb The Quarterly Journal welcomes original articles containing significant new knowledge, or new interpretation of knowledge, in any field of Science. Articles must not duplicate in any substantial way material that is published elsewhere. INSTRUCTIONS TO AUTHORS Rapid, efficient, and economical transmission of knowledge by means of the printed word requires full cooperation between author and editor. 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Published by the Florida Academy of Sciences Printed by the Storter Printing Company Gainesville, Florida QUARTERLY JOURNAL of the FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vol. 33 March, 1970 | No. 1 Dyslexia: Symptoms and Remediation Results ANITA N. GRIFFITHS THE description and remediation of reading difficulties in chil- dren has been complicated by a multiplicity of symptoms associated with a condition defined as “dyslexia”, “specific dyslexia’, or simply “learning disability”. The data presented here were originally given at the Florida Psychological Society’s 23rd annual meeting in Miami Beach, Florida on May 1, 1970. They represent the results of test- ing 32 children (24 boys and eight girls) who entered private clin- ics (Byron Harless and Associates, Tampa, Florida and Griffiths Inc., Lakeland, Florida) because of reading difficulties, often as- sociated with emotional and behavioral difficulties. These results are compared with data from other studies in a manner to more specifically identify a specific reading problem which may be called “dyslexia”. The results or remedial treatment for 28 of the 32 chil- dren are also discussed. Benton (1968) defined dyslexia as “a selective retardation of reading skills, resulting in an observable gap between a child’s progress in reading and his progress in other areas of learning. This implies a normal or even above normal I.Q.” Kline (1968) stated that dyslexia “refers to patients with severe reading disabilities.” Pannbacker (1968) uses the concept “a discrepancy between ap- parent capacity for learning, verbal or nonverbal, and actual level of achievement” when defining learning disabilities. Benton (1968) associated dyslexia with eye dominance, control and convergence, but suggested ten symptoms which are often noted for children having this condition. These included, among others, hyperactivity, behavior problems, mixed laterality, and poor identification of body parts. Kline (1968) would eliminate neurologically damaged or per- 2 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ceptually handicapped children from the dyslexic definition, but does associate mixed laterality, poor coordination, and emotional problems with dyslexia. Pannbacker’s (1968) associated charac- teristics were very similar to those of Benton. METHODOLOGY The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, Frostig Develop- mental Test of Visual Perception, Gilmore Oral Reading Test, and the Harris Test of Laterality were used as diagnostic tools. In ad- dition to the formalized testing, a family history was taken and certain notations were made concerning unlearned laterality. The author is indebted to Dr. Lorain Hite of Byron Harless and Asso- ciates for statistical analyses. Twenty one of the 24 boys and seven of the eight girls entered a three month remedial program. Except for four girls and three boys who were seen only 10 or 11 times, all others completed 12 individual remedial sessions. All sessions were once a week on a one-to-one basis between the author and the individual child, and each hour represented ap- proximately 50 minutes of actual working time. Specific techniques varied from child to child, depending upon individual needs, and upon which procedure appeared to be gaining the most profitable response. The remedial work may be categorized as working with materials which were intrinsically interesting to the children. Al- though the learning experiences were challenging, they were planned so that the child could feel successful. Competition was eliminated. Although the children had entered the remedial pro- gram because of reading difficulties, standard teaching techniques involving phonics, workbooks, and the structured situation of the conventional classroom in which the child had failed, were com- pletely eliminated, and an atmosphere creating trust and value in the child as an human being was established, both through verbal and nonverbal communication. The parents, the teacher, and the child were all apprised of the situation. An attempt was made to explain what had caused the child to behave in the manner which had produced his problems, and hope was held forth that improve- ment would be made. During the course of the remedial work, about one-half of the children were placed on Ritalin (methyl- phenidate hydrochloride) by their referring physician, with ap- parently beneficial effects. The use of ordinary tranquilizers or GriFFitHs: Dyslexia 3 sedatives, which had been tried for some hyperactive children, generally resulted in adverse behavior. At the conclusion of the remedial work the children were again tested with a WISC, The Frostig Test of Visual Perception, and The Gilmore Test for Oral Reading. For the first two tests, the identi- cal form was used in post-testing and it is recognized that there is a possibility of some contamination when the two tests are given within a three months period. In the case of the Gilmore, Form A was given as the pre-remedial test, and Form B was used for the post-remedial testing, so that contamination does not exist insofar as reading improvement could be measured by this test. The ages of the children at the time they were first seen varied from 6 years and | month to 15 years and 9 months with an average age of 9 years and 5 months. ResuLts oF WISC TEsts The WISC tests were given to all children. Verbal I.Q.’s varied between 86-137 with an average of 111; Performance I.Q.’s varied between 75-125 with an average of 104; and Full Scale 1.Q.’s varied between 79-133 with an average of 108. Three of the chil- dren had 1.Q.’s (Full Scale) below 90. In Table 1 the average scale scores with standard deviations from this study are compared with those of Wechsler (1949) and Sabatino (1968). It will be noted that the 200 children presented by Wechsler with a chronological age of 10 years, 6 months had average scale scores that were almost identical from sub-test to sub-test, whereas, there was considerable variation both in this study, and in that re- ported by Sabatino. Sabatino’s children were forty-five boys, aged 6 years and 4 months to 12 years and 2 months, who were failing in either arithmetic or in reading. Sabatino did not define these children as dyslexic, but as individuals with learning disabilities. However, it will be noted that the average scale scores of Sabatino, while lower, were related to each other in much the same manner as were those in the present study. Object Assembly and Coding were exceptions to this pattern. In the present study, the Coding sub-test had a high standard deviation and was significantly correlated with the Verbal rather than Performance sub-tests, but Sabatino did not find this relation- ship. The significance of this is impossible to interpret at this time. - QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES TABLE 1 Comparison of WISC scores with Sabatino and Wechsler Wechsler 10% Griffiths Sabatino Mean S.D. Mean _ S.D. Mean S.D. Information 99 2.9 10.4 2.8 9:0) 2220 Comprehension LOSS oak TSG 3m 10:47 rs Arithmetic NOP Ball OSE ou 8.PE U2 Similarities LOO Syl TSO oe Lets S33 Vocabulary NO SI WG BS} LO. 4 3333 Digit Span NOLO 229 NOK 370 Gal, WA Verbal I.Q. 100.0 TSA 97.0* Picture Completion NOK BO) JUES 2S 10:6: Freee Picture Arrangement Oe) Ball OMe 9:5 OVS Block Design LOS 30 NOES 25 i929 Object Assembly LOL XY) G25 SIS LOW... “S83 Coding NOLO 3k NOS 4a SO Bl Performance I.Q. 100.0 103.5 T7205 Full Scale I.Q. 100.0 108.4 97.05 *Calculated from mean. When more individual scores can be factor analyzed, some conclu- sions concerning the status of Coding and its interpretation for chil- dren with learning difficulties may become apparent. Sixty-eight per cent of those tested had a Verbal I.Q. higher than Performance, and when males were compared with females, 67 per cent of the males and 75 per cent of the females had a higher Verbal I.Q. However, when children were separated by age, 54 per cent of those older than 9 years had a higher Verbal FOF whereas, of those 9 years and younger, 74 per cent had a higher Verbal than Performance I.Q. Correlations were run between all of the sub-tests, and these correlations were compared with those of Sabatino, and with the average population at age 10% presented by Wechsler. As contrasted with Wechsler where all sub-tests were signifi- cantly correlated, the present study and that of Sabatino showed that most Verbal sub-tests were correlated with each other, but rarely with any Performance sub-tests. Performance sub-tests were GrirFitus: Dyslexia 5 significantly correlated in only two instances in each of these stud- ies. The failure to find significant correlations for the two groups of children with learning disabilities when compared with those for Wechsler’s normal population, and the variability in sub-test scores for the two studies are suggestive that the WISC alone offers an early opportunity to identify a possible learning disability. For the children tested here, an analysis of scale scores for in- dividual children suggest patterns which may be helpful in identi- fying a specific syndrome. Comprehension had the highest average scale score, and it was the highest Verbal sub-test for 50 per cent of all children. Seventy one per cent of the boys and 63 per cent of the girls had Comprehension scale scores at least two points higher than for either Arithmetic or Information. This discrepancy ap- peared to become exaggerated with age. Both Similarities and Vocabulary had high average scale scores, but no specific pattern was discernible. Both had highly significant negative correlations with age; Similarities showed significant correlation with all Frostig sub-tests except “position in space”; and Vocabulary was signifi- cantly correlated with only the Frostig sub-test “spatial relations”. Of the five performance sub-tests, Picture Completion had the highest scale score for 46 per cent of the boys and 37 per cent of the girls, but there were no real patterns which emerged. As noted above Coding appeared to be related to Verbal sub-tests and Verbal I.Q. rather than to other Performance sub-tests. A considerable variation in sub-test scores, a high Comprehen- sion score as compared with Information and Arithmetic (particu- larly if the child is more than 7% years old), and possibly a high Picture Completion score as compared with other Performance sub- tests combine to suggest that the child with such characteristics will be reading below his intelligence capability. RESULTS OF FROSTIG TESTS The Frostig Test of Developmental Perception was given to all children. Because of the fact that it measures characteristics only to an age equivalent of approximately 9 years and since 15 of the children in this study were older than 9, problems of interpretation were encountered. However, in the 160 instances where chronolog- ical age suggested opportunities to score on a sub-test at the Frostig 6 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES TABLE 2 Results from Frostig developmental test Frostig Test Age Equivalents in Months All Children Younger than 122 months All Female Male All Female Male Eye Motor Coordination 90 93 88 79 85 76 Figure Ground 86 84 87 83 76 86 Form Constancy 75 74 76 68 67 69 Position in Space 87 80 90 82 oh 84 Spatial Relations 85 88 94 88 82 91 Chronological Age ILS} 113 116 95 94 96 Number of Children 32 8 24 21 6 15 maximum, only 27 such instances occurred. Table 2 shows the av- erage (arithmetic mean) age-equivalents in months for all children and also separates out the 21 children younger than 122 months. These children all scored well below their chronological age level. They averaged lower on “form constancy” than any other sub-test. The “eye-motor” sub-test results were significantly correlated only with “spatial relations”, whereas the other four sub-tests were all significantly correlated with each other. When males were separated from females, test score results suggested sex differences, particularly for the 21 children younger than 122 months. These low scores, when compared with chrono- logical age, appear to be typical of children with reading problems due to visual perceptual difficulties. RESULTS OF GILMORE ORAL READING TEST The Gilmore Oral Reading Test was given to all the children, and results from this are compared with the Frostig and with the WISC I.Q.’s on a comparable basis. This basis was arrived at by dividing the age-equivalent on the Frostig by the chronological age; and on the Gilmore by converting grade to age equivalent by adding 65 months to the grade equivalent and dividing by the chronological age. The approximate average age of children as they enter the first grade in Florida is 65 months. Table 3 indicates that scores on both the Gilmore and the Frostig were low in com- parison with the I.Q. of the individual children. GriFFiTHs: Dyslexia qi TABLE 3 Comparison of Frostig, Gilmore and WISC results Test Quotient | All Female Male Frostig: Age Equiv./Age Eye Motor Coordination 79 85 ia Figure Ground 78 78 79 Form Constancy 68 71 66 Position in Space 79 al 79 Spatial Relations 84 83 85 Gilmore: Grade Equiv./Age | Accuracy 87 94 85 Comprehension 93 100 91 WISC: IQ. | ; Verbal Lele TAfall JL Performance 104 104 104 Full Scale | 108 108 108 OBSERVATIONS ON LATERALITY AND ORIENTATION Left handedness, ambidexterity, mixed-laterality for hand or foot, and particularly problems concerned with focusing eye, domi- nate eye, and lack of eye convergence have been so often associated with reading difficulties that a review of references is not included here.. In the present study, the Harris Test of Lateral Dominance was administered to all children. In addition to this, Unlearned Later- ality tests worked out by the author were also given. There was an extremely high proportion of apparent mixed laterality. On the Harris tests, approximately 70 per cent showed mixed laterality for tasks performed with hands or feet. When testing the focusing eye, 25 per cent were mixed, 25 per cent were left-eyed and 50 percent were right-eyed. The tests concerned with knowledge of left and right did show that about 75 per cent of the subjects were confused. Those that were not confused were all 9% years of age or older. Twenty-two per cent of the children preferred the left hand. This study sug- gests that mixed laterality or left-handedness may well be asso- ciated with a reading difficulty, but what the association means and how it compares to a normal population of normal readers is unknown and requires additional study. 8 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES All of the children showed a poor sense of orientation. This was demonstrated by an occasional tendency to go out the wrong door, by having little knowledge of direction, by becoming lost if sent on an errand, or, in some instances, by getting lost in going from one room to another. OBSERVATIONS ON HYPERACTIVITY Approximately 85 per cent of the children were definitely hy- peractive or had been so. This was characterized by an inability to sit still) movement of hands or feet, the necessity for getting up and moving around the room, and the need to be continually on the move, with usually a relatively short attention span. Some of the older children who did not exhibit hyperactivity at the time of this study were found to have been hyperactive when they were younger and were so categorized. Five children apparently did not have a history of hyperactivity, but these were all 11 years and older, and whether they had simply learned to compensate for hy- peractivity or whether they never had it could not be positively determined by questioning of the parents. Approximately 85 per cent were considered to be behavior problems in school and at home. The behavior problems were pri- marily associated with their hyperactivity, and with the fact that they were failing to make proper progress, particularly in reading. They were reacting in a hostile manner to punishment and to the admonitions of their teachers and parents that they were not trying hard enough. Four of the children appeared to be definitely withdrawn, and are here considered to be behavior problems because of the with- drawal tendencies. These were all children of 11 years of age and older. None of the four were exhibiting hyperactivity symptoms at the time of this study. One of these children had a full scale LQ. of 79, one of 88, and the other two were 123 and 120. The with- drawal symptoms would appear to be associated with their inability to maintain proper learning performance in competition with the peer group. RESULTS OF REMEDIAL TREATMENT The results reported here indicate very marked improvement for all children, and it is recognized that such rapid improvement GriFFiTHs: Dyslexia 9 has not been reported in the literature. Kline (1968) reporting on treatment of dyslexics in a clinic in Wisconsin, suggested that, “A multi-sensory approach, built upon a good basic phonics program is essential to the successful remediation of specific dyslexia. It is necessary to work on a one-to-one basis and the child should be four or five times a week in a one-hour session.” Their remedial program extended over a period of approximately one year. Forty-six of the 50 patients who completed therapy showed significant improve- ment, and they were seen from 21 to 191 times. Of those who did not improve, all had been removed from the program, prematurely. Reinmuth (1969), in a general discussion of dyslexia, strongly suggests that the child’s behavior problems and his negative self- concept can be alleviated in numerous ways, and that since no spe- cific method of treatment is necessarily good for all, various ap- proaches must be made if improvement is to be obtained. The evident need for different approaches in the present study very TABLE 4 Comparison of WISC Verbal Scores for 21 boys and 7 Girls before and after 3 months of remedial work Sex Information Comprehension Arithmetic Similarities Vocabulary Digit Span Verbal 1.Q. Full Scale 1.Q. Age in Months Male re WS 8 12to 2a Ode) 108.37 1053) 120:3 Rost yO. Wile lOrs WOell WSs) JU US OE A838) CAMs Op te Oe iO ele Oro sO. 4-148, 3.0 Female Pre 10.9 13.6 9.0 140 123 11.0 1084 106.1 4103.1 Rostan ll wolGe9. Sai GOSS Oe SOF 204, LOGE Gaim 4-028 qP88° OS S q52ss a 20 Se als aes eo) All igs We) MSS) LO PQA ORG, (A lOS:4) 1OS:5: 16:0 Rost UO eh O, HOE! toe lero, Tl IU) ZO OI) 0 Caine apo oer Ol aie Ona’ 70.6 LOS 14.7 3.0 strongly indicates the validity of this hypothesis. While children may be categorized and grouped together, for some traits, informa- tion is still insufficient to be certain that an individual child may be 10 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES TABLE 5 Comparison of WISC Performance Scale Scores for 21 boys and 7 girls before and after 3 months of remedial work Sex Performance I.Q. Age in Months icture Completion Picture Arrangement Full Scale I.Q. Block Design Object Assembly 105.3 = 120.3 We) ide) a) aS 4 S&S © ee) Male Brew k@ 9.9 10.9 Rost, ol4e4 lead TOS 1205. Joss Germ <=34: sal. <=lLé 3.5 +14 416.8 +148 ” ==3:0 Female Pre 11.6 10.7 10.0 9:3 10.9.--- 102.1», L6G aaioaat jetomie dks} 7 = AL 7/ MAE) pre ASE ES 115.9 ~ 1204] dG Gain +2.1 -Fl.0 +19 =+-2.8 -F1.0 =-13:38> 5) 2i2e eee All lenges Iie, ANIL 10.7 oem 9.8 101,1. 21055.) tei Bost.) 14.25 Slule7. 123s alone eo 1172 1202s Gain --3.0 +16 » U.6..+3.4.04,12% = Ghee Piss oo 09 OU BR 4 = Oe) HH jp ~l ep) diagnosed, and then treated in a specific or rigid manner. Remedial work and treatment must be tailored to fit the individual child and his difficulties. Tables 4 and 5 separate the boys from the girls, and then com- bine the two groups to show the average scale scores on the WISC for each of the sub-tests before and after treatment and the differ- ences that resulted. The average ages at the beginning and ending of the treatment period are also shown in months, and, of course, represent a three month period. Statistical analyses run on these data indicated that there was a significant improvement in I.Q.’s for the group, and that there was no sex difference. Four of the seven girls did not complete 12 sessions, and of these two of the four were materially lower than the others in average improvement. The results between the girls and boys appeared to be very com- parable. The greatest increase in sub-test scores was found on Comprehension for both girls and boys, and this was the test upon which they had the highest scale score in the pretreatment testing. Only on the Arithmetic subtest did either sex show an average de- GriFrFiTHs: Dyslexia iu crease. This was true only for the girls, and was true because one child changed from a scale score of 14 to 8. This child was seen 12 times initially, and she had relatively severe reading and behavioral difficulties at the beginning of the treatment. For both sexes, - Arithmetic did, not improve at a rate comparable to the improve- ment on the other sub-tests, and, on the average, Digit Span had an even lower increase. In only 15 of 308 Verbal sub-tests recorded were the post-remedial scale scores lower than the pre-remedial ones. Performance I.Q. increased to a greater extent than did Verbal I.Q. In the case of Full Scale 1.Q.’s, there was an improvement of roughly 15 points for the entire group. Only four children, three boys and one girl, had increases in Full Scale I.Q. of less than five, and all showed an increase of at least three points. None of the children showed a decrease on Verbal I.Q., but on Performance I.Q., one boy and one girl showed a slight decrease and one boy re- mained at identically the same score. This suggests that these chil- dren do differ, and that the difference is perhaps even greater in the area of Performance than in Verbal abilities. Since the children were brought to the clinic primarily because of a reading problem, the Gilmore reading tests are probably the best measure of the remedial results obtained. Table 6 shows the average grade equivalents for the boys and girls and for the entire group before and after a remedial treatment period of three months. Since three months is approximately one-third of a school year, an average increase would normally have been expected to be one- third of a year or 0.33; however, the average gain on Accuracy was TABLE 6 Comparison of average grade equivalents for 21 boys and 7 girls based Gilmore Oral Reading Tests’before and after 3 monthe of remedial work Gilmore Test Male Female All Bre ost. Gaim Pre Rost “Gain Pre’ Post? ‘Gain Accuracy ClO hae 242d ele) e228 a OtOree led 298) 4:8 15, Comprehension SER otOmeeleom | OND eA oo fol Gare. One 2 IES 1.5 years and on Comprehension the gain was 1.8 years. Statistical analysis indicated the gains were significant. It is important to 12 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES TABLE 7 Comparison of Gilmore grade equivalents* divided by chronological age for 21 boys and 7 girls before and after 3 months of remedial work Gilmore Test Male Female All Pre 81.0 96.9 84.9 Accuracy Post 99.8 105.4 LOWE Gain 18.8 8.5 16.3 Pre 88.6 103.0 O22 Comprehension Post 104.7 109.0 105.8 Gain GE 6.0 13.6 Pre 105.3 106.1 105.5 Full Scale 1.Q. Post 120.1 120.4 120.2 Gain 14.8 14.3 WA 65 months or the average chronological age for children entering first grade in Florida was added to the grade equivalent to obtain quotients comparable changes in I.Q. point out here that this reading improvement was not accomplished by working with standardized and recognized reading procedures, but rather by using compensations and specialized techniques to improve ability to understand the words seen. In addition there was apparently an improvement in the child’s self-concept. The gain for boys and girls is strikingly similar. Another way to make a comparison is to convert the grade equivalent to an age equivalent by adding 65 months (average age of Florida children entering first grade) and then calculating a quotient by dividing the reading age equivalent by the chronologi- cal age. These calculations are shown in Table 7. It will be noted that at the beginning of the remedial work, these children were reading on a level which was well below that expected for their chronological ages, but their I.Q. averaged approximately 105. In the post-testing, at the end of approximately three months, the children had risen in Accuracy to 101 per cent and in Compre- hension to 105 per cent, or very slightly above their chronological age level, but their average I.Q. during the same period had on the average increased from 105-120. However, the actual amount of gain, 16 points for Accuracy, 14 for Comprehension and 15 for I.Q., are surprisingly similar. Only one child and only in Comprehension GrirFirus: Dyslexia 13 TABLE 8 Comparison of age equivalents in years for 21 boys and 7 girls on the Frostig Test before and after 3 months of remedial work Frostig Test Male Female All Pre "26 Wee "6 Eye-Motor Post 8.9 9.0 8.9 Coordination Gain 1.3 5) 1.3 Pre 7.3 Gai Fodk Figure Ground Post Ona 8.8 8.7 Gain 1.4 Pod 1.6 Pre 6.6 6.1 6.5 Form Constancy Post 8.6 9.0 Soll Gain 2.0 2.9 YD Pre 7.5 OS 7/ eS Position in Space Post 8.4 8.7 8.5 Gain 0.9 2.0 2 Pre tol Coll 7.9 Spatial Relations Post 8.7 OM 8.7 Gain 1.0 1.6 IW Pre 10.0 8.6 OM Age Post 10.3 8.8 9.9 Gain 0.3 O2 0.2 scored lower at the post-testing period. It would be premature to try to explain here exactly what took place with these children, but there can be no question that the techniques used resulted in ma- terial improvement in I.Q. and in reading Accuracy and Compre- hension. Tables 8 and 9 show comparable data on the Frostig test for that data represented in Tables 6 and 7 on reading ability. Be- cause the Frostig test does not extend past the age of 9 or 10 years, the children who were more than 10 years of age at the pre- remedial test were eliminated from the data in Table 9, but all chil- dren were considered in the data in Table 8. Table 8 compares the age equivalents for all children, separates males from females, and combines both groups to show the average change at the end of the three months of remedial work. There appears to be the possibility that some sex difference exists. The 14 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES TABLE 9 Comparison of Frostig age equivalents divided by chronological age for 11 boys and 5 girls based on tests before and after 3 months of remedial work Frostig Test Male Female All Pre (E55) 87.4 (he Eye-Motor Post 96.7 P22 101.6 Coordination Gain D2) Pe 24.8 22.4 Pre 87.4 80.6 85.3 Figure Ground Post 103.0 116.0 107.1 Gain 15.6 35.4 21.8 Pre 72.4 81.8 TisyS Form Constancy Post 99.4 120.0 105.8 Gain 20 38.2 30.2 Pre 85.8 88.4 86.6 Position in Space Post 96.3 114.0 101.8 Gain 10.5 25.6 heed Pre 91.4 92.4 91.4 Spatial Relations Post 103.4 114.0 106.7 Gain 12.0 216 15.0 Pre 105.0 110.4 106.7 Full Scale 1.Q. Post 123.0 120.2 oe Gain 18.0 9.8 15.4 responses of the two sex groups as shown in Table 8 are not always similar. It will be noted that the post-remedial scores are com- parable. Nevertheless, improvement was striking. Among the younger children, scores above chronological age were often at- tained. Table 9 considers the same data by dividing the Frostig age equivalent by the chronological age of those children that were less than 10 years of age at the time the testing started. The Full Scale [.Q. is shown at the bottom of the table to show comparative change. The girls show a much greater gain than do the boys, and the gain for the girls is out of proportion to the gain in I.Q. In fact, the gain in the Frostig was greater than for Full Scale 1.Q. The gain on individual Frostig sub-test scores for the boys was erratic and was both below and above the gain on Full Scale I.Q. Girls, however, showed greater improvement on all Frostig sub-tests. The GriFFiTHs: Dyslexia 1 largest gain was registered for both boys and girls on Form Con- stancy on which they had been the lowest at the beginning of re- mediation. Because of the small number of children, no signifi- cance should be drawn from these data for an individual sub-test, but it is significant that with the techniques used, the visual per- ceptual gain so far as measured by the Frostig test was consider- able, and was in excess of that found with I.Q. as measured by the WISC, or reading ability as measured by the Gilmore. It is, perhaps, of importance to note that on the WISC scale scores, the sub-test for Object Assembly showed a greater average increase for all children than for any other sub-test. Similarly, for the Frostig test, the greatest gain was on Form Constancy, a sub- test that in many respects is comparable to the WISC Object As- sembly. It would appear that something had taken place to ma- terially improve this aspect of a child’s visual perceptual ability. Some of the children in this series were seen for a period of time following the initial three months of remediation, and certain ob- servations concerning them are in order. One boy who was 11 years old at the time testing began had an initial I.Q. of 79, and increased only to 88 with mild improvement in reading ability. Three months were simply not enough in the case of this child, because in the months that followed, the improvement increased at a very rapid rate. It was as though a sudden break-through had occurred in the child’s comprehension. In some other instances when remedial work was discontinued the child appeared to suffer some relapse over the course of the next few months. This appears at this time to occur most often in older children. Some children will probably require continuing or periodic remediation work, whereas others may not. Certainly the age of the child before beginning remedial work, the intensity of his visual perceptual difficulties, and the state of his self-concept appear to be major factors in the rapidity of re- sponse to treatment and the final successful termination of that re- sponse. It is obvious from this study that it varies markedly from child to child. It is anticipated that with sufficient knowledge, some prognosis on the child might well be possible, but in the pres- ent status of understanding about this complex of problems, there seems little chance to be sure exactly what should be done and how long it will take. However, the present study clearly indicates that all of the children in this study responded in terms of their visual 16 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES perceptive abilities as measured by the Frostig test, in their Accu- racy and Comprehension in reading and in their general Intelli- gence Quotient. This was true regardless of the status of the child at the beginning of remedial work. It was true without exception as these children represent all those who began and continued re- medial activities for as long as ten weeks under the author's direc- tion. No failures were encountered, and the result would be strongly indicative that none of these children were suffering from brain damage, but were strictly the victims of visual perceptual difficul- ties. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Of 32 children who entered a private clinic because of reading difficulties usually associated with behavioral problems, 21 boys and seven girls undertook and completed a three month period of re- -medial treatment. These children tended to have a high variability among sub-tests on the WISC, a high Comprehension scale score as compared with both information and Arithmetic, and a higher Verbal than Performance I.Q. Age equivalent scores were well below chronological age on most individual Frostig sub-tests. Read- ing levels as judged by the Gilmore Oral Reading Test were well below suggested 1.Q. capabilities. Seventy-five per cent of the children demonstrated mixed laterality and approximately 85 per cent were or had been hyperactive. Statistical analysis indicated significant improvement in reading ability, visual perception, and I.Q. Improvement in arithmetic was not obtained. The study is suggestive that children with visual perceptual problems accompanied by reading difficulties can be helped with one-to-one sessions which include individualized techniques related to each childs specific problem areas. Improvement in self concept is important to improvement in reading ability and behavior pat- tern. LITERATURE CITED BENTON, C. D., jr. 1968. Dyslexia and the private practitioner. Jour. Florida Med. Assoc., vol. 55, ne. 10, pp. 898-902. Kuine, C. L. 1968. Carolyn L. Kline, M. Ashbrenner, and S. Palkins. The Treatment of specific dyslexia in a community mental health center. Jour. Learn. Disabilities, vol. 1, no. 8, pp. 456-466. GriFFiTus: Dyslexia rire PANNBACKER, Mary. 1968. A speech pathologist looks at learning disabilities. Jour. Learn. Disabilities, vol. 1, no. 7, pp. 403-409. REINMUTH, O. M. 1969. Dyslexia: some thoughts of an interested physician. Jour. Florida Med. Assoc., vol. 56, no. 3, pp. 200-204. ; SABATINO, D. A. 1968. The information processing behaviors associated with learning disabilities. Jour. Learn. Disabilities, vol. 1, no. 8, pp. 440-450. WECHSLER, D. 1949. Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children. The Psy- chological Corp., New York, New York. Box 230, Lakeland, Florida 33801. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 33(1) 1970 New Host Records of Capillaria hepatica in Florida James N. Layne THE parasitic nematode Capillaria hepatica (Bancroft, 1893), a member of the family Trichiuridae, typically occurs in the adult stage in the liver of mammals. It has previously been recorded in Florida from the cotton rat, Sigmodon hispidus; cotton mouse, Pero- myscus gossypinus; and Florida mouse, Peromyscus floridanus (Layne and Griffo, 1961; Layne, 1968). This paper reports the occurrence of this parasite in two additional Florida mammals, the cottontail rabbit (Sylvilagus floridanus ) and roof rat ( Rattus rattus ) and gives information on its incidence in different hosts and habi- tats on the Archbold Biological Station in southern Florida. Capillaria hepatica has previously been recorded from Sylvilagus floridanus in Oklahoma by Ward (1934), but there appears to be no well substantiated earlier record of Rattus rattus as a host in the United States. Hall (1916) listed Rattus rattus as one of the hosts of C. hepatica but did not distinguish between this species and Rattus norvegicus in the U.S. records cited. One (5.8 per cent) of 17 Sylvilagus floridanus examined from various localities and habitats in Polk and Highlands Counties was infected with C. hepatica. This specimen was collected on 14 July 1969 in scrubby flatwoods habitat 12 miles S of Lake Placid, High- lands Co. Only a few scattered lesions were visible in the liver. No C. hepatica infections were recorded in 12 cottontails examined from four habitat types in an earlier study (Layne, 1968), and it ap- pears that this is not a common parasite of rabbits in this state. Ward (1934) did not give data on prevalence of C. hepatica in cottontails in Oklahoma. All infections in Rattus rattus were recorded from the Archbold Biological Station located in Highlands Co., 8 miles S of Lake Placid. Approximately 600 specimens of 16 species of mammals col- lected on the 1050-acre area of the Station have been examined for C. hepatica infections. The general habitat types that have been sampled are described below. Main grounds. A park-like area of lawns, clumps of shrubbery, scattered trees, and buildings and also including a nearby poultry yard and small vegetable garden. Cultivated. An areg of approximately 11 acres containing citrus LAyYNE: Hosts of Liver Nematode 19 and other fruit trees; ornamental trees and shrubs; vegetable gar- dens; pineapple patches; weedy, fallow areas; and brushpiles. Slash pine-turkey oak woodland. A relatively xeric habitat with large, rather widely spaced southern slash pine (Pinus elliottii densa) and a shrubby understory of turkey oaks (Quercus laevis ) and other species. Grasses, chiefly wire grass (Aristida), and forbs are comparatively common. The soil is sandy and well drained. Sand pine scrub. Mature stands of sand pine (P. clausa) rang- ing from a nearly closed to widely open canopy with a dense shrub layer of various oaks and other species and sparse herbaceous ground cover. The litter layer is generally well developed; the soil is sandy and well drained. Scrubby flatwoods. Scattered southern slash pines with a dense shrub layer of many of the same species found in the previous asso- ciation. The soils of sand pine scrub and scrubby flatwoods are generally similar as well. Low flatwoods. This habitat is moister than the three preceding ones as a result of denser vegetation and more poorly drained soil. The dominant tree is southern slash pine, which often occurs in fairly dense stands with a thick understory of shrubs and palmetto. In other cases the shrubs and palmettos are few and widely dis- persed, and there is a dense ground cover of grasses. Bayhead. A low area of southern slash pine, loblolly bay (Gor- donia lasianthus), sweetbay (Magnolia virginiana), and red bay (Persea borbonia) with an abundance of shrubs, ferns, forbs, and vines. The soil is rich in organic matter and poorly drained. This is the moistest environment of the series. Nine (8.2 per cent) of 109 Rattus examined had grossly visible C. hepatica infections. Incidence of infections in different habitat types are given in Table 1. Infections of eight specimens were rated as to severity on the basis of criteria described by Layne (1968). Seven individuals had light infections and one a moder- ate infection. This suggests that Rattus rattus does not ordinarily become heavily infected with Capillaria hepatica, which agrees with findings for R. norvegicus (Herman, 1939; Luttermoser, 1936). Comparative data on Capillaria infections in other species of mammals collected from the Archbold Station are also given in Table 1. Overall prevalence in each of these species is as follows: cotton rat (Sigmodon hispidus), 3.7 per cent; cotton mouse (Pero- myscus gossypinus ), 2.8 per cent; Florida mouse (Peromyscus flori- QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 20 mal i 6G VST G el UMOU UL) () 0 T proyArg We I ET SpooM}eyE MOT 0 0 e spoomjzeyy Aqqniog () 0 Ve 0'09 € G qnios ourd pues vo 0 0 y) 0'0S Il @ AoyIn}-ould Yseyis 8 G VG ge II 9G pean ) 0) 8t ce G 09 spunois ule “jul ‘yur = “uexo ‘yur ‘yur = “uIexo qeUqe yy 0/0 ‘ON ‘ON 0/0 ‘ON ‘ON 0 0 LE 6 69 86 cv 0 0 Vv 6 89 cI 6G 69 G 6G G09 €6 8E ov I €6 0 0 G 0 0 Gl ‘yur ‘yur = “UIexo ‘yur ‘yur = “utexo 0/0 ‘ON ‘ON 0/0 ‘ON ‘ON snuppiwoyf snuidfsso3 snoshwolad snoshwuolad snpidsiy wopowsis SsnyDoe snqqvoy ‘eploy,y “AyuNOD spuryysipy ‘UOIWVIS [VOISO[OIG Ploqyory oY} UO szePIGvy snoLtvA Ur s}UOpOL Jo sofoods AMO;F UL SuUOMOOJUT DOYDdaY DIUD]Ldy|D Jo ooUDpIOUT T Wav LAYNE: Hosts of Liver Nematode 21 danus ), 62.8 per cent. Two of three Sigmodon in which degree of infection was noted had light infections, and the third animal had a moderate infection. All infections recorded in P. gossypinus were classified as light. In contrast, of a total of 64 infections rated as to severity in P. floridanus, 12 were light; 34 moderate; and 18, heavy. The occurrence of Capillaria hepatica in small mammals on the Archbold Station shows a strong association with relatively xeric scrub-like vegetation types (Table 1). This correlation has been previously noted in Florida by Layne and Griffo (1961) and Layne (1968). P. floridanus, which is closely confined to the slash pine-turkey oak, sand pine scrub, and scrubby flatwoods habitats, exhibits both the highest incidence and greatest intensity of infec- tions. In contrast, the lower prevalence and severity of infections in the other three host species is associated with their broader eco- logical distribution on the Station. The restriction of the parasite to drier vegetative types on the Station may be even greater than the data indicate. Live trapping studies have shown that both Rattus and P. gossypinus are more mobile than P. floridanus and often move considerable distances from one habitat type to another. Thus, some of the infections found in these species in the non-typical hab- itats might actually have been acquired in the slash pine-turkey oak, scrub, or scrubby flatwoods associations. It is further possible that C. hepatica is not self maintaining in the less xeric habitats of the Station and that its occurrence and prevalence in these environ- ments depends entirely upon movements of animals from the drier habitats. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This work was supported in part by National Science Founda- tion Undergraduate Research Participation Grant GY 4349 to the American Museum of Natural History. Participants aiding in the study were James R. Koschmann, Peter J. Cone, Sara Hoyt, James T. Selman, Susan C. White and Robert E. Fiehweg. I also wish to thank Chet E. Winegarner for valuable assistance and Dr. Lawrence R. Penner for aid in some of the identifications. LITERATURE CITED Hatt, M. C. 1916. Nematode parasites of mammals of the orders Rodentia, Lagomorpha and Hyracoidea. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., vol. 50, pp. 1-258. 22 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES HERMAN, C. M. 1939. A parasitological survey of wild rats in the New York Zoological Park. Zoologica, vol. 24, pp. 305-308. LAyYNE, J. N. 1968. Host and ecological relationships of the parasitic hel- minth Capillaria hepatica in Florida mammals. Zoologica, vol. 53, pp. 107-122. , AND J. V. Grirro, Jr. 1961. Incidence of Capillaria hepatica in popu- lations of the Florida deer mouse, Peromyscus floridanus. Jour. Parasit., vol. 47, pp. 31-37. LUTTERMOSER, G. W. 1936. A helminthological survey of Baltimore house rats (Rattus norvegicus). Amer. Jour. Hyg., vol. 24, pp. 350-360. Warp, J. W. 1934. Fig. 1. Study area in the southwestern Caribbean Sea more stations. of trawl stations during R/V Oregon Cruise 78. Each dot represents one or showing positions 46 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES also generally untrawlable. Along the northern edge of the shelf, the upper Continental Slope has temperature gradients of 3-18C; the distance between the 75- and 500-fathom isobaths ranges from 3.2-2.2 km. A large bank about 56 km long and several small banks, all less than 20 fathoms deep, are connected to the northeastern corner of the shelf by depths of 100-150 fathoms. A 16- to 24-km wide channel with depths of 250 to 400 fathoms separates the large bank from Rosalind Bank to the northeast. Northwest of the chan- nel between the Continental Shelf and Rosalind Bank there is a broad, flat area, seemingly a submarine alluvial fan, of about 100 square km at a fairly consistent depth of 150 fathoms. South of Rosalind Bank the Continental Slope is broad all the - way to about 12° north latitude. The horizontal distances between the 100- and 1,000-fathom isobaths range from 105-39 km, with an average of about 76 km. Within these limits are several large banks and small islands. Serranilla Bank (16°N, 80°W) and Quita Sueno Bank (14°30’N, 81°W) are separated from the shelf by depths less than 500 fathoms. The other major structures, Serrana and Roncador Banks and Old Providence and St. Andrews Islands, are separated from the shelf by depths of 800 fathoms or more. The distance of the 500-fathom isobath from the shelf edge is 63 km at the northern end (15°N), 21 km at 13°30’ north latitude, 51 km at 13° north latitude, and about 13 km off Bluefields, Nicaragua at 12° north latitude. Between 15°N and 12°30’ north latitude the slope gradient is very gentle, ranging from less than 1° to about 4°. The bottom there consists of gray and white mud. The sampling and sounding transects run by the R/V Oregon indicate that this area offers several thousand square km of good trawling bottom. South of 12°30’ north latitude the slope is steep and rough, with numerous precipitous faces and gullies to depths of at least 500 fathoms. The bottom is calcareous. The Continental Shelf in the Golfo de los Mosquitos is narrow, averaging 8-16 km wide, and has a topography and bottom inverte- brate fauna similar to the shelf off eastern Nicaragua. The upper slope has a moderate smooth gradient, as off most of Nicaragua, and, in general, no trawling difficulties were encountered. "TEMPERATURES The western boundary current is the dominant hydrographic feature in the West Indian region. This system is composed of ex- BuULLIs AND STRUHSAKER: Caribbean Fishes AT tensions of the equatorial currents that enter the eastern Caribbean Sea over the Antilles Ridge. The strong, mixed Caribbean current passes through Cayman Sea and the Yucatan Channel, turns easterly and then flows through the Straits of Florida with in- creased velocity, emerging as the Florida Current. This current follows the southeastern coast of the United States to Cape Hat- teras where it leaves the coast, and, with the union of the Antilles Current, it becomes the Gulf Stream. Along the edges of this system numerous eddies develop, especially in the southwestern Caribbean and Cayman Seas and between Jamaica and Cuba. There are also several large, apparently semi-permanent, eddies in the Gulf of Mexico (Sverdrup, Johnson, and Fleming, 1942). This warm, northerly flowing current has a profound influence on the Continental Shelf fauna of the region and accounts for the northerly extension of established populations of tropical animals into the Gulf of Mexico and to Cape Hatteras at 35°20’ north lati- tude (Ekman, 1953, p. 46; Cerame-Vivas and Gray, 1966; Struh- saker, In Press). As Cerame-Vivas and Gray point out, these warm, western boundary currents result in the characteristic “trumpet shape faunal distributions of the tropical regions of the world ocean. ; In a different manner, the western boundary current greatly in- fluences the West Indian upper-slope fauna. Because of the den- sity relations within a stratified fluid in motion in the Northern Hemisphere (when looking at a cross-section of the current in the direction it is flowing) the lighter (warmer) water lies to the right of the current and the denser (colder) water lies to the left. This results in a strong horizontal temperature gradient maintained by a cross circulation that advects warm water on the right side of the current, while cold, deep water is brought near the surface on the left side of the current (Dietrich, 1963, p. 535). Thus, the upper slopes of the continental Western Hemisphere have temperatures of 8-12 C at depths of 220 fathoms, whereas temperatures of 14-17C are found at the same depth over the upper slopes of the Bahamas, Greater Antilles, and much of the Lesser Antilles (see Chart V of Sverdrup, Johnson, and Fleming, 1942). Struhsaker (In Press) has pointed out that this results in two natural divisions of the upper- slope environment in the tropical western North Atlantic, which may be termed the Continental Slopes and the Insular Slopes. Ex- ploratory trawling surveys have shown striking differences between 48 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES the faunal composition of the two divisions at similar depths. That species common to both divisions occur much deeper over the In- sular Slopes is also readily apparent. This effect seems to be ex- ceptionally well demonstrated in the Straits of Florida where the two major divisions of slope faunas of the region occur on opposite sides of the Straits, only about 65 km apart. We hope this paper will provide some basis for the eventual detailed analyses and com- parisons of the two faunal divisions. Normally, bottom temperatures at the 100-fathom isobath of the Continental slopes (hereafter distinguished from the Insular slopes ) range between 15-21 C, whereas at 200 fathoms temperatures are from 8-12 C. Eighteen bottom temperatures were obtained during the survey with an experimental minimum temperature recording device that was previously calibrated with a protected thermom- eter. The results are shown in Fig. 2 along with data on indicated bottom temperatures in the study area from Parr (1937). The re- sulting bottom temperature profile for the study area agrees well with the temperatures presented by Fuglister (1960) and Stewart (1962) for this region. Because of the temperature gradients in the western boundary current as mentioned above, the deep permanent thermocline layer (PTL) of the western North Atlantic, is centered at about 200 fathoms here (Struhsaker, In Press). As Fig. 2 shows, the PTL (between about 19-7C) encompasses most of the upper Continental Slope zone in the study area. Although the upper-slope bottom temperatures are below the depth of seasonal influences, Struhsaker (In Press ) presented evidence that internal waves in the PTL could effect short-period temperature changes of at least 3 C. He also hypothesized that these temperature changes might effect local changes in the depth distribution of some of the more mobile in- habitants of the upper slopes. METHODS The sampling gears used in this study were 12.2 m flat and semi- balloon shrimp trawls (Bullis, 1951). The netting was 5 cm stretched mesh (#18 thread cotton) in the trawl bodies and 4 cm stretched mesh (+42 thread cotton) in the codends. These trawls cover a path 6.7-7.3m wide under usual conditions when spread with 1.8 m trawl doors. Using a single float, the trawl has a verti- cal opening of about 1.5 m. The footrope rides very lightly on the BULLIS AND STRUHSAKER: Caribbean Fishes 49 o Bottom temperatures ~ C 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 100 @® Nicaraqua a GU) May- 1962 O Panama ) “youre ‘| wo Z ° @ Costa Rica 7 200 — Oo O Panama ) from pare 19 A. O Oo 300 a +200 @ 0 . . & 400 a“ QO of 0 = Q Oo K 88) C & 600 = QO 70044 + 400 e o 6 800 900 -§ 500 7 Fig. 2. Bottom temperature profile for Continental Slope depths in the southwestern Caribbean Sea. 50 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES bottom and a “tickler chain” attached to the bottom rear corner of each door rides about .6-.9 m in front of the footrope and incites the more active benthos to swim or jump off the bottom into the path of the trawl. Because of the number of variables involved, quantitative data on animal populations sampled with shrimp trawls can be devel- oped only in very general terms. Sampling periods of 1, 2, 3, and 4 hours were attempted, but frequently they were interrupted be- cause trawling hazards appeared on the depth sounder-recorders. Navigation was by celestial means and loran fixes except in a few cases of radar positioning. We attempted to maintain a constant speed of 2 to 3 knots (1.0-1.4 m/second) but current conditions may have varied the range of speeds as much as +2 knots (1 m/second ) in some areas. Quantifying these data is further complicated be- cause shrimp trawls capture only a portion of the animals in their paths. For example, recent motion picture analyses (unpublished ) of shrimp trawl performance by the Bureau of Commercial Fisher- ies Gear Research Unit, Pascagoula, Mississippi, show that escape- ment of royal-red shrimp (Hymenopenaeus robustus) might be as high as 90 per cent of all shrimp encountered by the trawl. Despite these difficulties, some attempt must be made to quan- _tify and interpret these observations on the upper-slope fauna to provide bases for more detailed and sophisticated investigations. Until more efficient sampling gears are devised, we feel that analy- sis of a large number of shrimp trawl samples will provide some of these bases. Because of the known inefficiency of the trawls, all biomass and numerical density figures given in this paper should be considered minimal. To determine the area sampled in each depth range, we assumed an average on-bottom trawl speed of 2.5 knots (1.2 m/second) and average net opening of 7 m, which resulted in a sampling rate of 3.2 hectares per hour. The amount and distribution of sampling effort and the num- bers and weights of fishes taken are shown in Table 1. Fifty-fathom depth intervals were selected as the most practical because of sampling distribution. The number of stations in each 50-fathom depth range varied from 1-9, whereas the number of hectares sampled varied from 9.6-60.8. The 44 trawling stations represent a total of 79.6 hours of on-bottom sampling time during which about 29,700 fishes were captured. At each station the fishes and the crustaceans were sorted from the catch and counted. Lengths and Caribbean Fishes 5l BULLIS AND STRUHSAKER: LT OT VS SV O'S V8 8G 69 SL LG 6 cv OST VOT SIV OSS SIG OST 601 9G CG GE 6 0L V88 c'06I OVO LStt 6 6 VLI GG GGV 9LIG 8st ISv6 96L6 LOBE LOST 8 8 ST VS 68 IV LS 98 I& 0°91 96 TST L0& 806 9'6V 8°09 6S 6 61 G I G v 6 6 8 6 9 00S OSV OOF OSS 008 OSG 006 OST OOT Si 10V TSé 108 ISG 106 Let TOL gL T WTaVi vory Apnyg ey} ur yydoq Aq” Sseulolg pue A}IsuEq ‘Uexe} YSTy JO spunog ‘uae Ysty JO Joquiny ‘soyrueg jo roqunyy 10;7q SuTduies jo uolngiysiq a1¥zoY /*S3y JO ‘OU O8¥I0AYV Uuoexe} YSy Jo ‘s3y JO ‘OU [e}0], pojdures o1rejooy /Ysy JO ‘ou osei0Ay usye} Ys jO ‘OU [PO], Udye} SoTpUey jO ‘OU ][¥}0], pe[dues Soivyooy ‘OU [e}0 J, SUOT}}S ‘OU [P30], (sumoy}eF) osue1 yydoq 52 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES weights were recorded for most species of the readily identifiable fishes. Measurements were made using measuring boards with 0.5 cm units. Extensive zoological collections were made during the survey, most of which are in the collections of the U. S. National Museum and the Bureau’s Tropical Atlantic Biological Laboratory, Miami, Florida. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Composition, Abundance, and Distribution. Any attempt to report on a large portion of the slope fauna of the western Atlantic south of 35° north latitude is complicated by the limited taxonomic knowledge of many important groups of animals and lack of identi- fication keys suitable for field use. An extreme example of the un- known nature of the fish fauna in the study area is represented by the Scyliorhinidae (See Appendix I). This family was represented by four forms; Galeus arae, a new species of Galeus, a new species of Scyliorhinus, and an undescribed genus and species. Springer (1965) has since described these forms (See Appendix I). Of three species of chimaeras present, only one, Hydrolagus alberti, has been recorded as a member of the western Atlantic fauna. A second species of Hydrolagus probably represents what has been considered an endemic of the northwestern Atlantic, and the third an undescribed species of Neoharriotta (Bullis and Carpenter, 1966), previously considered a monotypic genus in the eastern At- lantic. Other groups that presented identification problems were the families Congridae, Brotulidae, Gadidae, and Ophidiidae, and the peristediid genus Peristedion. The benthic fishes taken during the survey represent 60 families and an estimated 140 species; however, in the field only about 73 were identified to species, 21 to genera and the remainder to family. All of the batoid fishes were preserved and later identified by William C. Schroeder, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute. These field and laboratory identifications resulted in a total of 127 species and species groups of demersal fishes, which are listed in Appendix I. We should state here that we consider all fishes listed to pri- marily occupy the demersal habitat as adults. Thompson (1963) considers the bathyalbenthic bottom community to be a richly pop- ulated ecotonal belt, which grades into the pelagic layers above BULLIS AND STRUHSAKER: Caribbean Fishes 53 and the benthic layers below. The belt is inhabited not only by endemic species, but also occasionally by truly benthic or pelagic animals. Fish inhabitants of this belt are easy to capture in our bottom trawls; therefore, we consider demersal fish species to be not only those that rest upon or burrow in the bottom but also those that are free-swimming but still closely associated with the bottom. In general composition, some 75 per cent of the identifiable spe- cies taken in the study area are widely distributed at similar depths along the Continental Slopes of the tropical western Atlantic region. About 18 per cent of the species appear to be approaching the southern limit of their geographic range; 3 per cent are nearing the northward limit; and the remaining 4 per cent are known only from the southwestern Caribbean. Therefore, 93 per cent of the western Caribbean species are found in the Gulf of Mexico and along the southeastern coast of the United States, whereas only 78 per cent are known from the southeastern Caribbean and off northeastern South America (as derived from available literature sources and ex- tensive unpublished distribution data at the Exploratory Fishing and Gear Research Base, Pascagoula, Mississippi). The depth distribution and numerical abundance of each family and species group is given in Appendix I. The relative abundance of each family and the bottom temperatures in each 50-fathom depth zone are shown in Figs. 3a and 3b. Families that were pres- ent, but comprised less than 1 per cent of all the fishes taken, are shown as a straight line, whereas the dashed line indicates that the family was not represented in that depth range. Fifteen families were numerically dominant in the study area. Seven of these achieved dominance by the abundance of single species: Caproidae—Antigonia combatia; Polymixiidae—Polymixia lowei; Triglidae—Bellator egretta; Zeidae—Zenion hololepis; Grammicolepidae—Xenolepidichthys dahlgleshi; Neoscopelidae- Neoscopelus macrolepidotus; and Chaunacidae—Chaunax pictus. The remaining eight families achieved their dominant status by the occurrence of from 2-14 species. Upon leaving the shelf, 26 per cent of the families represented in 75-100 fathoms are lost. At 150 fathoms 39 per cent have been lost; 49 per cent at 200 fathoms; 59 per cent at 250 fathoms; and at 300 fathoms 88 per cent have disappeared. Of the remaining four families, one drops out at 400 fathoms, one at 450, and two persist to the limits of the study depths. However, of 31 families found 54 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES on the outer shelf (75-100 fathoms), six (Apogonidae, Scorpaeni- dae, Ogcocephalidae, Brotulidae, Ophidiidae, and Congridae) are composed of diverse species that represent their respective families over a wide bathymetric range, and six additional families (Caproi- DEPTH - FATHOMS 75 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 MURAENIDAE is FISTULARIIDAE PRIACANTHIDAE BRANCHIOSTEGIDAE MULLIDAE LABRIDAE CYNOGLOSSIDAE TETRAODONTIDAE HOLOCENTRIDAE SERRANIDAE LUTJANIDAE — SS - BAT RACHOIDIDAE SYNODONTIDAE URANOSCOPIDAE TRIGLIDAE ARGENTINIDAE CAPROIDAE BOTHIDAE GADIDAE POLYMY XIIDAE TRACHICHTHYIDAE APOGONIDAE PERCOPHIDIDAE SCORPAENIDAE OPHIDIIDAE ee TRIACANTHODIDAE |} mmm LOPHIIDAE — GEMPYLIDAE OGCOCEPHALIDAE CONGRIDAE BROTULIDAE TRICHIURIDAE STROMATEIDAE PLEURONECTIDAE TEMPERATURE °C 20 15 — 10 9 8 7 6 Fig. 3a. Relative abundance of families on the Upper Continental Slope of the southwestern Caribbean Sea as percentage of total fishes sampled from each depth range. BULLIS AND STRUHSAKER: Caribbean Fishes 55 dae, Triacanthodidae, Percophididae, Polymixiidae, Trachichthyi- dae, and Gempylidae) are shallow-water extensions of families that may be considered as typical inhabitants of the upper Conti- nental Slope. DEPTH - FATHOMS 75 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 SQUALIDAE CHIMAERIDAE ZEIDAE CALLIONYMIDAE - SCYLIORHINIDAE MERLUCIIDAE PERISTEDIIDAE CHAUNACIDAE RAJIDAE MAC ROURIDAE MY XINIDAE PSEUDORAJIDAE SUDIDAE GRAMMICOLEPIDAE ATELIOPIDAE BATHYCLUPEIDAE TORPEDINIDAE BREGMACEROTIDAE SCIAENIDAE DIRETMIDAE ANACANTHOBATIDAE HALOSAURIDAE NEOSCOPELIDAE BATHYPTEROIDAE NOTACANTHIDAE ALEPOCEPHALIDAE SYNAPHOBRANCHIDAE TEMPERATURE °C Fig. 3b. Relative abundance of families on the Upper Continental Slope of the southwestern Caribbean Sea as percentage of total fishes sampled from each depth range. 56 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Within the 101- to 150-fathom range, we first find many families that might be considered as typical inhabitants of the upper Con- tinental Slope in the Caribbean region. Nineteen families (Caproi- dae, Triacanthodidae, Percophididae, Polymixiidae, Anacanthobati- dae, Pseudorajidae, Merluciidae, Callionymidae, Scyliorhinidae, Peristediidae, Zeidae, Chaunacidae, Sudidae, Chlorophthalmidae, Myxinidae, Bathyclupeidae, Ateleopidae, Chimaeridae, and Neo- scopelidae) were taken in the study area. The four numerically dominant families in numbers of individual fish are the Caproidae, Polymixiidae, Serranidae, and Triglidae, respectively. The last two families are typical shelf inhabitants, with some members (i.e., Serranus phoebe, Bellator sp.) extending slightly beyond the edge of the Continental Shelf. In the 151- to 200-fathom range the numerically dominant fami- lies are all typically upper-slope groups. Four families make up 83 per cent of the total number of fish taken in these depths: Zeidae (32 per cent), Apogonidae (18 per cent), Caproidae (17 per cent), and Polymixiidae (16 per cent). The typical shelf fami- lies decrease in number rapidly. The zeids are still the dominant family in the 201- to 250-fathom range and comprise 39 per cent of the total number of fishes taken in these depths. In abundance, they are followed by the Sudidae, Macrouridae, and Polymixiidae. This marks the first appearance of sudids and macrourids in any numbers. The Caproidae is poorly represented in this depth range, decreasing rapidly in abundance after being the dominant family in 101-150 fathoms. The Macrouridae comprise 26 per cent of the fish sampled in the 251- to 300-fathom depth range and assume dominance. Large numbers of grammicolepids are present only in this depth range. The Sudidae remain numerically important and are followed by the first appearance of the Neoscopelidae. The Neoscopelidae assume dominance (27 per cent) in the 301- to 350-fathom depth range and are followed by the macrourids (18 per cent). Most of the remaining fish caught are more or less uniformly distributed among eight families, six of which were typi- cally upper-slope forms. Beyond 300 fathoms the upper-slope fami- lies are numerically less important. The Neoscopelidae and Macrouridae are still the dominant fam- ilies (28 per cent) each in the 351- to 400-fathom depth range, BULLIS AND STRUHSAKER: Caribbean Fishes 57 closely followed by the Brotulidae (24 per cent), which makes its first appearance as a numerically important family. The upper- slope families are virtually unrepresented in this depth range where, along with the brotulids, there is the introduction of the Halosauri- dae, Congridae, and Bathypteroidae as numerically important groups. In 401-450 fathoms the alepocephalids and brotulids are domi- nant and, collectively, account for 48 per cent of the fish taken in this depth. Further net “loss” of families in this depth range re- duces the total number of families to eight; however, only one sta- tion was occupied in that depth range. Eight families are present in the 451- to 500-fathom depth range, of which the macrourids are overwhelmingly dominant (68 per cent). The remaining seven families are either typically abyssal or are those with wide bathymetric distributions. Distribution Pattern. The general pattern that emerges from these abundance and distribution data is typical of most animal ag- gregations. Although many groups are present in an area, the total faunal composition is dominated by only a few taxa. In passing from one depth zone to another, these dominant taxa arise, gain dominance in a particular zone, and then gradually lose importance and disappear. Although records were not kept on the weights of the species and species groups taken at each station, examination of the numerical density data in conjunction with known weight ranges for each group indicates that when a family is among the numerically dominant in a particular depth range, it is usually one of the dominant groups with regard to biomass. Although there is, in general, a gradual replacement of one dom- inant group by another from zone to zone, the data of Fig. 3 seem to show two major trends. The first is the disappearance and ap- pearance of many families between 75 and 100 fathoms. The sec- ond is the apparent major loss of families in depths greater than 300 fathoms. This effect is further illustrated in Fig. 4 where the total number of families taken in each depth range is given along with the number of families “gained” and “lost” in each depth range when progressing from lesser to greater depths. The net change for each depth range is shown at the top of its column. The total] number of families gradually increases from the shelf edge to a high in the 201- to 250-fathom depth range. The number gradu- 58 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES +3 40 30 ~” © = Total Present <¢ 20 0 i. 0 wee 10 ® = yo Eee 2 ne igen ime a B15 SH = Gained... : 0 10 20 75 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 Fathoms Fig. 4. Total number of families present in each depth range and the number of families “gained” and “lost” in each depth range when progressing from lesser to greater depths. Net change for each 50-fathom interval shown at top of histogram. ally diminishes in the next two depth ranges, but is suddenly re- duced between 351-400 fathoms and 401-450 fathoms. This pattern is interpreted as follows: upon leaving the shelf, © the familial composition of the ichthyofauna undergoes a major BULLIS AND STRUHSAKER: Caribbean Fishes 59 TABLE 2 Estimated Minimum Standing Crop for the Indicated Depth Ranges within the Study Area Depth range in fathoms Kilograms/hectare Other Fish Crustaceans Invertebrates Total 75-100 7.8 0.9 3. 10.9 101-150 6.2 0.3 45 11.0 151-200 5.8 2 2.0 9.0 201-250 8.4 20 ioe 12.8 251-300 5.0 0.9 1.3 2 301-350 4.9 1.3 M5) Ua 351-400 3.5 2.4 0.4 6.3 401-450 1.0 0.0 0.4 1.4 451-500 ligt 0.4 0.7 2.8 change, resulting in an overall gain in families from the outer shelf zone (75 to 100 fathoms). Conditions stabilize in the next few depth ranges: with the small exchange of families that occurs, there is a general increase in the total number of families present to 201-250 fathoms. In the next two depth ranges, however, only one new family is introduced, whereas eight are lost. The great re- duction of family numbers between 351 and 450 fathoms is due to the loss of 26 families with only two additions. The estimated minimal standing crop of fishes within the study area is given in Table 2. The total biomass generally decreases upon leaving the Shelf edge but increases to a peak in the 201- to 250-fathom depth range. Beyond these depths the biomass de- creases with depth. Whereas the estimated biomass of fishes fol- lows this pattern, the echinoderms, sponges, and mollusks exhibit a generally decreasing biomass with increased depth. The crusta- ceans exhibit an increased “standing crop” in the 201- to 250-fathom and 351- to 400-fathom depth ranges. This is probably due par- tially to quantities of Hymenopenaeus robustus and Nephrops bing- hami in the 201- to 250-fathom range and Plesiopenaeus edwardsi- anus in the deeper depth range. Upper-Slope Association. On the basis of the above data, there appears to be an association of fishes that is characteristic of the upper Continental Slope. The upper limit of this fauna in the 75- 60 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 1111118! Typically Shelf wars Typically Upper Slope aim Typically Lower Slope Number of families 75 101 151 201 251 301 351 401 451 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 Depth range in fathoms Fig. 5. Numbers of families at descending depth levels considered repre- sentative of shelf, upper-slope, and lower-slope ichthyofauna. to 150-fathom depth range is an exchange area where typically shelf families are replaced by upper-slope families. The lower limit of upper-slope fauna is demarcated by the drastic reduction of total number of families present and replacement of upper-slope families with lower-slope families at depths greater than 350 fathoms. The shelf families are defined here as those that have greatest numerical density in depths between 75-100 fathoms. Upper-slope families are considered to be those that have the greatest density between 101-350 fathoms, and lower-slope families those greatest between 351-500 fathoms. The number of families in each category present in each depth range is shown in Fig. 5. As expected, the number of shelf families greatly diminishes beyond 100 fathoms and none are present in the 451- to 500-fathom depth BULLIS AND STRUHSAKER: Caribbean Fishes 61 range. The lower slope families exhibit a similar trend from greater to lesser depths, reaching a peak number between 201-250 fathoms. Although we have observed this enriched, distinctive upper- slope fauna in other areas of the tropical western North Atlantic, the data presented here represent the first quantitative analysis of this faunal association. In the western Caribbean, this association is distributed roughly between the 19 C isotherm (100 fathoms) and the 7 C isotherm (350 fathoms). These temperatures delimit the deep, permanent thermocline layer of the western North At- lantic region where it contacts the Continental Slope. There the fauna flourishes at depths of the 10 C isotherm (225 fathoms), di- minishing quantitatively and qualitatively above and below this depth over the slope. Schroeder (1955) reported the results of extensive trawling ex- plorations of the Continental Slope in the western North Atlantic between Delaware Bay and Nova Scotia! About 75 species of bottom fishes were taken at 259 trawling stations in depths of about 50-730 fathoms over a two-year period. Of those species listed for the New England slope, the following eight were also taken in the western Caribbean: Myvxine glutinosa, Argentina stri- ata, Parasudis truculentus, Merluccius albidus, Coelorhynchus car- minatus, Zenopsis ocellatus, and Urophycis regius (the last species was taken in the western Caribbean, but is not listed in Appendix I because detailed counts were not maintained for it). Schroeder (1955, p. 366) also presented estimates of the standing crop of slope fishes off New England. A comparison of Schroeder’s figures (converted to kg/ha) for that region and our values (Table 2) are as follows: 101-200 fathoms, 17.9 vs. 6.0; 201-300 fathoms, 48.1 vs. 6.7; 301-400 fathoms, 50.4 vs. 4.1; 401-500 fathoms, 36.9 vs. 1.3. These data would indicate that the standing crop of fishes on the slope region of the northwestern Atlantic to be about 3, 7, 13, and 28 times as great as in the Caribbean. These data, however, should be compared only in a very general manner because Schroeder's estimates are based on catches of 18.2 m trawls with 7.6 cm mesh webbing, whereas our estimates are based on catches of 12.2 m trawls with 5 cm mesh webbing. As Schroeder (1955, p. 364) points out, bottom trawl catches seem to increase exponentially with increased trawl size. It thus appears that the New England slope ichthyofauna is richer quantitatively, but poorer qualitatively than that of the western Caribbean, as would be expected. QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 62 ‘[BsIOp SI JO UISIIO 0} Nous Jo dy “Gs ‘YSU, YLOF “TY ‘Y}sUa] Plepurys “TS ‘YyisuUe] [eI0} “TT, (gg ) = = ip (P38 ) — = 88 (LIL ) = LOT SSI (S98 ) = LOI = (68FT) a =F LET (06 ) = = = (SSZ ) bP = 98 (SOF ) CL ras} gg (OL ) 9ZI —6 16 (OST ) = CIP G9s (FPS ) = GLE 1SG (PL ) = = OTT (LZ ) = 6S G9 (FOT ) = = 0ZG (PLG ) as CPI SFI (SLZT) O61 OST Cou (69 ) a = S6I (sg) SCI STI PSI (FF6 ) =a ai oa ( u ) 00F OSs 008 1S 108 1SG SL GOT 8ST SOT OSG 106 006 LESHTE yydeq Aq poinsvoyy soysty fo (WU) syysue'T 6 WIAaViL Icl OST 101 (IL) stdajojoy uowuaz, (TL) 2ysiaja)yop shy zyorpidajouax (TA) 27]2q sdossvulisg (TL) snqousnd sayounjas (TL) 1ano) pixrwhjog (TL) Ypnuyos vipinjoyvoiwg (CS) #pubsqappiy “N (AS) pug viunzan (TS) snzopidajosspW snjadoosoan (TLL) Snpiqjp snioonj 1a (TL) aviv snap» (TL) Snasou sisdoqhy (CIS) sngounuiws snyouhysojao) (TL) Snquajnony sipnsp.wg (TL) 1z1sspsp snwjoyzydo.1ojy) (TL) snqoid xpunoy) (TL) Saploigos sdoiquag (TA) 2Mojaz1q sto1azdhywg (TL) DuDquos piuosUYy sotoeds (sumoyzey) osuri yydoq Uva BuULLIS AND STRUHSAKER: Caribbean Fishes 63 Size and Depth. Extensive size-frequency data were taken for 19 species of fishes. They are summarized in Table 3 as mean sizes for each 50-fathom depth range. Species that were selected are readily identifiable and are a major component of the tropical western Atlantic upper-slope ichthyofauna. With a few notable exceptions, such as the peristidiids, ophidiids, brotulids, gadids, and congrids (most present identification problems now) these species represent a rather typical cross-section of the upper-slope ichthyo- fauna. Fifteen species (Chlorophthalmus agassizi, Parasudis truculen- tus, Neoscopelus macrolepidotus, Nezumia hildebrandi, N. bairdii, Coelorhynchus carminatus, Merluccius albidus, Cyttopsis roseus, Zenion hololepis, Antigonia combatia, Parahollardia schmidti, Poly- mixia lowei, Setarches guentheri, Synagrops bella, and Chaunax pictus) demonstrate an increased mean size with increased depth. All but Chaunax and Polymixia have a significant (at the 1 per cent level) linear correlation. A curvilinear relation for these two species is strongly indicated. The mean lengths of the four remaining species (Bathypterois bigelowi, Xenolepidichthys dahlgleishi, Bembrops gobioides, and Galeus arae) are nearly constant at all depths. A positive correla- tion between size and depth was found in Galeus arae. However, a complex distributional pattern in this species related to sexual ma- turity and depth grouping may bias the data toward this relation (Bullis, 1967). For the most part, each species reaches its greatest density somewhere toward the center of its depth range. Also, species showing a strong size-depth relationship tend to have greater bathy- metric ranges than species that do not demonstrate such a relation- ship. The direct relation between size and depth has been discussed in detail for Pleuronectes in the North Sea, where such differential distribution also varies inversely between size (age) and density (Graham, 1956). Size increase with depth has been shown for sey- eral western Atlantic Shelf species by Caldwell (1955, 1957, 1961). Explanatory Theories. In seeking an explanation for the above data, the modes of reproduction of the species involved were con- sidered. Teleostean species in which the young develop pelagi- cally characteristically spawn large numbers of eggs, whereas spe- cies in which the young develop in demersal habitats produce only 64 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES moderate to small numbers of eggs (Mead, Bertelsen, and Cohen, 1964). On the basis of these general types of development, the two following hypotheses are given to account for the size-depth rela- tions reported above. First, species that increase in mean size with increasing depth and decreasing temperatures, and have a broad bathymetric range, produce pelagic eggs and/or larvae. The young of these species are carried various distances along the coasts and may be swept in- shore over the Continental Shelves or offshore into oceanic areas. After developing to the pre-juvenile stage, they either descend gradually to some depth or undergo relatively small daily vertical migrations. The depths to which these individuals descend are limited by the temperature tolerances of that species at that partic- ular stage in its life history. Our hypothesis requires that these pelagic young do not descend deeper than the Continental Shelves or the upper end of the species’ demersal depth range on the upper slope. Individual pre-juveniles undergoing vertical movements over the shelf and upper slope eventually contact the bottom, but those carried to oceanic areas only descend to certain depths (de- pending upon the local temperature structure), never contact the bottom and are permanently lost to the primary population. The young of these species that find the bottom relatively quickly move to the habitat of their size and age group, which tends to be at lesser depths than the adults, because they are undergoing a tem- perature acclimation from the warm, epipelagic environment to the colder, demersal upper-slope environment. During development and maturation in this demersal habitat, young individuals gradu- ally descend to depths occupied by the reproducing segment of the population. A few individuals wander into even greater depths, where decreased temperatures may slow their growth rate but in- crease their longevity. These latter individuals are the largest, but least numerous members of the population. The second hypothesis is that species that change only slightly in mean size with depth, and usually occupy a more restricted bathic range, have demersal eggs and larvae or bear their young alive. The young of these species already inhabit the depths and temperatures occupied by the adult segment of the population. Thus, they do not undergo change from a warm, epipelagic exist- ence to a cold, benthonic existence, and become more restricted in BuLLIS AND STRUHSAKER: Caribbean Fishes 65 demersal depth ranges while dispersing over the entire bathic range of the population. Of the 15 species demonstrating a size-depth relation and for which we hypothesize pelagic young, nine are represented by pe- lagic larvae identifiable to the familial or generic level: Neoscope- lidae (implied); Chlorophthalmus; and Chaunax (Mead, et. al., 1964); Macrouridae (Marshall, 1965); Antigonia (Berry, 1959); and Merluccius (Bigelow and Schroeder, 1953). Four of the re- maining six species (Synagrops bella, Setarches guentheri, Cyttop- sis roseus, Zenion hololepis) are represented at the familial level by larval specimens taken in epipelagic plankton tows during in- vestigations off southeastern United States by the R/V Theodore N. Gill. The families of the two remaining species (Polymixia lowei and Parahollardia schmidti) have not been recognized in the Gill collections, but pelagic berycomorph and plectognath larvae are common (Jack Gehringer and Frederick H. Berry, Bureau of Com- mercial Fisheries, Biological Laboratory, Brunswick, Georgia, per- sonal communication ). Two of the four species with no size-depth correlation and for which we hypothesize demersal eggs or larvae, are thought to have benthonic young. We assume the scyliorhynid Galeus arae to be viviparous (Stewart Springer, personal communication ). The deep- sea iniomid fishes, which would include Bathypterois bigelowi under consideration here, produce a relatively small number of eggs that develop on or near the bottom (Mead, et al., 1964). The two remaining species, Xenolepidichthys dahlgleishi and Bembrops gobioides, may be considered as negative evidence supporting the above hypotheses since grammicolepid and percophidid eggs and larvae have not been recognized in the Gill epipelagic plankton collections (J. Gehringer and F. Berry, personal communication ). In the slope environment, size-depth relations appear influenced by two factors: vertical movements of population segments of spe- cies having planktonic eggs and larvae; and the physiological re- sponse of all populations to the direct relations of depth and tem- perature in slower growth, increased age, and greater maximum size with increased depth. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We wish to thank William C. Schroeder for identifying the 66 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES batoid fishes; Bruce B. Collette and William D. Anderson, Jr., for aiding in the field work; and Stewart Springer for information con- cerning shark specimens. Richard B. Roe and Luis R. Rivas con- tributed many helpful suggestions and comments on the manu- script. LITERATURE CITED Acassiz, A. 1888. Three cruises of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey Steamer “Blake” in the Gulf of Mexico, in the Caribbean Sea, and along the Atlantic Coast of the United States, from 1877 to 1880. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., Houghton, Mifflin and Company, Boston and New York, 534 pp. 2 vols. Berry, F. H. 1959. Boarfishes of the Genus Antigonia of the Western At- lantic. Bull. Florida State Mus., vol. 4, no. 7, pp. 205-250. BicELow, H. B., AND W. C. ScHROEDER. 1953. Fishes of the Gulf of Maine. U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service Fishery Bull. viiit-53, 577 pp. Buuuis, H. R. 1951. Gulf of Mexico shrimp trawl designs. U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service Fishery Leaflet No. 394, 16 pp. 1956. Preliminary results of deep-water exploration for shrimp in the Gulf of Mexico by the M/V Oregon (1950-1956). U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service Separate No. 460, Commercial Fisheries Review, vol. Io, TO, LA, yoyo, Ie, 1967. Depth segregation and distribution of sexual maturity groups in the marbled catshark, Galeus arae. IN Sharks, Skates, and Rays, pp. 141-148. The John Hopkins Press, Baltimore. Buuuis, Harvey R., Jr., AND JAMES S. CARPENTER. 1966. Neoharriotta carri, A new species of Rhinochimaeridae from the southern Caribbean Sea. Copeia, no. 3, pp. 443-450. BuLuis, HArvEY R., JR., AND ROBERT CUMMINS, JR. 1963. Another look at the royal-red shrimp resource. Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute, Proceedings 15th Annual Session, pp. 9-13. Buuuis, HARVEY R., JR. AND WARREN F. RATHJEN. 1959. Shrimp explora- tions off the southeastern coast of the United States (1956-1958). U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service Separate No. 551, Commercial Fisheries Review, vol. 21, no. 6, pp. 1-20. Buuuis, Harvey R., JR., AND JoHN R. THompson. 1964. Annual Report, Ex- ploratory Fishing and Gear Research, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, Region 2, Fiscal Year 1963. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Circular no. 193, 68 pp. BULLIS AND STRUHSAKER: Caribbean Fishes 67 , 1965. Collections by the exploratory fishing vessels Oregon, Silver Bay, Combat, and Pelican made during 1956 to 1960 in the southwest- ern North Atlantic. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Special Scientific Report—Fisheries no. 510, 130 pp. ; CALDWELL, D. K. 1955. Distribution of the longspined porgy, Stenotomus caprinus. Bull. Mar. Sci. of the Gulf and Caribbean, vol. 5, no. 3, pp. 230-239. 1957. The biology and systematics of the pinfish, Lagodon rhom- boides (Linnaeus). Bull. Florida State Mus., vol. 2, no. 6, pp. 77-173. CaLpwELL, D. K. 1961. Populations of the butterfish, Poronotus triacanthus (Peck), with systematic comments. Bull. Southern California Acad. Sci., vol. 60, pp. 19-31. CEeRAME-Vivas, M. I., anp I. E. Gray. 1966. The distributional pattern of benthic invertebrates of the Continental Shelf off North Carolina. Ecology, vol. 47, No. 2, pp. 260-270. Dietricu, G. 1963. General oceanography. Interstate Publishers, A Divi- sion of John Wiley and Sons, New York, 588 pp. ExMAN, S. 1953. Zoogeography of the sea. Sidgwick and Jackson, Ltd., London, 417 pp. FucLIsTER, F.C. 1960. Atlantic Ocean atlas of the temperature and salinity profiles and data from the International Geophysical Year of 1957- 1958. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute Atlas Series, vol. 1, 209 pp. ‘GraHaM, M. 1956. Plaice. Sea Fisheries Their Investigation in the United Kingdom. Edward Arnold, Ltd., London, pp. 332-371. MarsHa.i, N. B. 1965. Systematic and biological studies of the macrourid fishes Anacanthini-Teleostii. Deep-Sea Research, vol. 12, no. 8, pp. 299-322. Meap, G. W., E. BERTELSON, AND D. M. CoHen. 1964. Reproduction among deep-sea fishes. Deep-Sea Research, vol. 11, pp. 569-596. Parr, A. E. 1937. A contribution to the hydrography of the Caribbean and Cayman Seas based upon the observations made by the Research Ship Atlantis, 1933-34. Bull. Bingham Oceanographic Collection, vol. 5, article 4, 110 pp. Ror, RicHarp B. 1969. Distribution of royal-red shrimp, Hymenopenaeus robustus, on three potential commercial grounds off the southeastern United States. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Bureau of Commer- cial Fisheries, Fishery Industrial Research, vol. 5, no. 4, pp. 161-174. SCHROEDER, W. C. 1955. Report on the results of exploratory otter-trawling along the Continental Shelf and Slope between Nova Scotia and Vir- 68 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ginia during the summers of 1952 and 1953. Pap. Mar. Biol. Oceanogr. Deep-Sea Research, vol. 3 (Suppl.), pp. 358-372. SPRINGER, STEWART, AND Harvey R. Buus. 1954. Exploratory shrimp fishing in the Gulf of Mexico, Summary Report for 1952-54. U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service Separate No. 380, Commercial Fisheries Review, vol. 16, no. 10, pp. 1-16. 1956. Collections by the OREGON in the Gulf of Mexico. U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service Special Scientific Report—Fisheries No. 196, 134 pp. Stewart, H. B. 1962. Oceanographic cruise report USC & GS Ship Ex- plorer—1960. U. S. Department of Commerce Coast and Geodetic Survey, 162 pp. STRUHSAKER, PAuL. 1969. Demersal Fish Resources: Composition, Distri- bution, and Commercial Potential of the Continental Shelf Stocks off Southeastern United States, U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Fishery Industrial Research, vol. 4, No. 7, pp. 261-300. —. In Press. Possible influences of deep internal waves on the upper Continental Slope fauna of the southwestern North Atlantic. SVERDRUP, H. U., M. W. JoHNson, AND R. H. FueEmMinc. 1942. The oceans, their physics, chemistry, and general biology. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N. J., x +1087 pp. TayLor, C. C. 1958. Cod Growth and Temperature. Journal du Conseil, vol. 23, pp. 366-370. THompson, J. R. 1963. The bathyalbenthic caridean shrimps of the south- western North Atlantic. Ph.D. thesis. Department of Zoology, Duke University, 504 pp. —. 1967. Development of a Commercial Fishery for the Penaeid Shrimp Hymenopenaeus robustus Smith on the Continental Slope of the Southeastern United States. Proceedings of the Symposium on Crustacea held at Ernakulam, India, Part IV, pp. 1454-1459. Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Exploratory Fishing and Gear Research Base, Pascagoula, Mississippi. Contribution No. 105. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 33(1) 1970 69 Caribbean Fishes BULLIS AND STRUHSAKER: 90° IG IG [& 80° 80° OSV OOF IOV IS& OL S0'& SI & OL Or OS& 108 0G SO" SIO! Sg V8G LE& 008 ISG GO OSG 106 Iv ial S(O) SOT NG IL 60 CO 00G Ist yal ZT LT Jat OG T in fltsy fl OST IOT DSOBNL *D thaod plomimnsy psouids “gq 189]09 DIpuaai1g qpaaa} “Y psouasyual vIDYy ovpiley pubyiqou Opaduo,], seplurped.io J, ypauwyq °s sisuaqna snjonbs oywhin *y snsojnupis snsoydoiuay Suda “FT 1ZyNyIs “7 isyjng sniajdow,y eeprjenbs snypjnovut shyqyoiapao1yas sniuadsay snury.soyhos 4wuapbo snapvr) apip snajDpr) eeprury10rfAosg pDsoulnjs auixhw oeplulxAyy (sutoyzeF) osuvi yydoq oreo Jod sjenptatpuy jo Ayisueq ssvioAy UI soloodsg puv sallurey Ysty Jo I XIGNAddV uornnqmysiq yideq QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 70 80° 80° 8s" 0G LET Tt oy bY [& 6G I 90° &L [& Ie [& 90° Te 00S OSV OOF 165i 7 10V TSS CVs OVE 6&" 69° LLG 98° GV PL 96 06 TL’ SO'ST E0°&C Jey |L Z6°T 99°T [6&1 8& CS 6G 9° [& 80°9 VIG SO" SO" 8V 91 cs" Wish ciel Ss 66° SIL IE 9T vO GO" vO" 90° 80° CO 90° 61 OV 61 OF VG So cil Ve ET Te ro 0G 008 OSG 00G OST OOT TSG 106 IST I0l GL snquajnoni sipnsp.ivg Izisspdp snujoyyYydo.ojyD) oepIpns seprpouds SYDUD SnYyzUDIDION ovpryyueorjON oeplineso[ey 1dnoy snyoupiqoydouhs eepryouriqoydeudss eeplsuoyn snjnjja90 xXpLoyzouWhr) ovplusriny sepreydaooday ‘Iayopur ‘ds “ua DIDS DUNUASIY ovpluluesiy 1IDI D}}01LLDYOON ylaq|p snovjouphy oepliorwiyy SNUDILIAWD SYDqoYIUDIDUY ovpryeqoyjuvovuy tuayosy *d poyupnjyw vlpsopnasd oepife1opnesg ‘rajopur ‘ds “ua (suoYyyeF) osuvt« Ydoq (qUOD) | XIGNHddV Caribbean Fishes Tht BULLIS AND STRUHSAKER: 6&2 90° 90° 00S Icy Ol OT OT [& IG IG OSV IOV 8I9 co" stom | vO CLV vO" C6 G 089 9V I 6S°G 06 6L 60°T OGG 6 0G 96 8T P68 0G GIG 60 PI GO" LO’ CO” ZO VEG VSG OSG 00G OST 10G WS TOT (0D) I XIGNAddV &6& OOT GL SePlIooeUIsoIg ‘ds sninquoy ‘ds snjpydaoouawh yy sdosoput “g snsoapf ‘g yuDwa snposhywg snqonowo “yy syyfisuo] snuopDr) D290 snposhxO Snyvoins SninuUoYyoDdA J, Ipuv.gepyiy “N upsvqg DiuunzaN SNYDUIULIDI *+D snapqqiuoos snyauhy.oja0) SNAqUIBID DILAUYIDPU1AS oeplInos0V oepIpey UnIDYyUD DIDUUT aepidos[e}y snjopidajo1gpu snjadoosoan eeprjedoosooN| ‘ds stosajdhywg sisuaplia *g wmojasig stosajdhywwg aeploi1a}dAy eg (suloyyeF) asue1 Ydoq QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 72 80° Il T Aan | vs 80° ITT PPT IP'& 90° 90 OT Go LI Or 6& ZT CO’ OT 6 6G T 69 LS’ OV GL 82 OFT POEL 9G GO’ 96° 60 60° 6c" £0" 6S" SO" i LYST £0" Pr LEST 80 eo Tl Vo Sol 80° SOT VO 8ST PO’ OOS OSV OOV OS OO OGG 18h IOV TS$ 10S 1&6 10G (0) CO’ 68°96 8°96 G8°G S8'°G SG in 60S PL IS GO’ GO 6696 E696 SO’ SO 00G IST (OD) I XIGNA OS TV So SLIP Sit fl SLL Or snaquad.io vadnjohywg oveprodnypoAyyeg DIDQULOD “V7 soldpo Duosyuy ovproide’) 1ysiajajyop shy wyopidajouay ov pidoaoormmuess snjoj]ja00 sisdouaz snoyiond uazning snasot sisdoyhy sidajojoy uowayz avplo7, snaquacID snutjauc ovprliunjgoid snqoonl sysiudiuhw ovplIUII0[O]{ ‘ds snyjazs0)do YY oeprAyyyoryors , 1amo) nixnuhjod OVPUXIUIA]Og DILDIDGD, DIWDINISL OvpIv[nyst oy snpiqip snioon}0a ovplonyo|y snoyud}yD sovaovUdarg (SULOY}LF) osuvi Yydoc Caribbean Fishes 13 BULLIS AND STRUHSAKER: Co 00'S POV 00S OSV OOF OSS Igy IOV TS$ 108 LEO 62 [6 CO 88'T O8'T g9° Qe 19” 90°61 LOT GOL 966 S8'& 80°01 SV'86 008 OSG 00G ISG L0G Si [sr IL 0G 8S Vy SSP 106 OST IOT (70D) I XIGNAddV eepiprydool1eg oeplqe'] poyyuepiuy) sSnyD]NnIpUL Ssnauadnpnasg Se Pin a@epIuselNS ‘ds snjzypjojnvg depIso}sorourig @ ds peyyuepiuy) I ‘ds peynuepriuy snuorpupd snuosidy @ ‘ds sdouspuhs 1 ‘ds sdouwzpuhs pyaq sdoispuhs eepiuosody Ssnypualw snyyuDdDdIsd snyp snyzuvoniudopnasg i oeprlyyurovlg poynueptuy) siupuojinbp sapiowodysisg snupaa snuolyn’T oeprlueiyn Ty peyyueptuys) aqaoyd snud.iias OEPIULIIGS (suloyzey) asuer yydeq QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 74 88°C CS 9T8 [& 80° 80" 00S OSV OOF TSP LOV TSt 80'T GL LO’ SO" LO’ SO" VSS [8G 9G OT 96°& OL ra10) )) I ve 6. re 6V OT ole LS’ OSS 00S 108 IGG EZ vO’ vO 98°F 90° 80'V VIP ol CG 16 Sc I She) 90° 80° OSG L0G [Nes ST Ue 06 rou 1G VS CL ST T Ste) LL (0) 09° 6D SO" SO" QL SO) Or 006 IST Wee OS OST I0l IG 9e° ro) O8'& CoP tS) Hh SOL OOT GL ovpl[nyo1g IzIsspsD snuhuoyjvy ovpluUtAUOTT]VD OvpIIpeysiiog ‘ds snjouowg wUlvays Ssnzouoig DIJIIBI “GF SMD Myohyooig Loy ag ovpysi 1 ‘ds poyquopiuy wayzuans SaYyOiIjaS evprusedi00g oeplLMIYorry, ‘ds poyquoepiuy DUDILAUD *O DjNUWd suadwas snjidwuar ovpryAduiasy DUDGNI DULOISOJAYWY ovprdoosour.iy) ‘ds sdouquag srupnbsiuspu *g sapioigos “g SLUJSOLYDUD °F snqpjnopwu sdoiquag (swoyyes) asuvi1 yydoq (OD) I XIGNAddV 75 Caribbean Fishes BULLIS AND STRUHSAKER: Or PS [8'& corey Se S SG ces¢ 90° OF oF LO’ 00S OSV OOF OSs IgV OV TSS 108 IO'T SVS SVS S10) SO 008 SG SIG 8S" 66° 00'CT 8.9 Wel 00°GT S819 WZ FE OL SO aise 666 S66 GO" GL 6G T 8e 90° 0S 1g) TL [& 1 0s Z9'T SIG PIG STG GL 80° 86° SO" (a ol ie O1T 90 GO" 60 90° CO” 60 &9 [EIS LE9 OSG 00¢ OST 106 IST I0L V8 I9'9 96 £0'0G S006 Ie oT Ie [& S(O) SO" 166 IG OT 66 L PIG 8I& OOT GL snyvajynop shyyyoyinayoy eepleyds0008Q snjaid xpunny) ovprlovuneyD eepiydo'y snuuissisosod shyyyos0g oepIployor.neg ‘ds sapio1aoyds ovpruoporlga |, DULWOLWA DUuUOsUYyOl WpPIULYyIS DIPLD]]OYoIOG Ipapjyjoy Pipsvjj0H ovpIpoyqeoerrs y, ‘ds sninydwhs OEPIsso[souAD aeplqoouoINe|g peg nuepruy) ‘ds nyjasdoupospy) pypuquy pyasdojahy sypyuolf DyasSdousvry snynusoa shyzyoupyng oeplyiOg isnaquasiviusiwu sdaiqny OEPI9}VUIOIYS sepriprydo (suloyzey) osue1 yydeq (30D) I XIGNAHddV QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 76 OT vs Is’ 10'T 81G SV $0" SNIYUD]WO snyounigid 80 90’ OT ‘ds snjpydas0030 LO’ 60° I9'T snaiwd snjpydas095¢— 00S OSP OOP OSE 008 OSG 00G OST OOT (suioyey) osurt yydoq iz Oy tae (T08 TSG 10G qisi 101 GL (OD) I XIGNAddV Exoerythrocytic Gametocytes of Saurian Malaria SAM R. TELFORD, JR. THE genus Plasmodium and the family Plasmodiidae are charac- terized by these features: “a sexual phase in the mosquito, and asexual cycles in tissue and blood cells of the vertebrate host; game- tocytes are produced and are confined to mature erythrocytes. Malaria pigment is present in certain stages of the parasite” (Garnham, 1966, p. 65). Recent studies of saurian malarial species have provided exceptions to this classical definition. Plasmodium mexicanum of California lizards can complete sporogony and thus accomplish the sexual cycle in psychodid sandflies (Ayala and Lee, 1970). Two species of otherwise typical malarial parasites in Pan- amanian lizards apparently lack pigment in all stages (Telford, 1970). Findings reported here further indicate the necessity for taxonomic re-evaluation of the malarial parasites at both family and generic levels. During study of approximately 500 malarial infections in Pan- amanian lizards, unpigmented gametocytes of at least three Plas- modium species were found occasionally in white blood cells of four host species, Thecadactylus rapicaudus (Gekkonidae), Anolis biporcatus, A. poecilopus, and A. lionotus (Iguanidae). Study of 58 malarial infections in Costa Rican lizards revealed exoerythro- cytic gametocytes in Anolis limifrons and A. aquaticus. An exoerythrocytic infection in an Anolis biporcatus was present at capture | April 1968 and persisted until death on 26 June 1969. Trophozoites, schizonts, and gametocytes of both sexes were seen in occasional thrombocytes throughout this period and increased significantly in abundance in the two months preceding the hosts death. An erythrocytic infection of Plasmodium floridense was present also at capture and until death, but often disappeared dur- ing the observation period. All exoerythrocytic gametocytes observed in the Panamanian and Costa Rican anoles were in cells indistinguishable from throm- bocytes (Figs. 3, 5-7). Those found in several geckoes, how- ever, were confined to apparent lymphocytes (Fig. 9). Relation- ship of the exoerythrocytic parasites to the erythrocytic infections present in all hosts is not certain. Anolis biporcatus is commonly parasitized by P. floridense and P. tropiduri, often in mixed infec- 78 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLorIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 4 Fig. 1, 2, Plasmodium schizonts in thrombocytes of Anolis lionotus. Fig. 8, Macrogametocyte in thrombocyte of A. lionotus. Fig. 4, Schizont in thrombocyte of Anolis biporcatus. Fig. 5, 6, Macrogametocytes in thrombo- cytes of A. biporcatus. Fig. 7, Microgametocyte in thrombocyte of A. bi- porcatus. Fig. 8, Schizont in lymphocyte of Thecadactylus rapicaudus. Fig. 9, Macrogametocyte in lymphocyte of T. rapicaudus. tions; A. lionotus and A. poecilopus share infection by P. balli and a smaller species which is probably P. tropiduri. A very different Plasmodium sp. parasitizes T. rapicaudus. The exoerythrocytic ga- metocytes of the anoles are almost identical in appearance among themselves (Figs. 3, 5-7) and are similar to those in the geckoes (Fig. 9), but the lymphocytic schizonts of T. rapicaudus (Fig. 8) contain many more nuclei than do those in anole thrombocytes (Figs. 1, 2, 4). The recently described haemosporidian genus Saurocytozoon from white cells of Brazilian lizards (Lainson and Shaw, 1969), in which only gametocytes were found, possibly repre- sents a comparable phase of yet another saurian malaria. TeLForD: Malarial Parasitism 79 Two interpretations are possible at present: (1) The exoery- throcytic forms represent one or (probably) more malaria-like spe- cies which parasitize white blood cells exclusively or (2) These stages are part of the mechanism whereby latent infections can again give rise to patent parasitemia of the erythrocytes. Further study of living infections is necessary for correct interpretation of the exoerythrocytic gametocytes, but it is already obvious that saurian malarias differ significantly in their biology from their rela- tives among the Aves and Mammalia. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This study was supported in part by NIH grant AI-01251 to Gorgas Memorial Laboratory, and by Biomedical Science Support Grant (NIH) FR-07021-05 from the Division of Sponsored Re- search, University of Florida. LITERATURE CITED AYALA, S. C., AnD D. Ler. 1970. Saurian malaria: development of sporo- zoites in two species of phlebotomine sandflies. Science, vol. 167, pp. 891-892. GaRNHAM, P. C. C. 1966. Malaria parasites and other haemosporidia. Black- well Sci. Publ., Oxford, 1114 pp. Lainson, R., AND J. J. SHAw. 1969. A new haemosporidian of lizards, Saurocytozoon tupinambi gen. nov., sp. nov., in Tupinambus nigropunc- tatus (Teiidae). Parasitol., vol. 59, pp. 159-162. TELFORD, S. R. Jr. 1970. Saurian malarial parasites in eastern Panama. Jour. Protozool., vol. 17, no. 4, pp. 566-574. The Florida State Museum and Department of Biological Sci- ences, University of Florida, Gainesville, 32601. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 33(1) 1970 Hyla andersoni in Florida STEVEN P. CHRISTMAN THE pine barrens tree frog, Hyla andersoni Baird, has been re- ported from the Atlantic coastal plain in two widely disjunct areas, the pine barrens of New Jersey and central North Carolina (Gosner and Black, 1967). Neill (1947) reported it from Richmond county in eastern Georgia. On the evening of March 30, 1970, I collected a single specimen of Hyla andersoni in the western panhandle of Florida, near Dorcas, Okaloosa County. The frog was taken on state highway 393 at 1900 hrs. CST. On August 16, 1970, Bruce Means collected two addi- tional specimens at the same locality. The possibility of taxonomic distinction exists. Gosner and Black (1956) reported significant differences between the New Jersey and North Carolina populations, but did not name them. This new locality is approximately 580 airline miles from the North Carolina population, and 350 from the eastern Georgia record. Investigations to determine zoogeographic and possible taxonomic significance of Hyla andersoni in Florida are underway. LITERATURE CITED Gosn_ER, K. L., AND BuAck, I. H. 1956. Notes on amphibians from the upper coastal plain of North Carolina. Jour. Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soc., vol. 72, no. 1, pp. 40-47. 1967. Hyla andersoni. Cataloge of American amphibians and rep- tiles. (W. J. Riemer, ed.), p. 54. Net, W. T. 1947. Doubtful type localities in South Carolina. Herpetologica, vol. 4, no. 2, pp.-o-76: Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 33(1) 1970 Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences Vol. 33 June, 1970 No. 2 CONTENTS Vegetational changes in the National Key Deer Refuge Taylor R. Alexander and John H. Dickson II 81 Shell debris and shoreline energy on Florida Gulf beaches Herbert M. Austin 90 Charles E. Russell and the Root Mission to Russia, 1917 | Donald H. Bragaw 97 Phosphorus fertilized pasture and composition of cow bone R. L. Shirley, W. G. Kirk, G. K. Davis, and E. M. Hodges 111 Physical endurance of rats increased by rutin K. M. Brooks and R. C. Robbins 119 Echolocation-type signals by two dolphins, genus Sotalia David K. Caldwell and Melba C. Caldwell 124 The paleospecies of woodpeckers Pierce Brodkorb 132 Officers and members of the Academy for 1970 fn 137 Mailed February 23, 1971 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Editor: Pierce Brodkorb The Quarterly Journal welcomes original articles containing sig- nificant new knowledge, or new interpretation of knowledge, in any field of Science. Articles must not duplicate in any substantial way material that is published elsewhere. INSTRUCTIONS TO AUTHORS Rapid, efficient, and economical transmission of knowledge by means of the printed word requires full cooperation between author and editor. Revise copy before submission to insure logical order, conciseness, and clarity. Manuscripts should be typed double-space throughout, on one side of numbered sheets of 8% by 11 inch, smooth, bond paper. A Carson Copy will facilitate review by referees. Marcrns should be 144 inches all around. TITLES must not exceed 55 characters, including spaces. 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Plan linework and lettering for re- duction, so that final width is 4% inches, and final length does not exceed 6% inches. Do not submit illustrations needing reduction by more than one-half. Puotocrapus should be of good contrast, on glossy paper. Do not write heavily on the backs of photographs. Proor must be returned promptly. Leave a forwarding address in case of extended absence. REPRINTS may be ordered when the author returns corrected proof. Published by the Florida Academy of Sciences Printed by the Storter Printing Company Gainesville, Florida QUARTERLY JOURNAL of the FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vol. 33 June, 1970 No. 2 Vegetational Changes in the National Key Deer Refuge TAYLOR R. ALEXANDER AND JOHN H. Dickson III THE Key deer, Odocoileus virginianus clavium Barbour and Allen, is a distinct geographic race that inhabits the southernmost Keys of Florida (Barbour and Allen, 1922). Today they are re- stricted to the Keys within the National Key Deer Refuge that was established in 1954. According to the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service pamphlet, RL-518 (1965), only about 50 deer existed in 1957 and the future of the herd was in doubt. The herd estimate in 1965 was 300. It is now (1969) estimated at about 400. Prior to the establishment of the Refuge, the junior author began an extensive study of the deer and the Keys they inhabited. The published reports (Dickson, 1955; Dickson, Woodbury, Alexander, 1953) contain the first ecological study of the deer habitat on a Key- by-Key basis. Big Pine Key was found to be the Key most used by deer and the northern part of this Key is in the Refuge. When the original study was started in 1951, a prominent fea- ture at the north end of Big Pine Key was an open grass prairie measuring one-half mile in length and one-fifth of a mile in width. There was limited evidence of its use by deer. A few small shrubs were scattered throughout the area. It was bounded on the east by a mangrove community and on the west by a community of West Indian broad leaved trees and shrubs. The soil was a shallow marl in contrast to the rocky surface of most of the Key. Local re- ports and physical evidence supported the belief that the prairie had been farmed in the past. Fires had been of common occur- rence prior to 1951 and served to maintain the grasses and suppress the shrubs. The Refuge was put under strict fire control, and by the summer of 1967 it was apparent that an extensive vegetational change had occurred. 82 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES The study now reported was made in June of 1968 to determine the exact nature of the floral and vegetational changes between 1951 and 1968 in the prairie area and to evaluate them in terms of potential effect on the deer population. METHODS Thirty quadrats, 3 x 10 feet, were studied. An attempt was made to randomly sample the area and follow procedures previ- ously reported (Dickson, 1955), so that the current data could be compared directly with those of 1951. Plant names, numbers, heights and per cent of cover were determined. The last was re- corded as four classes: 1 (less than 1 per cent); 2 (1-5 per cent); 3 (5-25 per cent), and 4 (25-50 per cent). Frequency figures are the percentage of quadrats in which a species occurred. Density values are the average number of individuals per quadrat. Counts for trees and shrubs were converted to plants per acre. Species found in 1968 but not in 1951 were noted. Plants browsed by deer were also noted, based on information determined in 1951 from stomach and pellet analyses, and direct observations. Plant names used are from the checklist of Lakela and Craighead (1965). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Comparison of data in Tables 1 and 2 shows that the number of species doubled in the sixteen-year period between the studies. This diversification was characterized by a shift favoring woody species. The most spectacular species change involved Sporobolis virginicus that had a frequency drop from 100 to 40 and cover class from 4 to 2. In 1951 this grass gave the area its characteristic appearance of a grassland. The change appears to be related more to an indirect shade-effect from young trees and shrubs than a direct response to fire control. Observations indicate the species has very little shade tolerance. Loss of this species is not likely to directly effect the deer, since there is no record of its being browsed. Reduction in the dense grass cover makes the habitat less fire-prone. Sporobolis has been replaced by several grasses and sedges that have different growth habits and do not cover the ground so completely. For example, Abildgaardia monostachya, a sedge not found in 1951, was common in 1968. Less change occurred among the semi-woody species that were important in 1951, Randia aculeata, Morinda roioc, Waltheria amer- ALEXANDER AND Dickson: Changes in Deer Refuge 83 Ses SS S Ste & ‘ ees es SWS ~ \ SS : Ses : : ie le ae 1951 ane ae ie 1968 photograph. Note ee of Eugenia myrtoides on the right of the jeep track. icana and Solanum blodgettii. The change in importance of woody species was due largely to invasion by new species. It is the rapid growth of these invading species that changed the appearance of the habitat so dramatically (Fig. 1). Of the known deer food species, Bumelia celastrina and Pithe- cellobium guadelupense increased and Acacia peninsularis, Aga- linis maritma, Cassytha filiformis, Chamaesyce scoparia and Xi- menea americana all decreased. Those showing very little change were Conocarpus erecta, Morinda roioc, Neptunia pubescens, Ran- 84 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES dia aculeata and Solanum blodgettii. It is recognized that our knowledge of the plants used as food by these deer is incomplete at this time. It is very likely they make use of many of the invading species. Data in Table 3 show the extent of change caused by the in- vasion of woody species. They also indicate that succession had advanced toward the climax community of plants of West Indian affinity (Alexander, 1958, 1967). These species existed along the west edge of the prairie in 1951. Propagules were available in quantity. All that was needed, apparently, was freedom from fire TABLE 1 1951 plant list and analyses Species Frequency Density Cover Sporobolus virginicus 100 — 4 Chamaesyce scoparia 90 13.1 2 Randia aculeata 90 ee 3 Grass (unidentified) 80 6.9 3 Flaveria linearis 70 1.8 2 Morinda roioc 70 3.3 2 Waltheria americana 60 7.6 2 Solanum blodgettii 50 2.9 2 Agalinis maritima 40 1.9 2 Cassytha filiformis 40 0.4 I Chloris petraea 40 0.9 2 Evolvulus alsinoides 40 0.5 il Borrichia frutescens 30 4.8 Ih Physalis angustifolia 30 0.6 1 Acacia peninsularis 20 0.6 8 Conocarpus erecta 20 Oe 2 Cynanchum blodgettii 20 0.3 ] Pithecellobium guadelupense 20 0.8 2 Setaria geniculata 20 0.8 2 Sideranthus megacephalus 20 0.2 il Andropogon sp. 10 0.2 2 Bumelia celastrina 10 ileal: 2 Croton linearis 10 0.1 1 Neptunia pubsecens 10 0.1 il Passiflora pallida 10 0.1 1 Piscidia piscipula 10 Oak 1 Portulaca phaeosperma 10 0.4 ] Ximenia americana 10 0.1 2 ALEXANDER AND Dickson: Changes in Deer Refuge Paspalum blodgettii Morinda roioc Randia aculeata Flaveria linearis 1968 plant list and analyses TABLE 2 76.6 76.6 13.3 73.8 Abildgaardia monostachya 63.0 Solanum blodgettii Waltheria americana Chamaesyce scoparia Fimbristylis castanea Andropogon gracilis Sporobolus virginicus Pithecellobium guadelupense Andropogon glomeratus Agalinis maritima Croton linearis Conocarpus erecta Cassytha filiformis Chiococca alba 56.6 56.6 53.3 50.0 40.0 40.0 33.3 33.3 26.6 26.6 26.6 26.6 26.6 Sideranthus megacephalus 23.8 Bumelia celastrina Cassia bahamensis Polygala grandiflora var. leiodes Evolvulus alsinoides Eugenia myrtoides Byrsonima cuneata Metopium toxiferum Physalis angustifolia Aristida purpurascens Coccoloba wuwvifera Sporobolus domingensis Setaria geniculata Reynosia_ septentrionalis Acacia peninsularis Passiflora pallida Eugenia longipes Neptunia pubescens var. floridana Rhacoma crossopetalum 23.3 23.3 23.3 20.0 20.0 16.6 16.6 13.3 13.3 13.3 10.0° 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 6.6 6.6 6,5 Frequency Density 11.8 3.9 Ce 4.4 5.1 Sey) 3.3 1.6 3.9 3.6 2.3 0.8 0.6 0.9 Cover a NO Oy a rT NS) NRF re NN EWE PO et ce ee on ND NO NO NOD Se 85 Deer Food 86 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES TABLE 2 (cont.) 1968 plant list and analyses Not found Deer Frequency Density Cover in 1951 Food Thrinax microcarpa 6.6 0.06 1 : Z Cynanchum blodgettii 6.6 0.02 1 Melanthera parvifolia 3.3 0.5 ] a Eustoma exaltatum 3.3 0.3 1 E Borrichia arborescens 3.3 0.1 II 3 Borrichia frutescens 3.3 0.1 1 Chloris petraea 3.3 0.1 1 Stachytarpheta jamaicensis — 3.3 0.1 1 Z Rhacoma ilicifolia 3.3 0.06 1 s Spartina spartinae 3.3 0.06 il Ipomoea sagittata 3.3 0.03 I * Jacquemontia pentantha 3.3 0.03 1 g Jacquinia keyensis 3.3 0.03 1 i Manilkara emarginata 3.3 0.03 1 i Piscidia piscipula 3.3 0.03 1 Serenoa repens 3.3 0.03 1 Urechites lutea 3.3 0.03 1 i Ximenia americana 3.3 0.03 Il " for seedling establishment. Changes in height of the woody species was very striking. In 1951 the shrubs and young trees were not over 2 feet tall and most were under 1 foot. By 1968 these were in the 4-12 feet range. There were areas where impenetrable thickets were forming and approaching the conditions present in the mature climax stands of mature subtropical forests on Big Pine Key. It is characteristic for these woody species to grow thickly and self-prune their lower branches, leaving very little good browse within reach of the deer. The mature subtropical forest interior is not a good feeding place, although deer do bed down here. It is reported that deer respond best to browse plants in early stages of succession or to those of fire-type communities (Vogl, 1967). Fire keeps woody plant browse within reach of the deer. Komarek (1966) discussed means of keeping vegetation as it is or adjusting it by use of fire for the best support or production of wildlife. Robertson (1953) in discussing fire on marl glades stated that fire kills back seedlings of woody plants that have become established between fires and thus acts to slow the invasion of shrub vegetation into the glade. 87 ALEXANDER AND Dickson: Changes in Deer Refuge VP I oS 8 I 6S suadal vouasas cr G 0'OT VV i Sins) 16 G 9'8 DUDIIIAWD DIUIUY L8 I 9°9 vs T 9°8 unjpjadossold DWODDYY 9 I 9'9 paquasiv XDULIYI0II0) PV T es 8¢ T VI sisuahay prumbopf Cr G Sl $8 I CPL piafian pqoj0900D L8 il 9°9 6SP G 66S Sadisuo] viuasngy 9ST G 9°91 66 G 6°GG DyDaund DuNUOsIhg VV I os I61 G VIS DIDUIB.IDULA DIDY/UDIW cr I 0'OT VV I oS OVS $ 0°07 Dindiosid . pip1osig L6S‘T G 0'OT CoP I G OSG gc¢ G 0'OF DULLYSDIAD Dyawng IL8 SG 0'0Z 080° G LSP Sepropziiw pue siojpixn piuasny COLT S 0'0 COLT S Gis PIGS § 9'PS asuadnmapons wniqojjasayid L8 T 9°9 68F ¢ 0°09 DdIWIOLONUW XDUILY T, OST T 0'OT C89'T € SVL sypuoLiuajdas pisouhay 9SP S 9°91 ZOL‘S g 0'08 _ wnsafixo, wmidojayy 06801 € 0°06 OLVIT S Sr tes VLG G JAKE} DIDIA[NID DIPUDYyY % aIOV 18g IBSAODQ ‘bag @IOYV aq JeAO0D ‘boi eIOV lag AOD ‘borg sjuR]g surg surg o1leig UIIyWION TC. allvIg UIOYWON 8g. yso1oq [eordAy, [c. sotoeds SOG6I-IS6I S910} pooMmpiey [eordongns [eordAy preMo} osueyo jo souepliAq © ATAV.L 88 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Parts of the marl prairie area had been control-burned in March of 1968, three months before the present study was done. The fire had killed the tops of many of the woody species. However, root- sprout recovery was in evidence everywhere in the burn. Ground cover plants had also recovered. Apparently no plant species had been eliminated. There were deer tracks and groups of pellets, in- dicating use of the burned and near-by unburned shrubby areas. As a deer habitat, the combination of burned and unburned areas seems an improvement over the open grass prairie of 1951. The old prairie area of northern Big Pine Key is too limited in size to support many deer. This is true of the entire range available to these deer. Human pressure is increasing daily and reducing the amount of land outside the Refuge that is available to the deer. As the deer are pressured into less space than they are now using, careful management of the vegetation in the Refuge is paramount. This study done in a tropical environment documents the rapidity with which parts of the Refuge area can change under total fire pro- tection. The other vegetation types in the Refuge are being studied to determine change since the 1951 study. Data from these show that a considerable difference in rate of change characterizes each of the various Key habitats and suggest that different control procedures be carefully evaluated for each vegetation type within the Refuge. LITERATURE CITED ALEXANDER, TAYLOR R. 1958. High hammock vegetation of the southern Florida mainland. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci., vol. 21, pp. 293-298. 1967. A tropical hammock on the Miami (Florida) Limestone—A twenty-five-year study. Ecology, vol. 48, no. 5, pp. 863-867. Barsour, THoMAs, AND G. M. ALLEN. 1922. The white-tailed deer of the eastern United States. Jour. Mammology, vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 65-78. Dickson, Joun D., III, R. O. Woopsury, anp T. R. ALEXANDER. 1953. Check- list of Flora of Big Pine Key, Florida and Surrounding Keys. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci., vol. 16, no. 3, pp. 181-197. Dickson, Joun D., III. 1955. An ecological study of the Key deer. Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission, Tech. Bull. no. 3, 104 pp. ALEXANDER AND Dickson: Changes in Deer Refuge 89 KomarEK, Roy. 1966. A discussion of wildlife management, fire and the wildlife landscape. Proc. Fifth Annual Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference, no. 5, pp. 177-194. LAKELA, OLGA, AND F. C. CraicHEap. 1965. Annotated checklist of the vascular plants of Collier, Dade, and Monroe, Counties, Florida. Fair- child Tropical Garden and University of Miami Press, Coral Gables, Florida, 95 pp. RoBERTSON, W. B., Jr. 1953. A survey of the effects of fire in Everglades National Park. National Park Service, U. S. Dept. Interior, Washing- ton, D.C., 169 pp. (mimeographed ) VocL, RicHAaRD J. 1967. Controlled burning for wildlife in Wisconsin. Proc. Sixth Annual Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference, no. 6, pp. 47-96. Biology Department, University of Miami, Coral Gables, Flor- ida 33124; Vining C. Dunlap Laboratories, Tela Railroad Co. (Sub- sidiary of United Fruit Co.), La Lima, Honduras, C. A. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 33(2) 1970( 1971) Shell Debris and Shoreline Energy on Florida Gulf Beaches HERBERT M. AUSTIN Durinc the last 50 years several systems of coastal classification have been proposed. Johnson (1919, fide Shepard 1963) classified coasts as submergent, emergent, neutral, or compound. Shepard (1963) classified coastal areas by the agents acting upon them: Primary coasts being those acted upon by terrestrial agents, and secondary coasts those under the influence of marine processes. Price (1953, fide Tanner 1960), characterized Florida’s coastal en- vironments by energy levels, using ramp angles as a first approxi- mation. Tanner (1960) classified Florida’s coastal regions accord- ing to their respective energy levels. He approximated energy levels by using Helle’s (1958) surf statistics and interpolating be- tween points of observation. This treatment divides coasts into zero, low, moderate, and high energy environments. The zero energy environment, as defined by Tanner, is charac- terized by mud, marsh grass, and no turbulence. A low energy 2 CAs FLA E & TALE ARASSS= ; r(: 3 3 BNE 6 © ore MILES O IO) MWe Fig. 1. Variations in energy levels along the Florida Panhandle coast (see text for discussion of symbols). Adapted from Tanner (1960). M, moderate; LE, low energy; ZE, zero energy. Austin: Shell Debris and Shoreline Energy 91 beach has average annual breaker heights up to 10 cm, followed by the moderate energy environment with an average breaker height of 10-50 cm. The high energy environment experiences av- erage breaker heights of over 50 cm. Visual observations at a given time are often not sufficient to estimate the energy level on a specific beach, although one can usu- ally differentiate between a zero-energy and a high-energy beach. Low to moderate energy shores grade into each other, however, and are hard to differentiate. It is equally difficult to assign a qualita- tive energy value to a beach. Energy expended on a beach re- duces the size of certain organic materials such as molluscan shells and shell debris. Therefore, the size of the shell debris, other fac- tors being equal, should be an indicator of relative energy levels. This paper is a description of a technique by which the energy level and average breaker height may be estimated by study of the unconsolidated shoreline substrate material and provides an alter- nate, but complementary method to that developed by ‘Tanner (1960), for estimating relative energy levels. PROCEDURES A sample of the substrate from the high tide swash mark was collected at each of the locations in Table 1. This sample was frac- tioned by sieving under running water. The fractions were separated by 5 mm groupings: 1-5, milli- meters, 6-10, 11-15, and so on. Each fraction was weighed and the modal size class was established by the weight percentage. The modal classes were correlated geographically, and the energy levels as established by Tanner (1960). A multiple-variance regression analysis was carried out at the Florida State Computer Center using stepwise regression (Dixon, 1968). The correlation coefficient was determined for the modal size of shell hash debris versus energy, and longitude. RESULTS Table 1 lists the modal frequency distribution of shell and shell- hash sizes from the collection sites. When possible, collections were made at the locations where Tanner had established energy values. These values are shown when applicable. 92 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES TABLE 1 Collection data Collection sites Values* Sizet Longitude 1. Dekel Beach 0 36—40mm 83°49’W 2. Shell Point not available 31-35mm 84°18’W 3. Alligator point 6 16—20mm 84°22/’W 4. Central street not available 6-10mm 84°51’W St. Georges Isl. 5. Cape San Blas Le, 1-5 mm 85°23’W 6. Mexico Beach not available 1-2 mm 85°25’'W 7. West Panama 15 6—-10mm 85°55’W City Beach * Average annual breaker height, after Tanner (1960). #Hash, modal size Figure 2 is a graphic representation of the modal frequencies plotted against Tanner’s energy levels. With the exception of Panama City Beach the average shell-fragment size decreased as the energy increased. The computed correlation coefficient was —0.925 which indicates that a significant inverse relation exists between hash size and energy at the 99 per cent confidence inter- val. As the energy level increases, shell fragments show a corre- lated decrease in size. The correlation coefficient (—.867) be- tween shell size and longitude also shows an inverse relationship at the 99 per cent confidence level. Figure 3 shows the relation between shell size and longitude. Two breaks may be noted in the slope of the curve, one at Alligator Point, and the other at Cape San Blas. DIscussION Linear extrapolation between two points of measured physical parameters is at best an inprecise method for predicting average conditions of sea state. The prediction of average breaker heights by extrapolation between two points of measurement, over 100 miles apart, does not show possible rapid changes that may occur between the points. The studies of Tanner, discussed above, in- volved such interpolations and may in theory have inaccuracies. The data presented here, however, indicate that his conclusions may have more validity than would be predicted. Austin: Shell Debris and Shoreline Energy 93 50 30 20 10 MODAL SHELL SIZE IN MILLIMETERS O > 10 ls 20 ZS) TRANSVERSE ENERGY LEVEL Fig. 2. Relation between modal shell size and Tanner’s energy levels (see Table 1 for numbered locations). The decrease in shell-hash size is inversely correlated to in- - crease in breaker height. From zero, through the lower half of the moderate energy environment, the coasts exhibit large offshore in- faunal pelecypod populations, characterized by oysters (zero- energy environment ) Crassostrea sp., and cockels (low to moderate environment) Dynocardium sp. The higher level, moderate energy to high energy beaches, are in turn, typified by different benthonic population assemblages. The predominant pelecypod there is Donax sp. which lives in the turbulent zone and whose shells con- stitute the major percentage of the carbonate fraction of the beach substrate. On a higher energy beach the source of the shell ma- terial is within the zone of deposition, whereas in lower energy en- vironments the shell source is offshore from the zone of deposition. 94 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES uw SO a LJ om > 2 40 ol = - > i a a2 WN 30 ° vs A = a 20 @3 V) Zi © O > 83° 84° 85° 86° LONGITUDE (°w) Fig. 3. Relation between modal shell hash and longitude (see Table 1 for numbered locations ). Figure 3 shows two breaks in the slope of the line, both of which occur along spits. Break A is at Alligator Point, and B at Cape San Blas. This indicates the non-linearity of the increasing wave energy, and the importance of spits, in terms of focusing energy upon small areas of shoreline. CONCLUSIONS The linear extrapolation of natural phenomena between widely spaced coastal points of measurements may be inaccurate due to topographic anomalies. The sampling of a form of semi-permanent feature may alleviate this inaccuracy. The use of shell debris from the high tide swash mark, along zero through moderate-energy Austin: Shell Debris and Shoreline Energy 95 coasts, is a potential technique by which the average breaker height for a shore may be estimated, when actual wave data are not avail- ble. Changes in the energy at any given moment may be large. The short-term effects of tides and winds may cause fluctuations over so short a period of time as two hours. The beach substrate, however, does not reflect the short-term variations, and is a more stable indi- cator. Meteorological tides will, of course, disrupt this pattern, which will eventually re-establish itself. The collection of shell hash from various low to moderate energy coastal sites where no long-term breaker data are available will allow, with a reasonable degree of accuracy, the approximation of average breaker heights (Table 2). TABLE 2 Shell hash size relation to predicted breaker height Shell fragment size Predicted average breaker in mm height in cm >36 mm 0 26—35 mm I— 5 cm 16—25 mm 6— 8 cm 6—15 mm 9—11 cm =>. mm [P13 em < 1mm 14—15 cm LITERATURE CITED Dixon, W. J. 1968. Biomedical computer programs. Univ. of California Press, Berkeley, California, 600 pp. HELLE, J. R. 1958. Surf statistics for the coasts of the United States. Beach Erosion Board Technical Memorandum, no. 108. JouHnson, D. W. 1919. Shae jEranesese of shoreline development. John Wiley & Sons, New York, 584 pp. Prick, W. A. 1953. The low energy coast and its new shoreline types of the Gulf of Mexico. IV Congresi de l’Association Internationale pour I’ Etude du Quaternaire (INQUA). Paris, Project 63. SHEPARD, F. 1963. Submarine Geology. 2nd edition, Harper & Row. New York. 557 pp. 96 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES TANNER, W. 1960. Florida coastal classification. Trans. Gulf Coast Assoc. Geol. Soc., vol. 10, pp. 259-266. Department of Oceanography, Florida State University, Talla- hassee, Florida 32306. Contribution No. 238 from Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida 32306. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 33(2) 1970( 1971) Charles E. Russell and the Root Mission to Russia, 1917 DonaALpD H. BRAGAWw THE decision to send a special Presidential commission to Russia to convey the best wishes and encouragement of the United States to the new democracy was urged upon President Woodrow Wilson by several prominent persons. Secretary of State Robert Lansing thought that it would be appropriate since other Allied nations were either proposing the same, or had already dispatched commissions of their own. The principal concern of the Allies was to make sure that Russia would remain in the war against Germany. The problem of selecting the right combination of men to serve on the commission occupied both Wilson and Lansing on and off for an entire month commencing on April 11th. Wilson’s conver- sations with Colonel Edward House had apparently led House to suggest a group of men of no particular diplomatic distinction, but representative of various elements of our society. While Wilson adopted House’s idea of representative men from various segments of American life, he and Lansing rejected most of the suggestions. In his correspondence with Lansing, Wilson described the men he wanted: Men of large view, tested discretion and a sympathetic appreciation of just what it is they have been sent over for . . . besides, that they should look the part. ... We must find the right men, and they must not all be Democrats,—need not any of them be Democrats,—but should all be genuinely enthusiastic for the success of the revolution. He later announced his intention of considering appointing a So- cialist to the Commission who might not only represent labor, but appeal as well to the Socialist members of the new government. Wilson was opposed, however, to appointing any radical Socialists who might be against the war. He was to finally select a moderate who was as sympathetic to the cause of labor, as he was committed to the war (Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the U.S., Lansing Papers, 1920; Russia, I., 1918). The Commission as finally selected was, perhaps, the most in- congruous group possible in terms of the original criteria. The only consistent qualification applicable to all was that they might look the part. It was a commission which most authorities agree was doomed to failure from the beginning by the very nature of its com- 98 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES position. While House, Lansing and Wilson had originally agreed on Samuel Gompers to represent labor, Wilson was finally con- vinced that Gompers was too anti-Socialist to be a welcomed rep- resentative from the United States. Charles Crane, the plumbing magnate, was already in Russia due to previous interest, and was chosen as someone whom the present government in Russia already knew, and accepted. The choice of Dr. John R. Mott, the Execu- tive Director of the Y.M.C.A., was an innocuous one which could offend no one.. He had been involved in developing Y.M.C.A. rec- reational programs for soldiers on the Western front. As a repre- sentative of business, Wilson finally chose Cyrus McCormick, a choice dictated largely by the knowledge which the Russians pre- sumably had about the harvester machines. To talk with the Rus- sians about financial matters, Lansing recommended, and Wilson acceded to S. R. Bertron, a New York banker who had previously taken a role in the peace negotiations concluding the Turco-Italian War. For the military, Wilson selected the Army Chief-of-Staff, an old warhorse and Indian campaigner, General Hugh L. Scott, and to investigate naval conditions, Admiral James Glennon. These men were all perfectly capable, and some even met the Wilsonian qualifications. In addition to their appearance they were all be- lievers in democracy, and presumably, in the success of a democ- racy in Russia. They, like Wilson, made no differentiation among varieties of democracy, and so could quite easily fulfill the general criteria (Kennan, 1956; Williams, 1952; Mayer, 1964; Warth, 1954; Russell Diary). The remainder of the Commission was especially controversial, both in Russia and the United States. Wilson, apparently acting upon William McAdoo’s suggestion, had Lansing sound out Elihu Root to be the Chairman of the Mission. Root, albeit reluctantly, accepted this call to serve. The selection of Root, like so many of the other appointments, is shrouded in conjecture. If, as I have concluded, it was McAdoo who suggested him, then there is a strong likelihood that political considerations played the major role. To examine Wilson's criteria, i.e., a firm believer in the revolution, militated against every conservative breath and utterance of Elihu Root. Wilson’s almost total ignorance of the Russian situation is his only excuse for appointing Root, or, indeed, the entire commission. Root was a perfect foil for both the German agents and radical agi- BracAaw: Root Mission to Russia 99 tators busy in Russia undermining the Provisional Government. The anti-war Socialists in this country were enraged. Root was the per- sonification of the Socialist phrase: “tool of Wall Street,” and an aristocrat of democratic capitalism. He was the man who even Charles Edward Russell had once condemned in violent language as being the lackey of the corporate interests of Wall Street (Ken- nan, 1956; Jessup, 1938; Russell, 1908). Despite his distinguished service in both the War and State De- partments, Root was a most inappropriate selection on all counts as a commissioner to a new Socialist democracy, dedicated to the serv- ice of the laboring class: Root was just not that kind of a democrat. To represent labor, Wilson chose James R. Duncan, a Gomper’s recommendation. He, too, was a poor choice. Duncan, Vice Pres- ident of the American Federation of Labor (he was second in command to Gompers), was well past his prime (he was 72), and while honored by the laboring men of America, he was held in little regard as a representative spokesman for labor. This was, perhaps, insulting to the Russian proletariat in the government, who looked to their fellow laborers for strength and assistance. It was not so much that Duncan was unrepresentative of American labor; it was: more a matter that there were so many others in the movement who were more reflective of the spirit of the working masses. Duncan, while never as publicly vocal as Gompers, was as anti-Socialist as his chief (Kennan, 1956). Having once decided to add a Socialist to the Mission, Wilson did not find it easy to select one. When Gompers had been asked for suggestions, he had quickly recommended his good friend Wil- liam English Walling, a pro-war Socialist, who then received an in- vitation from Wilson to join the Mission. Walling declined with what apparently was little or no explanation. It is probable, since he was quite familiar with events in Russia, that he realized that he would not be wholeheartedly welcomed, especially by those So- cialists who were agitating for an end to the war. Whether it was Gompers or Walling who then recommended Russell is not clear; but in the first days of May, Secretary of Labor William Wilson sounded Russell out as to his availability and apparently got a green light. President Wilson issued, on May 10th, a formal invitation to Russell, which Russell immediately accepted. In such a manner was the last member of the Mission chosen. There is no reason 100 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES given for the selection in any of the correspondence, but several considerations are fairly obvious. Russell was a Socialist moderate. President Wilson was, again, misled by his lack of understanding of the Socialist Party split, both in Russia and in America. Russell was also an advocate of the war. Additionally, he had not made any recent appraisals or attacks on the Provisional Government, and was in total sympathy with the revolution, perhaps the only one on the Mission who was unreservedly so. What is more, Rus- sell had a reputation which even Walling did not possess as a firm supporter of movements for the common good—supposedly one of the prime objectives of the new government in Russia. Probably the most persuasive reason for his selection, was his willingness to go (there were only a very few pro-war Socialists from which to choose ), and to go on such short notice (New York Times, 1917). Russell’s ready acceptance should not be interpreted as a will- ingness to become a mere “tool” of the Wilson administration. His ready acquiescence to Wilson’s call was his individual response to serve mankind in any capacity which would aid in successfully con- cluding the war with an Allied victory. Russell is again afflicted with his ever present desire to perform a service for man, regard- less of its consequences to either himself or to the Mission. In either case it was probably a mistake. For himself, he was vilified with abuse by the anti-war Socialists to whom he was sent to appeal, his repudiation by his own party complicated, and in large measure defeated, his work for the Mission. Wilson’s mission when completed represented a predominance of the “aristocratic” and Wall Street interests which was the tack quickly assumed by the Socialist press. Root, McCormick, Crane, S. R. Bertron, a powerhouse of conservative, reactionary opinion: in the United States, were not well chosen to deal with the more radi- cal members of the new government. If, indeed one of the pur- poses of the Mission was to persuade the government to remain in the war, it was to the more radical members of the Council of Workers, Soldiers and Peasants (the Petrograd Soviet) that the group would have to appeal. No record exists that any of these men ever did. Dr. Mott’s concern was with ways in which the Y.M.C.A. and other organizations might make the military service of the Russian soldiers more palatable, encouraging them to con- tinue to fight. Both General Hugh L. Scott and Admiral Glennon Bracaw: Root Mission to Russia 101 were old staff officers whose concern was to determine the efficiency of the Russian fighting forces, to urge the Russian commanders on to greater effort, and to recommend ways in which the United States could fulfill the needs of the Russian military. Aside from James Duncan and Russell, then, there were really no Mission members who could, or would, appeal to the elements of the Rus- sian society essential for continuing the war (New York Times, 1917; Mock and Larsen, 1939). But the composition of the Commission was only one of its draw- backs. The nature of its arrival and its accommodations were heav- ily larded with symbolic overtones. The Commission travelled across Siberia from Vladivostok on the Imperial Train, Russell oc- cupying Princess Tatiana’s suite, and the others as royally suited. Even Russell indicated that the people at some of the stations looked askance at the train, and on one occasion attacked it, be- lieving that Czar Nicholas II was attempting to return to Petrograd and to power. While it is fairly certain that the Provisional Govern- ment wanted to treat the Commission to the best possible trans- portation, there can be little doubt that some of the Government's ministers, and much of the radical membership of the Council of Soldiers, Peasants and Workmen, realized the impact which might be made by such a display. The “capitalists” from America were thus brought into unfortunate association with the old regime: capi- talism was linked with the extravagance and luxury of a monarchy which had been overthrown just two months previously (Russell Diary, 1917). On their arrival in Petrograd, the Commission was once again linked to the autocratic Czar by being housed in the Winter Palace. While my conjecture here is tempered by the Provisional Govern- ment’s respect and regard for the comfort of the Commission, it can not be overlooked that this Palace was the very same one from whose balconies the Black Friday massacre had occurred. The palace remained largely untouched from the Czarist occupation, and except for the hospital which now was housed in the lower floor, the Commission was served as royalty had always been served in this palace. Russell, aware always of the aesthetic nature of his surroundings, was quite taken with the artistic treasures: furniture, paintings, sculpture and the like, that abounded throughout these quarters. It may also have been significant that the Provisional 102 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Government and the Soldier’s, Peasant’s and Worker's Council was located at the other end of the city (Beatty, 1919; Russell Diary ). Russell was much annoyed at the formality of the presentation of their credentials; they were required by American protocol to don their full regalia, while Terestchenko, the new government's foreign minister was dressed in “sackcloth.” The reversal of posi- tions, as represented by Benjamin Franklin’s arrival in Paris in 1776, seemed to cry out to Russell that the Mission looked “as if we ex- pected the Czar to return.” Russell constantly criticized the British representatives and the resident American colony for reflecting the view that without the Czar, Russia will “go smash.” “The English idea is, of course, that no country without a king can keep faith, do business, or bake bread.” While this represented a recurrence of Russell’s anti-British feeling, some Britons and Americans expressed this view openly, and to Russell’s mind did much to defeat the Allied aim of keeping the Russians in the war. Thus, the connec- tion of the United States to the British monarchy, and the regalia, which had since Franklin’s day taken on greater opulence, only em- phasized the symbolic connection to the “old Russia” (Beatty, 1919; Russell Dairy). Opposition to the Mission began before the Commissioners left the United States. Some of the more vituperative objections came because of Russell’s appointment, occurring as it did amid the clamor concerning the Stockholm Conference. This so-called “peace” conference had been originally called by the neutralist Dutch Socialists, and then seized and promoted by the peace- oriented Petrograd Soviet. They hoped to embarrass the predomi- nantly pro-war Provisional Government by forcing them into taking a stand. Thus, even before Russell had been appointed to the Mission, he had taken a position against the holding of the confer- ence opposed to that taken by the very people to whom the Presi- dent desired that he talk. On top of that, two days before Russell left with the Mission he and his fellow pro-war Socialists issued an- other broadside at the peace feelers of May, 1917. They declared in ringing tones that it was “useless to strive for peace unless the conditions of peace included the ousting of the Kaiser” and the autocratic government which presently controlled Germany. Need- less to say, the National Executive Committee of the Socialist Party replied in a direct blast at Russell. They reported that they had Bracaw: Root Mission to Russia 103 asked him not to go to Russia, but now that he was determined to do so, they repudiated him as a representative of American Social- ism. This, according to the report, was cabled to the Russian So- cialists, with the additional remark that “Socialists in America do not presume to advise Russian Socialists in what only they know what is best to do.” From Russia came communications from the Socialists there indicating that they did not feel that either Duncan or Russell truly represented American Labor, indeed, no labor organization had ever selected them. The fact that the conservative New York Times came to their defense in an editorial recommending govern- ment censorship of such anti-government remarks did not help their standing either at home or in Russia (Warth, 1954; New York Times, 1917). More forceful demonstrations of antagonism awaited the Mis- sion on their arrival at Vladivostok, where, after a none too enjoy- able voyage, the group was first greeted by a hostile group which treated them as unwelcome intruders. When the official reception committee arrived, they hustled the Mission off to a waiting train which was stationed at a railroad siding immediately adjoining the wharf. After the group had hurriedly left the city, the Russian in- terpreters who accompanied them, explained that there had been fear of violence being committed against the persons of the Mission. It was also rumored that the train would be blown up somewhere en route to Petrograd. While none of these things did occur, the Mission was ever aware of the possibility; whenever they ap- proached a station it was difficult to tell whether the waiting crowd would be friends or foes. On the return trip, the same conditions prevailed, but on at least two occasions actual events did take place: an attempt to set the train afire, and the blowing up of a bridge just ahead of their train which presumably was intended to finish them. Both Russell and General Scott labelled these threats as the work of anarchists, those who would take advantage of the unsettled conditions to wave their black flags. Despite these threats, the Mission remained remarkably calm, and apparently did not take any deeper meaning from them other than as isolated acts of anarchy. Despite these extraordinary evidences of hostility the group’s report to Secretary Lansing did not treat them as re- flective of any significant feeling within Russia (Russell Diary; Beatty, 1919). 104 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES On the voyage from Seattle to Vladivostok the Commission had met daily to plan their strategy. It was determined that each representative would attempt to communicate with appropriate of- ficials and economic groups as suited his specialty. Thus, while realizing that his job was made difficult by the actions of the So- cialists at home, Russell’s mission was to seek out the Socialists and talk earnestly with them concerning the prosecution of the war. Ad- ditionally, Russell was assigned, largely at his own suggestion, the role of developing a publicity and propaganda program for the aims of the Mission. The first task of meeting with the Socialists was difficult at first, but eventually Russell was accepted by some of the Social Revolutionaries, and moderate Socialists. He was never to achieve a rapport with the radicals, although he did accidentally meet Leon Trotsky on one occasion, and the two had a brief, but pleasant encounter. His view of Lenin at this stage was patronizing but cautious; he was a leader of an exceptionally small radical group, seemingly well-organized and perceptive of Russia’s weak- nesses, and tinged with pro-German feelings. It must be stressed that only Russell, of all the Mission members, attempted in any way to reach, and to enter into dialogue with, the “masses” of the Russian people through the Council of Soldiers, Peasants and Work- men. It was only through Russell’s persistence that James Duncan was allowed to speak before the Petrograd Soviet (Russell Diary; Kennan, 1956; Lasch, 1962). The matter of publicizing the need for the Russians to remain in the war was a great deal more difficult than Russell had initially imagined. The problems of interpreters and good translations were but two of several handicaps to the program. On the train from Vladivostok to Petrograd, Russell, with Major Stanley Washburn’s assistance, mapped out a vast propaganda campaign by which the great masses of Russian people might be reached. Both Russell and Washburn were convinced that this was the key: that if only the people can know the real reason for the war (the preservation of democracy) could Russia be induced to continue in it. Appar- ently the remainder of the Mission thought initially that this was an excellent idea, and suggested that the Mission request a large ap- propriation from the State Department for such a program. It should be noted that this was Russell’s immediate evaluation of the Mission’s opinion. Later diary entries of his seem to modify this Bracaw: Root Mission to Russia 105 view, for Russell refers constantly to his seeming inability to com- municate his “message” to Ambassador David Francis, and the Mission members. This became increasingly true as time passed. The attrition of interest may only have been a reflection of the Mission’s dismay over a lack of State Department support for the commission’s work. On the other hand, Rene Dosch-Fleurot, a re- porter for the New York World, was convinced that Russell was considered by many members of the Commission as being a “radical crank.” Thus these later entries may well support the “crank” thesis. Frequently, when the Commission assented to a Russell suggestion, it was done grudgingly, and sometimes with acerbity. The Commission’s meetings were not all harmonious and Russell seems, on occasion, to have been a thorn in its side. His attempt to show the Mission members the true picture of the political line-up was generally ignored; his insistence that a propaganda campaign such as he had outlined was the only way in which the Allies could counteract the superlative German agents, the “Am- bassadors from Hester Street,” and the radical Bolsheviks, in their agitation for a separate peace, was not met with complete under- standing. The reality of the situation in Russia did not seem to penetrate too deeply with the other members. Russell concen- trated his efforts on convincing Duncan of this, but even Duncan did not evince too much interest or concern. On several occasions Russell came into direct conflict with Elihu Root, and apparently made the mistake of conveying this disagreement to Ambassador Francis who, on one occasion at least, seemed cowed by Root’s im- portance. Ambassador Francis’ correspondence with Lansing would suggest that he and Root were of one mind that Russell was caus- ing, and would continue to cause, a great deal of friction with the Provisional Government—which both Root and Francis kept in- sisting was the real base of power in Russia (Russell Diary; Lasch, 1962). Russell’s inveterate activism and his sincere belief in the cause of the Revolution led him into an immediate attempt to make the necessary contacts to carry out his part of the mission. Algernon Lee’s tale of Russell immediately setting out to find Bessie Beatty of the San Francisco Bulletin to obtain a piece of red cloth of some kind so as to identify himself with the revolutionaries’ cause, verges on cariacature. This is just the way that Lee would have the 106 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES apostate Russell appear. In reality Russell probably did ask her for the cloth, for such was the sincerety of his belief in the “Red” cause. Russell was fully aware of the adverse press which he had received in Russia prior to the Mission’s arrival; it was important for him to establish some kind of rapport with the Social Revolution- aries, a dominant force in the Petrograd Soviet. Bessie Beatty did report going with him to the Soviet to speak when he wore a flam- ing red necktie and a red rosette in his coat lapel. He had found his symbols and was in the process of implementing their meaning. This type of action on Russell’s part was neither unusual nor was it out of character. It also apparently paid off: he did get into the Soviet, he did make a speech to it (however badly translated), and he was able to work with some of the members of that group on several projects. What Lee wanted to overlook, and Christopher Lasch seems to disregard in his work on Russian-American Rela- tions, was that the prevailing power in the Soviet, as in the Provi- sional Government, was with the moderate Socialists. The Bol- sheviks held only a little over 100 seats in a 900-member parliament. Indeed, Russell was not accepted by the Bolsheviks (it should be added that he made no real effort to be accepted by them), but it was his feeling that his work, and that of the Mission, was best ad- vanced through the power that existed at that time, to negate the vocal minority groups. When William A. Williams and Lasch in- dicate that Russell was the only one to recognize the significant power that existed in the Soviet, it must be stressed that that power at the time was the moderate revolutionaries, not the radicals under Lenin or Trotsky, despite their vocal superiority. Russell was well aware that one of the forces against which he was pitted were the Bolsheviks; they were against continuing the war, indeed, any war, and he knew it. It was his job to convince the wavering and less radical revolutionaries that only the defeat of Germany would as- sure a peace that would allow Russian democracy to flourish. His publicity program was to be geared to strengthening these ele- ments of the government. The failure to do so would enable the radicals to gain strength, and perhaps force the Provisional Goy- ernment to accede to the withdrawal of Russia from the war (Rus- sell Diary; Hillquit Papers; Lasch, 1962; Beatty, 1919). All of the Soviets wore their red badges proudly: rightists, middle-of-the-roaders, and leftists within the revolutionary spec- Bracaw: Root Mission to Russia 107 trum. The red rosette in his coat lapel was Russell’s mark of ap- probation for the principles of the Revolution. Russell’s walks along the Nevsky, and in the Field of Mars where the revolution- aries spoke the magic words of freedom, linked always with peace, made him realize the intensity of the feeling which pervaded the masses. It was not a separate peace with Germany which was de- sired; but rather, peace, the universal ideal. Only under such a peace could the Revolution be saved, and its principles effected. It seemed an almost unanimous feeling on the part of all of the revo- lutionaries, regardless of their position on the political spectrum: it was a discouraged Russell who returned from such walks to learn of the continued lack of response from Washington to his propa- ganda proposals (Russell Diary). Whatever the discouragements, and there were some days of utter dismay, Russell unrelentingly plugged at the publicity cam- paign. His tireless, but unrewarded efforts were prodigious. He spoke with many of the press representatives of the Allied nations, sounding them out, and getting their opinions, and their assistance for translations, interpretations, and the like. He contacted and worked with the British propaganda efforts (which he thought were essentially self-defeating: the films they showed of the British Army in action revealed enormous casualties and destruction) in getting publications translated into the vernacular and published. It was extremely embarrassing to Russell to have to rely upon the British to finance the printing of a Root speech which he thought would be of exceptional propaganda value. He talked at great length to Am- bassador Francis (whose dissimulation during the entire Mission stay with regard to Russell is revealed in his letters to Lansing) and he was fairly optimistic that Francis seemed to understand the need for publicity. On several occasions Francis sympathetically pre- tended to send cables to various persons requesting their assistance to the Mission’s publicity program; the telegrams may well have been sent, but went through the State Department which delayed, or ignored, them. Russell does not acknowledge in his dairies that he ever received replies. Russell was forced in the end, on the day before leaving Petrograd for the journey home, to turn the publicity efforts over to the Ambassador. It is typical of Russell’s optimism even at this point, that he believed that Francis would carry out the plan (Russell Diary). 108 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES But the Department of State was the real culprit in holding up the publicity program. Russell’s recommendation to the mission of widespread newspaper, journal, pamphlet and film saturation of the need for the united democracies to defeat the autocratic Germans, was finally sent to the Department after a brief delay (one of the incidents which should have revealed to Russell Root’s lack of en- thusiasms since the latter had held off for two days sending the cable). The reply from the State Department when it came was noncommital and evasive; the report was being studied, and a de- cision would be forthcoming. The decision was never made, and Russell’s insistence on pushing the publicity program at the com- mission meetings began to wear on the other members. Finally, on July 2, seven days prior to their return to America, Root indicated that the mission would abandon the propaganda program since ap- parently Lansing and the State Department did not want to do any- thing about it. In effect, then, Russell’s role was eliminated. But Russell deeply felt that he could not allow the decision to be final. At the meeting of the Commission on July 6, Russell astounded the group by proposing that “he remain behind and work on propa- ganda and publicity.” In a revealing diary entry, which, I believe, lays bare the Mission’s true feelings toward Russell, feeling which Russell himself may have finally realized, the answer was final: Root, of course, delivered the verdict of the rest. It was somewhat acid and to the effect that the Commission could not entertain any such suggestion . . . and declared in a bitter way that the Commission was done with the subject of publicity, which was now up to Francis and the State Department. Russell then posed the question: suppose that Ambassador Francis asked that he stay? There was no reply. “What if I stayed on my own?’ Root, with some irritation, indicated that it would have to be as an individual, and not as a representative of the United States Government. Russell was disheartened; his earlier request to Lan- sing to be allowed to remain after the Commission had gone, had met with stony silence. There seemed little alternative: he was under orders, and unless the State Department released him from those orders he felt obliged to follow them (Russell Diary ). The situation in Washington at this time was apparently quite complicated. Lansing and Wilson still had not determined just what course should be followed regarding the Revolution. Requests Bracaw: Root Mission to Russia 109 by the Mission for huge loans to the Provisional Government were met with more silence, since it could not be determined whether it would be either diplomatically or politically profitable to do this.1 The request for funds for a propaganda and publicity program were greeted in the same manner: procrastination and indecision. Lansing had forwarded the recommendations of the Commission to George Creel for the Committee on Public Information’s evaluation. Creel summarized the Commission’s reports for Wilson, and at the end of the summary indicated that no detailed plan was ready. But he was already thinking in terms of such a program and the man he wanted to head it in Russia: . it is my thought to ask Charles Edward Russell to act for the Com- mittee in Russia. He knows more about the Russian situation than any other, and in addition to his sympathy and understanding, he is one of the best newspapermen in the country, and a writer of rare ability. In spite of this apparent endorsement, Russell was not to be allowed to stay in Russia (Creel Papers). The Creel Committee never began to act or to put together a viable program until September or October, 1917, when it engaged Arthur Bullard to pursue almost the same program which Russell had suggested in June. Bullard’s efforts at the later time were utterly unfruitful, since by that time the radicals’ propaganda pro- gram had begun to make the successful claim that peace was ob- tainable, and desirable. It is doubtful that even had the Russell program of publicity gone into effect as early as June that any ap- preciable difference would have been made. But had the effort been made, there might have resulted a truer understanding of the revolutionary sentiment on the part of the State Department. Cer- tainly the Russian people might have more clearly understood the idealistic and evangelical Wilsonian policies. The press and the popular assemblies never really conveyed the fact that Wilson wanted peace as fervently as the revolutionaries. Because Russell had the same zealous concept of peace, the battle against Germany might have been translated into a more meaningful struggle. LITERATURE CITED Beatty, B. 1919. The red heart of Russia. The Century Company, New York.) py 27. CreEL, G. Papers. Library of Congress. 110 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Hititeuir, M. Papers. State Historical Society of Wisconsin. Jessup, P. 1938. Elihu Root. Dodd, Mean & Co., New York. p. 74. KENNAN, G. 1956. Russia leaves the war. Princeton University Press, pp. 19-21. LANSING, R. 1935. War memoirs, The Bobbs-Merrill Co., Indianapolis, p. 334. Lascu, C. 1962. The American liberals and the Russian revolution. Colum- bia University Press, New York. p. 179. Mayer, A. 1964. Wilson vs. Lenin. World Publishing Co., Meridian Books, Cleveland, p. 24. Mock, J. R., AND Larson, C. 1939. Words that won the war. Princeton University Press. p. 302. New York Times. April—October, 1917. Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States. 1940. The Lansing Papers, 1914-1920. U.S. Government Printing Office, Wash- ington Dy Co vol app. o20-oon8 Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States. 1918. Russia, 1931. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., pp. 21-66, 78-79. RussELL, C. E. Diaries, Library of Congress. 1908. Lawless wealth. B. W. Dodge & Co., New York, p. 74. WartuH, R. 1954. The Allies and the Russian Revolution. Duke University Press, Durham. p. 98. WiuiaMs, W. A. 1952. American-Russian relations. Rinehart and Com- pany, New York, p. 87. Faculty of History, Gamma College, University of West Florida, Pensacola, Florida 32504. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 33(2) 1970(1971) Phosphorus Fertilized Pasture and Composition of Cow Bone R. L. Sumwey, W. G. Kirk, G. K. Davis, AND E. M. HopcEs A prREcT relationship between the quality of bone and forage has been long accepted by livestock producers, but with limited actual trials recorded. Fertility of soil and mineral content of pas- ture forage are generally regarded as requirements of good bone formation and development as well as for overall performance of grazing cattle. Mature cows have approximately 83.6 per cent of the total body phosphorus in their bones (Ellenberger, Newlander and Jones, 1950). These workers found no large differences in per- centages of phosphorus and calcium between the various bones of the bovine skeleton. Becker et al. (1957) reported values for breaking strength of cannon bones of dairy cows and related some differences to dietary factors. The present study was made to determine the effect of phos- phorus applied as fertilizer to pasture on the breaking strength, den- sity and concentration of several elements in bone of grazing cows. EXPERIMENTAL The fertilizer treatments were on a 42.5 hectare site of Immoka- lee fine sand at the Range Cattle Experiment Station, Ona, in cen- tral Florida, which had been cleared of native vegetation and planted to pangolagrass, Digitaria decumens Stent, during 1947-49. Seven different pasture treatments were established: No phosphate (Control), Superphosphate-no lime (Super-no lime), Superphos- phate+lime (Super+lime); Concentrated superphosphate (Conc), Rock phosphate (Rock), Colloidal phosphate (Colloidal), and Basic slag. Each treatment involved 6.07 hectares consisting of two non-adjacent 3.04 hectare areas which were in turn divided equally in 1949 to permit an improved rotational grazing program. In Table 1 the phosphorus fertilizer treatments are outlined. Calcic lime was applied to the Super+lime treatment in 1947, 1950 and 1953 at the rate of 1118 kg per hectare. All areas except the Super-no lime received 2236 kg of dolomitic lime per hectare in 1955 and 1118 kg calcic lime in 1959-60. All treatments had identi- 112 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES TABLE?! Fertilizer applications to pastures, expressed in kg P,O, per hectare 1947-54 1955-58 P Source Ke EO; Interval Kg P.O, Interval Control none — none — Super-no lime 56.8 annual 28.4 annual Super + lime 56.8 annual 28.4 annual Conc 56.8 annual 28.4 annual Basic slag 56.8 annual 28.4 annual Rock 580 every 3rd yr. none none after 1953 Colloidal 545 every 3rd yr. 227 in 1957 cal nitrogen, potassium and minor element applications and were presented in detail by Hodges et al. (1964). No phosphatic fertilizers were applied in any treatment after 1958. During the years 1959 through 1965 the cows were observed for residual effects of the phosphate fertilizer applications. The cows depended entirely on pasture up to 1958, but due to severe weather some low phosphorous feed supplementation in the form of cottonseed hulls and citrus molasses which contained 0.06-0.07 per cent phosphorus as well as urea was necessary during parts of the winter and spring of 1958, 1960 and 1963. Each herd group had free access to common salt and a mineral mixture consisting of 100 parts common salt, 10 parts iron oxide, 2 parts copper sulfate, and 0.1 part cobalt chloride in a two-compartment box. The only phos- phorus and calcium provided to the grazing herds was in the forage. The number of cows on each treatment depended on the amount of pangolagrass forage. Five animals were always on the Control pasture, but 7-10 were kept in the other pastures depending upon forage supply. They generally calved in a 110 day period during January to April and the calves were weaned in September. Metatarsal or metacarpal bones were obtained from 28 cows when they were removed from the project after approximately 10- 18 years of age. Breaking strength was obtained using a Riehle stress machine following the technique of Miller et al. (1962). This procedure involved the static stress weight for breaking bone, dis- tance between supporting edges and cross-section area of bone at breaking point as determined with a planimeter for the calculation SHIRLEY ET AL.: Strength of Cow Bone 113 of breaking strength. Density value was determined by weighing a 10-20 gm sample of cortical bone from the breaking point area in air and in water and dividing weight in air by that obtained in water. A bone sample from the breaking area was dried at 100C to dry weight in an oven, and ash determined by heating overnight at 600C (A.O.A.C. 1960). Phosphorus was determined in ash by the phosphomolybdate colorimetric method (Fiske and Subbarow, 1925); calcium, magnesium and iron using the Perkin Elmer Model 303 atomic absorption spectrophotometer technique, and fluorine by the distillation zirconium-alizarin method (Megregian and Maier, 1952; A.O.A.C., 1960). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Values for breaking strength of bones of cows expressed as kg per cm? are presented in Fig. 1. The Control group was lowest in e aoe nt ~@ BREAKING STRENGTH KG. PER SQ CM 3 : e . DENSITY 1.8 PQ, FERTILIZER CONTROL SUPER- SUPER+ CONC BASIC ROCK COLLOIDAL TREATMENTS LIME LIME SLAG Fig. 1. Phosphorus fertilizer treatments of pasture versus breaking strength and density of cow bones. breaking strength with an average value of 660 kg per cm?. Cows grazing phosphate fertilized pastures had slightly greater average values in all six treatments. The Control grmoup averaged a density value of 1.9567 compared to average values of more than 2.0000 for those grazing the phosphorus fertilized pastures. Cows of all treat- 114 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ments had essentially the same quantity of forage per animal but varied in their total phosphorus intake. The Control group grazed grass that had 0.12+0.02 per cent phosphorus on the dry weight basis during 1951-1958 compared to values of approximately 0.2-0.3 per cent phosphorus in those pastures fertilized with various sources of phosphorus. During the seven residual years, 1959-1965, forage from the readily soluble phosphate treatments decreased in phos- phorus content to as low as 0.16 per cent. The average concentration of ash, phosphorus and calcium values in bone of the seven treatment groups are shown in Fig. 2. 41 6 | = zr4 ~s 3 eae i (0) | D) 0} | =e 2 : fo) ook Oo fo) ~ z 39: | <—{ ar aad O SF 1 20: 1 a 25 @—— e-__ @ —_ ® —___ ® ——___ ®__—_@ on © o a < |2000 = = a ate 8 =s ft oa az : : er ~ 1.15 = =) 0.60 4 Ep) xz ean i ae WJ o 4 4 ——— S80 ea eel 2 ns © z a= 6 - +0.50 a = | POg FERTILIZER CONTROL SUPER- SUPER+ CONC BASIC ROCK COLLOIDAL TREATMENT LIME LIME SLAG Fig. 3. Phosphatic fertilizer treatments of pastures versus magnesium, iron, and fluorine in cow bones. significantly different in magnesium content of bone from the other groups although it was the only one that did not receive dolomitic limestone. Average values for all treatment groups were in the range of 0.5-0.6 per cent magnesium in the bone ash. Smith (1959) reported that bone ash in calves decreased from a normal value of approximately 0.75 per cent eventually to one-third of this value when serious clinical symptoms of magnesium deficiency occurred. The average iron content in bone ash (Fig. 3) varied slightly from 18 to 28 ppm among the treatment groups. Anke (1966) demonstrated that young calves on rations containing 104 ppm iron had a significant decrease in bone iron content over a 140 day period compared to calves fed rations that contained 269 ppm of the element. Average flourine values are plotted in Fig. 3. Bones of cows 116 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES grazing the Rock and Colloidal fertilized pastures were significantly different. Duncan’s (1955) test for significance showed that fluo- rine content of the Rock group was higher than all but the Col- loidal group; and that the Colloidal group had more fluorine than the Control, Super-no lime, Super+lime and Basic slag groups. Fluorine occurs at levels of approximately 2-4 per cent in untreated colloidal and raw rock phosphate fertilizer. There was no raw rock phosphate applied after 1953 nor colloidal phosphate after 1957 and the cows were removed from the experiment generally 8-10 years afterwards. Hobbs and Merriman (1962) reported that the fluo- rine content of metacarpal, metatarsal and other bones of cattle was related to the level of flourine ingested, source of fluorine and length of experimental period. Ammerman et al. (1964) found that steers in the feedlot during 91 days readily accumulated fluorine in the metacarpal bones from dietary colloidal phosphate, calcium fluoride and sodium fluoride. There was some indication of increased breaking strength and density in the present study with the higher levels of fluorine in the Rock and Colloidal treatment groups. SUMMARY A study was made of the effect of phosphorus applied as ferti- lizer in the form of Super- no lime, Super+lime, Conc, Basic slag, Rock and Colloidal phosphates to pangolagrass pastures on the breaking strength, density, ash, phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, and fluorine of metacarpal and metatarsal bones of cows that grazed the pastures for 7-16 years and were 12-18 years of age. Cows grazing phosphatic fertilized pasture had slightly greater breaking strength and density of bone. Those that grazed pastures fertilized with rock and colloidal phosphates averaged approxi- mately 2900 and 2300 ppm fluorine, respectively, compared to 1400 ppm fluorine in the other five treatment groups. There were no significant differences in composition of ash, phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, and iron in bone due to fertilizer treatments. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors wish to thank John F. Easley and J. T. Perdomo for technical assistance in this study. SHIRLEY ET AL.: Strength of Cow Bone HLL 7 LITERATURE CITED AMMERMAN, C. B., L. R. ARRINGTON, R. L. SHIRLEY, AND G. K. Davis. 1964. Comparative effects of fluorine from soft phosphate, calcium fluoride and sodium fluoride on steers, Jour. Animal Sci., vol. 23, pp. 409-413. ANKE, M. 1966. Major and trace element content of cattle hair as an indi- cator of Ca, Mg. P, K, Na, Fe, Zn, Mn, Cu, Mo and Co supply. IV. The mineral content of hair and other organs in normal and Fe, Cu and Mn deficient calves. Arch. Tierernaehr., vol. 16, pp. 199-213. ASSOCIATION OFFICIAL AGRICULTURAL CHEMisTs. 1960. Official Methods of Analysis. Washington D. C. 9th edition, 832 pp. BECKER, R. B., P. T. Dix ARNoLD, W. G. Kirk, G. K. Davis, ann R. W. KippER. 1957. Minerals for dairy and beef cattle. Bull No. 513R. Univ. of Florida, 48 pp. Duncan, D. B. 1955. Multiple range and multiple F tests. Biometrics vol. 11, pp. 1-8. ELLENBERGER, H. B., J. A. NEWLANDER, AND C. H. JoNEs. 1950. Composi- tion of bodies of dairy cattle. Vermont Agric. Exp. Stat. Bull. No. 558, 66 pp. FiskE, C. A., AND I. SuspArow. 1925. The colorimetric determination of phosphorus. Jour. Biol. Chem., vol. 66, pp. 375-400. Hosss, C. S., anp G. M. Merriman. 1962. Fluorosis in beef cattle. Bull. No. 351. Univ. of Tenn., 183 pp. HopceE:, E. M., W. G. Kirx, F. M. Peacock, D. W. JoNrEs, G. K. DAvis, AND J. R. Nevier, 1964. Forage and animal response to different phos- phatic fertilizers on pangolagrass pastures. Bull. No. 686. University of Florida, 28 pp. MEGREGIAN, STEPHEN, AND FRANZ J. Mater. 1952. Modified zirconium- alizarin reagent for determination of fluoride in water. Jour. Am. Water Works Assoc., vol. 44, pp. 239-248. Miter, E. R., D. E. Uttrey, C. L. Zurant, BETTY BALTZER, D. A. SCHMIDT, J. A. HorFrer AND R. W. Lueckxe. 1962. Calcium requirements of baby pigs. Jour. Nutr., vol. 77, pp. 7-17. SuHimLey, R. L., J. F. Eastey, J. T. McCauz, G. K. Davis, W. G. Kirk, AND E. M. Hopces. 1968. Phosphorus fertilization of pangolagrass pastures and phosphorus, calcium, hemoglobin and hematocrit in blood of cows. Jour. Animal Sci., vol. 27, pp. 757-765. 118 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES SmiTH, R. H. 1959. Calcium and magnesium metabolism in calves. IV. Bone composition in magnesium deficiency and the control of plasma magnesium. Biochem. Jour., vol. 71, pp. 609-614. STRoBINO, L. J., AND L. E. Farr. 1949. The relation of age and function in nitrogen and ash content of bovine bones. Jour. Biol. Chem., vol. 178, pp. 599-609. Range Cattle Experiment Station, Ona, and Animal Science De- partment, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida. Institute of Food and Agricultural Science Journal Series no. 3168. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 33(2) 1970(1971) Physical Endurance of Rats Increased by Rutin K. M. Brooks AND R. C. RossBins EVIDENCE has accumulated in the literature which indicates that rutin (Nutritional Biochemical Corporation), a constituent of sev- eral plant species, might increase the resistance of animals to physi- cal exhaustion. Akamatsu (1931) reported that rutin increased the amplitude of the heart beat and increased the minute volume of both intact and isolated frog hearts. DeEds and Couch (1948) also reported stimulation of frog hearts with rutin and Fukuda (1932) found that rutin increased heart action in rabbits. In addi- tion, Teras (1964) reported that rutin had accelerating effects on the respiratory enzymes, succinic dehydrogenase and cytochrome oxidase. Acceleration of heart action and respiratory enzymes would appear to be key processes in the adjustment of the organism from the resting to the active state. Thus, the objective of this study was to determine whether rutin would increase the resistance of rats to physical exhaustion. Swim tests have been used in a variety of experiments to eval- uate the effects of treatments on physical performance (Tan, Han- son, and Richter, 1954; Werboft, Haggett, and Anderson, 1967) and was chosen for the present study. Thirty-six 100-day-old male rats were used. The rats were housed individually in wire mesh open bottom cages and fed a stock diet (Purina Laboratory Chow) prior to and during the 15 day experimental period. The experiment consisted of three phases: (a) a 5 day preconditioning period dur- ing which the rats were allowed feed and water ad libitum, (b) a one day period during which the treatments were administered and the swim trials conducted, and (c) a 9 day period during which the rats were observed for after effects. Rutin is only slightly soluble in water. and body fluids and easiest to administer to animals in the feed however, under. these conditions it is difficult to control dosage. A stomach tube appears appropriate but there is some controversy regarding the efficiency of absorption of rutin from the gastrointestinal tract as only traces could be found in the urine compared with appreciable quantities when fed intravenously (Griffith, Krewson, and Naghski, 1955). Subcutaneous application has been found to be effective as rutin 120 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES appeared in the urine as rapidly as after intravenous injections (Griffith, Krewson, and Naghski, 1955). In a search for a solvent for topical application, rutin was found to be highly soluble in di- methyl sulfoxide (DMSO), which has been found to be effective for administering drugs that are relatively insoluble in water (Jacob, Bischel, and Herschler, 1964; Rosenkrantz, et al., 1963). Based on this evidence rutin was dissolved in DMSO and applied topically. After the 5 day preconditioning period the rats were weighed in order to compute rutin dosage and an area approximately 5 cm in diameter on the back was shaved to permit topical application of the treatments, which were as follows: (a) normal control, (b) DMSO control, (c) DMSO +rutin. Dosage level for the DMSO+ rutin treatment was 75 mg rutin per kg of body weight. In order to give the DMSO alone at a comparable level with the DMSO used as a solvent in the rutin treatments, the dosage level was 91 per cent of the DMSO+rutin level. The rats were assigned at random to the above treatments. Six animals were used in the DMSO +rutin and normal control groups. Twelve rats were used in the DMSO group. Here in accordance with Dunnett’s (Steel and Torrie, 1960) recommendations, 12 rats were used since this latter group represented a reference standard for evaluation of the two treatment groups. The treatments were applied twice during the day preceding the swim test, 15 hrs before and one hr prior to the swim test. This procedure was based on excretion data (Scar- borough and Bacharach, 1949). The swim tests were carried out in a 55 gallon metal drum filled with water to a level 12 inches from the top. Water temperature was maintained at 18+0.5 C by addi- tion of ice. The ice was allowed to melt before the swim test. A weight handicap was provided by a lead collar 1 mm thick by 6 mm wide with the length adjusted to provide a weight equal to 4 per cent of the body weight. Swim time was measured with a stop watch. Testing ended when an animal remained submerged for 30 seconds. The rat was then removed from the water and returned to its cage for post-test observations. Body weight was followed for nine days to obtain a measure of after effects of the DMSO and DMSO -+rutin treatments. Food and water were allowed ad libi- tum during this period. Statistical analysis of the data were carried out using Dunnett’s test. The results of the swim tests of the rats subjected to the DMSO 121 Brooks AND Rosgins: Rutin and Physical Endurance [P49] SO>d 94} 78 VoUSIOYIp yuRoyluUsIs ATTeonsHeIS {| soUusIoyIp JUROYIUSIS ATTVOHSHeYS OU ‘4S90} WIAs SUIMOT[OF SALp 6 SUlINp osuKYO ION » ia a Ee a Ba ie ee oot 69°C $L9°CI €G v6E 9 unny + OSNWd Oar GG E 6€°6 €€ 98 GI OSWNd CGT LOG OL'6 T€ LL& 9 (OegreeyD) Uva ds Uva as uve ( ,SUIS ) QsULYO 3A 389} 4S0g (UIUL) 9W WIMS (SUIS) 3A Apog ON © qUSUIVeaIT, — SS Se LO a uAnI+ OSING YH Jo suocje OSING YHA\ pozeey szer 10J yYSIem Apog pue sown wIMe T WIdViL 122 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES and DMSO-+rutin treatments are shown in Table 1. The mean swim time of the rutin treated rats was significantly longer (P<0.05) than that of the DMSO treated or normal controls. Body weights before and nine days after the test were not significantly different. The results of the study confirms the evidence in the literature indicating that rutin might enhance physical performance. The 31 per cent increase in swim time of the rats administered rutin may indicate some usefulness for rutin in situations requiring a high level of energy output, especially since rutin has been reported to show an apparent lack of toxicity in the mammalian body (Griffith, Krewson, and Naghski, 1955). LITERATURE CITED AKAMATSU, K. 1931. Action of flavonols on frog hearts. Ber. Physiol. vol. 62, p. 443. DEEps, F., AnD J. F. Coucn. 1948. Rutin in green asparagus. Food Res. vol. 13, pp. 378-380. Fuxupa, T. 1932. The pharmacological effects of flavone groups. 1932. Arch. exptl. Path. Pharmakol. vol. 164, pp. 685-694. GriFFITH, J. Q., JrR., C. F. KREwson, AND J. Nacuskr. 1955. Rutin and re- lated flavonoids. Mack Publishing Company, Easton, Pa., 275 pp. Jacos, S. W., M. BiscHEL, AND R. J. HERSCHLER. 1964. Dimethy] sulfoxide: Effect on the permeability of biologic membranes. Current therapy res. vol. 6, pp. 193-198. ROSENKRANTz, H. H. Hapmran, H. Seay, anp M. M. Mason. 1963. Di- methyl sulfoxide: Its steroid solubility and endocrinologic and pharma- cologic-toxicologic characteristics. Cancer Chemotherapy Reports, vol. 31, pp. 7-24. SCARBOROUGH, H., aND A. L. BAcHarAcH. 1949. Vitamin P. Vitamins and Hormones, vol. 7, pp. 1-55. STEEL, R. G. D., AND J. H. Torrie. 1960. Principles and procedures of sta- tistics. McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. New York, N. Y. 481 pp. TAN, E. M., M. E. Hanson, anp C. P. Ricuter. 1954. Swimming time of rats with relation to water temperature. Fed. Proc. vol. 13, pp. 150-151. Brooks AND Rossins: Rutin and Physical Endurance 123 Teras, L. O. 1964. Effects of bioflavonoids on the activity of some respira- tory enzymes. IZV Akad. Nauk. Est. SSR Ser. Biol. vol. 1, pp. 135-141; Biol. Abstr. vol. 47, p. 11052. WersOFF, J. B., N. HAGGETT, AND A. ANDERSON. 1967. Swimming perform- ance of mice; time to submersion as a function of water temperature. Physiol. Behav. vol. 2, pp. 39-43. Department of Food Science, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601. Florida Agricultural Experiment Station Journal Series No. 2968. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 33(2) 1970( 1971) Echolocation-Type Signals by Two Dolphins, Genus Sotalia Davp K. CALDWELL AND MELBA C. CALDWELL Tue ability to echolocate may be universal among the small toothed whales (Norris, 1968, 1969) although it has been demon- strated experimentally for but two species: the Atlantic bottlenosed dolphin, Tursiops truncatus (see Norris et al., 1961) and the harbor porpoise, Phocoena phocoena (see Busnel, Dziedzic and Ander- son, 1965; Busnel and Dziedzic, 1967). Sound emissions that ap- pear to be echolocation-type signals have been recorded in many species of odontocete cetaceans, however ( Norris, 1969). The small freshwater Amazon river dolphin, Sotalia fluviatilis, has been maintained but rarely in captivity. An inhabitant of the Amazon river and its tributaries, its capture and transport are dif_i- cult and expensive. Additionally, it goes into fatal “shock” very frequently when handled. It is not surprising, therefore, that there are no published records of its sound emissions (see Schevill, 1964; Tavolga, 1965, 1968; Evans, 1967; Poulter, 1968, the species listed as Sousa pallida). Consequently, presentation of our rather limited data seems indicated as much time could elapse before more and better experimental evidence becomes available. On 12 November 1968, Marineland of Florida obtained two of this species, a mature female (Fig. 1), about 140 cm in length Fig. 1. Live adult female Sotalia fluviatilis (MLF 255) captive at Marine- land of Florida in 1968. CALDWELL AND CALDWELL: Signals of Dolphins 125 from tip of upper jaw to fluke notch, and her immature male off- spring that measured 106 cm. The animals had been captured on 4 November in the Napa river about 15 miles from Iquitos, Peru. They were held in captivity in Iquitos and then flown directly to Miami. After a layover there for a few hours, they were trucked directly to Marineland. Both were eating fish shortly after capture, although the juvenile also continued to nurse frequently. The animals were held for the first two days at Marineland in a small holding pen. During this time we recorded them for several hours, when we were introducing no outside stimuli other than the hydrophone, and during feeding episodes. Echolocation-type click trains were emitted by both animals during feeding (Figs. 2 and 3). The onset of the sounds correlated directly with the approach of the animals to the fish and ceased when the fish was grasped. Louder click trains were recorded several times when the juvenile approached the hydrophone, while facing toward and appearing to inspect it (Fig. 4). The loudness of these click trains directed toward the hydro- phone as opposed to the softness of the clicks recorded when the animals were searching for or investigating a fish may have been a function of the directionality of the emitted sound. Directionality of emission plays a large part in the degree of loudness of clicks picked up by a hydrophone (Schevill and Watkins, 1966; Norris, 1968, 1969), but this is more characteristic of the higher frequency ranges (up to 208 kHz) than of the lower frequency ranges at which we were recording (up to 20 kHz). The clicks made at lower frequencies retain an important fraction of their energy up to 20-25° bilateral to the midline in one species, the rough-toothed dolphin, Steno bredanensis (see Norris and Evans, 1967). The clicks of the mature female (Fig. 2) are extremely broad band, many with energy above the upper limits of our equipment (20 kHz). A dominant frequency, demonstrated more clearly at one-half the recorded tape speed (Fig. 2b), appears to be present in the individual clicks between eight and 15 kHz. The clicks emitted by the small male when approaching a fish appear on the sonagram to have limited energy above one kHz (Fig. 3), but we did not note the position of the animal’s head. A sonagram of the clicks emitted by this same animal when approaching and facing the hydrophone indicates that at least these particular clicks have a QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 126 N Oo Oo Mr OHM YT MN (2H) OAS LS220 (2°14 Le 1.0 02 04 06 08 TIME (SEC.) O i. 0.2 03 0.4 05 06 07 O08 O89 0.1 TIME (SEC.) CALDWELL AND CALDWELL: Signals of Dolphins PATE Fig. 2. Phonations of Sotalia fluviatilis. Echolocation-type signals emitted in daylight by an adult female (MLF 255) as she approached a sinking dead food fish at Marineland of Florida, November 12, 1968. Upper figure (a): Effective filter bandwidth 300 Hz. Lower figure (b): Section of (a) from about 1.0 to 2.0 seconds played at half speed. Note increasing click repeti- tion rate as the dolphin approached the fish. Effective filter bandwidth 600 Hz. Horizontal line at 6 kHz in (a) and 12 kHz in (b) is an artifact. much broader sound spectrum. Dominant frequencies in the broad band click emissions of sperm whales (Physeter catodon) have been shown and discussed by Backus and Schevill (1966). These authors tentatively placed the dominant frequency into the cate- gory of an individual rather than a species characteristic. Shift in frequency is apparent in the echolocation clicks of at least one species: the Atlantic bottlenosed dolphin (Norris, 1969). There is also a suggestion of a slight upward shift in the dominant frequency of the clicks in the Sofalia click train shown in Fig. 2b. No pure tone or complex periodic wave sound emissions (either usually termed a “whistle” ) were recorded during the above period. Two days later the animals were placed in a large community tank with four Amazon dolphins, Inia geoffrensis. The second day fol- lowing their introduction, the small male Sotalia was attacked sex- ually by a large adult male Inia. The Sotalia, unable to escape, was forced many times to the bottom of the tank where the larger male FREQ. (kHz) © 02 04 O06 O8 1.0 1.2 14 16 TIME (SEC.) Fig. 3. Phonations of Sotalia fluviatilis. Echolocation-type signals emitted in daylight by a juvenile male (MLF 256) as he approached a sinking dead pe fish at Marineland of Florida, November 12, 1968. Effective filter band- wi 300 Hz. eee 128 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Nm yn Ww fk OT onon © O O FREQ. (kHz) 0 02 04 06 O08 lO - 12-434 TIME (SEC.) Fig. 4. Phonations of Sotalia fluviatilis. Echolocation-type signals emitted in daylight by a juvenile male (MLF 256) as he approached the hydrophone at Marineland of Florida, November 12, 1968. Energy from 0 to 2 kHz at about 1.6 seconds is from a known non-doiphin source. Effective filter band- width 300 Hz. Horizontal line at 6 kHz is an artifact. effected several intromissions, most probably into the genital slit of the smaller animal. This occurred at night when it required about an hour to find help to separate the immature animal from the large harassing male. Placed in a separate holding pen, the im- mature animal was quivering, unable to retain his balance, and died in about 45 minutes. No whistles were heard from the tank during the entire episode. Underwater recordings of the episode were not made but as the animal was being supported and stroked by attendants for the 45-minute interval prior to death, they would most probably have heard any whistle emissions. The mother CALDWELL AND CALDWELL: Signals of Dolphins 129 showed no evidence of distress and made no audible vocalizations. Nor did she whistle on any of the occasions that she was recorded when netted or removed from the tank for medication (on ten oc- casions ). The mother died on 19 December 1968, and our period of ob- servation and recording of this species therefore covers 40 days. Spotte (1967) reported hearing loud high-pitched whistles from a male Sotalia fluviatilis held with two Inia at the Niagara Falls Aquarium, but did not record them. Under the above conditions, an adult female and juvenile offspring bottlenosed dolphin almost certainly would have whistled. Although the absence of whistles noted above should be on record, it does not necessarily follow that we can infer that S. fluviatilis lacks the capacity to whistle, as there are great individual and specific differences in the number of whistles emitted by those Cetacea that are capable of producing this type of sound. SOUND EQUIPMENT All of the recordings discussed in this paper were made at a tape speed of 7.5 inches (19 cm) per second with a Uher 4000 Report- S recorder, which at that tape speed had a flat frequency response of 40 to 20,000 Hz per second. An Atlantic Research Corporation model LC-57 hydrophone was used, with a special preamplifier de- signed and built for the system by William E. Sutherland of the Lockheed-California Company. Sound spectrograms (sonagrams ) were prepared on a Kay Sona-Graph model 662A Sound Spectro- graph Analyzer calibrated in two sections from 85 to 12,000 Hz per second. When the recorded tape speed is reduced by half, and then fed into the analyzer, the response of the latter is doubled to 24,000 Hz per second. The effective filter bandwidths for the il- lustrated analyses are indicated in the figure captions. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Financial support for certain phases of this work came from the National Science Foundation (grant no. GB-1189), the National Institute of Mental Health (grant no. MH-07509-01), the Office of Naval Research (contract no. N00014-67-C-0358-P001 ), and Marine 130 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Studios, Inc. The photographs are by William A. Huck of Marine- land of Florida. Assistance in making the recordings was provided by James Francis Miller III. LITERATURE CITED Backus, RicHarp H., aND WILLIAM E, ScHEvitL. 1966. Physeter clicks. In Kenneth S. Norris, editor, Whales, dolphins, and porpoises. Univ. California Press, Berkeley, pp. 510-528. BusNEL, RENE-Guy, AND ALBIN Dziepzic. 1967. Résultats métrologiques ex- périmentaux de |’écholocation chez le Phocaena phocaena, et leur com- paraison avec ceux de certaines chauves-souris. In Rene-Guy Busnel, editor, Les systemes sonars animaux, biologie et bionique. Jouy-en- Josas, France: Laboratoire de Physiologie Acoustique, vol. 1, pp. 307- 338. BUSNEL, RENE-Guy, AND SOREN ANDERSEN. 1965. Seuils de perception du systéme sonar du Marsouin Phocaena phocaena L., en fonction du diamétre d’un obstacle filiforme. Comptes Rendus Acad. Sci. Paris, no. 260, pp. 295-297. a is Evans, Witu1AM E. 1967. Vocalization among marine mammals. In Wil- liam N. Tavolga, editor, Marine bio-acoustics. Pergamon Press, New York, vol. 2, pp. 159-186. Norris, KENNETH S. 1968. The evolution of acoustic mechanisms in odon- tocete cetaceans. In Ellen T. Drake, editor, Evolution and environ- ment. Yale Univ. Press, New Haven, pp. 297-324. 1969. The echolocation of marine mammals. In Harald T. Ander- sen, editor, The biology of marine mammals. Academic Press, New York, pp. 391-423. Norris, KENNETH S., AND WILLIAM E. Evans. 1967. Directionality of echolocation clicks in the rough-tooth porpoise, Steno bredanensis (Lesson). In William N. Tavolga, editor, Marine bio-acoustics. Per- gamon Press, New York, vol. 2, pp. 305-316. Norris, KENNETH S., JoHN H. Prescott, Paut V. ASA-DORIAN, AND PAUL Perkins. 1961. An experimental demonstration of echo-location be- havior in thé porpoise, Tursiops truncatus (Montagu). Biol. Bull., vol. 120, pp. 163-176. PouULTER, THoMaAs C, 1968. Marine mammals. In Thomas A. Sebeok, editor, Animal communication; techniques of study and results of research. Indiana Univ. Press, Bloomington, pp. 405-465. SCHEVILL, WILLIAM E. 1964. Underwater sounds of cetaceans. In William N. Tavolga, editor, Marine bio-acoustics. Pergamon Press, New York, vol. 1, pp.. 307-316. CALDWELL AND CALDWELL: Signals of Dolphins 131 SCHEVILL, WILLIAM E., AND WiLu1AM A. Watkins. 1966. Sound structure and directionality in Orcinus (killer whale). Zoologica, vol. 51, pp. 71-76, pls. 1-6. SPOTTE, STEPHEN H. 1967. Intergeneric behavior between captive Amazon river dolphins Inia and Sotalia. Underwater Naturalist, vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 9-13. TAvoLcA, WILLIAM N. 1965. Review of marine bio-acoustics; state of the art: 1964. U. S. Naval Training Device Center, Port Washington, N. Y., Tech. Rep.: NAVTRADEVCEN 1212-1, pp. i-v, 1-100. ——. 1968. Marine animal data atlas. U. S. Naval Training Device Center, Orlando, Florida, Tech. Rep. NAVTRADEVCEN 1212-2, pp. i-x, 1-239. Marineland Research Laboratory, St. Augustine, Florida 32084. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 33(2) 1970( 1971) The Paleospecies of Woodpeckers PIERCE BRODKORB Tue fossil history of the woodpeckers, comprising the family Picidae, has been alleged to extend back into the early Tertiary. The reports of supposed woodpeckers covering the span from the Eocene through the Miocene epochs were published during the infancy of paleornithology nearly a century ago, and it now appears that all such records should be referred to other families in the order Piciformes or even to entirely different orders. ALLEGED EARLY TERTIARY WOODPECKERS From Aquitanian deposits in France, Milne-Edwards (1871) de- scribed two supposed woodpeckers, Picus archiaci and Picus con- sobrinus. Lambrecht (1933) not only retained them in the Picidae but even erected the genus Palaeopicus for them. Ballman (1969) demonstrated that they are not woodpeckers but belong in the order Coliiformes, presently confined to Africa. Marsh (1872) described Uintornis lucaris from the middle Eocene of Wyoming and stated that it was probably related to the woodpeckers. He did not illustrate his type, but Shufeldt (1915) published a life-sized photograph of the tiny specimen and stated that it was in no way related to the woodpeckers. On the basis of Shufeldt’s photograph I recently attempted to place Uintornis in the Bucconidae (Brodkorb, 1970), but Joel Cracraft has now sent. me enlarged photographs of the type, which show that it is refer- able to the Cuculidae. Depéret (1887) described Picus gaudryi, still another supposed woodpecker, from the Tortonian Miocene of France. The name was based on a femur and a tentatively referred distal part of a tibiotarsus, the latter without any description. Nothing in the brief characterization of the femur is diagnostic of the Picidae. The head of the femur is too flat proximally,and its neck lacks the con- striction present in the Picidae. The drawing also fails to show the prominently raised area of attachment of the iliacus muscle external to the anterior intermuscular line, characteristic of the woodpeckers. The distal end is depicted as being strongly inflected, whereas in Bropxors: The Paleospecies of Woodpeckers 133 woodpeckers the femur is straight, with the condyles expanding to both sides. If the drawing is accurate, the type cannot represent a woodpecker. PLIOCENE AND PLEISTOCENE WOODPECKERS Valid paleospecies of woodpeckers are known only from the Pliocene and Pleistocene epochs of North America. They include Pliopicus brodkorbi Feduccia and Wilson (1967) and Palaeonerpes shorti Cracraft and Morony (1969) from the Lower Pliocene of Kansas and Nebraska, respectively, and Bathoceleus hypalus Brod- korb (1959) from the Upper Pleistocene of the Bahamas. Addi- tionally, 28 neospecies of woodpeckers are recorded from Pleisto- cene deposits in the Holarctic and Neotropical regions. A BLANCAN I[vORY-BILLED WOODPECKER In western Texas Dr. Walter W. Dalquest recently discovered a rich vertebrate fossil locality, in which the most abundant large mammal is a three-toed horse, Nannippus phlegon (Hay). Re- mains of birds are common in this deposit and include a specimen of a large woodpecker. Related to the Guatemalan ivory-billed woodpecker, it represents a Neotropical element in the fauna. This fifth paleospecies of woodpecker is described below. Campephilus dalquesti, new species Holotype. Distal half of left tarsometatarsus (Fig. 1) collected in 1969 by Walter W. Dalquest, Midwestern University, in the Upper Pliocene (early Blancan) “black quarry”, on Beck Ranch, just south of U.S. Highway 180 and about 10 miles east of Snyder, Scurry County, Texas. Generic Diagnosis. Tarsometatarsus large, as in Campephilus Gray and Dryocopus Koch (smaller in other genera of Picidae). Agrees with Campephilus in having (1) shaft wide and stout, with only slight compression near middle (in Dryocopus shaft narrower, much compressed near middle, and flaring distally); (2) area of attachment for metatarsal I wide, indicating a large hallux (articu- lar area smaller in Dryocopus, which has a relatively small inner 134 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vadis ig %, ® 2G * Mec D ie pihiltedtlcits aD 20 tie watiihes bith BIOS Nis (tle ee 42 ji sill BD TS . phen” 7 eae ‘ a ¢ pe ele ie ‘ Z 2 ¢ y E Sisal ene G. ($e St Ge, x her” Fig. 1. Campephilus dalquesti, n.sp. Holotype tarsometatarsus, Midwestern University, from Scurry County, Texas. Length as preserved, 34.8 mm. hind toe); (3) area proximal to middle trochlea with a deep fossa for reception of talon of basal phalarx of outer front toe (fossa shallow in Dryocopus). Specific Diagnosis. Tarsometatarsus with shaft slightly com- pressed subterminally (as in recent C. principalis (Linnaeus) of southeastern United States wide throughout in recent C. guatema- lensis (Hartlaub) of Middle America and recent C. rubricollis (Boddaert) of South America. External distal foramen small but in normal position low on shaft (as in C. guatemalensis; small but elevated on shaft in C. rubricollis; large and low in C. principalis). Internal distal foramen minute and much lower than external fora- men (minute and slightly higher than external foramen in C. guate- Bropxors: The Paleospecies of Woodpeckers 135 malensis; minutely open only on plantar surface and lower than ex- ternal foramen in C. rubricollis; larger than external foramen and slightly lower in C. principalis). Facet for metatarsal I wide and deep (indistinct in C. guatemalensis, rubricollis, and principalis). Base of inner trochlea flaring smoothly from shaft (as in C. princi- palis and rubricollis; edge of trochlea with a marked protuberance in C. guatemalensis). Middle trochlea wide, 74 per cent of least width of shaft (70 per cent in C. principalis, 67 per cent in C. ru- bricollis, 56 per cent in C. guatemalensis). Rotular groove of middle trochlea wide and shallow with its inner rim slightly over- hanging side of trochlea (as in C. principalis; groove wide and deep with inner rim strongly overhanging side of trochlea in C. rubricollis; groove narrow and deep with inner rim strongly over- hanging side of trochlea in C. guatemalensis). Outer trochlea with a deep depression at base of its outer face (as in C. principalis and guatemalensis; depression shallow in C. rubricollis). Accessory trochlea turned back somewhat less than 90 degrees from anterior plane of shaft (turned about 90 degrees in C. principalis; more than 90 degrees in C. guatemalensis and rubricollis ). Measurements. Size similar to that of C. guatemalensis and rubricollis (much greater in C. principalis). Length of preserved portion of tarsometatarsus, 24.7 mm (length of entire bone 34.8 in C. rubricollis, 36.1 in C. guatemalensis, 47.4 in C. principalis; 27.4- 31.9 in 3 Recent Dryocopus lineatus (Linnaeus) from Mexico and Surinam; 35.4-36.8 in 3 Recent D pileatus (Linnaeus) from Flor- ida; 37.1 in 1 Recent D. martius (Linnaeus) from Russia). Least width of shaft, 3.1 (3.0 in C. rubricollis, 3.4 in C. guatemalensis, 4.0 in C. principalis; 2.1-2.5 in D. lineatus, 2.5 in D. pileatus, 2.5 in D. martius). Width of middle trochlea, 2.3 (2.0 in C. rubricollis, 1.9 in C. guatemalensis, 2.8 in C. principalis; 1.8-2.1 in D. lineatus, 2.0-2.1 in D. pileatus, 2.0 in D. martius). Depth through accessory trochlea, 5.5 (5.0 in C. rubricollis, 5.6 in C. guatemalensis, 6.5 in C. principalis; 4.3-4.75 in D. lineatus, 4.9-5.2 in D. pileatus, 4.7 in D. martius). Least depth of shaft, 2.7 (2.7 in C. rubricollis, 2.5 in C. guatemalensis, 2.9 in C. principalis; 1.8-2.05 in D. lineatus, 2.1-2.5 in D. pileatus, 2.1 in D. martius). Acknowledgments. I am happy to dedicate this new species to Dr. Walter W. Dalquest in recognition of his extensive work on the vertebrate paleontology of Texas, and for allowing me to study the 136 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES birds of this and other localities. I am also indebted to Dr. Richard Zusi for the loan of the specimen of C. principalis from the Fuert village site in Ohio (see Wetmore, 1943). LITERATURE CITED BALLMAN, PETER. 1969. Die Vogel aus der altburdigalen Spaltenfillung von Wintershof (West) bei Eichstitt in Bayern. Zitteliana, vol. 1, pp. 5- 60, 14 text-figs., pl. 1-2. Bropxors, Pierce. 1959. Pleistocene birds from New Providence Island, Bahamas. Bull. Florida State Mus., vol. 4, no. 11, pp. 349-371, map, pl. 1-3: 1970. An Eocene puffbird from Wyoming. Contr. Geol. Univ. Wyoming, vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 13-15. CRACRAFT, JOEL, AND JOHN J. Morony, Jr. 1969. A new Pliocene wood- pecker, with comments on the fossil Picidae. Amer. Mus. Novitates, no. 2400, pp. 1-8, fig. 1. DEPERET, CHARLES. 1887. Recherches sur la succesion de faunes de verté- brés Midcenes de la vallée du Rhone. Arch. Mus. Hist. nat. Lyon, vol. 4, pp. 45-313, text-figs. 1-7, pl. 12-25 ter. Fepuccia, J. ALAN, AND RicHarp L. Witson. 1967. Avian fossils from the Lower Pliocene of Kansas. Occ. Papers Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan, no. 655, pp. 1-6, figs. 1-2. LAMBRECHT, KaLMAN. 1933. Handbuch der Palaeornitholgie. Gebriider Borntraeger, Berlin, pp. xx + 1024. MarsH, O. C. 1872. Notice of some new Tertiary and Post-tertiary birds. Amer. Jour. Sci., ser. 3, vol. 4, no. 22, pp. 256-262. MILNE-Epwarps, ALPHONSE. 1867-1871. Recherches anatomiques et paléon- tologiques pour servir a l’histoire des oiseaux fossiles de la France. Victor Mason et fils, Paris, 2 vols., atlas. SHUFELDT, R. W. 1915. Fossil birds in the Marsh Collection of Yale Univer- sity. Trans. Connecticut Acad. Arts Sci., vol. 19, pp. 1-110, pl. 1-15. WETMORE, ALEXANDER. 1943. Evidence for the former occurrence of the ivory-billed woodpecker in Ohio. Wilson Bull., vol. 55, no. 1, p. 55. Department of Zoology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Flor- ida 32601. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 33(2) 1970(1971). FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES COUNCIL FOR 1970 President: TayLor R. ALEXANDER President Elect: RicHarp E. GARRETT Secretary: RoBertT W. LONG Treasurer: E. MorTON MILLER Past President: CLARENCE C CLARK Past President: Maurice A. BARTON Chairman, Charter and By-Laws Committee: FRANcEs L. STIVERS Finance and Auditing Committee: Grorce K. Davis Honors Committee: ALEx G. SmiITH Quarterly Journal Committee: ALFRED H. Lawton Talent Search Committee: FRANK M. DuDLEY Program Committee: RicHarp E. GARNETT Editor, Quarterly Journal: Pierce BRODKORB Chairman, Biological Sciences Section: SHELDON DoBKIN Physical Sciences Section: WILLIAM OELFKE Social Sciences Section: Jack E. VINCENT Medical Sciences Section: RicHARD GUBNER Science Teaching Section: LUTHER A. ARNOLD Conservation Section: GrorcE K. Rem AAAS Council and Conference Representative: LAUREN GILMAN State Coordinator of the Junior Academy: LAwrRENCE A. MONLEY Councilor at Large, Elected: Frep E. CLARK Councilor at Large, Elected: ALFRED P. Lawton Councilor at Large, Appointed: I. G. Foster Councilor at Large, Appointed: Lewis D. OBER ADDITIONAL COMMITTEE CHAIRMEN | Future Annual Meetings: MAarcAaRrET GILBERT | Historian: GrorcE F. WEBER Junior Academy Director: Jay CooPEerR Junior Colleges: Lewis D. OBER Local Arrangements: RoNc-SHENG JIN Membership: JosEpH L. Stmon Necrology: Ruta S. BREEN 138 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES News Letter: ALFRED P. MILLs Nominating: ALFRED P. MILts Projects: JOHN E. MILLER Resolutions: STANLEY S. BALLARD Steering: GeorcE K. Rem Visiting Scientists: CLARENCE C CLARK CHAIRMEN ELECT Biological Sciences: Jos—EpH L. Stmon Conservation: JoHn L. TAYLOR Medical Sciences: RoBeRT G. SHERRILL Physical Sciences: PALMER L. EDWARDS Science Teaching: Harotp W. Sims Social Sciences: ERNEST F. DripsLe INSTITUTIONAL ann INDUSTRIAL MEMBERS American Medical Research Institute Archbold Expeditions Barry College Florida Atlantic University Florida Institute of Technology | Florida Presbyterian College Florida Southern College Florida State University Florida Technological University Jacksonville University Manatee Junior College Marymount College Miami-Dade Junior College Mound Park Hospital Foundation Nova University of Advanced Technology Ormond Beach Hospital Rollins College St. Leo College Stetson University United States Sugar Corporation Membership List 139 University of Florida University of Florida Communications Laboratory University of Miami University of South Florida University of Tampa University of West Florida MEMBERS OF THE ACADEMY December 10, 1970 Sectional membership is indicated as follows: B, Biological Sci- ences; C, Conservation; M, Medical Sciences; P, Physical Sciences; S, Social Sciences. Members are requested to inform the Editor of their sectional preferences. Ackell, Dr. Edmund F., Coll. Dentistry, Univ. of Florida, Gainesville, Fla. 32601 M Acker, Susan J., Moorhead Manor, 65 Kelly Rd., Naples, Florida 33940 Aguiar, Dr. Elsa M., 2909 Collier Ave., Jacksonville, Florida 32205 Ahearn, James P., M. D., 501 E. Buffalo Ave., Tampa, Florida 33603. M Alexander, Dr. Taylor R., Dept. Biology, Univ. Miami, Coral Gables, Florida 33124 B is Alfieri, Dr. S. A., Jr., Box 1269, Gainesville, Florida 32601 B Allen, Ross, Ross Allen’s Reptile Inst., P. O. Box 367, Silver Springs, Florida 32688 B Allen, Dr. Ted T., Jacksonville Univ., Jacksonville, Florida 32211 B Almodovar, Dr. Luis R., Dept. of Marine Sci., Univ. of Puerto Rico, Maya- guez, Puerto Rico 00708 B Anderson, Dr. A. G. H., 202 Driftwood Ln., Harbor Bluffs, Largo, Florida 33540 Anderson, William D., Jr., Grice Marine Biol. Lab., 205 Fort Johnson, Charles- ton, S. Carolina 29407 B : Andrews, Donald H., 750 N.E. 33 St., Boca Raton, Florida 33432 Andrews, F. C., M. D., Mount Dora Clinic, Mount Dora, Florida 32757 M Archibald, Alfred W., 6124 Hollywood Ave., Sarasota, Florida 33581 Arnold, Luther A., 171 Norman Hall, Univ. Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601 B Ash, Mrs. Louise V., 2926 Swan Lane, Pensacola, Florida 32504 T Ash, Dr. Willard O., 2926 Swan Lane, Pensacola, Florida 32504 P Ashford, Dr. Theodore A., Univ. South Florida, Tampa, Florida 33620 B 140 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Babski, Prof. Carl, Miami-Dade Jr. Coll. (North), Miami, Florida 33167 Baird, Dr. Ronald C., Marine Sci. Institute, Univ. of S. Florida, St. Petersburg, Florida 33701 B Baker, Dr. Graeme, Dept. Chemistry, Florida Technological Univ., Box 25000, Orlando, Florida 32816 B, P Baker, Robert A., III, 7700 Bellaire Blvd. #337, Houston, Texas 77036 P Ballard, Dr. Stanley S., Dept. of Physics, Univ. of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601 P Banerjee, Dr. Shibclas, 620 Creek Drive, Menlo Park, California 94306 B Banks, Joseph E., 1411 Marion Ave., Tallahassee, Florida 32303 C Barbaree, Dr. James M., Biology Dept., Univ. of West Florida, Pensacola, Florida 32504 B Barkuloo, James M., Coop. Fishery Unit, Auburn Univ., Auburn, Alabama 36830 C Barton, Dr. Maurice A., 1900 Almeria Way S., St. Petersburg, Florida 33712 M Barton, Steven A., 8000 Elbow Lane, St. Petersburg, Florida 33712 Barton, Dr. William K., 861 Sixth Ave. S., St. Petersburg, Florida 33701 M Baumgardner, Mrs. David L., P. O. Box 2186, Satellite Beach, Fla. 32935 Baxter, Dr. John F., Jr., Dept. Chemistry, Univ. of Florida, Gainesville, Flor- ida 32601 P Beck, William M., Jr., 1621 River Bluff Road, Jacksonville, Florida 32211 B Becknell, Dr. G. G., 6900 Dixon Avenue, Tampa, Florida 33604 P Becker, Stanley, P. O. Box 62, Big Pine Key, Florida 33043 Beery, Dr. John R., Dean, School of Education, Univ. Miami, Coral Gables, Florida 33124 S Bellamy, R. E., Rural Route 1 Carrying Place, Ontario, Canada B Beller, H. E., 743 duPont Bldg., Miami, Florida 33132 M Bein, Selwyn J., 6831 S. W. 106 Street, Miami, Florida 33156 Bender, Edward S., Dept. Zoology, Univ. of Fla., Gainesville, Florida 32601 B Bennett, Frank A., P. O. Box 3, Olustee, Florida 32072 C Benson, Dr. Albin N., 722 Carolina Ave., St. Cloud, Florida 32769 Beohm, E. E., 324 W. 7th St., Jacksonville, Florida 32206 M Berry, Frederick H., Marine Protein Corp., Rt. 1 Box 35, Tavernier, Florida 33070 B Bieber, Theodore I., Dept. Chemistry, Florida Atlantic Univ., Boca Raton, Florida 33432 P Bigelow, Dr. Maurice H., 188 S. E. Baldwin Ct., Port Charlotte, Florida 33950 Bird, L. C., 303 S. 6th Street, Richmond, Virginia 23219 B Birdsey, M. R., Dept. Biology, Miami-Dade Junior College, Miami, Florida 33156 B Birdsong, Ray S., Institute of Marine Sciences, 1 Rickenbacker Causeway, Miami, Florida 33149 B Bishop, Jim, Dept. Marine Sci., Louisiana State Univ., Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803 B Bissland, Howard R., 1720 Glencoe Rd., Winter Park, Florida 32789 C Blackburn, Robert D., Box 9087, Ft. Lauderdale, Florida 33310 Membership List 141 Blanchard, Dr. Frank N., Dept. Geology, Univ. Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601 P Block, W. F., 2616 Fairway Ave. S., St. Petersburg, Florida 33700 P Bodman, John W., 548 Yawl Lane, Sarasota, Florida 33577 P Bonninghausen, Russel A., 313 Lakeshore Dr., Tallahassee, Florida 32303 C Bonniwell, Bernard, Univ. Villanova, Villanova, Penn. 19085 S Borders, Huey I., 1121 Citrus Isle, Fort Lauderdale, Florida 33315 B Boss, Dr. Manley L., Florida Atlantic Univ., Boca Raton, Florida 33432 B Boulware, Joe W., Univ. South Florida, Tampa, Florida 33620 P Boyd, William R., Mt. Lake, Lake Wales, Florida 33853 Bragaw, Dr. Donald H., Dept. of History, Univ. of West Florida, Pensacola, Florida 32504 S Breder, Dr. C. M., Jr., R.F.D., 1, Box 452, Englewood, Florida 33533 B Breen, Dr. Ruth S., 1806 Croydon Drive, Tallahassee, Florida 32303 B Brendemuehl, R. H., Box 900, Marianna, Florida 32446 Brennen, Dr. John Joseph, Florida Technological Univ., Box 25000, Orlando, Florida 32816 Brey, Dr. Wallace S., Jr., 800 N. W. 37th Drive, Gainesville, Florida 32601 P Brezonik, Dr. Patrick, Dept. Environ. Engineering, Univ. of Florida, Gaines- ville, Florida 32601 P Briggs, Dr.. John C., Dept. Zoology, Univ. of South Florida, Tampa, Florida 33620 B Brockman, Frederick W., Biology Dept. Pensacola Jr. Coll., Pensacola, Florida 32504 B Brodkorb, Dr. Pierce, Dept. Zoology, Univ. Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601 B Life Broida, Dr. Saul, Institute of Marine Sciences, L. Rickenbacker Causeway, Miami, Florida 33149 B Brooker, Dr. Ralph H., Dept. Physics, University of South Florida, Tampa. Florida 33620 P Brooks, Dr. Karl M., Dept. Psychology, Florida A & M, Tallahassee, Florida 32307 S Brown, Charles P., 641 N. W. 34th Terrace, Gainesville, Florida 32601 B Brown, Joe W., Gulf Coast Jr. Coll., Panama City, Florida 32401 Brown, Dr. Larry N., Dept. Zoology, Univ. of South Florida, Tampa, Florida 33620 B Broyles, Dr. Arthur A., Dept. Physics, Univ. Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601 1B Bryant, David R., Jr., 1007 N. W. 35th Ave., Gainesville, Florida 32601 Buckland, Miss Charlotte B., 2623 Herschel St., Jacksonville, Florida 32204 B Bullen, Mrs. Adelaide K., Fla. State Museum, Gainesville, Florida 32601 B Bullen, Ripley P., 103 Seagle Bldg., Gainesville, Florida 32601 B Buri, Dr. Peter, Div. Natural Sci., New College, Sarasota, Florida 33570 B Burlingham, Kenneth, 5106 Memory Lane, El Paso, Texas 79932 B Burns, Russell M., Box 900, Marianna, Florida 32446 C,B Burt, William A., St. Andrews School, Boca Raton, Florida 33432 Burton, R. H., 5121 S. W. 93rd Ave., Fort Lauderdale, Florida 33314 P 142 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Busby, Dr. Joe N., Fla. Agric. Extension Service, 107 Rolfs Hall, Univ. of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601 B Butler, Dr. Albert Q., 2049 Clematis St., Sarasota, Florida 33579 Caldwell, David K., Marineland Research Lab., Rt. 1, Box 122, St. Augustine, Florida 32084 B Camacho, Dr. E. Oliver, 740 N. E. 181st St., North Miami Beach, Florida 33162 Camberos, Dr. Hector R., 321 Wm. Bartram Hall, Univ. of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601 Campbell, James A., 2707 Bronte Ave., Nashville, Tenn. 37216 B Capone, Mr. J. J., Dept. Biological Sciences, Florida State Univ., Tallahassee, Florida 32306 B Carder, Dr. Kendall L., Marine Sci. Institute, 830’ First’ St (S256 Petersburg, Florida 33701 B Carlisle, Dr. Victor W., 223 McCarty Hall, Univ. Florida, Gainesville, Florida SYACUIL =P? Carr, Dr. A. F., Jr., Dept. of Zoology, Univ. Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601 B aoe Carr, Joseph A., Jr., 3402 Riverview Drive, Tampa, Florida 33604 P Carr, Dr. T. D., Dept. Physics, Univ. Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601 P Carratt, Dr. C. A., 23 Diamandidou Ave., Psychikon, Athens, Greece Carroll, Dr. Edward E., Nuclear Science Bldg., Univ. of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601 P Carter, William J., P. O. Box 247, Yankeetown, Florida 32698 S, B, P Caughey, Winslow S., Dept. Chemistry, Arizona State University, Tempe, Ari- zona 85281 P, B Chaet, Dr. Alfred B., Provost, Gamma College, Univ. of West Florida, Pensa- cola, Florida 32504 Chamelin, Dr. I. M., 615 Phelps Ave., Winter Park, Florida 32789 B Chen, Dr. Kwan-Yu, Dept. Physics-Astronomy, Univ. Florida, Gainesville, Flor- idae o2.60i1ese Chestnut, Dr. Lloyd, Dept. of Biology, Box 25000, Florida Tech. Univ., Or- lando, Florida 32816 B Chew, Dr. Robert L., Game and Fresh Water Fish Comm., Box 1088, Eustis, Florida 32726 C Clapper, Russell B., 2072 Braman St., Fort Myers, Florida 33901 B Clark, Dr. Clarence C, Univ. South Florida, Tampa, Florida 33620 P Clark, Samuel F., Dept. Chemistry, Florida Atlantic Univ., Boca Raton, Florida Sye4eoyn IP Clarke, Walter V., 1195 S. E. 17th St., Fort Lauderdale, Florida 33316 S§ Claus, Dr. Edward P., Ferris State College, Big Rapids, Michigan 49307 B, M Clugston, James P., Ga. Coop. Fishery Univ., School of Forest Resources, Univ. of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30601 B C Cole, Timothy, Dept. of Biology, Univ. of West Fla., Pensacola, Florida 32504 B Membership List 143 Coleman, Miss Sylvia E., 1408 S. W. 10 Terr., Apt. 38, Gainesville, Florida 32601 B Combs, Christopher L., Dept. Biological Science, Florida State Univ., Talla- hassee, Florida 32306 B Conard, Dr. Henry S., Lake Hamilton, Florida 33851 P : Conway, Kenneth E., Dept. of Botany, Univ. of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601 B Cook, Dr. John B., Box 28, Jacksonville Univ., Jacksonville, Florida 32211 Cosper, Mr. Terry C., Institute of Marine Sci., 10 Rickenbacker Causeway, Miami, Florida 33149 B Cowan, Steve W., P. O. Box 551, Miami Springs, Florida 33166 Craig, Dr. Alan, Dept. of Geography, Florida Atlantic Univ., Boca Raton, Florida 33432 P Craig, Palmer H., Jr., 401 S. W. 43rd Terr., Gainesville, Florida 32601 Craighead, Brak C., Box 825, Homestead, Florida 33030 B Crawford, Mrs. rleanor eerie OF BoxeniiG: Jacksonville Univ., Jacksonville, Florida 32211 B Crossman, Roy A., Jr., 106 4th St., Jan-Phy] Village, Winter Haven, Florida 33880 B Crouch, Dr. G. E., Jr., Physics Dept., Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida 32306 P Culbertson, Jon R., Div. Nat. Sci., New College, Sarasota, Fla. 33578. B Cunha, Dr. T. J., 259 McCarty Hall, Univ. Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601 B Dambaugh, Dr. Luella N., Univ. Miami, Coral Gables 33124 S Life Dana, Allan H., 6606 S. W. 60th St., South Miami, Florida 33143 S$ Dash, Harriman H., 5315 S. W. 111th Ave., Miami, Florida 33165 Davis, Dr. George K., Director Sponsored Research, Univ. of Florida, Gaines- ville, Florida 32601 B Davis, Jefferson C., Jr., Dept. Chemistry, Univ. South Florida, Tampa, Florida 33620 P Davis, P. William, 2160 Burnice Dr., Clearwater, Florida 33516 Davis, Robert L., 11525 82nd Avenue N., Largo, Florida 33540 M de Blij, Dr. Harm, Dept. Geography, Univ. of Miami, Coral wails Eugeay Sal P Deichmann, Dr. Wm. B., School of Medicine, Univ. Miami, Cora Cables, Florida 33134 M Delaney, J. H., Miami-Dade Jr. Coll., 11380 N. W. 27th Ave., Miami, Florida PO LOL Denman, Dr. Sidney B., College Med., Univ. Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601 § Dennison, Dr. R. A., Dept. Food Science, Univ. of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601 B Dequine, John F., Southern Fish Culturists, Box 251, Leesburg, Florida 32748 B Dew, Dr. Robert J., Jr., P. O. Box 18243, Tampa, Florida 33609 P 144 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Dewitt, Dr. Hugh H., Darling Center, Univ. of Maine, Walpole, Maine 04573 B Dibble, Dr. Ernest F., History Dept., Univ. of West Fla., Pensacola, Florida 32504 S$ Dickinson, Dr. J. C., Jr., Florida State Museum, Gainesville, Florida 32601 B Dobkin, Dr. Sheldon, Dept. Biological Sciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, Florida 33432 B Down, Dr. Russel J., M. D., Box 156, Cape May Court House, New Jersey 08210 M Doyle, Dr. Laura M., 365 Hawthorne Avenue, Palo Alto, California 94301 Driver, Paul J., 1347 West 9th St., Jacksonville, Florida 32209 T Drysdale, Taylor, 5526 Parkdale Drive, Orlando, Florida 32809 S Dubbelday, Dr. Pieter S., 506 Magnolia Ave., Malbourne Beach, Florida 32951 P Dudley, Frank M., Div. Physical Sci., Univ. South Florida, Tampa, Florida 33620 P Duke, Dr. Thomas W., BCF Biological Field Station, Gulf Breeze, Florida 32561 B DuMond, Frank V., P. O. Box 246, Goulds, Florida 33170 Dunathan, Jay P., Oceanog. Matriculture Industries, 301 Broadway, Riviera Beach, Florida 33404 Dunnam, James W., 921 Avenue T S. E., Winter Haven, Florida 33880 Dunning, Wilhelmina F., U. Miami Cancer Res. Lab., Box 8215, Coral Gables, Florida 33124 M Dutcher, Dr. Clinton H., Jr., 4319 Cortez Way, St. Petersburg, Florida 33712 Dutton, Dr. Arthur M., Florida Technological Univ., Box 25000, Orlando, Flor- ida 32124 Earle, Dr. Lewis S., 630 S. Lake Sybelia Dr., Maitland, Florida 32751 Eck, Dr. John S., Dept. Physics, Florida State Univ., Tallahassee, Florida 32306 P Edds, Dr. George T., 1811 N.W. 11th Rd., Gainesville, Florida 32601 B Eden, Dr. W. G., Dept. Entomology and Nematology, Univ. of Florida, Gaines- ville, Florida 32601 B Edwards, George J., P. O. Box 1088, Lake Alfred, Florida 33850 Edwards, Dr. Palmer L., Physics Faculty, Univ. of West Florida, Pensacola, Florida 32504 P Edwards, Dr. Richard A., Dept. Geology, Univ. Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601 P Ehrhart, Llewellyn, Dept. Biol. Sci., Fla. Tech. Univ., Orlando, Florida 32816 B Eiseman, Nathaniel, Jr., 830 First St. S., St. Petersburg, Florida 33701 Eisenstein, Dr. Sam, 1691 Commonwealth Ave., #16, Brighton, Massachusetts 02135. 6 Elliott, Dr. Myron A., U S Navy Mine Defense Lab., Panama City, Florida 32401 B, P Ellis, Dr. Leslie L., Florida Technological Univ., Box 25000, Orlando, Florida 32801 Membership List 145 Ellison, Dr. Marion L., Univ. of Tampa, Tampa, Florida 33606 Emmerton, Ernest E., Box 21, 2200 Waldo Rd., Gainesville, Florida 32601 P Escobar, Dr. Mario R., 2651 University Blvd. N., Apt. 102 G, Jacksonville, Florida 32211 Esler, Dr. William K., Florida Technological Univ., Box 25000, Orlando, Flor- ida 32816 Etheridge, Mrs. Sandry Y., Math-Science Division, Gulf Coast Jr. Coll., Pan- ama City, Florida City, Florida 32401 P Evans, Dr. Charles A., 208 S. Renellie Dr., Tampa, Florida 33609 Evans, Dr. Elwyn, 500 E. Colonial Dr., Orlando, Florida 32803 M Everett, Hayes L., Jr., Gulf Coast Jr. Coll., Panama City, Florida 32401 Ferguson, Dr. John C., Dept. Biology, Florida Presbyterian College, St. Peters- burg, Florida 33733 B Fernandez, Dr. Jack E., Univ. South Florida, Tampa, Florida 33620 P, T Fermandez, Mario, Jr., 270 Longstreet Ave., Bronx, New York 10465 Field, D. Henry, 3551 Main Highway, Coconut Grove, Florida 33133 §S Findley, Dr. George B., 113 Meigs Dr., Shalimar, Florida 32579 Finucane, John H., 1320 58th St. S., Gulfport, Florida 33707 B Fischer, Dr. Abraham, Nova Univ., College Ave., Ft. Lauderdale, Florida 35314 Fiterre, Dr. Ignacio, 3337 Rogero Rd., Jacksonville, Florida 32211 Fleek, Dr. James B., 518 Patricia Lane, Jacksonville Beach, Florida 32050 P Flynn, Dr. Robert W., Physics Dept., Univ. of South Florida, Tampa, Florida 33620 P Fogarty, Michael J., 2606 N.E. 17th Terr., Gainesville, Florida 32601 Foote, Dr. Perry A., 525 N. E. 9th Ave., Gainesville, Florida 32601 P Ford, Dr. Ernest S., Dept. Botany, Univ. Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601 B Forman, Guy, Dept. Physics, Univ. South Florida, Tampa, Florida 33620 P Foster, Dr. I. G., Florida Presbyterian College, St. Petersburg, Florida 3373 P Foster, Dr. Virginia, Box 87, Pensacola College, Pensacola, Florida 35204 B Foster, Miss Joyce, 936 Terrace Road, No. 108, Tempe, Arizona 85281 B Fox, Dr. Jackson L., 208 Black Hall, Univ. of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601 P Fox, Richard S., Dept. of Biol., Univ. of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40208 B Fox, Dr. S. W., Institute of Molecular Evolution, Univ. Miami, 521 Anastasia, Coral Gables, Florida 33134 B Foxman, David A., 5634 S. W. 60th Ave., S. Miami, Florida 33143 P French, Dr. Rowland B., 1225 N. E. 5th Terr., Gainesville, Florida 32601 Friedland, Bernard, 1010 Manati Ave., Coral Gables, Florida 33146 M Life Frierson, Paul E., 3027 N. W. 4th Terr., Gainesville, Florida 32601 B Frye, Dr. O. E., Jr., Game and Fresh Water Fish Comm., Tallahassee, Florida 32304 B Fuller, Dorothy L., P. O. Box 418, DeLand, Florida 32720 B Futch, Charles R., Box 1799, St. Petersburg, Florida 33731 146 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Gabianelli, Mr. V. J., International Oceanographic Foundation, 10 Ricken- backer Causeway, Miami, Florida 33149 B Gallagher, Dr. John C., 12250 6th St. East, Treasure Island, Florida 33706 Gardner, Elizabeth Ann, 1104 Petronia St., Key West, Florida 33040 M Garfinkel, Matthew, 2425 Jersey St., Orlando, Florida 32806 Garner, Miss Ann, Univ. of Tampa, Tampa, Florida 33606 Garrard, Dr. Leon A., 1617 N. W. 10th Terr., Gainesville, Florida 32601 B Garrett, Richard E., Dept. Physics and Astronomy, Univ. Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601 P Gathman, C. A., 501 21st Avenue N., Lake Worth, Florida 33460 B Geeslin, Charles R., Hosp. Computer Consultants, Inc., 1419 S. Belcher Rd., Clearwater, Florida 33516 Gilbert, Dr. Margaret, Dept. Biology, Florida Southern College, Lakeland, Florida B Gillis, Dr. William T., Fairchild Tropical Garden, 10901 Old Cutler Rd., Miami, Florida 33156 B Gilman, L. C., Dept. Biology, Univ. Miami, Coral Gables, Florida 33124 B Girard, Murray, 5900 Devonshire Blvd., Miami, Florida 33155 B Gleim, Dr. James K., Dept. Physics and Astronomy, Univ. of Florida, Gaines- ville, Florida 32601 P Goin, Dr. Coleman J., Dept. Biology, Univ. of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601 B Goldweber, Dr. Alexander Z., P. O. Box 237, North Miami Beach, Florida 33160 Golightly, Jacob F., Jacksonville Univ., Jacksonville, Florida 32211 P Gordon, Thomas E., Jr., D.D.S., 550 N. Bumby Ave., Suite E, Orlando, Florida 32803 M Gramling, Dr. L. G., Coll. Pharmacy, Univ. Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601 M Gray, Oscar S., 2300 W. Commercial Blvd., Fort Lauderdale, Florida 33309 BeM P Green, Albert A., 5130 S. W. 74th Terr., Miami, Florida 33143 Green, Alex E. S., 2900 N. W. 14th Ave., Gainesville, Florida 32601 P Greene, Dr. Elias L., School of Medicine, Univ. of Miami, 1475 N. W. 12 Ave., Miami, Florida 33136 M Greenfield, Dr. Leonard J., Graduate School, Univ. of Miami, Coral Gables, Florida 33124 Gresham, W. B., Jr., P. O. Box 18525, Tampa, Florida 33609 B Griffin, Dr. Dana, III, Dept. Botany, Univ. of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601 B Grybek, R. Scott, 5025 Grace St., Tampa, Florida 33607 Gubner, Richard, M. D., Safety Harbor Spa, Safety Harbor, Florida 33572 M Gurst, Dr. Jerome E., Dept. Chemistry, Univ. of West Florida, Pensacola, Florida 32504 P Gustafson, Dr. Sarah R., 7 Palmetto Way, Sewalls Point, Jensen Beach, Florida 33457 Membership List 147 Haburay, Mr. J. Keitz, 1000 College Blvd., Pensacola Jr. Coll., Pensacola, Florida 32504 Hagedorn, Dr. Louise Jodrey, 1200 S. Ocean Blvd., Boca Raton, Florida 33432 Haines, Charles E., Fortaleza/Univ. of Arizona, APO New York, New York, 10676 B Hall, Mrs. Mary N., Alpha College, Univ. of West Florida, Pensacola, Florida 32504 Hales, Dr. Everett B., 2121 Thunderbird Trail, Maitland, Florida 32751 Hanley, James R., Jr., 6446 Anvers Blvd., Jacksonville, Florida 32210 P, T Hansen, Dr. Keith L., Biology Dept., Stetson Univ., DeLand, Florida 32720 B Hansel, Paul G., 1374 Monterey Blvd., St. Petersburg, Florida 33704 P Hardwicke, Prof. E. N., Faculty of History, Univ. of West Florida, Pensacola, Florida 32504 §S Harlow, Richard, 1515 Kennedy Ave., Blacksburg, Virginia 24060 C Harms, Dr. R. H., Dept. Poultry Sci., Univ. Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601 B Harrington, Dr. Robert W., Jr., Florida State Board of Health, P. O. Box 308, Vero Beach, Florida 32960 B Harrington, Terry L., North Florida Jr. Coll., Madison, Florida 32340 Harris, Herbert H., 610 Ampton Ave., Tallahassee, Florida 32304 Hartley, Dr. Craig S., 2232 N. W. 19th Lane, Gainesville, Florida 32601 Hastings, Robert W., Dept. Biological Science, Florida State Univ., Tallahassee, Florida 32306 B Hatala, Dr. Robert J., 2167 Vivian Way S., St. Petersburg, Florida 33712 Haynie, Prof. J. D., Newell Hall, Univ. of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601 B Hayward, Wyndham, 7459 Restful St., Orlando, Florida 32807 Hebb, Edwin H., Box 70, Marianna, Florida 32446 Heemstra, Phillip C., Box 100, School of Marine Sci., Univ. of Miami, 10 Rickenbacker Causeway, Miami, Florida 33149 B Heinrich, Dr. Edwin P., P. O. Box 518, Orange Park, Florida 32073 P Hellwege, Dr. Herbert, Rollins College, Winter Park, Florida 32789 P Henrickson, Henry C., 229 Lemon Ave., Eustis, Florida 32726 Hentges, Dr. James F., Jr., 253 McCarty Hall, Univ. Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601 B Herndon, Prof. Roy, Physical Ocean Lab., Nova Univ., 1901 S. E. 15th St., Ft. Lauderdale, Florida 33316 P Hesse, Stanley H., 1241 Cocoanut Rd., Boca Raton, Florida 33432 Hetrick, Daniel L., 7420 S. W. 19 Terr., Miami, Florida 33155 M Heuser, Dr. Gustave F., 608 Hillside Dr., Lakeland, Florida 33803 B Highsmith, John Lewis, St. Johns River Jr. College, Palatka, Florida 32077 T Hill, William P., Studio 9, 275 W. Magnolia Ave., Merrit Is., Florida 32952 B Hilmon, J. B., USDA Forest Serv., 1631 N. Kent, Room 808, Arlington, Vir- ginia 32952 C Hirsch, Michael A., Biological Science Unit I, Florida State Univ., Tallahassee, Florida 32306 B Hirschberg, Prof. Joseph G., 1046 Alfonso Ave., Coral Gables, Florida 33146 148 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Hobbs, Dr. Horton H., Jr., U. S. National Museum, Washington, D. C. 20560 B Hogge, Dr. Ernest A., USN Mine Defense Lab., Panama City, Florida 32401 Holman, Dr. J. Alan, “The Museum, Michigan State Univ., East ee Michi- gan 48832 B Hopkins, E. F., 1207 Briercliff Drive, Orlando, Florida 32806 B Le as Houser, James: G., Tech. Director, Martin Co., P. O. Box 5837, (CEames, Flor- ida 32805 P Life Howard, Fred E., Jr., 306 Gardner Dr., N. E., Ft. Walton Beach, Florida 32548 P Hren, Prof. John J., Dept. of Met./Matls. Engineering, Univ. of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601 P Huang, Prof. Chu Shyen, Chipola Jr. Coll., Marianna, Florida 32446 Hubbell, Dr. David S., 861 6th Ave. S., St. Petersburg, Florida 33101 M Hubbs, Dr. Carl L., Scripps Institution of Oceanography, La Jolla, Califomia 92037 B Hughes, Dr. William E., Dept. Physics, Univ. of S. Mississippi, Hattiesburg, Mississippi 39401 P Humm, Dr. Harold J., Bay Campus, Univ. of South Florida, St. Petersburg, Florida 33701 B Hunt, Burton P., Dept. Biology, Univ. Miami, Coral Gables, Florida 33124 B Hunter, Muriel E., 6350—62nd St. North, Pinellas Park, Florida 33565 Idyll, Dr. C. P., Inst. Marine Sci., Univ. Miami, Miami, Florida 33149 B Ingle, Robert M., Florida Dept. of Natural Resources, Tallahassee, Florida 32301 B Ingmanson, Dr. D. E., San Diego State College, San Diego, California 92115 Isaacks, Russell E., 8965 S. W. 115 Terr., Miami, Florida 33156 Ivey, Dr. Marvin L., Dept. Natural Sciences, St. Petersburg Junior College, P. O. Box 13489, St. Petersburg, Florida 33733 P, T Jackson, Dr. Crawford G., Jr., Dept. of Zoology, San Diego State Coll., San Diego, California 92115 B Jenkins, George L., Dept. Physics, Stetson Univ., DeLand, Florida 32720 P Jensen, Anthony S., 413 Rolfs Hall, Univ. of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601 B Joannides, Dr. Minas Jr., 100 Fifth Ave. So., St. Petersburg, Florida 33701 Johns, Roman K. C., 910 N. Magnolia Ave., Indialantic, Florida 32901 Johnston, Dr. David W., Dept. of Zoology, Univ. of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601 B Johnston, Dr. Ralph C., 601 Seaway Dr., Ft. Pierce, Florida 33450 . Johnstone, Jean E., 533 Canada Ct., Punta Gorda, Florida 33950 Jones, Dr. E. Ruffin, Jr., Dept. Biology, Univ. Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601 B Jones, ae L., 831 N. W. 61st Terr., Gainesville, Florida 32601 B Jones, James I., Dept. Oceanography, Florida State Univ., Tallahassee, abeas 32306 'B Membership List 149 Joyce, Edwin A., Jr., 1943 Mound Place, S., St. Petersburg, Florida 33712 C, B Jusick, Dr. Anthony T., Box 1331, Dept. Physics, Stetson Univ., DeLand, Flor- ida 32720 P Kaleel, Raymond T., 90 W. Underwood St., Orlando, Florida 32806 Kamaras, Karl G., P. O. Box 1444, Miami Beach, Florida 33139 Kane, Howard L., 1264 Cleburne Drive, Fort Myers, Florida 33901 T Kaplan, Sherman R., 333 41st St., Miami Beach, Florida 33140 M Kaplan, Dr. Stanley, Dept. of Anatomy, Marquette School of Med., 561 N. 15th Street, Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53233 M Katz, Edith E., R. D. 2, Box 788 E, DeLand, Florida 32720 C. T Keller, Dr. John C., P. O. Box 359, St. Leo, Florida 33574 Keller, Leonard J., 1121 Lewis Ave., Sarasota, Florida 33577 Kendall, Harry W., Dept. Physics, Univ. South Florida, Tampa, Florida 33620 P Kerman, Herbert D., Halifax Dist. Hosp., Daytona Beach, Florida 32015 M Kerr, Dr. John P., Dept. of Biology and Marine Sciences, Univ. of West Florida, Pensacola, Florida 32504 B Keuper, Dr. Jerome P., President, Florida Institute Technology, P. O. Box 1150, Melbourne, Florida 32901 Killion, Ronald J., 750 Mooring Line Dr., Naples, Florida 33940 Kinser, B. M., P. O. Box 158, Eustis, Florida 32726 P Kirk, Dr. W. G., Range Cattle Exp. Sta., Ona, Florida 33865 B Klopman, Dr. Robert B., 3863 Douglas Rd., Cocoanut Grove, Florida 33133 Klukas, Richard W., Everglades National Park, Box 279, Homestead, Florida B : Knight, Dr. Robert J., Jr., 13601 Old Cutler Rd., Miami, Florida 33158 Koch, Dr. Adolph M., 2319 N. E. 15th Terr., Ft. Lauderdale, Florida 33305 Koenig, Dr. Duane, Dept. Hist., Univ. Miami, Coral Gables, Fla. 33124 S Koger, Dr. Marvin, Dept. Animal Science, Univ. Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601 B Kolipinski, Dr. Milton C., U. S. Geological Survey, 51 Southwest First Ave., Miami, Florida 33130 P Kortejarvi, Dr. Arnold, 5601 Orange Road, Largo, Florida 33540 Kritzler, Dr. Henry, FSU Marine Lab., Rt. 1, Sopchoppy, Florida 32358 B Krivanek, Dr. Jerome O., Univ. South Florida, Tampa, Florida 33620 B Kromhout, Robert A., Physics Dept., Florida State Univ., Tallahassee, Florida 32306 P LaCava, Dr. Frederick W., 264 South Atlantic Ave., Ormond Beach, Florida 32074 M LaCava, Mrs. Susan F., 264 S. Atlantic Ave., Ormond Beach, Florida 32074 Lacy, Dr. Burritt S., Box 267, Keene New York 12942 Lackey, Dr. James B., Box 36, Melrose, Florida 32666 B Life Laessle, Dr. Albert M., Dept. LODO M Univ. Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601 B 150 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Lamborn, Dr. B., Dept. Physics, Florida Atlantic Univ., Boca Raton, Florida So452 Larson, Dr. Edward, Dept. Biology, Univ. Miami, Coral Gables, Florida 33124 B Lastra, Bob, 4302 Swann Ave., Tampa, Florida 33609 Latham, Dr. James P., Dept. Geography, Florida Atlantic Univ., Boca Raton, Florida 33432 P Latina, Albert A., 311A Science Bldg., Univ. South Florida, Tampa, Florida BwearAd) 463 Lawrence, Dr. John M., Dept. Zoology, Univ. South Florida, Tampa, Florida 33620 B Lawton, Dr. Alfred H., Dean, Coll. of Med., Univ. of South Florida, Tampa, Florida 33620 M Layne, Dr. James N., Archbold Bio. Sta., Rt. 2, Box 380, Lake Placid, Florida 33852 B Leavitt, Dr. Benjamin B., Dept. Biology, Univ. Florida, Gainesville, Florida 6971.0) 0) Ma Lebo, Dr. George R., Dept. Physics and Astronomy, Univ. of Florida, Gaines- ville, Florida 32601 P LeBuff, Charles R., Jr., Lighthouse Quarters 2, Point Ybel, Sanibel, Florida 33957 Lee, Mrs. Annette J., Key West Towers, Apt. 301-A, Key West, Florida 33040 Lee, Clarence E., 2833 N. E. 26th Ave., Lighthouse Point, Pompano Beach, Florida 33064 Leigh, Dr. W. Henry, Dept. Biology, Univ. Miami, Coral Gables, Florida Sol24 eB Leinbach, Dr. Irwin S., 631 6th Ave. So., St. Petersburg, Florida 33705 Leto, Frank P., Jr., 4713 Leila Ave., Tampa, Florida 33616 T Lilly, Dr. John C., c/o Esalen Institute, Big Sur, California 93920 M Lipson, Dr. Joseph, Nova University, 1301 College Ave., Ft. Lauderdale, Florida 33314 Little, Dr. William Asa, P. O. Box 875, Biscayne Annex, Univ. Miami, Miami, Florida 33152 M Long, Dr. Robert W., Dept. Botany & Bact., Univ. South Florida, Tampa, Florida 33620 B Long, Dr. William Hendren, Dept. Meteorology, Florida State Univ., Talla- hassee, Florida 32306 P Lorz, Dr. Albert, 409 Newell Hall, Univ. Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601 B Lovell, William V., Route 2, Box 18, Sanford, Florida 32771 P Ludwig, Dr. J. T., 1625 Long St., Clearwater, Florida 33515 Lutz, Nancy E., Box 114, Mandarin, Florida 32064 Macgowan, Prof. Robert, Florida Southern College, Lakeland, Florida 33803 S Marks, Dr. Meyer B., 333 41st St. Miami Beach, Florida 33140 B Marold, Lorraine M., 2345 Ponce de Leon Blvd., Apt. 210, Coral Gables, Florida 33134 Membership List 151 Martin, Robert A., Seafloor Aquarium, Ldt., P. O. Box 456, Nassau, Bahamas B Martz, Roger A., 3994 S. W. 12th Terr., Ft. Lauderdale, Florida 33315 C Mason, Dr. Donald R., 504 Riverside Dr., Indialantic, Florida 32901 Masters, Dale R., Gulf Coast Jr. College, Panama City, Florida 32401 B McBee, Ethelyne L., 4191 S. W. 97th Ct., Miami, Florida 33165 T McCaffrey, Patrick M., Dept. of Oceanography, Fla. State Univ., Tallahassee, Florida 32306 B McCart, Wm. Larrey, 4509 Normandy Way, Houston, Texas 77021 B McCrone, Dr. John D., Graduate School, Univ. of the Pacific, Stockton, Cali- fornia 95204 B McDarment, Corley P., Route 1 Box 205, Eau Gallie, Florida 32935 B McDiarmid, Dr. Roy W., Dept. of Zoology, Univ. of S. Florida, Tampa, Flor- ida 33620 B McFadden, Dr. Samuel E., 706-108 S. W. 16th Ave., Gainesville, Florida 32601 B McKenzie, Dr. Doris, Dept. Med., Univ. Miami, Med. School, Miami, Florida 33136 M, B McKinnis, Dr. Ronald B., Automatic Machinery Corp., Box 713, Winter Haven, Florida 33880 McMahan, Mary Ruth, 4457-38th Ave., St. Petersburg, Florida 33713 B McPherson, Lt. Col. Alexander, 4707 Larado PI., Orlando, Florida 32806 McWhorter, James M., Miami-Dade Jr. Coll., 11380 N. W. 27th Ave., Miami, Florida 33167 Meck, Mervin E., D. O., 225 N. Causeway, New Smyrna Beach, Florida 32069 M Melich, Dr. Edward I., 10110 Tarpon Dr., Treasure Island, Florida 33706 Menzel, Dr. R. W., Oceanographic Institute, Florida State Univ., Tallahassee, Florida 32306 B Miles, E. P., Computing Center, Florida State Univ., Tallahassee, Florida 32306 P . Miller, Dr. Donald, Univ. of Florida, Genesys, Cape Kennedy, Florida 32920 Miller, Dr. E. Morton, 1212 Manati Ave., Coral Gables, Florida 33146 B Miller, J. E., Florida Inst. Tech., P. O. Box 1150, Melbourne, Florida 32901 P Miller, Dr. J. W., Box 1269, Gainesville, Florida 32601 B Miller, Dr. Kim I., Dept. Biology, Jacksonville Univ., Jacksonville, Florida oo le 2B Miller, Pat H., Box 279, Everglades National Park, Homestead, Florida 33030 B.C Mills, Alfred P., Dept. Chemistry, Univ. Miami, Coral Gables, Florida 33124 P Miner, Dr. Helen I., 770 Lake Road, Bay Point, Miami, Florida 33137 P Minto, Wallace L., 1242 North Palm Ave., Sarasota, Florida 33577 P Moe, Martin A., Jr., Director Biol. Research, Oceanography Matriculture, 301 Broadway, Riviera Beach, Florida 33404 B Molchos, David, 9400 Martinique Dr., Miami, Florida 33157 Monley, Dr. Laurence E., Coll. of Ed:, Univ. of S. Florida, Tampa, Florida 33620 T 152 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Monroe, Frederick F., 755 Almanda St., Boca Raton, Florida 33432 Montgomery, Joseph G., Dept. Biology, Manatee Jr. College, Bradenton, Flor- ida 33505 B Moody, Harold L., Game & Freshwater Fish Comm., 545 N. Woodland, Winter Garden, Florida 32787 B, C Moore, McDonald, 562 Leamore Ct., Mobile, Alabama 36617 P Moore, William H., P. O. Box 938, Lehigh Acres, Florida 33936 Moradiellos, Ralph, 4604 Jamaica, Tampa, Florida 33164 Morrison, Thomas F., 1491 Summerland Ave., Winter Park, Florida 32789 B Morton, Mrs. Julia F., Univ. Miami, Box 8204, Coral Gables, Florida 33124 C Morton, Richard K., 2827 Holly Point Dr., Jacksonville, Florida 32211 S Mott, Charles J., Dept. Natural Sciences, St. Petersburg Jr. College, Clear- water, Florida 33515 B Moya, Frank, M. D., Dept. Anesthesiology, Jackson Memorial Hosp., Miami, Florida 33136 M Life Mullin, Dr. Robert S., Plant Pathology Lab., Univ. of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601 B Mulson, Joseph F., Dept. Physics, Rollins College, Winter Park, Florida 32789 Ie Munch, Dr. James C., P. O. Box 3670, Norland Branch, Miami, Florida 33169 Murphree, Clyde E., 48 McCarty Hall, Univ. of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601 B Murray, Mary Ruth 4520 Santa Maria St., Coral Gables, Florida 33146 S Mustard, Dr. Margaret Jean, Univ. of Miami, P. O. Box 9118, Coral Gables, Florida 33134 Mustian, William R., Jr., 529 Bonnie Drive, Lakeland, Florida 33803 Life Nagelsen, Mrs. Margaret G., 2022 Sycamore Dr., Orlando, Florida 32803 Nastase, Anthony J., 1227 Whiteman Blvd., Naples, Florida 33940 Nation, Dr. James L., 5 Brant Ave., Guelph, Ontario, Canada B Naugle, Helen E., Gulf Coast Jr. Coll., Panama City, Florida 32401 Neithamer, Richard W., Florida Presbyterian College, St. Petersburg, Florida 33733 Nelson, Dr. Gid E., Jr., Univ. South Florida, Tampa, Florida 33620 B Nichols, Cecil B., Miami Dade Jr. College N. Campus, 11380 N. W. 27th Ave., Miami, Florida 33167 T Nichols, Col. Herbert Bishop, 16365 Redington Dr., Redington Beach, Florida 33780 Niven, Dr. Jorma I., 1803 E. Lakeview Ave., Pensacola, Florida 32503 B Noble, Dr. Nancy L., 1550 N. W. 10th Ave., Miami, Florida 33136 B, M Nordlie, Dr. Frank G., Dept. Zoology, Univ. Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601 B Nugent, Joseph D., 3035 Windward Ave., Sarasota, Florida 33581 Ober, Lewis D. 1235 N. E. 204th St., North Miami Beach, Florida 33162 B O’Brien, Robert E., P. O. Box 39, Rollins College, Winter Park, Florida 32789 B Membership List 153 O’Brien, Dr. James J., Dept. of Meteorology, Florida State Univ., Tallahassee, Florida 32306 P O’Connell, Dr. John P., 402 N. W. 36th Terr., Gainesville, Florida 32601 P Orgell, Dr. Wallace H., 2431 Tigertail Ave., Miami, Florida 33157 B Osborn, Dr. George, Little Hall 487, Univ. Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601 S Ostle, Dr. Bernard, Coll. of Natural Sciences, Florida Technological University, P. O. Box 25000, Orlando, Florida 32816 P Ostrow, Miss Joan P., Dept. of Biology, Texas A&M Univ., College Station, Texas 77843 B Otten, Gyda Ann, 2043 Brightwaters Blvd., Snell Isle, St. Petersburg, Florida 33704 Owens, Clearence B., Box 8, Florida A & M Univ., Tallahassee, Florida 32307 S Palmer, Dr. A. Z., Dept. Animal Husbandry & Nutrition, Univ. Florida, Gaines- ville, Florida 32601 B Pan, Dr. Huo-Ping, U. S. Dept. Interior, 2700 E. University Ave., Gainesville, Florida 32601 B Park, Dr. Mary Cathryne, 450 Norwood St., Merrit Is., Florida 32952 S Patsavos, Dr. C. C., History Dept., Univ. of Miami, Coral Gables, Florida 33124 S Paul, Allen, Dept. of Oceanography, Florida State Univ., Tallahassee, Florida 32306 B Penner, Dr. Lawrence R., Dept. Biol. Sci. Syst. & Environ. U-42, Univ. Con- necticut, Storrs, Connecticut 06268 B Perdomo, Jose T., Dept. of Veterinary Science, Univ. of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601 B Perry, V. G., Dept. of Entomology & Nematology, Univ. of Florida, Gaines- ville, Florida 32601 B Peters, Dr. William L., Box 111, Florida A&M Univ., Tallahassee, Florida 32307 B Petter, Hans H., 2454 6th Ave. North, St. Petersburg, Florida 33713 Phillippy, Clayton, P. O. Box 1458, Lakeland, Florida 33801 C Phillips, Dr. William B., Dept. of Physics, Univ. of West Florida, Pensacola, Florida 32504 P Phipps, Dr. Cecil G., 1245 E. 8th St., Cookeville, Tennessee, 38501 P Pierce, Dr. E. Lowe, 417 Elizabeth St., Key West, Florida 33040 B Pirkle, Dr. E. C., 2219 N. W. 17th Ave., Gainesville, Florida 32601 P Plendl, Dr. Hans S., Dept. Physics, Florida State Univ., Tallahassee, Florida 32306 P Plyler, Earle K., Dept. Physics, Florida State Univ., Tallahassee, Florida 32306 P Poitras, Dr. Adrian W., Div. Natural Sci., Miami-Dade Jr. College, 11380 N. W. 27th Ave., Miami, Florida 33167 B Polskin, Dr. Louis J., 1401 S. Florida Ave., Lakeland, Florida 33803 M Potter, Dr. James G., Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne, Florida 32901 154 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Powell, Dr. Howard B., Dept. Chemistry, Univ. Miami, Coral Gables, Florida Sols Powell, Dr. Leon W., Jr., Marin Mem. Hosp., Stuart, Florida 33494 M Prichett, Dr. Cavett O., Life Sciences, Inc., 2950—-72nd St. N., St. Petersburg, Florida 33710 B Provost, Dr. Maurice W., Box 308 Vero Beach, Florida 32960 B Puce, Paul, Dept. Hematology, U. of Miami School of Medicine, Box 875, Bis- cayne Annex, Miami, Florida 33152 M Puryear, Dr. R. W., Florida Memorial Coll., 5800 N. W. 42nd Ave. & LeJeune Rd., Miami, Florida 33054 S§S Putnam, Dr. Hugh D., Dept. Environ. Eng., Univ. of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601 P Ramachadran, Dr. S., Burke & Gomez Endocrine Clinic, 1707 N. W. San Marco Blvd., Jacksonville, Florida 32207 M Rappenecker, Dr. Casper, 1707 N. W. 7th Place, Gainesville, Florida 32601 P Rautenstrauch, Dr. Carl Peter, Dept. Mathematic, Florida Technological Univ., Box 25000, Orlando, Florida 32816 P Ray, Dr. James D., Jr., Univ. South Florida, Tampa, Florida 33620 B Reid, Dr. George K., Dept. Biology, Florida Presbyterian College, St. Peters- burg, Florida 33733 B Rhein, Dr. Walter J., Dept. of Math. Sci., Fla. Tech. Univ., Orlando, Florida Sl OlOmmr : Rhodes, Richard A., II, 205 N. W. Monroe Circle N., St. Petersburg, Florida 33702 P Life Rice, Dr. Laurence B., 43 W. Bay Drive, Cocoa Beach, Florida 32931 P Rich, Earl R., Dept. Zoology, Univ. Miami, Coral Gables, Florida 33124 B Richards, David T., P. E., P. O. Box 44, Winter Park, Florida 32789 Rick, Henry, 2350 N. W. 182 Terr., Opa Locka, Florida Riemer, Mrs. Florence R., 9130 S. W. 100th St., Miami, Florida 33156 M,B Life : Rife, Dr. David C., Div. Biological Sciences, 220 Bartram Hall, Univ. of Flor- ida, Gainesville, Florida 32601 B Rippy, W. C., Jr., 2525 Sunset Dr., Tampa, Florida 33609 M Roberts, Dr. Eliot C., 404 Newell Hall, Univ. of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601 B Roberts, Ernest Ray, Box 1828, Stuart, Florida 33494 Roberts, Dr, Leonidas H., Dept. Physics & Astronomy, Univ. Florida, Gaines- ville, Florida 32601 P Robins, Dr. C. Richard, Institute Marine Science, Univ. Miami, 1 Rickenbacker Causeway, Va. Key, Miami, Florida 33149 B Robinson, Dr. Jack H., Physical Science Dept., Univ. of South Florida, Tampa, Florida 33620 P Robinson, Mary R., 1885 Shore Dr. S., St. Petersburg, Florida 33707 P Rodgers, Dr. Earl G., 209 McCarty Hall, Univ. of Florida, Gainesville, Florida S2601 ©B Roess, William B., Florida Presbyterian College, P. O. Box 12560, St. Peters- burg, Florida 33733 Membership List 155 Roessler, Dr. Martin A., Institute of Marine Sciences, 10 Rickenbacker Cause- way, Miami, Florida 33149 B Rolfs, Herman E., 5513 Merrick Drive, Univ. Health Center, Coral Gables, Florida 33134 M Rosensheim, Dr. Joseph, Dept. of Physics, Univ. of Florida, @ainceville, Florida 32601 P Ross, Arnold, Dept. of Invert. Paleo., Nat. Hist. Mus., Balboa Park, Box 1390, San Diego, California 92112 P Ross, Dr. John S., Dept. Physics, Rollins College, Winter Park, Florida 32789 P Roth, William C., Dept. Biological Sciences, Florida State Univ., Tallahassee, Florida 32306 B Rutherford, Bennett, P. O. Box 537, Graceville, Florida 32440 Sachs, K. N., Jr., U. S. Geological Survey, E-214 U. S. Nat. Museum, Washing- tone2o. 1D) Cr 20242" P Sall, Walter G., 1680 Meridian Ave., Suite 204, Miami Beach, Florida 33139 M Salzberg, Dr. Harold K., 3708 Country Club Blvd., Cape Coral, Florida 33904 Sanders, Dr. Murray, P. O. Box 23518, Fort Lauderdale, Florida 33309 M Sandstrom, Carl J., Dept. Biology, Rollins College, Box 53, Winter Park, Flor- ida 32789 B Saslaw, Dr. Milton S., 1350 N. W. 14th St., Miami, Florida 33125 M Sauer, Dr. E. G. Franz, Zoologisches Forschungsinstitut u Museum A. Koenig, Adenaurallee 150-164, 53 Bonn, Germany B_ - Sawyer, Dr. Earl M., Dept. Physics, Univ. Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601 Je Schindler, Jack F., St. Petersburg Jr. Coll., St. Petersburg, Florida 33733 Schlitt, Dorothy, College of Education, Florida State Univ., Tallahassee, Flor- ida. 32306 “1 Schmeisser, W. J., 1540 Consolata, Coral Gables, Florida 33146 Schneider, George H., 2292 S. W. 36th Ave., Miami, Florida 33145 B Schory, Elbert A., Sr., P. O. Box 1468, Fort Myers, Florida 33902 C Schrader, H. W., 128B Williamson Hall, Univ. Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601 P Schreiber, Ralph W., Dept. of Zoology, Univ. of South Florida, Tampa, Florida 33620 B Schricker, John Adams, 1433 Belcher Rd., Clearwater, Florida 33516 M Schultz, Dr. Harry P., Dept. Chemistry, Univ. Miami, Coral Gables, Florida Sola 2 Schusler, Herbert H., 1121 Lewis Ave., Sarasota, Florida 33577 Schwartz, Dr. Albert 10000 S. W. 84th St., Miami, Florida 33143 B Schwarz, Guenter, Dept. Physics, Florida State Univ., Tallahassee, Florida 325060". P Scott, Bruce Von G., 6201 Chapman Field Drive, Miami, Florida 33156 P Serfass, Dr. Earl i Milton Roy Co., P. O. Box 12169, St. Petersburg, Florida Sepia 12 Seymour, C. P., Box 1269, Gainesville, Florida 32601 B 156 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Sguros, Dr. P. L., Dept. of Biological Sciences, Florida Atlantic Univ., Boca Raton, Florida 33432 B Shanor, Leland, Dept. Botany, Univ. Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601 B Shepard, Dr. Weldon O., U. S. Forest Service, P. O. Box 938, Lehigh Acres, Florida 33936 C Sherman, Dr. H. B., 410 Howry Ave., DeLand, Florida 32720 B Sherman, Joel F., Math-Science Division, Brevard Jr. College, Cocoa, Florida 32922 Sherrill, Dr. Robert G., 5906 30th St., Tampa, Florida 33610 Shirley, Dr. Ray L., Nutrition Lab., Univ. Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601 B Shor, Prof. Bernice C., Rollins College, Winter Park, Florida 32789 Sickels, Dr. Jackson P., 541 San Esteban Ave., Coral Gables, Florida 33146 P Simberloff, Dr. Daniel, Dept. of Biological Science, Florida State Univ., Talla- hassee, Florida 32306 B Simms, Harold, Dept. of Math & Science, St. Petersburg Jr. Coll., Clearwater, Florida 33515 B Simon, Dr. Joseph L., Dept. Zoology, Univ. South Florida, Tampa, Florida 33620 B Sites, John W., 1819 S. W. 35th Ave., Gainesville, Florida 32601 B Slack, Dr. Francis, Golfs Edge Apt. 4-E, Kingswood, Century Village, West Palm Beach, Florida 33401 P Smerdon, Dr. Ernest T., Dept. of Agricultural Engineering, Univ. of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601 B Smith, Dr. Alex G., Dept. Physics and Astronomy, Univ. Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601 P Smith, Ben Day, Box 13, Cove Rd., Tavares, Florida 32778 Smith, Boyd M., 100 Shelley Dr., Winter Haven, Florida 33880 Smith, Earl D., 2309 Coventry Ave., Lakeland, Florida 33803 P Smith, Dr. Francis A., 1023 55th Ave. S., St. Petersburg, Florida 33705 Smith, Mrs. Francis A., 1023 55th Ave. So., St. Petersburg, Florida 33705 Smith, Marshall E., 418 W. Platt St., Tampa, Florida 33606 M Smith, Cmdr. Nathan L., 631 N. W. 34th Dr., Gainesville, Florida 32601 P Smith, Dr. Wayne H., School of Forestry, Univ. of Florida, Gainesville, Florida SHARUIL (GC Soldo, Dr. Anthony T., V. A. Hospital 1201 N. W. 16th Terr., Miami, Florida 33157 M Sokoloff, Dr. Boris Th., Dept. Biology, Florida Southern College, Lakeland, Florida 33803 B Soule, Dr. James, 104 McCarty, Univ. Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601 B Spalding, John F., 100 Oak St., Box 303, Melbourne Beach, Florida 32935 Spray, David C., Dept. of Zoology, Univ. of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601 B Stafford, Howard S., 101 Martin St., Indian Harbor Beach, Florida 32935 Stakhiv, Dr. Eugene Z., 68—33 Juno St., New York, New York 11375 B Starn, Charles H., 740 N. W. 65th Ave., Fort Lauderdale, Florida 33313 P Stefanik, Theodore M., 743 London Road, Winter Park, Florida 32789 Steiner, Dr. Loren F., 15525 S. W. 99th Ave., Miami, Florida 33157 | Membership List 157 Stephan, Charles R., 1010 N. W. 6th Terr., Boca Raton, Florida 33432 Stetson, Dr. Rober F., Physics Dept., Florida jibahte Univ., Boca Raton, Florida 33432 P Stevens, Marion, 3924 Cleveland St., Hollywood, Florida 33021 B Stevenson, Dr. Henry M., Dept. Biological Sciences, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida 32306 B Stewart, Violet N., 5544 Terrace Ct., Temple Terrace, Florida 33617 B Stingley, Dale V.; P. O. Box 113, La Belle, Florida 33935 Stivers, Frances L., 2918 Fruitwood Lane, Jacksonville, Florida 32211 Stubbs, Sidney A., P. O. Box 2066, Houston, Texas 770152 Life Sturrock, Dr. Thomas T., Dept. of Biological Science, Florida Atlantic Univ., Boca Raton, Florida 33432 B Swanson, Dr. D. C., Dept. Physics, Univ. Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601 P Sweat, Charles J., Assoc. Dir., MCV Hospitals, Medical Coll. of Va., Richmond, Virginia 23219 M Sweigert, Ray L., 2761 E. Vina Del Mar Blvd., St. Petersburg Beach, Florida 33706 S Swift, Camm C., Los Angeles Co. Mus. of Nat. Hist., Los Angeles, California 90007 B Swindel, David E., Jr., 905 E. Park Ave., Tallahassee, Florida 32801 B Tabb, Dr. Durbin C., Institute of Marine Sciences, 1 Rickenbacker Causeway, Miami, Florida 33149 B ; Tandy, Dr. Richard E., Dept. Biological Sciences, Florida Technological Uni- versity, Box 25000, Orlando, Florida 32816 B Tanner, W. Lee, Box 38, Lake Panasoffkee, Florida 33538 P Tanner, William F., Dept. Geology, Florida State Univ., Tallahassee, Florida 32306 P Taylor, James R., 10922 52nd Ave. North, St. Petersburg, Florida 33708 B Taylor, John B., 2421 Miscindy Place, Orlando, Florida 32806 Taylor, John L., 527 New York Ave., Dunedin, Florida 33528 B Taylor, Dr. Michael D., Dept. Math. Sciences, Florida Technological Univer- sity, Orlando, Florida 32806 P Taylor, Dr. Walter K., Dept. Biol. Sci., Fla. Tech. Univ., Orlando, Florida 32816 B Teas, Dr. Howard J., 6700 S. W. 130th Terr., Miami, Florida 33156 Thomas, Dr. Dan A., Dean of the Faulty: Jacksonville Univ., Jacksonville, Florida 32211 P Thomas, Dr. Garland L., Physics Dept., Florida Inst. Tech., Melbourne, Flor- ida 32901 P Ting, Dr. S. V., Citrus Experiment Station, P. O. Box 1088, Lake Alfred, Flor- ida 33850 B Tinner, J. C., 1305 N. Montford Avenue, Balers: Maryland 21213 P Tissot, Dr. A. N., Agricultural Exp. Sta., Univ. Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601 B Tocci, Dr. Paul M., P. O. Box 875, Biscayne Annex, Miami, Florida 33152 M 158 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Toney, Tonie A., Dept. Earth Science, Miami-Dade Jr. Coll., 11380 N. W. 27th Ave., Miami, Florida 33167 P Totten, Henry R., Dept. Botany, Univ. North Carolina, Box 247, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27514 B Toulmin, Dr. Lymon D., Dept. Geology, Florida State Univ., Tallahassee, Florida 32306 P Traweek, James C., Gulf Coast Jr. Coll., Panama City, Florida 32401 Tricaro, Robert, 5890 S. W. 79th Ct., South Miami, Florida 33143 B Turner, William W., Mound Park Hospital, 701 6th St. South, St. Petersburg, Florida 33712 Tyrone, Victor, Box 1438, St. Petersburg, Florida 33731 Vance, Dr. Jimie A., 9885 N. Kendall Dr., Miami, Florida 33156 M Van de Water, Dr. Malcolm S., 266 Monterey Rd., Palm Beach, Florida 33480 Van Lewen, Alan, Fla. Alcoholic Rehabilitation Center, Box 1147, Avon Park, Florida S Vernon, Dr. Robert O., Box 631, Tallahassee, Florida 32302 P Vestal, Dr. Paul A., Dept. Botany, Rollins College, Winter Park, Florida 32789 B Vroman, Dr. Hugh E., Dept. of Biology, Claflin University, Orangeburg, South Carolina 29115 M Wade, Richard A., Box 2952, Williamsburg, Virginia 23185 B Waddell, Glenn H., 2045 Spotford Ave., West Palm Beach, Florida 33401 B, M, C Waites, Dr. Robert E., Dept. of Entomology, Univ. of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601 B Waldinger, Fred J., Fla. Game & Fresh Water Fish Comm., P. O. Box 1088, Eustis, Florida 32726 C Waldinger, Mrs. Rhonda, 3160 Tipperary Dr., Tallahassee, Florida 32303 Wallace, Dr. H. K., Dept. Biology, Univ. Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601 B Walls, Jerry G., La. Wildlife & Fisheries Comm., Box 37, Grand Isle, Louisiana 10358: € Ward, Dr. Daniel B., 733 S. W. 27th St., Gainesville, Florida 32601 B Ward, Dr. James W., Coll. of Medicine, Univ. of S. Florida, 4202 Fowler Ave., Tampa, Florida 33620 M Warnick, Dr. Alvin C., McCarty Hall, Univ. Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601 B Warnke, D. A., Oceanographic Institute, Florida State Univ., Tallahassee, Flor- ida 32306 B Watkins, Dr. M. O., 1115 N. E. 3rd St., Gainesville, Florida 32601 Weber, Dr. George F., 1122 S. W. 3rd Ave., Gainesville, Florida 32601 B Webster, W. C., Box 526, Cottage Hills, Florida 32533 B Weems, Dr. Howard V., Jr., Entomology Sec.-Div. Plant Industries, P. O. Box 1269, Gainesville, Florida 32601 B Weidner, James P., 403 Reed Lab., Coll. Engineering, Univ. Florida, Gaines- ville, Florida 32601 C Membership List 159 Weigel, Dr. Robert D., Biology, Illinois State Univ., Normal, Illinois 61761 B Weithe, Dr. Rudolph G., 415 45th Ave. S., St. Petersburg, Florida 33705 M Weisbord, Norman E., Dept. Geology, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida 32306 Pp Weise, Dr. Emil H., 1360 Avondale Ave., Jacksonville, Florida 32205 B Weise, Gilbert N., 8601 Emerald Isle Circle N., Jacksonville, Florida 32216 M Wellman, Wayne E., 967 S. W. 5th St., Miami, Florida 33130 P&S Wells, Dr. Harry W., Dept. Biological Sciences, Univ. Delaware, Newark, Del- aware 19711 B West, Felicia E., 1906 N. E. 9th St., Gainesville, Florida 32601 P, T Westfall, Dr. Minter J., Jr., Dept. Zoology, Univ. Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601 B Westmeyer, Dr. Paul, Dept. Science Education, Florida State Univ., Talla- hassee, Florida 32306 ST Wethington, Dr. John A., Jr., 109 N. W. 22nd Dr., Gainesville, Florida 32601 P Wheat, Dr. Myron W., Jr., Dept. Surgery, College Medicine, Univ. Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601 M Whetzel, Marilyn K., 4418 Beech Circle, West Palm Beach, Florida 33406 Whitaker, Dr. Robert D., Dept. of Chemistry, Univ. of South Florida, Tampa, Florida 33620 P Whittaker, Edward, 1320 N. W. 14th St., #503, Miami, Florida 33125 Whittier, Dr. Henry O., 1722 Wyandotte Trail, Casselberry, Florida 32707 Wilcosky, Robert W., Miami Jackson Sr. High School, 1751 N. W. 36th St., Miami, Florida 33142 Wilkinson, Dr. Robert C., Dept. Entom., Univ. Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601 B Williams, Dr. James H., Route 1, Box 312, Avon Park, Florida 33825 S Williams, Louise, 511 Wilson Ave., Lakeland, Florida 33801 B, T Life Williams, Lovett E., Game & Fresh Water Fish Comm., 2606 N. E. 17th Ter- race, Gainesville, Florida 32601 C Williams, Dr. Robert H., Univ. Miami, P. O. Box 8263, Coral Gables, Florida 33124 B Wilson, Druid, E-506, U. S. National Museum, Washington, D. C. 20560 B Wilson, Dr. Henry R., Poultry Science Dept., Univ. Florida, Gainesville, Flor- ida 32601 B Wilson, Dr. John L., Fla. Memorial Coll., 5800 N. W. 42nd Ave & LeJeune Rd., Miami, Florida 33054 P Winstead, Dr. Warren J., Box 4982, Ft. Lauderdale, Florida 33304 Wirtz, Dr. William O., II, 451 N. Triphammer Rd., Ithaca, New York 14850 B Wisner, Carl V., Jr., P. O. Box 260, Fort Lauderdale, Florida 33302 P Witham, Ross, 10 Lake Point, North River Shores, Stuart, Florida 33494 B Wolfenbarger, Dr. D. O., Sub-Trop. Exp. Sta., 18905 S. W. 280th St., Home- stead, Florida 33030 B 160 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Wolfgang, Dr. Rebecca, Okaloosa-Walton Jr. College, Valparaiso, Florida 32580 B Woolfenden, Dr. Glen E., Dept. Zoology, Univ. South Florida, Tampa, Florida 33620 B Yaffa, Harold, Dept. Biology, Miami-Dade Jr. College, North Miami, Florida 33167 B Yakaitis-Surbis, Dr. Albina, Dept. of Anatomy, Univ. of Miami School of Medi- cine, Coral Gables, Florida 33134 M, B Yerger, Dr. Ralph W., Dept. Biol. Sci., Florida State Univ., Tallahassee, Flor- ida B Young, Dr. Harold, P. O. Box 539, Monticello, Florida 32344 Zaharis, Dr. John L., 17790 S. W. 200 St., Miami, Florida 33157 Zeiller, Warren, Curator of Fishes, Miami Seaquarium, Miami, Florida 33149 B Zeppa, Robert, Dept. Surgery, P. O. Box 875, Biscayne Annex, Miami, Florida 33152 M Ziegler, Avis Bosshart, 2879 N. E. 28th St., Ft. Lauderdale, Florida 33306 Zinner, Dr. Doran D., 2017 Alhambra Circle, Coral Gables, Florida 33134 B Zirin, Benjamin O., 199 W. 24th St., Hialeah, Florida 33010 Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences Vol. 33 September, 1970 No. 3 CONTENTS Military march lands, a history and horoscope Duane Koenig Some British impressions of Theodore Roosevelt George C. Osborn Diel periodicity of chlorophyll a in the Gulf of Mexico Walter A. Glooschenko Two new Atlantic clinid fishes of the genus Starksia Carter R. Gilbert New host records for Azygia acuminata Goldberger 1911 Warren R. Ehrhardt and Susan S. Glenn Live shipping of Florida’s spiny lobster Ross Witham Subspecific variation in two species of Antillean birds Albert Schwartz Post-Columbian birds from Abaco Island, Bahamas TLS Kathlee Conklin. 237 A \S A 2 ivf ¢ ra Fina \ “Wy f sr \ Mailed April 26, 1971 ¥ 97} 161 171 187 193 207 211 221 \ QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Editor: Pierce Brodkorb The Quarterly Journal welcomes original articles containing sig- nificant new knowledge, or new interpretation of knowledge, in any field of Science. Articles must not duplicate in any substantial way material that is published elsewhere. INSTRUCTIONS TO AUTHORS Rapid, efficient, and economical transmission of knowledge by means of the printed word requires full cooperation between author and editor. Revise copy before submission to insure logical order, conciseness, and clarity. Manuscripts should be typed double-space throughout, on one side of numbered sheets of 814 by 11 inch, smooth, bond paper. 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Published by the Florida Academy of Sciences Printed by the Storter Printing Company Gainesville, Florida QUARTERLY JOURNAL of the FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vol. 33 September, 1970 No. 3 Military March Lands, a History and a Horoscope DuANE KOENIG Marcu is defined by the dictionary as “a boundary or border; especially a border or a tract of land along a border, of a country” (Emery and Brewster, 1936). It is likely to be an area far from the center of political, economic, and social power in its state. Cyril Falls, the British military historian, declared in a preface, “Every historian to some extent uses his acquired knowledge without ref- erences. ... Here the references are used mostly to support the more striking statements or for direct quotations” (Falls, 1962). That is the case below. The cause of history, it is said, may be ad- vanced “either by adding new facts or making new interpretation of the relations between facts” (Holt, 1963). The lecturing to as- sorted history classes for thirty years suggests generalizations and patterns for human activity that lend themselves to support of a hypothesis. It is that military march lands, familiar since antiquity, declined in the nineteenth century, revived in the twentieth, and now thanks to technology, may vanish entirely. Charles Dickens observed in 1842, after he visited the halls of the American Congress, that the question put to him about the ora- tors he had just heard, was not, “What did he say?” but “How long did he speak?” (Dickens, 1903). To the suitability of that query may be added the admonition of Giambattista Vico, “A man is properly only mind, body, and speech, and speech stands, as it were, midway between mind and body” (Bergin and Fisch, 1961). In good hope, speech reduced to writing should neither disturb by its vacuity nor tax by its length. A historical survey of military march lands can possibly meet the former criterion, and short prog- nostication for the future, the latter. 162 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Woodrow Wilson on November 11, 1918, appealed for “the es- tablishment of just democracy throughout the world” (Allen, 1959). One can admit that as a form of government, democracy has lost ground since that time. A by-product to its recession is rarely men- tioned: the resurrection of military marches and fortified zones along many lengths of the globe’s tens of thousands of miles of in- ternational boundaries. In a world composed of democratic (equate with peace-loving) states, presumably military marches would be unfortified with a handful of customs and police agents servicing the international traveler. Such a world would be a logical out- growth of the European state system which gained maturity in the late nineteenth century. Victorian politicians and voters, had they thought about the matter at all, could have observed a drift towards the abolition of garrisoned frontiers. A cynic might label this with novelist F. Marion Crawford, “the nasty atmosphere of progress with a capital P” (Pilkington, Jr., 1964). Some of the reasons for the drift rested in military strategy. Francis Bacon said, “Histories make men wise’ (Bartlett, 121). Accordingly, they should be consulted. From the days of Louis XIV to the invention of the Maxim gun, defense was frequently at a disadvantage compared with offense. The classical principle of strategy was gaining control of a people through destruction of the enemy’s armies on which depended his power to resist (Peltier and Pearcy, 1966). In negotiation the ob- ject was the enemy’s provinces which gave power, wealth, face (Hill, 1945). Tactics, used first by professional and later by conscript armies, to gain economy of force asked for concentration not along frontiers but at strategic internal points. A web without a spider was worth- less (Churchill, 1949). Generals debated the maximum possible line of enemy penetration before counterattacking. An illustration may be found in the opening campaign of the Kaiser on the Rus- sian Front in 1914. Prudence recommended a German retirement from East Prussia to the Vistula River pending victory over France. Fear of political repercussions led to evacuation of national terri- tory (home of the Junker officer class, many of whose members were fighting in the West) and demands of Field-Marshal Conrad von Hotzendorf for an assault in Russian Poland, prevented this withdrawal. KoEnic: Military March Lands 163 Other explanations can be advanced for demilitarization of fron- tiers. Europe was spared a general war between 1815 and 1914. British-style shopkeeper diplomacy won successes against Prussian- style prestige diplomacy. Canal and railroad building, movements for written constitutions and free trade, all encouraged open borders and unrestricted transit. From England to Russia and Turkey it was possible to travel before 1914 without hindrance. A passport was little more than a souvenir, a letter of introduction. Albeit Europe was an armed camp, troops were barracked at major cities and railheads. They were more likely to be invoked to hold their own kind in check than to hasten goods wagons to a threatened boundary. These same conditions usually prevailed overseas. While political frontiers delineated on the spot may be pro- nounced innovations of the national state and the modern period, strategists who think in terms of military marches know these are almost old as history. Two hundred years before Christ the Chi- nese monarch Shih Huang Ti, not exactly a green-ear, used convict labor to piece together existing fortifications into a Great Wall. It was continued by his successors until it stretched seventeen hundred miles. This insured China’s northern flank. Imperial Romans un- derstood that they could not extend indefinitely in every direction. Though the Chinese and Romans did not have the modern concept of a state with fixed limits, they knew that beyond their lands were Barbarians, rude peoples who could be counted on periodically to create disturbances. An open frontier was an open invitation to these outlanders who thought d la guerre comme 4 la guerre. When limits were set up for the Roman Empire, fortifications were improvised and advantage taken of natural lines of defense such as the Rhine-Danube Rivers. Hadrian in the second century completed a wall from Solway Firth to the North Sea to preserve Roman Britain against Scotland. Necessity urged a stout defense in the East, where the Parthians and Persians were capable of as- sault at any moment. Rome maintained a vigilant border guard along these fronts. As in many march lands, this guard took the form of resident militiamen, that is, soldiers planting crops and liv- ing with their families. Came hostilities, and the militia abandoned their farms on short notice and occupied local strong points. To back up these frontiersmen were armies of strategic reserve. The reserves were at first foot soldiers with a few horsemen, later 164 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES archers on horses in the Persian fashion. They were instantly ready to move over the superb Roman roads to support the militia any- where. The border guard was made up of provincials, Barbarian mercenaries, or allied tribes. The several reserve armies of Dio- cletian’s reign, 284-305 A.D., were habitually recruited from among Barbarians (Boak, 1929). Justinian, reigning over the Eastern Roman Empire in the sixth century, built a noteworthy series of fortresses along the lower Danube and in North Africa, structures with walls several feet thick and tall as two story houses. He added the innovations that the general commanding the reserve would take charge of the beleagured forces, and that militiamen would have precedence over civilian officials. The rough and tumble medieval period employed like arrange- ments. Charlemagne created no less than half a dozen marches on the limits of his realm. These served for defense and were centers of Germanization and colonization. The Spanish March in Cata- lonia and the Austrian March in Central Europe were the two most celebrated. One needs but tour Austria to recall the military origin of the land. Castles are perched on mountain peaks. On the lower slopes tilled fields extend in all directions away from them. Norman England planted marcher lords next to Wales and Scotland. These men built castles and acted as captains for their zones. The King- dom of Jerusalem was Christendom’s most eastern march during the Crusades. One Crusading order, the Teutonic Knights, func- tioned after the holy wars, settling East Prussia and the Baltic area. Another, the Knights Hospitalers, garrisoned Rhodes initially and then Malta. Because of its early role, one of the former Papal States was called the Marches. Incidentally, march, mark, mar- grave, marchese, marquis, and marquess, are derived from a com- mon linguistic source. With rise of the modern territorial state, history furnishes many more cases of guarded frontiers, artificial or natural (Prescott, 1965). The political-geographical terms Military Croatia and Ser- bian Military Frontier are reminders of the alert the Hapsburgs kept for generations against the Ottoman Turks. For a different front, reminder of a sometime march, compare “The Watch on the Rhine.” The treaty of Ryswick, 1697, granted the Dutch the privilege of garrisoning against Louis XIV certain Barrier Fortresses in the Spanish Netherlands. As late as the spring of 1792, preparing for Koenic: Military March Lands 165 the publication of his Travels in France and Italy, the English agri- culturist Arthur Young spoke of France’s splendid system of for- tresses, north and east of Paris (Young, 1934). And Napoleon erected the Grand Duchy of Berg as march against Prussia. The reunion of Belgium and Holland after the fall of Bona- parte was arranged in part to deter possible French aggression. Britain promised the House of Orange £2,000,000 to fortify Bel- gium. Decay of march lands began thereafter. Post Congress of Vi- enna, 1814-1815, Austria might maintain the Quadrilateral Forts in the middle of Lombardy-Venetia, and France could reinforce Bel- fort, Metz or Toul. However, these fortresses were not squarely on boundaries. Victorians in the age of bad taste (mauvais goit, which was really not so mauvais) neglected marches. Their day appeared over. This was not to be so. During the last 40 years nations have turned back to the ancient military marches for security. Open frontiers are associated with disarmament; disarmament is linked with security. There was no security during the Great Peace which followed the Great War. France was first to awaken to this. That country had never seriously considered the League of Nations cap- able of providing adequate defense. With America and Britain refusing blank check aid after the 1918 Armistice, the Third Repub- lic resorted to other measures. Abortive intrigues were initiated to acquire the Saar territory and to set up a Rhenish Republic as buffers against Germany. Hard military alliances were negotiated with Poland and the Little Entente. Finally construction of the Maginot Line and the Mareth Line (in Tunisia) was begun. The Nazis replied by putting up the West Wall or Siegfried Line oppo- site the Maginot. France subscribed to the Locarno Pacts of 1925 which proclaimed the existing German-Belgian-French boundaries and signed the 1928 Pact of Paris outlawing war. Little confidence was placed in such instruments. Under the circumstance the Ge- neva Disarmament Conference of 1932-1934 had thin success. Another complication intervened, the successful consolidation of its regime by the Soviet Union. Since establishment in 1917 this government had excited the most lively doubts about its willingness to respect international frontiers. When military march lands be- came common after Hitler's War, many, though not all, arose in comers of the world where Communist and Western interests met 166 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES in juxtaposition. The lapse into Bolshevism of the Iron Curtain countries and China pushed the process forward. Thinking in the West was that Good Neighbor relations often were impossible with many of the Warsaw Pact states, Soviet China, North Korea, North Viet Nam, or Red Cuba. Hence there must be containment, and, if needs be, marches to withstand aggression, modern marches with all the panoply of radarscopes, jet bombers, and nuclear missiles backed up at sea by aircraft carriers and Polaris submarines. Most people can remember the militarization of the South Florida march during the 1962 Cuban missile confrontation with the Russians. Germany, Berlin, Palestine, Kashmir, Korea, Cyprus, and Viet Nam, at one time or another, in the quarter-century after V-J Day were partitioned, generally along former cease-fire lines. American armed strength underwrote South Korea, Japan, Okinawa, Siam, Philippines, Formosa, and South Viet Nam. Greece was spared a bleeding frontier with her northern Communist neighbors largely because of the defection of Jugoslavia and Albania from Kremlin control. A military march existed between Yemen and Aden before the British abandoned the second, 1967, and still between Meso- potamia and Persia. Communist Hungary policed her frontier against neutral Austria. A march exists at present writing between Algeria and Morocco, and Castro’s Cuba is heavily watched by the United States. The MacMahon Line is garrisoned by India and China, and shooting incidents have occurred along its course. Truce lines separate India and Pakistan in Kashmir. Malaysia and In- donesia met in occasional battle in Borneo until mid-1966. In 1969 Chinese and Soviet forces clashed on the Ussuri River, dividing line between Manchuria and Siberia’s Maritime Provinces and per- haps at points along the borders of Siberia and Sinkiang. If world trouble spots are listed, they generally turn out to be marches (Jackson, 1962). Russian proposals for evacuation of all foreign troops from the North Atlantic Treaty Organization and Warsaw bloc, states coupled with limited air inspection rights over nuclear and missile bases, demonstrated that NATO countries and the Warsaw powers were patently rival marches. The Paris peace talks which started in 1968, treated of South Viet Nam, America’s march in Southeast Asia. The August 21, 1968 occupation of Czechoslovakia by the Soviets further emphasized the point. What rehabilitation of the KoeEntic: Military March Lands 167 military march means is that much of the world found itself aban- doning the aspiration of all states dwelling peacefully side by side. Frontiers had to be enforced. The moral strength of world opinion, represented by the United Nations and the neutralist group of ‘emerging countries, was not enough to stay any major aggressor. Military geographers and political scientists might well look into two problems. What impact, if any, on the foreign and the domestic policy of a state do quasi-permanent military marclies have? Does the history of those lands which feel need to militarize precise boundaries teach any lessons which may be valuable today? Though Winston S. Churchill in Their Finest Hour opined, “Past experience carries with its advantages the drawback that things never happen the same way again,” in case of marcher territories, history does seem to have gone around the full circle (Churchill, 1949). What of the future? It is difficult to cast the horoscope. If Wilbur and Orville Wright did not in the long run ruin irretrievably the value of marches by overflight, 1957’s Sputnik and 1970's space machines may well do so. Nuclear armed Intercontinental Bal- listic Missiles, let alone Multiple Independently Targetable Re- entry Vehicles, biological warfare, Polaris underwater craft, and National Liberation Fronts may reverse the spread of military limits. They easily overpass boundaries. Hopefully, prosperity engendered by the European Common Market, the Outer Seven, and other trading programs may serve to eliminate economic bar- riers even as the old Zollverein of a century and more ago paved way for Bismarck’s German unity. Consolation may be found in the folk proverb, “The soup is never eaten as hot as it is cooked.” It may be hazarded that civilization is on the verge of an era that will end the march. People argue that the trophies of war are changing, that the world is ruled by physical energy. Here is that view. Men in the past when not fighting for honor, adventure, prestige, or religion, sought sources of energy that could be turned into wealth, provinces with slaves, water, wind, wood, and coal. Subsurface minerals besides gold and silver were recognized as valuable even before the 1700’s. Sufficient energy was always lack- ing. Since inequalities existed among countries, arable land, cities, 168 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES factories, and mines could add to the totals of the “have not” na- tions. England recognized the back of the coin twenty decades ago. Raw materials from underdeveloped areas and consumption by colonial markets kept its shop wheels turning. Strategic trade narrows like Gibraltar, Suez, and Malacca, with the Panama Canal built by the friendly United States, controlled the routes by sea to and from these markets. Naval enthusiasts taught that the sea regularly defeated the land, the whale beat the elephant. To pre- serve her monopoly, Great Britain relied on the Royal Navy. It would have been even better had it had wheels. Today three particular types of energy are coming of age and present different prizes of war: automation, scientific agriculture, and nuclear power. These hold a potential for wiping out poverty and balancing unequal natural resources. These can move men to a new stage of history and extinguish former ideas of hours of labor, supply and demand, level of trade. A great treasure is human in- telligence. One nuclear physicist or mathematician, it is alleged, is worth a province unless that province contains rare earths good for firing atomic reactors. The world’s reserves of energy in form of fossil fuels, i.e., coal and oil, equal 3-1/2 million million tons of coal. In uranium and thorium the globe has ten to twenty times the known storehouse of fossil fuels. These can be wasted should there be a war fought with atomic weapons. A poetaster in the 1969 Farmer's Almanac published this tercet: I shot an H-bomb in the air; It fell to earth, I can’t say where; The place it fell’s no longer there. (Pease, 1969) The current peacetime rate of consumption, not counting popula- tion rises, shows the fossil fuels will last eight hundred years. With available radio-active minerals, atomic power stations can take care of any of the world’s energy needs into the far distant future. Fair exchange among states of these sources of power may even make military conflict, per those who emphasize economic causations for war, and by consequence, march lands, out of date. Save for guerrilla areas such as Viet Nam, planes and missiles and space satellites can sound the knell of march lands. New energy forms can by proper assignment make international struggles Koenic: Military March Lands 169 antediluvian. Military march lands may become as extinct as Brontosaurus rex. The talkative Dr. Samuel Johnson loved travelling in a carriage because the company could not leave him. Unfortunately, the es- sayist has no captive audience for the reader can simply close the book. But Dr. Johnson was wise enough to admit, “the carriage must stop sometime and the people must come home at last” ( Hal- liday, 1968). He had a point. LITERATURE CITED ALLEN, FREDERICK LEwis. 1959. Only yesterday. Bantam Books, New York, xi+ 270 pp. BARTLETT, JoHN. 1955. Familiar quotations. 13th ed. Little, Brown and Co., Boston and Toronto, xxxiv-+1614 pp. BERGIN, THOMAS GODDARD, AND Max Haroxtp Fiscu. 1961. The New Sci- ence of Giambattista Vico. Doubleday and Co., Garden City, N.Y., liii+ 384 pp. Boax, ArTHUR E. R. 1929. A history of Rome to 565 A.D. Macmillan Co., New York, xi+476 pp. CHURCHILL, WINSTON S. 1949. Their finest hour. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston, xvi+751 pp. Dickens, CuHarLEs. 1903. American notes. Chapman and Hall, Ltd.; and Henry Frowde, 187 pp. Emery, H. G., anp K. G. Brewster. 1936. The new century dictionary of the English language. P. F. Collier and Son Corp., New York, vol. 2, p. 1018. Fauts, Cyrm. 1962. A hundred years of war, 1850-1950. Collier Books, New York, 480 pp. Hatimay, F. E. 1968. Doctor Johnson and his world. Viking Press, New York, 144 pp. Hitt, Norman. 1945. Claims to territory in international law and relations. Oxford University Press, London, vi+ 248 pp. 170 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Hott, W. Srutxt. 1963. The historical profession in the United States. Service Center for Teachers of History, Washington, D. C., 30 pp. Jackson, W. A. Douctas. 1962. Russo-Chinese borderlands. D. Van Nos- trand, Princeton, N. J., v-126 pp. PreasE, ToM. 1969. “Un-Pinpointable.” In Farmers’ almanac for the year of Our Lord 1969. Almanac Publishing Co., Lewiston, Me., vol. 152, p. 5. PeLtieR, Louis C., AND EtzeL Pearcy. 1966. Military geography. D. Van Nostrand & Co., Princeton, N. J., 176 pp. PILKINGTON, JR., JOHN. 1964. Francis Marion Crawford. College and Uni- versity Press, New Haven, Conn., 223 pp. Prescott, J. R. V. 1965. The geography of frontiers and boundaries. Aldine Publishing Co., Chicago, 190 pp. . Younc, ARTHUR. 1934. Travels in France and Italy. J. M. Dent and Sons, London, xxi+ 373. Department of History, University of Miami, Coral Gables, Florida 33124. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 33(3) 1970( 1971) Some British Impressions of Theodore Roosevelt GrorcE C. OsBORN AFTER months of failing health, Theodore Roosevelt died in his sleep on January 6, 1919, at Sagamore Hill, his home in Oyster Bay. British sources of opinion and thought noted the passing of this il- lustrious American, as did newspapers and journals in the United States. P. W. Wilson, of the London Daily News, (January 7, 1919), wrote of a recent visit with this “American National Hero.” The Englishman found the American reclining on a couch. He was simply clad in a dressing gown and bedroom slippers. A couple of books lay nearby. “His sunburnt face was pale and there was an invalid whiteness about his strong and shapely hands.” For nearly an hour they chatted, “not in anecdote as was Roose- velt’s custom but plainly with a view of creating an impression.” An impression that he was not a sick man. “He knew precisely what he wanted to say and he said it with a crisp accuracy of phrase,” concluded Wilson. In characterizing Theodore Roosevelt the British press spoke most often of his tireless energy. He was the most “vital and strenuous American character,” said the London Daily Chronicle, (January 7, 1919). Frank Dilmot, the Chronicle’s reporter sta- tioned in New York, was impressed by Roosevelt's “vigor and powerful physique [which] gave the impression of tremendous strength and energy,” his contagious democratic spirit, his un- clouded self-confidence and his fresh enthusiasm. No one could ever think of him otherwise than young. The London Daily Mail, (January 7, 1919), felt that. Roosevelt’s most personal quality was “pure energy rather than pure reason.” The London Daily News (January 7, 1919) believed the dominant note of Roosevelt’s char- acter was a strenuousness which showed itself in earliest childhood and continued throughout his extremely useful life. Indeed, ac- cording to the Daily News, (ibid.) Roosevelt’s mother said of her son, when he could scarcely toddle, “If God were not taking care of Theodore he would not be here now.” Sir Robert Borden, Prime Minister of Canada, who was in London at that time, com- mented on Roosevelt’s “impressive personality, his remarkable abil- ity, his restless energy.” (London Westminster Gazette, January 7, 172 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 1919) James D. Whelpley, an English journalist who lived for many years in Washington and who knew President Roosevelt personally, was impressed by his fighting qualities, by his tremen- dous energy, and by his stalwart support of social justice (ibid.). The London Observer, (January 12, 1919) as did many other news- papers, stressed other traits of Roosevelt. In addition to his vitality, his strenuous life, his dedication to hard work, Roosevelt “stood for simplicity both of life and character.” The London Times (Janu- ary 7, 1919) told its readers that Roosevelt was “an enthusiast and an idealist,” and added that “strong common sense and moderation characterized him.” The Manchester Guardian (January 7, 1919) summarized Roosevelt’s unusual life by saying that “his vitality, his energy, his versatility, the wealth of his exuberance distinguished him among contemporary public men.” The London Daily Tele- graph (January 7, 1919) thought Roosevelt the “complete Ameri- can, whether in war, politics, and sports, in moral and physical energy. Indeed, he was “energy incarnate.” His inspiring strenu- ous life made him famous all round the world. The London Re- view of Reviews (1919a) noted that Roosevelt’s “ideal of a states- man was that of a practical idealist.” The thought progress was ac- complished by the man who did the things which should be done and not by the man who talked about how they ought to be done. Several sources of British opinion spoke of the former Presi- dent’s philosophy of work and energy coming from a Scriptural foundation. The Edinbourg Weekly Scotsman (January 11, 1919) told its readers that shortly before Roosevelt was suddenly called to the Presidency by President McKinley’s assassination, the Vice President, while in church was invited into the pulpit. He read a short portion of Scripture from James, Chapter 1, verse 22: “Be ye doers of the Word, not hearers only.” In a brief sermon he ex- pressed his attitude toward religion and public life when he said: “The man who observes all the Commandments of the Church, but who does not carry them in his daily life, is not a true Christian.” The London Daily Telegraph (January 7, 1919) revealed Roose- velt’s affection for the statement in the book of Ecclesiastes, Chap- ter LX, verse 10: “Whatever thy hand findeth to do, do it with thy might.” Roosevelt’s energy, though abundant, was by no means merely physical. Several members of the English press were aware of his Oszorn: Impressions of Theodore Roosevelt 17633 vigor in conversation. The London Westminster Gazette (January 7, 1919) declared that Roosevelt's “strength in conversation ap- peared inexhaustible.” He was the “least arrogant and the least immodest of talkers,” concluded the Westminster Gazette. Sir Robert Borden was equally aware of this trait in Roosevelt, saying that the American had an uncanny “vigor of expression,” which was coupled with a “wide vision and a high idealism” (ibid.). The London Times (January 7, 1919), spoke of Roosevelt’s showman- ship as a public speaker and added that though superior persons sometimes scoffed at his exhortations, “he had a firmer grasp and often a deeper grasp of essentials than they.” The Daily News (January 7, 1919) revealed how Roosevelt, as a public speaker, had a way of “carrying his audience with him by his interesting arguments, and of persuading them that he was saying something most profound, when as a fact, he was only retelling familiar truths.” The London Observer (January 12, 1919) contended that the English were not accustomed to Roosevelt’s bombastic man- ner. They were unaware of his unbounded conviction and of his unlimited earnestness, and so were prone to look upon his platform performances as “somewhat theatrical.” The London Times (Janu- ary 7, 1919) lauded the ability with which Roosevelt held fast to the American people and pointed out how he taught his fellow Americans in a “language everywhere understood by the people.” The London Spectator (Anonymous, 1919a) expressed the same idea. When Roosevelt spoke “everyone knew what he meant.” While one might agree or disagree with him, no one could pretend not to understand him. “He was a plain speaker if there ever was one. James Whelpley an English reporter who knew Roosevelt well, described him as a “Radical talker and a conservative actor ... his bark was worse than his bite” (1918). Many spoke of Theodore Roosevelt’s undaunted courage. The London Times (January 7, 1919) found him absolutely fearless. Although frequently tactless, he succeeded by his cordial geniality and by his large humanity. The London Nation (Anonymous, 1918-1919) entitled its more than two page article about Roosevelt “Ever a Fighter.” He was a born fighter “and the cloak of righteous- ness was for him a shield and a buckler.” He carried a furious fighting quality into “every section of his strenuous life.” Yet for one who stood for “deeds not words,” the lavish outpouring of 174 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Rooseveit’s pen and tongue in endless flow on an infinite variety of topics would seem an inconsistency to those who did not realize the great part mere “talk plays in the great Republic of the West.” Furthermore, concluded the liberal Nation, (ibid.) there was a place in America for strong, vigourous, courageous men and Roose- velt surely did try to create such a niche for himself. That Roose- velt fought his fights clean and fair was the studied opinion of the London Daily News. (January 7, 1919) Several British journals noted Roosevelt's tendency to preach. The Daily News, (ibid.) informed its readers that on occasion when addressing a political meeting, he let slip the phrase, ““But O’ my Brother’ and immediately joined in the shout of laughter against himself.” If he preached, his sermon was customarily on the subject “Sweat and be Saved.” According to the London Ob- server, (January 12, 1919) Roosevelt exemplified the highest type of courage before the American people and they followed him as an apostle of all that stood for a clean, high, strenuous standard of life. His universal tendency to preach, concluded the Nation, (Anonymous, 1918-1919) may be traced to the traditional Puri- tanism of America which resulted from the strange blending of blood and manners in large sections of American society. This weekly journal of current opinion did not think highly of Roose- velt’s oratory, calling it “intolerable reading.” The Nation (ibid. ) was at a loss to understand how “Roosevelt’s magnetic personality could carry multitudes through such an ordeal of his platitudious- ness preaching.” P. W. Wilson, writing in the London Daily News, (January 7, 1919) said that Theodore Roosevelt was a life-long crusader. The London Daily Mail (January 7, 1919) thought that Roosevelt had lived long enough to realize that he was “something of a prophet.” In short, his preaching had not been in vain. English periodicals did not hesitate to point out flaws in Roose- velt’s personality. For example, James D. Whelpley wrote in the Fortnightly Review (1918) that with Roosevelt, “more than in any other successful public man in modern history, it was always a case of ‘you are either for or against me, and if against me you are no friend of mine.” He has never forgotten nor forgiven a slight nor injury, whether intended or inadvertent.” The former president insisted upon absolute personal domination; he was content with nothing less. The Nation (Anonymous, 1918-1919) thought that Ossorn: Impressions of Theodore Roosevelt 75 as a resident of the White House, Roosevelt had the temper of a patriarch rather than that of a President and that he never felt a need to take advice from others who frequently were better quali- fied to know the situation than was he. One journalist thought it impossible for Roosevelt to have had a highly developed sense of humor, “for no one who took himself as seriously could afford it.” A sense of humor would have intruded itself at critical moments and weakened his overpowering self-confidence which at times was his sole dependence (Whelpley, 1918). He had an “old Testament zealousness for punishing his enemies and for regarding those whose views were different from his as wicked men,” stated the Nation (Anonymous, 1918-1919). The London Times (January 7, 1919) sought to evaluate Roose- velt's mind. The editor did not believe that he was “an original thinker” but added that the man was a thinker “whose thoughts became acts,” because they were eminently the thoughts of a man whose preaching was moral precepts and whose teaching was plain morality. Indeed, the “morality he preached was quite simple: That was why it made such a strong appeal to his audiences of the most different characters. It was the old-fashioned Christian doc- trine of the most elementary type applied to every day things of public and social life. The Fortnightly Review (Whelpley, 1918) told of Roosevelt's being a “voracious and serious reader” and of his possessing a “remarkable memory for all he has seen, heard, or read.” Quite a few voices of British opinion reminded the reading pub- lic of some of the numerous anecdotes connected with Roosevelt’s public life. A volume could be filled with Roosevelt’s precious anecdotes, said the Fortnightly Review (ibid.), adding that each one would throw a light on some particular facet of his many-sided nature. Each anecdote would give in a quiet way “an impression of the man as a whole” to anyone who wished to understand or judge him on that evidence alone. The Daily Telegraph (January 7, 1919), told of the prayer that eminated from Wall Street the day in the spring of 1909 that the recent President sailed for his African safari: “Wall Street expects every lion will do his duty.” It also quoted a famous member of Congress who, when speaking sarcasti- cally of Roosevelt’s high public morality, as saying “that he envied the President in his discovery of the Ten Commandments.” 176 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES One member of the British metropolitan press spoke of the “Cult of Teddy” that arose in America and “gradually spread all over Anglo-Saxondom.” That unusual and beloved companion of children, the “Teddy Bear” became a symbol of the mingled affec- tion and amusement with which the plain American citizen re- garded his sportsman President. Moreover, Roosevelt was the only President of the United States to give his name to a garment of clothing, for the ladies, not to be outdone by the little children, had their teddies, too. There were, however, some contrasts. Roosevelt’s mind, thought the correspondent James Whelpley, was a “varied landscape with fine heights, low-lying valleys, sweetened bitter syrups, worked and waste land having upon it life-giving and poisonous plants and yet as a whole it was pleasing to the eye” (Whelpley, 1918). Indeed, such an intellectual variety was seldom given to one personality, and especially to one who oc- cupied several high elective positions. The Nation, (Anonymous, 1918-1919) impressed upon its readers the great variety of Roose- velt’s mental curiosity and his intellectual venturesomeness. This restless and active mind had about it a ruthlessness, and intoler- ance of low vitality and a completeness of self-confidence that was startling. He was the grand American raised to the highest power. Granted that Roosevelt had a master mind and that he possessed a photographic memory, James Whelpley bore witness that he could and did achieve really great things but that he sometimes strayed to “trivialities that astounded even those who admired him most” (Whelpley, 1918). P. W. Wilson, writing in the Daily News, (January 7, 1919) told of Roosevelt’s ability to come immediately down to the brass tacks of any question under discussion. No British periodical, however, challenged the conclusion of the Lon- don Times, that Theodore Roosevelt could not be “ranked with the lofty creative geniuses” of modern times. (January 7, 1919) Only the weekly journals of public opinion mentioned Roose- velt the family man. His devotion as a husband, his companion- ship to his children, especially to his several sons, went unnoticed except for a brief statement in the Nation and in the Fortnightly Review. The Nation (Anonymous, 1918-1919) acknowledged that he was “admirable in his family and close personal relations.” The Fortnightly Review (Whelpley, 1918) was equally brief: “no man outside Roosevelt's immediate family was ever able to say truthfully that he was on really intimate terms with Theodore Roosevelt.” Ossorn: Impressions of Theodore Roosevelt 7a) Only the London Daily News (January 7, 1919) thought well enough of Roosevelt as a journalist to preserve in English opinion his manifesto of ideal journalism. Roosevelt issued it at the begin- ning of his editorship of the New York Outlook: “During the last few years it has become lamentably evident that certain daily newspapers, certain periodicals, are owned and controlled by men of vast wealth who have gained their wealth in evil fashion, who desire to style or twist the humblest expression of public opinion, and who find an instrument fit for their purpose in the guided and purchased mendacity of those who edit and write such journals.” In the opinion of the London Daily News, (ibid.) there was no question that Roosevelt would be accorded by posterity a place among the great Republican Presidents. Indeed, he was a “single example in the history of the United States of a Vice-President suc- ceeding automatically to the Presidency officially and attaining dis- tinction in it.” Roosevelt, “by breeding and education,” said the Spectator (Anonymous, 1919b) belonged to the American wealthy classes which in English do not take much part in the “rough and tumble of politics, but America has never been served by a truer democrat than by Roosevelt.” Continuing, this review of politics, literature, theology and art, observed that as a man of large ideals, “who stood for public morality and national honor, Roosevelt seemed to be one of the great assets of the English-speaking races.” The London Times (January 7, 1919) observed that in politics as in everything the T. R. was a fighter. He preached with the same bluntness and the same transparent conviction to the intellectuals of Paris at the Sorbonne or at the University of Oxford as to the back-country rustics in the American West. Upon Roosevelt's death, declared the Daily Chronicle (January 7, 1919) there de- parted “a voice at once stimulating and disturbing, and a person- ality which was unique in the American Nations.” Certainly he was a national influence. P. W. Wilson thought that Roosevelt’s personal following was astonishing. He was easily the most popular of American speakers “and this was all the more remarkable because between his ora- tions, there was a certain similarity.” As Roosevelt said to Wilson, he knew to a nicety what the Americans, with a materialist crust over their genuine souls, “were thinking, and how far their mental processes had gone in any direction.” As a foreigner who had 178 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES traveled widely in America, Wilson was struck by Roosevelt's pop- ularity. The Colonel would be terribly missed. “Many Americans loved him as a friend. The youngsters worshipped him as an ulti- mate hero. Women blessed him, none the less because differing with old political wire pullers, he preached the duty of rearing large families” (London Daily News, January 7, 1919). Of all Englishmen who sought to evaluate Theodore Roosevelt's political accomplishments, none approached the keen insight at- tained by James D. Whelpley. Writing in the London West- minster Gazette (January 8, 1919), he stated that Roosevelt had come to the presidency “when commercialism in politics was threatening the political and social structure of the nation. Thoughtful men were cynical in regard to public office, some had begun to question the real values of the American form of govern- ment and were quite prepared to argue its failure. Great indus- trial and financial interests dictated to Congress; State Legislatures and law courts were swayed by these powers to serve their wills.” Coming to the White House amidst such conditions T. R. soon issued his declaration of principles. And, continued Whelpley, the fresh air that President Roosevelt led into the political situation soon developed into a hurricane in which practically everything floundered that was not honest in intention and sound in principle.” Although his administration was born in violence and destined to turbulence, the welfare of all the people, with him stood superior to the interests of the selfish few. The London Times (January 7, 1919) expressed somewhat the same idea by saying that he carried out his policies steadily and tenaciously, “but he carried them out with a caution and a grip of the practical which again and again baffled the political ‘old gang’.” Roosevelt's career, the Nation (Anonymous, 1918-1919) thought, presented a person of “universally powerful interests and emotions” entirely obedient to the narrow aims of social conduct within modern statecraft. The London Daily Mail (January 7, 1919) con- tended that he was a man of “will and energy, who fought against ‘graft’ and privilege, who said what he thought intently and forc- ibly, whose range was wide and life vital, a man who made a great place in the world, as well as at home, by the dint of great and very American qualities.” Oszorn: Impressions of Theodore Roosevelt 179 Voices of British public opinion spoke glowingly of Theodore Roosevelt's dedication to social reform. The London Times (Janu- ary 7, 1919) for example, said that: “The torch of social reform which he lighted continues to burn.” The only danger was that it “may burn too rapidly and with too much fierceness.” Moreover, this independent liberal newspaper thought that “Roosevelt him- self had no more sympathy with predatory Socialism than with the Monopoly of trust.” He saw the danger of any one class or group dominating in America. He was a foe of all corruption and graft, averred the London Daily News (January 7, 1919). The people were delighted with the reforms that President Theodore Roosevelt wrought in the United States. “Strong common sense and modera- tion characterized the body of far-reaching changes which he ef- fected in internal politics” (London Times January 7, 1919). The Nation (Anonymous 1918-1919) spoke of Theodore Roosevelt as a “fearless enemy of grafters, the rooter-out of corruption . . . the apostle of the ‘square deal’ for the working man [and as one whose] Puritan principles and combativeness did excellent service in the cause of ‘righteousness’ in politics.” James D. Whelpley, in the Fortnightly Review (1918) emphasized the ‘tremendous hold upon the imagination of the people” which T. R. attained and held for years. This fortunate achievement, thought Whelpley, was due to the fact that “no President ever had more attentive ears to the real needs of the nation than did Roosevelt. As Chief Executive he had an uncanny skill and presience as an interpretor of the National voice. It was in this field of unselfishness that T. R. achieved his “greatest service to the nation; an accomplishment so great; so en- tirely beneficial and so far-reaching in its consequences as to belong properly to the category of epoch-making events in the history of the United States.” The Manchester Guardian (January 7, 1919) referred to Roosevelt's denunciation of corruption, to his agitations against the trusts and added that his “pronouncements were lay sermons, vigorous and abundant like the man himself,” but they lacked legislative proposals for precise remedies. It was his “per- sonality rather than anything he achieved which made him figure so large among his contemporaries.” The studied conclusion of the Guardian was that “sterility marked Roosevelt’s administration.” The Spectator (Anonymous, 1919b) contended that Roosevelt's mission in a period during which the United States had become a 180 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES world power without knowing it, was to “infuse a new spirit into America’s politics, and to arouse her to a sense of her changed posi- tion in the world.” In the Roosevelt Presidency America “learned to think internationally, if not imperially.”. The Daily Telegraph (January 7, 1919) was of the opinion that Roosevelt, in the domain of foreign policy, left “a permanent mark upon American history. At the end of his second term as President his Country “was con- scious of itself and its responsibilities as a power as it had never been before. According to this source, no person did as much as Roosevelt himself to introduce the spirit of world power to the American people. His famous phrase for the right diplomacy of national greatness in a world of competing ambitions was “to speak softly and carry a big stick.” It summed up the wisdom of genera- tions in the Old World. The popular provincial Manchester Guardian (January 7, 1919) with liberal proclivities, announced that Roosevelt brought into “world politics something of the wind of the great prairies.” As President he stood at a parting of the ways for America; both in- ternally and externally, the United States was passing through a great transition. Into this new atmosphere he projected, especially in foreign affairs, a noisy “primitive American individualism.” The London Times (January 7, 1919) thought Roosevelt's international relations were those of a “shrewd politician and a sensible man of the world.” Sir Robert Borden told of Roosevelt’s great place, not only in his own country, but in the wider theaters of world affairs, as well. He recalled the “remarkable reception” accorded Theo- dore Roosevelt in Canada as testimony of the affection and esteem in which the American President was held by the people of Canada (London Westminster Gazette, January 7, 1919). The Nation (Anonymous, 1918-1919) declared that for 20 years Roose- velt had gone about preaching the responsibility of the strong na- tions to govern the weak justly. The expansive zeal of T. R.’s moral message, overrode all considerations of freedom or self- determination in the western hemisphere, with “a spirit of Im- perialism ever more dangerous to the order and liberty of the world than any of the more blatant brands prevalent in Europe.” Indeed, said this weekly periodical, Roosevelt’s coercion of the Middle and South American States was a “rigorous exploitiation of the Mon- roe Doctrine.” Moreover, that Roosevelt should receive the Nobel Ossorn: Impressions of Theodore Roosevelt 181 Peace Prize as a peace-maker “was a given commentary upon such a life.” The Fortnightly Review (1918) believed that in interna- tional crises Roosevelt found full play for “all those qualities of mili- tary patriotism, law of action, and quick play of mind,” which he exemplified to an unusual degree. The Spectator (Anonymous, 1919b) praised the service Roose- velt rendered the British in the Venezuelan Controversy but thought the incident which gave him the best opportunity to show his force of character and to display his courageous action was the Panama Canal crisis: “The Panama Canal was his chief monument, his greatest work in the eyes of American public opinion.” The London Daily Chronicle (January 7, 1919) agreed with the Spec- tator that the “Canalization of Panama’ was his greatest achieve- ment. The Nation, (Anonymous, 1918-1919) however, spoke in- dignantly of Roosevelt's “secret fomentation of an insurrection in Colombia in order to set up a State of Panama which he should straightway recognize as qualified to convey to America a zone of land required for making of the canal.” This episode, continued the liberal weekly, “caused Roosevelt not a qualm. He defended it on the pure grounds of urgent public interests.” In short, con- cluded the Nation, the Colombian government “corrupt and_ob- structive to the interests of the United States must be coerced into submission. What was the greatest significance of Roosevelt’s presidential administration? British voices of public opinion had some conclu- sions about this question too. The London Daily News (January 7, 1919) informed its readers that he had dominated his “cabinet and the Congress alike by the force of his personality (and that) he set a new standard in Presidential initiative.” The Daily News, how- ever, went on to say that Roosevelt left a less enduring mark in the United States than at one time seemed likely. “His great achieve- ment, the creating of the separate Progressive party out of the Re- publican left wing, has already come to nothing. James D. Whelp- ley, foreign news correspondent in Washington, stated that Roose- velt’s friends believed his administration was one of the greatest in the history of the Presidency. The English reporter contended, however, that T. R. was never really liked by the newspaper men (Fortnightly Review, 1918). The London Observer (January 12, 1919) thought it would be most difficult to state precisely the sig- 182 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES nificance of Roosevelt’s administration but that he stood for the “ideals of modern America.” James Whelpley contended in the Westminster Gazette (January 7, 1919) that it was “as a revolution- ary leader, and as a savior of his country in times of dire need that Roosevelt stood forth as a tremendous figure in American history.” No one, thought this daily newspaper, could conceive of the drastic changes that had come about in American life since 1901 without realizing Roosevelt’s significance. The power of money was crushed, monopolies were largely abolished and the rights of property were held to be so administered. It was a far cry from the conditions of the pre-Rooseveltian days. It was, concluded the Westminster Gazette, to Theodore Roosevelt, “the democrat-aristocrat, the American people owe their transition’. The Glasgow Herald (January 7, 1919) declared that if one is ever tempted to think of the failure of democratic institutions, it was a “reinforcement of faith to recall the distinguished plane on which the Presidency of the great Republic has been almost uniformly mentioned—and by none with more honour than by Theodore Roosevelt.” Several British papers expressed themselves quite frankly about the relationship between Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wil- son. The Daily Telegraph (January 7, 1919) noted the vigorous criticism by Roosevelt of the Wilsonian policy of neutrality but re- frained from indicating which of the two Americans had chosen the more statesmanlike course. It was enough to say that once America was committed to the war Roosevelt gave President Wilson “the heartiest support and his only public difference was a general ap- peal, which the military authorities at Washington could not grant, for leave to take a force to the front.” The Spectator (January 11, 1919) divulged the wide differences “in temperament and methods” between the two men and announced that though they were wholly dissimilar, yet Wilson was carrying on the work begun by Roosevelt; and “showing the world that America with her mighty power must have a great share in the attainment of a stable peace. The Manchester Guardian (January 7, 1919) never strongly Rooseveltian, declared that it was Woodrow Wilson who carried out the “Constructive reforms, constitutional and financial, and who won the enduring loyalty of forward-looking men in America.” Indeed, concluded the Guardian, it was the “Great War and President Wilson which brought America forthwith into Oszorn: Impressions of Theodore Roosevelt 183 the sweep of world affairs.” Yet another British voice averred that Roosevelt's severe criticism of Wilson’s diplomacy, “whether ju- dicious or not, was animated by a keen desire that America should play a vigorous and unhesitating role in the struggle for Justice and Right... The Glasgow Herald, (January 7, 1919) noted the vast temperamental differences that intensified the political antagonisms between Roosevelt and Wilson, but did not say which nature was best fitted to make the solemn decisions America was destined to formulate. Suffice it to say, concluded the Herald, that Wilson never had a more courageous opponent to his policies and no more generous aid to get public opinion solidly for war than Theodore Roosevelt. Actually, Roosevelt pushed the Coach to which the President was harnessed. Although Roosevelt’s departure left a gap in American statesmanship, his loss was not irreparable in a country which produced Woodrow Wilson as one of his contempo- raries. The London New Statesman, in an editorial, spoke of Roosevelt as “one of the world’s most forceful personalities,” and as having been the probably Republican choice for the Presidency in 1920. It added that his death “practically extinguishes any chance of President Wilson, who would himself have been a ‘third term candidate, from becoming the choice of the Democrats.” More- over, affirmed this weekly of liberal opinion, if both of the Ameri- can political parties had agreed on such candidates the unbroken tradition of the Republic which barred a second presidential re- election would have been overcome. The New Statesman (Janu- ary 11, 1919) thought the consequences to Great Britain and Europe were even more momentous. President Wilson, with no chance of a third nomination, will “let himself go” in the promotion of the policies with which he has identified his own personality “and for which not only the Labour and Socialist Movements throughout the world, but also the Churches, and the intellectual forces generally turn increasingly to him with so much hope.” It is quite natural for the voices of British opinion to express themselves on the attitude which Theodore Roosevelt held towards them and their government. King George V cabled Mrs. Roosevelt that her distinguished husband would be missed by his many friends in Great Britain (King George V, 1919). The London Times (January 7, 1919) rejoiced in the fact that he maintained “that every dispute between the United States and Great Britain 184 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES should be settled by arbitration.” His anxiety for the closest friend- ship between the English speaking peoples was frequently com- mented on by the British agencies of public opinion. The Times was especially pleased with the stand that T. R. took when the Germans invaded Belgium in August, 1914: “But when he drew the sword in defence of outraged Belgium and for the protection of our liberties, his whole heart went out to us.” Frank Dilmot wrote in the London Daily Chronicle (January 7, 1919) that he undoubtedly was a great influence in bringing the American people into line for participation in the European war. FEditorially, the Daily Chronicle (ibid.) stated that “we on this side shall not soon forget the whole-hearted sympathy which he expressed for the Allies in the darkest days of their struggle against Kaiserism.” The London Daily Mail (January 7, 1919) while admitting that the British were “remarkably and culpably ignorant of American poli- tics,” yet they knew that they had lost a dear friend in Roosevelt's passing and they were sad. The Manchester Guardian (January 7, 1919) also appreciated the role he played in making the American people war-conscious and added that Roosevelt did not make the war, “he mirrored it.” The Guardian felt that no doubt a very strong personal and political dislike for President Wilson explained the fury of T. R.’s onslaught upon Wilson’s policies, especially upon the idea of a League of Nations. His actions were also due to his “temperamental distaste for constructive thinking, his shrinking from organized cooperation and his instructive faith in personality and individualism and what he would call virility; as a panacea for all public ills” (ibid.). According to the London Daily News (January 7, 1919) Roosevelt was a protagonist in America for fair play towards Britain. James D. Whelpley concluded that without knowing it Roosevelt was preparing America “to become the fit and proper champion for the cause of the Allies, which is the cause of humanity” (Fortnightly Review, 1918). “The English”, stated the Westminster Gazette, (January 7, 1919) “were among those who admired him for his splendid vigor in public life.” The Spectator (Anonymous, 1919b) declared that “as an American patriot, no less than an advocate of a closer British American understanding, Roosevelt urged that America must intervene in the scale against Germany.” Throughout an extended public career, Roosevelt “held firmly to the idea of the essential unity of the English-speaking Osporn: Impressions of Theodore Roosevelt 185 peoples.” According to this weekly review of public opinion, the British felt that if Roosevelt had not been an American “he might have been an Englishman.” The Review of Reviews (Anonymous, 1919a) summarized British thought well when it declared that Roosevelt's “whole-hearted sympathy during these last bitter years will not soon be forgotten on this side of the Atlantic.” The London Daily News (January 7, 1919) lamented that the death of Roosevelt robbed the world of one of its “most versatile personalities.” John Steele wrote in the Illustrated London News (January 11, 1919) that there had been few men whose careers were more difficult to summarize in detail than that of this “pic- turesque statesman, author, rancher, soldier, explorer, hunter, pub- licist, and world-renowned exponent of the ‘strenuous life’.” The Nation (Anonymous, 1918-1919) summarized its feelings by saying that he was “simply the grand American raised to its highest power.” All of these have been individual impressions of Theodore Roosevelt expressed in agencies of mass media. There were per- sonal evaluations of T. R. revealed in private communications. Of these we have time for only a sampling. Sir Frederick Pollack wrote his aging friend Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes that Roose- velt’s split with Taft “may have been his one bad mistake, but the causes are obscure to us here... If only he could have been your war President; he had something of a blind spot for the legal point of view and the distinction between legal and political justice, but that would not have mattered for the war” (Pollack, 1924). Harold J. Laski, back in England from a recent visiting professorship at Harvard confided to Holmes that Roosevelt had enjoyed “a rich and full life.’ He had made his mark; and for the last decade he had spent his “energies in comment instead of observation.” His progressivism wasn’t real in the sense of implying basic change; but “it was the kind of plea near enough to your coachman and tailor to make them feel uplifted by it.” This intelligent English liberal summarized T. R.’s public career by saying “what a glori- ously simple world he lived in. If you agreed with him, you were a noble fellow; if you disagreed you were a low blackguard” ( Pol- lack, 1924). James Viscount Bryce wrote the imminent American historian, James Ford Rhodes that the British were much grieved at the news of Theodore Roosevelt’s death. Roosevelt, said Bryce, 186 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES “had defects of his qualities, no doubt . . . but he had fine ideals and there was a great fascination about his personality ... He had many wide-ranging versatile interests. I fear his energy wore him out” (Bryce, 1920). ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I wish to express appreciation to the Woodrow Wilson Founda- tion for a grant which made possible my research in England. This was made a pleasure by the courtesies of the employees at the British Museum, at the British Newspaper depository in subur- ban London, and at the Bodelean Library of Oxford University. I am also indebted to the University of Florida for a grant to pay for microfilming source materials in England. LITERATURE CITED ANonyMous. 1918-1919. Ever a fighter. Nation, vol. 24, pp. 422-424. 1919a. [No title.] Review of Reviews, vol. 59, p. 86. 1919b. [No title] Spectator: A Weekly Review of Politics, Litera- ture, Theology and Art, vol. 123, pp. 29-30. Bryce, JAMEs Viscount. 1920. [Letter to James Ford Rhodes, August 17, 1920.] Bryce Papers, Bodelean Library, Oxford University. DitMot, FRANK. 1919. The death of Mr. Roosevelt. London Daily Chronicle, January 7, 1919. Grorce V. 1919. [Letter to Mrs. Theodore Roosevelt, January 7, 1919.] Roosevelt Papers, Library of Congress. Lasxi, Harotp J. 1918. [Letter to Oliver Wendell Holmes, January 12, 1918.] Holmes Papers, August 14, 1921-May 9, 1925, Law Library, Harvard University, Cambridge. PoLLACK, SiR FREDERICK. 1924. [Letter to Oliver Wendell Holmes, January 24, 1924.] Holmes Papers, Law Library, Harvard University, Cam- bridge. STEELE, JOHN. 1919. Theodore Roosevelt. Illustrated London News, Janu- ary 11, 1919. WHELPLEY, JAMES D. 1918. Theodore Roosevelt. Fortnightly Review, vol. 103, pp. 602-610. —. 1919. Theodore Roosevelt. London Westminster Gazette, January 7, 1919. Witson, P. W. 1919. Mr. Roosevelt: America’s national hero. London Daily News, January 7, 1919. Department of Social Sciences, University of Florida, Gaines- ville, Florida 32601. . Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 33(3) 1970(1971) Diel Periodicity of Chlorophyll a in the Gulf of Mexico WALTER A. GLOOSCHENKO Dex variation of chlorophyll pigments in situ in marine waters has been observed by several researchers. In the Pacific Ocean and its adjacent waters, such phenomena were observed by Shimada (1958), Yentsch and Scagel (1958), and McAllister (1964). In the Atlantic Ocean, Yentsch and Ryther (1957), Ryther, Menzel and Vaccaro (1961), Lorenzen (1963), and Wood and Corcoran (1966) found diel pigment variations. In the Antarctic Ocean, the phe- nomenon was observed by El-Sayed and Mandelli (1965). Studies of the distribution of chlorophyll in the Gulf of Mexico were carried out by Marshall (1956) and Steele (1964), but they did not investi- gate diel variations of this pigment. The time of maximum chlorophyll concentration varies. Yentsch and Scagel (1958) and El-Sayed and Mandelli (1965) found max- ima to occur at night while the other authors previously mentioned found in situ maxima to occur during daylight with minimum con- centrations at night. The purpose of the present study was to in- vestigate the diel variation of chlorophyll a in the Gulf of Mexico. METHODS AND MATERIALS Two stations in the Northeast Gulf of Mexico at 28°0’N, 85°0’W and 28°36’N, 84°21’W were occupied with the R/V Tursiops of Florida State University. The first station was at the edge of the continental shelf at 340 m water depth, the latter section at Florida Middle Ground on the shelf at a water depth of 35 m. Surface tem- peratures averaged 24 C, and all samples were taken above the depth of the seasonal thermocline as determined with a bathy- thermograph. Seas were calm at both stations with a cloud cover of no greater than 10 per cent. Water samples were collected with a Niskin water sampler at several depth intervals at time intervals of 2-4 hours. Four liter quantities of water were filtered through a Millipore HAWP 0.45 micron pore-size membrane filter to which 1 ml of saturated MgCO, was added. Filters were then placed in a dessicator at —20 C until analysis. They were then homogenized in 3 ml of 188 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES cold 90 per cent acetone in a Sorvall Omni-Mixer for 3 minutes, made up to 10.0 ml! volume with the acetone in a calibrated glass centrifuge tube and centrifuged for 10 minutes at 3500 rpm to remove all debris and MgCO; particles. This technique is similar to that of Strickland and Parsons (1968) with the exception of the use of the homogenizer. Chlorophyll a was then determined spec- trophotometrically with a Beckman DB-G spectrophotometer using the equation of Strickland and Parsons (1968). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Several explanations have been given for observed diel varia- tions of chlorophyll. These include grazing (McAllister, 1963; Wood and Corcoran, 1966) and light (Yentsch and Scagel, 1958). Yentsch and Lee (1966) concluded that the chlorophyll content of phytoplankton represented a balance between photo-oxidation at high light intensities and pigment synthesis. They believed that surface phytoplankton were able to reduce chlorophyll concentra- tions in the afternoon to prevent harmful photo-oxidations. Changes in diel chlorophyll a at the two Gulf of Mexico stations indicate that light intensity appears to be the major control of in situ minimum concentrations of this pigment. At the first station, chlorophyll a concentration minima occurred in the afternoon hours at the surface, at 10 m and 30 m depths (Fig. 1). At the 50 m depth, maximum chlorophyll was observed during the late afternoon and early evening hours. Chlorophyll a concentration at the surface, 10 m and 30 m increased in the early evening hours with maxima occurring before midnight. If grazing were a major control of chlorophyll a at this station, the concentration of this pig- ment should have decreased at night when grazers were in the surface waters. No indication of such phenomena was observed at the 10 m depth, but some decreases did occur at the surface, 30 and 50 m. At the second station (Fig. 2) minimum chlorophyll a concen- tration occurred at the surface in the morning, and at the 10 and 20 m depths the minimum concentration occurred in the afternoon. At this station, it appeared that the high light intensities in the af- ternoon causes the minimum concentrations of chlorophyll a at that time at the 10 and 20m depths. This confirms the paper of Yentsch GLooscHENKO: Periodicity of Chlorophyll 189 SFC 10M CHLOROPHYLL 9 ) 0.0 08 12 16 20 00 04 08 12 16 20 00 04 12 V69 13 V69 14V69 DATE, TIME (EST) Fig. 1. Chlorophyll a vs. time, depth. 28°0’N, 85°0’W. 190 MG/M ns CHLOROPHYLL QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 0.4 SFC O3 0.2 = ° 10M © w 2 ho 0.1 0.0 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0 20 00 04 08 12 16 20 OO 04 14V69 15 V69 16 V69 DATE, TIME (EST) Fig. 2. Chlorophyll a vs. time, depth. 28°36’N, 84°21’W. GLOosCcHENKO: Periodicity of Chlorophyll 191 and Lee (1967). However, the afternoon chlorophyll maximum oc- curred at the surface in contrast to the other station. If grazing was a major control of diel variations of chlorophyll a concentration, minimum concentrations should occur at night as observed by McAllister (1963) and Wood and Corcoran (1966). There is indication of this at the second station and on the night of May 12 on the first station. However, the amplitude of this varia- tion appears to be too great to be explained by grazing. Ratios of maximum to minimum chlorophyll a concentration in this study varied from 2.5-12.7 with an average of 6.5. This would mean that using such an average, approximately 15 per cent of cells would re- main after the period of grazing, and nearly three cell doublings per day would have to occur for the cell population to regain its former value. This doubling rate is much too fast for natural condi- tions according to the work of Eppley and Strickland (1968). These authors listed mean doubling times in the oceans of 4-5 days. Also, at the first station on the night of May 14, chlorophyll a concentra- tions increased at night indicating dark synthesis. No indication of grazing was seen here. Thus, grazing appears to be a minor con- trol for chlorophyll a decrease at night in the Gulf of Mexico, and light, the major control of observed pigment changes during the af- ternoon. This observation also shows that the use of chlorophyll a for a measure of standing crop of phytoplankton is of doubtful utility unless samples were collected at the same time of day to correct for diel variations under similar light conditions and grazer concentra- tions. LITERATURE CITED E-Sayep, S. A., AND E. F .MAnpetui. 1965. Primary production and stand- ing crop in the Weddell Sea and Drake Passage. In G. A. Llano, editor, Biology of the Arctic Seas, vol. 2, pp. 87-106, (American Geo- physical Union Publication No. 1297). EPppLey, R. W., anp J. D. H. StrickLanp. 1968. Kinetics of Marine phyto- plankton growth. In Droop, M. R., and E. J. F. Wood (Editors) Ad- vances in microbiology of the sea, vol. 1, pp. 23-62, Academic Press, ING Ye LoRENZEN, G. H. 1963. Diurnal variation in photosynthetic activity of nat- ural phytoplankton populations. Limnology and Oceanography, vol. 8, pp. 56-62. 192 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES MarsHatL, N. 1956. Chlorophyll a in the phytoplankton in coastal waters of the eastern Gulf of Mexico. Jour. Marine Research, vol. 15, pp. 14- SYA, McALLIsTER, C. D. 1963. Measurement of diurnal variation in productivity at ocean station “P”. Limnology and Oceanography, vol. 8, pp. 289- 292. RyTHER, J. H., D. W. MENZEL, AND R. F. Vaccaro. 1961. Diurnal variations in some chemical and biological properties of the Sargasso Sea. Lim- nology and Oceanography, vol. 6, pp. 149-153. SuimapaA, B. M. 1958. Diurnal fluctuation in photosynthetic rate and chloro- phyll @ content of phytoplankton in Eastern Pacific waters. Limnology and Oceanography, vol. 3, pp. 336-339. STEELE, J. H. 1964. A study of production in the Gulf of Mexico. Jour. Marine Research, vol. 22, pp. 211-222. STRICKLAND, J. D. H., anp T. R. Parsons. 1968. A practical handbook of seawater analysis. Bull. 167, Fisheries Research Board of Canada, Ottawa, pp. 185-192. Woop, E. J. F., AND E. F. Corcoran. 1966. Diurnal variation in phyto- plankton. Bull. Marine Science, vol. 16, pp. 383-403. YENTSCH, C. S., AND R. W. LEE. 1966. A study of photosynethic light reac- tions and a new interpretation of sun and shade phytoplankton. Jour. Marine Research, vol. 24, pp. 319-331. YENTscH, C. S., AND J. H. Ryrwer. 1957. Short-term variations in phyto- plankton chlorophyll and their significance. Limnology and Oceanog- raphy, vol. 2, pp. 140-142. YENTSCH, C. S., AND R. F. ScaceLt. 1958. Diurnal study of phytoplankton pigments: an in situ study in East Sound, Washington. Jour. Marine Research, vol. 17, pp. 576-583. Department of Oceanography, Florida State University, Talla- hassee, 32306. Present Address: Canada Centre for Inland Waters, Fisheries Research Board Detachment, 867 Lakeshore Road, P. O. Box 5050, Burlington, Ontario, Canada. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 33(3) 1970(1971) Two New Atlantic Clinid Fishes of the Genus Starksia CARTER R. GILBERT THE clinid genus Starksia Jordan and Evermann comprises a group of New World marine fishes that is characterized by having internal fertilization. The first anal spine in adult males is modified into an intromittent organ, the gonopodium, and the morphology of this structure has been shown (Bohlke and Springer, 1961; Rosen- blatt and Taylor, in press) to be of fundamental importance in de- termining species relationships. Because of its mode of reproduc- tion, the genus has been assumed to be viviparous (Al-Uthman, 1960). Recent studies have shown, however, at least four eastern Pacific species to be ovoviviparous (Rosenblatt and Taylor, in press ), although this has not yet been proved for any Atlantic spe- cies. Prior to Al-Uthman’s (1960) and Bohlke and Springer’s (1961) reviews of the eastern Pacific and western Atlantic species, re- spectively, only seven species of Starksia were recognized, all but one of which were from the western Atlantic. One new Pacific and two new Atlantic forms were described in the above papers, and an additional Atlantic species was later named by Gilbert (1965). Re- cent fish collections have resulted in 10 more species, three from the Atlantic and seven from the Pacific. Two of the Atlantic spe- cies are described in the present paper, and descriptions of the new Pacific forms will soon be published (Rosenblatt and Taylor, in press). In addition, Rosenblatt and Taylor are describing, in the same paper, a new genus and species closely related to Starksia. The third new Atlantic species, which differs in several ways from other known members of the genus, is presently under study by James E. Bohlke, of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadel- phia. The total number of valid species thus is raised to 21 (not in- cluding the new genus ), of which 12 are from the western Atlantic. The nominal genus Brannerella Gilbert, long regarded as a junior synonym of Starksia, was given generic status by Al-Uthman (1960), who listed as its distinguishing features: 1) Gonopodium (first anal spine) longer than second anal spine (shorter in Stark- sia) in adult males; 2) pectoral fin rays 14 (usually 13 in Starksia) ; 3) absence of a black spot in membrane between first and second 194 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES dorsal spines (present in Starksia); and 4) body size smaller and body color lighter than in Starksia. Bohlke and Springer (1961), in resynonymizing the two genera, pointed out that the last three characters break down in the Atlantic species, and that the anal- spine character, by itself, is not sufficient for generic recognition. Should Starksia and Brannerella continue to be regarded as distinct genera, other equally distinctive morphologic characters found in certain western Atlantic species (e.g., presence or absence of an orbital cirrus; other modifications of the intromittent organ) would necessitate recognition of at least two more genera. The purpose of this paper is 1) to describe two new species of Starksia from Florida and the Bahamas, respectively; 2) to update the key given by Bohlke and Springer (1961) for the western At- lantic members of the genus; 3) to provide additional distributional data for the western Atlantic species; and 4) to provide additional meristic data for Starksia hassi, which had previously been known from only eight specimens. MATERIALS AND METHODS Counts and measurements follow Hubbs and Lagler (1958), ex- cept for those modifications noted by Bohlke and Springer (1961). The main difference in the latter’s methods concerns the segmented rays in the dorsal and anal fins, in which all elements are counted rather than tallying the last two as a single ray. One measurement additional (pectoral-fin length) to the eight used by Bohlke and Springer (1961) has been included in this paper. In contrast to the procedure of the last authors, counts are broken down in the two new species, so as to indicate number of pored and unpored scales in the arched portion of the lateral line. In the lists of ma- terial examined, the catalogue number appears first, followed by the number of specimens, sex (when known), size range in stan- dard body length (SL), and pertinent locality data. All specimens were collected using rotenone-based fish toxicants (Chem Fish). The following abbreviations of collections are used in listing ma- terial examined: AMNH, American Museum of Natural History; ANSP, Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia; UF, Univer- sity of Florida (Florida State Museum); UMML, Institute of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences, University of Miami; USNM, GILBERT: New Clinid Fishes 195 United States National Museum. I wish to thank the individuals in charge of those collections from which specimens were examined for making this material available. I also wish to thank C. Lavett Smith, American Museum of Natural History, Walter A. Starck, II, and Philip C. Heemstra, University of Miami, all of whom helped collect specimens of the new species; and Russell Parks, University of Florida, who took the photographs and also aided in the field work. Collections of the new Bahaman species were made during cruises of the Lerner Marine Laboratory vessel J. A. Oliver, oper- ating with funds supplied by ONR grant no. 552(07). The cooper- ation of the Bahaman government, for furnishing collecting permits, and of the authorities of the Lerner Marine Laboratory (particularly the director, Dr. Robert F. Mathewson) is gratefully acknowledged. Starksia elongata new species (Fig. 1A) Holotype. UF 14134, adult male, 26.8 mm SL, south side of Rum Cay (Bahamas), near Sumner’s Point, ca. 3/4 mi. offshore, depth 5-10 ft., 4 Sept. 1966, C. R. Gilbert and P. C. Heemstra (field no. G 66-43). Paratypes (all from Bahamas). AMNH 23232 (1 male, 23.6), Cat I., off creek near Dolphin’s Head, depth 8 ft, 10 Nov. 1964, C. L. Smith, H. E. Winn, and G. Offutt (field no. S 64-73); AMNH 28998 (1 male, 25.2), Ragged I., near northwest end of Nurse Cay (small patch reef), depth 10 ft, 7 July 1965, C. L. Smith and H. Tischler (field no. S 65-77); AMNH 28999 (1 female, 17.4), UMML 27336 (1 male, 21.4), USNM 205199 (1 male, 19.5), Little Ragged I., West Point, depth 15 ft, 10 July 1965, C. L. Smith, H. Tischler, and J. Strum (field no. S 65-83); AMNH 29000 (1 unsexed, 13.0), ANSP 109799 (1 female, 22.4), Acklins I., Salena Pt., depth 10 ft, 9 March 1966, C. L. Smith and J. Sohn (field no. S 66-12). In addition to the above, a small specimen (9.0 mm), of unde- termined sex, from station S 66-12 probably represents this species. It differs from other material in only having six body bars instead of seven, although this likely is a function of size and/or age. Fin rays and body scales could not be counted. Diagnosis. A species of Starksia with essentially naked venter; simple orbital cirrus; genital papilla and first anal spine in adult male united along entire length, the papilla barely projecting be- 196 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Fig. 1. A, Starksia elongata (holotype), UF 14134, adult male, 26.8 mm SL, Rum Cay (Bahamas), 5-10 ft.; B. Starksia starcki (holotype), UF 10874, adult female, 27.3 mm SL, Looe Key (Florida), 5-20 ft.; C,Starksia starcki ( pare) UF 16188, immature female, 20.3 mm SL, Looe Key (Florida), 15-2 ‘ yond tip of spine; pores from circumorbital ossifications mostly paired (biserial); dorsal rays XX-8 (2), XXI-8 (6); anal rays I-17 (1), 11-18 (7); pectoral rays 14-14 (7), 15-15 (1); lateral-line scales 16+1+20 (3), 16+1+21 (4), 17+1+20 (1). Distinguished from its closest congeners, S. ocellata and S. guttata, by a longer first anal spine, which is almost twice length of second spine (instead of only slightly longer; general appearance otherwise as in Boéhlke and GutBErtT: New Clinid Fishes 197 Springer, 1961, fig. 16), a more slender and elongate body, color pattern, and (apparently) maximum body length. Color pattern consisting of seven well defined, broadly but evenly spaced, dark brown bars on side of body, the first bar situated below third dorsal spine and the last (the hypural markings) at base of caudal fin. The only other western Atlantic Starksia having a similar pigmentation pattern is S. fasciata. The largest specimen of S. elongata exam- ined, an adult male, was only 27 mm SL, whereas both S. ocellata and S. guttata reach at least 40 mm. Description. Proportional measurements appear in Table 1. Characters listed in the diagnosis are not repeated, except where clarification is required. Pelvic rays I,2; segmented caudal rays 13 (7+6). Narrow simple cirri present on nape, top of eyeball, and rear margin of anterior nostril, the cirri subequal in length; teeth present on vomer and palatine bones; most or all scales of posterior part of lateral line with tubes and pores (in holotype tubes are present on all but three of last four scales); third pelvic ray not evident in un- stained material; pectoral fin extending posteriorly to around base of second anal spine; pelvic fin not reaching anus; venter naked ex- cept for a few scales immediately anterior to anus; body elongate and narrow for a Starksia, the body depth only slightly greater at nape than at caudal peduncle. Bars on side of body of moderate width, about half as wide as in- tervening light areas, the bars meeting dorsally but not ventrally; anterior three or four bars relatively straight, posterior three or four crooked; most posterior bar (the hypural marking) interrupted in center, the pigment continuing, at a 90° angle, a short distance an- teriorly; a moderate-sized, rather faint spot directly posterior to and bordering middle of orbit, and a very faint spot at lower posterior comer of (but not bordering) orbit; anterior two-fifths of upper and lower lips covered by small melanophores, as is anterior fifth of gular area; small melanophores scattered on upper half of opercle; heavy concentrations of melanophores in predorsal area and on top of head behind orbits and between lateral canals; remainder of head without pigment; a very faint edging of melanophores extending along outer margin of dorsal fin, and a few melanophores in both anal and caudal fins; no pigment on pectoral or pelvic fins or at their respective bases; pigment from bars on side of body encroach- QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 198 LO ca LC ont Dito ft OleOe it Lal Lor Pt OL Te tla OL ee | [e19}e'T PI-FI PI-FI GI-ST FI-FI PI-FI VI-FI vI-FI VI-FI uy [e10}00g LI-II SI-II SI-Il SI-Il SI-Il SI-Il SI-Il SI-II uy [euy 8-IXX 8-IXX 8-IXX S-IXx 8-XX 8-XX 8-IXX 8-IXX uy [esi0d :syUNOF) SSS COG O13 aris LYS 88% 0ZZ 91Z yas] uy jepneD VIZ CIS 1G 02Z PSG 6LT 161 861 ys] UY oLAjog LLG OFS L8G O8Z L8G 8SZ 08Z OSG yas] UY [e10j,00q 68 CIT ca a | LOT SOT 66 cg 06 yz, curds q 4s] PLI LLI 6LT L8T 102 SLI SST LST yidep Apog 08 26 L8 6L G6 6L cg SL JoyoWeIp 9Aq PSI PSI SSI OFT 6PT LPT IST OFT ys, Mel roddy L9 LL GL 6L 08 IL 18 09 Yys| ynous 18 OFS 838 GSS 688 OI SIS O18 yas, proy VSS O'ST C61 V1Z i Pil oSS 98% 8'9Z (wu) YZ, “pis rs) d > ° ) (? ° ‘" x9§ 66L60T 00062 661S0G 9SELZ 66686 86686 TESST PSIFI ‘ou onso[eyeD dSNV HNWYV WNSN. TINWD HNWYV HNWV HNWV A) syunoo pue (4}sUs] plepue}s JO syypuesnoy} UI) SJUBWOINSBvAU P9}D9[9G ‘DJDAFUO]a DISyLDIS T WIaVv Gru.BertT: New Clinid Fishes 199 ing slightly on base of dorsal fin, not at all on base of anal fin, except for fifth and sixth bars. Background body color of holotype bright straw in life, the over- lying pigmentation chocolate. No other colors noted. Relationships. As noted previously, Starksia elongata evidently is most closely related to S. ocellata, a widespread species known from the Carolinas to Brazil, and S. guttata, which has been found only along the coast of northern South America and closely adja- cent areas. For reasons discussed below, however, the relation- ships of S. elongata appear slightly closer to S. ocellata than to S. guttata. The most important feature common to the three species is the structure of the gonopodium, which is nearly identical in ap- pearance in S. elongata and S. ocellata; the only obvious difference is that the length of the first anal spine is nearly twice the length of the second spine in S. elongata, whereas in S. ocellata the first spine is only slightly longer (Bohlke and Springer, 1961, fig. 16). S. guttata apparently differs from both in having the genital papilla projecting slightly farther beyond the tip of the spine (Bohlke and Springer, 1961, fig. 14). Fin-ray and scale counts in the three species are virtually iden- tical, the only possible differences being that no specimens of S. elongata were found to have either 19 anal soft rays or 22 scales in the straight portion of the lateral line, whereas these counts are common in S. ocellata (Bohlke and Springer, 1961, table 6); how- ever, the number of specimens of S. elongata presently available (eight) is much too small to reach any definite conclusions on this point. Other important similarities concern the paired (biserial ) arrangement of pores on the circumorbital ossifications; the narrow, simple cirri on the nape, eyeball, and rear margin of the anterior nostril; and the absence of scales from all but the posteriormost part of the venter. In addition to its gonopodial structure, the geographic distribu- tion of S. elongata suggests a closer phylogenetic relationship to S. ocellata than to S. guttata. It is more parsimonious to assume der- ivation of elongata either directly from ocellata or from a common ancestral form living in the Florida-Bahamas area, than from the geographically more distant S. guttata. Ecology. All specimens of S. elongata were collected from small to medium-sized coral formations in shallow water (5-15 ft) 200 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES of the southern Bahamas. Other species of Starksia taken at the type locality include S. atlantica, S. fasciata, and S. lepicoelia. Al- though the closely related S. ocellata also is a reef dweller, it seems to occur only in areas having some degree of continental influence (Gilbert, in press). All of the islands from which S. ocellata was recorded by Bohlke and Springer (1961, pp. 55-56) have, in con- trast to the Bahamas, a high relief, and thus surface runoff (and consequently some water turbidity ) is often present. S. elongata appears to be a rare species and also one of restricted range. It is surprising that only eight specimens have, till now, been recorded from the hundreds of shallow Bahaman reef collec- tions. Inasmuch as the northern Bahamas have been particularly well surveyed, it seems reasonably certain that the species is not present there. Etymology. The species name elongata is in reference to the unusually slender and elongate body. Starksia starcki new species (Figs. 1B and 1C) Holotype. UF 10874, adult female, 27.3 mm SL, Looe Key, ca. 4% mi. SSW of Little Torch Key (and US hwy. 1), Monroe Co., Florida depth 5-20 ft, 1-2 Nov. 1963, C. R. Gilbert and R. Parks (field no. G 63-44). Paratypes. UF 17279 (1 immature male, 20.5), same data as holotype; UF 16188 (1 immature female, 20.3), ANSP 109800 (1 adult female, 26.3), UMML 27335 (1 adult female, 26.4), USNM 205200 (1 adult female, 26.0), Looe Key, same general area as G 63-44, depth 15-25 ft, 6-7 August 1967, C. R. Gilbert and W. A. Starck, II (field no. G 67-46). Diagnosis. A species of Starksia with a fully scaled venter; simple orbital cirrus; pores from circumorbital ossifications single (uniserial); dorsal rays XX-9 (4), XXI-8 (1), XXI-9 (1); anal rays I-18 (2), II-19 (4); pectoral rays 13-13 (6); lateral-line scales 13+1+22 (4), 14+14+21 (1), 14+14+22 (1). Distinguished from its presumed closest congener, S. lepicoelia, by a higher anal soft-ray count (usually 18 or 19 vs. usually 17), a higher number of total dorsal elements (usually 29 vs. usually 28), and color pattern. Color pattern consisting of eight or nine irregular, broken, widely- spaced, chocolate bars on body, which contrast strongly with a light GmuBERT: New Clinid Fishes 201 background; in one specimen (Fig. 1C) only the first three bars are complete and the remaining bars are replaced by a broken hori- zontal line. In S. lepicoelia pigmentation is either absent from the sides of the body or, if present, consists of broad, narrowly spaced bands that do not contrast sharply with the background. Description. Proportional measurements appear in Table 2. Characters listed in the diagnosis are not repeated, except where clarification is required. Pelvic rays I, 2; segmented caudal rays 13 (7+6). Narrow simple cirri present on nape, top of eyeball, and rear margin of anterior nostril, the cirri subequal in length; teeth present on vomer and palatine bones; most or all scales of posterior part of lateral line with tubes or pores or both, the tubes uniformly present on about anterior ten scales, present only on some individual scales posteriorly; third pelvic ray not evident in unstained material; pec- toral fin extending posteriorly to above base of third anal soft ray; pelvic fin reaching almost to anus. First bar, on posterior part of head, circling nape; last bar (the hypural markings) interrupted in center, the pigment continuing, at a 90° angle, a short distance anteriorly; a large, round blotch of pigment immediately posterior to, and bordering, median section of orbit; another large blotch, slightly less intense, situated at lower posterior corner of orbit; much of opercle covered by pigment, which is, in effect, a continuation of the predorsal saddle; a small, dark humeral spot a short distance above upper part of pectoral base; a large brown blotch on lower half of pectoral base; two small blotches on extreme lower part of pectoral fin, one bordering upper margin, the other situated three-fourths to four-fifths of way down; pigment otherwise absent from most of pectoral fin, except for some melanophores outlining rays; pigment from bars on side of body en- croaching a short distance onto dorsal and anal fins. The maximum standard body length probably is less than 30 mm, based on the limited material available. Relationships. Imasmuch as an adult male specimen of S. starcki is not yet available, one cannot be certain of the species’ re- lationships. It is believed to be closest to S. lepicoelia, however, a premise based on the mutual presence of a completely scaled belly, general similarity in body pigmentation with some populations of S. lepicoelia ( Bohlke and Springer, 1961, fig. 5C), and similar scale QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 202 CoTIt+ él SI-€T 6I-II 6-XX 89 806 9G L8 OLT L8 ida 89 666 V'9G } CteLe INN) I+I+PF1 SI-$T1 SI-II 6-XX OSG C&G 69G LL LLT 88 SGI 69 9 ES) 0'9G } 00GS0G WNS?!) CoTI+PI SI-$T 8I-II 8-IXX 166 OVG 816 QL TAI 08 GcI GL OTS 6'9G } OO860T dSNV Zo tI+ Sl SI-$1 6I-II 6-IXX 9G LOG 966 68 681 CotIt+él SI-8T 6I-II 6-XX 896 686 GI& 88 c8T £8 LET €L 66S G'0G 2 6LCLI 4) (Gar Lar (ait SI-&T 6I-II 6-XX L9G 106 GLE v8 6LT 18 LVI 99 I1é OL; } VLSOL AA SoTeOs oul] [e1o}e'T uy [e10}00g OEY, uy [esi0q :syUNO‘) Ws] Uy [epneD 44S] UY orAjeg YS] UY [e10}0eg yys[ ourds q 3ST tydep Apog rayoureip oAq yys, Mel Ioddy Yq3[ Nous Was peoH (uu) YZ] “PIS x9g ‘OU onsole}eD s}unoo puke (Y}sUs, piepue}s JO SYZpURSNOY} UI pessoidxe) syUSEINSvAL PazJDET9gG +1491N}S DISYLDIS 6 AIaV.L Gu.BErRT: New Clinid Fishes 203 and pectoral ray counts. Soft dorsal and anal ray counts are higher than in S. lepicoelia ( Bohlke and Springer, 1961, Table 1), although some overlap does occur. Ecology. All specimens of Starksia starcki have been taken from Looe Key, in the lower Florida Keys, in surge channels less than 25 feet deep. A total of 48 specimens of S. ocellata (the only other Starksia known from Florida) were taken in the same collections. It is remarkable that S. starcki has not otherwise been encountered in the numerous collections made throughout the Florida Keys. It thus is one of the relatively few Florida endemics, although one might anticipate that the species eventually will be found in Cuba. Etymology. This species is named for Dr. Walter A. Starck, II, in recognition of his many contributions to marine biology, espe- cially ichthyology. DISTRIBUTION OF WESTERN ATLANTIC SPECIES The following is a list of geographic localities from which the various western Atlantic species of Starksia have been recorded. For brevity’s sake, authors names have been shortened as follows: Bohlke and Springer (1961) (B & S); Hildebrand, Chavez, and Compton (1964) (H, C, & C); Gilbert (1965) (G); Birdsong and Emery (1968) (B & E); Cervigon (1968) (C). All new records are based on specimens in the ANSP, UF, UMML, and USNM, ex- cept for specimens of S. ocellata from Panama, which are in the col- lection of Scripps Institution of Oceanography. Records listed by Birdsong and Emery (1968) from “off Nicaragua” are either from Courtown or Albuquerque Cays, both approximately 150 miles off- shore; those from “off British Honduras” are from Turneffe Island and/or Lighthouse Reef (both within about 50 miles of shore); and those “off Yucatan” are all from Banco Chinchorro, which is a short distance off the southeastern coast. Meristic data for the Bahaman specimens of S. hassi follow the records for that species. S. atlantica: B & S, Bahamas; B & E, off Nicaragua (Courtown Cays), off British Honduras (Turneffe I. and Lighthouse Reef), off Yucatan. New rec- ords: Haiti, Antigua, Old Providence I. S. lepicoelia: B & S, Bahamas; Virgin Is.; H, C, & C, off Yucatan (Alacran Reef); G, Grand Cayman I.; B & E, off Nicaragua (Albuquerque Cays), off British Honduras (Turneffe I. and Lighthouse Reef), off Yucatan. New rec- ords: Antigua, Honduras, Old Providence I. 204 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES S. nanodes: B & S, Bahamas, Virgin Ids.; G, Grand Cayman I.; B & E, off Nicaragua (Albuquerque Cays), off British Honduras (Turneffe I.). New records: Haiti, Old Providence I. S. fasciata: B & S, Bahamas, Cuba; G, Antigua, Dominica. S. sluiteri: B & S, Old Providence I., Venezuela; G, Antigua, Dominica. S. y-lineata: G, Grand Cayman I.; B & E, off Nicaragua (Courtown Cays) (erroneously listed as Yucatan by Gilbert [1969] ). S. guttata: B & S, Trinidad. S. ocellata: B & S, North Carolina, South Carolina, Florida, Cuba, Haiti, Puerto Rico, Virgin Ids., Grenadines (Lesser Antilles), Old Providence L., Brazil, questionably from Bahamas; C, Venezuela. New record: Panama. S. hassi: B & S, Netherlands Antilles (Bonaire), off Puerto Rico, off Virgin Ids.; C, Venezuela (total of eight specimens). New records: Bahamas (six localities; total of 15 specimens), off Panama (1 specimen), off Antigua (4 specimens), off Guadeloupe (1 specimen). Counts for 18 specimens listed under “new records:” Dorsal rays XIX-8 (1), XIX-9 (3), XX-8 (10), XX-9 (3), XXI-9 (1); anal rays II-16 (2), II-17 (6), II-18 (10); pectoral rays 12- 13 (1), 13-13 (19), 13-14 (1), 14-13 (1); tubed anterior lateral-line scales 9 (4) 10S) se allen(s)): KrEy TO DEscCRIBED WESTERN ATLANTIC SPECIES OF Starksia 1. No orbital cirrus; a prominent round dark spot, about three-fourths of eye, enclosing base of last dorsal rays; genital papilla, in adult male, attached to first anal spine proximally for a distance about half its length Starksia atlantica Longley A single orbital cirrus above each eye; round spot either absent around base of last dorsal rays or, if present, much less than three-fourths diameter of eye; genital papilla in adult male either completely free or attached to first anal spine for entire length of spine (often projecting beyond tip). (Fully developed papilla not seen in male S. starcki) 2 2. A dark diagonal bar (occasionally reduced to one or two spots in small specimens) on lower part of pectoral base, well separated from proximal ends of pectoral rays; body with alternating dark and light bands, dorsal part of dark bands as wide, or wider than, light bands; venter naked; ob- vious pelvic rays three; apparently restricted to deep water (all records but two from 85 feet or deeper) Starksia hassi Kiausewitz No dark diagonal bar on lower part of pectoral base (bar, if present [in S. lepicoelia] on upper part of base, closely paralleling proximal ends of pec- toral rays); body without alternating dark and light bands or, if these are present, dark band either narrower than light band (S. fasciata and S. elongata) or bands are associated with a scaled venter (S. lepicoelia and S. starcki); venter either scaled or naked; obvious pelvie rays two; not re- stricted to deep water (most records from less than 85 feet) 3 3. Venter entirely and closely scaled 4 Venter either completely naked or with less than posterior one-third scaled 5 GuLBERT: New Clinid Fishes 205 4, Eight or nine irregular, widely-spaced, chocolate bands on body, these con- trasting strongly with light background (in one of six specimens examined only first three bands present and a broad, incomplete, horizontal stripe extending from third band to caudal fin); anal rays II-18 (two specimens ) or II-19 (four specimens); total dorsal elements 29 or 30 (XX-9 in four; XXI-8 in one; XXI-9 in one); known only from Florida (Looe Key ) Starksia starcki new species Bands either absent from body or, if present, narrowly spaced and not con- trasting markedly with background; anal rays usually II-17, occasionally II-18 (ca. 27 per cent of time), very rarely II-16 or II-19; total dorsal ele- ments usually 28, occasionally 27 or 29 (29 ca. eight percent of time); generally distributed throughout Bahamas and Caribbean area, but absent from Florida Starksia lepicoelia Bohlke and Springer 5. A pair of hypural-shaped dark markings at base of caudal fin; arched lateral-line scales 12 to 14, usually 13; first anal spine of mature male about twice length of second spine; size smaller, maximum body length about 17 mm SL Starksia nanodes Bohlke and Springer Hypural-shaped dark markings either present (S. elongata) or absent; arched lateral-line scales 14 to 19, usually 15 to 18 (17 or 18 in S. elon- gata); anal spines of mature male subequal in length (except in S. elongata, in which first spine is nearly twice length of second); size larger, maximum body length from 20.5 to 41.5 mm SL 6 6. Pectoral rays modally 13; dorsal spines XVIII to XX (usually XIX or XX); scales in arched portion of lateral line 14 to 16, usually 15; scales in straight portion of lateral line 18 to 20, usually 19; species smaller (to 22.2 mm SL) 7 Pectoral rays modally 14; dorsal spines XX to XXII (usually XXI); scales in arched portion of lateral line 15 to 19, usually 17 or 18 (only two speci- mens out of 56 with fewer than 17 scales); scales in straight portion of lateral line 20 to 23, usually 20 to 22; species larger (to 41.5 mm SL) 9 7. Color pattern consisting of seven dark bands separated by light interspaces Starksia fasciata (Longley ) Color pattern not as above 8 8. Color pattern consisting of three horizontal rows of dark blotches on a light background, with the middle series rounded, the upper and lower series more square (the lowest least intense ) Starksia sluiteri (Metzelaar ) Color pattern consisting of a series of narrow, light, Y-shaped markings, on a dark background, on upper two-thirds of body Starksia y-lineata Gilbert 9. Color pattern consisting of seven well-defined, narrow, dark bars (last bar the hypural markings); body more slender and elongate; anal spine in adult male almost twice Iength of second spine; species probably smaller, largest observed specimen 27 mm SL Starksia elongata new species Color pattern not as above, usually consisting of dots or blotches; body less slender and elongate; anal spine in adult male slightly longer than second spine; species probably larger, reaching at least 40 mm SL 10 10. Color pattern consisting of numerous randomly distributed round black 206 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES dots, sharply defined, on lighter background; head .328-.351 in SL; upper jaw .147-.168 in SL Starksia guttata (Fowler) Color pattern variable, from nearly uniform to rows of irregular and variously distinct blotches; when blotched, dark markings are much larger than in S. guttata and difference between blotches and background less abrupt; head .280-.314 in SL; upper jaw .133-.144 in SL Starksia ocellata (Steindachner ) LITERATURE CITED AL-UTHMAN, Hit SaBer. 1960. Revision of the Pacific forms of the tribe Starksiidi. Texas Jour. Sci., vol. 12, nos. 3-4, pp. 163-175. Brrpsonc, Ray S., AND ALAN R. EMery. 1968. New records of fishes from the western Caribbean. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. (1967), vol. 30, no. 3, pp. 187-196. BoHuLKE, JAMES E., AND Victor G. SPRINGER. 1961. A review of the Atlantic species of the clinid fish genus Starksia. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadel- phia, vol. 113, no. 3, pp. 29-60. CERVIGON, FERNANDO. 1968. Los peces marinos de Venezuela, complemento I. Mem. Soc. Cien. Nat. La Salle, no. 80, Tomo 28, pp. 177-218. GiLBERT, CARTER R. 1965. Starksia y-lineata, a new clinid fish from Grand Cayman Island, British West Indies. Notulae Naturae, no. 379, pp. 1-6. 1969. The shore fishes of the Cayman Islands. Year Book Amer. Philos. Soc. (1968), pp. 300-302. In press. Characteristics of the western Atlantic reef fish fauna. Proc. Bimini Symposium on Coral Reef Ecology. HILDEBRAND, HENRY H., HUMBERTO CHAVEZ, AND HENRY Compton. 1964. Aporte al conocimiento de los peces del Arrecife Alacranes, Yucatan (México). Ciencia, vol. 23, no. 3, pp. 107-134. Husss, Cart L., anp Kart F. Lacier. 1958. Fishes of the Great Lakes re- gion. Bull. Cranbrook Inst. Sci., vol. 26, pp. i-xi, 1-213. ROSENBLATT, RICHARD H., AND LEIGHTON R. TAYLOR, JR. In press. The Pa- cific species of the clinid fish tribe Starksiini. Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 33(3) 1970( 1971) New Host Records for Azygia acuminata Goldberger 1911 WARREN R. EHRHARDT AND SUSAN S. GLENN THE trematode, Azygia acuminata, was originally described by Goldberger (1911), from the stomach of the bowfin, Amia calva. Since that time A. acuminata has been reported from Amia calva by Cooper (1915), wall-eyed pike, Stizostedion vitreum, white bass, Lepibema chrysops, and Amia calva by Pearse (1924), blue gill sunfish, Lepomis macrochirus, chain pickerel, Esox niger, bull- heads, Ameiurus nebulosus, and experimentally from yellow perch, Perca flavescens by Wootton (1957). The life cycle of A. acuminata was subsequently reported by Wootton (1957), who recovered the larval forms from a snail, Campeloma decisum. The present paper reports another snail, Campeloma geniculum Conrad, as a new intermediate host, and the johnny darter, Etheo- stoma nigrum Rafinesque, a new host for the adult of A. acuminata. Four of 4,741 specimens of Campeloma geniculum, collected over a twelve-month period from Little River, Wake County, North Carolina, were found infected with larval forms of A. acuminata. Infected snails occurred only during the winter months (Novem- ber, December, January, and February). All snails were placed in well-aerated finger bowls containing pond water and observed for emergence of cercariae. Cercariae were actively shed from only two snails. Emergence occurred by the fifth day and continued until the forty-fifth day, usually be- tween the hours of 9-12 pm. Both infected snails died by the sixty- fifth day. A total of 133 cercariae were collected from one snail and 148 from the second. All snails collected were observed in the laboratory for at least two weeks, then crushed and examined for infection. Larval forms of A. acuminata were recovered from two snails by this method. Although rediae in various stages of development were recovered from the gonadal tissue of the latter two snails, cercariae were never shed. DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES Miracidium and sporocyst stages were not observed. Examina- tion of the four infected snails revealed the presence of 51, 38, 42, 208 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES and 57 rediae in various stages of development in the gonads of the snail. The smallest redial stage observed was 0.58-0.98 (0.77) long by 0.38-0.73 (0.53) wide, cream-colored, oval-shaped, entirely annu- lated, containing germinal balls. A terminal birth pore opens to the exterior at the anterior end. Developing cercariae were present in rediae 1.40-1.95 (1.69) long by 0.58-0.85 (0.68) wide. As the redia increases in length, the annular appearance disappears. The largest rediae, 3.40-5.50 (4.00) long by 0.65-0.85 (0.75) wide, were thin-walled and con- tained from 12-20 well developed cercariae with the distome at- tached outside the tail stem. Developing cercariae appear as small oblong bodies, 0.12-0.122 long by 0.6-0.7 wide, containing undifferentiated cells. As differ- entiation proceeds a dense accumulation of cells occurs at the posterior end of the body. A constriction develops in this region from which the tail stem forms. This is followed by an elongation of the anterior end of the body with the early formation of the oral sucker. Acetabular and intestinal ceca primordia are present. The distome body develops more rapidly than the tail stem, with the furci showing the least development. Distomes within the redia remain unencysted and are attached to the inner wall of the tail stem by two bands of muscle tissue which arise immediately posterior to each of the intestinal ceca. This muscular attachment appears to be a means of retraction of the distome into the tail cavity. The excretory bladder of the distome is contiguous with the main excretory canal of the tail stem. Once the distome be- comes encysted within the tail this excretory connection is lost, and the distome comes to lie free within the cavity. Actual encystment of the distome was not observed by these authors but has been de- scribed by Wootton (1957). DESCRIPTION OF CERCARIA Furcocystocercous; unpigmented except for yellow-colored dis- tome encysted in the anterior seventh of the tail stem. Tail stem club-shaped, tapering slightly toward furci. Spines and mammil- lations absent. Length 2.55-3.33 (2.96), width 0.65-0.83 (0.77). Opening to tail stem cavity terminal and surrounded by a large EHRHARDT AND GLENN: New Host Records 209 number of prominent papillae. Anterior third of tail stem weakly muscular, posterior two-thirds strongly muscular. Furca slightly wider than long; length 0.60-0.88 (0.80), width 0.80-1.03 (0.85), weakly muscular; small scale-like projections symmetrically ar- ranged along the outer margins. Main excretory canal medial, ex- tending from the distome cavity to the posterior end of the tail stem, where it bifurcates with a branch passing into each furci and opening to the exterior along the posterior medial border. Second- ary excretory tubules and flame cell arrangement in tail stem are similar to those described by Wootton (1957). Distome; muscular with thick cuticle and mammillations extending to the anterior level of the acetabulum. Body length 0.45-0.60 (0.53), width 0.33- 0.38 (0.35). Acetabulum muscular; anterior lip mammillated; di- ameter 0.18-0.20 (0.19), located in middle third of the body, 0.24- 0.30 (0.29) from the anterior end. Oral sucker, subterminal, mus- cular with mammillations on anterior lip; length 0.15-0.20 (0.18), width 0.17-0.19 (0.18). Ratio of oral sucker to ventral sucker ap- proximately 1:1. Pre-pharynx absent. Pharynx, muscular, 0.07- 0.08 (0.075) long by 0.05-0.07 (0.06) wide. Intestinal cecum thick-walled, convoluted, containing refractile granules, extending to near posterior end of body. Genitalia immature; testes intra- cecal, oblique, located near posterior end of body. Ovary lobate, anterior and medial to testes. Uterus medial passing anteriorly dorsal to acetabulum, opening to genital atrium located immedi- ately anterior to acetabulum. Eggs absent. Vitellaria undevel- oped. Excretory bladder posterior to testes. Excretory tubules pass anteriorly medial to testes and extend to region of oral sucker. Flame cell arrangement not determined. (All measure- ments are in millimeters ). FisH EXAMINATIONS Two hundred fish of the families Ictaluridae, Centrachidae, and Percidae, all common in Little River, were examined for the pres- ence of the adult of A. acuminata. All except the johnny darters were found negative for this parasite. One adult worm was re- covered from the stomach of each of the two infected fish. The morphological characters and measurements closely agree with the description of Goldberger (1911) and Wootton (1957). 210 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES SUMMARY The recovery of the larval forms of Azygia acuminata, from the gonads of the snail, Campeloma geniculum Conrad, and adults from the stomach of the johnny darter, Etheostoma nigrum, are new host records, and North Carolina represents a new locality record for this parasite. Developmental stages of the redia and cercaria are described. Morphological characters and measurements closely agree with those of Wootton (1957). All ictalurids, centrachids, and perch that were examined from Little River for the adult of A. acuminata, were found negative with the exception of two johnny darters, Etheostoma nigrum, from the stomach of each of which a single adult worm was re- covered. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Appreciation is extended to Dr. Henry Van der Schalie, Uni- versity of Michigan, for his identification of the snail in this study. LITERATURE CITED Cooper, A. R. 1915. Trematodes from marine and freshwater fishes, in- cluding one species of ectoparasitic turbellarian. Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada, Sec. 4, vol. 9, pp. 181-205. GOLDBERGER, JOSEPH. 1911. Some known and three new endoparasitic trematodes from american freshwater fish. Bull. Hyg. Lab., vol. 71, pp. 7-35. Pearse, A. S. 1924. The parasites of lake fishes. Trans. Wisconsin Acad. Sci., Arts and Letters, vol. 21, pp. 161-194. SILLMAN, E. I. 1962. The life history of Azygia longa (Leidy 1851) (Trematoda: Digenea), and notes on Azygia acuminata Goldberger 1911. Trans. American Micro. Soc., vol. 81, pp. 43-65. Wootton, D. W. 1957. Notes on the life cycle of Azygia acuminata Gold- berger 1911 (Azygiidae-Trematoda). Biol. Bull., vol. 113, pp. 488- 498. Department of Biology, Daytona Beach Junior College, Daytona Beach, Florida. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 33(3) 1970( 1971) Live Shipping of Florida’s Spiny Lobster Ross WITHAM FLoriwwa’s spiny lobster, Panulirus argus, is ordinarily cooked, packaged, and frozen before shipment. The consumer, who must thaw and reheat the lobster, often serves an overcooked product of reduced quality. Live shipment of spiny lobsters can increase con- sumer acceptance by enhancing the product’s appearance and palatability. Large quantities of northern lobster, Homarus americanus, are shipped alive under cool, moist conditions (Anon., 1948). Live African rock lobsters, Jasus lalandei, are air shipped from South Africa to Europe (Harvey, 1962). Harvey reports 100 per cent survival for 24 hours and about 50 per cent survival after 44 hours when the temperature inside of the carton had been lowered to 3.9 C (39 F) and allowed to warm gradually to ambient air tem- perature of 18.9 C (66 F). These procedures have been extremely successful and provide a product of highest quality. Other aquatic animals, including fishes and shrimp for aquaria and shrimp for food are shipped alive (Idyll, 1965; Futch and Woodburn, 1967). Barnett et al. (1969) report success in air shipment of live dungeness crabs, Cancer magister, with reduced temperatures, 1.7 C (35 F) to 10.0 C (50 F), and relative humidity of 80-100 per cent. Increased costs of handling are usually offset by an increased demand and a higher retail price. Consequently, the Marine Laboratory initiated these studies to determine the best conditions for shipping live Florida lobsters. METHODS AND MATERIALS Packing Material Tests. The first experiment was designed to test the effectiveness of various materials under different tempera- ture conditions. Adult lobsters were obtained from commercial sources and maintained for at least one day to ascertain their good health. A dozen live lobsters were then packaged four to a ship- ping carton, using seawater-wetted burlap bags. Another dozen were packed in seawater-wetted sargassum weed, and a third dozen in seawater-wetted polyurethane foam. A fourth dozen, 212 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES similarly handled but with no packing material, served as a control. Cartons packed under each method were held at 4.4 C (40 F), 10.0 C (50 F), and at ambient temperature. The animals were ex- amined twice daily for three days (Table 1). The experiments were replicated to verify results (Table 2). A third series of pack- ing tests, using burlap at ambient temperature, were carried out on groups of 10, 12, and 18 lobsters for 36 hours (Table 3). Shipment in water-filled plastic-lined cartons is considered in- advisable because of prohibitive shipping costs, as well as the danger of puncture and subsequent water loss. Although Idyll (1965) reported successful shipping of live shrimp in sawdust, this method was not tested because a suitable supply was not available. Spray Unit Tests. Previous experiments using a seawater spray over live lobsters had indicated the possibility of prolonging survival and therefore a small self-contained, portable spray system was tested. Such a unit was placed in the back of a pickup truck (Fig. 1). The spray tank (4’X2’X16” deep) contained eight lobster holding trays (16”X16”X4” deep) and was covered by a lid de- signed to allow air to circulate while at the same time retaining the saltwater spray. The tank and trays were made to hold approxi- mately 3/4” of seawater, since it had been observed previously that the lobsters died unless some water was retained in the trays. Be- cause ultraviolet light effectively sterilizes water (Anon., 1965; Nagy, 1965; Torpey et al., 1966) a sterilizing tank was constructed using two 30-watt ultraviolet tubes, and was located between the spray tank and a water storage tank. Seawater was pumped by a “Teel” 115 volt recirculating pump, Model 1P618, through a filter made of plastic pipe packed with 20 mesh per inch nylon webbing. All pipe and the small spray heads were nontoxic plastic. After spraying into the holding tank, the water returned by gravity through the sterilization chamber to the storage tank. While on the truck electricity for the pump and ultraviolet lights was pro- vided by a “Topaz Powermaker,” Model 310-B-12, which converted the 12 volt DC to the necessary 115 volt AC. The first survival experiment was conducted with the portable spray unit assembled in the air-conditioned laboratory, where tem- peratures ranged from a low of 24.4 C (76 F) to a high of 31.1 C (88 F). Forty subadult lobsters, 34 that had been in a tank at the House of Refuge Museum for a month or more and six that had 213 Live Shipping of Florida’s Spiny Lobster WITHAM: I G € V v V Vv wInsses1es Z Ee y Pp F yp p UleOF OUBYJOINA[OT v v v v v v v deping 0 I I Ss 7 P P suryored ON (duo} quorquie OL) O T13—(A SF) 0 SL € Vv Vv Vv Vv V Pv wInsse3iesg I G I V V V P weoy oURYaINATOg I I G G G V P deping 0 6 € P suryoed ON (4 0S) D OI 0 v V UINsses1Vs 0 7 v wleo} suey ZOINATOg 0 V deping 0 V suryord ON (107) OFF IL 9¢ SP T€ 3 L (pepunor) sinoyy WV 0€°L Wd 00:S WV 00°6 Wd 00‘7 WY 00:8 Wd 00:7 WY 00°6 ooyo FO) oun L9-96-G L9O-GG-G LO-GG-G LO-VG-G LO-VG-G LO-EG-G LO-€6-G 93eqd (T ‘ON 39], Suryorg) ‘soinjetoduis} poxosjes pue eIpoul Suryord snOLeA UI BSUTAIAINS Si1o}sqo] JO Joquinyy T WIdVL QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 214 0 G 4 v Vv v uInsses1es 0 I G G G v Weoy OUBYOINA[Og 0 € € V v depmg 0 G v v Buryoed ON 0 I G P P uINSses1eS 0 T € © v v WIeOF OUBYOINA[Og 0 if T Vv Vv dejmg 0 T G € 4 suryord ON (4 0S) 0 001 0 I € € € UINSseSIeS 0 G 4 weojy ouBYINAOg 0 I T v dejmg 0 v suiyord ON ee a eee ee oy vets LV 0€ €% 9 (pepunor) simoy Wd 0€'¥ WV 0€'8 Wd 00‘¥ WV SP's Wd 00'F WV 00:01 WosyD JO suLL LO-8T-€ LO-81-€ LO-LI-€ LO-LI-€ LO-9T-€ L9-OT-€ 97eC] mo ooooyccoeo——-'00 0——SSsS>a—M—>*9Wwanmn'""'= (Z ‘ON 3SA], Buryoeg ) ‘samye1odure, poyoojes pue erpeur suryoed snopes ul SBUIAIAMS si9}sqo, JO JoquinNy 6 WIdVL WirtHaM: Live Shipping of Florida’s Spiny Lobster 215 SPRAY TANK STERILIZATION CHAMBER roo] WATER STORAGE Fig. 1. Portable spray unit. been newly caught in the Indian River north of the St. Lucie Inlet, served as test animals. In the second test, 40 adult lobsters were obtained from commercial sources at Key Largo, Florida. The spray unit was installed on the pickup truck and temperatures were not controlled, ranging between 15.6 C (60 F) and 22.2 C (72 F). In both tests the unit was checked twice daily and dead lobsters were removed. | RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Packing Material Results. In the first test (Table 1), all lob- sters held at 4.4 C (40 F) were dead within 23 hours. Those held 216 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES TABLE 3 Number of lobsters surviving in burlap packing at ambient temperatures. (Packing Test Nos. 3, 4, & 5) Date 4-19-67 4-20-67 4-21-67 Time of check 8:00 PM 4:00 PM 8:00 AM Hours (rounded ) 20 36 Diet «Ge Giles) = #3 28.3 CG (83 F) 10 10 3 Date 8-22-67 8-23-67 8-24-67 Time of check 8:00 PM 5:00 PM 8:00 AM Hours (rounded ) a) | 36 LSiSeCm (Gon) = #4 23.9 C (75 F) 12 12 ll Date 9-20-67 9-21-67 9-21-67 9-22-67 Time of check Noon 8:00 AM 4:30 PM 8:00 AM Hours (rounded ) 20 29 44 17.8 C (64 F)- #5 24.4 C (76 F) 18 12 7 3 at this temperature but with no packing or with burlap packing were dead within 7 hours. The 10.0 C (50 F) temperature gave somewhat better survival. Two of the 4 lobsters with no packing and 2 with burlap packing lived over 23 hours. The 4 lobsters with no packing were dead within 31 hours, while 2 of those in burlap survived for 48 hours and one was still alive after 3 days. Polyurethane foam yielded 100 per cent survival through 31 hours, but only one lived until the end of the test. All 4 lobsters packed in sargassum lived for 56 hours and 3 were alive after 3 days. The best results were obtained at temperatures between, 7.2 C (45 F) through 21.1 C (70 F). At these temperatures, all of those in the containers with no packing material lived for 23 hours, and 3 survived 31 hours. Only one was alive after 56 hours and none survived the test. All of those packed in burlap lived throughout the experiment. Polyurethane foam packing yielded 100 per cent: survival for 48 hours, 75 per cent for 56 hours and 50 per cent were still alive when the test terminated. In sargassum weed packing, all 4 lobsters lived through 31 hours, 3 through 48 hours, 2 for 56 WiTHAM: Live Shipping of Florida’s Spiny Lobster 2) 7 hours, and one survived the test. Results of the first test are given in Table 1. During the second test (Table 2) survival was again poorest at 44 C (40 F). Lobsters with no packing were all dead within 6 hours. Three of the 4 in burlap were dead within 6 hours and the remaining one died sometime after the 23rd hour. In polyurethane foam, 50 per cent survived 6 hours but all were dead by the end of 23 hours. Of the 3 test lobsters packed in sargassum, all survived for 23 hours and one for 30 hours. Once again, survival at 10.0 C (50 F) exceeded that at 4.4 C (40 F). Three of the 4 lobsters with no packing lived 6 hours, 2 were alive after 23 hours, and one after 30 hours, but all were dead by 47 hours. In burlap packing, 100 per cent lived through 6 hours but only one lived through 30 hours and it was dead by 47 hours. Those in polyurethane, as well as those in sargassum, lived for 6 hours, 3 of those in polyurethane and 2 of those in sargassum were alive for 30 hours, and one in polyurethane lived through 47 hours. None in the sargassum lived for 47 hours. Survival at room temperature, 18.3 C (65 F) through 29.4 C (85 F), was once again better than at low temperatures. All lob- sters with no packing survived 6 hours, 2 for 23 hours, and all were dead by 30 hours. All those in burlap packing lived through 6 hours and 3 survived for 30 hours. Only 50 per cent of those in polyurethane lived 6 hours but these remained alive for 30 hours, and one was alive after 47 hours. In sargassum packing, all 4 sur- vived 30 hours and 2 for 47 hours, but none survived 55 hours. The favorable results obtained with burlap packing at room tem- peratures prompted 3 more trials using this method, but the lob- sters were to be held only 36 hours. The erratic results of these three tests do not appear dependent on temperature variations (Table 3). With temperatures of 21.7 C (71 F) through 28.3 C (83 F) the 10 lobsters lived for 20 hours but only 3 survived for 36 hours. When the temperatures were 18.3 C (65 F) through 23.9 C (75 F), all 12 lobsters lived for 21 hours and 11 survived until the test terminated at 36 hours. At temperatures of 17.8 C (64 F) through 24.4 C (76 F) 12 of the 18 lived for 20 hours, 7 for 28 hours, and 3 were still alive at the final checking. Spray Unit Results. During the first experiment with the port- able spray unit in the laboratory, where temperatures were from 218 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 24.4 C (76 F)-31.1 C (88 F), all 40 lobsters lived 17 hours but 3 (7.5 per cent) had died by the end of 24 hours. After 65 hours an additional 2 (5 per cent) had died. By the end of the third day (72 hours) another one (2.5 per cent) was dead and one (2.5 per cent) more was dead after 89 hours. No more died until the be- ginning of the sixth day, by which time 2 (5 per cent) more were dead. The remaining 31 lived through the experiment, giving a survival rate of 77.5 per cent for 7 days. Three of the 9 dead lob- sters were found in the process of molting and this may have af- fected their survival. In the second test, 15.6 C (60 F)-22.2 C (72 F), with the spray unit installed on the pickup truck, 4 (10 per cent) were dead at 24 hours, with 3 (7.5 per cent) having failed to live for 15 hours. An additional 2 (5 per cent) died before the end of 48 hours. The greatest mortality 9 (22.5 per cent) occurred between 48 and 63 hours. Following the 72nd hour and before the 87th hour, another 6 (15 per cent) died. Four others (10 per cent) died during the time between 96 and 111 hours. Another 3 (7.5 per cent) were dead before the end of the fifth day (120 hours). At the start of the seventh day, one (2.5 per cent) more was dead and the re- maining 10 (25 per cent) lived for the full 7 days (168 hours). The results of the two tests with the portable spray unit are given in Table 4. SUMMARY Polyurethane foam, sargassum, and burlap bags were wetted with seawater and tested as packing material for live Florida spiny lobsters under varying temperature conditions. Lobster survival in each of these materials was compared with survival of control lob- sters held without packing materials. Seawater-wetted burlap bag packing at room temperature gave the best results. Average sur- vival in five tests was approximately 85 per cent for 20-23 hours and 58 per cent for 29-36 hours. Consequently, shipment of live, healthy lobsters under these conditions appears feasible if delivery can be assured within 24 hours and temperature extremes can be avoided. A system using filtered, sterilized seawater sprayed over live lobsters gave good survival for a minimum of two days and in one experiment 77.5 per cent of the lobsters were in good condition 219 Live Shipping of Florida’s Spiny Lobster WITHAM: Or 891 Wd 00:S 69-L¢6-1 Te 891 Wd 00°€ 89-L-9 II vrl Wd 00'S 69-9671 T€ cyl Wd 0€°€ 89-9-9 II OCI Wd 00'S 69-S¢-I ee GCI Wd 0€'V 89-S-9 8T VG vE 9& 96 GL 8V VG Wd 00'S Wd 00'S Wd 00:S Wd 00'S 69-Vo-1 69-€>o1 69°Go-1 69-161 yon dn-yord ul yun YPM °Z ‘ON 489], cf VE LE LE 96 EL 67 G3 Wd 00'€ Wd 0€'€ Wd OF'€ Wd OEE 89°F-9 89°€-9 89°G"-9 89-1-9 Aloye10qe] Pouo}IpuoS-IIe Ue UT WUN VIA ‘T ‘ON ISA], OV Wd 00:S 69-0¢-1 OV Wd 00°€ 89-TE-S yun Avids a[qe}iod ‘paulezyUos-jfas B UL BUIATAINS si9}sqoy JO Joquinyy ¥ WIV. (4 GL) 0 BBS —(4 09) 0 9'ST (pepunor) sinopy yooyo Jo oUIry, 07eq (4 88) OTTE —(4 91) 0 PFE (pepunol) sinopzy yooyo JO oUuIry, 97eq 220 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES after one week. This method appears to have possibilities for hold- ing and surface shipment of Florida lobsters. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to express my appreciation to Messrs. Robert M. Ingle, Director of Research, and Edwin A. Joyce, Jr., Assistant Di- rector, and Mrs. Bonnie Eldred, Marine Research Laboratory, Flor- ida Department of Natural Resources, for their suggestions and en- couragement. Mr. Richard G. Hupfel of H & H Lilly Growers, Stuart, Florida, is due particular thanks for providing us the use of his temperature-controlled storage facilities. LITERATURE CITED ANnNonyMous. 1948. Maine lobsters take air to market on air express. Fish. Gaz., vol. 65, no. 2, p. 60. . 1965. General Electric germicidal lamps. Large Lamp Dept. Gen. Electr., Nela Park, Cleveland, Ohio. TP-122, pp. 1-14. BARNETT, H. J., R. W. NELSON, AND P. J. Hunter. 1969. Shipping live dungeness crabs by air to retail market. Comm. Fish. Rev., vol. 31, no. 5, pp. 21-24. FutcH, CHARLES R., AND KENNETH D. WoopsurN. 1967. Salt water aquaria —care and maintenance of the marine aquarium: How to handle and ship live salt water fishes and shrimp. Fla. Bd. Conserv. Mar. Lab., Salt Wat. Fish. Leaf. Ser. no. 9-10, 9 pp. Harvey, R. A. 1962. Temperatures in cartons of live rock lobsters. Ann. Rept. 1962 Fish. Indust. Res. Inst., p. 18. IpYLL, CLARENCE P. 1965. Shrimp nursery: Science explores new ways to farm the sea. Jour. Nat. Geo. Soc., vol. 127, no. 5, pp. 636-659. Nacy, Rupotex. 1965. Water sterilization by ultraviolet radiations. Res. Rept. BL-R-6-1059-3023-1. Westinghouse Electr. Corp., Lamp Div., Bloomfield, N. J., pp. 1-14. ToRPEY, JOHN, ROBERT M. INGLE, LARRY GILLESPIE, AND WALTER K. HAVENS. 1966. Experiments with oyster purification in Florida. Proc. Nat. Shellf. Assoc., vol. 56, pp. 43-47. Florida Department of Natural Resources Marine Research Lab- oratory, St. Petersburg, Florida. Contribution No. 134. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 33(3) 1970(1971 ) Subspecific Variation in Two Species of Antillean Birds ALBERT SCHWARTZ Co..ections of birds made between 1959 and 1968 in the West Indies have been reported upon in three recent papers (Schwartz and Klinikowski, 1963; Schwartz and Klinikowski, 1965; Paulson, 1966). Detailed study of portions of these collections reveals that the status of the populations of Columbina passerina (Linnaeus ) on Cuba (and the Isla de Pinos) and Geothlypis rostrata Bryant on Cat and Andros islands in the Bahamas requires clarification. The purpose of the present paper is to discuss the variation in these two species as it is applicable to the populations in question. In addi- tion to the specimens in my collection (herein designated AS), I have examined pertinent material in the collections of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia (ANSP), the American Museum of Natural History (AMNH), the Field Museum of Natural History (FMNH), the Museum of Zoology, Louisiana State University (LSUMZ), and the United States National Museum (USNM). For the loan of these specimens I gratefully acknowledge the assistance and cooperation of James Bond, Wesley E. Lanyon, Emmet R. Blake, George H. Lowery, Jr., and George E. Watson. All measurements are in millimeters and were taken from mu- seum skins with vernier calipers by Donald W. Buden, to whom I am very grateful. Field measurement, also in millimeters, of total length, tail, wing arc and exposed culmen, taken from the bird while still in the flesh prior to skinning, have also been employed. Color designations are from Maerz and Paul (1950). I wish to ac- knowledge the assistance of William B. Robertson, Jr., in obtaining literature, and the capable assistance rendered me in the field by several students. Cuban collections were made with the assistance of National Science Foundation grants G-3865 and G-6252 to the author. Columbina passerina (Linnaeus ) Bond (1956) accepted nine resident subspecies of Columbina passerina in the Antilles; the species is widespread throughout the islands, occurring on the Bahama Islands in the north, on all the 222 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Greater Antilles (including Navassa and Mona islands), and south through the Lesser Antilles to Grenada. Of the nine subspecies which are found on the islands, C. p. insularis Ridgway has the broadest distribution as far as major land masses is concerned; this subspecies, described from specimens collected on Grand Cayman Island, occurs in Cuba, the Isla de Pinos, the Cayman Islands, His- paniola (including the satellite islands of Gonave, Tortue, Saona, Catalina, Ile-4-Vache) and Navassa Island (whence C. p. navassae Wetmore has been named; navassae is currently in the synonymy of insularis ). Collections made by myself and parties between 1957 and 1960 in Cuba include ground doves from various localities on that island. When these skins are compared, even superficially, with specimens collected in the Cayman Islands and Hispaniola in the years im- mediately following (and thus also fresh skins), it is obvious that birds from these latter islands are quite distinct from those from Cuba. Todd (1913, pp. 561-564) considered Cuban, Isla de Pinos, and Hispaniolan ground doves as C. p. aflavida (Palmer and Riley) and restricted insularis to the three Cayman Islands. Ridgway (1916, p. 415) likewise considered the Cuban and Isla de Pinos birds as C. p. aflavida and did not separate these populations from those from Hispaniola which he also regarded as aflavida. Todd (1916, p. 222) later regarded the Isla de Pinos birds as aflavida but made no comparisons of that subspecies with insularis. Hellmayr and Conover (1942, pp. 528-529) considered aflavida a synonym of insularis and stated that Bangs (1916, p. 307) had pointed out that Cuban birds were inseparable from topotypical insularis. Re- markably, of 99 C. p. insularis examined by Hellmayr and Conover (p. 529) only one was from Cuba (from San Diego de los Bajios in Pinar del Rio Province), whereas they studied 29 Caymanian and 69 Hispaniolan birds. Thus their comments on the identity of Cuban and Caymanian Columbina appear to have been based ex- clusively on Bangs’ research. I have examined 20 specimens from Cuba, 19 from the Cayman Islands, 14 from Hispaniola, and two from Navassa, as well as six birds from Jamaica (jamaicensis Maynard), 14 from the Bahama Islands (bahamensis [Maynard]), and four from southern Florida (passerina [Linnaeus]). I have also had available skins of the re- ScHwaRtz: Variation in Antillean Birds 223 maining Antillean subspecies, none of which is peer to the present problem. Inspection of Tables 1 and 2 shows the following. Turning first to the field-taken measurements (total length, tail, wing arc), the Cuban males have the highest extremes in all measurements in TABLE 1 Means and extremes (in millimeters) of six populations of Columbina pas- serina; all measurements taken in the flesh. See list of specimens examined for localities involved. No female Hispaniolan insularis studied had field taken measurements. N_ Sex Total length Tail Wing arc aflavida 7M 168.6 (161-179) 58.1 (55-64) 88.7 (85-94) . 1 Es 171 59 89 insularis 4M 162.0 (160-166) 56.3 (50-59 ) 86.0 (84-89) (Cayman Islands ) James LEGS (CHEV EsS) 56.5 (56-57 ) 82.5 (82-83) insularis Sol 169.3 (168-170) 60.0 (58-62) 87.0 (86-88 ) ( Hispaniola ) jamaicensis 2M 160.5 (158-163 ) 56.0 (55-57 ) 85.5 (85-86) 4 F 160.2 (157-162) 56.5 (54-60) 84.0 (83-85) bahamensis 7M 162.6 (156-168 ) 56.7 (54-60) 85.6 (84-88) lhe 918 159.4 (150-167) 57.6 (53-63) 84.9 (82-91) passerina 3 M 171.3 (170-174) 61.7 (58-64) 94.3 (93-95) j eal) fs 150 62 90 comparison with other adjacent Antillean populations and are ex- ceeded in total length and wing arc only by mainland C. p. pas- serina. Although the data are far less satisfactory for Cuban fe- males, the total length of the single Cuban female is not included within the extremes of any West Indian females, nor does this measurement fall within the extremes of any population of insularis. The Cuban female wing arc likewise falls outside the upper limit of all insularis females but lies within the known range of female bahamensis and passerina. Of the laboratory taken measurements, mean tail length in Cuban males is 61.9, of Cuban females 60.3. Of the Antillean pop- ulations, means of male tail length average from 56.1 (Hispaniolan insularis) to 58.7 (bahamensis). Even mainland passerina has a lower mean tail length (59.5) than do Cuban males. The tail length of Cuban females shows the same situation, with the Cuban QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 224 SST €01 (0'91-S'ST) L'S8 L'8S a 8ST (O'SI-G IL) $'IT (T'68-G'L8) €°88 (L'6S-Z'6S) S'6S W ¢ putiasspd (0'S1-0'FT ) VPI (F'II-0'0L) OTT (G'§8-L'9L) PSL (8'8S-6'ES) €'9¢ at 10 (€'ST-T FT) Lvl (S'II-L'01) TIT (9°S8-G'8L) ¥'S8 (G'39-G'PS) LSS W 9 sisuawipyDq (S'FI-G'FT) LT (CSI-LIL) O'S (G’I8-9'8L) 8'6L (L'9S-0'7S) 9°S¢ A oF (GPI-T'ET) Sel (€ZI-VIL) 6 IT (€Z8-L'18) O'S (6'LG-E°LG) OLS W Z sisuaowup (VFI-E FT) CFI (FII-GIT) €'IT (9'18-S'6L) O18 (O'9S-l'ES) BFS A (6 FI-T FT) ( ejoruedsty ) 9'FI (SZI-OIL) SII (9°S8-€'08) S38 (G’6S-E1¢) T’9¢S W 8 suDjnsut (L'VI-€'FT ) CPI (601-101) 9'0T (L°Z8-8'6L) L'08 (6'LS-0'S¢) 8°S¢ 4 9 ( spuejs] (9'SI-T'FT) UBUARD ) al (T'ZI-€' 01) 6OT ($°S8-0°08) 6°38 (0'09-G'SS) OLS W OL suDNsUt ($'SI-7' FI) 6ST (ZGI-6'01) 9TI (S'98-0'Z8) 8°38 (7'19-G'6S) €°09 Ay ck (O'9T-L'ET) Lvl (fCI-F'OL) IT (G’L8-T'8L) 38 (L'79-0'LS) 619 W 6&1 ppiapyfo snsie J, id p10oyD sul [PL x9g N ‘dy 0} Suiveu JO Japi0g IOLI9}Ue WIOIJ pIOYO sjenba JUsWoINseoW [IG ‘uoye} A1OJVIOGE] O1e s}USUIOINseOU [[B ‘yuUIUasspd DUIquiNjo; jO suoye[ndod xis jo (sioJOUTT][IUI UI) SoweyHXS pue suBoy 6 ATEViL ScHwartz: Variation in Antillean Birds 995 females having a mean of 60.3 with means of 55.8 in Caymanian insularis, 54.2 in Hispaniolan insularis, 55.6 in jamaicensis, and 56.3 in bahamensis. In both sexes, despite overlap, the upper extremes of tail length of Cuban birds lie beyond those for all other popula- tions studied. In measurements of wing chord, the male Cuban mean of 83.2 is greater than the means of all other Antillean samples (means 82.0-82.9) and is exceeded only by continental passerina. Wing chord in Cuban females likewise is greater (82.8) than in the other Antillean samples (means 78.4-81.0, the highest mean that of His- paniolan insularis), but the single female passerina has a wing chord of 85.7. Bill measurements (tip of bill to anterior margin of naris) of Cuban males and females have higher means (11.6 in both sexes ) than all other West Indian populations, with the excep- tion that male jamaicensis average 11.9 and female jamaicensis 12.0 in this measurement. The tarsus measurements of Cuban males (mean 14.7) is equal to that of Caymanian and Hispaniolan insu- laris and bahamensis, but exceeds the mean of male jamaicensis (13.8). The tarsus mean of Cuban females (15.2) is greater than that of all other Antillean females (means 14.3-14.7). The above comments and Tables 1 and 2 indicate clearly that the Cuban population of C. passerina differs quite strongly in mensural characters, not only from the subspecies jamaicensis and bahamensis, but also from those populations with which it has been previously associated as C. p. insularis. In size, the Cuban birds are more or less intermediate between the continental passerina on one hand and the remainder of the western Antillean subspecies on the other. The overall size difference between Cuban aflavida and the remaining West Indian forms is quite obvious when skins of these four subspecies are even grossly compared. Comparisons of male passerina, aflavida, insularis, jamaicensis and bahamensis as far as depth of pigmentation is concerned shows the following. Males of each subspecies are variable among them- selves, but there are very definite trends toward depth of color, both dorsally and ventrally, which are obvious when series are com- pared. Ranked by darkness of ventral color, the races stand as jamaicensis, passerina, aflavida, insularis, and bahamensis, with jamaicensis being the darkest subspecies and bahamensis the palest. Male jamaicensis are deep vinaceous below (Pl. 54 D 1; Maerz 226 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES and Paul, 1950), with passerina males only slightly paler (P1. 54 C 3). C. p. aflavida is still paler than the nominate subspecies, typical colors being Pl. 54 B 4 and Pl. 54 A 5. Caymanian insu- laris average distinctly paler than aflavida (P1. 53 B 3) and even the darkest Caymanian males (Pl. 45 F 1) are paler and less purplish (more brown) than aflavida. Hispaniolan insularis agree closely with topotypical specimens of that subspecies, although there is a tendency for Hispaniolan birds to be slightly darker (more red) than Caymanian insularis. Male bahamensis are the palest ventrally, with a somewhat grayer tone (P1. 53 A 2). Ranking males by the depth of the dorsal plumage color yields a series of aflavida, passerina, jamaicensis, bahamensis, and insu- laris. Note that of this series, aflavida and insularis stand at oppo- site extremes. Typical aflavida colors are Pl. 15 E 9 and Pl. 15 C 4, whereas topotypical insularis dorsa include Pl. 14 A 3 and Pl. 14 B 4. Occasional Caymanian insularis (USNM 316752, for instance ) resemble occasional aflavida (USNM 453536), but the series are quite easily separable on the basis of the darker (more brown) coloration of male aflavida and the paler (more gray) backs of in- sularis. There is no mean difference in the depth of the gray crown and squamate nape feathers nor of the tan loreal feathers, although I have the impression that very generally the latter are more red- dish in aflavida than in Caymanian insularis and are even more deeply reddish in Hispaniolan insularis. Females of the four subspecies are similar in many respects. Ventrally, female bahamensis have the central portion of the belly most clearly white and have the chest most distinctly squamate, the feathers with the palest buffy edges, of the populations in question. Female aflavida are slightly grayer ventrally and have the central portion of the belly more buffy than do female insularis, whereas female jamaicensis are the darkest (most gray-brown) of the sub- species. As far as dorsal coloration is concerned, female jamaicen- sis are the darkest (Pl. 15 G 5) and bahamensis the palest (Pl. 14 A 2). Female aflavida are a rich brown (Pl. 15 E 9) whereas fe- male Caymanian insularis are paler (Pl. 15 A 7). There is a dis- tinct tendency for the crown and squamate nape feathers to have paler centers (and thus more prominent dark edges) in aflavida than in insularis. ScuHwartz: Variation in Antillean Birds WET Two freshly collected (1965) specimens in unworn plumage from Navassa Island (which presumably might be separable from insularis as C. p. navassae) do not differ in size nor pigmentation from recently collected Hispaniolan insularis. There seems no reason to resurrect navassae from the synonymy of insularis. In summary, it is appropriate to consider C. p. aflavida Ridgway a valid subspecies occurring on Cuba (and presumably on the Isla de Pinos whence I have seen no material). In size and in depth of pigmentation, aflavida meets all the criteria for a recognizable sub- species of Columbina passerina. I disagree with Hellmayr and Conover (1942, p. 530, footnote 2) that bahamensis is “a very unsatisfactory race.” Although ba- hamensis resembles insularis (sensu stricto) in its small size, its dis- tinctly paler coloration, both dorsally and ventrally and in both sexes, reassures me of its distinctness from other adjacent subspe- cies. I have, in the foregoing discussion, made no mention of the presence of, or the amount of (if present), red on the bill of the various populations. There are no color data on any of the material at hand as far as this character is concerned. However, judging by the presently pale areas on the culmens I imagine that the Cuban populations lack this feature (for which reason the name aflavida was proposed ), and that insularis has some basal portions of the bill red. Specimens examined: C. p. aflavida: Cuba, Pinar del Rio Prov., San Vi- cente, 2 (AS); Habana Prov., Boca de Jaruco, 3 (AS); Camagtiey Prov., 6 mi. S Playa Santa Lucia, 1 (AS); Oriente Prov., 4 mi. E Gibara, 1 (USNM); San- tiago de Cuba, 2 (USNM); 23 km E Siboney, 1 (AS); 4 mi. W Baitiquiri, 1 (AS); vicinity of Guantanamo, 9 (USNM). C. p. insularis: Haiti, Dépt. du Sud, Jérémie, 1 (USNM); Dépt. de YOuest, L’Arcahaie, 1 (USNM); 1.1 mi. S. Mirebalais, 1 (AS); Dépt. du Nord, Port-de-Paix, 1 (ANSP); Ile de la Gondve, Anse a Galet, 2 (ANSP, USNM); Etroits, 1 (USNM); Ile de la Tortue, 1 (USNM); Reptblica Dominicana, Distrito Nacional, Santo Domingo, 3 (ANSP); La Romana Prov., Isla Catalina, 1 (AS); San Juan Prov., 15 km SE San Juan, 1 (AS); Cayman Islands, Grand Cayman, no further locality, 10 (ANSP, USNM); 3 mi. N Georgetown, 1 (AS); 3.5 mi. N East End, 3 (AS); 5.7 mi. ENE, 0.5 mi. N Bodden Town, 1 (AS); Little Cayman, Blossom Point, 1 (AS); Navassa Island, between Lulu Bay and lighthouse, 2 (AS). C. p. jamaicensis: Jamaica, St. Ann Parish, 1] mi. E Discovery Bay, 2 228 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES (AS); St. Catherine Parish, Fort Clarence, 1 (AS); Manchester Parish, 0.7 mi. W Gut River, 2 (AS); 0.9 mi. W Gut River, 1 (AS). C. p. bahamensis: Bahama Islands, Grand Bahama, Bootle Bay, 3.5 mi. E West End, 1 (AS); 45 mi. E Freeport, 1 (AS); 3.4 mi. W High Rock, 1 (AS); Great Abaco, 8 mi. WNW Treasure Cay, 1 (AS); Andros, 2 mi. S Fresh Creek, 2 (AS); New Providence, 3.8 mi. W Oakes Field, 1 (AS); Eleu- thera, Hatchet Bay Plantation, 5 (AS); Cat, 3.2 mi. E Old Bight, 1 (AS); San Salvador, 2 mi. NNE Cockburn Town, 1 (AS); 6.9 mi. NE Cockbum Town, 3 (AS); 7.1 mi. N Cockburn Town, 1 (AS). C. p. passerina: Florida, Dade Co., 4 mi. W South Miami, 1 (AS); 1 mi. N North Miami P.O., 1 (AS); Monroe Co., Sugarloaf Key, 1 (AS); Boca Chica Key, 1 (AS). Geothlypis rostrata Bryant The Bahama Yellowthroat (Geothlypis rostrata) has long been known as an endemic resident on the Bahama Islands of Grand Bahama and Great Abaco (including many offshore cays), New Providence, Andros, and Eleuthera. Paulson (1966, p. 10) first reported the species from Cat Island, to the south of Eleuthera. The nomenclatural history of the various insular populations of G. rostrata is extremely complex. Ridgway (1902, p. 674 et seq.) rec- ognized seven Bahamian species, three of which occurred on New Providence, two on Abaco, one on Andros, and one on Eleuthera. This most peculiar situation was later clarified by Todd (1911) who, after careful comparison and analysis of plumages, relegated Ridgway’s seven species to one species with three subspecies: the nominate subspecies on New Providence and Andros, G. r. tanneri Ridgway on Grand Bahama and Abaco, and G. r. coryi Ridgway on Eleuthera. This arrangement of forms has been followed by Hellmayr (1935), although he made some comments on the still confused situation and had only limited material from several is- lands whence G. rostrata had been reported. The current Antillean checklist (Bond, 1956) likewise follows Todd’s arrangement. Paul- son tentatively regarded his Cat Island specimens as G. r. coryji, since they did not agree with specimens of nominate rostrata or tanneri but agreed in general with Ridgway’s description of coryi. Lowery and Monroe (1968, p. 43) included Cat Island in the range of G. r. coryi, presumably on the basis of Paulson’s statement. In an effort to secure additional Bahama Yellowthroats, Donald W. Buden visited the islands of Cat, Eleuthera, and Andros. He was able to secure a moderate series of birds from Cat Island where Scuwartz: Variation in Antillean Birds 229 they were not uncommon, but secured only one on Eleuthera and none on Andros; the latter island was only briefly visited. In this regard, Ronald F. Klinikowski and I spent 18 days on Eleuthera in 1961, and encountered no Geothlypis rostrata; I have not seen the bird on New Providence, despite regular search for it over several years. Such observations are of course at best negative, but do indi- cate that on some islands G. rostrata may be either uncommon or that the populations may vary in density with changing ecological conditions. As preliminary studies of our material, along with bor- rowed specimens, progressed, it became evident that more birds from Andros would be most pertinent; accordingly, the author and James A. Rodgers, Jr., visited Andros for five days in November 1968 and during that period secured four birds and saw several more. The habitat was primarily coppice; G. rostrata was most common in patches of coppice surrounded by pinewoods (as, for instance, near Red Bay on northern Andros) and was encountered less abundantly in extensive stands of high and uninterrupted cop- pice (such as just north of Mastic Point). I have examined 82 specimens of G. rostrata, distributed by is- lands as follows: rostrata, New Providence, 14 males, 4 females, Andros, 11 males, 2 females; tanneri, Grand Bahama, 20 males, 6 females, Great Abaco, 7 males, 1 female; coryi, Eleuthera, 8 males, 2 females, Cat, 4 males, 3 females. All series include freshly col- lected material (1960-1968) except the New Providence series which is composed of birds collected in the late 1800’s. However, comparing freshly collected and old specimens of tanneri from Grand Bahama, I can discern no differences in depth of pigmenta- tion, either dorsally or ventrally; therefore I feel confident that re- cently collected New Providence birds would differ very little or not at all from these older specimens, and comments on the color of topotypical G. r. rostrata, based on the old series, is very prob- ably valid. Todd (1911, p. 246) diagnosed males of the three subspecies - on the basis of color: rostrata is characterized by having the crown decidedly grayish, the superciliaries faintly yellow-tinged, the back dull olive green, and the flanks greenish yellow; tanneri has the crown more greenish (only superficially grayish) the superciliaries decidedly yellow in front, the back brownish olive green, and the flanks brownish olive yellow; in coryi, the crown is decidedly yel- 230 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES lowish green, the superciliaries are bright yellow, the back bright olive green, and the flanks greenish yellow. No differences in size were considered important. Hellmayr (1935) confirmed Todd’s diagnoses. For dorsal coloration and pattern of males the following obser- vations are pertinent. Of the three currently recognized popula- tions, Eleuthera coryi are the most brightly colored, with back dis- tinctly bright yellow-green, yellow superciliary stripes, and crowns only slightly (if at all) more gray than the dorsal plumage. Cat coryi are basically similar in color to Eleuthera males but tend on the average to be perhaps a little brighter (more yellow). New Providence rostrata are distinctly less yellow than any coryi males, have the crown pale gray with the very pale gray (almost white or with but a touch of very pale yellow) superciliary line blending into the very pale anterior margin of the crown patch. Thus, the posterior margin of the frontal portion of the black mask is outlined with very pale gray in most specimens. Andros rostrata, on the other hand, are darker (more olive green and thus like more northern tanneri) dorsally, have the crown dark gray and the su- perciliary lines usually dark gray (occasionally yellowish, occasion- ally pale gray) and never outlining the posterior frontal portion of the black mask with pale gray. Grand Bahama male tanneri are slightly darker than Andros rostrata (dark olive green) with a dull greenish gray crown, superciliary lines dull gray to dull yellow- ish gray and not outlining the frontal portion of the mask pos- teriorly. Great Abaco male tanneri are like Grand Bahama males, except that they tend to be slightly grayer dorsally (more gray than Andros rostrata), have the crown paler gray than Grand Bahama males, and have the superciliary lines paler gray (at times almost white) and very faintly outlining the posterior edge of the frontal portion of the mask. As far as dorsal color and pattern are con- cemed, I distinguish the following groupings: 1) Grand Bahama (including Great Abaco, where the birds are somewhat grayer), 2) New Providence, 3) Andros, 4) Eleuthera and Cat (where the birds are slightly brighter). By far the brightest yellow birds, as far as ventral color is con- cerned, are Cat and Eleuthera coryi; the specimens from Cat are even brighter than those from Eleuthera and have the olivaceous flank feathers less brownish than do Eleuthera coryi. Males from ScHwaRtz: Variation in Antillean Birds 231 Cat Island also appear to have the lateral portions of the black mask much broader and more extensive than Eleuthera coryi, but this may be an artifact of the preparation of the skins. However, Paulson’s single Cat male agrees in this character with the four Cat males collected by Buden, and Buden’s Eleuthera male agrees with those collected by previous ornithologists on Eleuthera and not with his own Cat Island skins. New Providence, Andros, Grand Bahama, and Great Abaco males are all comparable in depth of ventral yellow pigmentation, although Abaco males have the flank feathers more deeply brown than any other sample and generally also seem to have the ventral yellow slightly paler. Andros (ros- trata) and Grand Bahama (tanneri) are quite comparable in ven- tral color. On the basis, then, of ventral pigmentation, I distinguish two groups: 1) Eleuthera and Cat (coryi), and 2) all other islands (rostrata and tanneri). The more impressive pigmental features are dorsal rather than ventral in G. rostrata. Since I have fewer females than males, variation in color in the former sex is less clear than it is in males. However, dorsally, Eleu- thera-Cat Island females are much paler (less grayish or brownish) than females from elsewhere, New Providence females are about equally as pale as female coryi but lack the yellowish tinge, Andros females resemble Grand Bahama-Great Abaco females in being the darkest (most olivaceous). Certainly the populations which are most distinctly sexually dichromatic dorsally are those on Cat and Eleuthera, in which the females are much less brightly colored dor- sally than are the males. In ventral color, the situation parallels that of males. Females from Eleuthera and Cat are the brightest yellow (although they are distinctly less bright than the corres- ponding males), and females from all other islands are quite com- parable in being pale yellow to very pale yellow (often with the central feathers whitish to white) below. In female tanneri and rostrata, the brownish flank feathers are conspicuous against the re- mainder of the belly color, whereas in female coryi the flank feathers are much less brown (olivaceous ) and are much less obvious. Table 3 gives means and extremes of four measurements of male Geothlypis rostrata from six populations. Inspection of this table indicates that populations assigned to tanneri (Grand Bahama-Great Abaco) are remarkably similar in all measurements, the greatest discrepancy being in data for bill length (tip of bill to QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 232, (9'1Z-1'0Z) 8'0% (€'1Z-1'03) S'0G (0°SS-S'0Z) SIZ (L'36-9'03) 913 (VIZ-6'61) 8'0Z (9°13-3'0Z) O'1G (T'IT-S'01T) 8'OT (VIT-V0L) 6'0T (9 IT-€'01) 8'OT (SGI-GOL) € IT (TIT-L'6 ) TOT (LI1-3'0L) $'0T (3S9-1'39) S'e9 (G'G9-6'6S) 6°39 (6°L9-9'L¢) S'09 (O'SL-1'19) 0°S9 (1'39-G°8S) 8°09 (L'99-§'8S) Z'19 (7'6S-0'S¢) © Lg (L'9-F'8S) 709 (0'39-6'7S) LLG (O'€9-E'8S) ST9 (0'9-0°6E) 9°09 (G°Z9-9'LS) S'09 (38D) thoo ( exoyNELA ) th1oo (sorpuy ) pNnB1xXa (90U9PIAOIg MeN) DIDISOL ( ooeqy eID ) 14OUUDY (eweyeg pueiy) 1gUUdy snsIe J, IOJ [fe} JO oWaNxXa MOT Tia proyD Sur [RL N ‘asvuin;d UIOM Ajoute.4xe UI UsUTIOedS UOIf SI lwauUuD? eUIBYeg puUPId ‘dg 0} slueu JO Jopioq JOLIe}Ue WOIJ pAOYO sjenbs yUSUIOINS¥OU [[Iq ‘“spUe[S] eUeYye_ 94} UI ysvo 0} }SOM pu YINOS 0} YOU UWIOIF posuLLUe “DyD1WS01 SidhjYyiOay) Jo SUOWe[Ndod xis Fo soyeu FO (SIoJOUT]][IW UT) syUoWOIMseoyy € HIaV.L ScHWARTz: Variation in Antillean Birds were anterior margin of naris). Based on both color data and measure- ments, G. r. tanneri seems a well characterized subspecies which shows only limited chromatic variation and which occupies the is- lands of the Little Bahama Bank. The situation with the two populations assigned to the nominate subspecies is quite different. In measurements of tail and wing chord, New Providence rostrata stand at the upper extreme of all specimens measured, and Andros rostrata at the lower. In addition, the New Providence birds have the highest mean measurements of bill and tarsus, with Andros birds showing lower means in both cases, but not at the lower extreme. Taking into consideration the chromatic differences outlined above, I consider that Geothlypis rostrata from Andros are not identical to their New Providence rela- tives. The chromatic differences are striking: comparable differen- ces are not shown in any two populations which I assign to either tanneri or coryi, and additionally the combination of characters shown by Andros specimens are not matched by any other sample. Accordingly, I hereby resurrect exigua Ridgway, 1902, (type lo- cality, Fresh Creek, Andros Island, Bahama Islands) for these An- dros birds. The two populations which are considered currently as coryi — differ between themselves mensurally. Cat Island males have shorter tails, and the amount of overlap between the two popula- tions in this character is slight (58.6-62.7 in Eleuthera birds, 55.0- 59.4 in Cat birds). In wing chord and tarsus measurements, Cat Island males average slightly greater, and the means of bill meas- urements are almost identical, although Eleuthera coryi have a slightly higher upper extreme. Because the series of females is less extensive than is that of the males, the mensural differences between females is less easily shown; these data are not included in Table 3. In measurements of wing chord, the single Abaco tanneri female has the lowest measurement (54.2) of all females studied. Five female tanneri from Grand Bahama have a mean wing chord measurement of 56.5 (56.0-58.5), so that the Abaco female falls below the lower limit of the Grand Bahama females. Wing chord means of females from New Providence, Andros, and Eleuthera are very similar (59.6, 59.3, 59.2) with Cat females having a lower mean (57.9), 234 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES but the range of measurements of Cat females (55.9-61.3) com- pletely embraces the extremes for females from these other islands. In tail length, once again the lowest measurement of all females is the single Abaco female (51.0) whereas the series of six Grand Bahama females have measurements of 55.7-56.6. Tail measure- ments of New Providence, Andros, and Eleuthera females have similar means (56.7, 57.7, 58.3); although these differences are more striking than those in the male samples from these same islands, the series of females are considerably smaller, and IJ attach little significance to the differences observed. On the other hand, the tail measurements of females from Cat show a very low mean (53.8), and very low extremes (51.9-56.5); all birds were taken in either November or March and do not show conspicuously worn plumage. In fact, Cat females are completely separable (51.9- 56.5) from Eleuthera females (56.9-59.3) on the basis of this meas- urement. It should be recalled that Eleuthera and Cat males like- wise have strongly different means (60.4, 57.3) and extremes (58.6- 62.7, 55.0-59.4) in this measurement, although there is some over- lap in the case of tail measurements in males. It seems likely that Eleuthera and Cat Geothlypis rostrata have diverged from each other (at least as far as tail length is concerned) to a greater degree than have the two populations of G. r. tanneri, for instance. If the chromatic differences or the single possible pattern difference (ex- tent of the black mask posteriorly) could be confirmed by addi- tional material, it seems likely that the Cat Island birds should be distinguished nomenclatorially from those from Eleuthera. I am not prepared to do so at this time. The distribution of the subspecies of G. rostrata is confined to islands of the Great and Little banks. The Little Bank is occupied by G. r. tanneri; considering the similarity between the two tanneri populations, it seems likely that the Abaconian birds have been relatively recently derived from those from Grand Bahama, or vice versa. The Great Bahama Bank is essentially a U-shaped bank, with the deep Tongue of the Ocean separating the two arms of the U, oriented with the opening toward the north. Andros lies on the western arm of the U, New Providence and Eleuthera on the eastern-arm. Cat Island is usually associated with the eastern arm also (Cat is quite close to Eleuthera) but in actuality Cat lies on its own bank. The differences between exigua (on the western ScHwARTz: Variation in Antillean Birds 235 arm of the bank) and rostrata (on the eastern arm) are not surpris- ing. Despite the proximity of Andros and New Providence (about 40 km), these two islands lie on different sections of the bank and, separated by the deep Tongue of the Ocean, have presumably never been directly connected. On the other hand, the shallow banks connecting Eleuthera and Cat Island suggest that since the Pliocene, these two islands have been variously associated with each other and for varying lengths of time. Thus, differentiation between exigua and rostrata is more pronounced than between the two coryi populations (which however seem to have diverged in at least one character); each member of the former pair of subspe- cies has had an independent history and the two populations have never been directly in contact, whereas the latter pair of popula- tions may have been in contact at various times and for varying durations during the more recent geologic history of the Bahama Islands. Specimens examined: G. r. tanneri: Grand Bahama, Bootle Bay, 3.5 mi. E West End, 1 (AS); 5.5 mi. E West End, 2 (AS); 1 mi. E Eight Mile Rock, 2 (AS); Queen’s Cove, 1 (AS); 8.4 mi. E Freeport (airfield), 1 (AS); 17 mi. E Freeport, 1 (AS); 1.2 mi. W McLean’s Town, 1 (AS); 1.0 mi. W McLean’s Town, 1 (AS); 0.5 mi. W McLean’s Town, 1 (AS); 2.2 mi. E McLean’s Town, 1 (AS); 2.5 mi. E McLean’s Town, 1 (AS); 4.1 mi. E MclLean’s Town, 3 (AS); 4.2 mi. E McLean’s Town, 2 (AS); 4.2 mi. E. McLean’s Town, 2 (AS); 7.0 mi. W High Rock, 1 (AS); 35.5 mi. E Lucaya, 1 (AS); 36 mi. E Lucaya, 1 (AS); 45 mi. E Freeport, 1 (AS); no data other than Grand Bahama, 3 (FMNH); Great Abaco, 6 mi. NW Treasure Cay, 3 (AS, LSUMZ); 16 mi. NW Treasure Cay, 1 (AS); 15 mi. S Lake City, 1 (AS); no data other than “Abaco”, 3 (FMNH). G. r. rostrata: New Providence, Nassau, 15 (AMNH, FMNH); no data other than New Providence, 2 (USNM); “Bahama Islands”, 1 (FMNH). G. r. exigua: Andros, 1.5 mi. S Fresh Creek, 1 (AS); 1 mi. N Mastic Point, 2 (AS); 2 mi. ESE Red Bay, 2 (AS); no data other than Andros, 8 (ANSP, FMNH). G. r. coryi: Eleuthera, 2.3 mi. SE Governor’s Harbour, 1 (AS); no data other than Eleuthera, 9 (AMNH, FMNH, USNM); Cat Island, The Bight, 1 (AS); Tea Bay, 1 (AS); 9.6 mi. S Bluff Settlement, 1 (AS); 8.3 mi. SE Old Bight, 1 (AS); 3.0 mi. E Old Bight, 1 (AS); 0.9 mi. E Old Bight, 1 (AS); 1.8 mi. N Bennett’s Harbour, 1 (AS). LITERATURE CITED Banes, OurRaM. 1916. A collection of birds from the Cayman Islands. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., vol. 60, no. 7, pp. 303-320. 236 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Bonp, JAMES. 1956. Check-list of birds of the West Indies. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, pp. i-ix, 1-214. HELLMaAyR, CHARLES E. 1935. Catalogue of birds of the Americas. Zool. Series, Field Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. 13, pp. i-vi, 1-541. , AND BOARDMAN Conover. 1942. Catalogue of birds of the Americas and the adjacent islands, pt. 1, no. 1. Zool. Series, Field Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. 13, no. 1, pp. i-vi, 1-636. Lowery, GeorcE H., Jr., AND Burt L. Monroe, Jr. 1968. Parulidae, In Check-list of birds of the World, vol. 14, Mus. Comp. Zool., pp. 3-93. Maerz, A., AND M. Rea Pau. 1950. A dictionary of color, McGraw-Hill Book Co., pp. i-vii, 1-23, 137-208, 56 pls. PAuLson, DENNIs R. 1966. New records of birds from the Bahama Islands. Not. Nat. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, vol. 394, pp. 1-15. Rmwcway, Rosert. 1902. The birds of North and Middle America, pt. 2. Bull. U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol. 50, pp. i-xx, 1-834, 22 pls. 1916. The birds of North and Middle America, pt. 7. Bull. U. S. Natl. Mus., vol. 50, pp. i-xiii, 1-543, 24 pls. SCHWARTZ, ALBERT, AND RONALD F. KLinikowski. 1963. Observations on West Indian birds. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, vol. 115, no. 3, pp. 53-77. 1965. Additional observations on West Indian birds. Not. Nat. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, vol. 376, pp. 1-16. Topp, W. E. CrypeE. 1911. The Bahaman species of Geothlypis. Auk, vol. 28) pp. 231-253: 1913. A revision of the genus Chaemepelia. Ann. Carnegie Mus., vol. 8, nos. 3-4, pp. 507-603. 1916. The birds of the Isle of Pines. Ann. Carnegie Mus., vol. 10, no. 11, pp. 146-296, 5 pls. Department of Biology, Miami-Dade Junior College, Miami, Florida 33167. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 33(3) 1970(1971) Post-Columbian Birds from Abaco Island, Bahamas KATHLEEN CONKLIN Tue island of Abaco in the Bahamas has no record of fossil birds until now. Such information from elsewhere in the Bahamas is limited to three reports of bird remains on Great Exuma (Wetmore, 1937), Crooked Island (Wetmore, 1938), and New Providence (Brodkorb, 1959). During July of 1969 Dr. E. Lowe Pierce, of the University of Florida, and Donald L. Malone partially excavated a cave deposit on the Great Abaco Island. The cave is approximately 10 miles south of Marsh Harbor. A small amount of matrix from this exca- vation contained many bones of mammals and birds. The bones of the rodents from this material are Rattus species, and indicate that the avian bones collected with these rodents are Post-Columbian. Therefore, for the most part, these bird bones correspond to those of birds which currently inhabit the Bahamas. FAMILY COLUMBIDAE Columba leucocephala Linnaeus. White-crowned Pigeon. Left - coracoid, alar digit, left tarsometatarsus. C. leucocephala was previously reported as a fossil in the Bahamas from Crooked Island and New Providence. Columbigallina passerina (Linnaeus). Ground Dove. Right coracoid. C. passerina has not previously been reported as a fossil in the Bahamas. FAMILY CUCULIDAE Coccyzus americanus (Linnaeus). Yellow-billed Cuckoo. Left humerus. The humerus has a deep capital groove which corre- sponds to C. americanus. Also, C. minor is heavier than C. ameri- canus or the fossil. The only previous fossil record of C. americanus is from Haile, Florida. (Ligon, 1966) Crotophaga ani Linnaeus. Smooth-billed Ani. Left ulna, right femur. C. ani has not been reported previously as a fossil in the Bahamas. 238 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES FAMILY PICIDAE Dendrocopos villosus (Linnaeus). Hairy Woodpecker. Right humerus, with proximal end broken, right ulna, left femur, with both proximal and distal ends broken, distal portion of right tibio- tarsus. The only previous fossil record of D. villosus is from Cali- fornia. (Miller and Demay, 1942) FAMILY TYRANNIDAE Tyrannus dominicensis (Gmelin). Gray Kingbird. Mandible, quadrate, lower end of coracoid, left scapula, one right and the shafts of two left humeri, left ulna, portion of synsacrum, two left and distal portion of one right femur. T. dominicensis has not previously been reported as a fossil in the Bahamas. Tolmarchus caudifasciatus (dOrbigny). Loggerhead Fly- catcher. Shaft of left ulna, two right and proximal end of left tarsometatarsus. T. caudifasciatus has not previously been reported as a fossil in the Bahamas. FAMILY MIMIDAE Mimus polyglottos (Linnaeus). Northern Mockingbird. Por- tion of mandible, synsacrum, distal portion of left tibiotarsus. M. gundlachii, which also occurs on Abaco, was not available for comparison. M. polyglottos has not previously been reported as a fossil in the Bahamas. FAMILY TURDIDAE Mimocichla plumbea (Linnaeus). Red-legged Thrush. Proxi- mal end of left humerus, shaft of left tibiotarsus, left tarsometa- tarsus. M. plumbea was previously reported as a fossil in the Bahamas from Great Exuma. FAMILY VIREONIDAE Vireo solitarius (Wilson). Solitary Vireo. Portions of two mandibles, two left humeri, right and left tarsometatarsi. The humeri agree with humeri of both V. solitarius and V. flavifrons in size, but measurements show V. flavifrons to differ from V. soli- Conxuin: Subfossil Birds from Abaco 239 tarius and from the fossil by having less depth at both the proxi- mal and distal ends. Also, the tarsometatarsi of V. flavifrons are shorter than those of V. solitarius and of the fossil. There is no previous fossil record of Vireo solitarius. FAMILY PARULIDAE Dendroica tigrina (Gmelin). Cape May Warbler. Right cora- coid, portion of scapula, right ulna, one left and proximal end of right tibiotarsus, portion of sternum. The fossil agrees in size with D. pensylvanica, D. fusca, D. dominica, D. caerulescens, D. virens, and D. tigrina. Only D. virens and D. tigrina agree with the fossil coracoid in having the hyposternal process broadly flared. The tibiotarsus of D. virens is much more slender than that of D. tigrina or the fossil. There is no previous fossil record of Den- droica tigrina. Protonotaria citrea (Boddaert). Prothonotary Warbler. Por- tion of mandible, right coracoid, right ulna, left humerus. There is no previous fossil record of P. citrea. Seiurus aurocapillus. (Linnaeus). Oven Bird. Right hu- merus, right carpometacarpus, right femur, right tarsometatarsus. The humerus of S. aurocapillus differs from those of S. novebora- censis and S. motacilla in that its shaft and the width of its condyls are thicker. Also, the femur of S. aurocapillus is larger than the femurs of these other two species. S. aurocapillus has not previ- ously been reported as a fossil in the Bahamas. Vermivora pinus (Linnaeus). Blue-winged Warbler. Right and left humeri. The only previous fossil record of V. pinus is from Vero Beach, Florida (Weigel, 1963). Wilsonia citrina (Boddaert). Hooded Warbler. Right humerus, proximal end of right tibiotarsus. There is no previous fossil record of W. citrina. FAMILY THRAUPIDAE Spindalis zena Linnaeus. Striped-headed Tanager. Portion of mandible, one left and two right carpometacarpi, two right tarso- metatarsi. S. zena has not previously been reported as a fossil in the Bahamas. 240 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES FAMILY ICTERIDAE Agelaius phoeniceus (Linnaeus). Red-winged Blackbird. Right coracoid, left humerus, left ulna, pelvis. A. phoeniceus has not previously been reported as a fossil in the Bahamas. FAMILY FRINGILLIDAE Loxigilla violacea (Linnaeus). Greater Antillean Bullfinch. Right scapula, two left coracoids, two left humeri, proximal end of right ulna, radius, synsacrum, right and left femurs and distal end of left femur, right tarsometatarsus, and four right tibiotarsi. L. violacea has not previously been reported as a fossil in the Bahamas. Passerina ciris (Linnaeus). Painted Bunting. Left carpometa- carpus, right femur, right tibiotarsus, two right tarsometatarsi. P. ciris and P. cyanea are very similar, but the fossil tibiotarsus cor- responds most closely to that of P. ciris in having a much shorter and less prominent outer cnemial crest and a broader groove be- hind this crest than P. cyanea. There is no previous fossil record of P22 ciris: LITERATURE CITED Bropkors, PiERcE. 1959. Pleistocene birds from New Providence Island, Bahamas. Bull. Florida State Mus., vol. 4, no. 11, pp. 349-371. Licon, J. Davip. 1966. A Pleistocene avifauna from Haile, Florida. Bull. Florida State Mus., vol..10, no. 4, pp. 127-158. Minter, Love. 1942. A new fossil bird locality. Condor, vol. 44, no. 6, pp. 283-284. WEIGEL, RoBERT D. 1963. Fossil vertebrates of Vero, Florida. Florida Geol. Surv. Spec. Publ., no. 10, pp. 1-59. WETMORE, ALEXANDER. 1937. Bird remains from cave deposits on Great Exuma Island in the Bahamas. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., vol: 80, no. 12, pp. 427-441. 1938. Bird remains from the West Indies. Auk, vol. 55, no. 1, pp. 51-55. Department of Zoology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Flor- ida 32601. Present address: 559 NE 46th Street, Boca Raton, Flor- ida. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 33(3) 1970( 1971) Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences Vol. 33 December, 1970 No. 4 CONTENTS Pilot whales mass stranded at Nevis, West Indies David K. Caldwell, Warren F. Rathjen, and Melba C. Caldwell 241 Redescription of Sphaerodactylus stejnegeri Cochran Lewis D. Ober 244 Soil algae of northwest Florida Jon H. Arvik 247 Cyclic erosion surfaces in Swaziland Harm J. de Blij 253 Osmotic equilibrium of marine algae T. R. Tosteson, E. Montalvo de Ramirez, and A. Rehm 262 Occurrence of Brevoortia gunteri in Mississippi Sound William R. Turner 273 Reproduction of the clingfish, Gobiesox strumosus Robert A. Martin and Catharine L. Martin 275 Recent coyote record from Florida Vernon D. Cunningham and Robert D. Dunford 279 Herpetofauna of Dauphin Island, Alabama Crawford G. Jackson, Jr., and Marguerite M. Jackson 281 Breeding of a pair of pen-reared green turtles Ross Witham 288 The possible evolutionary history of two F lorida skinks Steven P. Christman 291 The effects of different ratios of force on aggression James Tindell and Jack E. Vincent 294 Mailed June 7, 1971 UN 48197) L/BRARIES QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Editor: Pierce Brodkorb The Quarterly Journal welcomes original articles containing sig- nificant new knowledge, or new interpretation of knowledge, in any field of Science. Articles must not duplicate in any substantial way material that is published elsewhere. INSTRUCTIONS TO AUTHORS Rapid, efficient, and economical transmission of knowledge by means of the printed word requires full cooperation between author and editor. 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Published by the Florida Academy of Sciences Printed by the Storter Printing Company Gainesville, Florida QUARTERLY JOURNAL of the FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vol. 33 December, 1970 No. 4 Pilot Whales Mass Stranded at Nevis, West Indies Davp K. CALDWELL, WARREN F.. RATHJEN, AND MELBA C. CALDWELL THE pilot whale or blackfish, Globicephala macrorhyncha (Gray), has been recorded from a number of West Indian localities which include Cuba, the Bahamas, Haiti, Puerto Rico, St. Croix, Guadeloupe, Dominica, St. Lucia, and St. Vincent (Caldwell and Erdman, 1963). Fenger (1958, p. 102) also recorded blackfish from near Bequia in the Grenadines, and Murphy (1947, p. 18) from off Martinique. The pilot whale is well known at sea throughout the West Indies, and is met in sufficient numbers to support small local fisheries for food and oil near various islands of the Lesser Antilles (Brown, 1945; Hickling, 1950; Caldwell and Erdman, 1963). While there are cases of individuals dead on the beach, a group stranding in the islands has, to our knowledge, never been reported. Pilot whales are notorious for stranding en masse along the Atlantic mainland coast of the United States and elsewhere in the world, and whether the lack of reported strandings in the West Indies is due to physi- ographic or hydrographic conditions, or merely to lack of commu- nication is not known. It is therefore of interest to note the stranding of 16 pilot whales on or about 12 May 1969 on the beach in the Butler’s area on the northeastern (windward) side of the island of Nevis. This is also the first record of the pilot whale from Nevis under any circum- stances. As can be seen in Fig. 1, the shore at that point is strewn with large rocks. The surf is rough as it receives the full force of the easterly trade winds which almost constantly sweep the eastern shores of these islands. 242 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES y ff Fig. 1. Stranded pilot whales (Globic West Indies. ibs ephala cf. lit Ba macrorhyncha) at Nevis, Mr. W. O. Parris of the Ministry of Agriculture and Labour at St. Kitts kindly provided us with the details and photographs of the stranding upon which this report is based. He noted that the larg- est animal reported was some 18 feet in length. In the photographs of the stranded animals, clearly of the genus Globicephala, the pectoral flippers appear comparatively short. True (1889, p. 183 f.) and Fraser (1950, p. 59) noted the value of the character of relative flipper length to distinguish the shorter- finned, more southerly G. macrorhyncha (=G. brachyptera) from the longer-finned, more northerly G. melaena (=G. melas). We therefore believe the Nevis animals to be G. macrorhyncha. In addition, all specimens of Globicephala that we have seen from the West Indies have proven to be G. macrorhyncha and as Caldwell and Erdman (1963) stated, it is the species to be expected there. There is no reason to suspect that the Nevis record would apply to any other species. The photographs of the Nevis animals are sufficiently clear to show that at least one has a distinct light throat patch and a thin CALDWELL ET AL.: Stranded Pilot Whales 243 light streak connecting it with the inguinal area (Sergeant, 1962). We have seen the same pigmentation on positively identified speci- mens of G. macrorhyncha from St. Vincent in the Lesser Antilles. LITERATURE CITED Brown, H. H. 1945. The fisheries of the Windward and Leeward Islands. Bull. Development and Welfare in the West Indies, no. 20, pp. 1-97, 2 maps. CALDWELL, D. K. aNd D. S. Erpman. 1963. The pilot whale in the West Indies. Jour. Mammal., vol. 44, no. 1, pp. 113-115. FeNcER, F. A. 1958. Alone in the Caribbean. Wellington Books, Belmont, Mass., xx+21-353 pp. Fraser, F. C. 1950. Two skulls of Globicephala macrorhyncha (Gray) from Dakar. Atlantide Rept., no. 1, pp. 49-60, pls. 1-5. Hick inc, C. F. 1950. The fisheries of the British West Indies; report on a visit in 1949. Bull. Development and Welfare in the West Indies, no. 29, pp. 1-41. Murpuy, R. C. 1947. Logbook for Grace. Macmillan Co., New York, xiii t 290 pp. SERGEANT, D. E. 1962. On the external characters of the blackfish or pilot whales (genus Globicephala). Jour. Mammal., vol. 43, no. 3, pp. 395-413. TRUE, F. W. 1889. A review of the family Delphinidae. U. S. Natl. Mus. Bull. no. 36, pp. 1-191, pls. 1-47. Communication Sciences Laboratory and Florida State Mu- seum, University of Florida, Gainesville; Caribbean Fisheries De- velopment Project, Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, Barbados, present address: U. S. Fish and Wild- life Service, Gloucester, Massachusetts; Communication Sciences Laboratory, University of Florida. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 33(4) 1970(1971) Redescription of Sphaerodactylus stejnegeri Cochran Lewis D. OBER Cocuran (1931) described the gecko Sphaerodactylus stejne- geri from Haiti; the description was based upon three specimens, the type and two paratypes. In a second paper (1941) she had no new material and quoted verbatim from her 1931 paper. Mertens (1939) discussed a single male specimen of this form brought by him to Frankfurt-am-Main. He described it thus (in free translation ): 3 The markings are rather washed out; the dark canthal stripe is miss- ing, the dark occipital band is barely discernible. Present are only a grey brown crossband on the neck and two widely separated (bands) on the back; a fourth (band) is formed just behind the tail- root; these crossbands are anteriorly and posteriorly brightly edged. Cochran’s description was of a 31 mm specimen which was strongly patterned. Mertens’ specimen was 26 mm and had a fading pattern. Since most of the sexually dichromatic sphaero- dactyli have young males and females patterned much like the fe- male, I assume that Mertens diagnosed his specimen as a transi- tional male. Grant (1949) discussed a series of 33 live specimens received from Port au Prince and firmly established sexual dichromatism in this species of lizard. He gave a characteristic of the escutcheon which separates these males from Sphaerodactylus cinereus, which they closely resemble. He described the male as being without pattern, with a dark occipital area and with the entire upper sur- face light to medium brown with minute specks on the scales, and with the underside clear cream color. Later on, however, he quoted Mr. Anthony Curtiss, the collector of his specimens, as saying, “These are small brownish sphaerodactyls with orange throat and tail.” Grant did not indicate that he observed an “orange throat and tail.” He then went on to speculate that males and females hatch with a female-like color pattern; males lose the pattern en- tirely and females add the “speckled areas” between the dark bands as they mature. Schwartz and Thomas (1964, p. 331) discussed S. stejnegeri Ozer: Redescription of a Haitian Gecko 245 briefly, pointing out that Cochran’s inclusion of the Tiburon Penin- sula in the range was probably in error. Thomas and Schwartz (1966) subsequently discussed the species in more detail, having examined 29 specimens and described the male and female color patterns of preserved specimens. They described the male as “uni- color tan or yellowish tan above, venter as in females.” It appears that while the female color pattern of Sphaerodac- tylus stejnegeri is rather well established, neither the juvenile nor the male has been adequately described from living material. On 30 June 1969, while refreshing ourselves at a spring on the road to Ganthier in the Cul de Sac Plain, my son began probing in a dead limb of a calabash tree (Crescentia cujete). He secured first a female and then a juvenile S. stejnegeri. We encouraged the local Haitians to secure more for us and we were rewarded, after purchasing 30-40 Sphaerodactylus brevirostratus, with a handsome full-grown male. Because of the transitory nature of the color of the male after death and the fact that the juvenile has never been described, the male and juvenile are herewith described from life. Male. LDO 7-5977. Snout to vent, 28.2 mm. Dorsal and lat- eral body drab grey with just a tinge of brown or tan anteriorly. The head is almost all yellow dorsally, laterally, and ventrally. A slightly darker, slightly bluish teardrop-shaped spot, with blunt end forward, extends posteriorly from just behind the eyes on the top of head about two-thirds of the way along the neck. There is a dark smudge between the eyes extending slightly on to the snout. The tail is reddish-orange dorsally and laterally. The distal two-fifths are marked with numerous black punctations. The dark bands on the tail are caused by heavier concentrations of the punctations on certain scales. From dorsal aspect, the legs are the same color as dorsal and lateral body, but lighter in shade. Ventrally, the entire underside of the body is light cream, almost white and the under- sides of the appendages are even lighter. The chin and throat are the bright yellow of the head. The tail is orange ventrally, darker proximally, more brilliant distally. Juvenile. LDO 7-5976. Snout to vent, 19.0 mm. Ground color is a neutral or slightly pinkish-grey with jet-black sharply defined bands in the same positions as they are found in the female. In the juvenile, the bands go completely around the body whereas in the adult female, only the anteriormost does; all others are interrupted. 246 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES The bands in the juvenile lack the white or light area in front and behind, and the interband areas are immaculate. There is one band on the head behind the eyes, extending anteriorly through the eye and along the canthus. A second band goes around the neck and there are two bands around the body. There are five bands around the tail, with the tip of the tail also black. Limbs are im- maculate light grey dorsally and ventrally. Under microscopic ex- amination, the light areas of male, female and juvenile are heavily peppered with dark punctations. The conspicuousness of the yellow head and orange tail of the male could not be overlooked. The absence of any mention of this by Grant in his own observations leads to the possible conclusion that these colors may be seasonal and have faded before the speci- mens reached his hands. LITERATURE CITED CocHran, Doris M. 1931. A new lizard from Haiti (Sphaerodactylus stejnegeri). Copeia, 1931, no. 3, pp. 89-91. ———. 1941. The herpetology of Hispaniola. Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus., no. 177, pp. 1-398. Grant, C. 1949. Sexual dichromatism in Sphaerodactylus stejnegeri. Copeia, 1949, no. 1, pp. 74-75. MERTENS, R. 1939. Herpetologishche Ergebnisse einer Reise nach der Insel Hispaniola, Westindian. Abh. Senckenberg. Naturf. Ges., vol. 449, pp. 1-84. ScHWaRTz, A., AND R. THomas. 1964. Subspeciation in Sphaerodactylus copei. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci., vol. 27, no. 4, pp. 316-332. THoMas, R., AND A. ScHwartz. 1966. The Sphaerodactylus decoratus com- plex in the West Indies. Brigham Young Univ. Sci. Bull., Biol. Ser., vol. 7, no. 4, pp. 1-26. Biology Department, Miami-Dade Junior College, Miami, Flor- ida. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 33(4) 1970(1971) Soil Algae of Northwest Florida Jon H. Arvik Reports on the algal flora of Florida have been primarily dis- cussions of particular taxons (Brannon, 1945, 1952) or regions (Nielsen and Madsen, 1948, 1948a; Crowson, 1950) or are truly taxonomic works in somewhat greater detail (Nielsen, 1954, 1954a, 1955, 1955a, 1956; Nielsen and Madsen, 1956, 1956a). Studies of Florida soil algae were made by Smith and Ellis (1943) and Smith (1944); however, these were concerned with characterization of an algal ecosystem rather than taxonomy. The works of Tilden (1910) and Drouet (1968) also include information on Florida algae. APPROACH This investigation was undertaken to provide a portion of a continuing program of ecological research sponsored by the Air Force Armament Laboratory, Eglin AFB, Florida. The Eglin Res- ervation, occupying approximately 750 square miles in northwestern Florida, was the study area. Eglin is bounded by Alaqua Creek to the east, the Yellow River to the west and north, Choctawhatchee Bay to the south, and includes portions of the Southern Coastal Plain and Gulf Coast Flatwoods. Soil types vary considerably in the area (Huckle and Weeks, 1965), but are generally moderately thick acid sands of either Lakeland-Eustis-Blandon or Lakeland- Eustis-Norfolk association (Smith et al., 1967). The specific sampling areas included forested areas of longleaf pine (Pinus palustris Mill.), sand pine (P. clausa Chapm. Vasey), and turkey oak (Quercus laevis Walt.), reforested areas planted to slash pine (P. elliotti Englm. var. elliotti), and areas mechanically cleared and left untended. Creeks, ponds and lowland swamps were not included. Ten sites of 0.01 acre each were selected throughout the Reser- vation. None of the sites had a history of herbicide treatment. Collections were made in September, 1967, January, March, June, August, and October, 1968. Samples were taken from two levels in the soil. Level A included the litter of the surface and the first centimeter of soil. Level B samples were an amalgam of the soil 248 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES between one and 15 cm. Samples were taken with sterile wooden tongue depressors and were transported to the laboratory in sterile disposable dishes. Approximately 100 grams of soil were collected from three random points in each site on each sample date. In the laboratory, the soil was divided to provide four cultures from each original sample. The moist plate culture method of Willson and Forest (1957) was used with slight modifications. Sterile filter paper was placed in 100 mm sterile disposable Petri dishes, after which approxi- mately 25 gm of the sample soil were added. The algae were cultured with sterile Bristol’s solution under fluorescent lights in 12- hour light/dark cycles at 300 foot-candles. Temperatures were al- lowed to vary +3C from 25C. The second method of culture prep- aration was identical to the first except an additional piece of sterile filter paper was placed directly on the culture soil and moistened with the nutrient solution. Many algal forms grew through the paper, permitting easier observation of gross colony morphology and aiding isolation of the organisms into cultures. Standard iso- Jation techniques were used to obtain unialgal or axenic cultures of the green algae. Life cycle studies as described by Starr (1955), Deason and Bold (1960) and others were performed as required to determine the species of selected organisms. No effort was made to obtain pure cultures of the bluegreen algae. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Thirty-eight organisms were identified. Thirteen of the Chloro- phyta and three of the Cyanophyta were unicellular forms. Algae located in every sample included at least one species of each of the genera Chlamydomonas, Chlorococcum, Chlorella, Microcoleus, Nostoc, Oscillatoria, and Schizothrix. In the great majority of cases, Chlorococcum, Nostoc, and Schizothrix were represented by two or more species. Presumably because of seasonal variations and lower population densities, most of the other algae were lo- cated sporadically through the sampling period, but few were not universally distributed on all sample plots or in both sample levels. A species of Spongiococcum was the only alga found repeatedly in a single location, though Rivularia was cultured only once in the entire study. The dominant genus in terms of biomass in culture was Nostoc. Arvik: Soil Algae of Florida 249 Two of the three species located in the study were present in every culture, N. muscorum Ag. and N. ellipsosporum (Desmaz.) Rabenh. The most frequently located alga was Schizothrix calci- cola (Ag.) Gom. This is probably the case in most previous studies of soil algae, since a recent monograph has transposed the majority of the family Oscillatoriaceae into that species (Drouet, 1968). A complete listing of the algae identified in this study is as follows: CHLOROPHYTA, Family Chariaceae Characium ambiguum Herm. Characium sp. Family Chlamydomonadaceae Chlamydomonas pyrenoidosa Deason and Bold C. typica Deason and Bold Family Chlorococcaceae Chlorococcum ellipsoideum Deason and Bold C. diplobionticum Hern. Spongiococcum sp. Family Euglenaceae Euglena sp. Family Mesotaeniaceae Cylindrocystis Brebissonii Menegh. Family Oocystaceae Chlorella vulgaris Beyer. Chlorella sp. Family Protodermataceae Protococcus viridis C. A. Agardh. Family Scenedesmaceae Scenedesmus sp. Family Ulotrichaceae Hormidium subtilissimum Mattox and Bold H. flaccidum Mattox and Bold Stichococcus bacillaris Naeg. S. subtilis (Kuetz.) Klerk. Ulothrix tenerrima Kuetz. Family Zygnemataceae Zygogonium ericetorum Kuetz. CyYANopHYTA, Family Chroococcaceae Anacystis marina Drouet and Daily Coccochloris aeruginosa Drouet and Daily C. peniocystis Drouet and Daily Family Nostocaceae Nodularia sp. Nostoc commune Vauch. 250 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES N. ellipsosporum (Desmaz.) Rabenh. N. muscorum Ag. Family Oscillatoriaceae Arthrospira brevis (Kuetz.) Drouet Microcoleus lyngbyaceus (Kuetz.) Drouet M. vaginatus (Vauch.) Gom. Oscillatoria lutea Ag. O. submembranaceae Ar. and Straft Porphyrosiphon Notarisii (Menegh.) Gom. Schizothrix arenaria (Berk.) Gom. S. calcicola (Ag.) Gom. S. Friezii (Ag.) Gom. Family Rivulariaceae Calothrix parietina (Naeg.) Thuret. Rivularia sp. Family Stigonemataceae Fischerella ambigua (Naeg.) Gom. Soil populations are by nature unstable and respond to changes in moisture, nutrient and mineral content of the soil, light avail- ability to the organisms, distribution and densities of species in the soils, and other factors, including pH and soil type. In studies of North Carolina pine forest soils, Jurgensen and Davey (1968) found an inverse relation between algal numbers and soil pH. They could not culture nitrogen-fixing algae from soils with a pH of 5.4 and lower, though algae of this type were located in abun- dance from all samples of Eglin pine stand soils with a pH range from 5.0 to 5.4. These algae included Nostoc muscorum, N. ellipso- sporum, N. commune, Calothrix parietina, and others. However, it has been demonstrated that nitrogen fixation does not occur below a pH of approximately 5.7 (Allison et al., 1937, Fogg, 1947), so though these algae are present, they are limited in what should be their major contribution to a soil ecosystem. Smith (1944) attempted to determine the algal flora of several different Florida soil types. The Norfolk fine sand flora of his study and the Eglin Norfolk flora generally agree. In some cases where the algae located by Smith were not located in this study, closely related algae were cultured. For example, Smith found Mesotaenium, a saccoderm desmid; we did not observe this alga, but did find Cylindrocystis, also a member of the Mesotaeniaceae. It is probable that a characteristic microflora may be found as- sociated with a given soil type, just as the macrovegetation of a Arvik: Soil Algae of Florida 251 region is influenced by the soil. Since the sample areas of this study were chosen for their similarity, no qualitative variations in the algal flora were attributed to differences in soils. Thus, the list of algae located during the study is a composite from all of the sample sites. The author is indebted to Dr. Francis Drouet of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, for confirmation of many of the species located in the study. In addition, the as- sistance and suggestions of Dr. Hannah Croasdale of Dartmouth University, Hanover, New Hampshire, are gratefully acknowledged. LITERATURE CITED ALLIson, F. E., Hoover, S. R., AnD H. J. Morris. 1937. Physiological studies with the nitrogen-fixing alga, Nostoc muscorum. Bot. Gaz., vol. 98, pp. 433-463. BRANNON, M. 1945. Factors affecting the growth and distribution of Myxo- phyceae in Florida. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci., vol. 8, no. 4, pp. 296-303. 1952. Some Myxophyceae in Florida. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci., vol. 15, no. 2, pp. 70-78. Crowson, D. 1950. Algae of a modified brackish pool. Florida State Univ. Studies., vol. 1, pp. 1-32. Deason, T. R., AnD H. C. Botp. 1960. Phycological Studies I. Exploratory studies of Texas soil algae. Univ. of Texas Publ. 6022. Austin, Texas. 2p: DroveEt, F. 1968. Revision of the Classification of the Oscillatoriaceae. Monogr. 15, Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 370 pp. Foce, G. E. 1947. Nitrogen-fixation by bluegreen algae. Endeavour, vol. 6, pp. 72-175. Huckie, H. F., ann H. H. Weexs. 1965. Soil Survey of Washington County, Florida. USDA, SCS Series 162, no. 2, 119 pp. JURGENSEN, M. F., anp C. B. Davey. 1968 Nitrogen-fixing bluegreen algae in acid forest and nursery soils. Can. Jour. Microbiol., vol. 14, no. 11, pp. 1179-1183. NIELSEN, C. S. 1954. The non-sheathed Oscillatoriaceae of northern Florida. Hydrobiologia, vol. 6, pp. 352-368. —. 1954a. The multitrichomate Oscillatoriaceae of Florida. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci., vol. 17, nos. 1-2, pp. 25-42, pp. 87-104. 1955. Florida Oscillatoriaceae III. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci., vol. 18, no. 2, pp. 84-112. 252 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ——. 1955a. Florida Oscillatoriaceae III. Hydrobiologia, vol. 18, pp. 177-188. 1956. Notes on the Stigonemataceae from southeastern United States. Trans. Amer. Microscop. Soc. 75: vol. 4, pp. 427-436. NIELSEN, C. S. AnD G. C. Mapsen. 1948. Preliminary checklist of algae of the Tallahassee area. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci., vol. 1, nos. 2-3, pp. 63-66. 1948a. Checklist of the algae of northern Florida I. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci., vol. 11, no. 4, pp. 113-117. —. 1956. Florida Scytonemataceae I. Amer. Midl. Nat. vol. 55, pp. 194-195. ——-. 1956a. Florida Scytonematceae II. Amer. Mid]. Nat. vol. 55, pp. 11G=125: SmitH, F. B. 1944. The occurrence and distribution of algae in soils. Proc. Florida Acad. Sci. vol. 7, pp. 44-49. SmitTH, F. B., R. H. Leicuty, R. E. CaLpwELL, W. W. Cartisie, L. G. THOMPSON, JR., AND T. C. MatTHews. 1967. Principal Soil Areas of Florida. A Supplement to the General Soil Map. Ag. Exp. St., Inst. Food and Ag. Sci., Univ. Florida, Circ. 717. SmiTH, R. L., AnD H. R. Exuis. 1943. Preliminary report on the algal flora of some Florida soils. Proc. Florida Acad. Sci. vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 59-65. Starr, R. C. 1955. A Comparative Study of Chlorococcum Meneghini and other Spherical, Zoospore-producing Genera of the Chlorococcales. Indiana Univ. Publ. Series 20, Indiana Univ. Press, Bloomington, 111 pp. TILDEN, J. 1910. Minnesota Algae, Vol. 1. Univ. Minnesota Bot. Series VIII, Minneapolis, Minn. 327 pp. Wiitson, D. L., Anp H. Forest. 1957. An exploratory study on soil algae. Ecol., vol. 38, pp. 309-313. Project Scientist, Biological Branch, Air Force Armament Lab- oratory, Eglin AFB, Florida. Present address: Weed Research Laboratory, Colorado State University, Ft. Collins, Colorado 80521. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 33(4) 1970(1971) Cyclic Erosion Surfaces in Swaziland Harm J. DE Buiy RECENT evidence supporting the hypothesis of continental drift has generated a reassessment of theoretical geomorphological con- structs whose fundamental assumptions involve: (1) the former unity of continental landmasses; and (2) their deformation in the process of horizontal movement. Among the earliest of these postu- lates was that of King (1950). Essentially this was a confirmation and large-scale regionalization of the slope-retreat concept of Penck (1927) and a repudiation of the peneplanation concept of Davis (1922). Arguing that the pediplanation process leaves the core areas of erosion surfaces basically unchanged (though subject to vertical isostatic adjustment), King proposed an intercontinental correlation of cyclic erosion surfaces. Thus the ancient Gondwana surface, supposed to have been the dominant degradational feature across the Gondwana supercontinent prior to its Jurassic-Cretaceous fragmentation, can still be identified in isolated remnants in South America and Africa (King, 1957). Older and younger surfaces can likewise be related, notably the so-called Pre-Karroo Peneplain recognized by Wellington (1937), a vast unconformity demarcating the lower limit of the massive Karroo depositional-extrusive se- quence, which simultaneously affected regions of South America, Africa, Antarctica, Madagascar, India, and Australia. The nature of deformation of erosion surfaces has never been clear. The apparent periodicity of earth orogenesis first detailed by Umbgrove (1947) also appears to be recorded in the geomorphic pattern. Neither orogenic nor epeirogenic principles provided a satisfactory solution to problems revealed by surface mapping, and King (1961) proposed the principle of cymatogeny, a crustal de- formation “with a production of smooth arching amounting to thousands of feet though there is little or no deformation of rock strata by folding or faulting . . . the earth’s surface is thrown into gigantic undulations or waves, sometimes measuring hundreds of miles across” (p. 2). Thus the cymatogenic, undulating ogeny creates broad arches and domes or open troughs and basins, so that planed surfaces acquire a tilt or warp. Importantly, the degrada- tional processes operating on the elevated areas are complemented by aggradational sequences in the depressed areas, where the ero- 254 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES sional record may be more clearly expressed than on the planed surfaces themselves. On a continental scale, therefore, altitude is an unreliable criterion alone in the identification of cyclic erosion surfaces, especially those of Tertiary and pre-Tertiary age. EROSION SURFACES IN SOUTHERN AFRICA Apart from small exposures of the Pre-Karroo Peneplain, five erosion surfaces have been recognized in southern Africa (1) the Gondwana, a Jurassic surface still observable at elevations of about 10,000 feet on the Drakensberg, and at over 7,000 feet in South West Africa and Angola; (2) the indistinct, Cretaceous Post- Gondwana; (3) the early Tertiary African surface, which extends over the bulk of the African shield-plateau and corresponds to the Brazilian Sulamericana; (4) the late Tertiary Victoria Falls cycle, which covers much of the lower part of the African plateau; and (5) the Quaternary Congo surface, which marks the margins of the valleys of Africa’s major rivers (Fig. 1). Hitherto, little detailed surface mapping has been done, especially in the non-African frag- ments of Gondwana. Generalized maps on a continental scale have been published by King (1951, 1967), and King has also mapped details of the Natal monocline and the monoclinal deformation of the coastal Sulamericana in eastern Brazil as well as the Great Aus- tralian Tertiary surface in southeast Australia. The work by Pugh (1954) on Nigeria was a pioneering effort, but a massive task re- mains. Given the apparent confirmation of the drift hypothesis, this is now a matter of some urgency, for the exact identification of erosional levels must precede any precise measurement of their cymatogenic deformation, rate of contraction under slope retreat, and quantitative relationships with their aggradational contempo- raries. EROSION SURFACES IN SWAZILAND It is toward this goal that the present study is directed. Swazi- land, a landlocked country in the southeastern part of Africa, affords a physiography whose range of erosional levels and location relative to major subcontinental structural elements combine to provide an ideal field laboratory (De Blij, 1960). Positioned astride the Great Escarpment of southern Africa, Swaziland’s elevations range from over 5,000 feet in the west to well under 1,000 feet in the east (Fig. DE Buy: Erosion in Swaziland 955 2). Situated in the northern sector of the Natal monocline (King, 1940), Swaziland’s erosion surfaces have undergone measurable cymatogenic deformation. Unlike the margins of South Africa’s a ° ro) ie) N 60° 1000 60° L.C. KING Miles Swaziland 40° GENERALIZED, LARGELY AFTER 40° 20° 20° oy Oy : s 5 e “* Oo e e Z aye ° < ‘3 z ore ° Z ~~ \ Saw oo Ox e E _— = — ~> a (} wuteheae Ho} C887 50 OEE A AD vce es = = = o c oO ro} Cc © 6 Filo Se ao c 0 Ones 22 ee S © o = n> Oo = zo = e% Os Fs o a>: 3 =) 25 ocv coe o|lUOU ra) olUOU >» 5 AS Yc >U ovo oD 2 fei nS 2 . O mS pe < —_ > = =) Go 3s D = on + So. 1 o oe he e ic ewe ~ ZL i) sO | OD Zee © o ® HOR c <0 & 74, om (8) SS < (ey <6 2a < =e > 5 <{ = \ ao Og, oUt 5 Q5 Os \\ Os Og Sey n FL — Ww N — x oO. ~— [o N (0 eet ZH ooo O a = oO Oe 1) < > UO ° ° ° ° N Fig. 1. Erosion surfaces in southern Africa. 256 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Drakensberg, which plunge through a series of steps and a narrow, hilly belt directly into the sea, Swaziland’s erosion surfaces are complemented by a subareal aggradational sequence in the Mo- cambique coastal plain. And again unlike most of the remainder of southern Africa, the step-like decline from the African plateau to the coast is interrupted by a north-south trending, persistent outlier, the Lebombo Range. This combination of circumstances renders Swaziland an especially profitable geomorphic area. As the topographic map indicates, physiographic provinces in Swaziland trend longitudinally. Based mainly on elevation and its associated vegetation, four such provinces can be identified, locally referred to as (1) the highveld, which lies in the west generally above 3,300 feet; (2) the middleveld, which trends through the west center of the country at elevations ranging from 1,800 to 3,300 feet; (3) the lowveld, in the east center below 1,800 feet; and (4) the Lebombo, the western outlier of higher eastern elevations. River drainage is eastward, and the Usutu River possesses the largest catchment basin and the greatest volume of flow annually. Although it has been claimed that the westward facing scarp of the Lebombo is of erosional origin (Wellington 1956), the limited volume of flow of the Usutu and other Swaziland streams, and the fact that these rivers are not underfit in their Lebombo watergaps, has led to doubts regarding the real genesis of the Lebombo Es- carpment (De Blij, 1960a). Indeed, it has been suggested that the Swaziland lowveld has the structural attributes of a rift valley, and constitutes part of the southernmost section of the great African rift valley system (De Blij, 1966). The longitudinal orientation of Swaziland’s physiography is mirrored by dominant trends in its geology (Fig. 3). Apart from the strongly folded series of the Swaziland System, the western half of the area is dominated by granites and other crystallines. These form part of the vast African shield, and here as elsewhere they constitute the basement rocks upon which the Karroo sequence was laid down. This sequence is represented in Swaziland by the dolerite-infested Ecca series (no Dwyka tillites have been found exposed ) and the lavas that marked the termination of the system, the Stormberg basalts and the Lebombo rhyolites. Thus the high- veld and middleveld are sustained dominantly by granites, the low- veld cuts across sandstones of the Ecca as well as basalts, and the sais ae pe Ore ans A ee are ae - -NOOV3G Ol 9fod Ca - te, sit A = FEET ABOVE SEALEVEL Pas ORN PONT MAGONGOLWENI a 980 BEACON RS Fe aL a ae — i AS aa a a” B as a gle MIS) ee a A s : . By a , a > — , ' Sc ‘ ¢, “ i é 4 a i WF a a. ' y a A : . od in ~ = y 7 ' = ‘ : Bs } 4 Li- ~ xr i a = re * 3NOZ YV3AHS S e=up+ca== oa > v Say 1 ay Pets ud / X371dWOO JBLILVNOSd d J.INVYOOUOIN W ae ’ Ougaevo 3JQN3JIGNYOH H SYAHdGONVYUD 9 aoc” 3LI1711L VHAMG QA WNIANTIV V i311¥ 3704 \ x a “Mout coeuaggueeuecaneel? PPP ty * , ox aa i be E es | | cams CIWS IN/NIE (12 C16 ©) (5 x¢ SWAZILAND FEET z= 71LAND © JION OF CYCLIC 2,000 PLIOCENE =a 7 ye Se IDEALIZED SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION OF CYCLIC 2 Ys EROSION SURFACES IN SWAZILAND SS Se OIMIOR WEAR 6,000 SSS Si Ee IN it OR 4,000 ges ith LATE TERTIARY 2,000 RAN ITE PLIOCENE att a) oa ie “7 eats ~ pees E =e es ee Poa 7 13A371 0 31V1 ae alae aQ3Hsievisat_4 NO | SO gs OF Pals OAS 2 QNVTIZUMS ae a [~] feels |PROBABLE QUATER- NaRY [i Jona (CONGO) ESTABLISHED PROBABLE LATE TERTIARY ("VICTORIA FALLS’) VNVMLOTIS: EARLY TERTIAR Ni (AFRICAN’) 2 A = 3S = mn z ? 8E 4p, DED Ma LATE Q@ LEVEL MIDDLE Q.LEVEL &% Far, 9y e 4 EARLY Q, LEVEL CE EMLEMBE SWAZILAND GY GLI EROSION SURFACES hoot mucon t t Wad saa = Ss “ a & POO > 1a tw oe we r , ( , ey oni 7 * Gem f ; ( w ) ts ; ry A - f 1 t " i AT. \ j 1 y ! : 4 oy j . if F f A »] \ i ow l . at fas a” wey DE Buy: Erosion in Swaziland 254 Lebombo is supported by rhyolites. Beyond the Lebombo lie the Cretaceous, Miocene, Pliocene, and more recent sediments of the Mocambique coastal plain. A cross section of the relationships between physiography, cyclic erosion surfaces, and general geology produces the sort of imprecise correlation that calls for detailed mapping (Fig. 4). The Gond- wana surface is not represented in the Swaziland region except as the unconformity between the Lebombo rhyolite and the oldest (Cretaceous ) sedimentaries of the Mocgambique coastal plain. The Early Tertiary or African surface still exists in the highveld (Fig. 6, upper), and its aggradational equivalent is in the Cretaceous- Miocene contact and succession. The Late Tertiary or Victoria Falls cycle bevels much of the middleveld, where its elevations are significantly higher (averaging just over 2,500 feet) than on the Lebombo, where remnants of the Late Tertiary lie at 1,800-2,200 feet. The Quaternary surface cuts across sedimentaries and ex- trusives in the lowveld. Cartographic representation of the cyclic erosion surfaces of Swaziland reveals a relationship of relief, geology, and geomor- phology that is much less close. Very little of the Swaziland high- veld, when mapped in detail, proves to support the African pedi- plain; slope retreat cutting into the Early Tertiary surface has pro- gressed much farther than the step-controlled topography suggests. Indeed, in Swaziland only isolated outliers of the African plateau surface remain (Fig. 6). The highest of these is Emlembe, which at 6,109 feet may be the remnant of an inselberg that stood above the African surface. The degree to which the Late Tertiary surface has been broken by subsequent erosion is similarly noteworthy. In the field, the middleveld appears to extend approximately to a line drawn north-south along the eastern margins of Bulungu and Singceni (see also Fig. 2). But much of the lower middleveld is part of the Quaternary surface; the Late Tertiary surface is already fragmented into numerous erosional outliers. Indeed, the Quater- Fig. 2. Relief map of Swaziland. Fig. 3. Geological map of Swaziland. In part after undated 1:50,000 sheet (unnumbered), Union Geological Survey. Fig. 4. Idealized section of cyclic erosion surfaces in Swaziland. Fig. 5. Map of cyclic erosion surfaces in Swaziland. 258 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Fig. 6. Upper photograph. The accordance of ridge summits at 5,000 feet marks the African (Early Tertiary) erosion surface. The photograph was taken across the Mkondo Valley in a northwesterly direction (see Fig. 6). The lowest levels in this photograph are of Quaternary origin; the intermediate surfaces, very small in areal extent, are Late Tertiary. Fig. 6. Lower photograph. The Late Tertiary bevels the Lebombo Range to a smooth surface. Taken in a northeasterly direction across the Usutu River, ra ae shows one of the sub-levels of the Quaternary erosion surface DE Buy: Erosion in Swaziland 259 nary cycle along the Ngwempisi valley has already progressed be- yond the western border of Swaziland. In view of this, the survival of the Lebombo section of the Late Tertiary is all the more remark- able, although erosion from the east is now eliminating the remnant surface on the rhyolite. Possible explanations for this situation in- clude (1) the rift hypothesis, which would account for the protec- tion of the Lebombo surface as part of a larger pediplain until quite recently, and (2) the particular quality of hardness of the rhyolite, which is especially reflected in the prominence and persistence of the Lebombo escarpment. Thus the Quaternary surface, which extends over most of Swaziland’s territory, may consist of two parts with different origins: the eastern section may have a genesis in- volving faulting, while the western, digitate section may be purely erosional. In any event, it is possible to recognize more than one bevel within the Quaternary cycle. One such subsurface produces a step-like topography along the Lebombo escarpment just north of the Usutu River gap (Fig. 5, lower). CONCLUSIONS Mapping of the cyclic erosion surfaces in Swaziland has led to preliminary conclusions in the following areas: (1) the Early Ter- tiary or African plateau surface has retreated farther than the re- gion’s relief suggests; (2) the Late Tertiary or Victoria Falls cycle in Swaziland and vicinity produced a less effectively beveled surface than the older African cycle or, in this area at least, the younger Quaternary cycle; (3) monoclinal or cymatogenic flexure can be re- corded across the pediplains on the middleveld and the Lebombo, and measured perhaps more accurately here than elsewhere in southern Africa; and (4) the Quaternary cycle has penetrated far into the plateau interior along the major river valleys, where it is destroying the Late Tertiary bevels and is even attacking the Afri- can surface itself (see Figs. 5 and 6). Clearly a great deal of de- tailed cartographic work is required before an adequate range of data has been accumulated on the basis of which any representative analysis can be done, but such mapping is now being done. The research here reported was done in the absence of air photographs and, at the time of the field work, only partial contour coverage at a sufficiently large scale. Both air coverage and 1:50,000 contour maps are increasingly available in Africa, and the completion of an 260 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES initial large-scale geomorphic map has become possible. This project is a small contribution to that goal. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The field work on which this study is based was made possible by a grant from the African Studies Program, Northwestern Univer- sity. I am grateful for the assistance of Dr. G. Murdoch of the De- partment of Agriculture and Mr. H. Jones, District Commissioner, both of the recent British administration of Swaziland. Without wishing to imply his concurrence in the results of this work, I also acknowledge with gratitude the interest and many suggestions of Dr. William E. Powers of Northwestern University. LITERATURE CITED Davis, W. M. 1899. The geographical cycle. Geog. Jour., vol. 14, pp. 481-504. 1922. Peneplains and the geographical cycle. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., no. 23, pp. 587-598. DE Buy, H. J. 1960. The concept of the physiographic province applied to Swaziland. Jour. for Geog., vol. 1, no. 7, pp. 7-20. 1960a. A note on the relationships between the Swaziland lowveld and adjoining areas. Trans. Geol. Soc. South Africa, vol. 63, pp. 175- 183. 1966. The southern extent of the African Rift Valley system. Penn- sylvania Geog., vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 1-12. Kinc, L. C. 1940. The monoclinal coast of Natal, South Africa. Jour. Geomorph., vol. 3, pp. 114-153. 1950. The world’s plainlands: a new approach in geomorphology. Geol. Soc. London Quart. Jour., vol. 106, pp. 101-130. 1951. South African scenery. Oliver & Boyd, Edinburgh, 379 pp. 1957. A geomorphological comparison between eastern Brazil and Africa. Geol. Soc. London Quart. Jour., vol. 112, pp. 445-474. 1961. Cymatogeny. Trans. Geol. Soc. South Africa, vol. 64, pp. 1-20. 1967. Morphology of the earth. Dutton, New York, 1967 (2nd ed.). Penck, W. 1927. Die Morphologische Analyse. Holz, Stuttgart, 573 pp. Pucu, J. C. 1954. High-level surfaces in the eastern highlands of Nigeria. South Africa Geog. Jour., vol. 36, pp. 31-42. DE Buy: Erosion in Swaziland 261 Umscrove, J. H. F. 1947. The pulse of the earth. Nijhoff, The Hague, 398 pp. WELLINGTON, J. H. 1937. The Pre-Karroo peneplain in the South Central Transvaal. South Africa Jour. Sc., vol. 33, pp. 76-97. 1956. Notes on the physiography of Swaziland and adjoining areas. South Africa Geog. Jour., vol. 38, pp. 36-44. Department of Geography, University of Miami, Coral Gables, Florida 33124. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 33(4) 1970(1971) Osmotic Equilibration of Marine Algae T. R. Tosteson, E. MONTALVO DE RAMIREZ, AND A. REHM IN AN osmotically responsive biological system, the product of the water contents of the system when equilibrated with an external solution of tonicity T,, and that tonicity, equal a constant. On the basis of an analogy to the ideal gas laws this formulation has been employed to quantify the osmotic relationships between cells and their external media (Harris, 1956; LeFevre, 1964). It is assumed that during the equilibration of the system in question only water moves across the biological membranes separating the external media from the cellular water and that there is a negligible move- ment of solute. At osmotic equilibrium the tonicity of the external media is assumed to be equal to the tonicity of the cellular water. Gravimetrically this relationship between the water contents of the equilibrated biological system and the tonicity of the external media may be expressed, (W,/D) T=k where W,/D are the grams of water per gram dry weight in the biological system, T is the tonicity of the external media with which it is equilibrated, and k is a constant. The total wet weight divided by the dry weight of the biological system may be expressed, W/D=(W.+W,+D) /D where W/D is the wet weight divided by the dry weight, W, the grams of osmotically responsive water, W, the grams of water that do not respond osmotically, and D the dry weight (gm) of the bi- ological material. Rearranging the second expression, W,/D=W/D- (W,+D) /D By substitution into the first expression and rearrangement, W/D=k/T+(W,+D) /D Thus the relationship between W/D and 1/T should be a straight line, with an intercept equal to (W,,+D) /D and a slope k, related to W./D (Tosteson, 1964). In plant cells the presence of the cell wall permits the develop- ment of a pressure (turgor pressure) on the internal solution that in effect increases the “activity” of the water in the vacuole and TOSTESON ET AL.: Osmotic Equilibrium of Algae 263 protoplasm of this cell type. Thus at osmotic equilibrium with an external solution, the “apparent” tonicity of the cellular water equals the tonicity of the external medium. However the true tonicity of the cellular water T. is slightly greater than the tonicity of the ex- ternal medium with which it “equilibrated” and this difference is balanced by the effect of the turgor pressure (Sutcliffe, 1968). Thus, We M1 ((NaI) where (AT) is the effective reduction in the true tonicity of the cellular water caused by the existence of turgor pressure. In other terms the “activity” of the water in the cell at osmotic equilibrium is slightly less than that of the water in the external media. This effect is cancelled by the presence of the turgor pressure which ef- fectively increases the “activity” of the cellular water. In the work to be reported here the symbol T connotes the tonicity of the ex- ternal solution with which the cells equilibrate, and equals the “effective” tonicity of the cellular water, that is the true tonicity minus the effect of the turgor pressure. The turgor pressure has been shown in a number of algae to re- main constant over a fairly wide range of environmental tonicities. Recently it has been suggested that the turgor pressure in the walled plant cell is regulated through adjustments in their salt up- take rates (Gutknecht, 1968). While the evaluation of this com- ponent in the osmotically equilibrated algal system is of importance no attempt will be made in the work reported here to quantitate this factor. PROCEDURE The algae employed in these studies were of three species, Cau- lerpa racemosa, Ulva lactuca and Spyridia filamentosa. Samples of each type of algae were collected in the area of the Marine Sta- tion at La Parguera and brought directly to the laboratory. These samples were then prepared for experimentation, washed free of extraneous matter and foreign algae with millipore filtered sea water (pore size 0.45 micron) and placed in a large volume of filtered sea water in an illuminated growth chamber at a temperature of 28- 29 C. In the case of each type of algae, selected portions and/or entire plants were then placed in a series of sea water solutions of 264 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES varying tonicities. In the experiments performed with Ulva and Spyridia several individual plants were placed in each of the vari- ous experimental solutions. The preparation of the material to be used in the experiments with Caulerpa (var. laetevirens) involved the separation of the assimilator from its rhizome. In the area of the connection to its rhizome the assimilator was twisted and pinched. A period of from 5-10 minutes was allowed for the forma- tion of new crosswalls, following which the assimilator was cut from the rhizome. These isolated assimilators were placed in a con- stant flow aquarium for 12 hours prior to experimentation. The as- similators employed were examined visually for damage prior to their use. The index of damage in this case was the appearance of discoloration. The three to four experimental tonicities employed in each ex- periment generally varied from two-thirds that of norma! sea water to 1 1/3. The hypotonic sea water solutions were prepared by the addition of distilled water to the sea water and the hypertonic solutions by the addition of NaCl. All solutions were filtered through millipore filters (pore size 0.45 micron) prior to their use. The algae were exposed to these altered tonicities for varying lengths of time (from 1-24 hours) in the illuminated growth chamber. At the conclusion of a given experiment (of a given duration) each of the samples that were exposed to each of the tonicities in question was weighed. Following the determination of the wet weight of the sample in each case, the algae were dried either in an oven (105-110 C) to a constant dry weight (2 hours) or using the Ohaus Drying Balance at temperatures of 110-111 C. The latter procedure was employed with the Ulva and Spyridia samples and the former was employed with the samples of Caulerpa. In the procedure uti- lizing the Ohaus Drying Balance, constant dry weights were ob- tained in general after 25-30 minutes. The dry weight of the samples of Caulerpa were determined on an analytical balance. Thus in the case of each algal sample exposed to a set of differ- ent tonicities for a given length of time, the quantity W/D was de- termined. The solutions in which these samples were equilibrated were individually filtered through millipore filters (pore size 0.45 micron ) following the experimental incubation time. The tonicities of those solutions were then determined with the Fiske Freezing Point Depression Osmometer. The volume of solution employed in TOSTESON ET AL.: Osmotic Equilibrium of Algae 265 the incubation of the samples in question was kept large (150-250 ml) compared to the volume of plant material incubated. The tonicity of the external media with which the algae equilibrated in such a case essentially remained constant, suggesting the absence of or at least rendering osmotically insignificant any changes in the solute distribution within the system. The equilibration of the algae in question was studied over a period of from 18-24 hours, illuminated and at the temperature cited above. For each set of tonicities at a given incubation time, the re- lationship between the quantities W/D and 1/T was determined. In each case the value of W/D at isotonicity ( (W/D) iso) was de- termined. Isotonicity in the Caulerpa experiments was 1,043 milli- osmols/kg water ( (1/T) x 10?=0.959) and in the case of the Ulva and Spyridia experiments 1, 026 milliosmols/kg water ( (1/T x 10° =().975). The value (W/D) iso — 1=(W,+W,)/D, the isotonic water content in grams water/gram dry weight of the algal sample in question. The intercept of the relation between W/D and 1/T at a value of 1/T=0, gives the value of (W,+D) /D. The value of (W/D) iso — intercept =W,/D, the grams of water osmotically responsive in the plant tissue per gram dry weight of that tissue. The fraction of the total isotonic water content that is osmotically responsive can thus be calculated, W./ (W,+W,). These param- eters, the total isotonic water content of the plant tissue and the fraction of that water osmotically responsive were followed as a function of equilibration time in the three types of algae employed in this study. The survival of the algal samples employed in these studies was determined by employing duplicate sets of tissues in each in- cubation medium used in each experiment. One of these tissues was used to determine the equilibrated W/D and the other was em- ployed to test the viability of the sample after the completion of the experimental incubation period. The Caulerpa samples used to assess survival were removed from their respective incubation me- dias and placed in a continuous flow sea water aquarium at ambient light and temperature conditions for seven days. Discoloration was used as an index of death in this case. Samples of Ulva and Spyridia were tested for survival after being exposed to the experimental conditions outlined above by placing treated samples in small wire baskets which were then 266 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES W/D (gm/gm) 0 0.5 1.0 1) 2.0 i/1e 10° Fig. 1. Relationship between quantities W/D and 1/T for an equilibration experiment with Caulerpa racemosa. TOSTESON ET AL.: Osmotic Equilibrium of Algae 267 20 18 16 14 100 rey 5 SID 90 6 58 = ro) (@) z, 10 80 © > x< = 8 60 $ as - = 6 40 $ << (o) 4 20 = 2 10 0 ) 1 4 12 18 TIME (HOURS) Fig. 2. Change in quantities W/D and 1/T as a function of time, in a series of six experiments with Caulerpa racemosa. placed in the sea in the area of the marine station at La Parguera. Seven days later these samples were examined. Disintegration and discoloration were taken as an index of death. RESULTS Caulerpa racemosa. The range of tonicities employed in the ex- periments reported here was from 1,349 milliosmols/kg water on the hypertonic side to a hypotonicity of 733 milliosmols/kg water. Figure 1 illustrates the relationship between the quantities W/D and 1/T for one of the equilibration experiments with Caulerpa. The demonstrated linearity in the relationship of W/D to 1/T was found 268 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 100 90 8 80 (e) 70 o Oo S) Eee 60 * oD = = a 50 + (eo) > 4 40 ~> > Wo + Wn/D ie) oO NO NO (o) TIME (HOURS) Fig. 3. Results of 10 equilibration experiments with Ulva lactuca. to be true in all of the experiments with this alga. A similar line- arity was found in the case of the experiments utilizing the algae Ulva lactuca and Spyridia filamentosa. On the basis of the linear regressions, computed by the method of least squares, the isotonic W/D and hence the isotonic water content ( (W,.+W,) /D) and the fraction of that water osmotically responsive (W,/ (W.+W,) ) were ascertained for each time of incubation (equilibration). Figure 2 illustrates the change in these quantities as a function of time, in a series of six representative experiments with Caulerpa. The isotonic water contents of the assimilators of Caulerpa do not appear to change markedly with time of incubation. On the other hand the fraction of the water osmotically responsive appears to in- TOSTESON ET AL.: Osmotic Equilibrium of Algae 269 12 10 100 90 8 80 fe ~o Ss 70 2 D S x< ak 60 > S 5 > 50 T (eo) + > = 4 40 > > 30 2 20 10 0 1 rte: 24 © TIME (HOURS) Fig. 4. Results of seven equilibration experiments with Spyridia filamen- tosa. crease to a value as high as 91 per cent in 12 hours of equilibration. This fraction decreases however in experiments of 18 hours dura- tion. Thus while the linearity of the relation between W/D and 1/T is found at each of the incubation times, suggesting an osmotic equilibration, the water contents of the tissue appear to continue to alter. The isotonic water contents appear to stay constant (avg. 18.971 gm of water/gram dry weight), however, the quantity of water osmotically responsive increases with time up to 12 hours. Following this, W.,/ (W.+ W,,) decreases in value. 270 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES The results of the survival determinations in the case of this alga, indicate that all of the experimentally treated samples sur- vived up through 12 hours of incubation. After 18 hours of incu- bation only samples kept in isotonic sea water solutions survived and all those samples placed in altered tonicities (hypertonic or hypotonic) were no longer viable. Thus even variations in tonicity of +226 mosmols from isotonicity, were deliterious to the survival of the assimilators after 18 hours of equilibration. Ulva lactura. The results of 10 representative equilibration ex- periments with this alga are given in Fig. 3. In this graph the av- erage figures for the parameters defined previously are given as a function of time of equilibration. The average isotonic water con- tent (+SD) of Ulva is 5.097 +.769 gm H.0/gm dry weight. This parameter and the average fraction of water osmotically responsive (average 30.75 +2.75 per cent) appear to be independent of the time of equilibration up to 24 hours. All samples of Ulva lactuca equilibrated over periods up to 24 hours (Fig. 3) survived the ex- perimental conditions described. Spyridia filamentosa. Figure 4 gives the results of the equilibra- tion of this alga over periods up to 24 hours. There were seven equilibration experiments carried out in this case. The average iso- tonic water content of Spyridia is 9.85 + .425 gm H.0/gm dry weight. The average fraction of this total water osmotically re- sponsive was 46.82 + 5.08 per cent. These parameters appear to be independent of the time of equilibration up to 24 hours. Eval- uation of the survival of this alga revealed that the samples survived all experimental conditions and equilibration times. DIscCUuSSION The isotonic water contents of the algae used in these experi- ments varied considerably, from Caulerpa (18.971 gm/gm) to Ulva (5.097) gm/gm). All samples of algae appeared to initially equili- brate for the relation of W/D versus 1/T was essentially linear in each case. However only in the cases of Spyridia and Ulva were the algae able to maintain themselves in their equilibrated state for periods of time up to 24 hours. The samples of Caulerpa did not maintain themselves at the experimental tonicities employed. Thus the slope of the relationship between W/D and 1/T in this case was not independent of time. That this change represents an alteration TOSTESON ET AL.: Osmotic Equilibrium of Algae OH in the system which ultimately results in an irreversible damage is supported by the fact that Caulerpa does not survive 18 hours of equilibration whereas both Ulva and Spyridia do. This difference might be attributed to the complexities encountered in the prepara- tion of the Caulerpa assimilators for the experiments described. However these assimilators prepared in the fashion described, iso- lated from their rhizomes, do survive and resume growth when ex- posed to ambient conditions. Those samples exposed to isotonic sea water in the experiments reported here also survive. Thus the experimental procedures do not appear to account entirely for the response of this alga to altered tonicities, for if there had been fun- damental damage incurred in preparing the assimilators it is doubt- ful that those samples incubated in isotonic media or sea water in ambient conditions, would have been able to maintain their iso- tonic water content or survive. The Caulerpa tissues exposed to hypotonic conditions slowly continued to gain water whereas those exposed to hypertonic con- ditions slowly continued to lose water. Thus the slope of the rela- tion between W/D and 1/T continues to change (becomes greater ) in time. These losses and gains of water are not reflected in changes in the total isotonic water contents of the plant tissue in time, but rather are reflected in the water contents of the os- motically responsive compartment exposed to an altered tonicity. Thus the Caulerpa assimilators do not appear to be able to equili- brate in the strict sense of the word. Following 12 hours of incu- bation the osmotic compartment exposed to hypotonic conditions begins to lose water, whereas in hypertonic conditions it begins to gain water (the slope of W/D vs. 1/T decreases ). Such a condition would result if the respective compartments were to lose and gain salt. This condition suggests a marked change in the permeability of the membranes involved. At the equilibration time of 12 hours, 91 per cent of the isotonic water contents of this material are in the osmotically responsive compartment. The presence of a large quan- tity of water within this compartment suggests a considerable strain on the plasticity of the membrane components involved. Thus it is possible that a severely damaged or broken membrane might re- sult from the swollen (or shrunken) osmotic component of a cell un- able to equilibrate in a given tonicity. The decrease in the slope of W/D vs. 1/T after 12 hours of equilibration in the Caulerpa 272. QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES samples suggests a sharp change in the permeability of the mem- brane enclosing the osmotically responsive compartment. The results with the samples of Ulva and Spyridia indicate the ability of these algae to equilibrate and maintain themselves in the experimental conditions employed. The size of the osmotically re- sponsive compartment in terms of its water content appears to be larger in the case of Spyridia. In all three of the algae utilized in these experiments, in Cau- lerpa initially and in Ulva and Spyridia at osmotic equilibrium, a rather large fraction of the total isotonic water content of the plant is found to be osmotically unresponsive (W,/D). In the case of the equilibrating algae, Ulva and Spyridia, approximately 60-70 per cent of the total isotonic water content appears to be either associ- ated with a tissue compartment that does not respond osmotically or represents water structurally immobilized. Tissue water in the former case can be viewed as being associated with tissue spaces not delimited by a living membrane whereas in the former case this water would be “bound” to intercellular structure in such a manner as to prevent its responding to an osmotic gradient. While the latter case seems unlikely, as a result of the quantity of water involved, determinations of the true “extracellular space” in the plant tissues employed in these experiments were not made. The definition of the nature of this high fraction of osmotically un-responsive water in Ulva and Spyridia bears further experimentation. Such work is now in progress in this laboratory. LITERATURE CITED GUTKNECHT, J. 1968. Salt transport in Valonia. Science, vol. 160, pp. 68-70. Harris, E. J. 1965. Transport and accumulation in biological systems. Butter- worths Scientific Publications, London, England. LeFevre, P. G. 1964. The osmotically functional water content of the human erythrocyte. Jour. Gen. Physiol., vol. 47, pp. 585-603. SUTCLIFFE, J. 1968. Plants and Water. St. Martins Press, New York. Tosteson, T. R. 1964. The influence of the Melanocyte Stimulating Hor- mone (MSH) on the osmotic behavior of isolated frog dermis. Fed. Proc.. vol. 23, p. 206. Department of Marine Sciences, University of Puerto Rico, C. A. A. M., Mayaguez, Puerto Rico; and Department of Botany, Uni- versity of South Florida, Tampa, Florida. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 33(4) 1970(1971) Occurrence of Brevoortia gunteri in Mississippi Sound WILLIAM R. TURNER THREE species of menhaden and one hybrid are currently recog- nized from the Gulf of Mexico. The most abundant species, Gulf menhaden, Brevoortia patronus, ranges from the Caloosahatchee River in southwest Florida (Christmas and Gunter, 1960) to the Yucatan peninsula in Mexico (Reintjes and June, 1961). The yel- lowfin menhaden, B. smithi, occurs in the Gulf from Florida Bay to the Mississippi Delta (Reintjes and June, 1961). Hybrid men- haden occur over part of the range where these two species over- lap. B. smithi X patronus have been collected offshore from Tampa Bay south to Cape Sable, Florida (Turner, 1969). Dahl- berg (1966), who originally described the hybrids, recorded them from as far north as Port St. Joe along the west coast of Florida. The finescale menhaden, B. gunteri, occurs from Louisiana to the Gulf of Campeche in Mexico; the easternmost previous record is Chandeleur Sound NW of North Island, Louisiana (Christmas and Gunter, 1960). The collection on 29 October 1966 of a finescale menhaden in a haul seine at Pascagoula Beach, Mississippi, extended the known range of the species eastward by approximately 35 miles and con- stitutes the first record from Mississippi Sound. The specimen, a 278 mm (fork length) mature male (Beaufort Biological Labora- tory Catalog No. BL 955), was identified by the vertebral count (43, including the urostyle), which corresponded to the modal count obtained by Hildebrand (1948) and readily distinguished the fish from B. smithi, (the only other fine-scaled species of North American menhadens) which has 45 to 47 vertebrae. (B. smithi and B. gunteri, characterized by small scales, are frequently grouped as fine-scaled menhadens; B. patronus has larger scales and together with its cognate, B. tyrannus, along the Atlantic States composes the coarse-scaled menhadens ). The occurrence of B. gunteri in Mississippi Sound in late Octo- ber represented an extension in time as well as range for this spe- cies in the northern Gulf. The latest date of collection previously recorded for finescale menhaden in waters of the northern Gulf was on 30 September (Christmas and Gunter, 1960). The October col- 274 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES lection was significant because it coincided with the time Suttkus (1956) inferred B. patronus began spawning in that region, and the specimen was categorized as stage III, ripening (as defined by Turner, 1969). Although this record establishes the occurrence of mature B. gunteri along the northern Gulf coast at the onset of the menhaden spawning season, young finescale menhaden have never been recognized in collections of juveniles from estuarine waters in that region. Hybrids between B. gunteri and the other two sym- patric menhadens are unknown. ACKNOWLEDGMENT I wish to thank Mr. Hilton M. Floyd of the Bureau of Commer- cial Fisheries Exploratory Fishing and Gear Research Base, Pasca- goula, Mississippi, who collected and donated the specimen to the Beaufort Biological Laboratory. LITERATURE CITED CHRISTMAS, J. Y., AND GorDoN GuNnTER. 1960. Distribution of menhaden, genus Brevoortia, in the Gulf of Mexico. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc., vol. 89, pp. 338-343. DAHLBERG, MICHAEL DANIEL. 1966. A systematic review of the North Amer- ican species of menhaden, genus Brevoortia. Ph. D. Thesis, Tulane Univ., 161 pp. Univ. Microfilms. Ann Arbor, Mich. (Diss. Abstr. vol. 2. ps AGsi-B): HILDEBRAND, SAMUEL F. 1948. A review of the American menhaden, genus Brevoortia, with a description of a new species. Smithson. Misc. Coll. vol. 107, no. 18, pp. 1-39. REINTJES, JOHN W., AND FRED C. June. 1961. A challenge to the fish meal and oil industry in the Gulf of Mexico. Proc. Gulf Caribbean Fish. Inst. 13th Annu. Sess., pp. 62-66. SutrKus, Royat D. 1956. Early life history of the Gulf menhaden, Bre- voortia patronus, in Louisiana. Trans. 21st N. Amer. Wildl. Conf., pp. 390-407, 6 pls. TURNER, WILLIAM R. 1969. Life history of menhadens in the eastern Gulf of Mexico. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. vol. 98, pp. 217-225. National Marine Fisheries Service Center for Estuarine and Men- haden Research, Beaufort, N. C. 28516. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 33(4) 1970(1971) Reproduction of the Clingfish, Gobiesox strumosus RopBert A. MARTIN AND CATHARINE L. MARTIN Tue early development of the clingfish, Gobiesox strumosus Cope, was studied in some detail by Runyan (1962), but data con- cerning reproductive behavior, successive spawnings, and possible reproductive potential, were not included. Comparative figures are lacking on the developmental rate of embryos under differing conditions. MATERIALS AND METHODS The breeding pair (male 69 mm, female 41 mm SL) were col- lected with a hand net on a concrete groin at 1400 Gulf Blvd., Ma- deira Beach, Florida. The initial spawning occurred in a 30 gallon plexiglass community tank on September 25, 1966. Eggs were at- tached in an oval cluster on the wall facing the laboratory window. An estimated 30 eggs were eaten by other fishes before parents and eggs could be segregated from them by inserting a glass partition. On September 27, a second clutch was attached next to the first. After the second spawning, parents were transferred to a sepa- rate 20 gallon epoxy-plywood tank with submersible bone-charcoal filter and artificial breeding chamber. Spawning occurred in this tank on the following dates: 4 Oct. 1966, 20 Oct., 29-30 Oct., 7 Nov., 10 Nov., 17 Nov., 26 Nov., 30 Nov., 14 Dec. No attempt was made to raise the fry, though they survived 3-5 days after hatching. Eggs and embryos were examined live and subsequently preserved in a neutralized 10 per cent formalin solution for later reference. The breeding chamber consisted of a 125 mm section of 50 mm PVC pipe cemented along the long axis to a rectangular base, and sealed at one end with a plastic disc. A single sheet of 125 X 75 mm photographic film cleared after exposure to light was inserted to line the roof of the breeding chamber. Eggs were subsequently attached to this sheet, which could be removed for examination without disturbing the male guardian. Small strips of film with at- tached eggs were trimmed from this sheet at regular intervals for inspection and preservation. PRE-SPAWNING ACTIVITY Events prior to the third spawning on October 4, 1966, passed through four distinct phases (1) exploration of the new tank and 276 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES breeding chamber by the pair, (2) adoption of the chamber by the male, (3) activity by the male to entice the female to this chamber, (4) acceptance of the male and his chosen site by the female. Both fishes made periodic explorations of their new tank which included two coral rocks, filter, and breeding chamber. On the day prior to spawning, the male centered his activity in and about the breeding chamber, while the female tended to favor the aquarium wall closest to the laboratory window. By the follow- ing day the female tended to position herself much closer to the chamber on the same wall about 3 inches from the bottom. The male moved in and out of the chamber several times passing in static jerks upside down along the ceiling, then up over the rim, thus landing right side up on the roof where he faced his mate. Though the female gave no obvious response to the male’s dis- play, he attached next to her on the wall and pressed close to her side. Both fishes faced the surface for a few seconds undulating their tails in unison with their genital papillae closely aligned, after which the male appeared to rotate his mate from her vertical position to one paralleling the bottom. When he returned to the spawning site the female followed. After the male had entered and left the breeding chamber the female entered alone, but when he attempted to join her, she quickly emerged. This avoidance pattern was repeated several times before the female remained with the male and spawning began. SPAWNING ACTIVITY The second spawning, which occurred while the pair was still in the plexiglass tank afforded the only opportunity to observe the details of egg deposition. The female faced upward during ovi- position, and deposited the eggs from bottom to top in vertical rows attached to the wall of the tank. During the early stages of this activity the male vigorously undulated alongside the female, but later deserted her for increasing periods to pass over other parts of the growing egg mass. Both fishes rested for short periods during spawning. Milt was not observed. Eggs were extruded individually at 2-5 second intervals during the period of observation which was from 1540-1650 hr. Approxi- mately one-fourth of the eggs were deposited during this time. No infertile eggs were found in this mass. MARTIN AND Martin: Reproduction of Clingfish 277 TABLE 1 Developmental time, in hours, for eggs of Gobiesox strumosus reared at four different temperature ranges. Stages are those of Lagler, Bardach and Miller (1962 ) Stage Cluster 3* Cluster 4 Cluster 8 Cluster 9 13 19 14 24 24 16 43 17 51 ig) 42 42 50 20 64 70 22 67 72 94 98 24 72 91 99 98 26 92 96 val 115 28 120 30 139 3] 113 122 32 : 120 163 174 33 162 187 34 216 ial 35 258 36 306 *Cluster 3 (26.1-28.3C) cluster 4 (23.9-26.1C), cluster 8 (22.7-22.8C), cluster 9 (20-21.1C). Spawning activity was confined to the daylight hours (0730- 1900), with nine spawnings initiated between 1530 and 1830 hours. One egg mass (29-30 Oct.) was interrupted and not completed until the following morning. The breeding tank was not provided with special lighting, and ceiling lights were usually turned off by 1800 hours. Varying chemical and physical conditions were: pH 7.5-7.9; salinity 27-30 0/00; water temperature 20-28.3 C. Fertilization appeared to be complete in all cases. Five eggs did not hatch in batch 5 (29-30 Oct.) because of fungus. No more than two or three failed to hatch in each of the other clusters. One two-headed embryo almost reached the hatching stage in the tenth cluster (30 Nov.). Egg sizes agreed with those reported by Run- yan (1962). Ecc TALLIES The first two egg masses were tallied by means of marked pho- tographs. Subsequent figures represent visual estimates based on 278 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES the size and density of the egg clutch. Tallies for eleven successive spawnings were: 1,126, 756, 350, 350, 700, 1,000, 300, 600, 600, 1,000, and 350. The conservative total is 7,100. During the incubation period, the male guarded, regularly brushed and fanned the eggs, but showed no further interest after they hatched. The female took no part in egg care. EARLY DEVELOPMENT Hatching occurred in 5-7 days with eggs in the same clutch generally hatching within a 10 hr period. Time required for em- bryonic development tended to increase as water temperatures fell below 23.9 C. Numbers cited for developmental stages (Table 1) refer to those of Lagler et al. (1962) for Fundulus heteroclitus. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Thanks are due Dr. John C. Briggs, University of South Florida; Dr. Frank J. Schwartz, University of North Carolina, and Mr. John H. Finucane, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Biological Labora- tory, St. Petersburg Beach, Florida for reviewing the manuscript. LITERATURE CITED Lac ter, K. F., J. E. BARDACH, AND R. R. Mitter. 1962. Ichthyology. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, pp. 309-311. Runyan, S. 1962. Early development of the clingfish, Gobiesox strumosus Cope. Chesapeake Science, vol. 2, nos. 3-4, pp. 113-141. Curator, Seafloor Aquarium, P. O. Box 456, Nassau, New Provi- dence Island, Bahama Islands. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 33(4) 1970(1971) Recent Coyote Record from Florida VERNON D: CUNNINGHAM AND ROBERT D. DUNFORD Coyotes (Canis latrans) have previously been reported in Flor- ida. Young and Jackson (1951) mention releases as early as 1925 when four coyotes were liberated in Palm Beach County and 10 were set free near Arcadia in DeSoto County. Also in 1930-31, 16 more were released in DeSoto County. Young and Jackson report coyotes killed in Collier County and on Key Largo, Monroe County, and seven miles east of Sparr, Marion County. Lacking are recent records of adult breeding coyotes in Florida. On May 28, 1969 two coyote pups were dug out of a den seven miles northeast of Lake Wales in Polk County Florida. Two adults, one male and one female, were trapped approximately 400 yards from the den on June 15. These animals were determined to be coyotes using criteria developed by Howard (1949). These coyotes are probably descendants of those brought into the area in the early 1950’s by hound enthusiasts as quarry for the dogs (per- sonal communication ). Complete measurements were taken on the two adult coyotes, and the skins and skulls are now in the Florida State Museum, Uni- versity of Florida, Gainesville, Florida. Measurements on the male (UF 8631) and female (UF 8630) respectively are as follows (mm): total length, 1199, 1188; tail length, 345.0, 344.0; hind foot, 203.0, 190.0; nose pad diameter, 27.7, 24.5; weight, 17.4 kg, 12.0 kg. Skull measurements (mm) are: condylobasal length, 195.0, 174.5; palatal length, 98.2, 90.6; palatal width, 21.0, 20.8; squamosal con- striction, 64.2, 60.7; zygomatic breadth, 108.2, 96.0; interorbital breadth, 39.7, 33.0; maxillary tooth-row, 93.0, 82.7; upper molar tooth-row, 74.9, 68.9; upper carnassial length, 20.9, 17.2; first upper molar length, 13.1, 12.8; first upper molar breadth, 18.6, 17.0; lower carnassial length, 22.7, 21.5; canine diameter at base 10.4, 9.0. LITERATURE CITED Howarp, W. E. 1949. A means to distinguish skulls of coyotes and domestic dogs. Jour. Mamm., vol. 30, pp. 169-171. 280 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Youne, S. P., anD H. H. T. Jackson. 1951. The clever coyote. The Stack- pole Company, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, 411 pp. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, Division of Wildlife Services, Gainesville, Florida 32601. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 33(4) 1970( 1971 ) Herpetofauna of Dauphin Island, Alabama CRAWFORD G. JACKSON, JR., AND MARGUERITE M. JACKSON Daupuin Island lies in the Gulf of Mexico about 4.5 nautical miles off the southern coast of Mobile County, Alabama. The is- land, oriented in an east-west direction, is about 12 nautical miles long and the width varies from less than a mile to about 2 miles. The parallel 30°7’30” north latitude and the meridian 88°11’30” west longitude intersect at about the center of the island. It is sepa- rated from the mainland by Mississippi Sound of Recent origin and is a fairly typical long, narrow, dune-bearing barrier island (Long- well et al., 1948). The adjacent mainland shore is a more or less broad fringe of salt and brackish marsh. The island lies within the Austroriparian Biotic Province (Dice, 1943), and Chermock (1952) places it in the Saballian Life Zone. It is low and sandy, with no point reaching 50 feet elevation above mean sea level. The western half is quite narrow, with the windward beach grading into low sand dunes. The leeward shore of this area is covered with marsh grass, and contains numerous tide pools which communicate with Mississippi Sound during high tide. The eastern half of the island possesses high dunes on the windward shore which offer protection to the interior pine flat- woods and freshwater marsh communities. Few permanent residents inhabit Dauphin Island. During the summer, numbers of people utilize the island for recreational pur- poses. Prior to the building of an overwater bridge in 1955, the area could be reached only by boat. Development of the land with attendant habitat alterations has been rather slow. Consequently, it appears the herpetofauna has not been unduly influenced as yet. Concerted efforts by local and national conservationist groups resulted in the setting aside of a 164 acre tract in the eastern end of the island as a wildlife refuge. In 1961, a 10 acre permanent lake was created in the natural freshwater marsh of the tract (Gaillard, 1968). Slash pine (Pinus elliotti) is the dominant tree of the inner dunes and pine flatwoods of the eastern half of the island. Live oaks (Quercus virginiana) are abundant, and a number of large individuals occur on the island. The dominant tree of the fresh- 282 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES water marsh is black gum (Nyssa biflora). The western half of the island is essentially treeless. METHODS From May 1966 to August 1967, the writers observed and col- lected representative specimens of amphibians and reptiles on the island. All specimens collected were deposited in the University of South Alabama Collections. An attempt was made to locate all existing specimens in other collections in order that as complete a faunal list and directory of specimens as possible could be com- piled for this report. Collection dates go back as far as 1953. Mu- seum collection designations are as follows: Auburn University (AUM), University of Alabama (UA) University of Southern Mis- sissippi (USM), University of South Alabama (USA). We are grateful to Drs. Robert Mount, Herbert Boschung, William Cliburn and Prof. Floyd Scott, respective curators of these collections, for their assistance and information. ANNOTATED LIST The following list of 13 species of amphibians and 23 species of reptiles includes all forms known from the island to the best of our knowledge. Usage of vernacular names follows that of Conant (1958). Sci- entific names are in accordance with Blair et al. (1968) and Conant (1958) : AMPHIBIA Ambystoma talpoideum (Holbrook). AUM 15552. The mole salamander is not abundant. No adults ever collected from island, although sixteen large larvae are in Auburn collections. Ambystoma tigrinum tigrinum (Green). AUM 15553. The eastern tiger salamander is not abundant. Seven larvae, but no adults, have been collected. Amphiuma means means Garden. UA 65-3371. The two-toed amphiuma is apparently rare. Collecting efforts have yielded only one specimen. Notopthalmus viridescens louisianensis (Wolterstorff). UA 65- 3323. The central newt is rare. One specimen known from the is- land. JACKSON AND Jackson: Dauphin Island Herpetofauna 283 Gastrophryne carolinensis (Hoibrook). UA 65-29 to 65-31. Ad- ditional specimens of the eastern narrow-mouthed toad are in the Auburn collections. We have heard breeding choruses in the sanc- tuary swamp. Scaphiopus holbrooki (Harlan). USA 1147 to 1169; 1441. The eastern spadefoot is sporadically abundant. Additional specimens in the Auburn collections. Bufo quercicus Holbrook. UA 65-848 to 65-856. The oak toad is not common. Bufo terrestris (Bonnaterre). USA 1420 to 1431. The southern toad is probably the most common amphibian on the island. A large series also in University of Alabama collections. Individuals may be frequently encountered which are near maximum size given by Conant (1958). Hyla cinerea cinerea (Schneider). The green treefrog has not yet been collected from the island. We heard a single individual calling from the dense vegetation for several hours during the eve- ning of 4 August 1966 from a roadside ditch, but were unable to collect it. Very abundant on mainland adjacent to island. Hyla crucifer crucifer Wied. The northern spring peeper has not yet been collected. A single chorus heard calling from dense vegetation bordering roadside ditch during evening of rainy weather on 5 August 1966, but we were unable to collect any speci- mens. Hyla squirella Latreille. USA 1092 to 1096; 1436 to 1440. The squirrel treefrog is quite common and the second most abundant amphibian on the island. Additional specimens are in the Auburn collections. Rana grylio Stejneger. USA 1432. The pig frog is moderately common, particularly in emergent vegetation of the sanctuary lake. Additional specimens in the Auburn collections. Rana pipiens sphenocephala Cope. USA 1433 to 1435. The southern leopard frog is moderately common, especially in the road- side ditches where it breeds. Additional specimens in the Auburn collections. REPTILIA Kinosternon subrubrum subrubrum (Lacépéde) X K. s. hippo- crepis Gray. USA 870; 1415 to 1417. The population is an inter- 284 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES grade one between K. s. subrubrum and K. s. hippocrepis. Mud turtles are fairly common and the most abundant chelonians pres- ent. Additional specimens are in the University of Alabama collec- tions. Deirochelys reticularia reticularia (Latreille). USA 74; 1413 to 1414. The eastern chicken turtle is not rare. Malaclemys terrapin pileata (Wied). USA 1418 to 1419. The Mississippi diamondback terrapin is not rare, but mostly confined to the western half of the island. Additional specimens in the Auburn collections. Pseudemys alabamensis Baur. USA 1253. The Alabama red- bellied turtle is undoubtedly not an established resident of the is- land. One waif individual known. Terrapene carolina major (Agassiz). USA 80 and 125. The gulf coast box turtle is very rare. Known only from a pair of large males which one of us (CGJ, Jr.) observed fighting on 18 June 1966 and subsequently collected. Caretta caretta caretta (Linnaeus). USA 1396 and 1412. The Atlantic loggerhead regularly nests on the southern seaward beaches of the island. Alligator mississippiensis (Daudin). The American alligator is rare. Dr. Wilson Gaillard informs us (personal communication ) that a 9 foot individual was captured during excavation for the sanctuary lake in 1961, while a similar sized individual eluded cap- ture. He has seen several smaller ones at various times since then. Anolis carolinensis Voight. USA 1405 to 1406. The green anole is common. Additional specimens in the Auburn and University of Alabama collections. Sceloporus undulatus undulatus (Latreille). UA 66-246 to 66- 247. The southern fence lizard is not common. Ophisaurus ventralis (Linneaus). USA 1411. The eastern glass lizard is not uncommon. Additional specimens in the Univer- sity of Alabama collections. Cnemidophorus sexlineatus (Linneaus). UA 66-110 to 66-118. The six-lined racerunner is fairly common in the dunes area adja- cent to the sanctuary. Eumeces inexpectatus Taylor. USA 1407 to 1408. The south- eastern five-lined skink is rare. Lygosoma laterale Say. USA 155; 1409 to 1410. The ground JACKSON AND JAcKson: Dauphin Island Herpetofauna 285 skink is quite common. The most abundant lizard on the island. Additional specimens in the University of Alabama and Auburn collections. Cemophora coccinea (Blumenbach). USA 1401. The scarlet snake is evidently rare. Coluber constrictor priapus Dunn & Wood. UA 65-3722 to 65- 3723; 65-3726. The southern black racer is not common. Farancia abacura abacura (Holbrook). AUM 867. The only mud snake collected on the island is a juvenile in the Auburn col- lections. According to Dr. Robert H. Mount (personal communica- tion), this specimen has 70 red bars and is thus easily referable to ssp. abacura, as compared to the only Farancia in the AUM collec- tions from mainland Mobile County which has 35 bars and is clearly F. a. reinwardti (Schlegel). Heterodon platyrhinos Latreille. USA 198. The eastern hog- nose snake is either quite rare or possibly not an established species on the island since we have seen it swimming in the brackish water of coastal mainland inlets. The one specimen collected is probably a waif. Lampropeltis getulus getulus (Linnaeus). UA 53-46 and 65- 3795. The eastern kingsnake is not common. Natrix sipedon clarki (Baird & Girard). USA 1402. The gulf salt marsh snake is the most abundant snake present, although it is mainly confined to the western half of the island. Additional speci- mens in the Auburn collections and a large series in the University of Southern Mississippi collections. Rhadinea flavilata (Cope). USA 1403. The yellow-lipped snake is apparently rare. Tantilla coronata coronata Baird & Girard. USA 1404. The southeastern crowned snake is not common. An additional speci- men in the University of Alabama collections. Thamnophis sauritus (Linnaeus). USM 55-429. The ribbon snake is known only from one specimen collected 9 May 1953. Probably no longer present on island, since this easily observable species would surely have been seen or collected since that time. Agkistrodon piscivorus leucostoma (Troost). USA 1397 to 1400. The western cottonmouth is not uncommon, and its numbers may be increasing as a result of the creation of the sanctuary. 286 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES REMARKS In August of 1969, the track of Hurricane “Camille” (U. S. Weather Bureau designation) passed about 45 nautical miles west of the island. High velocity winds and powerful wave action caused great destruction and habitat disruption. Large trees were up- rooted and part of the low western tip of the island was found washed away when the storm had subsided. The violence of this storm may have had an effect on the herpetofauna. In the case of Natrix s. clarki, considerable portions of its habitat in the western end of the island were profoundly disrupted or destroyed. Since the present study was completed prior to August 1969, it is hoped that it will be of use in future attempts to assess the effects of hurri- cane forces on the fauna of the barrier islands. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Drs. M. Wilson Gaillard and Douglas Rossman kindly made special information available to us. The previously mentioned mu- seum curators were most helpful and cooperative. Appreciation is expressed to the following for assistance in the field or donation of specimens: Richard Moore, George Cole, Robert and Sammie Phelps, Margaret Miller, Donald Linzey, James Boyles, and Thomas Meyer. This study was supported in part by Faculty Research Grant 01-6365 to the senior author from the University of South Alabama Research Committee. LITERATURE CITED Buarrn, W. F., A. P. Biatr, P. Bropxkors, F. R. CAGLE, AND G. A. MOORE. 1968. Vertebrates of the United States. Second edition. McGraw- Hill Book Co., New York, 616 pp. CuerMock, R. L. 1952. A key to the amphibians and reptiles of Alabama. Geological Survey of Alabama, Museum Paper 33, pp. 1-88. Conant, R. 1958. A field guide to reptiles and amphibians. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston, 366 pp. Dice, L. R. 1943. The biotic provinces of North America. Univ. Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, 78 pp. GarLtLarp, M. W. 1968. Moving the earth—for a song. John Knox Press, Richmond, 112 pp. JACKSON AND JAcKsON: Dauphin Island Herpetofauna 287 LoncwELL, C. R., A. KNopr, AND R. F. Fuinr. 1948. Physical geology. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 602 pp. Department of Biology, University of South Alabama, Mobile, Alabama 36608 (present address: Department of Zoology, San Diego State College, San Diego, California 92115); Department of Biological Sciences, Mississippi State College for Women, Colum- bus, Mississippi 39701. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 33(4) 1970(1971) Breeding of a Pair of Pen-reared Green Turtles Ross W1iTHAM THE green turtle, Chelonia mydas (Linne.), an over-exploited animal of economic importance, has long been of interest to re- searchers and conservationists. This species has been brought to the point of near extinction and is now rarely found in places where it was once abundant (Ingle and Smith, 1949; Carr, 1952; Carr and Ingle, 1959). Among the efforts to save these turtles are those of Dr. Archie Carr and his associates who remove newly laid eggs from the beach at Tortuguero, Costa Rica and replant them in the immediate area in man-made nests. After hatching, the young turtles are released into the sea over a wide geographical range. While this may be successful in establishing new breeding places, the small, vulner- able turtles are still heavily preyed upon by various birds and fishes. Moorehouse (1933) suggested that the hatchlings be raised in im- poundments. Tagging studies (Witham and Carr, 1969; Carr and Sweat, 1969) indicate that hatchlings held in pens until they are nearly one year old are able to adapt to a natural environment. Al- though diamond-back terrapins have been bred in captivity (Coker, 1906; Barney, 1922; Hildebrand and Hatzel, 1926; Hildebrand, 1929), there appears to be no mention in the literature of captive sea turtles breeding. The importance of breeding experiments for future farming operations is obvious (Carr, 1969). PROCEDURES AND DISCUSSION As a part of the turtle conservation project at the House of Refuge Museum on Hutchinson Island, east of Stuart, Florida, ef- forts were made to hold a few hatchlings to maturity. Copulation by one pair of these pen-reared green turtles and subsequent egg laying are reported. The female was hatched from a nest found on Hutchinson Is- land during the summer of 1958 (Carr and Ingle, 1959). Her mate was hatched from eggs shipped from Costa Rica during 1959. On 4 June 1969 the mid-dorsal carapace length (by caliper) of the male was 32.5 inches (825.5 mm); carapace width was 24.5 inches (622.3 mm). The female had a carapace length of 31.5 inches (800.1 mm) and carapace width of 24.0 inches (609.6 mm). WiruaM: Breeding Pen-reared Green Turtles 289 During April of 1968 the turtles were observed attempting to mate. The shallowness of the water in their tank (approximately 2 feet deep) prevented copulation. In the interest of the experi- ment, Dr. Robert Schroeder offered the use of his facilities in the Florida Keys and the turtles were taken there on 25 April 1968. While there, they were observed mating (Schroeder, personal com- munication) and thereafter the female crawled twice onto a beach adjacent to the pen. While on shore she made no effort to dig a nest. However, it has been suggested that eggs laid during a par- ticular season were probably fertilized during a previous season (Carr and Giovannoli, 1957). The turtles were returned to the House of Refuge on 5 August 1968. On the evening of 2 June 1969, approximately one year after mating, the female began laying eggs in the water. All eggs were recovered and immediately washed with fresh water. Of the 24 eggs recovered, 12 were normal (Ingle and Smith, 1949; Carr, 1952), measuring approximately 44 mm, and the others were un- dersized or malformed. Thirty-one eggs were laid on 2 July 1969 and 6 of these were normal. An additional 28 eggs, 7 of which were normal, were laid on 8 July 1969. The last eggs recovered were 24 laid on | August 1969 and only 10 of these were normal. Carr (1952) reported that young terrapins, Malaclemeys terrapin terrapin (Schoepff), produce fewer eggs than older ones. It is possible that this is also a factor in the small size of these clutches. Twenty-four of the normal eggs (11 from the June 2 clutch, 6 from the July 2 clutch, and 7 from the July 8 clutch) were put into boxes of sand; none of these eggs hatched. This was probably due to the deleterious effects of immersion in seawater. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to express my appreciation to Messrs. Robert M. Ingle, Chief, Bureau of Marine Science and Technology, Edwin A. Joyce, Jr., Assistant Director, and Thomas Savage, of the Florida Department of Natural Resources Marine Laboratory, for their en- couragement and suggestions. Dr. Archie Carr, University of Flor- ida, is thanked for supplying eggs and hatchling turtles from the hatchery of Caribbean Conservation Corp., Tortuguero, Costa Rica, and for critically reviewing the manuscript. Dr. Robert E. Schroe- der, Grand Cayman, B.W..,I., graciously provided the use of his fa- 290 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES cilities at Islamorada, Florida. The Martin County Board of Com- missioners and the Martin County Historical Society are due special thanks for maintaining the facilities at the House of Refuge Mu- seum. Mating efforts of the turtles were first observed by Mr. Wil- liam Alloway of the museum staff, and Mr. and Mrs. Steve Bishop, also of the staff, observed the egg layings and recovered the eggs. LITERATURE CITED Barney, R. L. 1922. Further notes on the natural history and the artificial propagation of the diamond-back terrapin. Bull. U.S. Bur. Fish., vol. 38, pp. 91-111. Carr, A. 1952. Handbook of turtles. Cornell Univ. Press, 542 pp. 1969. Sea turtle resources of the Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico. IUCN Bull., vol. 2, no. 10, pp. 74-83. Carr, A., AND L. GrovANNoLI. 1957. The ecology and migrations of sea turtles; 2 results of field work in Costa Rica, 1955. American Mus. Novit., no. 1835, pp. 1-32. Carr, A., AND R. M. INcLtE. 1959. The green turtle (Chelonia mydas) in Florida. Bull. Mar. Sci. Gulf Caribbean, vol. 9, no. 3, pp. 315-320. Carr, A., AND D. Sweat. 1969. Long-range recovery of a tagged yearling Chelonia on the east coast of North America. Biol. Conserv., vol. 1, no. 4. Coxer, R. E. 1906. The cultivation of the diamond-back terrapin. North Carolina Geol. Surv. Bull., vol. 14, pp. 1-69. HILDEBRAND, S. F. 1929. Review of experiments on artificial culture of diamond-back terrapin. Bull. U.S. Bur. Fish., vol. 45, pp. 25-70. HILDEBRAND, S. F., AND C. Harzet. 1926. Diamond-back terrapin culture at Beaufort, North Carolina. U.S. Bur. Fish. Econ. Circ. no. 60, pp. 1-20. INGLE, R. M., anp F. G. W. SmitH. 1949. Sea turtles and the turtle industry. Spec. Publ. Mar. Lab. Univ. Miami in coop. Caribbean Res. Counc., Univ. Miami Press, 107 pp. MooreEHousE, F. W. 1933. Notes on the green turtle (Chelonia mydas). Rep. Great Barrier Reef Comm., vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 1-22. WiTHAM, R., anpD A. Carr. 1969. Return of tagged pen-reared green turtles. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci., vol. 31, no. 1, pp. 49-50. Florida Department of Natural Resources Marine Research Laboratory, St. Petersburg, Florida. Contribution No. 161. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 33(4) 1970(1971) The Possible Evolutionary History of two Florida Skinks STEVEN P. CHRISTMAN TeLForp (1962) listed the known locality records for the en- demic sand skink, Neoseps reynoldsi Stejneger. He reported 15 lo- calities within Highlands, Polk and Lake counties as valid, and dis- counted the Alachua and Dade county records (Telford, 1959, 1962). During the past 6 months five specimens of Neoseps reynoldsi have been taken in northern Marion County, Florida. The locality, near Lake Delancy represents a considerable northerly extension of the lizard’s known range. The collection area is 37 miles north of the nearest previous locality, and increases the total north-south distribution to about 155 miles. The skinks were found in associa- tion with the red-tailed skink, Eumeces egregius (Baird), in sand- hill habitat, with yellow Lakewood sand. | This new locality may well represent the farthest north Neoseps should be expected. It was probably at or very near the shoreline of the “Suwannee Straits” which separated the Florida islands from the mainland in interglacial times (Neill, 1957). Telford (1959) suggested that Neoseps may have evolved on the island outlined by the Wicomico Terrace in the early Pleistocene. For his shore- lines and dates, Telford used Cooke (1945) who depicted the Wi- comico Terrace as a large island extending from Alachua County south to Highlands County. MacNeill (1950) sees the Wicomico Terrace as several islands, including a large one from Lake County south to Highlands (Lake Wales Ridge) and a small one at the Lake Delancy region in northern Marion County. The known lo- cality records of Neoseps fall within the large island and the Lake Delancy area here reported. Since Telford’s paper, Alt and Brooks (1964) give evidence that the age of the Wicomico may be much greater than Pleistocene; probably Pliocene. If this were the case, it would have allowed a longer period of isolation for Neoseps: when the waters receded at the end of the Sangamon interglacial period, the lizard was still iso- lated and prevented from dispersal because of the lack of suitable habitat. Even in more recent times there appears to have been no dispersal for this reason. 292 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES The presence of Neoseps in the Lake Delancy area as well as the Lake Wales Ridge, the area in between having been submerged during the Sangamon, indicates the need for a slight revision of Telford’s hypothesis. Neoseps must have been well on its evolu- tionary path of development before the rise of sea level which sepa- rated the Lake Wales Ridge from the Lake Delancy area. It is thus indicated that Neoseps developed before the Sangamon inter- glacial period, and was subsequently isolated and restricted to at least two of the land masses that remained above water during that final rise in sea level. The fact that the specimens collected at the Lake Delancy area are virtually identical with Lake Wales Ridge material indicates that the specialized adaptations of Neoseps were present before the separation of these two populations. Examination of MacNeill’s (1950) map of the Wicomico Ter- race, and comparison with soil and vegetation maps shows that sev- eral other small areas may still support Neoseps populations. The outlook for this Florida endemic thus seems a little more optimistic than that feared by Telford (1969). I have collected what is apparently another Lake Wales Ridge endemic at this same Lake Delancy area. Skinks which fit Mount’s (1965) description of Eumeces egregius lividus make up about 25 per cent of this species collected around Lake Delancy. Unfortu- nately I have been unable to get a live specimen to Dr. Mount for his opinion, but Dr. Telford, who saw much of Mount’s original ma- terial, agrees that the specimens in question fall into the range of color variation of the blue-tailed subspecies. Eumeces egregius is much less restricted in habitat requirements than is Neoseps, and doubtless mixing of onocrepis with lividus in the small Lake Delancy area is occurring. But the fact that lividus- like lizards are present indicates a similar evolutionary background for the two skinks. Everything that has been postulated for the history of Neoseps may well apply to Eumeces egregius lividus. Shortly after death, one of the Neoseps was examined under the dissecting microscope. Packs of sand were evident around the nostrils. Pough (1969) notes this situation in the sand-adapted lizard Uma notata, and suggests its significance in preventing in- halation of single grains of sand. CuRIsTMAN: Evolution of Two Skinks 293 LITERATURE CITED AT, Davin, AND Brooks, H. K. 1964. Age of the Florida marine terraces. Jour. Geol., vol. 73, pp. 406-411. ; Cooke, C. W. 1945. Geology of Florida. Florida Geol. Survey Bull., vol. 29, p. 339. MacNem, F. S. 1950. Pleistocene shorelines in Florida and Georgia. U. S. Geol. Survey Prof. Papers, 221-F, pp. 95-107. Mount, Rosert H. 1965. Variation and systematics on the scincoid lizard, Eumeces egregius (Baird). Bull. Florida State Museum, vol. 9, no. 5, pp. 185-213. NEILL, WILFRED T. 1957. Historical biogeography of present-day Florida. Bull. Florida State Museum, vol. 2, no. 7, pp. 175-220. Poucu, F. Harvey. 1969. The morphology of undersand respiration in rep- tiles. Herpetologica, vol. 25, no. 3, pp. 216-233. TELFORD, SAM ROUNTREE. 1959. A study of the sand skink, Neoseps rey- noldsi Stejneger. Copeia 1959, no. 2, pp. 110-119. 1962. New locality records for the sand skink (Neoseps reynoldsi ) in central Florida, with comments on the habitat. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci., vol. 25, pp. 76-77. 1969. Neoseps reynoldsi. Catalogue of American amphibians and reptiles, (W. J. Riemer, ed.), p. 80. Department of Natural Sciences, Florida State Museum, Gaines- ville, Florida 32601. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 33(4) 1970(1971) The Effects of Different Ratios of Force on Aggression JAMES TINDELL AND JACK E.. VINCENT Tuis paper deals with a two-person game which was developed and first employed by Shure, Meeker, and Hansford (1965) to in- vestigate the effect of a “pure pacifist” strategy on subjects’ coop- erative and aggressive behavior. Their results stimulated Vincent and Tindell (1969) to utilize a modified version of the game to in- vestigate the effects of a “warning pacifist” strategy and a “retaliat- ing pacifist” strategy on subjects’ behavior. (The terms “pure,” “warning, and “retaliating” pacifist are explained below). The Shure, Meeker, and Hansford experiment may be sum- marized as follows: 143 subjects were asked to transmit messages in a communications system with the following conditions and re- straints: (1) all messages had to be entered into a communication channel with a total storage capacity of six message units, (2) each subject could only enter one letter of the message at a time in the communications channel, (3) only a complete message, of five units, could be transmitted; (4) only one subject could transmit at a time, because each subject needed five of the six units of capacity within the common channel to transmit; (5) deadlock occurred and neither subject could transmit if both subjects attempted to transmit at the same time; for example, if both entered three letters apiece into the common channel. (In such a situation, it was necessary for one of the subjects to withdraw two letters before the other could transmit). The basic objective of the game was to send as many messages as possible during a fixed work period consisting of 15 turns. A player could enter or withdraw a letter or take no action during each turn. Successful transmissions were rewarded by monetary payment. Each player was told that he was playing some other person, but actually he was playing against a pacifist strategy programmed into a computer. The strategy consisted of (1) allowing the sub- ject to transmit first and thus giving him the jolt-back ability (ex- plained below), (2) entering the common channel during the sec- ond work period and thus, in effect, making a claim to a division of the earnings; and (3) never shocking the subject. Thus, as de- TINDELL AND VINCENT: Force and Aggression 295 scribed by Shure, Meeker, and Hansford (1965, p. 113), “with each incoming S our simulated pacifist makes an initial demonstration of good faith by letting the other man go first; he always makes the claim that alternation is fair; if he meets an aggressor, he invariably stands in the way to force the use of violence until his claim is re- sponded to; and finally, he himself never resorts to retaliation with electric shock.” To further enhance the possibility of a dominance- submission pattern emerging, each subject was placed on a 3-man team, with the other two members acting in collusion with the in- vestigator to urge the subject to be dominant. The major finding of the experiment, summarized by Shure, Meeker, and Hansford (1965, p. 116), was: “Reassured by their knowledge of the pacifist that they could dominate with impunity, they did not soften their demands but planned for continued ex- ploitation. The pacifist’s tactics apparently invite exploitation and aggression even among those who do not begin with such inten- tions.” Vincent-Tindell (1969, p. 496) questioned the results of the Shure, Hansford, and Meeker experiment and argued: “Here is a simulated pacifist of such complete dedication to pacifism that his only comparison could be with Christ, a pacifist who gave the other fellow the first turn, made his good deeds known by justly attempt- ing to enter a communications channel, and then allowed himself to be forced out of the channel and shocked with retaliation, and, even more remarkable, threw away all of his weapons at mid-game (for one-half of the Ss). Is it possible that such a Christ-like figure bordered on the unbelievable to the California sophomores?” In view of this, they decided to distinguish between a “pure pacifist” (the SMH strategy ), a “warning pacifist,” and a “retaliating pacifist” as possible cooperative strategies. The principal difference was in amending the original strategy by adding “threat” and “re- taliation.” The warning pacifist indicates during game play, with a warning light, that he is about to shock in all those situations where it would be justifiable for him to shock. That is, in contrast to the SMH pacifist, he threatens his opponent, even though he never ful- fills this threat. In all other characteristics of play, however, he re- mains the same, that is, he lets the other fellow go first, he makes his claim to his fair share, and he is consistent to his dedication to co- operation on all things, e.g., by initiating de-escalation during the game (even if his opponent hasn’t). The retaliating pacifist 296 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES simply carries things a step further. He not only warns, in the ap- propriate circumstances, but he also shocks. He never shocks ag- gressively, however, but only in retaliation for an unjustifiable shock by his opponent. Hence, he is a “perfect cooperator,” as are the warning pacifist and the pure pacifist, but he retaliates when he has been unjustifiably stepped on. To economize experimentally, the results of the SMH experi- ment were accepted and the primary problem became one of sub- jecting the subjects to two experimental conditions, i.e., the retaliat- ing pacifist and warning pacifist strategies. In addition, certain ad- ditional variables such as grade point average, sex, etc., were con- currently investigated. To accomplish these objectives, certain modifications were made in game design. These were to add to the capabilities of the SMH game, addi- tional switches allowing (1) warning of intention to shock, (2) wish to de-escalate, and (3) de-escalation (any number of units of shocking power could be given up). Unlike the California experi- ment, however, no computers were employed in the game play; the subjects responses were handled by the principal investigators using a central control panel. Tindell and Vincent (1969, p. 504) concluded, “When college Ss were asked to play a bargaining game based on the SMH model, a ‘warning condition’ produced results, in respect to shocks used, similar to the SMH game. Most Ss were highly belligerent and willingly shocked a pacifistic opponent dedicated to pacificism (non-shocking ), de-escalation and cooperation. A ‘shocking condi- tion’ produced effects statistically different from the warning con- dition in the direction of ‘belligerency, that is, by apparently stim- ulating the Ss to use more shocks, make fewer cooperative moves and win more games and game points. This finding led to a criti- cism of the SMH conclusions which were based on the assumption that the lack of retaliation in the SMH game had ‘invited’ aggres- sion. This study suggested that the opposite might be true, that is, that retaliation may actually stimulate aggression in this game.” PURPOSE OF THIS EXPERIMENT As discussed above, when simulated subjects returned the ag- gressive acts of experimental subjects, the result was more aggres- sive behavior on the part of experimental subjects exposed to this TINDELL AND VINCENT: Force and Aggression 297 treatment condition. This raised the question of whether there were other factors which influence the aggressiveness of experi- mental subjects. It also raised the important question cf whether other factors could be found which influenced the degree of ag- gressiveness of experimental subjects when no simulated subjects were used in the experiment. From these questions came the pur- pose of this experiment, which is to investigate whether the number of shocks experimental subjects are allocated (relative to their non- simulated opponents) affects their game behavior. The experi- mental conditions were constructed by dividing a total of 40 shocks in different proportions among three groups of 18 randomly as- signed subjects. The experimental conditions were (1) a balanced distribution of shocks (in which all subjects were allocated 20 shocks each), (2) a moderately imbalanced distribution of shocks (in which certain subjects were given 25 shocks while their part- ners received 15 shocks, (3) a preponderantly imbalanced distribu- tion of shocks (in which certain subjects were given 30 shocks while their partners received 10 shocks). All subjects were informed of the number of shocks they and their opponent possessed. The experimental conditions were suggested by certain proposi- tions in international relations which deal with the maintenance of peace among nations. Many such propositions imply or declare that the distribution of “force” (or “power’) among nations is a factor influencing the level of cooperation and aggression in the in- ternational realm. For example, Morgenthau (1961, p. 167) has stated that a “balance of power” situation is imperative for world peace. With respect to this he says: The balance of power and policies aiming at its preservation are not only inevitable, but are an essential stabilizing factor in a society of states. However, other political observers have stated exactly the op- posite opinion. Organski (1958, p. 27) believes that a “preponder- ance of power” in the hands of an international actor or allied actors is the distribution of force most likely to foster peace and stability. He says: A balance of power does not bring peace; on the contrary, the greatest wars of modern history have occurred at times when one of the challengers most nearly balanced the power of the preponderant na- tions or . . . thought that its power was as... great as that of its 298 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES rivals. ... A preponderance of power on one side, on the other hand, increases the chances of peace, for the greatly stronger side need not fight at all to get what it wants, while the weaker side would be plainly foolish to attempt to battle for what it wants. Unfortunately, the veracity of either of the above positions re- sists direct testing in the international arena. For that reason, this experiment was constructed to investigate the effect of “distributions of force” on subject behavior in the “world of simulation.” With respect to the value of simulation and gaming research the authors agree with Martin Shubik (1968, p. 96) who has pointed out the difficulty of extrapolating from the findings of game and simulation research to the “real world,” but adds: I believe, however, that a considerable contribution to the body of knowledge needed for the understanding of bargaining and negotiation processes can be made by controlled gaming experiments and small simulations. To summarize, then, an experiment using a two-person game will be used to collect data on the behavior of subjects for the game- play variables listed below. The major experimental variable being investigated is the effect on the subject behavior of allocating dif- ferent ratios of shock to pairs of competing subjects. The two ex- tremes of the shock ratios (a balanced shock ratio condition and a preponderantly imbalanced shock ratio condition) were suggested by the difference in opinion between Morgenthau and Organski regarding which relative distribution of force is most likely to fur- ther peace and cooperation. GAME DETAILS The game is a contest where subjects attempt, on as few moves as possible, to light five lights on a panel before them. Three panels were used in the experiment, one panel for each subject and a con- trol panel for the experimenter. Each of the five lights on a sub- ject’s panel can be turned on or off, individually, by a switch lo- cated beneath each of them. The subjects are instructed to at- tempt to turn on one light, going from light number 1| to light num- ber 5, each time a “game light” on their panels comes on. The “game light” is operated by the experimenters. Each subject is told that the other player is also lighting his lights, and that when both TINDELL AND VINCENT: Force and Aggression 299 players have lighted their first three lights all the available spaces in the experimenter’s six-space control panel will be filled. This creates a situation where neither player can advance (i.e., light the next light) unless one player retreats by switching off one of his lights, allowing the other player to advance into the vacated space. To win a game a subject must light all five of his light spaces. This means that he is in five of the available six spaces on the ex- perimenter’s control panel (i.e., the other player is only in light space number 1). In addition to the five switches mentioned above, each player's panel contains a shock switch and a warning switch. These switches can be used at any time during a game. However, a player must send a warning to the other player and then wait one trial before using the shock switch. The warning and the one trial wait before using the shock switch are to allow the other player time to evacuate a contested light space. The player who wins a game will see a “jolt-back power” light come on his panel. This light indicates that by simultaneously using both his shock switch and a contested light space switch he can force the other player out of the contested space. If he loses or draws a game, this “jolt-back power” reverts to the other player. But, a player who does not have “jolt-back power” is not defense- less; he can shock back each time he is shocked. However, he can- not force his opponent out of contested light spaces without the “jolt-back power.” A draw is declared when the subjects play five consecutive trials at one light, neither backing up or going forward. As indicated above, the player having “jolt-back power’ loses it if he allows a game to end in a draw, or allow the other player to win a game. The subjects’ panels also have a de-escalation intent and a de- escalation switch. These switches can be used at any time and as often as desired during the game. The purpose of these switches is to allow a player to signal either an intention to de-escalate or to actually de-escalate. Each player has a predetermined total num- ber of shocks and by pushing his de-escalation switch a player has informed the experimenter and the other player that he desires one shock to be subtracted out of his shock bank. All subjects are instructed to win as many “game points” as pos- sible. Each subject starts the game play with 100 points. When a 300 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES subject wins a game (by lighting all five of his lights) he receives 10 points. However, there is a charge of one point to both players each time the game light comes on. Therefore, the maximum num- ber of points a player can win is affected by the number of light spaces which are contested. In a game where there are no con- tested light spaces the game light will have come on five times and the winner’s net profit is five points. The loser in a non-contested game is awarded two points apiece for the two spaces he voluntarily moves out of. Hence, he receives a net loss of only one point. In a contested game the loser must have been involuntarily forced back by the other player’s “jolt-back power” and does not receive the two point bonus per surrendered light space. In the case of games termed a draw, both players are charged as many points as there have been game lights up to the time the draw is declared. GAME PLAY VARIABLES Each subject’s score is recorded on the nine game-play variables listed below. The assumption is made that each variable can be considered an index measuring the propensity of a subject to be co- operative; or aggressive; or de-escalative, etc. For some of the variables an experimental effect is predicted on the basis of our interpretation and extension of what Morgenthau or Organski have indicated the effect of different force ratios might be. For example, following Morgenthau’s line of argument we might expect that less aggressive behavior would occur in the balanced, equal shock ratio condition, while following Organski’s argument we might expect less aggressive behavior in the preponderantly im- balanced shock ratio condition. In most cases, our interpretation of Morgenthau would lead to a prediction exactly opposite of one based on our interpretation of Organski (and vice versa). There- fore, to reduce redundancy, we have generally ventured a predic- tion based on either one position or the other, rather than both. These predictions are for the sake of contrast only and are not viewed as justifying one-tailed tests of hypotheses. The number of shocks used. A count is made of the number of times each subject uses shock. The higher this score the more ag- gressive a subject is viewed. In terms of Morgenthau’s arguments, we expect fewer shocks to be used by the subjects in the balanced condition than those in the preponderantly imbalanced condition. © TINDELL AND VINCENT: Force and Aggression 301 The proportion of the shock supply used. The number of shocks a subject uses is divided by the number of shocks he initially re- ceived. This variable is considered to be an index of a subject’s ag- gressiveness, calculated, however, in terms of his original shock cap- abilities. In line with Morgenthau’s position, we would predict the subjects in the balanced condition to use a smaller proportion of their shock supply than the subjects in the imbalanced conditions. The number of cooperative moves. Each voluntary surrender of a light space by a subject is scored as a cooperative move. Fol- lowing Morgenthau’s line of thought we would predict the subjects in the balanced condition to make more cooperative moves than the subjects in the imbalanced conditions. The number of games won. The number of games a subject wins is scored for each subject. This variable is considered an index indicating how strongly a subject dominates the other player. Fol- lowing Organski’s line of thought we would expect the powerful subjects in the imbalanced condition to win more games than the other groups of subjects. The number of points won. Each subject’s point score was tabu- lated and recorded. This variable indicates the degree of success a subject had in the experiment. (Since subjects can “win” games while actually losing points, if there is a large number of stalemates, threat messages, draws, etc., this variable is considered a more ac- curate index of “success” than the number of games won variable would be). If Morgenthau is correct about balanced situations maximizing cooperation, then, we would expect the subjects in the balanced condition to win more points than the subjects in the im- balanced conditions. (This prediction is due to the structure of the game. Even a “perfect dominator,’ who wins every game, would (if resisted) have to waste so many game points, in warning his op- ponent and then jolting him out of contested light cells, that the net point winnings of the dominator would be less than that of either player in a perfectly cooperative dyad). The number of games drawn. The number of games drawn during the experiment was scored for each subject. This score is an index of non-cooperation, of a peaceful sort. That is, peaceful in the sense that in any game one of the subjects has the “jolt-back 302 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES power’ and by virtue of this could win the game. Following Or- ganski’s line of thought, we would not expect the powerful subjects in the imbalanced condition to allow many draws or the “weak” subjects to view drawing as a meaningful strategy. Thus, if we accept Organski’s position, we would expect the balanced situation to engender more drawn games. The number of intended de-escalations. The number of in- tended de-escalations for each subject was recorded. This score was considered an index reflecting the desire of a subject to insti- gate de-escalation cycles when he follows through with actual de- escalations. It can be considered an index of perfidiousness when the subject does not follow through with de-escalations in that he is attempting to get his opponent to de-escalate when he has no in- tention of doing so himself. No prediction in terms of Morgenthau or Organski seemed warranted for this variable. The number of actual de-escalations. The number of times a subject voluntarily reduces the number of shocks he has was re- corded. This variable was interpreted as measuring the desire of subjects to reduce the extent of actual physical threat present in the experimental situation. The variable was incorporated in the experiment to find out whether graduated de-escalation cycles would evolve among the uninstructed dyads (Osgood, 1962). No predictions were made. The number of false warnings. This was calculated by subtract- ing the number of warnings followed by a shock from the total num- ber of warnings sent. This score was considered an index of a sub- ject’s tendency to threaten or bully the other player. Organski states that weaker parties will acquiesce to a more powerful oppo- nent. In that case we would expect to see more false warnings (i.e., warnings which do not need to be fulfilled in order to achieve the sender’s desires) to be sent by the powerful subjects in the im- balanced treatment conditions. SUBJECT RECRUITMENT AND ORIENTATION Subjects for the experiment were recruited out of upper-division Social Science classes at Florida Atlantic University. Although electrical shock was employed in the game, no mention of this was made in the initial recruitment effort. In all, 54 subjects partici- pated in the experiment. Because shock was used, a damage re- TINDELL AND VINCENT: Force and Aggression 303 lease was necessary to protect the university and the experimenters from any claims of injury. A release statement was drawn up and signed by all subjects prior to participation. In order to lessen fear of shock, it was emphasized that all shocks were transmitted through a control panel and that no shock would be administered unless the sender warned the receiver and then waited for at least one game light to allow the intended receiver of the shock sufficient time to cooperate. It was also made clear that subjects could quit at any point during the game. Although some subjects, in particular females, expressed fear, only one subject, male, refused to participate because of shock and none of the remaining subjects quit before their series of 15 games was completed. In fact, some subjects who initially manifested ex- treme fear turned out to be surprisingly willing to both give and re- ceive electrical shocks once embroiled in the game. Before being taken to the experimental room each subject was given an explicit set of rules concerning game play. Ten minutes were set aside before the actual start of the game to allow the ex- perimenter to cover important points and to allow trial games on the experimental equipment. Caution was exercised at all times by the experimenters to keep bias out of their instructions or in responses to questions. The adjacent rooms in which the experiment was conducted were specifically designed for social science research and contained one-way mirrors allowing observation of the subjects by the experi- menters. Each subject was seated in a separate room (approxi- mately 10 ft by 15 ft in size) facing a game play panel. Prior to actual game play each subject identified “a quite irri- tating level” of electrical shock. This was accomplished by telling the subject that electrical shock would initially be transmitted to his wrist at a very low voltage; the current was then raised in small steps until the subject indicated it was quite irritating. The voltage at this level was noted by the experimenter for each subject and was used as the level of shock the subject received throughout game play. The two electrical diodes which transmitted the shock were coated with a pure glycerin compound. The diodes were approxi- mately the size of a dime and were attached to the opposite sides of an elastic band which was snugly fastened around the subject's wrists. 304 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ANALYSIS The experimental design and analysis was adopted from Winer (1962). This analytic model employs analysis of variance to test any observed differences between the mean scores of the experi- mental groups on a game play variable for statistical significance. The analysis approaches the subjects game play for each variable from the three perspectives discussed below. The mean number of responses made by the subjects in the bal- anced condition was compared with the combined mean number of responses made by the subjects in the two imbalanced ratio condi- tions. A significant difference between these means indicated that the subject game behavior differed (with respect to that game vari- able) between the subjects in the equal shock ratio condition and the subjects in the unequal shock ratio conditions. The subjects participating in the imbalanced conditions were classified into four categories a) subjects in the moderately im- balanced condition who were allocated 25 shocks, b) subjects in the moderately imbalanced condition who had 15 shocks, c) subjects in the preponderantly imbalanced condition who had 30 shocks, and d) subjects in the preponderantly imbalanced condition who had 10 shocks. A mean score on each variable was calculated for each of these four groups. This mean was then compared with the mean response of the subjects in the balanced condition. A signifi- cant difference between the means of any of these comparisons in- dicated which (if any) of the four groups in the unequal shock ratio conditions were responding differently than the subjects in the equal shock ratio condition. The final step in the analysis of the experimental data was a two-factor analysis of variance which considered only those sub- jects in the imbalanced treatment conditions. The mean number of responses of the “powerful” subjects (those having 25 or 30 shocks) was compared with the mean number of responses of the “weak” subjects (those having 10 or 15 shocks); also, the mean number of responses of the subjects in the moderately imbalanced condition was compared with the mean number of responses of the subjects in the preponderantly imbalanced condition. This part of the analysis was to provide information about which, if either, of the unequal treatment condition factors (the degree of the imbal- ance of the shock ratio, or the subject placement in the powerful or TINDELL AND VINCENT: Force and Aggression 305 weak condition within the imbalanced conditions) was significantly affecting subject behavior on a game variable. Steps number one and three above used an “F” ratio to test dif- ferences between the treatment condition means for significance. This ratio was calculated by dividing the variance of a variable at- tributable to treatment effects by the variance attributable to the random variation of subjects’ responses on that variable. The larger this ratio (adjusting for the number of observations, treatment con- ditions, etc.) the less likely it is the observed differences between the means are due to chance. T-tests were used in step two to de- termine whether any of the differences between the means of the four subgroups in the imbalanced conditions and the mean of the balanced conditions were significant. This research was of an exploratory nature so the level of sig- nificance chosen for reporting was p>.10. The numerical value and level of significance of the F-ratios and t-tests for the game play variables which were significantly affected by the experimental treatment conditions are listed in the tables, which reflect the three analytic perspectives discussed above. Tables 1, 2, and 3 list a total of 13 significant experimental ef- fects on the game play variables. The significant results listed for each variable will be considered in turn. Bar charts have been con- structed to depict the subject behavior on the variables listed. Figure 1A shows that the subjects in the imbalanced conditions used more than twice as many shocks as the subjects in the bal- anced condition, 8.55 compared with 4.0, or, in terms of the propor- tion of the shock supply used, .49 compared with .20. When the proportion of the shock supply used is graphed, it looks much the same as the graph of the numbers of shocks used in Fig. 1A, (ice., ‘ TABLE 1 Game play variables for which the behavior of the subjects in the balanced condition was significantly different from the behavior of the subjects in the imbalanced conditions. Variable F-Ratio Degrees of Freedom _ Probability The number of shocks used 5.42 1/24 p<.05 The proportion of shocks used 6.56 1/24 p< .05 Number of Shocks Used ra ¢\ — ON eo Bo @oeonl a) wlio “Cons: peoup|pg Vv SUOI}IPUOD UOI}IPUOD peoup|pqu| UO|}!puog B{DJOPOW e}DIBpOW jUDJepuodeasg Ss jnjsamog Ss jnysamod Ss yDeM Ss yam UOI}IpUdD UO!}IPUOD UO!}IPUOD juDJapuodald YDOM SUOI}IPUOD pauiqwoo SUO!}|PU0D JN} JOMOd pauiquiog Fig. 1. Number of shocks used, displayed for the following analytical per- spectives: A, comparison of balanced versus imbalanced conditions; B, four subgroups in imbalanced condition; C, comparison of “weak” subjects versus “powerful” subjects in imbalanced conditions. TINDELL AND VINCENT: Force and Aggression 307 TABLE 2 Game play variable for which a significant difference was found between one (or more) of the four groups of subjects in the imbalanced conditions compared to the subjects in the balanced condition. Variables and Degrees of Treatment Condition t-test Freedom Probability 1) The number of shocks used A. Powerful subjects in the mod- erately imbalanced condition. D315 24 p< .05 B. Powerful subjects in the pre- -ponderantly imbalanced condition. 4,33 24 p< .005 2) The proportion of shocks used A. Weak subjects in the preponder- antly imbalanced condition. 3.15 24 p<.01 B. Powerful subjects in the pre- ponderantly imbalanced condition. 2) By) 24 p<.05 3) The number of intended de-escalations A. Weak subjects in the moderately imbalanced condition. Dretill 24 p< .025 4) The number of false warnings A. Powerful subjects in the moder- ately imbalanced condition. Seo 24 p<.01 more than twice as high for the subjects in the imbalanced condi- tions). Therefore, it was decided not to include a repetitive bar chart for the “proportion of the shock supply used” for this analytic comparison. As shown, the subjects in the imbalanced conditions used more shocks than the subjects in the balanced condition. This, of course, may be an indication that the “balance of power” situation favored by Morgenthau is conducive to less aggression than “imbalances of power,” in particular, the preponderantly unequal imbalance of power. The average “number of shocks used” by the powerful sub- jects in the preponderantly imbalanced condition was 9.22 more per subject than was used by the subjects in the equal shock ratio con- dition, Fig. 1B. The moderately imbalanced condition, however, also was the scene of a good deal of aggressive activity on the part of the sub- jects having more shocks than their opponents. There the “number of shocks used” by the group of subjects having 25 shocks was, on 308 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES TABLE 3 Variables for which there was a significant difference in the subject behavior between either the combined weak and the combined powerful subjects or between the moderately imbalanced and the preponderantly imbalanced treat- ment condition. Degrees of Variable F-Ratio Freedom Probability 1) The number of shocks used A. Combined weak versus com- bined powerful subjects 9.12 1/24 p<.01 2) The number of cooperative moves A. Combined weak versus com- bined powerful subjects 5.81 1/24 p<.05 3) The number of games won A. Combined weak versus com- bined powerful subjects 8.68 1/24 p<.01 4) The number of false warnings A. Combined weak versus com- bined powerful subjects alls 1/24 p<.05 B. Moderately imbalanced versus preponderantly imbalanced treatment conditions 6.85 1/24 p<.05 the average, five more per subject than was used by the subjects in the equal shock ratio condition, Fig. 1B. Given the very large number of shocks used by the subjects in the imbalanced conditions, it comes as no surprise that, as shown in Fig. 1C, the “number of shocks used” by the powerful subjects in the unequal shock ratio conditions was significantly larger than the number of shocks their weaker opponents used, 11.11 compared to 6.39. In terms of the proportion of the shock supply used, both the powerful and the weak group of subjects in the preponderantly im- balanced shock ratio condition used a significantly larger portion of their shock supply than the subjects in the balanced condition. Figure 2 illustrates that the weak subjects used 33.3 per cent more of their shock supply than the subjects in the equal shock ratio con- dition, while the powerful subjects used 24.2 per cent more of their shock supply than the subjects in the equal shock ratio condition used. TINDELL AND VINCENT: Force and Aggression 309 1.00 Proportion of the Shock Supply Used 34) Oo Balanced Weak S, Weak Sg Powerful S, Powerful S, Condition Preponderant Moderate Moderate Preponderant Condition Condition Condition Condition Fig. 2. Mean proportion of shock supply used by subjects in balanced condition compared with the four groups of subjects in imbalanced conditions. The difference between the number of shocks used by the powerful and the weak subjects in the unequal shock ratio condi- tions was accompanied by a significant difference in the number of cooperative moves made by these groups. Figure 3 shows that the powerful subjects made only .94 cooperative moves per subject while their opponents made 6.89 cooperative moves per subject. This tendency of the weaker subjects to be more cooperative than their opponents agrees with what we felt Organski might have ex- pected from an imbalanced distribution of power. However, it should be noted that the number of cooperative moves the weaker subjects made was not significantly larger than the number made by the subjects in the balanced situation. Thus, it cannot be said that the imbalanced situation increased the level of cooperation of the weaker subjects above the level of cooperation expected in a balanced distribution of force. It appears more likely that the ef- fect of the imbalance was in the direction of reducing the number of cooperative moves made by the powerful subjects. The difference between the degree of cooperativeness of the powerful and weak subjects, of course, also affected the number of 310 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES lO 9 ” 8 > © = if ® 7 5 6 a = 5 oO S 4 3 S Fo p= ] z 2 Combined Combined Weak Powerful Conditions Conditions Fig. 3. Mean number of cooperative moves, shown for combined group of “weak” subjects in imbalanced condition and combined group of “powerful” subjects in imbalanced condition. games these groups won. Figure 4 illustrates the significant differ- ence between the “number of games won” by the subjects having a larger number of shocks than their weaker opponents. The two groups of powerful subjects in the imbalanced conditions won an average of 5.5 games per person, while their opponents won an av- erage of .89 games per person. This result also conforms with the prediction based on our interpretation of Organski’s position. Again, TINDELL AND VINCENT: Force and Aggression 311 10 9 8 Cc =e T (72) e 6 Le} © met 5 fe) S 4 = pe } = 3 2 Combined Combined Weak Powerful Conditions Conditions Fig. 4. Mean number of games won shown for “weak” group of subjects a imbalanced condition and “powerful” group of subjects in imbalanced con- ition. however, it is important to note that there was not a significant dif- ference between the number of games won by the subjects in the balanced condition and the powerful subjects in the imbalanced conditions. The imbalanced conditions appear to have mainly re- sulted in an exaggerated difference between the number of games won by the weak and the powerful groups, but with neither group differing significantly from the subjects in the balanced condition. 312 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Number of De-escalation Signals f Balanced WeakSs Weak Ss Powerful Ss Powerful S, Condition Preponderant Moderate Moderate Preponderant Condition Condition Condition Condition Fig. 5. Mean number of intend to de-escalate signals, shown for subjects in balanced condition and the four subgroups in imbalanced condition. No prognostications were made for the two variables dealing with de-escalation, but a significant difference did emerge for the number of “intend to de-escalate” signals variable. Figure 5 illus- trates that the group of subjects having 15 shocks made an average of 6.07 more “intend to de-escalate” signals than the subjects in the equal shock ratio condition. Since most of these signals were not followed by an actual de-escalation, it becomes a moot point as to whether they should be interpreted as attempts at establishing de- escalation cycles, or as attempts to trick the other, more powerful, player into discarding some of his advantage in shocks. The prediction for the “number of false warnings” variable, based on our interpretation of Organski, was correct. The power- ful group of subjects in the unequal shock ratio conditions made more false warnings than did the weaker group of subjects. Figure 6A shows that the more powerful subjects made an average of 6.77 false warnings per subject compared with the weaker group’s av- Unequal Moderately Preponderant Unequal Conditions Conditions Preponderant Condition Powerful S; Powerful S, Moderate Condition Weak S, Condition Balanced Condition Preponderant Moderate Condition Powerful Conditions Conditions Weak S, Combined Combined Weak Psa oe = MO “oye DOI OP In og Oe sBuiusDM 9SiD4 JO Jequinn Fig. 6. Mean number of false warnings, shown for following analytic per- spectives: A, comparison of “weak” subjects versus “powerful” subjects in im- balanced condition; B, comparisons of four imbalanced subgroups with the balanced conditions; C, comparison between moderately unequal treatment condition and preponderantly unequal treatment condition. 314 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES erage of 3.22 false warnings per subject. This result, in part, is at- tributable to the extremely large number of false warnings sent by the group of subjects having 25 shocks. This was the only one of the four groups of subjects in the imbalanced conditions that sent a significantly different number of false warnings than the subjects in the balanced condition. Figure 6B shows that this group of sub- jects made 6.48 more “false warnings” per subject than the subjects in the equal shock ratio condition. The large number of false warnings sent by the powerful sub- jects in the moderately unequal shock ratio condition also played a role in the finding that the moderately unequal shock ratio condi- tion differed significantly from the preponderantly unequal shock ratio conditions with respect to the “false warnings” variable. Figure 6C illustrates this difference; the subjects in the moderately unequal shock ratio condition made 7.05 average false warnings per subject while the subjects in the preponderantly unequal shock ratio con- dition made 2.94 false warnings per subject. Significant differences were not found between any of the ex- perimental groups for: “the number of games drawn,” “the number of points won,” and “the number of actual de-escalations.” DIscuUSssION It was found that the number of aggressive acts made by sub- jects is related to the shock ratio condition in which they partici- pated. Subjects in a balanced condition used significantly less shocks than subjects in an imbalanced condition, and they used a significantly smaller proportion of their total shock supply than the subjects in the imbalanced condition. These findings, of course, do not tend to support propositions such as Organski’s (1958) that a distribution of force where one actor is considerably more powerful than his opponent tends to promote peace. Rather, the data tend to support Morgenthau (1961) and other proponents of a balanced distribution of force being less likely to instigate aggressive behav- ior. However, some of the predictions based on our interpretation of Organski were correct, although other expectations, such as the “acquiescence of weaker parties,” were not met. For example, the weak subjects in the imbalanced condition did make significantly TINDELL AND VINCENT: Force and Aggression 315 more cooperative moves than their stronger opponents, but they did not make significantly more cooperative moves than the subjects in the balanced condition. The experimental evidence indicates that the significant difference between the number of cooperative moves made by the weak and the powerful subjects in the imbalanced conditions was primarily due to the very low number of cooperative moves made by the powerful subjects, rather than a large number of cooperative moves made by the weak subjects. Additionally, the weak subjects did not, when compared to the subjects in the equal shock ratio condition, use less shocks than would have been expected if they had been given 20 shocks rather than the 15 or 10 shocks they received. In fact, both groups of weak subjects used a larger number of shocks than the subjects in the balanced condition. When the number of shocks used was translated into the propor- tion of the total shock supply used, it was found that the weakest group of subjects (having only 10 shocks) used a larger proportion of their shock supply than any other experimental group, and this proportion was significantly higher than the proportion of the shock supply used by the subjects in the equal shock ratio condition. We feel the above evidence indicates that relying on the acquiescence of a weaker party in a conflict is at best a dubious strategy. One partial explanation of the difference between the number of shocks used by the subjects in balanced condition and the number of shocks used by the subjects in the imbalanced condition, is due to the large number of subjects in the balanced condition who re- frained from using their shock capabilities even one time. In a sense we are here talking about the “deterrence” of aggressive be- havior. To analyze this difference, each subject was classified as in either the balanced condition or the imbalanced condition; a count was then made of the number of subjects in each category which never once shocked their opponent. It was found that pro- portionately five times as many subjects in the equal shock ratio condition never shocked their opponents (five of the 18 subjects in the balanced condition never shocked their opponent, compared with only two of the 36 subjects in the imbalanced conditions who never shocked their opponent). Using Fisher’s exact probability (Siegel, 1956, p. 96-104) the likelihood of a “chance” split this ex- treme or more was computed to be, p <.039. In general, discussions of “deterrence” usually differ from dis- 316 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES cussions of “balance versus preponderance of power,” by an em- phasis on technological, strategic, and economic considerations. However, these discussions often entail arguments which support particular force ratios as optimal for deterrence purposes. Gareau (1962) compares some of the major positions regarding deterrence. The experimental data, when analyzed from this perspective, indi- cate that an equal distribution of force is more likely to deter ag- gressive acts than an unequal distribution of force. It is interesting to note, by way of comparison to earlier experi- ments using this game, that 14 per cent of the subjects in the Shure, Meeker and Hansford (1965) study never used shock, 12 per cent of the subjects in the Vincent-Tindell (1969) experiment never used shock, and 13 per cent of the subjects in this experiment never used shock. This seems to reinforce the finding stressed in the Vincent-Tindell (1969) experiment that college students, for the most part, play this game in a highly belligerent fashion. Given the more aggressive and uncooperative behavior on the part of the powerful subjects in the imbalanced conditions, one might assume this behavior to have been justified by their winning a large number of games. This is only partially true. For, although the subjects having 25 or 30 shocks did win significantly more games than their less powerful opponents, they did not win significantly more games than the subjects in the equal shock ratio condition. Instead, it appears, the powerful subjects succeeded mainly in de- creasing the number of games the weak subjects would have been expected to win, rather than significantly increasing their own winnings. Furthermore, the “number of points won” variable, which we considered a more sensitive indicator of successful game play, did not differ significantly between any of the experimental condi- tions. The large number of false warnings made by the subjects who were moderately more powerful than their opponents (i.e., the sub- jects having 25 shocks who faced an opponent having only 15 shocks) may indicate that moderately unequal ratios of force tend to elicit what might be called “bullying behavior.” The term “bully- ing behavior” is meant to designate the behavior of those who de- sire a certain outcome and will resort to threats they apparently don’t wish to fulfill, in an attempt to frighten and coerce a less TINDELL AND VINCENT: Force and Aggression 317 powerful protagonist into complying. However, the subjects who had only 15 shocks may have found an interesting way of respond- ing to this large number of false warnings. They made more “in- tend to de-escalate” signals that were never followed through, than any other group of subjects. Perhaps there is some factor operative in relatively moderate disparities of force that engenders perfidi- ousness on the part of all involved. A variable which should be mentioned, even though it was not significantly affected by any of the experimental treatment condi- tions, is the “number of actual de-escalations.” This variable was incorporated into the experiment because of its conceivable im- portance and because it has been the focus of certain theoretical schemes in recent years. More specifically, Osgood (1962) has proposed a scheme for de-escalation which he calls “unilateral re- ciprocal initiative.” Osgood’s tension reduction model operates on the assumption that the current world situation is one of high ten- sion and discomfort for the principal parties in conflict. Osgood hypothesizes that this dilemma is due to mistrust, suspicion, and fear, all of which he feels can be reduced or removed by carefully timed, gradual, and cautious de-escalative moves which are an- nounced in advance, with an invitation, not a demand, for recipro- cation. Experiments to date have generated some, but by no means overwhelming, support for Osgood’s graduated de-escalation scheme ( Pilisuk and Skolnik, 1968). The Shure, Meeker, Hansford experiment (1965), which was not an attempt to test the Osgood graduated de-escalation scheme, found that even the complete vol- untary surrender by a simulated subject of his weaponry was per- ceived as a ruse (in the main), and did not significantly reduce the number of aggressive acts made by the subjects exposed to this strategy. To experiment with Osgood’s gradual de-escalation scheme re- quires that at least one member of each dyad follow some sort of planned de-escalation strategy. Because of this, most of the experi- ments to date which have investigated Osgood’s thesis have simu- lated opponents and use pre-planned de-escalation strategies. Rather than do that, we decided to simply include the alternative of de-escalating for the actual pairs of competing subjects in the ex- 318 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES periment. Unfortunate as it is, from a humanitarian perspective, it does not appear that naive subjects are likely to enter into de- escalation cycles, much less be affected by either the situation in which they find themselves or their opponents’ manner of game play. Apparently, even highly cooperative pairs of subjects would rather maintain their shock resources than enter into de-escalation cycles. One final comment. Five significant experimental effects were observed for the imbalanced conditions when the balanced condi- tion was ignored. Four of these effects were attributable to the dif- ferences between the behavior of the powerful subjects and the weak subjects. One significant difference was found between the moderately unequal and the preponderantly unequal shock ratio conditions. Thus, it may be that the existence of some difference between opponents in the amount of force they possess is a stronger influence on their behavior than is the actual numerical magnitude of the difference. SUMMARY There are theories in international relations that relate the level of aggression in the international system to the distribution of power among nations. Unfortunately, most of these propositions are difficult to validate or refute in the world for which they were formulated. For this reason an experiment was performed which attempted, through simulation, to test propositions about “balance” versus “preponderance” of power. The experimental paradigm employed was a modified version of the two person mixed-motive game developed at the Systems De- velopment Corporation, Santa Monica, California. Fifty-four sub- jects participated in the experiment. Eighteen subjects were placed into each of three treatment conditions (1) “balance of power,” where each subject was given 20 shocks; (2) “moderate-inequality of power,” where certain subjects were given 25 shocks while their opponents were given 15 shocks and; (3) “preponderant-inequality of power,” where certain subjects were given 30 shocks while their opponents were given 10 shocks. All subjects played a total of 15 games. A count was made of each subject’s responses on eight game-play variables. TINDELL AND VINCENT: Force and Aggression 319 The results of this research indicate that an equal distribution of force tends to produce more cooperative and non-aggressive be- havior than imbalanced distributions of force. In addition, a bal- anced situation, when compared to the imbalanced situations, was found to increase the likelihood of participants never once using their shock capabilities. Finally, de-escalation cycles did not evolve out of the unmanipulated game play of the pairs of subjects. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We would like to thank the Political Science Department of Florida Atlantic University for its financial support and encourage- ment; John DeGrove and Allan J. Nash for their advice and guid- ance; and Joyce Tindell, Edward Schwerin, Patricia Rudy, Beverly Lindeborn, Tisha Edwards, for their generous contributions of time and energy. LITERATURE CITED GarEAu, F. 1962. Balance of power and nuclear deterrence. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, 216 pp. MorcEntTHAU, H. J. 1961. Politics among nations. Alfred A. Knopf, Third Edition, New York, 630 pp. Orcanski, A. F. 1958. World politics. Alfred A. Knopf, Third Edition, New York, 509 pp. Oscoop, C. E. 1962. Reciprocal initiative. In J. Roosevelt, editor, The Liberal Papers. Doubleday and Company, Inc., New York, 354 pp. Piruisuk, M., anp P. SkoLnik. 1968. Inducing trust: a test of the Osgood pro- posal. Jour. Personality and Social Psychology, vol. 8, no. 2, pp. 121- 133. Riker, W. 1964. Some ambiguities in the notion of power. American Politi- cal Sci. Review, vol. LVIII, no. 2, pp. 341-349. SrecEL, S. 1956. Nonparametric statistics for the behavioral sciences. McGraw-Hill Company, New York, 312 pp. SHuBIK, M. 1968. On the study of disarmament and escalation. Jour. Con- flict Resolution, vol. 8, p. 96. SHuRE, G., R. MEEKER, AND FE. HANsForp. 1965. The effectiveness of pacifist strategies in bargaining games. Jour. Conflict Resolution, vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 106-117. 320 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VINCENT, J. E., AND J. O. TrnpELL. 1969. Alternative cooperative strategies in a bargaining game. Jour. Conflict Resolution, vol. 13, no. 4, pp. 494-510. Winer, B. J. 1962. Statistical principles in experimental design. McGraw- Hill Book Company, New York, 672 pp. Department of Political Science, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, Florida 33432 (present address: Dimensionality of Nations Project, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii 96822); Department of Political Science, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Towa 52240. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 33(4) 1970(1971) FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERS FOR 1970 American Medical Research Institute Archbold Expeditions Barry College Florida Atlantic University Florida Institute of Technology Florida Presbyterian College Florida Southern College Florida State University Florida Technological University Jacksonville University Manatee Junior College Marymount College Miami-Dade Junior College Mound Park Hospital Foundation Nova University of Advanced Technology Ormond Beach Hospital Rollins College St. Leo College Stetson University United States Sugar Corporation University of Florida University of Florida Communications Sciences Laboratory University of Miami University of South Florida University of Tampa University of West Florida FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Founded 1936 OFFICERS FOR 1970 President: TAyLor R. ALEXANDER Department of Biology, University of Miami Coral Gables, Florida 33124 President Elect: RicHARD E. GARRETT Department of Physics, University of Florida Gainesville, Florida 32601 Secretary: RoBERT W. Lone Department of Botany, University of South Florida Tampa, Florida 33620 Treasurer: E. Morton MILLER Depariment of Biology, University of Miami Coral Gables, Florida 33124 Editor: Przxrc— BRoDKORB Department of Zoology, University of Florida Gainesville, Florida 32601 Membership applications, subscriptions, renewals, changes of address, and orders for back numbers should be addressed to the Treasurer Correspondence regarding exchanges should be addressed to Gift and Exchange Section, University of Florida Libraries Gainesville, Florida 32601 QUARTERLY JOURNAL of the FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOLUME 34 Editor PIERCE BRODKORB Published by the FLorRmDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Gainesville, Florida 1971 NUMBERS 3-4 Socio-Physics: Should we take it seriously? A. E. S. Green Mucoviscidosis testing in a community hospital Ricardo J. Mitre, Robert V. Joel, and Walter C. Kelly Chemistry of the sea Dean F. Martin Leaf shape inheritance in coleus David C. Rife Species, class, and phylum diversity of animals David Nicol Recent light changes in three variable radio sources G. H. Folsom, Alex G. Smith, and H. W. Schrader Behavioral changes in dolphins in a strange environment Blair Irvine Effects of progressive relaxation on alcoholic patients Archie C. Reed, A. Van Lewen, and James H. Williams Redescription of Prionotus beani (Pisces, Triglidae ) George C. Miller and Dana M. Kent Pollution in areas near the Pompano Beach sewage outfall Harrison A. Hoffmann 1V 161 172 175 187 191 195 206 213 223 243 SOP eh ew Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences Vol. 34 March, 1971 No. 1 CONTENTS Thermal analysis of crandallite Frank N. Blanchard 1 Prostatic carcinoma: histologic grading and metastasis John C. Gallagher 10 Limnological cycles in a phosphatic limestone mine lake George K. Reid and S. Dexter Squibb 17 Dispersion of the giant African snail, Achatina fulica D. O. Wolfenbarger 48 The fishes of Lake Okeechobee, Florida Lothian A. Ager 53 A yellowfin menhaden without pelvic fins William F. Hettler, Jr. 63 The shrimp Leptalpheus forceps in Old Tampa Bay, Florida Carl H. Saloman 67 Determination of the onset of yolk deposition in lizards Sam R. Telford, Jr. 78 / At HSGW;> J a N oN Published September 1, 1971 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLoRIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Editor: Pierce Brodkorb The Quarterly Journal welcomes original articles containing sig- nificant new knowledge, or new interpretation of knowledge, in any field of Science. Articles must not duplicate in any substantial way material that is published elsewhere. INSTRUCTIONS TO AUTHORS Rapid, efficient, and economical transmission of knowledge by means of the printed word requires full cooperation between author and editor. Revise copy before submission to insure logical order, conciseness, and clarity. 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Titles must be short but may be followed by explanatory matter. ILLUSTRATIONS are charged to authors ($17.00 per page or fraction). Drawincs should be in India ink, on good board or drafting paper, and lettered by lettering guide or equivalent. Plan linework and lettering for re- duction, so that final width is 4% inches, and final length does not exceed 65% inches. Do not submit illustrations needing reduction by more than one-half. PuotocrapHs should be of good contrast, on glossy paper. Do not write heavily on the backs of shee ATS. Proor must be returned promptly. Leave a forwarding address in case of extended absence. REPRINTS may be ordered when the author returns corrected proof. Published by the Florida Academy of Sciences Printed by the Storter Printing Company Gainesville, Florida QUARTERLY JOURNAL of the FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vol. 34 March, 1971 No. 1 Thermal Analysis of Crandallite FRANK N. BLANCHARD Tuis study was undertaken as a result of encountering difficulty in interpreting thermograms produced by differential thermal anal- ysis of complex mixtures of hydrous phosphate minerals (crandal- lite, wavellite, and variscite) and clay minerals contained in weathered phosphatic sediments from the Hawthorn Formation of northern peninsular Florida. A combination of differential thermal analysis, thermogravimetric analysis and x-ray diffraction analysis of pure crandallite from Fairfield, Utah, has led to characterization of the thermogram for crandallite and to interpretation of the therma! reactions, and this knowledge facilitates interpretation of thermo- grams of the complex mixtures of phosphate and clay minerals found in some of the Hawthorn sediments. The crandallite used in this study is yellow microcrystalline ma- terial occurring in a banded crandallite-wardite nodule from Fair- field, Utah. The ideal formula for crandallite is CaAl,(PO,).(OH);. H.O. | METHODS A sample of pure crandallite was obtained from the crandallite- wardite nodule by coarse crushing and hand picking to exclude particles of wardite and other associated minerals. The crandallite particles were then crushed and passed through a 200-mesh sieve. Differential thermal analyses were made with a Fisher Model 260P Differential Thermalyzer. The output from a platinel differ- 2 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ential thermocouple was amplified with a magnetic amplifier and the signal from the amplifier was used to drive the X-axis of a Houston Instruments Corp. Model HR-96 X-Y recorder. The Y- axis of the recorder was driven by the output from the furnace- temperature thermocouple, one junction of which was maintained at room temperature, and special graph paper was used to correct for nonlinearity of the thermocouple output. Preheated alumina was used as an inert reference material. Fractions of the crandallite sample weighing 100 mg were heated in silica crucibles at 5°, 10°, and 25° per minute from room temperature to about 1150 C, and at least three analyses were made with each heating rate. After some of the analyses the furnace was cooled to 500 C, and the heated crandallite was replaced with quartz; the temperature of the fur- nace was then raised, at the same heating rate used in the analyses, to above the temperature of the quartz inversion. This procedure gave a calibration check on the furnace temperature (quartz inver- sion at 573 C) and provided a reference for DTA peak magnitudes. A discontinuous thermogravimetric analysis was carried out in a separate experiment in which four of the sample compartments in the DTA sample block were loaded with crucibles containing previ- ously weighed quantities of crandallite. These crucibles were re- placed, successively, at certain temperatures with crucibles contain- ing alumina, and the heated crandallite was weighed and then used for x-ray analysis. In addition a 480 mg sample of crandallite was heated in a platinum crucible and maintained at certain tempera- tures for 30 minutes prior to weighing. X-ray analyses of the heated crandallite samples shown in Fig. 3 were made with constant instrument settings and with the same quantity of sample. As a result significance can be given to rela- tive peak heights. In an attempt to determine the compositional variety of apatite derived from heating crandallite (explained later) the heated crandallite was mixed with 15 per cent quartz and scanned six times on the diffractometer at 0.2° per minute from 44°-56° 26. Correction of the observed d-spacings for the apatite was accomplished by use of the 201, 112, and 202 reflections of quartz (as an internal standard). The 222, 312, 213, 410, 303, and 004 apatite reflections were used in refining the lattice con- stants using the least squares method and the computer program of Appleman and Evans (1967). BLANCHARD: Thermal Analysis of Crandallite Gans oe Fig. 1. Typical DTA curve and TGA curve for crandallite. ae ae tH % sso1 IMs RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Typical thermograms of crandallite are shown in Fig. 1. Weak QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES [ise 3 | | ness | eded Genel oes! Ge Eee Fae ES be | ss . S cs Paes | —s > t - ; t tices + > i i es BS ee os Sete besten ea. i G(s od pe es a at ge Sate Ee = <<< < «< « ««< <<: Kk << << < = ast _ = = SS — = = je =. ns |= cs FF ee jes ise eo a 200 ens is z S ol ie i Fig. 2. X-Ray diffractometer pattern of crandallite after heating to 1140 C. The d-spacings (not corrected) are given for the various phases present (A=apatite, P=A1PO.-cristobalite, C—corundum, W=whitlockite). The 2e-scale is given for CuKa-radiation. Scanned at 0.4° 26 per min. endothermic reactions occur at 115° (loss of absorbed water), 180°, 330 C and a strong endothermic reaction appears at 530 C; exo- thermic reactions appear at 690°, 785°, 930°, and between 1070°- 1150 C. At slower heating rates (5° and 10° per minute) the weaker thermal reactions vary in temperature and in some instances the temperature differential is so small that they cannot be detected with the methods used. Best sensitivity and greatest reproducibil- ity of thermograms is obtained by heating at 25° per minute. In- terpretation of the thermograms was aided or accomplished by means of thermogravimetric analysis and by x-ray diffraction anal- ysis of samples after heating to various temperatures. BLANncHARD: Thermal Analysis of Crandallite 5 Fig. 3. X-Ray diffractometer patterns of crandallite after heating to vari- ous temperatures (600°, 720°, 850°, 980°, 1040°, 1080°, 1100°, 1150°, 1180° C, as indicated at lower right of each pattern). The strongest line for each phase is labeled: A—apatite, P—=A1PO.-cristobalite, C=corundum, W=whit- lockite. The 2e-scale is shown at the bottom (CuKa-radiation). Scanned at 2° 26 per min. 6 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Thermogravimetric analysis of crandallite (Fig. 1) indicates that the weak endothermic reactions at 180° and 330° are related to small losses of water (of crystallization?) and that the main endo- therm at 530° is related to loss of most of the water of crystalliza- tion. Ideally, crandallite contains 15.23 per cent H.O, but pub- lished analyses of crandallite show a slightly higher percentage and published analyses of crandallite from Fairfield, Utah show approx- imately 17.5 percent H.O (Palache, et al., 1951). The amount of water lost after heating to 725 C (past the main dehydration endo- therm and to the temperature where no crandallite lines appear in the x-ray pattern) is 14.96 per cent (assuming that water lost below 125 C is absorbed water), and even after heating to 950 C the total water loss is only 15.17 per cent. This indicates that some water is retained in the system after the main endothermic reaction and even above 950 C, and, as explained below, this water is probably present as OH in apatite which crystallizes from the crandallite. Continued slight loss of water at high temperatures (around and above 950°) probably occurs as apatite is converted to -tricalcium phosphate (explained below). In order to interpret the higher temperature thermal reactions x-ray diffraction was used to identify the phases present after heat- ing crandallite to 130°, 270°, 350°, 600°, 720°, 850°, 980°, 1040°, 1070°, 1080°, 1100°, 1140°, 1150°, and 1180 C (Figs: 2audss)eaein most cases the material was slowly cooled in the furnace over a period of four hours, however, no detectable difference resulted from rapid cooling. X-ray patterns for samples heated up to 350° (past the weak endothermic reactions) show no change from the original crandal- lite pattern. Crandallite heated to 600° shows a very weak x-ray reflection corresponding to the strongest reflection for crandallite and shows weak reflections indicating the presence of new phases (Fig. 3). These new phases are better developed in material heated to 980° and the sample heated to 980° was scanned from 2°-90° 24 in order to identify the phases present. Interpretation of the resulting pattern indicates that all of the reflections can be ac- counted for by a mixture of apatite and AlPO,-cristobalite. The re- flections from A1PO,-cristobalite constitute a pattern identical with that obtained by heating wavellite (Al;(PO,).(OH);.5H.O) to 950 C (Blanchard, 1968). X-ray patterns of crandallite heated to BLancHarp: Thermal Analysis of Crandallite 7! successively higher temperatures between 600° and 980° show in- creasing intensity of the lines for apatite and especially the AlPO,- cristobalite (Fig. 3). From this it appears that the exothermic re- action at 690°, 790°, and 930° are produced by crystallization or re- crystallization of apatite and A1PO,-cristobalite. The variety of apatite which develops from the heating of cran- dallite is uncertain. Hydroxyapatite would be expected from con- sideration of the materials available and is supported by the TGA which shows that the approximate fraction of original water in the system which is required to form hydroxyapatite is in fact retained in the system after dehydration and destruction of the crandallite. Measured lattice constants for the apatite are ay=9.382 and c= 6.896. Accepted valves for hydroxyapatite are a,=9.43 and c)= 6.88 and for fluorapatite are a,=9.35 and c,=6.87. Substitution in the apatite structure and/or position of the negative ion along the 6-fold axis could account for the difference between the observed lattice constants and the accepted values for hydroxyapatite. The x-ray pattern of crandallite heated to 1100° shows, in addi- tion to the phases present at lower temperature, a-Al,O; (corun- dum), and at higher temperatures the intensities of the corundum lines become progressively stronger (Figs. 2 and 3). At 1150° the reflections from A1PQO,-cristobalite are stronger and reflections cor- responding to @-tricalcium phosphate (whitlockite) appear ( Figs. 2 and 3). Finally, after heating to 1180° the x-ray pattern shows apatite (weaker than at lower temperatures), A1PO,-cristobalite, corundum, and whitlockite (Fig. 3). Consideration of the changes in phases above 1100 C suggests that the general but irregular rise (exothermic) of the thermogram between 1070°-1150° results from an unresolved combination of crystallization of corundum; recrystal- lization of A1PO,, and dehydration of apatite and conversion to whitlockite. In order to obtain a more complete x-ray pattern for positive identification of whitlockite a sample of crandallite was heated in a separate furnace to 1250 C for one hour. The x-ray pat- tern for this material showed a mixture of corundum, A1PO,, and whitlockite, with no apatite. The lines attributed to whitlockite check well with the data of A.S.T.M. card #9-169, but there are slight discrepancies in the d-spacings (systematic) and in relative intensities. The d-spacings for corundum in the same pattern are very close to those of a-Al,0, (A.S.T.M. card #10-173) and there- QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 8 en a ‘ay][epuvsio Jo siskyeue [eULIOY} [eHUSIOyIp Sump SulIN000 suoTjOVeI JO WeISVIq ‘fF ‘BIq (oO Fu1942 OXY ATUF EY) SUOTIOBOY (é 0° ty) 42 Tewr9ul, (umpuniz09) euTUNTY-0 peutyeq f AT 100d D9 .OOTT suotIIeey oTW19Y4I0xXY ufen 296°7T ST oScl 91 GS2T (ay3tem TeuyT3t410 SSOT 243Tem jo “gl °9T) 24 pesca 0 (0 H)ZOT + (Oty) 4% snoydiouy uofIB9yY oFuIeYIAOpuyA uyey (Te#nI298) o°H ZEz°ST € suzequo9 Zz (TeePF) OH ZEZ7°ST sutezuo) (“oatv) 04 237 18q038T19-"0dTV 4 D2 ,O8TT 97 0 ,OSTT aa;zedy yITA uot}oee1 ATqTssod ue UOTIEZTTTeISAIIIyY ~~ wr fo) Au co < wv N + 23TT&q038F19-"0d1V 0) Ae J oS8L 9 069 + (“oatv) zr 9 237184038 F19-‘OdTV OO 0 OES (o%H:S (HO) © ("0a) ©tve9)0€ aIFITepues €.2 (Opa Mater 3 Tv +°( 0d) “e0)0T + (O-R)E (9349073 FUA) ajeydsoyg wunpoTeofzAaj-¢g Q v 38 —'O ct ct Ne bs nore Oo Vi OoOcrs om © oOo Qn of 3a0 S32 o) OSE e @ et @ (£04) (#0) Se0)9 ed aa};Iedy 2 a A _ OF Fase) 6066 ') ct ct fo em OA Hoe NOB wn © 9 069 ct bs oad ° fe) 5 =] + (© (70a) (Ho) *e9)9 aataedy BLANCHARD: Thermal Analysis of Crandallite 9 fore, the slight discrepancy in the whitlockite pattern is probably not due to experimental error. Fig. 4 summarizes the changes which take in crandallite during differential thermal analysis to about 1200 C. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Refinement of lattice constants was carried out through facilities of the University of Florida Computing Center. LITERATURE CITED APPLEMAN, D, E., AND H. T. Evans. 1967. Experience with computer self- indexing and unit cell refinement of powder data. Abstract. G.S.A. Bull., vol. 78, p. 8. BLANCHARD, F. N. 1968. Differential thermal analysis of wavellite. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci., vol. 30, no. 3, pp. 161-167. PaLacHE, C., H. BERMAN, AND C. FRONDEL. 1951. System of mineralogy, vol. 2. John Wiley and Sons, New York, New York. Department of Geology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Flor- ida 32601. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 34(1) 1971 Prostatic Carcinoma: Histologic Grading and Metastasis Joun C. GALLAGHER THE purpose of this study is to evaluate the possibility that cer- tain histologic features of human prostatic adenocarcinoma correlate with the ability of the tumor to metastasize to other organs. MATERIALS AND METHODS This study was based on 41 individuals with biopsy and autopsy evidence of adenocarcinoma of the prostate gland. The patients were among a group of 1450 consecutive patients who came to au- topsy at the Veterans Administration Hospital in West Haven, Con- necticut. They had been treated with chlorotrianisene, an estro- genic compound, after the clinical and biopsy diagnoses had been established. The clinical charts, autopsy records, and the biopsy and autopsy histologic sections were reviewed in each case for this study. Tumors were graded using histologic features. Three grades were used. The best differentiated tumors mimicked the pattern of prostatic glandular structures most closely and formed small atyp- ical ducts; these were called grade 1 tumors (Fig. 1). Grade 2 tumors were those with a cribriform (sieve-like) pattern (Fig. 2). Grade 3 tumors consisted of solid sheets of tumor cells with no ductal or glandular patterns (Fig. 3). In all grades of tumor, nu- cleoli were prominent in the nuclei, and at least one focus of peri- neural invasion was found in each primary tumor. Grading was performed twice on all autopsy specimens of the primary tumors and metastases. It was done four times on each bi- opsy specimen. Grading was done after random sorting of all of the slides, without knowledge of the case identification number or of the grade assigned to other portions of the tumor of the same pa- tient. RESULTS Grading of the tumors was remarkably constant. In no instance was a tumor that had been called a grade 1 tumor called a grade 2 GALLAGHER: Prostatic Carcinoma il Fig. 1. Grade 1 adenocarcinoma of prostate. Single layer of atypical cells forms the duct-like structures. Hematoxylin and eosin stain, X 400. 12 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Fig. 2. Grade 2 adenocarcinoma of prostate. Cribriform pattern. Hema- toxylin and eosin stain, X 400. GALLAGHER: Prostatic Carcinoma 13 Fig. 3. Grade 3 adenocarcinoma of prostate. Solid pattern, Hematoxylin and eosin stain, X 400. 14 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES TABLE 1 Metastasis and histologic grade of tumor Grade of Number of patients Number of patients tumor without metastasis with metastasis Total il 18 0 18 2&3 5 18 23 Total De 18 Al Chi-square, 25; p, less than 0.001. or a grade 3 tumor, or vice versa. In a given patient, the grade of tumor was remarkably constant, both for the primary tumor and the metastases. Even subtle features of the primary tumor, such as nu- clear size and amount of necrosis of cells, were reproduced in the metastases. Metastatic carcinoma was found in 18 patients, 44 per cent of the total. The lungs were involved in 13 patients, the liver in 11, bones in 10, the bladder in 9, lymph nodes in 9, the rectum in 3, the spleen in 2, and the brain, pancreas and thyroid in one patient each. In none of these organs was the pattern of the metastases different from that of the primary tumor. An association was found between the histologic grade of the primary tumor and the presence or absence of metastases (Table 1). Grade 2 and grade 3 tumors behaved similarly and were grouped together for the purpose of this study. Grade 1 tumors in these patients did not establish distant metastases; of the grade 2 and grade 3 tumors, 78 per cent established distant metastases. No difference existed between the ages of patients with grade 1 tumors and grades 2 and 3 tumors. The median age of the entire group was 68 years. For patients with grade 1 tumors it was 69 years; for patients with grades 2 and 3 tumors it was 66 years. A chi-square test on the distribution of ages in the two groups re- vealed no statistically significant difference. The duration of survival from the onset of symptoms varied con- siderably among the patients. Accurate data was available for only half of the group, and no statistically significant difference could be shown with respect to grade of tumor. For the 20 patients on whom data is available, the median survival period was 24 months. For patients with grade 1 tumors it was 31 months, and for those with grade 2 and grade 3 tumors it was 9 months. These data sug- GALLAGHER: Prostatic Carcinoma 1 gest decreased longevity for the patients with grades 2 and 3 tumors, but the ranges were so wide that no statistically significant difference could be shown. Survival data is complicated by the fact that the majority of patients died as a result of causes other than their prostatic carcinoma. Only 13 (32 per cent) of the entire group died as a result of this tumor. The remaining 68 per cent died from causes such as myocardial infarction, cerebral hemor- rhage, pulmonary thromboembolism, cirrhosis of the liver, pneu- monia, or other malignant tumors. DISCUSSION This study shows an association between the histologic grade of adenocarcinoma of the prostate and the ability of the tumor to es- tablish metastases. Tumors of the well differentiated pattern that formed ductal structures, the grade 1 tumors, failed to metastasize, whereas the non-ductal tumors, the grade 2 and grade 3 tumors, frequently metastasized. The morphologic pattern of a prostatic adenocarcinoma is an important index of its ability to produce me- tastases. Other studies have shown that there is evidence that the histo- logic grade of tumor correlates with the length of survival of the patients. Muir noted this in 1934, and more recently Bauer et al. and Mellinger et al. have added supporting data. However, the majority of patients with this disease die from other causes, as shown in this study and in a study by the Veterans Administration Cooperative Research Group. Survival data alone give a less direct measure of the behavior of the tumor than do data on the ability to metastasize. The histologic grade of a given prostatic adenocarcinoma gives an index of its ability to metastasize during therapy with estrogen. Thus, histologic grading has a prognostic significance. Tumors that form simple ductal structures tend not to metastasize; those with non-ductal, cribriform or solid patterns tend to metastasize. A dif- ference in the biological behavior of these tumors is associated with a difference in their histologic morphology. LITERATURE CITED Bauer, W. C., M. H. McGavran, AND M. R. Carin. 1960. Unsuspected 16 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES carcinoma of the prostate in suprapubic prostatectomy specimens. Can- cer, vol. 13, pp. 370-377. MELLINGER, G. T., D. GLEASON, AND J. Bamar. 1967. The histology and prognosis of prostatic cancer. Jour. Urol., vol. 97, pp. 331-337. Muir, E.G. 1934. Carcinoma of the prostate. Lancet, vol. 1, pp. 667-672. VETERANS ADMINISTRATION COOPERATIVE UROLOGICAL RESEARCH GROUP. 1968. Factors in prognosis of carcinoma of the prostate: a cooperative study. Jour. Urol., vol. 100, pp. 59-65. Pathology Department, Veterans Administration Center, Bay Pines, Florida 33504. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 34(1) 1971 Limnological Cycles in a Phosphatic Limestone Mine Lake GrorceE K. REID AND S. DEXTER SQUIBB SINCE the early part of the 20th century “strip-mining” for land pebble phosphate matrix in south-central Florida has produced hun- dreds of “pits” which in time become filled with water. The greatest concentration of these lies in an area of some 6760 km? in Polk, Hills- borough, Manatee, and Hardee counties. The lakes produced vary in surface area, depth, and age and would, therefore, form the framework for very productive studies in comparative limnology. To our knowledge, no intensive investigation of annual biogeo- chemical cycles in the phosphate pit lakes has been published. This report is a description of the limnological features and dynamics of one such lake. PHOSPHATE Pir LAKE The basin of Phosphate Pit Lake (27°44’N lat. and 82°00’ W. long., Polk County, Florida) is an excavation resulting from mining of limestone containing phosphate rock “pebbles.” These pebbles, ranging in size from less than 0.1 mm to over 30 mm, are pale orange to dark brown carbonate fluorapatite, with minor quantities of magnesium, manganese, uranium, potassium, sodium compounds, and others. The phosphorous content of the rock is in the form of tri-calcium phosphate (“bone phosphate of lime”) ranging from 66- 80 per cent Ca;(PO,)., or from 30-35 per cent as phosphorous pent- oxide, which places this among the highest grade rock in the world (Shirley and Vernon, 1960). The material is a conglomerate of pebble, sand and clay deposited during the late Miocene or early Pliocene, and termed the Bone Valley Formation for the great array of fossil vertebrates contained in it. The lake (Fig. 1) has a shoreline of 2,043 m, and the surface area is 28 ha, giving a shoreline development index (Dz) of 2.16. (Since completion of our study, reclamation efforts have reduced the surface area by about 2.4 ha). The sides of the basin are nearly perpendicular, resulting in no littoral zone of any extent. Maxi- mum depth is 8.8 m with a mean of 7.9. Lake surface level (37 m above mean sea level) varied only 1.3 cm during 1962. The bottom 18 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ee Fig. 1. Aerial photograph of Phosphate Pit Lake (extreme left) and nearby pits in 1958 (U. S. Department of Agriculture photo). consists of very fine-grained flocculent silt (locally called “slime”), about 3 m thick, and supports no rooted plants. Natural vegetation surrounding the lake consists of forests of longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) and oaks; the turkey oak (Quercus laevis) and wire grass (Aristida stricta) are common. Willows (Salix longipes) have colonized the steep banks of the lake near the surface level. Pre- cipitation and environmental temperature in the vicinity of the lake are shown in Fig. 2. This pit was mined during 1921, 1922, 1923 and then abandoned. It became water-filled probably within two years. The station on Phosphate Pit Lake was occupied from 0830-1130 hr monthly during the period of study. In January, at the latitude of the lake, only one hour and thirty-five minutes of daylight pre- vailed before sampling was begun; in June some three and one-half hours of light had prevailed. This difference could have had some effect on certain data, particularly those pertaining to dissolved oxygen and carbon dioxide, chlorophyll, vertically migrating zoo- plankton, light transmission, and temperature. METHODS Phosphate Pit Lake was visited monthly from August, 1961, through October, 1962. One sampling station was established over the deepest part of the lake and was occupied at nearly the same clock hour on each visit. RE AND Squiss: Limnological Cycles 19 I2 A \ 1] | \ l \ lO 7 | S) | \ Gapcsiezo) 21 49-22 19. 20.13. 27% 29 re ly 29 \30 30 ie aol os l Z6 ~ = | g a 5 ) ic oO. a: 4 = Lu 3 bh 2 | . 17 ReoneO ve Did) OR) UM Ae Mod .od > A. S.-O ZI eae N98 1% 10) 10 18 2) 12 20.1% 14. 9 914 1961 1962 Fig. 2. Monthly mean precipitation and atmospheric temperature in the environment of Phosphate Pit Lake during 1961 and 1962. Figures inside the axes give atmospheric temperature at time of each visit. Numbers below the month abbreviations denote the date of visitation. Precipitation is given in inches following U. S. Weather Bureau policy. All field work was done from an aluminum boat. Samples for chemical analyses were taken from the surface and at one-meter in- tervals to the bottom by means of a three-liter Foerst water sampler _(Kemmerer-type). Samples returned to the laboratory for chemi- cal analyses were stored in amber glass jugs that had been acid washed prior to use. Analyses in the laboratory were begun within 48 hours. Field determinations of methyl orange and phenolphtha- lein alkalinity, dissolved oxygen, and carbon dioxide were made im- mediately upon return to shore. Chemical methods are listed below. (1) Specific Conductance: Industrial Instrument Co., self-contained conductivity bridge with null indicator (American Public Health Association, Standard Methods, 1960). 20 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES (2) Calcium: Titrimetric with Calcein indicator and EDTA (Stan- dard Methods, 1960). (3) Total Hardness: Titrimetric with EDTA (Standard Methods 1960). (4) Nitrate Nitrogen: Phenoldisulfonic acid method (Standard Methods, 1960). ; (5) Magnesium: Difference in EDTA determination of Ca+ Mg. (6) Phosphate (ortho): Ammonium molybdate-stannous chloride method (Standard Methods, 1960). (7) Aluminum: Hellige Water Comparator, color discs, and rea- gents from Hellige Corporation. (8) Dissolved Oxygen: Alsterberg (Azide) modification of Winkler Method (Standard Methods, 1960). (9) Free Carbon Dioxide: Titrimetric with NaOH and phenolph- thalein (Standard Methods, 1960) and also calculated from pH and total alkalinity according to Rainwater and Thatcher (1960); the latter values are used in references to carbon dioxide. (10) Total Alkalinity: Titrimetric with H.SO, and methyl orange (Standard Methods, 1960). (11) Phenolphthalein (Carbonate) Alkalinity: Titrimetric (Stan- dard Methods, 1960). (12) Hydronium Ion Concentration: Beckman Electric Pocket pH meter, replaced by Hellige Colorimetric Comparator Set with glass standards and indicators. | (13) Chloride: Mohr method (Standard Methods, 1960). (14) Silicon Dioxide: Colorimetric molydosilicate method (Stan- dard Methods, 1960). (15) Iron: Phenanthroline method (Standard Methods, 1960). Of the items listed above, (1) through (12) were determined monthly at one-meter intervals surface to bottom; items (13)-(15) were determined at 1 m intervals through the water column in Au- gust, 1961, January, April, August, and October, 1962. Because of technical difficulties, sodium and potassium were not assayed. Physical features were measured as follows: stage data; personal gages; temperature: Whitney Electrical Underwater Thermometer, Whitney Instruments Co.; light transmission: Secchi disc and Whit- ney Underwater Daylight Meter with Deck Cell (Whitney Instru- ments Co.). REID AND Sauiss: Limnological Cycles 21 Certain biological components of the lakes were investigated and the methods are as follows. Chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b. Acetone extraction and spec- trophotometric method (Richards with Thompson, 1952, and Creitz and Richards, 1955). Absorbencies were read at 665, 645, and 630 my, using a Bausch and Lomb “Spectronic 20” colorimeter with ap- propriate tubes. Samples were from one-meter intervals, surface to bottom, March-October, 1962. Banse and Anderson (1967) have found that values obtained by the Richards with Thompson equa- tions are about 24 per cent higher than those derived by UNESCO (1966) and Parsons and Strickland (1963) procedures. Phytoplankton. Concentrated from a 1.5-liter preserved sample of lake water by centrifuging at a moderate rate in a Foerst cen- trifuge. Aliquots of the concentrate were counted in a Sedgwick- Rafter cell at 100 « magnification with a Whipple micrometer disc. From 5-10 fields were counted, depending upon density of or- ganisms. In some instances, a total count of the entire contents of the cell was taken. Zooplankton. Collection was monthly by means of a 10-liter plankton trap (Juday type) with a net of No. 25 bolting silk. Gen- erally, samples were taken at the lake surface, mid-depth, and just above the bottom. In a number of instances, however, samples were taken at one-meter intervals, surface to bottom. In most de- terminations, total counts of zooplankton in a concentrated sample were made rather than estimation from aliquots. Benthic organisms. Collection was monthly by means of a 6” <6” (15.215.2 cm) Ekman sampler at each station. The dredged material was washed over graded screens of mesh size sufficient to retain insect larvae and pupae, oligochaetes, and larger animals. Generally, two samples were screened at each sta- tion. | Total seston. Estimation was made by centrifuging 1.5 liters of lake water in a Foerst centrifuge and drying the centrifugate in an oven at 70° C for approximately 24 hours, or until quantitatively consistent weights taken 1-2 hours apart were obtained. PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS Temperature. Phosphate Pit Lake was thermally stratified in QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 22 “Tr O€ ‘ONV das ‘Nar 82 AVIN ‘L390 aye] Wq eyeydsoyg jo 900 oinjzeroduro} [enuuy (Se) SYNLVYAdDWIL 9¢ ve ce 02 8I 9I 82 > nN a ¢)) 0 m = > me P.) jos) Be) =z 0@ ‘E ‘Bq 92 130 v2 (CW) Hild3d Rem AND Sguiss: Limnological Cycles 23 August, 1961, when the present study was begun, and remained so until October. Cooling began in August both years. The column was isothermal, or nearly so, from November, 1961, until May, 1962, when stratification was reestablished (Fig. 3). Lowest tempera- tures recorded were in January, at which time the water was almost uniformly 16 C surface to bottom. Surface waters were warmest in July, 1962, when the temperature reached 30.5 C. The mean (N= 15) surface temperature was 24.7 C. The range of bottom temper- atures was much more narrow than that at the surface; at a depth of 7.5 m the minimum temperature was 15.9 C recorded in January and February, 1962, and the maximum was 22.7 C in October, 1962. The mean temperature at 7 m during the 15 months was 20.4 C. The anomolous water temperature patterns of February and March, 1962, rest upon local climatological conditions. The aver- age atmospheric temperature in the vicinity of the lake in February was 20 C, about 3° above normal, while the average for March was 17 C, or about 1° below normal (U. S. Dept. Commerce, 1963, pp. 174-183). Our data show that the air temperature at the time of our February visit was 20 C; in March it was 13 C. On the basis of the vertical distribution patterns of oxygen and various ions described subsequently, and of temperature patterns shown here, we are led to conclude that this lake exhibits a high level of stability when stratified. The data show one circulation a year in winter and thus would qualify the lake as “warm monomic- tic’ (Hutchinson and Loffler, 1956), although, admittedly, the hy- polimnion is not extensive. Transparency. The waters of Phosphate Pit Lake are generally turbid throughout the year. Secchi disc transparency was lowest during winter months and highest in summer (Fig. 4), the range being from 33 cm in February, to 110 cm in June, 1962. As pointed out previously, these measurements were made at roughly the same clock hour (0830-0930 hr) each month and the angle of incident radiation was greater in summer than in winter; a hazy overcast is also often present in the early hours of winter months. Although measurements with the underwater light meter were taken only from February through October, 1962, there appears to be substantial agreement between these data (Table 1) and Secchi disc readings. Indeed, responses of the deck cell of the unit indi- cated that incident surface radiation at the time of the February- QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES wowce Lome. (e) on frases, at rae ee 2 eles ad teen, gs —S5 2rd a) = a Ge is) a o os WwW = . Eo =°¢ =¢ 3° a4 0) fy os oO Gey so pe) > oo» ee So = “2 : 2 rd Oo Os a = BR 7 oe “ean, ns dT wenn Senuuce ie!) + "225 BS wo me oO .8 One =a Sie os Eo, ro) Y ow Zoe wi EE (&) 0) tl Ze 26 32 oC Oy a oD © SW) 6 To) S Lio} (e) oO A 235 a. n nm oS) LS} om 2, e oe) S bb ‘o) ad see 2 eB) : ee 5 ar =< >& 3 uw) Soe (e) n fe) 25 . N ow © 3 rar id =) = GF eo ae Ss ul a = of = =) = + = nN Toe suessensenssptensy¢ —_——_—_—_—_ = = es e 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 SPRING ALKALINITY (mg/L) Total alkalinity, monthly through the water column of Phosphate Pit Lake. a er — men, -—— =: tee ee ROCOO Oe OSE minke we" Ba aa e 2a, sss er bet “eae ee as ec WJ a s* 5 = 50 60 AUTUMN 1961 & 1962 Fig. 6, ABS Bo PTI oc 4 eee es ee es ee —= sen —==: | SOOO 08 229 POR OD00¢ seseves lo 20 30 40 5 6 7 29 Limnological Cycles REID AND SQUIBB: ‘IOP[/BUL UI OIB sonTeA “ZOBL ‘19q0}0O puke ‘1oquIajdeg Ysnsny :¢c oWIRI “ZO6T ‘A[n{ pue ounf{ :p oumeig ‘ZQOGT ‘AePJ_ pue [Udy ‘:¢ owe “ZOoGT ‘Yoley pue Areniqay :% owWeIy ‘TOG “equIo}deg pue ysnsny :[ swell ‘SYJUOU pozOoJOS UI UUINJOO 19}eM 9} YSNOIY} oplxOIp UoqIeo pue oyeuUOgIeO FO sdiysuonejey ‘) ‘SIyy (1/6w) INZLNOO Ol @ EO “O08 Of Ol O J ae | 9 98 “ aes 1s) i x : 5 ae x 4 v as 7 ex } 3 ne } = i ‘ 1: If © iC ey lie i Ik: |: I: |: It: |: | 1} ¢ le 5 ee: 7 09 -—- VE | 209 hd 7 [i Ua |i If i: | ae) 30 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES mee SURFACE 196] MONTH 1962 Fig. 8. Monthly variation in pH in three levels of Phosphate Pit Lake. in pH toward more acid bottom waters which existed most of the time. The mean pH near bottom (7 m) was 6.9, ranging from 6.4- 8.0; the high occurred in January, which was the only time the bottom layers were not at or below neutrality. Only in November, 1961, January, and March, 1962, was the water column found to be homogeneous or nearly so in terms of pH. Free Carbon Dioxide. The carbon dioxide content in the upper 3 m of the lake was less than 1 mg/liter at all times except in March, 1962, when values of 1.6 mg/liter were obtained at all levels through the water column. From 4-7 m depth, however, considerable vari- ation was found seasonally both at a given depth and in vertical perspective (Fig. 7). Highest concentrations of carbon dioxide were at 7 m in August and September, 1961, and during July and September, 1962; in the latter two months the values were 44 and 36 mg/liter respectively. Vertically, the waters were homogeneous and contained less than 1 mg carbon dioxide/liter at all depths in October-November, 1961, in January, 1962, and nearly so in De- cember, 1961, there being only 3 mg/liter difference from surface to bottom. The mean carbon dioxide content at 4 m depth was 1.9, and at 7 m, 12 mg/liter. Dissolved Oxygen. During the 15-month period, dissolved oxy- gen in the uppermost meter of the lake varied 9.9 mg/liter. From a low of 2.8 mg/liter (34 per cent saturation) in October, 1961, the concentration reached a high of 12.7 mg/liter in May, 1962. Surface waters failed to reach saturation during the periods September- November, 1961, and March-April, 1962. The mean concentration (N=15) of oxygen in surface waters was 8.4 mg/liter. Near mid- depth at 4 m, concentrations of 1.3-7.0 mg/liter prevailed, the mean of the monthly measurements being 4.1 mg/liter. Below 6 m depth anaerobic conditions existed in August and September, 1961, and REID AND SguisB: Limnological Cycles 31 from May through October, 1962. At 7 m the oxygen concentration was 8.7 mg/liter in January and 5.5 mg/liter in March, but through- out the other months it was less than 3 mg/liter, the mean for all months being 0.9 mg/liter. Vertically through the lake the dissolved oxygen content was homogeneous, or nearly so, only in October and November, 1961, and in January and March, 1962 (Fig. 4). During the other months, marked oxygen stratification existed, and in some instances exhibited rather dramatic declines in concentration over a short vertical distance. In September, 1961, for example, the oxygen content decreased 5.1 mg/liter from 3-4 m; and in December the decline was 7.7 mg/liter in the same stratum. In May, 1962, the oxygen decreased 5.5 mg/liter between 2-3 m of depth. Moore (1950) reported similar phenomena in Lake Providence, Louisiana, and emphasized that the rapid decline in oxygen often occurred above the thermocline, as was also the case in Phosphate Pit Lake (Fig. 4). Moore suggested that such conditions would indicate in- complete mixing at times in the epilimnion as a result of protection from winds. The small surface area and the steep banks surround- ing the pit would tend to reduce wind effects. Calcium and Magnesium. The calcium content of the lake waters fluctuated seasonally, both at any given depth and vertically with considerable magnitude. Minimum concentration of the ion (8.8 mg/liter) was in September, 1962, at 4 m, while the maximum (34.9 mg/liter) existed at the same time at 7m. As shown in Fig. 9, calcium was lowest in surface waters in summer and remained rather uniformly near 20 mg/liter during the remainder of the year. The mean of 15 surface determinations was 16.3 mg/liter (0.79 me/ liter). Generally, the amounts of calcium seasonally at mid-depth varied little from those near surface, the mean at 4 m being 15.8 mg/liter. During summer and early autumn, however, concentra- tions were increased greatly below 5 m resulting in a mean of 24.8 mg/liter (1.21 me/liter) at 7m. From October, 1961, through May, 1962, the calcium content of the lake was nearly uniform from sur- face to bottom (Fig. 9), but during summer, differences through the water column varied about 15.5 mg/liter, and in September, 1962, 24.6 mg/liter from surface to 7 m. Magnesium concentration varied only from 7.0 mg/liter in March 1962, at 4 m to 15.0 mg/liter recorded the previous Septem- 32 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES —— SURFACE CALCIUM (mg/L) J F M I961 CTH 1962 Fig. 9. Seasonal variations in calcium content in three levels of the lake. ber. The magnesium maximum in surface waters was 12.6 mg/liter in May, 1962, the minimum being 7.7 mg/liter in March preceding. The mean magnesium content of the surface stratum (N=15) was 9.9 mg/L (0.81 me/liter); the mean at mid-depth was approxi- mately the same. At 7 m magnesium ranged from 7.9 mg/liter in March, 1962, to 17.2 mg/liter the following July. The mean of monthly measurements at that depth was 11.7 mg/liter (0.95 me/ liter) reflecting slightly higher concentrations in late summer than during the remainder of the year. Aluminum, Silica, Iron, and Chloride. Although analyses were made monthly over the 15-month period, aluminum was detected only in September-October, 1961, February-March, and May-June, 1962. The highest concentration was 0.09 mg/liter in the bottom 2 m in February; this was the only period when the ion was found at all depths, the mean through the water column being 0.05 mg/liter (0.005 me/liter). The mean of all detectable quantities (N=34) was 0.03 mg/liter. Analyses for silica (as SiO.) were made in August, 1961, and in January, April, August, and October, 1962; the ion was present at all depths in each of the months. Highest concentrations in surface waters, as well as through the vertical column, were in January (Table 3), the mean through the column in January was 4.0 mg/ liter. Greatest amounts in deep waters were in August, 1961 and 1962. The mean of surface waters was 2.7 and at 7m, 3.4 mg/liter. Lowest quantities occurred in October, 1962, at which time the REID AND Squiss: Limnological Cycles 33 TABLE 3 Silica, iron, and chloride (mg/liter) in Phosphate Pit Lake in August, 1961, and in January, April, August, and October, 1962 Mineral Depth (m) Aug Jan Apr Aug Oct SiO, 0 2.4 4.9 2.9 2.1 1.3 1 3.2 4.9 2.7 2.3 1.1 2 2.8 3.0 2.8 2.0 Wal 3 2.5 3.0 2.8 2.5 1.2 4 2.4 3.9 2.5 1.8 ell 5 2.2 3.9 2.9 2.0 1.4 6 2.2 3.9 3.0 2.2 1.4 ul 4.] 3.8 3.3 4.2 1e7/ Fe 0 0.05 0.12 0.07 0.10 — I 0.08 0.11 0.07 0.10 — 2 0.09 0.04 0.07 0.09 — 3 0.08 0.03 0.04 0.09 — 4 0.04 0.03 0.07 0.09 — 5 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.09 — 6 0.06 0.01 0.04 0.12 — ql 0.17 0.02 0.04 0.26 — Cl 0 8.5 7.3 8.5 6.2 5.7 1 8.9 7.5 7.5 6.4 6.2 2 8.5 7.5 8.3 5.8 6.2 3 8.8 7.8 7.8 7.0 6.2 4 8.4 7.6 7.0 6.4 5.6 5 8.3 7.8 7.1 6.0 6.2 6 8.3 8.0 8.0 6.6 5.7 if 8.5 eo ok — 5.3 column mean was 1.3 mg/liter. The mean of all determinations (N=40) was 2.6 mg/liter. Iron was determined through the water column in August, 1961, and in January, April, and August, 1962. In surface waters the iron content ranged from 0.05 mg/liter in August, 1961, to 0.12 mg/ liter in January following (Table 3); the mean (N=4) at the sur- face was 0.08 mg/liter. Near bottom, the mean iron concentration was 0.12 mg/liter, resulting mainly from decidedly higher values ob- tained in August, 1961 (0.17 mg/liter) and again the following Au- gust (0.26 mg/liter). Vertically, the amount of iron was highest in August, 1962, at which time the mean of eight analyses was 0.12 34 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 5.0 SURFACE 4.0 O N D J I96| 1962 Fig. 10. Seasonal variations in orthophosphate content in three levels of the lake. mg/liter. In August preceding, however, the mean through the column was 0.07 mg/liter, while the January and April means were 0.05 mg/liter in each of the months. The mean of all determina- tions (N=32) was 0.07 mg/liter. Chloride was measured in August, 1961, and in January, April, August, and October, 1962. Greatest concentration through the column occurred in August, 1961 (Table 3), when the mean was 8.5 mg/liter. The lowest vertical content was in October, 1962, the mean being 5.9 mg/liter. Seasonally, chloride varied little with depth, the mean for surface waters amounting to 7.2 mg/liter; at 4 m: 6.6; and at 7 m: 7.2 mg/liter. The mean of all measurements (N=39) was 7.2 mg/liter (0.20 me/liter). Orthophosphate and Nitrate. The highest concentrations of phosphate (ortho) in the lake were detected in August-September, 1961, and in June-July, 1962, when values from 4.0-4.7 mg/liter were obtained. Minimum quantities were found during the period June- August, in the upper 4 m, the range being 0.7-1.1 mg/liter. The mean of all determinations (N=119) for phosphate was 2.0 mg/ liter. Throughout the 15-month study, the phosphate content in surface and mid-depth waters differed little (Fig. 10), the mean for each stratum being 1.8 mg/liter. In the zone below 6 m, how- RE AND Sourss: Limnological Cycles 35 0.60 0.50 oem SURFACE mececesees 3 om FSS 0 0.40 ai ~N to.) E 1 0:30 ro) z 0.20 O N D M M ae 196] MONTH 19 Fig. 11. Seasonal variation in nitrate content at three levels in Phosphate Pit Lake. ever, the concentration varied considerably from 1.1 mg/liter to the maxima noted above. The mean content through the seasons at 7 m was 2.7 mg/liter. Through the water column, the lake waters were richest in phosphate in May, the mean from surface to bottom being 3.1 mg/liter. Three months later, however, this had decreased to 1.2 mg/liter. . Nitrogen as nitrate fluctuated considerably both vertically from month to month (Fig. 11) and seasonally at the various depths. The highest values through the water column were taken in March, 1962, when the surface waters contained 0.57 mg/liter and the deeper water 0.21 mg/liter, the mean being 0.39 mg/liter. Mini- mum concentrations occurred in July and August, 1962, at which times the mean for each month was 0.04 mg/liter. Surface waters varied from a high of 0.57 mg/liter in March, 1962, to 0.03 mg/liter the following July, the mean for 14 months being 0.15 mg/liter. The 36 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES mean for the same time at a depth of 4 m was 0.13 mg/liter. Deeper waters, at 7 m, contained somewhat higher quantities of nitrate, the mean being 0.18 mg/liter. BIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS Phytoplankton. Data on phytoplankton are available for the period August, 1961, through August, 1962. The most persistent algae during this period were blue-greens, Anacystis sp. and Ana- baenopsis sp., the former being present from surface to bottom at all times but showing no particular seasonal pattern in variation in density. Anabaenopsis was not recorded in January, 1962, and con- centrations were generally low during the winter months. In late summer, however, the density reached 270 x 10° filaments per liter in 1961 (August) and 110 10° filaments/liter in August, 1962. An- other blue-green, Chroococcus sp., was present from August through December, 1961, reaching maximum density of 8.5 x 10° cells/liter in the latter month at a depth of 7 m. The most conspicuous Chlorophyta in Phosphate Pit Lake were Ankistrodesmus falcatus var. spirilliformis G. S. West, Scenedesmus sp., Tetraédron sp., and Coelastrum sphaericum Naeg. The occur- rence of Ankistrodesmus appeared to be decidedly seasonal, for it was present in August, 1961, in concentrations of 1300 10° cells/ liter at the surface and 3300 10° cells/liter at 4 m, but was not re- corded again until the following May. In that month the count was 83 < 10° cells/liter in surface waters and it increased to 230 X< 10° in July. By August the density in surface waters decreased to 150 x 10° cells/liter. During the summer months the count of Ankis- trodesmus decreased directly with depth such that at 7 m the pop- ulation ranged from 11 x 10° to 70 x 10° cells/liter. Scenedesmus sp. was present through the water column in October and December, 1961, and from February through June, 1962. In the surface waters the concentration of the alga ranged from 4.1 x 10° cells/liter in December, to 0.5 < 10° cells/liter in June; at a depth of 7 m the lowest counts were 0.7 x 10° in February and June, and the highest, 7.6 10°, in December. The occurrence of Tetraédron coincided with that of Ankistrodesmus but continued later through July and August, 1962. In the upper waters the lowest population density of Tetraédon was 0.3 10° cells/liter in April, while the highest was REID AND Sequins: Limnological Cycles 37 12 10° in July following. Generally, the density of the alga de- creased with depth such that counts at 7 m ranged from 1.3 « 10° to 3.9 10° cells/liter. Coelastrum sphaericum was present in our samples in November, 1961, and during April-June, 1962, although absent in surface waters during May and June. The highest con- centration of the species was recorded at 4 m in April, 1962, the count being 22 « 10° colonies (coenobia ) /liter. Diatoms (Chrysophyta), mostly Synedra, but some Navicula, were present in the lake at all depths throughout the year, although the density of the aggregations varied greatly. Autumn seemed to be the season of most sparse populations; at this time our counts were of the order of 0.18 10° to 2.1 10° cells/liter. During the summer, however, diatom concentrations increased decidedly, up to the order of 5.9<10° to 12 10° cells/liter, with a maximum being reached in June, 1962, when the density at 7 m depth was 53.8 < 10° cells/liter. This was associated with a marked increase in numbers with depth; the density in surface waters was 15 x 10° and at 4 m, 38 10° cells/liter. Otherwise, no distinctive depth dis- tribution pattern of diatoms was observed. The greatest variety of phytoplankters was noted in May, 1962, at which time all of the aforementioned forms except Chroococcus were present. Chlorophyll a. Estimates of chlorophyll a were obtainec through the water column monthly from February through October, 1962. In general the greatest concentrations at all depth were in the March-May period (Fig. 12). Chlorophyll a in surface waters ranged from 54.6 mg/m? in May to 6.1 mg/m? the following July, the mean for nine months being 23.6 mg/m’. Near mid-depth the con- tent of the pigment varied from 55.6 mg/m in May to 5.8 mg/m? in September, the mean for the period at this depth being 26.3 mg/m’. At the bottom, the highest value (46.4 mg/m?) was determined in May, and the lowest (3.1 mg/m?) in February preceding; the mean at 7m was 19.9 mg/m*. Vertically through Phosphate Pit Lake the chlorophyll a content was maximum in May, when the mean from surface to bottom was 68.1 mg/m*. Minimum concentration oc- curred in September, the mean through the column being 6.3 mg/m*. Zooplankton. The diel zooplankton of Phosphate Pit Lake was composed almost entirely of Rotifera and nauplii of Copepoda. We 38 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES @eesesss> 18 i bo) Siar ae are y page oO <2 a a we e | ose” os e o* -, 5 oO» + wv oe s* A [—} v euseenenens® fo) + NX oer aaa oe “e, No* lOO O . s s s s sy * o s te 'seeesee z, 2 °e 7e, *e EY as Lam es 8 e * 2 * 2 ry a s e cy . + Ww * . z * = ‘ > on * af ion a a *. @ ~~ ry °, osoeee ~~ s eons *s ° - ~ "] O ooo” ot ° se 2 set o* AJ ° ° « > ’ ote, ol ou ° ° ° =>) e o* a “ee, e o* z. a gusssseseeceuenees “een! CHLOROPHYLL © (mg/L) Vertical aspects of chlorophyll a content, February through October, 1962, in Phosphate Pit Lake. Fig. 12. RE AND Sguiss: Limnological Cycles 39 TABLE 4 Monthly counts of Rotifera (individuals per liter) at three levels in Phosphate Pit Lake Month Surface 3-4 m 7-7.5m Aug 1961 13 510 200 Sep 190 90 13 Oct 120 70 0 Nov 70 110 115 Dec 1 0 0 Jan 1962 1 1 il Hebp 90 45 0 Mar 96 160 122 Apr 6 0 0 May 563 1510 666 Jun TEA ike 6 Jul 6 13 6 Aug 32 102 90 Sep 6 13 6 Oct 0 0 0 emphasize the day-time aspect, for subsequent studies of diurnal migrations of Mesocyclops edax in winter in a nearby phosphate pit have revealed sizable populations of this copepod, together with larvae of Chaoborus, from surface to bottom during early morning hours before sunrise (Reid and Blake, 1970). The population density of rotifers varied considerably, both seasonally at a given depth and vertically within the lake (Table 4). In December, 1961, rotifers were sparse in the upper waters and absent in deeper layers; in October, 1962, no rotifers were taken in the sampling. In January, 1962, the census was only one indi- vidual per liter (ind/liter). As shown in the Table, the highest density of rotifers occurred in May, 1962, when the mid-water sample contained 1510 ind/liter; the mean of the counts at three levels was 913 ind/liter. The mean of all monthly data for surface, mid-depth, and bottom were 91, 225, and 137 ind/liter, respectively. Copepod nauplii were present in the lake throughout most of the year although in drastically reduced numbers in summer and early fall (Table 5); none was taken at any depth in July. The mean density of the surface population for the months when the animals were present was 59 ind/liter. At mid-depth the mean was 58 ind/ liter, and at bottom: 35 ind/liter. 40 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES TABLE 5 Monthly census of Copepoda (individuals per liter) at three depths in Phosphate Pit Lake Month Surface 3-4 m 7-7.5m Aug 1961 1 10 4 Sep 32 58 0 Oct 13 26 6 Nov 64 110 51 Dec 198 90 5 Jan 1962 51 76 38 Feb 134 70 45 Mar 70 90 22 Apr 83 198 Cb May 0 64 70 Jun 1 6 if Jul 0 0 0 Aug 0 lI if Sep 0 6 1 Oct 1 2 1 Adult calanoid copepods were found in quantities greater than one per liter only from November, 1961, through April, 1962. During that period the animals were present at all depths, the maximum density occurring in December when the count in surface samples was 108 ind/liter, at mid-depth: 83 ind/liter; but only 2 ind/liter at the bottom. The mean density in the five months surface samples in which the plankter was present was 25 ind/liter; in six samples from mid-depth: 24 ind/liter; and at the bottom: 11 ind/liter. Adult cyclopoid copepods were even more rare than calanoids in Phosphate Pit Lake. In surface waters Mesocyclops edax oc- curred only in our samples of December, 1961, and January-Febru- ary, 1962; 13 ind/liter in the first period and 1 ind/liter in each of the two months of 1962. In the mid-water region this plankton was found in numbers greater than one per liter in September, October, and December, 1961, and in March, 1962; the maximum was 32 ind/liter in October. In the bottom waters we recorded more than one cyclopoid per liter only in October (13 ind/liter) and February- March, 1962 (4 ind/liter) each month. The migratory behavior of M. edax is apparently quite erratic, for in a 24-hour diurnal study of plankton in a near-by pit on 8 January, 1964, noon samples from 4-6 meters depth contained nine of the copepods; 12 days later the REID AND SguisB: Limnological Cycles 4] —— SURFACE SESTON (mg/L). aoe NN epee Rw row OY ea O'S” CO 1961 Bons i962 Fig. 13. Monthly variation in total seston content of Phosphate Pit Lake. density of the species ranged from 10 ind/liter at 4 m to 27 ind/liter at 6 m (Reid and Blake, 1970). The absence of Cladocera proved to be one of the more astound- ing findings in this study. At mid-depth in May, 1962, our count in- dicated one individual per liter, and this was the only occurrence of what is usually considered to be a characteristic planktonic crus- tacean. Our unpublished data for a natural lake (Scott) in the phosphate region of Central Florida reveal an identical situation, while in Clear Lake, a solution basin, cladocerans were present throughout the year in densities ranging up to nearly 400 individ- uals per liter. Seston. Total seston, here defined as all living and non-living particulate matter in the water, varied in the upper waters about 6 mg/liter during the 15 months of study. The seasonal variation in seston content of bottom waters, on the other hand, was of the order of 11 mg/liter and exhibited two maxima, in February and in July, 1962 (Fig. 13). Each of these coincided with a decrease in seston mass in upper waters and followed upon noticeable pulses of seston in the upper layers. Over the 15-month period the mean ses- ton content of surface waters was 7.6 mg/liter; at mid-depth the mean was 7.5 mg/liter; and near bottom: 8.9 mg/liter. These figure would indicate that although phyto- and zooplankton densities fluc- tuate through an annual cycle, as does the amount of allochthonous materials introduced seasonally with surface run-off from rainfall, the lake maintains a relatively high level of vertical homogeneity in the standing crop of seston. 42 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Benthos. The bottom of Phosphate Pit Lake is composed of fine, flocculent material of particle size that easily washes through a screen of 20 meshes per centimeter. No macro-phytobenthos ex- isted. During our study, the zoobenthos of sufficient size to be retained in the aforementioned screen consisted mostly of larvae of Chao- borus sp. (Diptera). They were present in all months but the pop- ulation density varied seasonally. The months from November, 1961, through March, 1962, were the times of greatest abundance of the larval forms, the maximum being reached in December when the count was 12,169 individuals per m?. During the other months of the winter the density ranged from 4,000 to slightly over 5,000 ind/m?. The population was most sparse in April, 1962, when sample counts indicated about 600 ind/m?; this however, was also a period of emergence of the insect, and numerous exuvia were ob- served over the surface of the lake and on the shore. In the diurnal studies in the near-by pit noted above, Chaoborus larvae became planktonic at night, appearing in the bottom two meters in January at sundown (1800 hr). By 2100 hr they were present through the entire water column and remained there until near sunrise. The pupae of Chaoborus came into our samples only in Septem- ber, 1961 (30 ind/m?), February (20 ind/m?), March (120 ind/m?), and June (20 ind/m?), 1962. Larval forms of another dipteran, Ten- dipes sp. were taken during winter, the highest density being 800 ind/m? in December, 1961. Cyclopoid and calanoid copepods were common to abundant in samples throughout the year, and small oligochaetes were taken occasionally; no quantitative estimates were made, however. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Phosphate Pit Lake is a small, eutrophic, monomictic body of water artificially produced as result of mining for phosphatic lime- stone in South Central Florida. Maximum depth to a soft floccu- lent bottom is 7.5-8.0 m. Throughout the period of study (August, 1961 through October, 1962), transparency was generally low. The maximum was in June, at which time the depth at which a Secchi disc disappeared was REID AND SgurBB: Limnological Cycles 43 110 cm, and photocell measurements indicated 0.2 per cent of sur- face illumination at 6 m. ; During the period of investigation, the lake exhibited rather stable thermal and chemical stratification from May through Octo- ber, although oxygen stratification occurred in some winter months also. The hypolimnion was restricted, generally, to about the bottom-most 2 meters. During summer and early autumn, hypo- limnetic waters became anaerobic, and carbon dioxide appeared in significant amounts, resulting in layering of carbonates in the upper waters and carbon dioxide in the lower strata. The quantity of dis- solved substances, such as calcium, magnesium, phosphate, and bi- carbonates, increased greatly in the deeper region in summer. This resulted in a decidedly higher specific conductance in the hypo- limnion. Total hardness of the lake ranged about a mean of 28 mg CaCO, /liter. The nitrate content at all depths in the lake was highest during winter months, but decreased rapidly in the upper waters in spring as phytoplankton populations increased. This was followed by a marked reduction of the ion in deeper waters in June, and a low but nearly uniform nitrate content existed through the water column until autumn. As might be expected in view of the origin and location of the lake, the phosphate content was generally high (up to nearly 5 mg/liter) but varied seasonally. During winter and spring, the concentration of this ion was rather uniform from surface to bottom, but in summer the hypolimnetic waters were much richer than the upper strata in phosphate. As shown in Fig. 14, the monthly pat- tern of mean phosphate through the water column exhibited trends similar to those of chlorophyll and nitrate. The pH of upper waters. was consistently above neutrality, be- coming near and above pH 9 in summer. Deeper waters were nearly neutral throughout the 15-month period. From November through April, Phosphate Pit Lake was verti- cally isometric, or nearly so, in total (methyl orange) alkalinity measurements, varying only slightly from near 26 mg/liter. During the remainder of the year, however, marked stratification existed and the alkalinity of strata below 4.5 m greatly exceeded that of upper waters. Carbonate (phenolphthalein) alkalinity was present in waters above 4-5 m from April through August, during which 44 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ol ay = Ss) a oO TO ie) oO oO z 3.0 60 0.60 50 0.50 2.0 40 0.40 30 0.30 lo) 20 0.20 lO 0.10 0 Oo FF MUA Nd A See MONTH Fig. 14. Comparison of annual cycles of nitrate, phosphate, and chloro- phyll a in Phosphate Pit Lake. Monthly values represent the mean content of each substance vertically through the water column determined at one-meter intervals, surface to bottom (7m). All values are expressed as mg/liter. time carbon dioxide was absent, doubtlessly having been taken up in algal photosynthesis. Silica occurred in highest quantities in winter and decreased through spring and summer, probably being incorporated into valves of diatoms as these algae increased in number. Iron and chloride concentrations remained essentially uniform over the year. Chlorophyll a was determined vertically through the water only from February through October, 1962. Highest quantities occurred in March, May, and June. In March, maxima existed at depths of 3m and 5 m; in June, a maximum occurred at 4m; and in May, maxima were at 2m and 6m. Seasonally, the monthly mean chlor- ophyll content through the water column followed closely the pat- tern of phosphate and nitrate (Fig. 14). Surface temperatures varied from 16.2 C in January to 30.5 C in July; bottom waters ranged from 15.9 C in January and February to RED AND Sourps: Limnological Cycles 45 22.7 C in October. As indicated above, the lake was thermally stratified from May through October, and nearly homothermal dur- ing winter. All data pointed toward a rather high degree of stabil- ity during stratification. The dissolved oxygen content of the lake was highest in May in surface waters (12.7 mg/liter). In the upper strata, the concentra- tion failed to reach saturation in September and November, 1961, and during the period March-April, 1962. In 1961, however, strati- fication was not present in October, and, interestingly, oxygen strat- ification reappeared during winter in December and February. Throughout the summer the oxycline extended from about 2 m toa near 4 m of depth. Anaerobic states prevailed below 5 m in August- September, 1961, and from May through October, 1962. Free carbon dioxide in significant amounts was confined to waters of the lake below 4m. Considerable season variation in the content of the gas occurred, the highest concentrations being in late summer and early autumn (up to 44 mg/liter). Vertical distribu- tional relationships between carbon dioxide and carbonates were noted previously. Biologically, the lake appeared to be quite productive, at least insofar as the seasonal standing crop of phytoplankton was con- cerned. In winter the populations were sparse, consisting predomi- nantly of Anacystis sp., Anabaenopsis sp., Chroococcus sp., Scene- desmus sp., and diatoms. During spring however, the numbers and kinds of algae increased, the plankton being marked conspicuously by the presence of large numbers of Ankistrodesmus falcatus, Coel- astrum sphaericum, and Tetraédron sp. The diel zooplankton community consisted, in the main, of Roti- fera and immature Copepoda. The rotifer population dwindled considerably in winter but increased greatly during early summer. A most glaring aspect of the zooplankton was the absence of adult Copepoda and Cladocera. Observations in a near-by pit revealed diurnal vertical migrations by large numbers of Mesocyclops edax, a cyclopoid copepod, thus suggesting differences in the composition of zooplankton from day to night. Total seston contained in the lake at all levels ranged generally from about 5-10 mg/liter. The content of seston in deeper waters rose to nearly 13 mg/liter in July, but decreased significantly in autumn. 46 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Zoobenthic animals retained in a 20 mesh/cm screen were mainly Chaoborus sp., a dipteran; the population density reached slightly over 12,000 individuals per square meter in December. This or- ganism becomes planktonic at night. Larvae of another dipteran, Tendipes sp., entered the collections during winter, and cyclopoid and calanoid copepods were common to abundant in the benthos throughout the year. Oligochaetes were taken occasionally. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We are pleased to acknowledge the assistance of Dr. Francis Drouet, Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, and Dr. L. A. Whitford, North Carolina State College, Raleigh, in the identifica- tion of algae, and Dr. G. A. Cole, Arizona State University, Tempe, for identifying copepods. Appreciation is accorded Dr. A. M. Laessle, University of Florida, Gainesville, for criticisms of portions of an earlier manuscript; and to the U. S. Geological Survey, Ocala, Florida, and Mr. U. K. Custred, American Cyanamid Corporation, Mulberry, Florida, for useful data. We are also indebted to former students Janet Aucremann, Sheila Most, Roger Porter, Norman Blake, and Grover Wrenn for plankton counts, chlorophyll determi- nations, chemical analyses, and field aid. Under the supervision of the junior author participating in a program sponsored by the American Chemical Society, some of the chemical analyses were made by students of Mr. Walter Swan, Northeast High School, St. Petersburg; to them we are grateful. Financial support was pro- vided by the Florida Presbyterian College Research Committee and National Science Foundation (Grant No. 17865). LITERATURE CITED AMERICAN PusLic HEALTH AssocIATION. 1960. Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater. 11th ed. American Public Health Association, New York. BANSE, K., AND G. C. ANDERSON. 1967. Computations of chlorophyll con- centrations from spectrophotometric readings. Limnol. Oceanog., vol. 12, pp. 696-697. Creitz, G. I, anp F, A. Ricnarps. 1955. The estimation and characteriza- tion of plankton populations by pigment analyses. III. A note on the use of “Millipore” membrane filters in the estimation of plankton pig- ments. Jour. Marine Res., vol. 14, pp. 211-216. REID AND SguiBB: Limnological Cycles 47 Hurcuinson, G. E., anp H. LOrrier. 1956. The thermal classification of lakes. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., vol. 42, pp. 84-86. Moore, WALTER G. 1950. Limnological studies of Louisiana lakes. 1. Lake Providence. Ecology, vol. 31, pp. 86-99. Parsons, T. R., AND J. D. H. StrickLanp. 1963. Discussion of spectropho- tometric determinations of marine-plant pigments, with revised equa- tions for ascertaining chlorophylls and carotenoids. Jour. Marine Res., vol. 21, pp. 155-163. Rainwater, F. H., anp L. L. THatcuer. 1960. Methods for collection and analysis of water. U.S. Geol. Surv. Water Supply Paper 1454. Rei, G. K., And N. J. BLAkxe. 1970. Diurnal zooplankton ecology in a phos- phate pit lake. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci., vol. 32, no. 4, pp. 275- 284. Ricuarps, F. A., with T. F. THompson. 1952. The estimation and charac- terization of plankton populations by pigment analyses. II. A _ spec- trophotometric method for the estimation of plankton pigments. Jour. Marine Res., vol. 11, pp. 156-172. SHIRLEY, L. E., AND R. O. VERNON. 1960. The mineral industry of Florida. Minerals Yearbook. U.S. Bureau of Mines, vol. 3, pp. 263-293. UNESCO. 1966. Monographs on oceanographic methodology. 1. Determi- nation of photosynthetic pigments in sea-water. United Nations Edu- cational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Paris. UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE. 1963. Climatological data for 1961. Division of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Florida Presby- terian College, St. Petersburg, Florida 33733; Department of Chem- istry, University of North Carolina at Asheville, Asheville, North Carolina. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 34(1) 1971 Dispersion of the Giant African Snail, Achatina fulica D. O. WOLFENBARGER DISPERSION of organisms is of specific interest to biologists and of general interest to others. One of the first questions asked con- cerning the discovery of the giant African snail Achatina fulica Bowdich, in Florida in 1969, concerned its dispersal. An account of this is given by Sturgeon (in press). Consideration of dispersion of the snail associated with distance from Africa is given here. Movement of the giant African snail from its apparent origin into previously uninfested areas has required time. Such move- ment, or dispersion, had two barriers or hazards in addition to bodies of water; these were time and distance. Energy from within the snail, or from without by means of some agency, was necessary to effect dispersion. Time in greater or lesser amounts, however, is also required for energy to effect dispersion of other species of organisms. Relationships of time and distance were given for dispersion of the tsetse fly, Glossina morsitans Wst., by Jackson (1940); of a fruit fly, Drosophila pseudoobscura Duda by Dob- zhansky and Wright (1943); of Aedes albopictus (Skuse) by Ben- net and Worcester (1946); of a European corn borer parasite Ly- della stabulans grisescens R. D. by Baker, et al. (1949) and of three species of flies, Musca domestica (L.), Phaenieia sericata (Meig) and Phormia regina (Meig), by Lindquist et al. (1951). Graphic studies of these data by Wolfenbarger (1959) showed relationships of time and distance in the dispersal of organisms. Much emphasis and considerable data were given by Mead (1961) on dispersal of the giant African snail as it was moved from country to country for Over a century in a succession of movements. These data indicated rates of movement of the species from Africa to Hawaii. Consid- eration of these data and of the infestation in Florida are given here. By whatever means of dispersal utilized by the snail it ap- peared that a rate of movement could be determined where con- siderable data were available. Factors Affecting Dispersion. Information on movement of the snail by man previous to about 1800 is lacking. Much purposeful movement of the giant African snail was made since then by man to islands and countries of the western Pacific and southeastern Asia, especially during the territorial expansion by the Japanese WOLFENBARGER: Giant African Snail 49 during the decade 1935-45. Exportations of snails were made for the purposes of raising food for man and as given also by Mead (1961), for barnyard fowls. Purposeful movement was made by man to Hawaii, according to Mead (1961), and to Florida, appar- ently for aesthetic reasons, as pets or as a novelty. Hitchhiking on or in articles of commerce, is also common with the giant African snail according to records of shipments from countries infested with the pest. Man appears, therefore, to be the primary agent of dis- persal in all movements to other islands or distant countries. Bodies of water are barriers to snail dispersal. Crawling is the mode of snail movement on land. Such movement is slow although this phase of snail dispersion also has its rates of dispersal. Can crawling be termed the natural mode and transportation by man the un- natural mode of snail dispersion? Methods or Procedure. Distances from Africa, in miles, were measured on a globe to the locations given by Mead (1961) and to Florida. Measurements were by means of a tape, made in a more or less direct line from the eastern coast west of Madagascar. The year of recognition of the snail in different countries listed by Mead (1961) and in Florida in 1969, and distances from Africa, were the variables employed in a regression study. Approximations of distance are accepted in this study firstly be- cause it is impossible to know the point of departure of the snails for a new invasion; secondly the point of arrival cannot be known exactly and thirdly the direction traveled was presumably over water in most instances and cannot be known. Many or most of the snails reported as sources of new infestations, were doubtless several to many generations after those originally from Africa. Furthermore, discovery of the species in newly infested areas may have occurred years after the introduction. Hence, although there are several sources contributing to error, the data give interesting statistical and biological considerations. Results. Country infested, with year of snail introduction and expected from regression calculations are given in Table 1. Graphi- cal studies of the records in terms of distances as related to the years through construction of a scatter diagram are given in Fig. 1. Plotting the data on uniform spaced grids indicated a curvilinear relationship which was made rectilinear by graphing them on semi- logarithmic spacing. Conversion of the distance figures was made 50 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 1980 1900 YEAR OF DISCOVERY 1820 1740 O 4000 8000 12000 16000 MILES FROM AFRICA Fig. 1. Regression curve showing relationships of the giant African snail dispersal from the eastern African coast to lands eastward and northeastward years later. to logarithms, in the manner developed by Wadley and Wolfen- barger (1944), for computation of a regression curve. This curve was drawn in Fig. 1 after reconversion of the logarithms to distance data. The regression formula determined, following methods given by Snedecor (1956) was Expected year of infestation = 1441.36+ 128.41 (log X). The regression coefficient was highly statistically significant, with a t value of 10.6; a highly significant coefficient of correlation was found with r=0.91, and a chi-square test of the data in Table 1 showed a highly nonsignificant value of 7.24, with 23 df and gave further evidence for faith in the curve of Fig. 1. Conclusions. Regression of the giant African snail on the year recognized in a locality continued from about 1800 to the present in an accumulative manner. Expected year of discovery was 1775 WOLFENBARGER: Giant African Snail 51 TABLE 1 Observed and calculated year of discovery of African giant snail Locality Observed year Calculated year Madagascar 1800 1775 Mauritius 1800 1839 Seychelles 1840 1853 Ceylon 1900 1896 India, Calcutta 1847 1908 Singapore 1917 1910 Malaya 1911 1910 Thailand 1937 1914 Vietnam 1937 1916 Sarawak 1928 1919 Hongkong 1941 1925 Amoy 1931 1927 Philippines 1942 1928 Formosa 1932 1928 North Borneo 1939 1932 Caroline Islands 1938 1934 Ryukyu Islands 1935 1934 Palau Islands 1938 1934 New Guinea 1945 1938 Bonin Islands 1938 1939 Mariana Islands 1937 1940 Japan 1933 1940 Bismarck Archipelago 1945 1940 Hawaii 1936 1956 Florida 1969 1979 at Madagascar instead of the observed 1800. Year of snail discov- ery and distance of the country from Africa were closely related. Rather uniquely, the giant African snail has dispersed in an easterly direction. Latin American lands of Central and South America and of the Caribbean area apparently remain free of Achatina fulica. Low temperatures limit infestations of the temper- ate zones to areas bordering the torrid zones. Explanations for eastward dispersal appear somewhat conjectural but are suggested. Much of the nearer lands having temperature, moisture, and plants acceptable to the snail, are eastward from Africa. Less industriali- zation and more dependence on food producing areas near to the human consumers and requiring shorter transportation were doubt- less factors favoring eastward dispersion. Greater frequency of man’s transportation, and the apparently equal curiosity or aesthetic 52 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES desires of peoples in all lands seem unlikely to explain the eastward movements. Japanese expansionary forces mentioned above doubt- less aided and abetted untimely snail dispersion to a number of lands according to Mead (1961). Tropical and subtropical lands of the Caribbean, Central and South American countries may be- come infested with the giant African snail except as it is excluded. LITERATURE CITED Baker, W. A., W. G. BrapLey, AND C. A. CiarK. 1949. Biological control of the European corn borer in the United States. U. S. Dept. Agric. Tech. Bull., vol. 983, pp. 1-185. BENNET, Davip D., anpD Doucuias J. WorcestTeR. 1946. The dispersal of Aedes albopictus in the territory of Hawaii. Amer. Jour. Tropic. Medi- cine, vol. 26, pp. 465-476. DopzHANsky, T., AND SEWALL Wricut. 1943. Genetics of natural popula- tions. X. Dispersion rates of Drosophila pseudoobscura. Genetics, vol. 28, pp. 304-340. Jackson, C. H. N. 1940. The analysis of a tsetse-fly population. Annals Eugenics, vol. 10, pp. 332-369. LinpeuIsTt, ARTHUR W., W. W. YATES, AND RopertT A. HOFFMAN. 1951. Studies of the flight habits of three species of flies tagged with radio- active phosphorus. Jour. Econ. Entomol., vol. 44, no. 3, pp. 397-400. MeEap, ALBERT R. 1961. The giant African snail: a problem in economic malacology. Chicago University Press, Chicago, pp. 4-16. SNEDECOR, GEORGE W. 1956. Statistical methods. Ames. Iowa State Coll. Press, 5th ed., pp. 122-159. STURGEON, Rira. In press. Achatina fulica infestation in North Miami. Proc. Amer. Malacological Union. Presented July 19, 1970, in meeting at Key West. WabLey, F. M., AND D. O. WOLFENBARGER. 1944. Regression of insect den- sity on distance from centers of dispersion as shown by a study of the smaller European elm bark beetle. Jour. Agric. Research, vol. 69, no. 7, pp. 299-308. WOLFENBARBGER, D. O. 1959. Dispersion of small organisms. Lloydia, vol. 22, no. 1, pp. 1-106. University of Florida, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sci- ences Sub-Tropical Experiment Station, Homestead, Florida 33030. Florida Agricultural Experiment Stations Journal Series No. 3570. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 34(1) 1971 The Fishes of Lake Okeechobee, Florida LotTHiAN A. AGER Wiru the exception of descriptions and ranges of the freshwater fishes of Florida (Carr and Goin, 1959 and Briggs, 1958), fishery surveys of individual bodies of water or watershed areas of penin- sular Florida (Bailey, Winn, and Smith, 1954; Hellier, 1967; Hearld and Strickland, 1949; Kilby and Caldwell, 1955; Hubbs and Allen, 1943) have not been sufficient to document accurate range limits of many peninsular Florida species. This survey of Lake Okeechobee was initiated in an attempt to determine the composition and relative abundance of the fishes since southern range limits of a number of species were poorly doc- umented and since exotic species are flourishing in some peninsular Florida freshwater. Peninsular Florida has a depauperate fresh- water fish fauna with such dominant families as Cyprinidae, Cato- _ stomidae, and Percidae being represented by 5, 1, and 1 species re- spectively. On the other hand, the Centrarchidae and Cyprinidon- tidae are unusually well represented in the freshwaters of penin- sular Florida, a result of the uniformly low gradient streams, the past geologic history, and the character of the water (Odum, 1953). METHOD OF COLLECTION The survey began in October, 1967, and continued through No- vember, 1969. Collecting was accomplished with trammel nets, seines, a trawl, a 230-volt electrical shocker, and rotenone. Most fish were identified immediately upon collection. Those which could not be identified in the field were preserved in formalin and taken to laboratory facilities for identification with the works of Eddy (1957), Carr and Goin (1959), and Sterba (1966). Rarer specimens were kept while the more common specimens were dis- carded after identification. Habitat type was noted with the collec- tion of each species. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Forty-three species of fish were collected from Lake Okeechobee during the survey. Of these, 36 are freshwater fishes (Table 1), whereas seven are saltwater forms that invade adjacent freshwater 54 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Freshwater fishes collected from Lake Okeechobee, Florida Family Amiidae Amia calva Family Lepisosteidae Lepisosteus platyrhincus Lepisosteus oOsseus Family Clupeidae Dorosoma cepedianum Dorosoma petenense Family Esocidae Esox niger Esox americanus Family Catostomidae Erimyzon sucetta Family Cyprinidae Notemigonus crysoleucas Notropis maculatus Opsopoeodus emiliae Family Ictaluridae Ictalurus punctatus Ictalurus catus Ictalurus natalis Ictalurus nebulosus Noturus gyrinus Family Anguillidae Anguilla rostrata Family Cyprinodontidae Jordanella floridae Cyprinodon variegatus Luciana goodei Fundulus seminolis Fundulus chrysotus Family Poeciliidae Poecilia latipinna Gambusia affinis Heterandria formosa Family Atherinidae Menidia beryllina Labidesthes sicculus Family Centrarchidae Micropterus salmoides Pomoxis nigromaculatus Enneacanthus gloriosus Chaenobryttus gulosus Lepomis marginatus Lepomis punctatus Lepomis macrochirus Lepomis microlophus Family Percidae Etheostoma barratti areas (Table 2). Although no reproduction of these saltwater spe- cies occurs, with the possible exception of the Atlantic needlefish, significant immigration of some saltwater species yields large num- bers of their kind, even to the point of their being common. Table 3 lists several species of fishes not found during this study but col- lected by other investigators (Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission, 1956, Recommended program for northwest shore of Lake Okeechobee, unpublished report). FAMILY AMIDAE 1. Amia calva Linnaeus. Bowfin. This species is relatively abundant throughout the vegetated areas and the canal systems associated with the lake. Young individuals with the adult male were collected on January 29, suggesting an early spring spawning time. Acer: Lake Okeechobee Fishes 55 TABLE 2 Salt water fishes collected from Lake Okeechobee Family Belonidae Strongylura marina. Atlantic Needlefish Family Mugilidae Mugil cephalus. Striped Mullet Family Gobiidae Microgobius gulosus. Clown Goby Family Soleidae Irinectes maculatus. Hogchoker Family Centropomidae Centropomus undecimalis. Snook Family Elopidae Elops saurus. \adyfish Megalops atlantica. Tarpon FAMILY LEPISOSTEIDAE 2. Lepisosteus platyrhincus DeKay. Florida Gar. This species was collected from every major habitat within Lake Okeechobee. No individuals less than eight inches total length were collected. Greater numbers of these smaller individuals were collected during April and May as opposed to other months of the year. 3. Lepisosteus osseus (Linnaeus). Longnose Gar. Only one individual was collected during the study. It was captured in the open area of the lake. FAMILY CLUPEIDAE 5. Dorosoma cepedianum (LeSueur). Gizzard Shad. This species was plentiful in the open area of the lake and was fre- TABLE 3 Fishes reported from Lake Okeechobee by other investigators Family Engraulidae Anchoa sp. Anchovy Family Cyprinidae Notropis chalybaeus. Ironcolor Shiner Notropis petersoni. Coastal Shiner Family Aphredoderidae Aphredoderus sayanus. Pirate Perch Family Centrarchidae Elassoma evergladei. Everglades Pigmy Sunfish 56 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES quently collected within vegetated areas and canals. Spawning probably occurs from late spring to early fall. 5. Dorosoma petenense (Ginther). Threadfin Shad. Like the gizzard shad, this species was abundant throughout the open area and frequently collected within the vegetated areas and canals. Spawning evidently takes place during the early fall. FAMILY ESOCIDAE 6. Esox niger LeSueur. Chain Pickerel. This species was not frequently collected within any habitat, but was found on several occasions in association with pondweed, Potamogeton. Young in- dividuals were collected during April suggesting that these fish are early spring spawners. 7. Esox americanus Gmelin. Redfin Pickerel. This species was relatively abundant within the marginal areas of the lake marsh during April and May, being associated with spikerush, Eleocharis obtusa, communities. Few individuals could be found during Oc- tober and November. FAMILY CATOSTOMIDAE 8. Erimyzon sucetta (Lacépéde). Lake Chubsucker. Though abundant, this species occurred most frequently within vegetated areas of the lake where turbidity was extremely low. From the collection of young individuals, spawning must occur in early spring. FAMILY CYPRINIDAE 9. Notemigonus crysoleucas (Mitchill). Golden Shiner. This species was collected from all areas of the littoral zone of the lake as well as from the canal systems. However, the golden shiner seems to prefer areas with a significant cover of water hyacinths, Eichhornia crassipes. 10. Notropis maculatus (Hay). Taillight Shiner. Through many individuals were collected in association with pondweed and bulrush, Soirpus validus, during the early spring, few specimens could be found during the fall. 11. Opsopoeodus emiliae Hay. Pugnose Minnow. This species seems to occupy the same areas as the taillight shiner, but is abundant during the fall months when the taillight shiner is scarce. AcER: Lake Okeechobee Fishes Biff FAMILY ICTALURIDAE 12. Ictalurus punctatus (Rafinesque). Channel Catfish. A much sought after species by commercial fishermen, this species occurs primarily in open water, but during the spring months can be found in abundance within the vegetated littoral zone. Large numbers of 4-5 inch individuals found in the open area during June and July suggest that spawning takes place in the early spring. 13. Ictalurus catus (Linnaeus). White Catfish. This catfish is as abundant as the channel catfish and is found in the same areas, but less frequently within the littoral zone. Spawning takes place during the late spring. 14. Ictalurus natalis (LeSueur). Yellow Bullhead. This rather scarce species was collected from all areas of the lake but occurred most frequently in the canal systems of the lake. 15. Ictalurus nebulosus (LeSueur). Brown Bullhead. A rather abundant species, this catfish was collected within areas of dense vegetation (such as eelgrass, Vallisneria americana, and pondweed) where there was an amount of decaying organic ma- terial covering the bottom substrate. Young of the year collected as early as Thanksgiving Day suggest that spawning takes place during the winter months. 16. Noturus gyrinus (Mitchill). Tadpole Madtom. This scarce catfish was collected primarily from the open area of the lake. This species seems to be more abundant during the fall months. FAMILY ANGUILLIDAE 17. Anguilla rostrata (LeSueur). American Eel. This catad- romous species is frequently encountered in the open area of the lake, but at no time is abundant enough to be commercially im- portant. Its numbers do not appear to fluctuate with time of year probably because water Sonny. structures on all outlet tributaries restrict migration. FAMILY CYPRINONDONTIDAE 18. Jordanella floridae Goode and Bean. Flagfish. This species is common in shallow water along the marginal areas of the lake and is most abundant during early spring. It can tolerate low dis- solved oxygen. 58 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 19. Cyprinodon variegatus Lacépéde. Sheepshead Minnow. This species was collected in small numbers only on two occasions from one area of the lake. Evidently it inhabits the shallow, mar- ginal area of the lake and is closely associated with spikerush com- munities and clear water. 20. Lucania goodei Jordan. Redfin Killifish. This species is one of the abundant minnows found throughout the littoral zone of the lake. Large numbers collected during the fall months indicate that spawning occurs during the summer. 21. Fundulus seminolis Girard. Seminole Killifish. The minnow seems to be limited to the littoral zone of the lake, but occurs in a variety of aquatic plant communities. From the numbers collected, it appears to be commonly associated with pues communities and areas of water hyacinths. 22. Fundulus chrysotus Holbrook. Golden Topminnow. This species was collected quite frequently during April and May within spikerush communities in shallow, clear water, but was seldom en- countered during the fall. Perhaps spawning occurs during the early spring. FAMILY POECILUIDAE 23. Poecilia latipinna (LeSueur). Sailfin Molly. Small num- bers of this species were often collected from canals, but it was more abundant in the very shallow, vegetated portion of the lake marsh. It can evidently tolerate or even thrive in water containing very little dissolved oxygen. 24. Gambusia affinis (Baird and Girard). Mosquito Fish. These small fish are abundant throughout the littoral zone and canal sys- tems of the lake in practically all types of marginal waters. 25. Heterandria formosa Agassiz. Least Killifish. This tiny species is found throughout the littoral zone and canal areas of the lake. Although never found in large numbers, it is common around all kinds of vegetation growing in or at the edge of the water. FAMILY ATHERINIDAE 26. Menidia beryllina (Cope). Tidewater Silversides. This fish is not frequently collected, but is more abundant during the fall months than during spring. It is associated with communities of pondweed in the littoral zone. Acer: Lake Okeechobee Fishes 59 97. Labidesthes sicculus (Cope). Brook Silversides. Although found throughout the littoral zone and canals, this species occurs abundantly during the spring in spikerush communities in shallow, clear water. This suggests a spring spawning period. FAMILY CENTRARCHIDAE 28. Micropterus salmoides (Lacépéde). Largemouth Bass. This desired game fish is abundant and found throughout the lake and canals. The peak spawning period occurs in February and March. Most adults are found within the littoral zone, occurring most fre- quently within eelgrass and pondweed communities where turbidi- ties are low. The greatest numbers of immature individuals are found in shallow, clear water within the spikerush communities. 29. Pomoxis nigromaculatus (LeSueur). Black Crappie. One of the most abundant and sought after game fish of the lake, this species is primarily pelagic. During January, February, March, and April it can be found throughout the littoral zone of the lake. These months are the spawning season of this species. Young individuals evidently move to the open water immediately after reaching a swim-up fry stage. Sexually immature individuals are rarely found within the littoral zone. 30. Enneacanthus gloriosus (Holbrook). Bluespotted Sunfish. This small sunfish can be found within communities of pondweed and eelgrass. Although common, these fish are rarely collected in any significant numbers. 31. Chaenobryttus gulosus (Cuvier). Warmouth. This sunfish is found throughout the littoral zone of the lake, most abundantly in association with spikerush communities in shallow, clear water. Seasonal collections indicate that spawning occurs during early spring. 32. Lepomis marginatus (Holbrook). Dollar Sunfish. This small member of the sunfish family occurs most frequently in the marginal areas of the littoral zone. It seems to occur more fre- quently during the spring months than during fall, indicating a spring spawning period. 33. Lepomis punctatus (Valenciennes). Spotted Sunfish. This species occurs throughout the littoral zone and canal systems of the lake, but is more frequently collected within the canals. Evidently it can utilize better than other centrarchids the canals and littoral 60 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES area with much organic sedimentation. Spawning occurs in late spring prior to that of the bluegill. 34. Lepomis macrochirus Rafinesque. Bluegill. Found through- out the entire lake and canal systems, this fish is probably the most numerous of centrarchids. Adults are most frequently collected within communities of bulrush, while great numbers of immature individuals are found within dense pondweed and eelgrass com- munities. Spawning occurs throughout the summer months. 35. Lepomis microlophus (Ginther). Redear Sunfish. A much desired game fish, this species occurs throughout the lake and canal systems. Adults are found primarily within bulrush communities from late spring to early fall. During the remainder of the year, it seems to prefer the deeper, pelagic area of the lake. Immature individuals are most frequently found within dense communities of pondweed and eelgrass, but occur in eelgrass more frequently than immature bluegills, which are dominant in pondweed. From collections it seems these fish can better utilize the marginal areas of the littoral zone than can the bluegill. FAMILY PERCIDAE 36. Etheostoma barratti (Holbrook). Scalyhead Darter. A rather common but seldom collected species because of its bottom dwelling habits and small size, it is most abundant within the mar- ginal areas of the lake and the canals. FAMILY BELONIDAE 37. Strongylura marina (Walbaum). Atlantic Needlefish. This species is commonly encountered throughout the open area of the lake and within the bulrush communities. A number of gravid fe- males and ripe males have been collected during spring. Indi- viduals of 1-2 inches in total length were frequently collected during summer months, indicating that reproduction occurs within the lake so that this population is not dependent upon their ability to immi- grate into the lake. FAMILY MUGILIDAE 38. Mugil cephalus Linnaeus. Striped Mullet. This common salt water species is abundant throughout the open area and most AcER: Lake Okeechobee Fishes 61 of the littoral zone from early winter to summer. Spawning does not occur in the lake. During late spring, great numbers can be found in the tributaries leading from the lake to the ocean. Like- wise, during late fall this fish can be found migrating into the lake by way of these same tributaries. FAMILY GOBIDAE 39. Microgobius gulosus (Girard). Clown Goby. This fish was collected on two different occasions from a community of white water lily (Nymphea odorata) and bladderwort (Utricularia vul- garis). It was much more abundant during the fall than during spring, an indication that spawning occurs during the summer months. FAMILY SOLEIDAE 40. Trinectes maculatus (Lacépéde). Hogchoker. Only one individual was found during the survey. It was captured with a seine in the open portion of the lake. FAMILY CENTROPOMIDAE 41. Centropomus undecimalis (Bloch). Snook. This species was frequently collected in the Clewiston area where navigation channels have been dredged into the lake. The population is evi- dently entirely dependent upon its ability to immigrate into the lake. FAMILY ELOPIDAE 42. Elops saurus Linnaeus. Ladyfish. On one occasion a school of these fish were sighted in the pelagic area of the lake east of the Caloosahatchee Canal. 43. Megalops atlantica Valencinnes. Tarpon. On one occasion in August a tarpon was seen cruising the surface near Rita Island in the southern portion of the lake. LITERATURE CITED BaILEy, REEvEs M., Howarp E. Winn, AND C. Lavetr SmiTH. 1954. Fishes from the Escambia River, Alabama and Florida, with ecological and distributional notes. Proc. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, vol. 106, pp. 109-164. 62 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Briccs, Joun C. 1958. A list of Florida fishes and their distribution. Bull. Florida State Mus., Biol. Sci., vol. 2, no. 8, pp. 223-318. Carr, ARCHIE, AND CoLEMAN J. Gorn. 1959. Guide to the reptiles, amphib- ians, and freshwater fishes of Florida. Univ. of Florida Press, Gaines- ville, Florida. 341 pp. Eppy, SAMUEL. 1957. The freshwater fishes. William C. Brown Co., Du- buque, Iowa. 253 pp. Hear_p, Earu S., AND Roy R. StrricKLAND. 1949. An annotated list of the fishes of Homosassa Springs, Florida. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci., vol. 11, no. 4, pp. 99-109. HELuiER, THomMas D., Jr. 1967. The fishes of the Santa Fe River system. Bull. Florida State Mus., Biol. Sci., vol. 11, no. 1, pp. 1-46. Husss, Caru L., anp E. Ross ALLEN. 1943. Fishes of Silver Springs, Florida, Proc. Florida Acad. Sci., vol. 6, pp. 110-130. Kitpy, JoHN D., anp Davin K. CALDWELL. 1955. A list of fishes from the southern tip of the Florida peninsula. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci., vol. 18, no. 3, pp. 195-206. Opum, H. T. 1953. Factors controlling marine invasion into Florida fresh waters. Bull. Mar. Sci. Gulf & Caribbean, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 134-156. STERBA, GUNTHER. 1966. Freshwater fishes of the world. Revised edition. Pet Library Ltd., 877 pp. Florida Board of Conservation Marine Research Laboratory, St. Petersburg, Florida 33731. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 34(1) 1971 A Yellowfin Menhaden Without Pelvic Fins WiLLiAM F. HETTLER, JR. MENHADEN occasionally have one or both pelvic fins missing. This is usually attributed to attacks by predators. Reports of de- formed menhaden are limited to pugheadedness and vertebral anomalies (Dahlberg, 1970a; Lewis, 1966; Musick and Hoff, 1968; Schwartz, 1964-65; Sutherland, 1963; and Warlen, 1969). Gunter and Ward (1961) reported a Gulf menhaden, Brevoortia patronus, with its pelvic girdle and fins bitten off. Marr (1945), noting miss- ing pelvic fins in a northern anchovy, Engraulis mordax, urged that anomalies of possible evolutionary significance should be reported. A yellowfin menhaden, B. smithi, lacking pelvic fins was taken by gill net in the Indian River, near Sebastian, Florida, on January 23, 1965. The fish, a 212 mm (standard length), 2-year-old female, was normal in all other external characteristics (Fig. 1). Appar- ently the pelvic fins and the axillary appendages (elongated scales around the insertion of the fin) never developed. An x-ray photograph showed a pelvic girdle between the dorso- lateral projections of scutes 16 and 22. The girdle was dissected and found to be deformed (Fig. 2). Both pelvic bones were fused together. The anterior end of the left pelvic bone appeared normal, but the right bone apparently turned upside down and grew down- ward into the “V” of the keel. The small actinosts that normally support the rays of each pelvic fin were not found; girdle muscula- ture was reduced. In normal menhaden, the two dorsolateral pro- jections of the scute at the posterior end of the girdle are either notched near the base, or missing, where the pelvic fin passes through the keel. None of the scute projections near the pelvic girdle in this fish were notched or missing. Figure 3 illustrates a normal pelvic girdle with fins attached. The anomaly may be related to hybridization of menhaden in the Indian River. Dahlberg (1970b) concluded that yellowfin men- haden hybridize with Atlantic menhaden, B. tyrannus, on the east coast of Florida. The specimen reported here, however, was not a hybrid. There may be evolutionary significance in the loss of pelvic fins in yellowfin menhaden. Several other clupeid fishes, in the sub- family Pristigasterinae, lack pelvic fins. Hildebrand (1963) stated 64 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ys Fig. 1. A 212-mm yellowfin menhaden lacking pelvic fins; radiograph of same fish showing position of deformed pelvic bone, above 20th abdominal scute (arrow). Scutes 9 through 32 are visible in the x-ray. Fig. 2. Deformed pelvic girdle; the right (top) and left (bottom) pelvir: bones fused together. The girdle is 22 mm. long. that yellowfin menhaden do not school as do the commercially im- portant Atlantic menhaden; neither do they migrate long distances. The presence or absence of pelvic fins may be unimportant to non- HetTrLeR: Abnormal Yellowfin Menhaden 65 Fig. 3. Normal pelvic girdle with fins attached. schooling, nonmigratory yellowfin menhaden. It is difficult to con- clude much about the significance of this observation without know- ing how many menhaden lack pelvic fins. During previous trips to the Indian River to collect ripe gametes from yellowfin men. haden, I incidentally noted a small percentage of this species with missing or atrophied pelvic fins. Unfortunately, I kept no records of the incidence. I suggest that biologists not inclined to do so, keep accurate records and report the frequency of occurrence of de- viations from normal conditions, such as the anomaly I have re- ported. LITERATURE CITED DAHLBERG, MiIcHAEL D. 1970a. Frequencies of abnormalities in Georgia es- tuarine fishes. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc., vol. 99, pp. 95-97. —. 1970b. Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico menhadens, genus Brevoortia (Pisces: Clupeidae). Bull. Florida State Mus., vol. 15, pp. 91-162. GUNTER, GORDON, AND J. W. WArp. 1961. Some fishes that survive extreme injuries, and some aspects of tenacity of life. Copeia, 1961, pp. 456-462. HILDEBRAND, SAMUEL F, 1963. Family Clupeidae, genus Brevoortia, pp. 342- 380. In Fishes of the western North Atlantic, Part 3. Sears Found. Mar. Res., Yale Univ., Mem., no. 1. Lewis, Ropert M. 1966. Effects of salinity and temperature on survival and development of larval Atlantic menhaden, Brevoortia tyrannus. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc., vol. 95, pp. 423-426. Marr Joun C. 1945. A specimen of Engraulis mordax Girard lacking ven- tral fins. Copeia, 1945, p. 115. 66 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Musick, JoHN A., AND JAMEs G. Horr. 1968. Vertebral anomalies in hump- backed specimens of menhaden, Brevoortia tyrannus. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc., vol. 97, pp. 277-278. SCHWARTZ, FRANK J. 1964-65. A pugheaded menhaden from Chesapeake Bay. Underwater Natur., vol. 3, pp. 22-24. SUTHERLAND, DoyLe F. 1963. Variation in vertebral numbers of juvenile Atlantic menhaden. U. S. Fish Wildl. Serv., Spec. Sci. Rep. Fish. 435, 21 pp. WARLEN, STANLEY M. 1969. Additional records of pugheaded Atlantic men- haden, Brevoortia tyrannus. Chesapeake Sci., vol. 10, pp. 67-68. National Marine Fisheries Service, Beaufort, North Carolina 28516. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 34(1) 1971 The Shrimp Leptalpheus forceps in Old Tampa Bay, Florida Cart H. SALOMAN Tue alpheid shrimp, Leptalpheus forceps Williams, was col- lected in Old Tampa Bay, Florida, during studies of benthic inver- tebrates. This marked the first collection of the species outside the type locality, Beaufort, North Carolina. It was reported there by Williams (1965) as a commensal in burrows of the macruran crus- tacean, Upogebia affinis. The purpose of this report is to document occurrence of the shrimp in Old Tampa Bay, describe the collec- tion site, and record certain ecological conditions in the habitat. These features include sediment type and hydrology within the burrows and from surrounding water. Abundance, size, and re- productive state are also recorded. COLLECTION SITE Specimens of Leptalpheus forceps were collected from exposed intertidal burrows of Upogebia affinis in the northeastern section of Old Tampa Bay adjacent to the town of Oldsmar (Fig. 1). In that area of the bay there is a broad, unvegetated, sandy beach at low tide, and large numbers of U. affinis occur in a narrow zone near the level of mean low water. A hole in the sediment marks the burrow of the animal (Fig. 2). The shore adjoining the beach is undeveloped except for a fish- ing pier extending into the bay about 50 m south of the collection site. Small oyster bars are present on the tidal flats, and cord grass, Spartina sp., grows along the edge of the bay. _ PROCEDURE References to trade names in this publication do not imply en- dorsement of commercial products. Bottom material containing burrows of Upogebia affinis was dug with a shovel and washed on a fine sieve (Tyler, #24 screen, 0.701 mm mesh). The material was removed to a depth of 1/2 m and within an area of 1/9 m® marked by a wooden frame. The frame was placed randomly in areas having a large number of burrow 68 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES INTERBAY ROCKY PT, 2 3°44 NAUTICAL MILES KILOMETERS [- 4 < = “ a = OQ}. Fig. 1. Collection site (star) for L. forceps in Old Tampa Bay, Florida, 1967-1968. openings. L. forceps and its host were picked off the sieve and fixed in 10 per cent sea-water formalin. For permanent preserva- tion, specimens were stored in 70 per cent isopropanol. Sediment was sampled within each quadrate with a corer (Tay- Fig. 2. Burrow openings of U. affinis on the beach near Oldsmar, Florida, in upper Old Tampa Bay, 1967-1968. Ruler is one foot long. 70 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES lor, 1965). The sediment core was sectioned at 5-cm intervals from the surface to a depth of about 25 cm. No obvious stratification of particle sizes was observed in the sediment cores. Analysis for total sediment texture was made according to methods described by Taylor and Saloman (1969). Water was sampled concurrently in exposed burrows and in the bay nearby. Water from burrows was removed by mouth suction through a polyethylene tube fitted with a tapered glass tip for in- sertion in burrow openings. Hydrological factors compared between water from burrows and the bay included temperature, salinity, pH, total Kjeldahl nitrogen, total phosphorus, and dissolved oxygen. In addition to these features, analysis of bay water also included tur- bidity. Average hydrological conditions for upper Old Tampa Bay and methods of water analysis were reported by Saloman, Finu- cane, and Kelly (1964); Saloman and Taylor (1968); and Saloman and Taylor (in press). Observations on the biology of L. forceps included abundance, carapace length, reproductive state, and number of eggs per female. Carapace length was determined with an ocular micrometer by measuring from the posterodorsal margin to the anterodorsal mar- gin that covers the eye. Reproductive stages were noted, and eggs on each gravid female were removed from the abdomen and counted. SEDIMENT Burrows of Upogebia affinis were dug in sediment that had an average composition of 95.3 per cent silicious sand, 1.3 per cent silt, and 3.4 per cent clay. Only a small fraction of the sand size sedi- ment particles consisted of carbonate material. Other analyses from upper Old Tampa Bay north of Phillippi Point showed that the average weight percentage of silicious sand, silt, and clay was 91, 5, and 4, respectively (Taylor and Saloman, 1969). Statistical data from these studies show that sediment sorting is poor (1.319 ©) and indicate that there is little uniformity in the particle size of the sand fraction (Folk, 1964). HYDROLOGICAL CONDITIONS Average hydrological conditions recorded near the collection wa Shrimp in Old Tampa Bay SALOMAN: ‘QOLEE VPMOLy “yYorog Sinqsisjog 3G ‘AIOJeIOGKT] [POISO[OIG SolIoYsiy [elOIoWIUIOD JO neoIng 9Y} yw oY uO ej}Eq, 09 89°G evs TVG 6L°L OV OF G'9G 8961 eS 90°€ Ves (BG €8L CV 66 T'66 LO6T oun{ €'6 VS € ULV G'6G ISL VE OE 8'GG 8961 6S LGV 0'89 © CG c6 2 Ce'8G 8°GG L961 ABN GG Illy 0'0F SOs I1l'8 GG 66 LG 896I OCI CVV €'6P 9'EG 6LL V99G V GG LO6I [Edy LT I67 ae 6°GS €l'8 6E°86 LVI S961 67 I67 © LS 081 vO'8 96 VG GOL LO6BI yore ag OLE TZ 66 66'L SO'LG T8I 8961 V1 e8y © oo 666 80°8 C8 VG col L96I Areniqoq c6I 6S°7 Ges 6 9G €9'L VV GG L0G 8961 09 C87 L 0S SVG 10'8 IT VG 0'GS LO6T Arenue{ 1/3 30 s}1un Vi uas8o01q1U 1/7 31 fe) AyIpiqin |, uasAxO [yepefy snioydsoyd 3dd ‘duio} uosyoe[ PeAossiq [23O.L [e101 Ha AYUTTeS IO}C AA eax yoy eepHory ‘keg eduey plo ut sdaasof *'T 1OF 9YS UOMOE[OO 9Yy} WIOIF QOGI-LOGT 10} SuoMeArosgO o1ydeiso1pATT L WIGVL QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 72 ‘OOLEE BplMoly ‘yovog s1ngsi9zog 4S ‘A1OPVLOGE'T [eorsojorg SOLOYSTY [BLoLOuIUOT) JO nvoing ou} 7e ay uo ved, SOr TOT OTT O'LG Gg 0°62 O's ie OIG aay, 6'8 L'8 6'V Oe ge s}tun API, uosyoe [ vGe 9G'E ese LO'V SLE VIE Lge OL'T LS’ O1'% OS'G 9V'T 89'S 89'S 866 1/[ uos Axo peajossiq LGV Cey 6 8P L'GG LSet VIL evs V OF 9°86 8'GP 80S 8°L9 CGV 8°69 evs 1/3 31 us3s01}1U yepaly [P}0L 8'VG S8L G&G Se'L SVG S8°L 166 88° 8'96 SLL 1 SLL 1°92 SLL OTE LL V'8S 66°L LOE OL'L S'LG SVL 8°96 864 GGG LOL Vor 9L'L OIG 08'L 1/37 3 snioydsoyd [P30.L Ha aepuo,y ‘Avg edurey plo ut sdaos0f “J 10} BIS UOIE][OO OY} WOT SOBTI-LOGT 10} SuOWRAsEsgO o1ydeIZ0I1pAP] c9°SG 66°S6 10°96 LE0G VV'SG OT'0G LO'VG VI'0G LO'VG G6'0G 06°66 €6°EC 99°LG SO'LS 19°66 3dd AyuyeS (0D) T AIAVL 9S 8'€G V&SG 9°GS oLI L6G 0'VG L'GG V'VG G'86 6°L6 OTE 9°86 8°86 G'66 O *dui9} IOC AA 8961 L961 8961 LO6BT 8961 LO6T 896I LO6BI 8961 LOGI 8961 LOGI 8961 LOGI reox OBVIDAY WBeIDAY Joquia0aq JoquisAoN 19q0}00 Joquisydasg ysnsny Ajn{ qyaoy SALoMAN: Shrimp in Old Tampa Bay 73 TABLE 2 Hydrographic data from burrows of U. affinis and the commensal shrimp L. forceps in Old Tampa Bay, Florida, 1967-1968 - Date Temp. Salinity pH Total Total Dissolved C ppt Kjeldahl phosphorus oxygen nitrogen pg at./1 MI/1 ps at./1 1967 10-28 24.2 23.73 7.49 33.6 Sle 11-3 25.6 23.19 7.30 TUG 35.2 0.65 0.06 11-19 20.0 25.48 7.42 30.7 26.1 1.10 25.26 IL Pall 12-23 20.0 26.15 7.20 42.8 30.7 0.36 25.81 7.14 14.3 DADodl 0.32 12-31 15.7 7.79 98.6 Dal 1968 1-16* 15.0 26.29 fe? Tell 3.78 2.60 + ieee) 26.65 7.42 62.1 30.4 1.42 0.84 1-28 ino ial 7.40 95.0 26.1 2.36 DT MO 7.44 110.7 28.3 0.84 2-17 17.0 27.30 7.66 124.3 31.4 27.39 Tt 121.4 24.0 3-2 12.0 28.31 7.79 123.6 28.9 28.55 7.79 Seno 26.2 3-16 18.8 27.63 7.67 104.3 34.2 28.24 7.88 37.8 34.2 3-28 19.8 4-13 DD 29.60 U5 160.0 32.4 Average 18.8 26.70 Co 82.5 29.3 1.29 *0930 sampling time 41100 sampling time site show that upper Old Tampa Bay north of Phillippi Point is a moderately turbid and nutrient-rich body of warm, brackish water (Table 1). Heavy concentrations of total phosphorus and total Kjeldahl nitrogen are mainly a result of domestic sewage which enters Old Tampa Bay north of Courtney Campbell Parkway. The sewage originates from eight treatment plants which have a com- bined design capacity of 1.2 million gallons per day (unpublished data, Gulf of mexico Estuarine Inventory Project, on file at Bureau 74 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES TABLE 3 Hydrographic data from surface water collected concurrently with hydrographic data from burrows of U. affinis and L. forceps in Old Tampa Bay, Florida, 1967-1968 Date Temp. Salinity pH Total Total Dissolved C ppt Kjeldahl phosphorus oxygen nitrogen pg at./1 MI/1 1967 10-28 DAT 24.52 7.92 51.4 29.0 11-3 23.5 23513 Use 85.7 27.1 3.62 3.70 11-19 Dai| 24.90 8.05 21.4 2S 3.35 12-23 Die? 25.26 7.93 61.4 25a 53 4.36 12-31 14.9 16.63 8.00 60.7 25a 1968 1-16* 13.2 26.46 UofA 42.8 2 4.95 5.19 + 14.5 26.33 8.20 45.7 5.54 1-28 6.25 19.3 2A? 8.11 44,3 28.3 6.36 2-17 6.48 15.8 27.48 7.83 45.7 29.1 3-2 1H 28.21 7.84 17.8 23.6 -3-16 20.2 28.78 7.83 44.3 30.3 3-28 30.77 4-13 20.8 29.45 65 43.6 28.9 WT 26.81 7.87 40.7 26.8 7.96 42.1 28.6 Average 18.7 7.90 46.8 27.0 4.88 *0930 sampling time +1100 sampling time of Commercial Fisheries Biological Laboratory, St. Petersburg Beach, Florida 33706). Water circulation in the bay is poor, and nutrients introduced by sewage and land drainage are mostly re- tained in a cycle of organic production and decomposition as out- lined for similar estuarine systems by Duke and Rice (1967). As an annual average, gross primary production by phytoplankton in Old Tampa Bay is 1.23 and 1.22 kcal/m?/day for 1965 and 1966, re- spectively (Saloman and Taylor, 1968). SALOMAN: Shrimp in Old Tampa Bay 75 Comparison of water in exposed burrows of U. affinis and nearby surface water showed marked differences in pH, total Kjeldahl ni- trogen, total phosphorus, and dissolved oxygen (Tables 2 and 3). These differences show that biological processes of occupants in the burrow cause an appreciable change in water chemistry during low tide. The two factors that fluctuated mostly were total Kjeldahl nitrogen and dissolved oxygen. In comparison to surface water in the bay, the water in burrows increased in total Kjeldahl nitrogen and decreased in dissolved oxygen by an average of 35.7 ug at./1 and 3.59 ml/1, respectively (Tables 2 and 3). The degree to which U. affinis and L. forceps are adapted to these changes apparently sets limits on the shoreward location of burrows. At Oldsmar, most burrows are near the level of mean low tide where they are exposed for no more than a few hours at each ebb tide. Some are at higher levels on the beach, however, and burrows also occur offshore to an undetermined distance. ABUNDANCE The greatest number of L. forceps collected from a single sample of 1/9 ? was 6. This sample also contained 13 specimens of U. affinis and 32 burrow holes. From 7 samples of 1/9 m?, the mean number of L. forceps was 3.3 and the average numbers of U. affinis and burrow holes were 20 and 37.9, respectively (Table 4). TABLE 4 Number of L. forceps relative to numbers of U. affinis, and burrow holes in samples from an area 1/9 m? by 1/2 m deep Number burrow holes of Number Number U. affinis U. affinis L. forceps 18 4 i 25 9 2 31 17 z 32 13 6 50 26 2 50 48 5 59 23 5 Average 37.9 20.0 3.3 76 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES TABLE 5 Carapace length, reproductive state, and number of eggs per female for specimens of L. forceps from Old Tampa Bay, Florida, 1967-1968 Date No. of Carapace Reproductive state No. of specimens length mm Gravid eggs Nongravid Noneyed Eyed 1967 9-10 2 3.8-5.3 ; 1 1 70-89 10-8 1 4.] ] 10-21 2 3.6-5.0 1 1 73 11-19 2 4.3-4.8 2 12-16 1 5.2 1 12-31 2 3.9-6.0 2 1968 1-16 5 4.9-6.7 5 2-17 3 6.0-6.2 3 3-2 5 3.9-5.3 5 3-16 9 3.8-6.6 9 3-28 6 4,2-7.6 6 4-13 il 6.3 ] 103 4-27 3 5.7-7.1 1 1 1 140 5-11 3 3.4-6.6 2 i 48 5-25 3 5.3-6.9 2 1 107 6-15 3 6.4-6.9 2 il 226-258 7-12 3 6.4-6.7 ] 2 116-178 CARAPACE LENGTH AND REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY Carapace length ranged from 3.4-7.6 mm. The larger figure is nearly equal to that recorded for the holotype (female) described by Williams (1965). Specimens were collected in 11 consecutive months, but probably for several reasons no definite pattern of growth was observed (Table 5). The small number of individuals collected per month made growth calculations by mean size or size frequency distribution difficult. L. forceps has an extended spawn- ing period (April-October), and this allows juveniles to enter bur- rows in all seasons except winter. Furthermore, the sampling failed to yield any postlarval or early juvenile individuals. The smallest shrimp had a carapace length of 3.4 mm, which is only 0.4 mm less than the length of one individual that was gravid (Table 5). Gravid females had a carapace length ranging from 3.8-7.1 mm. Numbers of eggs increased with size of females, and the number SALOMAN: Shrimp in Old Tampa Bay Te per individual ranged from 48-258 (Table 5). Counts were ap- proximate because some eggs were lost in handling. More eggs per individual were found on specimens collected in June than in any other month. Eggs in the eyed condition were observed on animals collected in September, October, April, May, June, and July. As noted by Manning (in Williams, 1965) the living eggs of L. forceps were transparent, but became green when preserved in formalin. LITERATURE CITED Duke, T. W., AND T. R. Rice. 1967. Cycling of nutrients in estuaries. Proc, 19th Ann. Sess. Gulf Caribbean Fish. Inst., pp. 59-67. Foik, Rosert L. 1964. Petrology of sedimentary rocks. Univ. Texas Publ., Geology 370K, 383L, 383M. Hemphill’s, Austin, Tex., 154 pp. SALOMON, Cart H., JoHN H. FINUCANE, AND JOHN A. KELLY, Jr. _1964. Hy- drographic observations of Tampa Bay, Florida, and adjacent waters, August 1961 through December 1962. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv., Data Rep. 4, iit 112 pp. on 6 microfiches. SALOMAN, Cart H., AND JoHN L. Tayztor. 1968. Hydrographic observations in Tampa Bay, Florida, and adjacent Gulf of Mexico—1965-66. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv., Data Rep. 24, 393 pp. on 6 microfiches. SALOMAN, Cart H., anp JoHn L. Taytor. In Press. Hydrographic obser- vations in Tampa Bay and the adjacent Gulf of Mexico—1967, U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv., Data Rep. TAYLOR, JoHN L. 1965. Bottom samplers for estuarine research. Chesapeake Sci., vol. 6, pp. 233-234. TayLor, JOHN L., AND Cart H. SALOMAN. 1969. Sediments, oceanographic observations, and floristic data from Tampa Bay, Florida, and adjacent waters, 1961-65. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv., Data Rep. 34, 562 pp. on 9 microfiches. WitiiAMs, Austin B. 1965. A new genus and species of snapping shrimp (Decapoda, Alpheidae) from the southeastern United States. Crusta- ceana, vol. 9, pp. 192-198. Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Biological Laboratory, St. Petersburg Beach, Florida 33706. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 34(1) 1971 Determination of the Onset of Yolk Deposition in Lizards SAM R. TELFORD, JR. PopuLATION studies of various lizard species have described the female reproductive cycle either from examination of ovaries in preserved specimens (Tinkle, 1961; Mayhew, 1963, 1965, 1966a, 1966b; Telford, 1969) or by observation of living females in the field (Blair, 1960; Harris, 1964). The former method is most precise and furnishes detailed data on all aspects of the ovarian cycle. However, it necessitates removal of individuals from the study pop- ulation, or extrapolation from data obtained by sampling adjacent populations. No techniques have yet been devised which permit workers to determine the timing of early events in the ovarian cycle from living lizards in the field. During my studies on the parasitology of various lizard popula- tions in California, Japan, and Panama, blood smears were routinely made from all specimens captured, by clipping toes prior to killing the lizards for autopsies. I noticed upon many occasions that a pe- culiar staining reaction occurred on some of the slides, a reaction immediately obvious without the use of a microscope. Giemsa- stained thin blood smears characteristically appear bluish-gray to the naked eye. In those which attracted my attention as present- ing an odd staining reaction, the smears appeared reddish, a deep pink to brick-red. Upon microscopic examination, a reddish pre- cipitate was found adhering to the glass in the spaces between blood cells. Blood cells stained fairly normally, but the reddish precipitate often obscured an otherwise acceptable stain. Upon checking the sex of specimens which produced reddish stains, all were found to be female. This immediately suggested a correlation with reproductive condition. A series of 141 slides made from the Japanese lacertid Takydromus tachydromoides dur- ing its reproductive season, April-May 1967, were examined, and condition of the stain noted. Forty-one presented the abnormal, reddish stain, and 100 appeared bluish-gray. All 41 with red stains were female. Examination of ovaries from the 41 females revealed that yolked follicles ranging in size from 1.8-7.6 mm diameter were present in 37, three had oviductal eggs without yolked follicles, and five con- TeLForD: Yolk Disposition in Lizards 79 tained both yolked follicles and oviductal eggs. Five of the 100 lizards with normal blood smears were females, all between 39 and 45 mm snout-vent length (SV). Only one of these contained yolked follicles, a female 43 mm SV, and the follicles were small, 1.6-1.9 mm diameter. The remaining 95 lizards were adult and juvenile males. Adult female Takydromus tachydromoides emerge from hiber- nation in the last week of March or first week of April with small yolked follicles (Telford, 1969). Vitellinogenesis for clutch one in- creases sharply in rate during the latter half of April (Telford, 1970). Clutch one is deposited in May, clutch two in June, and clutch three in early July. Hatchling females of the previous fall reach maturity at 41-45 mm SV, usually in May (Telford, 1969) or early June. Their first clutch is deposited in early June and their second or third, depending upon when they reach maturity, in late July. Slides with reddish precipitates were not obtained from females prior to mid-April or from August to hibernation in late October. It is a reasonable conclusion that this reddish precipitate results from lipid materials mobilized during vitellinogenesis, and that its ap- pearance in a lizard population heralds the onset of vitellinogenesis of the ovarian follicles in sexually mature females. This method may prove to be of general use with all groups of lizards. Twenty-five species of eight families in which I have ob- served this correlation between reddish stains and active female re- production include the following: Gekkonidae, Lepidodactylus lu- gubris, Thecadactylus rapicaudus, Gehyra mutilata, Hemidactylus frenatus; Sphaerodactylidae, Gonatodes albogularis fuscus; Xantu- siidae, Lepidophyma flavimaculatum; Iguanidae, Uta stansburiana, Sceloporus graciosus, Anolis biporcatus, A. limifrons, A. tropidogas- ter, A. frenatus, A. auratus, A. lionotus, A. poecilopus, Polychrus gutturosus, Corytophanes cristatus; Teiidae, Ameiva ameiva, Gym- nopthalmus speciosus; Leposoma rugiceps; Lacertidae, Takydromus smaragdinus; Agamidae, Japalura polygonota; Scincidae, Eumeces laticeps, Lygosoma pellopleurum, Mabuya mabouya. The reddish stain has been noted more casually in many other species than those mentioned. Final evaluation of the technique, however, awaits its use in a specific field study designed to test its significance. 80 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES LITERATURE CITED Bian, W. F. 1960. The rusty lizard. Univ. Texas Press, Austin, 185 pp. Harris, V. A. 1964. The life of the rainbow lizard. Hutchinson Tropical Monographs, Hutchinson & Co., Ltd., London, 174 pp. Mayuew, W. W. 1963. Reproduction in the granite spiny lizard, Sceloporus orcutti. Copeia, 1963, vol. 1, pp. 144-152. 1965. Reproduction in the sand-dwelling lizard Uma inornata. Her- petologica, vol. 21, no. 1, pp. 39-55. 1966a. Reproduction in the psammophilous lizard Uma scoparia. Copeia, 1966, vol. 1, pp. 114-122. 1966b. Reproduction in the arenicolous lizard Uma notata. Ecology vol. 47, no. 1, pp. 9-18. TELFORD, S. R., JR. 1969. The ovarian cycle, reproductive potential, and structure in a population of the Japanese lacertid Takydromus tachy- dromoides. Copeia, 1969, no. 3, pp. 548-569. 1970. Seasonal fluctuations in liver and fat body weights of the Jap- anese lacertid Takydromus tachydromoides Schlegel. Copeia, 1970, no. 4, pp. 681-688. TinKLE, D. W. 1961. Population structure and reproduction in the lizard Uta stansburiana, American Midl. Nat., vol. 66, no. 1, pp. 206-234. Department of Natural Sciences, Florida State Museum, Univer- sity of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 34(1) 1971 Seer 5 Fe E65 | Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences Vol. 34 June, 1971 No. 2 CONTENTS Introduction to the chemistry of the high atmosphere J. A. Llewellyn Many-body problems in physics and society Harry S. Robertson A new Neogene barnacle from South Florida Norman E. Weisbord Trophic relationships in the water hyacinth community Keith L. Hansen, Edward G. Ruby, and Robert L. Thompson A new troglobitic crayfish from Florida Horton H. Hobbs, Jr. Rate of water transport by Brachiodontes exustus Allen Z. Paul Pinfish and rockcut goby, fishes new to the Bahamas Thomas G. Yocum Chemical control of pigeon reproduction J. L. Schortemeyer and S. L. Beckwith Avifauna of the Cayman Islands David W. Johnston, Charles H. Blake, and Donald W. Buden - Beaked whales, Ziphius cavirostris, in the Bahamas David K. Caldwell and Melba C. Caldwell Mailed November 11, 1971 81 93 100 107 114 125 131 132 141 157 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE F'LoRmDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Editor: Pierce Brodkorb The Quarterly Journal welcomes original articles containing sig- nificant new knowledge, or new interpretation of knowledge, in any field of Science. Articles must not duplicate in any substantial way material that is published elsewhere. INSTRUCTIONS TO AUTHORS Rapid, efficient, and economical transmission of knowledge by means of the printed word requires full cooperation between author and editor. Revise copy before submission to insure logical order, conciseness, and clarity. 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Titles must be short but may be followed by explanatory matter. ILLUSTRATIONS are charged to authors ($17.00 per page or fraction). Drawincs should be in India ink, on good board or drafting paper, and lettered by lettering guide or equivalent. Plan linework and lettering for re- duction, so that final width is 4% inches, and final length does not exceed 6% inches. Do not submit illustrations needing reduction by more than one-half. PxHotocraPus should be of good contrast, on glossy paper. Do not write heavily on the backs of photographs. Proor must be returned promptly. Leave a forwarding address in case of extended absence. REPRINTs may be ordered when the author returns corrected proof. Published by the Florida Academy of Sciences Printed by the Storter Printing Company Gainesville, Florida QUARTERLY JOURNAL of the FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vol. 34 June, 1971 No. 2 Introduction to the Chemistry of the High Atmosphere J. A. LLEWELLYN It is possible, on the darkest night, far away from cities and other man-made light sources, to detect a light in the sky which is not from the stars. This faint air-glow which has intensity com- parable with a candle 300 feet away, is one sign we have of the re- sponse of the earth’s atmosphere to the harsh fluxes of radiation from the sun. In this case, the sign is an indirect one, arising for the most part from chemical reactions between the tattered remains of the basic atmospheric constituents. In the following, a selective survey is given of the explanations provided by physico-chemical analysis of some of the observations. Until recently, almost the only source of observations was the optical telescope. A telescope fitted with a spectrograph is capable of observing a wide variety of luminescent phenomena, limited in range by the absorbing qualities of the lower atmosphere. Use of multiple ground bases and triangulation can lead to moderately ac- curate estimates of the altitudes at which various luminescent proc- esses occur. The telescope observations are now supplemented by observations made from balloons and rockets carrying a variety of instruments including photometers, optical and mass spectrometers, as well as sampling devices using cryogenic surfaces to trap repre- sentative specimens of the atmosphere. A relatively coherent pic- ture of the structure of the atmosphere has emerged, and although many of the details are still obscure, we are now in a position to attempt to explain some of the broad features of the upper atmos- phere ( Massey and Potter, 1961; Donahue, 1968). We know that the energy of ultra-violet and x-radiation from the sun, radiation of wavelength less than 1027A, principally ends up as ionization. Some of these electrons freed from the molecules of the 82 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES upper atmosphere, have sufficient energy to produce more ioniza- tion before their energies are dissipated but they end up—as an electron gas, until they encounter oppositely charged ions and can recombine. The solar radiation longer than 1100A is dissipated in a variety of ways but notably in the dissociation of molecular O, to atomic O at altitudes above about 90 km. The extent of dissocia- tion of oxygen depends on altitude. At 100 km the turbulent mix- ing of the atmosphere has almost stopped and the diffusive separa- 800 MAJOR CONSTITUENTS H2, He VERTICAL DIFFUSIVE ae SEPARATION MAJOR CONSTITUENT O x 200 = = DISSOCIATION OF Oz = 100 < TURBULENT sol. | MIXING MAXIMUM IN O3 25 Fig. 1. Constitution and behavior of the atmosphere. tion of the lighter atoms from the heavier molecules has started. By 120 km the atomic O population exceeds that of the molecular O, and by 200 km the O concentration exceeds that of N,. Above this again the atmosphere above 1000 km is mostly H and He atoms. Figs. 1-2 show the broad outlines of the atmospheric variations. Having obtained some idea of the contents of the atmosphere, we now consider the following range of processes which are un- doubtedly occurring: (1) photon and electron impact ionization; (2) recombination; (3) excitation, again both by photon and elec- LLEWELLYN: Chemistry of High Atmosphere 83 tron collision; (4) radiation from excited atoms produced in (3); (5) chemical reactions between the various ions, excited species and molecular fragments. In order to produce an atmospheric theory we need to know not only the abundances of the various constituents but also the radiation fluxes which produce them and the rates of the chemical reactions which also govern their relative concentrations. The at- tack has been made both in the field and in the laboratory. The solar radiation spectrum has been carefully measured by rocket borne spectrometers and spectrographs by a number of national laboratories and is relatively well established (Hintereggir, 1965; 800 ~1000° DEPENDS | ON SUN ANGLE 8 AND SOLAR ACTIVITY 10 400 c <~ 200 LL a = 100 eS < 50 25 TEMPERATURE DENSITY (°K) (Per cm?) Fig. 2. Temperatures and particle densities. Tousey, 1964). In the laboratory, systematic investigations of pro- duction efficiencies and reaction rates have been made (Ferguson, 1967). Two examples of the laboratory approach may be con- sidered. 84 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES THE FLow1nc AFTERGLOW METHOD This method has probably been the most successful approach to measurement of reaction rates for the extremely reactive species which are found in the upper atmosphere (Cermak et al., 1968). Ions are produced in a variety of ways in an electrical discharge afterglow and are carried in a buffer (nonreacting) gas such as He or Ar down a tube past a position where the reagent is added. The gas composition is then sampled by a quadrupole mass spectrom- eter at the end of the tube. The ion disappearance as a function of added reactant leads directly to a rate measurement. As an ex- ample, one may add O, in fairly large quantity to He immediately after the discharge and convert Het+ ions to O+ and He metastable excited species to O.* by reaction. One then has a source of O+ and O.* ions buffered in He for further reaction studies, e.g. by adding a second reactant, say N atoms at a point further down stream. Both positive and negative ions can be obtained in this apparatus and some of the problems associated with defining the states of the reagents are avoided. THE ELECTRON BEAM METHOD This method has been under development for some time and shows promise of versatility for a wide range of reaction measure- ments. In its simplest form, an electron beam is projected into the gas under observation and the resulting luminescence is observed through an appropriate window by a spectrometer. Observations can be made from infra-red to vacuum ultra-violet. At low pres- sures, by observing the photon intensity resulting from a given elec- tron beam intensity one can obtain efficiencies for the production of a variety of excited states of both neutral and ionic species as a function of the energy of the electron in the beam. When the pres- sure is allowed to increase, secondary effects can come into action and luminescent reactions caused by the collision of excited mole- cules (produced by electron impact) with other gas molecules can also be observed. By the use of an optical scanning system, the luminescent intensity around the exciting beam can be measured and the data interpreted in terms of the rates of the various second- ary reaction processes. With the data provided by laboratory observations (Donahue, 1966) and the solar flux intensity measurements, we can calculate LLEWELLYN: Chemistry of High Atmosphere 85 the rate of ion production for any specified sun direction. As the ultra-violet radiation penetrates the atmosphere the ionization rate increases at first, because increasing atmospheric density provides more targets. The rate reaches a maximum as the radiation is ab- sorbed and then declines. We can compare these calculated rates with the ionization densities in the atmosphere, determined by rocket flights and radiowave reflection experiments and it is immedi- ately obvious that there is little resemblance between calculated altitude profiles of production rates and observed abundances. The N.* ion is produced in greater abundance than any other species and yet is a relatively minor constituent; conversely, the NO* ion is a major species although NO itself is a minor atmospheric con- stituent. A further anomaly is provided by the observation that the O* ion density and the electron density reach a maximum some 100 km above the region of greatest O* production. Clearly some complicating factors are intervening and we must consider the pos- sible life-styles and deaths for ions after their creation. Ultimately, recombination awaits all ionic species and there are alternative ways to go. (a) Radiative recombination. In this process, A*+e—A-+ photon the system radiates as the electron is captured. It is a relatively ineficient process but may be the only significant route for atomic ions at low pressures. (b) Dissociative recombination. In this process, AB++e>A+B+ kinetic energy the energy release associated with electron capture by the ion is dissipated by breaking the bond in the molecule and in accelerating the fragments produced by this bond rupture. This process can be highly efficient and for diatomic ions like N.*, NO*, O,* is about 10° faster than the radiative recombination of O*. We can see qualitatively, that at low altitudes where the ions which are produced are mostly diatomic, that the charged particle density is expected to be lower than at the higher levels there the ions are mostly atomic with their slower recombination rate. A fresh point emerges however because from information about the DENSITY (Per cm?) e (THEORY) e (OBSERVED) : O* (THEORY) 10 + O* (OBSERVED) 10° 150 200 ALTITUDE (Km) Fig. 3. Observed and predicted O+ and e particle densities. LLEWELLYN: Chemistry of High Atmosphere 87 production rate and the observed ion abundance we can calculate what the recombination rate must be. When this is done, we find that the rate at which O* recombines in the atmosphere is too high for it to be the result of radiative recombination. Some time ago this anomaly was unraveled by postulating the following processes (subsequently confirmed in the laboratory ): (c) O++0.>0+0, charge exchange (d) Ot+N.5N+NO* ion atom exchange ) g lons produced at rates depending on target density (altitude) and Solar Radiation radiation intensity. oO’ charge exchange , oe charge exchange Not with Oo with O2 atom atom ion ion interchange interchange with with No O Recombination Fig. 4. Process of balance between positive ion density and negative ion density. In these processes the atomic ions are converted to diatomic ions which may subsequently undergo dissociative recombination. They may also participate in other ionic reactions such as (e) N.*+0,—>0,+N,+ (f) N.*O>N + NO* which help to explain the lowered abundance of N,* and the high levels of NO* observed in the atmosphere. 88 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES These fundamental notions have been applied to analysis of specific regions in the atmosphere. In this analysis the following scheme is applied: (1) It is assumed that the reaction rates are so fast that they can keep pace with changes produced by diffusion and changing sun angle so that a steady state results. (2) The rates of production of ions must balance the loss rates via recombination, and for a specific ion the production rate must balance the loss rates which arise not only from recombination but also from transformation to other ions by reactions such as c, d, e, f. TABLE 1 Emitters in visual airglow Wave Length Emitter 5200 N. D 5577 oxygen green line O-(7S)=0 Gp) 5893 Na 6300 O CD) GG (3) The positive ion density must balance the negative ion den- sity. Fig. 4 illustrates the process and the most important reactions. The results of such analyses are qualitatively correct as can be seen from Fig. 3. Currently the problems seem to hinge on the va- lidity of theoretical estimates of the rates of O* production. It ap- pears however that this relatively simple model is capable of being modified to account for many of the complex phenomena observed in the E and F;, regions of the ionosphere. We now pass from the technologically important ionosphere to a consideration of the airglow referred to in the opening sentences. The glow is distinct from that of the brighter aurora in that its lati- tude dependence is considerably less marked and the fact that it is derived from much lower energy states of atoms and molecules. Information is much more scattered but a moderately consistent picture is available. We will only consider the dayglow in the range of wavelengths observable by eye (Wallace and McElroy, 1968), an artificial restriction but one which nevertheless includes a variety of examples of the chemistry of the high atmosphere. The principal emissions in the visual airglow arise from nitrogen, LLEWELLYN: Chemistry of High Atmosphere 89 oxygen, and sodium and the wave lengths and emitting species are listed in Table 1. There is a possible connection between the red and green oxygen emission since they may result from a cascade process of the type 0 (28) 2274 6 1H 6800 © sp Green Red We note however that the red lines are emitted from altitudes around 200 km whereas the green lines originate at about 100 km, with no conclusive evidence for 5577A emission above 150 km. Ole) = ols) (g) Oz (7Ig) + sb (Din s OC) (h) a Fig. 5. Consequences of the recombination of O,, which produce O1D. OUD se OS) (i) The basic problem was to consider the mechanisms by which these energetic species are produced. There are several possibili- ties (1) Ionic Recombination In reactions of the type XOG eG the products X and Y may be formed in a variety of excited elec- tronic states, we will be interested in those leading to N*D atomic nitrogen and O'S and 'D atomic oxygen. The recombination of O, can yield a variety of consequences as in Fig. 5 where we list only those producing O'D. This set of proc- esses is a most appealing mechanism for 6300A production. The absence of green emission at 200 km suggests that O'S production is small and that (i) is probably less important. The altitude ob- 90 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES servations also suggest that we can neglect quenching of O'D by collisions so that the emission rate will be closely related to the recombination rate. The principal problems lie in the electron den- sity estimates required for rate calculations. (2) Fluorescence and Resonant Scattering. These processes involve the re-emission of energy absorbed as solar photons. If absorbed and emitted photons are of the same wavelength, we refer to resonant scattering; the more general case involving a wave length change is called fluorescence. The abun- dances of O and N are such that the fluorescence contributes to 5200A and 5577A emissions are ineligible. There could be a con- tribution to 6300A due to resonant scattering at lower altitudes but quenching, which is extremely important in this case, reduces it to a minor contribution. The 3914A N,* emission however is entirely different and resonant scattering of sunlight is the principal source for 3914A emission in the twilight and day air-glow. (3) Photodissociation The absorption of solar radiation followed by the production of excited fragments is a possible mechanism for the excitation of atomic oxygen and nitrogen. Examination of the absorption effi- ciencies however indicates that only minor amounts of O ('S) O (‘D) and N (?D) can be expected from this source. (4) Chemical Processes Two chemical processes appear to be sources of air-glow: (i) The three body reaction between oxygen atoms O0+0+0-0,+0 ('S) (ii) Ion atom interchange IND (ae) EO) (IPE SSIN(O) (5) SEIN (ID) There is avast quantity of chemical energy stored in the atmos- phere near 100 km in the form of oxygen atoms, about 5x10" atoms in acentimetre square column, corresponding to about 210" ergs cm’. The association of these atoms is a major source of 5577A especially in the night glow. Production of O (1D) is also possible but the collision rate is such that quenching reduces 6300A emission to a negligible level. LLEWELLYN: Chemistry of High Atmosphere 91 The 5200A emission from ?D may be produced by reaction (ii). Other reactions such as O+0+N >0,+N?D O,7 +N >O,+ N?D have been proposed but any process involving atomic nitrogen as a reagent can only make a small contribution because of the low at- mospheric density of this particular species. (5) Electrons When solar radiation ionizes the atmosphere, electrons are pro- duced and some of these may initially have considerable amounts of kinetic energy. We may evaluate the effects of the fluxes provided we know the energy distribution function either as a result of ex- periment or from theoretical considerations. It is convenient to split the population into two groups, the quasi-thermal electrons and fast photo electrons. Data on the quasi-thermal electron dis- tribution has been obtained from rocket flights and the appropriate electron density-excitation rate calculations show that quasi-thermal electrons are a minor source for 6300A day glow. The photo elec- trons however are relatively important sources for 5577 and 3914A emissions and significant contributions to 6300A above 200 km. The analysis here is rather complex since it follows a sequence: solar radiation—absorption and photoionization—fast and thermalized electrons—electrons—target densities and excitation efficiencies> luminescence. It can be easily seen from the foregoing that the behavior of the moderately high atmosphere is the result of the interaction of almost every possible entity derived from oxygen and nitrogen molecules. A coherent explanation is beginning to emerge and with improved values for the natural constants of reaction efficiency and reagent density we will rapidly approach a deeper understanding of the dynamics of the protective sheath which encloses the earth. LITERATURE CITED CremMak, V., A. DALGARNO, E. E. FERGUSON, L. FRIEDMAN, AND E. W. Mc- DaniEL. 1968. JIon-molecule reactions. John Wiley & Sons, New York. 92 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES DonauvE, T. M. 1966. Ionospheric reaction rates in the light of recent meas- urements in the ionosphere and the laboratory. Planet. Space Sci., vol. 14, pp. 33-48. 1968. JIonospheric composition and reactions. Science, vol. 159, pp. 489-498. Fercuson, E. E. 1967. Ionospheric ion-molecule reaction rates. Geophys., vol. 5, pp. 305-327. HinTEREGGIR, H. E. 1965. Absolute intensity measurements in the extreme ultra-violet spectrum of solar radiation. Revs. Space Sci., vol. 4, pp. 461-497. Massey, H., AND A. E. Potrer. 1961. Atmospheric photochemistry. Royal Inst. Chem., (London) Lecture Series 1961, no. 1. TousEy, R. 1964. The extreme ultraviolet spectrum of the sun. Revs. Space Sci., vol. 2, pp. 3-69. Wattace, L., AND M. B. McEtroy. 1968. The visual dayglow. Planet. Space Sci., vol. 14, pp. 677-708. School of Engineering Science, Florida State University, Talla- hassee, Florida 32306. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 34(2) 1971 Many-Body Problems in Physics and Society Harry S. ROBERTSON As we are becoming increasingly aware, many-people problems exist; indeed they seem to grow ever more complex and more subtly dangerous to our continued survival. My attitude toward these problems is that effective solutions to them are improbable, in the absence of quantitative theoretical understanding of the social proc- esses involved. Empiric knowledge, to be sure, has carried us to our present societal state, just as it has served us well in the in- cipient stages of science and engineering. In the more advanced sciences, however, empiricism has been almost entirely supplanted by an understanding, developed quantitatively from fundamental principles. So must it be with sociology. The problems usually studied by physicists are clean and simple when compared with those in the domain of sociology, but as the relatively simple problems yield to attack, increasingly complex ones arise to challenge us. One particular area of physics, many- body theory, approaches in philosophy, if not yet in complexity, the many-people problem. Here it is necessary to assume incomplete knowledge of the system being studied, to work with statistical the- ories, and to extract patterns of expected behavior in the presence of essential statistical uncertainties. Quite a large variety of many-body problems have been solved, often by highly sophisticated mathematical techniques. My hope and expectation is that some of these already-solved problems could be recast into sociopolitical terms, to be used as preliminary steps in elucidating the many-people problem. The areas of physics that should become sources of applicable solved problems are statistical mechanics, thermodynamics, kinetic theory, solid-state physics, and plasma physics. Physicists do not usually think professionally about problems of society, and their approaches are often regarded by sociologists as simplistic and naive. Sociologists, psychologists, and other behav- ioral scientists do not usually possess the mathematical tools or the generalized approach of the physicist. They frequently seem to at- tack problems by blending empirical approaches based on anecdotal data with an indeterminate measure of wishful thinking. 94 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES In the relatively few cases that I know of in which behavioral scientists have attempted to formulate and analyze mathematical models of some aspect of society, either the mathematical level of the model has been too elementary to be of much value, or the entire model scheme has been too complicated to yield a useful mathematical solution. Exactly the opposite attack is suggested here; namely, that we find many-body physics problems, already solved, that can be rephrased in terms of variables and parameters that are appropriate to many-body social problems, interpret the solutions in the new terms, and thus develop new insights and un- derstandings of society. One favorable aspect of this approach may be its effect on physics students. Despite the direct attacks on some of the press- ing problems of our age (such as pollution, energy sources, water supply, noise control) that are among the traditional concerns of professional scientists and engineers, the present intellectual climate has so emphasized the urgency of eliminating war, poverty, and the ghetto that many capable individuals are neglecting the so-called hard sciences in favor of disciplines that are closer in their profes- sional objectives to these problem areas. At the present stage of evolution of the social sciences, I should expect these mathemati- cally-gifted individuals to become capable of greater contributions toward their development if they were to choose the indirect route through the discipline of physics. Socially conscious students pres- ently in physics continue to express interest in the occasional use of their abilities in other areas; the possibility of providing a produc- tive channel for these abilities, and the enhanced involvement of these students with the many-people problems of our age should lead to interesting and presumably beneficial results. A word of warning is necessary: much of the mathematical de- velopment of social sciences will be nonsense. A major difficulty of physics is that of writing equations that correctly represent the characteristics of the system under study. In social sciences, this difficulty is usually much more profound. Therefore it will be nec- essary to begin with deliberately oversimplified models leading to solvable problems, with the full knowledge that the results are not to be applied directly to far more complex societal situations. Most of the nonsense will result from failure to recognize that essential oversimplifications may invalidate or seriously restrict the generality ROBERTSON: Many-body Problems 95 of problem solutions. Scientists who do not appreciate the com- plexity of social problems, and behavioral scientists who might be overimpressed by mathematical dexterity are equally likely to be led astray. OBJECTIVES OF MODEL STUDIES The evident primary objective of a program of mathematical models of society is the quantitative analysis, understanding, and prediction of dynamic developments in society. When this objec- tive is reached, many-people theory will have become a mature science; at present we must recognize the value of more modest goals. While our ability to make quantitatively accurate theories of dynamic social processes is still being developed, it should be pos- sible to acquire a higher conceptual understanding of these proc- esses in terms of model studies. The evolution of a sociopolitical entity from one dynamic state to another can be studied in terms of models with adjustable parameters, a family of behavior patterns can be generated, and a qualitative assessment of the effects of these parameters can be used as a means of educating our intuitions. If then the qualitative behavior of the models can be made to agree with the observed behavior of a sociopolitical entity (herein called a system) by a particular choice of parameters, a means may be provided for educating the parameters in terms of the system prop- erties, and progress will have been nade toward the primary goal. Even from the qualitative guidance obtainable from simplified model studies, the evolution of imaginative and increasingly effec- tive action programs may provide interim amelioration of the many- people problem. Furthermore, the development of theories in which the properties of the system are interdependent (as is usual in real systems) may lead to increasingly sophisticated diagnostic techniques, from which better action programs may evolve. REQUIREMENTS FOR VALID, USEFUL MODELS Several evident requirements of valid models may be listed, and the requirement that the models also be useful modifies the list, to exclude overcomplex models. First, the model system, or sociopolitical unit, must be identifiable, i.e., distinguishable from 96 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OUTSIDE Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of a sociopolitical system, coupled to the out- side world and subject to some kind of action program. the rest of society, presumably by a set of characteristics or eigen- properties. Second, it must be made up of individuals with per- sonalities (identifiable characteristics), subject to quantitative, per- haps statistical description. Some eigenproperties of the individuals (e.g., linguistic, economic, racial, or age grouping, in the case of social systems) may be those that characterize the system, but sys- tems may be identified, for example, geographically, and comprise a broad spectrum of individual properties. In the corresponding physical systems, the eigenproperties need not resemble their so- cietal counterparts; the important point is that each system can do something, its “thing”, in an environmental! setting, and the model study must be able to tell how well the system performs. Physical systems can be bells, oscillators, molecules, etc. The third requirement is that the individuals must interact with each other and the rest of society. Descartes’ proof of his existence, “cogito, ergo sum”, should be modified to read “Interago, ergo sum’. Without interaction, the system may as well not exist. Finally, the interaction must lead to a problem that can be for- mulated mathematically and, at least approximately, solved. This requirement seems to imply the existence of a dynamics (as in the case of coupled harmonic oscillators) or a statistical dynamics (as in the study of stochastic processes ). A schematic diagram of the system, coupled to its surroundings and subject to some kind of forcing, is shown in Fig. 1. CouPLED-OSCILLATOR MODELLING As an example of a physical model that can be applied to socio- political problems, I have chosen a perennial favorite of physicists, a system of coupled harmonic oscillators. The harmonic oscillator problem is unique in physics, in that it can apparently be solved ROBERTSON: Many-body Problems 97 Bee Ox. e,. © he » 8 Bei tk = sees DLS = = a S12 S33) Fig. 2. Bound harmonic oscillator chain representing a collection of indi- vidual “people”, the system, coupled to a statistically averaged outside world of basically similar people, interacting through nearest-neighbor coupling. analytically in complete generality, both for classical and for quan- tum systems. Recently Huerta and I (1969, 1969a, 1970) have studied the approach to equilibrium of finite segments of infinite chains of coupled harmonic oscillators, the most interesting of which are weakly coupled to each other and harmonically bound to home positions. These oscillators can then behave as individuals in the short-term sense that each can oscillate at its own frequency and amplitude, at its own phase and with its own initial conditions. Yet in the long-term sense, each oscillator is weakly coupled to its neighbors, and its ultimate behavior is determined entirely by the initial conditions of remote members of the chain. Thus the harmonic-oscillator chain can be used to model a set of interacting individuals, coupled to the surroundings. Members of the system can be chosen alike or different, as indicated sche- matically in Fig. 2. The individual oscillators can drift, if free to do so; they share energy, establish correlations, resonate when given the opportunity, and exhibit a certain predictable average behavior that can be extracted, in terms of the theory, from what would ap- pear to be incomprehensible, random motion in the absence of the theory. Oscillator systems are rich sources of model studies, with many solved problems in the literature. Action programs can easily be incorporated as external forcing, with the results interpretable as the response of the system to the forcing. Nonlinear behavior is accessible in terms of Van der Pol oscillators, nonlinear coupling, frictional resistance, and collisions, to name a few possibilities. So 98 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES far, however, very few applications have been made of these solved problems to non-physics situations. In addition to those already mentioned, suggestive applicable re- sults in physics include (a) the collective description of the motion of a system in terms of normal-mode oscillations, leading to almost-periodic oscillations of members of the system; (b) the evo- lution of a system to equilibrium with its surrounding; (c) the reso- nant response of individual members of a system to appropriate forcing; (d) the influence of the surroundings on the system and vice versa; and (e) the loss of certainty, increase of entropy or of missing pertinent information as the system evolves. One exciting nonphysics application of coupled-oscillator model- ling is Brian Goodwin’s (1963, 1969) recent work at Sussex on bio- logical cell dynamics in terms of the statistical mechanics of coupled oscillators. He develops a “talandic” temperature (talandic is a hellenism implying a relationship to oscillators), and a thermody- namics of populations of mRNA and protein molecules. His bio- chemical oscillators interact with differing coupling strengths. Reso- nant interactions, entrainment, and other sometimes-nonlinear ef- fects are important in Goodwin’s theory. He is able to uncouple certain conjectured biochemical oscillators by pulsing living sys- tems, providing an example of a sophisticated diagnostic technique. His model regards the biological oscillators as real, rather than merely as entities having convenient eigenproperties. ATTAINMENT OF QUANTITATIVE UNDERSTANDING While it may be evident that coupled-oscillator systems can be interpreted in sociopolitical terms with some possible qualitative in- sight derivable from the exercise, it is by no means evident that any useful quantitative understanding could result from such intrinsi- cally simple models. Only experience will enlighten us. If we expect to attain quantitative understanding, we must choose the model judiciously to match a convenient sociopolitical system. Then the parameters of the system must be established, probably by means of empirical procedures, since a sound basic theory is usually not available. (The empirical approaches of Green (1962, 1962a, 1965) appear to be extremely valuable at this point). As a final suggestion, once the model has been analyzed, the numerical data needed for a proper choice of parameters may RoBERTSON: Many-body Problems 99 possibly be obtained by “shaking” the system and observing the re- sponse. Signal-to-noise ratio is an ever-present problem, and the ability to extract data on system parameters from low-level forcing of the system may be so limited that quantitative prediction is al- most impossible. CONCLUSIONS It is possible to recast many-body problems in physics to re- semble simple many-people problems. A variety of these problems have been and can be solved, either analytically or by computer. The solutions of the recast problems may provide behavioral scien- tists with new insights, concepts, diagnostic procedures, and im- proved understanding of many-people problems. The possible re- sultant interaction between the physical scientists and the social scientists might lead to concrete, useful advances toward the solu- tion of many-people problems. LITERATURE CITED Green, A. E. S. 1962. An independent-particle model for scientific salaries. Physics Today, Jan., pp. 40-42. 1962a. Scientific salaries. Physics Today, June, p. 60. .A law of sociophysics. Physics ———., 1965. Scions are fermions. Today, June, pp. 32-38. Goopwin, Brian. 1963. Temporal organization in cells. Academic Press, London and New York. 1969. Physics and biology: closing the gap. Sci. Research, 23 June, TOs JeTAs RoBeRTSON, H. S., anp M. A. Huerta. 1969. Approach to equilibrium of coupled, harmonically bound oscillator systems. Phys. Rev. Letters, HO, WSs fo. echay 1969a. Entrophy, information theory, and the approach to equilib- rium of coupled harmonic oscillator systems. Jour. Stat. Phys., no. 1, p. 393. 1970. Information theory and approach to equilibrium. Amer. Jour. Phys., no. 38, p. 619. Physics Department, University of Miami, Coral Gables, Florida 33124. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 34(2) 1971 A New Neogene Barnacle from South Florida NoRMAN E.. WEISBORD Tue barnacle described below was obtained from the Pinecrest Sand (uppermost member of the Tamiami Formation) in a large quarry 3-4 miles east of Sarasota, Sarasota County, Florida. The type and only specimen was recovered from loose sand adherent to some large corals, collected 29 January 1970 by Dr. Harbans Puri of the Florida Bureau of Geology and donated to the Department of Geology, Florida State University. Balanus sarasotaensis, n. sp. Description. The shell (Figs. 1-8) is small, somewhat fragile, elongate-conical, subcircular at the base. The carinal end is erect, hardly convex in longitudinal profile, a little taller than the rostral end. The rostrum is broadly triangular, moderately convex, and wider than all of the other compartments. The lateral and carino- lateral compartments are steeply sloping and nearly straight, the carinolaterals by far the narrowest of all compartments. The ori- fice is obtusely diamond-shaped, elongated toward the carina, and about two-fifths the length of the shell at the base. The peritreme is rather strongly toothed by the summits of the compartments. All of the compartments are separated markedly above the middle, the amount decreasing therefrom to the base where there is a mere cleft. The parietes are thick, tubular within, and broadly triangular except for the carinolaterals which are very narrow. The rostral paries is the widest, the width decreasing successively on the carina, laterals and carinolaterals. The external surface of the paries is marked by faint radial or oblique rugosities, crossed by crowded sinuous concentric wrinkles. In places fine longitudinal and trans- verse lineations are discerned under the microscope. The surface itself is somewhat shiny, the ground color tan, rayed by interrupted stripes of light violet. The radii are narrow, deeply sunken, slanted inward, and pro- vided with strong transverse ridges, crenulated by short sturdy oblique denticles on the upper side of the ridges. The sutural mar- gins of the compartments are similarly ridged, the oblique denticles 101 Wersporp: A New Neogene Barnacle ~ ~ OST US fe oe Se x x . = 4 seo & Ke : RSA hee *. Z o> at 4 7 vllese” We Figs. 1-8. Holotype of Balanus sarasotaensis, n. sp. Figs. 1-3, exterior of shell, X 3. Figs. 4-8, interior of shell, X 4. Fig. 4, rostrum; fig. 5, carina; fig. 6, carinolateral compartment; fig. 7, lateral compartment; fig. 8, basis. 102 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES of the opposed sutural edges situated on opposite sides of the ridges to receive the recipient grooves of the other. The alae are thin, narrow, and not slanted, thus forming a gape between them and the strongly slanted radii. The external surface of the alae is shiny and marked by transverse, closely spaced, microscopic striations. The sheath extends about half way down the interior and is free at its lower margin. The inner surface is sculptured by sharp, slightly wavy, concentric riblets becoming more widely spaced below; on the carina and carinolateral compartments, but not on the others, there is a smaller riblet in each of the interspaces, these secondaries not reaching the lower margins of the sheath as do the primaries. The lateral margins of the sheath are raised, one margin slightly thicker than the opposite, both reinforced at the intercepts of the primary riblets. On the carina and carinolateral compart- ments, the primary riblets of the sheath proper continue onto the alar extension of the sheath as vertical striae. The inner wall of the compartments below the base of the sheath is constructed of flexuous longitudinal ribs, each joining a lamina at the base of the paries. The ribs are slanted and strongly striate near the base and denticulate where they join the basal lami- nae. The ribs and laminae form the walls of the parietal tubes which are more or less quadrangular in form. There are 18 tubes on the rostrum, 13 on the carina, 8 on the laterals, and 5 on the carinolaterals. Partitioning septa within the parietal tubes have not been observed. The basis is calcareous and is adherent to the exterior of a Crepi- dula resembling the Miocene to Recent Crepidula aculeata Gmelin. The under, or attached surface of the basis consists, at least at the margin, of rather coarse, closely spaced, concentric ridges; in the interior, the basis is multicellular around the periphery, and most of the surface is covered by small ridgelets radiating and swirling away from an off-centered nucleus. There seem to be as many ridgelets as there are parietal tubes in the shell. The opercular values have not been seen. Measuremenis. Type specimen (SP-2a): height of shell at ca- rinal end 9.0 mm, rostral end 6.5 mm.; diameters of basis 8.5 mm 7.6 mm.; length of orifice 3.5 mm.; height of sheath on carina 5.0 mm, on rostrum 4.2 mm.; width of paries at base: rostrum 7.5 mm, carina 5.5 mm, laterals 4.0 mm, carinolaterals 2.0 mm and 3.0 mm. Wetssporp: A New Neogene Barnacle 103 Type specimen. SP-2a is presently conserved in the Depart- ment of Geology, Florida State University. After photographing the whole specimen, the shell was disarticulated. The type now consists of the discrete compartments and the basis. Type locality. Pinecrest Sand Member of Tamiami Formation, in large excavation (Warren Brothers Pits) 3-4 miles east of Sara- sota, Sarasota County, Florida. Knowledge of the exact location awaits a detailed survey. Comparisons. The new species, Balanus sarasotaensis, is dis- tinguished by the marked separation of the compartments above the middle of the shell, by the gape between the radii and alae, by the strongly ridged, inward slanting radii, and by the very nar- row carinolateral compartments. It differs from all of the Tertiary and Pleistocene barnacles hitherto recorded from Florida by Ross and Newman (1967, pp. 18,19), although among those there is a superficial resemblance to Balanus bloxhamensis Weisbord (1965, pp. 48,49, pl. 12, figs. 5,6) from the Jackson Bluff Formation of North Florida, and to the late Miocene Balanus tamiamiensis Ross (1964, pp. 271-274, fig. 1) from the Tamiami Formation of South Florida. Balanus withersi Pilsbry (1930, pp. 429-431, pl. 36, figs. 1-27) from the Miocene near Shiloh, New Jersey is also somewhat similar, but the parietes of that are strongly ribbed and made up of fewer parietal tubes with widely spaced transverse septa. AGE OF THE TYPE LOCALITY From the type locality of Balanus sarasotaensis, Puri (personal communication) has identified the gastropod Cancellaria propeve- nusta Mansfield (1930, pp. 47,48, pl. 17, fig. 2), and as that is a guide fossil for the upper sand member of the Jackson Bluff Forma- tion in North Florida, the general equivalence of the Pinecrest and Jackson Bluff Formation is suggested. This correlation is further supported by the occurrence of the coral Septastrea marylandica (Conrad) (see Vaughan, 1904, pp. 444-447, pls. 126-129) identified by the present writer in both formations. Additional evidence is provided by Muriel E. Hunter (1968, pp. 441,444,449) who, on the basis of certain distinctive species of Pecten and other molluscan guide fossils, has established concurrent range zones of the Pine- crest Sand, Ochopee Limestone, and Buckingham Limestone in the upper part of the Tamiami Formation of South Florida, and states 104 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES they are probably equivalent to the Jackson Bluff Formation of North Florida, to the Duplin Marl of South and North Carolina, and to the Yorktown Formation of Virginia. The Tamiami Formation, as re-defined by Parker and others (1955) has a total thickness of about 150 feet, and is considered by Olsson (1968, p. 7), Hunter, and Puri to be late Miocene in age as adduced primarily from Mollusca. The Pinecrest Sand, in the upper part of the Tamiami Formation is at least 6 feet thick at the type locality (near 40-mile Bend, Dade County, Florida, in a ditch along state road 94, Sect. 25, T. 54 S., R. 34 E.) where it consists of unconsolidated medium-coarse sand with abundant, well pre- served marine fossils and occasional traces of silt-size black phos- phate grains. The excavation east of Sarasota is located 144 miles northwest of the type locality of the Pinecrest Sand. The strata in the excavation containing the gastropod Cancellaria propeve- nusta Mansfield, the coral Septastrea marylandica (Conrad, 1841), and the barnacle Balanus sarasotaensis n. sp., are placed by Puri and Vanstrum (1968, p. 84) in the Pinecrest Sand, the age of which is presumed to be no older than late Miocene. In the same excavation, lying above the Pinecrest, are soft fos- siliferous sands containing numerous specimens of the bivalve Cyr- topleura costata (Linnaeus). This stratum is referred to as the Cyrtopleura costata faunizone by Puri and Vanstrum (1968, p. 86) which they indicate is pre-Nebraskan and probably Pliocene in age. The geologic range of Cyrtopleura costata is Pliocene to Recent, and the species has been recorded in the buried Lower Pliocene deposit of North St. Petersburg, Florida, by Olsson and Harbison (1953, p. 152). That deposit, located about 36 miles north-north- west of the East Sarasota excavation, is a remarkable accumulation of shells, 5 feet or more in thickness, lying 10-15 feet below the Quaternary surface of Pinellas Park at a spot 900 feet east of 9th Street and a short distance south of 70th Avenue, North St. Peters- burg, west of Tampa Bay. This exceedingly rich “coquina”, mixed with a little bluish silt, was uncovered by dredging on 23 February 1959 when I was privileged to see it for an hour or so before the overburden, saturated with seeping water from below, slumped back over it. The deposit was unquestionably in place and packed with excellently preserved shells. It is my understanding that Olsson and Harbison’s fossils were obtained from this very deposit Wetssorp: A New Neogene Barnacle 105 unearthed in previous dredgings and strewn on the surface near by. According to Olsson and Harbison (1953, p. 25), the deposit con- tains 517 species of mollusks (493 of them marine) of which 34 per cent or so are also Recent. Reciprocally, 66 per cent are extinct, and on this basis a Pliocene age was assigned to it by them. In my view (see Weisbord, 1962, footnote p. 69) the age, again based on the extinction per cent of the Mollusca, is not younger than early Pliocene. In summary it would appear that the Pinecrest Sand Member of the Tamiami Formation is late Miocene in age and the Cyrto- pleura faunizone lying above it is Pliocene. Both determinations are based for the most part on the evidence derived from Mollusca which are largely benthonic in habitat. On the other hand, plank- tonic Foraminiferida, which by virtue of their universality are im- portant age indicators or biologic chronometers, are indicating that the established Miocene of Florida and the Caribbean region is to be correlated with the Pliocene and even the Pleistocene zones of the standard section in Italy. Thus the Jackson Bluff Formation of Florida and the Bowden Formation of Jamaica, both veritable bas- tions of the molluscan Miocene, are today considered Pliocene and Pleistocene by some advocates of the plankton. To reconcile the differences there seems to be developing a dual system of nomen- clature for the epochs of the Neogene; an old, established one based on the Mollusca, and a newer yet viable one based on the plank- tonic Foraminiferida. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The photographs of the exterior of the type of Balanus sara- sotaensis were taken and processed by Gerritt Mulders of Tallahas- see, the interior by Dr. Fritz Cramer, Department of Geology, Florida State University. LITERATURE CITED Conran, T. A. 1841. [Descriptions of twenty-six new species of fossil shells from the Medial Tertiary deposits of Calvert Cliffs, Maryland, James River, Virginia, and Newbern, N. C.] Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadel- phia, vol. 1, pp. 28-33. Hunter, M. E. 1968. Molluscan guide fossils in late Miocene sediments of 106 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES southern Florida. Trans. Gulf Coast Assoc. Geol. Soc., vol. 18, pp. 439-450, figs. 1-4. MANSFIELD, WENDELL C. 1930. Miocene gastropods and scaphopods of the Choctawhatchee Formation of Florida. Florida State Geol. Surv., Bull. no. 3, pp. 1-185-+-3, pls. 1-21. Ousson, AxEL A. 1968. A review of late Cenozoic stratigraphy of southern Florida. Ronald D. Perkins, editor, Late Cenozoic stratigraphy of southern Florida—a reappraisal. With additional notes on Sunoco- Felda and Sunniland fields. Miami Geol. Soc., Second Annual Field Trip, pp. 66-82, pls. 1,2. Ousson, AXEL A., AND ANNE HARBISON. 1953. Pliocene Mollusca of southern Florida with special reference to those from North Saint Petersburg. With special chapters on Turridae by William G. Fargo and Vitrinel- lidae and fresh-water mollusks by Henry A. Pilsbry. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, Monographs, no. 8, pp. i-iv, 1-457, pls. 1-65. PARKER, G. G., and others. 1955. Water resources of southeastern Florida. U. S. Geol. Surv., Water Supply Paper 1255, 965 pp. Piuspry, Henry A. 1930. Cirripedia (Balanus) from the Miocene of New Jersey. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, vol. 82, pp. 429-433, text- fig. 1, pls. 36,37. Puri, HARBANS, AND V. V. VANSTRUM. 1968. Geologic history of the Mio- cene and younger sediments in South Florida. In Jules R. DuBar and Susan S$. DuBar, editors, Late Cenozoic stratigraphy of southwestern Florida. Gulf Coast Assoc. Geol. Soc. and Soc. Econ. Paleont and Min. Sect., Ann. Meeting, Field Trip Number Four, pp. 70-86, figs. 1-5. Ross, ARNOLD. 1964. A new barnacle from the Tamiami Miocene. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci., vol. 27, no. 4, pp. 271-277, fig. 1. Ross, ARNOLD, AND WILLIAM A. NEWMAN. 1967. Eocene Balanidae of Flor- ida, including a new genus and species with a unique plan of “turtle barnacle” organization. Amer. Mus. Novitates, no. 2288, pp. 1-21, figs. 1-7. VauGHAN, T. W. 1904. Anthozoa. Maryland Geol. Surv., Miocene. System- atic Paleontology, pp. 438-447, pls. 122-129. WEISBORD, NORMAN E. 1962. Late Cenozoic gastropods from northern Vene- zuela. Bull. Amer. Paleont., vol. 42, no. 193, pp. 1-672, text-figs. 1,2, pls. 1-48. ——. 1965. Some late Cenozoic cirripeds from Venezuela and Florida. Bull. Amer. Paleont., vol. 50, no. 225, pp. 1-145, pls. 1-12. Department of Geology, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida 32306. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 34(2) 1971 101 Trophic Relationships in the Water Hyacinth Community Keitu L. HANSEN, Epwarp G. RuBy, AND ROBERT L. THOMPSON SINcE its introduction to Florida in 1835 (Goin, 1943), the water hyacinth, Eichhornia crassipes ( Mart.) Solms, has been con- sidered both a blessing and a curse. From the negative standpoint, the rapid growth of this mat-forming species serves as a menace to navigation, irrigation, drainage, and flood-control through sheer blockage. Eradication of the hyacinth has proved both difficult and expensive. On the positive side, this floating form with its ex- tensive arborescent root mass provides a natural shelter and micro- habitat which abounds in a rich associated fauna. Some naturalists are now advocating retaining a controlled border of hyacinths be- cause of its support of game fishes and their food organisms. The purpose of the present study was to make a preliminary in- vestigation of some of the trophic relationships between the verte- brate and invertebrate members of the hyacinth community. It was the intent of the study to establish some food chains using vary- ing techniques including a radioactive tracer (P-32), stomach anal- yses, and direct feeding observation. One critical question asked was whether the hyacinth itself con- tributed as a significant producer in the food web. A second spe- cific problem involved the precise role of the talitrid amphipod, Hyalella azteca. MATERIALS AND METHODS Biota. Larger animals used in the study were collected in 10 and 15 foot minnow-seines from marginally located hyacinths in shallow water of the St. Johns River and its tributaries. Amphipod crustaceans (scuds), Hyalella azteca, were easily taken by rapidly plunging the roots of a hyacinth plant up and down in a small bucket of water. Small hyacinths bearing 6-10 leaves were selected for feeding and isotope experimentation. Radiological Techniques. The general procedure for this as- pect of the study was to introduce the radionuclide, phosphorus-32, in aqueous solution to both hyacinths and scuds. Both forms showed a rapid uptake of the isotope as soon as 24 hours. These two species were used as the starting point for the majority of feed- 108 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ing experiments. For isotope counting, experimental animals were sectioned into pre-weighed planchets, dried thoroughly under an infra-red lamp, and ashed in an oven at 600 C. The ash was weighed and then counted by a beta-scintillation detector. Feeding Experimentation. The laboratory studies were con- ducted with invertebrate and vertebrate species in small aquaria and plastic containers. Experimental forms were separated from controls by hardware cloth covered with 1 mm mesh nylon. Aera- tion was used for those species requiring high oxygen tension. Feed- ing experimentation in the field employed flow-through cages con- structed of a wooden frame (3 2X2 feet) enclosed by aluminum screen and 1 mm nylon-mesh cloth. These cages were used in a protected area of the St. John’s River. RESULTS The study consisted of two major portions, namely the labora- tory investigation and a field endeavor. Laboratory studies were primarily concentrated upon individual feeding experimentation on hyacinth roots or scuds. In the field operation varying species com- binations were placed in the cages to determine differing feeding interactions. Radioactive Tracer Evidence. The radiological criteria for es- tablishing certain species as definite hyacinth or scud feeders was based upon sufficient numbers of laboratory and field tests showing significantly higher P-32 levels in the experimental as contrasted to the control groups. Strongly reliable radiological evidence for four herbivorous species feeding upon hyacinth roots is presented in Table 1. Table 2 offers good evidence that four primary carnivore TABLE 1 Phosphorus-32 levels in Eichhornia crassipes feeders Species Laboratory Field No. Av.X10-°yc/gm No. Av. X10-3,c/gm Tests (controls=0.0) Tests (controls—0.0) Hyalella azteca 6 412.3 2 331.0 Procambarus fallax Il 11.6 3 Pomacea paludosa il IL 3 232) Hyla cinerea cinerea — il (tadpole ) HANSEN ET AL.: Water Hyacinth Community 109 TABLE 2 Phosphorus-32 levels in Hyalella azteca feeders Species Laboratory Field No. Av.X10-3yc/gm No. Av.X10-3,,c/gm Tests (controls—0.0) Tests (controls=0.0) Ictalurus nebulosus marmoratus 3 13.0 2, 21.4 Lepomis punctatus punctatus 4 WPT | 3 20.4 Lepomis macrochirus purpurescens 5 24.7 2 2.38} Enneacanthus gloriosus 10 37.9 2 12.6 TABLE 3 Phosphorus-32 levels in possible Hyalella axteca feeders Species Laboratory Field No. Av.X10-3uc/gm No. Av.X10-%,c/gm Tests (controls—0.0) Tests (controls=0.0) Palaemonetes paludosus 5 U8 1 0.5 Procambarus fallax 5 8.7 3 1.9 Ranatra fusca 8 2.4 2 22.5 Anisoptera larva 5 16.4 — — Lucania goodei 3 17.4 1 38.2 Fundulus chrysotus 2; Dell i 6.3 Mollienesia latipinna ] 39.1 — — Pomoxis nigromaculatus Do 16.4 — — piscine species feed upon the scud. Table 3 suggests a carnivorous role for eight forms, but additional study is needed to confirm these forms as certain scud feeders. In the tabular presentation, distinc- tion is made between the laboratory and field situation. Stomach Analysis and Observation. Some data were obtained from limited stomach analyses as shown in Table 4. Direct obser- vation of aquarium feeding showed that the stumpknocker (Lepo- mis punctatus punctatus) and southern brown bullhead (Ictalurus nebulosus marmoratus) captured scuds in the open water. The stumpknocker was quite adept at catching scuds. Water scorpions (Ranatra fusca) and an unidentified anisopteran larva were ob- 110 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES TABLE 4 Stomach analyses Individuals Examined Species Significant stomach contents 20 Fundulus chrysotus 1 anisopteran larva; 1 scud; small aquatic beetles; unidentified arthro- pod parts 10 Gambusia affinis 3 with desmids & blue-green algae; holbrooki beetle larva; unidentified arthropod parts 6 Anisopteran larva Unidentified arthropod parts ] Chaenobryttus coronarius Small fish remains 2 Lepomis p. punctatus 1 freshwater shrimp; small aquatic beetles 1 Lepomis macrochirus 1 freshwater shrimp purpurescens served attempting to capture scuds, but the amphipods often es- caped the grasping limbs and mouth parts. DIscussION A partial food web (Fig. 1) has been constructed as a composite from all data collected in the study. It is incomplete as concerns BLUESPOTTED SUNFISH BLUEGILL CRAPPIE f STUMPKNOCKER SAILFIN MOLLY CARNIVORE TROPHIC LEVEL BROWN BULLHEAD REDFINNED KILLIFISH FRESHWATER SHRIMP GOLDEN TOPMINNOW WATER SCORPION ANISOPTERAN LARVA HERBIVORE EASTERN TROPHIC LEVEL MOSQUITO FISH CRAYF1|SH SCUD SNAIL HYLA TADPOLE IRONIC (LEW ALGAE WATER HYACINTH Fig. 1. Partial food-web suggested for the water hyacinth community’ from P-32 evidence and stomach analyses. HANSEN ET AL.: Water Hyacinth Community RE the total feeding relationships of the total hyacinth community. Al- though micro-producers as phytoplankton undoubtedly play a role in the nutrition of some members of the hyacinth community, phy- toplankton has not been considered in the present study. Producer Trophic Level. Although the water hyacinth is cer- tainly the major macro-producer in the community, other occasional associates would include such floaters as water lettuce (Pistia strati- otes), water fern (Salvinia rotundifolia), and duckweeds (Lemna minor, Spirodela polyrhiza); submergents as water milfoil (Myrio- phyllum sp.) and alligator weed (Alternanthera philoxeroides); and emergents as cattail (Typha latifolia), pickeral weed (Ponte- deria lanceolata), and grasses. Herbivore Trophic Level. The principal herbivore of the hya- cinth community, feeding specifically upon hyacinth roots, is the scud (Hyalella azteca). Numerically, the scud is the dominant metazoan animal in the water hyacinth community as also verified by the studies of Katz (1967) and O’Hara (1967). From a total of 32 hyacinth plants examined, an average number of 66 scuds per hyacinth was counted. Amphipods are generally recognized to be detritus feeders or scavengers (Barnes, 1968). Although we have observed Hyalella feeding upon normal hyacinth root tissue, the question arose as to whether it might prefer decomposing hyacinth roots. Scuds were fed normal and decomposing hyacinth roots tagged with P-32. Those individuals feeding upon the decaying tissue showed 1.9 times higher radiation count. Although omnivorous, the crayfish Procambarus fallax could be observed hanging from and crawling among hyacinth roots where it appeared to browse and feed directly upon the roots. The P-32 tracer evidence for the crayfish corroborated this observation. Although the snail Pomacea paludosa and tadpole of Hyla cine- rea cinerea showed a high concentration of P-32 uptake, these forms may possibly browse upon the periphyton (aufwuchs) growing on the hyacinth roots. Further study is necessary to determine the precise source of nutrition for these two species. Carnivore Trophic Level. The majority of the organisms studied gave evidence which placed them in the carnivore feeding level. These include the freshwater shrimp (Palaemonetes paludosus), water scorpion (Ranatra fusca), an anisopteran larva, southern 112 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES brown bullhead (Ictalurus nebulosus marmoratus), redfinned killi- fish (Lucania goodei), golden topminnow (Fundulus chrysotus), stumpknocker (Lepomis punctatus punctatus), bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus purpurescens), bluespotted sunfish (Enneacanthus gloriosus), and crappie (Pomoxis nigromaculatus ). In addition to each of these forms showing evidence of feeding upon the herbivorous scud, the golden topminnow feeds upon ani- sopteran larvae and both the bluegill and stumpknocker feed upon the freshwater shrimp. One numerically important member of the hyacinth community is the water bug, Belostoma sp. No evidence was forthcoming in this study which indicated it to be either a hyacinth or scud feeder. SUMMARY A study of the trophic relationships in the water hyacinth com- munity was conducted using biota from the St. John River Drainage near DeLand, Florida, from June 16 through August 8, 1969. The water hyacinth is a superior experimental plant for radio- nuclide absorption from an aqueous solution. The amphipod Hya- lella azteca is the basic herbivore of the water hyacinth community. This species browses upon the root system of the producer hyacinth. Feeding observation and P-32 tracer studies indicate that the fol- lowing species feed directly upon water hyacinth roots: Hyalella azteca, Pomacea paludosa, Procambarus fallax, and Hyla cinerea cinerea (tadpole). Feeding observation and radioisotope experi- mentation gave evidence that the amphipod Hyalella azteca serves as food for the following piscine species: Ictalurus nebulosus marmoratus, Lepomis punctatus punctatus, Lepomis macrochirus purpurescens, and Enneacanthus gloriosus. Preliminary evidence using P-32 tagged Hyalella indicates that the following forms feed upon the amphipod: Palaemonetes paludosus, Procambarus fallax, Ranatra fusca, an anisopteran larva, Lucania goodei, Fundulus chrysotus, Mollienesia latipinna, and Pomoxis nigromaculatus. A partial food-web of the water hyacinth community, con- structed as a composite from all data, shows two producers, five herbivores, and 11 carnivores. HANSEN ET AL.: Water Hyacinth Community 113 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This study was supported in part by National Science Founda- tion College Science Improvement Program Grant GY 5318. LITERATURE CITED Barnes, Ropert D. 1968. Invertebrate Zoology. W.B. Saunders Co., Phila- delphia, edition 2, 743 pp. Gorn, CoLEMAN J. 1943. The lower vertebrate fauna of the water hyacinth community in northern Florida. Proc. Florida Acad. Sci., vol. 6, no. 3-4, pp. 143-154. Katz, Epira E. 1967. Effects of the chemical eradication of water hyacinths on associated aquatic fauna. Unpublished master’s thesis. Stetson University, DeLand, Florida. O'Hara, JAMEs. 1967. Invertebrates found in water hyacinth mats. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci., vol. 30, no. 1, pp. 73-80. Department of Biology, Stetson University, Deland, Florida 32720. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad, Sci. 34(2) 1971 A New Troglobitic Crayfish from Florida Horton H. Hosss, Jr. Wir the discovery of the new species described herein from a well in Dade County, Florida, seven troglobitic crayfishes, repre- senting three genera, are known to occur within the state. The monotypic genus Troglocambarus is endemic in the karst area of the peninsula. The genus Cambarus, of which there are six or per- haps seven troglobites (C. cahni is a questionable troglobitic spe- cies; Hobbs and Barr, 1960), is represented by only one Floridian species in Jackson County and southwestern Georgia, the remain- ing members frequenting subterranean waters of Alabama, Arkan- sas, Missouri, and Tennessee. Five of the eight known spelean species and subspecies of the genus Procambarus are Floridian en- demics; the other three occur in Alabama, Cuba, and Mexico. Only one other crayfish genus, Orconectes, is represented among the troglobitic crayfishes, and six species and subspecies belonging to it are found in the limestone area extending from northern Alabama to southern Indiana (Hobbs and Barr, in press). To aid in the recognition of the troglobitic crayfishes of Florida, a key to those occurring in the State is appended to the description of the new species. Summaries of our knowledge of the previously described Floridian species are recorded by Hobbs, 1942b, 1958; Hobbs and Barr, 1960; and Warren, 1961. All of the specimens of the new troglobite were obtained from a trap at the outlet of a motorized pump at the Little Bird Nursery in Miami and were forwarded to me by Billy R. Drummond and George C. Miller, who together with Henry De Maine and David Burton, former and present proprietors of the nursery, became in- terested in the animals, including amphipods and isopods, which appeared in the trap. I wish to thank these gentlemen for per- mitting me to describe this crayfish which is named in honor of Mr. Miller, a long-time friend and fellow student of crayfishes. I am also grateful to him and to Fenner A. Chace, Jr. for their criticisms of the manuscript. Finally, I acknowledge, with appreciation, the gift of three specimens (161, 14 II, 12) of Procambarus pallidus from Suwannee County by William F. Smith-Vaniz. These speci- mens were collected by him from an un-named sink in the Peacock Hosss: A New Cave Crayfish 115 Slough system, three miles east of Lauraville, and serve further to close the gap in the apparent discontinuous range of the species. Procambarus milleri, new species Diagnosis. Body without pigment, eyes large but with pigment confined to small, faceted, distal disc. Rostrum without marginal spines or tubercles, and base of acumen continuous with rostral margins. Areola 33-36.6 per cent of entire length of carapace, and five to six times longer than wide. Cervical spines lacking. Sub- orbital angle rudimentary. Postorbital ridges lacking tubercles or spines. Antennal scale approximately 2.3 times longer than wide, broadest about midlength. Mesial surface of palm of chela with irregular row of 9-11 tubercles, and both fingers provided with moderately well developed longitudinal ridges. Ischia of third and fourth pereiopods with simple hooks. First pleopods asymmetrical with rounded shoulder on cephalic surfaces, provided with sub- terminal setae, and reaching cephalad to coxae of second pereio- pods; distal extremity bearing (1) long, slender, sinuous mesial process reaching clearly beyond other terminal elements, (2) slender, moderately long cephalic process arising from cephalo- mesial surface and extending distally almost as far as tip of central projection, (3) corneous, distally-directed, lanceolate central pro- jection arising from cephalomesial surface of caudal knob, and (4) prolonged rounded caudal knob, caudal process lacking. Adult female unknown. Holotypic Male, Form I. Body subovate, compressed laterally. Abdomen narrower than thorax (5.2 and 5.7 mm). Width of cara- pace less than height at caudodorsal margin of cervical groove (5.7 and 6.5 mm). Areola 6.0 times longer than wide with two or three punctations across narrowest part. Cephalic section of carapace 1.7 times as long as areola (length 36.6 per cent of entire length of carapace ). Rostrum excavate dorsally with unthickened convergent margins lacking spines or tubercles; upper surface of rostrum con- cave with usual submarginal row of setiferous punctations and others between; acumen not delimited basally. Subrostral ridges moderately well developed but evident in dorsal aspect only in caudal orbital region. Postorbital ridges moderately prominent, grooved dorsolaterally, and lacking spines or tubercles. Suborbital 116 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES TABLE 1 Measurements (mm) of Procambarus milleri Holotype Morphotype Carapace: Height 6.5 3.8 Width 5 3.5 Length 13.1 7.8 Areola: Width 0.8 0.3 Length 48 2.6 Rostrum: Width 2.4 1.3 Length 2.8 1.9 Right Chela: Length of inner margin of palm 6.2 22, Width of palm 5 1.9 Length of outer margin of chela 1B.) Se Length of dactyl 6.6 2.6 angle and branchiostegal spine almost obsolete. Carapace punc- tate dorsally and weakly granulate laterally, cervical spines and enlarged cervical tubercles lacking. Abdomen longer than cara- pace (15.2 and 13.8 mm). Cephalic section of telson with three spines in each caudolateral corner. Cephalic portion of epistome (Fig. 6) somewhat resembling isosceles rhomboid with small cephalomedian projection, mostly plane with slightly elevated (ven- trally) margins. Antennules of usual form with moderately promi- nent spine on ventral surface near midlength. Antennae broken but probably extending caudad at least as far as telson. Antennal scale (Fig. 7) 2.3 times longer than wide, greatest width about midlength, with lamellar area much broader than thickened lateral portion; latter terminating in comparatively short spine. Right chela (Fig. 11) elongate, subovate in cross section, not strongly depressed. Mesial surface of palm with irregular row of 1] tubercles, lateral margin with subserrate row of tubercles, and upper and lower surfaces tuberculate; lower surface with promi- nent tubercle distolateral to articular condyle at base of dactyl. Fixed finger with submedian longitudinal ridge dorsally and ven- trally, both flanked by setiferous punctations; opposable margin with two rows of tubercles, dorsal one consisting of 11 situated along proximal three-fifths of finger with third from base largest, Figs. 1-11. Procambarus milleri, new species. (Setae omitted from all structures illustrated except in Figs. 1 and 11; Figs. 2 and 4 are from morpho- type, all others from holotype). Figs. 1 and 2, mesial views of first pleopods; Fig. 3, dorsal view of carapace; Figs. 4 and 5, lateral views of first pleopods; Fig. 6, epistome; Fig. 7, antennal scale; Fig. 8, basal podomeres of third and fourth pereiopods; Fig. 9, caudal view of first pleopods; Fig. 10, lateral view of carapace; Fig. 11, dorsal view of distal podomeres of right cheliped. 118 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ventral row of four tubercles, most proximal largest, situated along middle half of finger, minute denticles studding surface between and distal to tubercles. Dactyl with weak dorsal and ventral sub- median longitudinal ridges flanked by setiferous punctations; mesial surface with row of similar punctations; opposable margin with single row of nine small tubercles along proximal half of finger, larger one below row between level of fourth and fifth tubercle, and with minute denticles interspersed between tubercles and ex- tending almost to corneous tip of finger. Carpus of right cheliped longer than broad (3.5 and 2.4 mm) with mesial and dorsomesial surfaces tuberculate, and dorsolateral, lateral, and ventral surfaces mostly punctate; dorsal surface with shallow oblique depression; mesial surface with one conspicuously large, subacute tubercle, three smaller ones proximal to it, and one small one dorsodistally; lower distal margin with two spiniform tu- bercles, lateral one on ventrolateral articular condyle, and other, more mesially situated, with several smaller tubercles proximomesial tonite Merus of right cheliped punctate laterally, otherwise tubercu- late; marginal ventral tubercles arranged in mesial and lateral rows of approximately 14 tubercles each. Ischium with three small tu- bercles. Hooks on ischia of third and fourth pereiopods (Fig. 8) simple, extremities of neither approximating distal margin of correspond- ing basis. Coxa of fourth pereiopod inflated caudomesially but lacking distinct boss; that of fifth pereiopod with very prominent, caudomesial, oblique prominence compressed in longitudinal plane of body. Sternum between second, third, and fourth pereiopods moder- ately shallow and bearing heavy fringe of setae on ventrolateral margins. First pleopods (Figs. 1, 5, 9) as described in diagnosis. Morphotypic Male, Form II. Differs from holotype in follow- ing respects: rostrum more strongly acuminate; cephalic section of telson with only one spine in each caudolateral corner; mesial mar- gin of palm of chela with only nine tubercles; opposable margin of fixed finger with only two prominent tubercles and that of dacty] with one; ventral surface of merus of cheliped with six or seven tu- Figs. 12-15. Floridian troglobitic crayfishes, (Setae omitted from all structures illustrated except subterminal ones on b). a, dorsal view of carapace; b, lateral view of first pleopod of first form male; c, mesial view of distal por- tion of same; d, lateral view of distal portion of same; e, annulus ventralis; f, lateral view of first pleopod of second form male; g, dorsal view of chela of first form male. QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 120 Hosss: A New Cave Crayfish 121 bercles in each row; ischia of third and fourth pereiopods with scarcely trace of hooks. See measurements. First pleopods (Figs. 2, 4) much more nearly symmetrical than in holotype and with oblique suture near base. Terminal elements non-corneous, proportionately larger and heavier (except for caudal knob ), but situated and directed as their counterparts in holotype. Type-locality. Well at Little Bird Nursery and Garden Store at 8427 Bird Road, Miami, Dade County, Florida (Sec. 15, Twp. 548, R. 40E). The well is 22 feet in depth and is provided with an 18 foot casing. Types. The holotypic male, form I (No. 131257), and mor- photypic male, form II (No. 131258), are deposited together with the paratypes (five males, form I, seven males, form II, three ju- venile males, and one juvenile female) in the National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution. Size. The largest first form male, the holotype, has a carapace length of 13.8 mm; the smallest, 8.0 mm. Range. Known only from the type-locality. Variations. All variations noted are minor ones, most associated with the degree of maturity of the specimens; none is so marked as to confuse this crayfish with any previously described species. Relationships. Procambarus milleri has its closest affinities with P. alleni (Faxon, 1884; p. 110), one of the two epigean crayfishes known to occur in the southern part of the peninsula. The close relationship existing between the two is clearly demonstrated in the similarities between the first pleopods of the males. The long sinuous mesial process and the rounded, distally tapering shaft of the appendage constitute a combination of characters which exists in no other crayfishes. There can be no doubt that the two have had a common ancestry, and it is entirely possible, if not probable, that the troglobite was derived comparatively recently from a stock Figs. 16-19. Floridian troglobitic crayfishes. (Setae omitted from all structures illustrated except subterminal ones in 16-18b and 19a,b. Except for 18d and: 19, see explanation for Figs. 12-15). Fig. 18d, mesial view of first pleopod of first form male. Fig. 19a, caudal view of third maxilliped of T. maclanei; Fig. 19b, caudal view of third maxilliped of P. pallidus; Fig. 19c-e, diagrams of basal podomeres of left pereiopods of male with ischia stippled; c, hook on ischium of third pereiopod; d, simple hooks on ischia of third and fourth pereiopods; e, bituberculate hooks on ischia of third and fourth pereio- pods. “i” in 19a, b=ischium. 122 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES of P. alleni which found its way into the subterranean channels of the oolitic limestone of the southern part of the peninsula. Despite the marked similarity between the two, P. milleri may be distinguished readily from P. alleni by its albinistic quality, the absence of marginal spines or tubercles on the rostrum, and the small size at which it attains sexual maturity. It may be distin- guished from all other troglobitic crayfishes by the structure of the first pleopod of the male, the only one in which the mesial process is sinuous and directed distally. Life History Notes. First form males were collected in Febru- ary, March, and May. The holotype was collected on May 2, 1968 when it was in the first form. It was placed in an aquarium where it molted on October 22 to second form, increasing its carapace length only 0.4 mm. It molted again on November 25, returning to the first form, with an increase in carapace length of 1.2 mm. It died on March 17, 1969. These observations were made by Mr. Miller who preserved the exuvia. The latter are deposited with the holotype. Second form males were obtained in January, February, March, July, and August. The only female that has been found is a juvenile taken on January 24, 1968. KEY TO THE TROGLOBITIC CRAYFISHES OF FLORIDA 1 Third maxillipeds lacking teeth on opposable border of ischium (Fig. 19a) Troglocambarus maclanei Hobbs, 1942a, p. 345 (Caves from Citrus and Hernando to Alachua counties ) 1’ Third maxillipeds with teeth on opposable border of ischium (Fig. 19b) 2 2 Males with hooks on ischia of third pereiopods only (Fig. 19c); first pleopod with two terminal elements bent at right angles to main shaft of appendage (Fig. 18b, d,f). Females with annulus ventralis fused to sternum immedi- ately cephalic to it, never overhung (ventrally) by tuberculate processes from sternum (Fig. 18e) Cambarus cryptodytes Hobbs, 1941, p. 110 (Caves and well in Jackson County, Florida and Decatur County, Georgia) 2’ Males with hooks on ischia of third and fourth pereiopods (Fig. 19d,e); first pleopod with three or four terminal elements, never with all bent at right angles to main shaft of appendage (Figs. 12-16b-d,f). Females with dis- tinct flexible membrane separating annulus ventralis from sternum immedi- ately cephalic to it, or membrane obscured by multituberculate processes projecting caudally from sternum (Figs. 12-16e) 3 3 Eye with pigment spot (Figs. 14,16a) 4A 3’ Eye without pigment (Figs. 12,13,15a) ) 4 Pigmented area of eye faceted; rostrum without marginal spines or tubercles. Hosss: A New Cave Crayfish 123 Males with first pleopod bearing distally directed mesial process (Fig. 16b- df). Female unknown Procambarus milleri, new species (Well in Dade County ) 4’ Pigmented area of eye lacking facets; rostrum with marginal spines or tu- bercles. Males with first pleopod bearing caudodistally directed mesial process (Fig. 14b-d,f). Females with cephalic margin of annulus ventralis gently rounded, and lacking longitudinal, cephalomedian trough (Fig. 14e) Procambarus lucifugus alachua (Hobbs, 1940, p. 402) (Caves and sinkholes in Alachua and Gilchrist counties ) 5 Rostrum narrower at base than near midlength. Males with distal portion of first pleopod bent caudad at about 80 degrees and cephalic process directed at angle of approximately 70 degrees to main axis of appendage (Fig. 13b- d,f). Females with sternum immediately cephalic to annulus ventralis de- void of tubercles (Fig. 13e) Procambarus lucifugus lucifugus (Hobbs, 1940, p. 398) (Caves from Citrus and Hernando counties northward to Marion County where it intergrades with P. I. alachua) 5’ Rostrum tapering from base. Males with distal portion of first pleopod straight or bent caudad no more than at 45 degree angle and cephalic process, if present, directed at angle of about 35 degrees to main axis of appendage (Figs. 12, 15b-d,f). Females with sternum immediately ce- phalic to annulus ventralis bearing tuberculate prominences sometimes overhanging (ventrally) cephalic portion of latter (Figs. 12,15e) 6 6 Males with hooks on ischia of third and fourth pereiopods bituberculate (Fig. 19e); first pleopod lacking subterminal setae and cephalic process, and mesial process directed distally, not reaching bases of other terminal elements (Fig. 12b-d,f). Females with annulus ventralis as long as, or longer than, broad and bearing shallow, longitudinal, cephalomedian trough (Fig. 12e) Procambarus acherontis (Lonnberg, 1895, p. 6) (Spring and well in Seminole County ) 6’ Males with hooks on ischia of third and fourth pereiopods simple (Fig. 19d); first pleopod with subterminal setae and well developed ce- phalic process, and mesial process directed caudodistally, clearly reaching level of bases of other terminal elements (Fig. 15b-d,f). Females with annulus ventralis approximately one-half as long as broad and _ lacking cephalomedian trough (Fig. 15e) Procambarus pallidus (Hobbs, 1940, p. 394) (Caves and sinkholes in Alachua, Columbia, Suwannee, Leon, and Wa- kulla counties. Specimens from the latter two are juveniles and are tenta- tively assigned to this species. ) | LITERATURE CITED Faxon, WALTER. 1884. Descriptions of new species of Cambarus, to which is added a synonymical list of the known species of Cambarus and As- tacus. Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sci., vol. 20, pp. 107-158. 124 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Hosss, Horton H., Jr. 1940. Seven new crayfishes of the genus Cambarus from Florida, with notes on other species. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 89, no. 3097, pp. 387-423, 8 figs. 1942a. A generic revision of the crayfishes of the subfamily Cam- barinae (Decapoda, Astacidae) with the description of a new genus and species. Amer. Midl. Nat., vol. 28, no. 2, pp. 334-357, 23 figs. 1942b. The crayfishes of Florida. Univ. Florida Publ., Biol. Series, vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 1-179, 364 figs. 1958. The evolutionary history of the pictus group of the crayfish genus Procambarus (Decapoda, Astacidae). Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci., vol. 21, no. 1, pp. 71-91, 20 figs. Hosss, Horton H., Jr., AND THoMAs C. Barr, JR. 1960. The origins and affinities of the troglobitic crayfishes of North America (Decapoda, As- tacidae). I. The genus Cambarus. Amer. Midl. Nat., vol. 64, no. 1, [Oy MRSS, Sy ines. ——. (in press). The origins and affinities of the troglobitic crayfishes of North America (Decapoda, Astacidae). II. The genus Orconectes. Smithsonian Contrib. Zool. LONNBERG, EINAR. 1895. Cambarids from Florida. Bihang Till K. Sv. Vet- Akad. Handl., Band. 20 afd. 4, no. 1, pp. 3-13, 5 figs. WARREN, RICHARD DEAN. 1961. The obligative cavernicoles of Florida. Special Papers, Florida Speleol. Soc., no. 1, pp. 1-10, 2 figs. Department of Invertebrate Zoology, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C. 20560. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 34(2) 1971 Rate of Water Transport by Brachidontes exustus ALLEN Z. PAUL It is well known that many lamellibranchs feed on particulate matter, finely dispersed detritus and micro-organisms suspended in the water. Water is pumped through the gills, and suspended ma- terial is filtered out and retained. Knowledge of the water transport capacity of the gills is, therefore, essential to an understanding of the quantitative feeding biology and growth of this type of lamelli- branch. This investigation will experimentally determine the rate of particle clearance by Brachidontes exustus and also examine the effect of temperature on this rate. Many determinations of water transport through the gills of mussels and oysters in particular, which are of commercial interest, have been made. Both direct and indirect methods of determina- tion have been used. In the direct method the rate of water pump- ing is measured by the removal of suspended particulate matter from water passing through the gills. The indirect method mea- sures the stream of water leaving the animal by chaneling it into some sort of monitoring device. Fox et al. (1937) worked out a procedure of indirect measure- ment. They placed the mussels in suspensions of calcium carbonate and determined the reduction in calcium by doing calcium analyses at various time intervals. Jgrgensen (1943, 1949, 1952, 1955, 1960, 1966) and Jgrgensen and Goldberg (1953) have used suspensions of algae and colloidal graphite. In the indirect method the orga- nism is put into a known volume of a suspension, and the decrease in concentration of this suspension per unit of time is measured. It is not possible to get a continuous record of pumping this way, and if only a percentage of the particles are retained on the filtering mechanism the rate of water transport measured will be only a per- centage of the total amount of water transported. However, as Jgr- gensen (1949) points out, if the size of food particles in the water is of importance for their retention by the gills, the indirect method offers perhaps, more information directly concerning the feeding bi- ology than does the direct method. Galtsoff (1926) was the first to devise a direct method. He used a glass tube in the exhalent siphon and a glass rod between the 126 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES valves to prevent their closing. The water from the exhalent siphon was led into a collecting cylinder and measured. Many modifica- tions of the direct method have followed, most of them involving the use of a rubber dam to isolate the water pumped. A recent method of this type combining the efforts of many earlier workers is that of Drinnan (1964). Hamwi and Haskins (1969) have de- veloped a direct method that does not include the use of rubber cones, the use of which may upset the feeding response of the orga- nism. The function of the gill as a food retaining filter was postulated over 100 years ago, and is universally accepted today. However, the exact mechanism responsible for particle retention is still not agreed upon. Jdrgensen (1966) believes that the latero-frontal cilia act as a sieve. The distance between the latero-frontal cilia in My- tilus edulis is about 3 microns. If graphite colloidal particles of 1-2 microns are retained Jgrgensen then explains this with MacGinitie’s theory. MacGinitie (1941) said the latero-frontal cilia were not important in particle retention. He observed a mucous sheet cover- ing the gill during food intake and believes this mucus is the strain- ing mechanism. Dral (1967) believes the latero-frontal cilia beat is co-ordinated to vary the efficiency of particle retention and that the latero-frontal cilia are sticky; that particles of any size, no matter how small, will stick upon touching a cilium. While the exact morphological structures and physiological re- sponses are not yet agreed upon, the porosities of various lamelli- branch gills are dependent upon many factors (Jérgensen, 1966; Dral, 1967). Temperature, salinity, pH, oxygen level, density of the suspension, amount of nutrients present, the way the animals are handled, whether or not they are ovigerous, and condition and age of the experimental animals all effect the filtration efficiency. We should keep this in mind in interpreting any results reported. MATERIALS AND METHODS Brachidontes exustus collected from oyster beds near Panacea, Florida, were used in this investigation. They were brought to the laboratory and kept in an aquarium with fresh sea water. The aquarium was aerated and at a temperature of 22 C-23 C. The PauL: Water Transport in a Mollusk 127 amount of particulate matter in the water in which they were col- lected was determined to be 18.4 mg/liter. Colloidal suspensions of Aquadag, with a particle size of 1-5 mi- crons, and Prodag, with a particle size of 5-15 microns, were used. (Both preparations are manufactured by Acheson Colloids Corpo- ration, Port Huron, Michigan.) The test solutions were prepared by mixing a measured amount of the suspensions in a small amount of distilled water and then adding this to sea water filtered through a 0.45 micron Millipore filter. One liter of suspension was prepared immediately before each test. Each test was carried out in two 600 ml beakers, with 500 ml of suspension in each. Both beakers were aerated continuously and the mussel or clump of mussels were in one beaker only, with the other beaker acting as a control. The rate of clearance was determined by using a Beckman Model DB-G grating spectrophotometer set at a wavelength of 550 millimicrons, to measure the reduction in concentration of the sus- pended mixture by the absorbance technique. The spectrophotom- eter was set to read filtered sea water as 100 per cent transmis- sion. Each suspension was read at the beginning of a test and then four hours later when the test was concluded. Tests were run for four hour periods because while Aquadag and Prodag agglutinate only slowly in fresh suspensions of sea water, they settle out rapidly as suspensions get older. The data were then used in Jgrgensen’s (1949) formula to cal- culate the amount of water pumped per unit time. This formula is most clearly expressed as (log P,-log P,)M log et m= where m is the quantity of water cleared from particles per unit time, M is the quantity of water used in the experimental vessel, t is the time the experiment runs, P, and P; the concentrations of suspension in the control and the experimental vessel respectively at time t. The wet weight of the blotted, soft body parts was recorded. The liter/hour rate obtained from Jgrgensen’s formula was divided 128 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES by this, to relate the rate of water pumped to body weight. The final rates are expressed as liters/hour/ gram. Tests were run at 22 C--1 C and at 10 C+1 C. RESULTS Comparing the results of the experiments done at 22 C+1 C we can see a slightly higher water transport rate shown when Prodag was the colloidal preparation (Table 1). When the experiments were repeated at 10 C+1 C we also see a slightly higher water transport rate shown in the Prodag prepara- tions (Table 2). DIscUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS A comparison of Table 1 and Table 2 seems to indicate that temperature change, at least in this range, is not an important factor TABLE I The rate of water propulsion of Brachidontes exustus as a function of particle size at 22 C Prodag Rate of water Aquadag Rate of water concentration transport in concentration transport in in mg/liter liters/hr/gm in mg/liter liters/hr/gm 10 3.8 10 3.6 20 2.9 20 2.9 30 5s 30 ee 40 oe 40 leo *Indicates results from naturally occurring clumps of six mussels each. TABLE 2 The rate of water propulsion of Brachidontes exustus as a function of particle size at 10 C Prodag Rate of water Aquadag Rate of water concentration transport in concentration transport in in mg/liter liters/hr/gm in mg/liter liters/hr/gm 10 3D 10 33 20 2.9 20 Deu 30 EDF 30 ESAS 40 IL 40 Lee? *Indicates results from naturally occurring clumps of six mussels each. Paut: Water Transport in a Mollusk 129 in the rate of water transport. This agrees with Loosanoff’s (1958) work, in which he studied rates of water transport in oysters be- tween 16 C and 28 C and noted no significant differences. Rao (1953) has reported, however, that there is a higher rate of pumping in mussels with an increase in temperature. In contrast to the mussels used in Rao’s work, which all weighed over 1 gm, the mussels in this investigation were all very small, and ranged in blotted wet weight between 13 mg and 30 mg. Size may have some effect on the action of temperature in physiological performance. Although lamellibranchs are extremely sensitive to environmen- tal changes it has been shown that smaller ones seem less sensitive than larger ones. (Jgrgensen, 1960) The mussels, which ranged from 6 mm to | cm in length, showed no ill effects when enclosed in relatively small vessels. When they were transferred from the aquarium to a beaker, in no case did it take longer than 10 min- utes for them to have byssal threads out, siphons extended and valves open. It is apparent from Table 1 and Table 2 that the rate of water transport is higher when the concentration of suspension is lower. Loosanoff and Tommers (1948) have shown similar results in Cras- sostrea virginica. It was determined that 18.4 mg/liter of particu- late matter was in suspension in the water in which these mussels were collected and perhaps the higher suspension concentrations have a depressant effect on the rate of filtration. The higher rate of water transport in every experiment run was in the Prodag suspension. Prodag has a higher percentage of large particles than Aquadag, and this indicates that these mussels retain larger particles more efficiently. The exact means of particle reten- tion is not agreed upon, so no conclusion can be drawn from this. LITERATURE CITED Dra, A.D.G. 1967. The movement of the latero-frontal cilia and the mech- anism of particle retention in the mussel. (Mytilus edulis.) Nether- lands Jour. Sea Res., vol. 3, pp. 391-422. DrINNAN, R.E. 1964. An apparatus for recording the water pumping be- havior of lamellibranchs. Netherlands Jour. Sea Res., vol. 2, pp. 223- 232) Fox, D.L., H.V. Sverprup, J.P. CUNNINGHAM. 1937. The rate of water pro- pulsion by the California mussel. Biol. Bull., vol. 72, pp. 417-438. 130 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES GaxtsorF, P.S. 1926. New methods to measure the rate of flow produced by the gills of oysters and other Mollusca. Science, vol. 63, pp. 233-234. HamwI1, A., AND H.H. Haskins. 1969. Oxygen consumption and pumping rates in the hard clam Mercenaria mercenaria: a direct method. Sci- ence, vol. 163, pp. 823-824. JORGENSEN, C. B. 1943. On the water transport through the gills of bivalves. Acta Physio. Scandinavia, vol. 5, pp. 297-304. 1949. The rate of feeding by Mytilus in different kinds of suspen- sion. Jour. Mar. Biol. Assn. United Kingdom, vol. 28, pp. 333-344. 1952. On the relation between water transport and food require- ments in some marine filter feeding invertebrates. Biol. Bull., vol. 103, pp. 356-363. 1955. Quantitative aspects of filter feeding in invertebrates. Biol. Rev., vol. 30, pp. 391-454. . 1960. Efficiency of particle retention and rate of water transport in undisturbed lamellibranchs. Jour. Cons. Intern. Explor. Mer, vol. 26, pp. 94-116. 1966. Biology of Suspension Feeding. Pergamon Press, New York, 358 pp. J@RGENSEN, C. B., AnD E. D. GotpBEerc. 1953. Particle filtration in some as- cidians and lamellibranchs. Biol. Bull., vol. 105, pp. 477-489. LoosaNoFF, V.L. 1958. Some aspects of behavior of oysters at different tem- peratures. Biol. Bull., vol. 114, pp. 57-70. LoosaNoFF, V.L., AND F.D. Tommers. 1948. Effect of suspended silt and other substances on rate of feeding of oysters. Science, vol. 107, pp. 69-70. MacGinitiz, G.E. 1941. On the method of feeding of four Pelecypods. Biol. Bull., vol. 80, pp. 18-25. Rao, K.P. 1953. Rate of water propulsion in Mytilus californianus as a func- tion of latitude. Biol. Bull., vol. 104, pp. 171-181. Department of Oceanography, Florida State University, Talla- hassee, Florida 32306. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 34(2) 1971 Pinfish and Rockcut Goby, Fishes New to the Bahamas THomas G. Yocom Durinc July, 1969, two specimens of the pinfish, Lagodon rhom- boides (Linnaeus), and four of the rockcut goby, Gobiosoma gros- venori (Robins), were collected in mangrove swamps near Jewfish Cay (23°27’N, 75°56’W), Great Exuma, Bahamas. These findings represent extensions of the known ranges of these fishes. L. rhom- boides is known from Bermuda and the eastern coast of North America from Cape Cod to Yucatan (Caldwell, 1957). Lee (1889) recorded it from the Bahamas, but this report was dis- counted by Caldwell (1957). G. grosvenori has been known previ- ously from Jamaica, Venezuela, and southeastern Florida (Bohlke and Robins, 1968). The fish were taken in tidal creeks among mangroves from a depth of about one meter. The specimens of L. rhomboides ( Acad- emy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia no. 109798) are 82 mm and 84 mm in standard length; those of G. grosvenori ( University of Michigan Museum of Zoology no. 189301) range from 18 mm to 22 mm. Identification of the pinfish was made by James E. Bohlke; that of the gobies was by Reeve M. Bailey and the author with verification by C. Richard Robins. LITERATURE CITED BOuLKE, J. E., AND C. R. Ropins. 1968. Western Atlantic seven-spined go- bies, with descriptions of ten new species and a new genus, and com- ments on Pacific relatives. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, vol. 120, no. 3, pp. 45-174. CaLDWELL, D. K. 1957. The biology and systematics of the pinfish, Lagodon rhomboides (Linnaeus). Bull. Florida State Mus., vol. 2, No. 6, pp. 77- Wie Lee, T. 1889. List of fish taken by steamer Albatross among Bahama Islands and at Nassau fish-market during March and April 1886. Rept. U. S. Fish Comm., pt. 14, pp. 669-672. Earlham College Biological Station, Jewfish Cay, Great Exuma, Bahamas. Present address: Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48104. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci, 34(2) 1971 Chemical Control of Pigeon Reproduction J. L. ScoorTEMEYER AND S. L. BECKwiTH RECENTLY there has been an increased effort to develop chemi- cals for use as embryocides or chemosterilants to control populations of various pest animals. The chemical “Ornitrol” (Ornitrol [SC- 12937] 20, 25 Diazocholesterol Dihydrochloride), developed by G. D. Searle & Co., Chicago, is the first chemosterilant to be registered by the U. S. Department of Agriculture. This drug coated on whole kernel corn is now available for use in controlling feral pigeon pop- ulations. Initial research on the effectiveness of Ornitrol was conducted by Elder (1964) who found that the drug was 100 per cent effective in inhibiting reproduction in pigeons for three months and 75 per cent effective from four to six months after treatment. Field trials were conducted in northem cities by Wofford and Elder (1967). Further field trials were conducted in Bangor, Maine, by Gramlich and Woulfe (undated). The current study involves field trials in three southern cities, all in Florida. Field work was begun in April, 1969 and will be continued unti] at least June, 1970. There- fore, this report is not final and does not reject final results of the experiment. TECHNIQUES To determine the effects of Ornitrol three cities in northern pe- ninsular Florida were chosen as study areas. These cities were Jacksonville (population 201,000 for the year 1960), Ocala (popu- lation 14,700 for 1960) and St. Augustine (population 13,600 for 1960). Jacksonville and Ocala were designated treatment areas; St. Augustine was named as the control area. In Jacksonville two sites were selected for treatment. One was the city-owned Water Works at 1000 N. Main Street, in downtown Jacksonville. The second site was located about 2.4 miles west, adjacent to a railroad yard. This site was the City Products Cor- poration Ice Plant. In Ocala, the site selected was the Seminole Mills feed plant, about 0.3 mile northeast of the downtown area. SCHORTEMEYER AND BECKWITH: Pigeon Control 133 The site chosen in St. Augustine was Keterlinus Junior High School, about 0.5 mile north of the downtown area. Treated sites were prebaited for a period of 10 days to two weeks with whole kernel corn. After this, corn treated with Orni- trol at the rate of 0.1 per cent by weight was put out at each site for a period of 10 days. The total amount put out and consumed each day was recorded by weight. In each of the treated cities Or- nitrol was administered three times, i.e. April and September, 1969, and again in March, 1970. In September, 1969, the number of treatment sites in Jackson- ville was increased from two to five. The number of treatment sites in Ocala was increased from one to three in February, 1970. In order to monitor the effect of Ornitrol, trapping was con- ducted at each of the four sites immediately following the first treat- ment. Trapping continued for the duration of the experiment on the average of 2.2 times monthly at each site. The number of birds at each site was calculated by the Schnabel method of estimating populations. Birds which were trapped and banded were grouped according to age in the following classes: (1) less than two months; (2) two to four months; (3) four to six months; and (4) greater than six months. For the purpose of this paper, the first three classes were grouped together and considered young birds while the remaining class of birds over six months was designated the adult class. In this manner, the ratio of young birds to total number of birds trapped was recorded. In November adult males were weighed at four sites, Ocala, St. Augustine, Gainesville and at the Ice Plant in Jacksonville. Average weights were calculated for each city and compared to each other. In addition to the field data, a cage study was conducted to de- termine the consumption of treated corn when it was the only food available for a ten-day period. RESULTS Bait Consumption. The amount of treated corn placed at each site was measured and the average consumption per bird was cal- culated based upon the population estimates (Table 1). Average consumption per bird was also calculated for the cage study. 134 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES TABLE 1 Consumption per bird of treated corn according to location, April 1969 Ice Plant Water Works Ocala Caged Birds 5.0" 6.6 10.5 6.6 *Ounces for 10 day period. Consumption varied from 5.0 ounces per bird at the Ice Plant in Jacksonville to 10.5 ounces at the feed mill in Ocala. There are three factors which might explain the differences in bait consump- tion between the various sites. First, average consumption was de- termined by dividing the total amount of treated com consumed by the estimated number of birds. While the total amount of treated com consumed can be accurately measured, the number of birds present can only be approximated. An error of reasonable size will drastically affect the estimate of per bird consumption. Secondly, the feeding habits of the birds can determine the amount of bait consumed. In Ocala, where the birds fed primarily at the feed mill, relatively high consumption levels would be expected. Birds at the Ice Plant in Jacksonville, however, which had been observed to feed at four primary sites, would be expected to have somewhat lower consumption levels at any one site. Finally, the size of individual birds would affect the average consumption level. For example, birds in Ocala, which were the largest in size, also had the highest bait consumption. A comparison of consumption data by feral pigeons and caged birds showed that caged birds consumed an amount somewhere in the mid-range of values for feral pigeons. This would seem to indi- cate that intrinsic site factors determined per bird consumption, and, furthermore, that the consumption at all sites was satisfactory. Jacksonville, Ice Plant Population. This site had the largest pigeon population of the four study sites. The original population calculated from data gathered in April, May and June of 1969 was estimated at 1220 birds (see Table 2). This population declined steadily and for January and February, 1970, was estimated at 530, a 57 per cent reduction in the number of birds originally present. Movements of birds in Jacksonville show that there is a certain amount of intermixing between flocks. From data obtained at the Ice Plant it appears that this area is primarily a loafing place for SCHORTEMEYER AND BECKWITH: Pigeon Control 135 TABLE 2 Summary of trapping data, April 1969 to March 1970 No. Total Recaptures Total Populations Location Banded Captured Initial Final Ice Plant 1228 1834 33.0 1220 530 (1023-1615)* (518-667) Water Works 301 928 67.5 22.0 170 (207-234 ) (159-204 ) Ocala 437 1082 59.7 420 180 (352-437 ) (170-207 ) St. Augustine 131 649 79.9 110 Ws (103-122 ) (69-73 ) *Confidence limits at 95 per cent confidence level. young birds and that after reaching four to six months of age they emigrate to other areas of the city. This is supported by the low frequency of recapture of marked birds (33 per cent) and also by the relatively large number of young in the population, which was 84.1 per cent at the start of the experiment and remained as high as 30.6 per cent at the conclusion of this phase of the experiment (Table 3). Jacksonville, Water Works Population. This fiock was estimated at 220 birds for the initial trapping period. This number was re- duced to 170 for the period October, 1969 through February, 1970, a 23 per cent reduction. Adults in this population appear to be fairly well confined to the general vicinity of the study site. There was a tendency for young birds to be more mobile, since 5.3 per cent of them (12 of the 224 young trapped) were later caught at the Ice Plant, a distance of 2.4 miles away. Recaptures averaged 67.5 per cent at this site and TABLE 3 Percentages of young according to location and time of year Period Ice Plant Water Works Ocala St. Augustine Initial 84.1 71.8 47.1 58.2 (April-May 1969) Final 35.6 10.8 20.4 19.9 (Jan.-Feb. 1970) 136 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES the percentages of young at the beginning and end of the trapping period were 71.8 per cent and 10.8 per cent, respectively. Ocala. The number of birds at Ocala was estimated to be 420 for the period April and May of 1969. This population also de- creased as evidenced by the estimated 180 birds present for the period October, 1969, through March, 1970. These values indicate a reduction of 57 per cent. There was also a reduction in the per cent young in the population from 47.1 per cent initially to 20.4 per cent for January to February, 1970. The recapture ratio at this site averaged 59.7 per cent. The movements of the birds in this flock seem to be restricted to the area of the feed mill, their primary source of food, and to the downtown area, their primary roosting and nesting location. St. Augustine Population. The flock located in St. Augustine showed a population of 110 birds for May through June, 1969. AI- though this was the control flock, it showed a 34 per cent reduction in population to 73 birds for the period October, 1969 through Feb- ruary, 1970. These birds seem to be confined to an area within 0.5 mile of the School and the adjacent ball park. This fact was verified by several observations on a flock of pigeons located at the downtown park 0.5 mile to the south. These observations failed to reveal any marked birds from the Keterlinus Junior High School at this site, although four birds caught and marked at the park were repeatedly observed in company with the 40 to 50 birds normally present at that location. Weights of Adult Males. Weights of individual birds showed that the largest birds occurred in Ocala where the average weight was 399 grams (see Table 4). Jacksonville birds formed a middle class with an average weight of 372 grams while birds in Gaines- ville and St. Augustine averaged 359 and 357 grams respectively. These weights are considerably less than those given by Levi (1963) which range from 14 ounces (403 grams) to 30 ounces (864 grams) for various breeds of pigeons. Discussion Ice Plant. The transitional nature of the flock located in this area makes it difficult to measure the effectiveness of Ornitrol in re- SCHORTEMEYER AND BEcKwitH: Pigeon Control 137 TABLE 4 Comparison of weights of adult males in grams according to location Ocala Ice Plant Gainesville ‘St. Augustine 399 372 359* oon * *Not significantly different at 95 per cent confidence level. ducing the population. Since 5.3 per cent of the young trapped at the Water Works were later caught at the Ice Plant it seems reason- able to assume that this area is a loafing place for young birds. Also the high percentage of young found in the area indicate an influx or immigration of young birds into the area. Of the first 800 birds trapped at the Ice Plant, four were later caught at the Water Works. This indicates a level of 0.5 per cent emigration from the Ice Plant to the Water Works, but does not necessarily mean that there is a net increase in the number of birds at the Ice Plant. To be in a steady state, one would expect the number of birds traveling from the Water Works to the Ice Plant to equal the num- ber of birds traveling in the opposite direction. However, the data show that for every bird leaving the Ice Plant three birds enter this study area. Although this would indicate that the Ice Plant flock should be increasing due to immigration while the Water Works should be decreasing due to emigration there is one set of circum- stances which would give a steady state. The data indicate the majority of birds entering the Ice Plant are juveniles (less than three months old), while those leaving are adults or sub-adults (over five months old). This would give a steady state only if birds in the age class (three to five months old) in temporary residence at the Ice Plant had a mortality of 67 per cent. This means that out of three birds entering the area two of these birds would be ex- pected to die before they reach five months of age. The remaining bird would leave the area when it reached five to six months of age. If this were the case then the two sites would be in a steady state or equilibrium. The population data show that the Ice Plant flock has undergone a reduction of 57 per cent in population, 23 per cent greater than that obtained in St. Augustine, the control site. This greater reduc- tion can be attributed at least in part to the effect of Ornitrol on this and the surrounding flocks which were treated. 138 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Jacksonville, Water Works. Movements of this flock have al- ready been discussed in relation to the Ice Plant. With the excep- tion of the young birds, which were noted to emigrate to the Ice Plant, this population appears to be fairly stable. This theory is further supported by the high rate of recapture (67.5 per cent) which occurred at this site. Population estimates for this site show a reduction of 23 per cent, from 220 birds to 170. While this value is similar to the con- trol area in St. Augustine there are two possible explanations for this. One factor is the high percentage of adults in the population at the end of the experiment. This would indicate that a larger proportion of this population is in the age class which has a lower mortality. The second factor which might cause this low rate of de- crease would be a net influx of adult and sub-adult birds from sur- rounding untreated flocks. Once again it is difficult to measure the effect of Ornitrol on re- productive success. The low percentage of young at the end of the experiment (10.8 per cent) indicate that the drug is having at least some effect on reproduction in the area immediately around the Water Works. Ocala. Results to date show that the population at this site has been reduced 57 per cent. This reduction is quite large and it ap- pears that the 23 per cent reduction above that observed for the control flock in St. Augustine could well be due to the effect of Or- nitrol. St. Augustine. Although this was the control site it also showed a marked reduction in the proportion of young in the population and also in the total population itself (34 per cent). It appears that this is primarily a seasonal fluctuation. Further observation will determine if this is the case. Weights of Adult Males. There are two possible explanations for weight differences observed in adult males. The first is that in- dividual size is correlated with food supply. In St. Augustine and Gainesville birds depend primarily on natural seed for their food. This means that they have to search for every seed and food particle they consume and hence they are the smallest of the three groups. On the other hand, birds in Jacksonville, eat the same size food particle but their source is dispersed in four primary locations. The situation in Ocala is similar to Jacksonville except that in Ocala SCHORTEMEYER AND BECKwITH: Pigeon Control 139 there is only one major source of food and that is grain spillage from the feed mill. Thus, since these birds have to go to only one source for food they are even larger than the Jacksonville birds. A second and perhaps more obvious explanation would be that the difference in weights is due to treatment of the flocks with Or- nitrol. The most obvious possibility would be a simple increase in food supply per bird due to a decrease in the population caused by Ornitrol. SUMMARY To obtain effective control of feral pigeon flocks careful analysis of each local population is essential. In cities such as St. Augustine and Ocala, where there is one major flock or where the flocks are discrete, individual sites may be treated with success. In contrast, large metropolitan areas must receive treatment at all major feed- ing sites simultaneously if the program is to be effective. Preliminary analysis of the data indicate that for southern cities, the first treatment should be given as early as December or January to inhibit reproduction before it starts its upward trend. Although the St. Augustine flock underwent a 34 per cent reduc- tion in population, the 57 per cent reduction at both Ocala and the Jacksonville Ice Plant are sufficiently greater to attribute a large part of the difference to the effect of Omitrol. Furthermore, it seems reasonable to assume that the downward trend in St. Augus- tine is an annual fluctuation, and that by June, 1970, the control population will be back up to its original level of May, 1969. The major problem to date seems to be the fact that the first treatment was not given until April while it should have been administered as early as December, 1968, or January, 1969. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Grateful acknowledgment is made to G. D. Searle & Co., par- ticularly Dr. Maurice Woulfe, for providing funds that have made this study possible. Acknowledgment is also made to Mr. Vernon Cunningham and Mr. Carl Knos, both of the Bureau of Sport Fish- eries and Wildlife, Gainesville, Florida, for their cooperation and assistance in this study. Special gratitude is also extended to Mr. E. M. Smith of the 140 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Jacksonville Health Department for his assistance in locating trap- ping sites and aid in trapping birds in Jacksonville. Mr. Don Kauf- man of the St. Johns County Health Department was instrumental in the success of the trapping program in St. Augustine. Grateful acknowledgment is also made to personnel of Semi- nole Mills for their assistance in this study. LITERATURE CITED ELpER, W. H. 1964. Chemical inhibitors of ovulation in the pigeon. Jour. Wildl. Mgmt., vol. 28, no. 4, pp. 556-575. GRAMLICH, F. J.. AnD M. R. Woutre. Undated. Pigeon control at Bangor, Maine utilizing chemosterilant (Searle SC-12937). Div. Wildl. Serv., U.S. Bur. Sport Fish. & Wildi., Augusta, Maine, 7pp. Levi, W. M. 1963. The pigeon. Levi Publ. Co., Sumter, South Carolina, 667 pp. WoFForD, J. E., AnD W. H. Exper. 1967. Field trials of the chemosterilant SC-12937, in feral pigeon control. Jour. Wildl. Mgmt., vol. 31, no. 3, pp. 507-515. School of Forestry, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 34(2) 1971 Avifauna of the Cayman Islands Davw W. JouNsTon, CHAar.es H. BLAKE, AND DONALD W. BUDEN THE three Cayman Islands (Grand Cayman, Little Cayman, Cayman Brac) are situated in the northwestern Caribbean Sea (Fig. 1). Grand Cayman, the largest island (20 miles long and 5 miles wide, or 71 square miles), is 180 miles south of Cuba and about the same distance northwest of Jamaica. Both Little Cay- man (9 square miles) and Cayman Brac (13 square miles) measure about 12 by 1 miles, with Little Cayman being 60 miles northeast of Grand Cayman and Cayman Brac 5 miles east of Little Cayman. These limestone islands are projecting peaks of the submarine Cay- man Ridge that continues toward Cuba and British Honduras (Doran, 1955; Richards, 1955). Just south of Grand Cayman is the 20,000 ft trench known as Bartlett Deep. Attesting to their remote- ness is the number of well-marked species and subspecies described from these islands; these include birds, insects (H. K. Clench, 1964), reptiles (Grant, 1940), and mollusks (W. J. Clench, 1964). Their intermediate position in the northwestern Caribbean Sea makes them ideal stopping places for migratory birds. The greater portion of Grand Cayman is less than 15 feet above sea level, although a ridge on its north side rises to 60 feet. Lagoons and mangrove or buttonwood swamps are common especially in the low, central sections and around North Sound. On limestone bluffs inland are cut-over forests of red birch (Bursera simaruba), cedar (Cedrela odorata), mahogany (Swietenia mahagoni), thatch palm (Thrinax argentea), and other trees (Swabey and Lewis, 1946). Thick scrub, or secondary vegetation, containing manchi- neel (Hippomane manchinella), mahogany seedlings, logwood (Haematoxylon campechianum), and maiden plum (Comocladia dentata), is common inland, with interspersed pastures of guinea grass (Panicum maximum) and Seymour grass (Andropogon me- tusus). Local, small plantations of cassava, banana, breadfruit, and papaya are not uncommon, especially around the scattered human settlements. Annual rainfall is about 65 inches, with a distinct dry season from November through April. Prevailing northerly winds at that time are noticeably desiccating to the vegetation. The topography of Little Cayman is similar to that of Grand 142 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES FLORIDA CUOLEMOR WM EXUGO, MEXICO LITTLE ales ) \7~ NICARAGUA Fig. 1. Map showing location of the Cayman Islands in the Caribbean Sea. Cayman, but a sheer cliff of 140 feet is found on the east end of Cayman Brac. The vegetation of the smaller islands is similar to that of Grand Cayman, except for a reduction in acreage of swamp- land, lagoons, and inland ponds. Although these islands were discovered and named by Colum- bus in 1503, nothing was published about their avifauna until 1886, when W. B. Richardson made a collection of birds on Grand Cay- man for C. B. Cory. Subsequent collectors and observers on the is- lands include the following: 1887, C. H. Townsend (GC) (see JOHNSTON ET AL.: Birds of the Caymans 143 Ridgway, 1887). 1888, C. P. Streator (CB); C. J. Maynard (LC, CB). 1891, J. P. Moore (GC). 1892, D. J. Sweeting (GC). 1896, C. B. Taylor (GC). 1904, M. J. Nicoll and Lord Crawford (GC, LC); Sir Frederic Johnstone (GC); P. R. Lowe and Bowdler Sharpe (GC, LC, CB). 1907-8, P. R. Lowe (GC, LC). 1911, W. W. Brown (GC, LC, CB). 1912-1914, T. M. Savage English (GC, see English, 1912, 1916). 1929, A. K. Fisher and A. Wetmore (GC). 1930 and later, J. Bond (chiefly GC). 1938, C. B. Lewis (GC, LC, CB). 1956 and 1958, C. H. Blake (GC, LC, CB). 1961, A. Schwartz and party (GC, LC, GB). 1964, E. Kidd (GC) (see Kidd, 1965). 1965, 1966, 1967, 1969, 1970, 1971, D. W. Johnston (GC, CB, LC). 1969,.E. J. Fisk (GC). 1969, 1970, Alexander Cruz (GC). 1969, Ronald Pulliam and party (GC, CB, LC). 1970, Donald W. Buden (GC, CB). 1971, J. C. Barlow and party (GC). Major collections of birds from the islands include those of Richardson reported by C. B. Cory (1886a, b); many of these speci- mens are still at the Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago. W. W. Brown’s specimens described by Bangs (1916) are mostly at the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard University. The British Museum has many of the specimens taken by Nicoll, Lowe, and others about 1904-1908. Bond’s specimens from the 1930's are chiefly at the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences. The U. S. National Museum contains specimens collected by Fisher and Wet- more (1929). Albert Schwartz and his collaborators amassed a valuable collection in the fall of 1961. These specimens are now in the Albert Schwartz-Ronald F. Klinikowski collection at Miami, Florida (Schwartz and Klinikowski, 1963). Specimens taken by Donald W. Buden in 1970 are at Louisiana State University, and those taken by David W. Johnston are at the University of Florida. Scattered specimens are known to exist in various other collections throughout the United States and abroad. Cory (1892, p. 127) noted that “the Cayman Islands have been very well explored”; he listed 55 species from the islands (30 breed- ing). Subsequently in 1911 Lowe reported 75 species (34 breed- ing). The current list includes 151 species, of which at least 42 presently breed there. From these figures it is apparent that the increase from 55 to 151 is due chiefly to the addition of migrants and to the number and frequency of field observations in the past two decades. Of greater significance is the increase of breeding 144 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES species, even with the loss of Mimocichla ravida and Icterus leucop- teryx from Grand Cayman, because some breeding species are ob- viously recent immigrants. Among these are such conspicuous spe- cies as Phaethon lepturus, Sula leucogaster, Hydranassa tricolor, Himantopus himantopus, Sterna albifrons, Zenaida asiatica, and Chordeiles minor. Thus even in the relatively short time of 60-80 years, conspicuous changes in avian population dynamics have char- acterized these islands. In his several papers dealing with origins of the West Indian avifauna, Bond (1934, 1942, 1948) alludes to the Cayman Islands, and pertinent distributional data on Cayman Island birds are found in his field guides (1936, 1947, 1961), his check-list (1956), and its supplements. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Financial assistance for the senior author’s several trips has been provided by the American Philosophical Society (No. 888, Johnson Fund), the Bradley Fisk Fund, and a Biomedical Sciences Grant from the University of Florida’s Division of Sponsored Research. Buden’s work received support through a museum assistantship of the Department of Zoology at Louisiana State University. We are grateful to C. D. Hutchings, Chief Agricultural Officer, and R. F. Pocock, Chief of Police of the Cayman Islands for their coopera- tion in obtaining specimens. Both Ira Thompson of Georgetown and C. Bernard Lewis of Kingston, Jamaica, have been most help- ful in amassing and analyzing distributional records. BIRDS DESCRIBED AS NEW FROM THE CAYMAN ISLANDS In this list, the original name is given first with the appropriate citation, followed by the currently recognized synonym chiefly ac- cording to Bond (1956 and supplements). GRAND CAYMAN Zenaida spadicea Cory, Auk, vol. 3, p. 498, 1886—Z. aurita zenaida (Bon- aparte ) Columbigallina passerina insularis Ridgway, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 10, p. 974, 1887=C. p. insularis (Ridgway ) JoHNSTON ET AL.: Birds of the Caymans 145 Engyptila collaris Cory, Auk, vol. 3, p. 498, 1886=Leptotila jamaicensis col- laris (Cory ) Chrysotis caymanensis Cory, Auk, vol. 3, p. 497, 1886=Amazona leucocephala caymanensis (Cory ) Coccyzus minor caymanensis Cory, Cat. Birds Americas, part 13, no. 2, p. 337, 1919=C. m. nesiotes Cabanis and Heine Colaptes gundlachi Cory, Auk, vol. 3, p. 498, 1886=C. chrysocaulosus gund- lachi Cory=C. auratus gundlachi Cory according to Short (1965) Centurus caymanensis Cory, Auk, vol. 3, p. 499, 1886==C. superciliaris cay- manensis Cory Pitangus caymanensis Nicoll, Ibis, vol. 4, ser. 8, p. 582, 1904—=Tyrannus caudi- fasciatus caymanensis (Nicoll) Myjiarchus denigratus Cory, Auk, vol. 3, p. 500, 1886=M. stolidus sagrae (Gundlach ) Elaenia martinica caymanensis Berlepsch, Proc. IV Intern. Ornith. Congr., p. 394, 1907 Mimocichla ravida Cory, Auk, vol. 3, p. 499, 1886 Vireo alleni Cory, Auk, vol. 3, p. 500, 1886=V. c. crassirostris (Bryant ) Vireo caymanensis Cory, Auk, vol. 4, p. 7, 1887=V. magister caymanensis (Cory ). Certhiola sharpei Cory, Auk, vol. 3, p. 497, 1886=Coereba flaveola sharpei (Cory ) Dendroica auricapilla Ridgway, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 10, p. 572, 1887= D. petechia eoa (Gosse) Dendroica vitellina Cory, Auk, vol. 3, p. 497, 1886 Spindalis salvini Cory, Auk, vol. 3, p. 499, 1886=S. zena salvini Cory Quiscalus caymanensis Cory, Auk, vol. 3, p. 499, 1886=Quiscalus niger cay- manensis Cory Icterus bairdi Cory, Auk, vol. 3, p. 500, 1886=I. leucopteryx bairdi Cory Melopyrrha taylori Hartert, Nov. Zool., vol. 3, no. 3, p. 257, 1896—M. nigra taylori Hartert LITTLE CAYMAN Sula coryi Maynard, Contrib. Sci. 1, No. 1, p. 40, April 1889=S. s. sula (Lin- naeus ) Dendroica crawfordi Nicoll, Bull. Brit. Ornith, Club, vol. 14, p. 95, 1904=D. vitellina crawfordi Nicoll CAYMAN BRAC Amazona leucocephala hesterna Bangs, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., vol. 60, p. 308, 1916 Elaenia martinica complexa Berlepsch, Proc. IV. Intern, Ornith. Congr., p. 395, 1907—E. m. caymanensis Berlepsch Mimocichla coryi Sharpe, in Seebohm, Monogr. Turdidae, vol. 2, p. 215, 1902=M. plumbea coryi Sharpe 146 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Ouiscalus jamaicensis bangsi Peters, Auk, vol. 38, p. 442, 1921—Q. n. bangsi ( Peters ) Euetheia coryi Ridgway, Auk, vol. 15, p. 322, 1898=Tiaris olivacea olivacea (Linnaeus ) ANNOTATED List OF SPECIES Nomenclature used here follows chiefly that of Bond (1956, 1961 and supplements). Trinomials are given only when the exis- tence of critically examined specimens is known. Podilymbus podiceps (Linnaeus). Pied-billed Grebe. GC, LC, uncom- mon to common resident on ponds, breeding; CB, one sight record, 27 June 1970 (DWJ). A specimen taken by Schwartz on GC was identified as P. p. antillarum, but P. p. podiceps might also occur in these islands. Phaethon lepturus Daudin. White-tailed Tropicbird. Reported by Eng- lish (1916) as common in waters around GC; CB, observed 4-5 May 1970 (DWB) and breeding commonly on bluffs (June 1970, DWJ). Pelecanus occidentalis Linnaeus. Brown Pelican. GC, reported by Eng- lish (1916) as “occasional at almost any season,” and this statement applies currently for all three islands. Sula leucogaster leucogaster (Boddaert). Brown Booby. CB, breeding commonly on bluffs (December 1969, RP; late June 1970, DWJ) and prob- ably resident in nearby waters; observed 4-5 May 1970 (DWB). Sula sula sula (Linnaeus). Red-footed Booby. LC, breeds (Nicoll, 1904; Lowe, 1911); CB, reported breeding by Cory (1889b) probably an error. Phalacrocorax auritus (Lesson). Double-crested Cormorant. GC, a live bird was found on the beach at Spots (ESE Georgetown), 20 December 1970. It died overnight and was discarded (DWJ). Anhinga anhinga (Linnaeus). Anhinga. LC, an adult male seen 5 August 1971 (DWJ). Fregata magnificens Mathews. Magnificent Frigatebird. GC, CB, LC, occasional at any season. LC, breeds commonly on large lagoon along with Sula sula. Ardea herodias Linnaeus. Great Blue Heron. GC, CB, uncommon in fall and winter (5 September-22 December), one spring record on GC (2 April 1970 DWB). Butorides virescens maculatus (Boddaert). Green Heron. GC, CB, LC, common breeding resident, especially in mangrove swamps. Florida caerulea (Linnaeus). Little Blue Heron. GC, uncommon resi- dent, breeding (?); CB, LC, probably resident. Ardeola ibis ibis (Linnaeus). Cattle Egret. GC, probably resident, breed- ing (?), first recorded in 1957 (Bond, fourth supplement); CB, LC, probably resident, uncommon perhaps due to small numbers of livestock. Casmerodius albus (Linnaeus). Common Egret. GC, uncommon in win- JOHNSTON ET AL.: Birds of the Caymans 147 ter (October-12 May); CB, uncommon, single birds seen in June and October. Egretta thula (Molina). Snowy Egret. GC, common resident, breeding (?); CB, uncommon, June and October-December; LC, common in August. Hydranassa tricolor ruficollis (Gosse). Louisiana Heron. GC, common breeding resident; CB, May and June 1970; LC, common in summer. Nycticorax nycticorax hoactli (Gmelin). Black-crowned Night Heron. GC, one specimen (1 December 1931, Bond, 1945). Nyctanassa violacea (Linnaeus). Yellow-crowned Night Heron. Lowe (1911) described this form as resident in the Caymans; it is currently an un- common breeding resident. Ixobrychus exilis (Gmelin). Least Bittern. GC, one bird seen on inland marsh (15 March 1970, DWB). Botaurus lentiginosus (Rackett). American Bittern. GC, one record, 28 January 1904 (Lowe, 1911). Plegadis falcinellus (Linnaeus). Glossy Ibis. GC, one bird seen 17 De- cember 1969 (DWJ and others); CB, two birds seen 26 June 1970 (DWJ) and recorded in early fall (Bond, twelfth supplement). Eudocimus albus (Linnaeus). White Ibis. GC, four immatures seen during March 1970, one taken (DWB). Ajaia ajaja (Linnaeus). Roseate Spoonbill. GC, one bird seen 11 August 1971 (DWJ). Phoenicopterus ruber Linnaeus. Roseate Flamingo. CB, one bird re- ported by an island resident in October 1969; LC, one bird about October 1970. Dendrocygna arborea (Linnaeus). West Indian Tree Duck. GC, LC, uncommon breeding resident; CB, 12 October 1956 (CHB). Anas discors Linnaeus. Blue-winged Teal. GC, winter resident (9 Sep- tember-late April); CB, LC, October (CHB). Anas americana (Gmelin). American Widgeon. GC, uncommon (21 November-18 December 1969, EJF). Spatula clypeata (Linnaeus). Northern Shoveler. GC, reported by hunters in winter. Aythya affinis (Eyton). Lesser Scaup. GC, uncommon winter resident (16 December-March). Oxyura dominica (Linnaeus). Masked Duck. GC, resident and breeding about 1916 (English) but present status uncertain. Cathartes aura (Linnaeus). Turkey Vulture. GC, of questionable oc- currence but believed seen by English (1916); CB, one bird on 25-26 June 1970 (DWJ). Circus cyaneus (Linnaeus). Marsh Hawk. GC, uncommon winter visi- tor (21 November-28 December ). Pandion haliaetus (Linnaeus). Osprey. GC, CB, LC, uncommon at any season; no breeding evidence. Falco columbarius Linnaeus. Pigeon Hawk. GC, occasional in winter, (16 December-12 April); LC, specimen 27 February 1905 (Lowe, 1911). Falco sparverius Linnaeus. Sparrow Hawk. GC, uncommon in winter, October-April; CB, November-December 1969 (RP). 148 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Porzana carolina (Linnaeus). Sora. GC, a road-kill near Boddentown, 20 December 1970 (DWJ). Porphyrula martinica (Linnaeus). Purple Gallinule. GC, two birds 12 May 1965 (DWJ) and a specimen 17 August 1961 (AS). Gallinula chloropus cerceris Bangs. Common Gallinule. GC, LC, resident, breeding, common; CB, 4-5 May 1970 (DWB), 27 June 1970 (DWJ), and 9 August 1971 (DWJ). Fulica americana Gmelin. American Coot. GC, breeding resident and especially common in winter; CB, November-December 1969 (RP); LC, un- common breeding resident. Charadrius semipalmatus Bonaparte. Semipalmated Plover. GC, occa- sional in fall and winter (19 August-18 December); CB, summer (Cory, 1889a) and 6 birds on 9 August 1971 (DWJ). Lowe (1911) reported it as “resident in the Caymans.” Charadrius wilsonia Ord. Wilson’s Plover. GC, uncommon in fall (No- vember-December, EJF). Brown thought it to be breeding (Bangs, 1916). CB, one bird 9 August 1971 (DWJ). Charadrius vociferus Linnaeus. Killdeer. GC, one individual observed 10 February 1970 (DWB). Squatarola squatarola (Linnaeus). Black-bellied Plover. GC, uncommon winter resident (3 August-15 May); CB, 4 May 1970 (DWB), 10 on 9 August 1971 (DWJ) and October (CHB). Arenaria interpres morinella (Linnaeus). Ruddy Turnstone. GC, uncom- mon winter resident (November-17 May); collected by Richardson during the summer (Cory 1886); CB, Cory (1889a) but no specific date, one indi- vidual observed 1 May 1970 (DWB), 20 on 8-9 August 1971 (DWJ); LC, one bird on 5-6 August 1971 (DWJ). Himantopus himantopus (Miiller). Black-necked Stilt. GC, breeding, less common in winter until early March; CB, LC, breeding, uncommon. Capella gallinago Linnaeus. Common Snipe. GC, uncommon in winter (Lowe, 1911; November-8 April). Actitis macularia (Linnaeus). Spotted Sandpiper. GC, fairly common winter resident (21 November-17 May), collected by Richardson in summer (Cory 1886); CB, 5 May 1970 (DWB) and 9 August 1971 (DWJ); LC, Cory (1889a) and 5-6 August 1971 (DWJ). Tringa solitaria Wilson. Solitary Sandpiper. GC, uncommon in winter (3 August-mid April). Tringa melanoleuca (Gmelin). Greater Yellowlegs. GC, uncommon to common winter resident (11 August-27 April); CB, October (CHB); LC, 4 on 5 August 1971 (DWJ). Tringa flavipes (Gmelin). Lesser Yellowlegs. GC, uncommon to com- mon winter visitor (7 September-April), collected by Richardson in summer (Cory 1886). Catoptrophorus semipalmatus semipalmatus (Gmelin). Willet. GC, resi- dent (less common in winter ), breeding; CB, LC, uncommon, breeding. Calidris canutus (Linnaeus). Knot. GC, two records, 18 December 1969 (DWJ and others) and 11 May 1970 (DWB). JoHNSTON ET AL.: Birds of the Caymans 149 Calidris melanotos (Vieillot). Pectoral Sandpiper. GC, rare in fall (Cory, 1886; 7 September 1961-AS); collected by Richardson in summer (Cory, 1886). Calidris fuscicollis (Vieillot). White-rumped Sandpiper. GC, many seen (one taken) on inland pond 11 May 1970 (DWB). Calidris minutilla (Vieillot). Least Sandpiper. GC, rare in spring (11 May 1970, DWB), summer (Cory, 1886) and fall (7 September 1961, AS). Calidris pusilla (Linnaeus). Semipalmated Sandpiper. GC, rare in sum- mer (Cory, 1886), common in spring (2 April-17 May); CB, 40 birds on 7 August 1971 (DWJ). Crocethia alba (Pallas). Sanderling. GC, uncommon in fall (October- 21 November) and spring (28 March-24 April). Limnodromus griseus hendersoni (Gmelin). Short-billed Dowitcher. GC, uncommon in fall and winter (4 August-18 December ). Steganopus tricolor Vieillot. Wilson’s Phalarope. GC, two seen on inland pond 11 May 1970 (DWB). Larus argentatus Pontoppidan. Herring Gull. GC, accidental, October 1956 (CHB); CB (Bond, 1956). Larus atricilla Linnaeus. Laughing Gull. GC, uncommon visitor at all seasons; CB, June 1970 (DWJ); LC, October 1956 (CHB). Gelochelidon nilotica aranea (Wilson). Gull-billed Tern. GC, two speci- mens, 9 September 1961 (AS). Sterna h. hirundo Linnaeus. Common Tern. GC, uncommon in winter (7 September-18 December ): Sterna anaethetus recognita Mathews. Bridled Tern. GC, four specimens (AS), 7-8 September 1961. Sterna fuscata Linnaeus. Sooty Tern. GC, one specimen taken 3 April 1970 (DWB). Sterna albifrons antillarum (Lesson). Least Tern. GC, CB, LC, uncom- mon, breeding, absent in winter. Thalasseus maximus maximus (Boddaert). Royal Tern. GC, found off- shore and along reefs throughout the year, nonbreeding; CB, LC, October 1956 (CHB). Chlidonias niger surinamensis (Gmelin). Black Tern. GC, four speci- mens 7 September 1961 (AS). Anous stolidus stolidus (Linnaeus). Noddy Tern. GC, one record, a specimen 26 July 1888 (Field Museum). Columba leucocephala Linnaeus. White-crowned Pigeon. GC, CB, LC, common resident, especially in wooded areas. Zenaida aurita zenaida (Bonaparte). Zenaida Dove. GC, CB, LC, un- common resident. Zenaida asiatica (Linnaeus). White-winged Dove. GC, common resident; evidently absent before about 1935; CB, not uncommon (22 August 1961, AS; late June 1970, DWJ); LC, uncommon 5-7 August 1971 (DWJ). Columbina passerina insularis (Ridgway). Ground Dove. GC, CB, LC, common resident, especially along roads and open places. 150 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Leptotila jamaicensis collaris (Cory). White-bellied Dove. GC, uncom- mon resident, restricted to wilder, wooded portions. Amazona leucocephala Linnaeus. Cuban Parrot. GC, A. Il. caymanensis (Cory), resident in wilder portions; CB, LC, A. l. hesterna Bangs, not un- common in center of islands. Coccyzus minor (Gmelin). Mangrove Cuckoo. GC, CB, LC, uncommon, especially in winter. Although C. m. nesiotes is supposedly the breeding form of the Cayman Islands (Bond, 1956), C. m. maynardi has been taken there too (Lowe, 1911; Fisher and Wetmore, 1931). Coccyzus americanus americanus (Linnaeus). Yellow-billed Cuckoo. GC, one record, October 1956 (CHB); LC, two specimens, 24 August 1961 (AS); CB, 5 May 1970 (DWB). Crotophaga ani Linnaeus. Smooth-billed Ani. GC, LC, common resi- dent in fields and roadsides; CB, uncommon resident. Tyto alba furcata (Temminck). Barn Owl. GC, CB, LC, very uncom- mon resident, nesting and roosting in caves and hollow trees. Chordeiles minor (Forster). Nighthawk. We follow the suggestion of Bond (1936) that gundlachii is the (uncommon) breeding form of the Cay- man Islands. During migration, however, in April and May a number of ob- servers have reported Nighthawks calling in the fashion of “typical” continen- tal North American birds. Chaetura pelagica (Linnaeus). Chimney Swift. GC, rare, sight records 10-12 May 1965 (DWJ); CB, early fall 1966 (Bond, twelfth supplement). Archilochus colubris (Linnaeus). Ruby-throated Hummingbird. GC, hummingbirds, most likely of this species, have been reported occasionally by residents over the island. Ceryle alcyon (Linnaeus). Belted Kingfisher. GC, uncommon winter visitor (November-9 April); CB, November-December 1969 (RP). Colaptes auratus gundlachi Cory (see Short, 1965). Flicker. GC, fairly common resident, especially in mangrove swamps. Centurus superciliaris caymanensis Cory. West Indian Red-bellied Wood- pecker. GC, fairly common resident. Sphyrapicus varius (Linnaeus). Yellow-bellied Sapsucker. GC, LC, un- common winter visitor; CB, November-December 1969 (RP). Tyrannus tyrannus (Linnaeus). Eastern Kingbird. GC, two specimens, 1-8 September 1961 (AS). Tyrannus dominicensis dominicensis (Gmelin). Gray Kingbird. GC, CB, LC, fairly common summer resident, especially in urban situations. Tyrannus caudifasciatus caymanensis (Nicoll). Loggerhead Kingbird. GC, CB, LC, fairly commen resident, frequently in or near mangrove swamps. Myiarchus stolidus sagrae. (Gundlach). Stolid Flycatcher. GC, fairly common resident in woodlands. Contopus virens (Linnaeus). Wood Pewee. GC, one specimen, 18 Oc- tober and sight record 25 October 1956 (CHB). Empidonax minimus (Baird and Baird). Least Flycatcher. GC, one specimen, 10 March 1904 (Nicoll, 1904). JOHNSTON ET AL.: Birds of the Caymans 151 Elaenia martinica caymanensis Berlepsch. Caribbean Elaenia. GC, CB, LC, very common resident. Progne subis subis. (Linnaeus). Purple Martin. GC, four birds taken 9 September 1961 (AS), 40 seen on 11 August 1971 (DWJ). Progne dominicensis (Gmelin). Martin. GC, uncommon spring transient (7 April-15 May). Riparia riparia (Linnaeus). Bank Swallow. GC, uncommon spring tran- sient (26 March-16 May). Stelgidopteryx ruficollis (Vieillot). Rough-winged Swallow. GC, uncom- mon in spring (3 March-26 April) and fall (20-30 October, CHB). Hirundo rustica erythrogaster Boddaert. Barn Swallow. GC, very com- mon spring (2 March-16 May) and fall (10 August-December) transient; CB, Cory, (1889a), 9 August 1971 (DWJ), and November-December 1969 (RP); LC, 5-7 August 1971 (DWJ). Petrochelidon pyrrhonota (Vieillot). Cliff Swallow. GC, rare in spring (26 April 1967, DWJ). Petrochelidon fulva (Vieillot). Cave Swallow. GC, uncommon in fall (11-30 October 1956, CHB). Mimus polyglottos orpheus (Linnaeus). Mockingbird. GC, very com- mon resident; CB, apparently became established about 1956 (Bond, third supplement), now common and widespread; LC, recorded by Michael Harvey in 1966 and now common. Dumetella carolinensis (Linnaeus). Catbird. GC, fairly common winter resident (November-25 April); CB, Cory (1889a). Mimocichla plumbea coryi Sharpe. Red-legged Thrush. GC, accidental (probably the same bird, 1964-1966; DWJ, 1969); CB, common resident. Mimocichla ravida Cory. Grand Cayman Thrush. GC, believed to be extinct (DWJ, 1965, 1969), last recorded in 1938 by Bernard Lewis. Catharus fuscescens (Stephens). Veery. GC., one seen 2 May 1970 (DWB). Polioptila caerulea caerulea (Linnaeus). Blue-gray Gnatcatcher. GC, un- common in winter, late summer (Cory 1886); LC (Cory 1889a). Bombycilla cedrorum Vieillot. Cedar Waxwing. LC, specimen 29 April 1888 (Field Museum). Vireo crassirostris crassirostris (Bryant). Thick-billed Vireo. GC, CB, LC, common resident especially in dense thickets. Vireo griseus (Boddaert). White-eyed Vireo. GC, one seen 15 December 1969 (DWJ). Vireo altiloquus (Vieillot). Black-whiskered Vireo. GC, two specimens, 27 March 1896 (Bond, eleventh supplement); CB, LC, V. a. barbatulus (Cabanis ), uncommon resident. Vireo magister caymanensis Cory. Yucatan Vireo. GC, common resident; CB, LC, reported by Cory, 1889a, but probably an error (see Hellmayr, 1935). Mniotilta varia (Linnaeus). Black-and-white Warbler. GC, fairly com- mon winter resident (late summer-12 May); CB, November-December 1969 (RP); LC, Lowe (1911). 152 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Protonotaria citrea (Boddaert). Prothonotary Warbler. CB, 13 October 1956 (CHB); LC, specimen 24 August 1961 (AS). Limnothlypis swainsonii (Audubon). Swainson’s Warbler. GC, three birds seen 16-17 December 1969 (DWJ and others). Helmitheros vermivorus (Gmelin). Worm-eating Warbler. GC, uncom- mon winter resident (October-31 March); CB, Cory (1889a). Vermivora peregrina (Wilson). Tennessee Warbler. GC, three speci- mens, 16-18 April 1892 (Field Museum). Parula americana (Linnaeus). Parula Warbler. GC, fairly common in winter (21 November-24 March); CB, Cory(1889a). Dendroica petechia eoa (Gosse). Yellow Warbler. GC, CB, LC, very common resident especially in mangrove swamps. Dendroica magnolia (Wilson). Magnolia Warbler. GC, rare, three rec- ords (18 December, 18 April, 12 May); CB, October (CHB) to December (RP). Dendroica tigrina (Gmelin). Cape May Warbler. GC, uncommon winter resident (December-April ); CB, November-December 1969 (RP). Dendroica c. caerulescens (Gmelin). Black-throated Blue Warbler. GC, uncommon winter resident (16 December-11 May); CB, November-Decem- ber 1969 (RP); LC, Cory (1889a). Dendroica coronata (Linnaeus). Myrtle Warbler. GC, formerly common in winter (Nicoll, 1904), but not recorded in recent years; CB, November- December 1969 (RP). Dendroica virens (Gmelin). Black-throated Green Warbler. GC, un- common in winter (October-25 April). Dendroica caerulea (Wilson). Cerulean Warbler. GC, rare, taken by W. B. Richardson in summer of 1886 (Cory, 1886); one taken 13 April 1970 (DWB). Dendroica fusca (Miller). Blackburnian Warbler. GC, one specimen, 11 April 1892 (Field Museum). Dendroica dominica dominica (Linnaeus). Yellow-throated Warbler. GC, uncommon winter visitor (late summer-29 December ); CB, November-Decem- ber 1969 (RP); LC, one specimen, 24 August 1961 (AS) and Cory (1889a). Dendroica castanea (Wilson). Bay-breasted Warbler. GC, one seen Oc- tober 1956 (CHB) and another on 2 May 1970 (DWB). Dendroica breviunguis (Spix). Blackpoll Warbler. GC, two specimens, 20 September 1889 and 18 April 1892 (Field Museum); LC, one specimen, 24 August 1961 (AS). Dendroica discolor discolor (Vieillot). Prairie Warbler. GC, uncommon fall and winter resident (16 August-3 March); CB Cory, 1889a; LC, Cory, 1889a, one specimen 24 August 1961 (AS). Dendroica vitellina Cory. Vitelline Warbler. GC, fairly common resident (D. v. vitellina); CB, LC, common resident (D. v. crawfordi Nicoll). Dendroica palmarum palmarum (Gmelin). Palm Warbler. GC, very common (in most years) winter resident (November-9 April); CB, LC, Cory (1889a). JOHNSTON ET AL.: Birds of the Caymans 153 Seiurus aurocapillus (Linnaeus). Ovenbird. GC, uncommon winter resi- dent (16 December-6 April); CB, Cory, 1889a; LC, Lowe (1911). Seiurus noveboracensis notabilis Ridgway. Northern Waterthrush. GC, uncommon winter resident in mangrove swamps (21 November-16 April); CB, Hellmayr, 1935. Seiurus motacilla (Vieillot). Louisiana Waterthrush. GC, one specimen 4 August 1886 (Field Museum); CB, 6 December 1969 (RP) and one speci- men 3 August 1888 (Field Museum). Oporornis formosus (Wilson). Kentucky Warbler. GC, sight record, 17 December 1969 (DWJ). Geothlypis trichas (Linnaeus). Common Yellowthroat. GC, common win- ter resident (21 November-14 May); CB, Hellmayr, 1935; LC, Cory (1889a). Setophaga ruticilla (Linnaeus). - Redstart. GC, fairly common winter resident (12 December-17 May); CB, Cory (1889a), November-December (RP) and 5 May 1970 (DWB); LC, one specimen, 24 August 1961 (AS). Coereba flaveola sharpei (Cory). Bananaquit. GC, CB, LC, abundant resident. Spindalis zena salvini Cory. Stripe-headed Tanager. GC, fairly common resident but uncommon in winter. Piranga olivacea (Gmelin). Scarlet Tanager. GC, one observed 28 April 1970 (DWB); CB, one observed 4 May 1970 (DWB). Piranga rubra (Linnaeus). Summer Tanager. GC, rare transient (late April, October ). Quiscalus niger (Boddaert). Greater Antillean Grackle. GC, common resident, especially in mangrove swamps (Q. n. caymanensis Cory); CB, LC, uncommon resident (Q. n. bangsi [Peters]). Curiously absent from CB in summers of 1970 and 1971. Icterus galbula (Linnaeus). Baltimore Oriole. GC, male retained in captivity by Ira Thompson after it struck a window in Georgetown, 5 April LSTA (JCB). Icterus leucopteryx bairdi Cory. Jamaican Oriole. GC, formerly (1900- 1916) bred especially on north side of island, but not recorded since about 1938; probably extinct on GC. Dolichonyx oryzivorus (Linnaeus). Bobolink. GC, fairly common spring transient (21 April-6 May); CB, several birds 5 May 1970 (DWB); LC, Cory (1889a). Tiaris o. olivacea (Linnaeus). Yellow-faced Grassquit. GC, CB, LC, common resident, fields and roadsides. Pheucticus ludovicianus (Linnaeus). Rose-breasted Grosbeak. GC, rare in winter and spring (22 December-10 April); CB, November-December 1969 CRE): Guiraca caerulea (Linnaeus). Blue Grosbeak. GC, sight records, 2 April 1970 (DWB) and 21 October 1956 (CHB).- Passerina cyanea (Linnaeus). Indigo Bunting. GC, uncommon in winter and spring (17 December-10 May); CB, November-December 1969 (RP). Melopyrrha nigra taylori Hartert. Cuban Bullfinch. GC, common resident in shrubby woods. 154 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Passerculus sandwichensis savanna (Wilson). Savannah Sparrow. GC, rare, one specimen 10 March 1904 and sight record 18 December 1969 (DWJ). Ammodramus savannarum (Gmelin). Grasshopper Sparrow. GC, fairly common in winter (November-4 April); CB, November-December 1969 (RP). LITERATURE CITED Bancs, OuTRAM. 1916. A collection of birds from the Cayman Islands. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., vol. 60, no. 7, pp. 303-320. Bonpb, JAMES. 1934. The distribution and origin of the West Indian avifauna. Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc., vol. 83, no. 5, pp. 341-349. 1936, 1947, 1961. (Field guide to) Birds of the West Indies. Wav- erly Press; MacMillan Co.; Houghton Miflin. 1942. Additional notes on West Indian Birds. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, vol. 44, pp. 89-106. 1948. Origin of the bird fauna of the West Indies. Wilson Bull., vol. 60, pp. 207-229. 1956. Check-list of birds of the West Indies. Fourth edition. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia. 14 supplements, 1956-1969. CLeNcH, Harry K. 1964. Remarks on the relationships of the butterflies (excluding skippers) of the Cayman Islands. Occas. Pap. on Mollusks, Mus. Comp. Zool., vol. 2, pp. 381-382. CLENCH, WiLL1AM J. 1964. Land and freshwater mollusca of the Cayman Islands, West Indies. Occas. Pap. on Mollusks, Mus. Comp. Zool., vol. 2, pp. 345-380. Cory, CuHartes B. 1886a. Descriptions of thirteen new species of birds from the island of Grand Cayman. Auk, vol. 3, pp. 497-501. 1886b. A list of birds collected on the island of Grand Cayman, W. I., by W. B. Richardson, during the summer of 1886. Auk, vol. 3, pp. 501-502. 1887. A new vireo from Grand Cayman, West Indies. Auk, vol. 4, pp. 6-7. 1889a. A list of the birds collected by Mr. C. J. Maynard in the islands of Little Cayman and Cayman Brack, West Indies. Auk, vol. Gipp 0-32. ——. 1889b. The birds of the West Indies. Estes and Lauriat, Boston, 324 pp. 1892. Catalogue of West Indian birds. Published by the author, Boston, 163 pp., map. JOHNSTON ET AL.: Birds of the Caymans 155 Doran, Epwin, Jr. 1955. Land forms of Grand Cayman Island, British West Indies. Texas Jour. Sci., vol. 6, pp. 360-377. Eneuisu, T. M. Savace. 1912. Some notes on the natural history of Grand Cayman. Handbook of Jamaica for 1912. 1916. Notes on some birds of Grand Cayman, W. I. _ Ibis, ser. 10, vol. 4, pp. 17-35. FisHer, A. K., anp A. WeTmMorE. 1931. Report on birds recorded by the Pinchot Expedition of 1929 to the Caribbean and Pacific. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 70, art. 10, pp. 1-66. GRANT, CHAPMAN. 1940. The herpetology of the Cayman Islands. Bull. Inst. Jamaica, Science Series no. 2, pp. 1-65. HELLMAyrR, CHARLES EF. 1935. Catalogue of birds of the Americas. Part VIII. Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, vit 541 pp. Jounston, Davin W. 1965. Grand Cayman Island in early May. Broad- sheet no. 5 (Gosse Bird Club, Jamaica), pp. 4-5. 1969. The thrushes of Grand Cayman, B.W.I. Condor, vol. 71, pp. 120-128. Kipp, E. R. G. 1965. Grand Cayman—January 23-28, 1964. Broadsheet no. 4 (Gosse Bird Club, Jamaica), p. 3. Lowe, Percy R. 1909. Notes on some birds collected during a cruise in the Caribbean Sea. Ibis, ser. 9, vol. 3, pp. 304-347. 1911. On the birds of the Cayman Islands, West Indies. Ibis, vol. 0, pp. 137-161. Maynarp, C. J. 1889. Description of a supposed new species of Gannet (Sula coryi) from Little Cayman. Contrib. to Science, vol. 1, p. 40. Nicotu, M. J. 1904. On a collection of birds made during the cruise of the ‘Valhalla’, R.Y.S., in the W.I. (1903-4). Ibis, ser. 8, vol. 4, pp. 555- 591. Ricuarps, Horace G. 1955. The geological history of the Cayman Islands. Notulae Naturae, no. 284, pp. 1-11. Riweway, Rospert. 1887. Catalogue of a collection of birds made by Mr. Chas. H. Townsend, on islands in the Caribbean Sea and in Honduras. roe, U. Ss Nai, Mite. voll; IO, joo. Burs. —. 1898. New species, etc., of American birds. —— II. Fringillidae (continued). Auk, vol. 15, pp. 319-324. SCHWARTZ, ALBERT, AND RONALD F. Kiinrkowsxkl. 1963. Observations on West Indian Birds. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, vol. 115, pp. 03-77. SHorT, L. L., JR. 1965. Variation in West Indian flickers (Aves, Colaptes). Bull. Florida State Mus., vol. 10, pp. 1-42. 156 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES SwaBEy, C., AND C. B. Lewis. 1946. Forestry on the Cayman Islands. De- velopment and welfare in the West Indies, Bull. no. 23, pp. 1-31. Department of Zoology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Flor- ida 32601; Box 613, Hillsborough, North Carolina 27278; Museum of Zoology, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803 Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 34(2) 1971 Beaked Whales, Ziphius cavirostris, in the Bahamas Davw K. CALDWELL AND MELBA C. CALDWELL PUBLISHED records of marine mammals from the Bahamas are scarce, especially those supported by specimens or photographs. Although often considered part of the West Indies, the main archi- pelago from which the following records come is very different eco- logically. Not only does the main island group lie for the most part to the north and west of the Antilles, but the low islands are little more than exposed projections of the extensive reefs which form the vast shallows of the region rather than the high volcanic islands, rising abruptly from very deep water, which form the main Antil- lean chain. The Bahamian shallows are dissected by several deep channels such as Exuma Sound, Tongue of the Ocean, and the Prov- idence Channels, and it is through one or more of these that our whales probably came. A good description of this area was pre- sented by Bohlke and Chaplin (1968, p. xiii). We know of no positive records for Cuvier’s beaked whale, Ziphius cavirostris G. Cuvier, from the Bahamas, although it could be expected on zoogeographical grounds. The closest records are Florida (summarized by Layne, 1965, p. 138), Cuba (Aguayo, 1954), Isle of Pines (Varona, 1964) and Puerto Rico (Erdman, 1961, 1962; Moore, 1968, p. 234). On 5 February 1968 members of a collecting crew from Marine- land of Florida and Marineland of the Pacific were told of a dead whale that was ashore on Norman’s Cay, one of the Exuma islands located on the western edge of Exuma Sound, some 40 miles SSE of Nassau at 24° 38’ N, 76° 48’ W. The crew was able to reach the badly decomposed carcass on the next day, and the animal proved to be a female measuring 16 feet from tip of upper jaw to fluke notch. Other measurements were taken, but the carcass was in such bad condition that in the interest of accurate reporting it seems advisable to omit them from the present report although they are on file at the Marineland Research Laboratory. The decom- posed condition of the carcass caused some confusion as to its sex even on the part of the experienced observers. That it was indeed 158 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES a female was clarified later when one of the teeth was studied in light of Moore’s (1968, p. 240) discussion of sexual dimorphism in the teeth of Ziphius. The narrow elongate shape of the tooth clearly indicated that it was from a female. The tips of the two teeth in place in the carcass were reported as just protruding from the gums at the tip of the lower jaw, but this protrusion probably was due to a shrinkage of the soft tissue during decomposition. The complete skull was salvaged about three weeks after the first report of the stranding, and it is presently being retained for further study at the Marineland Research Laboratory where in early 1970 Joseph C. Moore confirmed the sex as a female and noted the condylobasal length of the cranium to be 857 mm plus an estimated missing 40 mm of rostrum. Other measurements on this skull will be included in a variational study of Ziphius that Moore has in preparation. At the same time that this whale was found, the collecting crew found another of about the same size elsewhere on Norman’s Cay. The men were convinced that it was the same species as the first, and color photographs of the badly-decomposed carcass lying in the edge of the water bear this out. The photographs are on file at the Marineland Research Laboratory to support this record. Decompo- sition was so advanced that no measurements were attempted and the carcass washed out to sea before any skeletal material could be recovered. William Raulerson noted, however, that this animal was clearly the same species as the first, was of about the same size, and that the teeth were of the size, shape and degree of protrusion as the first animal and so the second, too, was probably a female. On 7 February 1968 Cecil Walker observed yet another carcass, from the air from a low-flying spotter airplane, that was stranded on a small cay about 10 miles to the north of Norman’s Cay. Walker noted that this carcass was about the size of the first two and that it appeared to be of the same species and in about the same state of decomposition. This carcass could not be reached for further study. At about the same time as the first strandings, i.e., in early Feb- ruary 1968, the collecting crew was notified by Herman Wenzel that a 16-foot dead whale was ashore on his property at Staniel Cay, also in the Exumas on the western edge of Exuma Sound, some 40 miles SE of Norman’s Cay. The crew was unable to investigate, but Mr. Wenzel later provided us with color photographs (also on deposit at the Marineland Research Laboratory) that confirm the CALDWELL AND CALDWELL: Beaked Whales 159 identification of the decomposed carcass as Ziphius cavirostris. We are unable to determine sex from the photographs. It was Mr. Wenzel’s intent eventually to recover the skull for display at Staniel Cay. More than chance seems to be involved in the finding of these four specimens, and while they were found scattered over a 40-mile stretch, the similar condition of the carcasses and their discovery at almost the same time in a relatively uninhabited area suggests that something like a mass stranding or other type of mass mortality had taken place somewhere else and the dead carcasses floated to their final points of discovery. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS For their efforts in seeking out strandings and in accumulating data we thank Cecil M. Walker, Jr., W. J. LeBlanc, William C. Raulerson and William A. Huck, all of Marineland of Florida, Frank J. Callandrino of Marineland of the Pacific, and Herman Wenzel of Staniel Cay and St. Louis, Missouri. Messrs. Raulerson, Walker, and LeBlanc should be especially congratulated for collecting the decomposing head. LITERATURE CITED Acuayo, C. G. 1954. Notas sobre cetaceos de aguas Cubanas. Circ. Mus, Biblio. del Zool. Habana, vol. 13, no. 351, pp. 1125-1126. BOHLKE, J. E., anp C. C. G. Craprin. 1968. Fishes of the Bahamas and adjacent tropical waters. Wynnewood, Pa., Livingston Publ. Co., wood (TAL 405 ERDMAN, D. S. 1961. New fish records and one whale record from Puerto Rico. Caribbean Jour. Sci., vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 39-40. —. 1962. Stranding a beaked whale, Ziphius cavirostris, Cuvier, on the south coast of Puerto Rico. Jour. Mammal., vol. 43, 2, pp. 276-277. Layne, J. N. 1965. Observations on marine mammals in Florida waters, Bull. Florida State Mus., Biol. Sci., vol. 9, no. 4, pp. 131-181. Moorr, J. C. 1968. Relationships among the living genera of beaked whales, with classifications, diagnoses and keys. Fieldiana: Zool., vol. 53, no. 4, pp. i-iv, 209-298. 160 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Varona, L. S. 1964. Un craneo de Ziphius cavirostris del sur de Isla de Pinos. Poeyana, ser. A, no. 4, pp. 1-3. Communication Sciences Laboratory and Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 34(2) 1971 SPEARS Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences Vol. 34 September-December, 1971 Nos. 3-4 CONTENTS Socio-Physics: Should we take it seriously? A. E. 8. Green 161 Mucoviscidosis testing in a community hospital Ricardo J. Mitre, Robert V. Joel, and Walter C. Kelly 172 Chemistry of the sea Dean F. Martin 175 Leaf shape inheritance in coleus David C. Rife 187 Species, class, and phylum diversity of animals David Nicol 191 Recent light changes in three variable radio sources G. H. Folsom, Alex G. Smith, and H. W. Schrader 195 Behavioral changes in dolphins in a strange environment _—_ Blair Irvine 206 Effects of progressive relaxation on alcoholic patients Archie C. Reed, A. Van Lewen, and James H. Williams 213 Redescription of Prionotus beani (Pisces, Triglidae) George C. Miller and Dana M. Kent 223 Pollution in areas near the Pompano Beach sewage outfall Harrison A. Hoffmann 243 Published July 7, 1972 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLoRIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Editor: Pierce Brodkorb The Quarterly Journal welcomes original articles containing sig- nificant new knowledge, or new interpretation of knowledge, in any field of Science. Articles must not duplicate in any substantial way material that is published elsewhere. INSTRUCTIONS TO AUTHORS Rapid, efficient, and economical transmission of knowledge by means of the printed word requires full cooperation between author and editor. Revise copy before submission to insure logical order, conciseness, and clarity. Manuscripts should be typed double-space throughout, on one side of numbered sheets of 8% by 11 inch, smooth, bond paper. A Carson Copy will facilitate review by referees. Marcins should be 1% inches all around. TITLEs must not exceed 55 characters, including spaces. Footnotes should be avoided. 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Plan linework and lettering for re- duction, so that final width is 4% inches, and final length does not exceed 6% inches. Do not submit illustrations needing reduction by more than one-half. PuotocrapHs should be of good contrast, on glossy paper. Do not write heavily on the backs of photographs. Proor must be returned promptly. Leave a forwarding address in case of extended absence. REPRINTs may be ordered when the author returns corrected proof. Published by the Florida Academy of Sciences Printed by the Storter Printing Company Gainesville, Florida QUARTERLY JOURNAL of the FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vol. 34 September-December, 1971 Nos. 3-4 Socio-Physics: Should We Take It Seriously? A. E. S. GREEN As a physicist who served as an operations analyst with the Twentieth Air Force in the Pacific Theatre during World War II, I have wondered at the vastly increased mathematical complexity and statistical sophistication of present day Operations Analysis. Indeed.I have had difficulty in reconciling this trend in the last quarter of a century with my personal experience. From a back- ground as an experimental physicist, I found I could make helpful contributions to the solution of a considerable variety of problems that arose in combat during the 1944-45 era. After 14 years of university work, I again became involved in operations analysis type problems in 1959 when, as a manager of a large industrial laboratory, I attempted to systematize the problem of salary determination. Just prior to this, I had worked extensively with the phenomenological independent particle model (IPM) of the nucleus (the shell and optical models). Fig. 1 shows neutron- nuclear IPM potentials according to these early IPM studies. These curves represent an analytic potential, the Wood-Saxon potential. The dependence upon radial distanceis shown for vari- ous nuclei with the representative mass numbers indicated. With such potentials and modern electronic computational facilities, phe- nomenological physicists could, by solving the Schrodinger wave equation, account for the gross feature of a vast body of angular dis- tribution data and energy level data (Green et al., 1968). The suc- cess of these phenomenological IPM studies has dictated the direc- tion of purely theoretical approaches to the physics of the nucleus to this very day. 162 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES SERnVe774n CA O a2. A=50 | | OO I50 250 E.. EERIE POTENTIAL ENERGY(Mev) | 2» 3 4 5° 6) 7 6 nC r = RADIAL DISTANCE (10-em) Fig. 1. Potential vs radial distance for neutrons interacting with nuclei whose mass numbers (A) are indicated. Socrio-PHYSICAL STUDIES In the course of studying salary data for industrial scientists compiled by the Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, I found it con- venient to portray the data as shown in Fig. 2. The close resem- blance of these curves in Fig. 1 suggested an analytic formula for the salary data (Green, 1962). In an updated version (Green, 1965) the analytic equation was generalized to represent a five- dimensional hypersurface r (z, A, o, 7) where r is the rate of pay (analogous to radial distance), z is the percentile (potential), A is years since BS degree (mass number), 7 a training factor which is 1/2 for PhD and —1/2 for BS or MS (isotopic spin) and g is a su- pervisory factor which is 1/2 for supervisor and —1/2 for non- GREEN: Socio-Physics 163 PERCENTILE (xlOO%) p 5 cre ay (Sa, LOR I SSN ees = 1G f= RATE OF PAY ($100/mo) Fig. 2. Percentile vs. rate of pay for scientists whose years past BS degree (A) are indicated. supervisor (spin). Figs. 3-4 illustrate the fit of the final equation in relation to experimental data and local least square fits. The five dimensional hypersurface represented in analytic form proved to be a useful managerial instrument. It permitted group leaders to concentrate on the component elements which enter a salary decision and, among other things, to interpolate in a logical way between the extremes ¢=+1/2 when the scientist did only part time supervision. These component judgments made by sev- eral knowledgable men generally had very little scatter. This con- trasted with the replies as to overall worth of the man which gener- ally produced answers with much greater dispersion. Thus, the so- ciophysicists approach narrowed the range for judgment in decision and provided a useful guideline on salary questions which helped to avoid gross inequities. Tactically, it was also useful in argu- 164 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES y B.S.— SUP B.S. — NON SUP = eS o=-1/2 : * : x SS si ere LEAST SQUARES-= ~ = S ---IPM 2 —LEAST SQUARES < of oma =< ~ Z ° a 2 @ I4 0 Yo, A <4 3, o) . Wee = = o afa & = 8 12 Vas ; ras = We” Z=.5 a uw A A r - z jo fo : 5 2g. ah * 22.25 S =) wv y v = 6 = = s f Z .v. 7 of Zo \ pes al/ 44 = 6 O Te) 20 30 40 g ‘ res 7 i YEARS Fig. 3. Rate of pay vs years past BS for industrial scientists in 1962 for various percentiles. Solid curves give least square quadratic fits and dotted curves represent empirical equations. Notation in upper left indicates g and 7 values i.e., supervisory and training status. ments for my personnel since I could speak with personnel man- agers from a position of authority (they had not published any papers on the subject). A theoretical model emerging from the phenomenology indi- cated that Fermi-Dirac statistics might be operative in the free market place. Plausible explanations of how such a distribution might arise were given although this facet of the work was not pursued in great detail. The socio-physics of the productivity of the scientist (Green, 1969) became a question of interest to me recently. Fig. 5 illus- trates a productivity distribution taken from data presented by De Solla Price (1963). Curve 1 corresponds to an integral form of Lotka’s law of productivity. Here the ordinate represents the num- ber of authors who have published p or more papers and the ab- scissa represents the number of papers. Curves 2, 3, and 4 repre- sent three relationships which more precisely fit the data. All of the equations were typical of physicist type equations and directly GREEN: Socio-Physics 165 PhD. — NON o=-|/2 t=+*l/2 PhD.— SUP o = *1/2 t =tl/2 HUNDRED DOLLARS/MONTH HUNDRED DOLLARS/MONTH /_____ | EAST SQUARES === TPM fo) 10 20 ao)» CO 0 © 2 3 AO AR YEARS VELIRS Fig. 4. Rate of pay vs years past Ph.D. for industrial scientists in 1962 for various percentiles. Curves and notations as in Fig. 3. suggested models which could account for the data. Curve 3 corresponds to the Einstein-Bose formula suggesting that produc- tivity follows boson statistics whereas we have already noted Fermi- Dirac statistics appear to govern reward. Curve 4 suggests a two population approach. Our next illustration concerns socio-physical relationships stimu- lated by discussions at a conference on the Ombudsman. At this conference a major source of disagreement as to whether an om- budsman was needed at the local level was the broad meaning given to the word local. To some it meant a town with a popula- tion of say a thousand, whereas to others it meant cities such as Jacksonville, Atlanta, or Miami in the million persons category. Based upon data for the grievance officer staff at Savannah and Buffalo, I proposed a square root law relationship (Green, 1970) between ombudsmen (G) and population (P). Then in response to very pointed questions, I was able to establish a plausible justi- fication for a P'/? law. Essentially if the civil servants (C) relate 166 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES [UT ANOINS 0 iO 20 eS Onno 50° 60 arenes! PAPERS Fig. 5. Productivity Distribution. Curve 1 represents the integral form of Lotka’s law (equation 1). Curves 2, 3 and 4 show the form of equations 2, 3, and 4 respectively. The two straight lines associated with line 4 (color) are the two exponential components; the curve, their sum. The dots repre- sent experimental data from early volumes of the proceedings of the Royal So- ciety, as compiled by Derek J. de Solla Price. to population as Pa and if ombudsmen relate to civil servants as Cg then G/Py where y=e. If « and £ were both less than 1 it is simple to rationalize y=1/2. After the conference, I found good data obtained from the Cen- sus Bureau to validate a power law relationship. Fig. 6 shows the state civil servants (in 1000’s) per million in relation to the popula- tion. One sees with the exception of Hawaii (which can be ex- plained) a distinct regularity C/PyP-/* which corresponds to CyP*/*. Subsequently, a substantial body of data on ombudsmen became available (Anderson, 1969) which is shown in relation to P’/? laws in Fig. 7. The final relationship should provide a helpful gross guideline for proposed legislation as to the personnel needed in ombudsman offices. GREEN: Socio-Physics 167 Hawaii CIVIL SERVANTS (IN THOUSANDS)/M IM IM 1OM POPULATION IN MILLIONS Fig. 6. The points (vertical scale) represent C/P for various states vs. P. The solid line corresponds C=KPe with a=3/4 and K,=—14,500. Is Socio-Puysics A USEFUL DISCIPLINE? In connection with the last work the thought occurred to the writer and to others who heard of this work that perhaps there is a role that phenomenologically oriented physicists can play in quan- titive studies of social problems. In preparing this talk for the Florida Academy of Sciences meeting on Science and Society, I have made a background literature search in which I learned that quantitive approaches in the field of sociology are developing very rapidly. A few recent sources which indicate that societal manage- ment using quantitive techniques is a coming field are agacs, 1970; Department of Health, Education and Welfare, 1969; Gross, 1965a, 1965b; Springer, 1970. Physicists could enter this field either by joining with the sociologist professionally or else by serving in con- junction with social scientists as quantitatively trained citizens to help guard against the potential abuse of societal type manage- ment. Phenomenologically oriented scientists, particularly those from fields such as nuclear physics or atomic physics where count- ing rates are high and the data is sharply defined, are especially prepared for sociological studies. Then the signal dominates the noise and it is not necessary to use sophisticated statistical tech- niques to unfold the signal from the noise. An analyst, with noise free data, can immediately concentrate on seeking regularities or 168 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Ico LARGE NATIONS , ee oo OMBUDSMEN fe) NB STATES AND SMALL NATIONS IM IM 10M 100M POPULATION IN MILLIONS Fig. 7. The points represent ombudsmen (G) (including staff) vs. P. The solid line, a guideline for cities and other local governments, corresponds to G=7.5P1/2. Symbols are listed in Table 1. phenomenological relationships in such data. The discovery of suc- cessful regularities should then set the stage for theoretical models and model testing. This precise data, phenomenological regularity-theoretical model approach has been the path to almost all major discoveries in physics. As a classic example, we cite the observations of the positions of the planets by Brahe, the discovery of the three phe- nomenological laws of planetary motion by Kepler and the final theoretical explanation in terms of dynamics and the law of gravity by Newton. It should be noted that, in the social sciences, very often the regularity itself can be used to solve managerial problems or to gauge trends or provide guidelines. Thus, in many practical socio- technical studies, knowledge for its own sake is not entirely rele- vant. For such studies the phenomenological relationship itself might be the useful tool and it may not be necessary to go immedi- ately to model building or a fundamental theoretical structure. The Sociophysical approach contrasts with the methodology of Systems Analysis, Operations Analysis and Econometrics particu- GREEN: Socio-Physics 169 larly as they have developed since World War II. In scanning re- cent textbooks on these latter subjects, I have noted qualitative dif- ferences of approach in that books on econometrics and operations analysis rely heavily upon probability and statistics. Here the gen- eral approach is to first postulate a number of models in mathemati- cal form and then to systematically test these models using statisti- cal techniques. The object is to filter out the ones that fail so that we can confine ourselves to the fewer models which are not re- jected. Because sophisticated statistics and probability theory are employed, experimental physicists coming from high counting rate fields might find the methodology used quite foreign. However, particle experimentalists, particularly those who have had to work with small numbers of counts and have had to develop their knowl- edge of statistical methods, might be comfortable in econometrics and operations analysis. System analysts, on the other hand, are very often required to make projections without the benefit of any data. Then, basically, one must invent system models and then apply tests of a hypothetical nature in an attempt to filter out the main inconsistencies in the model and to arrive at theoretical op- timizations. Here, a particle theorist might play a useful role. One must note, however, that, as in particular theory, progress can be very slow and one must allow for the possibility that theoretical models might fail. In Econometrics and Operations Analysis in which statistical tests are frequently used, the experimental particle physicist certainly would bring to bear a good background and should be readily adaptable. In sociological problems, very often good statistics are available (census data, civil servant data, actu- arial rates, crime rates etc.). Indeed the total historical count of basic units (persons living or dead) is about 10*° a goodly number even if cut in a great many ways. Here, the experimental nuclear physicist and other high counting rate physicists might readily bring his quantitative background to bear. CONCLUSION More important than the differences between types of physicists is the question of their acceptance by social scientists. One must, of course, take pains not to antagonize social scientists who have labored hard in their complicated field. In this latter connection, I have found that social scientists, who have been involved in 170 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES quantitative social legislative planning tend to welcome a quanti- tative outsider into their field. On the other hand, one must face up to the fact that many social scientists have observed the rise of importance of the physical scientist for twenty five years. Now that the turn for social scientist has begun, an invasion by physical scientists might not be welcomed. Furthermore, many social sci- entists have a distaste for quantitative approaches even by their compatriots. Thus, one must not anticipate that the transfer of a physical scientist to the social field will be a smooth one. Never- theless, it is in the public interest to preserve the quantitative skills of the physical scientist and the social sciences now present an op- portunity to make use of these skills in a constructive way. For this to be done professionally, the physicist must enter or join to- gether with the social science community. Alternatively, the physi- cist may simply take an interest in the social science community and follow the trends of the managerial approaches to social science. Even if he does not become a sociologist, as a quantita- tively trained citizen, he should be able to follow sociological trends, and ascertain that these trends are going in a direction towards ful- filling the needs of democracy. Thus, to “Socio-Physics, should we take it seriously?”, we say yes. SUMMARY Recent developments of social indicators (Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1969; Springer, 1970; Agocs, 1970; Gross, 1965), reports and accounts are indicative of a strong move- ment towards a rationally managed social order. The grave nature of our environmental problems also points to a serious need for more comprehensive societal management. The instruments for societal management can, of course, be used to serve the privi- ledged or, as we hope, the many. In this article we describe an approach which broadens the pool of persons who may help solve societal management problems. We contrast this data-phenomenol- ogy-theoretical model approach with the theoretical model-statistical test approach of econometrics and operations analysis. The quali- tative difference of attack suggests a need for a new interdiscipli- nary field, “socio-physics,” which combines sociology with the methodology of physics. GREEN: Socio-Physics 171 LITERATURE CITED Acocs, Carot. 1970. Social indicators: selected readings. Ann. Amer. Acad. Polit. Soc. Sci., vol. 388, pp. 127-132. ANDERSON, STANLEY V. 1969. Ombudsman papers: American experience and proposals. Berkeley Institute of Governmental Studies, University of California at Berkeley. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION AND WELFARE. 1969. Toward a social report. DE SOLLA Price, D. J. 1963. Little science, big science. Columbia Univer- sity Press, New York. p. 48. GreEN, A. E. S. 1962. An independent-particle model for scientific salaries. Physics Today, January, pp. 40-42. 1965. Scions are fermions—a law of sociophysics. Physics Today, June, pp. 32-38. 1969. The postdoctoral research associate instructor. Physics Today, June, pp. 23-26. 1970. Sociophysics of the ombudsman. Proceedings of the South- eastern Assembly on the Ombudsman, University of Florida, Studies in Public Administration, no. 32. GREEN, A. E. S., T. SAwADA, AND D. S. Saxon. 1968. The nuclear inde- pendent particle model, the shell and optical models. Academic Press, New York. Gross, BERTRAND. 1965a. Planning: Let’s not leave it to the economist. Challenge, September, pp. 30-33. 1965b. Social state of the Union. Transaction (November and De- cember ), pp. 14-17. SPRINGER, MICHAEL. 1970. Toward the management of society. Ann. Amer. Acad. Polit. Soc. Sci., vol. 388, p. 1. Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 34(3) 1971( 1972) Mucoviscidosis Testing in a Community Hospital Ricarpo J. Mirre, RoBerT V. JOEL, AND WALTER C. KELLY Tue importance of early diagnosis of mucoviscidosis (cystic fi- brosis of the pancreas) is well stressed by the fact that one of every three individuals born with this condition dies during the first year of life (Schwachman, 1962). From birth, these patients have an elevated concentration of chloride ions in their sweat. Measuring this elevation appears to be one of the best methods of diagnosis (Warwick and Hansen, 1965). 7 This report summarizes our experience with sweat chloride de- terminations following stimulation by pilocarpine iontophoresis and utilizing a Combination Chloride Electrode (Orion). MATERIALS AND METHODS In general, we followed the same procedure as reported by Ko- pito and Schwachman (1969). All determinations were made at room temperature. 1. The chloride electrode is filled with a solution consisting of 1M KNO:, 0.03M KC] and saturated AgCl. 2. The meter is calibrated with standard solutions of 20 mEq Cl-per liter and 100 mEq Cl- per liter. 3. After calibration, the electrode is placed in a vertical position with the sensing crystal resting on several gauze pads mois- tened with ion free water. 4. A felt pad soaked with a 64 mg/100 ml pilocarpine-HC] solu- tion is placed in the large slot of the iontophoresis attach- ment after excess saturant is removed. do. A felt pad soaked with a 0.01M H.SO, solution is placed in the small slot of the iontophoresis attachment after excess saturant is removed. 6. The assembly is strapped on the flexor surface of the forearm for five minutes while a current of one milliampere is deliv- ered. 7. In newborns or infants, the assembly may be applied to the back instead of the forearm. MITRE ET AL.: Mucoviscidosis 173 8. In children who complain of tingling or itching, the current may be reduced to 0.5 milliamperes for a short interval dur- ing the five minute period. 9. The assembly is removed and the test area is wiped with gauze moistened with distilled water and then blotted dry. 10. The electrode is blotted dry and immediately placed on the test area. 11. After the pointer stabilizes (10-15 seconds) a direct readout is made in milliequivalents of Cl- per liter. RESULTS We tested 118 individuals by this method. Our Cystic Fibrosis Clinic supplied the known afflicted patients. Most of their relatives were happy to cooperate also in the program. Patients with vari- ous ailments, mainly respiratory, were used as part of the control series. Healthy control individuals were picked at random from laboratory personnel and from their children. DISCUSSION As in most laboratory procedures, we found that individuals generally fell into three categories. One group represents those in which the results were clearly negative. In a second group, the re- sults led to a diagnosis or high index of suspicion for the disease. The third group should be classed as borderline and here clinical follow-up and repeat testing are in order. Several sources of error were found during the procedure, all of which were easily eliminated. No delay should occur in placing the electrode over the test area as the sweat evaporates rapidly (step #10). Excessive moistening of the skin area after sweat stimulation (step #49) should be avoided. Failure to remove ex- cess saturant from the felt pads before placing them in the ionto- phoresis attachment slots (step #4 and step #5) was a source of error. Failure to control the restless patient would produce er- roneous results. We found that the five minute sweat stimulation period is op- timum since no appreciable variation was noted when this period was prolonged to 10 or 15 minutes. 174 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES We have concluded that the Combination Chloride Electrode (Orion) provides a rapid (six minutes), harmless, and reliable screening method and aid in the diagnosis of mucoviscidosis that can be used on newborns, infants, children, and adults. LITERATURE CITED Korrro, L., AND H. SHwACHMAN. 1969. Studies in cystic fibrosis: Determi- nation of sweat electrolytes in situ with direct reading electrodes. Pedi- atrics, vol. 43, pp. 794-798. SHWACHMAN, H. 1962. The sweat test. Pediatrics, vol. 30, pp. 167-171. Warwick, W. J., AND L. HANsEN. 1965. The silver electrode method for rapid analysis of sweat chloride. Pediatrics, vol. 36, pp. 261-264. Service of Pathology and Department of Pediatrics, Baptist Me- morial Hospital, 800 Prudential Drive, Jacksonville, Florida 32207. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 34(3) 1971(1972) Chemistry of the Sea DEAN F.. MARTIN WE might well begin a consideration of the chemistry of the sea by recalling the words in Ecclesiastes. “All the rivers run into the sea, yet the sea does not overflow; unto the place from whence the rivers came, they return to flow again” (Eccl. 1:7). The writer of these words, if not familiar with the sea, was at least intuitively aware of the existence of a cyclic process that we recognize as being so very typical of the chemistry of the sea. His words suggest a basic question that we still are trying to answer and at this time we can give only a partial answer: What is the nature of the sea water, how did it come to be, and what are the consequences of the proc- esses that brought it to its present state? The nature of sea water is one of evident constancy, as indicated by three observations. First, a number of the major constituents of sea water (Table 1), ie., those present in concentrations of 1 ppm or greater, show an evident constancy of composition. By this we mean that the weight ratio of, say, magnesium (or sodium or po- tassium ) to chloride is constant for a given type of sea water. Sec- ond, the pH of sea water tends to be remarkably constant (8.10.2) TABLE 1 Major constituents of sea water Constituent Amount g/kg sea water Water Chloride 19.353 Sodium 10.76 Sulfate Niele, Magnesium 1.294 Calcium 0.413 Potassium 0.387 Bicarbonate 0.142 Bromide 0.067 Strontium 0.0080 Boron 0.0045 Fluoride 0.001 Average salinity, 35 parts per thousand (35 g of dissolved salts per kg of sea water). 176 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES at the mean temperature of sea water (5 C). Finally, many believe that the composition and pH of sea water has not altered signifi- cantly during the past 100 million years (Sillén, 1967a). The geochemical balance is one approach that has been used to arrive at the rationalization of the present nature of the sea. This may be represented by a process first suggested by Goldschmidt nearly 40 years ago (Equation 1) (Sillén, 1967a). (1) Igneous rock+Volatiles=Sea Water + Sediment + Atmosphere. Goldschmidt assumed the process was unidirectional and that 0.6 kg of igneous rock reacted to produce each liter of sea water, together with 0.6 kg of sediment and 3 liters of atmosphere. We would now modify Goldschmidt’s approach in two ways. First, Horn and Adams (1966) were able to bring more elements (about 60) into geochemical balance by assuming that 1.2 kg of ig- neous rock and sediment were involved. Secondly, we would prob- ably recognize that the reverse process occurs as an important fea- ture of the cycle involved in sea-floor spreading. Neither of these changes would modify the conclusions arrived at by Goldschmidt’s approach or Sillén’s use of it to demonstrate the remarkable simi- larity between an equilibrium model of sea water and the proper- ties of real sea water (Sillén, 1961). Another difficulty arises. The geochemical balance may give us a good over-all view, but the subtleties or major physical-chemical processes are not immediately obvious. The chemical and physical processes that control the present composition of sea water probably can be placed into several cate- gories, for the sake of convenience. These include control by weathering, action of clays, crustal concentration, control by physical-chemical processes, and by organisms. The scope of this paper does not permit a thorough exploration of each of these, but examples can be given and reference made to more thorough treat- ments. WEATHERING The constancy of composition of sea water is astounding when we consider the effect of weathering, because the amounts of ions carried to the sea during the past 100 million years are enormous. Martin: Chemistry of the Sea 177 Weathering is the continued chemical interaction of rain with rocks and soil and is part of the cycle of interaction of sea and the earth’s crust. The cycle consists of the evaporation of water from the sea, condensation as rain and snow, weathering, and chemical denuda- tion of ions and suspended material via streams and rivers. The extent of chemical denudation is uncertain because of the paucity of data for rivers of certain continents, notably Africa and Asia. The estimates of MacKenzie and Garrels (1966) have been used to calculate the amounts of ions added during the past 100 million years and to compare these with the present composition of sea water. (The units are moles of ion per square centimeter of earth surface, Table 2). TABLE 2 Amount of dissolved ions added by rivers during 100 million years in com- parison to present concentrations. (Sillen, 1967b) Cl- Nat SO,2 Mg2+ Ca? K+ CO,2 NO,- Added 157 +=196 84 122 268 42 342 11 Present Concentration* 150 3=129 8 13 2.8 tl 0.3 0.01 *Concentrations are expressed in units of moles per cm? of total earth sur- face Three features deserve comment. First, it is evident that the amounts of ions added generally are much greater than those now present. (Exceptions are sodium and chloride ions; probably, these ions represent sea spray washed back.) Second, the amounts of elements added during 100 million years is much greater than would be evident because of the contribution by suspended solids (250- 640 kg per cm? per 100 million years). Third, the amount of non- volatile dissolved solids in ‘the sea is slight relative to the amount of sediment. Sillén (1967b) has provided an apt comparison: the dissolved solids (as oxides) would cover the earth with a uni- form layer 20 m thick, but the sediments layer would be thousands of meters thick, and the radius of the earth is about 6,400,000 m. The last feature, the large amount of sediment and suspended solids, is very significant because these materials have a clay-mineral content. The control of composition by these minerals deserves more attention than it has received. 178 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ACTION OF CLAY MINERALS Clay minerals are important in the marine environment because of their ion-exchange capacity. This capacity may be represented by two typical processes (equations 2-3). Many believe that these equations are responsible for three significant roles of clay minerals: control of the pH of sea water, maintainence of the concentration of certain ions (sodium, magnesium, potassium), and control of the silica concentration (at least for certain concentrations ). H++ KAI,Si;0,.(OH).+15H;,0 = _ 1.5Al,Si,0;(OH),+K* (2) Illite Kaolinite H+ + 3Na.3Aly.335i3-67010( OH)2+3.5H,0 = Na-montmorillonite 3.5ALSi,0;(OH),+4SiO,+Na* (3) Kaolinite The significant features of the pH of sea water are (1) the ap- parent constancy (though changes occur in isolated bodies of water or because of biological activity), (2) the limited buffer capacity of an isolated 1-liter sample of sea water (0.003 mole of hydrochloric acid will reduce the pH from 8 to less than 4), (3) the buffer ca- pacity of a liter of sea water in the ocean is great, perhaps 2000 times that for the isolated liter. Sillén (1961) suggested that the major pH control mechanism in sea water is ion-exchange reactions (Equation 2) of clay minerals and that the carbonate system is mainly an indicator system. This is contrary to the view of many, but many arguments support Sil- lén’s view (Martin, 1970). It appears that the time scale is an sig- nificant consideration. Pytkowicz (1967) believes that clay miner- als have a significant effect in a geological time (ca. 1000 years) and that carbonate equilibra control pH in a shorter period of time. Control of silica concentration by clay minerals (Eqn 3) appears to be a significant process, others being control by organisms and control by a physico-chemical process (the solubility of a hydroxy- lated magnesium silicate). Clay minerals typical of those suspended Martin: Chemistry of the Sea 179 in streams and brought to the sea, release silica and the two systems tend toward similar, intermediate values (Mackenzie et al., 1967). Control of various ions by clay minerals involves equilibria of the type given (Equation 2) and is discussed elsewhere (Martin, 1970). CrusSTAL CONCENTRATION As Goldberg (1965) has noted, the concentration of an element in the marine environment may be low for two reasons: the con- centration of the element in the source (crustal rocks or interior of earth) may be low or the element may be abundant in the source but its reactivity limits its concentration in sea water. Lithium is an example of the first condition, and aluminum is an example of the second. The mean residence time, 7, is often used to correlate the rela- tive reactivities of various elements in the marine environment. For a given element the value of + is defined as the mean time the ele- ment is in sea water before removed by precipitation (Equation 4). A es (4) (dA / de) Here, A is defined as the total amount of element suspended or dis- solved in sea water, and dA/d¢é is the amount precipitating or intro- duced in unit time. Values of mean residence times (Table 3) seem to fall into three groups. The alkali and alkaline earth metals (except beryllium) have long residence times and low reactivities. (The decrease in residence time with increasing atomic number of the alkali metal ion is consistent with the known parallel increase in retention in clay minerals.) A second group of trace elements have intermedi- ate values and some are elements found in ferromanganese nodules in the oceans (Mero, 1965). The third group is composed of ele- ments that have low residence times because they enter the ocean as solid phases (as clay minerals, volcanic glass, etc.) and because of high reactivities. Elements in the third group have residence times that are less than mixing times and spatial and temporal vari- ations in the concentrations are marked. 180 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES TABLE 3 Mean residence times of selected elements* Mean Residence Time, Category Element Years Long Sodium 260 million Calcium 8 million Potassium 11 million Lithium 20 million Medium Barium 84,000 Zinc 180,000 Manganese 1,400 Cobalt 18,000 Short Aluminum 150 Beryllium 100 Iron 140 Chromium 350 *From Goldberg (1965) CONTROL BY PHYSICAL-CHEMICAL PROCESSES The upper concentration that a metallic ion or an anion might attain in sea water should be governed by the solubility of the least soluble compound. The importance of physical-chemical control by solubility probably has not received the attention it deserved, though excellent treatments of the subject are available (Goldberg, 1965; Krauskopf, 1956; Redfield, 1958, Sillén, 1961). Possibly, the major uncertainties in theoretical and experimental values of solu- bilities are responsible for the lack of attention. Nevertheless, three examples of the importance of control by solubility can be given here as an indication of the usefulness of the concept. Krauskopf (1956) calculated the theoretical maximum concentrations certain metallic elements would have, based upon the solubilities of com- pounds that might be formed with major anions of the sea. The results were compared with observed values that were obtained by adding the metal ion, as a solution, to sea water until a precipitate formed. The solids were not characterized, which may be a major fault of the experiment. The agreement between the two values is often close. But it appears that concentrations of many elements (lead, nickel, cobalt, copper, zinc, cadmium, and magnesium) are not controlled by solubility equilibria involving the major anions. Martin: Chemistry of the Sea 181 Oo COo No i“ Photosynthesis Pe aasl PO, | N 15 NO, 105 CO; [000 se cae, SO,> St 0, 10,000 estetatetateee 55 eateetetee Conemees FOR RD XR eee, 2200 eaters - mois = (0. 600 40. 000 F10, 000 © Ee Reece eememtentahie ce agers pod epecconen nega amnamanesnannsne ns ae Fig. 1. Relative proportions and interaction of some major elements in the marine ecosystem. Ratios are based on the number atoms per atom of phos- phorus in the sea (after Redfield, 1958; Martin, 1970). The concentrations of calcium, strontium, and maybe barium do seem to be controlled by such equilibria. The solubility of silica in sea water seems to be controlled to a major extent by the solubility of a hydroxylated magnesium silicate. The solubility of this material seems to limit the dissolved silica in real sea water to about 26 ppm (MacKenzie et al., 1967), though Siever (1962) indicated the concentration in brine or artificial sea water to be much greater (ca. 140 ppm). Perhaps the control of phosphate is the most important example of physical-chemical control. Redfield (1958) has suggested that phosphorus is a master element, and this is evident from a consider- 182 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ation of the relative number of atoms of each element in the sea, atmosphere, and earth’s crust (Fig. 1). From a standpoint of atomic ratio alone, this seems to be an accurate view, though it does not imply that phosphate concentration limits the growth of these organisms and the question arises of what controls the con- centration of the master element, phosphorus. The answer seems to be the solubility of a phosphate compound; which one is uncer- tain. Available data suggest that the order of solubility is CaHPO, S?- + 20, (8) The relative importance of these processes has varied in geologic history. The first two processes (Equations 5,6) probably were the major oxygen-producing processes in the primitive world. Now, some believe that the major regulatory process is not photosynthesis involving phytoplankton because the combination of Equations 6 and 7 does not lead to a net production of oxygen. Photosynthesis produces a long-term net oxygen increase only to the extent that biological decomposition is avoided, e.g., through burial in an anoxic environment. Such environments are relatively rare on the surface of the earth, particularly in soil. Redfield (1958) suggested that the action of sulfate-reducing bacteria might be responsible for the maintainance of the oxygen balance in the sea. The net process (Equation 8) actually con- sists of two steps. The first is production of bound organic carbon at the sea surface (Equation 6). The second involves utilization of dead organisms by sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) in an oxygen- poor environment (Eqn. 9) emis? oe RR 32 C6, #5" (9) org The existence of suitable environments in or near the world ocean is probably more extensive than generally believed and the impor- tance of sulfate-reducing bacteria probably deserves more attention (Martin, 1970). Organisms are involved in the nitrogen cycle of the sea in many 184 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES significant stages (Martin, 1970). Perhaps their most striking role is in resolving the evident imbalance in the nitrogen budget. We can summarize the consequences as described by Rittenberg (1963) and Sillén (1965) among others. The second possibility, a missing entry, seems more reasonable, and it has been assumed to be denitrification, the biological reduc- tion of nitrate (or nitrite) ion to nitrous oxide or molecular nitrogen. Denitrifying bacteria are known, for example, and they function in an oxygen-poor or anoxic environment. The absence of suitable environments is a major difficulty in ad- vancing denitrification as the missing entry in the nitrogen budget. For example, the estimated area and volume of appropriate sedi- ments seems to account for only 10 per cent of the imbalance (Rittenberg, 1963). Obviously, other localities must be involved. These are anoxic environments, (e.g., in the Black Sea, the Cariaco Trench, and cer- tain Norwegian Fjords), intermittantly stagnant basins (e.g., the Gotland basin in the Central Baltic), and in the oxygen-minimum layers (Martin, 1970). The last possibility includes broad expanses of the tropical Indian and Pacific Oceans. Here, at about 150-800 meters, the dissolved oxygen concentration is very low. Goering (1968) has measured roles of denitrification in this layer by means of a N-tracer technique. The layer is a site of active denitrifica- tion, but the extent of the process and the responsible organisms deserve more discussion and investigation ( Martin, 1970). SUMMARY We have provided only partial answers to the questions raised initially. The apparent constancy of the sea is basically due to two causes. First the limitations of our analytical methods have not always allowed us to detect many subtleties that occur, though these limitations are becoming less restrictive. Second, the gross con- stancy of many properties may be ascribed to a marvelous balance that includes the few processes considered here. Control by weath- ering, action of clay minerals, crustal concentration, solubility limi- tations, and organisms is significant; the interrelationship between processes is far more significant. Martin: Chemistry of the Sea 185 TABLE 4 Nitrogen budget of the Sea* Entry Amountf Reserve in Ocean 920,000 Annual use by phytoplankton 9,600 Annual contribution by: Rivers (dissolved N ) 19 Rivers (suspended N ) 0 Rain 59 Annual loss to sediments 9 *Rittenberg, 1963 tUnits, million meter tons The nitrogen budget of the sea (Table 4) appears to be un- balanced, i.e., the input from the land and atmosphere does not balance the nitrogen lost to the sediments (In contrast the phos- phorus and silicon budgets appear to be balanced). The annual excess input is thought to be about 70 million meter tons (Table 4, Entry 3-4) if the ocean has attained a steady-state condition that we assume. Nitrogen must escape from the sea; otherwise, the annual loss of nitrogen to the sea should deplete atmospheric nitro- gen in 400 million years (less than 20 per cent of the estimated age of the earth). Also, at the pH and pE (cf. Martn, 1970) of the ocean, molecular nitrogen should be irreversibly converted to ni- trate ion (Sillén, 1965). Two explanations of the imbalance are available, (1) the data are incorrect, or (2) an entry is missing. The data in Table 4 have uncertainties, but there is no reason to believe they are erroneous and other estimates using different approaches yield a similar estimate ( Martin, 1970). ACKNOWLEDGMENT I acknowledge with gratitude a Public Health Service Research Career Award from the National Institute of General Medical Sci- ences (1 KO4 GM 42569). LITERATURE CITED GoERING, JoHN J. 1968. Denitrification in the oxygen minimum layer of the eastern tropical Pacific Ocean. Deep-Sea Res., vol. 15, pp. 157-164. 186 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES GoLpBERG, EpwarD D. 1965. Minor elements in sea water. In J. P. Riley and G. Skirrow, editors, Chemical oceanography, vol. 1. Academic Press, New York, Chapter 5. Horn, M. K., ann J. A. S. ApAMs. 1966. Computer derived geochemical balances and element abundances. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, vol. 30, pp. 279-297. KraAuskopr, Konrap B. 1956. Factors controlling the concentrations of thirteen rare metals in sea-water. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, vol. 9, pp. 1-32B. MACKENZIE, FRED T., AND ROBERT M. GArRRELS. 1966. Chemical mass bal- ance between rivers and oceans. Amer. Jour. Sci., vol. 264, pp. 507- 525. MACKENZIE, FRED T., RoBERT M. GARRELS, OWEN P. BRICKER, AND FRANCES BickLEy. 1967. Silica in sea water: control by silica minerals. Science, vol. 155, pp. 1404-1405. Martin, DEAN F. 1970. Marine chemistry, vol. 2, Theory and applications. Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, 1970. Mero, JoHN L. 1965. The mineral resources of the sea. Elsevier, New York. PytKowicz, Ricarpo M. 1967. Carbonate cycle and the buffer mechanics of recent oceans. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, vol. 31, pp. 63-73. REDFIELD, ALFRED C. 1958. The biological control of chemical factors in the environment. Amer. Scientist, vol. 46, pp. 205-221. RITTENBERG, SYDNEY C. 1963. In Carl H. Oppenheimer, editor, Symposium on marine microbiology. Charles C. Thomas Publisher, Springfield, Illinois, pp. 52-54. SIEVER, RAyMoND. 1962. Silica solubility, 0-200 C, and the diagenesis of siliceous sediments. Jour. Geol., vol. 70, pp. 127-149. SILLEN, Lars Gunnar. 1961. The physical chemistry of sea water. In Mary Sears, editor, Oceanography, AAAS, Washington, D. C., pp. 549- 581. 1965. Oxidation state of earth’s ocean and atmosphere. Arkiv Kemi, vol. 24, pp. 431-456. 1967a. The oceans as a chemical system. Science, vol. 156, pp. 1189-1197. 1967b. How have sea water and air got their present compositions? Chemistry in Britain, vol. 3, pp. 291-297. Department of Chemistry, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida 33620. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 34(3) 1971( 1972) Leaf Shape Inheritance in Coleus Davip C. Rire CuttivaTep coleus (Coleus blumei) vary greatly in leaf shape as well as coloration. There are four major categories of variation in shape: deep versus shallow lobed margins, crinkly versus smooth, irregular versus regular, and narrow versus normal width. A dominant gene (L) results in deep lobes, and also in complete male sterility. Another allele in this series results in deep lobes and male fertility (1*), while a third allele (1) results in shallow lobes and male fertility (Rife, 1944). A dominant gene (G) results in irregular leaves, a condition in which the leaf veins anastomose to form an oval area and the leaves tend to curl inward (Rife and Duber, 1946). Genes G and L in- teract to form very deeply lobed leaves, resembling those of water- melons. These genes are not linked. Another dominant gene (C) results in a rough crinkly leaf sur- face, as opposed to the usual smooth flat surface ( Rife, 1948). The present report concerns the inheritance of narrow leaves, and relations between genes determining leaf width and other genes affecting leaf shape. MATERIALS AND METHODS Seeds for narrow-leafed coleus were purchased from a commer- cial seed firm. They produced plants with leaves averaging 1/8-1/2 inches in width. They were vigorous and produced seeds within approximately three months. Analysis of the inheritance of narrow leaves followed the usual procedure of obtaining F, and backcross ratios. The investigation also included tests for linkage and interactions of genes for narrow leaves with other genes affecting leaf shape. RESULTS A plant from a pure breeding strain of narrow-leafed coleus was crossed with a normal leafed one from a pure breeding strain known as “Chartreuse”. The F, progeny had narrow leaves. One of the F, plants was selfed and produced an F, ratio not deviating sig- nificantly from three with narrow to one with leaves of normal 188 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES TABLE 1 Results from crosses between narrow and normal (Chartreuse) varieties Description | Observed Expected x2 P Narrow Normal Narrow Normal EE U0 35 84 28 2,.333 >0.10 Backcross 48 52 50 50 0.160 > 0.50 TABLE 2 Chi-squared analysis of segregating progeny from selfed offspring of narrow X Purple cross to fit 13.3 ratio Phenotypes Observed Expected Normal 176 179.57 Narrow 45 41.53 X2=0.407 P>0.50 width. One of the F, plants was backcrossed to the Chartreuse parent resulting in an approximate 1:1 ratio of narrow versus normal-leafed offspring, thus indicating simple dominance of nar- row leaves (Table 1). F, progenies obtained from crosses of narrow-leafed plants with plants having irregular leaves and other plants having crinkly leaves gave ratios of approximately 9:3:3:1, indicating no linkage. Quite different results were obtained from crossing a plant heter- ozygous for narrow leaves with one from a variety designated as Purple and having leaves of normal width. A total of 92 offspring was produced, all of which had leaves of normal width. Leaves of Purple were indistinguishable from those of Chartreuse in width. Sixteen of the 92 offspring were selfed, among which 7 produced both narrow and normal leafed offspring, in a ratio of approximately 13 normal to 3 narrow (Table 2). This is the expected ratio from selfing plants heterozygous for narrow, and also for a dominant in- hibitor of narrow leaves. Presumably Purple carries the dominant inhibitor whereas Chartreuse does not. Mature narrow-leafed plants varied from some with extremely narrow leaves to others with leaves over 1/2 inch in width. A plant heterozygous for narrow deep-lobed leaves was crossed with one having normal shallow-lobed leaves. Both plants were derived from Purple. Offspring occurred in a ratio not deviating RiFE: Leaf Shape Inheritance 189 Fig. 1. Simply inherited variations in leaf shape. From left to right: normal, narrow, narrow irregular deep-lobed. significantly from 3 normal shallow: 3 normal deep: 1 narrow shal- low: 1 narrow deep. The greatest deviation was in the preponder- ance of narrow shallow over narrow deep, suggesting low viability of narrow deep-lobed plants. Otherwise the observed ratio con- formed closely to the expected if the normal shallow-lobed parent was heterozygous for the dominant inhibitor (Table 3). The narrow deep-lobed parent in the foregoing cross was later crossed with a normal shallow-lobed plant of the Chartreuse variety. Only 4 narrow deep-lobed plants occurred among 88 offspring, TABLE 3 Test for 3:3:1:1 ratio segregation of Purple deep normal X Purple narrow Phenotypes Observed Calculated Normal shallow 44 BUTE Normal deep By) SU Narrow shallow 14 125 Narrow deep 5 12.25 X2—6I310> P0210 190 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES whereas the other three phenotypes occurred in approximately equal numbers (29 normal shallow, 27 normal deep, 28 narrow shallow). Here again low viability of narrow deep-lobed plants is indicated. Taking this into account the observed ratio conforms to the expected when neither parent carries a dominant inhibitor. An independent investigation by K. Shepherd (1969, personal communication) gave similar results, with the exception that two dominant inhibitor loci appeared to be present in his normal-leafed variety. The ratios of normal to narrow-leafed plants in the original segregating progenies did not conform to the expected 13 normal: 3 narrow, thus ruling out a single dominant inhibitor locus. The ratios did conform to what would be expected from the comple- mentary action of two dominant inhibitors. SUMMARY A dominant gene (N) is responsible for narrow leaves in coleus. A dominant inhibitor prevents its expression in one or more varie- ties, whereas the complementary action of inhibitors at two loci is indicated in another variety. No linkage is indicated between N and the genes responsible for deep lobes (L), irregular (G) and crinkly (C) leaves. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The writer wishes to express his appreciation to Dr. K. Shepherd, Director, Breeding Research Scheme, Banana Board, Kingston, Ja- maica, for permission to refer to his unpublished data. LITERATURE CITED RirE, D. C. 1944. The inheritance of certain common variations in coleus. Ohio Jour. Sci., no. 1, pp. 18-24. 1948. Simply inherited variations in coleus. Jour. Hered., no. 39, pp. 85-91. RirE, D. C., anp H. C. Duper. 1946. Genes and species differences in coleus. Jour. Hered., no. 37, pp. 327-330. Department of Botany, University of Florida, Gainesville, Flor- ida 32601. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 34(3) 1971( 1972) Species, Class, and Phylum Diversity of Animals Davw NIcoL Ir we divide the ecological realms into three major habitats (marine, fresh water, and land) and estimate the number of animal species living in each realm, we find that the land habitat has by far the greatest number of species. Taking Thorson’s (1957, pp. 465-466) estimates in fractions for the three realms and converting them into whole numbers of species (Nicol, 1968, p. 37), we have the following figures: land 800,000, marine 166,667, and fresh water 33,333. This is based on an estimate by Thorson that there are about one million living species of animals. The overwhelmingly greater diversity of land animals is due to the arthropod class In- secta. However, if we look at the diversity of animal classes and phyla in the three major ecological realms, the results are very different. I have used Blackwelder’s Classification of the animal kingdom (1963) because of its completeness of all animal phyla and classes, including even extinct groups, and the fact that he lists the syno- nyms of the names of phyla and classes. This latter feature is most helpful when one is collecting ecological data from various inverte- brate zoology books. Blackwelder lists 37 phyla of living animals and 86 classes of living animals. Some zoologists may believe that the number of phyla is somewhat excessive and that the number of classes is a bit conservative, but this should not greatly affect the final results. In Table 1 I have listed the 37 phyla and tabulated whether each one is found in the marine, fresh-water, or land realm. There are 34 phyla living in the marine realm, 17 in fresh water, and only 15 on land. If we carry this analysis to the class level, we find that 73 occur in the seas, 35 live in fresh water, and 33 live on land. If we add the phyla and classes of extinct animals listed by Blackwelder, 21 of these are found in marine strata, only one in fresh-water beds, and none in strata deposited on Jand. A rather typical example of the distribution of a large phylum in the three major realms is the Mollusca. Of the seven living classes of molluscs, all live in the sea, only two have also invaded fresh water, and only one of these two (the gastropods) is also found on land. Of the estimated number of 107,000 living species of molluscs, 192 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES TABLE 1 The phyla of living animals with their distribution in marine, fresh-water, and land habitats Phylum Marine Fresh water Land Protozoa x x x Porifera X Mesozoa xX Monoblastozoa 6 Coelenterata Ctenophora Platyhelminthes Rhynchocoela Acanthocephala Rotifera Gastrotricha Kinorhyncha Priapuloidea Nematoda Gordiacea Calyssozoa Bryozoa Phoronida Brachiopoda Mollusca Sipunculoidea Echiuroidea Myzostomida Annelida Tardigrada Pentastomida Onychophora Arthropoda Chaetognatha Pogonophora Echinodermata Pterobranchia Enteropneusta Planctosphaeroidea Tunicata Cephalochordata Vertebrata Totals 37 ~ a i i | ~~ MM OM ac = a a oc os oo i oo a a WO x I He pe pd ot de ee) 98,000 are marine, 14,000 are fresh water, and 35,000 are terrestrial (Nicol, 1969). Nico: Diversity of Animals 193 Much has been written recently on species diversity and the theories to attempt to explain diversity patterns, as for example, Hutchinson (1962), MacArthur (1965), Pianka (1966), and Valen- tine (1969). Some of the theories explaining species diversity and diversity patterns are contradictory, but some important factors for the great number of terrestrial species must be the greater range of the physical environment on land than in the seas and the complex and numerous relationships between insects and land plants, par- ticularly the flowering plants. On the other hand, little has been written on diversity patterns of the higher taxa, particularly the phyla and classes, and I be- lieve that they must be considered in any attempt to explain diver- sity patterns. In a brief attempt to explain the greater diversity of phyla and classes in the seas, the fossil record is most enlightening. The basic differentiation of the animal phyla occurred in Late Pre- cambrian, Cambrian, and Ordovician times, and to a lesser extent this is true of the animal classes (Nicol, Desborough, and Solliday, 1959). Most of this basic differentiation took place in the seas, not in fresh water or on land. Those relatively few major groups of animals that were able to invade fresh water and land, mainly in Silurian and Devonian times, have generally been highly successful in these habitats, and, furthermore, some of these classes have in- vaded the seas later, after they had become well established on land, as for example, the mammals, reptiles, and arachnids. Most of the basic differentiation of the animal kingdom, the appearance of phyla and classes, took place before animals invaded fresh water and land during Late Silurian and Devonian, and many of these marine groups never had the ability to invade fresh water or land because of physiological or anatomical deficiencies. Another telling point is the number of extinct phyla and classes of animals which are solely marine, and most of these became extinct before the close of the Paleozoic. This, then, may be the reason why we still find today that there is a much greater number of animal phyla and classes living in the seas rather than in fresh water or on the land. LITERATURE CITED BLACKWELDER, R. E. 1963. Classification of the animal kingdom. Southern Illinois University Press, Carbondale, 94 pp. 194 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Hurcuinson, G. E. 1962. Homage to Santa Rosalia or Why are there so many kinds of animals? In: The enchanted voyage and other stories. Yale University Press, New Haven, pp. 110-129. MacArtHur, R. H. 1965. Patterns of species diversity. Biol. Rev. Cam- bridge Philos. Soc., vol. 40, pp. 510-533. Nicot, D. 1968. Are pelecypods primarily infaunal animals? Nautilus, vol. 82, pp. 37-43. 1969. The number of living species of molluscs. Systematic Zool- ogy, vol. 18, pp. 251-254. Nico., D., G. A. DEsBorouGH, AND J. R. SoLtmaAy. 1959. Paleontologic record of the primary differentiation in some major invertebrate groups. Jour. Washington Acad. Sci., vol. 49, pp. 351-366. Prank, E. R. 1966. Latitudinal gradients in species diversity: a review of concepts. Am. Naturalist, vol. 100, no. 910, pp. 33-46. THorRSON, G. 1957. Bottom communities (sublittoral or shallow shelf). In: Treatise on marine ecology and paleoecology, vol. 1, Ecology. Geol. Soc. Am. Mem. 67, pp. 461-534. VALENTINE, J. W. 1969. Patterns of taxonomic and ecological structure of the shelf benthos during Phanerozoic time. Palaeontology, vol. 12, pp. 684-709. Department of Geology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Flor- ida 32601. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 34(3) 1971( 1972) Recent Light Changes in Three Variable Radio Sources G. H. Fotsom, ALEex G. SmiTH, AND H. W. SCHRADER Durinc the past decade astronomy has produced a series of sur- prises, not the least of which was the discovery of variable galaxies. As is often the case, it is difficult to see how this prominent phenom- enon so long eluded detection. Quite probably the delay resulted because “common sense” seemed to dictate the impossibility of an object the size and luminosity of a galaxy changing its brightness significantly on a time scale short enough to be of interest to man. A working catalog compiled by the writers now lists a total of 67 extra-galactic objects described in the literature as variable either in the optical region of the spectrum, in the radio region, or in both. A number of these objects are quasi-stellar radio sources (“qua- sars ), and the remainder are galaxies. Almost without exception the galaxies are of the “compact” type, with the bright, almost stellar nuclei that categorize them as Seyfert galaxies or N galaxies. There is now strong suspicion that quasars, N galaxies, Seyfert galaxies, and normal galaxies form an evolutionary sequence in descending order of violent, explosive activity in their nuclear regions. Low (1970) has suggested that galactic nuclei are composed of multi- tudes of cells (“irtrons”) in which matter and antimatter are con- tinuously being created. In this model the mutual annihilation of matter and antimatter generates the powerful infrared emission characteristic of the nuclei. Since irtrons steadily accumulate mat- ter, they may become internally unstable and explode, or they may be disrupted by collisions with each other or with stars; it is these explosions, according to Low, that produce temporary flares in the light and radio flux received from the galaxy. The model pictures quasars as young protogalaxies, rich in irtrons and consequently highly unstable. In old galaxies such as our own, most of the irtrons have exploded, with the ejected matter forming the spiral arms and leaving the nucleus (hopefully) rather stable. The N galaxies and Seyferts, then, represent intermediate stages in this evolutionary se- quence. . Since observations of the changes in these objects are obviously of prime importance in supporting or rejecting the numerous com- peting models such as Low’s, a program of regular monitoring of a 196 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES el 4 Fs Po : i & ; : Fig. 1. Observer at the Newtonian focus of the 30-inch reflector. The photographic equipment (camera, offset guiding microscope, and small finder ) can be mounted at any of four observing stations spaced around the ring beam at the top of the tube. FotsoM ET AL.: Light Changes in Radio Sources: 197 large number of extra-galactic objects was inaugurated in 1968 at the University of Florida’s Rosemary Hill Observatory. A limited number of the objects on the observing list had previously been shown to be variable by other workers, while a much larger number were selected because of a peculiar radio spectrum or other suspi- cious characteristic. The present paper details the observational results for three of the most interesting objects in the first category. METHOD OF OBSERVATION The principal instrument in the program is the 30-inch reflector shown in Fig. 1. Although the telescope is equipped with a photo- electric photometer at the Cassegrain focus, this system is not useful for objects fainter than 9th magnitude (9.0"). Since most of the extragalactic objects of interest are in the range from the 16th-20th magnitude, it was immediately obvious that the work would have to be done photographically. A further decision was made to de- sign the camera for the Newtonian focus to avoid having to remove and replace the massive Cassegrain photometer for each observing run. A 2-inch field covering 1° in the sky is photographed ona 4 X 5- inch plate, which can be moved between exposures to record two such fields on each plate. Because of the coma intrinsic in large reflectors, only the central half of the field is of photometric quality. Normally, fast blue-sensitive Eastman 103a-0 plates are used, with exposures of 15 minutes reaching a limit of 19.5"-20.5". The plates are processed in the new MWP-2 developer described by Difley (1968), which gives a significant gain in plate speed. Standard procedure is to establish a magnitude sequence of comparison stars in each unknown field by photographing the field and the nearest of the 139 Mt. Wilson Selected Areas on the same plate, with identical exposures. The known magnitudes of stars in the Selected Area (Brun, 1957) are then transferred to the unknown field with the aid of an Astro Mechanics Cuffey iris astrophotometer. Checks of internal consistency indicate that relative magnitudes de- termined in this manner are probably reliable to +0.1", although larger zero-point errors may exist, in part resulting from uncertain- ties in Brun’s scales. In a few cases, well-calibrated star clusters have been employed in place of the Selected Areas. The magni- 198 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES tudes derived from the unfiltered blue-sensitive plates are, of course, photographic magnitudes, m?*. Rapio Source 3C 120 The radio source 3C 120 (also catalogued as PKS 0430+05 and 4C 05.30) has been identified with an optical galaxy of the Seyfert type listed by Zwicky as Zw 0430+05. Seyfert galaxies are bluish spiral galaxies distinguished by tiny brilliant star-like nuclei and spectra displaying strong emission lines that are often greatly broadened, suggesting violent internal motions; only 1 or 2 per cent of the spirals are of this type. Another important characteristic of the Seyferts is their powerful infrared emission. The total (bolo- metric) luminosity of the weaker Seyferts is comparable to the brightest of the normal galaxies, but 3C 120, the most luminous of the Seyferts, outshines many of the quasars. According to Low (1970), 3C 120 has an infrared luminosity of over 10*° ergs/sec, ex- ceeding the nucleus of our own galaxy by five orders of magnitude 14.0 (a) 3¢€120 ee Mpg 15.0 @—USHER ET AL. o- TAKAYANAG X— KINMAN (b) 3C371 ®@-— HARVARD 14.0 8 ©-GREENWICH 8-PSS, MARIA MITCHELL Mpg ee xx A-OKE, EST. FROM SPECTRAL CURVES « °-LOWELL = — HEIDELBERG 15.0 X— STERNBERG 15.0 (c) 3C454.3 @— ANGIONE o—SANDAGE a—pPsSs Msp 16.0 | 7.0 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 DATE Fig. 2. Long-term light curves of 3C 120, 3C 371, and 3C 454.3. The sources of information are discussed in the text. In each case the University of Florida observations are shown to the right of the vertical dashed line. FoutsoM ET AL.: Light Changes in Radio Sources: 199 and making it one of the most luminous objects known in the Uni- verse. Kinman (1967) reports a red shift of z=0.0343, correspond- ing to a distance of about 100 Mpc. It was not until 1968 that 3C 120 was reported as an optical variable (Kinman, 1968; Usher et al., 1969; Takayanagi, 1968). The work of Usher et al. and Takayanagi was essentially historical, making use of Harvard “patrol” plates of that region of the sky made in earlier years for other purposes. In this manner the ob- servations were pushed back as far as 1906, although obviously with varying degrees of reliability. Also in 1968, Penston (1968) showed that 3C 120 was in fact identical with the variable “star” BW Tau discovered by Hanley and Shapley in 1940 and at that time er- roneously classified an ordinary irregular variable star. In Fig. 2a the data of Usher et al., Takayanagi, and Kinman have been combined in an effort to define long-term trends. The Usher points represent both single observations and those authors’ averages of groups of observations closely spaced in time. In the case of the Takayanagi and Kinman data, the present writers have similarly averaged groups of data points to present the observations on the compressed time scale of Fig. 2. Such averaging may of course conceal short-term changes, but particularly in the earlier 30454.3 De emeheeMa AD MES J pA SiO UNG DprA Mo TAD SM J ‘1968; 1969 1 Fig. 3. University of Florida observations of 3C 12023 3G sve and, 3G 454.3. The recent observations, 1968-1970, are shown here in expanded form to display the short-term fluctuations. 200 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES data it is difficult to decide whether such fluctuations are real or merely represent errors in the observations. The most conspicuous trend is a steady decline in brightness from about 14.0 to 15.07 during the period 1930-1945. Usher et al. call attention to this trend and suggest that it is part of a 30-year cyclic variation, a conclusion that may place undue weight on a few early observations of dubious precision. The most recent published observations (Kinman, 1968) show a sharp decline in late 1967 and early 1968, from 14.8” to oye San As Fig. 3a indicates, the Florida observations begin in December of 1968 and continue into 1970. Fig. 4a is a print of 3C 120 and the surrounding field from a typical plate. The data suggest an in- crease from around 14.5" to 14.0" in late 1968 and early 1969, fol- lowed by a decline in the spring of 1969. There did not seem to be any significant change during the summer months, when 3C 120 was too close to the sun to be observed. A brightening of perhaps 0.4” occurred during the ..."' of 1969, followed by a period of small fluc- tuations about an average of 14.0” until the object again disap- peared into the evening twilight. In the reduction of the Florida plates we initially used the sequence of comparison stars published by Takayanagi (1968). However, on January 7 and 8, 1970, we made an independent calibration, using Selected Area 96; reduc- tions based on this calibration show considerably less scatter than those depending on Takayanagi’s work, and the magnitudes of our comparison stars are in good agreement with the B magnitudes pub- lished by Kinman (1968). The Florida observations are included in compressed scale at the far right of Fig. 2a. Again, averaging of groups of points has been resorted to in order to show the data on this scale. Unless there are errors in the zero-points of the two scales, it would appear that 3C 120 brightened very rapidly by 1.5" during 1968 and early 1969, perhaps the most precipitous rise in the 63-year run of data. It is well established that 3C 120 is also variable in the radio re- gion, at wavelengths from 2-40 cm (Kellerman and Pauliny-Toth, 1968; Pauliny-Toth and Kellerman, 1968). During the period 1966- 1968, two violent radio outbursts were observed, first at short wave- lengths and then at progressively longer wavelengths. In terms of the class of models proposed by Low (1970), 3C 120 appears to be FoutsoM ET AL.: Light Changes in Radio Sources: Fig. 4. The sources and their surrounding star fields. a) 3C 120 on De- cember 12, 1969. b) 3C 371 on June 8, 1969. c) 3C 454.3 on September 6, 1969. In each case the field shown is 11’X20’ in extent, with north at the top and east at the left; the source is just to the left of the white pointer. On the better plates of our series, nebulosity can be seen surrounding 3C 120 and 3C 371, but it is too faint to reproduce well. 202 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES a young, super-luminous object, still rich in “irtrons” and thus vio- lently active over the entire electromagnetic spectrum. Rapio Source 3C 371 Wyndham (1966) has identified the radio source 3C 371 with a 14th magnitude N galaxy. (In general, the nucleus of an N galaxy is larger relative to its envelope than that of a Seyfert, and the envelope is more amorphous. The N’s are even bluer than the Seyferts, and they are strong low-frequency radio sources.) Sandage (1966a), on the basis of one weak emission line, concluded that the galaxy displayed a red shift of z=0.0500, a value later confirmed as z=0.0457 by the Soviet astronomers Dibai and Esipov (1969), who identified a second emission line. The distance to 3C 371 is thus about 138 Mpc. In 1967 Oke (1967) reported observations with the 200-inch telescope indicating that the brightness of the galaxy had increased about 1.0" between August of 1965 and July of 1967. Oke attributed this variability entirely to the star-like nucleus, which in 1967 had a visual magnitude of 14.4.7 The surrounding galactic envelope had a brightness of only 16.0." The intrinsic luminosity of this N galaxy apparently lies midway between typical Seyferts and the quasars. In addition to the long-term change, Oke found varia- tions of one- or two-tenths of a magnitude on a time scale of a few days. Oke’s discovery of the variability of 3C 371 prompted Usher and Manley (Usher and Manley, 1968; Usher 1969) to search the Harvard plate collection for earlier images of the object. Fig. 2b is plotted from Usher’s (1969) tabulation of these results, and it also includes observations Usher collected from Greenwich, Lowell Observatory, Sternberg, Maria Mitchell Observatory, and Heidel- berg (the published Sternberg data, which appeared anomalous, have been corrected here by —0.8™ as the result of private com- munication between Usher and the present writers). An obvious feature of the light curve is the decline of about 1.7" between 1895 and 1923. There is then evidence of a slow increase between 1923 and the early 1960’s, followed by a sharp decline in 1966 and per- haps an even more precipitous rise in 1967. It is reassuring that values of m,, estimated by the writers from Oke’s (1967) photo- electric scans in 1965 and 1967 precisely confirm this rapid rise. FoLsoM ET AL.: Light Changes in Radio Sources: 203 The University of Florida observations, which began in 1968 and continue through the present, are shown at the right of Fig. 2b and in expanded form in Fig. 3b. Apparently the magnitude range of 3C 371 in 1968-1970 was about the same as in 1965-1967, with a total amplitude of about 1.0". The rapid changes of the past few years suggest that not only is the scatter of the older data real, but that many similarly rapid variations must have been missed be- cause of the gaps in the observations. Fig. 3b suggests that during 1969 there was a quasi-cyclic fluctuation with a period of 3-4 months. Thus far in 1970 the changes have been less than +0.2”; whether this quiescence is the prelude to a decline in brightness re- mains to be seen. The University of Florida photometry is based on a calibration obtained by photographing Selected Area 6 on the same plate as the galaxy on September 4, 1969. The zero-point of our magnitude sequence was tied to a photoelectric observation of one of the comparison stars reported by Usher (1969). Fig. 4b shows 3C 371 and the surrounding field of comparison stars. Kellerman and Pauliny-Toth (1968) list 3C 371 as variable in the radio region, although apparently not enough observations were available to establish a meaningful curve of flux vs. time. Rapio Source 3C 454.3 The radio source 3C 454.3 is a typical quasar. According to Dibai and Esipov (1969) it has a red shift z=0.86, corresponding to a distance of 2580 Mpc. In 1966 Sandage (1966b) reported that 3C 454.3 was an optical variable with an amplitude of 1.05" be- tween 1954 and 1965, a conclusion based on three photographic plates plus photoelectric observations made in late 1965. Sandage’s discovery prompted Angione (1968) to trace the his- tory of 3C 454.3 back to 1900 in the Harvard plate collection. Fig. 2c is adapted from Angione’s study, which also includes the points in 1954 and 1965 from Sandage. The principal features of this sur- vey appear to be outbursts in 1912, 1942, 1953 and, possibly, 1936 and 1949. The latter peaks, if genuine, would lend credence to a periodicity of 6 years, all of the missing flares lying in gaps in the observations; this highly speculative assumption predicts a new maximum in 1972. j The Florida observations, which began in 1968, are included in Fig. 2c and in expanded form in Fig. 3c. The quasar and its sur- 204 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES rounding field are shown in Fig. 4c. It can be seen that at present 3C 454.3 is hovering near minimum light, with fluctuations of 0.27 or 0.3" about an average of 17.0”. The total range of the object during the 70-year span of data has been an impressive 2.3" The Florida photometry, like that of Angione, has been based on a se- quence of three comparison stars whose photoelectric UBV magni- tudes were published by Sandage (1966). As a result, the magni- tudes that are shown are B magnitudes, rather than the usual m,, values. The source is also an active radio variable (Kellerman and Pauliny-Toth, 1968). A major radio outburst occurred in 1967-1968 at wavelengths ranging from 2-40 cm. SUMMARY University of Florida observations in the period 1968-1970 show continued fluctuations in the light of three extragalactic radio sour- ces previously reported as optical variables. The most active of the sources during this period was the N galaxy 3C 371, while the least active was the quasar 3C 454.3. A Seyfert galaxy, 3C 120, displayed an intermediate level of activity. Studies of this kind may eventu- ally point to the correct evolutionary relationships between quasars and galaxies. Of particular importance is the accumulation of suffi- cient data to permit correlations to be established between the radio and optical outbursts of unstable extragalactic objects. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors are grateful to Mr. E. E. Graves and Mr. W. W. Richardson for technical assistance. The research was partially sup- ported by a National Science Foundation University Science De- velopment Grant. LITERATURE CITED ANGIONE, R. J. 1968. The optical variability of 3C 454.3. Pub. Astron. Soc. Pacific, vol. 80, pp. 339-342. Brun, A. 1957. Atlas des 139 selected areas du Mt. Wilson. Drsai, E. A., AND V. F. Estpov. 1969. Redshifts of some radio galaxies and quasistellar radio sources. Soviet Astron. AJ, vol. 12, pp. 561-566. FousomM ET AL.: Light Changes in Radio Sources: 205 Drrtey, J. A. 1968. Two photographic developers for astronomical use. Astron. Jour., vol. 73, pp. 762-768. KELLERMAN, K. I., anp I. I. K. Pautiny-Toru. 1968. Variable radio sources. Annual review of astronomy and astrophysics. Annual Reviews, Inc., Palo Alto, pp. 417-448. KinMAN, T. D. 1967. Optical polarization measures of five radio sources. Astrophys. Jour., vol. 148, pp. L53-L56. 1968. Photographic photometry of the Seyfert Galaxy 3C 120. Astron. Jour., vol. 73, pp. 885-887. Low, F. J. 1970. The infrared-galaxy phenomenon. Astrophys. Jour., vol. 159, pp. L173-177. Oxe, J. B. 1967. Optical variations in the radio galaxy 3C 371. Astrophys. Jour., vol. 150, pp. L5-L8. Pautiny-TorTH, I. I. K., anp K. I. KELLERMAN. 1968. Repeated outbursts in the radio galaxy 3C 120. Astrophys. Jour., vol. 152, pp. L169-L175. Penston, M. V. 1968. BW Tau=8C 120. I.A.U. Info. Bull. Variable Stars No. 225. SANDAGE, A. R. 1966a. Redshifts of nine radio galaxies including the ab- normal system 3C 305. Astrophys. Jour., vol. 145, pp. 1-5. 1966b. Intensity variations of quasi-stellar sources in optical wave- lengths. Astrophys. Jour., vol. 144, pp. 1234-1238. TAKAYANAGI, K. 1968. Light variation of Seyfert Galaxy 3C 120. Astrophys. Letters, vol. 2, pp. 77-79. Usuer, P. D., AND O. P. MANLEY. 1968. The universal long-term behaviour of 3C 371. Astrophys. Jour., vol. 151, pp. L79-L82. Usuer, P. D., B. S. P. SHEN, F. W. Wricut, H. SHAPLEY, AND C. M. HANLEY. 1969. Long-term behaviour of the Seyfert Galaxy 3C 120. Astrophys. Jour., vol. 158, pp. 535-539. UsHer, P. D. 1969. Light curve of the N-type galaxy 3C 371. Observatory, vol. 89, pp. 198-201. WyYNnDHAM, J. D. 1966. Optical identification of radio sources in the 3C re- vised catalog. Astrophys. Jour., vol. 144, pp. 459-482. Rosemary Hill Observatory, Department of Physics and Astron- omy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601. Contribu- tion no. 29. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 34(3) 1971(1972) Behavioral Changes in Dolphins in a Strange Environment Buairn IRVINE In recent years, dolphins of three species have been conditioned to respond to acoustic signals and perform reliably while swimming untethered in the open sea ( Bailey, 1965; Norris, 1965; Hall, 1970). This report describes abrupt and radical changes which were observed in 10 dolphins, eight Tursiops truncatus and two Lagenor- hynchus obliquidens, at the Marine Bioscience Facility, Point Mugu, California, when they were moved from concrete tanks to net pens in turbid waters of Mugu Lagoon prior to their initial open sea re- lease. It also notes four separate instances where animals wandered away from the pen area and behaved in a manner inconsistent with previous conditioned responses. The dolphins had been in captivity for periods ranging from three weeks to three years prior to commencement of conditioning. Only one had previously been conditioned for another experiment. Preparatory to open sea release, all were trained to (1) come to and touch an acoustic “recall” signal when it was placed in the water at any point around the perimeter of the tank, (2) swim through gates to adjacent pens whenever the recall signal was placed in the water at the gate, and (3) allow themselves to be handled over all parts of the body by persons in the water or at the side of the tank. Usually 2-4 months were required to establish these responses. Once a dolphin would perform all the required behaviors promptly and consistently, it was considered ready for the final phase of training prior to open ocean release. During this phase, it was released into the ocean-fed lagoon adjacent to the Fa- cility. | The training area in Mugu Lagoon is approximately 600 meters square with an average depth of 3-6 meters at low tide (see Fig. 1). A mud bottom and insufficient water exchange through a narrow channel to the ocean usually reduce underwater visibility to less than 60 centimeters. Background noise levels in the lagoon, pro- duced by a variety of organisms, snapping shrimp, mussels, croakers, etc. vary with the time of day and the tide. The overall sound pressure levels, as measured with an AN/DQM-I1A under- water sound level meter, range between 0-10 dB (re: 1 microbar). InvINE: Behavioral Changes in Dolphins 207 The measurements cover a band from 40 Hz-40 kHz; however, most of the ambient in the lagoon is below 1 kHz. During lagoon training, animals were maintained in a series of floating pens constructed of steel torpedo netting hung from inter- connected steel pontoons. Behavior patterns learned in the con- crete tanks were re-established, first in 4 x 6 meter pens, and then in a 17 < 19 meter enclosure connected with each small pen by an opening 120 cm wide by 150 cm deep. The depth of the large en- closure was between 2-4 meters, varying with the tide. When a dolphin in the lagoon pens performed at the levels es- tablished in the concrete tanks, it was released into the open lagoon for long distance recall training and for acclimation to the presence of outboard boats. Ten dolphins were moved from their concrete tanks to the lagoon pens between August 1966 and February 1969. All exhibited immediate behavioral changes, swam slowly in tight circles at the surface, refused to respond to commands and often refused to eat. The dolphins continued to appear lethargic and unresponsive to the presence of their handlers for from 6-48 hours, after which their behavioral responses gradually returned to previously established levels. For the first few days, some of the dolphins also appeared to experience difficulty locating fish in the turbid water. When these animals swam toward fish thrown into the water, hydrophones often did not pick up echo-location sounds, and the dolphin often passed by without finding the fish. After behavioral responses re- turned, however, apparent sonar clicks were quite evident, and the dolphin readily found the fish. Obvious behavioral changes also were evident in other situa- tions, twice when animals escaped from their pens prior to their first release, and twice when animals wandered away from their trainers during the early stages of training in the open lagoon. In all instances the animals exhibited similar behavior. Each swam slowly, primarily on the surface, at a speed estimated to be less than 1 kilometer per hour. Each was found within 3-20 meters of the shoreline in approximately 50-100 centimeters of water. In all instances the dolphins appeared sluggish and unresponsive to their trainers, refused to respond to previously conditioned recall signals and showed only occasional interest in fish thrown near them. Their behavior was similar to that exhibited when they were first moved 208 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Fig. 1. Aerial view of the Marine Bioscience Facility and pontoon pen complex in Mugu Lagoon. Lettering in lower left denotes area where the T. truncatus Redeye (R) and the L. obliquidens Peanuts (P-1) were found after escaping from the pens. Lettering in top left of picture marks where the T. truncatus Fetch (F) and Peanuts (P-2) were found after wandering away dur- ing early boat training. to the lagoon and was reminiscent of sick animals shortly before death in that they appeared physically listless and without their usual food drive. Each dolphin swam in random patterns but stayed close to shore and within approximately 100 meters of the area where it was first located. Even though two of the porpoises had previously been conditioned to swim next to an outboard motor boat, all the animals swam away when a boat approached within 3 meters. None took evasive action if the boat remained farther away. The animals were returned to their pens in one of two ways. A young female named Fetch (208 centimeter Tursiops), who evaded all other capture attempts, was finally recaptured after a handler InviNE: Behavioral Changes in Dolphins 209 jumped on her from a silently drifting boat and dragged her a short distance to the beach where she could be secured in a stretcher for transport to the pens. A young 216 centimeter male Tursiops named Redeye readily swam to the side of an older fully trained Tursiops brought into the area behind a boat, and subsequently fol- lowed closely as the older animal was led back to the pens, where- upon both dolphins entered on command without hesitation. A young, 220 centimeter male Lagenorhynchus named Peanuts wandered away twice. The first time, shortly after being released into the large enclosure, he escaped and swam approximately 100 meters away, along the shore (see Fig. 1). When Peanuts failed to respond to acoustic recall commands, his trainer waded to him and held the unresisting animal while other personnel brought a stretcher. Two weeks later the animal responded normally to re- call commands around the perimeter of the pontoon pens. How- ever, after following a boat a short distance he wandered away. This time he was returned to the pens with the same trained Tursiops who had been instrumental in returning Redeye. DIscussION Although conclusive proof is not available, it seems improbable that the observed behavioral changes are correlated with the length of time in captivity. All 10 animals reacted similarly when intro- duced into the lagoon. Because none would initially respond to any conditioned stimuli, it was impossible to obtain quantitative data for response comparisons. There also seemed to be no obvious cor- relation between time in captivity and the behavior of the animals that wandered. Fetch, Redeye and Peanuts had been in captivity 8, 14, and 16 months respectively, prior to introduction into the lagoon. Five dolphins had been in captivity for shorter periods, while two had been held for more than 2 years. Only Redeye was thought to have been recently weaned at time of capture. During training, all were periodically caught and lifted from the tank so that routine blood samples could be taken. Because their behavior always returned to normal within minutes after reenter- ing the water, it seems reasonable to assume that the handling in- volved in carrying them from their tank to the lagoon did not sig- nificantly affect their behavioral responses. Norris (1965) reported that a Tursiops gilli released in Hawaii had to be literally forced out of the pen for the first time and was 210 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES initially unwilling to move far away. Our experiences with the re- lease of eight T. truncatus and two L. obliquidens have been simi- lar to Norris’s in that the animals were initially hesitant to leave the pen area. Sometimes they had to be conditioned to leave the area gradually over a period of weeks. Although in some cases, the presence of other animals inside the holding pen complex may have contributed to their reluctance to leave, the same unwillingness was observed with no other dolphins present. After initial release from the pen complex, the animals at Point Mugu were usually worked around the pontoon enclosure for several days or more before being gradually led away from the pens. The behavior of the dolphins that wandered away from the pen area in the early stages of training appeared similar to that observed when the animals were initially introduced into a lagoon pen. They were lethargic and unresponsive to either their handlers or previ- ously conditioned stimuli. Apparently a sudden change in local en- vironment, such as introduction into the murky and biologically noisy lagoon waters, or entry into a foreign area of the lagoon was significantly upsetting to the animal, and therefore was responsible for the breakdown in responses. Other investigators (Caldwell et al., 1962; Essapian, 1953; McBride and Hebb, 1948) have described behavioral variations due to changes in local environmental stimuli as fear or fright reactions characterized by tight schooling and rapid swimming, apparently a modified flight response. Such cbserva- tions, however, were made of groups of animals subjected to only occasional and slight environmental variations (i.e. the insertion of an object into the tank) whereas the subject animals at Point Mugu were introduced into markedly new and different surroundings. Upon returning to the pens, the behavior of all four animals cited in this report rapidly reverted to previously conditioned response levels and they ate readily. Surroundings to which the animal had previously been acclimated provided apparent security, or at least increased the amount of responsiveness that was lacking only a short time before. Animals previously exposed to the lagoon have not exhibited lapses in behavioral responses when reintroduced after an extended stay in the concrete tanks on shore. The conclu- sion that something familiar can reduce the trauma was also sup- ported by the fact that two of the wayward animals appeared to be- come more responsive when approached by another dolphin from IrvINE: Behavioral Changes in Dolphins 211 the pen complex. In each case, the wandering dolphin was ob- served to become more alert and active, and returned to the pen close behind the boat which had shortly before caused a mild but consistent avoidance response. The fact that all four animals entered shallow water and re- mained there is especially noteworthy. The animals that escaped swam immediately into a nearby shallow area, but the animals that wandered during boat training swam approximately 600 meters through water 3-6 meters deep before moving into the shallows (see Fig. 1). Why both animals were located in approximately the same area on the far side of the lagoon cannot readily be explained. For T. truncatus to seek shallow water might be explainable since this species is often found close to shore in areas along the Gulf of Mexico and Florida. However, L. obliquidens is a pelagic species of the Pacific Coast and is rarely seen in shallow water, except in isolated cases where sick or injured animals sometimes beach themselves. Members of other cetacean species, T. truncatus in- cluded, are known to beach themselves when sick ( Ray, 1961; Ridg- way and Johnson, 1965) and for other unexplained reasons ( Kritzler, 1952; Slijper, 1962). The animals cited in this report were in water shallow enough to have been stranded by surf or tidal conditions, or they could have been mistaken for dolphins trying to beach them- selves. Consequently, there may prove to be a parallel between the behavior cited here and that of cetaceans which beach them- selves in the wild. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I wish to thank D. K. Caldwell, W. E. Evans, P. W. Gilbert, B. J. LeBoeuf, F. H. Martini, W. N. Tavolga and F. G. Wood, all of whom have offered constructive suggestions about the content of this paper. LITERATURE CITED Bartey, R. E. 1965. Training and open ocean release of an Atlantic bottle- nose porpoise Tursiops truncatus (Montagu). NOTS TP 3838, pp. 1-18. CALDWELL, M. C., R. M. HAuGEN, AND D. K. CALDWELL. 1962. High energy sound associated with fright in the dolphin. Science, vol. 138, no. 3543, pp. 907-908. 212 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Essapian, F. S.. 1953. Birth and growth of a porpoise. Nat. Hist., vol. 62, pp. 392-399. Haux, J. D. 1970. Conditioning Pacific white-striped dolphins, Lagenorhyn- chus obliquidens, for open ocean release. Naval Undersea Center Tech- nical Report NUC TP 200, pp. 1-12. KritzLeR, H. 1952. Observations on the pilot whale in captivity. Jour. Mammal., vol. 33, no. 3, pp. 321-324. McBrinz, A. F., anp D. O. Hess. 1948. Behavior of the captive bottlenose dolphin Tursiops truncatus. Jour. Comp. & Physiol. Psych., vol. 41, no. 2, pp. 111-123. Norais, K. S. 1965. Trained porpoise released in the open sea. Science, vol. 147, no. 3661, pp. 1048-1050. Ray, C. 1961. A question of whale behavior: Most solitary strandings seem to be in response to sickness. Nat. Hist., vol. 70, no. 6, pp. 46-53. Rmecway, S. H., anp G. D. JoHnson. 1965. Two interesting disease cases in wild cetaceans. Am. Jour. Vet. Res., vol. 26, no. 112, pp. 771-775. SLIJPER, E. J. 1962. Whales. Basic Books, New York. 199 pp. Naval Undersea R&D Center, San Diego, California 92106, and Mote Marine Laboratory, 9501 Blind Pass Road, Sarasota, Florida 33581. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 34(3) 1971(1972) Effects of Progressive Relaxation on Alcoholic Patients Arcuir C. REEep, A. VAN LEWEN, AND JAMES H. WILLIAMS AT the Bureau of Alcoholic Rehabilitation’s Treatment and Re- search Center in Avon Park (referred to as the Center), one of the major desired effects of the counseling process has been to reduce in its alcoholic patients the excessive anxiety which seemed to be commonplace among them and appeared to hinder them from de- riving full potential benefit from treatment. This excessive anxiety also was thought to be a major contributory factor in causing pa- tients to leave the Center against medical advice (AMA). Anxiety seemed to be particularly high during a patient’s first week at the Center, when he had to adjust to the hospital treatment and routine. In order to try to reduce excessive anxiety in patients, a progressive relaxation technique was employed. This technique was intro- duced at the Center by Mr. Charles Dils, former Bureau Clinical Psychologist. Progressive relaxation is a procedure taught to patients to en- able them to relax their entire body through practicing the relaxa- tion of the various muscle groups as units. The physical relaxation is supposed to contribute to a mental state of reduced anxiety. This method has been reported to be effective for the treatment of neu- rotic disorders which involved a great deal of anxiety (Watkins, 1965). For example, in one study, a group of 37 alcoholic patients was treated by aversion and relaxation therapy, while another group of 25 patients was treated by aversion therapy alone. At 12 months follow-up, 59 per cent of the group which received relaxation ther- apy was classified as abstinent or improved, while only 50 per cent of the group which did not receive relaxation therapy was classified as abstinent or improved (Blake, 1967). Relaxation therapy was employed at the Avon Park Center as an adjunct to other treatment, primarily group therapy in a therapeutic community setting (see Thomas, no date, for a further description of the treatment at the Avon Park Center) in order to enable pa- tients to reduce their anxiety to an optimal or manageable level during their hospitalization. It was felt that if this could be done, patients would have better control over their behavior and a better chance to benefit from other treatment at the Center. 214 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Specifically, it was felt that if relaxation therapy were beneficial for patients then the benefits should be directly reflected by (1) a reduction in the number of patients who drop out of treatment and leave the Center AMA, particularly at the beginning of treatment; (2) patients being able to sleep and rest more fully at night; and (3) the improved adjustment of patients between intake and dis- charge at the Center. METHOD Subjects. At the Center, patients are assigned to counselors for guidance on a rotating basis, usually at the rate of a group of twelve patients per month. When patients assigned to one counselor are discharged, he is assigned the next twelve patients to be admitted. The study subjects were all 72 patients (74 per cent male, 26 per cent female) consecutively assigned to the first author for small group and individual counseling between October, 1968 and May, 1969. The first 24 and the last 12 patients received no progressive relaxation treatment (NPRT Group), and the middle 36 patients were given progressive relaxation treatment (PRT Group). All 72 patients received the medical, individual and group therapy that was customarily given at the Center. Measurement. In order to be able to analyze a detailed profile of the adjustment of subjects, the results of the patient responses on selected scales of the Cornell Medical Index Health Question- naire (CMIHQ) and the Cornell Medical Index, N2 Form (CMIN2) were analyzed (Brodman, Erdman, and Wolfe, 1949; Weider, Wolfe, Brodman, Mittleman, and Wechsler, 1948). On both of these questionnaires the higher a patient’s score, the greater his indicated pathology. The percentage of “quiet nights” (or equivalent) notations by a night nurse in the daily medical record of the patient was used as an indicator of his general anxiety level. Additionally, it was felt that it was generally desirable for patients to rest at night, since this would improve their physical recuperation and their alertness during therapy. The number of days that a patient was in treatment at the Cen- ter was also used as a measure. The usual treatment schedule called for 28 days stay, although some, depending upon their needs, REED ET AL.: Progressive Relaxation on Alcoholic Patients 215 stayed longer. Generally, 25-28 days were considered of optimal benefit to the patients. The type of discharge recorded in a patient’s medical records was used as the index of whether or not a patient completed treat- ment or left against medical advice (AMA). Completing full treat- ment meant that the patient had stayed for the full 25-28 days of scheduled treatment usually given at the Center, or had derived all of the benefit from Center treatment that he was judged poten- tially capable of receiving. Leaving the Center AMA consisted of a patient leaving treatment due to a lack of sufficient motivation to continue treatment, environmental causes, anxiety and resistance because of disturbing insight, or self assertion of the patient. Analysis. The techniques of data analysis included: Chi square, Fisher’s exact test, and an interpolated median. Fisher’s exact test was used when all frequencies were too low to yield meaningful results with chi square analysis. Fisher's exact test results in a di- rect probability (Hays, 1963). The McNemar and binomial tests were used to assess changes between intake and discharge on selected characteristics. The bi- nomial test was used when frequencies were too low to yield mean- ingful results with the McNemar test (Siegel, 1956). Progressive Relaxation Therapy. The progressive relaxation treatment (PRT) for the patients who received this experimental therapy consisted of playing for them a 20-minute tape recording specially adapted for alcoholic patients. The recording was a set of instructions, spoken by a male voice, which started with a brief explanation that the relaxation technique being described was a way of reducing tension and anxiety. It was stated on the tape that this method of relaxing was more desirable than using drugs or arti- ficial means since it was “natural.” Also stated was the suggestion that this method could help with drinking problems and should be used by the patient at night or whenever he felt the need to relax. The tape instructed the patients to relax a specific muscle group, and then told them what sensations to expect. Relaxation sugges- tions were spoken softly and with reworded repetition. After one muscle group was dealt with, another would become the focus of the taped instructions. The procedure continued until all major muscle groups were covered. The tape ended by reversing the 216 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES nature of the instructions. This was in order to end the treatment by bringing the patients back to a normal activity level. See the acknowledgment for the source of the progressive relax- ation recording. Procedure. The progressive relaxation treatment recording was played for the PRT Group at the end of their small group counsel- ing sessions during their first week as inpatients. The PRT Group heard the tape a total of three times, usually between 1:30-2:00 P.M. in the afternoon, and sat in chairs while listening. The group which received no progressive relaxation treatment (the NPRT Group) received additional time for small group counseling in- stead of hearing the relaxation tape. There were approximately 12 patients present for both the PRT and NPRT Groups in each small group meeting. RESULTS: PATIENT CHARACTERISTICS AT INTAKE Personal and Social Characteristics. The subjects in the PRT and NPRT Groups did not significantly differ from each other on any personal or social characteristic at the time of hospital admis- sion. Overall, subjects were predominantly male (74 per cent). More of the subjects had a marital divorce, annulment or separation (50 per cent) than were married and living with their spouse (40 per cent). The Index of Value Orientation was used to measure social class status (McGuire and White, 1955). About 46 per cent of the sub- jects were middle class or higher. The religious preference of the subjects was predominantly Protestant (67 per cent), with about 15 per cent Catholic, 1 per cent Jewish, 8 per cent “others,” and 8 per cent expressed no reli- gious preference at all. Most of the subjects (51 per cent) had been arrested during the year prior to intake due to drinking. This was not an unusual percentage of arrests for alcoholic patients. At the time of admission, the median age of the subjects was 47, their median number of years of education was 12, and the median number of weeks since they had attended an Alcoholics Anonymous meeting was 9.5. REED ET AL.: Progressive Relaxation on Alcoholic Patients 217 Vocational Characteristics. The subjects in the PRT and NPRT Groups did not differ significantly on any vocational characteristic at intake. Over half (51 per cent) of all subjects were employed or housewives, and about 46 per cent were unemployed. The re- maining patients were handicapped, retired, or otherwise not a po- tential part of the labor force. Only 31 per cent of the subjects had an occupational level of “white collar” or higher. The median length of time the subjects had held their last job was .77 years (about 9 months). Drinking Characteristics. The PRT and NPRT Group subjects did not significantly differ in the number of weeks since their last drink prior to Center admission (median=2.0 weeks) or in the number of years they had been drinking (median=25.0 years), but the groups did differ in the number of years their members had lost control of drinking. The median number of years subjects in the PRT Group had lost control of drinking was 10. This was over twice the figure for the NPRT Group, whose subjects had lost control of their drinking for a median of about 4 years. Because of this difference, the out- come data were examined on the basis of whether or not subjects received progressive relaxation and whether patients were above or below the total median number of years (5.5) subjects had lost con- trol of their drinking. This was in order to control for the loss of control of drinking variable, and, therefore, to isolate the effect of progressive relaxation. In the PRT Group, 22 patients were above this total median, 13 below it, and information was not available on this variable for one patient. This patient, however, was included for total group analyses. In the NPRT Group, 13 patients were above the total median and 23 were below it. RESULTS: PATIENT CHARACTERISTICS AT HOSPITAL DISCHARGE RELATIVE TO PROJECT OBJECTIVES Objective +/, to reduce the number of patients who drop out of treatment and leave the Center AMA, particularly at the begin- ning of treatment. When the incidence of AMA discharges during the first two weeks of treatment for patients who had lost control of their drinking for more than 5.5 years was compared between 218 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES the study groups, it was found that only one patient (out of 22) left the Center AMA in the PRT Group, while 4 (out of 13) left AMA in the NPRT Group. The frequency differences were sta- tistically significant (P=.0486, Fisher's exact test). There was no significant difference in the incidence of AMA discharges between groups for patients who had lost control of their drinking for less than 5.5 years, nor between the PRT and NPRT Groups overall. In total, four patients out of the 36 members of the PRT Group left the Center AMA and 5 of 36 in the NPRT Group. Overall, patients in the PRT Group had a higher average stay at the Center (25.4 days) than the NPRT Group (23.6 days). The difference was not statistically significant (t=.99, df=70, P>.05) between the groups. However, the NPRT Group’s overall average days’ stay of 24 was attained by having most patients both above (19.4 per cent) or below (41.7 per cent) the customary (and assumedly optimal) hospitalization duration of 25-28 days instead of within it. In fact, only 38.9 per cent (a minority), of NPRT Group patients were hospitalized for the recommended length of time. This contrasted strikingly with the PRT Group, where 75 per cent stayed at the Center 25-28 days. Chi square analysis using the three categories of 25-28 days, over 28 days, and under 25 days, revealed a signifi- cant difference (X?=10.7, 2df, P<.01) between the PRT and NPRT Groups. When patients were compared by study group and by number of years patients had lost contro] of drinking a significant finding resulted. Patients in the PRT Group who had lost control of their drinking for more than 5.5 years averaged 25.2 days at the Center, while those in the NPRT Group stayed only 19.2 days. The differ- ence was statistically significant (t=2.535, df=33, P<.05). There was not a statistically significant difference between study groups for patients who had lost control of drinking for less than 5.5 years; those in the PRT Group averaged 26.08 days hospitalization and those in the NPRT Group averaged 26.13 days hospitalization. Objective #2, to enable patients to sleep and rest more fully. The patients who had lost control of drinking for more than 5.5 years in the PRT Group had a significantly (t=2.26, 32df, P<.05) higher average percentage of “quiet nights” (99.2 per cent) than those in the NPRT Group (93.2 per cent). Although the percent- REED ET AL.: Progressive Relaxation on Alcoholic Patients 219 ages of “quiet nights” in both groups, and subgroups, were high (over 93 per cent), the index of “quiet nights” was used, not only as a direct measure, but as a general indicator to reflect anxiety and night time unrest. It was a direct measure only of disturbances severe enough to come to the attention of the night nurse, and this type of disturbance would be expected to be relatively infrequent. A further indication of whether or not Objective #2 was at- tained was that the PRT Group, but not the NPRT Group, showed a significant increase in the percentage of subjects with a low “Fatig- ability” scale score on the CMIHQ. The items on this scale, in particular, pertained to symptoms which would be effected by the quality of night time sleep and rest. Objective #3, to improve the adjustment of patients between intake and discharge. Indices of adjustment were the intake- discharge changes on selected scales of the CMIHQ and CMIN2. No patterns were evident when groups were divided on the basis of number of years lost control of drinking which were not also present when comparing groups as a unit. The PRT Group showed a significant “favorable” change on the “Fatigability” and “Anger” scales of the CMIHQ, while the NPRT Group showed a significant change on the “Depression” and “Anger” scales. Each Group showed significant score decreases (symptom reductions) on two scales, one (“Anger” scale) in common with each other. The same type of analysis as was used for the CMIHQ scales was utilized for the CMIN2 scales. The PRT Group showed sig- nificant “favorable” changes on two scales, “Startle” and “Hypo- chondriasis and Asthenia.”. The NPRT Group did not show a sig- nificant change on any scale. DIscUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS It was considered beneficial for the alcoholic patient to retain him in treatment for his scheduled hospitalization period. Prema- ture departure was usually considered as undesirable, as was being hospitalized much beyond the customary stay. Significantly more alcoholic patients who received progressive relaxation treatment (PRT Group), when compared with those who did not (NPRT Group), stayed the optimal length or time in treatment (25-28 days). Furthermore, for patients who had lost 220 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES control of their drinking more than 5.5 years, those in the PRT Group, on the average stayed a significantly more favorable length of time (25 days, versus 19 days). Therefore, generally, PRT did seem to fulfill its intended pur- pose of retaining patients in treatment, and for an optimal length of time. It was generally considered undesirable for a patient to leave treatment against medical advice (AMA), since this type of de- parture meant that a patient was leaving even though the treat- ment staff felt he could still benefit from further therapy. The PRT Group, as compared to the NPRT Group, overall had numer- ically fewer patients leave AMA (four, versus five) and signifi- cantly fewer leave AMA during the first two weeks of treatment (one, versus four) of patients who had lost control of their drinking for more than 5.5 years. PRT did, then, seem to have an effect on the early AMA discharge rate of some patients. Night time disturbances severe enough to warrant a nurse's at- tention were considered indicative of excessive (undesirable) pa- tient anxiety and, more directly, of a patient not receiving proper rest. It was generally considered desirable for a patient to have few night time disturbances, or, a maximum number of nights (“quiet nights”) when no disturbance was recorded by a night- nurse. PRT Group patients who had lost control of their drinking for more than 5.5 years had a significantly higher incidence of “quiet nights” than the same type of NPRT Group patients. Clearly, PRT probably increased the number of “quiet nights” of some PRT Group patients and, therefore, may have also reduced their ex- cessive anxiety. The Cornell Medical Questionnaires, Index and N2 forms, give an assessment of personal adjustment. Considering both forms to- gether, the PRT Group showed four significant scale changes (be- tween hospital intake and discharge) in an improved direction, while the NPRT Group showed only two significant changes. The PRT Group showed a wider range of significant improvements in adjustment. The pattern of results indicates strongly that Progressive Re- laxation Treatment, as an adjunct to other therapy, seems to have value for alcoholic patients in general, and, in particular, for those REED ET AL.: Progressive Relaxation on Alcoholic Patients 221 who have lost control of their drinking for relatively long periods of time. The pattern of results seemed to provide a basis for continuing the use of PRT at the Center, and continued research upon its ef- fects. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The tape recording dialogue was provided by Charles Dils, Di- rector of the Center for Alcohol Related Problems, Gastonia, North Carolina. Mr. Dils provided original thoughts of his own in con- structing the procedure, based upon an idea in: E. Jacobson, Pro- gressive Relaxation (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1938). Some of the data used in this study were collected as part of a larger study which was funded by Hospital Improvement Project Grant, number 5R20 MH15182, from the National Institute of Men- tal Health, U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Bethesda, Maryland. Other support came from the Florida Bureau of Alcoholic Rehabilitation (Joseph C. Ziesenheim, Chief), Division of Mental Health (Dr. William D. Rogers, Director), Department of Health and Rehabilitative Services (Dr. James A. Bax, Secre- tary; present secretary is Mr. Emmett S. Roberts). LITERATURE CITED BLAKE, Grorce B. 1967. A follow-up of alcoholics. Behavior Research and Therapy, vol. 5, pp. 89-94. BRODMAN, KEEVE, ALBERT J. ERDMAN, AND HAarotp G. WoLFE. 1949. Cor- nell medical index health questionnaire manual. Cornell University Medical College, New York. Hays, Witi1aM. 1963. Statistics for psychologists. Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, New York. Jacosson, E. 1938. Progressive relaxation. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. McGuirE, CARSON, AND GEORGE D. WuiTE. March, 195. The measurement of social status, research paper in human development no. 3 (revised). Dept. of Ed. Psy., Univ. Texas, Austin, 10 pp. (mimeo. ). SIEGEL, S. 1956. Nonparametric statistics for the behavioral sciences. McGraw-Hill, New York. 222 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Tuomas, MELVILLE. 1969. Group therapy for the alcoholic. State of Flor- ida Bureau of Alcoholic Rehabilitation, Avon Park, Florida, 16 pp. WATKINS, JoHN G. 1965. Psychotherapeutic methods. In Benjamin B. Wol- man (Ed.), Handbook of clinical psychology. McGraw-Hill, New York, p. 1160. WEl_ER, A., H. G. WoLFE, K. BRODMAN, B. MITTLEMAN, AND D. WECHSLER. 1948. Cornell index manual. Psychological Corporation, New York. State of Florida Alcoholic Treatment and Research Center, Post Office Box 1147, Avon Park, Florida 33825 (present address of first author: Chaplain, Institute of Addiction, P. O. Box 485, Columbia, South Carolina 29202). Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 34(3) 1970(1971) Redescription of Prionotus beani (Pisces, Triglidae) GrorGE C. MILLER AND DANA M. KENT . Tue triglid fishes of the western North Atlantic Ocean include three closely related cognate species in the Prionotus alatus species group: Prionotus alatus Goode and Bean (1883); Prionotus beani Goode in Goode and Bean (1896); and Prionotus paralatus Gins- burg (1950). The alatus species group is distinguished from the other species of Prionotus in the Atlantic by the following combina- tion of characters: pectoral fin with distal edge emarginate; lower joined pectoral rays elongate in juveniles; incomplete squamation on chest in adults; and serrations on anterior three to five dorsal spines. The identification of the western Atlantic searobins is difficult in spite of recent reviews of the Triglidae by Ginsburg (1950) and Teague (1951). Specimens of Prionotus from Texas were consid- ered by Teague to be no more than variants of P. beani, but were named by Ginsburg as a new species, P. paralatus. The American Fisheries Society checklist (1960) lists both P. beani and P. para- latus from United States waters. Ichthyologists have been per- plexed as to the identification of the two species (Caldwell and Caldwell, 1964, p. 39), particularly when the specimens are small. In this paper we give a key to the alatus species group, rede- scribe P. beani, compare P. beani with its cognates, and show the re- lationship and distribution of the three species. ' This project was undertaken at the BCF Tropical Atlantic Bio- logical Laboratory, in cooperation with the Dade County (Miami, Fla.) Public Schools, Laboratory Research Program. James Bohlke, Harvey Bullis, Jr., Daniel Cohen, Bruce Collette, Robert Gibbs, Ernest Lachner, Milton Lindner, Donald Moore, and C. Richard Robins made available to us triglid specimens for examination. Frederick H. Berry and Robert V. Miller reviewed the manuscript. Grady W. Reinert prepared the illustrations. METHODS The abbreviations of museums, biological laboratories, and fish- ery or research vessels are: Academy of Natural Sciences of Phila- 224 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES delphia, ANSP; United States National Museum, USNM; Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University, MCZ; U.S. Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Biological Laboratory, Galveston, Texas, BLGT; U.S. Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Tropical Atlantic Bio- logical Laboratory, Miami, Florida, TABL. Fishery vessels: Gus, G; Belle of Texas, BT; and Miss Angela, MA. Measurements, counts and definition of spines follow Miller (1965, p. 259; 1967, pp. 17-25). Géillraker counts: all rakers and tubercles on the epibranchial, ceratobranchial, and hypobranchial bones of first gill arch; raker at angle of first gill arch included in ceratobranchial counts; all rakers and tubercles on lower limb of the second, third, and fourth gill arches. Posterior dorsal or anal softray, split to base, counted as a single ray. Following lengths measured from premaxillary symphysis: stan- dard length, to posterior edge of hypural plate; head length, to posteriormost point of flexible margin of opercle. Orbital measure- ments: width, greatest horizontal distance between bony rims of orbit; depth, greatest vertical distance between bony rims of orbit; interorbital width, least dorsal width between bony rims of orbits. Pectoral lengths: from apex of ventralmost joined pectoral ray and first free ray to distal ends of longest upper and longest lower joined pectoral rays, and to distal ends of first (dorsalmost), second, and third free pectoral rays. Pelvic fin length: from base innermost ray to distal end of pelvic fin. Preopercular spine length: from apex of angle with head to distal end of spine. Squamation: zone 1, posterior to transverse line through base of innermost pelvic rays; zone 2, between base of innermost and base of outermost pelvic rays; zone 3, between base of outermost pelvic rays and base of anteriormost free pectoral rays; zone 4, anterior to transverse line through base of anteriormost free pectoral ray (Fig. 1). Chest refers to zone 4, breast to zones 2 and 3, and abdomen to zone 1. Rostral exsertions: elongation of first infraorbital bones anterior to premaxillary symphysis. Nasal spines: usually paired on snout between anterior nasal pores. KEY To THE Alatus SPECIES GROUP A. Nasal spines present. a. Longest lower joined pectoral ray greatly exceeding 50% of standard MILLER AND KENT: Redescription of Prionotus 225 oO C42 SLE Y ANNA 8 SS = a “ aN ‘ Soy , i ) » cy ie fie ee ses 335 es Sapeete a5, Se 2 yy I? Ci = Fig. 1. Chest squamation zones in the Prionotus alatus species group. aa. length (Mean= 68.4% SL) in specimens larger than 65 mm.; scales on abdomen not extending anteriorly past a transverse line through bases of innermost pelvic rays (95.5% of specimens examined ); dis- tribution off United States from Virginia to Louisiana, Campeche Bank, and Greater Bahama Bank ___ Prionotus alatus Goode and Bean Longest lower joined pectoral ray less than 50% of standard length (Mean = 42.5% SL.) in specimens larger than 65 mm.; scales on chest and breast extending anteriorly past a transverse line through bases of outermost pelvic rays (92.8% of specimens examined); distribu- tion; Banama toe Brazil “2082 es Se Prionotus beani Goode AA. Nasal spines absent. b. bb. Preopercular spines long (Mean=12.3% SL) in specimens over 65 mm. SL; scales on chest not extending anteriorly beyond transverse line between bases of outermost pelvic rays (66% of specimens ex- amined ); distribution, western Gulf of Mexico from Mississippi delta to. Gulf of Campeche 22 _. Prionotus paralatus Ginsburg Preopercular spines short (Mean=9.2% SL) in specimens over 65 mm. SL; scales on chest extending anteriorly beyond transverse line between bases of outermost pelvic rays (93% of specimens exam- ined ); distribution, Panama to Brazil __________ Prionotus beani Goode QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 226 €8 Z8 I 18 € i! €8 wpeq ‘d Le yi CV I I GV I 4 I snyojpivd * G9 8 ON), \ TL 6 OL ZS if SNyDD “J ia a ee a ee ea Be ie eT ra II OT €1 ral II iit OI 6 8 ske1Jos [e10yoog pouto[ skv.iqJOs [euy SABI}JOS [eSIOG souldg [vsioq satoeds ee dnois satoads snynjv snjououg ayy ut sXea [e10j0ed poutof pue ‘eue ‘{esiop jo SUOTINGIISIG T AIaVL MILLER AND KENT: Redescription of Prionotus 227 Prionotus beani GoovE (Figs. 2-6) Goode in Goode and Bean, 1896, p. 468, pl. 112, figs. 383 and 383b. Holotype: 110 mm. SL, USNM 39318, Albatross Station 2120, 11°07’ N. lat., 62°14’30” W. long., 73 fathoms, off Trinidad. [The holotype of P. beani was originally given the manuscript name P. trinitatis by Goode and Bean. Before Oceanic Ichthyology was published, Bean died and Goode honored his colleague by naming this searobin P. beani instead of P. trinitatis. Unfortunately the name P. trinitatis was not changed to P. beani in the Atlas, p. 24 and Figs. 383 and 383b. P. beani and P. trinitatis are based on the same specimen, cataloged USNM 39318; the original description of P. beani refers to the illustration of the holotype as Fig. 383; and in the bottle with the holotype of P. beani is a label with the name trinitatis. P. beani Goode is a senior objective synonym of P. trini- tatis selected by Ginsburg (1950) on the basis of page priority. | Counts and Measurements. Frequencies of counts and meas- urements are in Tables 1-8. Ranges of the counts are followed by the modal count in parentheses. Dorsal spines X-XI (X). Dorsal softrays 11-12 (12). Anal softrays 10-11 (11). Pectoral joined softrays 13. Gillrakers and tubercles on first gill arch: epibranchial, 2-3 (2); ceratobranchial, 9-14 (11); hypobranchial, 2-8 (4); lower limb, 12-18 (15-16); total rakers and tubercles 14-21 (18). Tubercles or rudiments of lower limb: second gill arch, 10-13 (11); third gill arch, 8-11 (9); fourth gill arch, 6-10 (8). Chest squamation zones 2-4 (3-4). Description. Rostral, second, and third infraorbital spines pres- ent. Nasal spines present or absent. Preocular spine strong, ele- vated, sometimes preceded by serrated ridge. Postocular spine or spines (usually two or more) low, retrorse, at termination of ser- rated ridge. Parietal spines short retrorse, at termination of small, finely serrated ridge, or only triangular shaped ridge present. Post- temporal spine short at termination of long, low ridge. Preopercu- lar, preopercular remnant, opercular and cleithral spines, strong. Dermosphenotic and pterotic spines short, low, retrorse if present at termination of a short highly serrated ridge. Eye large, inter- orbital width narrow, strongly concave, occipital pit developed. QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 228 a Sa ee ee Lt Cha i Shas val fy MAN (Ke) SIE AY Le GP HaDad id Tee Site HG 8 eS Vi cars Coma snyojoiwd *q CR VII SC eS ae i OR Se. OL Zo. GTS). ST US (NGS SID/D Yd LS a ae Cee One Cuenca ey Ghe-Cleetie OlMG 89 if € Spe oe 7 [eryouersqodA py [etyouvrqoye1ay [erypoueiqidy satoeds dnois soroeds SNYDID SNJOUOIM | OY} JO Youre [[Is say oy} Jo souoq [eIyouriqoddAy pure ‘etyouer1qo}e.190 ‘Tetyoueaqido uo se[oloqn} pue SloyxeAT[Is JO uoNNqiysIG G HIGVL Redescription of Prionotus 229 MILLER AND KENT: € Glare mos =O =. oO I I j GL 9% 9% 6 I T vupaq ‘d 6 ¢ 6I 6 B, e I i ST =.61— 7g (6 SN{D[DID * J il 9 Tiles BOUL > ORT mah 6 6 I hh Os. p19 Lae naG [eas aleli oe oh I SN{DID *q a ea eee se ee ee Ne a be i ee ea Te aa TCR OCre Glas Cl 2 PO Cie aris ICT GSI VT SOP. Ch cachite €1 - Dileel ant YorV [[ID 3ST Uo roquinyy [e107], quiry IoMmo'y satoadsg Se dnois satoeds snyojp snjyouowg oy} JO Youre [Is ysIy uO r9quinu . [8302 pue “quUIT] Jamo] UO sefo1oqn} pu siIeyeIT[IB Jo UOTNGISIq € ATaVL 230 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES First 3-5 dorsal spines serrated on leading edge or laterally. First dorsal softray partially serrated. First gill arch: epibranchial bone fused on anterior half with pseudobranch and roof of mouth; usu- ally tubercles or single raker on epibranchial; rudiments offset be- tween rakers on outer face of ceratobranchial posteriorly, becoming indistinguishable with raker rudiments anteriorly. Vomerine and palatine teeth present. Pigmentation of adults variable, possibly due to sexual differ- ences. Black spot or dusky blotch on or near margin between fourth and fifth dorsal spines, or two black spots on membrane be- tween fourth and sixth dorsal spines and dusky blotches on mem- brane on ventral half of fin. Soft dorsal fin heavily spotted, pig- mented, or opaque, but posterior dorsal ray always dark, and dark spot on body immediately behind ray. Membrane between pos- terior two anal rays sometimes pigmented, particularly in juveniles. Pectoral fin with black and white blotches as illustrated in Goode and Bean, 1896, pl. 112, Figs. 383, 383b; pectoral fin of juveniles has dark band with large black spot between fourth and eighth rays. Caudal fin has three dusky bands: wide band through caudal peduncle; narrow band intermediate on fin; and narrow dusky to black band on distal margin. Sexual Dimorphism. Teague (1951, p. 37) noted that the spec- imens of P. paralatus from Texas (which he identified as P. beani) had prominent, squarish rostral exsertions that differed from those of the holotype of P. beani, which had broad, rounded contours. He stated “Never-the-less even this character may be nothing more thangalvatiantaeies Our examination of P. beani disclosed two distinctive types of rostral exsertions: (1) rounded, projecting, strongly serrated exser- tions; and (2) flat, blunt, finely serrated exsertions. Seventeen specimens were examined to see if this morphological variation was sexual. Determination of the sex of large specimens on the basis of the shape of the rostral exsertions, was accomplished with con- siderable accuracy. Small specimens, however, had rostral exser- tions that were intermediate in shape and one large female had the male form. The males had rounded, highly serrated, projecting exsertions while the female exsertions were finely serrated and blunt (Fig. 2). Redescription of Prionotus 231 MILLER AND KENT: V LIP SEG 20% IGS ESS (6 Nig OL 6 (G5 SIE _ jupaq -d 9 Lit iGo Al 2SZ 6 GCumn One G OG site) SnjojDIDd *q G Sw Si OCR 9 6 OG CS. 7 it I I 9I GZ 61.¢€ I ) SN4DID *d a Ee ee ime eS OO A ee Be hel a ee a ES Gl II OL 6 8 hh, O--TL = OL 6 8 Lteeey er Ok “ACh hile Ole 6 8 Yyory [ID ywnoy yoy TID pryL Yory [IID puooes sotoedg¢ — Ee dno13 sajoeds snynjp snjzouowug oyy yo soyore IES Yqnoz pue ‘paryy ‘puooas jo QUIT] JAMO] UO sapoJeqny Jo uOTNLysSIG vV ATaViL 232 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES TABLE 5 Numbers and percentage of squamation ventrally by zones in the Prionotus alatus species group Species Chest Squamation Zones No. % No. %o No. % No. % |? 2t 3t 4§ P. alatus 69 94.5 3 Al 1 1.4 P. paralatus 15 34.1 14 31.8 15 34.1 P. beani 6 7.2 51 60.7 OAT 32.1 *Zone 1. Area posterior to a transverse line through base of innermost pelvic rays. #Zone 2. Area between bases of innermost and outermost pelvic rays. tZone 3. Areas between bases of outermost pelvic rays and anteriormeost pectoral free ray. §Zone 4. Area anterior to bases of anteriormost pectoral free ray. COMPARISON AND RELATIONSHIP OF SPECIES IN THE Alatus SpEciEs Group External characteristics have been used to distinguish and show the relationship of species within the alatus species group. Gins- burg (1950), pp. 522-523) used the length of the longest lower Fig. 2. Dorsal view of rostral exsertions of Prionotus beani showing sexual dimorphism. Left, female; right, male. TABLE 6 Occurrence of nasal spines in the Prionotus alatus species group Number Species Examined Nasal Spines Present Absent Number % Number % P. alatus 110 109 99.1 ] 0.9 P. paralatus 62 0 0.0 62 100.0 P. beani 81 19 23.5 62 76.5 MILLER AND KENT: Redescription of Prionotus 233 joined pectoral rays and the extent of squamation ventrally for dis- tinguishing the species. He also used the length of the longest upper joined pectoral rays, head length, eye width, and interorbital width, but noted that these characters overlapped considerably be- tween species. P. beani, P. alatus, and P. paralatus may be identified by one or a combination of the following characters: longest upper or lower joined pectoral rays; extent of squamation ventrally; preopercular spine length; and presence or absence of nasal spines. We found that head length, orbital width, orbital depth, interorbital width, pelvic length, and length of first, second, and third free pectoral rays when plotted were not diagnostic for the identification of these species. P. beani and P. paralatus are similar in having the longest lower joined pectoral ray much shorter than that of P. alatus in specimens over 60 mm SL (Table 7, Fig. 3). Ontogenetic changes occur in the pectoral fin of individuals of all three species less than 60 mm SL. In P. beani and P. paralatus, the longest lower joined pectoral ray becomes proportionately shorter and more nearly equal in length to the longest upper joined pectoral ray; whereas, in P. alatus the longest lower joined pectoral ray remains proportion- ately as long as or may even become longer than the longest upper joined pectoral ray. The similarity of P. beani and P. paralatus may be seen in the much shorter upper joined pectoral ray compared to the much longer ray in P. alatus in specimens greater than 60 mm SL. Some overlap did occur in this character between the species (Table 7, Fig. 4). The strongly scaled chest and breast of P. beani differed consid- erably from the naked chest and breast of P. alatus (Table 5). P. paralatus is intermediate in chest squamation between P. alatus and P. beani (Table 5). — The long preopercular spines in the triglid specimens (P. para- latus) from Aransas Pass, Texas, were noted by Teague (1951, p. 37), who stated that they differed from the holotype of P. beani, but attributed the greater length to age. We are able to separate P. beani from P. paralatus greater than 60 mm SL, on the basis of the preopercular spine length (Table 7, Fig. 5). Preopercular spines of P. paralatus average 12.3 per cent SL, whereas P. beani spines QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 234 06 GGG V'61 C'S CLG ey 0'6¢ V'6E TS % urd 8S II-¢¢ 0'8C-1 G6 0'L6-@ 9T 8°SE—-0'06 €€E-9'ES 9 GS-G'te V 6P-L 08 Ter-o'ce ds) Yo osury wupaq ‘d eT 62 L0G L'&G 8'LG ey SOV Tv IS % urd 9°ST—G'6 V'8C-L IZ 872-6 OL 8 LE-E'1S €'CE-T'SS g'9c-£'9& USr-V9t 8 Ty-9'SE Ts) Ye osury snypojouvd * J e Or 8'LG 6°81 1°66 L'GG VLO GOV V'8E IS % ueoj VVI-LG LeE-6 1G Ttc-€ ST 0'LZ-1'61 0'0E-L'GS LO8-LES V 69-6 GE SIV-G GE TI) osuey snwoD “dq ‘ry outds le[no1edooig "YT O1Ajog ‘TT [e10z00d oor} PUYL "TT [e10}00d 901J Puodas ‘TT [e10}00d AVL OOIF SITY ABI [e10}00d pourol amo] sosuo'T Avi [e10}00d peutol 1oddn jsosuo'T Yyysue] prop] (IS) YSU] pxepuejs jo osezuso10d ul sosuvi se possoidxo dnois soioods snzojp snjzouolg oY} JO SyUOWOINsSPOU pezIAS L ATaVii MILLER AND KENT: Redescription of Prionotus 235 no 100 90 0- P alatus @- P beani O- P paralatus 70 oO fo) wn (o} bh (eo) (3) (o) LONGEST LOWER PECTORAL RAY (mm) N (o} 3 5 , O 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 STANDARD LENGTH (mm) Fig. 3. Length of the longest lower joined pectoral ray in relation to stan- dard length in the Prionotus alatus species group. average only 9.0 per cent SL. P. alatus preopercular spines are in- termediate in length (10.3 per cent SL), and overlap both P. beani and P. paralatus (Table 7). The presence or absence of nasal spines separates both the ju- veniles and adults of P. alatus from P. paralatus. In P. alatus the nasal spines are present, in P. paralatus absent, and in P. beani the spines are present or absent (Table 6). In view of the similar appearance of fins in juveniles of P. beani and P. paralatus to those of the juveniles and adults of P. alatus, it might be postulated that P. alatus is the most primitive species and similar in appearance to the progenitor of this species group. DISTRIBUTION AND ECOLOGY Prionotus beani is found on the continental shelf and slope from Panama to Brazil (Fig. 6). The species ranges in depths from 25- 150 fathoms but is usually found in 30-70 fathoms. P. beani lives in the Southern Cool-Tropical subregion as defined by Miller (1969). The bottom water temperatures at nine stations where the species 236 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 80 70 0- P alatus @- P. beani - P paralatus Oo oO (mm) 3 LONGEST UPPER PECTORAL RAY 0) 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 STANDARD LENGTH (mm) Fig. 4. Length of the longest upper joined pectoral ray in relation to stan- dard length in the Prionotus alatus species group. was collected ranged from 69-82 F. with a mean of 76 F. P. beani, like its geminate P. paralatus, is found on a sand or mud bottom. P. beani is a tropical species, allopatric with its warm-temperate cog- nates, P. paralatus and P. alatus. P. paralatus is found on the continental shelf and slope in the western Gulf of Mexico from the Mississippi delta to the Gulf of Campeche. The species is known to range from 19-103 fathoms, but, like P. beani, is usually found on the outer shelf from 30-70 fathoms. P. paralatus, a member of the Northern Warm-Temper- ate fauna, inhabits waters of the subtropical zone, but it is also found in the Northern Cool-Tropical subregion (Miller, 1969). In winter, MILLER AND Kent: Redescription of Prionotus 237 (mm) O- P paralates @-P beani PREOPERCULAR SPINE LENGTH STANDARD LENGTH (mm) Fig. 5. Length of preopercular spine in relation to standard length of Pri- onotus paralatus and P. beani. bottom temperatures where P. paralatus is found are generally less than 64 F (18 C). P. paralatus is sympatric with P. alatus only in the region of the Mississippi delta. P. alatus is found on the continental shelf and slope in the At- lantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico from Virginia to Louisiana, and on the Campeche Bank, and the Greater Bahama Banks (Fig. 6). The species occurs at depths from 30-250 fathoms, but, like its cognates, is usually found in 30-70 fathoms. P. alatus, like P. paralatus, is found primarily in the Northern Warm-Temperate region in the subtropical zone. Bottom water temperatures ranged from 51-67 F, averaging 61 F, at five stations where P. alatus was captured. Unlike its cognates, P. alatus occurs over a calcareous shell-sand bottom. The distribution of the alatus species group raises the following questions: Why do P. alatus and P. paralatus, warm-temperate spe- cies, occur in the tropical region of the southern Gulf of Mexico? Why are so many wide-ranging, coastal, tropical South American species, with distributions as far north as Honduras and British Honduras, missing from the Gulf of Mexico? Why are the cognate species P. beani and P. paralatus allopatric when their depth dis- 238 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 0- P alatus @- P beani OG - P paralatus (°NORTH) LATITUDE 100 90 80 60 50 LONGITUDE (° WEST) Fig. 6. Distribution of the Prionotus alatus species group in the western At- lantic Ocean. tributions and bottom habitats are similar and the distance separat- ing the species is within easy range of migration, random move- ment, or larval drift? Bottom water temperatures of the southern Gulf of Mexico were scrutinized for a possible explanation. Warm-temperate fishes are able to survive on the Campeche Banks at depths greater than 20 fathoms, while true tropical fishes cannot exist there because up- welled cold water, inundates the Campeche Bank during late spring and summer (Cochrane, 1966; Springer and Bullis, 1956). Tropical fishes (minimum temperature tolerance of 18 C) are not able to survive as adults in the northern Gulf of Mexico and along the South Atlantic coast of the United States (Northern Warm-Temperate region of Miller, 1969), except in the tropical Florida Keys-Tortugas Bank subregion. Bottom temperatures in this region decrease well below 20 C during the fall, winter and spring seasons (Thompson, 1966; Springer and Bullis, 1956; Bullis and Thompson, 1965; Walford and Wicklund, 1968; and Taylor and Stewart, 1959). A fauna associated with reefs deeper than 15 239 Redescription of Prionotus MILLER AND KENT: SS ee ee ee ee ee ee ee a ee ee ee eee Tol 9e1-€'6 VOT L'GI-8'8 OTT CeI-16 GLP [ERG sone ret] GGG TL¢-L'81 T&G V96-C 61 9 EG © 8¢6-€'61 Yidep [eHqIO TVG S660 1G TSG 6 8G—L IG SEG 6 96—0'06 MIPS [LER XGRKO) eh ee, 2 ie a ae EN ee TH % TH % TH % TH % TH % Tet Yo ues, osuey Uva osury ued osury 1upaq ‘dq snyD|DIDd * gq SNyDID *J ee ee (TH) Yysue] peoy JO aseJUSOI0d UI sosueI se pessoidxe dnois soroods SN}DID snjouolsg BY} JO SJUSUIeINsvoUI p9,09][9G 8 ATaV.L 240 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES fathoms in the Northern Warm-Temperate region is not tropical but consists of species with warm-temperate tolerances (<20C). COMMENTS Merulinus salmonicolor (Fowler, 1903) was placed in the syn- onymy of Prionotus alatus by Ginsburg (1950, p. 524), based on the original description. However, Teague (1951, pp. 47-48) retained P. salmonicolor (Fowler) as a valid species. I have consulted an unpublished manuscript by Ginsburg entitled “Comparison of two recent reviews of western Atlantic triglid fishes with additional in- formation on the species,” which is deposited in the files of the Di- vision of Fishes of the USNM. In this manuscript Ginsburg states that he had examined the holotype of P. salmonicolor and found that it was not a junior synonym of P. alatus; and that P. pectoralis Nichols and Breder, and P. vanderbilti Teague, were examined and are junior synonyms of P. salmonicolor. The senior author of the present paper examined the holotype of P. salmonicolor (ANSP 24343) in the ANSP collections and concurs with Ginsburg. The salmonicolor species group is poorly understood and is presently being reviewed by the senior author and Donald Miller. SPECIMENS EXAMINED Prionotus beani. Holotype. USNM 39318, 1 (110 mm. SL). Other Spec- imens. TABL: 103432, 1 (130); 103433, 1 (86); 103434, 2 (73-75); 103435, 4 (75-106); 103436, 6 (88-102); 103437, 1 (48); 103438, 1 (48); 103439, 1 (106); 103440, 1 (107); 103441, 2 (50-99); 103406, 5 (47-116); 103442, 3 (98-146); 103443, 4 (128-148); 103444, 1 (123); 103445, 2 (120-121); 103446, 2 (73-120); 103447, 1 (98); 103448, 4 (51-101); 103449, 5 (79- 120); 103407, 1 (139); 103450, 2 (96-99); 103451, 4 (47-101); 103452, 2 (78-81); 103453, 2 (83-110); 103454, 17 (76-120); 103456, 1 (109); 103457, 2 (102-106); 103458, 1 (104); 103459, 3 (93-116); 103460, 1 (62) ) USNM: 39318, 1 (110); 183400, 4 (114-135); 185166, 1 (130) 185185, 1 (120); 185125, 1 (105); 185129, 2 (41-49); 185140, 2 (45-46); 185131, 6 (55-63); 185139, 6 (53-66); 185219, 12 (43-73); 185120, 3 (76-94); 185136, 1 (107); 185115, 1 (84); 185397, 4 (50-144); 185414, 7 (100-127). Prionotus paralatus. Holotype. USNM 151939, 1 (158). Paratypes. USNM: 10472, 2 (77-90); 155071, 1 (87); 155072, 2 (111-112); 155073, 4 (81-104). Other Specimens. TABL. 103461, 1 (139); 103462, 1 (90); 103463, 1 (64); 103464, 3 (115-128); 103395, 1 (108); 103408, 1 (124); 103396, 2 (78-121); 103397, 2 (124-128); 103398, 1 (92); 103399, 3 (107- ———rs MILLER AND KENT: Redescription of Prionotus 241 125); 103400, 1 (85); 103401, 3 (101-115); 103404, 2 (116-127); 103402, (109); 103403, 3 (121-131); 107403, 1 (118); 107402, 1 (81); 107406, (126); 107410, 2 (116-126); 107408, 1 (121); 107411, 1 (133); 107407, (95-98); 107401, 6 (100-108); 107412, 1 (70); 107409, 1 (107); 107404, (98); 107405, 3 (66-117). USNM: 196771, 1 (112); 157669, 5 (98-135): 157529, 11 (83-145), 185127, 2 (75-81); 158289, 4(43-56); 151939, 1 (124); 158257, 1 (43). Prionotus alatus. Other Specimens. TABL: 103418, 3 (39-64); 103414, 3 (57-104); 103415, 1 (146); 103416, 1 (123); 103417, 9 (60-136); 103418, 2 (97-122); 103391, 1 (95); 103419, 1 (183); 103420, 1 (112); 103421, 1 (119); 103422, 2 (38-45); 103423, 7 (108-120); 103424, 1 (110); 103425, 1 (130); 103426, 20 (90-119); 103427, 1 (58); 103428, 4 (85-134); 103429, 2 (107-120); 103392, 2 (80-86); 103393, 1 (74); 103480, 3 (92-129); 103431, 1 (154); 103394, 1 (113). USNM: 131493, 1 (107); 43582, 2 (136-138); 151933, 1 (80); 151963, 4 (88-130); 460, 1 (79); 152078, 1 (124); 46016, 1 (142); 157688, 2 (118-148); 161361, 1 (107); 157406, 2 (56-59); 117266, 7 (74-110); 92054, 4 (58-72); 117171, 1 (99); 158268, 3 (76-107); 158322 1 (128); 158267, 1 (138); 157530, 1 (1387); 157687, 2 (110-138); 163508, 5 (99-127); 46017, 4 (93-185); 43582, 2 (136-188); 157407, 1 (126); 103394, Tk (U8 ie eNO e LITERATURE CITED AMERICAN FisHERIES Society. 1960. A list of the common and scientific names of fishes from the United States and Canada. Am. Fish. Soc. Spec. Publ., no. 2, 102 pp. Buuuis, Harvey R., Jr., AND JoHN R. THompson. 1965. Collections by the exploratory fishing vessels Oregon, Silver Bay, Combat, and Pelican, made during 1965 in the southwestern North Atlantic. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv., Spec. Sci. Rep. Fish. no. 510, iii+ 130 pp. CALDWELL, D. K., AND M. C. CALpweELu. 1964. Fishes from the southern Caribbean collected by Velero III in 1939. Allan Hancock. Atlantic Exped. Rep., no. 10, 54 pp. CocHRANE, JoHN D. 1966. The Yucatan Current upwelling off northeastern Yucatan and currents and waters of western equatorial Atlantic. Texas A and M, Dept. Oceanogr. Prog. Rep. 66-23T, pp. 14-32. Ginspurc, I. 1950. Review of the western Atlantic Triglidae (Fishes). Texas Jour. Sci., no. 4, pp. 489-527. Goong, G. B., AND T. H. Bran. 1883. Reports on the results of dredging, under the supervision of Alexander Agassiz on the east coast of the United States, during the summer of 1880, by the U.S. Coast Survey steamer “Blake”, Commander J. R. Bartlett, U.S.N. commanding. Re- port on the fishes, no. 9. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., Harvard, vol. 12, no. 5, pp. 153-170. 242 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 1896. Oceanic ichthyology. Spec. Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., 2: xxxv +26 pp.+553 pp., Atlas with 417 figs. Mituer, GEorcE C. 1965. A new species of searobin (TRIGLIDAE). Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci., vol. 28, no. 3, pp. 259-266. 1967. A new species of western Atlantic armored searobin Peris- tedion greyae (Pisces, Peristediidae). Bull. Mar. Sci., vol. 17, no. 1, pp. 16-41. 1969. A revision of zoogeographical regions in the warm-water area of the western Atlantic. Proc. Symp. Investig. and Resour. Caribbean Sea and Adj. Reg. UNESCO, FAO, Rept. and Abst. Fish. Rep. of Paps., noel 165epp: SPRINGER, STEWART, AND Harvey R. Buus, Jr. 1956. Collections by the Oregon in the Gulf of Mexico. List of crustaceans, mollusks, and fishes identified from collections made by the exploratory fishing vessel Oregon in the Gulf of Mexico and adjacent seas 1950 through 1955. U.S. Fish Wiidl. Serv., Spec. Sci. Rep. Fish., no. 196, 134 pp. Taytor, C. B., AnD H. B. Stewart, Jr. 1959. Summer upwelling along the east coast of Florida. Jour. Geophys. Res., vol. 64, no. 1, pp. 33-40. TEAGUE, G. W. 1951. The sea-robins of America. A revision of the triglid fishes of the genus Prionotus. Com. Zool. Mus. Hist. Nat. Montevideo, vol. 3, no: 6le pp) 1259: THompson, Mary H. 1966. Proximate composition of Gulf of Mexico in- dustrial fish. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv., Fish. Ind. Res., vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 29-67. WALFORD, LIONEL A., AND Ropert IJ. WIcKLUND. 1968. Serial atlas of the marine environment. Monthly sea temperature structure from the Florida Keys to Cape Cod. Amer. Geogr. Soc., Folio 15. Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Tropical Atlantic Biological Laboratory, Miami, Florida 33149. Contribution number 166. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 34(3) 1971( 1972) Pollution in Areas near the Pompano Beach Sewage Outfall Harrison A. HOFFMANN Tuts paper reports the results of studies designed to determine whether a sewerage outfall contributes to the pollution of adjacent beaches. The methods employed were limited to a study of the currents and to examination of the water for coliforms in the areas of the sewerage outfall, the Hillsboro Inlet and adjacent beaches located in the city of Pompano Beach, Florida. Pearson (1965) reviewed the literature to 1955 and developed mathematical formulae for the prediction of the rate of dilution and diffusion of sewage in the area of a marine outfall. More recent in- vestigations reported by Garber (1960), the Alan Hancock Founda- tion (1965) and Saville (1966) have employed chemical analyses, dye-plume studies and coliform counts to determine the fate of or- ganic wastes discharged into a marine environment. The physical features of the area studied are shown in Nautical Chart 845 SC which is reproduced in part in Fig. 1. The outfall line extends east approximately 2500 yards from the shore line and approximately 3400 yards southeast of the Hillsboro Inlet. The proximity of the Hillsboro Inlet complicates the interpretation of data since polluted water from the Intracoastal Canal usually flows south along the beach during an outgoing tide. This mixing of waters from two sources of pollution requires an extrapolation of data to determine the probable extent of pollution from the outfall. The outfall pipe has an inside diameter of 30 inches and the terminal outlet is inclined approximately 22° from the ocean floor. The vertical distance from the outlet to the surface of the water is approximately 87 feet. Sewage and sludge receive a primary treatment of comminution, removal of floatables, and chlorination to reduce odor. The current volume of sewage is approximately 2.2 million gallons per day with the highest flow rates occurring between 0900-1100. Sewage sludge which settles to the bottom of the holding tanks is dumped through the outfall daily between the hours 0900-1200. The mean flow rate during the peak pumping time is estimated at 3000 gallons per minute. 244 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES LoVe 359 315 329 379 272 223 Bridge under Sy 5 SWING SEOSE fT (mm CL 4 FT Sur VERT CL 4 Po INTRA OVHD we. 715 5) Ramey COASTAL Dewar Bk . AUTH. cts se re . —— Ser Sj 5 = Pit cobs E) = i : rec ar Kies 2 E) 5 oe = os — 916.34 oe \s aro 9a" 2GR\R? \ a 7 PEER 30°06" CAUTION Only marine radiobeacons have been calibrated for surface use. Radio direction-finder bearings to com: mercial broadcastings stations are subject to error ond should be used with caution. Municipal Airport Fig. 1. Section of Nautical Chart 8575C (1965) showing location of Pom- pano Beach Outfall. PROCEDURES AND METHODS All samples used in this investigation were collected during the morning hours from 0900-1100 for the period extending between December 1966 and September 1967. Surface samples were col- lected in sterile wide mouth bottles with screw caps. Deep samples were taken with a Bacteriological Water Sampler (CM?, Inc., Mt. View, California). Collection of samples and subsequent exami- nation followed procedures as recommended in Standard Methods (American Public Health Association, 1962). All samples were held in ice until used in the laboratory. No samples were held longer than four hours. The membrane filter (Millipore) was em- ployed with m Endo Broth MF for measurement of the coliform group. A small number of samples were examined for fecal coli- forms using the procedures and FC Medium described by Geldreich HorFrMAnNn: Pollution near Pompano Beach 245 TABLE 1 Summary of oceanographic conditions and appearance of boil near outfall Number and_ Surface Sea Wind (from) Current (toward) Date Boil Condition Direction Speed Speed Depth Direction 12/22/66 lr calm NNW 4 0.4 50 SSE 12/29/66 ale calm SE 6 0 50 1/26/67 =F C4 iit SE 10 0.3 50 ENE Di, QUST St 1-3 ft ESE 8 0.3 50 N 2/19/67 te calm SSE Ht 0.5 10 N 0.3 20 N 0.1 50 N 2/21/67 alr 1-3 ft S 2 — 12 SSE 3/ 9/67 = 1-3 ft SE 8 0.3 12 WSW 3/16/67 aie 4-5 ft NW 18 0.6 12 N 4/ 6/67 =F 1D tit SE 5) 0.6 12 N 4/20/67 Str 2=ourt NE 10 0.3 12 SSW 4/25/67 at calm NE 3 0.6 HD S 5/10/67 Si calm calm 0 1.5 12 N 5/24/67 a calm SW 3 1.0 12 N 5/26/67 =F calm SW 3 0.6 WZ SW 5/31/67 al calm SW 6 0.2 2 SSW 6/ 2/67 = Oe oft: NE 10 ES 12 SSW 6/ 7/67 — O=sleent SE 5 0.4 He NE 6/ 9/67 a calm S 2 0.9 12 SW 0 60 SW 6/16/67 = 1B at SSW 4 0.5 Le NE 6/22/61 age calm NNE J 0.9 Le NE 6/27/67 = SE itt S 12 1.0 12 NE 0.7 60 N 0.6 80 N 6/29/67 = 1—2 ft SSW 4 LB 12 N 7/18/67 ste ARS) site SSE 18 0.6 2 NNW (0900 EDT) 7/18/67 a 2 AS Kt ESE 12 0.3 12 WSW (1100 EDT) 7/20/67 ore 4-5 ft ENE 15 ED; Le NNW 7/25/67 al 4-5 ft SE 15 0.5 12 NNW W2USE = 2-3 ft SSE 8 2.0 1 SW 8/ 1/67 = calm NNE 3 1.2 12 N 8/ 3/67 = Sm4l ihe SSE 10 Ie 12 NE 8/ 9/67 —— ID ake SE 4 0.7 WY SW 8/12/67 = 3=5 ft S 1S 1.8 1 N 8/14/67 =f calm N ey) 0.8 2 N 8/16/67 ain D3} itt NE 8 0.7 12 N 8/21/67 ar 34 it SE 15 0.5 12 S 8/23/67 Cae? DS aie E 10-18 0.8 2 N + = boil visible = boil not visible 246 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES et al. (1965). Unless otherwise indicated, all counts are given as coliforms. Direction and velocity of currents were determined with cur- rent crosses usually set at a depth of twelve feet. Positions were determined by taking cross-bearings with an Ilon Position Finder. Calculated precision of the positions is +25 yards in relatively calm seas to +50 yards in rough seas. OBSERVATIONS AND RESULTS Currents at the Outfall Site. Table 1 summarizes the observed oceanographic conditions in the area of the outfall during the times samples were collected. The presence or absence of a boil at the surface generally can be correlated to the velocity of the current. With two exceptions, the boil was always present with current ve- locities below 0.7 knots and always absent with current velocities above 0.8 knots. No correlation with the direction of the current was noted. During an ebbing tide, water from the Hillsboro Inlet usually Fig. 2. Approximate location of each sample collected: Zone 1, 0-300 yards; Zone 2, 300-600 yards; Zone 3, 600-1000 yards; Zone 4, 1000-1500 yards from the outfall. HoFrFMANN: Pollution near Pompano Beach 247 moved south as a littoral current, and less frequently moved south- easterly toward the outfall. On one occasion at low slack tide, brown, turbid water from the Intracoastal Canal had moved south- east to a point only 600 yards from the outfall. Bacteriologic Analysis at the Outfall. During the early phases of this study, samples were collected near the surface and at varying depths. At locations near the boil, surface samples usually gave a higher coliform count than samples collected at depths of 20 and 50 feet. In areas distant from the boil no significant differences in counts could be related to varying depths. Subsequently, most samples were collected at approximately one foot below the surface of the water. Figure 2 shows the approximate points of collection for most of the samples tested. These points of collection do not show a ran- dom distribution since the primary objective was to determine the maximum pollution near the outfall and the dilution rate in terms of the distance required for the reduction of this pollution. The areas around the outfall have been separated into four zones for convenience of reference and analysis of data. These zones were established after all samples were taken. Although zones of equal area or a larger number of zones would provide more points for graphic analysis, this arrangement does not provide an adequate number of samples for evaluation in each area. TABLE 2 Summary of coliform counts per 100 ml in zones around the outfall Zone 1* Zone 2 Zone 3 Zone 4 0-300 300-600 600-1000 1000-1500 Areas Boil yds yds yds yds Maximum 390,000 390,000 202,000 9,300 584* Mean 81,000 19,430 6,292 Si 48** Median 61,000 300 SH 16 19 Minimum 3,000 0 0 0 0 Number of Samples 21 126 92 18 BY. % Samples above 103/102 ml 100 42 21 5 ?, *Zone | inclues samples in boil **Values obtained by excluding a single high count of 7,400 248 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 10° Coliform Counts per 100 ml. ey Te) 102 103 10* Distance in yards from outfall Fig. 3. Mean coliform counts plotted against mean zone distance from the outfall (semi-log transformation). HoFFMANN: Pollution near Pompano Beach 249 A summary of the coliform counts of the samples in each area is given in Table 2. Samples from intracoastal waters encroaching from the Hillsboro Inlet, as determined by turbidity and color, are excluded from these data. The wide differences between mean values and median values in all zones are characteristic of pollution by particulate material and indicate the non-uniform distribution and slow mixing of the sewage with the surrounding water. These differences decrease with distance from the outfall. When logarithms of the mean values are plotted against the arithmetic median distance of each zone, the points approximate a straight-line curve as shown in Fig. 3. The slope of this curve rep- resents an approximate logarithmic reduction in counts with in- creasing distance from the outfall. Since the decrease in coliform counts with distance from the source of pollution is effected by both dilution and rate of death, the term decimal reduction distance is used here to denote the distance required to reduce the coliform count by a factor of 10 (90 per cent). On the curve for the mean values, the decimal reduction distance is approximately 400 yards. A semi-log transformation of the percentage of samples showing counts above 1000 per 100 ml also gives a straight-line correlation. The median values listed in Table 2 are not amenable to semi- logarithmic correlation as is the case with the mean counts. The points for median counts approximate a straight line when both variables are plotted as logarithms as shown in Fig. 4. An analysis of the data summarized in Table 2 by the method of multiple regression shows a high degree of inverse correlation between coliform counts and distance from the boil (R?=0.98).. The two sets of data lead to different conclusions. Extrapolation of the mean values show mean coliform counts approaching zero at approximately 1800 yards from the outfall, while a similar extrapola- tion of median values indicate that median coliform counts of 7 per 100 ml would be found at the beach, 2500 yards from the outfall. Analyses of frequency distribution of the coliform counts show that maximum frequency is weighted sharply toward lower values. This type of distribution gives greater validity to median values. Inter- pretations of single-source diffusion data obtained by other workers (Alan Hancock Foundation, 1965; Brooks, 1960) suggest that the data of median correlations would be the more reliable of the two sets of data. 250 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Coliform Counts per 100 ml. a Distance in yards from outfall 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 _ 1600 1800 Fig. 4. Median coliform counts plotted against mean distance from the out- fall (log-log transformation). HoFrFMANN: Pollution near Pompano Beach 251 Zone A N Hillsboro Light Zone B Zone C TIC [ED) oe en ne os ae ee Oe Outfall Zone F Yards Oo 1000 2000 Fig. 5. Location of zones established for off-shore sampling (use with Table 3). . Bacteriologic Analysis of Beach Areas and Intracoastal Water. Samples were collected along transects perpendicular to the beach QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 252 euNley A ‘BUISIA “VY "T]0o [eooyz JUasoido1 syuNOd ‘(oof ) WNIpeyW D7 PSN « GSV OOL OO9T A Sy y ¥ OL Il cI A say GA # IGE #06 x8VG # GGG x f0E a sy ¢ Af #V8G 9T c99 V8S OOrT OLOT a sy yp OOLT d sy ¢ A G 6 88 IG OOTT 0 I OOT d sys OS al 00¢G O sy ¢ €G V9 tS 9 I O sy ¢ A 8 OOT 0) CU ea ome] TS VG 9VG O€ SI GE 601 ELT ©) WML HA OOEE 0008 0006 000°9T da sy ¢ A 9GT O8G OV da su yp I 6 yh 6 V sy Gg wf OO8T OO9T OOrT OOGI OOOT 008 009 OOF OO€ OOT (¢ ‘314) yoveg WO. sprex Ul douRIsIq auoz, OpLL (G ‘SI YY os~) ‘prleAMvoes spied QOST 0} Yovog WoIF sjoosuv1y, UO sojdutes UT [Ut QOT Jod syuNo0d WLOFI[OD € WTaViL HorrMAnn: Pollution near Pompano Beach 253 TABLE 4 Coliform counts per 100 ml from samples in the Intracoastal Canal and Pompano Beach (Hillsboro Inlet Areas) Location Canal Beach* Maximum 150,000 6000 Mean 12,900 1931 Median 2,300 500 Minimum 200 0 Number of Samples 20 26 % above 103/102 ml 70 40 *Three samples showing TNTC at 1:1000 dilution not used in these data. from 100 yards-1800 yards off-shore. For convenience, the areas of sampling are represented as zones shown in Fig. 5 which should be used for evaluation of the data in Table 3. In general, the coliform counts along these transects decreased with an increase of distance from the shore. A summary of coliform counts from swimming areas along the beach between the Municipal Pier and the Hillsboro Inlet, and in Intracoastal waters are shown in Table 4. The counts in these areas show relatively heavy pollution. A review of all the data leads to the conclusion that coliform counts decrease with the distance from the outfall, but, at a variable point approaching the shore, counts increase to a relatively high level. Although it is probable that the sewage outfall contributes small numbers of coliforms to the beach area, most of the indicated pollution on the beach probably comes from the Intracoastal Canal. It is possible that levels of pollution in waters near the beach would be significantly higher than those predicted from extrapola- tion of the data. Brooks (1960) in his discussion of coefficient of diffusion curves, states that coliform counts may be increased to three-fold near the shore due to upwelling of bottom water and de- creased flushing in shallow water. The location of a reef 600 yards off shore and west of the Pompano Beach outfall would probably accentuate this process of entrapment and concentration. DISCUSSION Coliform bacteria have a relatively short survival time in sea- 254 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES water as compared to fresh water. Reports in the literature show little agreement in the death rate of coliforms in seawater. De- pending upon the experimental conditions and the strains of bac- teria used, reported decimal reduction times vary from 3 hours-23 days (Carlucci and Pramer, 1960; Orlob, 1956). Studies in our laboratories (unpublished) of the survival times of coliforms in sewage-seawater mixtures show a decimal-reduction time of ap- proximately 10 hours. In both aged seawater and sewage-seawater mixtures, Enterobacter aerogenes survives longer than Escherichia coli. Coliform bacteria are not indigenous to marine waters and usu- ally can be found only in those marine areas adjacent to sewage outfalls, estuaries, or marinas. Although the presence of coliforms in marine waters is good evidence of pollution by sewage, the ab- sence of these bacteria can not be construed as evidence of safe water. The prolonged survival of viruses in seawater (Liu, et al., 1966) and their low infective dose (Plotkin and Katz, 1966) sug- gest that these agents must serve as the ultimate indicators of pol- lution with respect to health and sanitation. Although every effort was made to maintain a separation of samples between inlet waters and sewage outfall waters by clearly discernible color differences, it seems probable that there is some mixing of these waters during tidal cycles which might have con- tributed some error to the outfall data. Visual observation and the distribution of coliform counts indi- cate that there is a major dilution and dispersion of the sewage in the turbulence of cross-currents at the outfall. The stream of sew- age frequently breaks up into pockets which become stabilized in prevailing current. Additional dilution appears to be slow ex- cept when additional eddies are formed. The current data given in this report have been confirmed and expanded by the more re- cent work of Lee (1969). He shows that the western edge of the Florida Current ranges from near shore to more than three miles sea-ward. He also describes large eddies which spin off from the western edge of the Florida Current and move counterclockwise toward the shore, south along the shore and ultimately back to the prevailing northerly stream. Where these eddies contact the sewage plumes, additional dis- persion and diversion of the sewage would occur. When these HoFFMANN: Pollution near Pompano Beach 255 eddies do not divert the sewage plumes, they move for miles in the prevailing northerly current. On one occasion, counts ranging from 150-650 coliforms per 100 ml were found in a series of five samples collected eight miles north of the sewage outfall. These observations and experimental data strongly indicate that low concentrations of sewage do reach surfing and swimming areas within two miles of the marine outfall at Pompano Beach. Con- clusive evidence relative to the public health significance of these findings must await the development of better methods for utilizing viruses or other bacterial species as indicators of pollution. The extension of existing and planned sewage outfall lines to terminate at the maximal western edge of the Florida Current would probably insure safe waters for recreational use. However, the continued use of marina outfalls for short-term economic dis- posal of sewage does not eliminate the loss of fresh water and po- tential fertilizer which will become increasingly needed resources if population densities are not stabilized at a rational ecological level. SUMMARY Studies are described which attempt to predict the extent of pollution from a marine sewage outfall in a location where the af- fected areas are subject to possible pollution from a second source. The data obtained from coliform counts combined with measure- ments of the Florida Current strongly indicate that existing and planned marine outfalls on the southeast coast of Florida do and will contribute low levels of pollution to off-shore and beach waters. The significance of these findings is discussed. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The technical assistance of R. E. Washing is gratefully acknowl- edged. I also wish to thank many colleagues who were helpful with statistical evaluation and critical discussion. This investigation was supported by contract with the City of Pompano Beach, Florida. LITERATURE CITED ALAN Hancock FouNpDATION. 1965. An investigation on the fate of organic and inorganic wastes discharged into the marine environment and their 256 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES effects on biological productivity. California State Water Quality Con- trol Board, Sacremento, California, publ. no. 14. AMERICAN PuspLic HEALTH AssocIATION. 1962. Standard methods for the examination of water and waste water. Eleventh ed. American Public Health Association, New York. Brooks, N. H. 1960. Diffusion of sewage effluent in an ocean current. In, E. A. Pearson, editor, Proceedings of the first international conference on waste disposal in the marine environment. Pergamon Press, New York, pp. 246-267. Caruucci, A. F., AND D. PRAMER. 1960. Survival of Escherichia coli in sea water. Appl. Microbiol., vol. 8, pp. 243-256. Garser, W. F. 1960. Receiving water analysis. In, E. A. Pearson, editor, Proceedings of the first international conference on waste disposal in the marine environment. Pergamon Press, New York, pp. 372-403. GELDREICH, E.. E., H. F. CLtarx, C. B. Hurr, anp L. C. Best. 1965. Fecal- coliform-organism for the membrane filter technique. Jour. Amer. Waterworks Assoc., vol. 57, pp. 208-214. Lee, T. N. 1969. Demonstration of the limitation and effects of waste dis- posal on an ocean shelf. Florida Ocean Sciences, Deerfield Beach, Florida, Institute Second Annual Project Report no. AR 69-2, FWPCA Grant WPD165-01(R1)-67( 1969). Liu, O. C., H. R. S—RAIcHEKAS, AND B. L. Murpuy. 1966. Viral pollution and self-cleansing mechanism of hard clams. In, G. Berg, editor, Trans- mission of viruses by the water route. Interscience, New York, pp. 419-437. Ortop, K. 1956. Viability of sewage bacteria in seawater. Sewage and In- dustrial Wastes, vol. 28, pp. 1147-1167. Pearson, E. A. 1965. An investigation of the efficacy of submarine outfall disposal of sewage and sludge. State Water Pollution Control Board, Sacremento, California, publ. no. 14. PLorTKIN, S. A., AND M. Katz. 1966. Minimal infective doses of viruses for man by the oral route. In, G. Berg, editor, Transmission of viruses by the water route. Interscience, New York, pp. 151-166. SAVILLE, T. 1966. A study of estuarine pollution problems on a small unpol- luted estuary and a small polluted estuary in Florida. Engineering Progress at the University of Florida, Bull. ser. no. 125. Department of Biological Sciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, Florida 33432. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 34(3) 1971(1972) FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERS FOR 1971 American Medical Research Institute Archbold Expeditions Barry College Florida Atlantic University Florida Institute of Technology Florida Presbyterian College Florida Southern College Florida State University Florida Technological University Jacksonville University Manatee Junior College Marymount College Miami-Dade Junior College Mound Park Hospital Foundation Ormond Beach Hospital Rollins College St. Leo College Stetson University University of Florida University of Florida Communications Sciences Laboratory University of Miami University of South Florida University of Tampa University of West Florida FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Founded 1936 OFFICERS FOR 1971 President: Dr. RicHARD E. GARRETT Department of Physics, University of Florida Gainesville, Florida 32601 President Elect: Dr. JaMEs G. POTTER Department of Physics, Florida Institute of Technology Melbourne, Florida 32901 Secretary: Dr. Ropert W. Lonc Department of Botany, University of South Florida Tampa, Florida 33620 Treasurer: Dr. RicHARD A. EDWARDS Department of Geology, University of Florida Gainesville, Florida 32601 Editor: Dr. Pizrczk BRODKORB Department of Zoology, University of Florida Gainesville, Florida 32601 Membership applications, subscriptions, renewals, changes of address, and orders for back numbers should be addressed to the Treasurer Correspondence regarding exchanges should be addressed to Gift and Exchange Section, University of Florida Libraries Gainesville, Florida 32601 Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences Vol. 34 March 1971 Supplement to No. 1 CONTENTS Program of the Thirty-fifth Annual Meeting of the Academy in Conjunc- tion with Florida Section of the American Association of Physics Teach- ers and the Florida Group - Optical Society of America. CiercarseanG@eGemeral, iniiormat Lon) 0 General Program 3 Section Meetings - Friday Morning Biological Sciences 4 Physical Sciences 6 Social Science 8 Science Teaching 9 Friday Afternoon - Biological Sciences ileal Biological Sciences and Conservation. Section __________sai14 ROI ASrIAC NINERS RENT GE Gh pits Ssret sana Ace Ae I a a ee A NG SS eer ad SRT Tek I Sciences Leacening and AAPT/ Florida Section... e418 Saturday Morning - Brolocical Scevences: and Conservation Section ~-2 2 19 Physical Sciences, Science Teaching, and SOP AT y/ABU ROACH URS Cit OW ot ac ene pe El) ah Pe Medes isceience and biolocteals SeLences 2. ok ku eee 22 SYSyoa ey STS Gye SS es WRU Be IRS PS ae Te aon a CR 2 HlosidaGroup — Optical Soclety of Americas. et ee 25 Saturday Afternoon - Social Science 25 Hunmnon Academy Of Seclence Paogtanm 22h ee So ee ae 26 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Editor: Pierce Brodkorb The Quarterly Journal welcomes original articles containing sig- nificant new knowledge, or new interpretation of knowledge, in any field of Science. Articles must not duplicate in any substantial way material that is published elsewhere. INSTRUCTIONS TO AUTHORS Rapid, efficient, and economical transmission of knowledge by means of the printed word requires full cooperation between author and editor. Revise copy before submission to insure logical order, conciseness, and clarity. Manuscripts should be typed double-space throughout, on one side of numbered sheets of 812 by 11 inch, smooth, bond paper. A Carson Copy will facilitate review by referees. Mazcins should be 1% inches all around. TITLES must not exceed 55 characters, including spaces. Footnotes should be avoided. Give ACKNOWLEDGMENTs in the text and Address in paragraph form following Literature Cited. LITERATURE CiTED follows the text. Double-space and follow the form in the current volume. For articles give title, journal, volume, and inclusive pages. For books give title, publisher, place, and total pages. _ Tasies are charged to authors at $20.00 per page or fraction. Titles must be short, but explanatory matter may be given in footnotes. Type each table on a separate sheet, double-space, unruled, to fit normal width of page, and place after Literature Cited. LxceEnps for illustrations should be grouped on a sheet, double-spaced, in the form used in the current volume, and placed after Tables. Titles must be short but may be followed by explanatory matter. ILLUSTRATIONS are charged to authors ($17.00 per page or fraction). Drawincs should be in India ink, on good board or drafting paper, and lettered by lettering guide or equivalent. Plan linework and lettering for re- duction, so that final width is 4% inches, and final length does not exceed 6% inches. Do not submit illustrations needing reduction by more than one-half. PuotocraPus should be of good contrast, on glossy paper. Do not write heavily on the backs of photographs. Proor must be returned promptly. Leave a forwarding address in case of extended absence. REPRINTS may be ordered when the author returns corrected proof. Published by the Florida Academy of Sciences Printed by the Storter Printing Company Gainesville, Florida Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences 1 Fy Le Ogke 1) Dy A President: President-elect: Secretary: Treasurer: CHAIRMEN OF SECTIONS Biological Sciences: Conservation: Medical Sciences: Physical Sciences: Science Teaching: Social Sciences: ACADEMY OF S Gsi EN GE ODE “Body Gute Ras TOF On me fea: Taylor R. Alexander, University of Miami Richard E. Garrett, University of Florida Robert W. Long, University of South Florida E. Morton Miller, University of Miami Sheldon Dobkin, Florida Atlantic University George K. Reid, Florida Presbyterian College Richard Gubner, Safety Harbor Spa William Oelfke, Florida Technological University Luther A. Arnold, University of Florida Jack E. Vincent, Florida Atlantic University CHAIRMEN-ELECT OF SECTIONS Biological Sciences: Conservation: Medical Sciences: Physical Sciences: Science Teaching: Social Sciences: OTHER COUNCIL MEMBERS AAAS Representative: Academy Conference Representative: State Coordinator of the Junior Academy: Editor, Quarterly Journal: Maurice A. Barton, Mound Park Hospital Foundation Past President: Joseph Simon, University of South Florida John L. Taylor, St. Petersburg Beach, Florida Robert G. Sherrill, Tampa, Florida Palmer L. Edwards, University of West Florida Harold Sims, St. Petersburg Junior College Ernest F. Dibble, University of West Florida Lauren C. Gilman, University of Miami Lauren C. Gilman, University of Miami L. Monley, Univ. of South Florida Pierce Brodkorb, University of Florida Clarence C. Clark, University of South Florida Councilors at Large: Committee Chairmen: Executive: Awards and Honors: Charter and By-Laws: Finance: Future Annual Meetings: Necrology: Resolutions: Projects: Fred E. Clark, Stetson University Lewis Ober, Miami Dade Junior College Alfred H. Lawton, University of South Florida I. G. Foster, Florida Presbyterian College Tayior R. Alexander, University of Miami Alex G. Smith, University of Florida Frances L. Stivers, Terry Parker High School George K. Davis, University of Florida Margaret L. Gilbert, Florida Southern College Ruth Breen, Florida State University Stanley S. Ballard, University of Florida John E. Miller, Florida Institute of Technology 2 Quarterly Journal of the Florida’ Academyof SieteReas Visiting Scientist: Publications: Steering: Nominating: State Talent Search: Program: Local Arrangements: State Coordinator of Jr. Academy: State Director of Junior Academy: News Letter: REGISTRATION C.C. Clark, University of South Florida Alfred H. Lawton, University of South Florida George K. Reid, Florida Presbyterian College Alfred P. Mills, University of Miami Frank Dudley, University of South Florida Richard E. Garrett, University of Florida Rong-Shen Jin, Florida Institute of Technology L. Monley, University of South Florida Jay Cooper, Gainesville High School Alfred P. Mills, University of Miami A registration desk will be located on the ground floor of the Denius Student Center. The desk will be open Thursday, March 25, Friday, March 26, Saturday, March 27, The registration fee is $4.00. FOOD SERVICE 10:00 A.M. to 9:00 P.M. 8:00:A.M. to 5:00 P.M. 8:00 A.M. to 10:00 A.M. A cafeteria will be open in the Denius Student Center for quick snacks or a com- plete dinner. ACADEMY SOCIAL HOUR - WELCOME RECEPTION The social hour is scheduled for 8:00 to 10:00 P.M. on Thursday, March 25, in the Denius Student Center. cordially invited. ACADEMY LUNCHEON Members, their wives or husbands, and their guests are Cocktails, soft drinks, and snacks will be available. The Academy Luncheon for members and guests will be held at 12:15 P.M. on Friday, March 26 in the Denius Student Center. Jin, Florida Institute of Technology by March 22. at the registration desk until the time of the luncheon. is $2.00. ANNUAL ACADEMY BANQUET Reservations must be received by Rong-Sheng Reserved tickets will be held The price of the luncheon The Banquet is scheduled for 6:45 P.M. on Friday, March 26 in the Denius Student Center. Wives and other guests are most welcome to attend. All tickets must be reserved by March 22 - only a few unreserved tickets will be available at the registration desk. The price of the tickets is $4.00. Immediately after the banquet the Medalists will address the Academy in the Gleason Auditorium. PARKING No special campus parking permits will be required for members of the Academy. ‘ Since the school will not be in session during this time all legal parking spaces on the campus are available. Maps indicating the location of parking areas is shown on the cover of this program. Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences 3 TOURS AND SPECIAL EVENTS The NASA tour is scheduled for 1:00 P.M. on Thursday, March 25 and will take about 3 hours. This tour will allow the participant to see much more of the buildings and hardware of the space facility than are available to the usual sightseer. You may furnish your own transportation to the Space Center timed to arrive at Gate 3 (near the Visitors Information Center) by 12:45 P.M., or you may meet the bus at F.I.T. by 11:30 A.M. already having had a lunch. The bus fare from F.I.T. to K.S.C. is $1.00 per person, the trip requires one and one quarter hours time. The space tour is free. The ladies program will begin with coffee on the "Outside Inn" Houseboat at 9:30 A.M. on Friday morning, March 26. At 1:45 P.M. the ladies are invited to take a boat tour of the Indian River aboard the "Space Queen" Paddleboat. The tour will take about 2 hours and will cost approximately seventy-five cents. The registration desk will direct you to the boat docks. COMMERCIAL EXHIBITS Firms will display new products, services, and exhibits which will be of interest to the members of the Academy. You are encouraged to view the displays. The commercial exhibits are located in front of the classrooms as shown on map. In case of bad weather the exhibits will be moved to the Denius Student Center. The Academy wishes to thank the firms for their support in making our meeting a success. GENERAL BP RGO GC ReA M THURSDAY, MARCH 25, 1971 4:00 P.M. Executive Council Meeting - - Denius Student Center G30) P.M. Executive Council Dinner - - Denius Student Center 8:00 P.M. Social Hour - - Denius Student Center FRIDAY, MARCH 26, 1971 8:30 A.M. - 12:00 P.M. Sectional Meetings - - All rooms indicated on the map. Biological Sciences Room 19 Physical Sciences Room 7 Social Sciences Room 5 Science Teaching Room 3 12-150? M. Academy Luncheon - - Buffet in Denius Student Center President-elect, Richard E. Garrett, presiding Welcome on behalf of the Florida Institute of Technology: Dr. John E. Miller Address: ZO = "5°00 PLN. Sectional Meetings: Biological Sciences Room 19 Conservation and Biological Sciences Room 18 Physical Sciences Room 7 Social Sciences Room 5 Science Teaching and AAPT/Fla.Section Room 3 “= Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences 5300 Peo: Academy Business Meeting - - Gleason Auditorium 6:45 P.M. Academy Banquet - - Denius Student Center President, Taylor R. Alexander, presiding Citation of Outstanding Scientists and Presentation of the Academy Medal: Chairman of the Honors Committee, Alex G. Smith Address by the Academy Medalists: Everyone is invited to hear the Medalists Address regardless of whether they attend the banquet or not. SATURDAY, MARCH 27, 1971 8:30 A.M. - 12:00 Noon Sectional Meeting Biological Sciences and Conservation - - Symposium Room 19 Physical Sciences, Science Teaching, and American Association of Physics Teachers Room 7 Medical Sciences Room 8 Social Sciences Room 5 Florida Group/Optical Society of America Room 3 2:00 - 3:30 P.M. Sectional Meetings Social Sciences Room 5 PR YO" G REAM FRIDAY MORNING - - MARCH 26, 1971 BIOLOGECAL Sele NGES Sis Cer Ton 9:00 A.M. BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES SECTION - - Sheldon Dobkin, Presiding. Room 19. BS - 1 Three New Fossil Sites in South Florida.- L.D. OBER and W.G, WEAVER, Miami-Dade Jr. College - North. The report brings to the attention of the scientific community the discovery of three new fossil sites in an area of Florida previously thought to be poor in vertebrate fossil material. The most northern of these sites is located on the southern edge of the Big Cypress Indian Reservation in Hendry County, the middle one is located on the Jetport about one mile west of the Dade-Collier County line, the most southern one is west of Goulds in the southern part of Dade County. All appear to be Pleistocene deposits. Though all are under water to some degree, it is felt that the South Dade site has the greatest potential for yielding information. BS-2 Feeding Analysis of Two Decapods from the Water Hyacinth Community. WILLIAM E. JOHNSON, Stetson Univ.--Stomach analysis and P-32 tracer feeding studies were conducted upon the freshwater shrimp Palaemonetes paludosus and crayfish Procambarus fallax. The data presented indicate that both species rely upon the water hyacinth as their major food source. Suearteriys Lournal of the Florida,Academy,of S.cience:s 5 BS - 3 The Morphology of the Protogynous Gonad of the Red Poser agmis.Sedi cum. M. AS Moe. adr. The histology and general morphelogy of the sex change in the gonad of the red porgy is illustrated and discussed. BS-4 Phytogeography of Pavilion Key, Everglades National Park. ALAN CRAIG, Florida Atlantic Univ.-- A comprehensive phytogeographic study of Pavilion Key has been completed emphasizing ecology of exotics. Results of transect mapping are presented graphically and statistically. Comparison with other plant lists indicates the presence of a modified beach strand hammock community. Dynamic effects of severe storms (hurricanes) on substrate and vegetation are examined in detail as is the role of Vermetid rock as a focus of progradation. BS-5 Mollusks at Seahorse Key. EDYTHE M. HUMPHRIES, Univ. of Florida.--A pre- liminary survey of the mollusks of 6 habitats off Seahorse Key, Florida, revealed 70 species (36 gastropods and 34 pelecypods) based on 3 categories: live, dead, and fragments. Thirteen species of live gastropods and 17 species of live pelecypods comprised 10.2 per cent and 6.5 per cent respectively of the total specimens. Each station was qualitatively different; however, they were grossly similar quantita- tively. The sand-mud habitat showed the greatest species diversity of live speci- mens and the largest standing crop. No live specimens were reported from the sand flat. BS - 6 The 1932 West Indies Cruise on the Utowana--Allison V, Armour-- David G. Fairchild Plant Expedition.* HAROLD YAFFA, Miami-Dade Jr. College North. The West Indies Cruise of the yacht Utowana was primarily an expedition for the United States Department of Agriculture in search of ornamental and utilitarian plants for possible introduction. Thirty-two islands of the Bahamas and the West Indian Archipelago were visited. This paper is confined to the islands comprising the Bahamas and is a historical account of this scientific endeavor based on Dr. David Fairchild's unpublished manuscript. Dr. Fairchild's manuscript is now assembled and deposited in the Fairchild Library, Montgomery Science Building, Coral Gables, Florida. *Research supported by National Science Foundation Grant GZ 1523 (1970) BS-7 On the Relationship between Caribbean Gorgonians and Their Zooxanthellae. WALTER M. GOLDBERG, Univ. of Miami.--Zooxanthellae have a profound effect upon their hosts. The relationship is discussed with respect to the vertical zonation of gorgonians, community associations, and feeding behavior. BS-8 Trophic Relationships of Two Invertebrates of the Water Hyacinth Community. RAYMOND W. ALDEN, Stetson Univ.--Radionuclide tracer studies and stomach analyses were made of the apple snail (Pomacea paludosa) and water scorpion (Ranatra fusca). Utilization of the water hyacinth as food is shown for the apple snail. Predatory habits, prey-size, and percentage prey-utilization is given for Ranatra. 6 Quarterly Journal of the Florida’ Academy” of Sicwemece BS-9 Taxonomic Problems in the Genus Justicia (Acanthaceae). MARTHA B. MEAGHER, | R. W. LONG, Univ. of South Florida.--Justicia, the largest genus in the Acanthaceae, is represented in the southeastern United States by four species of the subgenus, Dianthera; J. americana, J. ovata, J. crassifolia, and J. Cooleyi. Three varieties of J. ovata have been recognized; var. ovata, var. lanceolata, and var. angusta. Several species of this subgenus also occur in the West Indies. The taxonomy of the whole group has undergone a number of changes and is still in need of clarifi- cation. A knowledge of the breeding systems involved may throw some light on the problem. It is probable both inbreeding and outbreeding occur. Cleistogamy has been observed in two of the West Indian species. Variation patterns in the J. ovata seem to indicate that outbreeding is occurring in this group. There is also some | indication of hybridization between some of the North American species. BS-10 Studies on _a Population of Red-whiskered Bulbul, Pycnonotus jocosus | (Linnaeus), in Dade County, Florida.* A. R. CARLETON, Univ. of Miami. | *Research supported by: DI FWS 14-16-0008-534. Business Meeting - - Biological Sciences Section. BROS GAN My SG MID IN CIT, S- SiG PION 9:00 A.M. PHYSICAL SCIENCES SECTION - - William Oelfke, Presiding. Room 7 PS - 1 Plasmas, Their Importance in the Space Program. HORST A. POEHLER, Florida Institute of Technology. The basic properties of a plasma are reviewed. In particular the propogation of electromagnetic waves in a plasma is discussed. The importance of plasmas in the Space program is illustrated by a discussion of ionospheric effects, rocket exhaust attenuation, antenna breakdown and re-entry black-out. PS - 2 The Coulomb-Momentum Interaction in Atomic Structure H.H.Dash Research Division, Miami Heart Institute, Miami Beach The coulomb-momentum interaction (n+) provides the mechanism for potential eigenfuction minimization. It thus serves as one of the fundamental energy rules governing the distribution of atomic orbi- tals. It’ yields two, valuable results. It: furmishes’ the) cormectmeieds retical explanation for the ground state periodic positions of the transition and rare earth elements. It also discloses,as shown pre- viously “a clear distinction between a chemical period (P) and a quantum shell (n). When considered as separate parameters, the P and n numbers offer a novel basis for the derivation of atomic num- ber equat dons. 1. Dash, H.H."A Quantum Table of the Periodic System of, Elements™ intern. Ouantum Chem... (Sve to. Paigt il peoo Smee sOIen Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences PS s= "3 Aspects of the Photochemistry of Aromatic Acids and Bases in their Lowest excited singlet states with applications to Fluori- metric Analysis. STEPHEN G. SCHULMAN, University of Florida. -- Rapid protolysis of electronically excited acids and bases often competes with fluorescence for deactivation cf the lowest excited singlet state, resulting in variation of quantum yields with pH. From these variations excited state pK, values may be calculated. The significance of excited state pK, values for optimization of analytical selectivity and sensitivity of some molecules of phar- maceutical interest will be discussed. PS - 4 A Mossbauer Study of Ruthenium Ammine Complexes. C. A. Clausen, III, Dept. of Chemistry, Florida Technological University and R. A. Prados and M. L. Good, Louisiana State University in New Orleans.--This paper will discuss the Méssbauer parameters of a series of pentaamine ruthenium (ITj complexes of the type [Ru (NH3) 5x] as where X is variable, which were obtained at 4.2°K. The isomer Shift was found to be a function of the ligand X and was observed to increase in the order: NO>CO>SOoXN»>CH3CNY NH3. The Mdssbauer spectra of the ammine complexes known as "Ruthenium Red" and "Ruthenium Brown" suggests that they are polymeric species con- training ruthenium in both the +3 and +4 oxidation states. Coffee Break. PS-3 Decontamination of Tritium-Containing Hydrocarbons, R. 0. FRINK, J. A. WETHINGTON, JR., University of Florida - - The stimulation of "tight" natural gas deposits by nuclear explosions - as done in the Gasbuggy and Rulson experi- ments - results in tritium contamination of the hydrocarbons. A possible method of decontamination would be tritium exchange between the hydrocarbons and steam, and this process has been studied. No significant exchange was observed for the homogeneous reaction; however, significant exchange was observed when certain heterogeneous catalysis were introduced into the system. Palladium black, Pt black, Pt asbestos, asbestos, and silica gel were studied. PS - 6 Electron Spin Resonance Investigation of Damage Produced by X-rays in Calcium Phosphate.* MARVIN VOLLUM, T.A.LICK, and F.D.SRYGLEY, Stetson University. — The ESR spectrum of deep ruby color centers in crystals of calcium phosphate Ca(H2P0,)2 grown by evaporation from an aqueous solution has been examined at 9.2 GHz. There are apparently three distinct free radicals present. It has been possible to completely analyze the spectra of the dominant radical. ‘The unpaired electron is coupled to a phosphorus nucleus, and the spin density is about 1% in the phosphorus 3s orbital. *Research supported by the National Science Foundation. PS-7 Quenching of Emission Lines at Tonks-Dattner Resonances.* S.C. BLOCH AND J.L. AUBEL, Univ. of South Florida. - - We have observed spectroscopically the quenching of emission lines in afterglow plasmas; this quenching appears to be related to electron heating at Tonks-Dattner resonance, and is a function of the power of the observing X-band microwave signal. Preliminary results will be discussed. *Work supported in part by The Atmospheric Sciences Section, National Science Foundation, Grant GA-10425. 8 Quarterly Journal of thesFilorida Academy of Sesemec- PS - 8 Electronic on-line Normalization of Excitation Spectra. Joel H. Blatt, Physics Department, Florida Institute of Technology. Electronic techniques were used to eliminate effects caused by the spectral intensity variation in an excitation source upon the fluorescence produced in a sample crystal. The technique allows replacement of a slit servo system and simultaneous presentation of raw and normalized data along with the excitation lamp spectrum. PS - 9 Recent Research in Ultrasonic Atomization. W. F. Dickinson and F. H. Chang, Physics Department, Florida Institute of Technology. High voltage electromagnetic waves were used to produce ultrasounds by high mechanical Q ceramic transducers. Atomization of auto- mobile fuel was achieved by this ultrasonic method. The effects of the ultrasound frequency, amplitude and the formation of cavity resonance on the drop size and emission rate were investigated. PS-10 Visualizing Elementary and Compound Particles. JAMES R. TAYLOR, Pvte Research - - Through the aid of Intrinsic Inertia and Direct Action the inter- actional date from High Energy Physics may be projected to give the elementary and compound particles understandable configurations. These configurations give visualizable understanding to the various particle characteristics with which many Physicists work. This new approach provides a rational geometrical explanation for several puzzles in contemporary Modern Physics, puzzles such as; (1) The neutrality of atoms. (4) The nature of Particle Spins. (2) Unidirectional photon emission. (5) The electron-muon mass difference. (3) The constancy of Planck's Constant. (6) The nature of the Four Levels. JOCIAL PoCleonGr jo CoLron 9:00 A.M. SOCIAL SCIENCE SECTION - - Ernest F. Dibble, Presiding. Room 5 Format: Discussants will hold a short 'roundtable' after each paper is read. The Discussants are: R. Waterman, Anthropology, Univ. of South Florida Ford, Sociology, Florida State University Turner, History, University of Florida Freeman, Political Science, Univ. of West Fla. U mi = SSO es OGartenly Journal of the (Plorida Academy of Sciences 9 SSiseuel On the Measurement of Labor Mobility, James C. Simmons Florida State University. Measures of mobility for the entire labor force or major sectors of the labor force are lacking or inadequate because workers are heterogeneous as to length of exposure in the labor force. They, therefore, have different potentials for mobility. For the same reason workers with different lengths of exposure cannot be compared. Another problem in the study of labor mobility is the measurement of net change in the size of different labor force groups due to mobility in and out of the groups rather than to change in size due to different increments from new entrants or exists to and from the labor force. One solution to these problems is given with some results from a large empirical study. Son a2 University of West Florida. This paper will outline the development of the Chilean social security. system in particular and will attempt a sociological explanation of the role of social security as well as other forms of social welfare in the development of Latin America. The major perspective taken will be socio-historical and will focus on the Hispanic view of man and the social contract, ideological conflicts surrounding the demise of liberalism and individualism in the last decades of the nineteenth century and the first few decades of the present century, major organizational models employed in the establishment of social security programs in Chile, prevailing welfare ideologies, and how all these converge/diverge to affect the organizational functioning of three Chilean social security funds since their inception (1925-1930). Coffee Break SS - 3 HERD i ieM Cy co f Recognizing a Change in the Course of Histonyse Gilbert is. ycan (Stetson University. ee ENG HY err ACHING SECTION 9:00 A.M. SCIENCE TEACHING SECTION - - Harold Sims, Presiding. Room 3 ST-1 Audio-Tutorial Earth Science at St. Petersburg Junior College*. CHARLES J. MOTT, St. Petersburg Junior College, Clearwater Campus. - - Specific adaptations of the Audio-Tutorial concept are outlined and the efficiency of the system is emphasized by comparison to standard earth science classes. Cost estimates of a 300 - student program are presented and conclusions supporting the practicability of the Audio-Tutorial approach are advanced. 1. Gould, J.C. & N.G. Langford, "A comparison of Audio-Tutorial & Non Audio- Tutorial Earth Science During Fall, 1969", Report on Staff & Program Development Project, St. Petersburg Jr. College. Support provided through Staff and Program Development -SPJC. 10 Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Selene Si-2 The Current State of College Level Environmental Studies. RIBLET, DONALD C., University of Florida.- -This paper will present an overview of environmental education activities on both the National and State levels. Federally and founda- tion financed projects will be discussed. Si=e Science with Soul. P. J. DRIVER, Edward Waters College.- - This paper will identify some major problems faced when teaching physical science to poorly prepared students who finished from black ghetto high schools. An approach and method of instruction which has yielded success is described. Group self-esteem is discussed as a need to stimulate learning. A discussion of student partici- pation in the course is included. 1. Selmore, Fla. Educ. 48, 14 (1970) Business Meeting - - Science Teaching Section ST-4 An Evaluation of the Effects of Treatment of Students for DISCUS Program on Students' Achievement and Attitudes Towards Themselves, Their Peers, Their Teachers and Their School. L. B. SANDERS, N. E. BINGHAM, Univ. of Florida. - - This paper will evaluate the effects of treated students in the DISCUS Program. The Program is a junior science curriculum which was designed for and taught to under- achieving students in the Duval County Public Schools. This curriculum had the same orientation subject wise as the Duval County curriculum; namely, it emphasized the biological sciences in the 7th grade; the physical sciences in the 8th grade; and the earth sciences in the 9th grade. The Program successfully developed an improv- ed science curriculum at the junior high school level for economically disadvantaged underachieving students who were potential school dropouts. Variables tested were treatment of students and interactions related to training of teachers, grade place- ment, sex and race. Applied Multiple Linear Regression Techniques for use with the computer as developed by Battenburg, Ward, and others were used in the analysis. ST=5 Junior Academy Finalist - - Senior Literary Paper without Laboratory Research ST-6 Junior Academy Finalist - - Senior Literary Paper with Laboratory Research ST-7 Junior’ Academy Finalist - - Junior High School Literary Paper Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences 11 FRIDAY AFTERNOON -- MARCH 26, 1971 BEOmOG GAs “SCIENCES SE C.riloOwn 2:00 P.M. BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES SECTION - - J. L. Simon, Presiding. Room 19. BS-l1l The Effect of Temperature and Salinity Upon the Metabolic Rate of the Stone Crab, Menippe mercenaria (Say). EDWARD S. BENDER, Univ. of Florida.--This paper will discuss the effect of temperature and salinity upon the oxygen con- sumption rate of juvenile stone crabs. Crabs were acclimated to each change in environmental conditions. The animals were maintained on at constant light and dark cycles (12:12) with constant humidity. Experiments included a diurnal test which indicated a metabolic peak corresponding with high tide. The results com- pared favorably with field observations. The effect of size, weight, and growth were also discussed. BS-12 Physicological Thermoregulation in Four Species of Turtle. D.C. SPRAY * and M.L. MAY, University of Florida. - - Heating and cooling rates of four species of turtle were obtained under varicus conditions of humidity and air flow, and these values are compared with those obtained for other reptiles in the literature. The two basking species (Pseudemys scripta and Chrysemys picta) had lower cooling:heating ratios than did the two terrestrial species (Gopherus polyphemys and Terrapene carolina). The cooling:heating ration of Chrysemys was increased to the same value in the dead animal and after deafferentation of the carapace. We interpret these findings as evidence for control of heat input and output through carapace vasomo- tion. *Research partially supported by NIMH Predoctoral Fellowship #10320. BS-13 Characteristics of the Cellulolytic Enzyme Complex in Certain Filamentous Marine Fungi.* J. R. JENSEN, P. L. SGUROS, Florida Atlantic Univ.--Halosphaeria mediosetigera and Culcitalna achraspora have been under study to elucidate the mechanism by which they degrade cellulostic materials in the sea. Standardized shake-cultures were grown on cellulose or cellulose derivatives supplemented with NH,NO3, tris (hydroxymethyl) aminomethane and yeast extract in artificial seawater (Lyman and Fleming), pH 7.5, at 25 C. Induced Cisne and cellobiase activities were determined colorimetrically, after correlation with cotton fiber weight loss, by the formation of reducing sugars from carboxymethylcellulose and by Glucostat, »respectively. Filtrates of Alphacel-grown H. mediosetigera and cotton-grown C. achraspora showed respective cellobiases to have similar temperature and pH optima and stability characteristics, while those of Cy enzymes differed notably. Data indicate that at least three enzymatic functions are involved in cellulose break- down by these cultures. *Research supported by the Office of Naval Research. BS-14 Investigations on the Antigenicity of Red Blood Cells from Mugil cephalus in Florida Waters. JOHN A CIDLOWSKI, Univ. of South Florida.--Immunological techniques have been employed in studying the possibility of specific isolated breeding populations of the striped mullet; Mugil cephalus. Antisera with titers - eZ Quarterly Journal of the Florrda A cadenty* of Setemecs up to 1:243 have been prepared in New Zealand White rabbits against red blood cells from specific mullet collected in St. Petersburg, Florida. These sera were cross reacted via agglutination precipitation tests against mullet red blood cells from various areas in Florida. The results of this study indicate common antigens with only slight variations in immunological characteristics. BS-L5 The Styrenes as Embedding Media for Electron Microscopy. EDWARD D. DeLAMATER, ERIC JOHNSON, THAD SCHOEN, CECIL WHITAKER, Florida Atlantic Univ.--The high viscosity and high surface tension of embedding media currently in use in electron microscopy inhibit adequate penetration of specimens. The styrenes, having viscosity and surface tension of less than 1, penetrate extremely rapidly and have proven especially effective for the embedment of shell, bone, and other hard materials. Styrene is inhibited from polymerization by tertiary butyl catechol. Styrene polymerization is initiated by methyl ethyl ketone peroxide. Methyl ethyl ketone peroxide apparently acts by overcoming the inhibition of the catechol acting as a source of free radical initiation. Polymerization is carried out under ultra- violet light with a wave length between 3400 and 4000 increments. BS-16 Is rRNA the mRNA for Ribsomal Protein? JAMES C. LACEY, JR., JOHN R. JUNGCK, Univ. of Miami.--Our study demonstrates that the predicted messenger RNA for E. coli ribosomal proteins (based on their amino acid compositions) has a nucleotide com- position very close to that of ribosomal RNA. In addition, there is a unique reading frame of the primary sequences of 5S ribosomal RNAs of E. coli and Homo Sapiens KB Carcinoma cells in which no terminators appear. This indicates 5S ribosomal RNA could be translated into protein. Also, the fact that the frame is unique and evolutionarily preserved is consistent with Pieczenik's syntactical selection hypothesis. Our data imply that ribosomal RNAs are or were involved as messenger RNAs for ribosomal proteins. BS-17 Cytochemistry of Core-like Structures in Group D Streptococci.* S&S. E. COLEMAN, A. S. BLEIWEIS, Univ. of Florida. - - Core-like sturctures have been reported in group D streptococci and,postulated to consist of disorganized cell wall components or of teichoic acid. These structures occur in cells in the stationary phase of growth. Thin sections of Streptococcus faecalis ATCC 8043 and an oral group D strain XL were stained by the silver methenamine method for poly- saccharides. Cell walls stained heavily whereas the core-like structures did not stain. The cores were digested by the enzyme pronase but not by nucleases. These results indicate that core-like structures are partly protein but are not composed of nucleic acids or typical cell wall polymers. Freeze-etched preparations of unfixed bacteria showed cores to be hollow cylinders of the same form observed in fixed cells. The function of these structures is unknown. *Research supported by grant DE 2901 from NIDR and a gift from Eli Lilly & Co. 1..R, G. MeGandless et al, J. Bacteriol .96.. 1400) (1968) BS - 18 Ecology, Vegetation and Topography of the Dry Tortugas Updated to 1970.* P. B. SCHROEDER, J.H. DAVIS, Univ. of Miami. - - The half-dozen islets which com- prise the Dry Tortugas have been ecologically studied periodically since the turn of the century. In November and February a year ago, a field party from the University of Miami made a topographical and vegetational study of several of these keys. The pertinent information gathered at that time is now made available and provides continuity with the studies of Millspaugh (1907), Bowman (1918), and Davis Suarherhy Journal: of ‘the Florida Academy of Sciences 1's (1942). Two of the three keys studied have changed from barren coral and sand strips to substantial islets largely covered with vegetation within the last 63 years. The configuration of one of these has been completely altered. All three keys have changed considerably in shape. Vegetational communities have shown similar changes and maturity. Mangrove areas (red and white) have become estab- lished and enlarged. Australian pines and other exotics, introduced to Loggerhead Key, have spread over much of the island and now are found on Bush Key. *Investigation supported by NIH Grant STO1 ESO0126 from National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences. BS-19 Growth Response of Selected Marine Fungi to a Variety of Energy and Nitrogen Sources.* P.L. SGUROS, J. SIMMS, J. RODRIGUES, Florida Atlantic Univ.-- Humicola alopallonella, Culcitalna achraspora and Halosphaeria mediosetigera, cellulolytic marine isolates, were grown in a basal medium consisting of tris (hydroxymethyl) aminomethane (THAM), KH2P0,, thiamine, biotin and yeast extract ash in artificial seawater (Lyman and Fleming) singly augmented with more than 100 inorganic and organic nitrogen (N) sources and carbon (C) sources. All pro- cedures were based on gravimetric growth measurements. Best N source responses were quantitated with and without THAM and pH changes recorded. Generally, re- sponses were uniformly selective. While all inorganic N substrates were utilized, only urea, xanthine and nine amino acids allowed comparable growth. Few C sub- strates were acceptable and most were inert compared with glucose, fructose, mannose, and cellobiose. Response to D-glycosides and sugar acetates revealed growth pat- terns similar to those of terrestrial species. *Research supported by the Office of Naval Research. BS-20 Vegetation analysis in the Dry Tortugas by Remote Sensing.* H.J. TEAS, P. B. SCHROEDER, Univ. of Miami. The Dry Tortugas are a group of islands located about 70 miles west of Key West, Florida. Detailed ground truth observa- tions have been carried gut on the four large islands in the Dry Tortugas using aerial photography and I S image enhancement equipment. It has been possible to distinguish several vegetation associations and to identify a number of plant species. The areas that have been differentiated include: associations of the strand-beach, strand-dune, and strand-scrub types; specific stands of Uniola (sea oats), Sesuvium, Suriana, Rhizophora (red mangrove), and Laguncularia (white mangrove); and also individual plants of Bursera (gumbo-limbo) and Conocarpus (buttonwood), as well as a variety of introduced specied such as Casuarina (australian pine), Cocos (coconut), and Phoenix (date palm). *Supported by NASA grant NGL-10-007-010 and NIEHS Training Grant STO1 ESO0126. BS-21 Hormonal Control in Aging Cultures of Lemna minor. J. P. OSTROW. Texas A & M Univ.- - This paper reports the presence of inhibition in aging cultures of Lemna minor, and describes research into the nature of this inhibition. 14 Quarterly Journal ‘of the Florida Academy. 0f Segemene BIOLOGICAL SCIEMCES AND -CONSERVA TION, 32 G2 ea JOINT - SHS5LO.N 2:00 P.M. CONSERVATION AND BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES - JOINT SESSION - - G.K. Reid, Presiding, Room 18 G-1 The Major Plants of Lake Okeechobee, Florida. K.E. KERCE, Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission C2 A Preliminary Analysis of a Late Pleistocene Vertebrate Fauna from South Florida. W. G. WEAVER, L. D. OBER, Miami-Dade Junior College, North. - - Vertebrate fossils thus far excavated and identified from a Pleistocene deposit in southern Dade County reveal a fauna similar to that from the Vero Beach locality. A notable mammalian exception is Felis Atrox. The reptilian fauna is essentially modern except for the extinct giant tortoise Goecholone crassiscutata, and a pond turtle Chrysems scripta whose present natural range does not extend south of central Florida. c-3 Bald Cypress and Mangrove Complex of the Jonathan Dickinson State Park (Florida). TAYLOR R. ALEXANDER, Univ. of Miami. - - The occurrence of cypress, magrove, and certain other temperate zone and subtropical species has been analyzed by guadrat and transect methods. The date document the fact that large cypress trees have died in recent times. Analyses of water and soil indicate intrusion of salt water following man-made changes in historic water flow is a contributing factor. c-4 A Survey of the Commercial Fishery of Lake Okeechobee, Florida. LOTHIN A. AGAR, Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission 6-5 Mercury and Lead Determinations in the Estuarine Waters of Southeastern Volusia County, Florida. A KREUGER, B. JOHNSON, M. FIELDS, D. DEEDS, Stetson Univ. - - Catfish, mullet, trout, shrimp, and oysters were collected from 10 areas situated along 20 miles of the southern Halifax and northern Indian Rivers. River water, fish livers, and whole invertebrate animals were tested for mercury and lead by measuring a dithiozone complex spectrophotometrically. These preliminary studies suggest certain patterns in the distribution of mercury and lead in these estarine waters and have established base levels against which to compare future measure- ments. C-6 A Preliminary Checklist of Algae from the Dade-Collier Training and Transitional Port Facility.* NORMAN RICHARDSON, Univ. of Miami. - - In conjunction with the initial Jetport survery, a preliminary algal checklist was assembled from 27 samples collected during the months of June-August, 1970. No quantitative observations were made due to the short sampling period. Relative absence of conventional pollution indicators, seasonal variation, wide diversity of species and distribution of genera of the Cyanophyta are the underscored observations of the study. * Research supported by grant B 7360, Dade County Port Authority. a ee Swarberky Journal, of athe, Florida Academy), of Sciences 15 C=7 Nesting Populations of Brown Pelicans in Florida. L.E. WILLIAMS, JR., L.L. MARTIN, Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission. -_- Twenty-two nesting colonies of brown pelicans (Pelecanus occidentalis) were found on small islands close to the Florida peninsula and 18 colonies were found in the Florida Keys during the three nesting seasons in which this survery was made. Numbers of nests counted in 1968, 1969, and 1970 were 6,926, 6,100, and 7,690, respectively. This represents a conservative estimate of 12,000 to 15,380 adult brown pelicans in Florida. Pre-breeding age classes were not counted. The adult population thus appears to have been relatively stable during the past three years, but this does not reveal whether reproduction has been sufficient to sustain this population. c-8 The Potential of Florida Wetlands for Certain Foreign Waterfowl. E. DALE CRIDER, Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission. c-9 Preliminary Thermal Effects Studies on Postlarval Panulirus argus. ROSS WITHAM, Florida Department of Natural Resources, Marine Laboratory, Jensen Beach, Florida. c-10 Summer Foods of Cattle Egrets (Bubulcus ibis) in North Central Florida. MICHAEL J. FOGARTY, Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission. - - The stomach contents from 1,000 cattle egrets were examined to determine summer food preferen- ces. Invertebarates amounted to 93.9 per cent, by volume, of the diet while vertebrates consisted of only 6.1 per cent. Orthopterus insects were found in 96.8 per cent of the stomachs and represented 80.5 per cent by volume, of the total diet. c-11 Bacteriological, Fungal, or Viral Control of Noxious Aquatic Weeds.* THOMAS T. STURROCK, LAWRENCE E. CAPPLEMAN, JR., Florida Atlantic Univ. - - Aquatic weeds present serious problems to cosmopolitan, tropical, and subtropicalbodies of water. The currently effective methods of control are mechanical removal and treatment with herbicides, the later possibly deleterious to aquatic ecosystems. A study is under way to locate, isolate, and identify bacteriological, fungal, or viral pathogens of noxious aquatic weeds. Following further controlled investi- gations, it is the long range goal of this project to inoculate naturally occurring infestations of the noxious host to produce a self-perpetuating control for the plants with little general deleterious effects upon the aquatic ecosystem. *This study financed by a grant from the Federal Water Quality Administration, U.S. Dept. of Interior. Business Meeting - - Conservation Section 16 Quarterly Journal of the Florida-Academy of Setesees PHYSICAL SCIENCES: ‘sh CTION 2:00 P.M. PHYSICAL SCIENCES SECTION - - Palmer L. Edwards, Presiding. Room 7 PS - 11 Computer Model of Binary Stars in Elliptical Orbits.* W. J. RHEIN, Florida Technological Univ., K-Y CHEN, Univ. of Florida--The temper- atures of the facing surfaces of binary stars are first calculated from a model which permits variation of seven parameters (the two radii, the two intrinsic temperatures, the two coefficients of limb darkening, and the eccentricity of tha orbit). The light radiated by the star-model in the direction of the earth is then calculated as a function of three other parameters (the wavelength, the in- clination of the system, and the longitude of periastron) and of an indépendent variable (the phase of the system relative to the earth). A light curve calcu- lated from this model will be compared with the light curve observed from a real binary system. Comments will be made on the success of the model in predicting some of the parameters of the real system. *Research supported at Univ. of Florida by NSF and NASA and at Florida Tech. Univ. by the Computer Center. PS-12 Optical Variability Transitions of Quasi-Stellar Radio Sources.* G. H. FOLSOM, A. G. SMITH, R. L. HACKNEY, and K, R. HACKNEY, Rosemary Hill Observatory, Univ. of Fla.--Photographic monitoring of quasars with the 30-inch reflector over the past two years has resulted in the detection of short-term, large-amplitude optical changes in several objects. In each case the activity slowly declined to a level of relative stability where little or no optical change was noted. Light curves have been constructed for these "violently variable" quasars, and comparison shows that their overall behavior is strikingly similar. *Supported by an NSF University Science Development Grant. PS-13 Photoelectric Observations of EE Aquarii.* RICHARD M. WILLIAMON, Rose- mary Hill Observatory, Univ. of Fla.--Photoelectric observations of EE Aquarius in three colors have been obtained during the late summer of 1970 using the photometer attached to the University of Florida 30-inch telescope at Rosemary Hill Observatory. EE Aquarius is an eclipsing variable with a period of 0.509 day. The light curves are presented and discussed. *Sponsored by the National Science Foundation and the Nation Aeronautics and Space Administration. PS-14 Photoelectric Observations of 44 i Bootis. IAN RUDNICK, Rosemary Hill Observatory, Univ. of Fla.--Photoelectric blue and yellow observations of the eclipsing variable 44 i Bootis have been obtained during 1969 and 1970 using the photometer attached to the Rosemary Hill Observatory 30-inch reflector. The times of minima indicate an increase in the period occurred in 1967. In addition, a depression shortly after maximum light was observed, similar to earlier observations reported by Brown and Pinnington (1969 Astron. J. 74, 538). Business Meeting - - Physical Sciences Section Suter reriy Journal of the “Florida° Academy of Science'’s Ly PS - 15 Feynman Path-integral Calculation of the Polaron Effective Mass. John T. Marshall and M. 5. Chawla, Louisiana State University and Florida Institute of Technology. In the expansion of the ground-state energy of a polaron in a weak magnetic field, the zeroth-order term is the polaron self-energy, while the first- order term is inversely proportional to the polaron effective mass. The effective mass so obtained is exactly equivalent to the free-polaron effective mass as defined by Frohlich. This equivalence principle is used to approximate the polaron effective mass by employing an approximate expression for the ground-state energy of a polaron in a weak magnetic field obtained by applying Feynman's path-integral variational method. The resultant polaron effective mass is found to be higher than Feynman's result by less than 1%. PS - 16 Energy Bands and Fermi Surface of Potassium By the APW Method. JAY. S BOLEMON and B.J. HENDERSON, Florida Technological University *Research supported by an NSF Instutional Grant for Science. LOS OS Eee SS ES Se ee Se ee nological University. pectin SsSecikbNCckr SEC TION 2:00 P.M. SOCIAL SCIENCE SECTION - - Ernest F. Dibble, Presiding. Room 5 SS - 4 The Use of Telemetry in Behavioral Research, James D. Upson Rollins College. The recent development of multi-channel telemetry systems for human and sub-human organisms has resulted in the ability to gather data which was heretofore unobtainable. Remote monitoring of internal and external behavior allows one to evaluate ongoing biological processes with minimal influence on the subject or the environment in which he is functioning. By using remotely controlled internal stimuli the experimenter can communicate with the subject in situations where the use of external stimuli would be inappro- priate. Specific systems and the implication for research and _clinical practice are discussed. Ss - 5 Controlling Pollution: An Economic View, James C. Nicholas Florida Atlantic University. In this paper it is argued that the problem of environmental pollution is essentially an economic problem. It is an economic problem in that pollution envolves the shifting of the cost of waste disposal from the producer of such wastes to society as a whole. The remedy then must be to cause pollutors to bare any such costs themselves and in so doing an inducement to cease and desist is provided. This paper rejects the frequently mentioned idea that pollu- tion is the necessary result of industrialization, capitalism, large populations, or mass consumption. Rather, it is argued that the universal goal of cost minimization is at fault. Therefore, a strategy 18 Quarterly Journal of. the, Florida Academy ) of Sicha set is needed which results in both cost and pollution minimizing behavior. Such a strategy is contained in the so called "right to pollute!!! policy. It is argued that this policy will turn cost minimization behavior toward pollution reduction, create an instant demand for pollution abatement devices, provide funds through the sale of rights to finance anti-pollution research, and present a ceiling for the level of effluents. SS - 6 Ernst Troeltsch's Views of the Philosophy of History, Robert J. Rubanowice, The Florida State University. Ernst Troeltsch (1865- 1923) spent the last third of a thirty-year scholarly career wrestling with the problems of the philosophy of history. He maintained that a philosophy of history was vitally needed by his contemporaries to help Overcome problems in the turn-of-the-century crisis of European values. In examining the previous twenty-five hundred year tradition since the ancient Greeks, he concluded that not one single philosophy of history | that had yet been put forth in Western civilization was sufficiently viable and acceptable for present needs. In this paper we examine the most important of the basic defects he saw, which involved excesses of rationalism, empiricism, irrationalism, iconoclasm, and theology. By thus exposing the pathology of past defects in the history of the philosophy of history. Troeltsch hoped to alert his contemporaries to errors they themselves must not repeat. SCIENGE “TEACHING "AND AAPT /PULORIDAS | Gate JON Df Sk Ss sO 2:00 P.M. SCIENCE TEACHING AND AAPT/FLORIDA SECTION - JOINT SESSION -- H. Sims, Presiding. Room 3. ST-8 An Interdepartmental Natural Science Course for Honors Students. M, T. REAGAN, A. T. JUSICK, D. A. STOCK AND F. M. KNAPP, Stetson University. - - We have presented an interdepartmental one-year course for non-science majors consisting of three tracks. The first track is a series of lectures leading from atomic struc- ture through molecular genetics. The second track is a set of group projects related to the impact of science on society. The third consists of laboratory experiments. ST=-9 A Modern Approach to the Undergraduate Optics Laboratory. WILLIAM C. OELFKE, Florida Technological Univ.- - An "open-ended" optics laboratory program is outlined and two experiments from the program, a Fourier spectrometer and the detailed analysis of a laser output, are described in detail. The lab is designed to offer undergraduate students in the physical sciences a group of experiments each of which can be developed to as high a level of sophistication as the student desires Although these esperiments are somewhat unconventional, they are performed using conventional, inexpensive optics lab equipment. Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences ny) ST- 10 An Evaluation of the Effects of Training of Teachers for DISCUS Program on Student's Achievement and Attitudes Toward Themselves, Their Peers, Their Teachers, and Their School. V. G. GIZZI, N. E. BINGHAM, Univ. of Florida. - - This paper will evaluate the effects of trained teachers, i. e., those who completed a Summer Institute and follow-up Inservice program in DISCUS curriculum materials, on student achievement and on attitudes held by students within the DISCUS Program. (The DISCUS Program successfully developed an improved science curriculum at the junior high school level for economically-disadvantaged underachieving students who were potential school dropouts.) Variables tested in this analysis were training of teachers and interactions related to treatment, grade placement, sex, and race. Applied Multiple Linear Regression Techniques for use with the computer as developed by Battenburg, Ward and others were used in the analysis. ST-11 Ecology in the Junior College. HAROLD SIMS, St. Petersburg Junior College. - - This paper deals with the organization and content of an Ecology course taught to the Freshman level Junior College Student. The course assumes the student has no knowledge of biology or ecology except what was taught during the high school experience. Herein the student learns the basics of ecology and later relates it to problems that face Florida and the world. ST-12 Reaching Under-Motivated Students -- A Pilot Program. N. SMITH, K. E. CONWAY, J. WARREN, J. THOMPSON, Gainesville High School. - - A unique approach to teach slow under-motivated students will be presented. This technique deals with team teaching, the use of small group dynamics and a deep concern for the student. Under-motivated students are usually turned off by conventional teaching techniques. However, by using this approach each student is drawn to learning by his own success. This approach was undertaken primarily for Biology classes that differed greatly in ability. SATURDAY MORNING -- MARCH 27, 1971 9:00 A. M. BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES AND CONSERVATION SECTION JOINT SESSION -- Sheldon Dobkin, Presiding. Room 18 Symposium: AQUACULTUTE IN FLORIDA - - PROGRESS, PROBLEMS, AND FUTURE. Intoductory Remarks - - Sheldon Dobkin. SYM- 1 Rearing Marine and Fresh-Water Shrimp in Florida. THOMAS J. COSTELLO, National Marine Fisheries Service. - - Considering availability, growth rates, market price, and the status of rearing technology, marine and freshwater shrimp qualify as the prime candidates for an aquaculture industry in Florida. With marine shrimp,the laboratory technology for rearing postlarvae for stocking is complete and availabe. Techniques for rearing large quantities of brackish water and freshwater shrimp postlarvae are nearly complete, but the method is not generally available. Efficient harvesting of shrimp grown to edible size in enclosed bays and large slatwater ponds is a primary problem. Predation during the grow-out period also has plagued the industry. Nutritional research is needed to develop stable cheap foods for shrimp during the grow-out period. In the future, we may see Florida develop as a base for production of postlarvae in very large quantities. 20 Quarterly Journal of the? Florida Academy ot sietemer Economical labor, cheap land and a slightly better climate for growing shrimp make the Caribbean and Central America obvious choices for production of pond-reared shrimp in the immediate future. SYM- 2 Progress, Problems,and Future of Pompano Culture in Florida. JOHN CINUCANE, National Marine Fisheries Service. - - Preliminary research during the last two years shows that it is possible to induce spawning of pompano through the use of gonadotrophins such as HCG. Depending on the degree of oocyte development, some fish can be spawned in 24-48 hours using 100-500 I.U. per pound of fish. Steroids at concentrations of 0.5 to 1 mg. per pound of fish were also used in conjunction with HCG to stimulate follicle as well as luteinizing development of the oocytes. Their use increased the percentage of successful egg fertilization. Injections of HCG alone often produced overripeness of the eggs. Experiments with alteration of photoperiod and water temperature indicate that natural spawning can be accelerated. A daylength of 14 to 16 hours with increasing temperature was most efffective for us. Supplemental injections of hormones were | often necessary to trigger spawning. | Salinity tolerance studies with juvenile and adult pompano show pompano can be raised successfully in brackish water from 5 to 20 p.p.t. Growth rates at these low salinities were often better than those of control fish kept at normal sea- water salinity. A marked increase in fish diseases, especially fungus infections, was noted at low salinities. Many problems remain to be solved before commercial production of pompano becomes a reality. The principal need is for the development of larval rearing techniques to eliminate the necessity of obtaining wild stock. Culture of natural foods of the right size, nutrition, and quantity for pompano larvae has not yet been success- ful on a large scale. Research is needed on artificial food substitutes that will reduce the time and costly equipment required to maintain the necessary stocks of natural food organisms such as copepods. The future of pompano aquaculture is dependent mainly on breakthroughs in nutri- tion, physiology, and selective breeding. The multispecies concept of raising other fish, mollusks, and crustaceans with pompano should be developed so that \ the fish farmer can achieve a year-round harvest and fully utilize the entire food chain in pond culture. SYM-3 Molluscan culture in Florida, ROBERT M. INGLE, Florida Department of Natural Resources. This report will outline the present state of the art and will list problems that stand in the way of a full realization of Florida's potential. SYM-4 Progress, Problems, and Future of Catfish Culture in Florida. PAUL C. BARRETT, Fare-General Corporation. Florida has progressed rapidly from pond cultured catfish into tank raceway and cage culture, with this growth has come numer- ous disease problems related to intensive culture, Also, shortages of quality fingerling suppliers and large market outlets, Due to its favorable climate and water supply, Florida will lead the way in the intensive culture of catfish in raceways, tanks, and cages, Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences 2A PHYSICAL SCIENCE, SCIENCE TEACHING, AND AAPT/FLORIDA SECTION - - JOINT SESSION 9:00 A.M. PHYSICAL SCIENCE, SCIENCE TEACHING, AND AAPT/FLORIDA SECTION - JOINT SESSION - - M, T. Kambour, Presiding. Room 7 Prt Drag Strip Physics - Teaching Examples of Rectilinear Motion. W. B. PHILLIPS, University of West Florida. - - PT-2 Rectilinear and Angular Acceleration of Rotating Bodies on a Frictionless Table. R. S. DICKENS, Forrest High School. - - The apparatus will be described in detail. Photographs and diagrams of actural experimental runs will be shown with the final results calculated and tabulated. PT-3 New Approaches in Junior High School Physical Science. B.F. ADAMS AND K. T. KAMINSKI, Southwest Junior High School. - -Development of concepts of basic principles of physical science is the major objective of the "new'' science curricula. Curricula use the investigative approach, involving students in first-hand observa- tion which is designed to lead the student to the scientific conclusion. PT-4 Physics in the Secondary School. MILTON COUTURIER, Satellite High School.- - Why only a small percentage of the secondary school students enroll in physics-- possible remedies. Course evaluation--content--how taught--student reaction. Rela- tion to lower and higher educational levels. PT-5 Physics is Fun. JAMES S. BACON, Melbourne High School. - - Techniques are presented which stimulate interest in high school physics students. Project Physics, PSSC and Advanced Physics course materials are evaluated and found lacking in vary- ing degrees. New trends in high school physics teaching are reviewed. PT-6 The Physics Undergraduate Research Participation Program at Florida Atlantic University. B. LAMBORN, Florida Atlantic University dbo Single Concept Movies - Mechanical Energy Around Us. R. E. GARRETT AND H. A. VAN RINSVELT, University of Florida. - - A student-produced movie will be shown demonstrating the application and adaption of the single-concept film as an educa- tional "adventure" within and outside of the classroom. Emphasis will be on the isolation of naturally occurring physical phenomena and their subsequent applica- tions in the expanding technology. The movie will be presented by the students tnemselves,. PT-8 More Physical Insight, Not Wasted Memorization. JAMES G. POTTER, Florida Institure of Technology. Business Meeting - - AAPT/Florida Section 22 Quarterly Journal of the Florida Acadé my; of (Setesaere MEDICAL SCIENCE AND BIOMOGICA LS C1s Nero JOINE SESSEON 9:00 A. M. MEDICAL SCIENCE AND BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES -- Richard S. Gubner, Presiding. | Room 8 MS - 1 G-Force as it Relates to Human Physiology. ZOLTAN PETRONY, Tampa and Hills- borough County Hospitals MS - 2 Automated Multiphasic Health Testing in the Seventies. G. DON VANLANDINGHAM, Director, Medical Liaison, Medical Scientific International MS - 3 Report on the White House Conference on Aging. ALFRED LAWTON, University of South Florida MS - 4 A Special Greenhouse. IRVING S. LEINBACH, Bayfront Medical Center. - - The operating room enclosure used at Bayfront Medical Center is essentially a box of 4" Plexiglass plate with a 10' x 10%' ground area, and reaching to the ceiling of the high operating room. Filtered air enters the enclosure through HEPA filters in the ceiling of the enclosure. The bottom edges of the glass plates forming the en- closure rest on metal feet, to leave a space for air to escape into the surrounding room at floor level. The 10' x 10%' ground area has been chosen as the smallest in which our hip joint surgery can conveniently be performed. For a given volume of air this small cross- section increases the vertical air speed to a maximum. The entrance to the en- closure, through which the lower three-quarters of the operating table and tlhe patient's body is made to enter, is closed by sterile curtains. Closing the main aperture in the glass enclosure in this way raises the air pressure inside the en- closure to cause a strong outflow of air through the open 'service hatch' at the foot end of the enclosure. The outflow through the 'service hatch' is so fast that there is no need to provide doors or curtains to protect the interior of the en- closure. This room has now been in use for about six months and all the surgeons and the nursing staff find it an extremely comfortable method of working without any technical problems and without any interference in freedom of activity compared with conventional methods. It is customary to expose bacteriological text plates during at least three operations per week, throughout the course of an operation, and very rarely is it that one single colony will be grown. This high standard of air cleanliness can be maintained without any reduction in the throughput of operative work in the operating room. This stands in marked contrast to the idea of improv- ing the air cleanliness in conventional operating room systems by prohibiting nurses moving during the course of an operation, by prohibiting the start of the operation until a delay of five minutes has taken place for the air to settle down after the commotion of entry of the patient, and by prohibiting the opening and closing of doors during the course of an operation. The final test of this technique on the actual infection rate has shown a very significant improvement and it is still being studied. Business Meeting -- Medical Sciences Crercornia (J ournaliof the Plorida Acadeuy, of (Sciences 23 MS - 5 Using Neuropsychological Tests in Screening for Organic Brain Damage. SIDNEY DENMAN, Anclote Manor Hospital. This paper attempts to briefly describe a battery of eleven neuropsychological tests which have been designed for the purpose of screening both neurological and psychiatric patients for possible organic brain damage. A brief description of these tests and their theoretical and empirical basis is provided. These neuropsychological tests have demonstrated some utility in determining the presence or absence of organic brain damage, possible lateralization of such damage to one of the cerebral hemispheres, more specific localization of damage within one of the hemispheres, and in providing some information as to the type of brain damage that is present. Research-based studies at several neuropsychological laboratories have demonstrated that psychological testing has proved to be helpful in assisting neurologists and others in making decisions as to the necessity of employing more life-threatening diagnostic procedures such as arteriograms, brain scans, and pneumoencephalography in the examination of patients. Some new directions for neuropsychological testing and research are also suggested. MS - 6 Using the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory in Medical Practice. SIDNEY DENMAN, Anclote Manor Hospital. Although it was originally designed as a diagnostic instrument for the use of clinical psychologists, an ever-increasing usage of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory has demonstrated that this test is a very effective instrument when used by the trained physician in medical practice. The general practitioner and the non-psychiatric specialist is often in need of a screening device which will help them in reaching a decision as to the wisdom of treating the patient directly or of referring him for specialized treatment by a psychiatrist, psychologist, or other specialist. The MMPI has demonstrated its utility as a screening instrument for the detection of major neurotic and psychotic disorders, organic brain damage, functional low-back pain vs. organic back pain, epilepsy, predicting irregular medical discharges, neurodermatitis, ulcer personalities, and other conditions faced by the physician in his daily practice. This paper describes the MMPI, ways of learning to use this test, scoring methods, appropriate interpretations, reference guides, and indicates some of the many ways in which this test may be used by physicians. MS - 7 Myoglobinuria in Myocardial Infarction. R. S. LEVINE, M. ALTERMAN, R. S. GUBNER, E. C. ADAMS MS - 8 Tolerance of Spharoides testudineus to its Own Skin Extracts and to the Skin Extracts of Sphaeroides nephelus. MURRAY GIRARD AND EDWARD LARSON, Miami Seaquarium. - - Reports of self-immunity to toxins in the literature varies (Halstead vol. 2, pg. 794, 1967). Some venom neutralization in the rattlesnake (Crotalus adamanteus was reported by Clark and Voris (Science 1969, vol. 164). Thompson found the boxfish, Ostracion lintiginosus, susceptible to its own toxin (Science, 1964, vol. 146). In order to clarify the situation regarding puffer 24 Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy? of Setenere fishes intraperitoneal injections of S. testudineus and S. nephelus skin extracts 1 cc. or 2 cc. per 20 gm. body weight were made in S. testudineus and Lutjanus griesus. We have found S. testudineus tolerant to its own skin extract and to skin extracts of S. nephelus. MS - 9 Studies on Sphaeroids Toxicity. EDWARD LARSON, RAY GERBER AND HARVEY ALEXANDER, Miami Seaquarium, Univ. of Miami. - - Controlled studies on the toad, Bufo marinus, receiving toxic doses of Sphaeroides extracts showed no consistent chromatophoric changes. In the mouse, minimal lethal doses of Sphaeroides extracts showed chiefly marked depression whereas larger lethal doses produced convulsions. Oral administration of the flesh of Sphaeroides nephelus to the toad, Bufo marinus, has produced no discernible effects. Injected extracts of the skin of Sphaeroides have proven toxic to the toad. Oral administration of Sphaeroides skin or muscle slurry to the rat has not produced any effect. SOC DAG, “Sie TmNG ir “Si Gar FO N 9:00 A.M. SOCIAL SCIENCE SECTION - - Ernest F. Dibble, Presiding. Room 5 SS = 7 Social and Political Dimensions of Campus Protest Activity, James W. Clarke, Joseph Egan, Florida State University. Earlier studies of political socialization and public opinion have shown that the American public holds generally supportive views of its political system. More recent episodes on university campuses indicate that in substantial and important segments of the population such attitudes are changing. Studies of campus activism suggest that discontent is centered in what might be considered a social and intellectual vanguard at the university. The present study of university students in Florida indicates that this finding also must now be questioned. There are indications that important shifts are occurring in the movement. This research attempts to describe the changing dimensions of campus protest activity. SS - 8 The Social Organization of Youth Communes, Wallace C. Christen Amana Colony, lowa. A Sociologist and native of the Amana Colony of lOwa presents some personal observations on the social structure and organization of Hippie-Type Communal Societies, Drug-Freak Colonies, and separatist religious sects, based on participant observation over the past several years. There are noted differences in structure and ideological motivation between the newer youth communes, such as exist in the American Southwest and Midwest, The Hare Krishna Communes, and other similar groups as in contrast with the older established systems such as The Amana Colonies, The Hutterites, The Bruderhoff, or Koininea. Similarities in Cult-reformation are analyzed in terms of ideology, religious sacraments, and life-style in terms of the larger Societal problems and/or escapist needs. Business Meeting - - Social Sciences Section. OQuiaatcew ly? Journal of thes Filloriidaj Academy .of Sciences 2:5 js = 9 John James Tigert--Tennessee's First Rhodes Scholar, 1904-07, George Osborn, University of Florida. This short period in Dr. Tigert's early adult life is of particular interest to Floridians because these years aided greatly in preparing Dr. Tigert for twenty years of successful service to the people of Florida as President of the fine university at Gainesville. While a Rhodes Scholar, John Tigert traveled repeatedly and extensively on the European continent. This paper deals not only with his activities at Oxford University, but with his journeys in Europe as well. ie Or nme pAmiG RI@©) Ue =O lL PhGAtL SOCGCiIn LT OF AMERIE A 9:00 A.M. FLORIDA GROUP - OPTICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA - - Joe Hirschberg, Presiding Room 3 The program for this session will be available at the meeting. SATURDAY AFTERNOON -- MARCH 27, 1971 2:00 P.M. SOCIAL SCIENCE SECTION - - Ernest F. Dibble, Presiding. Room 5 Ss - 10 Science and Society in the Province of Canada: Three Case Studies, Laurence S. Fallis, University of West Florida. The pursuit of science in mid-Victorian Canada was the expression of deeply felt and clearly articulated social needs, aspirations and goals. The several provinces of British North America saw scientific discovery and technological advancement as a means to achieve status in the world community and as a technique to promote domestic objectives. This study focuses on three areas of special concern in the middle decades of the 19th century: the relationship between pure science and the growth of Canadian nationalism; technology and the establish- ment of a democratic social order; science and economic progress. The materials for this study are drawn from a wide variety of contemporary Canadian pamphlets, newspapers, periodicals and trans- actions of scientific societies. SSeae lk Psychology, Aggression, and War: A Survey of the Literature, Roger D. Ray, Rollins College.. This paper reviews the various research areas in psychology on the problems of aggression and war. A brief historical context is presented which culminates in a summary of the philosophical and scientific assumptions underlying current research in these areas. The review then discusses: 1) research stemming from ethology and the emphasis it places on biological vari- ables; 2) psychological laboratory studies of animals and the re- sultant emphasis on instrumental aggression, operants, and elicited aggression; 3) research originating from the social psychology labora- tory and clinical observations of such problems; 4) the initiation of the experimental methodology being applied directly to international relations and the prediction and understanding of the various pressures which create war. A general summary section also considers specific proposals on how to best utilize and apply the knowledge now available. 26 Quarterly Journal of the’ Florida Academy "or Sererces 9:30 A. 9:45 A. Lunch 1:00 P. PROGRAM FRIDAY MORNING - MARCH 5, 1971 Gleason Auditorium M. Welcome to Students DR. JEROME P. KEUPER, President, Florida Institute of Technology M. - 12:00 Noon Seminar - Faculty of Florida Institute of Technology Simple-Minded Computer, DR. DAVID R. CLUTTERHAM, Dept. of Mathematics and Computer Science Impacts of Space Program on Humanity, DR. R. K. C. JOHNS, Dept. of Space Technology Indian River Project, DR. J. C. LASATER, Dept. of Physics and Oceanography Microwave and Space Communication, DR. W. M. NUNN, JR., Dept. of Electrical Engineering Physics Today, DR. JAMES G. POTTER, Department of Physics FRIDAY AFTERNOON - MARCH 5, 1971 M. First Session - Gleason Auditorium Presiding - ROBERT HOOD, Merritt Island High School Chapter Senior Literary Papers without Laboratory Research The Effect of Temperature on Interferon Production in Chick Cells in Vitro, KATHY OSBORNE, Merritt Island High School The Radio Study of Solar Flares, JOHN LANZA, Cocoa High School The Synthesis of Thyroxine and Its Role in Animal Metabolism and Development, ALBERT HARARY, Forest Hill High School Immunization to Mammary Tumors in Mice by Injection of Hybridized Cells, KARIN DENNINGHOFF, Merritt Island High School Pathological Drinking, ANN MARIE ELEFTHERY, Lourdes Academy Coenzyme A: - Structure and Function, JONATHAN RUBIN, Forest Hill High School Malnutrition and Learning Behavior, LINDA NORTON, Cocoa High School 10 Minute Break Ouarteriy Journal of the’ Florida Academy of Sciences 27, Senior Literary Papers with Laboratory Research An Original Derivation of a Model for a Hydrogen-Like Atom in a Four- Dimensional Continuum of Invariance, BEATRIZ V. INFANTE, Lourdes Academy Analysis of a Pendulum with a Barrier at the Center of Swing, ROGER PERRY, Archbishop Curley High School The Effects of Diethylstilbestrol Residue in Meats on the Development of Rat Embryos, TERESA RITTMANIC, Merritt Island High School Mace in the Face: An Essay of Mace's Inhibitory Effects on Lysozyme, BETH R. FRIEDLAND, Coral Gables Senior High School The Effect of Fluoride on the Bonding Strength of Glass - Ceramic to Bone, LINDA JOYCE LOCKETT, William M. Raines High School The Effectiveness of Various Wave Lengths of Light on the Photosynthetic Rate of Algae, BEVERLY SCHIDEL, Hialeah High School Effects of Atropine Sulfate on the Electrocardiographic and Brain Metabolite Changes in Concussed Rats, GARY BERNSTROM, University of Miami Medical Research Building Stress Induced Stimulation of Autonomic Neural Pathways: CRF Activation After Medial Basal Hypothalamic Lesions, MARK RITTMANIC, Merritt Island High School FRIDAY EVENING 7:00 P.M. Banquet - Denius Student Center 9:00 - 11:30 P.M. Dance - Denius Student Center, Second Floor 9:00 P.M. Sponsor's Meeting SATURDAY MORNING - MARCH 6, 1971 9:30 A.M. Second Session - Gleason Auditorium Presiding - ROBERT HOOD, Merritt Island High School Junior High School Literary Papers Hypothalamic Control of Gonadotrophin Release, WILLIAM H. GRABE, Edgewood Junior High School Selective Starvation in the Treatment of Acute Leukemia and Solid Tumors; Specific Amino Acid Depletion Therapy by L-aspariginase, ALEX HORNIK, Miami Beach Junior High School 28 Quarterly Journal of the FloridajAcademy ,of Seeemecs Maintenance of Corpus Luteum Function During Pregnancy and Pseudo-pregnancy DAVID M. BOWER, Edgewood Junior High School Transplantation of a Heterograft from a Rana Pipiens to a Mesocricetes Auratus Auratus, DENISE ANNE MILLER, John F. Kennedy Junior High Cellular Aspects of Physiological Responses of Frog Melanophores, KIM RICHARD WELSH, Edgewood Junior High School Early Experience in Relationship to Adult Behavior, DONNA HARRINGTON, Roosevelt Junior High School Cellular Aspects of the Control and Movement of Melanosomes in Dermal Melanophores of Frog Skin, RICHARD BRAINARD, Edgewood Junior High School An Analysis of the Ozone Purification Using Bacterially and Chemically Polluted Waters, JIM HUGHES, Stone Middle School 10 Minute Break Business Meeting Presentation of Charters to New Chapters - State Director Presentation of Awards Presentation of Scholarship Award - Florida Academy of Science Adjournment FLOR EDA JUN LOR JAG A DEM ND Oer SG LEN © Eas © FE 1GOE R*S President Merritt Island High School Vice President Lake Wales Junior High School Secretary-Treasurer Gainesville High School State Director - Junior Academy of Sciences MR. JAY T. COOPER, Gainesville High School, Gainesville, Florida State Coordinator - Junior Academy of Sciences DR. LAURENCE MONLEY, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida HOST CHAPTER - - Merritt Island High School and Cocoa High School HOST CHAPTER COORDINATORS - - MRS. PATRICIA DENNINGHOFF and MR. LLOYD GRIFFITH FLORIDA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY LIAISON - - DR. RONG-SHENG JIN Zz Denius Student : Center Crosshatched Area is “for Parking BADCOCK STREET ee ee LOCAL ARRANGEMENTS COMMITTEE Chairman Rong-Sheng Jin Registration Mrs. Rosemary Finley Visual Aids Equipment Ortwin Von Zweck Commercial Exhibits Thomas E. Bowman Publicity John E. Miller AAPT Coordinator James G. Potter Ladies Program Mrs. James G. 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