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A i yay hed Ih PMrU MRSS Pied y* et Mena! telson eh yt AVG heged aay gtagsiadid ee 1d We ee wed don ha] i" ¥ ‘b i = oer me “The Quarterly Journal, of The Florida Academy of Sciences | A Journal of Scientific Investigation and Research Frank N. Youne, Jr., Edztor VOLUME 9 Published by Tae Frorrpa ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Tallahassee, Florida Loy ~ Dates of Publication Number 1 — June 4, 1947 Number 2 — July 1, 1947 Number 3-4 — October 15, 1947 ¢ CONTENTS OF VOLUME 9 NuMBER I Two New Crayfishes of the Genus Procambarus from Georgia, with Notes on Procambarus pubescens (Faxon). By Horton H. Hobbs, Jr. A Field Study of Some Newer Religious Groups in the United metcse by bernqra John Oliver, froc.. os. cae ee ca ks Purification of Acetone Produced by the Fermentation of Molasses. bieekiores-Gallardo and C. B. Pollard ic voc ev ee ce eee es Marxian versus Christian Revolution. By Cyril W. Burke, O.P.... Permeability of the Tracheal System of Drosophila melanogaster Lar- SRG COREA EQUWAPAS .. 6 oo sos oye od Save sie ph me in se od os The Use of Atabrine in the Treatment of Intestinal Protozoa. By ME RUMOR NID. i Ss ois PRD ARN soared 4 edo 6 Swe Membership List of the Florida Academy of Sciences for 1946.... NuMBER 2 Cyclo-geometric Series and Scales of Notation. By Guy G. Beck- Dynami~ Analyses of Launching Ships. By John Coulson......... The Saber Crab, Platychirograpsus typicus Rathbun, in Florida: A Case of Accidental Dispersal. By Lewis J. Marchand.......... Notes on the Breeding Habits of the Eastern Stumpknocker, Lepo- mis punctatus punctatus (Cuvier). By Marjorie Harris Carr...... Cortical Tracheids: A New Vascular Element from the Orange Sub-Family (Rutacez: Aurantioidex). By Frank D. Venning.. Pitlorida Hickories. By Willigm A. Muarrill . 0... eee ee es Scientific Methods in Social Psychology. By Paul F. Finner..... Backdrop to Revolution—The Reign of Pope Gregory XVI. By eI ee ay ee ephe Se ye Ck Wen lan L T Ge a Se a disco 2 65 85 93 IOI 107 II5 123 NuMBER 3-4 Yeast from Florida Sulfite Waste Liquor. By Robert D. Walker... 145 Mechanical Control of Ship-Bottom Fouling by Means of Air Bubbles. By E.G. Walton Smith 2i55.. wa. 0-. - ee 153 Studies on the Life History and Ecology of Notropis chalybaus (Cope): . By NelsomsMiarshall Be ook eae ee 163 Some Problems of Foreign Geographic Names with Special Ref- erence to Bulgaria. By Sigismond deR. Diettrich Index to Volume 9°... vs. c.usP asst ke ae eee 209 ERRATA Plate I (opposite page 164) legends for upper and lower figures are reversed. For “‘uppet’’ tead ‘‘lower.’’ Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Scienees Vol. 9 March, 1946 No. 1 Gontents == PAGE Hosss—Two New CRAYFISHES OF THE GENUS PROCAMBARUS FROM GEORGIA, WITH NOTES ON PROCAMBARUS PUBESCENS PEMD Yh eee ae avec banncSastonetesdeccto nsnsns MMe stMResGsbn Sgvsnvictamndearaetees 1 Ouiver—A Fie~p Stupy or Some Newer RELIGIous GROUPS TID NSE TAE se SINT NTS ENDS UAE Shes ssccsuseseccasesscecsccavessonsccsusncin hades csntnctntwenereonslontonlbosussserenbevsouite 19 FLORES-GALLARDO AND PoLLARD—PURIFICATION OF ACETONE PRODUCED BY THE FERMENTATION OF MOLASSES .ossssscscssssossssssssssessssee Lae BURKE—MARXIAN VERSUS CHRISTIAN REVOLUTION ssssscssssssssssssessscsssssseees 39 EDWARDS—PERMEABILITY OF THE TRACHEAL SYSTEM OF WDROSOPHILA MELANOGASTER Ui AR VA EB occcscsiscscisscosscossitctiscosceccotiesacscisesesntosssdisessons 41 BERNSTEIN—THE USE oF AcTRERES ’THE TREATMENT OF 2 NST | ae eee : eceveavvevnecoseaneeeses March, 1946 Vol. 9, Number 1 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES A Journal of Scientific Investigation and Research Published by the Florida Academy of Sciences Printed by the Rose Printing Company, Tallahassee, Florida Communications for the editor and all manuscripts should be addressed to Frank N. Young, Editor, or Irving J. Cantrall, Ass’t. Editor, Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida. Business communi- cations should be addressed to Taylor R. Alexander, Secretary-Treasurer, University of Miami, Coral Gables, Florida. All exchanges and communi- cations regarding exchanges should be sent to the Florida Academy of Sciences, Exchange Library, Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville. Entered as Second Class matter at the Post Office at Tallahassee, Florida under the Act of August 24, 1912. Subscription price, Three Dollars a year. Mailed June 4, 1947 t THE QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 9 MARCH, 1946 NO. 1 TWO NEW CRAYFISHES OF THE GENUS PROCAMBARUS FROM GEORGIA, WITH NOTES ON PROCAM- BARUS PUBESCENS (FAXON) (Decapoda, Astacidae) Horton H. Hosss, JR. Miller School of Biology, University of Virgima In The Crayfishes of Florida (Hobbs 1942b: 129-1380) I pointed out the relationships existing between Procambarus pictus (Hobbs)?, P. pubescens (Faxon), and P. youngi Hobbs?, and assigned them along with ‘‘two undescribed forms from Georgia’’ to the Pictus Subgroup. Since that time no additional references to the subgroup have appeared in the literature. In the text below I am describing the two new species mention- ed above, and since the first form male of P. pubescens has not been previously known I am including its description along with notes on its range. Procambarus pubescens (Faxon) Figures 1, 6, 7, 8, 14, 17, 22, 27, 28, 314 Cambarus pubescens Faxon 1884, Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sci. 20 :109-110, 137. Procambarus pubescens Hobbs 1942a: 341-342, by implication. Diagnosis.—Rostrum with lateral spines; upper surface heavily pubescent ; acumen long and slender; areola broad with seven or eight punctations in narrowest part; male with hooks on ischi- podites of third and fourth pereiopods; palm of chela of first form male not bearded but bearing a row of seven to ten small tubercles; postorbital ridges terminating in sharp spines; one 1Hobbs 1940: 419 2Faxon 1884: 109 8Hobbs 1942b: 131 4In addition, see Faxon 1885: Pl. I, fig. 3, and Pl. VIII, figs. la and la’ YUN 20 1943 2 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES acute lateral spine on each side of carapace. First pleopod of first form male reaching coxopodite of third pereiopod, with a rounded hump on cephalic surface, and terminating in four dis- tinct parts: mesial and cephalic processes subspiculiform and di- rected caudodistad and distad respectively; caudal element con- sisting of a distally grooved caudal knob, a mesially convex, corn- eous, ridge-like adventitious process, and a broad, triangular (viewed caudally), corneous, tooth-like caudal process; central projection corneous, elongate, and subtriangular, and directed caudodistad. Sternum just cephalad of annulus ventralis with a swelling on either side of midventral line; however, they do not extend beneath the annulus ventralis. Male, Form I.—Body subovate, compressed laterally. Abdomen nar- rower than thorax (13.6-14.3 mm in widest parts respectively). Width of carapace less than depth in region of caudodorsal margin of cervical groove (14.3-16.1 mm). Areola broad (three times longer than broad) with seven or eight punctations in narrowest part (punctations crowded); cephalic section of carapace about 2.8 times as long as areola (length of areola about 26.1% of entire length of carapace). Rostrum with gently convergent margins, excavate above, almost reach- ing end of peduncle of antennule; margins slightly elevated, not swollen, and provided with acute spines at base of acumen; acumen subspiculiform ; upper surface of rostrum heavily pubescent, especially so on acumen —plumose setae hiding contour of acumen. Postorbital ridges prominent, shallowly grooved laterad, and terminat- ing cephalad in acute spines; suborbital angle present but not acute; branchiostegal spine strong. Strong acute lateral spine present on either side of carapace. Surface of carapace punctate dorsad and granulate laterad. : Abdomen longer than carapace (35.8-32.6 mm). Cephalic section of telson with three spines in each caudolateral corner. Epistome bearded along cephalic margins, subtriangular, and provided with a prominent cephalomedian projection. Antennules of the usual form with a strong acute spine on ventral sur- face of basal segment. Antennae extend caudad a little beyond cephalic margin of telson. Antennal scale broad with a strong acute spine on outer distal margin; lamellar portion with no distinct angles (see Fig. 27). Right chela elongate, hand slightly inflated, and covered with dark squamous setiferous tubercles. Inner margin of palm with a row of eight tubercles which are a little larger than others on upper surface of palm. Lower surface of palm with no strong tubercle at base of movable finger. Fingers not gaping. Upper surface of opposable margin of dactyl with a row of eight small knob-like tubercles along proximal half of finger; lower opposable margin with three small Knob-like tubercles along proximal end of middle third of finger, a broad band of crowded minute denticles running entire length of finger; lateral margin of dactyl with a longi- tudinal row of three tubercles at base, otherwise with setiferous puncta- tions; opposable margin of immovable finger with a row of seven small knob-like tubercles along proximal half, and one more prominent tubercle NEW CRAYFISHES OF THE GENUS PROCAMBARUS 3 at base of distal third, otherwise the entire opposable margin covered with crowded minute denticles; lateral margin of immovable finger with a row of setiferous punctations; upper and lower surfaces of both fingers with a weak submedian ridge flanked by setiferous punctations; extreme proximal portions of upper and lower surfaces of both fingers with a few small tubercles flanking the submedian ridge. Carpus of first right pereiopod about 1.5 times longer than broad with a broad shallow oblique furrow above; surface laterad of furrow punctate, mesiad of it tuberculate; tubercles of mesial upper surface with only one somewhat distinct row, others are scattered. Mesial surface in addition to several small tubercles with two prominent spines—one just distad of midlength and the other on distal. border; cephaloventral margin with only one large acute spine (left carpus, however, with the usual two). Merus of first right pereiopod with a row of 15 tubercles on upper margin, the distal two of which are large and spiniform; mesial surface punctate proximad and tuberculate laterad; lateral surface punctate; lower surface with two rows of tubercles—an outer one consisting of 12-14, only two of which are large, and an inner one of 18 which for the most part are progressively larger distad; additional small tubercles present on either side and between these two rows. Ischiopodites of third and fourth pereiopods bearing hooks; hooks simple; basiopodite of fourth pereiopod with a prominent simple knob- like swelling extending toward terminal end of hook on ischiopodite. Coxopodites of fourth and fifth pereiopods with ventrally projecting prominences—those on fourth heavy and rounded, and directed caudo- mesiad; those on fifth more compressed, and directed caudolaterad. First pleopod reaching coxopodite of third pereiopod when abdomen is flexed (left pleopod reaching not quite so far cephalad as right one). Mesial process spiculiform and directed caudodistad; cephalic process spiculiform and directed distad, there being a wide gap between it and the central projection; caudal element consisting of three parts, (1) the caudal knob is subangular with an oblique subtransverse furrow distad, (2) the adventitious process is a high corneous ridge, convex mesiad, lying along the mesial side of the caudal element, and (3) the caudal process is a broad short triangular corneous tooth, compressed cephalo- caudad situated just mesiad of the caudal margin of the central projec- tion; central projection, a corneous, elongate, triangular tooth, extending mesiad and caudodistad. Cephalic margin of appendage with a rounded hump. Measurements.—Male, form I: carapace, height 16.1, width 14.3, length 32.6 mm; areola, width 2.8, length 8.5 mm; rostrum, width 5.2, length 10.8 mm; abdomen, length 35.8 mm; right chela, length of inner margin of palm 10.2, width of palm 8.5, length of outer margin of hand 36.3, length of dactyl 138.5 mm. The second form male and the female have been adequately described ; however, I am including figures of the first pleopod of the second form male (Fig. 6, 7) and the annulus ventralis of the female (Fig. 31). The specimen on which the above description is based was col- lected from Boggy Gut Creek about 11 miles northeast of Waynes- boro, Burke County, Georgia, and is deposited in the U. S. Nat. Mus. 4 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Throughout the known range of P. pubescens, little variation has been noted. Range.—The type specimens, one male form II, and one female (U.S.N.M. No. 3181) were collected in McBean Creek, Richmond County, Georgia, ‘‘a little south of Augusta.’’ Only two addi- tional published locality records have come to my attention: (1) ‘There are two young female specimens from .... , Richmond Co. [Georgia] in the Museum of Comparative Zoology’’ (Faxon 1884 :110) ; (2) ‘‘Buckhead Creek, Millen, Burke County, Georgia’”® (Faxon 1898:646). In my-own collection J have 175 specimens from, the following counties in Georgia: 17 localities in Burke Coun- ty, one each in Bryan, McDuffie, Screven, and Wilkes counties. Since P. pubescens is so widespread in Burke County, having been found in all the principal drainage streams in the County, I am not listing any of the localities; however, since so little is known of its occurrence in the other four mentioned counties I am eiting the exact localities. Bryan County—3.7 miles southwest of Blitehton on U.S. Hy. 280, December 18, 1939, 1 male, form I, 4 males, form II, 8 females, 2 immature females; McDuffie County—38.5 miles south- east of Thomson on U.S. Hy. 78, June 21, 1940, 2 males, form I, 1 female; Screven County—Beaver Dam Creek, three miles north of Sylvania, September 7, 1938, 1 male, form I, 6 males, form II, 4 females, 7 immature females; Wilkes County—Beaver Dam Creek, 13 miles west of Washington on U. 8S. Hy. 78, September 6, 1938, 1 male, form II. All of these localities are in the drainage system of either the Savannah or Ogeechee rivers. My finding Procambarus pubescens in Bryan County was a little surprising for it seemed probable that, since P. litosternum is found in Jenkins and Bulloch counties and that there are no records of the occurrence of P. pubescens from the latter, litosternum was vicariating for pubescens in the lower Ogeechee. I have examined these Bryan County pubescens carefully, and except for their being somewhat smaller than the specimens from the Savannah and Ogeechee drainages in Burke County I can detect no outstanding differences. Considerable collecting in Jenkins, Effingham, Bullock, Bryan, and Chatham counties needs to be done in order to determine more accurately the southern limit of the range of this species. 5This should be Jenkins County, Georgia. Since the publication of this record Burke County has been divided, and Millen made the county seat of Jenkins County. ¢ NEW CRAYFISHES OF THE GENUS PROCAMBARUS 5 Probably P. pubescens will be found to occur in the Savannah River drainage in South Carolina as well as farther north in Georgia. Habits—Procambarus pubescens is a stream dweller of the northeastern Coastal Plain and Piedmont in Georgia. The size of the stream apparently is not one of the determining factors affecting distribution, for I have found it in small streams only a few inches deep and hardly more than a foot wide. Here the crayfish were found in accumulated debris consisting of twigs and fallen leaves. On other occasions I have taken it from much deeper water in what might be termed rivers in some sections of the couniry. Briar Creek, one of the larger streams in Burke County, is a large stream which fluctuates greatly with the rainy seasons. At times it spreads, in some places as much as a quarter of a mile, over its broad flood plain. In this stream P. pubescens is abundant and I have found it in large numbers around inun- dated stumps and fallen tree trunks. When the water is too deep or muddy to conveniently use a dipnet I have found that specimens may be taken by using earthworms tied on a string and dropped along the side of a submerged log; the crayfish will hold onto the worms even after they have been lifted from the water. Although many of the specimens I have taken were collected in streams which were choked with vegetation, others have come from shaded streams in which no aquatic plants were in sight. Some of the streams from which this species was taken were very sluggish, and the water reddish or grayish in color; in others the water was clear and flowed over a sandy or rocky bottom. In some streams which had clay banks specimens were collected by running a dipnet under the edge of the bank. Only at night have I seen P. pubescens in open water; during the daylight hours, like most crayfishes, it is found in the aquatic vegetation, under rocks or in piles of debris in the stream. Infe History Notes.—First form males have been collected on: April 15, May 20, August 21, September 1, 7, 12, and December 18. A single female with eggs was collected on September 1. Two females with young were taken on August 21, and September 4. Procambarus enoplosternum sp. nov. Bisumes 2.3, 10. 12.13). 18. 20, 23) 24 25. 39. Diagnosis.—Rostrum with lateral spines; acumen lone and slender; areola broad with five or six punctations in narrowest 6 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES part; male with hooks on ischiopodites of third and fourth pereio- pods; palm of chela of first form male not bearded but bearing a row of seven to 10 small tubercles; postorbital ridges terminating in sharp spines; one acute lateral spine on each side of carapace. First pleopod of first form male reaching coxopodite of third pereiopod, with a rounded hump on cephalic surface, and termi- nating in four distinct parts: mesial process spiculiform and ex- tending caudolaterad ; cephalic process spiniform, directed caudo- distad ; caudal element consisting of a rounded knob-like caudal knob, a mesially convex, corneous, ridge-like adventitious process, and a corneous, laterally projecting spiniform caudal process; central projection corneous, compressed laterally, and directed caudad. Sternum of female just cephalad of annulus ventralis with a pair of caudally projecting prominences which partially obscure annulus ventralis in ventral aspect. Holotypic Male, Form I.—Body subovate, compressed laterally. Abdo- men narrower than thorax (12.8-13.7 mm in widest parts respectively). Width of carapace slightly less than depth in region of caudodorsal mar- gin of cervical groove (13.9-14.1 mm). Areola broad (3.3 times longer than broad) with five punctations in narrowest part (punctations shallow and widely spaced) ; cephalic section of carapace about 2.5 times as long as areola (length of areola about 28.6% of entire length of carapace). Rostrum with convergent margins, excavate above, reaching distal end of peduncle of antennule; margins only slightly raised, not swollen, and provided with acute lateral spines at base of acumen; acumen long and slender; upper surface of rostrum with scattered setiferous puncta- tions and a row of similar ones along inner sides of marginal ridges; setae very dense on margins of acumen, present almost to its tip. Sub- rostral ridges well defined but not evident in dorsal aspect. Postorbital ridges prominent, not grooved, and terminating cephalad in acute spines; suborbital angle small (slightly obtuse), not spiniform ; branchiostegal spine strong. A well defined acute lateral spine present on either side of carapace. Surface of carapace punctate dorsad and granulate laterad. Abdomen longer than carapace (34.6-31.7 mm). Cephalic section of telson with four spines in each caudolateral corner. Hpistome, bearded cephalad, subtriangular with cephalolateral borders bearing long plumose setae; margins almost smooth and no well defined cephalomedian projection. Antennules of the usual form with a strong acute spine on ventral surface of basal segment. Antennae extend caudad slightly beyond caudal margin of telson. Antennal scale of moderate width with a strong acute spine on outer .- distal margin; lamellar portion with no distinct angles (see Fig. 24). Right chela elongate, moderately slender, and covered with dark brown or black squamous tubercles. Inner margin of palm with a row of ten tubercles none of which are conspicuously larger than others on upper surface of palm. Lower surface of palm with a strong tubercle at base of movable finger. Fingers not gaping. Upper opposable margin of dactyl ¢ NEW CRAYFISHES OF THE GENUS PROCAMBARUS 7 with a row of six very small rounded tubercles on basal half, a much stronger one below above-mentioned row at distal end of basal third, and two very small ones distad of the large tubercle; crowded minute denticles between and distad of these tubercles. Lateral margin of dactyl with a row of six tubercles on basal two-fifths, distad of which is a row of setiferous punctations. Proximal three-fifths of opposable margin of immovable finger with a row of seven tubercles, the second from base the largest; another prominent tubercle present on lower opposable margin at base of distal third of finger; crowded minute denticles present along entire opposable margin. Lateral margin of immovable finger with a row of three or four squamous tubercles at base, distad of which is a row of setiferous punctations. Upper and lower surfaces of both fingers with a submedian ridge flanked proximad by setiferous tubercles and distad by setiferous punctations. Carpus of first right pereiopod about 1.7 times longer than broad with a broad shallow oblique furrow above; surface laterad of the furrow punctate, mesiad of it tuberculate, tubercles of mesial upper surface arranged roughly in two rows. Mesial surface with two prominent acute spines—one just distad of midlength and the other on upper border; cephaloventral margin with two large acute spines. Merus of first right pereiopod with an irregular row of about 13 tu- bercles on upper margin and near distal margin two very prominent acute Spines; mesial and lateral surfaces punctate proximad and tuberculate distad ; lower surface with two rows of tubercles—an outer row of 12, two of which are acute and spike-like, and an inner row of about 14, only three or four of the distal ones could be termed spiniform or spike-like; additional small tubercles present on either side and between these two rows. Ischiopodites of third and fourth pereiopods bearing hooks; hooks simple; basiopodite of fourth pereiopod with a prominent, simple knob- like swelling extending toward terminal end of hook on ischiopodite. Coxopodites of fourth and fifth pereiopods with ventrally projecting prominences—those on fourth heavy and rounded, and directed caudo- mesiad; those on fifth compressed, plate-like, and directed caudolaterad. First pleopod reaching coxopodite of third pereiopod when the abdomen is flexed (left pleopod not reaching as far cephalad as right one). Tip terminating in four distinct parts. Mesial process long and spiculiform, and bent caudad and slightly laterad; cephalic process spiniform and extending caudodistad from the cephalomesial distal end of the appendage and partially hooding the central projection; caudal element consisting of three parts—a swollen lateral knob, a mesial rim-like ridge (adventitious process), and the caudal process which is a corneous laterally projecting spine ; central projection corneous and tooth-like and compressed laterally and directed caudad. Mesial process, central projection and caudal process. all directed at approximately the same angle (75°-80°) to the main shaft of the appendage. A rounded hump on cephalic surface. Paratypic Male, Form II.—Differs only slightly from the holotype except in proportions (see measurements). Inner margin of palm of chela with eight or nine tubercles. Caudosinistral margin of cephalic section of telson with only three spines. Hooks on ischiopodites of third and fourth pereiopods reduced; basiopodite of fourth with only a very slight swollen portion; projections on coxopodites of fourth and fifth pereiopods not so prominent as in holotype. First pleopod with all processes reduced: adventitious process not evident. q 8 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Allotypic Female.—Differs from the holotype in the following respects. Antennae extend caudad to fourth abdominal segment. Caudolateral margins of cephalic section of telson, with three spines. Inner margin of palm of chela with a row of eight tubercles; opposable margin of dactyl with a row of 13 knob-like tubercles; opposable margin of immovable finger with a row of seven similar ones; opposable margins of both fingers with fewer minute denticles. Annulus ventralis subtriangular with apex extending cephalad. Ventral cephalodextral margin with two rounded tubercles. Sinus begins on median line just caudad of cephalic margin of annulus, makes a broad S-curve—turning first sinistrad then dextrad across the median line and finally sinistrad terminating just cephalad and slightly dextrad of the midcaudal margin of the annulus. Sternum just cephalad of annulus with a prominence extending caudad on either side of the median line partially covering the annulus in ventral aspect. Caudal margins of prominences emarginate so that each appears to be trituberculate. Measurements——Holotype: carapace, height 14.1, width 13.7, length 31.7 mm; areola, width 2.7, length 9.1 mm; rostrum, width 5.0, length 10.1 mm; abdomen, length 34.6 mm; right chela, length of inner margin of palm 9.2, width of palm 7.8, length of outer margin of hand 24.6, length of dactyl 13.4 mm. Allotype: carapace, height 16.8, width 17.2, length 36.6 mm; areola, width 3.7, length 10.0 mm; rostrum, width 5.7, length 10.5 mm; abdomen, length 40.0 mm; right chela, length of inner margin of palm 7.6, width of palm 7.8, length of outer margin of hand 23.1, length of dactyl 13.8 mm. Paratypic Male, Form II: carapace, height 13.0, width 13.7, length 31.9 mm; areola, width 2.8, length 8.3 mm; rostrum, width 4.4, length 10.2 mm; abdomen, length 35.0 mm; right chela, length of inner margin of palm 6.4, width of palm 5.3, length of outer margin of hand 18.0, length of dactyl 10.4 mm. Type Locality— ‘Rocky Creek,’’ a small moderately flowing, clear, sand bottomed stream flowing between red hills six miles south of Lyons, Toombs County, Georgia, on U. 8. Highway 1. The crayfishes were taken from beneath debris and in the sub- merged parts of the marginal vegetation. Procambarus enoplo- sternum was the only species collected at this locality. Disposition of Types——The male holotype, the female allotype,. and a second form male paratype are deposited in the United States National Museum (No. 82263). Of the remaining paratypes one male, form I, one male form II, and one female are deposited in the University of Michigan Museum of Zoology and a similar series in the Museum of Comparative Zoology; four males, form I, eight males, form II, five females, five immature males, and five immature females are in my personal collection at the University of Virginia. Relationships.—Procambarus enoplosternum is a member of the Pictus Subgroup (Hobbs 1942b: 129), and has its closest affinities with Procambarus pictus (Hobbs), P. pubescens (Faxon) and P. litosternum (herein described). ¢ NEW CRAYFISHES OF THE GENUS PROCAMBARUS 9 Specimens Examined.—Georgia: Emanuel County—Jacks Creek at Lexsy on U.S. Hy. 1, August 23, 1937, 1 male, form II, 1 female, 1 immature female; same locality, January 2, 1938, 7 males, form II, 7 females; same locality, May 2, 1946, 4 males, form II, 3 females. Toombs County—Rocky Creek, six miles south of Lyons on U.S. Hy. 1 (Type Locality), January 2, 1938, 1 male, form II, 1 female, 1 immature male, 1 immature female; same locality, August 28, 1938, 4 males, form I, 6 males, form II, 4 females, 2 immature males, 1 immature female; same locality, June 9, 1946, 3 males, form I, 4 males, form II, 3 females, 2 immature males, 3 immature females. Both of these localities are stream tributaries of the Ohoopee River (Altamaha River drainage). Variation.—The only variation, other than those mentioned above, which to me seems significant is in the rostra of specimens collected at Jack’s Creek. In these specimens it appears to be broader at base, and the margins are distinctly more strongly convergent than in specimens from the type locality. Procambarus litosternum sp. nov. Figures 3, 4, 9, 11, 15, 16, 19, 21, 26, 29, 30. Diagnosis —Rostrum with or without lateral spines, margins always interrupted at base of acumen; acumen long and slender or short and triangular; areola broad with five or six punctations in narrowest part; male with hooks on ischipodites of third and fourth pereiopods; palm of chela of first form male not bearded but bearing a row of eight or nine tubercles; postorbital ridges terminating in sharp spines; one acute lateral spine present on each side of carapace. First pleopod of first form male reaching coxopodite of third pereiopod, with an angular hump on cephalic surface (See Fig. 15), and terminating in four distinct parts: mesial process spiculiform and extending caudodistad; cephalic process spiniform and directed caudodistad; caudal element con- sisting of a thumb-like caudal knob, a corneous elongate tooth-like caudal process, and a mesially convex corneous ridge-like adven- titious process; central projection corneous, compressed laterally, and directed caudodistad. Sternum of female just cephalad of annulus ventralis trough-like or concave with no caudally pro- jecting prominences. Holotypic Male, Form I—Body subovate, compressed laterally. Abdo- men narrower than thorax (13.1-15.3 mm in widest part respectively). Width and depth of carapace in region of caudodorsal margin of cervical groove subequal. 10 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Areola broad (4.2 times longer than broad) with five or six punctations in narrowest part (punctations moderately crowded); cephalic section of carapace about 2.6 times as long as areola (length of areola about 27.6% of entire length of carapace). Rostrum with strongly convergent margins, excavate above, almost reaching distal end of peduncle of antennule; margins slightly raised, not swollen, and provided with small acute lateral teeth at base of acumen; acumen long and slender; upper surface of rostrum with scat- tered setiferous punctations, and a row of similar ones along inner sides of margins; setae very dense on base and upper surface of acumen; setae long, extending cephalad beyond tip of acumen. Subrostral ridges well defined but not evident in dorsal aspect. Postorbital ridges prominent, very shallowly grooved laterad, and terminating in acute spines; suborbital angle small, acute, but not spini- form; branchiostegal spine strong. Strong acute lateral spine present on either side of carapace. Surface of carapace punctate dorsad and strongly granulate laterad. Abdomen longer than carapace (36.0-33.3 mm). Cephalic section of telson with four spines in each caudolateral corner. Epistome bearded cephalad with rounded cephalolateral margins, and provided with a small cephalomedian projection. Antennules of the usual form with a strong acute spine on ventral surface of basal segment. Antennae extend caudad a little beyond caudal margin of telson. Antennal scale of moderate width with a strong acute spine on outer distal margin; lamellar portion with no distinct angles (see Fig. 26). Right chela elongate, moderately slender, and covered with dark Squamous tubercles. Inner margin of palm with a row of eight tubercles which are Slightly larger than others on upper surface of palm. Lower surface of palm with a strong tubercle at base of movable finger. Fingers not gaping. Opposable margin of dactyl with ten small rounded tubercles on basal three-fourths of finger—third from base largest; crowded minute denticles between and distad of these tubercles. Lateral margin of dactyl with a row of seven tubercles on basal half, distad of which is a row of setiferous punctations; proximal three fifths of opposable margin of immovable finger with a row of seven tubercles, the second from base the largest; another prominent tubercle present on lower opposable margin at base of distal third of finger; crowded minute denticles present along entire opposable margin. Lateral margin of immovable finger with a row of five or six inconspicuous squamous tubercles at base, distad of which is a row of setiferous punctations. Upper and lower surfaces of both fingers with a submedian ridge flanked proximad by setiferous tubercles and distad by setiferous punctations. Carpus of first right pereiopod about 1.5 times longer than broad with a broad shallow oblique furrow above; surface laterad of furrow . punctate, mesiad of it tuberculate; tubercles of mesial upper surface arranged roughly in two rows. Mesial surface in addition to several small tubercles with two prominent acute spines—one just cephalad of midlength and the cther on cephalic border (the latter on the right carpus in the holotype is truncate); cephaloventral margin with two large acute spines. Merus of first right pereiopod with an irregular row of about 12-14 tubercles on upper margin, and near distal margin two very large acute spines ; mesial surface punctate proximad and tuberculate laterad; lateral surface punctate except on upper distal end; lower surface with two rows ¢ NEW CRAYFISHES OF THE GENUS PROCAMBARUS i$ } of tubercles—an outer poorly defined row of about 18, two of which are acute and spike-like, and an inner row of about 18, only the distal one of which is spiniform ; additional small tubercles present on either side and between these two rows. Ischiopodites of third and fourth pereiopods bearing hooks; hooks simple; basiopodite of fourth pereiopod with a prominent bituberculate knob-like swelling extending toward terminal end of hook on ischiopodite. Coxopodites of fourth and fifth pereiopods with ventrally projecting prominences—those on fourth heavy and rounded, and directed caudo- mesiad; those on fifth compressed, plate-like, and directed caudolaterad. First pleopod reaching coxopodite of third pereiopod when abdomen is flexed (left pleopod not reaching quite so far cephalad as right one). Mesial process spiculiform and directed caudodistad at about 50° angle to the main shaft of the appendage; cephalic process spiniform and directed caudodistad caudal element consisting of (1) the caudal knob, in lateral view, a thumb-like process which extends across the distal ecaudolateral portion of the appendage, (2) the adventitious process a prominent corneous ridge which extends along the caudomesial and mesial] part of the caudal element, and (3) the caudal process, a corneous elongate tooth which projects caudodistad between the caudal knob and the ad- ventitious process; central projection corneous, tooth-like, compressed cephalocaudad, and directed caudodistad parallel to the cephalic process. A prominent hump present on cephalic margin of appendage at base of cephalic process. Paratypic Male, Form II.—Differs from the holotype in the following respects; upper surface of acumen naked except for a row of setae along each margin; suborbital angle obtuse; cephalic section of telson with only three spines in the dextral caudolateral corner; inner margin of palm of right chela with a row of nine tubercles; lateral margin of dactyl with a row of five tubercles on basal half; only one or two small tubercles on basal portion of lateral margin of immovable finger; ventral margin of merus with fewer tubercles in both rows; ischiopodites of third and fourth pereiopods with much reduced hooks; basiopodite of fourth pereio- pod with no indication of bituberculate swelling. First pleopod with no corneous elements, and only mesial process spiniform; central projection and cephalic process much reduced; caudal element with only one recog- nizable division, the thumb-like caudal knob forming a continuous rounded ridge with the adventitious process, and the caudal process represented by a very slight swelling. Allotypic Female.—Differs from the holotype in the following respects: cephalic section of telson with three spines in each caudolateral corner ; right chela shorter in proportion (see measurments) ; basal three-fourths of inner margin of dactyl with 12 knob-like tubercles, fourth from base largest; lateral margin of dactyl with a row of nine tubercles on basal half; proximal three-fifths of opposable margin of immovable finger with a row of nine tubercles, fourth from base largest; tubercles on lateral side of basal portion of movable finger scarcely evident—only two or three; three spiniform tubercles on inner row of lower side of merus of first pereiopod. Annulus ventralis bell shaped in profile with a ridge on either side running obliquely from near the cephalomedian margin caudolaterad; sinus originates on median line about one-third of the length of the annulus from the cephalic margin, runs a short distance caudosinistrad and turns caudodextrad to cross the median line, then almost makes a hairpin curve back to the median line where it curves gently caudodextrad terminating just cephalodextrad of the midcaudal margin of annulus. Sternum just cephalad of annulus trough-like with no caudally projecting prominences. 12 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Measurements.—Holotype: carapace, height 15.7, width 15.3, length 83.3 mm; areola, width 2.2, length 9.2 mm; rostrum, width 5.3, length 1.1 mm; abdomen, length 36.0 mm; right chela, length of inner margin of palm 1.2, width of palm 9.4, length of outer margin of hand 26.7, length of dactyl 14.4 mm. Allotype: carapace, height, 19.8, width 20.0, length 42.3 mm; areola, width 3.1, length 11.5 mm; rostrum, width 7.1, length 12.3 mm; abdomen, length 46.2 mm; right chela, length of inner margin of palm 8.6, width of palm 9.9, length of outer margin of hand 24.8, length of dactyl 14.5 mm. Paratypic Male, Form II: carapace, height 13.9, width 14.1, length 31.5 mm; areola, width 2.8, length 9.0 mm; rostrum, width 4.7, length 9.2 mm; abdomen, length 33.0 mm; right chela, length of inner margin of palm 6.4, width of palm 5.7, length of outer margin of hand 18.1, length of dactyl 1.3 mm. Type Locality—A sandbottomed stream flowing through swampy terrain five miles northeast of Swainsboro, Emanuel County, Georgia on U. 8. Hy. 25. The type specimens were taken at night with the aid of a headlight, and were found in open water along the sandy bottom. This stream is a tributary to the Ca- noochee River. No other crayfishes were taken along with this species in the type locality. Disposition of Types—The male holotype, the female allotype, and a second form male paratype are deposited in the United States National Museum (No. 82261). The remaining paratypes, one male, form I, two males, form II, five females, and one im- mature male, are in my personal collection at the University of Virginia. Relationships.—Procambarus litosternum is a member of the Pictus Subgroup (Hobbs 1942b: 129), and has its closest affinities with P. pictus, and P. enoplosternum, and P. pubescens. - Specimens examined.—Georgia: Bulloch County—5.8 miles south of Statesboro, U. S. Hy. 25, March 27, 1989, 1 male, form II; 14.2 miles south of Millen, U. S. Hy. 25, April 17, 1944, 2 males, form I, 1 male, form II, 1 female, 2 immature males, 2 immature females; 13 miles north of Claxton, U. 8S. Hy. 25, April 17, 1944, 2 immature males, 5 immature females. Jenkins County—9.6 miles north of Millen, U. S. Hy. 25, March 27, 1939, 2 males, form ie 1 female, 2 immature males and 3 immature females; 10.4 miles south of Millen on U. 8. Hy. 25, 2 males, form I, 9 males, form Li, 9 females, 1 immature male, 8 immature females; 11.6 miles south of Millen on U.S. Hy. 25, 3 males, form II, 1 female. Emanuel County—5 miles N. HK. of Swainsboro, St. Hy. 56, (Type locality ) September 8, 1942, 1 male, form II, 2 females; same locality, April 13, 1944, 2 males, form I, 1 male, form II, 3 females, 1 immature male. All of these localities are stream tributaries to the Ca- noochee and Ogeechee Rivers. ¢ NEW CRAYFISHES OF THE GENUS PROCAMBARUS 13 Variation.—Specimens collected from 14.2 miles south of Millen, Bulloch County, and 11.6 miles south of Millen, Jenkins County, show several striking differences from the type series. The rostrum is Shorter—the acumen scarcely reaching distal end of penultimate segment of peduncle of antennule; the spines on the rostrum at base of acumen either much reduced or absent, although the mar- gins are always interrupted; spines on lateral sides of carapace much reduced—in one or two specimens represented by round- ed tubercles; the annuli ventrali of the females are subovate and the surface contour is not broken by ridges; the sternum just cephalad of the annulus is concave with only the slightest suggestion of the trough-like condition in the allotype. Specimens from 10.4 miles north of Millen agree with the above except the annulus ventralis of the female is more like that of the allotype, and the rostrum in a few specimens is almost as long as that of the holotype. Specimens from 9.6 miles south of Millen, Jenkins County, are typical. Specimens from the other localities mentioned are immature, and as in most Procambarids the spiny condition is accentuated in the immature stages. KEY TO THE SPECIES OF THE Picrus SUBGROUP® 1. Length of inner margin of palm of chela greater than length of dactyl; acumen of rostrum as long as or longer than rest Op NO STOUT CNP ah ia sheces Seecctc attdasboctat bane Procambarus young: Hobbs* 1’ Length of inner margin of palm of chela less than length of dactyl; acumen of rostrum not as long as rest Of TOStrUM.... se Y 2(1’) Cephalic surface of first pleopod with an angular hump at base of cephalic process; caudal knob extending almost as far distad as central projection.......Procambarus litosternum. sp. nov. 2’ Cephalic surface of first pleopod with a rounded shoulder; caudal knob not extending almost as far distad as central pro- Sy EGLTLCTD eee OSE Ss UA i ce 3 3(2’) Central projection directed caudad; viewed laterally no dis- tinet gap between bases on the central projection and cephalic PUROCESS a ee ees, Procambarus enoplosternum sp. nov. 3’ Central projection directed caudodistad ; viewed laterally a dis- tinet gap between bases of the central projection and cephalic PE TSO Se ep eee eater ea eco a aU Letlcceas cect ae ada baucdls a elada ves eateouasbebensecvcoeleadensriéeed 4 6Hobbs 1942b: 129 7TRange—Gulf County, Florida. 14 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 4(3’) Caudal knob, knob-like; caudal process viewed caudally a subacute spine; cephalic process directed caudodistad......... nese ‘ ar corre RAED RN thal Procambarus pictus (Hobbs)*® 4’ Caudal knob in the form of a ridge; caudal process viewed caudally a broad triangular tooth, cephalic process directed distad Scan Ee en aeeeeit Lt SE MARC AN, eR Procambarus pubescens (Faxon) 8Range—Clay County, Florida. Plate I Pubescence removed from all structures illustrated JOT) Sah Hie 2k NO Fig. 4. Fig. 5. Fig. 6. Fig. 7. lr 3 Hig 9: Fig. 10 Fig. 11 Hig: 42 Fig. 13 Fig. 14. Fig. 15. Mesial view of first pleopod of male, form I, P. pubescens. Mesial view of first pleopod of male, form I, P. enoplosternum. Mesial view of first pleopod of male, form II, P. litosternum. Lateral view of first pleopod of male, form II, P. litosternum. Lateral view of first pleopod of male, form I, P. enoplosternum. Lateral view of first pleopod of male, form I, P. pubescens. Mesial view of first pleopod of male, form II, P. pubescens. Lateral view of first pleopod of male, form II, P. pubescens. Mesial view of first pleopod of male, form I, P. litosternum. Mesial view of first pleopod of male, form II, P. enoplosternum. Basidiopodites and ischiopodites of fourth and third pereiopods of P. litosternum. Lateral view of first pleopod of male, form II, P. enoplosternum. Basiopodites and ischiopedites of fourth and third pereiopods of P. enoplosternum. Basiopodites and ischiopodites of fourth and third pereiopods of P. pubescens. : Lateral view of first pleopod of male, form I, P. litosternum. , ¢ NEW CRAYFISHES OF THE GENUS PROCAMBARUS 15 Plate I 16 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Plate II Pubescence removed from all structures illustrated except in figures ii tS sand CLO: Fig. 16. Dorsal view of carapace of P. litosternum. Fig. 17. Upper view of chela of P. pubescens. Fig. 18. Upper view of chela ef P. enoplosternum. Fig. 19. Upper view of chela of P. litosternum. Fig. 20. Dorsal view of carapace of P. enoplosternum. Fig. 21. Epistome of P. litosternum. Fig. 22. Epistome of P. pubescens. Fig. 23. Epistome of P. enoplosternum. Fig. 24. Antennal seale of P. enoplosternum. Fig. 25. Lateral view of carapace of P. enoplosternum. Fig. 26. Antennal scale of P. litosternum. Fig. 27. Antennal scale of P. pubescens. Fig. 28. Lateral view of carapace of P. pubescens. Fig. 29. Annulus ventralis of P. litosternum. Fig. 30. Lateral view of carapace of P. litosternum. Fig. 31. Annulus ventralis of P. pubescens. Fig. 32. Annulus ventralis of P. eneplosternum. ¢ NEW CRAYFISHES OF THE GENUS PROCAMBARUS 17 mo ee a eo bat fe FS nity oe wt . ? 7 => Z Plate II 18 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES LITERATURE CITED Faxon, W. 1884. Descriptions of new species of Cambarus; to which is added a synonymical list of the known species of Cam- barus and Astacus. Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts and Scu., 20: 107-158. 1885. 2 é = 5 oD 2 >,0 : S25 a5 24 a25 0 GER 2 aoe Eafe) a3 ae Gee Hs ORS) fe a nN = a i: 2 0.0050 Alkaline 06.3 0.792 2 if 0.0042 i 4 ir 3 7 0.00380 a 4 ae 4 8 0.0027 Acid ee 43 3 9 0.0025 Ke es 6 13 0.0025 ee a os t 16 0.0020 * ae uy 8 ie 0.0020 a 2 am 9 18 0.0020 “Ss a os 10 18 0.0020 if a 4 11 18 0.0020 ti a Bi ¢ PURIFICATION OF ACETONE 29 ct) S _ aos ah si ta eno 12 18 0.0020 z as a 13 19 0.0017 "3 x a 14 19 0.0019 “i ie a 15 20 0.0019 M - (s 16 20 0.0020 qe ae he 17 20 0.0020 dh 4 a 18 20 0.0020 2 ey és 19 20 0.0020 ae a A 20 20 0.0020 + ” “ 21 19 0.0018 mn ee fi 22 18 0.0022 i i ey 23 16 0.0027 wv A x 24 16 0.0030 M "I wy 25 11 0.0030 ae ze of 26 10 0.0030 qe ‘i ies 7 i 0.0023 a ” be 28 5 0.0019 ae yi i 29 y 0.0030 i 2” i It is evident that the aldehydes, the alkaline and the acid com- ponents are the impurities which cause the greatest trouble. But since aldehydes undergo polymerization to higher boiling com- pounds in the presence of sodium hydroxide, we take advantage of this reaction to eliminate them as well as the acid constituents present; leaving free only the volatile constituents of alkaline nature. These are held down as their salts in an acid distillation. Table III shows the results obtained in a double distillation, one in acid medium followed by one in alkaline medium. This treatment rendered the acetone free from all its impurities to the extent set by the Federal Government. Fractions were collected so that each would represent one per cent of the acetone in the original charge. Analyses of these cuts show how rapidly the impurites are eliminated by this acid and alkaline treatment. 30 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES TABLE III Data ON ACETONE PURIFIED By DouUBLE DISTILLATION, ONE IN Acip MEDIUM AND THE OTHER IN ALKALINE Mepium. THESE Cuts C CON SD Or He © DO eH DATA ARE ON Cuts FROM THE SECOND DISTILLATION Permanganate time Hours Acidity Calculated as CO, per cent 0.0016 0.0016 0.0016 0.0016 0.0017 0.0016 0.0016 0.0017 0.0016 0.0016 0.0016 0.0018 0.0016 0.0016 0.0016 0.0020 0.0017 0.0016 0.0016 0.0016 0.0016 0.0016 0.0016 0.0016 0.0016 0.0016 0.0016 0.0016 0.0016 0.0019 Reaction to p-nitrophenol > 2 @) > fede S Boiling point °C. Specific gravity 20°/20° C. Cuts Permanganate time Hours PURIFICATION OF ACETONE Acidity Calculated as CO, per cent 0.0016 0.0016 0.0016 0.0015 0.0015 0.0016 0.0015 0.0015 0.0015 0.0016 0.0015 0.0016 0.0019 0.0016 0.0016 0.0016 0.0016 0.0016 0.0016 0.0016 0.0016 0.0016 0.0016 0.0016 0.0016 0.0016 0.0016 0.0016 0.0016 0.0019 0.0018 0.0018 0.0015 0.0015 0.0015 0.0015 Reaction to p-nitrophenol ¢ 31 Specific gravity 20°/20° C. 32 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 2 5 os . 5 > 2 : 6 an = po o soa gag ee ae Bie = So ee a Ay 2 S 67 my 0.0016 eS 2 Y 68 de, 0.0013 9) 99 2? 69 2 0.0016 2 z "2 70 te 0.0019 a aa i 71 Z 0.0016 . a ie 72 0.0016 a8 se 2 73 He 0.0016 ay » ze 74 y, 0.0016 ze - 2 75 ” 0.0016 2S os 2 76 es 0.0017 y ye: 2 vith xe 0.0016 7 a & 78 zn 0.0016 23 % m 79 Be 0.0015 2 ye pe 80 he 0.0015 2 a: 81 1: 0.0019 » se 82 _ 0.0018 : a: he 83 3 0.0016 » ys ae 84 2 0.0016 = a 85 eee OIG » ye 2% 86 z 0.0016 2 % 2 87 2 0.0016 2 2 i 88 De 0.0018 79 rs ” 89 15 0.0018 2 9 9 90 10 0.0018 a ” ” 91 5 0.0018 3 9 9 92 3 0.0015 2 ” ” 93 2.25 0.0015 ze r» v7 94 1.50 0.0017 ” ” 95 ea 00S 2 eee r 96 0.75 0.0018 ” ” ” 97 0.75 0.0019 ?? 9 ” 98 0. 0.0018 ” ” ” The principle of this process of purifying acetone produced by the fermentation of molasses is a double distillation, one in acid medium and one in alkaline medium. The mixed solvents and ¢ PURIFICATION OF ACETONE 33 water, coming out of the exhaustion columns where they are separated from the fermented mash, are entered into the upper part of a copper tank. A partition in the center divides the latter. Then it is allowed to flow into the lower part of the said tank where it is acidified. The amount of dilute sulfuric acid must be about 50% in excess of the equivalent quantity determined by titrating a sample of the acidifying tank contents with standard acid using p-nitrophenol as indicator. A larger excess of acid would not affect the process, but an excess of about 50% is neces- sary to withhold the traces of amines present. Then the acidified aqueous mixture of solvents flows slowly into the acetone extrac- tion column. The high boiling fraction of solvents (aqueous so- lution of butanol-1) accumulates in the bottom and is drained into the crude butanol tank. The low boiling fraction, consisting mainly of erude acetone, but free from alkaline impurities, is distilled from this column and stored in the crude acetone tank. The crude acetone is then rectifed in an ordinary batch still having a ten-plate column. The kettle content is neutralized with sodium hydroxide. A slight excess of the base is added. It is neces- sary that the caustic soda go into solution. A quantity of 5% of water present in a batch of acetone has been found satisfactory. Although a larger excess of water will not affect the process it is impractical. An excess of sodium hydroxide has also been found not to interfere in the process. The alkaline batch is distilled at a convenient reflux ratio, the distillate obtained is pure acetone. SUMMARY Crude acetone produced by fermentation of molasses has been purified to meet Federal Government specifications in 90 to 93% yield. This was accomplished by a double distillation, one in acid medium and the other in alkaline medium. The authors desire to express their thanks to Dr. A. F. Lang- lykke and to Central Lafayette at Arroyo, Puerto Rico, for their kindness in supplying samples of crude acetone. LITERATURE CITED Ducuavux, J. AND A. LANZENBERG 1920. Purification of Acetone, Bull. Soc. Chim., 27: 779-82. Hawuey, L. F. 1914. (Aug. 11.) Removing Acetone from Crude Methyl Al- cohol, U. S. Patent 1, 106, 707. D4. JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Kropotov, V. J. 1935. Preparing Pure Acetone from Crude Acetone, Lesok- him, Prom. 4, No. 5: 16-17. PENCE, B. 1935. Purification of Acetone, Chim. applicata, 25: 657-60. SHIPSEY, K. AND E. A. WERNER 1913. Purification of Acetone by means of Sodium Iodide, Jour. Chem. Soc., 103 : 1255-7. WERNER, E. A. 1933. Simple and Rapid Method for the Purification of Ether and of Acetone, Analyst, 58: 335-7. WILLKIE, H. F. 1925. (June 16.) Purifying Acetone, U. 8. Patent 1, 542, 538. Young, S. 1922. Final Purification of Acetone Produced by the Fermen- tation Process, Distillation Principles and Processes, MacMillan and Co., New York. MARXIAN VERSUS CHRISTIAN REVOLUTION Cyrit W. Burks, O.P. Barry College There is a wide area of agreement between Marxian and Chris- tian philosophies of revolution. The Reverend Charles J. MeFad- den of Villanova, in his excellent work The Philosophy of Com- munism, points out that both ideologies are insistent that the revo- lution must put an end to the ruthless exploitation of man by man; both insist that a revolution is necessary; both agree the revolution must be marked by violence; both consider that the revolution must be international in scope. It will serve the pur- poses of this paper to analyze at varying lengths each of these points of agreement. For the Marxist, economic exploitation is the evil of our eivili- zation. Faithful to the principles of dialectical materialism which see an inherent conflict in every grade of being, the Marxist de- elares the social organism to be composed of two contradictory elements: the proletariat and the bourgeoisie. These two classes have come into existence because of the evolution which has been going on in the social organism. At one time there was individual ownership of the means of production and individual appropria- tion of the fruits of production. In a simple economy this arrange- ment was satisfactory. But the Industrial Revolution and its con- sequent complex economy based upon a division of labor required the concentration of the means of production in the hands of a few. Under this type of economic structure the workshop gave way to the factory. The factory soon became a unit of the corporation and corporations eventually became parts of monopolies which found whole industries in the hands of a few men. With the socialization of production, the Marxist insists there came into being the contradiction which plagues our society: Social Production versus Individual Appropriation. This is the contradiction of which Engels wrote as follows: In this contradiction, which confers on the new method of production its capitalistic character, the entire collision of the present day is already contained in the germ. The more the new method of production becomes predominant in all the basic fields of production and in all economically important countries, thereby reducing individual production to an insig- nificant residue, so much more glaringly must the incompatibility of social production and capitalistic appropriation become manifest. (Engels, Anti- Duhring, Chicago, 1935: 281) The teaching of Engels has not been rejected by present day Marxist leaders. Stalin used the same principle but applied it to 36 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES international affairs in his election eve address on February 10, 1946, when he said, It would be incorrect to think that the war arose accidentally or as the result of the fault of some of the statesmen. Although these faults did exist, the war arose in reality as the inevitable result of the development of the world economic and political forces on the basis of monopoly capitalism. Our Marxists declare that the capitalist system of world economy con- ceals elements of crisis and war. The Soviet leader then went on to suggest that war might have been averted if ‘‘the possibility of periodic redistribution of raw materials and markets between the countries existed ... But this is impossible under the present capitalist development of world economy.’’ (New York Times, 11 February, 1946) To the Marxist, then, economic exploitation is a matter of faulty distribution. And faulty distribution will be abolished by resolv- ine the contradiction existing between the mode of production and the manner of appropriation. Ending the exploitation of man by man is also the objective of Christian revolution. Pius XI, in the encyclical Restorimg the Christian Social Order makes this clear in the following words: Toward the end of the nineteenth century, new economic methods and development of industry had in most nations led to such consequences that human society appeared more and more divided into two classes. The first, small in numbers, enjoyed practically all the comforts so plentifully supplied by modern invention. The second class, comprising the immense number of workingmen, was made up of those who, oppressed by’ dire poverty, struggled in vain to escape from the straits which encompassed LN EMER: Wealth, therefore, which is constantly being augmented by social and economic progress, must be so distributed among the various individuals and classes in society that the common good of all, of which Leo XIII spoke, be thereby promoted. In other words, the good of the whole com- munity must be safeguarded. By these principles of social justice one class is forbidden to exclude the other from a share in the profits. Each one, then, must receive his due share, and the distribution of created goods must be brought into conformity with the demands of the common good, that is, social justice. For every sincere observer is conscious that the vast differences between the few who hold excessive wealth and the many who live in destitution constitute a grave evil in modern society. (Husslein, Social Wellsprings, Milwaukee, 1942: 179-99) Since both Marxist and Christian leaders are in agreement on the vital importance of redistributing the wealth of the world, it follows that both philosophies consider a change necessary. It is in this sense that both agree a revolution is necessary. The Marxist revolution will be violent. There are some unortho- dox writers who would deny this principle of Marxism but the weight of the evidence is against them. Father McFadden quotes ¢ MARXIAN VERSUS CHRISTIAN REVOLUTION 37 chapter and verse in the writings of Marx, Lenin and Stalin as well as the program of the Communist International to establish the quality of violence in the communist revolution. Nor is it improper to include the International as a source of communist doctrine. While this arm of Marxist propaganda was ostensibly dissolved in May, 1943, Louis F. Budenz and Dr. George 8. Counts, two very capable authorities on Marxist theory and practice, state that the Comintern still exists and plays a prominent role in the revolutionary program. Budenz, formerly managing editor of the Daly Worker, made his views a matter of public record when testifying before the Un-American Activities Committee of the House of Representatives on November 28rd, 1946. Dr. Counts, director of the Division of the Foundations of Education at Teach- ers College, Columbia University, and a specialist on the Soviet Union, expressed his opinion in the New York Times of September 15, 1946. Victor Kravchenko, former Soviet official, in his book I Chose Freedom, describes the apparent dissolution of the Comin- tern and other ‘‘retreats from Leninism’’ as a ‘‘temporary tactical maneuver.’’ In short, Marxism anticipates violence as a part of the revolution designed to destroy the contradiction inherent in the social organism. Surprising as it may seem, Christian revolutionists agree that violence must characterize the revolution. That fact will become evident as this paper proceeds. Finally, as far as agreement is concerned, Marxists and Chris- tians are convinced that the revolution must be international in scope. The One World concept does not permit exploitation in one sector of the universe while the rest of the world enjoys a just distribution of the fruits of man’s labor. A world, no less than a nation, cannot exist half slave and half free. In spite of these areas of agreement, it is nevertheless true that the Marxian and Christian ideologies are poles apart, they are irrevocably so, because of the diversity of means each would employ to achieve its objectives. There is no common ground between the two systems because there is no common understand- ing regarding the things that must be destroyed in the interests of world regeneration. Again loyal to the principles of dialectical materialism, the Marxist rejects any solution which involves the admission of spir- itual entities. For him, one object of destruction must be the socio-economic structure of private property. Rejecting Hegel’s synthesis of a middle and working class as the final status of 38 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES society, the Marxist looks upon the middle class as a new thesis and the working class as a new antithesis which are inevitably ordained to clash with each other. The outcome of this clash will be a final synthesis which will see the dictation of the capitalist bourgeoisie pass to the hands of the proletariat. Before this transi- tion in society can be effected the institution of private property must be abolished. All property must become public; possession and control] must be located in the community. This dialectical process must be aided by human effort. It is to this objective that the class struggle is directed. In addition to the abolition of private property, the capitalist state must be destroyed because the Marxist considers the political organization of society to be a superstructure built upon economic foundations. Lenin is quite clear on the point of the economic basis of the state. In his book, The Theoretical Principles of Marxism (International Publishers, N. Y. 1948, p. 5) Lenin writes, ‘‘Having recognized that the economie system is the foun- dation on which the political superstructure is erected, Marx devoted most attention to the study of this economic system.’’ But Marx did not so concern himself with economics that his views on the origin of the state are unknown. He was convinced that the state came into being as an instrument of domination and oppres- sion used by the capitalists to subjugate the masses. In the work, The Ciwil War in France (International Publishers, N. Y. 1937, p. 38) Marx asserts that ‘‘the purely repressive character of the state power stands out in bolder and bolder relief’’ after every revolution marking a progressive phase in the class struggle. Lenin summarizes the doctrine of Marx regarding the state in an essay appearing in the volume Leviathan in Crisis, published by the Viking Press in November of this year, in these words: ‘‘ Accord- ing to Marx, the State is an organ of class domination, an organ of oppression of one class by another .. .’’ Obviously, this organ of oppression must be destroyed in the process of proletarian victory. Nor is there any doubt that the dissolution of the capitalist state must be achieved by violent revolution. In the essay men- tioned above, Lenin is most eloquent on this point. He writes: ‘“We have already said above that the teaching of Marx and Engels regarding the inevitability of a violent revolution refers to the bourgeois State. The latier cannot be replaced by the prole- tarian State (the dictatorship of the proletariat) through ‘wither- ing away’, but, as a general rule, only through a violent revolu- ¢ MARXIAN VERSUS CHRISTIAN REVOLUTION 39 tion. The panegyric sung in its honor by Engels and fully cor- responding to the repeated declarations of Marx (remember the concluding passages of the ‘Poverty of Philosophy’ and the ‘Com- munist Manifesto’ with its proud and open declaration of the inevitability of a violent revolution; remember Marx’s ‘Critique of the Gotha Program’ of 1875 in which, almost thirty years later, he mercilessly castigates the opportunist character of that pro- eram )—this praise is by no means a mere ‘impulse’, a mere decla- mation or a polemical sally. The necessity of systematically fos- tering among the masses this and just this point of view about violent revolution lies at the root of the whole of Marx’s and Engels’ teaching.’’ In brief, then, Marxism would rebuild the world by destroying the institution of private property and its handmaid the state. The Christian formula for world betterment is radically dif- ferent. In the December issue of the Catholic Digest there appears an allegory which so aptly portrays the Christian answer to the problem that I feel free to present it at this time. A scholar, laboring on a weightv social treatise, wished to divert the attention of his troublesome young daughter. He cut out a map of the world from a newspaper, sheared it into a number of odd-shaped pieces, and sent her away to ‘‘put the world together again.’’ He hoped for an hour of quiet. But five minutes later the youngster was back with the announcement that the map was all laid out on the floor. “‘How did you get it together so quickly?’’ the father asked in amazement. ‘‘That was easy,’’ said the child. ‘‘I merely turned the pieces over, and on the other side of one piece I saw the picture of the head of a man. I just put the man together right, and when man was put together right, the world was right.’ There is the answer to the problem of distribution as seen through the eyes of a Christian. There is the answer of a Christian to the social and economic evils of our time. It is not so much our institutions but ourselves that need to be put in order. It is not private property that is evil, it is the men who abuse private property who are evil. It is not the state that is evil, it is the men who pervert the state who are evil. The world needs a revolution. But pride and greed, envy and ambition—not material institu- tions—are the things which must be destroyed. These are the evils which must be rooted out of the soul of man by the vigorous violence of self-discipline and self-correction. These are the evils which have appeared on the Soviet scene in spite of state owner- 40 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ship and use of the means of production. They must be destroyed or the world as we know it will continue upon its headlong ecurse toward chaos. Private property is not evil; it is based upon the nature of man. Evil will be present in respect to private property, only when man becomes so saturated in the process of personal gain that he forgets the social obligations of ownership. Actually, the Marxist contradicts himself when he advocates the abolition of private ownership. For it is his natural desire to possess goods which prompts him to destroy capitalism because it seemingly dispossesses him of what he properly believes is his rightful share in the goods of the world. Let every man engage in the work of revolutionizing himself to the extent of substituting justice and charity for greed and envy, and Marxism will soon be relegated to a central spot in the museum of historical nightmares. The Christian concept of the state is equally opposed to the Marxist theory. For a Christian, the state is not an instrument of domination and oppression. It is a natural institution built upon the needs of man designed to promote the common good by pro- tecting the rights of its citizens. Protection, not suppression, is its function. The Christian can well agree that its end has been perverted many times in the history of man. Greed, envy and am- bition have reared their ugly heads within the souls of rulers and subjects. But again, the remedy must be one of purification not destruction. It has been my intention in the present paper to establish the deadly opposition between Marxism and Christian ways of life. In the matter of essentials, there can be no compromise. Hither Marxists must surrender their principles or Christians must sur- render theirs. May God grant us the strength and the wisdom to teach and to practice our principles and thereby produce a better world. PERMEABILITY OF THE TRACHEAL SYSTEM OF DROSO- ; PHILA MELANOGASTER LARVAE}! Grorge A. EDWARDS Edward Martin Biological Laboratory Swarthmore College, Swarthmore, Pennsylvania It has in the past been commonly assumed that the absorption of fluids and gases through the insect tracheal system occurred through the finest branches of the system, the tracheoles ( Wiggles- worth, 1938), or through the large tracheal end cells (Lund, 1911). In 1938, Wigglesworth found that in one mosquito larva, of the hundred experimented upon, the entire tracheai system was per- meable to indigo carmine. From this it was concluded that the tracheal system of the mosquito larva is permeable to gases. It has been shown that fluid is normally present in the tracheoles of several insects (fleas, mosquito larvae), that the tracheolar fluid plays some part in the absorption of oxygen from the tracheoles by the tissues, and that the level of liquid varies with the activity of the insect. During moulting the walls of the tracheal system are more readily permeable to fluids and gases than they are during the intermoulting period (Wigglesworth, 1939). Data here pre- sented show that the entire tracheal system of the larva of Droso- phila melanogaster is at all times permeabie to fluids and gases. TECHNIQUE The larvae used were those of the wild type Drosophila melano- gaster, usually 2nd and 3rd instar, approximately 5 to 15 mms in length. The larvae were raised in milk bottles on a mixture of corn meal, molasses, and agar (Bridges, 1932), in an incubator at a temperature of 25 degrees C. Before being used, the larvae were withdrawn from the bottle in a medicine dropper full of saline solution, washed in a beaker of saline, and dried with filter paper. When dry each larva was placed on a microscope slide and heid in place with a piece of cellulose ‘‘scotch’’ tape. The advan- tages of using the ‘‘scotch’’ tape are several: (1) it is permeable to gases and permits the animal to breath freely, (2) it permits the application of gases and fluids and other stimuli during ex- perimentation, (3) it has the same refractive index as glass, mak- ing observations of the tracheal system easily possible”, and (4) it 1This work was accomplished at Tuft’s College, under the supervision of Prof. K. D. Roeder. 2The tracheal system, when filled with air, appears silvery by trans- mitted light as compared with the other tissues which are almost trans- parent; upon entrance of fluid into the system the tracheae become al- most transparent. 42 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES prevents the larva from wriggling out of the field of the micro- scope. Various agents were tried and their effect upon the appearance of fluid in the tracheal system observed. Observations were made under all powers of the microscope. | RESULTS A summary of the results obtained is given in Table 1. In the normal Drosophila larva, no liquid could be found in the tracheal system, not even in the finest branches that could be seen with the microscope. Tactile stimulation, which consisted of either rolling the insect over two or three times before placing it on the slide, or gentle stroking with fine forceps, resulted in the appear- ance of fluid more than did any other stimulus. The fluid entered the tracheal system at various points. In some eases the entry occurred only in the tracheoles, but at other times it entered the main tracheal trunks first, and sometimes it entered several branches at once. The entry of fluid was sometimes, but not always, accompanied by collapse of the tracheae. Electrical stimu- lation caused fluid to appear in only one out of ten larvae used. The fluid entered in all branches except the commissures. Passing ether or carbon dioxide through the ‘‘scotch’’ tape caused liqui:| to enter the tracheal system quite easily. In several cases, leaving the larvae in a dish of saline solution for several days also resulted in the appearance of fluid in the tracheae. TABLE 1 Tue Errect or Various AGENTS UPoN THE APPEARANCE OF E'LUID IN THE TRACHEAL SystEM OF Drosophila melanogaster LARVAE n : POINTS OF ENTRY OF FLUID 3 Bag BEE = Ba moe I 2 55245," eepeanes Here there are (R—1)/2, or four, series of two terms each, and one single term which reverts to itself. That is, 5 /11=0.4444, etc., when the radix is nine. Corollary le. If more than one c.g.series exist to the same base B, and B is a prime number, then all the series have the same number of terms. Also, CYCLO-GEOMETRIC SERIES AND SCALES 69 in any one of the series, if B is prime, the be eg number contains the untt repetend number as a factor. By Eq. (5) the condition for the formation of a c.g.series is that (RN—1)/B is an integer, where n is the smallest integral exponent required to fulfill the condition. But, this test is independent of any particular term, and of the series in which it may fall. Hence, all series to base B must have n terms. This reasoning would fail only in case B had a factor in common with some one of the B—1 integers forming series. For, let Ax and B have a common factor. Then, the proper fraction Ax/B would reduce to lower terms which would introduce a new base, and change the number of terms in some cases. Now, setting C; in Eq. (5) equal to 1, we have RN—1=BN;; and for any term of another series, Ax, letting Mxrepresent the correspond- ing repetend number, / : Ax(RN—1)=BMr. Hence, Mxk=Ax.Ni, and the latter part of Corollary (le) is proved. Corollary 1f. Every cyclic permutation of each repetend number arising from a base Bis an integral multiple of the unit repetend number, if Bis prime. This follows from the reasoning under Corollary le. Corollary 1g. I” any system of notation of radix R, no c.g.sertes of ratio R and base B can be formed if B and R have a common factor. Nor can such a series be formed if R and the units digit of B have a common factor. By Eq. (5), RN—1 is an integral multiple of B, if a c.g.series can be formed. Hence, (RN—1)=Bp, where p is integral. Or, RN=Bp+1. Therefore, R and B cannot have a common factor, if the last equation is to be satisfied. Let us suppose next that R and the units digit of B have a common factor. Suppose, B=Ra+-b, where (a) is an integer and (b) is a single digit. Then, RN=Bp+1=(Ra+b)p+1. And, if R and b have a com- mon factor, the equation cannot be satisfied and so no c.g.series can be formed. Now, since the base as well as many of the terms of the cyclo- geometric series consist of more than one digit in general, we may represent these quantities thus: 6) B=Ra-+b; and C2.=Rr+q; where (a) and (®) are integers, or else 0; and b and q are single digits. Then, by Eq. (3): 70 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 7) Co=Rr+q=RCi—BD:=RCi—(Ra+b)Di, where D; is a. single digit. From this, setting b=R—1, the highest digit of the system of notation: 8) Cy—r—(a+1D;=(q—Di)/R. But, q—Di. CYCLO-GEOMETRIC SERIES AND SCALES 71 However, when the terminal digit of B is 1, instead of R—1, Co is formed by subtracting twice the units digit of the generated number from the number itself. This is evident by comparing C, and Cy in equations (14) and (15). This gives rise to: Theorem 3. I any scale of notation of radix R the terms of any c.g.- series of ratio R, referred to a base B whose terminal digit is 1, may be derived an the following manner. Use as a generator the number formed by those digits of B standing ahead of the units digit. Divide this generator into any term of the series, setting down the quotient in units place and the remainder in the next higher places. From this generated number subtract twice the units digit. The difference ts the next term of the cyclo-geometric series. However, in the formation of the generated number, if there is no remainder, then r+1=0, and by Eq. 15) C2=—(R—Qq), which is negative. To make it positive add it to the base B, and the sum becomes the next term of the cyclo~ geometric serzes. The next matter to consider is the formation of the repetend from the terms of the c.g.series. That the digits of the repetend are functions of the terms of the c.g.series follows from the process of ordinary division, in which the repetend occurs in the quotient, and the c.g.- series terms appear as the successive remainders. It would be suspected perhaps that the repetend digits might be produced from the remainders by some process of multiplication. In- spection of the division process shows that the repetend digits are functions only of the units digits of the remainders; that is, of the cyclo-geometric series terms by a single digit multiplier, any term of the c.g.series producing the next preceding term of the repetend series. Now, by Eq. (7), since B=Ra+b, C2=Rr+q=RCi—(Ra+b)Dyj. ©e:. 16) q=R(Ci;—aDi—1)—bDy. But, if the digits of the repetend are to be produced by m, a single digit multiplier ee upon the units digits of the terms of the c.g.series: 17) mq= Rp-+D, where p is a digit and D, is the repetend digit cor- responding to the term C2. Eliminating q between Eqs. (16) & (17): 18) m(C,— aDi~-r)— p= =D,CGmb-+1)/R.: Now, since the first member of oH a is vi and not 0, b+) must contain R as a factor..Hence:: i T2 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 19) mb+1=kR; or, m=(kR—1)/b, where k is a digit. Therefore, the criterion for determining the existence of m is that Eq. (19) can be satisfied from the R—1 possible values of k. Since both the c.g.series and the repetend series are cyclic, C2 and Dj are any corresponding pair of terms in the two kinds of series. This gives us the following theorem: Theorem 4. In any scale of notation of radix R the digits of the repetena corresponding to the terms of a c.g.series of ratio R and to a base whose units digit is b, may be produced by multiplying the units digits of the cyclo-geometric terms in succession by a single digit m, determined by the relation m=(kRR—1) [b, where k is one of the possible R—1 digits of the notation system. From the nature of the process of simple division it follows that if this condition for an integral m, a digit, cannot be satisfied there can be no c.g.series and no complete repetend. Corollary 4a. If the units digit of the base is the largest digit of the system of notation, the repetend producing multiplier is 1. For, setting b=R—1, in Eq. (19), we have m=(kR—1)/(R—1); which can only be satisfied when k=1, and m=1. Corollary 4b. If the units digit of the base is 1, the repetend producing multiplier 1s R—1. | For, setting b=1, in Eq. (19), we get m=kR—1, and sok canequal 1 only and, therefore, m=R—1. Corollary 4c. If R the radix of the scale of notation, which is equal to the ratio in a c.g.series, 7s an even number, the repetend producing multiplier m and the units digit of the base of the serzes are both odd. For, if kR and b have a common factor, then (kR—1) and b cannot have a common factor other than 1. Corollary 4d. If the radix and ratio R of ac.g.series is odd, then either m or b is even, or both are even. For, (kR—1) is even, and so (mb) is even. CYCLO-GEOMETRIC SERIES AND SCALES 73 Corollary 4e. If R and b have a common factor no value of m can be found. So, no c.g.series and no complete repetend are possible. For, if kR and b have a common factor, then (kR—1) and b cannot have that common factor. But, (kKR—1)/b must be integral. Hence, m cannot exist. Also, by Equations (5) and (6), Ci:RN —1) = BDn =(Ra++b)Dy. The last member of the equation contains the common factor, while the first member does not, since C; is any one of the B—1 terms forming cyclo- geometric series. Hence, no c.g.series and no repetend are possible if R and b have a common factor other than 1. Corollary 4f. When the base of a c.g.series has a terminal digit of 1, the units digit of any term of that series plus the preceding repetend digit equals the radix of the scale of notation, if that is the ratio of the series. In case the units digit of the term is O, the repetend digit is also O. For, as in Eq. (15), C2=Rr+q; and by Corollary 4b, m=R-1. Hence, mq=(R—Dq=Rp+D:, where p is an integer. (Eq. 17). Therefore, q+Di=R(q—p)=R, since the sum of two digits cannot be as great as 2R. However, the last equation fails to hold in case q and D are each 0. If q is 0, then D; also must be 0, since (q—p) cannot be a negative quantity. Theorem 5. If the base and one term of a c.g.series have a common factor, then all the terms of the series contain the same factor. If the common factor be removed from all the terms a new c.g.series is formed having the same repetend series as before but to anew base, the original base with the factor removed. Example: Radix=ratio=10(ten); base B=39. Generator=4. Take C=3. Then, using the process of Theorems (2) and (4): Gis series:) (3, . 30! -27)) 36 9 12. repeating. Repecends 200 7 60) 7/9. 2 3) repeating. Here, by Theorem 4, m=(kR—1)/b=(0k—1)/9=1. The new base is B=39/3=13. Hence, reducing the terms in the series above by dividing by 3, we have a new series: C.g-series? 1 10 9 12 3. 4 repeating. Repetetid: |: Qi.) J-o6y+ 9 20): 3 repeating. Here, m=(kR—1)/b=(10k—1)/3=3, and the repetend is the same 74 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES as before. Of course there is another series to base 13. It also consists of six terms, and is derived in the same manner. In proof of Theorem 5, let C; and Cx be any two terms of a c.g. series of ratio R and base B, expressed in a scale of notation of radix R; and let C; and B have a common factor f. Then, C1=fC’1; and B=fB’. But by Eq. G3), Cc=R¥?.Ci:—BDg_i1=f(R*¥ 1.C’;—B’.Dx_1). Hence, any term Cx contains the factor f. Call Cx /f=C’x. Then, C’x=R¥ 1.C’;— B’.Dg_1i, which is precisely of the same form as Eq. (3). And so, the primed series is cyclo-geometric, the new base being B’=B/f: and since Dxg_1 is the same as before, the repetend is unchanged. As an illustration of the application of Theorems 2 and 4, let us write the c.g.series and corresponding repetend series when the radix and ratio each equal nine, and the base is seventeen. We have then, radix- =ratio=10(nine); base =18(seventeen). Here 10 and 18 are both odd numbers. By Theorem 2, the generator of the c.g.series=a+1=2, where (a) is the leading digit of 18, Also. by Corollary 4a, since the highest digit of the scale of notation is 8, which is the units digit of the base, the value of m is 1. Thus, Starting with C;=1, we have the two series: C) C.g.series:, 1 10 14.16 17.) 8» 54.92 Sepearies Repetend: .0 4 6 7 8 .4%¢)2.) sfepeeeaes By the process of Theorem 2, to produce the upper series divide any term by the generator 2 in the scale of mine, thus: 2 into 1 is contained 0 times and 1 over, giving 10 as the term; 2 into 10, 4 times and 1 remaining. Lastly, 2 into 2 goes 1, without remainder, and the series becomes cyclic; the next term becoming the first term, after eight terms. : By Corollary 4a, the repetend digits result from the multiplier 1, applies to the cyclo-geometric terms. Hence, we merely write down the units digits of the cyclo-geometric terms one place to the left of those terms, forming the repetend series. In this table, then, we have eight fractions changed to the form we know as the ‘‘decimal form’’ when the radix is ten. Thus: : 14 /18=0.67842104 repeating; 17/18 =0.84210467 repeacie: étc., all expressed to the scale of radix nine. , From the c.g.series (C) it is evident that there must be another series of eight terms, since only half of the integers less than B—1, or half of sixteen have been used,.when B=18(radix nine). In Series. CC); it: is CYCLO-GEOMETRIC SERIES AND SCALES 75 seen that the term 3 is missing. Hence, starting with 3, we have, using the same methods as for Series (C): DD), Graisecies: 036 D1yeis5. 124015 «721 13) <6) repeating. Repeteacds synods s2owS 007 y300'6 .« 3.) repeating. Thus, 11/18=0.52573631 repeating; 6/18=0.31525736 etc. In the c.g.seties (C) we notice that the sum of the 1st and 5th, 2nd and 6th terms, etc. is 18, the base. The same is true in (D). Such cyclo-geometri series will be called self-supplementary. Similarly, using the same numbered terms of the repetend series, we have from the (C) series: 0+8=4+4=6+2=7+1=8=R-—1. And, from Series (D), 1+7=513=2+6=8=R-1. Such a repetend series will be called self-complementary. By Corollary 4e, still using the scale of notation with radix and ratio equal to 10(nine), and with base 13(twelve), we observe that no c.g.- series is possible, since 13 and 10 have the common factor 3. But the odd number 21 (nineteen) is a base for which such series do exist. And since B here has a terminal digit of 1, we have by Theorems (3) and (4) the following: Radix=ratio=10(nine); base=2l(nineteen); generator =2; ~~ m=R—1=10—-1=8. By pGeersentcss) 110 5, 7 6 17 12 4°18 repeating Repeccad:>,.0 0425.3 2 75. I & ‘repeating. This series is derived by employing the generator divisor, 2. Thus, starting with C,;=1, and using the process of Theorem 3, 2 is contained in 1 no times and 1 over, forming the number 10. Then, 10—0=10, the second term. Next, 2 into 10 goes 4 times and 1 over, forming the generated number 14. Then, 10—4=5, the third term; etc. throughout. The repetend series is produced from the c.g.terms by using the multiplier m=R—1=8, Corollary 4b. For example: 8(7) =62, so digit 2 is set down one place to the left of each c.g.term having terminal digit 7 in Series (CC). However, the repetend digits may be more readily set down by means of Corollary 4f. Thus, deriving the lower series of (E) from the upper series, 4=10—5; 2=10—7; 3= 1o— 6; etc., 1=10—8; Jastly, 8=10—1. : To be sure there is another series of nine terms. Let us begin with 20, which is missing among the c.g.terms in (E): 76 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES FP) *C.g-seties:' "20 11°15 13°14 3° 8 16 © 2- “tepeaennes Repetend: »-8 4 6 56 1'°3° 7 © *cepearings Since the number of terms in these series is odd, the series cannot be self-supplementary. Hence, the two c.g.series are mutually supple- mentary; since, 1+20=10+11=5+15=7-+13, etc. =21, the base. Also, the two repetend series are mutually complementary, since 0+8= 4+4=2+6=3+5, etc. =8=R+1. As another example under Theorem 5, also, using Theorems 2 & (4), let us take radix=ratio=10(nine); B=12(eleven). Suppose we start with a first term of the c.g.series equal to 1. Temporarily change to a base with terminal digit R-—1=8. Thus, 1/12=4/48. Hence, begin a series with 4 as the first term, and apply Theorem 2. Here the generator =a+1=5, and our series is as follows: G) C.g.series: 4 40 17 13 22 repeating. Reduced series “1)) 1034. 3..° 5) gepeating? Repetend: .Q °F: 3 4 Qt O4y sepeacue The upper series is obtained by dividing each term by 5, and the middle series, which is to base 12, by dividing the upper series terms by 4. The repetend may be obtained by multiplying the terminal di- gits of the upper series terms by 1, or by multiplying the middle series terms similarly by (Qk—1) /2=4. Series (G) contains only five terms, so there must be another series. Making 44 the first term of the tentative series, and again using the generator divisor 5, we have: | H) C.g.series: 44 8 31 35 26 repeating. Reduced series: 11 2 7. 8. 6 Mrepeatine: Repetend: 8 1., 5, .6> 4) 4epeating: The middle series, base 12, and the repetend are obtained as for the preceding series. “« The two c.g.series (G) and (H) are seen to be supplementary to one another, and the two repetend series complementary. The same series might have been derived by Theorems 3 and 4. As before, radix=ratio=10(nine); B=12(eleven). 1 /12=5/61; and since 61 has 1 as a terminal digit the generator =a=6. Hence, starting with 5 as the first term, and following the process of Theorem 3, we have: }) C.g.series: 5 50 22°16 27 sepeatine: Reduced series: 1 10° 4 °3' % 5 ‘“repeacine: CYCLO-GEOMETRIC SERIES AND SCALES 17 The reduced c.g.series is the same as (G). The second series is: K) C.g.series: 55 11 38 44 33 repeating. Reduced series!" 11)" 2.) 7 86” repeating, asin (EL). When the radix is an odd number it is possible to form c.g.series with complete repetends; that is, series in which the entire fraction is re- peated, even when the base of the series is an even number. Such an example is the following, whose series, five in number, are developed by the process of Theorems 2 and 4: Radix=ratio=10(nine); base=15(fourteen). 1/15=7/118. Here, a =11, and the generator =a+1=12. Also, m=(9k—1)/5=7, where k=4, "Ch orseties Te HOP O52 lon se 62s 25 11 38: Reduced series” “P10 12 2 4 "Be" 314. 5; Repetend: SOr ey ee ie Se BN 3s C.g.series: 45,103" 173, 54 .., All repeating. Reduced seties:, (6) 15 11; 77. : All repeating. Repetend: Digi Ou. 4 sll teneating. Here one series is irregular, a single term which reverts to itself. The regular c.g.series are supplementary and the repetends comple- mentary by pairs. Irregular series always occur with even bases. In the case of a system of notation of radix seven it is possible to form c.g.series and complete repetends whether the base has a terminal eicit of I, 2, 3, 4,\5,, ot 6, For example: Radix =ratio=10(seven); base B=16(thirteen); generator =a+1=2. Then, by the process of Theorem 2: M) C.g.series OM aS. re Ge Sp dd Ak 2 Reperceas, “Orr 2) rau: 6.3) 1b. 4 2 2 Here, m=1, by Corollary 4a. Then, to radix seven, 13 /16=0.524563142103, repeating; 4/16=0.210352456314, etc. As another example: R=10(seven); B=14(eleven). 1/14=5/106. Generator =a+1=11. Starting the series with 5, we have: N) C.g.series: S50 4 do. 2h TOL 26). 42 163..55 Reduced series 2 rt 108502, 36013 4. 6 12 I) Repetend: Ce aver ee et no 2 SSS Here, m=(kR—1)/4=(7k—1) /4=20/4=5. Hence, to padie seven, 5 /14=0.3116235504, repeating; 12/14=0.5504311623, repeating. 78 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Theorem 6. The product of the sum of the terms of any c.g.series by the highest digit in the scale of notation is equal to the product of the base of the series by the sum of the digits of the corresponding repetend. From the Equations (1) we have: 20) C.=RC,—Bd;; C3;=RC.2—Bd; etc. Cxr=RCkg_1—Bdx_3; ClO 5s ats Cy =RCy_1—Bdy_1; C,=Cy+1=RCy—Bady. Adding these equa- tions, DC=Rk OC —B>d: or: 21) R-1LYVC=ByXad, and Theorem 6 is proved. This may be verified by Series (CC), where }C=68; Did=32; B=17; R—1=8. Then, 8(68)=17(32)=544. All numbers here are expressed in the decimal scale. Theorem 7. The product of the sum of the n terms of a cyclo-geometric series by one less than the nth power of the radix of the scale of notation, ts equal to the product of the base of the series by the sum of the n cyclic permuta- tions of the corresponding repetend number. For, by Eq. (5), C1 RN—1)=BDy, where Dy contains all the n digits of the repetend. Now, any term Cx may become, by cyclic per- mutation, the leading term of the c.g.series. For this reason let Ni represent the D—number when the leading term is Ci; N2, when the leading term is Ce, etc. Then, all the Ns are permutations of one another. We have, therefore, by Eq. (5): 22) C,(RX—1)=BN,; C.(RN—1)=BN;; etc. ... . Ce-RN—1)=BNg; G(R 1) BN. Taking the sum of these equations: 23) (RXN-—DYLC=BEN. And the theorem is proved. Theorem 8. [If three terms occur anywhere in a c.g.series such that the sum of two of the terms is equal to the third, or to the third plus the base B; then, a similar relation persists for any other three terms similarly placed, relatively, in the series. For, if Ci and Co, Cx and Cx+1, Cp and Cp+, are three pairs of con- secutive terms of a c.g.series of base B; and C3 +Cx=Cp, by assump- tion; then, from Equations (1), we have the following. C.=RC,—Bd1; Cx+i=RCx—Bdx; and Cp+1=RCp—Bd». Hence: CYCLO-GEOMETRIC SERIES AND SCALES 79 24) Co+Cx+1=(RCi—Bdi)+(RCx—Bdx) =R(Ci+Cx)—B(di+dx)= RCp—B(di+dx). But, by Eqs. (1), RCp=Cp+1+Bdp. Therefore: 25) Gi Ord Cre Bdp—di—dr): Now, Ce, Cx+i, and Cp+, are each less than B, and (dp—di—dx) is 0, or a positive integer. In fact the quantity in parenthesis cannot be as great as 2; and, since it cannot be negative, it must be 0 of 1. Thus, Co+Cx+1=Cp+i; or, Cot+Cx+1=Cp+it+B. Now, if we had assumed that C1+Cx=Cp+B, we would find by the same process as before that C.+Cx+1:=Cp+i+BCR+de—dy —dx), where again the quantity in parenthesis must equal 0 or 1. Hence, Theorem 8 has been established. Example 1. See c.g.series (A). Radix=ten; base=seven. First term +second term = fifth; 2nd + 3rd = 6th; 3rd + 4th = Ist plus 7; 4th + Sth = 2nd + 7; 5th + 6th = 3rd + 7; 6th + Ist = 4th. Example 2. See c.g.series (M). Radix= seven; base = thirteen. First term + fourth = eighth; 2nd + 5th = 9th + 13; 3rd + 6th = 10th + 13; etc. Corollary 8a. If the sum of, any two terms of a c.g.series is equal to the base, then the sum of any two terms of the series, similarly placed with respect to the first pair, ts equal to the base and the series is self-supplementary; and so the series contains an even number of terms. Furthermore, the corresponding repetend series is self-complementary. For, if C; and Cx are any two terms of the c.g.series, C1: +Cx=B. Then, as in Equation (24): 26) Co+Cx+1=R(C,+Cx)—B(ditdx)=BCR—di—dx); where the last parenthesis is equal to 1, necessarily. Hence: 27) Co+Cx+i1=B, as for Cit+Cx. Also, since (R—di—dx)=1, we have di+dx=R; and so the c.g-series is self-supplementary, and the repetend series is self-complementary. Example 1:-C.g.series (A). Radix R=10(ten); base B=7. C.g.series: 1+6=3+4=2+5=7 (base). Self-supplementary. Repetend: 1+8=4+5=2+7=9=(R-1). Self-complementary. Example 2: C.g.series (C). Radix R=10(nine); base = 18. C.g.series: 1+17=10+8=14+4=16+2=18 (base.) Repetend: 0+8=4+4=6+2=7+1=8= (R-1). 80 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Corollary 8b. When a c.g.series of radix R and ratio R, and to base B, contains every one of the B—1 consecutive integers less than B, the series is self-supplementary and contains an even number of terms. Furthermore, the repetend series is self-complementary. For, since two terms of the series can be found whose sum is equal to the base B, this corollary follows from Corollary 8a. Hence, B—1 must be even, and so B is odd. The repetend relation follows from Corollary 8a. Corollary 8c. Wath the same three pairs of consecutive terms as specified in Theorem 8 and its proof, if Ci —Cxk=Crp, when Ci>Cx; or if B+C, —Cx = Cp, when Ge Gre then, Co—Cg+1=Crp4i, when Co >Cet+ or B+C, = Cxt+1 =Cpti, when CoCx, by the same equations as were used under the proof of Theorem 8, we get Co—Cx+1+(di—dx—dp)B =Cp+1. Hence, (di—dx—dp)=0, or 1. Therefore, Co—Cx+1=Cp-4i, if Co>Cx4+1; but B+C2—Cg4+1=Crp41, if CoCx; or, if B+C,—Ck= Ap, when C,;Cx+1; or B+ C.— Cx+i1=Apti, when C2 ccumchah he om » , . f aa ‘ re ‘ é Ps > > 2 = ' ~ ie ‘ - ; P S ‘ = e ‘ ————_ —~ = — : ey fot i ‘ 5 ‘ é d e a . ‘ 7 ' 5 = ‘ 4 4 . \ & A. f 7 , ° S r : i | segtiniteey Wiehe: piles seb ie pele hiielceenbniniban se aake . a oboe bi RAE Ra) RA: eins ne he asiy nites ody wl Aa “ row 20 2 dep ahs Mange scours el deb walebal ty ze sd ‘ “it oJ 4) RE! (a) ee +) ae Nt tah recta trp vet et hg i ” rk ; “ ‘4 7 va ~ ad j Abe pr a mh Bolom 4 a APT Pea Nae | KIA G badd bed a ' hes = Pi : : . 4 oY) st Dy y Pia bs | s aslbnceoai BACKDROP TO REVOLUTION—THE REIGN OF POPE GREGORY XVI Duane KoeEnic University of Miami Last of the modern popes to cling to the traditions of the ancient regime was Gregory XVI. Holy Father from 1831 to 1846, gloriously reigning, his pontificate bridged the age from the morrow of the July Days to the eve of the Revolution of 1848. Conservative by nature and instinct though more Francophile than Austrophile, he struggled successfully to dam that flood tide of liberalism which was so soon to subvert the throne and temporalities of his successor, Pius IX. Gregory’s task as pontiff was twofold. It was his duty to oversee the manifold concerns of Heaven upon earth and to defend his Roman States against all aggression, internal or external. These provinces were esteemed less for their intrinsic worth as a small kindgom than for the security they appeared to offer the papacy from outside pres- sures. By the time he reached his eightieth birthday in 1845, the pope could rejoice in his accomplishments. Albeit by temperament and penchant fitted for the life of the cloister, he had been able to advance the cause of the church against both France and Prussia and maintain a modicum of order in the Ecclesiastical States. Gregory knew that when he died he would leave behind a tiara untarnished by concessions to the gathering forces of liberalism and territories undiminished in extent during his reign. The Emperor Napoleon once observed that the Catholic Church was guided by a small number of prelates from the Roman area, men ig- norant of the conditions and needs of both Italy and Europe. Certainly the first part of this comment was true. From the election of Clement XIV in 1769 to the death of Pius VIII in 1830, the popes were all natives of the Church States. Except for the interlude of Gregory XVI, this situation prevailed down to 1878. Gregory was a Venetian who never became completely Romanized. He was born Bartolommeo Alberto Cappellari at Belluno on September 18, 1765. His father, Giovanni Battista, and his mother, Giulia Cesa-Pagani, belonged to the lower nobility and to families once distinguished in Venetian state service. At the age of eighteen, Bartolommeo became a novice in the monastere of St. Michael at Murano. This was a Camaldolite house. Here he took the name of Mauro and in 1787 was ordained a priest. Theology and philosophy were his fortes and after some experience teaching, he be- came a censor of books for his religious order and for the Holy Office 132 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES at Venice. In 1795 he was sent to Rome where he lived in the monastery of St. Gregory on the Coelian Hill. Four years later Brother Mauro published The Triumph of the Holy See and the Church in which he de- fended papal sovereignty over Rome and denounced Italian Jacobins. According to his own statement, the work did not attract much atten- tion until he became pope. Actually, however, it went into three Italian editions and was translated into foreign languages. Cappellari became abbot-vicar of St. Gregory’s in 1800 and abbot in 1805. He was ex- pelled from Rome in 1808 by the French and ultimately found his way to Padua where he taught philosophy in a Camaldolite convent. With the restoration of Pius VII in 1814, Cappellari became consultor to various congregations, examiner of bishops and once more abbot of St. Gregory’s. Twice he refused offers of episcopal appointment. Leo XII made him cardinal im petto in 1825; the next year he was given the biretta and made prefect of the Propaganda of the Faith. In this ca- pacity he arranged a concordat between Catholics in the Low Countries and Dutch King William I, between Armenian Catholics and the Seraglio. After his elevation to the throne of St. Peter, Gregory realized the gravity of his responsibilities. He observed in one instance to a German diplomat, “‘It is a crown of thorns, not a tiara they have set on my head.”’ - Somewhat introspective, Cappellari never journeyed abroad and he knew the outside world principally through contacts with books and foreigners. He was of delicate tastes, a patron of painters, sculptors, and writers. He founded the Egyptian and Etruscan museums at the Vatican, the Christian museum at the Lateran, and he rebuilt St. Paul’s beyond the Walls after the fire there. He liked strong tobacco, con- temporary novels, good wines and foods. Generous and kind, he none the less refused to endow his nephews out of the coffers of the church and open himself up to charges of nepotism. The period of Gregory's pontificate was an-era of absolutism 1 in Austria, cautious liberalism in France, smoldering insurrection in Italy, and civil war in Portugal and Spain. The Papal States were especially vulnerable to outside interference because of their pivotal position in the center of Italy. They stretched from the Tyrrhenian Sea to the Adriatic and from the Two Sicilies to the Po River. The four Roman States were: the Patrimony of St. Peter, Umbria, the Marches, and the Romagna. Together they had an area of some 16,000 square miles and a population of nearly 3,000,000. Rome had perhaps 175,000 inhabi- tants, Bolognia which was capital of the Romagna, 75,000 and Ferrara, 33,000: The term “‘Legations’’ is often used to refer to the Romagna BACKDROP TO REVOLUTION 133 province which included Bologna, Ferrara, Ravenna, and Forli. One of the maxims of history has been, ‘France hates Austria and attacks her in Italy.’’ On the northern frontier of the Church States was the Austrian kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia. Little more than a hundred miles to the north and west of the Tyrrhenian coast of Latium was the French island of Corsica. Rome was the place where the rival spheres of influence of France and Austria clashed. Their religious interests at the papal court merely added to the confusion. Austria's program was one of maintaining the status quo everywhere. Perhaps it was best summed up by the chancellor, Prince Metternich, in a diplomatic circular of March 12, 1835, to Austria’s ministers at foreign courts. In this document Metternich quoted with approval from the last letter of the Emperor Francis of Austria to his son Fer- dinand: “‘Disturb nothing in the foundations of the edifice of the State. Govern and change nothing ... . Respect all lawful rights, and then you may justly claim the reverence due to your own rights as Sovereign.’’ With 70,000 whitecoats in the Quadrilateral (the fortresses of Peschiera and Mantua on the Mincio River and Verona and Legnago on the Adige form an excellent defensive position in the shape of a quadrangle, surrounded by water on three sides and mountains on the fourth), with Hapsburgs or their relatives ruling at Parma, Modena and Florence, it was an easy matter to maintain Austrian hegemony in northern Italy. France on the other hand prided herself on a constitutional monarchy and occasional redressing of grievances as a palliation to rebellion. Reform in the government at Rome was favored by Paris, because it might lead the way to religious innovations in the Gallican Church or contribute to greater French prestige in the Roman curia. Moreover, a primary aim of French foreign policy, the humbling of the Hapsburgs and the erection of some sort of grouping of Italian states, grateful to and dependent on France, could well be furthered by governmental reform at Rome. It was at the time of such rivalry between France and Austria that Gregory became pope. 1830 brought a change of dynasty in France and a revival of political agitation in Italy. Disorders occurred in Parma, Modena and even the people of Rome seemed restive. To add to the confusion, Pius VII died on the night of November 30-December 1. When the conclave assembled to choose his successor it seemed likely that the choice of a new pope could be made quickly. At one time Cardinal Giustiniani was the favored candidate. Spain, however, exercised her right of veto and prevented the election. Weeks passed and the cardinals failed to 134 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES reach any agreement. Tension mounted and Duke Francis IV of Modena warned that revolt was imminent in Central Italy unless a candidate should be speedily approved. On the fiftieth day of the conclave and the feast of the Purification of the Virgin Mary, February 2, 1831, Cardinal Cappellari was chosen by 33 out of 45 votes. He was generally believed to be favorite son of the zelanti: those cardinals wanting an independent and conservative pope. Cappellari took the name of Gregory in honor of Gregory XV, founder of the Congregation of the Propaganda of the Faith. Two days later news reached Bologna that Francis had arrested a popular revolutionary of Modena. This proved to be the spark that ignited the powder keg of dissatisfaction in the Romagna and the province rose in revolt against the temporal authority. The trans- apennine territory of the Romagna was peopled by a hardy stock, much more progressive than the inhabitants of the Roman champaign. Ever accessible to new ideas from north and west, the Romagna chafed under the tedious legal and economic practices of its government of ecclesiastics. There was a small middle class that was anxious for order and liberal laws, neither of which boons would likely be provided by Pope Gregory. Opposition to papal administration centered par- ticularly in the lawyer and other professional classes, a number of whose members had travelled abroad. The rebellion spread quickly from Bologna. In a little more than a fortnight all territory as far west as Terni and Narni was in arms against the Holy See, an army under Giuseppe Sercognani was threatening Rome and the capital itself was on the verge of revolution. Gregory's only expedient was to beg Austrian assistance and on February 25, Hapsburg troops began to pour into the Romagna. Bologna fell March 21 and by April 3 with the Austrian occupation of Tolentino, the papacy could announce the restoration of order. The Austrian intervention caused much anxiety abroad among powers who feared that once in the Church States, the Austrian white- coats would remain there, not only in the old garrison areas permitted by the Vienna treaty of 1815, but elsewhere. Further, the French resented Metternich’s pose as sole champion of the Holy Father. To get rid of the Austrians and remove the conditions which led to the outbreak, Prussian, Russian, French, Austrian and British ministers at Rome gathered in conference on April 13, 1831. As a gesture toward northern Italy, the Sardinian minister was permitted to sit with the diplomats in a consultative capacity. The departure of the Austrians was arranged for mid-July. Then suggestions for reforn were BACKDROP TO REVOLUTION 135 agreed upon. Baron Christian von Bunsen of Prussia drew up a ‘‘Memo- randum’’ which was submitted by the conference to Gregory’s cardinal secretary of state Tommaso Bernetti on May 21. The Bunsen paper called for judicial reforms, popular election of communal and muni- cipal councils, the participation of laymen in the judiciary and civil service, a junta with control over finances, and an advisory council of state. On the face of it such suggestions would seem easy of implemen- tation. In reality they raised a serious threat to the papal position. If reforms should be made to allow popularly elected town councils, how long would it be before these bodies might begin to vote reforms in matters ecclesiastical, such as monastic lands and the mortmain? And if this were to happen, who could tell whether laymen might not soon be debating matters of Catholic faith and discipline as casually as whether a public park should be improved? Gregory showed that he was not entirely adverse to technical im- provements in his system of government when by edicts of July 5, October 5, and November 21, 1831, he announced a comprehensive -scheme of judicial and administrative reform. Lay advisory councils, handpicked by the government, were to be installed on the municipal and communal levels. In the field of civil litigation, the court system was reorganized, and some abuses in criminal procedure were abolished. Unfortunately because of the lethargy of the civil service and the difficulty of reform from the top in any bureaucracy, in many instances these wholly laudatory edicts remained dead letters. The Austrians withdrew from the Papal States on July 15, 1831. Immediately revolt flared anew. By January of 1832 some two thousand rebels had gathered at Cesena. Gregory named Giuseppe Cardinal Albani to be commissary extraordinary of the Legations. On his own authority Albani appealed for aid from the Austrians. Prompt to seize this opportunity for intervention, the Austrians collaborated with the papal forces, and by the beginning of February, the rebels at Cesena had been scattered and peace restored elsewhere. Feeling that the whitecoats were extending Hapsburg Influence at French expense, the Paris government decided on intervention of its own at Ancona. In sheer violation of international law, this Adriatic port was occupied on February 23, 1832, despite the protests of Gregory and the other states signing the ‘‘Memorandum.”’ The French remained at Ancona until the Austrians withdrew entirely from the Church States in 1838. Chief aide to Gregory during the early years of his rule was Bernetti, 136 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES the cardinal pro-secretary of state. Born of a patrician family of Fermo, he was polished, cosmopolitan and ingratiating. After his entrance into religion he had advanced rapidly in the papal diplomatic service, acting briefly as secretary of state for Leo XII. Like Gregory, Bernetti distrusted Austria and realized the need for strengthening of the country against the importunities of the great powers. To whittle down the dependence of the Papal States on foreigners, Bernetti began the reorganization of papal military forces. He hired five thousand Swiss soldiers, many of whom had served the Bourbon King Charles X of France, and he organized a battery of field artillery. With Roman volunteer and irregulars of one sort or another, Bernetti finally had an army of some 13,500 troops. This bustle of activity made Metternich uneasy, for it might well signal the end of papal dependence upon Austria. It is believed that Prince Metternich intrigued to secure Bernetti’s dismissal, for in 1836 came the announcement that the Genoese Bernabite Luigi Cardinal Lambruschini, noted for his Haps- burg sympathies, had been named secretary of state. Bernetti was avowed to have retired for reasons of health. The appointment of Lambruschini was anything but pleasing to the more liberal sections of Roman opinion and their doubts seemed justified. The regime became more reactionary and it appeared that the absolutism of Leo XII had returned. At the same time the influence of the Jesuits in the temporal government and in papal diplomacy became more marked. Contentious as had been political difficulties with France and Austria during the 1830's, the religious disputes were even more acrimonious. With France particularly were there troubles. The period of Louis Philippe was characterized by strong reaction against the alliance be- tween throne and altar existing under Charles X. During the July Revolution the archepiscopal palace and a church in Paris had been sacked and clerics had been insulted in the streets. Alarmed by such events some liberal French Catholics observed that marriage between church and dynasty was fraught with danger; a few at least thought that the church ought to adapt itself to the changing times. The abbes de Lamennais and Lacordaire together with the count de Montalembert were in the vanguard of the Catholic reform movement. They published a journal called L’ Avenir, advocating freedom of conscience, universal suffrage, freedom for the press, separation of church and state. Though the pope in 1832 by the encyclical Mérari vos condemned some of Lamennais principles, the seed of a Catholic revival in France had been planted. Gradually the government began to enact favorable educa- BACKDROP TO REVOLUTION 137 tional laws, the religious orders flourished and parochial schools doubled in number. The Catholic renascence was not to pass unchallenged.’ AntiJesuitica! feeling was aroused by Eugene Sue’s novel The Wandering Jew. Betwee 1843 and 1845 such French liberals began to worry*about another ultramontane reaction and pressed for anti-clerical laws'by the govern- ment. King Louis Philippe was an admirer of Voltaire. He regarded religion with contempt and he disliked to deal with ecclesiastical affairs. In an effort to appease the liberals he agreed to send to Rome an envoy to demand that the pope suppress the Society of Jesus in France. The Jesuits were singled out for attack because of their influence in higher education and their championship of ultramontane principles. While many Catholics rallied to the defense of the Society, the govern- ment remained adamant in its plans. A Roman proscript, Pellegrino Rossi, a man with a protestant wife, was chosen by the king of the French for the mission to the Eternal City. Rossi appeared in Rome early in April of 1845. On the 11th, Gregory received him in audience and accepted his credentials as ambassador extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary in the absence of the regular minister. The Paris official press put the best possible light on the Rossi mission. It was denied that the papal court had refused to negotiate with Rossi, except in writing; it was announced that he saw Lam- bruschini regularly and that Pope Gregory treated him with great affability. Intimations that Rossi was dealing with the father-general of the Jesuit order, Johann Philipp Roothan, were haughtily refuted. Actually, when Rossi pressed his government’s request for seculariza- tion of the Society, Gregory replied that to do so would be to violate the concordat of 1801, particularly since no crimes were imputed to the fathers and the French episcopate spoke well of them. But Rossi was able to bring pressure on Rome. To save embarassment to the Holy See, Roothan suggested that the French Jesuits might temporarily disband. This was acceptable for the time being to the Orleans dynasty. The complete expulsion of the Society from France was accomplished by the Revolution of 1848. Despite the reaction of the Metternich policy in Austria, there were quarrels between Vienna and Rome over religious questions. The Hapsburgs adhered to the ideas of Joseph IL who strictly regulated ecclesiastical affairs, circumscribed ancient church privileges and limited the mortmain. The reign of Francis I brought in its wake the selection of court favorites as bishops and impediments in the right of correspondence between the Austrian clergy and the Roman curia. The 138 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES period of Ferdinand I, 1835 to 1848, saw bishops openly disregarding a public law that provided for the solemnization by priests of marriages between a Catholic and a non-Catholic who refused to pledge Catholic education for any offspring they might have. In 1840 the matter was referred to Rome and a compromise formula worked out. This provided for the mere witnessing of the marriage by a priest, but no nuptual blessing by the cleric. Relations with Austria remained at this point until after the troubles of 1848. The story of church and state in the Iberian peninsula parallels that of France during this period. In both cases an entente, tacit or official, between a conservative dynasty and Rome, involved the church in politics and weakened its position. In Spain there was a dynastic struggle between the Carlists, supporters of the elder branch of the house of Bourbon, and the Cristinos, followers of the young Queen Isabella IT and her mother Cristina, from whence their name. Pope Gregory in August of 1831 issued the brief Sollicitudo Ecclesiarum in which he reiterated pronouncements of earlier pontiffs on the inde- pendence of the church and its refusal to become entangled in politics. Though the brief was intended in part for France, during the Carlist wars Gregory refused to aid either side and followed a course of neu- trality. Generally speaking, however, Spanish clericals sided with the Carlists and the victory of the Cristinos under Baldomeo Espartero marked the inauguration of a half score years persecution for the Catholic Church. Friars were massacred in Madrid in 1834, the Jesuits were expelled in 1835 and church property was secularized in 1837. In later years the government maintained in full vigor its ancient right of appointing bishops and refused to name any that were acceptable to the Holy See. The result was that by 1841 only six bishops remained in all Spain. That same year the papal nuncio was handed his passports. A further misfortune in church eyes was the marriage of Queen Isabella with her own cousin, Don Francisco, a grandson of Louis Philippe. In 1842 the government appointed bishops without papal sanction and over Lambruschini’s protests. The deadlock between Rome and Madrid continued until after the election of Pius IX and was never resolved by Gregory. Events in Portugal resembled those in Spain. King Pedro IV who returned to Portugal from Brazil in 1831 followed a definite anti- church program. He claimed under an old concordat of 1773 the right of making appointments to all church offices. He forced the consecra- tion of several bishops by the patriarch of Lisbon without permission of Rome. He ousted bishops that displeased him, expelled the BACKDROP TO REVOLUTION 139 papal nuncio, abolished religious orders and seized religious properties. The clergy was even prohibited from administering the sacraments without approval of the civil authorities. Pope Gregory threatened to excommunicate Pedro, but this brought no amelioration to the Catholics. Pedro’s minor daughter and successor, Maria da Gloria, was unable to change these policies when she became sovereign in 1834. Only in 1841 when a more moderate Portuguese faction obtained power wete agreements worked out between Portugal and the Vatican. Re- ligious holdings confiscated by the government were restored. This bid for papal sympathies was not without qualification for the govern- ment continued to irritate Catholics by interfering in the education of the clergy, appointing professors for the seminaries and selecting text- books. Catholics claimed that the chief theological school in the country, the University of Coimbra, was a hotbed of freemasonry. Con- fusion and disorder persisted in the religious field in Portugal down to 1886 when a new concordat was signed with Rome. During the entire pontificate of Gregory XVI, the practice of the Catholic faith in Russia and Poland was subject to limitation by the reactionary Czar Nicholas I. Despite Russia’s record as protector of the Jesuit Society during the days of the dissolution and of the Knights of Malta after Bonaparte conquered their island, her attitude after 1814 was the cause of much concern to Quirinal diplomats. Nicholas prohibited Catholic bishops from communicating with Rome, he forbad use of the Latin rite, he forced many Uniats into the Russian Orthodox Church. All seminarians were required to study at the University of St. Petersburg, nuns at Minsk were subjected to atrocities, and clergy- men were either imprisoned or deported to Siberia. The anti-Catholic position of the government sprang from two facts, the active part played by the Catholic clergy in arousing Polish nationalism, and the hatred of the Orthodox and Roman communions for each other. Gregory protested regularly, but in vain, against the maltreatment of Russian and Polish Catholics. When Nicholas visited Rome in 1845 the pope sought to use the visit as opportunity for bettering the lot of these Catholics. The Russian ruler promised much. No improvements came about, however, on his return to his empire. In Prussia a long series of disputes with Rome marked the years from 1831 to 1846. Prussia had been a predominantly Protestant country before the French Revolution. As a result of the Polish partitions and the annexation of the Rhineland in 1814, the Hohenzollern state came to have a large Catholic minority. Under Prussian law, the father of a family was vested with the sole right of determining the religious 140 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES education of his children and the law prohibited his entering into a _ priori agreements on this score if a mixed marriage betweena Protestant and a Catholic took place. On the other hand, canon law demanded that in such cases the Catholic party insist on the offspring’s being reared in the Roman faith, though occasionally this condition was waved in dynastic marriages. It had been customary in Silesia, a province with a Catholic majority, for the priest to grant passive assistance at the taking of the vows by the intended husband and wite; that is, merely to be present without granting any marriage blessing. In the the Rhenish provinces where the clergy were much stricter, not even this passive assistance was permitted at mixed marriages without the secret and illegal promise of the bridegroom to allow his children to become Catholic. The garrisoning of Protestant Prussian soldiers in the Rhineland, plus the influx of skilled workers from Pro- testant parts of Prussia into Cologne, Trier and Panderborn, brought about more and more mixed marriages. The Berlin monarchy for its part favored such espousals as tending to preserve peace between the two confessions. To arrange for the assistance of priests at these marriages, Baron Bunsen, Prussian minister to Rome, was ordered to discuss the matter with the Quirinal. He carried on negotiations with Cardinal Cappellari which resulted on March 25, 1830, in the issuance of a brief by Pius VIII. The brief allowed the priest to grant passive assistance (without which the marriage would be deemed invalid by the Catholic party) after due examination of the state of mind of the Catholic bride to ascertain that she was not entering into wedlock lightly or carelessly and that she was resolved to make every effort to educate her children in the Roman faith. The Prussian government was not satisfied with these concessions and tried to bring about further yielding in the Catholic position. In the meantime, Gregory had become pope and the church became less willing to compromise. All modifications were refused Bunsen. There- upon Berlin turned the attack to another quarter. Archbishop Baron Ferdinand August von Spiegel of Cologne, alongwith the archbishop of Trier and the bishops of Panderborn and Muenster, was induced in 1834 not to put the papal brief into execution. Spiegel died in 1835 and was replaced by the ultramontane Clemens August Droste-Vischer- ing. When the nomination of Droste was presented by Bunsen for the see of Cologne, Bernetti said in surprise, ‘Is your government mad?”’ Archbishop Droste-Vichering immediately revealed the plot to Rome and announced his intention of supporting the papal brief. After BACKDROP TO REVOLUTION > 141 the government had recalled Bunsen to Berlin for consultation, it ordered the arrest of Droste on November 20, 1837. He was alleged to have entered into agreements with Belgian bishops to oppose state religious policies. The archbishop of Gnesen and Posen suffered similar imprisonment. To complicate matters even more, a Swiss newspaper spoke approvingly of Bunsen as a Protestant propagandist within the Ecclesiastical States. As a consequence, Bunsen was transferred in 1838 to London to represent his government at Queen Victoria’s court. Catholic indignation against Prussia’s religious program, the changes brought by the death of King Frederick William III and the accession to the Hohenzollern throne of Frederick William IV, combined to make Berlin more tractable. Droste-Vischering was given a coadjutor for his archbishopric and was retired to Rome. The archbishop of Gnesen and Posen was released and the question of mixed marriages was quietly decided in favor of the Catholic view. The pontificate of Gregory was one in which even the forces of nature seemed opposed to the established order. One of the evils which overtook Rome at this time was the outbreak of cholera. The disease appeared in the city in mid-August of 1837. By the 13th of the month, 35 persons had already succumbed to it. Three days later there were 134 cases and 94 deaths. 126 persons died on the 23rd of August alone and by the 30th, the number had climbed to 211. The official figures place the fatalities as numbering 5,419 for the months of August, September and October. The chances are the deaths reached a much larger figure. Gregory XVI was criticized for his hatred of newinventions. He feared railroads, the electric telegraph and modern roads. He believed that their introduction would bring his temporal subjects increasingly into contact with the outside world and make his task of government progressively more difficult. When on one occasion a monsignor more brave than the rest begged the pope for reforms, the pontiff supposedly teplied, “‘I am too old to begin to reform the state; I could not finish such a vast plan, much less consolidate it; my successor will do it.”’ At the behest of Cardinal Lambruschini, the Holy Father made a trip through his territories in 1841—a journey that cost the papal treasury two million francs. He left Rome on August 30 and visited Terni, Spoleto, Ancona, Perugia and Viterbo before coming back to Rome on October 6. Significantly enough he did not go into the Ro- magna, scene of the principal disorders during his reign. Gregory was never popular as was Pio Nono. People did not crowd around his 142 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES catriage to shout, “‘Holy Father, thy benediction.’’ His subjects paid him all respect. They lifted their hats when he passed, but few bowed and even fewer kneeled. In 1843 revolutionary movements again took place in the Romagna and Umbria. These were put down without difficulty. Two years later, rebels headed by one Pietro Renzi were able to occupy Rimini and de- mand changes in the papal administration. Pontifical forces moved against the insurgents and in less than a week the insurrectionaries had been forced to give up the city and flee to Tuscany. A report to the Paris Monzteur with an Italian dateline of October 3, 1845, stated laconically, ‘‘Order is reestablished at Rimini.”’ 1845 also brought floods in the Tiber River. On February 2, fourteen yeats to the day after Gregory’s election, the stream reached a flood stage of twenty-three feet above normal. Church crypts were inundated, small boats and wharves were floated away on the surging waters caused by heavy snows and rains in the Tiber’s Apennine watershed. Though Gregory realized in the spring of 1846 that he was getting old, the imminence of death did not manifest itself until the very last. He had promised Prince Torlonia that he would take part in the fes- tival offered by the Torlonia family to the Romans at the beginning of June. During the spring of 1846 the pope had visited Anzio, Castel Gandolfo and Tivoli. At the end of May he was taken ill with St. Anthony’s fire in the face. Physicians at first imagined little cause for alarm. Soon Gregory's strength began to fail and by the evening of May 31, it was patent that he could not recover. The sick room was prohibited to all except the pope’s chamberlain. At times he became distraught and had to leave the papal bedside. It was during one of these absences on the morning of June 1 that a servant came secretly into the room and found the pope alone and in his last agonies. Car- dinals Mattei and Lambruschini were hastily summoned. These called doctors and a confessor. They arrived too late for Gregory died between 9:00 and 9:30 a.m. That afternoon the cardinal camerlingo took the Fisherman’s Ring from the body of the pope and broke it. The great bell on the Capitoline Hill began tolling to announce the vacancy in the Apostolic See. Prince Torlonia was forced to postpone his festival. With the death of Gregory XVI the ancient regime came to an un- regretted end in the Church States. The next pontiff was to introduce a period of innovation which culminated in the tumultuous events of 1848 and 1849. Scholars who accept the concept of historical continuity look askance at those persons who speak of ‘‘periods in history’’— almost as though Clio’s art could be divided into neat and concise BACKDROP TO REVOLUTION 143 segments like a blackbird pie. It is with this in mind that any generali- zations about Gregory’s reign must be made. His years as Vicar of Christ formed a transition from the disorders of 1830 to 1846, eve of the crisis of European liberalism. Gregory was the last pope to contend successfully that absolutism could be counted on to preserve an estab- lished political order indefinitely. He resisted alike political revolu- tionists in the form of Roman rebels and religious concessionaires in the persons of foreign diplomats. 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RR a ER eee eM = 4 Sa - - a A : Beam : aa . & . o, cT i. 1 ¢ -" 5 _ te aye " = ‘ei 7 A 7 Pi — Laer y nS fae] by * wa s * oe | ae a i Sl >» ’ = ' ar A ‘- be . 4 es 7 SY > J - a , Bs * q ~ Ouarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences Vol. 9 September-December, 1946 Nos. 3-4 Gontents WALKER—YEAST From Frioripa SutFITE WasTE Liquor.......... 145 — SmitH—MercHanicaL Controt or Sxuip-Bottrom FouLING BY GET ANS Muse A) MENUIEIBIE Se: Che ee oa se ae a oie ea oD eo ow ook 153 MarsHALL—STUDIES ON THE Lire History AND EcOLOGY OF GMO SIGHALY BARBUS CCOPE). 008%) 2 5 0) cae ee ee a 163 DiztTRiIcH—SomME Prosiems oF ForEiIGN GEOGRAPHIC NAMES, WEEE. SPECIAL REFERENCE TO. BULGARIA .........-.-dec0e0ene 189 _ September-December, 1946 mm ..VOl...9, Numbers 34 ag QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES A Journal of Scientific Investigation and Research Published by the Florida Academy of Sciences Printed by the Rose Printing Company, Tallahassee, Florida Communications for the editor and all manuscripts should be addressed to Frank N. Young, Editor, or Irving J. Cantrall, Ass’t. Editor, Depart- ment of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida. Business communications should be addressed to Taylor R. Alexander, Secretary- Treasurer, University of Miami, Coral Gables, Florida. All exchanges and communications regarding exchanges should be sent to the Florida Academy of Sciences, Exchange Library, Department of Biology, Uni- versity of Florida, Gainesville. Subscription price, Three Dollars a year. Mailed October 15, 1947 Poe OUAKRTERLY JOURNAL,OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vol. 9 SEPTEMBER-DECEMBER 1946 Nos. 3-4 YEAST FROM FLORIDA SULFITE WASTE LIQUOR Rosert D. WALKER Engineering and Industrial Experiment Station, University of Florida The sulfite process is one of the more widely used processes for con- version of wood into pulp. Briefly, it consists of cooking wood chips with a liquor made by the interaction of water, sulfur dioxide and limestone in a vessel called a digester. Relatively high temperatures and pressures are used. After digestion of the wood has proceeded to the desired length the pressure is released and the whole mass forced into a ‘blow-pit’’—the pressure in the digester furnishes the propelling force—where the chips strike a target designed to cause disintegration into fibers. The waste liquors are washed from the fibers and they are prepared for their end-use by bleaching and/or other operations. The great majority of the waste liquor is removed in the blow-pit. In the sulfite process the cellulose fibers are liberated from the wood by dissolving the lignin and some of the carbohydrate material. It is generally accepted that the principal constituents of the wood—cellu- lose, hemicelluloses and lignin—are chemically combined in some man- mer, and that there are two principal types of reactions: (i) the re- action of the lignin with the bisulfite, and Gi) the hydrolytic splitting of the cellulose-lignin complex. Both reactions probably occur con- currently, but the whole mechanism of the reactions is very incom- pletely understood. Now as to the waste liquors themselves, they represent one of the greatest industrial waste problems known. Approximately fifty per cent of the wood, on a dry basis, is dissolved in the pulping process. The total quantity of dissolved solids in sulfite waste liquor produced 146 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES in the United States in 1937 amounted to two million tons (Suter- meister, 1941). Because of their ingredients these waste liquors constitute an important pollutional problem, it being estimated that the waste liquors from one ton of pulp produce the same pollutional effect as the domestic sewage of fifteen hundred persons (/.c.). This situation has resulted in a great amount of investigative work, but has not yet produced a satisfactory solution to the problem. The very fact that the waste liquors have pronounced pollutional effects has, however, tended to obscure their consideration from another view- point, z.e., that of a natural resource being,wasted. Sulfite waste liquors are very complex, but contain mainly sugars, derived from the hydrolysis of cellulose and hemicelluloses, and lignin in the form of salts of lignosulfonic acids. Both pentoses and hexoses are present, the relative amounts and compositions varying with the type of wood, method of cooking, and many other factors. A number of methods (Keeth 1939, Howard 1939 and 1939a) for utilization of the ligneous fraction of sulfite waste liquor have been developed but, so far, none of these promise to furnish the large scale, low price outlet which appears to be necessary to solve the problem. The utilization of the carbohydrate fraction of sulfite waste liquor has also received considerable attention, microbiological processes being rather generally used. In the Scandinavian countries and Germany a great deal of sulfite waste liquor has been fermented to produce ethyl alcohol, yeast being a by-product. In North America both alcohol and bakers’ yeast are produced from sulfite waste liquor. Other fer- mentations have been studied (Wiley, 1941) but have not been used on a large scale. Yeast may be produced from the sugars of sulfite waste liquor and this particular product appears to fit in well with the needs of certain Florida industries, the cattle industry and the citrus feed industry. In TABLE I Anatysis oF Toruta Yeast (Roseqvist, 1944) 487 Protein 2% Fat 34%, Carbohydrate 8% Mineral Salts (principally phosphates and potassium salts) 8% Water Vitamins B!, B?, D and Nicotinic Acid. YEAST FROM SULFITE WASTE LIQUOR 147 recent years there has been a rapid expansion of the cattle industry in Florida. This has occurred in spite of a perennial shortage of high protein feed. Other feed requirements have been largely met by the expansion of the citrus feed industry, which utilizes waste peel and pulp from the citrus canneries, but protein concentrates have had to be imported. Table I indicates that Torula yeast would serve as a protein concentrate and would further contribute important quantities of vitamins and minerals to the finished feed. Thus yeast production from Florida sulfite waste liquor would not only utilize a material now being wasted but would contribute materially to the development and integration of the state’s agricultural and industrial economy. YEAST CULTURES A very considerable amount of research has been devoted to growing the various strains of Saccharomyces cerevisae (the common beer and wine yeasts) on sulfite waste liquor. For this investigation, however, Torula yeasts wete chosen for a number of reasons. First of all, they appeared to be more hardy or tolerant of the medium in which they are grown. Another important reason for this choice was that Sac- chavomyces produce alcohol whereas Torula yeasts produce little or no alcohol, in effect converting sugars into yeast cells and carbon dioxide. Cultures of Torulopsis utilis var. thermophilia CNRRL y-1082) and Torulopsis utilis vat. major (NRRL y-1084) were procured from the Northern Regional Research Laboratory of the United States Depart- ment of Agriculture at Peoria, Illinois. T. utilis vat. thermophilia was used throughout in the experiments here reported since it was found that, although T. utilis var. major produced larger cells, it also produced fewer so that the total yield of yeast was the same or smaller. This should not be interpreted as indicating that T. wtilis var. major will necessarily produce less yeast than T. utilis var. thermophilia under optimum conditions, but only that it did so under the conditions of the experiments here reported. Efforts to acclimate both yeasts to sulfite waste liquor by continuous transfers on solid media containing no other carbon source except sulfite waste liquor were not successful. In fact, the evidence tends to indi- cate that young actively growing cultures from wort agar make the best growth on the liquor although transfers of cultures actively growing on aerated sulfite waste liquor are also suitable as inoculum. APPARATUS AND EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUE A considerable number of experiments were performed before a 148 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES suitable fermentation apparatus was evolved. The primary considera- tions, of course, were to provide adequate mixing and aeration of the fermentation medium. A secondary, but still important, aim was to provide a large surface area to reduce foaming difficulties. The most efficient form of apparatus for meeting the primary requirements would be a tall tower, whereas for the secondary requirement a shallow, but wide vessel would be most suitable. A compromise was effected by using an inverted Erlenmeyer flask. The flask was a one liter Erlenmeyer flask with a Kjeldahi neck sealed into the bottom. The original neck of the Erlenmeyer flask was removed and the inner portion of a standard taper joint sealed in its place. The outer portion of the joint was cut off very close to the joint and sealed as closely as possible to a sintered glass disc of medium porosity and about 2 cm. diameter. The air supply was con- nected to the lower side of the air diffuser. Incidentally, this size of air diffuser is suitable for use with flasks of several sizes from 500 ml. up to three or four liters. The assembled apparatus was partially immersed in a water bath maintained at a constant temperatute. It was known at the outset that aeration was a very important factor in yeast growth and a number of aeration controls were used including otdinary needle valves, pressure reducing valves, screw-clamps, as- pirators, etc. The most suitable and final aeration control valve was an adaptation of a pressure reducing valve designed by Professor Norman Bourke of the Florida Engineering and Industrial Experiment Station for use in a spray gun for the turpentine industry. This valve proved satisfactory for controlling aeration except at very small air volumes of ca 10cc per min. Fermentations were set up as follows:The requisite quantity of sulfite waste liquor was measured out (after suitable pretreatment, vide infra) and the yeast cells washed from the surface of a twenty four hour wort agar slant with afew milliliters of distilled water. Nutrient salts dissolved in a small volume of water were added, the pH adjusted to the desired value and Turkey red oil was added as an antifoam agent. The inoculated medium was then transferred to the fermentation flask. Sterile technique was observed only in preparing the wort agar slants, but no trouble was experienced which could be traced to microbiological contamination. The liquor as received from the mill was sterile and contamination was of no consequence as long as the liquor was kept at a pH of 4.0 or lower. Ina very few cases 1An alternate procedure for inoculation involved transferring a portion of an actively growing yeast culture in sulfite waste liquor. YEAST FROM SULFITE WASTE LIQUOR 149 samples became contaminated with Aspergillus or Penicillium molds, but only after several weeks standing open to the atmosphere. Just prior to the addition of the fermentation medium to the flask aeration was started to reduce clogging of the pores of the sin- tered glass air diffuser. Aeration was adjusted to the chosen level by means of the air control valve. Samples were removed at various times, diluted with water and the cells counted on an haemacytometer slide or were centrifuged in graduated tubes. Cell count and yeast volume were used as measures of yeast growth. FOAMING Yeasts require oxygen in considerable quantities for multiplication and in aerating the sulfite waste liquor a serious foaming problem pre- sented itself. It is well known (Sutermeister, 1941) that sulfite waste liquor possesses surface-active properties and it is an active foamer. This problem was studied in considerable detail and it was found that detergents were quite generally effective as antifoam agents for sulfite waste liquor. Octyl and decyl alcohol proved to be quite efficient antifoamers, but were also very toxic to the yeasts. It was finally found that Turkey red oil in concentrations of 0.1 to 0.2% was quite effective in breaking the foam and in addition appeared to exert no toxic effects on the yeasts. Accordingly, all subsequent fermentations were run using 0.2% Turkey red oil as an antifoamer. SULFITE WasTE Liquor All of the sulfite waste liquor used in these experiments was obtained from the Fernandina mill of Rayonier, Inc. The product of this mill is a high-grade rayon dissolving pulp made from southern pine. Pulping conditions are rather drastic resulting in very complete lignin removal along with consequent greater hydrolysis of cellulose. All liquor was adjusted to blow-pit strength (approximately 10 per cent solids; 2.0-2.5 percent sugars) before fermentation. PRETREATMENT OF THE SULFITE WasTE Liquor Raw sulfite waste liquor as such is unsuitable for fermentation for a number of reasons. The pH is entirely too low (1.1-1.6) and it is deficient in both phosphorus and nitrogen. In addition it appears to contain toxic substances the exact nature of which are not understood. A number of pretreatments were devised and are given as follows: PT-1, Liquor neutralized to pH 5.0 with NasCOs, the liquor settled and filtered from any precipitate. Since there is very little “free SO2’’ present this treatment does ‘150 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES little except to adjust pH and cause a slight precipitation of inorganic salts such as calcium sulfate. (The pH was later changed to 5.75 and an alternate procedure used lime instead of Na2CO3.) PT-2. Liquor neutralized to pH 10.5 with lime, and filtered (using filter aid) to remove the sludge; then neutralized to pH 3.5 with sulfuric acid and again filtered. This treatment should bring about a rather complete precipitation of inorganic con- stituents but little lignin precipitation. PT-3. Liquor adjusted to pH 11.5 with lime and filtered (filter aid); then neutralized to H 4.0 with sulfuric acid, filtered and used. This treatment results in a very considerable lignin precipitation and brings up serious problems of handling the precipitate which is very finely divided. Products of all three pretreatments appear to have approximately the same sugar content (2.0-2.5%) but they differ markedly in their fermentation characteristics. Sulfite waste liquor treated by PT-1 is characterized by a long induction period (the period before yeasts start active multiplication) and a low maximum cell count. Liquor pretreated by PT-3 is readily fermentable, but greater ease of fermen- tation is more than offset by the difficulty of handling the precipitate in this treatment. AIl of the experiments here reported were run using sulfite waste liquor prepared by PT-2, except as otherwise noted. Liquor treated by this method was readily fermentable under the proper conditions, and there were no important difficulties in hand- ling the solutions. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS AFFECTING YEAST GROWTH The environment in which a yeast cell finds itself exerts an enor- mous influence on both the rate of multiplication and the maximum cell count. The effects of pH on living organisms are pronounced and well-known. Yeasts grow best in media which are somewhat acidic, pH’s of 4 to 5 being commonly used. A further advantage of a low pH is that the possibility of bacterial contamination is much reduced, bactetia growing best in a somewhat more alkaline medium. Aera- tion, exerting the twin effects of agitation and oxygenation is of great importance in any process involving respiration of the yeast cells. Other factors are temperature and nutrients, both as minerals and energy sources. These four environmental factors were studied and optimum values for them have been found. These conditions are: ‘‘Setting’’ pH= 5.75 £0.25; aeration =150cc air per min. per liter of sulfite waste liquor; nutrients =2.0 grams of dibasic ammonium phosphate [CNH4)2 HPO, per liter; temperature=30-35°C. ‘‘Setting pH’’ means the pH at which the fermentation was started; the pH changes during the course of the fermentation unless constantly adjusted. It should also be YEAST FROM SULFITE WASTE LIQUOR 151 pointed out that the aeration level is specific for size and shape of fermenter and porosity of the air diffuser but is probably representative of sulfite waste liquor saturated with air at atmospheric pressure. Other nutrients than dibasic ammonium phosphate may be used such as sodium or potassium phosphate and urea or ammonia. Ges esp) With the data now at hand it is not possible to make a quantitative calculation of yield. Yeast yields of 500 million cells per ml. or higher and 5 per cent by volume are commonly attained. Ina few cases post-fermentative sugar analyses have been made and sugars found to run 0.1 to 0.3 per cent. Thus the sugars are being rather completely utilized. The efficiencies of utilization of nitrogen and phosphorus have not yet been determined. CoNCLUSION All of the experiments reported in this paper were run using five hundred ml. or one liter batches of sulfite waste liquor. Much larger batches than these would have to be fermented before any idea of a yield on a commercial basis could be obtained. Fermentation processes are notoriously sensitive to slight changes in design of equipment or in physical conditions. This is well illustrated in the effect of aeration where a change of almost any kind results in noticeable variation in fermentation efficiency. It appears, however, that yeast can be produced from Florida sulfite waste liquor in good yield and with consequent reduction of the pollu- tional character of the waste liquor. Only pretreatment of the liquor and adjustment of fermentation conditions are necessary. In sucha manner the wastage of the state’s natural resources may be materially reduced while at the same time providing a high protein feed for use in the cattle industry. LiTeR ATURE CITED Howapgp, G. C. 1939. Modern Plastics, 17: 96, 130, 132, 134, 136. 1939a. Paper Mill, 62: 70-72. Keetu, G. 1939. Trans. Am. Soc. Mech. Engrs., 66: 679-83. Roszgvist S. O. 1944. Food Ind., 16(6): 74. 152 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES SUTERMEISTER, E. 1941. Chemistry of Pulp and Paper Making, John Wiley and Sons, 1941: 205. Witey, A. J., e al. 1941. Ind. Eng. Chem., 33: 606-10. Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 9, (3-4) 1946 (1947) MECHANICAL CONTROL OF SHIP-BOTTOM FOULING BY MEANS OF AIR BUBBLES! F, G. Watton Smita University of Miami Marine Laboratory? During the year 1943 investigations were carried out for the purpose of determining the effect of water currents upon the attachment of fouling organisms to submerged surfaces. As a result of these experi- iments it was demonstrated that a comparatively low water velocity applied continuously would prevent fouling (Smith, 1946). In the case of the species of barnacles most prevalent at Miami, a velocity of slightly more than one knot was sufficient to prevent attachment. It was also shown that barnacles which have been allowed to attach and remain undisturbed for a period of six hours are washed from their hold by currents in the order of 2% to 3 knots. Following these experiments attention was given to the manner in which water currents might be directed over a ship’s hull, propellers or external portions of the sound apparatus for the purpose of prevent- ing fouling. Dr. I. G. Slater of the British Admiralty Delegation advanced the suggestion that the necessary current might be produced by air bubbles. Experiments were initiated to determine whether it was in fact possible to inhibit fouling in this manner and subsequently to determine its economic practicability. Since the completion of these experiments attention has been drawn tones. Patent No. 2138831; December ‘6, 1938, granted to F. G. Branner, relating to the use of gas bubbles released below ship’s hulls for the purpose of preventing attachment of fouling organisms (Branner, 1937). Nothing in the specifications, however, suggests that the device has been subjected to biological investigation. Acknowledgments are due to Mr. Martin Graham for assistance in preparing panel tests, to Mr. Leonard Wirtz for advice and help in preparing a service test installation, and to Mr. Charles Weiss for kindly preparing photographic illustrations. 1These experiments were conducted while the author was engaged by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution in investigations under contract with the Bureau of Ships, Navy Department, which has given permission to publish the results. The opinions contained herein are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the official opinion of the Navy Department or of the Naval service at large. . 2 Contribution number 16 from the University of Miam1, Marine Laboratory. 154 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES PaNeL TEsTs Glass panels 8’’x12'’ in size were submerged at an angle of 45 degrees, with the upper edge a few inches below and parallel to the surface of the water. In order to insure the known optimum conditions for the attachment of fouling organisms, black Cararras glass was used. In- cluded in the floating frame containing the experimental panels were untreated control panels. The experimental surfaces were subjected to air bubbles by means of perforated plastic tubes situated close to the lower edges and connected to an air compressor (Figure 1). Results are shown in the photographs and are summarized in Table I. The first test consisted of an untreated control panel, and two panels each subjected to air bubbles along a 31% inch length of the base. At the base of one of the latter the bubbles were liberated from com- paratively large holes about 1/16 of an inch in diameter and 1 4 inch apart. In the case of the other the holes were smaller, approximately 1 /32 of an inch in diameter and 1/8 of aninch apart. Air released from the holes was measured by means of an inverted graduate and funnel. From the time required to fill the graduate the rate of air flow from the perforated 314 inch lengths of tubing was calculated as approximately 0.4 and 0.2 cubic feet per minute for large and small bubbles respectively. Converted to units of cubic feet per minute per foot of perforated tubing these rates of flow are 1.3 and 0.6. Following a 48 hour period of exposure, beginning on May 18, the panels were examined for cyprids and metamorphosed barnacles. The number of these observed upon the control was 239. Upon the panel subjected to the smaller bubbles | 85 barnacles had attached, but were confined to that half of the panel not subjected to bubbles. The remaining panel, subjected to the larger bubbles, had acquired 74 barnacles on the untreated half and the clear area extended well to one side of the bubble treated half. The experiment was allowed to continue for a further 7 days before the panels were removed and photographed. It was observed that whereas heavy fouling had occurred upon the control (Fig. 1c), the treated surfaces were free of barnacles, and that in the case of the large bubbles the protected area was somewhat wider than the 34% inch perforated length of tube at the base of the panel (Fig. 1a). Since the results of the first test indicated beyond doubt that the attachment of fouling organisms might be prevented by air bubbles, a second test was designed to determine the minimum rate of airflow required to produce the anti-fouling effect. Three panels were used in this test, with airflows of approximately 1.3, 0.6 and 0.2 cubic “Surpnoy Aavopy sopoeuIvg pos9j3vIg paynoy Aya39{da1075 aUIeS ‘Opis WOIF UT MOIS vOZOAIG “sopovured ON paynoz Aqa19;du1075 ‘Opis WOIy UI MOIS vOZOAIg "sopovuieq ON Sul[NO} ON SuI[NOT SUT[NOF ON ‘oqn3 po1vs0jsad jO yiZu2] puodsq spusixo vore Ie2]D a “SUI[NOJ ON spridAo Aueyy sprsdAd ON spriddo ON SUOTIBAJOSGO ef Peved ssnsodxq al FAS wl se /T eG! Ga: i¥/T Cope py U Gone ge 1,Ce/T 7S 1ce/T wib/T i 91/T ya Fras mia PASIVAL SUOTIVIOFIOG SUOTICIOFIOg us9MI9q 20ULISTG| JO JIDUIvIG jonuo7 (sinoy > Joy Aqrep poddorg) 9°0 by-8 -6 jomu07 9°0 9°0 bp-pe-L G20 9°0 Cet yy—-OI-L Jos1U05 9°0 1 osu07) 9°0 100} gad ‘uru gad 34] poqseig 23eq "ND UF MOLY ITV STANVd SSVTL) JO ONITNOY NOdoO saTagng aly dO Loads Lafavii C= Al = Tit @) sii quowsedx gq PUP SOTJ9g 156 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES feet per minute per foot, respectively, liberated as bubbles through 1 /32 of an inch diameter holes spaced at 1 /4 of an inch intervals over a length of 3 inches. At the end of 14 days exposure the set of bubbles released most slowly was found to have permitted attachment of barnacles. Nevertheless, barnacles were less numerous over the bubble treated area than over the untreated edges of the panel. The two remaining panels were free of barnacles over the area covered by the bubbles. In the case of the most rapidly released bubbles the unfouled area extended beyond the 3 inch length of perforated tubing. The panel with the intermediate rate of bubbling showed growth of bryozoa inwards from the fouled area into the unfouled area. In all three panels a thin slime film formed towards the edge of the clear area but was less marked in the middle of the area or nearer to the source of the bubbles. The results of this series indicate that the minimum rate airflow required for anti-fouling lies between 0.2 and 0.6 cubic feet per minute per linear foot. A third experiment was carried out to test the possibility of using bubbles spaced at wider intervals. Perforations of the copper tubing beneath one panel were 1/2 inch apart, and beneath a second, 1 inch apart. The holes were 1/32 of an inch in diameter and covered a length of six inches. Rate of airflow was 0.6 cubic feet per minute per foot in both cases. A third panel remained untreated as a control. At the end of 25 days exposure the control was heavily covered with barnacles, tunicates and bryozoa. The other panels were free of barnacles and tunicates, but some filamentous bryozoa had begun to grow in from the sides. It appeared that bubbles spaced at 1 inch intervals were as effective as when spaced at 1/2 inch intervals. The effect of intermittent bubbling was investigated by means of panels similar to those used in previous experiments. The perforations were 1/32 of an inch, spaced 1/2 inch apart, and extended the width of the panel. The rate of airflow was about 0.6 cubic feet per minute per foot. On each day during the test the air was turned off for a period of four hours. The experiment was continued for a period of 18 days before removal from the water for examination. Whereas the untreated control panel had accumulated heavy fouling, the panel subjected to the intermittent flow of bubbles had only a few scattered barnacles upon its surface. These were of various sizes and had apparently attached during the entire period of the experiment. These results indicate that some of the barnacles which had attached during a four Figure 1. (a) Panel subjected to 1.3 cubic feet of air per minute per foot, liberated from perfora- tions 1/16 of an inch in diameter, 1/4 of an inch apart in 3 1/2 inches of panel width. Exposed 9 days. (6) Similar, but with air flow 0.6 cubic feet per minute per foot. (¢) Control panel with no air bubbles. CONTROL Pe = INTERMITTANT Figure 2. (Right) Panel subjected to bubbles for 20 hour periods alternating with 4 hour periods of rest. Airflow 0.6 cubic feet per minute per foot liberated from 1/32 of an inch diameter perfora- tions, 1 inch apart. Exposed 18 days. (Left) Control. Figure 3. Stern of M.V. Nauplius showing air tubes. Bubbles released on port Cleft.) side of keel only. Three weeks’ test using 3 h.p. compressor. Figure 4. Figure 5. Portion of bottom amidships from starboard More general view amidships, similar to Figure showing untreated area at left (sternwards) and 4, but showing fouling due to lack of bubbles area subjected to bubbles at right (forwards). toward the bow. Same conditions as Figure 3. MECHANICAL CONTROL OF FOULING 157 hour period not subjected to air bubbles were still able to develop when the air bubbles were resumed (Fig. 2). The small number of these may indicate that only the more hardy are able to survive under these conditions. Although cyprid attach- ments were low on other test panels during the period of this experi- ment, a comparison of the experimental and control panels shows that had the intermittent bubbling not been effective a far greater number of barnacles would have attached during the daily four hour period and have developed than actually occurred. SERVICE TESTS In order to demonstrate the bubble method and in order to investigate the practical difficulties which might be encountered in applying it to the actual protection of ships’ bottoms, service tests were carried out upon the University of Miami Marine Laboratory motor vessel, the Nauplius. The vessel is a 29 foot fast cabin cruiser, fitted with twin engines and capable of speeds in the order of 20 knots. Immediately behind the bow the sides of the hull arise at an angle close to the ver- tical. At the stern the hull is almost horizontal with a slope of approximately one in eighteen. It was thus possible in using this vessel to test the effect of bubbles on hull surfaces at widely varying angles to the vertical. A false keel 2’’x 2'’ in cross section was fitted to the vessel and to each side of this were fastened 1 /2’’ copper tubes, tunning the length of the vessel and passing vertically upwards at the stern to the deck where regulating valves and air hose attachments were atranged (Fig. 3). The copper tubes were perforated over a length of 12 feet at the after end of the portside and for a distance of 12 feet at the forward end of the starboard side. The holes were spaced at 1/2’’ intervals and were 1/32 of an inch in diameter. Aur was supplied from a one-half horsepower compressor, delivering 2 to 3 cubic feet per minute. Old paint on the bottom was burned off and a light green topside paint applied. Immediately after launching the com- pressor hose was attached to the vessel and air bubbles were applied to the hull. The compressor was inadequate for the purpose and diffi- culties arose, owing to the variation in depth of the keel below the water line. As a result of this, air was liberated more readily from the higher parts of each of the two tubes. Bubbles were therefore confined to areas of the hull extending over the after 3 or 4 feet on the portside and over a similar distance on the starboard side immediately forward 158 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES of amidships. Air was applied continuously whenever the Namuplius was moored in dock. The experiment continued for a period of five weeks, during which the vessel was used for various purposes at sea. When not lying at her dock the air hose attachment was removed immediately before getting under way. The speed of operation varied between 10 and 20 knots, except when plankton nets or other trolling equipment was being used. When away from her dock the vessel was not allowed to remain stationary for periods of more than a few minutes. At the end of the exposure period the Nauplius was hauled and the bottom examined. Although fouling was substantially reduced on the portions of the hull subjected to ait bubbles, nevertheless barnacles were scattered over these surfaces. It was particularly noted that even over the almost horizontal portion at the stern, air bubbles had afforded as much pro- tection as over the more steeply inclined portion amidships. Pro- peller struts obstructed bubbles and caused fouling beyond. A second test was carried out upon the same vessel, using a more powerful compressor. This was operated by a 3 horsepower motor and delivered 15 cubic feet per minute. The same arrangement of copper tubes and perforations was used. Other conditions were essentially the same as in the previous experiment. At the end of three weeks the vessel was again hauled (Figs. 3, 4 and 5). The contrast between protected and unprotected areas was greater than in the previous experiment, and the bubbles had covered a greater area of the hull. Nevertheless, at the deepest part of the hull, lying between the bow and midship section, bubbles had not been released, and fouling had occurred. A length of 2 feet immediately behind the bow had also become fouled due to failure of the bubbles to be released from the forward end of the copper tube (Fig. 5). . It was demonstrated by the foregoing results that air bubbles, when released at the keel at a sufficient rate, provided anti-fouling protection. At the same time it was demonstrated that the varying depth of the keel caused an unequal distribution of bubbles, resulting in a lack of protection above the lowest points of the keel. Discussion The results of the panel tests indicate quite clearly that submerged surfaces may be protected by means of air bubbles. Service tests on the M.V. Nauplius also demonstrate that the protection applies equally well to flat bottom hulls as well as to bottoms arising more sharply. MECHANICAL CONTROL OF FOULING 159 The panel experiments have also shown that holes as small as 1/32 of an inch in diameter and as far apart as 1 inch will provide a sufficient flow of air bubbles. Of more importance from a practical point of view is the actual volume of ait required to protect a vessel, and the power needed to provide this. From the second and third panel tests results were obtained which showed a flow of 0.6 cubic feet per minute to be ample protection for each horizontal foot of the ship’s bottom. It is possible that as little as half of this would be sufficient since the next lowest rate of flow which was found to be unsatisfactory was 0.2 cubic feet per minute per foot. Nevertheless, even were a rate of 0.3 cubic feet per minute per foot satisfactory it would necessitate a total of 18 cubic feet per minute in order to cover both sides of the bottom of a 30 foot vessel. For this purpose a four horsepower compressor would be re- quired. With larger vessels the power necessary to provide air bubble protection would increase not only with the length of the vessel but also with the depth of the keel, though to a lesser extent. The problem of discontinuity of air bubble release with varying keel depth remains to be solved. The solution may lie in separate treatment of sections of the bottom according to the depth of the keel. Bilge keels and similar projections would necessitate auxiliary tubing. The possibility of using intermittent bubbling has not been clearly proved by the panel test. Were this possible the power needed for protection of the hull might be cut down by a system of treating several sections of the hull alternately. A suggestion by Dr. Slater that the anti-fouling effect of the air bubbles might be due to action upon the attached young of fouling organisms rather than through production of water currents raises theoretical questions. Nothing observed in the foregoing experiments offers evidence on this point. Although it might be argued that the protection of a flat bottom must be due to some direct mechanical action upon the attached young of fouling organisms rather than through production of water currents raised theoretical questions. Nothing observed in the foregoing experiments offers evidence on this point. Although it might be argued that the protection of a flat bottom must be due to some direct mechanical action of the air bubbles, yet it was observed that the bubbles rose from the edges of the flat bottom as quickly as from other portions of the hull and could quite possibly have created as strong a water current along the bottom. The service tests show that it might be possible to prevent fouling of 160 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ships’ bottoms by liberating air bubbles from the keel whenever the ship lies at rest. Further analysis of the results may show that the amount of power needed would render this impracticable. There are special situations, however, where it is believed the use of this method may be very satisfactory. External portions of the sound detecting equipment and such special devices as pitot-tube logs upon which it might not be desirable to apply anti-fouling paint could very readily be protected by a system of air bubbles. SUMMARY Previous experiments have demonstrated that water currents of comparatively small velocity suffice to prevent the attachment of fouling organisms. The present investigations were designed to test the possibility of producing these currents upon ship’s hulls by means of air bubbles liberated below the keel. Preliminary experiments were carried out upon submerged glass panels. it was found that complete protection could be afforded by means of bubbles liberated from the base of the panels. Under the conditions of the experiment barnacles were not merely prevented from growing but were unable to attach as cyprids. Further experiments demonstrated that an air flow of less than 0.6 but greater than 0.2 cubic feet per minute per horizontal foot of surface was mecessaty to prevent attachment of fouling organisms. It was found that perforations in the air tube might be as small as 1/32 of an inch in diameter and as far apart as 1 inch without reducing the efh- ciency of protection. Intermittent release of bubbles consisting of 20-hour active periods followed by 4 hour periods without bubbles did not afford complete protection although considerably less fouling occurred than on control panels. Service tests were carried out upon a 30 foot vessel, with air bubbles liberated from both sides of the keel. These tests resulted in satisfactory anti-fouling protection so long as an adequate air flow was maintained. Both flat bottoms and bottoms arising at an angle from the keel were equally protected. It is suggested that although the amount of air required may render the method impracticable for entire hulls, yet on sound domes and other under-water equipment where anti-fouling paint may not be desirable, air bubbles offer a simple and efficient anti-fouling measure. MECHANICAL CONTROL OF FOULING 161 LiTeERATURE CITED BraNner, F. G. 1937. Means and Method for Protection from Marine Parasites. U. S. Patent Dec. 6, 1938. 2,138,831. Application January 29, 1937. Serial No. 123,012. Smitu, F. G. Watton 1946. Effect of Water Currents upon the Attachment and Growth of Barnacles. Bzol. Bull., 90 (1). Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 9, (3-4) 1946 (1947) ok ‘ . So a be ua” a ' . pe) 4 .c . a a ‘ 4, ¢ » ie >be Ae St ae 4 Aw 4 r 7 ex af n icy: ‘ ‘ * ’ , / of - ” 1 4 a = 4 ‘ a . egy tke 4 sui ae. pr eisyiet: . Rae ites seer SEUDIES ON THE LIFE HISTORY AND ECOLOGY OF NOTROPIS CHALYBAEUS (COPE) Netson Marsyaru! Virginia Fisheries Laboratory Many interesting life history and ecology studies, emanating from academic interest and an appreciation of the economic importance of forage fish, have been undertaken on minnows in the more northern states. This paper represents an attempt to extend such study not only to a new species, Notropis chalybaeus (Cope), but also to the ecological conditions prevalent in Florida. Additional collecting and taxonomic study had already increased and will continue to add to the total of nine cyprinids mentioned in the key for Florida freshwater fishes by Carr (1936) but this comparatively small number is indicative of the limited representation of this family in the state. The scarcity is attributed to the relatively recent date of peninsular emergence which probably occurred during the Pleistocene according to Carr (1940). In contrast the extensiveness of the cyprin- odont fauna of brackish-water derivation is largely attributed to the inter-accessibility of freshwater and marine habitats characteristic of the low peninsular topography. It is often said that the top-minnow group plays the role usually assumed by minnows in states to the north and, when not considered too critically, this statement is quite ex- pressive of the faunal picture. The minnow on which this study is based was described by Cope as Hybopsis chalybaeus in 1867, and the Schuylkill River in Pennsylvania was designated as the type locality. For many years its known dis- tribution included only the coastwise streams and swamps from the vicinity of the Delaware River southward into peninsular Florida but recent unpublished records given to me by Dr. Carl L. Hubbs, of the Scripps Institution of Oceanography, indicate a more extensive dis- tribution through the central United States. Hasitat Ecotocy “My concept of the habitat of N. chalybaeus is based largely on a study of this species in four creeks near Gainesville, Alachua County, Florida. 1 Contribution from the Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida. 164 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA “ACADEMY OF SCIENCES In addition miscellaneous field work elsewhere, data obtained from publications, and discussions with other workers have supplemented my understanding of its ecology. The habitat most intensively studied is an unpolluted stretch of Hogtown Creek on and near the property owned at that time, 1939- 1941, by Roscoe McLane, Sr. (Fig. 1 and Plate II). The watershed of Hogtown Creek consists of flat terrain most of which is commonly described as pine flatwoods. All tributaries, as well as the main creek, meander and eventually drain into the underground water system through Hogtown Sink. The other three creeks drain into Newnans Lake, east of Gainesville. Newnans Lake, in turn, drains by way of Prairie Creek and a drainage canal into Orange Lake and ultimately into the Atlantic Ocean. Prior to the construction of the drainage canal, however, Prairie Creek drained into the underground system at Alachua Sink. The three principal localities studied along these creeks are, in the order of the extent to which they were used: (1) a stretch of Little Hatchet Creek lying just north of the Gainesville-Waldo Road (Fig. 1 and Plate 1), (2) Hatchet Creek where it crosses the Gainesville-Orange Heights Road (Fig. 1 and Plate I), and (3) the east tributary of Colson Branch at the road last mentioned (Fig. 1). The creek banks at these four localities are typically low and bordered with tall trees which in many places form a shady cover effec- tive the year around. There are extensive sand bottom areas and no rocks are exposed, except along Hogtown Creek near the McLane residence where the sandy phosphatic limestone of the Hawthorne formation forms part of the creek bed. There is usually an alternation of pools and riffles, and it is in the former that aggregations of N. chalybaeus ate most commonly found. After heavy rains the water level of these streams rises rapidly and the current, which is typically slow, increases. These conditions may be sustained for long periods during the rainy weather which prevails during the late spring and summer. The water of the streams has a reddish-brown hue due to a high content of organic matter which gives an acid reaction. Like the water level and current, the acidity fluctuates with the amount of rainfall. In Hogtown Creek, the closest to neutral of the localities studied, it 1s common to find a pH slightly above 7.0 (colorimetric method) during the prolonged fall and winter dry periods. Temperature records taken at Hogtown and Little Hatchet Creek Plate I Upper—Little Hatchet Creek just north of the Gainesville-Waldo Road. Lower—Hatchet Creek just south of the Gainesville-Orange Heights Road. A tributary of the East Branch of Hogtown Creek near the McLane residence. PROAEY + henydiy —— wo, O sy hy --— ea lar | SULUMAO\L SAIOM P2IARW0G Peeeee dwemg ssaadhy > => USAL YL on ae P2G WEIAXI6 hag -.---- sudvafoyoua honang Wwasy 9924 vo pur “vpHols, ‘aYNEIUIeH Mo1g Hoshg hq duyytto paced. — gmarshe eseurenq SW] SULUMAYLE* WaaI19 WHorsoy Figure 1 166 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES (Fig. 2) indicate a close correlation between the average air tempera- ture and water temperature, the latter usually being a few degrees lower. From consecutive temperature readings through the night, it is known that the water temperature may fluctuate rapidly in correlation with changes in air temperature. In these four localities the only cyprinid other than N. chalybaeus was the golden shiner, Notemigonus crysoleucas bosci (Cuvier and Valen- ciennes), a larger more vagrant minnow common to all stations. Though almost always at least second in abundance, N. chalybaeus was sometimes outnumbered by the mosquito fish, Gambusia affinis hol- brookit (Girard). The bulldog pickerel, Esox americanus Gmelin, twice noted on dissection as having eaten N. chalybaeus, was the only notably piscivorous fish common to all four localities but, in addition, the Florida spotted gar, Lepisosteus platyrhincus De Kay, and the large- mouthed bass, Huro salmoides (Lacepede), were present in the largest and most populated station, that at Hatchet Creek. The eggs and young of N. chalybaeus ate probably subject to predation by almost any carnivorous fish, including the adults of their own species. Also, in considering predation, one must mention such birds as the king- fishers and herons that feed along these streams, although surface fish such as poeciliids and cyprinodontids seem to be the chief take of these predators. In addition to the above habitat descriptions, the following observa- tions of two contrasting environments give some indication of the varying conditions under which N. chalybaeus may be found. It has been taken from small but deep stagnant pools under bridges along the Gainesville-Orange Heights Road where it crosses the cypress swamp between Little Hatchet and Hatchet Creeks (Fig. 1). In contrast N. chalybaeus has also been taken from the edge of the Ocklawaha River in close association with three other minnows: FErimystax harperi (Fowler), Notropis hypselopterus (Gunther), and Notropis xaenocephalus (Jordan). The Ocklawaha at the point where these fish were collected is about thirty yards wide, ten or twelve feet deep, and there is a strong midstream current. The minnows were congregated at the edge, however, where the flow 1s relatively slow. The water level was low at the time, but, when higher, the water over the edges of the bordering cypress swamps would afford many quiter situations similar to those which N. chalybaeus seems to prefer. Fowler (1906) described, as follows, the habitat of a population he referred to as N. chalybaeus abbotti (Fowler): ‘“This beautiful little fish, “NEDING JOIVIA\ “S$ “f] 242 JO UOIIwIg a]][TAsoUTEy DY Iv popsodos simaviodusd1 Ie 9YyI YIEA sosmgvsodusay urvoss Jo uostsvdui09 y ‘Z WNL 1hHbt Of bt bobs yeanyy, Garnagay, Kamnueg saqnasaq yaquianol, asqowQ wquaydag ysndny fine sung Hey qady Wary, harmaqas, Hhamuwg aaquiasoq saquisrcy, 20,99 asoquiaydag REO ORLEAA= A|NINSaULx) BYR YO Y2II7V JOY] AWW] & W22A) WMoPBo UL Siaymas|a Wsye} spsodd}1_7 SUIPISDY S2UOT I YE N22) WAOBO({ JO YDURAG, ry ¥ 168 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES in company with Mesogonistius chaetodon, was found to be exceedingly abundant in the little channels and runs in sphagnum banks.”’ Greely (1937) noted that N. chalybaeus is abundant in the sluggish and weedy portions of the Hackensack River in New York. Also Edward C. Raney of Cornell University, who ts familiar with this species in the Middle Atlantic States, has told me that he regards this minnow as an inhabitant of sluggish streams. The accumulated information, particularly the more detailed obser- vations made in Florida, indicates a diversity of stream habitats for populations of N. chalybaeus. Although its occurrence in shallow waters and in swift currents is well established, N. chalybaeus should be considered an inhabitant of sluggish streams where small, quiet pools constitute its habitat and are important in its breeding (as will be discussed in the section on breeding). FEEDING Examinations of the digestive tract contents of N. chalybaeus show only a few, fragmentary remnants of animal forms. There is, however, an abundance of algae and plant fragments but there is no indication that these have been digested, since those at the anal end are in the same condition as those at the anterior end of the intestinal tract. Nor is there any evidence that the digestive apparatus is adopted for the di- gestion of plant material. The intestine is short and has only two bends, each of 180°; the peritoneum has a light background color; the pharyngeal teeth are long and hooked, having a 1, 4-4, 1 arrange- ment; the mouth is large and terminal; and the eyes are large. Accord- ing to widely accepted generalizations such structures are characteristic of carnivorous, not herbivorous, minnows (Forbes and Richardson, 1920, Breder and Crawford, 1922, and Hubbs and Cooper, 1936). To interpret these seemingly inconsistent facts, feeding experiments were undertaken on 17 N. chalybaeus and 38 Erimystax harperi, another stream minnow common in Florida in which a similar discrepancy between digestive tract contents and apparent food habits was found. After a period of eight days without food and in tanks darkened to prevent the growth of algae, these fish were fed a variety of micro- crustacea. They ate these voraciously after which they were im- mediately perserved by diverse and effective methods including slitting the belly and placing in 10% formalin. On dissection it was observed that they had torn the crustaceans into shreds and fragments, apparently through the use of their long, hooked pharyngeal teeth. Also, they STUDIES ON NOTROPIS CHALYBAEUS (COPE) 169 were found to have plant tissues lodged in their digestive tracts in conspicuous amounts but showing no evidence of digestion, being in similar condition in the anterior and posterior ends of the tract. Since sample specimens dissected before feeding had empty digestive tracts, the only probable source of this plant material, chiefly detritus, was from within the tracts of the crustacea eaten. Thus it seems evident that in nature N. chalybaeus and E. harperi do eat animal forms in con- siderable quantities and that they quickly macerate and digest these, leaving in the digestive tract a misleading mass of the more resistant plant tissues from within animals eaten. This, of course, does not eliminate the possibility that plant forms are ingested to some extent under natural conditions, but, from the standpoint of nutrition, these ate apparently inconsequential because they do not seem to be digested in the short alimentary tract. The above findings can be correlated with the fact that minnows do not have stomachs, so we ate actually dealing with intestinal contents. Histological studies, reviewed by Kraatz (1924), show that the di- gestive tract from the post-esophageal region to the anus has the gross and microscopic anatomy of a true intestine with the hepatic duct Opening just posterior to the esophagus. It is well known that larger food particles must be thoroughly macerated if they are to be efficiently digested within an intestine. In cyprinids such maceration is appa- ently accomplished, with varying success, by the well developed pharyngeal teeth. As a consequence, material that is still in recogniz- able form within the intestine is not necessarily representative of the diet of the species being studied. Many food studies on minnows have been carried out without consideration of this fact. This source of error should not be ignored in the future. That N. chalybaeus feeds by sight has been learned through obsetva- tions on the species in aquaria and in natural habitats.These observa- tions also indicate that it feeds on a variety of aquatic insects or insect fragments plus any other animal material small enough to be ingested. Throughout the daylight hours these minnows may be seen approaching various particles that drift by in the current or, in the case of sluggish pools, they may be seen ranging about in quest of food.Not all particles approached are taken into the mouth and, of those that are, not all are acceptable for many are soon ejected. Night observations, subject to error due to the necessity of using a flashlight, indicate that this feeding ceases wholly or partially during the night. 170 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BREEDING In this study of N. chalybaeus it soon became evident that to collect sufficient specimens to determine the breeding season by examining the gonads would quickly deplete the available local populations. For this reason few large collections were made and another method was used based on external breeding characteristics of the living minnows. Females in breeding condition can be stripped of eggs by the applica- tion of slight, though often fatal, pressure to the abdomen. Eggs thus secured, also the eggs of the most gravid of the preserved specimens examined, are yellow, opaque, and approximately 0.9 mm in diameter. In contrast to nongravid specimens, females laden with eggs of this description exhibit a distinctive robust contour in the abdominal region, a breeding character that can be discerned on living N. chaly- baeus without injury to the fish. Using the stripping method mentioned above and with the same high mortality resulting, milt can be stripped from the males in breeding condition. Such ‘‘ripe’’ males have sharp nuptial tubercles on the chin, a varying degree of tuberculation on the anterior end of the snout, and small patches of tubercles arranged in bands on the rays of the pectoral fins. A slight growth of similar tubercles is sometimes seen on the larger, probably older, females. Year around examinations of living N. chalybaeus from natural habitats and an examination of preserved specimens show that minnows that are not in breeding condition have little if any tubercle development, although tubercle scars are quite common. The nuptial coloration of the male provides another useful external character. In streams in which the water has a marked reddish-brown hue this coloration is orange, the breeding color generally attributed to N. chalybaeus. In clearer water the breeding males develop a rosy coloration, which has lead to certain misidentifications in the past. The individual chromatophores associated with breeding are orange in all cases and when these show to their maximum extent the orange nuptial coloration results. When these orange chromatophores are less prominent, the less intense rose-colored nuptial dress results. That these changes in gross appearance are correlated with changes in the color of the water is indicated by the following observations. In 1940, when the water in Hogtown Creek was relatively clear for prolonged periods during the breeding season, the adult males developed the rosy coloration. During the spring of the next year these waters were consistently more reddish-brown from a higher organic content and STUDIES ON NOTROPIS CHALYBAEUS (COPE) 171 the males showed an orange breeding dress. The same changes occurred in the east tributary of Colson Branch but in the reverse sequence with the clearer water and rosy coloration of the male N. chalybaeus popula- tion in 1940 and the dark water and orange males in 1941. The nuptial color, whether orange or rosy, follows a rather uniform pattern in the breeding males. A faint background shade of the nuptial color is noticeable over the entire body, even on the blackish dorsal and dorsolateral surfaces and the dark pectoral fins. The breeding color is intense and striking on the dorsal fin, the caudal fin, and caudal peduncle, especially on the ventral surface of the latter. Although present, coloration 1s not intense on the ventral and anal fins, nor on the ventral surface of the silvery belly. Such coloration is not alto- gether lacking in the females or in the males out of the breeding season; however, in contrast to the striking colors of breeding males, the de- tection of this color necessitates close scrutiny, being most easily seen on the caudal and dorsal fins. In summarizing the above descriptions we can list three useful external breeding characters: (1) the robust form of gravid females, (2) the tubercles of the breeding males, and (3) the nuptial coloration of the males. Occasionally, slight pressure accidentally exerted in handling the minnows, will partially expose one or more eggs at the vent of gravid females and thus additional verification of the breeding condition is obtained without the mortality that results from actual stripping. In 1940, indications of spawning activity were witnessed on April 3. It was observed that breeding characters were maintained from that date until the end of September. The latest records indicative of breeding include a female taken on September 28 which, when sub- jected to slight pressure applied to the abdomen, showed eggs of mature size at the vent. Toward the end of September, all breeding charac- teristics disappeared and were lacking until the end of March 1941. These records indicate an extensive breeding season of approximately five and a half months extending from early or mid-April until late September. It is probable that N. chalybaeus has a shorter breeding period in the more northern parts of its range. The limits of the 1940 breeding season are indicated on Fig. 5. The mean ait temperature early in April, when gravid fish first appeared, approximated 66°F. The warmest month was August, with a mean air temperature 81°F., but by the close of September, when breeding was discontinued, the mean air temperature had dropped to about 172 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACALCEMY OF SCIENCES 73°F. As previously stated and shown by the graph, the stream temper- tute ran a little below these mean air temperatures. Populations of N. chalybaeus tend to shift from place to place through- out the year, adjusting themselves to such factors as changes in water ~ level and alterations of the bottom contours, but there is no distinguish- able shifting of populations associated with spawning. The composition of the schools occupying any given sand bottom pool or similar situa- tion is not altered with the onset of the breeding season. A typical atea is occupied by numerous individuals of many sizes, with both sexes represented in about equal numbers. Although considerable overlap in size of adult males and females occurs, the female is generally somewhat the larger of the two. No pteparation such as nest building or clearing the bottom is made by the breeding minnows. Throughout the daylight hours of the breeding season the males chase the females about the area. On watching the males I have noticed that an individual will chase first one female and then another, apparently selecting any ripe female that ventures nearby as the objective of his pursuit. Such sexual chasing is discontinued at night but I have seen it taking place day after day during the long breeding season. From such activity one might think that spawning is a common occurrence but it is limited to the advent of optimum environment and physiological conditions. Whereas sexual chasing may be observed during times of high water and rapid currents, the culmination of courtship behavior has been observed only when there was little current in the populated areas. Just prior to spawning the sexual chasing described becomes more intense. Eventually the females discontinue their retreat from put- suing males and the actual union of individuals soon follows. Of this I could at first see nothing more than a streak of silver through the shady waters of the pool; however, after continued observations it was realized that in this act a male and female swim side by side with their silvery, ventral surfaces pressed close together and their dorsal surfaces apart. In such close proximity they dash quickly across the pool and then separate. Though, as explained below, eggs of N. chalybaeus have never been secured from the spawning areas, there is little doubt that this is the spawning act. Such a spawning behavior tends to distribute the eggs in a broadcast manner about the pools. Observations on fertilized eggs obtained by stripping indicate that the eggs sink and must soon adhere to the sand grains and similar particles of the stream bottom. STUDIES ON NOTROPIS CHALYBAEUS (COPE) 173 Normal feeding activities are not discontinued at any time during the breeding season. I have seen fish exhibiting spawning behavior refrain from sexual activities long enough to grasp at edible particles that pass by in the current. While engaged in mating activities the reactions of N. chalybaeus toward other species remain unchanged. The chub-sucker, Erimyzon s. sucetta, the golden shiner, Notimegonus cryso- leucas bosci, and the black-spotted sunfish, Lepomis p. punctatus, have been observed swimming in and out of these spawning areas without arousing any marked reaction in the sexually active minnows. The random dispersal of the eggs, the prolonged nature of the breed- ing season yielding few clues as to exactly when to look for eggs, and the depth and darkness of the water in the spawning pools have thwarted my attempts to obtain eggs from the stream bottom. Never- theless, many larvae closely resembling the larvae of N. chalybaeus that were raised in aquaria, as discussed below, have been collected from the surface in or near the spawning areas. A variety of make- shift devices was designed in an effort to collect naturally spawned eggs but the minnows moved elsewhere to avoid the artificial additions to their surroundings. These attempts did, however, demonstrate a very loose affiliation between the minnows and their spawning areas for sexual activity was immediately resumed following such move- ments into new surroundings. Observing ripe fish placed in laboratory aquaria was informative although sexual activity never went beyond the chasing stage. In the laboratory cessation of sexual activity in the dark was easily verified and it was observed that such activity was quickly resumed under the influence of artificial light. | In concluding this discussion it should be pointed out, as Hubbs and Walker (1942) did for Notropzs longirostrus, that the breeding behavior of N. chalybaeus parallels in many ways that observed for other ostario- physine fishes. DEVELOPMENT OF EGGs AND LARVAE Of the methods employed in attempting to obtain fertilized eggs, one technique, that of stripping ripe males and females, was successful in a single instance on May 5, 1940. This same general procedure, which typically resulted in the death of the fish used, was repeated throughout the breeding season with minor variations in an effort to improve the technique, but without success. The work was hindered by the great length of the breeding season and the probability that the optimum 174 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES physiological or actual spawning conditions are attained at intervals that are easily missed. The single set of fertilized eggs was kept in the laboratory where they developed and the young fish were reared for a period of ten weeks through the embryonic, larval, and into the juvenile stages. There were about fifty eggs, which represented practically all that had been obtained in stripping the female mentioned above. These eggs were not measured before development started but they closely resembled relatively large eggs 0.8 to 0.9 mm in diameter obtained by stripping other gravid females. The fertilized eggs were not adhesive at first, but the capsule soon became adherent and thus the eggs stuck to the bottom of the watch glasses in which they were kept. The original yellow color of the freshly stripped eggs lasted only a short time, then the eggs assumed a pale cream coloration. A few minutes after fertilization the blastodisc contracted and formed a white dome above the yolk. The four-cell stage appeared about one and a half hours after fertilization. Two and a half hours later the blastoderm was composed of a mass of relatively small but easily distinguished cells. After seven hours the blastoderm had the appearance of a gray cap of minute cells on top of a more lightly colored yolk. | The field laboratory in which the eggs were kept was a small, com- paratively open building with such a good circulation of air that it is probable that the water containing the eggs was comparable to the ait in temperature. During the period of this embryonic development the lowest temperature recorded in the Gainesville region was 46°F., the highest 77°F., and the mean approximated 62°F. Under these conditions the eggs hatched in from about 52 to about 56 hours, the majority hatching about 54 hours after fertilization. Eggs of goldfish, Carassius auratus, observed by Battle (1940) hatched in from 64 to 72 hours at temperatures varying between 75° and 82°F. Other records of the hatching time of cyprinids are available and Battle has reviewed some of these, thereby demonstrating an inverse relation between the time of hatching and the temperature involved. Just prior to hatching the embryos were active within theegg. They freed themselves by lashing movements of the tail which eventually ruptured the egg capsules. Measurements used in describing the larval and juvenile fish as they developed from these eggs were taken as follows: Total length: Tip of the snout to tip of the caudal fin. STUDIES ON NOTROPIS CHALYBAEUS (COPE) 175 Standard length: Tip of the snout to the posterior end of the notochord on the earliest stages and to the posterior end of the vertebral column on older stages. Length to vent: Tip of the snout to the vent. Length of head: Prior to the development of the operculum it was necessary to estimate the posterior border of the cephalic region and make measurements on that basis. Starting with fish having a standard length of 5.4 mm it was possible to measure from the tip of the snout to the posterior border of the operculum. The soft, fleshy extension of the operculum was not included. Width of head: Included the protruding eyes. This was not a very satisfactory measurement but the best that could be devised to work effectively on very early stages. Greatest diameter of eye: The greatest diameter was from the anterior to the posterior borders which represented the longest axis of th? slightly elliptical eye. © Greatest depth before vent: Included the yolk sac before it was absorbed but did not include the fins. . Measurements were always taken along a straight line and on the normally curved early stages maximum straight line dimensions taken without straightening the specimens have been used. The measurements are recorded in Table 1 and the rate of growth is presented graphically in Fig. 5. In addition, the following notes on the gross appearance and activity of certain stages are given. In re- ferring to these stages the terminology recommended by Hubbs (1943) has been used. Prolarva—Newly-hatched (Fig. 3): Total length 2.3 mm, standard length 2.25 mm. 7 At this stage the larva is curved downward at the anterio- and posterior ends so that its dorsal outline is arcuate. The eye is barely noticeable. The myomeres ate very indistinct but counts indicate that few if any are added as the larva grows. There is a single, non- rayed caudal fin that is continuous along the dorsal and ventral body surfaces in the posterior region, thus adding considerable expanse to the tail region. The swimming activities at this stage are greatly encumbered by the large size of the yolk. Propulsion is effected by the tail and the resulting movement 1s random to an extreme. 176 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Prolarva—Age 1 day (21 hours) (Fig. 3): Total length 3.2 mm, standard length 3.1 mm. There is a distinct reduction in the size of the yolk sac. The an- terior region of the body is still curved downward but the posterior region has straightened. The swimming activity consists of vig- NEWLY-HATCHED 4.1 MM. Figure 3.—Early stages of Notropis chalybaeus Standard length 2.25 mm., Newly-hatched Standard length 3.1 mm., Age 1 day Standard length 4.1 mm., Age 5 days orous, somewhat random movements which eventually carry the larva to the water surface where the tail movements discontinue and it sinks. Soon after it reaches the bottom the whole process-is re- peated. A very similar behavior is described for Notropis gérardi by Moore (1944) who discusses it as an adaptation keeping these early stages free from the shifting sands and silt of their stream habitat. STUDIES ON NOTROPIS CHALYBAEUS (COPE) 177 Prolarva—Age 2 days: Total length 3.5 mm, standard length 3.3 mm. There is a continued reduction in the size of the yolk sac. The curvature of the anterior region is lessened. 74M. Figure 4.—Early stages of Notropés chalybacus Standard length 5.4 mm., Age 19 days Standard length 6.3 mm., Age 33 days Standard length 7.4 mm., Age 47 days Prolarva—Age 3 days: Total length 3.9 mm, standard length 3.7 mm. The yolk sac has been reduced in size and has become more cy~ lindrical in shape. Pigmentation is evident for the first time> melanophores being located in the mid-dorsa. and posterior ventra regions. A few in the latter position are anterior to the ven: but most are posterior. There is also a slight sign of pigmentation in the eye. The buds of the pectoral fins are in evidence. It was noted that swimming ability steadily improved with the growth of the embryo and decrease in size of the yolk sac. 178 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Postlarva—Age 5 days (Fig. 3): Total length 4.3 mm, standard length 4.1 mm. The downward curvature of the anterior region no longer exists. Melanophores occur along almost the entire dorsal and ventral surfaces of the body, exclusive of the fins, but no pigmentation occurs between these two regions of melanophore development. The mouth is now functional. The presence of the swim bladder can be noticed through the dorsal surface of the translucent body. The larva by this time is able to maintain an upright position while swimming and usually assumes such a position when at rest. The aquaria in which the larvae were reared were stocked with microscopic organisms, chiefly from hay infusions. This apparently served as a very adequate food supply for the developing fish. Postlarva—Age 9 days: Total length 4.6 mm, standard length 4.3 mm. The pectorals show increased development but there are no other evidences of fin development. The body is more elongate. The swimming ability has greatly increased. The swimming move- ments and positions assumed when resting at this stage give the fish the appearance of being hinged in the region of the swim bladder. This peculiar hinge-like effect has also been seen in larvae taken from the stream. Postlarva—Age 19 days (Fig. 4): Total length 5.7 mm, standard length 5.4 mm. The notochord shows an upward curvature at the caudal end and the first rays of the caudal fin are in evidence. Postlarva—Age 26 days: Total length 6.2 mm, standard length 5.7 mm. The posterior end of the notochord is concealed beneath a con- centration of melanophores in the form of a caudal spot. Caudal fin rays have increased in number. The caudal and the pectorals are the only fins in evidence except for the non-rayed larval fin. Postlarva—A ge 33 days (Fig. 4): Total length 7.0 mm, standard length 6.3 mm. The non-rayed caudal fin of the larva has almost vanished. The outline of the future anal fin is clearly evident. Very early signs of the dorsal fin can be seen and portions of the reduced larval fin re- main where the ventrals and anal later develop. The mouth begins to resemble that of the adult. This may be regarded as representing at early stage in the gradual transition from postlarva to juvenile sh. STUDIES ON NOTROPIS CHALYBAEUS (COPE) 179 Juvenile—Age 47 days (Fig. 4): Total length 9.2 mm, standard length 7.4 mm. The caudal fin has become bifurcate. Both the dorsal and anal fins have differentiated and the buds of the ventral fins have appeared. Additional pigmentation is present in the form of a line of melano- phores from the head to the caudal spot on each mid-lateral surface. The fish is beginning to resemble the adult in both appearance and locomotion. Juvenile—Age 69 days: Total length 14.8 mm, standard length 11.6 mm. The fin development is complete or nearly so. The pigmentation is the same as on the 7.4mm specimen. In gross external appearance it resembles the adult except for size, its lack of scales, and the lack of adult pigmentation. Table 1, in addition to listing the measurements taken on the fish reared from the available fertilized eggs, offers, for comparison, per- centage evaluations of the various dimensions as derived from measure- ments of ten N. chalybaeus between 20 and 30 mm standard length, ten between 30 and 40 mm, and ten between 40 and 50 mm. Except for the 20 to 30 mm group in which four specimens from Hatchet Creek collections were used, all of them had been collected from Hogtown Creek where the fish yielding the fertilized set had been taken. To avoid misleading comparisons, the greatest depth before the vent was not taken on gravid fish. A notation on the table indicates that the measurements of the head width for these larger specimens did not in- clude the eyes, the protrusion of which varied too greatly. The age of these larger N. chalybaeus has not been determined. The lengthy breeding season prevents the determination of age by length groups; moreover, the scales reveal nothing that I have been able to correlate with age, such as was done in my study (1939) on the annulus of Notropis cornutus crysocephalus (Rafinesque). This difficulty en- countered in interpreting scales may be at least partially attributed to the small size of the scales and the lack of seasonal changes comparable to those existing in regions where the formation of annuli is known in related forms. The initial rate of growth following hatching is quite rapid (see Table 1 and Fig. 5) even when one makes allowance for the rapid in- crease in antero-posterior dimensions that occurs when the larva straightens out shortly after hatching. When the yolk sac has been SE . . . 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No other shifts in rate of growth marked enough to be considered valid from these few specimens and under these artificial rearing conditions, have been detected. GREGARIOUSNESS AND MovEMENTS The larvae of N. chalybaeus swim in aggregations composed of a varying number of indiv'duals, completely independent of and un- attended by adults. Although a single aggregation may sometimes be composed of the young of one parent, it is probable, as indicated by the heterogeneous sizes within such a group, that young of several different parents and different hatching dates are intermixed. When subjected to currents artificially produced in the laboratory, the larvae exhibit a positive rheotaxis but practically no ability to Maintain a position in the current. It is probable that great losses of young result from the frequent swift current conditions common during the rainy season of June and July when many larvae are in the streams. A natural defense against losses from this cause is indicated by the common occurrence of larval forms in protected miniature embay- ments and harbors of various sorts. Sometime after deve opment has reached the juvenile stages the young N. chalybaeus become an integral part of the adult schools or aggregations. Such groups are seldom compact and, except when in currents, do not have an integrated formation. They are composed of fish of many sizes with both sexes represented in about equal numbers. The composition of such schools is definitely unstable. Groups some- times split and some unite, with a considerable exchange of mem- bers. Individuals are seen moving freely from one aggregation to another. Sometimes they remain isolated or form groups composed of as few as two to five minnows. Aggregations of N. chalybaeus can not be classed as schools in the most restricted sense associated with that term. They somewhat resemble the schools which Breder and Nigrelli (1935) describe for such fishes as Lebistes and Fundulus as follows: ‘‘Such a school does not primarily aim at going anywhere, the members being ‘browsers’, not plankton feeders, with the consequence that individuals point pri- marily at scattered food objects. Observe them, however, in a current, as Fundulus in a tideway, and they are found to present as well-inte- greted a school as mackeral.’’ Likewise, when in a current, minnows 182 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES like N. chalybaeus and many similarly behaving forms must continually move forward with respect to that current in order to maintain their position in the stream and, in so doing, they too form a rather definitely patterned school. In short, an organized school of N. chalybaeus is essentially a summation of the minnow’s gregariousness and its positive rheotaxis. Standard Length in mm. Bl Ce eee TOON SL ee a a || | abe tole The importance of uniformity in names is best illustrated in the negative. In one former war theater area there were three sets of official maps in general use, each set on a different scale and used for different purposes. A thorough examination revealed that of 577 place names analyzed and studied, 360 or 62.4 percent were in error. These errors included mainly: (1) use of names no longer current; (2) mistakes in transliteration; (3) variation in form; (4) typographical errors; (5) use of wrong names, either by defacing the name in one way or another or by applying it to the wrong place or feature. Furthermore, in a large number of cases each of these three series of maps used a different form or an entirely different name for the same place. In a number of instances such differences were noted on overlapping portions of different sheets of maps within the same series. How much con- fusion such conditions create can best be left to the judgement of the reader, and for his assurance let it be stated that these maps were not issued by Federal agencies. In order to acquaint the reader with some of the numerous problems of geographic names and their implications, the study of the geo- graphic names of Bulgaria has been selected as an illustration. Bulgaria presents a very complex case which renders it highly suitable as a subject for such an illustrative investigai:oa.* Buicaria, 1HE GEOGRAPHIC BACKGROUND Bulgaria occupies the eastern quarter of the Balkan peninsula. The geographic conditions of the country are dominated by two great mountain systems occupying roughly over one third of the country’s atea. The great flattened arc of the Balkan mountains (Stara Planina) ‘The author was a member of the Board during spring and summer 1944, in the position of Regional Geographer specializing in Central and Eastern Europz:. He wishes to express his appreciation to the Board and the Department of the Interior for the permission granted him to use in the preparation of this article some materials collected while he was a mem - ber of the Board. SOME PROBLEMS OF FOREIGN GEOGRAPHIC NAMES 193 forms the backbone of the country. A member of the Alps-Himalaya system, it is among the lesser ranges of this rugged mountain system of the Old World. The highest elevation (7,785 feet) occurs in the central part of the range where it becomes very narrow. Its eastern extremity ends at the Black Sea in a bluff 200 feet high. Although its elevation as a whole is moderate, the Balkan system is a rather im- portant barrier. Passes are relatively numerous, but most of them are remarkably high for the general elevation of the mountains (e.g. the passes in the Central Balkans are rarely below 6000 feet, and all of the important ones are at higher elevations). These conditions concentrate movements of men and goods into a relatively few nuclei which assume great economic and per aes significance, such as the Isktr Gorge or the Shipka Pass. The second most imporatnat mountain system of Bulgaria is the Rhodope Massif. This is the most complex and the highest group of mountains on the whole Balkan peninsula. Its average elevation is 6,135 feet, with the highest peak rising to 9,590 feet. In its high, enclosed valleys many ethnic remnants found refuge making this region the most turbulent section of the none too pacific Balkans. The dissected Deli-orman, a transitional zone between the Danube Foreland and the Dobrudzha, is a rough hilly area in the northeastern corner of the country. Its name, which is Turkish in origin, means “wild wood’’ and somewhat indicates its character. It is inhabited to a great extent by Turks. Separated by these highlands, and connected by a few important passes, are the Bulgarian lowlands. The Danube Foreland is the largest of these units. A low table-land, mostly overlain by loess, it terminates in a series of abrupt bluffs dropping 500 to 600 feet to the level of the Danube. This contrasts sharply with the low, swampy bank of the river on the Rumanian side where the Wallachian Plain merges into the valley of the Danube. The numerous tributaries rising in the highlands have cut deep lateral valleys into the loess thus inter- rupting the ease of east to west movements on the otherwise rather flat and gently sloping Foreland. The deep valleys south of the Balkan Mountains are much narrower and smaller. The most important of these is the Maritsa Valley lying between the Balkan Mountains and the Rhodope Massif, opening to the Aegean Sea to the south, and merging into Pontic Bulgaria to the east. In southwestern Bulgaria, the Struma and the Strumitsa valleys offer some level lands for settlements and cultivation. Aside from 194 -JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES these, there are several narrow intermontane valleys in the Rhodope Massif and Balkan Mountains. The valley of the Arda, a tributary of the Maritsa, is the most important of these. Far off center, amidst a festoon of high mountains, the Sofiya Basin occupies the most strategic location in Bulgaria and on the whole peninsula. Near the headwaters of the Maritsa, Nishava, and Struma, crossed by the Isktir, the basin has easy access to the radiating river valleys and thus controls the most important trade routes and military roads of the peninsula. The last geographic unit of the country is Pontic Bulgaria consisting of two amphitheatrical coastal lowlands, centering on Varna in the north and on Burgas in the south, separated by the southeastern spurs of the Balkan Mountains. The climate of Bulgaria is dominated by continental and Mediter- ranean influences modified by local topography. Generally speaking the Balkan Mountains mark the southern limit of the pronounced continental influences. South of them the winters are considerably milder than on the Foreland. The summers are warm in all parts of the country, excepting the high mountains. Most of the precipitation occurs during the summer and it is ample for the production of crops which especially in southern Bulgaria, belong mostly to the Medi- terranean types. ° BuLGARIAN History The extremely strategic position occupied by the land of the Bulgars is the paramount factor in the history of the country. A land lying at the European head of the most important land bridge of the Old World and wide open to the great Central Lowland of Europe cannot but be involved in the inevitable tragedy of human folly. Located between the East and the West, the Mediterranean and the European Lowland, controlling in the Sofiya Basin the crossroads between these divergent areas and civilizations, Bulgaria has felt the repercussions of all major events in the history of Europe. From the Roman epoch to the present day outside powers controlled the destiny of the country. Its inhabitants rose to eminence in power only while these outsiders were on a decline. Rome, the Byzantine _ ®The discussion of Bulgaria’s geographic background was based upon: (a) Geographic Section, Naval Intelligence Division, A Handbook of Bulgaria, Admiralty, London: 9-49, (b) Cvijié, Jovan, La Peninsule Balkanique, Geographie Humaine, Librairie Armand Colin; Paris, 1918: 26-47; 53-80: (c) Valkenburg, Samuel van, and Ellsworth Huntington, SOME PROBLEMS OF FOREIGN GEOGRAPHIC NAMES 195 Empire, Hungary, Serbia, the Ottoman Empire all ruled Bulgaria at least for some time. Proximity to Constantinople made the rulers of the Straights the logical overlords of Bulgaria, thus the Byzantines and the Turks were the most successful in subduing the country. When internal or external troubles weakened the outsiders the native energy of the Bulgars and their love of freedom asserted themselves and found expression in the large empires of Tsars Simeon, and Samuel during the tenth and early eleventh centuries as well as in the second empire under the Asen dynasty during the first half of the thirteenth century. During the fourteenth century Bulgaria came under Turkish rule and remained so until the close of the nineteenth century. Since then the great powers, at cross purposes with each other have alternatingly enlarged or whittled down the size of Bulgaria, adding thereby greatly to the confusion and ill will existent on the Balkan peninsula. Conquerors came and conquerors vanished, each leaving an impres- sion upon the ethnic structure of the people. At present the Slavic influence dominates Bulgaria expressing itself in the language and cul- ture of the people. The original Bulgars, a Turanian group of con- querors, have been absorbed in the sea of the conquered Slavs, leaving behind only their name and certain dominating traits of character of the people. They were the state building element of the early em- pires, the glory of which has a very real meaning to the Bulgars of to-day. Much of the political aspiration of modern Bulgaria traces its origin to these early forefathers and to their feats of conquest. In the isolated mountain fastness of Bulgaria many remnant groups found refuge and ancient cultures, feuds, and fears survived. In the Open country there was a continuous stream of migration culminating in the Turkish invasion. The mild climate of southern Bulgaria suited the Turks. The easy access to the Maritsa and Arda valleys and to the Pontic Lowlands invited them, and the Turks moved and settled in these regions in large numbers bringing with them an alien civilization and language. Some of the Bulgars took on the ways of these foreigners, forming a Mohammedan Bulgar group known as the Pomaks. In Macedonia live the Macedonians, a problem people, who can define themselves best by saying that they are ot of the nationality of the country which controls them. Since Bulgaria lost control of most of Europe, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, 1935: 558-563 (Chap. 45); (d) Whittlesey, ‘Derwent, The Earth and the State, Henry Holt and Company, New York, 1939: 223-230; Ce) Epstein, M., The Statesman’s Yearbook 1943, Macmillan Company, New York, 1943: ‘751-58. 196 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Macedonia, the Macedons usually favor the Bulgars against the Serbs and Greeks. ® Thus the location of Bulgaria produced a varied history, led a great number of people into the territory, who when hard pressed by late comers took refuge in the mountains, and preserved there a large part of their original civilization and ancient ways of living. BuLGARIAN NAME PROBLEMS Geographic and Historic Influences There are two outstanding geographic factors which have played directly and indirectly important roles in the evolution of the geo- graphic names in Bulgaria. These are: (1) the high mountains with their inclosed river valleys resulting in isolation; (2) the strategic location and accessible lowlands inviting waves of migrants and conquerors. Topography affects geographic names by its diversity or uni- formity. In Bulgaria the great diversity and the preponderance of mountains lead to the evolution of a great number and variety of generic terms pertaining to physical features. An incomplete prelim- inary listing of generic terms applied to mountains and related features contains over twenty words for which there are only about half as many simple English equivalents thus necessitating in many instances the use of at least one descriptive adjective in conjunction with the English generic term. Naturally, as in any other language, these terms were applied unsystematically leading to a high degree of confusion in the nomenclature. The second effect of topography expresses itself in the degree of isolation of the people. Isolated people living in a limited environ- ment are apt to use simple names like large, little, black, or white river, mountain, or even village. Each group isolated from the other will repeatedly use the same name for different features and places. There are no complete tabulations but random countings show as many as Six fepetitions in the case of streams. In the case of small villages, hamlets, and brooks the probability of repetitious names is considerably higher than those quoted. In addition to the repetitions the matter is further complicated by the fact that the features to which the See reference 5; in addition: (a) Coon, Carleton Stevens, The Races of Europe, The Macmillan Company, New York, 1939: 223-240; 609-612; (b) Newmand, Bernard, The New Europe, The Macmillan Company, New York, 1943: 328-352; (c) Some of the historical material and conclusions presented here are from an article under preparation with the co-operation of Mr. Edward Steere, formerly Historian, BGN. SOME PROBLEMS OF FOREIGN GEOGRAPHIC NAMES 197 repetitious names ate applied often occur quite close together as if in one particular part of the country one type of name was preferred. One of the worst examples of such repetition is found in the case of the Azmak, where there are three tributaries of the ryeka Sazliyka (Sazla River) and an additional tributary of the Tundzha by this name. All these rivers are within a radius of 25 kilometers. Also there are many streams called Golyema-ryeka (Large River), Byela-ryeka (White River), Cherna-ryeka (Black River), etc. There is one interesting feature in the application of the adjective byela and cherna to river names. Rivers either navigable or followed by roads are designated by white; whereas, black is applied only to swift, non-navigable rivers which flow in deep, hardly passable valleys or gorges. — Such duplications occur not only in the case of small streams, but also with large rivers, like the two tributaries of the Danube both called Lom. One empties into the master stream by the city of Ruse in north- eastern Bulgaria, the other by Lom in the west. In the case of place names Banya, Bistrica, Bryest, Borisovo, Novoselo in variant forms, to- gether with Izvor are favored. Isolation also may be responsible for the changes of names occuring along the same river. In examining the Azmak case, for example, it was discovered that the name of the main stream, rycka Sazliyka, under- goes repeated changes. First the name Sazliyka is quite recent, and does not occur on maps published in the twenties. Its former name SazlZ- deve which is the Turkish equivalent of the Bulgarian rycka Sazliyka (dere, ryeka=river). The Turks used the noun form Sazlg; the Bul- gatians use the adjective form which with a change in orthography became Sazliyka. This change, however, is not disturbing and is of secondary importance. Tracing the course of the river it seemed that it is formed by the confluence of one of the Azmaks and the Syuyutliy river. Checking this information further on large scale military maps, it turned out that both names, ryeka Sazlg-dere and ryeka Syuyutliyka or Suyutliika (a variant form) appear alternatively several times, indicating that the river is known either by the name of the main stream or by that of its tributary. Similarly such variations were found in names of single mountains or mountain ranges. All these repetitions and variants can best be explained by the same factor— isolation. Lately the complication caused by these duplications of names has been realized, at least partially, and steps taken to distinguish between various features by affixing descriptive adjectives to their 198 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES names. This is the case with the two Lom rivers; the eastern Lom entering the Danube by Ruse is now called Rwsenski Lom (Lom of Ruse) to distinguish it from the western Lom. Unfortunately in the case of place names this rather helpful practice has been grossly neglected. The last direct effect of geographic factors upon names expresses itself in the application of names of physical features to places which is the reverse process of the usual practice of calling geographic features by names of places, like Aytoska planina (Mountains of Aytos). Towns called Byela Ryeka (White River), Pet’-mogili (Five Mounds), or B ulgarski-izvor (Bulgar Spring) are a few examples of this type. Whether the river Lom gave its name to the town Lom or vice-versa cannot be ascertained since there is no clue pointing into either direction. There are a few more instances in connection with other geographic features where it is not clear which name occurred first, the name of the feature or the place name. The second geographic factor underlies the historical evolution of the area and, therefore, it must be discussed in combination with the historic factor. Here the checkered history of the people occupying the region is most important. Even the remote classical period had its effect upon the present names in Bulgaria. Names like Macedonia, Macedon, Rumelia, Thessalia, Philippopolis, Messemvria, Dunav trace their origin back to the Greeks and Romans. Most of these names of classical origin, however, are not used in Bulgaria anymore, like Philippopolis (Plovdiv), and survive only as foreign conventional names. Occasionally they are Bulgarized and thus they really survive, Like Rodopi for Rhodope in the name of the massif. The Byzantine influence had been paramount. Bulgarians use the cyrillic script, an adaptation of the Greek script to Slavic languages. One of the vexing name problems, the questions of transliteration hinges in its entirety upon this historical incident. Aside from this, Byzantine-Greek names have survived until quite recent times, especially in southeastern Bulgaria, like Vasiliko Vasil-Basil=ruler) now called Tsarevo. By far the invasion and long Turkish rule had the most disturbing effect upon the Bulgarian names. During the Ottoman rule, especially in the three areas of large scale Turkish settlements, the Maritsa-Arda valleys, Pontic Bulgaria and the Deli-orman, the majority of names wete changed to Turkish ones. In the other parts of the country this process was relatively insignificant. The Danube Foreland and the Sofiya Basin remained dominantly Bulgarian thus only few name changes took place there occurring usually in cases of cities, large SOME PROBLEMS OF FOREIGN GEOGRAPHIC NAMES 199 towns, and some of the physical features. These changes consisted of (1) the translation (a) of the Bulgarian generic terms into Turkish, like dere (river), dagh (mountain), bunar (spring), kay (village), orman (wood, forest), tepe (mound, hill) and others; (b) of descriptive terms: like kara (black) deli Gwild), etc.; (2) the application of Turkish names, like Ali, Khasan, Karaach, Terski, Mustafa-Pasha, Sara-bey, etc. During a slow process of assimilation the Turkish names have been merged with Bulgarian ones, like in Gorno-Dere-k’oy, where Gorno is Bulgarian the rest of the name Turkish. Gaining independence in 1878, Bulgaria underwent a strong national- istic revival which had its origin in the great nationalist romanticism that swept over Europe in the early parts of the century. The establish- ment of the Bulgarian Exarchate independent from the Greek Patriarch in Constantinople in 1870 was the first formal recognition of this movement by the High Porte. In rapid succession autonomy, sou- zetainity, union with East Rumelia, and full independence followed resulting partly from the nationalistic movement, partly fanning its flames and spreading it all over the country. First little changes in names took place consisting mainly of the transliteration from the Turkish-Arab script into the Bulgarian cyrillic. Like any other transcription this had its difficulties. It was not con- sistent thus producing great variations in the forms of the names. Furthermore, it was not accurate and very often used a Bulgarized form of the Turkish name. All these caused divergencies and con- fusion in the name problem. After the Balkan Wars, Bulgaria acquired complete domination over the Turkish inhabited portions of the country, and set out with a deliberate policy of Bulgarization. Some of the Turks left Bulgaria voluntarily, some were exchanged for Bulgarians, the rest were gradu- ally assimilated. These ethnic changes affected the geographic names; more and more Bulgarian forms supplanted the Turkish forms. In this change Turkish generic terms often have become parts of the names proper so we find designations like ryeka Elli-dere (ryeka, dere= river) or or#kh Musa-dagh (vrikh,dagh=mountain), and others. Later not only the forms were Bulgarized, but also the substance of the names. The final step was taken by the Bulgarian government in 1934 when by the order of the Minister of the Interior 1,166 place names wete changed.’ This affected 11 towns, 853 villages, 243 hamlets, 44 mountain settlements, 2 plain settlements, 10 railroad stations, 3 7 Durzhaven Vestnik (Government gazette), August 14, 1934, Sofiya. 200 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES localities, and one estate. This wkaz fulfilled a national aspiration Almost all the foreign sounding names were supplanted by Bulgarian ones. The overwhelming majority of changes occurred in the three territories in which the Turkish elements had been the strongest. The changes involved mostly the complete replacement of the old names. This was achieved sometimes by a simple translation like Pet’mogzlz for Besh Tepe (Five Mounds), sometimes by changing the Turkish adjective to Bulgar, such as Bdwlgarski-izvor for Turksi-izvor. Greek names were accorded similar treatment thus Vasiliko became Tsarevo. Wishing to commemorate national heroes and celebrities the Bulgars have given many places the names of Tsars, Patriarchs, and others. Thus we find: Tsar Asparukh, Patriarkh Evtimievo, General-Nekolaevo, and others. Bortsovo, Borisovgrad, Ferdinandovo also belong to this category. At the same time Turkish celebrities were eliminated and Mustafa-Pasha became Svilengrad, Ali-Pashinova became Svoboda. Even some Bulgarian names were changed, which occasionally turned out to be an improvement, such as the changing of Staro-Novo-selo (Old New Village) to Starosel. The only regretful feature of these changes was the neglect of an attempt to eliminate duplications. For instance, three new Borisovos were created, all within the same political sub- division Shumenska oblast’. Thus the influence of the geographic and historic factors manifests itself in (1) the repetition of names; (2) variations in the name of the sane geographic feature; (3) the great variety of generic terms; (4) application of names of physical features to places; (5) the survival of ancient names; (6) the use of the cyrillic script; (7) the problem of Turkish names; and (8) the official Bulgarization of geographic n2mes. Sources of Geographic Names and Their Evaluation Generally speaking, sources of geographic names should be easy to determine. Postal guides, local records, census enumerations seem to be obvious places to find names. Maps, of course, cannot be overlooked. Thus there is apparently no great problem in finding the sources .of names, but this alone does not solve the problem. On the contrary, the multitude of available sources only complicates the situation. There were many variations and differences in the names found in these sources for Bulgaria. Thus before it was possible to select the correct name the sources themselves had to be studied and evaluated. There were 25 principal sources used of which ten were original Bulgarian publications, one a bilingual Bulgarian-French census pub- SOME PROBLEMS OF FOREIGN GEOGRAPHIC NAMES 201 lication, and finally 14 Romanized sources such as English and German atlases, maps, and gazetteers. All told there were 17 map sources of which seven were Bulgarian, and eight lists and gazetteers of which four were Bulgarian publications. Five of the Bulgarian publications wete the chief sources used.* All of these except the Danov map are official publications and should be authoritative sources. The others were used in identifying old names and listing variant names. The fact that the sources were official publications did not mean that they all agreed on the names of places. The official gazette containing the original wkaz of the name changes was usually reliable, but not so the Karta Bulgariya \ist or map. These were full of typographical errors, gteat variations in names, and inconsistencies in the form of the names such as capitalization and hyphenization. The Danov map had very few errors and in general proved to be a highly reliable source. For names unchanged in 1934 and for old forms of changed names, the List of Inhabited Places was a reliable source. °® Based upon these findings certain test cases were prepared and approved by the Board.1° These test cases were used as precedents 81) Durzhaven Vestnik (Government Gazette) issued 14 August 1934, Sofiya. It contains the old and new official names of 1166 places. (2) Karta Bulgariya Podrobni Spisétst na Pregrupiranitye Obshtiné sa Novitye 2 Staritye Imena na Selata (Map Bulgaria Detailed Lists of the Regrouped Communities with the New and Old Names of Populated Places), Sofiya, 1934. A list of communities with the official and old names arranged by the new official civil divisions accompanying the map listed below. (3) Karta Biélgariya Novo Administrativno Dyelenie Novi Naimenovaniya na Selishtata (Map Bulgaria New Ad- ministrative Division New Names of Populated Places), Sofiva, 1934. Scale 1: 700,000. The official map showing the boundaries and the seats of the new civil divisions in all about 1,000 places. (4) Danov, Khr. G. Karta na Bulgariya, Sofiya, 1936. Scale 1: 500,000. (5) Spisék na Naselenitye Myesta vd Tsarstvo Balgariya, spored Prebroyavaneto na 31 Dekem- vriy 1926 God. (List of the inhabited Places in the Kingdom of Bulgaria according to the Census of December 31, 1926). Glavna Direktsiya na Statistikata, (Main Administration of Statistics), Sofiya, 1930. * Diettrich, S. deR., Directions for the Treatment of Geographical Names in Bulgaria Preliminary Draft, Board on Geographical Names, Department of the Interior, August 22, 1944 (Manuscript), pp. 4-12. 1° To illustrate the situation the case of Lesichevo is given below Lesichevo; Bulgaria; Plovdiv; Pazaradzhik. Village: 42° 20’ N., 24° 06’ E. Variant Names: Lesicevo 4, Lesichovo 14, Lesi¢ovo 7, Lisichevo 1, Ljesi¢evo 3, Lyesichevo 2g. The added evidence of Ts. Balg, clarified somewhat the case. The variations in the spelling amount to two changes; one being the shift from e, ye to z in the first syllable and the change from an ¢ to an o in the third one. The Danov é is not substan- tiated by any other source examined therefore it can be classified as a typographical error which does occasionally occur on the map. Thus only the ye-e variations remain. It has been noted that the tendency in the more recent government publications seems to tend towards the use of the ye in place of the ¢. But outside of 3 no other Bulgarian or foreign source substantiates 2g. Therefore, it will be safe to select one of the ¢ forms for decision. The o -e third syllable will thus finally become the determining factor in the selection of the name for decision. In this case all recent authoritative soutces 202 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF. SCIENCES’ by which it was possible to work out a certain set of principles which governed the selection and evaluation of all source materials. As a result it was possible to prepare a list of about 2,000 Bulgarian place names and names of civil divisions for submission to the Board for decision. These were approved and published by the Board in July and August 1944.1! Linguistic Difficulties The careful evaluation of sources and the selection of the correct forms of names is a rather exacting duty without the added difficulty presented by the problems of transliteration. Even people using the same alphabet represent the same sound in a multitude of letter com- binations. In phonetic languages one symbol usually represents only one sound or a closely related group of sounds. In non-phonetic languages, like English, the same symbol may represent a number of loosely related or quite unrelated sounds, especially in the case of the yowels. But even in phonetic languages, using similar symbols, the same letter or combination of letters may represent a different sound or vice-versa, the same sound may be represented by different symbols. For instance the sound represented by the English sh is ch in French, sch in German, sz in Polish, ¢ in Croatian, but only sin Hungarian. As long as the same alphabet is used, however, these complications ex- press themselves only in the preparation of a pronouncing gazetteers since our generally accepted practice is to follow the native spelling of names. When, however, the geographer or cartographer faces names which ate written in a different script, then a system of transliteration has to be worked out, according to which the symbols of the strange alphabet are rendered in letters or letter combinations using the Roman alphabet. This is a very difficult and intricate linguistic problem. It involves among other things the question of how to render the strange, and in English unused, sounds and their symbols in Roman alphabet for English speaking people. That is to say it has to be in harmony with the modern trend in transliteration which tends towards a phonetic rendition of the foreign symbols and their sound values. excepting 14g agree on the ¢ spelling. Consequently the best name to be selected for decision appears to be the form found on Ts. Balg. and 15, ¢. g. Lesichevo. SRD. [The numbers, Ts. Bé/g., Danov refer to the code designation of the various sources used. | 11 United States Department of the Interior, Board on Geographical Names, Decision list no. 4407, July 1944. Decision list no 4408, August 1944. SOME PROBLEMS OF FOREIGN GEOGRAPHIC NAMES 203 In the case of the Bulgarian language the problems of transliteration ate quite grave. First the Bulgarian alphabet has 32 letters as con- trasted to our 26 and in addition it does not use our c, 4, j, w, or x. This meant that a dozen letters had to be represented either by a com- bination of used symbols or by changing the value of a letter by the use of a diacritical mark. As a matter of fact, both methods were used when the official tranliteration system was devised by BGN. Since in the English language we do not use diacritical marks, even frown upon their use, such marks were used in the transliteration of only two symbols. The others were rendered in letter combinations identical or analogous to those used in Engliash. The transliteration of the 20 simple, single letters did not present any problems. The three vowel diphthongs 4 =ye, 1 =yu, and q =ya like the three double consonants y =ch, w=sh, and w =sht were not much trouble, but not so the re- maining six letters which have no corresponding sounds in English. First come the three consonants #%, x, and y. The m is pronounced like the French j, and in the British system 7 is used, but only in specific cases. Our aim being to give as simple a system as possible, we considered the British transliteration too cumbersome. It would also be misleading since our pronounciation of the j would be spelled in Bulgarian am (47). Therefore based on the analogy of our ch and sh it was proposed that the be transliterated 75. The next letter x had its difficulties also. It is a guttural almost k sounding sharp 4 which is more guttural and sharp than the German ch. To transliterate it into an 4 would have been misleading since it occurs mostly as an initial letter which is often lost in English. Therefore, it seemed most ad- visable to use the combination kA for its transliteration. The last of these consonants is y which represents a sharp sound not used in Eng- lish, but found in German where the letter z represents it. In other languages, as in Hungarian, the letter c represents it. Since in English the letter z has its own value and is used to transliterate its Bulgarian equivalent 3 it could not be used for y. On the other hand, since we pronounce c as either s or k that symbol could not be used. Thus the most suitable alternative was a phonetic rendering of the sound by the combination of ¢ and s into ts. There was some evidence for the use of cz especially in the word czar but since this tended to result in a x pronunciation it seemed more advisable to use the ¢s combination. The last three letters are the most problematic in the group. These are really not letters representing sounds, but, more or less, marks changing the values of preceding consonants. They are called mutes. 204 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES The modern trend is away from their use when they are true mutes or the replacement of them by corresponding letters if they have sound values. Such changes are now occuring in the related Russian language, and there are some indications of similar changes in the Bulgarian. But these troublesome letters are still being used. First is the hard mute b which when it occurs between letters (usually consonants) has a definite sound value. It resembles somewhat our ¢ in the final -er syllable and should be represented in transcription. Again the British and earlier American usage was to omit it entirely, while other trans- literation systems represented it by some vowel. The need for repre- senting the sounded hard mute in transliteration was further substan- tiated by the fact that in Anglicized Bulgarian words and names it was usually represented by the vowel w, like in the English form of the very name of the country itself, Bulgaria= Boarapua. On the other hand, the final hard mute for our purposes has no sound value unless it occurs in a word containing a single syllable and the ‘‘vowel’”’ in it is the final b in which case it has to be transliterated. For its trans- literation the letter zw with the diacritical mark ’, breve, is used 4. The other mute & is now little used. Its pronunciation, if sounded, is similar to the b. It is transliterated into an 4 with the breve (4). In the older orthography it was rather extensively used in the midst of words where to-day the hard mute t is used. Even the name of the country was spelled this way Baarapwa on the official map of the kingdom published in 1923.1” Apparently the b then was mostly omitted as a final sign and in the middle of the word & replaced in most cases the hard mute. To-day the # disappears from the word Bulgaria and from many others, being replaced either by # or by a simple z. The last of this troublesome trio is the b, the soft mute. This really is a mute, having no real sound value, but changing the preceding consonant to a softer pronunciation. Tats is somewhat analogous to the difference in the pronunciation of the letter » in canon and canyon. The b is transliterated by an apostrophy.'? 12 Karta na Tsarstvo Bélgariya s Mrezhata na Patishtata (Map of Kingdom of Bulgaria with network of roads). Izdava Ministerst voto na Obsht. Sgradi, Pat. ¢ Blagoustroystvoto; Ordelenie ‘*Patishtata i Mostove’’ (Issued by the Ministry of Public Buildings, Roads, and Welfare; Division ‘“‘Roads and Bridges’’), Geograficheski Institute (Geographic Institute), Softya, 1923. Scale 1: 300,000. 13 For most of the material on problems of transliteration the author is indebted primarily to Dr. G. L. Trager, former head of the linguistic division of BGN, and to Mr. Novosiltseff of the Slavic Division and Dr. Kozhuhdrov, of the Library of Congress. If any efror of misinterpretation should have crept into the text the author assumes full responsibility since neither quoted authorities have been able to read the text before publication. SOME PROBLEMS OF FOREIGN GEOGRAPHIC NAMES 205 The problems of transliteration are not confined to English, but are the general headaches of all people who use different systems of script. Since maps are made by all civilized nations and since they are also being used by us, a word about other systems appears to be appropriate at this time. The British system is very similar to the American with the ex- ceptions noted above and a few other diversions of minor consequence. The French use their phonetic system and some names do look different from ours like Lymeu, Shamen and Choumen. In principle there is no difference, and a basic knowledge of the French alphabet will render any French map intelligible. The German system is more complicated. Up until the twenties they transliterated by using their phonetic system thus Shuwmen appeared as Schumen. Later, however, they were inclined to accept the Croatian system of writing. The Croat language being a branch of the Slavic group is very near to their cyrillic writing kin. By being Roman Catholics, however, they have been tied to the western and not eastern civilization, thus they use the Roman alphabet. The Croats instead of using letter combinations use diacritical marks, thus Shuwmen appears as Sumen, cherna as terna. The Germans being used to diacritical marks in their own language, apparently found it simpler to take over the Croatian system than to worry about their own. We of course not being used to such methods frowned upon the adoption of a system using diacritical marks. Transliteration is only one phase of the linguistic problem, and it is not an insurmountable obstacle. Once the principles have been agreed upon and a system devised, its application is a mechanical process. Much more difficult is the inherent problem of the Bulgarian language. Being under Turkish rule until recent times, the Bulgars were prevented from developing their native language into a fairly stable written language. Reference has already been made to the interchangeable character of the Mand b. These, unfortunately, are not the only inter- changeable characters. There are two main usages in the case of the three vowels a, ¢, and ~. They are either used in their clear forms or in a softened ya, ye, or yz form. These are in most cases, particularly in the case of the e-ye, interchangeable according to dialect. Thus we find byela or bela (white), ryeka or reka (river). On the latest maps and in the government wkaz of 1934 listing the changes of names, the ye, ya forms were favored. Thus apparently these forms are replacing the older simpler spelling. But by no means is this change consistent and all inclusive. Another variation occurs in the use of the u=z and 4=y. 206 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES These two letters are sometimes used interchangeably especially in combination. Occasional shifts from 4 to v or vice-versa occur pat- ticularly in names of Byzantine origin. The use of the soft mute is also inconsistent. These and similar variations in spelling are numerous. Very often they occur in two complementary government publications, such as the list of new names and the accompanying map. In such cases, the problems confronting the cartographer, or others who want to use the name, is more complicated than mere transliteration. It grows beyond the scope of a linguistic problem and becomes a matter of source evaluation. Form and Structure of Names Transliteration and variations in spelling of names were not the only troubles. The next vexing problem concerns the best form of the name if it consists of more than one word. Should it be hyphenated ot not? Apparently some Bulgarians like hyphenated names, and their overlords, the Turks, must have revelled in them. Practically all the | numerous names ending in k’oy (village, our -ville ending) were hy- phenated. The hyphen alone does not give any trouble, but when some sources use it and others do not, it is somewhat confusing. The other phase which caused complications was the problem of the second name following the hyphen. Should it scart with a capital or with a lower case letter? There were numbers of cases supporting either system.+* Here again each case required a careful analysis and evalua- tion of the source material. Closely related to the problems of form is the structure of Bulgarian geographical names. This complex problem also traces its origin to the peculiarities of the Bulgarian language. Place names as a whole gave little or no trouble since their structure is uniform. They are proper names consisting either of single or multiple words. Here the complication arises only in the case names consisting of multiple words where variations in form may occur. Names of civil divisions and geographic features, on the other hand, presented great difficulties. The name of a Bulgarian civil division appears in the adjective form of the name of its chief town followed by the appropriate generic term, ¢.g. Shumenska oblast’, where Shumenska is the adjective form of Shumen. This, of course, is quite different from our usage.. Our 14 To illustrate this point I quote one case below which has 12 variant names: Indzhe- voyvoda; Bulgaria: Burgas; Burgas, Village 42° 13’ N, 27° 24’ E. Variant names: Grusko Selo, Indje Voivoda, Indze Vojvoda, Indzhe Voiveda, Urum -Jentkeut, Urum-Jentkot, Urum Koi, Urumkioj, Urum-kjoj, Urum-kot, Urum-k' oy, (former name) Urum-kyoy. SOME PROBLEMS OF FOREIGN GEOGRAPHIC NAMES 207 civil divisions use either the genitive form, United States of America, State of Florida, ot the nominative form, Alachua County. We are quite reluctant to make adjective forms of place names. New Yorker and Londoner ate exceptions rather than the rule. So the Bulgarian form is strange to us, and we have to be careful how we use it. Shuwmen- ska County is obviously incorrect. The adjective has to be changed to a noun form and used either in the nominative or genitive case, Shumen County or County of Shumen. Since in the case of counties, the American practice prefers the nominative form Shumen County would be the better usage, zf the problem of translating the generic term did not complicate matters. Occasionally in bilingual statistical publications the name of the civil divisions does occur in the nominative noun form, like Oblast’ Shumen. This caused quite a bit of discussion. According to Bulgarians consulted, however, the term could not be used in speech. Dr. Trager pointed out that it is a permissable short way to write the name, but in writing, and especially in speaking, it is not commonly used. In Bulgarian statistics the generic term is often omitted, and only the proper name in noun form is used. But this is not the general rule in writing and speech. So we should consider the generic term as a com- ponent part of the name of the civil divisions. Even more complex, are the problems in the case of names of geo- graphic features. These occur either in a noun or an adjective form. In the first group there are three variations: (1) simple form, ryeka Martisa, Cryeka=tivet), Rela planina (planina=mountains); (2) including the generic term, Khadzhidere (dere, ryeka=tiver), Chernoglav (glava=summit, head); (3) with capitalized generic term, Birdo Veslets, (bérdo=hill); Sakar Balkan (balkan=mountains). In the simple form the generic term is not to be considered a part of the name proper. Whereas, in the other two cases, the generic term is definitely a part of the name. The second group falls into two major divisions each of which can be divided into three subdivisions: First, descriptive adjectives 1n com- bination with (1) noun form, ryeka cherni Lom (cherni=black); (2) hyphenated generic term a. Bulgarian: ryeka Byela-rycka (byela=white); b. Turkish: rycka Chifte-dere; Second, place name adjectives with (1) noun form, ryeka Rusenski Lom (Rusenski, adjective form of Ruse); (2) generic term preceding it, ryeka Fakiyska (adjective form of Fakiya), and finally (3) descriptive adjective and the generic term, golyema Ay- toska planina (golyema=large, Aytoska, adjective form of Aytos).1° 16 Directions, pp. 12:16. 208 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES The following questions are involved in the problems of generic terms: What to do with them? Should they be translated or not? Is it our task to teach the people foreign terms, or is it to make them understandable? These problems were thoroughly discussed pro and con, but no decision was reached. This is one problem complex which needs further study and discussion before a final stand can be taken. As a result, no decision on names of Bulgarian geographic features were rendered before the tides of war and other events turned the Board’s attention away from Bulgaria. The only decision the Board reached was in the case of civil divisions, and even that was avoiding the issue by giving the decision name as Shumenska oblast’ (Shumen): First order civil division (od/ast’). This, however, merely postponed the decision on the fate of generic terms which remains one of the most contro- vetsial issues among the problems of foreign geographic names. Quart. Journ, Fla. Acad. Sci., 9, (3-4) 1946 (1947) rclo-geometric series, 65-84 —longirostrus, 173 definitions, 65 —xanocephalus, 166, 183 theorems and corollaries, 66-83 —Mesogsmistius chatodon, 168 i | a2" ) ER fl A Ya i ny yer : Upon a) EE. 3 i? . Caer mietned \ a) Se Gasie. bya) dey - — if ers) 4 ) *y ber ae and + Taker he ‘ URE hah TST pena i imonbele ele) ra” \ > — pan Sy bes Soe Gotyem I . ik a crn) eens Ltd sa ‘) om = Nl OChI prope aD Hl = : Sn rea \ : at ea ea ee rat kr) obit ney ) ( Setediny |” NS Bieter) | ilratisy ress” cape Ss y ic NOT % \ to | if tery Tare.) a! siete Ng vain, Teta ale, AB LN Gatene.| Hits a fms Lae) en ee ee ES base | # eS ABI y > at . ee fee Raye oper Tak a Sradiv¥ee- — try eva (Chi bondi) Benya) ha Dev? rege ; oS Pa “Dir Riel ence 14 Faia al alae ay” < = Ue aoe ete) “ / es Zhelyez jes \ferbnchaseolery] . if Ne a Catt) | Gea 3; 12 ahha Po 5 ; iene, ¢ 0 Cave cha Ari) ince, SRS 3 > ly er keh, gor’ Gee (bndetyter) vila iptyuchty) / Rudaik Pei Yeah ken" nLlaet z) wath). 9 ~ e y NWS od nv -— mk Arnavt le) 0 ~ / \ eae l Py are) eee ee triaiee PD wydencrtrged Uli. ota wa faut ' aterent @sketna) erie ~ hex) S } : Borinove ine . Ghphiy ‘ pn Vamteey M4 ‘ N et) 9 ¢ni Ht pelos 3 ae = oye (ue) ( irindehv) Fig i= ‘ @eaeken) 4, SS Ccpnee: a) 4) Se ane (Bement) Pata Gndzhe Key) ) O89 5145 4 —— (Gunite mgo hn | | Rage |i ae / S. see a ‘ Bar. ) | ‘ Soe —— Frome? olay) Toeahitng ONS eat ©" Ws) 1 < | Z 60 hre wichavo VEC gat / Grn tery Cras Ihc) a) 5 \ (7 ao vecherD em es (abate oy by) biti Rass) | i ie ( yok sot) i S a ; (omer Bale: Cee ee) (zap Aalsarara : (eat atl fale ee : ve . bts _[ersryudeny oo p PbS ahr eemey 4 Samvilov, Cirle, w) J (ivarenrkoy) i rs ow (raster Be Aitfore | fing donates x, Calire hey) We ¥ | ave » Kamene F es on Bs ee plegh ten | Ui bare st a bro |. Hermon Der eenk) aerky AreinenoCACASh Koy) Kamien — ay. 4 Stecesal (fame hyneerg —” De ae. Ce) ker fi) rs ofeche ey) fs ZL (aes / Soph sy | hots \ lech [ Shere) Waray emir (ete Zascre es 1: Mil -f os . ~ Aaban soap vad oY pes G fro iy dae y . neil) anh Cima 5 « COs Onis yet etn) * $9, ets u it ree Rm tae (at) © >) (Bald are) ; = Gt ee woe Ay 7) tk ON Gavle i | | Q q THs srredels remy here) = oo elt (a —— (Sararla-eni-He) = 4 : boar Se SEacre f. ‘bjs trety Dyslaeri ) = pebana Me ‘Karavelivy— 409 By uyuk: buner) (Gyolgerd _ Qdnckayryal) ¢ (O57-Wey) Gears oad i Hrowrgrets, ~~ Bin sko ; SO y (RayeyeW oy) Upriya) ae ji raeatinovo imagenes ; Thtshe-veyvoda | Sap 3 ae Ketan Keredeba aes ; cum-koy) ye C —— ~ . = Wa Trarevo A i petty) arn stecen) ~ «7 te Mesiliko) ind: Ea0rkon TMise 1 6 Norzevo ) (rrarknove), mh p . SShe AIT) 2 Topo grad : a ~- ;: navati) rh (idle é ler a pa \, =i Melnitsa ; Grate dere) Se yy theyre Xe 42 Usirem (YeKay) PTO in ans (Cheeni y a ) “Ke | a . rf : i pew SP “4 ie Mies a a is a =ohe- dere) Dao steching \ e: = faim SS s Jj ; BSS one Facer ) : | ‘ 2) a) Wie ei ape a rane GAP. ( aes Pate, ‘Phares 0 ka Demirler). BULGARIA OFFICIAL PLACE NAME CHANGES -1934 FORMER NAMES IN PARENTHESES SCALE ter fev fekhche), Zkte, SOURCES fos Bi Penor, Mop sv Bulgaria, 4 * of Bulg aria, Mew Admin Di A efiya, 1954, 1:700,000 #1 Bulgar/a, Detailed Li'sts of the Regrouped Communit GC Fe 2 : nities | with New and O/d j Soflya, 1954. Names of the Populated Places, 1936, }:500,000 ™, New Names of Pop. Places, ! Compiled by the Division of Geography | U.S, Department of the laterror i Under the direc tion of S Je R. Diettrich Si ee ae Fost of Greenwich Y | | | | | | | | | 2° 2 2s" 24° 25° INDEX TO VOLUME 9 [New names are printed in bold-face type] Accessory vascular bundles, 112 Acetone, purification, 27-34 Air bubbles, in fouling control, 153-161 Algz as food of crab, 95 Amebacidal drugs, 47 Atabrine dihydrochloride in treatment of intestinal protozoa, 47-49 in treatment of cyst carriers, 47-49 Aurantioidea (see Rutacez) Barnacles (see Fouling) Becknell, Guy G., Cyclo-geometric series and scales of notation, 65-84 Bernstein, Clarence, The use of atabrine in the treatment of intestinal protozoa, 47-49 Breeding habits of fish, 101-106, 183-188 Bryozoa (see Fouling ) Bulgaria, geographic names, 189-208 geography, 192-194 history, 194-196 map of, eppeet 208 Burke, Cyril W., Marxian versus Christian Revolution, 35-40 Carr, Marjorie Harris, Notes on the breeding habits of the Eastern Stumpknocker, Lepomis punctatus punctatus (Cuvier), 101-106 CHEMISTRY purification of acetone, 27-34 sulfite waste liquor, 145-152 Chinese Mitten crab, 96 Christian revolution, 35-40 Coulson, John, Dynamic analyses of launch- ing ships, 85-92 CRUSTACEA (see also Procambarus) Cambarus pubescens, 1 Chinese mitten crab, 96 crayfishes, of Georgia, 1-18 key to Péctus subgroup, 13-14 Erioscheir sinensis, 96 Platychirograpsus typicus, 93-100 Procambarus enoplosternum, 5-9, 12, POPS sae GLO. I 12 LO wo, 23, 24, 25, 32 —litosternum, 4, 8, 9-13, figs. 3, 4; Oy lls 5 65 19.250, 216, 219,. 30 SEIS Us oy OA AT| EMUSIC IS (8, 124, ASS. £0, 7, ely UL TIGy ale laay lamp lsat —youngi, 1, 13 Saber crab, 93-100 Cyclo-geometric series, 65-84 definitions, 65 theorems and corollaries, 66-83 Dewey, John, 127-128 Diettrich, Sigismond deR., Some problems of foreign geographic names with special refer- ence to Bulgaria, 189-208 Drosophila melanogaster larvx, 41-45 Dynamic analyses of launching ships, 85-92 Eastern Stumpknocker, breeding habits, IOI-106 ECOLOGY of Notropis chalybaus, 163-188 Edwards, George A., Permeability of the tra- cheal system of Drosophila melanogaster larvae, 41-45 Endameba coli, 47 —histolytica, 47, 49 —cysts, 47, 48, 49 Endolimax nana, 47 Eriocheir sinensis, 96 Fermentation of molasses, acetone from, 27-34 Finner, Paul F., Sczentific methods in social psychology, 123-129 FISH Ameiurus natalis erebennus, 102 Carassius auratus, 174 Chenobryttus coronarius, 102 Chriopeops goodet, 183 cyprinids, 163, 166, 169 cyptinodont, 163 cyprinodontids, 166 Erimystax harperz, 166, 168, 169, 183 Erimyzon sucetta, 102, 173 Esox americanus, 166 Fundulus, 108 —chrysotus, 102 Gambusia affinis holbrookéi, 102, 166 Huro salmotdes, 102, 166 Heterandria farmosa, 102 Hybopsis chalybaus, 163 Lebéstes, 181 Lepésosteus platyrhincus, 166 Lepomis macrochirus purpurescens, 102 Lepomis punctatus punctatus, 101-106, 173 Notemigonus chrysoleucas bosci, 102, 105, 166, 173 Notropis chalybeus, 102, 163-188 —chalybeus abbotti, 166 —cornutus crysocephalus, 179 —gtardi, 176 . —hypselopterus, 166, 183 —longirostrus, 173 —xanocephalus, 166, 183 —Mesogmistius chatodon, 168 210 —Molliensia latipinna, 102. —ostario-physine fishes, 173 —peciliids, 166 Florida Academy of Sciences membership list for 1946, 51-64 FLORIDA geographic names, 189 hickories, 115-122 Lepomis punctatus punctatus, TOI-106_ Notropis chalybeus in, 163-188 Saber crab in, 93-100 sulfite wastes, 145-152 Flores- Gallardo, H.. “and, C, By Pollard: Purification of acetone produced by the fer- mentation of molasses, 27-34 Flores-Pollard Process, ves Food of crab, 95 Foreign geographic names, 189-208 Fouling, of ship-bottoms, 153-161 fouling organisms, 153-161 GEOGRAPHY problems of foreign names, 189-208 of Bulgaria, 192-194 | Georgia, new crayfish, 1-18 Giardia lamblia, 47 HABITS OF FISH, 101-106, 183-188 HISTORY of Bulgaria, 194-196 reign of Pope neces XVI, 131-143 Hobbs, Horton H., Jr., Two new crayfishes of the genus Procambarus from Georgia, with notes on Procambarus pubescens (Faxon), 1-18 Hutchings, R. M., 126-128 INDUSTRY acetone purification, 27-34 launching of ships, 85-92 yeast from sulfite waste liquor, 145-152 INSECTS, physiology, 41-45 Koenig, Duane, Backdrop to revolution—the reign of Pope Gregory XVI, 131-143 Lepomis punctatus punctatus, breeding habits, IOI-106 Life history of Notropés chalybaus, 163- —188 Linguistics (see Geography ) Marchand, Lewis J., The saber crab, Platy- chirograpsus typicus Rathbun, in Florida: a case of accidental dispersal, 93-100 Marshall, Nelson, Stadzes on the life history and ecology of Notropis chalybzeus (Cope), 163-188 MATHEMATICS analyses of launching ships, 85— 92. cyclo-geometric series, 65-84 _ Marxian revolution, 35-40 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES MEDICINE atabrine in treatment of incestinal proto- BOE A Membership list of Florida Academy, 51-64 Methods, in social psychology, 123-129 Molasses, acetone from fermentation, 27-34 Molds, 149 Morphology, of saber crab, 97-99 Murrill, William A., Florida hickorzes, L15- 122 Notropis chalybaus . life history and ecology, 15-188 Occurrence, 102 Oliver, Bernard John, A field study of some newer religious groups in the United States, 19-26 PHILOSOPHY — Marxian versus Christian revolution, 35- 40 PHYSIOLOGY, insect, 41-45 PLANTS Aiglopsis Chevaliert, 107, 109, I11, 112 Afragle gabonensis, 107, 109, III, 112 — paniculata, 107, 109, ITI, 112 Atalantia citrivides, 107 Carya aquatica, 115, 116 —aquatica australis, 115, 116 —Ashei, 115, 118 —austrina, 115, 119 —cordiformts, 115, 116 —flortdana, 115, 117 —glabra, 115, 119 _ — glabra megacarpa, 119 —illinensis, 115, 116, fig. 1, 2, 11 —letodermis, 115, 121, fig. 5 —magnifloridana, 115, 1£0,) eae Ty iO le —ovalis, 115, 118 —ovata, 115, 117 — pallida, 115, 116 —tomentosa, 115, 116, fig. 9 Citropsis angolensis, 107 — gabonensis, 107 —Gilletiana, 107, 109, 110, III, 112 —Lacourtiana, 107 —latialata,10o7 —Le-Testuz, 107 Siabilis,, 107 —Preussiz, 107 —Schwinfurthii, 107 —Tanaka, 107 Citrus aurantifolia, 107 —Aurantium, 107 —grandus, 107 —macroptera var. Kerriz, 107 —Medica, 107 —paradiesi, 107 INDEX TO VOLUME 9 211 — sinensis, 107 —Limon, 107, 111 Clausena Lansium, 107 Coleus, 112 Cycas circinales, 113 Feronia limonia, 107 Fortunella Hindsii, 107, 112 — Margarita, 107 Glycosmis citrifolia, 107, 111 Hicoria alba, 116 —magnifloridana, 119 —wmucrocarpa, 118 —minima, 116 —pecan, 116 Hickories, Florida, 115-122 key to Florida species, 115 common names, 116-121 Microcitrus australis, 107 —inodore, 107 Murraya Kenigiz, 107, 111 — paniculata, 107, 111 Pamburus missionis, 107, 111 Severinia buxifolia, 107, 111, 112 ESCM, EO7. TII, £12 Swinglea glutinosa, 107 Triphasia trifolia, 107 Platochirograpsus typicus, 93~-100, figs. 1, 2 Pollard, C. B. (see Flores-Gallardo, H.) Pope Gregory XVI, 131-143 Procambarus enoplosternum, 5 —litosternum, 9 PROTOZOA, intestinal, 47-49 atabrine in treatment, 47-49 Endameba cli, 47 —histolytica, 47, 49 — cysts, 47, 48, 49 Endolimax nana, 47 Giardia lamblia, 47 PSYCHOLOGY, social, 123-129 Quinacrine hydrochloride (see Atabrine) RELIGION Marxian versus Christian revolution, 35- 40 newer feligious groups, 19-26 reign of Pope Gregory XVI, 131-134 RELIGIOUS GROUPS Apostolic Overcoming Holy Church of God (Negro), 19, 21 Church of God, Anderson, Indiana, 19, rts ele Church of God, Cleveland, Tennessee, LOyy 2 inet of God and Saints of Christ Gest) nrg, 23, 24, 25; 26 Church of the Nazarene, 19, 21, 22 Church of God, Holiness (Negro), 19, 21 Father Divine Peace Mission (Negro), 19, 23, 24, 25 General Council of the Assemblies of God, 19, 21 International Church of the Foursquare Gospel, 195-23, 24, 26 Jehovah’s Witnesses, 19, 23, 24, 25, 26 Pentecostal Holiness Church, 19, 21 United American Free Will Baptist Church (Negro), 19, 21 RELIGIOUS INSTITUTIONS Sect type pattern, 21, 22, 23 re ent ent eroup, 24, 25 REPTILES Sternotherus odoratus, 105 Rutacez, 107-114 cortical tracheids in, 107-114 vascular anatomy, 107-114 Saber crab, 93-100 Scales of notation, and cyclo-geometric se- Ties, 65-84 Scientific methods, in social psychology, Tey STU) Series, cyclo-geometric, 65-84 Sexual dimorphism in fish, 183 Ships, launching of, 85-92 Ship-bottom fouling, 153-161 Smith, F. G. Walton, Mechanical control of ship bottom fouling by means of air bubbles, 153-161 Social psychology, 123-129 Sternotherus odoratus, 105 Sulfite waste liquor, 145-152 Transfusion tissue, 112, 113 Tracheids, cortical, 107-114 Values, and scientific methods, 126-129 Vascular anatomy, 107-114 Vascular plants (see Plants) Venning, Frank D., Cortical tracheids: a new vascular element from the orange subfamily (Rutacea: Aurantiotdea), 107-114 Walker, Robert D., Yeast from Florida sul- fite waste liquor, 145-152 Yeast, from sulfite waste, 145-152 Yeasts Saccharomyces cerevisa, 147 Torulopsis utiles var. thermaphilia, 147 —var. major, 147 r he Dy ee at a ’ yk vig 3 c. ~ : SS e . i= @ men (iat Wel i rr = (er Shee + PAR Laid Oe < we Pa ‘ fomisa J F Sypilaax 7k 2 = f A P PA ri s “iG ~ j oe 4 » we uy 5 é [ = ¢ ’ ea YP ee | Sa ‘ 5 @ o a Ps = 4 » | eee) ) © a7, AN Sisal & - ; ae, 4 - : Hye ere LS i A i Ss a. 2) = “ ; 7 = wha Tis «13 oS ¢ >oo oe. | e ’ : | ~ + . dl # Le =f Mw’ - 2 F 3; : ae » Se ‘ ~ F ie s ¢ = ~~ j 5 A k, — — = é - ~- ‘ *s Ps : : ; e: *, x is . i 2 =. a F 4 ; a ~ ea ; BS wih y x & oes. Hee Y ; te genre : y i =a of - a a" j - a a) a sat Pe ee = ‘ae The Quarterly Journal of The Florida Academy of Sciences A Journal of Scientific Investigation and Research Frank N. Youne, Jr., Editor VOLUME 10 Published by Tue Frorrpa ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Tallahassee, Florida 1948 Dates of Publication “Number 1 — March 4, 1948 Number 2-3 — June 15, 1948 Number 4 — November, 26 1948 CONTENTS OF VOLUME 10 NuMBER I° The Fossil Mammals of Thomas Farm, Gilchrist County, Florida. J) AUR GL DT TITTY a I A Study of the Sensitivity of Aldehyde Reagents. By John H. LE ER OS) LOE (Ge Ia QUITS eon a 13 beecstemlianting, By C. 1. Coulter... 2... lee eee eee ee 25 Some Birds from the Lowlands of Central Veracruz, Mexico. By — EIDE SVDEIGIOE 3 6 Ao) ba) CORN ae ae aren 31 A Deterioration Research Laboratory. By Ernest S. Reynolds..... 39 _ 2g aac) (COU SIGS ee en 47 _JESEQPUA INOUSS. 2 pig SS LI A aan 48 NuMBER 2-3 Life, Labor, and Sorrow—A Study of the Caste System in the Santee-Cooper Project Area of South Carolina. By Marcus W. DEB aos Con 8 O80 Ge eA SP ee ree ee 49 An Engineer Looks at General Education. By D. M. Lewis, Jr... 59 Some Practical Problems in Teaching Science in General Educa- BRmIMCE SUVA EDC SUACRICE oo. os wos ok eevee ete cee beet ences 67 The Climate of the Bellingham Lowland of Washington. By Wil- HE BL [ELON om cles ie GOS Cee OO ee Oe Oe 7 Notes on the Plankton of Long Lake, Dade County, Florida, with Descriptions of Two New Copepods. By Charles C. Davis.... 79 Tables for Volumes in a Horizontal Cylinder. By Cecil G. Phipps. 89 Virulence and Antigenicity of Hemophilus Ducreyi. By R. B. ELITE so cee eA GIES SBS a ee nr renee gI The Effect of Lignin on Ammonification in Lakeland Fine — By F. B. Smith and David E. Singer RTS 2 SC A 95 Swimmer’s Itch in Florida Lakes in the Gainesville Area. By W. R. Carroll, Elmer C. Hill, and Hunter McElrath............ 98 GUTS EN GSTS oe 100 Ocsscaela IN GSS Oe ee IOI NuMBER 4 The Seasonal Food of the Largemouth Black Bass, Micropterus sal- moides floridanus (Lacépéde), in the St. Johns River, Welaka, Florida. By William M. Mc ameseGe........5--- eee 103 Diversities of Floral Vascular Anatomy in Pamburus missionis . (Wight) Swingle. By Frank D. Venning ... 2...) 139 Interpretation of Rainfall Records at Miami. By Colonel Lynn POPPY ooo wails oa a Oa ts OL Ee Bae Ee Age News and’ Comments... . 02. S...s: outset) oo eee 15 Research Notes 5.0.» oo. ts orr+t ngs One oe J 153 Index.‘to Volume 10-, ....5 becen 2 oe) ee se 156 506.72 3 Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences Vol. 10 March, 1947 (1948) No. 1 Gontents Romer—Tne Fossrr MAMMALS OF THOMAS FaRM, GILCHRIST Pe ITE WE POUED AS 6 oF < ui pske wiS S aloo We Pee ester oe 1 PoMEROY AND PoLLaARD—A STUDY OF THE SENSITIVITY OF PERIRTVEE TOR AGENTIS. «0 occ cd vo vue vow ctu 6 vikeweeebibacee el 13 BrRODKORB—SOME BirDs FROM THE LOWLANDS OF CENTRAL TEs EROS Fea TENG 7615 Oi a le eR ei See nN 31 RryNotps—A_ DETERIORATION SESE a cee ees 39 iss. News AND CoMMENTS.......... MANO ees ties a ooee , March, 1947 (1948) | Vol. 10, No. 1 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES A Journal of Scientific Investigation and Research Published by the Florida Academy of Sciences Printed by the Rose Printing Company, Tallahassee, Florida Communications for the editor and all manuscripts should be addressed _ to Frank N. Young, Editor, or Irving J. Cantrall, Ass’t. Editor, Depart- ment of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida. Business communications should be addressed to Taylor R. Alexander, Secretary- Treasurer, University of Miami, Coral Gables, Florida. All exchanges and communications regarding exchanges should be sent to the Florida Academy of Sciences, Exchange Library, Department of Biology, Uni- versity of Florida, Gainesville. Subscription price, Three Dollars a year. Mailed March 4, 1948 THE QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vol. 10 MARCH 1947 (1948) No. 1 THE FOSSIL MAMMALS OF THOMAS FARM, GILCHRIST COUNTY, FLORIDA ALFRED SHERWOOD ROMER Harvard University The sedimentary rocks of North America contain, as is well known, a series of fossiliferous deposits which give a remarkably complete story of the history of land mammals throughout the entire extent of the Cenozoic, or Age of Mammals. There is, however, one major im- perfection in this story. It is almost entirely a history of life in the western half of the country. There are, it is true, abundant remains of Pleistocene animals from the superficial deposits of almost every state in the union. But the Pleistocene is merely a short late chapter in Cenozoic history, and constitutes but about one percent of the total. Back of that, for the entire history of the Tertiary period, we have almost no fossils from the eastern half of the continent. This is un- fortunate. Today, eastern and western faunas differ to a degree, and the same might have been true of earlier faunas. That the contrast between east and west might have been much greater than today is suggested by the fact that for much of this long period of fifty mil- lion years or more the Mississippi Valley was not dry land but a great arm of the sea which swept north to partially divide North America . into two sub-continents. | The reason for the paucity of the eastern fossil record is readily seen. In the West materials washed out from the Rockies and other youthful mountain systems onto the plains formed masses of continental sedi- ments in which remains of land animals might be entombed. The eastern mountains are older. Tertiary deposits are absent in the old, flat plains of the Midwest. Along the Atlantic and gulf coastal plains WAR 3 1 1940 2 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Tertiary sediments are abundant; but they are dominantly marine in nature, and contain almost no land animals. Florida forms the one exception to this dearth of Tertiary conti- nental records in eastern America. During the earlier epochs of the Age of Mammals this region appears to have remained below sea level, and the only faunas are marine. But with the Miocene, northern Florida began to emerge from the sea and for the later stages of the Tertiary the state gives promise of yielding a record of land life against which we can check that already known from the western states. The first remains of mammals from these beds were discovered more than half a century ago, and other finds have been reported from time to time at various localities. For the most part, however, the remains are fragmentary, and little intensive work has been done and published upon. The one exception is the bone deposit of Thomas Farm in Gil- christ County, some forty-five miles west of Gainesville and five miles northeast of the little town of Bell. In the year 1930, as Mr. J. Clarence Simpson of the Florida Geolo- gical Survey was traveling cross-country through the piney woods of Gilchrist County, he spied a mound of earth which had been thrown out in the excavation of a well on an old farm, long since abandoned. Fragments of mammal bone were evident in the material. Later he re- turned and dug an exploratory trench near the well, from which a number of specimens were recovered. These were sent for identifica- tion to the American Museum of Natural History in New York, and described in papers published in 1932 by G. G. Simpson and A. E. Wood. It was planned by the Survey to continue this work, but their limited budget and the pressure of work of direct economic applica- tion forced them to abandon the project. There the matter rested until 1938, when the late Dr. Thomas Barbour, then Director of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard, visited Tallahassee and saw the specimens. Tom Barbour was a lover of Florida and of fossil bones; here the two interests were combined, and he resolved to investigate the deposit. The site —the old Raeburn Thomas farm—was relocated. A forty acre tract containing the bonebed was purchased from the bank which owned the farm and the deed given to the University of Florida, with the understanding that both Harvard and the State Geological Survey be allowed to excavate there when they desired. Since then one ort more members of the Museum of Comparative Zoslogy staff have spent a portion of each winter excavating there, except for part of the war THE FOSSIL MAMMALS OF THOMAS FARM 3 period. Dr. Theodore E. White has in general been in charge of the work, and has usually been aided by Mr. John Henry Thomas, a native of Gilchrist County who lives at the site. Mr. and Mrs. William Schevill wete the workers at the ‘‘dig’’ the first season; in the autumn of 1947 Mr. Stanley Olsen took the place of Dr. White, then engaged in gov- ernment work. White has published a series of papers (1940, 1941, 1942, 1942a, 1947) on his finds; Barbara Lawrence (1943) has de- scribed bat remains; A. E. Wood (1947) further rodent materials, and Alexander Wetmore (1943) bird remains. In his paper of 1942 White has given a description of the bone de- posit. The bones are always found separate, never as associated skele- tons, and are sprinkled rather evenly through many areas of the series of sands and clays which make up the bulk of the material. A depres- sion which may be due to a sinkhole is located nearby, and this appears to have led to the suggestion that the deposit itself is a sinkhole filling CG. G. Simpson 1932; Cooke 1945: 119-120). This present depression, however, appears to bear no relation to the bone deposit and, as can be seen from White’s account, the sediments are not of the sort expected in a sink fill but rather those of a river channel. Because of the scattered nature of the material, the customary method of excavating in large blocks to be worked out in the laboratory is impractical, and since bones may be found at any point the main method of excavating is a slow scraping away of the exposed surface of the bed, layer by layer, an inch at a time; a grapefruit knife is a suitable tool. The bones en- countered are usually delicate and frequently crushed or fractured and hence ate usually removed in small burlap-and-plaster packages. Bor- ings indicate that the bone layer extends to a depth of forty feet and that the fossiliferous layer covers well over an acre of ground. Excava- tion so far has been confined to a trench about 15 feet deep at its deepest point, and with an area of roughly 15 x 4o feet. It is obvious that only a beginning has been made in the excavation possible. One may calcu- late roughly that the bone deposit includes at least 2,000,000 cubic feet of workable material and, since only a small amount can be ex- cavated in a day, that the pit would not be completely excavated until approximately 2,000 man-years of labor had been expended. It is ob- vious that the site will not be exhausted for some time to come. From the works of G. G. Simpson, T. E. White, B. Lawrence, and A. E. Wood, the mammalian faunal list can be assembled: JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Order CHIROPTERA Family Vespertilionidz Suaptenos whitet Miomyotis floridanus Order CARNIVORA Family Mustelide Aelurocyon spissidens Oligobunis floridanus Mephititaxus ancipidens Family Canidz Aelurodon johnhenryt Amphicyon intermedius Amphicyon longiramus ?Daphenus caroniavorus Nothocyon insularis Paradaphanus nobilis Paradaphenus tropicalis Parictis bathygenus Tomarctus canavus Tomarctus thomasi - Order ARTIODACTYLA Family Tayassuidz Floridacherus olsent Family Camelidz Oxydactylus floridanus Family Hypertragulide Floridatragulus barbouré Floridatragulus dolichanthereus Hypermekops olsent Family Protocerotidz Syndyoceras australis Synthetoceras douglast Family Nothokemadidz Nothokemas grandis Family Cervide Blastomeryx (Parablastomeryx)) floridanus Macharomeryx gilchristensis Order PERISSODACTYLA Family Equidae Anchitherium clarenceé Merychippus gunteré Merychippus westoné Miohippus sp. THE FOSSIL MAMMALS OF THOMAS FARM 5 Parahippus barbouri Parahippus blackberge Parahippus leonensis Order RODENTIA Family Heteromyidz Proheteromys floridanus Probeteromys magnus In addition, A. E. Wood (1947) recognizes from postcranial ma- terial, the presence of a cricetid rodent, and there are present two rhino- ceroses, to be described by H. E. Wood. Apart from the mammals, there are present an alligator, represented by a good skull (White 19422) as well as numerous scutes, fragmentary remains of large tortoises, and three birds (Wetmore 1943). The known fauna includes members of the four mammalian orders —carnivores, even- and odd-toed ungulates, and rodents—whose re- mains are most common in other American mid-Tertiary deposits, as well as bat remains. There are fragmentary specimens of three mustelids, one of which (Mephititaxus) is not known elsewhere. Dogs are nu- merous. Several (Nothocyon, Tomarctus, >?Daphenus) ate reptesentative of the “main line’’ of evolution leading toward the typical modern © canids; Amphicyon and Paradaphenus are ‘‘bear-dogs’’; Parictis may be remotely related to true bear ancestry; the Aelurodon specimen, if cor- rectly identified generically, is a precursor of a group of peculiar dome- headed dogs found in later times in Florida as well as the West. Among artiodactyls, there is a peccary typical of the Miocene, al- though placed in a genus—Floridacherus—distinct from those of the West, a typical camel, Oxydactylus, and two representatives—Blasto- meryx (Parablastomeryx) and Macharomeryx—of a characteristic group of American Tertiary ‘‘deer.’’ Most interesting are the members of the hypertraguloids, a group of rather primitive ruminants, now extinct, which in the Tertiary of this country played the role occupied in the Old World by fossil and living members of the musk-deer group (tragu- loids). Five genera have been identified; two (Syndyoceras and Synthe- toceras) are genera known from western America; the others—Florida- tragulus, Hypermekops and Nothokemas—are, as far as known, peculiar to Florida. All three are peculiarly long-snouted forms. Of the Perissodactyla, the rhinoceroses are represented by two forms as yet undescribed, and by numerous horses. The Equidz are the most abundant of animals in the deposit. Other mammals, as we have noted, ate present in a variety of forms, but the material in most instances is 6 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES limited in quantity. The horses make up 80 to 90 percent of the mass of known material, and in excavation one assumes, upon locating a specimen, that it is a horse unless proved otherwise. Rarities among the horses are remains of the primitive genus Miohzppus and the larger, but persistently primitive genus Anchitherium. A small slender horse of more advanced nature, moderately abundant, is a type usually included in the genus Archeohippus, but which White prefers to include in the genus Parahippus as P. blackbergi. This last genus occupies a crucial posi- tion in horse evolution, as exhibiting a transition between primitive browsing horses and the more progressive plains-dwelling grazers of the later Cenozoic. Typical members of Parahippus are the common horses of the deposit. A percentage of the horse dentitions show a somewhat more advanced condition suggestive of the genus Merychip- pus, derived from Parahippus. It is difficult to draw a boundary be- tween specimens assigned to these two forms. It may well be that, as both Simpson and White suggest, we are here witnessing an actual evolutionary transition from one genus to the other; the accumulation of a considerable amount of material from this site gives the possi- bility of a quantitative study of the situation. The known rodents—two species of the primitive pocket mouse, Proheteromys, and an indeterminate cricetid—are surely only a small fraction of the rodent fauna of Florida at the time. There is no question but that the age of the fauna is Lower Miocene, the provincial age termed Arikareean in the Wood report (Wood ¢ al. 1941). Of the twenty-six mammalian genera present, seven are peculiar to Florida. They are hence of little value in correlation, although offer- ing no obstacle to the conclusion as to age. The occurrence of the re- maining nineteen in other North American deposits may be tabulated. At least seven of these genera, and possibly eight, are known else- where in this continent only in the Arikareean. Four others are found in the Oligocene, but are also reported from the Arikareean of the West. Still another four are present in the later Miocene, but are Lower Miocene as well in their occurrence in the Rocky Mountain and Great Plains area. So far, agreement with an early Miocene interpretation of age is ex- cellent, and any other interpretation appears out of the question. There remain four stumbling blocks, in the shape of genera stated to be present here but not recorded in the abundant Arikareean of the West —Aelurodon, Daphenus, Synthetoceras and Merychippus. The matter is not, however, serious. Aelurodon is a dog otherwise known only from THE FOSSIL MAMMALS OF THOMAS FARM 7 ——a———e—e——————————————a—a—a—a—_—e—_—_—_a—_=a_—>=a=a={a=“={=a""{nn={{==={[=_—_—_—_——————E==: Oligocene Miocene Pliocene TE Mi fey Te | IMU!) ven ME oe PML UENOMR Es ae cat a Hae Wenn gee 3 Per Wares nee ale CNEROURUES coer. se es sree as eral bial toe a eee =a ADIGA TSS NE ES Gee Rae) Dee Sea ie x NOM Pia Pe Paiste. ote. oy. SR aS PEC ese ST 3g [DIZ TETT e oR ORT ae pee ee SK Slit SCO Gl a Pa INEPT S 5 ne On ee eee Me et eX HX LSA OP TIDE P0s Ne aa Ri i earn e x LEFF AGE cla cus cal eae Nice hl Ai ae ae ian ae Me oe ke, a = DNC CTUS el Rah Mea D. DOME EE oO, Seyi cued igh OA Ara cab Na wbieere fe, nceini els 2 <4 sperm tivities ie etal SURGE ie et Ree Bsa Male cease Mt DN ECLOGTS ee SK lala ot ce oa nn ein sin 5 aaa een [EO ZiINATEZ TAGs 1S Seo al opera aac ag AG ay, ME aged ret seen Ossie Mee oI oe WVWAGN ATOPY ee Oe ee eee. OSES Se . om Vee Tat xc ETAL TUG ATES BOs Ee EE ee PM pe ae re cali eel gee oe EMEP DAS Nhe oe oe BB Lae es Le SMM. Luca ceal eke lt NEDO IRIIE tl eh au a AS ee ae eh Rawal LEZ CAEN TRS rah Ssh a AMA RAN aE Bi oh Mea Ry aril Hake [Ces 1G POV CEA OMANI NR SPS Y SHAME ODE SRI CL HET a hae sue eal ho. c0 a i a the late Miocene and early Pliocene. Its supposed representative here is a jaw which, as White notes, is placed in that genus only as a mat- ter of convenience. As he states, the specimen does not agree fully with the definition of Aelurodon and may represent an earlier stage in the evolution of this dog ‘‘phylum’’; a comparable genus is found in the western Arikareean. Daphenus is a characteristic Oligocene dog genus. The sole specimen assigned to it here is poor and fragmentary, and while it may represent an unusually late survivor of Daphenus, the generic assignment is stated by White to be provisidnal only. Synthe- toceras is a grotesquely horned protocerotid artiodactyl of the western Pliocene. The Thomas Farm specimen assigned to it is represented only by the dentition, which does not guarantee generic identity. It may well be a member of an antecedent genus. Merychzppus is the charac- teristic horse of the middle and late Miocene, unknown in the Arika- 8 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES reean, whete its ancestor Parahippus flourished. But it is obvious that Merychippus did not spring full fledged from Parahippus at the ringing of a gong to announce an abrupt shift from the Arikareean to the suc- ceeding stage. With increasing knowledge of deposits and fossils, in- creasing evidence of transitions in deposits and faunal elements are to be hoped for rather than feared. As suggested above, we may be wit- nessing at the Thomas Farm the actual transition from Parahippus to Merychippus and the facts can be fully accounted for by assuming that the deposit was formed at a relatively late date in the Arikareean. Miocene sands and clays of the type found here are, in Florida, gen- erally assigned to the Hawthorn formation, and such assignment was made for the Thomas Farm deposit in the earlier papers on the locality. The Hawthorn is considered to be of middle Miocene age, however, and the positive picture which our fauna gives of early Miocene Arika- reean age has caused embarrassment. The Tampa limestone is the typical Florida formation of early Miocene age. White (1942) solves the difficulty by suggesting that the deposit was mainly laid down in Tampan time, but extending onward into the earlier part of the period of Hawthorn deposition. Cooke (1945) includes the deposit in the Tampan. There is, however, no published evidence of the presence of Tampan deposits in this part of Florida, and the bone pocket resembles in no way the typical Tampa limestone. Deposition was subsequent to that of the Suwannee limestone of late Oligocene age, since residua of that formation are present in the sediments; further, Ponton, cited by Simpson (1932: 12.) states that limestone residua in the deposit also include a characteristic Tampa fossil, indicating that the site is post- Tampan as well. White (1942), from a study of the areal distribution of Oligocene and Miocene sediments in Florida and adjacent states, concludes that in late Oligocene and early Miocene times this portion of Florida formed an island which became reconnected with the mainland in the middle Miocene; this situation, he suggests, offers an interpretation of certain problems connected with this fauna. Cooke (1945: 118) rejects the insular interpretation for a peninsular one, but without adequate dis- cussion of the subject. As noted in our introduction, one of the main interests in the study of such an eastern Tertiary deposit is the opportunity it gives to deter- mine possible differences in faunas and environments between this major area of the continent and the western regions from which most of our existing knowledge has been obtained. Although much further THE FOSSIL MAMMALS OF THOMAS FARM 9 work can be and should be done at Thomas Farm, features of interest ate already apparent and certain major contrasts are visible. In any attempt, however, to contrast this fauna with that of the western Arikareean, caution must be observed. The western deposits of this age are from a variety of formations and areas, and the quantity of material, collected by many institutions over a period of many decades, is vast. We may hence reasonably assume that we have a mod- etately full sample of the contemporary mammal life of the West, although, as usual, plains dwellers are presumably much more ade- quately represented than forest animals. In this Florida deposit we are dealing with a much smaller body of material. It is highly improbable that we have as yet any approximation to the full list of forms actually present in the deposit. Every season’s work, I believe, has added some new element to the list, and while future returns of novelties may be expected to diminish, there are unquestionably a number of rarer types still to be expected. Further, we cannot be sure that the animals who were entombed in this deposit were at all fully representative of the immediate locality, still less that they were representative of the possibly varied environments of the region as a whole. Keeping all this in mind, we can, nevertheless, form some tentative conclusions. That such groups as the insectivores and marsupials, rare in western deposits, have not been found at Thomas Farm, is probably meaning- less. Rodents are abundant in variety in the western Arikareean. In contrast, only two types have been identified at Thomas Farm (there is a cettain amount of unidentified fragmentary material). It is difficult to believe that there was any paucity of rodent life in the Florida Miocene; the situation may be due to the conditions of deposition at Thomas Farm. Among the carnivores, the canids of Thomas Farm are comparable in variety and relative abundance to those of the same period in the West. It is of interest that there is as yet no trace of either procyonids —the raccoons and their relatives—or of any type of cat. However, both types are rather rare in the western Arikareean. ‘In certain respects the artiodactyl assemblage of Thomas Farm is similar to that of contemporary western deposits. Both contain pec- caries, camels, hypertraguloids, and American ‘‘deer.’’ However, camels are, thus far, very sparsely represented as compared with the Plains region, and most of the hypertragulids appear to be quite distinctive, not merely specifically but generically. A remarkable difference is in 10 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 5] regard to oreodonts (Merycoidodontidz). These “‘ruminating hogs,’ so called, are extremely abundant and varied in the western Arikareean, making up a very considerable proportion of all museum materials from these beds. Not a single scrap of any oreodon has been as yet identified in the Thomas Farm material. Of perissodactyls, tapirs and chalicotheres, present in the West, are not so far recorded at Thomas Farm. This may not be significant, for they are not too common in the Plains deposits. We are not as yet in a position to compare the rhinoceroses, present in both regions. The Thomas Farm horses are, as we have noted, those characteristic of the Miocene of the West. Their extreme relative abundance at Thomas Farm is of interest, for in the typical Arikareean the horses constitute a much smaller percentage of the material. Possibly this situation may be due to local conditions peculiar to the Thomas Farm deposit, but this is by no means certain. Limited as our present knowledge is, there thus appear to be signifi- cant differences between the early Miocene fauna of Florida and that of the western plains. There is, further, a suggestion that this may be related to ecological as well as geographical factors. Miocene Florida, like Florida today, was surely a low-lying country, little elevated above the sea. One tends to assume that the land was then something like that of today—well-watered, with abundant areas of forest and of lush plant growth. The fauna, however, suggests the opposite. The most abundant elements in the fauna are dogs and horses. The Canidx, as opposed to the felids and procyonids—absent so far from the Florida Miocene record—are, by and large, dwellers in open country. The early Tertiary horses were browsers and may well have been forest glade forms. But the dominant Florida mammals of the Miocene were progressive forms, Parahippus and Merychippus, which are universally interpreted as the initiators of the plains-dwelling habit characteristic of all late Ceno- zoic horses. Equally significant appears to be the absence of oreodonts. These short-legged brachyodont ruminants are generally and reasonably inter- preted as making their living on soft, lush vegetable material and thus to have been characteristically dwellers in swampy regions. Tentatively then, we may conclude that Florida in the Miocene was a place far different from that which we see today. It was then, as now, a low country—but a low plain, relatively dry and grass-covered—a ptairie in the western rather than the floridian sense of that term. THE FOSSIL MAMMALS OF THOMAS FARM 11 As I have tried to show above, the investigation—albeit as yet in- complete—of a single Florida fossil locality can yield results of interest and value to the vertebrate paleontologist. The total possibilities of the State have as yet been hardly scratched. So far most of the work has been done by out-of-state institutions or through private initia- tive; lack of funds and personnel have prevented state organizations from engaging in this task to more than a minor degree. It is to be hoped that future support may be given state institutions— Univer- sity and Geological Survey—to enable them to participate actively in the study of this earlier Florida. LITERATURE CITED COOKE, C. W. : 1945. Geology of Florida. Bwll. Florida Geol. Surv., 29: 1-339. LAWRENCE, B. 1943. Miocene bat remains from Florida, with notes on the generic characters of the humerus of bats. Jour. Mammal., 24, No. 3: 356-369. SIMPSON, G. G. 1932. Miocene land mammals from Florida. Bull. Florida Geol. Surv., 10: 7-41. WETMORE, A. 1943. Fossil birds from the Tertiary deposits of Florida. Proc. New Engl. Zoél. Club, 22: 59-68. WHITE, T. E. 1940. New Miocene vertebrates from Florida. Proc. New Engl. Zoél. Club, 18: 31-38. 1941. Additions to the Miocene fauna of Florida. Proc. New Engl. Zool. Club, 18: 91-98. 1942. The Lower Miocene mammal fauna of Florida. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zodl., 92: 1-49. 1942a. A new alligator from the Miocene of Florida. Copeéa, 1942, No. 1: 3-7. 1947. Additions to the Miocene fauna of North Florida. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zodl., 99: 497-515. WOOD, A. E. 1932. New heteromyid rodents from the Miocene of Florida. Bull. Florida Geol. Surv., 10: 45-51 1947. Miocene rodents from Florida. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zoél., 99: 489-494. WOOD, H. E., and others 1941. Nomenclature and correlation of the North American continental Tertiary. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., 52: 1-48. Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Aci., 10 (1) 1947 (1948) Demat 3) NA Pal EO : wae ba fs ; acho alg ae * 'Se0s. | eet: ae ie bape ve Ke ee Foe ote clad s% ol A en a : - Fal a 3 ee 9M crac CPA ad A STUDY OF THE SENSITIVITY OF ALDEHYDE REAGENTS?? Joun H. Pomeroy and C, B. Pottarp Although many different tests for the aldehyde group have been de- scribed in the literature, little work has been done in comparing the many proposed reagents and tests under similar conditions with dif- ferent types of aldehydes to determine which of the tests are actually sensitive to low aldehyde concentrations. In this investigation 28 dif- ferent aldehyde reagents were checked against 22 different aldehydes in aqueous dilutions of 1:1000, 1:10,000, 1:100,000, and 1:1,000,000. In this manner, the sensitivity of each reagent was determined. Results from 26 reagents are shown in Table I. A comprehensive study of the literature revealed that many of the reactions of aldehydes do not lend themselves to application for prac- tical qualitative tests. The reactions which could not be applied for the specific detection of various aldehydes were not included in this experi- mental investigation. Obviously, this excluded tests which are pri- marily quantitative; tests which are common to both aldehyde and ketone groups; and tests which are specific for one aldehyde or one type of aldehyde. Although many of the qualitative tests studied might be utilized for colorimetric quantitative determinations, the scope of this investigation was limited to determination of the sensi- tivity of qualitative tests for aldehydes. | Tests studied in this project fall into several main groups, which are classified as follows: CLASSIFICATION OF ALDEHYDE TESTS I. CONDENSATIONS a. Condensing agent: sulfuric acid 1. Hydrocarbons 2. Phenols 3. Heterocyclic compounds . 4. Miscellaneous 1 Contribution from the Organic Chemical Laboratory of the University of Florida. 2 Awarded the Florida Academy of Sciences Achievement Medal for 1945. 14 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES B. No condensing agent 1. Dimedon (Dimethyldihydroresorcinol) 2. Amines 3. Schiff-type reagents 4. Angeli-Rimini test (hydroxamic acid) 1. PHENYLHYDRAZINE REACTIONS A. With sulfuric acid (see 1-a-4, above) , B. With sodium nitroprusside and potassium hydroxide c. With potassium ferricyanide and hydrochloric acid vp. With sodium hydroxide mm. Ox1DATION-REDUCTION REACTIONS A. Silver solutions 1. Ammoniacal silver nitrate 2. Tollen’s reagent B. Mercury solutions I. eden 's reagent tv. MiscELLANEOUS CHEMICAL TEsTs A. Nitroprusside reaction with secondary amines v. Puysico-CuHemicaL Metuops A. Spectroscopy | B. Allison magneto-optical method c. Polarography v1. Opor It is to be noted that Section V of the above classification was not used in the experimental work, since this paper is primarily a com- parison of methods available in the ordinary chemical laboratory. 1. CONDENSATIONS A. Condensing agent: sulfuric acid The reaction in this case is a coupling of the aldehyde with other molecules accompanied by the elimination of water and giving rise to new molecules which give color reactions under the conditions of the experiment. 1. Hydrocarbons (Fluorene) Fluorene was taken as being representative of a number of hydro- carbons with similar reactivity, such as acenaphthene, phenanthrene, A STUDY OF THE SENSITIVITY OF ALDEHYDE REAGENTS 15 and anthracene. This reaction has been studied by Ditz (1) and de Bari, 3, 14x)» . Experimental: A mixture of 1 ml. of the aldehyde solution to be tested and 1 ml. of a 1% solution of fluorene in aldehyde-free alcohol (6) was made. On the addition of 1 ml. of concentrated sulfuric down the side of the test tube, a positive reaction is indicated by formation of a colored ring at the interface. Sometimes the color appears slowly; consequently, all observations were made after about 15 minutes. The aldehydes and other necessary compounds used in these expeti- ments were carefully purified and tested for identity. The aldehyde solutions were prepared by weighing out enough aldehyde to make a 1:1000 dilution; and the other solutions used were prepared from this one by further dilution. All solutions and reagents were prepared as needed in freshly-boiled, distilled water, or in aldehyde-free alcohol. 2. Phenols The voluminous literature on the phenol-aldehyde-sulfuric acid re- action beats witness to the fact that the field has been extensively and intensively worked. Apparently each of the investigators has had his own idea as to the best method and concentration to use in the work. It was impracticable to attempt duplication of the investigations of the several score workers. Accordingly, of the 29 listed phenolic com- pounds which have been used in this manner, the 11 which appeared most suitable and sensitive were studied. Experimental: The test was catried out as with fluorene, above, with a 1% solution of the phenol in alcohol. The phenols tested in this manner were: phenol, thymol, a-naphthol, $-naphthol, salicylic acid, catechol, resorcinol, hydroquinone, pyrogallic acid, phloroglucinol, and gallic acid. The reactions, when positive, are nearly all of the same type: a colored ring is formed at the interface between the acid and the aldehyde-phenol mixture. The colors formed vary widely with the aldehyde and the phenol used. In addition to the formation of color in the experiments with a-naphthol and 6-naphthol, a strong green fluorescence was observed which was visible in ordinary light, but mote easily and brilliantly under a Hanovia ultra-violet lamp. 3. Heterocyclic compounds a. Carbazole Carbazole has been used as an aldehyde test by Ditz 2) and Ga- butti (7, 8). Dische (9) has noted that the alpha hydroxy acids give a positive test under the conditions of the experiment. Apparently, 16 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES they are converted to aldehydes by the sulfuric acid. Gabutti has stated that nitrates and other oxidizing agents interfere. Experimental: The reagent was prepared according to Gabutti: one g. carbazole was dissolved in 100 ml. concentrated sulfuric acid. One ml. of this test solution is poured down the side of a small test tube containing 1 ml. of the unknown. A positive reaction is a colored ring. Each aldehyde seems to have its own color; this might be useful as a distinguishing test in some instances. 4. Miscellaneous a. Phenylhydrazine Dobriner (10) has reported a color test for aldehydes using phenyl- hydrazine and sulfuric acid. Istrati (11, 12) has used practically the same technique, but Pilhashy (13) has modified the test by adding sodium acetate. Experimental: A saturated solution of phenylhydrazine hydro- chloride in alcohol was taken in equal quantities with the aldehyde solution, and sulfuric acid was added slowly down the sides of the tube so that a ring is formed. The characteristic positive reaction is the formation of a yellow ring, although other colors are encoun- tered. Acrolein, for instance, gives a double ring, bluish-green and red. The reaction tube must be carefully compared with a blank. Unless the solutions are very fresh, false positives are produced, apparently ~ from oxidation of the reagent. B. Condensations without sulfuric acid 1. Dimedon (Dimethyldihydroresorcinol) This compound (which is also known in the literature as methone and dimethone) was discovered by Vorlander (14, 15) and first used by him asa specific aldehyde reagent. The procedure used follows that of Weinburger (16) and Stepp and Feulgen (17). Experimental: The compound was prepared as described by Shriner and Toll (28). One ml. of the aldehyde solution plus 1 ml. of a 5% alcoholic dimedon solution was shaken thoroughly with a small amount of solid sodium chloride. Usually the crystals of the insoluble aldehyde derivatives will form and be deposited in a short while. Gen- erally, when possible, it is better to let the tube stand overnight. Formaldehyde forms characteristic long fine needles, easily disting- uishable from the shorter crystals given by other aldehydes. A STUDY OF THE SENSITIVITY OF ALDEHYDE REAGENTS 17 2. Amines Some of the m-diamines have been proposed as aldehyde reagents by Winter (19), Windisch (20), and von Bitto (21). N,N-Dibenzyl-m-phenylenediamine has been reported by Desai (22) who has described it as a black oil which oxidizes rapidly in air. Single- ton and Pollard (23) have prepared N,N-dibenzyl-m-phenylenediamine in pure, crystalline form and utilized it as a satisfactory aldehyde re- agent. With a 1% solution of the amine in 95% alcohol they have been able to distinguish between saturated aliphatic, unsaturated aliphatic and aromatic aldehydes. Experimental: A 1% solution of the m-phenylenediamine hydro- chloride was prepared in freshly-boiled, distilled water, and in alde- hyde-free alcohol. The test was carried out by adding 1 ml. of the re- agent to a test tube containing 1 ml. of the aldehyde solution. After standing for 10-15 minutes, the tubes were checked for color by trans- mitted light and the fluorescence by ultra-violet light. There is a slight fluorescence in the blank in each case; that of the aqueous solu- tion is faint blue; that of the alcoholic is faint bluish-green. The positive reaction consists of a yellow or brownish yellow color, and a green fluorescence, which is quite brilliant under the ultra-violet lamp with the higher concentrations of aldehyde. N,N-Dibenz yl-m-phenylenediamine This is the reagent developed by Singleton and Pollard. The mechan- ism of the reaction with this compound and with the m-phenylenedia- mine hydrochloride above is apparently the formation of an acridine derivative which is highly fluorescent. Experimental: The reagent was prepared as described by Singleton and Pollard (23) in the original paper. One g. N,N-dibenzyl-m-pheny- lenediamine was dissolved in 100 ml. aldehyde-free alcohol containing t.o ml. conc. hydrochloric acid. One ml. of the reagent was mixed with t ml. of the aldehyde solution, and was then observed for the produc- tion of color and fluorescence. The formation of a yellow or reddish color, followed by a fluorescence after standing is taken as a positive reaction. The blank reaction with distilled water shows a faint, hazy, bluish fluorescence. If allowed to stand too long, the fluorescence in- tensifies because of the surface oxidation of the alcohol used as solvent. 3. Schiff-iype reagents Schiff (24, 25.) observed in 1866 that a fuchsin solution decolorized 18 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES by sulfur dioxide will regain its color when an aldehyde was added. Since that time, dozens of modifications have been proposed, most of them differing but little in type from the original. Other dyes have been used, such as diazomagenta (26), malachite green (27) and Dob- ner’s violet (28). Other modifications have included the use of sulfites and bisulfites with and without the addition of acid. This method of preparation is usually simpler than that involving the use of a weighed amount of gaseous sulfur dioxide. The use of hyposulfites (26, 29, 30), sodium bisulfite and acid (31, 32, 33, 34, 35) ,sodium sulfite and acid (36, 37, 38, 39) have all been described in the literature. Faktor (40) has published the description of a reagent for which he has claimed good sensitivity; a fuchsin solution boiled with magnesium powder. This was tried several times, but after twenty-four hours of boiling, no bleaching was observed with the fuchsin samples available at this: laboratory. Wang (41) has prepared a colorless fuchsin solution by addition of ammonium hydroxide. With the fuchsin samples available to us, complete decolorization was not accomplished. Josephson (42) has studied the effects of pH on the sensitivity and validity of the Schiff test. He has found that the best range of pH was from 3 to 6. Larger amounts of acid prevent the reaction from taking place except with formaldehyde. Experimental: One sulfur dioxide reagent was prepared according to Tobie (43) and one bisulfite-hydrochloric acid reagent was prepared according to Carey, Green and Schoetzow (32); the clear yellow solu- tion was treated with decolorizing charcoal in the same manner as was used by Tobie in the preparation of his reagent. Both reagents were clear, water-white liquids, smelling of sulfur dioxide. Both were stored in an icebox in the dark until needed. In the tests, 1 ml. of the aldehyde solution was mixed with 1 ml. of the reagent and the solution observed for the development of color. The Schiff solutions should not be heated, nor long exposed to the air, since a false positive will develop upon the loss of sulfur dioxide. 4. Hydroxamic acids (The Angeli-Rimini Test) The Angeli-Rimini test for aldehydes (44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 5I, 52, 53, 54) depends upon the formation from an aldehyde of a hydrox- amic acid which will give a highly colored complex ion with the ferric ion. Gamma hydroxy and amino aliphatic aldehydes and para-hydroxy and amino aromatic aldehydes do not react; neither do the aldehydes of the pyrrole and indole series. A STUDY OF THE SENSITIVITY OF ALDEHYDE REAGENTS 19 Experimental: Attempts to synthesize the benzenesulfonhydroxamic acid used in the test, either by the method of Feigl (55) or Piloty (56) met with no success. A study of the published figures on the sensitivity of this test indicated that this was one of the less sensitive aldehyde tests. Consequently, work on it was abandoned. i. PHENYLHYDRAZINE REACTIONS A. With sulfuric acid (see 1-a-4, above) B. With sodium nitroprusside and potassium hydroxide This test, known variously as the Arnold-Mentzel tests and as Burn- ham’s test (57, 58) is primarily a test for formaldehyde. Since, how- - ever, reactions with other aldehydes have been listed, it was decided to compare it with the other tests. Experimental: The reagents ate a 1% solution of phenylhydrazine hydrochloride in freshly-boiled, distilled water, a 5% solution of sodium nitroprusside in distilled water, and a 10% solution of potas- sium hydroxide. The first two of these solutions should be made up as needed, since they deteriorate very rapidly. The test is carried out by taking 1 ml. of the aldehyde solution and adding to it, with shaking, in succession, 0.1 ml. of the phenylhydrazine hydrochloride solution, several drops of the sodium nitroprusside, and 0.5 ml. of the potassium hydroxide. The colors characteristic of a positive reaction, which vary considerably with the aldehyde, develop rapidly. The aliphatic alde- hydes give the most clean-cut reaction. c. With potassium ferricyanide and hydrochloric acid This test, originally developed by Schryner (59) is another one sup- posedly specific for formaldehyde which gives reaction with other aldehydes. For this reason it was included. Experimental: The test was catried out by taking 1-2 ml. of the alde- hyde solution and adding it to 2.0 ml. of a 1% phenylhydrazine hydro- chloride solution, 1 ml. of a 5% potassium ferricyanide solution, and 5 ml. of concentrated hydrochloric acid. Formaldehyde gives a blood- red coloration, acetaldehyde a dirty violet. Furfural gives an apricot color before the addition of the hydrochloric acid. A test with this reagent must always be compared with a blank. p. Phenylhydrazine with potassium hydroxide This test, developed by Riegler (60, 61, 62) originally as a formal- dehyde reaction was found to be general for the aldehydes, including the aldose sugars. 20 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Experimental: One ml. of the aldehyde solution was treated with 2 ml. of a freshly-prepared 1% solution of phenylhydrazine hydro- chloride in 10% potassium hydroxide, and was then heated to boiling. Colors are formed as follows: formaldehyde and acetaldehyde, red; furfural, apricot-yellow. With the other aldehydes, only turbidity is formed at the concentrations used. 11. OxrDaTION-REDUCTION REACTIONS A. Stlver solutions 1. Ammoniacal silver nitrate The ammoniacal silver nitrate solution formerly used as an aldehyde test under the name of the Liebig reagent is today of historical interest only. It has been replaced by the more sensitive Tollen’s reagent. 2. Tollen’s reagent The reagent used and known in the organic laboratory as the Tollen’s reagent is actually claimed by two men, Slakowski (63, 64) and Tollen (65) who apparently developed the reagent independently. Experimental: The solution was made up according to Kamm (66). One ml. of the reagent was added to 1 ml. of the aldehyde solution in a scrupulously cleaned test tube, and the mixture observed for the formation of a mirror, or for a distinct darkening of the solution. B. Mercury solutions 1. Feder’s solutions This test has been proposed by Feder in 1907 (67). Experimental: Solution A is a 2% aqueous solution of mercuric chlor- ide: solution B contains 10% sodium thiosulfate and 7% sodium hydroxide. The test reagent is prepared when needed by mixing quickly equal portions of the two solutions. To test for aldehydes, take equal portions of the clear, colorless reagent and the aldehyde solution. Formaldehyde reacts instantly to give a gray precipitate of metallic mercury; in lower concentrations, the mercury appears as a gray tur- bidity. Other aldehydes react similarly but more slowly. tv. MisceELLANEOUS CHEMICAL TEsTS A. Nitroprusside reaction with secondary amines In 1897, Simon (68) has described a color reaction apparently specific for acetaldehyde; he has used sodium nitroprusside and trimethyla- mine. Rimini (50) has called attention to the fact that Simon's test depends upon the presence of a trace of a secondary amine as an im- purity. The characteristic blue color is formed with all secondary ali- A STUDY OF THE SENSITIVITY OF ALDEHYDE REAGENTS 21 phatic and cyclic bases. Lewin (69) has used a mixture of piperidine and sodium nitroprusside to detect acrolein and certain other aldehydes. Experimental: The test was carried out by taking 1.0 ml. of the sample and adding to it several drops of 5% sodium nitroprusside and 1 ml. of a 3% piperidine solution. The tube must be watched carefully for the production of colors; the violet color formed by acrolein and cro- tonaldehyde vanishes almost as soon as it appears. The test was also carried out using a 3% solution of piperazine. It was thought that it might be more reactive since it possesses two secondary amine groups. The positive reaction for either of these amines is a deep permanent violet color with acetaldehyde. v. Paysico-CHemicaL MetHops A. Spectroscopy Bruylants (7o, 71, 72) has found that characteristic absorption bands are produced when aldehyde solutions are added to a dilute solution of hemoglobulin. He has been able to distinguish between aldehydes and ketones. Rassweiler and Withrow (73) have detected formaldehydes spectroscopically in the interior of a gasoline combustion engine prior to knock in their investigation on the reactions of flame propagation. B. [he Allison magneto-optical method Sommer, Bishop and Otto (74), using the Allison apparatus, have claimed to be able to detect formaldehyde in the living plant cell in a concentration of 3.6 x 107. c. Polarography Akano and Watanbee (75) have determined 0.00001 mols formalde- hyde polarographically with an accuracy of 10%. Mikhailova and Neiman (76) have determined aldehydes in 0.01 gamma quantities, and concentrations of 0.00024%. vi. Opor The nose is such a notoriously unreliable analyst that few seem to have paid any serious attention to its use to detect aldehydes. Carstens (77) has said that the human nose can detect 4 mg. acetaldehyde per liter of air. Crocker (78) has listed the lowest detectable concentrations for ten aldehydes. Obviously, these results would vary with indi- viduals. ! 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Th (hCG Tee Te AU Tekst a) ol a) i) r-) i) Malay ik | PEALE ARS SU AE Sib ed Berl G 5 oc} oO S ao = i} a baer | OG Cai the TP * Lol ° ~ a & a ) rT ey) 1 Sta th heGay Th al ae 8 n rims 0 ff od Wf ha on : a oO MOAN MNMMI M1 Imi | Z = i) naan raamntinmst i S o rrnm i! I Srey Leet th Gaya * a nr Us TeX? ae Gar et © a vA) Ne fl ony prawranal!l annan pa ny Cololicalicalcalcalcalta lie ltalGalGalbaloal = -) aa 1 Cee ie il i ne ee a} a Kn tI I aaa I Mian q ° St) dteetay rstNmsgmMiinanTryn - ° nur So See Gal {PW The Tray S rats trrnt | inn oR Ta) onan CAV ed Roe Nope Nor sn (sal fra) ~ wrrtrntr eer tN aa ~ ~ wreane eter ert es SS EE A STUDY OF THE SENSITIVITY OF ALDEHYDE REAGENTS 23 This investigation indicates that there is no single reagent which is equally sensitive to low concentrations of all types of aldehydes. However, by using three separate reagents, each of which is particu- larly suitable for certain types, one may satisfactorily cover the range of the more commonly encountered aldehydes. The six reagents giving the highest average sensitivity are (1) Resorcinol and H2SO, (2) £p- Naphthol and H2SO.z G) Phloroglucinol and H2SO, (4) Tollen’s Re- agent (5) Singleton-Pollard Reagent and (6) Pyrogallic acid and H,SO,. While the Singleton-Pollard Reagent does not have as high an average sensitivity as the first three reagents it affords the advantage of differentiating between aliphatic, unsaturated aliphatic and aro- matic amines. BIBLIOGRAPHY C1) Ditz; Chem. Ztg. 31, 445-7, 486-7 (1907) (2) de Fazi, Gazz. chim. ital. 46, 334-59 (1916) (3) de Fazi, Gazz. chim. ital. 50, 146-8 (1920) (4) de Fazi, Gazz. chim. ital. 51, 328-58 (1921) (5) de Fazi, Gazz. chim. ital. 54, 658-67 (1924) (6) Stout and Schuette, Ind. Eng. Chem., Anal. Ed. 5, 100 (1933) (7) Gabutti, Boll. chim. farm. 46, 349-351 (1907) (8) Gabutti, Gazz. chim. ital. 37, 11 (1908) (9) Dische, Biochem. Z. 189, 77-80 (1927) 0) Dobriner, Z. anal. Chem. 38, 517 (1899) (11) Istrati, Bull. soc. sci. Bucuresci 7, 163-70 (1898) (12) Istrati, Rev. inter. falsific. 12, 91 (1899) (13) Pilhashy, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 22, 132-5 (1900) (14) Vorlander, Ann. 294, 253 (1896) (15) Vorlander, Z. anal. Chem. 77, 241-68 (1929) (16) Weinburger, Ind. Eng. Chem., Anal. Ed. 3, 365-6 (1931) (17) Stepp and Feulgen, Z. physiol. Chem. 114, 301 (1921) (18) Shriner and Todd, Organic Syntheses XV, 14 (1935) (19) Winter, Pharm. Era 1887, 447 (1887) (20) Windisch, Z. anal. Chem. 27, 514 (1887) (21) von Bitto, Z. anal. Chem. 36, 369-76 (1897) (22) Desai, J. Indian Chem. Soc. 5, 425 (1928) (23) Singleton and Pollard, J]. Am. Chem. Soc. 63, 240-2 (1941) (24) Schiff, Ann. 140, 132 (1866) (25) Schiff, Z. Chem. 21, 175 (1887) (26) Prud’homme, Bull. soc. ind. Mulhouse 7 4, 169-70 (1904) (27) Frehden and Furst, Mikrochemie 26, 39-40 (1939) (28) Taufel and Klentsch, Fette u. Seifen 46, 64-6 (1939) (29) Wertheim, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 44, 1834-5 (1922) (30) Woodman and Lyford, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 30, 1607 (1908) (31) Borntrager, Z. anal. Chem. 30, 208-9 (1891) 24 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES (32) Carey, Green, and Schoetzow, J. Am. Pharm. Assoc. 22, 1237-40 (1933) (33) Fincke, Z. Untersuch. Nahr.-Genussm. 27, 246-53 (1914) (34) Francois, J. pharm. chim. 13, 65-77 (1916) (35) Gayon, Compt. rend. 105, 1182 1888) (36) Chambard, Cuir tech. 18, 469-70 (1930) (37) Elvove, J. Ind. Eng. Chem. 9, 295 (1917) (38) Fincke, Biochem. Z. 52, 214-5 (1913) (39) Grosse-Bohle, Z. Untersuch. Natur. 1907, 14-89 (1907) (40) Faktor, Pharm. Post 38, 153 (1905) (41) Wang, Natl. Central Univ. (Nanking) Repts., ser. A, 1, 21-26 (1931) (42) Josephson, Ber. 56B, 1771-5 (1923) (43) Tobie, Food Research 3, 499-504 (1938) (44) Angeli and Angelico, Atti accad. Lincei 10, 164-8 1900) (45) Angeli and Angelico, Gazz. chim. ital. 33, 29-57 (1904) (46) Angeli, Gazz. chim. ital. 34, 50-7 (1904) (47) Angeli and Marchetti, Atti accad. Lincei 17, 360-6 (1908) (48) Angeli, Atti accad. Lincei 20, 445-9 (1912) (49) Angeli, Atti accad. Lincei 21, 622-7 (1913) (50) Rimini, Ann. di Farmacol. 1898, 97-101 (1898) (51) Rimini, Ann. farm. chim. 1898, 249-51 (1898) (52) Rimini, Gazetta 30, 279-281 (1900) (53) Rimini, Atti accad. Lincei 10, 355-62 (1900) (54) Rimini, Chem. Ztg. 30, 666 (1906) (55) Feigl, Qualitative Analysis by Spot Tests, Nordemann, New York, 1937 (56) Piloty, Ber. 29, 1559 (1896) (57) Arnold and Mentzel, Z. Untersuch. Nahr.-Genussm. 5, 353-6 (1902) (58) Gettler, J. Biol. Chem. 42, 311-28 (1920) (59) Schryver, Proc. Roy. Soc. 82, 226 (1910) (60) Riegler, Pharm. Centralh. 40, 769-70 (1900) (61) Riegler, Ann. sci. univ. Jassy 1, 256-8 1901) (62) Riegler, Z. anal. Chem. 42, 168-70 (1903) (63) Salkowski, Z. physiol. Chem. 4, 133 (1880) (64) Salkowski, Ber. 15, 1738 (1882) (65) Tollen, Ber. 14, 1950 (1881) (66) Kamm, ‘‘Qualitative Organic Analysis,’’ second edition, page 154, Wiley & Sons, New York, 1932. (67) Feder, Arch. Pharm. 245, 25-8 (1906) (68) Simon, Compt. rend. 12.5, 1105-7 (1897) (69) Lewin, Ber. 32, 3388-9 (1899) (70) Bruylants, Bull. acad. roy. Belg. 1907, 217-31 (1907) (71) Bruylants, Repert. pharm. 19, 462-2 (1907) (72) Bruylants, Bull. acad. roy. Belg. 1907, 955 (1907) * (73) Rassweiler and Withrow, Ind. Eng. Chem. 25, 1359-66 (1933) (74) Sommer, Bishop and Otto, Plant Physiol. 8, 564-7 (1933) (75) Akano and Watanabe, Mitt. med. akad. Kiota 30, 629-643 (1940) (76) Mikhailova and Neiman, Zavodskaya Lab. 9, 166-8 (1940) (77) Carstens, Z. angew. Chem. 34, 389-92 (1921) (78) Crocker, Ind. Eng. Chem. 17, 1158-9 (1925) Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 10 (1) 1947 1948) FOREST PLANTING C. H. Courter State Forester, Tallahassee, Florida Florida’s forest products industries today rank third among the state's publicly and privately owned enterprises as a creator of in- come. It accounts for about $110,000,000 a year that finds its way— directly or indirectly—into the pockets of our landowners, workers, merchants and the general public. In this respect, it is far ahead of most of our basic commercial activities, including beef and dairy cattle raising, fishing, etc. Its only peers as a source of wealth for the state and its people, in fact, are the $236,000,000 citrus industry and the $116,000,000 vegetable industry. Furthermore, with proper management of present timber and de- velopment of new stands, it can bring in as much as six times more than it does now. For these and other reasons, it is important for all Floridans to under- stand the principles, at least, of proper forestry practices. Since these include both fire control and applied forestry measures—each of which is a science in itself, with many subdivisions—it of course is not pos- sible for me to cover all of them here. I shall confine myself, therefore, to just one of the many elements involved: namely, forest planting. Very little information on this subject has been available in the past—particularly in the southeastern part of the country, where little, if any, planting was done prior to 1920. Even now, indeed, there is much yet to be learned, because of the lengthy periods neces- saty to test the various methods of forest management. This being the case, some of the experiences and findings of the Florida Forest Service, along these lines, should be of interest. In Florida, our forest planting work began in 1928, shortly after the 1927 Legislature had approved establishment of our State Forest Service. Because we had not developed our own nutseries at that time, we secured 5,000 slash pine seedlings from Louisiana, and I started on the road to plant these aS an introductory program. I had some hurdles to go over at first, needless to say. For instance, several landowners did not believe pines could be successfully trans- planted. They had previously tried to move longleaf pines, two and 26 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES three feet tall, and in nearly every case the trees had died. The story changed, however, after the woodsmen learned that tap roots should not be damaged in transplanting. They had been cutting these roots, not only because they were unaware of the damage this would cause, but because in trees of the size they were using, the roots are so large it is almost impossible to dig them up. Good results were obtained when they switched their efforts to smaller trees; and year old long- leaf pines are now transplanted regularly. The success of the rest of our initial program is illustrated by the fact that more than 10,000,000 seedlings will be produced by the two state nurseries for planting during the coming season, yet the demand has already exceeded the supply. During the 1928-29 planting period, the Forest Service had only 12 cooperators, and was able to plant but 10,784 seedlings on 17 acres! The cumulative total by the end of this year—just to make the record complete—will have reached more than 65,000,000 seedlings, planted on some 114,000 acres by 8,000 cooper- ators. All of this was accomplished, let me stress, through the interest and cooperation of landowners. This is important, because even today approximately 20,000,000 of Florida’s woodland acresare privately owned, leaving only some 2,000,000 under the direct control of the state. In addition, as the program progressed in those early days, land- owners asked us many of the questions that led to our present knowl- edge. They wanted, for example, to know the best time to plant; whether the ground should be prepared or not; the kind and number of seedlings to plant per acre; the survival chances of slash versus long- leaf pines; the effects of cattle, insect, fires and other factors on grow- ing, etc. To obtain answers to these questions, as well as to maintain a reason- able record of the successes and failures of our operations, a planting record card was devised. This provided for reporting most important conditions surrounding each planting operation, and was put into use in the early 1930’s. At the end of 1936, inspections had been completed on each. Since this involved more than 7,000,000 seedlings, planted over a period of eight years, we feel that it provided a good cross- section basis for reliable deductions. ‘FINDINGS For purposes of clarity, let us now examine each of these findings in FOREST PLANTING aT the same order as the questions above, which they were intended to answer. First, we learned that dry sites headed the list of factors that hin- dered growth of our pine forests. Others, in the order of their import- ance, were dry weather after planting, fire, poor seedling stock, cattle damage, and poor planting. The best time for planting in Florida, our record cards next revealed, was between December 1 and the middle of February, with the first half of the period giving superior results. To put it statistically, the records showed 87 per cent survival among seedlings planted in De- cember or up to the middle of January, while the percentage dropped to 83 for those put in place from mid-January to mid-February. Even more significant, it was noted that those planted between February 15 and the middle of March, only 74 per cent lived! No figures were com- piled for planting after the latter date, because the chances of survival ate so poor as to make experimentation pointless. As might have been expected, our findings on the second question, whether or not ground should be prepared for planting, definitely favored the affirmative. To continue our statistical explanation, we found there was an 85 per cent chance of survival for seedlings planted in furrows, while similar plantings without furrows have only an 80 per cent chance. An additional advantage to furrowing is the pro- tection from fire that is provided for at least one year after plowing. Similar findings resulted from an experiment conducted by the Inter- national Paper Company, Panama City, several years ago on three 1o- acre plots of cutover land. On one plot, there was no preparation and the natural ground cover was left in place. On an adjoining plot, a grader blade was used to scrape off the surface vegetation, so it would not interfere with seed- ling growth. And on a third plot, a single trip was made with an Athens six-disc fireline harrow, cultivating the soil four to five months prior to planting. The growth on these plots at the end of four and one-half years was revealing. On the unprepared land, the pine seedlings had reached a height of 8z inches; on the scraped land, they were 83 inches; and on the cultivated plot, they were 139 inches. This indicated that almost 75 per cent more growth could be expected on cultivated land as com- pared to unprepared land. The work involved in such cultivation can be estimated from the 28 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES distance traveled by the harrow in this experiment. It averaged one rolling mile per acre, with 10-foot centers on each row. | Another discovery that we made concerning the soil was that old field land would produce a better growth than cut-over woodland. For substantiation, we made a 15-by-15 foot planting on old field land, and another on similar patch of woodland. At. the end of 12 years, the former showed a growth of 12.6 cords, while the latter showed only 6.6 cords. Later analysis indicated that it was looseness of soil on old fields, rather than the removal of competitive growth, that helps the seedlings. Hence it is obviously desirable to either plant on old fields, or to prepare woods areas prior to planting. It is important to consider the question of natural seeding versus planting, and of the kind of seedlings to use if planting is decided upon. Ordinarily, if satisfactory natural seeding occurs in one to two years after an area is placed under fire protection, it is not necessary to plant except in open areas. However, if three to six years might be required to obtain 500 to 600 seedlings per acre by natural seeding, it would be cheaper to plant this land. To illustrate, let us assume that woods growth is one cord per acre per year, and that a cord of wood is valued at $2.00. Then, if natural seeding takes three to six years, $4 to $10 in growth is lost per acre. This would be equal to or greater than the cost of planting. Whether to use slash pine wildings for planting, or nursery seed- lings, must be determined on the basis of local conditions. If the land- owner has dense stands of young, thrifty slash pines, between 10 and 15 inches in height, these can be moved with the council transplanter with practically no disturbance of the root system. The number that can be planted per day will vary with the distance it is necessary to haul them with their core of dirt, and with the type of labor available. But ordinarily it runs from 240 to 4oo per man per day. On the other hand, nursery seedlings can be planted at the rate of 500 to 700 per man day. It can be seen, therefore, that with the present high cost of labor, the latter is usually more feasible, except where surplus help is not profitably employed. 7 Slash pine seeds and seedlings are referred to throughout this dis- cussion since our records showed no long-leaf plantings achieved better than 60 per cent survival. Those of slash pines consistently ran into the go's. As for the number of seedlings that should be planted, we found FOREST PLANTING 29 that best results were obtained where spacings were eight-by-eight feet. This was originally indicated in 1938, when a study was made of three different plantings, using eight-by-eight, 12-by-12, and 16-by-16 foot spacings, respectively. Although the trees at the time were only nine years of age and not yet merchantable, we estimated that those in the eight-by-eight plot had already produced 11 to 12 cords per acre; in the 12-by-12, eight cords, and in the 16-by-16 only three. When 13 years old these and several other plantings were thinned for pulpwood, thus enabling us to check the actual volume in the marked and cut trees, with our previous estimates. The eight foot square spacing showed 26 to 34 cords per acre; the 12 foot averaged 16 to 18, and the 16 foot showed only 10.8. Two plots with 10-by-10 foot spacings also showed 1914 and 22 cords per acre. On the basis of these studies, we conclude that seedlings planted in eight-by-eight foot spacings will produce up to twice as much timber as in 12-by-12, and up to three times as much as in 16-by-16. These thinnings, all of them in slash pine, likewise enabled us to get one of our first accurate estimates of the dollars-and-cents return that could be expected by woodland owners if they practice proper forestry. Based on prices then prevailing, the eight-by-eight plantings would have brought a net of $3.26 per acre per year, above cost. And this was based on the pulpwood value alone! Another slash pine planting of the same age was gum-farmed about this same time, and produced 21 barrels of gum per 1,000 faces, based on 2,600 faces. In a single year it grossed $1,360 through gum produc- tion, and only half of the trees were worked. All of which was very encouraging, since at the start of our pro- gram I had made a prediction, based on my forestry school training, that slash pine profits could be increased through proper management to between 32 cents and $2 an acre per year. These figures at the time had seemed very optimistic. So, needless to say, their justification helped landowners to realize they could make money from managed tree farming, and more than one was converted who had previously beer unimpressed by our arguments! Some people still consider planting and reforestation to be worth- while investments for young people only. But is this actually true? The case of Mrs. A. M. E. Brown, of Lake City, would seem to prove otherwise. When she was 59 years old, she planted 60 acres of old field land with slash pine. Fourteen years later, at the age of 73, she re- 30 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ceived $1,040 for pulpwood from a thinning operation on this plan- tation. And she still had an equity of about $35 per acre in her thrifty growing pines, which will continue to increase in value yearly. Other Florida residents who have scrub oak sites, barren or other- wise unproductive land, might well follow Mrs. Brown’s example. It takes about 13 years of growth before an owner can begin to get a return on his investment, which generally totals from $10 to $12 per acre for planting, replanting, taxes and fire protection over such a period. But our experience has proven that in almost every case, if proper forestry practices have been followed and fire kept out, all costs to that date are paid back by the first pulpwood thinning operation. In addition, a substantial profit is sometimes received from that opera- tion. And from this point on, the returns from turpentining, further thinning and, eventually, saw timber, continue to grow. Even if they ‘“‘don’t need the money’’ themselves, landowners who participate in such a program will be helping maintain and increase the natural wealth of our state and our nation. Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 10 (1) 1947 (1948) SOME BIRDS FROM THE LOWLANDS OF CENTRAL VERACRUZ, MEXICO Pierce Bropxors ’ University of Flovida In the spring of 1941 I spent a short time in the lowlands of central Veracruz, Mexico, and took the opportunity to form a collection of birds. I was accompanied by Dr. Irving J. Cantrall and Dr. Norman Hartweg, who materially aided me in various ways, although their primary interests were in other groups of animals. The specimens col- lected during this trip are now in the University of Michigan Museum of Zoology. Also included in the present paper are notes on some specimens given to me by Dyfrig McH. Forbes. The total number of forms reported upon is 67, of which sixteen species are migrants from North America, and the rest represent the breeding fauna. The period spent in the area was from March 6-16 and from May 8- 10, 1941. On March 6 collections were made below Jalapa (situated at Kilometer 332 on the Mexico-Veracruz highway), at places called Venta de Lencero (Kilometer 345), Dos Rios (Kilometer 348), Corral Falso (Kilometer 357), and Mata de Cafia (Kilometer 358). All these localities lie at about 1200 meters altitude. The resident birds taken here all belong to the lowland fauna, except for Carpodacus, which is absent from the coastal plain. From March 9-16 work was done in the vicinity of the city of Vera- cruz, which is situated at Kilometer 450 on the highway. Collections were made near Tejeria (Kilometer 435), Tierra Colorada (Kilometer 417), Boca del Rio (south of Veracruz), and near Veracruz itself. Tierra Colorada is at an altitude of perhaps 200 meters. The other places are practically at sea level. . May 8-10 was spent in the vicinity of Cordoba. Collecting was car- ried on at Potrero Viejo (a sugar finca about ten miles below the town and at an elevation of about 550 meters), above Fortin (which is at Kilometer 333 on the Mexico-Cérdoba road, altitude about 1000 me- ters), and above Acultzingo (Kilometer 288, altitude about 1500 meters). At Potrero Viejo the birds were still predominately of the lowland fauna, though differences were noted in the genera Centurus 1 Contribution from the Department of Biology, University of Florida. 32 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES and Campylorhynchus. Above Acultzingo the escarpment rises steeply, and the character of the avifauna changes rapidly. Forbes’s birds were taken at Potrero Viejo, Paraje Nuevo (a railroad station at Kilometer 326 on the Ferrocarril Mexicano), El Faro, and E] Limén. These last two places I have not been able to locate exactly, but they are both below Cérdoba. Forbes’s Limén should not be con- fused with (San Antonio) Lim6n, situated on the plateau at Kilometez 265 on the Jalapa road. Although the lowlands of central Veracruz have been visited by many of the collectors of the last century, few modern bird collections have been made there. W. B. Davis (1945) reported on a collection which he made between Cofre de Perote and Boca del Rio. Most of his work was in the mountains, but he did include 51 species from Jalapa or lower altitudes. Bangs and Peters (1927) recorded 124 species from Motzorongo and Presidio, localities a little south of the area under consideration here. The incompleteness of our knowledge of bird dis- tribution in this region may be illustrated by the fact that of the 67 species included in the present report only 29 were listed by Bangs and Peters and only 17 by Davis; 31 forms were not recorded in either paper. Since the type localities of a great many birds described by early authors are within the triangle formed by Jalapa, Veracruz, and Cér- doba or Orizaba, a more detailed survey of this area is imperative. Farther south the avifauna is better known. Wetmore (1943) reported on a collection of 292 forms from the region of San Andrés Tuxtla. In extreme southern Veracruz I listed (Brodkorb, 1943) 95 species from the Rio Coatzacoalcos region. ACCIPITRIDZ Buteo magnirostris griseocauda Ridgway. Near Veracruz, 2 o', March 10-11, 1941. One of these hawks had eaten two lizards of the genus Cnemidophorus. FALCONIDA Herpetotheres cachinnans excubitor van Rossem (Trans. San Diego Soc. Nat. Hist., 9, No. 4, 1938, p. 10: Volcan de Colima, Jalisco). El Faro, 1 2, November 1, 1938. This specimen has the following measurements: wing 292, tail 219 mm. In another connection I am publishing my reasons for including the Veracruz population in the range of excwbztor. Polyborus cheriway cheriway (Jacquin). El Faro, 1 2, November 1, 1938. Compared with Polyborus cheriway audubonii Cassin from Florida, SOME BIRDS FROM THE LOWLANDS OF CENTRAL VERACRUZ 33 this bird is smaller and has darker barring on the tail. No characters have been pointed out to differentiate Polyborus cheriway ammophilus van Rossem (Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 11, 4, 1939, p. 441: Tesia, Sonora) from true chertway of South America. Falco albigularis albigularis Daudin. Paraje Nuevo, 1 o&', November 29, 1938. RALLID# Laterallus ruber (Sclater and Salvin). El Limén, 1 9, date unre- corded. CoLUMBID& Zenaidura macroura carolinensis (Linnzus). E] Faro, 1 9, Novem- ber 1, 1938. Scardafella inca (Lesson). Near Tejeria, 1 o, March 16, 1941. Leptotila verreauxi fulviventris Lawrence. Near Tejeria, 1 o', March 13, 1941. The wing of this specimen measures 149, tail 100 mm. The sexual activity of this dove must be prolonged, for the testes of this specimen were large, and Davis recorded enlarged gonads in his late July birds. TYTONIDA Tyto alba pratincola (Bonaparte). Potrero Viejo, 1 9, June 22, 1939. Davis (op. cit., p. 275.) has identified a barn ow] from Jalapa as Tyto alba guatemala. The present specimen agrees with United States material and is distinctly paler than a series of guatemala from Honduras. STRIGID& Rhinoptynx clamator clamator (Vieillot). Potrero Viejo, 1 2, Jan- uary, 1939. This is the second published occurrence of this owl in Mexico, Bangs and Peters (op. cit., p. 473.) having previously recorded a specimen from Presidio, Veracruz. TROCHILIDA _ Pampa pampa curvipennis (Lichtenstein). Potrero Viejo, 2 9, No- vember-December, 1938. These specimens have the following measure- ments: wing 69, 69; tail 54.5, 57.5; exposed culmen 27.5, 29.5 mm. Amaxilia tzacatl tzacatl (De la Llave). Potrero Viejo, 1 2, Novem- ber-December, 1938. Amazilia yucatanensis cerviniventris Gould. Near Tierra Colorada, 2 o', March 14, 1941. : 34 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Anthracothorax -prevostiz prevostit (Lesson). Near Tierra Colorada, 16’, March 14, 1941; Potrero Viejo, 1 o’, April, 1941. Chlorostilbon canivetii canivetit (Lesson). Near Tierra Colorada, x 6’, March 14, 1941. Doricha eliza (Lesson and Delattre). Mata de Cafia, 1 9, March 6, 1941; near Veracruz, 1 9, March 13, 1941. PicipA Centurus aurifrons grateloupensis (Lesson). Near Veracruz, 3 o', 1 9, March 12-13, 1941; near Tierra Colorada, 1 9, March 15, 1941; near Fortin, 1 9, May 10, 1941. The specimens from Veracruz city and Tierra Colorada are typical of this race, having orange-yellow bellies and nasal plumes. The one from Fortin is somewhat intermediate to- ward Centurus aurifrons verecrucis, since it has these parts more reddish orange and less yellowish. It is, however, nearer grateloupensis than to veracrucis as exemplified by a series from Minatitlan. In the latter birds the nasal plumes and bellies are red. Dendrocopos scalaris scalaris (Wagler). Near Veracruz, 1 9, March 11, 1941. This specimen is larger (wing 93.5, tail 49 mm.) and less heavily marked below than a skin a Dendrocopos scalaris ridgwayi from southern Campeche. DzENDROCOLAPTID Sittasomus griseicapillus sylvioides (Lafresnaye). Potrero Viejo, 19, May 9, 1941. FuRNARIIDA Synallaxis erythrothorax furtiva Bangs and Peters (op. cit., p. 476: Presidio, Veracruz). Near Veracruz, 16°, 19, March 11-12, 1941. Al- though the gonads of these birds were enlarged, the tops of their skulls were clear. Apparently the brain case of this species never assumes the stippled appearance so characteristic of other passerine birds. FoRMICARIID& Thamnophilus doliatus intermedius Ridgway. Near Tierra Colorada, 10’, March 14, 1941. CoTINGID& Platypsaris aglaia sumichrasti Nelson. Near Tierra Colorada, 20> March 14, 1941. SOME BIRDS FROM THE LOWLANDS OF CENTRAL VERACRUZ 35 Tityra semifasciata personata Jardine and Selby. Near Veracruz, 207, 19, March 12, 1941; near Tierra Colorada, 1 9, March 15, 1941; Po- trero Viejo, 1 o', May 9, 1941. As I have already remarked, size, es- pecially wing length, is the only reliable character on which to sep- arate this race from Tétyra semifasciata deses Bangs. The present birds have the following measurements: wing 131-139 mm. (@ 123-127), tail 72-79.5 CQ 71-73). They thus agree with personata, whereas two from Minatitlan have the small size of deses. TYyRANNID Pyrocephalus rubinus flammeus van Rossem (Trans. San Diego Soc. Nat. Hist., 7, No. 30, 1934, p. 353: Brawley, Imperial County, California). Near Tejeria, 2 o’, March 9-13, 1941. These two specimens agree with flammeus both in size and in their orange rather than crimson under parts. They have the following measurements: wing 79.5-80.5; tail 56.5-57-5 mm. The occurrence of this race in Veracruz, even on mi- gration, is surprising. Pyrocephalus rubinus blatteus Bangs. Near Tejeria, 12 , March 9, 1941; near Dos Rios, 2 @, 1 9, March 6, 1941. Both on color and size these specimens are referable to the southeastern race. They appear to repre- sent the breeding population. Their measurements are as follows: wing 76.5-77 (2 73-78); tail 55-55.5 C2 53.5-56.5 mm.). The smaller female is the one from Terjeria. Myiodynastes maculatus insolens Ridgway. Potrero Viejo, 1 o', May S. Gpehs Myiozetetes similis texensis (Giraud). Near Venta de Lencero, 207, March 6, 1941; Boca del Rio, 19, March 11, 1941. Pitangus sulphuratus texanus vat Rossem (Trans. San Diego Soc. Nat. Hist., 9, No. 17, 1940, p. 82: Brownsville, Texas). Near Tierra Colo- rada, 10’, March 14, 1941. The area of intergradation between texanus and P. 5. guatimalensis covers most of the state of Veracruz, and it is questionable just where to draw the line. This specimen is closer to texanus. Its wing length is 121, tail 89, culmen 33.5 mm. Myiarchus cinerascens cinerascens (Lawrence). Near Corral Falso, 1 &, March 6, 1941. Wing tor mm., tail 90 mm. Myiarchus tyrannulus nelsoni Ridgway. Near Tierra Colorada, 1 6, 19, March 15, 1941. These were a mated pair. They measure: wing 106 (2 99.5), tail 98 (2 92.5 mm.). Myiarchus tuberculifer lawrenceit (Giraud). Near Fortin, 1 o&', May 10, 1941. Wing 84, tail 77.5 mm. 36 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Empidonax minimus (Baird and Baird). Near Tejeria, 1 o’, March 9, 1941. Camptostoma imberbe imberbe Sclater. Near Corral Falso, 1 o', March 6, 1941. Pipromorpha oleaginea assimilis (Sclater). Potrero Viejo, 1 o', 12, May 9, 1941. HiruNDINIDA Iridoprocne bicolor (Vieillot). Near Veracruz, 1 o', March io, 1941. CorviDz& Psilorhinus morio (Wagler). Near Tejeria, 2 9, March 9, 1941. The eyes of these birds were blue. One had a particolored bill; in the other it was yellow. TROGLODYTIDZ Campylorhynchus zonatus zonatus (Lesson). Potrero Viejo, 1 co’, May 9, 1941; near Fortin, 2 6’, May 10, 1941. The wings of these birds meas- ute 80-87, tails 82-88 mm. Campylorhynchus rufinucha rufinucha (Lesson). Near Veracruz, 2 o’, March 12, 1941; near Tejeria, 4.0’, 59, March 13-16, 1941; near Tierra Colorada, 1 o', 1 9, March 14-15, 1941; El Faro, 1 o’, November 1, 1938. The iris of this species is reddish brown. A nest under construc- tion was found on March 15. It was four feet up in a small tree and was composed of twigs and plant cotton. Thryothorus rutilus maculipectus Lafresnaye. Near Veracruz, 1 6’, March 12, 1941. Troglodytes aedon parkmanit Audubon. Near Veracruz, 1 9, March 12, 1941; near Tierra Colorada, 1 o', March 15, 1941. Mimip& Dumetella carolinensis (Linnzus). Near Tejeria, 1 o*, March 9g, 1941. TuRDIDA Turdus grayi grayt Bonaparte. Near Fortin, 1 o&', May 10, 1941. Although a little paler than the average gray, still this specimen 1s decidedly darker than T. g. tamaulipensis. SYLVuID& Polioptila carulea carulea (Linnzus). Near Tejeria, 1 9, March g, 1941; near Tierra Colorada, 1 o&', 1 9, March 14, 1941. SOME BIRDS FROM THE LOWLANDS OF CENTRAL VERACRUZ 37 VIREONIDZ Vireo griseus griseus (Boddaert). Near Tierra Colorada, 1 o', March 14, I94I. MNIOTILTIDZ Vermivora celata celata (Say). Near Tejeria, 1 2, March 16, 1941. Dendroica astiva amnicola Batchelder. Near Veracruz, 1 9, March 12, 1941; near Tierra Colorada, 1 o’, March 15, 1941. Icteria virens virens (Linnzeus). Near Veracruz, 1 o', March 12, 1941. Basileuterus culicivorus culicivorus (Lichtenstein). Near Fortin, 1 9, May 10, 1941. This bird was laying. IcTERIDA Cassidix mexicanus mexicanus (Gmelin). Near Veracruz, 2,2 9, March 10-16, 1941. The iris color of both sexes was yellowish white. Dives dives dives (Lichtenstein). Potrero Viejo, 1 co’, May 9, 1941. Icterus gularis tamaulipensis Ridgway. Boca del Rio, 1 &, March 11, 1941; near Tejeria, 1 9, March 13, 1941; near Tierra Colorada, 1 6, 1 9, March t5, 1941. Agelaius pheniceus richmondi Nelson. Near Veracruz, 1 9, March.15, 1941. Sturnella magna mexicana Sclater. Near Tejeria, 1 9, March 9, 1941; E] Faro, 2 o', November 1, 1938. These specimens definitely belong to the small lowland race of meadowlark. The males have wings meas- ufing 110-111 mm., tails 68-69.5 mm. I have examined a cotype of mexicana (USNM 13653) labeled Xalapa. Although unsexed, it is undoubtedly a male. Its wing measures 108, tail 69 mm. THRAUPIDA Tanasgra lauta lauta Bangs and Penard. Potrero Viejo, 1 o', May 9, 1941. Thraupis episcopus diaconus (Lesson). Near Veracruz, 1 9, March Tn TOAT. Chlorospingus ophthalmicus ophthalmicus (DuBus). Near Fortin, 1 o, May Io, 1941. FRINGILLIDE Saltator atriceps atriceps (Lesson). Near Tierra Colorada, 1 6, March 15, 1941; near Fortin, 1 o’, May 10, 1941. Wing 113.5-124, tail 110.5-122.5 mm. 38 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Saltator cerulescens grandis (Lichtenstein). Near Veracruz, 1o',1 9, March 12, 1941. Passerina cyanea (Linnzus). Near Corral Falso, 1 o', March 6, 1941. Passerina versicolor versicolor (Bonaparte). Boca del Rio, 12, March 11, 1941. Wing 60, tail 48.5 mm. Passerina ciris pallidior Mearns. Near Tejeria, 1 9, March 16, 1941; near Tierra Colorada, 1 9, March 14, 1941. Tiaris olivacea pusilla Swainson. Near Veracruz, 1 9, March 13, 1941. Carpodacus mexicanus mexicanus (Miiller). Near Venta de Lencero, 1 o', March 6, 1941. Sporophila torqueola morelleti (Bonaparte). Near Veracruz, 1 @, March 11, 1941; near Tejeria, 1 o&', March 9, 1941; near Venta de Len- cero, 2 6’, March 6, 1941. Ammodramus savannarum perpallidus (Coues). Near Veracruz, 1 Q, March 11, 1941; near Tejeria, 1 9, March 9, 1941. These migrants were very fat and had small gonads. Aimophila ruficeps boucardi (Sclater). Near Acultzingo, 1 o’, May 8, 1941. Since this name currently covers two subspecies, it may be well to record that the present specimen belongs to the form with the back gray in strong contrast to the rufous color of the crown. Its measure- ments are: wing 67, tail 66, culmen 12 mm. Spizella pallida (Swainson). Near Tierra Colorada, 1 o', March 14, 1941. LITERATURE CITED BANGS, OUTRAM, AND JAMES L. PETERS 1927. Birds from the rain forest region of Vera Cruz. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., 67 (15): 471-487. - BRODKORB, PIERCE 1943. Birds from the gulf lowlands of southern Mexico. Mésc. Publ. Mus. Zool. Univ. Mich., (55): 1-88, 1 map. DAVIS, WILLIAM B. 1945. Notes on Veracruzan birds. Auk, 62, (2): 272-286. WETMORE, ALEXANDER 1943. The birds of southern Veracruz, Mexico. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., 93, 164): 215-340, pl. 26-28, 1 map. Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 10 1) 1947 (1948) A DETERIORATION RESEARCH LABORATORY? Ernest S. ReyNoLps Marine Laboratory, University of Mzami* During the past few years and especially due to the great stimula- tion of the war requirements, there have appeared upon the market and described in the journals many new types of materials which will be used in the production of the necessities and conveniences of mod- ern life. Besides these new materials, many of our old standard ma- terials are appearing in modified form. Neither the fabricator nor the ultimate consumer can know how well adapted these will be to the proposed uses. This is especially true concerning the ability of these materials to withstand the general and special environmental condi- tions under which they will be used. During the war the Armed Forces found that many items of equipment which, under ordinary condi- tions, had been satisfactory, were more or less unsatisfactory even to the extreme of complete failure when placed under the more difficult sub-tropical and tropical conditions. These failures were most often associated with high humidity and high temperature conditions under which there were important biological developments, especially mold growths. Many kinds of electrica) equipment and even of optical goods deteriorated rapidly. Now with our expanding interest in foreign markets, especially in Latin America, added to our own need and use of the many new types of materials, it is important from an economic point of view that basic studies should be made to determine the adaptability of these materials to the conditions under which they will be used. © During the war several testing laboratories and stations were set up for the Navy and Army to determine as rapidly as possible the practical minimum standards for material to withstand the conditions causing deterioration in the various operational areas. Associated with this practical program there was a certain amount of more fundamental investigation of the conditions and organisms involved in deteriora- 1 The work at this laboratory is a part of the program o /tesearch on moisture and fungus proofing of the Bureau of Ordnance, Department of the Navy. Work was con- ducted until February 29, 1946, under Contract NOrd 6119 with Centro Research Labora- tories, Inc., now located at Briarcliff Manor, New York; and since that time under Con- tract NOrd 9856 with the University of Miami. The opinions expressed herein are those of the author and not necessarily those of the organizations involved. 2 Contribution number 23 from the Marine Laboratory of the University of Miami. 40 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES tion. The results of these various studies and tests are now being pub- lished from time to time by various agencies which carried on the work. However, there remain many important phases of this great area of activity which need intensive study of both the practical applications and of the basic scientific problems. In recognition of this need there has been established by the Marine Laboratory of the Uni- versity of Miami a research and testing station where it is proposed to investigate certain aspects of these problems as related especially to the conditions of southern Florida. Work is progressing under a contract with the Bureau of Ordnance of the U.S. Navy. It is recognized, of course, that no fundamental differences exist between this area and others except in the intensity of the environ- mental factors. There are differences of natural flora and fauna which must be given special attention since specificity of activity often proves to be important in these problems. It is proposed moreover to emphasize the problems which are of special practical value in the area indicated and in other regions having similar conditions, thus expanding south- ward some studies which have been made in the more temperate regions and at the same time somewhat limiting the general field of study. In substantiation of the point of view which led to the establishment of the laboratory, it has recently been said by Dr. Hutchinson (1946) of the University of Pennsylvania: ‘‘To a microbiologist humid tropical areas represent regions replete with possibilities for investigation. Problems of deterioration can be studied far more effectively in the areas where they occur than in far distant laboratories.’’ It is believed, also, that certain values are gained by a combination of practical and of fundamental scientific studies, although it is certainly recognized that fundamental scientific studies often lead to very important prac- tical results and they must eventually keep in advance of the applica- tions in order to ensure well based practical developments. During the war, attention at this laboratory was largely focused upon the testing of equipment and materials which had been produced for use of the Armed Forces. It was desired to learn what types of protec- tants against fungous attack were most effective and what types of equipment needed protection under conditions of high humidity and temperature. This work was carried on under a contract between the Navy, Bureau of Ordnance and the Centro Research Laboratories, Inc. During the early period of the war deterioration of equipment was so rapid that immediate practical remedies had to be developed not only as a matter of economy, but even more to relieve the very great A DETERIORATION RESEARCH LABORATORY 41 pressure for adequate quantities of goods for ourselves and our allies in the numerous areas of conflict. Since deterioration occurred all the way from the factory to the front, it was evident that not only the inherent qualities of the products must be altered, but also the condi- tions of transportation, and since much of the injury was associated with the development of mold, both of these aspects were attacked. It was obviously desirable to prevent access of moisture and of mold spores to the interior of the packages, but it was also necessary to treat the materials in a manner to prevent the growth of mold whether in transit, in storage, or in use. Fortunately some ‘‘mold-proofing’’ of textiles and some other materials had been developed more or less satisfactorily prior to the war, but the adaptability of these methods to other materials had to be tested and new methods developed. This required the testing of treated and untreated materials to determine the effectiveness of the methods prior to their being adopted as re- quirements. Two general testing methods were adopted. One established fixed or standard conditions of temperature, humidity and mold organisms. Obviously this method assumed that all organisms react essentially alike under similar environment, which is contrary to fact. However, as a quick and approximate method it was very useful. The second general method adopted was to test materials against the variable conditions of the tropics and sub-tropics and with as wide a range of organisms as the testing area afforded. This latter method was adopted at this laboratory. It was not attempted to maintain controlled tem- perature and humidity conditions but, for the sake of continuity of work, a°‘‘stabilized natural’’ exposure was maintained under which temperature and humidity conditions would in general follow the na- tural trend of typical sub-tropical conditions, but at a level which would favor mold development during the entire twelve months. Instead of using a limited number of standardized mold species, a natural mold development was encouraged by allowing ready access of air currents and of insects and other small carriers of mold spores. This, it was believed, would give a more natural and more severe testing of ma- terials than by using standardized methods and would thus add to our knowledge of the resistance of materials to mold. As will be shown later this expectation was justified. The insect and other spore carriers were present in adequate numbers and effectively disseminated the fungi over the materials being tested. Inexpensive testing chambers were planned and built in a mangrove swamp and provided with electric 42 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES heating units and humidifiers sufficient to simulate warm, humid sub- tropical conditions during the entire year. The Walton Humidifier, which sprays into the air a fine mist of water at room temperature, has proved to be a very effective, inexpensive apparatus to provide the chief humidifying element in these test chambers. Moist cloth curtains were suspended at various points in the chambers to help in produc- ing a rather uniform distribution of humidity. In the course of the various tests of materials numerous observations have given rise to the posing of certain problems, some of which will be discussed briefly. Recently it has been the custom among investigators of problems of deterioration to set up a standard procedure, including established con- ditions and certain types of organisms, through which a material must be carried. If the material became molded under this procedure it was condemned as undesirable or if it did not become molded it was ap- proved. In comparing out results with those of others who have been using the standardized methods, it was noted that identical material types sometimes were attacked by the molds present under our stabil- ized natural conditions but were approved when standard cultures of molds were used. It is evident that if we are to know what materials will actually resist molding, we must have a much better knowledge of the species and varieties of organisms which will cause molding of each type of material. Recent collections of many new types of molds are now available for such study and further wide collecting and de- tailed study are essential. This, as is well known to mycologists, is a highly technical and involved problem. Very frequently centers of infestation by molds have been found to be foreign organic matter adhering to the surface of the test material even when mold toxicants had been added to the main constituent organic material. A problem of considerable importance is thus posed. Can fungi thus provided with adequate food maintain or develop a suffi- cient degree of resistance to the toxicant to become injurious to other- wise well protected materials? That some fungi can develop some degree of resistance to certain toxic chemicals has been reported, but much more careful studies on this problem are important. A problem of prime importance is the proper and effective incorpora- tion of toxicants into the various materials which are otherwise subject to molding. The number of chemical aad physical types of toxicants has been greatly increased in very recent work and the reactions of molds to these is receiving much attention. A DETERIORATION RESEARCH LABORATORY 43 An important contribution to our knowledge of the action of fungi- cidal materials has been made by Doctors Weaver and Whaley (1946) of the Naval Research Laboratory in their study of ‘‘Correlation of Structure with Fungicidity.’’ They have well stated that ‘‘Correlation of structure with fungicidity must be based upon the inherent toxicity of the molecule toward fungi rather than upon the manner in which the fungicide is to be used.”’ It is also important in the practical selec- tion of a toxicant to consider well the chemical relations in the fungi- cide-carrier system and in the fungus-fungicide system. In studying the latter it must not be forgotten that among the many species or possibly varieties of fungi their specificity is of a chemical nature and therefore significant in the fungus-fungicide system. Since these two systems are important, therefore, it must not be considered that because a chemical carries a toxic radical it will prove to be a useful toxicant in a given situation. Because of these and many other complications, it will not be possible to place the study of fungicidity upon a strictly scientific foundation, and therefore practical testing programs will continue to be needed. Most of the mold infested organic materials found adhering to test materials have been insect excreta. It has also been noted that insects in carrying mold spores constitute an important method of infecting these materials with mold. It might then be of very practical import- ance to prevent so far as possible these sources of infection. With cer- tain types of equipment, physical barriers to insects in the form of tight wrappings or careful sealing of units have been adopted. How- ever, with many types of materials and equipment, such methods have a very limited use. It would, therefore, be of much practical importance to be able to use insect repellant chemicals which would protect against insect infestation. Little is known or has been attempted in this appli- cation of insect repellents although some progress has recently been made in their use to protect human beings from annoyance or injury from insects. The use of insecticides is, of course, a distinct technique and might be of limited value in the specific problem just indicated. A closely allied problem relates to the presence of minor or acci- dental organic constituents in what otherwise might be a material highly resistant to molding. Certain finished plastic materials especi- ally have been found to be subject to mold although it is unknown whether or not the main constituent is subject to mold attack. It is already known that in some cases some minor constituent is the sub- stance on which molds can exist. Hence, a careful check must be made 44 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES of the various materials used in the manufacturing processes and es- pecially those which are residual in the finished products. This is especially significant in the study of the plastic materials which are being introduced so rapidly in industry with many new applications. Large numbers of these are complexes of several constituents usually with some resin or cellulosic base. It is widely believed, as has recently been said, (Brown, 1945) that ‘‘It is very doubtful if fungi are capable of breaking down the complex highly polymerized plastics that have been recently synthesized and which are also widely employed in many industries.’’ However, no extensive study of the pure resins in relation to molding has been made. It is true also “‘in some cases conclusive evidence that microorganisms grow on the plastic itself, rather than on surface contaminants like dust and finger marks, has not been ob- tained as yet.’ “‘Also, even though fungi do grow on nutrients sup- plied by some plastic materials, there is considerable doubt as to whether either the properties or the composition of the materials have actually been altered.”’ During successive examinations of the various types of materials the species of molds first appearing have frequently been absent at later examinations and new types have been present. Occasionally earlier types have still later reappeared and sometimes not again. On other materials no such succession of mold types has been noted. Here again a question of practical importance as well as of scientific interest appears. Do the early members of these sequences prepare the way for later arrivals or is this only an apparent succession and not a true ex- ample of the well known biologic succession? If such a sequence is frequent what influence does it have upon the resistant qualities of materials to molding? A closely related phenomenon is that of biologic antagonisms. Some cultural studies have indicated that two molds frequently found on materials in our test chambers show definite anti- biotic relations toward one another, while the same organisms do not show antagonisms toward certain other fungi. This again has its prac- tical as well as scientific interests and calls for a careful and detailed study of the biologic interrelations of these organisms which cause deterioration. Not only specific relationships but also varietal differ- ences may be involved, especially when comparing apparently similar organisms from different parts of the world. It is evident from this partial review of the fundamental problems related to the field of material-deterioration that many of these are interrelated with those of several allied fields and call for a careful cor- A DETERIORATION RESEARCH LABORATORY 45 relation of the data from these various sources as well as much specific experimental work. There is evident need also for cooperation be- tween the production industries and the independent research lab- oratories if rapid and basically sound progress is to take place. LITERATURE CITED BROWN, A. E. 1945. The problem of fungal growth on synthetic resins, plastics, and plasticizers. Office of Scéentific Research and Development, Report No. 6067. HUTCHINSON, W. G. 1946. The deterioration of material in the tropics. Scé. Monthly, 63, 165-177. WEAVER, W. E., and W. M. WHALEY 1946. Chemical studies on fungicides. Part 1. Correlation of structure with fungi- cidity. Naval Research Laboratory, Report No. P-2877. Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 10 (1) 1947 (1948) as Le oes y é 4 baa & TSI 2) wsborpabai, i}, Ae: met shes « payed bie * “ yds he sew wel kd + . ppt whe “5 i q c ; rE Reg 5 yo oh See iy eT SPM a: oF By 2 ae ¥ f (2 ee Ne ee ts hypo Row oh eee ie it: co @ eer os S44 % aay on rears at ay BPS sh et JF Eee uf = si bol = rie , * “6 Os “wes toe ) : - ty a ere Sr) ie 4 , * A. i if e _ ©) Ae Tey eth Rae se Ciera ee de kl “ery te Saree: - © . : 5 # * . 1. = Sa ‘ | ¥ x a fu 4 i ; ¥ = bs : ey i -§ Vp 7 iv - = i F ety © is “yee es . cnt > ee P A ys. ie a ehh oh oR cd at pit ye SEG. zs oa 4 . 7 ~~ é ; ioe “sR ihe3 aay eds ee TE af PAU a 1 #2 * ie Pte, rh ¥ : . ; / e a ; Fi Ly Aa as he ay a Ye eB os & % 37 Pe: ER viet, % oe ta A F } 3 : < +; » ee x ; » 4 — = , ne ; ot ; ra 4 = i i ; : 4 ‘ 4 FE — Cs : 2. 9 ‘ = j = £ _ + rs { < i a s = i os < = >* . eee t = 7 Fi &. - — iT; Suen : ‘ er = F 3 =. a . ra % = an Gi > a : i. ‘ x > - j Bf re ‘ “ ; > : ti. > ie las od ‘3 q F F ‘ i ~ F, ey es Brn 2 “agp as 3 z 7 " is \ a iy : y P 5f = ‘ a & NEWS AND COMMENTS This is a new department of the Quarterly Journal established by action of the Council at the September, 1947, meeting in Tampa. Its avowed purpose is to bring the Journal into more personal relationship with the membership of the Academy, but there is no intention of usurping the functions of our News Letter which has been so cleverly and ably managed by Dr. Raymond F. Bellamy. However, members of the Academy are urged to submit information concerning promo- tions, awards, scientific achievements of individuals or organizations, notices of deaths of members, etc. The editors will make every effort to include any and all worthwhile material. So send us the facts about yourself and others that you will be proud to have announced to your fellow Academy members. OFFICERS OF THE FLorRIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES oe 1948 President: E. M. Miller President: George F. Weber University of Miami University of Florida Vice President: George Saute Vice President: Gatald G. Parker Rollins College U.S. Geological Survey Secretary-Treasurer: Taylor R. Alexander Secretary-Treasurer: Chester §. Nielsen University of Miami Florida State University Chairmen of Sections Social: William Melcher Social: Rev. C. W. Burke, O.P. Rollins College Barry College Biological: H. K. Wallace Biological: John H. Davis, Jr. University of Florida University of Florida Physical: Garald G. Parker Physical: A. A. Bless U.S. Geological Survey University of Florida Member of Council for 1947-1948: Guy G. Becknell, University of Tampa Member of Council for 1948-1949: E. M. Miller, University of Miami Representative to A.A.A.S.: Robert B. Campbell, Gulf Hammock, Florida Historian: George F. Weber, University of Florida Librarian: Coleman J. Goin, University of Florida kditor: Frank N. Young, Jr., University of Florida Assistant Editor: Irving J. Cantrall, University of Florida 48 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Dr. H. K. Wallace was reelected editor of the Florida Entomologist at the annual meeting of the Florida Entomological Society held in Gainesville December 12-13, 1947. Dr. Lewis Berner, another member of the Academy, was reelected secretary. The American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists have announced that their annual meeting will be held in New Orleans on March 26-27, 1948. Anyone interested in attending the meeting or in becoming a member of the society can obtain further information by writing Dr. Arnold B. Grobman, Department of Biology, University of Florida. The Association of Southeastern Biologists will meet in Gainesville on or about April 16-17, 1948. For space on the program or information write Dr. John H. Davis, Jr., University of Florida, or Dr. Elon Byrd, Secretary, University of Georgia. Researcu NOotTEs MODIFIED SPORE STAIN—The writer has found that in staining spores a more striking contrast of colors and a more evenly colored background is obtained if Higgins Waterproof Blue Drawing Ink is used as a negative stain in place of Derner’s Nigrosin Solution in conjunction with the Ziehl-Nielsen Acid Fast Stain. An even faster and better stain is obtained when a detergent (Tween 80) is added in the proportion of 10 drops to 65 ml. of dilute carbol fuchsin. This dye permits the asco- spores to be stained in 30 to 45 seconds and bacterial spores in 1 to 114 minutes without heat. The addition of blue ink as a negative stain decolorizes the carbol fuchsin in the vegetative cell and leaves the spores standing out red in a white cell against a blue back ground. The ink is spread in a thin film over the mount by means of a standard loop, the excess ink drained off, and the film dried. The advantages of this method include (1) a saving of time (2) the elimination of the use of heat (3) a more striking contrast of colors than is obtained with other spore stains and (4) an exceptionally smooth background. —JAMES F. BEATTY, JR., Department of Bacteriology, University of Florida. Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy _ ie wd 109 AS} of Sciences’. Vol. 10 June -September 1947 (1948) . Nos. 2-3 Contents Coxiins—-Lirz, Lasor, aND Sorrow — A StuDY OF THE CASTE SYSTEM IN THE SANTEE-Cooper Project AREA OF SOUTH ROMINA cg loe sive ve eee eee deh has a ca ae at eanatte eae cea 49 Lewis—AN ENGINEER Looks AT GENERAL EDUCATION......... 59 STICKLER—SOME PRaAcTICAL PROBLEMS IN TEACHING SCIENCE IN © GENERAL EDUCATION......... et MMR Ds De ee 67 PizrsoN—THE CLIMATE OF THE BELLINGHAM LOWLAND OF WASsH-— FUG TENT ge MR I TRS Sh 2 oe ae A 5 a Es Da Ws Davis—NoTES ON THE PLANKTON OF Lone Laxz, Dapg County, Froripa, witH Descrietions oF Two New Copeprops........ 79 Puipps—TABLES FOR VOLUMES IN A HorizONTAL CYLINDER...... 89 D1iENST—VIRULENCE AND ANTIGENICITY OF HEMOPHILUS DUCREYI 91 SMITH AND SINGER—IHE Errect oF LIGNIN ON AMMONIFICATION TCU ee AikeouAeNG TOM TINIE OPMNTI NE se bo i eo Oe ee 95 Carrouiut, Hitt, anp McELtrata—Swimmer’s ItcH IN FLoriDA HAG) IN Me GAGNESWIEDE NREAL) Jc 00). fs cca ee eal dee 98 eS PAI NIDE CGINTNURINIIS cle ehn eis. ioc eas noo Seeiklw oe cae kwabaoee 100 June-September, 1947 (1948) Vol. 10, Nos. 2-3 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES A Journal of Scientific Investigation and Research Published by the Florida Academy of Sciences Printed by the Rose Printing Company, Tallahassee, Florida Communications for the editor and all manuscripts should be addres ed to Frank N. Young, Editor, or Irving J. Cantrall, Assistant Editor, Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida. Business communications should be addressed to Chester S. Nielsen, Secretary-Treasurer, Florida State University, Talla- hassee, Florida. All exchanges and communications regarding exchanges should be sent to the Florida Academy of Sciences, Exchange Library, Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville. Subscription price, Three Dollars a year Mailed June 15, 1948 THE QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vol. 10 JUNE-SEPTEMBER 1947 (1948) Nos. 2-3 Pipe ABOR VAND SORROW -—A STUDY OF THE CASTE SYSTEM IN. THE SAN TEE-COOPER PROJECT AREA OF SOUTH, GAROLINA Marcus W. Co.niins Florida State University In most respects the Santee-Cooper Project area of South Carolina may be considered typical of the so-called ‘‘Black Belt’’ of the South. A small segment of the low-lying Atlantic coastal plain, essentially agricultural, with a population predominantly rural and more than fifty per cent Negro, it is characterized by economic and social con- ditions generally similar to those found throughout the Southeastern Lowlands of the United States. Up to the time of the Civil War a rice- growing region, it developed a social structure based upon slavery and the plantation system of agriculture. Its mores have been deter- mined by the operation of that system and continue with small modi- fication as an inheritance from the slave-holding period of its history. The shift was made from slave-holding to free labor without appreci- able disturbance of the caste system which had been fixed under slavery. _ Perhaps nowhere else in the South has caste been more clearly de- fined, more rigidly applied, and more consistently observed. In general the present-day pattern of stratification repeats that of the ante-bellum slave-holding society. At the top is the Bourbon class, descended from the colonial planter families of early settlement and large holdings. This class no longer possesses those distinctions of wealth and educa- tion which marked them before 1860. Many have lost their lands and have been reduced to occupations formerly reserved to the, yeoman wt 2 1 1SBS 50 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES class. A number of the families have completely degenerated. But the aristocratic tradition is still so strong among them that, whatever their financial or occupational status, they continue to assert their social superiority. In this area their claim is respected as a matter of course by the other classes in the population. There is seldom, if ever, any question as to who is or is not an aristocrat. The Negro is par- ticularly conscious of the distinction between the Bourbon and the other classes of whites. Next downward in the pyramid are the so-called “‘respectable people,’ essentially what were the yeoman-farmer and part of the professional classes of slavery days. Often they are distinguishable from the aristocrats only by their lack of family distinction. John C. Calhoun, a first-honor graduate of Yale University, Vice-president of the United States, and a large slave-owner, was a member of the yeo- man class. The line between them and the Bourbons is very clear and seldom can be.crossed, although, so far as superficial social intercourse is concerned, the wealthier and more able of them associate with the aristocracy on relatively equal terms. Below the respectable people is the ies class, composed of those who work with their hands—carpenters, mechanics, farmers who do their own work, small shopkeepers, and business employees. It is much easier for a working man to climb into the respectable class than for a member of the yeomanry to move up into the aristocracy. At the bottom of the white caste structure are the ‘‘crackers,’’ the “‘pine-hillers,’’ the “‘po’ whites,’ a generally ignorant, shiftless squatter or tenant class, living in the pine hills and swamps or in the slums of the cities. As the broad base of this pyramid of social stratifications there 1s, of course, the Negro. Under the old plantation system as a slave, he was at the bottom of the social structure there he still remains, though in freedom, the plantation tradition holding him in continued servi- tude to a caste inferiority little different from that of slavery. With the exception of a number from the West Indies, the slaves — introduced into this region came directly from Africa, particularly from Angola and Gambia. The vast majority of the Negroes were field hands who, because of the constant threat which their numbers represented to the minority of whites, were given little education or training in skills. Schools had been established by Church of England missionaries in the early years of the Eighteenth Century, but a series of insurrections, the LIFE, LABOR, AND SORROW 5i most serious of which was that at Stono in 1739, led to the abandon- ment of formal education for slaves, after it was observed that these revolts were usually incited by Negroes of some learning. In spite of the ever-present danger of revolt and the inevitable antag- onisms which developed between the skilled Negroes and the lower class whites, the relationship of the races was throughout the slave period marred by relatively little friction. The plantation system pro- duced a familistic relationship between master and slave which made for loyalty on the part of the Negro and a sense of responsibility on the part of the master. Emancipation thrust upon the Negroes of the area a new status— that of free man and citizen—for which most of them were completely unprepared and of the responsibilities of which most of them had no understanding. The Negro became a pawn in a particularly despicable political game and a weapon with which the Northern Radicals were determined to humiliate the South. The Reconstruction in South Carolina was the most nauseous in the entire South, marked by excesses of corruption and violence, that shocked all who witnessed it. The solution of that problem in the next fifty years took the form of a calculated repression of the Negro politically, economically, and socially. He was stripped of the ballot by a ‘‘grandfather’’ clause, discriminated against by Jim Crow laws, mistreated on the least provocation, and made continually aware of his racial inferiority. Every effort was made to fix him in his place by drawing the color line. For the white people of South Carolina (and of the South) were united no more firmly on any idea than the Negro must be kept in his place. In recent years a more intelligent approach to the problem has been made by Southern leaders, but the Negro as an inferior caste still remains. The basis of this caste demarcation is color. A Negro, according to popular decision, is any person who possesses discernible negtoid characteristics of color or features. The various Southern states have attempted to solve the problem by statute. In practice, however, a Negro is one who looks at all like a Negro and is generally accepted . as being one. The color line is drawn clearest and with most determination as it applies to the relationship of the sexes. In fact, its entire structure of segregations and distinctions is for the purpose, in the final analysis, of maintaining the racial purity of the white race. White prostitutes 52 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES | do not serve Negro men as a matter of business. This is not to say that there is not a certain amount of white prostitution to Negroes. This occurs mostly among gitlswho are on call at hotels and who have Negro bellboys working for them. The inviolate white woman is the symbol of the superiority of the white caste and her inaccessibility to the Negro is the symbol of the inferiority of the black caste. More yet, the taboo on the white woman is the basic taboo from which all others derive their meaning and from which all the restrictions and discriminations applied to the Negro logically proceed. It does not follow, however, that the color line as drawn between white woman and Negro man is paralleled by one as equally clear between white man and Negro woman. A characteristic of superior classes is the inaccessibility of their women to men of the lower classes; conversely, a characteristic of inferior classes. The color line is drawn not only against the Negro as a man but also against him as a worker. The assumption of the whites is that he is inferior in intelligence and capacity as well as in race. _ Moreover, the Negro is excluded from types of work in which he is in too direct competition with the white man or which by his presence tend to break down the color line. As would be expected from the plantation pattern of economic organization in the Santee-Cooper area, the Negro is predominantly a farm laborer, a house servant, or an unskilled manual worker. Thus domestic service and unskilled labor, principally agricultural, are the occupational groups to which the Negro has been largely restricted. The restrictions of caste are applied to the conditions under which he may work more often than to the types of labor which he may do. His employment as a factory operative is affected both by the fact that he is usually considered unadapted to work with complicated machinery and by the taboo on a Negro working indoors along side white women. A Negro man is not permitted to work indoors with white women except as a menial, as janitor, porter, or waiter. He may work with white men indoors or out but not as a craftsman. The ex- clusion of the Negro from labor unions has served to deter him from going into the crafts controlled by unions. Even non-union white craftsmen will usually not work on the same job with Negroes. More- over, the caste distinction operates in the rate of pay; the Negro being seldom paid on the same scale as white men doing identical work. The Negro in business is hedged about with a number of restrictions. LIFE, LABOR, AND SORROW {53 He may engage in any kind of business catering to his own race, but the whites will patronize him only in certain businesses and then usually only if the Negro restricts his trade to white people. For example, if a Negro runs a barbershop, shoeshine parlor, cleaning es- tablishment, laundry, or lunch room, he must cater exclusively to one race or the other, not to both; but a Negro grocer may sell to whites and Negroes in the same store. Whites will patronize Negro draymen, market gardeners and peddlers, launderers, grocers, cleaners, and news dealers, but they will not trade at clothing, dry goods, and drug stores conducted by Negroes. The Negro as an employer of white help is not tolerated, and colored clerks are seldom found in white, stores, whatever the nature of their clientele. The Negro professional man 1s strictly limited to his own race. A Negro preacher does not pastor a white congregation; a Negro teacher does not instruct white pupils; a Negro doctor or dentist or lawyer seldom serves a white client. White and Negro clergy in the cities cooperate in certain civic programs, but a Negro minister is never invited to fll a white minister's pulpit, and the white preacher who occupies the pulpit in a Negro church does so as a gesture of con- descension. Of the less than twenty-five hundred professional workers among the Negroes of the Santee-Cooper area, a large majority of the men ate preachers and most of the women are school teachers. The difh- culties confronting the young Negro desiring to study medicine or dentistry are such that very few have attempted it. These Negro doctors who have established themselves in the area labor under the difficulties of not being able to consult with white doctors or to serve on hospital staffs. A Negro doctor is not permitted to attend one of his patients after the person has been received into a hospital. Even in the hospitals specifically for Negroes, of which there is one in Charleston and two in Columbia, the staff heads and most of the visiting staff are white. The Negro populations of the large towns are better served by physicians of their own race than are the rural areas. Charleston, for example, has a number of successful Negro doctors who practice among the upper class of the colored residents. Most of these men are well- educated, frequently graduated from better medical schools than their white colleagues. The color line, however, would never permit them to attend a white patient except as an emergency, and they would never be called into consultation by white physicians. $4 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES The law has been even more difficult for the Negro. than medicine. The practical disenfranchisement of the Negro, his exclusion from jury service, and the general prejudice which the Reconstruction in- grained in the white man against the Negro’s participation in the courts and the processes of government have served to close the pro- fession of attorney to the Negro. There may be Negro lawyers in the area, but if so, they have curiously escaped this writer’s observation. The white population has in various ways classified the Negroes according to their attitude toward the caste system and the color line. A good Negro is one who ‘‘knows his place’; a bad Negro is one who shows signs of independence. Favorite with the whites are the ‘‘old- time darkey’’ and the ‘“‘old colored mammy’”’ type; Negroes still close enough to slavery to carry its servility and manners naturally. The ‘new Negro,’’ the one who has notions about justice or better treat- ment or equal pay, the Negro with education and accomplishments, is viewed with deep suspicion. Sometimes he is “‘uppity,’’ which means simply that he is not sufficiently servile in deportment. Other times he may be ‘‘biggety,’’ which is more serious than being “‘up- pity,’ for a “‘biggety’’ Negro has dangerous ideas about his personal rights and often has imbibed radical doctrines from the North. Towards the whites the Negro’s attitude is marked by a curiously exact sense of social gradations reflecting the slave psychology. He has real respect only for the master class and continues to discrimin- ate between the cracker, the yeoman, and the aristocrat. This is seen in the general contempt which the Negro, even the blackest field hand, has for the poor white; in the refusal of servants to work for white people of whose social standing or manners they do not approve; and in the discrimination which Negro women often make between Bourbon class and the lower class in dispensing their sexual favors. For example, a Negress who is the mistress of a Bourbon aristocrat ot who customarily receives upper-class white men will have nothing to do with a white man of the working class. The further a Negro is removed, of course, from the influence of the plantation tradition, the less he is affected by the sense of class distinctions among the whites. Among the younger Negroes in the cities the old respect for the aristocrat is dying out: but in the country and on the farms the hold of the slave psychology on the Negro is still stronger than anything else. Within the Negro caste there are as marked class stratifications as are to be found in the white population. These gradations are based LIFE, LABOR, AND SORROW 55 on degree of color, on occupation and wealth, and on education and achievement: Actually all of them come down to the matter of color differences. So, as we shall see, occupation, accomplishment, and wealth largely parallel lightness of color. Taken as a whole and all other things being equal, the light-skinned Negro has more intelli- gence, more ability to get ahead, more respect for himself. He is likely to be neater and more pleasing in appearance, with the result that whites prefer him as an employee. The waiters and waitresses working at the leading Charleston hotels are all light-skinned. The field hands of the rural sections, who have seldom been more than a few miles from the plantations on which they work, are almost in- variably black. ) The lighter a Negro’s skin, the more nearly he resembles the white man in features, hair, and in general effect, the higher he stands in the social scale. The classification prevailing among the Santee-Cooper area Negroes is as follows: At the bottom are the Blacks. They are descendants of the field hands of slavery. Most of them are still farm laborers and live on the plantations and in the rural district. Supposedly they are pure-blooded Negroes. Next upward are the Dark Choco- lates. These may be either pure-blood or tinged with a small amount of white. Not infrequently a Dark Chocolate will achieve some marked success and marry a lighter woman, so that his children will be still lighter than he. Next in the scale are the Light Chocolates. These are mulattoes and are at least half white or more. Following are the High Yellows, the Quadroons, and the Light Light Yellows, the Octoroons. The upper three classes—Light Chocolate, High Yellow, and Light Light Yellow—form a group which has little to do with the two darker classes. The division between dark and light classes runs through the whole pattern of Negro life. They congregate on different streets in the cities. For example, in Charleston, the light Negroes are to be found largely on Coming Street, the Black Negroes on Anson Street, and the other streets adjacent to the cigar factory and the gas works, while in Columbia, the blacks are found on Lady Street. Dark Negroes gen- erally do not feel at home in churches, restaurants, or social clubs attended by light Negroes. On Wentworth and Coming Street in Charleston there are churches attended by light, light yellows, where it is made so uncomfortable for dark worshippers—'‘burr-heads’’ they are called—that they have been forced out of the congregations. Light Negroes never invite the darker-skinned to their house parties 56 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES and beach affairs. A high yellow cleaner will not accept the trade of blacks. On Market Street, Charleston, there is a restaurant catering to high class light-skin Negroes which discourages darker customers. Even among the houses of prostitution along East Bay Street there are places which receive only light-skin men. There has always been considerable jealousy and hard feeling be- tween the dark Negroes and the light ones in South Carolina. The Brown Fellowship Society, founded in 1790 and later known as the Century Fellowship Society, was organized as an exclusive club of free mulattoes. The members were particularly anxious to preserve the integrity of their group and would not associate with whites or other Negroes except as necessary. There has persisted, particularly in Charleston, a snobbishness of color which has divided the Negroes almost as sharply into groups of light and dark as the whites are divided into Bourbons and lower classes. As we have already seen, the first great upsetting force affecting the Santee-Cooper Negro, as it did the Negro throughout the South, was the Civil War. Restraints upon that mobility were quickly applied, however, by the persistence of the plantation economy after abolition. by the submission of the Negro to the compulsory relation developed between him and the white, and by the natural inertia of an illiterate rural people. In the years between 1880 and 1916 the population of the Santee-Cooper region sank into a kind of somnolence both social and economic. It was not until the firss World War that the changes taking place in the South as a whole were felt in the Santee-Cooper basin. Today, with the opening of the Santee-Cooper hydro-electric project and the enormous expansion of defense industry in the vicinity of Charleston, the forces tending toward mobility have increased in number and in strength. The proportion of mixed blood in this country is in dispute. What- ever the exact figures, it is clear that there has been a definite increase in the amount of white admixture in the Negro population year by year since the establishment of slavery in this country. This rising percentage of white blood has resulted in (1) an increased shift of Negroes from one caste to the other, (2) the development of a Negro upper class predominantly white in racial composition, and @) a mounting emphasis upon coloration as the determinant of social stand- ing. As the darker males, considering marriage to a light woman a sign of social advance, enter business and professions and mate with light-skinned females, the tendency will be to form an upper class, LIFE, LABOR, AND SORROW ay among the Negroes, of a new racial type. Already this new Negro is appearing in the Santee-Cooper area, where it 1s urban in contrast to the rural black, mobile, varied in occupation, educated, and largely released from the plantation tradition. Recent developments in the Santee-Cooper area, particularly the opening of the hydro-electric project, promise a quickening of social mobility among the Negroes and many large-scale changes in the racial social structure. The new source of cheap power will promote the growth of industries, and the new water route will increase the amount of commerce. Also, the consciousness of identity with the national interest, a breakdown of the isolated community solidarity, and a loosening of the regional attitudes are resulting from the war. The construction of increased facilities at the Navy Yard and port terminal in North Charleston has drawn thousands of lower strata Negroes from the area to work as stevedores, manual laborers, and the like. It has meant practically a breakdown of the plantation system. What this all means is difficult to say. The economic future of the atea is fairly clear. It will continue to become industrialized and urbanized under the influence of the Project, and its importance as a region will grow. These changes will mean an increased social mobility; a breaking down of the old stratifications, and a substitu- tion of new; a better balancing of the regional economy; more oppot- tunity for the capable Negro; and a future to which as a citizen the colored man will be able to look forward with more confidence and more hope. Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 10 @-3)) 1947 (4948) = + be! J " > x - » { 4 “ ‘ ey > é ‘ s " a i ‘ = Jax Py a rs ¥ 2h he %, 4 . aa +S ~ Pept. te ors a 2 E Pl . ~ ¥ : ; S : re x 4 . j . “ - - - . a 4 as he mh s . i ; wy 5 ' . - +5 ' be ? ety ie) Bet EFT on Pt jal cae Ri *~ : 2 r ae d ” Nas = F, t 4 ie PANE ELLE Pr ee + . Sart we: a =e « eH Le Ge oes we = q bm A * et 2 Poo : ‘=e owe é ¢ Lo > ey “ 7 i ' Pt et - TAF a wie ) = . > Fi g ds | - 4 * < - i = r ¥ jm fi 4 as 4 oY . wis * 7 3 J J ye Sle - —s ¢ were ot z ¢ + ooe5 «Vee : fe : ~a - Me CES, } | i : a « f \ Bt Pe e € iy i. nent : 5 é / f , . ee ‘ ~~ , t rh. = rs A a — - mr = : { t ~~ . aes , 7 ni s 4 ¢ ¥ ‘ - —~ : { ' % ‘ : i 3 =. ‘ e J f 4 AN ENGINEER LOOKS AT GENERAL EDUCATION D. M. Lewis, Jr. Florida State University My remarks on general education will be strictly from the view- point of a graduate engineer and novice teacher. I may qualify that just a little and say from the viewpoint of a partially converted en- gineer. In any event, some of my observations will be deemed heresy by both engineers and teachers. Scientists have so much in common with engineers, that I am going to include them with the engineers, although I know that no scientist worthy of the name will ever classify himself in any degree with the engineers. Engineers and scientists will confess in private, and sometimes in public, that a very high order of intelligence is necessary to study engineering and science, to practice engineering and science, and to understand engineering and science. Having undergone a rigorous higher education and seen many fall by the wayside, they extend this concept a little farther and think that engineers and scientists are beings apart from all others and truly on a higher intellectual plane. They have a rather condescending attitude toward their fellow human beings. Now these fellow humans for their part respect the scholarship and accomplishments of the engineers and scientists, but, to put it mildly, they firmly believe that they are all just a little queer. Obviously, this attitude on both sides is not good. Every en- gineer and scientist secretly believes he could run the country or even the world far better than the poor mortals who are trying to do so. His fellow human beings wonder why we still have so many dis- astrous airline crashes even though the engineers and scientists make such bold claims for their radar and navigational aids. I am sure that a parallel situation exists with the lawyers as the superior beings, or the businessmen, or in fact with the members of any of the professional and vocational groups. In my opinion, a broad general education for all parties is the cure for this evil, the correction of which would benefit everybody. Of course, we have always had general education—from ancient times when the legends and tales of travellers constituted the course of study, to the present extreme in some of our colleges where it is certainly over-emphasized. With some exceptions engineers and sci- 60 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES entists have been particular opponents of general education. This situation has been brought about partly by their own narrowness of education, and partly by their refusal to join the community and take part in its operation. They have grudgingly educated society to use the fruits of their intellect and research, but, in keeping with their beliefs that society was incapable of learning, they performed this educational function in a halting, piecemeal fashion. In the case of radio, a period of eighty-three years was available to educate society to the point where society is now reasonably informed of the scientific fundamentals, the engineering applications, and the limitations. Engineers and scientists were forced by circumstances to educate society this far. They have since devoted very little thought or action towards influencing society to use radio intelligently. They provide the means, and then sit complacently by and watch society struggle with the moral and economic problems that have arisen. They feel that they have done their part in having developed the means and educated society 1n a rather niggardly manner. What society does with the means is no concern of their. It zs their concern. They are a part of society. But, unfortunately, despite their admittedly high caliber brains, they are incapable of advising society because they simply don’t know how. Their own education has been remiss. Now in the past, scientific development was a slow process and society had time to assimilate the piecemeal education necessary to use it an control it. Engineers had time to carry out this educational function so they could in the end turn it over to an informed society with the reasonable assurance that society could cope with all the implications. As | have mentioned, in the case of radio, the process of education started eighty-three years ago, and 1s still in progress. On the face of it this is a poor way to do things. Why not try to give society a broad general education in science so society can quickly understand new developments in science; so society can quickly and intelligently appraise the economic and political implications of scientific developments; so society can make immediate use of the development and institute appropriate controls of its application? And why not give our scientists and engineers a broad general edu- cation in social history and social problems, in the arts and philosophy and in government and politics so our scientists can play an adequate role in the proper application and control of scientific development? They admit to the brainpower, and I contend that society cannot af- AN ENGINEER LOOKS AT GENERAL EDUCATION 61 ford to have such a large part of its greatest natural resource devoted solely to a supporting role. This reservoir of brain-power must be used not only for scientific development and application, but also in an advisory capacity for the better operation of society. General educa- tion for our scientists and engineers is the first step toward a realiza- tion of this goal. Mind you, this is what we need, but this is far from what we have. Everyone knows what happened on July 16, 1945. The first purposeful large-scale release of nuclear energy was accomplished that day on the New Mexico desert. It was a day of triumph for science. It was also a day of defeat for science. That day put an end to our compla- cent method of educating society piecemeal to accept, use, and control the applications of scientific development. The eighty-three-year time interval that had been available to educate society in the case of radio was reduced to almost no time at all in the case of nuclear energy. Obviously society was not ready for this impact of scientific develop- ment. Society had been shortsighted. Our sins of omission caught up with us in a few millionths of a second. Society's chance of survival hinges on the intelligent study of the lesson so dramatically taught. Today, the peoples of the world sup- press a secret terror. Our scientists realize they are incapable of advising society on the proper use of this development. | grant you they are trying, but their training and their ingrained attitude lead them to defeat. Even a basic knowledge of politics would enable them to be far more effective. They must not only realize their educational weak- nesses and their social negligence, but they must admit them. Not only admit their faults, but exert all the pressure of which they are capable to the end that all our people have a basic knowledge of science. Our colleges and universities have recognized the problem and have taken steps toward alleviating the situation. My opinion, as an opinionated engineer, is that the over-all picture is still far from satis- factory. | have recently examined the catalogs of two famous tech- nical schools, both of which are quite familiar to me, and find they offer courses in general education. Looking deeper, though, I find it quite apparent that a student can easily graduate from either one without a general education, or even worse, graduate believing he has a general education. I contend this is just paying lip service to the need and it is almost as bad as doing nothing at all. On the other 62. JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES hand, we hear of schools announcing courses in Hunting and Fishing and the Art of Make-Up. This is obviously carrying things too far, and the school is of course suspect of seeking academic notoriety. There is an intelligent solution for any problem and there is an intelligent solution for this particular problem. It is simply a ques- tion of attaining a proper balance between general education and vocational education. Here at Florida State University a good start has been made toward a well-balanced program. The general educa- tion is on the whole rather well done, with one glaring omission. Just this year a hole was plugged with a basic and cultural course in mathematics. The real problem is to integrate each coutse within itself, and with the other general college courses. This process of inte- gration 1s quite important because every phase of human endeavor affects several other phases of human endeavor. Integration can be achieved in several ways. For instance, by requiring each course to be taught by a single instructor instead of a panel of experts. A panel of experts can never cross-reference their particular subjects to the other parts of the course. Cross-referencing between courses is im- portant, and although I present the problem, I must confess I have no solution. I mentioned that the general education program at Florida State University was on the whole well done except for one glaring omission. This omission is not made by Florida State University alone, but by every other institution I know of. Let me begin by describing briefly a function of a military commander. A military commander in combat has to make decisions constantly; right decisions; intelligent deci- sions; decisions that mean men’s lives, that mean victory or defeat, that mean subjugation or freedom. The tempo of combat does not permit the commander long study and contemplation. Sometimes decisions must be made in minutes and the rule is a maximum of a few hours. The commander cannot be guided or counseled or advised. The decision is his and his alone. There is one thing he must have, though. He must have information—the best information, sifted and boiled down by the best brains available. Complete, unbiased, truth- ful information is all that he requires to make the decision. The mili- tary recognizes this, and provides the commander with the most complete information service it is possible to provide. The G-1, with all the help he needs to do the job, informs the commander of how many troops he actually has on the battle field, and how many he can expect to add each day. The G-2 informs him completely of the enemy. AN ENGINEER LOOKS AT GENERAL EDUCATION 63 The G-3 informs him of the disposition of his troops, the terrain to be encountered, the obstacles to be overcome, and the subordinate’ commanders’ estimates of their situation. The G-4 informs the com- mander of the supplies available and to be available. The G-3 recom- mends several courses of action based on detailed study of the situa- tion. The commander then, and not until then, makes his decision. A student entering college, like the military commander, is faced with the necessity of making a decision. Now, picture a student just out of high school, rather immature, walking up to the registrar to arrange his college education. The registrar asks, “‘What do you want to major in?’ The student is ex- pected to make a decision then and there that will affect his whole life. He is expected to choose a career. The rest of his life is at stake. But he is not alone. Society has a stake in that student—a big stake. He is expected to make a decision based on zo information and prob- ably hampered by bad counseling, bad guidance, or bad advice. The decision, like that of the military commander, is his and his alone, and all the advice and guidance and counseling in the world will not make it for him. What he must have, and what he does not get is information, complete, unbiased, truthful information. With it he can make a sound decision. Without it, he can not. Our general education program must provide that information. I believe, and I’m very sincere about this, that every student enter- ing an institution of higher learning should be required to take a course that is designed to give him the information necessary to choose a career intelligently. As much time as is necessary should be devoted to this course, so that the student will at the end have the best informa- tion available for his decision. I think it would require at least five lecture hours and one seminar per week for one quarter to cover the ground adequately. The course should be devoted to “‘brass tacks’’ discussions of the various careers or occupations or professions or other lines of endeavor open to the student. The course should cover the economic aspects of each, the special aptitudes that are desirable, the scholastic preparation needed for each vocation, and the duties and responsibilities of its practitioners. The course should include informa- tion concerning schools offering training in each line and the time and money necessary to get the education. A weekly seminar is included to permit the student to quiz professional men invited for the occa- sion. The seminar would permit the student to ask “‘brass tacks’’ questions and he should get ‘‘brass tacks’’ answers from a man who 64 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES is practicing the profession every day, and not have to rely on some- body who read a book. Last, but not least, the course should be taught by the best faculty that can be gathered together. At the end of the course, the student should be required to make his decision, and submit a detailed plan for his own education. At this point the student should be ready to start his education with a clear objective and a detailed plan of action. He must then take charge of his own education. The student, the university and society would all benefit. The student would know what he wanted and would not fumble into something he might not have any aptitude for. The uni- versity could plan its courses in strict accordance with a known de- mand. Society in effect would be training its higher-grade brain power in such a way that it would be of the greatest benefit to society. How many of you have thought how wonderful it would be if you could start all over again with your education, knowing what you know now? I have, and I believe everyone of you has. Years after you have left college, you realize what you could have gotten if you had only known. Then, I ask you, why do your children and my children have to go through college as blindly as we did? They won't if sufficient pressure is brought from outside the educational system to force our institutions of higher learning to provide the student at the very start with all the information necessary to choose a career, plan his edu- cation, and take charge of his own education. I believe the impetus must come from outside. General education is not confined to our educational system. Far from it! Newspapers, magazines, radio broadcasts, luncheon clubs, and public meetings all play a txemendous part. I believe everyone will agree that general education in the science field is inadequately covered by these media, whereas most other fields are covered in good fashion. The inadequate coverage in the science field is traceable di- rectly to the complacent attitude of our scientists and engineers, and their refusal to join the community. I have already pointed out that we cannot afford this attitude. The atom bomb changed our status, whether we like it or not. Scientists and engineers must make their voices heard in the community even though they may run the risk of appearing ludicrous at first. They have a clearly defined duty to edu- cate their fellows in science. They should welcome any opportunity to inform the public. The most important thing for them is their duty to teach, not only their students, but the public at large; to participate as active, paid-up speaking members of society; and to insure that AN ENGINEER LCOKS AT GENERAL EDUCATICN 65 those who are now in training, and those who will follow, will be given an adequate general education along with the science, and complementary to it. It is imperative that the ‘‘brass tacks’’ thinking of science, supplemented by adequate general education, play an in- creasingly important role in the operation of out society. Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 10 (2-3) 1947 (1948) 4 \ P My Pet Sie nked flea Te r _ “ > fy 7 >. 4 ‘ fe A i’ +<~ ay Minas: > e : o P 7 eo: NigaAr ap “: ts ts oe SOME PRACTICAL PROBLEMS IN TEACHING SCIENCE IN GENERAL EDUCATION W. Hucx STIcKLER Florida State University In this paper I do not propose to discuss in detail the objectives of science in general education. Personally, I rather like and find quite challenging the two general statements that J. D. Bernal (1940) makes in this connection: The first objective [of science in general education] is to provide enough understanding of the place of science in society to enable the great majority that will not be actively engaged in scientific pursuits to collaborate intelligently with those who are, and to be able to criticize or appreciate the effect of science on society. The second objective, which is not entirely distinct, is to give a practical understand- ing of scientific method, sufficient to be applicable to the problems which the citizen has to face in his individual and social life. General Education is no fad. It is here to stay. The general educa- tion movement is moving across our nation with force and speed. It is gaining strength daily. There is no dismissing this thing lightly. It is a movement with which all of us must deal sooner or later. Let us face it with courage! Suppose we begin with this basic assumption: Science is tremen- dously important in modern society and in effective personal living; therefore, it must occupy a position of prominence in every adequate program of general education. Taking that assumption for granted, and I think there will be little opposition to that point of view, let us look at some of the practical problems which confront us in oper- ating the general education science course. I know of no program of general education which does not include basic instruction in science. Yet with few exceptions these courses do not seem to be well received by students. In general, we seem to be getting our material over to the students with only partial effec- tiveness. Recently the students at Harvard University reported the course in natural science to be the least satisfactory of all the general courses. Let me quote from an article which appears in the bulletin Higher Education for November 15, 1947. It was written by Benjamin F. Wright (1947) and is entitled “‘General Education at Harvard’’: 68 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Most colleges have found that the area of the natural sciences presents the most diffi- cult problems of selection, organization, and presentation of materials when the aim is general rather than special education. At Harvard this experience has been repeated, not because of opposition of the scientists or an absence of talented, experienced, and Conscientious teachers, but because of the nature of the subject involved. For this reason it is at least possible that the teaching of such courses in this area will provide an excep- tionally fruitful field of experimentation. . . Why are these science courses in general education having particular difficulty? I shall mention four factors which I believe are pertinent. First, there is the problem of the curriculum itself. In far too many cases I believe these courses contain a poorly selected body of material in which the teacher is informed and interested rather than science problems which are pertinent and meaningful—perhaps even vital— in the lives of students. Too frequently we have been concerned with covering a body of subject matter and teaching it as we were taught whether it has meaning for the student or not. We do this in spite of the fact that the trend is definitely away from ‘“‘survey”’ courses and in spite of the fact that “‘big ideas’’ are now generally accepted to be more important than facts in science for general education. This problem of curriculum is not unsurmountable. A study of our students and their science problems, of the characteristics and needs of society and of the researches which have been made into this prob- lem of science curriculum can give us insights into the selection of suitable materials. For example, analyses have been made into science interests and into lay science reading in periodicals over a period of years. Some research of my own convinces me that among women students studying biology such topics as body structure and function, nutrition, reproduction, heredity and evolution are in general eagerly received and have lasting value. On the other hand the study of plants and animals, taxonomy and histology evoke little interest. A year later the students reported little jasting value. I suggest we re-examine our course content objectively in terms of student interest and social usefulness rather than in terms of our own special fields of interest and our own pet ideas. Second, we have the problem of teaching staff. We are not unique in this problem. If the general education program waited until we found teachers who felt they were qualified and competent to teach in it the movement would die in the birth process. The job must be done by persons like ourselves, most of whom are trained in some special field. Science courses in general education are difficult to teach. Ia truth, PROBLEMS IN TEACHING SCIENCE IN GENERAL EDUCATION 69 I believe they are far more difficult to teach than even advanced ‘straight line’’ courses where the content material is fairly stabilized and where presumably students are already interested for professional reasons. General education is not concerned with the highly specialized knowledge of scholars in science. Here the need is great for breadth of training in several of the major fields of science rather than intense concentration of effort in a single field. Also, toward the end of good instruction in science in general education, the teacher should perhaps have. more than the usual amount of work in social science, liberal arts, psychology, counseling and the methods of teaching science. At present it is difficult—almost impossible—to find teachers with such backgrounds of training. Too frequently so-called graduate schools have been and are actually research training institutes. It is gratifying to know that a few graduate schools are beginning to realize that a great majority of their degree-holders will become teachers. A few gradu- ate schools are beginning to offer majors in wide areas of leaning—e.g., biological science, physical science, social science. Michigan State College and Syracuse University are among these institutions. It seems reasonable to believe that someday we may expect to see graduate schools turning out teachers specifically prepared to handle work in general education. Until that happy day arrives staff will remain a problem and persons like ourselves, in spite of out inadequate training in these wide areas, will have to carry the burden of the job. Third, 1 believe we have not thoroughly thought through the place of the laboratory in science in general education. Some programs seem to be completely devoid of both demonstrations and laboratory work. Others provide demonstrations but no individual laboratory work. Still others, few in number, seem to offer the full complement of both demonstrations and laboratory work. I personally feel that there can be little argument for conventional laboratory work in science courses which are offered for the purpose of general education. Demonstrations, charts, models, microprojectors, field trips, motion pictures and other audio-visual aids all have their places in general education. But should a// first hand experiences in the laboratory be eliminated in favor of these more or less vicarious experiences? I doubt it! Can movies, charts and microprojected pre- pared slides of Protozoans, for instance, ever provide quite the thrilling and meaningful first-hand experience the student gets when he looks at these fascinating creatures for the first time under his own micro- 70 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES scope? Is not the nature of malaria more clearly understood after the student has actually seen for himself Plasmodium parasites in human blood? Once he sees for himself Trichinella encysted in muscles, is he not apt to be more insistent that pork be properly cooked before eating? Can explanation, discussions and demonstrations ever fully substitute for a student making his own blood count or typing his own blood in the laboratory? Can one ever fully understand the sci- entific method without dealing first-hand in some of the materials and techniques of laboratory science? I am not yet ready to discard the laboratory completely. Neither do I favor traditional ‘‘cook-book’’ laboratory work. I believe the whole problem of the laboratory in science for general education should be re-examined. Fourth, | submit the belief that our science textual materials for gen- eral education should be much more readable. Far too frequently for our own comfort, we hear laymen level against science the criticism that scientific books and articles are so difficult as to be almost un- readable. We are accused of using a linguistic mumbo-jumbo all our own as if we preferred to be a ‘‘closed corporation.’’ As with mathe- matics, students fear this technical language and too often get “buck fever’’ before the course gets started. [ submit again that in general education we are concerned with scientific ideas usable in the lives of non-scientific citizens. If this is what we want the masses of stu- dents to learn, we must write and speak in language they can under- stand. Permit me to labor this point a bit. I asked an expert, using the now- famous Flesch formula, to determine the readability of a number of common science textbooks in both the physical and biological sci- ences. With the exception of Hegner’s College Zoology all were designed for general education. All of these books rated “‘pirricuLr’’ on the Flesch scale. Some of these “‘general’’ books were actually more diffi- cult to read than Hegner. One of these texts rated ‘‘VERY DIFFICULT,’ so difficult in fact that only 44% of the U.S. adult population can read it effectively. Possibly 20%-25% of the adult population could read the others with meaning. It should be pointed out that the Flesch formula is perhaps most vulnerable in scientific writings inasmuch as it does not take into consideration either technical vocabulary in the biological sciences or mathematical formule in the physical sciences. These, of course, would further increase the difficulty of comprehension. Pusting it another way, we may say the findings noted above, rather discour- PROBLEMS IN TEACHING SCIENCE IN GENERAL EDUCATION 71 aging though they are, paint a brighter picture than actually exists. I cannot refrain from relating one further finding in this connection. Early last summer a college book salesman visited me relative to text- book needs. I told him we were always interested in good science texts in general education. He admitted that their general education books in science left something to be desired, but he said he would send me the best general biology text they had. He did. Now in this text the unfamiliar technical words stand out in bold-faced type so it is easy to count them. I did just that. How many different new technical words were hurled at the student? 1311! My count may be off fifty one way or the other, but it is close enough to illustrate my point. And may | point out further that these did not include genus and species names in Latin! Next, I went to the head of our modern language department here at Florida State University and asked him this question: At the end of the first year’s work in a foreign language how many different words do you expect the average student to know? His answer? 800 to 1000! I have made these counts before, and I have never found the number of technical words to be less than 350 to 500. Too long we scientists, particularly we biologists, have kidded ourselves into believing that if we could name a thing we automatically understood it. Need I say more? Surely if science is to become functional in the lives of intelligent but non-scientific citizens its principles must be made understandable through interesting, non-technical language. With no thought that the points I have mentioned exhaust the list, I have suggested four factors which I believe need consideration in planning effective science courses in general education. They are: 1. The problem of the curriculum. 2. The problem of staff. 3. The problem of the laboratory in science for general education. 4. The problem of readability of science materials. REFERENCES CITED BERNAL, J. D. 1940. Science teaching in general education, School and Society, IV (1), Winter 1940. WRIGHT, BENJAMIN F. 1947. General education at Harvard, Higher Education, 1V (6), November 15, 1947. Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 10 (2-3) 1947 (4948) fe pete “Seeoepe: Sep Lda ee hy isda ole waa singe Sorivay eae eth: Les ae honcaones er pS naps ae "Soa i te A < é " pct ae: ee Ti i red Je oe a i a oy Zc Pa ee i 7 ue = 1p 3 bite wee: skeet TRAE SS ie tice irs PR pedis Pate Bee oar aes spcepeti of ier Sinton a siPsanlik es Sispaiche Cantiehh. sania aa ae eee | SEN: is seseraHn eA ey | ore tthe Hts ee Peete Se eS ‘pain 5 yl Toot be ae pita a5 ee re i i ai re be Sei a aid Pee Sis FES ots ‘as (aug m’ tent? as bei ashen reat bay SiS ti vies wee ay dist chvherdh a ete a Pati ta tg pie Ris Pet ter wil ae pies pirate ee ” ne ef: SR + shes . ae crite pbs bi: 2 e x > . t Lad a* Pie SS PES Site oh ee t a ™ > pe _ - “4 é 1c é > 4 hp 5) F “ ms — T, 4 Ewes ed J a - 7 “2 5 ey 5 <= 7 = = = + - 2 > ; , ' ‘ +S . \ z +: ees. Pe 5 ae 24% eg . 4 J = ? ESR eco Fon , J “— ~ as mee rs ae wt 2s oe ee A =: i tert ; cro : 3 ‘ < < ~ = = a A= oy ¥ Fpr\ > E 9s . ‘ t = ee . se ‘ t vo ™ a eee re 2 i~ ee r a oe . é 2 : 4 e +h ou a4: . . 2. = eeu APR yee =. 4. ' 2 : : \: . > “| THE CLIMATE OF THE BELLINGHAM LOWLAND OF WASHINGTON Witi1aM H. Pierson University of Florida The Bellingham Lowland is situated on the eastern shore of Puget Sound between tidewater and the Cascade Range. It extends north- ward from the westward jutting Chuckanut spur of the Cascades to the International Boundary with Canada, and is-the northernmost segment of the great Puget Sound Lowland of which Seattle and Tacoma are principal cities. The climate of the Bellingham Lowland is similar to that of the remainder of the Puget Sound Lowland, being of the type commonly known as temperate marine. It is characterized by ample precipitation, much cloudiness, and cool, moderately dry summers and mild, wet winters. The most striking characteristics are cloudiness and mild winter temperatures. Although the region is in the latitude of Lake Superior and central Newfoundland, winter mean temperatures are like those of northern Tennessee. Marine influences dominate the climate. Southwesterly winds from the ocean and its inland arms carry the humidity and temperature conditions of the sea onto the land virtually all year. Ocean waters near this coast change temperatures only about 12 F. degrees! from winter to summer and the lands under their influence have a mean annual range of only about 25 F. degrees. The Kura Siwa, which warms the ocean off the coast several degrees above the latitudinal norm, modi- fies these marine influences somewhat, making the onshore winds slight- ly warmer in both winter and summer and increasing their mois- ture content. Topography favors the dominance of marine control in the Puget Sound region by admitting oceanic air freely and shutting out air masses of continental origin. The coastal mountains are a low in- effectual barrier, except for the Olympic mountain knot, and are breached by two broad gaps, the Chehalis River Valley and the Strait of Juan de Fuca. On the east the Cascades, together with the ranges in British Columbia, form a high mountain wall over which conti- nental air can spill only when a strong anti-cyclone lies east of the 1 Atlas of Climatic Charts of the Oceans, US. Dept. of Agric., 1938. 74 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES barrier and at the same time a deep cyclone lies west of it to create an exceptionally steep pressure gradient. This event, for it is truly an event in the weather, occurs five or six times during an average winter and at rare intervals during the warmer months. At such times in summer, temperatures reach the 90’s for a day or two. When in winter cold air masses pour over the mountains they are greatly moderated by adia- batic warming during descent. Sub-zero temperatures are common- place east of the Cascades but within the Puget Sound country the absolute minima are nowhere much below zero and many stations have never recorded zero weather. The Bellingham Lowland and Puget Sound Region lie within the most frequented cyclone path in winter, and cyclones are a major climatic control. Cyclone follows hard upon cyclone during most of the winter half of the year, and the barometer usually registers well below the theoretical sea level normal pressure of 29.92 inches. The cyclones bring overcast skies, much intermittent light rain, and oc- cassionally strong winds. During intervals of high barometri¢ pres- sute, Clear dry anticyclonic weather may occur, but more often skies remain overcast and light rain is not uncommon. The barometer rarely rises much above 30.00 inches. Unlike the cyclonic weather changes in the midwest, cyclonic changes in sky conditions, humidity and temperature are seldom striking because usually all the air masses involved are of marine origin. As the summer season approaches, the cyclone path shifts poleward and cyclones become less frequent and less intense. The precipitation is both cyclonic and orographic in origin. The prevailing maritime air masses are unstable in the winter months and, because they are cooled by ascent and by contact with the cold ground as they move inland, their relative humidity is nearly always very high. Thus, cyclonic convergence or orographic uplift readily cause condensation. Fog is frequent and hazy conditions are common. In the Lowlands temperature conditions are such that precipitation seldom occurs as snow, but snowfall is heavy on the mountains. In the summer precipation is light because the prevailing air masses are stable, the air is warmed when it passes onto the land, and cyclones are both less frequent and weaker. Except in the mountains, where differential heating is marked, convectional rainstorms occur very rarely. The relative humidity is usually moderate and at times be- comes very low, producing the so-called ‘‘fire weather’ so dreaded CLIMATE OF THE BELLINGHAM LOWLAND 7 because of the danger of forest fires. In July, the driest month through. out the Puget Sound region, typical lowland stations receive some- what less than one inch of rainfall. Precipation increases with the return of cyclonic activity in early autumn and is at a maximum in November or December, from which it recedes gradually through the winter and spring. Most Puget Sound Lowland stations receive be- tween 30 and 4o inches of precipitation annually, nearly all as rain, but in the mountains ‘precipitation is much greater, being about 100 inches along the western slopes of the Cascades above 4,000 feet elevation. Within the small area of the Bellingham Lowland temperature con- ditions are quite uniform, but small differences result from proximity to water bodies and variations in topographic exposure. Four of the five weather stations are located near the sea and only Clearbrook furnishes data for the interior of the Lowland. Mean annual tempera- tures are virtually identical throughout, ranging between 48.8 F. degrees at Clearbrook and 50.1 F. degree at Bellingham. Every station has hottest month (July) means of 61 or 62 F. degrees, but the means for the coldest month (January) range from 35 F. degrees at Clearbrook to 39 F. degrees at Bellingham. Clearbrook is approximately 20 miles inland near the northern margin of the area and exposed to cold winds that blow down the Fraser Valley. These “‘Northeasters’’ occur when a strong pressure gradient causes an east wind through the gap made in the eastern mountain wall by the narrow valley of the Fraser River. This wind from the cold in- terior plateau of British Columbia blows ten or twelve times each winter, sometimes with gale force, and during the several hours of its duration admits a large quantity of cold, dry air which may affect the weather over the whole Bellingham Lowland and all the area adjacent to the Strait of Georgia. At such times the northeastern part of the Lowland feels the direct rush of the wind and experiences colder weather than localities sheltered by Sumas Mountain or more remote from the gap. In a sheltered place behind Sumas Mountain one can stand outdoors in relatively warm and calm air and listen to the roar of the ‘“‘Northeaster’’ a few miles away, but he may be sure that where he stands the temperature will drop to freezing within a few hours. These cold invasions, which do not affect the Puget Sound Lowland generally, give to the Bellingham Lowland absolute minima a few degrees below those elsewhere. Clearbrook and Bellingham Near 76 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES have recorded temperatures of —4 F. degrees. These winds also give the Bellingham Lowland more spells of fine clear winter weather than occur elsewhere. Mean minimum temperatures during winter are near the freezing point, ranging from 29 F. degrees at Clearbrook to 33 F. degrees at Bellingham in January. Mean maxima in January are everywhere be- tween 4o and 44 F. degrees. In summer temperature conditions ap- proximate the ideal, mean maxima being everywhere between 72 and 77 F. degrees, with the highest temperatures occuring inland, and mean minima being everywhere between 47 F. degrees and 54 F. de- grees with the lowest temperatures also occuring inland. Extreme high temperatures are rare, the highest on record being 98 F. degrees at Clearbrook. : All parts of the Bellingham Lowland receive between 30 and so inches of precipitation annually, with local variations in amount explainable by differences in exposure. Bellingham and Marietta, both coastal but partially cut off from the rainbearing southwesterly winds, receive less than 32 inches, while Blaine, also coastal but more ex- posed to the onshore winds, gets 41 inches. Clearbrook, which receives over 47 inches, is near enough to the mountains to be affected by oro- graphic blocking. These amounts of precipitation, coming as slow cyclonic drizzles and associated with high humidity and cool tem- peratures, are ample for good agriculture, and the precipitation is highly dependable in amount and seasonable distribution. Crop fail- ures from drought are unknown,” and damage from drought is un- usual, but the summers are rather too dry. In recent years some agrti- cultural leaders have urged supplemental irrigation, and the few farmers who irrigate get worthwhile increases in crop yields. K6ppen’s climatic classification subdivides the temperate marine region of North America into a southern (Csb) sub-type and a north- ern (CFbs) sub-type on the basis of the seasonal distribution or regime of precipitation, the CFbs having a more uniform regime with no marked summer dry season. The boundary delimiting K6ppen’s CFbs sub-type on the south is drawn through the Chuckanut spur of moun- tains which detach the Bellingham Lowland from the larger portion of the Puget Sound Lowland. The validity of K6ppen’s classification is unquestioned except as to the location of this boundary which appears to have been drawn through a conveniently conspicuous 2Mr. O. G. Caley, Everson, Washington, states that in 28 years of farming in the Bellingham Lowland he had never had a crop failure or near failure because of drought. | CLIMATE OF THE BELLINGHAM LOWLAND 77 topographic feature on the assumption that it marked an actual c 1 in precipitation conditions. A comparison of precipitation conditions of all the Bellingham Lowland stations and several nearby stations in British Columbia with ten stations selected at random from widely ‘separated portions of the Puget Sound Lowland south of the Kdppen boundary indicates that precipitation conditions within the Belling- ham Lowland differ very little from the major portion of the Puget Sound Lowland which is designated Csb. The Csb stations have a combined average rainfall in the driest month of 0.77 inches and a combined average total for the summer months of 3.45 inches, while the corresponding values for all the Bellingham Lowland stations are 0.97 inches and 4.1 inches respec- tively. The driest month difference of 0.2 inches and the seasonal total difference of 0.65 inches are indeed slight. If Clearbrook, located at the north margin of the Bellingham Lowland, is disregarded, the driest month difference between Bellingham Lowland and Csb stations is only o.11 inches and the seasonal total difference only 0.33 inches. Furthermore, some of the Bellingham Lowland stations are drier in the driest months than some of the Csb stations. Only Clearbrook receives as much as 1.00 inch in the driest month. At Clearbrook, which is near to Canada, the driest month receives 1.32 inches and the summer total is 5.34 inches. Northward from Clearbrook and White Rock, British Columbia, on the coast near the International Boun- dary, all stations receive well over 1.00 inch in the driest month and well over 5.00 inches during the summer season. Thus precipitation conditions in the Bellingham Lowland differ markedly from those in the adjacent area in British Columbia and more closely resemble those ~ throughout the Puget Sound Lowland. The Bellingham Lowland is gently transitional toward the northern (CFbs) sub-type of the tem- perate marine climate, the southern limit of which should coincide roughly with the International Boundary. The average frost-freeze season in the Bellingham Lowland is much shorter than that of the Puget Sound Lowland as a whole for which the mean of all stations is 207 days. The frost-free period in the Belling- ham Lowland is shortened by location at the poleward end of the larger region and, more especially, by the invasions of cold, dry air of continental origin through the Fraser Gap which reach the Belling- ham Lowland but scarcely affect the areas south of the Chuckanut spur of mountains. Everywhere in the Bellingham Lowland the frost- free season is, however, four and one-half months, or longer, which 78 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES - is ample for the northern type of agriculture practiced. Bellingham with 179 days, is closely followed by the other strictly coastal stations, Marietta having 176 days and Blaine 170 days. Bellingham Near, although less than three miles inland, has only 145 days and Clear- brook has a frost-free period of only 138 days. It is not possible to construct an accurate isopleth map to show the length of the frost- free season over the Bellingham Lowland because of insufficient data and the large local differences caused by the effects of local topography upon air drainage. It is, however, known that the growing season decreases from the coast toward the interior, being shortest in the northeastern part of the lowland nearest the Fraser Gap and on the floors of the mountain valleys. SUMMARY The climate of the Bellingham Lowland of Washington is the type generally called temperate marine, of which it 1s quite typical, being located centrally within the latitudinal extent of the temperate ma- rine region of North America and in the transition between the south- etly dry-summer and the northerly wet-summer sub-types (K6ppen’s Csb and CFbs). Like all areas of temperate marine climate, winters are much milder and summers much cooler than normal for its latitude. Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 10 (2-3) 1947 (1948) NOTES ON THE PLANKTON OF LONG LAKE, DADE COUNTY, FLORIDA, WITH DESCRIPTIONS OF TWO NEW COPEPODS! CHarues C. Davis University of Miami Marine L aboratory The flat southern tip of the Florida peninsula, because of the low altitude and poor drainage of the area, contains many lakes. Lying between the lakes are large areas of swamp and marshland, more or less inundated during the rainy season. A considerable portion of this area is incorporated in the new Florida Everglades National Park. A ridge of limestone a few feet higher than the surrounding terri- tory forms a rim along the eastern and southern portions of the Ever- glades, and on this rim are built the cities and towns of the region. In its southern portion this rim curves inland and is some distance from open water. The land south of the rim lies so low that much of it is influenced greatly by salt water from Florida Bay or from the Gulf of Mexico. A great deal of the area south of the limestone rim is a vast Mangrove swamp, with many brackish lakes among the man- groves, connected to open salt water through narrow tidal passages. Most of these lakes are inaccessible except by skiff, and for the most part are less than six feet in depth. Practically no biological work of any kind has been conducted on them, nor on similar lakes elsewhere in the world. J. H. Davis (1940: 369-370) is the only writer to men- tion plankton in the area, and he does so only in the most general terms: ‘‘Myriads of small crustaceans and protozoans thrive in the plankton and soils of the swamps. Locally foraminiferan shells are abundant in the bottom deposits.’’ He, however, deals primarily with the non-lacustrine flora as is also true of his valuable work (1943) on the natural features of Southern Florida. Henshall (1889) studied fish in Florida Bay, but did not approach the lakes presumably because of shallow water conditions. He does, however, report some species from Cape Sable Creek. Among the rare direct references in scientific accounts to the lakes themselves is Carr (1940: 69) who refers to crocodiles and alligators in the West Lake area. Immediately to the north of the area, Safford (1917) studied Royal Palm State Park and vicinity, but he 1 Contribution Number 21, University of Miami Marine Laboratory. 80 JOURNAL OF FLCRIDA ACACEMY OF SCIENCES only mentions the mangrove area in passing. His map shows West Lake and Lake Ingraham, but none of the others. Indeed, his Ingra- ham Highway is shown passing through Long Lake! In addition, there are a very few individual records in general works of the occurence of certain species. One of these is Rathbun (1930), who refers to Calli- nectes sapidus (a decapod crustacean) from Cape Sable Creek. Botanists and zoologists from the University of Miami and elsewhere have visited the area from time to time in search of orchids, termites, etc., and naturalists such as Simpson (1920) have written popular accounts of certain striking features, but on the whole extraordinarily little has been published on the area. Long Lake, in Dade County, les approximately 12 miles Son lene of Royal Palm State Park, and is about one mile as the crow. flies from Garfield Bight, a shallow arm of Florida Bay. However, the lake is connected with Garfield Bight by a narrow and devious passage four miles long. Long Lake is depicted on U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Chart 1250. It is about 1.8 miles long and 0.4 miles wide at the widest point. Small islands nearly cut off the narrower eastern end of the lake from the wider western end, but these islands are not accurately shown on chart 1250. In the parts of the lake visited, the depth was not more than four or five feet. On June 29, 1947, a plankton tow was obtained in Long Lake, using a standard open plankton net of No. 12 silk bolting cloth. Similar tows were obtained from West Lake and from Garfield Bight. West Lake, however, contained innumerable Ctenophora, and these clogged up the nets and slimed the sample to such an extent that practically | no other organisms were captured. The species of Ctenophora could - not be determined. It was not possible to return living samples to the laboratory, and preservation was unsuccessful. The majority belonged to the class Nuda, but some small forms were noted with tentacles. These were probably immature specimens. The analysis of the tow from Garfield Bight will not be reported upon at this time. The water of Long Lake was of the red color typical of mangrove swamp water. The water was distinctly brackish in spite of the fact that the preceding month of June had an exceptionally high rainfall in the Everglades region. The marine plankton forms present make it appear doubtful that the lake ever becomes completely fresh. An analysis of the water kindly performed by Dr. Robert H. Williams of the Marine Laboratory staff showed a salinity of 15.39°/ 0 (West NOTES ON THE PLANKTON OF LONG LAKE 81 Lake, which is a larger body of water had a salinity of 18.30°/,, and Garfield Bight 26.87°/,,). The plankton sample was especially interesting, showing as it did a mixture of marine and fresh water types..Of the plants, small navi- culoid diatoms were numerous, and the marine dinoflagellate Cera- tium furca was also evident, although not at all abundant. Of the ani- mal forms, various Foraminifera were found, as well as rotifers, brachyuran zoez, and fish eggs. Ctenophora such as those found in. West Lake were also observed in the water, though they were by no means as abundant as in that location. The above animals, except the rotifers, ate typical of marine or of brackish water situations. By far the dominating organisms of the sample, however, were the Copepoda. It is estimated that in ten minutes of towing with a 12-inch net approximately 18,000 were captured. Three species were obtained. About 95 per cent of the copepods represent a new variety of Cyclops panamensis, a fresh water species heretofore reported only from the Pacific side of the Panama Canal Zone. For the most part the genus Cyclops is characteristic of fresh water, though some species occur also in brackish water. The second most abundant species of copepod, comprising essentially the remaining five per cent, was a hitherto un- described species of the genus Acartia. The genus Acartia is found only in marine and brackish waters, and for the most part it is character- istic of coastal and inland waters, rather than the open sea. A third species was found only in small numbers. It is apparently identical with Pseudodiaptomus coronatus Williams. Pseudodiaptomus is a genus that is considered by Marsh (1933) and most other authors to be ac- tively in the process of migration from salt water to fresh water. Some species are found only in salt water, some only in brackish water, and still others only in fresh water. The last, however, are found only in fresh waters closely associated with the sea. Copepod nauplii were not at all abundant in the sample, but most nauplii would be sufficiently small to pass through the No. 12 mesh net used. It is evident, however, that very large numbers of small nauplii were living in the water for nearly one-third of the numerous individuals of the Cyclops were ovigerous females. The eggs in the egg cases were well developed, many of the egg cases were empty, and occasional eggs had been preserved while in the process of hatching. The few specimens of Pseudodiaptomus coronatus females were likewise actively breeding, and many of the Acartia females were carrying sper- 82 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES matophores. Species of Acartia do not carry their eggs in egg sacs, but extrude them into the surrounding water. Pseudodiaptomus coronatus Williams This species was originally described from Rhode Island by Wil- liams (1906), and has subsequently been reported from the Woods Hole area by Sharpe (1910), Fish (1925), and Wilson (1932b). It has also been reported from Nova Scotia by Willey (1923), from Chesa- peake Bay by Wilson (19324), and from the mouth of the Mississippi River by Wright (1936, 1937). The species is described as having four segments in the urosome of the female, with the line of demarcation between segments two and three somewhat obscure. In the Long Lake specimens the line of demarcation is all but obliterated. Also, in females the shape of the lips protecting the genital aperture differs from the figures given in the various publications. In the male the details of the arrangement of the spines and hairs on the fifth feet dif- fers slightly from the published descriptions and figures (see Plate I, fig. 1), but these characters do not appear to be sufficient to establish a new species or variety. Female specimens from Long Lake were from 1.23 to 1.33 mm. in length, while males were from 0.92 to 0.97 mm. Acartia floridana n.sp. Dracnosis: A. floridana belongs to the subgenus Acartiura as estab- lished by Steuer (1915). It differs from all other known species in the combination of lack of rostrum and shape of female fifth legs, as well as in the structure of the male fifth legs. The type specimens have been deposited in the United States National Museum. Typz Femare (U.S.N.M. Cat. No. 84518): Size 0.80 (0.74 to 0.94) mm. The head is rounded anteriorly, and there is no trace of rostral filaments (see Plate I, fig. 5). The last thoracic segment is rounded. The urosome consists of three segments, of which the genital segment is the longest, and the second segment the shortest. The furcal rami are only very slightly longer than broad, and each bears four sub-terminal setz, and a fifth seta on the outer border. The spermatophore is small, being only slightly lon’er than the last two urosomal segments together (see Plate I, figs. 3-4). The first antenna consists of seventeen segments, of which the fifth from the proximal end is very long, and obviously composed of at least three fused segments (see Plate II, fig. 6). The fifth feet are small and two-segmented. The basal segment is much broader than the second, and bears a strong seta on its outer margin. The terminal segment is similar to that of A. tonsa. At the base it is enlarged. Slightly more than half the distance to the distal end there is a ring of small teeth, distal to which the segment gradually tapers to a point (see Plate II, fig. 8). NOTES ON THE PLANKTON OF LONG LAKE 83 PAE AT Fig. 1. Pseudodiaptomus coronatus Williams. Male fifth feet. x 325. Fig. 2. Acartia floridana n. sp. Male urosome, ventral view. X 200. Fig. 3. Acartia floridana n. sp. Female urosome and last segment of the metasome, ventral vie€W. X 200. Fig. 4. Acartia floridana n. sp. Female urosome and last segment of the metasome, lateral view. X 200. Fig. 5. Acartia floridana n. sp. Female. Ventral view of anterior portion of the head X 325. 84 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Type Matz (U.S.N.M. Cat. No. 84519): Size 0.75 (0.70 to 0.85) mm. The male is similar to the female, but the right antenna, which consists of 17 segments, is geniculate, with five segments distal to the geniculation (see Plate I, fig. 2). The fifth feet are uniramous. The right foot consists of four segments. The first segment is short and very broad, being expanded on the inner margin. The second segment is relatively much narrower than either the first or the third, and it bears a hvaline protru- sion in che middle of the inner margin. The third segment is approximately the same length as the second, but it is as broad as itis long, with a massive protrusion on the proximal] portion cf its inner margin. There is a fine hair near the base cf the distal portion of the protrusicn. The last segment is shaped somewhat in the form of a bird’s head. It is somewhat longer than the other two segments. The inner margin is smoothly curved, and bears a smali hair midway its length.» The cuter margin protrudes somewhat near the proximal end, and there is a second much larger swollen area midway its length. The seg- ment ends in a smal! point. The left foot consists of three segments, of which the first is much broader than long. On its inner margin it bears an acute pretruding lobe on the proximal portion, while the swollen outer margin bears a strong plumose seta. The sec- ond segment is about the same length as the first, but it is narrower than the other seg- ments. There is a small spine, closely pressed against the segment, near the outer distal angle. The third segment is swollen proximally and tapers to a blunt point distally. Ther, is a small spine near the middle of the outer border, and a second spine, somewhat longere closely appressed to the segment about three-fourths of the distance to the end of the segment. Finally theré is a terminal spine, which is about the same length as the second spine, but is not appressed to the segment (see Plate II, fig. 9). Cyclops panamensis Marsh var. tannica nov. Dracnosis: C. panamensis was described by Marsh (1913) from the savannas between Panama and Old Panama. It has not been reported from other locations, but has since been mentioned by Kiefer (1929). Specimens from Long Lake agree with Marsh’s description except in the relative length of the urosomal segments in the female, the de- tailed structure of the fifth feet of the female, and in the proportions of the furcal rami and the arrangement of the setz. In C. p. tannica the PEATE UL Fig. 6. Acartia floridana n. sp. Female first antenna. X 80. Fig. 7. Acartia floridana n. sp. Male right first antenna. X 80. Fig. 8. Acartia floridana n. sp. Female fifth feet. x 325. Fig. 9. Acartia fioridana n. sp. Male fifth feet. x 325. Fig. 10. Cyclops panamensis Marsh vat. tannica nov. Female. Ventral view of right furcal ramus. X 325. Fig. 11. Cyclops panamensis Marsh vat. tannica nov. Female fifth feet. Se 3258 Fig. 12. Cyclops panamensis Matsh vat. tannica nov. Female. Ventral view of urosome. X 80. 85 PLANKTON OF LONG LAKE co ey) os NOTES ON TH 86 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES genital segment is more swollen anteriorly and is relatively longer than shown in Marsh’s figures (see Plate II, fig. 12). The terminal spines of the fifth feet are wider apart in the new variety, and the terminal segment on which they are borne is truncate instead of in- dented (see Plate II, fig. 11). The furcal rami of variety tannica are somewhat longer than described by Marsh, and he describes four terminal seta. In C. p. tannica there are two large terminal setz and a third very thin and short one on the inner distal corner. A fourth seta arises on the outer margin a short distance from the distal corner. A fifth short seta, somewhat larger and longer than any but the two large terminal ones, arises on the middle of the dorsal surface near the distal end. Such a seta is not mentioned by Marsh. The sixth seta, on the outer margin, is similar in size and position to that described by Marsh (see Plate II, fig. 10). The type specimens have been deposited in the United States National Museum. Type Femare (U.S.N.M. Cat. No. 84521): Size 0.80 (0.71 to 0.91) mm. Type Mare (U.S.N.M. Cat. No. 84520): Size 0.74 (0.66 to 0.80) mm. It was thought advisable to establish a new variety of C. panamensis for the Long Lake specimens. Minor structures were different, the habitat was different, and the geographic position was different. It did not seem necessary to establish a new species, at least until more collections have been made between Panama and Florida to establish whether the variations described are discontinuous or part of a series of continuous variations. SUMMARY A sample of the plankton from Long Lake, Dade County, Florida, was analyzed. There was a mixture of fresh-water, brackish water and marine forms. The dominant organisms were the Copepoda, of which three species were present. The commonest species of the Copepoda was a new variety, Cyclops panamensis tannica, which 1s described and figured. The second most abundant copepod was new, Acartia floridana, which is also described. The least common species was Pseudodiaptomus coronatus Williams, which heretofore has not been reported nearer than Chesapeake Bay and the mouth of the Mississippi River. NOTES ON THE PLANKTON OF LONG LAKE 87 LITERATURE CITED GARR, A: FP. / 1940. A contribution to the herpetology of Florida. Univ. of Fla. Publ,, Biol. Ser. 3G) Lip. DAVIS, JOHN H. 1940. The ecology and geologic role of mangroves in Florida. Carnegie Inst. Wash. Publ. 517: 303-412. DAVIS, JOHN H. 1943. The natural features of Southern Florida, especially the vegetation, and the Everglades. Geological Bulletin No. 25. Fla. Geological Survey, pp. 1-311. HISH, C.J: 1925. Seasonal distribution of the plankton of the Woods Hole region. Bull. U.S. Bur. Fish. 41: 91-179. MENSHALIL, J. A. 1889. Report upon a collection of fishes made in Southern Florida during 1889. Bull. U.S. Fish. Comm. 9: 371-389. KIEBER, F. 1929. Crustacea Copepoda II. Cyclopoida Gnathostoma. Das Tierreich. 53: i- Xvi, I-102. MARSH, C. DWIGHT 1913. Report on fresh-water Copepoda from Panama, with descriptions of new species. Simithsonian Misc. Coll. 61G,): 1-21, pls. 1-5. MARSH, C. DWIGHT 1933. Synopsis of the calanoid crustaceans, exclusive of the Diaptomidz, found in fresh and brackish waters, chiefly of North America. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. Sai @4art= 18))so1— 56s plang. RATHBUN, MARY J. 1930. The cancroid crabs of America of the families Euryalidz, Portunidz, Atele- cyclide, Cancride and Xanthide. Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus., No. 152. SAFFORD, W. E. 1917. Natural history of Paradise Key and the nearby Everglades of Florida. Aun. Rept. Smithsonian Inst. 1917: 377-434, pls. 1-64, map. SHARPE, RICHARD W. tg10. Notes on the tmarine Copepoda and Cladocera of Woods Hole and adjacent regions, including a synopsis of the genera of the Harpacticoida. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mas. 38: 405-436. SIMPSON, CHARLES TORREY 1920. In lower Florida wilds. G. P. Putnam’s Sons, New York. pp. i-xv, 1-404. 88 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES © STEUER, ADOLPH 1915. Revision der Gattung Acartia Dana. Zool. Anz. 45: 392-397. \ WILLEY, ARTHUR 1923. Notes on the distribution of free-living Copepoda in Canadian waters. Studies Biol. Sta. Canada, 0.8., 1: 303-334. WILLIAMS, L. W. 1906. Notes on marine Copepoda of Rhode Island. Amer. Nat. 40: 629-660. WILSON, C. B. 1932a. The copepod crustaceans of Chesapeake Bay. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 80 (art. Ty) 54, piss a5 WILSON, C. B. 1932b. The copepods of the Woods Hole region. Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus., No. 158. WRIGHT, STILLMAN 1936. A revision of the South American species of Pseudodiaptomus. Annaes da Acad. Brasiliera de Sctencias. 8 (1): 1-24, pls. 1-3. + WRIGHT, STILLMAN 1937. Two new species of Pseudodiaptomus. Annaes da Acad. Brasilieras de Sciencias. 9 @): 255-162, pis. 1-2. Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 10 (2-3) 1947-1948) TABLES FOR VOLUMES IN A HORIZONTAL CYLINDER Ceci G. Purpps University of Florida Engineers, physicists, and mathematicians are often asked about the volume of liquid in a horizontal cylindrical container such as an oil- barrel or fuel tank. The question may be put in one of two ways: ‘How much oil do I have if the depth of the oil is so much?” or, ‘‘How deep must the oil be for there to be so many gallons in the tank?”’ The answer to the first question can be obtained directly by compu- tation: the answer to the second can be found only indirectly. It is the purpose of this note to provide a general solution to both questions. The solutions here presented are not original. They have been known since the invention of trigonometry and, before that, they could have been found experimentally. The virtue, if any, of this note is to make such solutions more readily available and in a form which is general enough to fit any cylindrical tank the axis of which is horizontal. The computation was done as a laboratory problem in a class in graphical and numerical analysis taught by the author. The work was done on a computing machine using data in the Works Progress Ad- ministration tables of trigonometric functions for angles in radian measure. The results can be duplicated, if the proper tables are avail- able, by high-school or college classes in trigonometry. The basic formulas are two in number: the formula for the area of the segment of a circle and the formula for the volume of a solid whose length.and uniform cross section are known. The first formula is: A =r? (a — sin a), where A is the area of the segment in a circle of radius r and where a, which must be measured in radians, is the central angle subtended by the chord cutting off the segment. The second is, of course, the well-known formula: Volume = Length X Area Two steps are now taken, one to simplify the computation and the other to generalize the results. The first is to note that the volume of go JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES a liquid in a partly filled tank is to the whole volume as the wetted segment on the end of the tank is to the area of the whole end. This observation makes it unnecessary to consider the length of the tank in the tabular values. The second step is to take the diameter of the end as 100. The various depths of the liquid are then expressed as percents of the whole diam- eter. In conformity with this arrangement, the area of the segment is expressed as a percent of the area of the whole end. These latter figures are identical with the percent of the whole volume. The application of the accompanying table is then on a percentage basis. For instance, the table shows that liquid to the depth of 10% of the diameter fills the tank to 5.2% of the volume. Only half the table need be computed by the formula. The second half can be computed from the results in the first half. For instance, if the tank is filled to 70% of its depth, it lacks 30% of being full. Reference to the first half of the table shows that 30% of the depth represents 25.23% of the volume. Therefore the tank lacks 25.23% of being full or, in other terms, it is 74.77% filled. For depths and volumes not found in the table, the-data can be found in two ways. Ordinary linear interpolation 1s accurate to about one decimal place for depths between 10 and 90 percent. If an accurate graph is drawn, depths and volumes can easily be read for the entire range. Because of the relationship between the two halves of the table, the graph for only one half need be drawn. Taste [. % of area % of area % of depth 4 or % of depth 4 or % of volume % of volume Oa ARR ee A ERS O. SOx ati mons oe sen eee 50.00 Sb Ser Gehie sale ee eae eee 1307 SS ik casts ie 2 eee sia 56.36 TO (a rok Gos eee ears 5-20 60..,..25 te oh Roma See 62.65 Ppt Mee ALE, Ste 9.41 G5a ot. GL. este ans 68.81 ZOraseh is. oes gen + Le SE RE 14.24 Jose St aie ee 74-77 BS Va ea yatea sak inns ca ee 19.55 Tid: sno ee eee 80. 45 BO. Sas tea enyn ee ee 2523 210 NEN ge rte, mE Pe 85.76 2 i RASA RP Ynies ORE Pasi 31.19 OS inetd see ie ae ee 90.59 BOs shes sigs naa ie. sees 27285 90-48 esse keene 94.80 AS (Mey airy ais coe Sat etre 43.64 95 )-c0hs Meas Ses nhie eee 98.13 HORM. Cotte h eee ~50.00 TOOL? FIAT ES ee 100.00 Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 10 (2-3) 1947 (1948) VIRULENCE AND ANTIGENICITY OF HEMOPHILUS DUCREYI' R. B. Dienst University of Georgia School of Medicine The etiologic agent of chancroidal infection first described by Ducrey in 1890, has been relegated to the genus Hemophilus and given the specific name ducreyi. The disease caused by this organism and trans- mitted by sexual intercourse, is usually diagnosed by its clinical mani- festations as there are no practical laboratory procedures to aid the physician. The local skin reaction of the patient to heat killed H. ducreyi antigen is often used to substantiate the clinical impression. Stained smears and cultures of exudate from surface lesions are of little, if any, value for a specific diagnosis. If the patient with a geni- tal lesion has a suppurating inguinal lymph gland or bubo, the as- pirated pus may be cultured and the organism isolated. Identification of the- isolated bacterium is based primarily on its morphology and cultural requirements. Specific identification of an isolated strain may be made, however, if an antigen is prepared by suspending the heat killed organism in saline and then injecting one-tenth cc. into the fore- arm of a proven case of chancroidal infection. It has been demon- strated that an individual sensitized by an infection of H. ducreyi remains sensitized to an intra-cutaneous inoculation of the Ducrey antigen for several years (Greenblatt and Sanderson 1937; Greenwald 1943). This is a specific reaction. In the study of several hundred clinically diagnosed cases of chan- croidal infection (Dienst and Gilkerson 1947) it was observed that hypersensitivity to an intracutaneous inoculation of Ducrey antigen could be demonstrated in only 45% of the cases. It was also demon- strated that no sensitization occurred during the initial infection unless there was considerable involvement of the regional lymphatics. The antigen for these tests was prepared as described by Sanderson and Greenblatt (1937). One cc. of defibrinated rabbit blood was asep- tically transferred onto a beef infusion agar slant. The blood was then inoculated with one-tenth cc. of an actively growing culture of H. ducreyi and placed under partial oxygen tension as advocated by Hunt 1 This study was aided by a grant from the John and Mary R. Markle Foundation. gz JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES (1935). To obtain this environment, the cotton plug was cut off short and pushed slightly into the tube; the upper portion of the tube was heated gently in the Bunsen flame and the tube sealed by inserting a tightly fitting rubber stopper. This subculture was incubated for 48 hours at 37 C. After the incubation the blood and surface growth was removed with a sterile pipette and added to approximately 25 cc. of sterile distilled water in a sterile centrifuge tube, and the contents sedimented by high speed centrifugalization. The supernatant fluid was removed aseptically and the process repeated. Two such treatments were sufficient to remove most of the hemoglobin. The sediment con- taining the bacilli and red cell debris was suspended in 10 cc. of sterile saline, placed in a sterile vial, and heated in a water bath for 30 min- utes at 60 C. After testing for sterility, the antigen was ready for use. One-tenth cc. was employed for intracutaneous inoculation and results were observed after 72 hours. Several investigators (Packer and Dulaney 1947) have suggested that virulence of strains of H. ducreyi used in preparation of the skin test antigen, may be a factor responsible for the negative reactions in ‘laboratory proven’’ chancroidal infections. To check this possibility three avirulent and two virulent strains were selected for antigen prep- arations. Sixty patients were available for skin testing. Of these, 20 were known reactors to Ducrey antigen and the remaining 40 were negative. Each of these 60 patients was inoculated intradermally with the 5 antigens prepared from virulent and avirulent strains. Readings made after 72 hours showed that there was not a single discrepancy in the results observed from the use of virulent and avirulent strains of H. durecyi. All 5 antigens were equally reliable for the chancroidal skin test.? Virulence of strains was determined by rabbit and human inocula- tions. Intracutaneous inoculations of young rabbits with 48 hour cul- tures were found (Feiner and Mortara 1945), to produce skin lesions in 24 to 48 hours when freshly isolated strains were used. These skin lesions persisted for 7 to 10 days in the rabbit and H. ducreyz could be demonstrated in smears of the exudate stained by Gram’s method and Pappenheim’s technique. It was observed that culture of H..ducreyz become attenuated and finally avirulent for rabbits after several months when cultivated on defibrinated rabbit blood. To check virulence of H. ducreya on human patients, inoculation . 2 All skin reactions were read with the assistance of Dr. Herbert S. Kupperman at the University Hospital Clinics, Augusta, Georgia. VIRULENCE AND ANTIGENICITY OF HEMOHPILUS DUCREYI 93 were made on the surface of the thigh, previously cleaned with soap and water. A few scratch marks as described by Greenblatt (1944) were made deep enough that gentle bleeding points were visible. One-tenth cc. of a 48 hour rabbit blood culture of H. ducreyi was placed on the prepared area and gently rubbed with a sterile swab. The inoculated atea was then covered with a piece of clean gauze. Virulent strains produced pustulettes within 72 hours. Gram and Peppenheim stains of the exudate revealed characteristic forms of H. ducreyz. Virulent cul- tures did not produce “‘takes’’ when the bacterial suspensions were rubbed on healthy unkroken skin. Several lyophilized cultures when transplanted to fresh defibrinated rabbit blood were found to be virulent for rabbits and humans. One of these cultures had been lyoph- ilized for 18 months and stored at room temperature. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Cultures of H. ducreyz become avirulent for rabbits and humans when subcultured for several months on defibrinated rabbit blood. Lyophil- ized cultures of freshly isolated strains remain virulent for rabbits and humans, even after 18 months storage at room temperature. Antigenicity of H. ducreyi as shown by the skin sensitivity in proven cases of chancroidal infection remains constant whether the test antigen is prepared from virulent or from an avirulent strain. LITERATURE CITED DIENST, R. B. and GILKERSON, SETH W. 1947. Evaluation of the Ducrey skin test for chancroid, Amer. Journ. Syph., Gon., and Ven. Dis., 31: 65-68. FEINER, ROSE R. and MORTARA, FRANCO 1945. Infectivity of Hemophilus ducreyt for the rabbit and the development of skin hypersensitivity, Amer. Journ Syph., Gon., and Ven. Dis., 2.9: 71-79. GREENBLATT, R. B. and SANDERSON, E. S. 1937. Diagnostic value of the intradermal chancroidal test, Archives of Dermatology and Syphilology, 36: 486-493. 1944. The experimental prophylaxis of chancroid disease—II, Amer. Journ. Syph., Gon., and Ven. Dis., 28: 165-178. GREENWALD, MAJOR EUGENE 1943. Chancroidal infections, J. A. M. A., 121: 9-11. HUNT, G. A. 1935. Cultivation of Ducrey bacillus for preparation of vaccine, Proc. Soc. Exper. Biol. and Med., 33: 293. 94 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES PACKER, HENRY, and DULANEY, ANNA DEAN 1947. Diagnostic tests in the differential diagnosis of anogenital lesions, Amer. Journ. Sypk., Gon., and Ven. Dis., 31: 69-80. SANDERSON, E. S. and GREENBLATT, R. B. 1937. The cultivation of Hemophilus ducreye and preparation of an antigen for intra- cutaneous diagnosis of chancroidal infection, So. Med. Journ., 30: 147-149. Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 10 @-3) 1947 (2948) THE EFFECT OF LIGNIN ON AMMONIFICA- TION IN LAKELAND FINE SAND F. B. Smita anp Davin E. SINGER University of Florida There is considerable evidence to support the view that lignin is the “‘mother”’’ substance of soil humus. Analyses of plant materials show that the so-called lignin fraction makes up the bulk of organic matter ordinarily added to soils. Analyses of humus extracted from the soil also show that the organic matter in the soil consists largely of lignin. This condition is brought about by the relatively rapid decom- position of sugars, starches, hemicelluloses, and cellulose and the less rapid decomposition of the lignin and ligno-cellulose. Numerous experiments have shown that isolated lignin is highly active chemically. Waksman and lyer 1932) and Waksman and Hutch- ings (1935) mixed prepared lignin with various proteins. The resulting complexes were resistant to decomposition. Smith and Brown (1935) found several common soil molds able to decompose prepared lignins isolated from oat straw and that the addition of lignin stimulated the decomposition of cellulose isolated from oat straw. Norman (1936) stated that isolated lignin had definite bacteriostatic properties. Fuller (1946) found that purified lignin added to Connecticut Valley loam depressed nitrification of dried blood and ammonium sulfate. The purpose of this report is to present the results obtained in a study of the effect of wood-sugar lignin on the ammonification of cottonseed meal in Lakeland fine sand. A quantity of virgin Lakeland fine sand was brought into the labo- ratory, ait-dried and passed through the 2 mm. sieve. Two hundred gram portions of soil were placed in each of 12 tumblers. To 6 tumblers were added 4.0 grams of wood-sugar lignin, the other 6 tumblers were left untreated with lignin to serve as controls. To 3 tumblers of each of the 2 series 8.0 grams of cottonseed meal were added, the remaining 3 tumblers of each series were untreated with cottonseed meal. There were, then, 3 tumblers each of the following teratments: Soil alone, soil plus 2 per cent lignin, soil plus 4 per cent cottonseed meal, and soil plus 2 per cent lignin plus 4 per cent cottonseed meal. The materials 1 By courtesy of Dr. E. E. Harris, Wood Products Laboratory, Madison 5, W sconsin 96 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES were thoroughly mixed with the soil in the tumblers. The moisture content of the soil was adjusted to 60 per cent of the water holding capacity and maintained at this amount by frequent additions of dis- tilled water. The tumblers were covered with Kraft paper and placed in a cupboard where they were incubated at toom temperature for 16 days. After incubation the soil in each tumbler was thoroughly mixed and 50 gram portions extracted with 500 cc. of a 10 per cent solution of potassium chloride in 1-liter Erlenmeyer flasks. The soil suspensions were filtered on Whatman No. 1 filter paper. Aliquots of the filtrate were taken for a determination of ammonia-nitrogen by Nessleriza- tion. The results obtained are presented in tabular form: TaBLE 1.—Mem. or NrTROGEN AS AMMONIA PER 200 GRaAMs OF Dry Soin Treatment Soil alone | Soil plus wood—sugarlignin Ce Chere nts 0c in bins tn ey Me age Se a 3.83 3.83 4.25 3-83 4.68 255 Cottonseed meal..............--....-5. 15.3¢ 15.30 15.30 17.00 17.00 21.40 The data show fairly close agreement between replicates, except in the soil treated with lignin and cottonseed meal. The lack of agree- ment in this instance might be the result of the relatively short incu- bation period. However, the variations within treatment are slight when compared to the differences between treatments. The soils treated with cottonseed meal contained considerably more ammonia than the check soil. The amount of ammonia in the treated soil was not large and indicates a low ammonifying efficiency of this soil. Again this might be partly a result of a short incubation period. The amount of ammonia produced in the soil treated with wood-sugar lignin was slightly greater than that produced in the soil without the lignin. While this difference is not considered significant, it shows that wood lignin was not toxic and did not depress ammonification in this soil. The study is being continued with other soil types and to include the effects of lignin on nitrification. LIGNIN IN LAKELAND FINE SAND 97 LITERATURE CITED FULLER, JAMES E. 1946. Influence of prepared lignin on nitrification in soil, Scz., 104: 313-315. NORMAN, A. G. | 1936. Biological decomposition of lignin, Scé. Progress, 30: 442-456. CAbs. in Chem. Abs. 30: 2227, 1936.) SMITH, F. B., and BROWN, P. E. 1935. The decomposition of lignin and other organic constituents by certain soil fungi, Journ. Amer. Soc. Agron., 27: 109-119. WAKSMAN, S. A., and HUTCHINGS, I. J. 1935. The role of plant constituents in the preservation of nitrogen in the soil, Soil Scz., 40: 487-497. WAKSMAN, S. A., and IYER, R. K. N. 1932. Contribution to our knowledge of the chemical nature and origin of humus: I. On the synthesis of the humus nucleus, Sozl Scz., 34: 43-69. Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 10 @-3) 1947 (1948) SWIMMER’S ITCH IN FLORIDA LAKES IN THE GAINESVILLE, AREA W. R. Carrouit, Ermer C. Hitt anp Hunter McELratTH i University of Florida A considerable number of people experience an irritating rash after swimming in certain lakes in the Gainesville area. Usually, there has been no ill effect from the first visit to these lakes, even if the sus- ceptible persons were in the water on several successive occasions up through a period of ten days to two weeks. After this period of early exposure, however, the same people have been afflicted after each suc- cessive swim in any one of several lakes in the area. All of the trends seem to indicate that the trouble is an allergy rather than a parasitic phenomenon such as the Schistosome Dermatitis (Sterling 1941; ——-— 1942) encountered in lakes farther north. In the first place, the ten day to two weeks sensitization period must lapse before any symp- toms appear. Then, after the allergic or hypersensitive condition has been established in an individual, 24 to 72 hours usually passes after a swim before the rash appears. This period corresponds to that ob- served in diagnostic allergic reactions such as the tuberculin test. DEscRIPTION OF THE DISEASE The susceptible person experiences no discomfort for approximately 48 hours, as stated above, after the time of exposure. At the end of this time, however, small itching and stinging, pimple-like eruptions begin to appear. These usually occur first on areas bound most firmly by the bathing suit bands or straps. These areas spread to include all portions of the body covered by the suit. It should be stated that, in contrast to the Schistosome Dermatitis, which usually affects only portions not covered by the bathing suit, this rash appears only on the covered part of the body. Continued exposure with some friction seems necessary for pronounced results. The duration of the rash is usually from 1o days to 3 weeks. It reaches a maximum in about 5 days from the onset, continues severe for approximately one week, then subsides gradually. A’ warm bath, or getting too warm from any cause aggravates the situation and causes the victim a great deal of discomfort. SWIMMER’S ITCH IN THE GAINESVILLE AREA 99 THE Caust oF ALLERGIC DERMATITIS Efforts to determine the cause of this, so-called allergic Swimmer’s Itch, have not met with complete success. Indications point strongly to the lake ‘‘Maiden Cane,’’ Panicum hemitomom, its pollen, or its decomposition products. These substances and sediment near the shore gave rather severe reactions by the patch test which ran the charac- teristic course on practically all susceptible subjects, while the non- susceptible controls experienced no ill effects. The authors suspected blue-green alga, but up to this point have not been able to show a definite connection between any one species of these and the rash. The investigation is being continued. SUMMARY Some seven of the susceptible subjects gave pronounced reactions by the patch test to materials from Panicum hemitomom (Maiden Cane, called Sawgrass here) while the five controls did not. The same was true for the surface film and the sediment taken near the shore. No parasites of any kind were detected in any case. Indications are strong that the condition is an allergic dermatitis, not a parasitic disturbance. LITERATURE CITED STERLING, BRACKETT 1941. Schistosome Dermatitis and its distribution: A symposium on Hydrobiology, University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, p. 360. 1942. Schistosomiasis and the Second Front, Therapeutic Notes, Park Davis Co., Dec. 1942, p. 358. Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 10 (2-3) 1947 (4948) NEWS AND COMMENTS The editors have discovered that operating a News and Comments sec- tion of the Journal is not as simple as it might seem. For one thing, no one has submitted any suggestions as to what ought or ought not be included. However, we hope that this condition will not continue and that forthcoming issues will contain an abundance of interesting material concerning our members. Several omissions from the last issue were noted. Some of these were entirely the fault of the editors; some were due to the fact that nobody took the trouble to tell us. For example, we forgot to mention that George B. Merrill of the State Plant Board, and long a member of the Academy, was re-elected Associate Editor of the Florida Entomologist. We also failed to include Raymond F. Bellamy’s name in the list of officers, because we didn’t know his exact title. However, he is the PUBLICITY AGENT, So if you have any business along that line he is the one to contact. Among new items which have come to our attention, is the fact that at the meeting of the Icthyologists and Herpetologists in New Orleans, one member of the Academy, M. Graham Netting, suc- ceeded another, Carl L. Hubbs, as president. Edward T. Keenan was recently elected President of the Rotary Club of Frostproof. Three members of the Academy were recently elected officers of the Florida Audubon Society: H. S. Newins, President; Minter J. Westfall, Jr., Secretary; and R. J. Longstreet, Editor of the Florida Naturalist. The Council of the Academy met at Gainesville on March 6th and acted upon a number of matters of importance. It was decided that the next annual meeting should be held at the University of Miami, in Coral Gables. The time of the meesing will be announced later, after the local committee has been consulted. The Ela Library of the Academy will shortly be placed under the supervision of the Librarian of the University of Florida, and will be located at Gaines- ville. It will be maintained as a separate library, catalogued, bound, and cared for so that it will be more readily available. Members of the Academy may still obtain books or periodicals simply by writing Coleman J. Goin, the Exchange Librarian. One of the most important actions taken by the Council was the reorganization of the Junior Academy. Garald G. Parker was appointed to coordinate Junior Academy affairs with those of the Academy NEWS AND COMMENTS IOI proper. It was also decided that three sponsors should be appointed, two at large and one from the place of the annual meeting, to direct and encourage activities of the Junior Academy. These steps should help to avoid some of the confusion that has occurred in the past, and make it possible for the Junior Academy to carry on a more worth- while program. Robert B. Campbell was appointed Academy Representative to the International Geological Congress to be held in London this summer. The editor of the Journal reported, that the Quarterly Journal was faced with a new and unusual situation in an over abundance of ex- cellent papers instead of the dearth which has sometimes occurred in the past. Several long papers of special merit were discussed, and it was decided that an editorial committee to consider these should be formed. Current funds are exhausted and printing costs have increased neatly 50%. So if the Journal is to maintain its standards in regards to size we need more paid-up members and more new members. Three hundred new members in the next year would almost put us back on our feet, and perhaps allow us to catch up on the back numbers. ReszarcH Notes A NEST OF CRYPTOTIS FLORIDANA—The only published descriptions of the nests of Gryptotis floridana, of which I am aware, are those of Smith, 1938 (Journ. Mammalogy, 38: 372-373) and of Moore, 1943 (Proc. Fla. Acad. Sci., 6: 158). Smith describes a nest found under a log near Sanford, Florida. He states that it was a loosely piled, globular mass of panic grass, Panicum mutabile, containing small pieces of a shed snake skin. Moore describes various nests built by a captive animal. A description of another nest of this race follows. It was discovered by J. C. Dickinson III about five miles southwest of Gainesville, November 12, 1946. Two immature shrews were captured by hand at the nest site and presented to me. The nest was situated under the bark of a branch of a fallen sweet gum tree (Liquid- ambar styraciflua), about a foot from its broken end, which was about a foot above the ground. The branch was four or five inches in diameter, and joined the trunk about two feet from the nest. The soil on which the tree rested was quite moist and in the abrupt transition zone between hammock and prairie. The log was in a stage of decomposition apparently quite favorable for the large beecle, Passalus cornutus. These insects had appar- ently formed a labyrinth of tunnels under the bark, and in some places for several inches into the wood. Some of these tunnels had apparently been used as shrew runways. On turning the log over, openings were found through the bark, a distance of nine feet from the nest, where the trunk was in contact with the ground. From these openings, a typical shrew tunnel zig-zagged towards the hammock. A brief examination of the decaying wood between the nest and the trunk revealed four larvae, and seven teneral and two 102 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES adult Passalus. A number of cockroaches, slugs, and earthworms were also 7 Prob- ably these provided a luxurious larder for the shrews. The nest chamber was about three inches in diameter and was situated under the burke of the upper side of the limb. The nest was relatively dry and was composed entirely of pieces of the blades of a grass, Axanopus furcatus, three or four inches in length. The seg- ments of the blades were entire, and the nest contained no apparent lining. The nest material had apparently been selected by the shrews from among a number of plants abundant in the vicinity, which were identified by Dr. A. M. Laessle as: Panicum sp., Centella repanda, Syntherisma sp., Polypremum procumbens, Persicaria punctata, Acalypha sp., Oldenlandia sp., and Xanthoxalis stricta. Another shrew of this race, given to me by the late J. R. Watson, may have had a some- what similar nest. Dr. Watson received it from a farmer, who stated that he had found it in a hole in a standing fence post.—H. B. SHERMAN, Department of Bislozy and Ge- ology, University of Florida. Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy _ of Seliences Vol. 10 _ December 1947 (1948) No. 4 Contents McLane—TuHE SEASONAL Foop oF THE LarGEMouTH Buack Bass, MICROPTERUS SALMOIDES FLORIDANUS (Lacépéde), IN THE Se jouns River, WeELAKA, FLORIDA........ 2. .cccbsjee eo 103 VENNING—DIVERSITIES OF FLORAL VASCULAR ANATOMY IN PAM- BUKUS, “MISSIONIS (WIGHT) SWINGLE. ......... 0.2065 08005 139 PeERRY—INTERPRETATION OF RAINFALL Recorps at MIAMI...... 147 Pe TINO OUNENEEIN TS. 6 cce-ctiescrsralegs ms bs oc hes ce duees da slew vas 151 -» Promrsa ROL ORUNER, GiOu cil 2 OE Skis didn s Rk bd bi sicle s Sek we SS 156 eee ~ TitLe Paces, TABLES OF ConTENTS;“AND INDEXES OF VOLUMES 6-10 ve a ie 44 1, nceay 4 it DEC ain CV EX December, 1947 (1948) Vol. 10, No. 4 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES A Journal of Scientific Investigation and Research Published by the Florida Academy of Sciences Printed by the Rose Printing Company, Tallahassee, Florida Communications for the editor and all manuscripts should be addressed to Frank N. Young, Edétor, or Irving J. Cantrall, Asséstant Editor, Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida. Business communications should be addressed to Chester S. Nielsen, Secretary-Treasurer, Florida State University, Talla- hassee, Florida. All exchanges and communications regarding exchanges should be sent to the Florida Academy of Sciences, Exchange Library, Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville. Subscription price, Three Dollars a year Mailed November 26, 1948 THE QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vol. 10 DECEMBER 1947 (1948) No. 4 THE SEASONAL FOOD OF THE. LARGEMOUTH BLACK BASS, MICROPTERUS SALMOIDES FLORIDANUS (Lacépéde), IN THE ST. JOHNS RIVER, WELAKA, FLORIDA! Wittram M. McLane University of Florida The principal objective of the present study was to determine the seasonal diet of the young and adult largemouth black bass, Mécropterus salmoides floridanus (Lacépéde),? in the Welaka region of the St. Johns River, Florida. In view of the fact that the majority of previous papers on the food of bass has been concerned with bass in hatchery ponds, or include only a portion of a yearly food cycle, it was felt that an investigation covering a complete change of seasons for both young and adult bass would be a worthwhile contribution. In regard to this, the mild climates of Florida are particularly suited to the year around pursuit of biological problems, and the mild winters per- mit a twelve month growing season for fish, in contrast to the shorter growth period in more northern latitudes. 3 Previous Work Smith (1907), in a general account of the black bass, lists -crusta- ceans and insects as food of young specimens. He also states that can- nibalism occurs at an early age and mentions fishes, small mammals, frogs, tadpoles, snakes, worms, insects, and vegetable matter as the principal foods. The works of Forbes (1880), Hankinson (1908), Baker 1 Contribution from the Department of Biology, University of Florida. 2 Nomenclature after Bailey and Hubbs (in press). ners iRés teint O Mee ee 104 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES (1916), Pearse (1918, 1921), Turner and Kraatz (1920), and Greeley (1927.) were reviewed and summarized by Adams and Hankinson — (1928). Ewers and Boesel (1935), studied the food of 112 largemouth bass (21-112 mm. total length) in Buckeye Lake, Ohio, in July and August, 1930. Their results show a progressive change in the food of this species from crustaceans to insects and finally to fishes. These authors briefly review the findings of DeRyke and Scott (1922), who also found a progressive change in bass food. Rivero (1936) reported on the almost complete elimination of Cyprinodontes by largemouth bass in waters where this fish had been introduced in Cuba. Cooper (1937) published his findings on the food, growth, and cannibalism of 1,013 young largemouth bass in rearing ponds in Michigan. Novy (1939), who studied the food of ninety-eight largemouth bass (32-280 mm. length) from twenty-nine different localities in Ohio, found that there was a predominance of crustaceans in the diet of fingerlings. At the age of six months, however, insects predominated and later both crustaceans and insects were replaced by fishes. Bass one and one-half years old and over ate mostly fishes. Clark (unpublished manuscript) studied the food of 366 young largemouth bass in three lakes in Ohio. His data show that Clado- cera and Copepoda comprised from 88% to 99% of total food. Traut- man (1940) examined the contents of 421 largemouth bass stomachs in Whitmore Lake, Michigan, and his records show that approxi- mately 50% had eaten bluegills, while brown and yellow bullheads and young largemouth bass, respectively, constituted the next most important food items. Howell, Swingle, and Smith (1941), from th: results of a five year study in Alabama, concluded that two ounce and two pound largemouth bass eat the same foods—principally fishes and insects—and that plant food is secondary, the amounts eaten de- pending upon the degree of competition for food. Dendy (1946) found tke food of 258 adult lass in Norris Reservoir, Tennessee, to ke mainly shad, crappie, bluegills, and skipjacks with aquatic and terrestrial insects and entomostracans included as minor food elements. In addi- tion to some of the references mentioned above, Dendy briefly sum- marized the results of Forbes (1878), Marshall and Gilbert (1905), Forzes and Richardson (1920), Tester (1932), Pate (1933), McCormick (1940), Nelson and Hasler (1941), Webster (1942), and Moffett (1943). The following references relate to the food of largemouth black bass in Florida waters: Meehean (unpublished manuscript) examined SEASONAL FOOD OF THE LARGEMOUTH BLACK BASS 105 the stomach contents of fingerling bass from hatchery ponds at Welaka in 1933, and reported a considerable amount of food selectivity in the larger fingerlings which utilized larger food items. Crustaceans and insects formed the main elements in the diet of these fish. Carr (1942) examined the stomach contents of 65 specimens (10-23 mm.) and 42 specimens (34-67 mm.); all of which were collected in Lake Alice near Gainesville. The fish in the first group ate 16 different food ele- ments with Anurea sp., Bosmina sp., Diaptomus sp., Cyclops sp., and small unidentified eggs present in greatest numbers. In the second group 18 different items were eaten with Callibatis floridanus larve, Diaptomus sp., Cyclops sp., Ostracoda, Sidide, Daphnia sp., Diptera larvz, and fish present in greatest numbers. Hubbs and Allen (1943) state that the bass in Silver Springs feed on fish, crayfish, frogs, and Palamonetes paludosa. Allen (1946) states that bass eat small fish, fairy shrimp, and bream in Silver Springs. MetTHODS The present investigation was made in the Welaka region of the St. Johns River where a peculiar and interesting association of fresh, brackish, and salt water organisms exists. Field work was begun in June, 1941, with headquarters at the University of Florida Conser- vation Reserve, Welaka, Putnam County, Florida. Work was sus- pended in January, 1942, but was resumed in February, 1946, and continued until April, 1947. In anticipation of large numbers of empty stomachs from adult bass because of regurgitation, several methods of obtaining stomachs were employed. The original collecting stations set up at eleven sport fishing camps between Astor Park and Dunns Creek were reduced to the four most productive stations near Welaka during the 1946-47 period in order to obtain more detailed data. In addition to the bass stomachs from these stations the author used hook and line, common sense seines, and a thirty-five foot bag minnow seine for collecting. Four seining stations were set up in Little Lake George where many adult bass spawned and young bass were very abundant. The most unproductive method of obtaining bass for stom: ch con- tent analysis was the securing of material from commercial drag seines in Big and Little Lake George (expanded portions of the St. Johns River). These seines, operated by power boat, varied from 900 to 2,200 yards in length with a 31% inch mesh. Since approximately 95% of the bass jumped over the net or got out under the lead line, 106 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES and the majority of bass obtained had empty stomachs, analyses of these catches were discontinued except for occasional sampling. Enough material was obtained by all the methods mentioned above to present a reasonably accurate account of the yearly diet, by months, for young and adult largemouth bass from the area studied. The con- tents of a total of 1,338 stomachs were analyzed and the results are presented in the following tables and discussion. All fish used in this investigation were placed in two separate cate- gories. Specimens up to 299 mm. fork length were classified as ‘“young”’ bass. Those 300 mm. and over were classified as ‘‘adult’’ bass. A 300 mm. bass usually weighed approximately 453 grams (one pound) and - was near the legal length of 304 mm. (twelve inches). In all tables and figures the data presented start with the month of April, since the first young of the year were collected during that month in 1946. Consequently, the progressive changes in diet with increasing size of the young fish from the smallest to largest can easily be followed. During the latter months (February and March) the food of ‘‘young’’ fish grades almost imperceptibly into the food of ‘‘adults’’ which prevents this artificial division of young and adult from misrepresenting the natural trends in seasonal changes in ‘diet with increased size of the fish. Length frequency data on a monthly basis are presented (Table 3 for young and Table 5 for adults), as an aid in properly interpreting the results and analyses. NaturaAL History aND EvaLUATION OF Foop oF ‘“‘YounG”’ LarceMoutTH Buack Bass 1n St. JoHNs River The majority of young bass were collected at four stations in Little Lake George, in a habitat characterized by firm sandy bottom with quite dense beds of Vallisneria americana, Naias guadalupensis, Ruppia maritima, and some Potamogeton illinensis and Chara sp., The water depths ranged between one and five feet. This proved to be the optimum habitat for young bass in the area of the river studied. When rafts of floating water hyacinths, (Piaropus crassipes) covered the sur- face of the water over such a habitat and remained there about two weeks, the rooted aquatics ceased growing and disappeared. Later, after the rafts of hyacinths were blown away, repeated seining yielded no bass and few other fishes until aquatic vegetation was reestablished. Muddy bottomed and unvegetated areas proved to be very unpro- ductive for young bass. ~ a eo. SEASONAL FOOD OF THE LARGEMOUTH BLACK BASS 107 No young bass under 18 mm. fork length were collected; all were at the stage of feeding on moving bottom organisms and plankton. Repeated observations revealed the fact that these young bass seldom captured any organism which was not in motion. The high ratio of stomachs with food to empty stomachs indicates that regurgitation is a factor of little concern in the study of the stomach contents of young largemouth bass. (See Table 7 which gives monthly figures on numbers of empty stomachs and stomachs with food for both young and adult bass.) The following discussion of food organisms is eee in the same order as the material in Table 1. Coprropa—Three identified species of Copepoda from the stomachs of young bass were taken in significant numbers though greatly dwarfed by the large numbers of Cladocera for the same months. Diaptomus was eaten during three of the four months that copepods occurred in bass stomachs. Cyclops occurred in April and May only, in relatively insignificant numbers in comparison. Plankton tow samples made dur- ing this season yielded a preponderance of Diaptomus in the same habitat areas where young bass were collected. It seems that bass ate the most abundant planktonic copepods with no apparent selectivity. The comparatively small total number of copepods eaten in May is partially accounted for by the fluctuation in abundance known to to occur from month to month in the river as shown for 1939-40 by Pierce (1947). The abrupt drop which took place in July is very sig- nificant in view of the numbers of copepods eaten in June, the size of the bass examined, and failure of bass to ingest copepods during the rest of their lives. Undoubtedly, the young bass have attained the size at which they may prefer and are able to capture larger food items. For the months of April, May, and June, copepods probably rank third or fourth in imporatnce as-a food element for the smallest sizes of bass examined. Ostracopa—These organisms were eaten in small numbers during April, and one specimen was taken by a bass in July. Failure of the bass to utilize-these organisms for food is not necessarily indicative of their abundance or availability in the river. For example, Surber Cin Ewers and Boesel, 1935) states that “‘In the Mississippi river sloughs we find that ostracods are extremely abundant, often exceed- ing twenty thousand per square liter [sic] of bottom area, and yet hardly a trace of ostracods was found in the food of any of these slough fishes taken within the seine haul.’ 108 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Criapocera—Five genera of cladocerans were recorded from stomach contents. The following three forms occurred in such small numbers as to appear of little importance in view of other foods eaten: Bosmina only during the month of May; Chydorus in April and June; and Daphnia in April. Sida crystallina was a far more important form and was eaten in appreciable quantities during April, May, and June, but tapered off in rate of occurrence to two specimens in July. A noticeable peak in consumption of Sida occurred in May. Sida was not observed in any plankton tow samples during these months, nor did it occur in the samples taken by Pierte at Station III in Little Lake George (Pierce 1947). This absence from plankton samples is possibly due to the fact that this cladoceran is an inhabitant of vegetated zones rather than open waters. Sida occupies a far more important position in the diet of young bass than all the Copepoda—based on numbers eaten and relative size. Diaphanasoma leuchtenbergianum 1s very obviously the most out- standing single food item ingested by young bass during the months of April, May, and June. The tremendous numbers of this organism consumed during this period by the majority of fish make its import- ance outweigh that of any other food item regardless of size. This limnetic plankter 1s typically an open water form and readily avail- able to the bass. Concerning Cladocera in general, some interesting correlations can be deduced from the data presented here and from those of Pierce (1947), which strongly indicate that availability and abundance of these or- ganisms as food for the bass is determined to a marked degree by the physico-chemical conditions in the river. For example, Pierce’s data show that there was no evidence of seasonal increase in numbers of Cladocera; however, there existed a decrease in all forms in June and they were entirely absent from samples taken in the river from July until November. This absence of Cladocera he partially attributes to a complete lack of free carbon dioxide in the water, the appearance of great numters of Myxophycez, and a large rise in pH. In contrast to this picture, his results show that copepods were not noticeably affected by these changing conditions. An examination of the data on Cladocera presented in Table 1 shows an almost exact conformity of cladocerans eaten by bass to their seasonal periodicity. An interesting calculation on the amount of water that had to be fished by a single bass in order to obtain “‘the average number of SEASONAL FOOD OF THE LARGEMOUTH BLACK BASS 109 Diaphanasoma leuchtenbergianum per fish’’ is believed to be significant, even though based on the quantitative figures of Pierce for Station III, which was located in open water and does not necessarily represent the numbers of Diaphanasoma which were present in the densely vege- tated bass habitat. He records an average of 2.3 Diaphanasoma per liter for April, May, and June. During this pertod the average number per fish recorded in Table 1 was 82.47 Diaphanasoma for the same months. This would indicate that each bass fished out all indi- viduals of this cladoceran in 35.85 liters of water (8.52 gallons). The maximum fishing effort of any one bass was apparently made by a specimen of which the stomach contained 637 Diaphanasoma which, to judge from their condition, had been ingested within the last 24 hours. To obtain this number this fish would have had to fish com- pletely 276.95 liters (65.94 gallons) of water. Mysidacea—Specimens of this crustacean collected in Little Lake George and from the stomachs of young bass from several localities in the ‘‘lake’’ were assigned to the genus Mysidopsis by Dr. Fenner A. ‘Chace of the United States National Museum. He informs me that the above form represents a new species. Only four species of fresh- water mysids are known from the Americas, and until further study is made it will ke impossible to say whether or not this new species represents a strictly freshwater form, or one which has migrated from a marine habitat. Only two species have been recorded from the inshore waters of the southeastern United States: Mysidopsis bigelow2 Tattersall, and Paramysidopsis munda (Zimmer). Specimens of Myszdopsis were collected with a fine meshed net over sandy bottom in areas devoid of aquatic vegetation at depths no less than five feet some thirty to fifty feet from the shoreline at Johns Landing and Orange Point in Little Lake George. After the discovery of the occurrence of this crustacean in the stomachs of bass, many unsuccessful attempts were made to localize its habitat and its rela- tion to that of the young bass habitat. On July 7, 1946, Mysidopsis was first collected by starting from the shore and working out towards the deeper open water. A small net was worked from side to side in a wavy line just above the sand, as it was believed that Mysidopsis might te found in close association with the bottom. In water ap- proximately five feet deep a cool layer of water was detected which extended about one foot up from the sandy bottom. When brought to the surface a small mass of pinkish brown material was seen in the bottom of the net. This material proved to be Mysidopsis and subse 110 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES _ quent sampling revealed that it was present on or just above the bottom only in water deep enough to have a cool layer below. Mysédopsis was never collected in the vegetation zone along or near the shoreline at Orange Point or Johns Landing. No accurate determinations were made of abundance except by dip-net sampling during July, August, and September. Twenty-two specimens collected July 14, 1946, at Johns Landing, were measured. Seven of these were females and fifteen males. All seven females possessed either eggs, embryos, or young in varying stages of development. Four eggs or young were always found in the pigmented brood pouch. (Gravid females were also found in June, July, and August). These averaged eight millimeters from the tip of the telson to tip of carapace; males averaged six millimeters. Several hundred specimens were kept alive for several days in an aqua- rium where they were observed to be constantly in motion, SORTS over the sandy bottom, rarely venturing to the surface. The following facts are presented in support of the belief that My- sidopsis occurs generally over the bottom of the river, in the Welaka region, in large enough numbers to be of considerable importance in the diet of several species of fishes besides the black bass. A lot of 370 Myszdopsis was found in the stomachs of eight adult Dasyatis sabinus caught on a trot line set at nineteen foot depths in the river channel near Buzzards Roost Point in July, August, and September. A lot of 48 specimens was found in the stomachs of two adult female Micropogon undulatus caught in a seine near Croaker Hole in September. Chable (1947) records 63 specimens from five young Pomoxis nigro-maculatus which were collected in the St. Johns River, September, 1946. Bass ate Mysédopsis in significant numbers during almost the entire year (See Table 1). Apparently these crustaceans are abundant in swarms in the shallower regions of their habitat, which may slightly overlap the habitat of the young bass. Absence of Myszdopszs from bass stomachs in October and February is believed to be due to the small samples of fish examined for these months. With regard to size and the numbers eaten it is felt that Mysidopszs occupies a place in the © diet of young bass comparable to that of Cladocera. However, due to the greater size, yearly abundance, and availability (as reflected by the large number taken as food), it occupies a far more important position as the principal ‘“‘bridge’’ from the smaller Crustacea and Insecta to the larger food items of the upper size groups of young bass and the smallest size group of adults. In this capacity, Mysidopsis prob- SEASONAL FOOD OF THE LARGEMOUTH BLACK BASS 111 ably enables young bass to maintain a constant or accelerated rate of growth and partially eliminates the “insect feeding stage.”’ Amphipoda—Three genera (two species identified) of amphipods were found in stomachs, though in such small numbers as to seem relatively unimportant. Dr. Clarence R. Shoemaker, who identified the amphi- pods, states that, ““They were all common species, but I do not recall having seen specimens of Monoculodes edwardsii from Florida before ... Interestingly enough, Table 1 shows that this species occurred in greater numbers and during more months than any other amphipod. Isopopa—Cyathura carinata, an anthurid isopod, was found in only one bass stomach during the course of this study (two specimens in September). Chable (1947) reports sixteen specimens from the sto- mach of one Lepomis auritus collected in the St. Johns River at Welaka. Also, I have records of Cyathura from the stomachs of two adult Mzcro- pogon undulatus from Little Lake George. Decaropa—Palamonetes paludosa was the most abundant of the three species of decapods eaten during the year. Although taken by a small percentage of bass, the bulk far outweighed all other food in those stomachs in which these shrimp occurred. Palemonetes was eaten con- sistently each month but showed a decrease during March, approxi- mating the general rate of consumption for all adult bass. Observa- tions on bass (18-75 mm.) in captivity indicate that fish of this size experience much difficulty in capturing Palemonetes of ingestible size. The Palemonetes recorded in Table 1 represent for the most part those eaten by fish in the upper size groups for the different months. Palamonetes paludosa was extremely abundant in beds of Vallisneria americana and Naias guadalupensis throughout the entire year with a decided increase in numbers during the summer months when young specimens were collected in large number. Four to five hundred indi- viduals could easily be taken with a four-foot common sense seine by pulling it through about ten feet of this vegetation. Specimens were less numerous under and in hyacinth roots, and quite scarce or absent from open deeper waters. Palamonetes carolinus is normally considered a salt water species, and its occurrence in June in the stomach of one fish in the Welaka area probably indicates that its occurrence so far upstream may be sporadic. EPHEMEROPTERA— Lhree species (Canis diminuta, Callibatis floridanus, and Stenonema exiguum—all nymphs) were utilized as food to a minor extent although mayfly nymphs were quite abundant among the sub- merged aquatic vegetation. 112 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Oronata—Cragonfly nymphs and adults occurred more or less sporadically throughout the yearly food cycle of young bass and appear to te of no real significance. HemipterA— The only explanation for the significant occurrence of Arctocorixa sp. is that during September and Octoker this insect was available as food during a stage in its life history which made it easy prey to fish. Flights of this species were observed during September. Diptera—Chironomids present an interesting picture which pre- sumably is accounted for by the differences in life history of the various species. It will te noted that the majority of Chironomids were eaten during April, May, June, and July. These insects formed a significant supplementary diet up until June when the maximum numbers were consumed. Although bass ate larvz and pupz readily there is a strik- ingly conspicuous absence of adults even though these were emerging and dying in tremendous numbers; their floating dead bodies covering extensive areas of the river during September, October, and Novem- ber. Adults were so abundant as to make it practically impossible to work at night with a headlight or collect along tke hyacinths and shoreline of the river during the daytime. A local fisherman who had. built a sizeable fire on shore before dark reports that after dark when he had finished baiting his trot line he returned to discover that the enormous swarms of blind mosquitoes (Chironomus tentans?) had ex- tinguished his fire. The almost complete absence of adult insects, either aquatic or terrestrial, is most outstanding, although partially accounted for under the discussion of Mysidopsis. Of the 659 young bass examined, only three had eaten adult insects (Odonata). Acartna—These organisms were eaten in insignificant numbers. Gastropopa—Amnicola sp. was probably taken accidentally by the two bass for which it was recorded. It is considered to be a miscel- laneous item and is included under that heading in Figure 1. This small snail was quite abundant on the sandy bottom areas and on stems and leaves of rooted aquatic vegetation. It was the most abun- dant snail found in this section of the river. Five large Fundulus semin- olis adults were examined in the field, and contained large numbers of Amnicola in their stomachs and intestines. Chable (1947) records them from the stomachs of three Lepomis microlophus microlophus from the St. Johns River at Welaka. Pisces—Notropis maculatus, a cyprinid minnow, occurred in the sto- SEASONAL FOOD OF THE LARGEMOUTH BLACK BASS 113 machs of three bass. Although this occurrence is numerically insig- nificant, it presents the basis for some interesting correlations. Regular samples of the fish populations, in the same localities from which the young bass were collected, were made at intervals of about one week throughout most of the year. Notropzs, and another cyprinid, Opsopedus emilia, were first collected in large numbers in Little Lake George in October. No Opsopedus was found in any Lass stomachs although it was equally abundant in schools among and on the outer border of the vegetation beds where bass were also taken in large numbers. Notro- pzs was collected almost exclusively 1n deeper water than Opsopedus, and outside the vegetation zone. By selective seining nearly pure collections of either species could be taken at will. The limitations of the seine made it impossible to collect fish in waters deeper than five feet; therefore, it was not determined how deep Notropis ranged. Three bass collected in October, November, and January contained one No- tropis each. These records coincide exactly with the only months that Notropis was found in shallow water areas. More intensive study may show that these minnows occupy an important place in the diet of bass during October, November, December, and January. Three Gobiosoma bosci were eaten in August and one in January. This fish Gn contrast to the following species, Microgobius gulosus )was rarely taken in shallow water at any time of the year. It was found to be extremely abundant in deeper portions of the lake and channel of the river, by observing the numbers that dropped off of crab traps as they were pulled out of the water onto the deck of a boat. On several occa- sions I accompanied a ‘‘crab liner’’ who was fishing one line of forty traps spaced at fifteen foot intervals. The first six traps were inshore at depths from three to seven feet; the remainder were at increasing depths up to a maximum of twenty-three feet. This go y, with its modified ventrals forming a very efficient suction cup, tenaciously holds on to the wooden slats of the trap until after they have been raised from the water. Therefore, it was simple to obtain an estimate of its abundance at the various depths. Only an occasional specimen was brought up from the three to seven foot depths. The numbers increased appreciably at depths of nine to twelve feet and as many as 8o speci- mens dropped off of some traps from greater depths. These facts sub- stantiate the belief that this goby occupies a deep-water bottom habi- tat for which it is well adapted. Microgobius gulosus was eaten in considerable numbers during June, 114 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES July, August, and September. Specimens were collected in shallow water vegetation zones all seasons of the year; however, no specimens were observed on any of the crab traps mentioned above. | Menidia beryllina atrimentis was consumed in tremendous numbers (941) in July by small bass, which were also eating large numbers of Mysidopsis. Large schools of adult Menidia and fry of several different size groups were observed in July swimming at, or just below, the surface in moderately swift current at the edge of the channel where it swings within thirty feet of shore at Norwalk Point. Either the young bass ventured out into the swift deep water to feed on these minnows, or changing conditions resulted in the minnows moving into the shallower habitat of the bass where they became available for food. One adult Menzdia and six immatures were also eaten in May and September respectively. | Centrarchida—Nine species of sunfish were collected in the St. Johns River, but only three identifiable species were recorded from the sto- machs of bass as shown in Table 1: Lepomis auritus, Lepomis macro- chirus purpurescens, and Macropterus salmoides floridanus. No one species was as important as Palemonetes paludosa, although as a group, centrar- chids form a rather important element for larger size young bass. How- ever, even when relative bulk is taken into consideration, Palamonetes is still a far more important element of diet. Several species of sunfish were observed nesting over a period of three months and collections of all sizes of fry and fingerlings revealed that they offered an extremely abundant food supply for the predaceous fishes which will eat them. In spite of the tremendous numbers of these young sunfish occupying the same habitat as the bass, the bass rarely took TEAL of the opportunity to use them as food. A single case of cannibalism was found among the 659 young bass examined, which is indicative of a well balanced condition in the river attributable to the abundance of a wide variety of foods. Canni- balism is known to be a constant threat in bass hatcheries where a few large sized young can nearly decimate an entire population of smaller sized bass unless repeated grading and sorting is done. Cooper (1936) made a study of cannibalism in four Michigan hatchery ponds where he found 134 cases of cannibalism out of 1,013 young large- mouth bass examined. Also, cannibalism occurs in unbalanced natural bodies of water. Trautman (1940) records many instances of canni- balism among largemouth bass in Whitmore Lake, Michigan, where SEASONAL FOOD OF THE LARGEMOUTH BLACK BASS 115 ten percent of the food of adults consisted of young bass during a three year period. Signalosa petenensis vanhyningi, the ‘‘Lesser Gizzard Shad”’ or ‘‘Shad- ine,’’ is the one species of forage fish which was found with greatest regularity in bass stomachs during the different seasons. Shadine are the most important food-fish of young bass when they get large enough and agile enough to catch them. Shadines probably contribute more to the growth-energy factor of bass than any other single species of forage fish eaten. Signalosa is treated at length in the section of this paper dealing with the food of adult bass. Thirteen stomachs contained fish (¢) eggs in April and one in August. Fragments of Vallisneria americana leaves were found in two stomachs during March. These items are not considered of any real importance. Adult bass spawned during January, March, and April of 1946. This early and prolonged reproductive period makes it difficult to determine accurately the age of young black bass when the change to fish and large crustaceans took place. An approximation of four to five months old might be within reason; however, it is more likely that during the first year of growth, size rather than age is the main determining factor. In Table 1, for April, May, and June, the fish eaten represent prin- cipally the food of bass (late 1945 hatch?) in the upper size range of the monthly samples and not food of the young bass hatched prior to April, 1946. July marks the time in the life of the young bass when fishes were first utilized in significant numbers as food by the young of the 1946 hatch. A peak in numbers consumed during the year (pre- viously discussed) was due to Menzdia. The average size of the smallest bass had sufficiently increased by August to enable the young bass to turn principally toward fish as a main staple in their diet. Palemonetes and Mysidopsis were next in importance. Cladocera—no longer pres- ent in the river in significant quantities to be of value—Copepoda, Amphipoda, and Diptera larvae and pupz—the main staples for the smaller bass in April, May, and June—had become insignificant by August. The almost complete absence of the latter four groups during subsequent months of the year is clearly shown in Table 1. Undoubt- edly with increased size the bass are exhibiting a size preference in their capture of food. The food of the increasingly larger young for September, October, November, December (no sample), January, Feb- ruary, and March is mainly a diet of fish, Palemonetes, and Mysidopsis. TABLE 1.—Tue Stasonat Foop or Youne Month June Size range-fork length in mm. 25-265 3i— 298 Total number of stomachs exom’ed 88 183 Number of empty stomachs E 7) = =| So 3) ee = BG oi a es - ® — & oS (po oa o @ ec “oc Se Sa CS 8 = £ c xo 5.2)" 2 5 2) ~ : i?) : = o . List of organisms eaten Es ae = S = pS er x = C2) oP we. apse = Copepoda (total) 6/147 16. 174.62) 352 Sas Undet. copepods 1/127 14 15t 62 3 2 FoOle2 Diaptomus sp. 6 Diaptomus dorsolis I Gyclops sp. =) Cyclops ater yclops phaleratu Ostracoda (undet) EE eee eee ee Cladocera (total) 12652 73 19168 S509) 4/36 88 43.08 637) 1,971 36 23.45 301 2 ee Olan Bosmina sp. Sk 5.03);3 Chydorus sp. Sey Ke SEINE Daphnia sp. Sida crystallina : 18| 67644 7.0458) 17613 20955; 2 | Ol | Diaphanosoma leuchtenbergianum 12.570 57 3 433601 63711,762 18 2097 301 sidacea (total) Mysidopsis sp. 1.48 23) 569 47 677 60)| 690 80 403 71 Amphipoda (total (2510 2a 3) SO Undet. amphipods Hyallela sp. Hyallela azteca Monoculodes edwardsii | a Ss" O11 Gammarus sp. 2 DecaPodo (total) IS 5 18 15] 3! 20 36 SP aiSeSaaeee Palaemonetes paludosa is 5- 18 13] 30179 35 5) 1535) ea | Palaemonetes carolinus eoereeete. fallax rayfish l ye ol E eneraniare (total) 2. O2 1) 8 5 20Bs2 4 4 021 Odonata (total Ze OSai2. [SI SOl | SSF SSeS [eal | a (total) Arctocorixa sp Led L | Diptera O O Acarina rm Hygrobates sp. Pe eal Oren Pisces (total) Trace Undet. fish Signalosa p. vanhyningi Anchoa mitchilli diaphana Undet. cyprinids Notemigonus c.bosci Notropis maculatus Undet. ameiurids Chriopeops goodei Lucania parva Fundulus seminolis Gambusia a. hojbrookii Heterandria formosa Undet. centrarchids Micropterus salmoides floridanus Lepomis m. purpurescens Lepomis auritus Lepomis sp. Hololepis barratti Menidia b. atrimentis Gobiosoma bosci Microgobius gulosus Miscellaneous (total) Fish (?) eggs Vallisneria americana IZA Bale) 2iew28 4 eers2 ae I20 576 72) 9). 903 6 OT 2) 22-8 -26'2|-S28are 3; -3 *Oleg Ur “Ole bal. 2OTs 941 79 550 72 5-5. 05 Ij. tO=BAsoar 39413 Si 39 54:13 Sin 9 116 MICROPTERUS S. FLORIDANUS, 18-299 MM. Max. (one fish) Max. (one fish) Max. (one fish) Max. (one fish) Totals for year Av. per fish @ Fe) E a .S) a a ‘= ° -_ O71 14 313 ees CS aaa eae. a aaa (cd wailed Mes a panoiin oaa 9) (8) 6312 a ae oe ea iees 23e2l : 3 3 211) 4333 2)54 412 20 15 ; UY) 118 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Fundamentally, the food of these young bass from September on is practically the same as the food for adults examined during this study. This fact is demonstrated by a comparison of January, February, and March in Table 1 with Table 2 and Figure 1 with Figure 2. NatTurRAL History AND EVALUATION OF Foop or ‘“‘ADULT”’ LarcemoutH Brack Bass In St. Jouns RIvER The fact that adult largemouth bass will eat, at times, almost any moving object in, on, or above the water, without regard for its appro- priate size or palatability, has led many people to believe that bass ““strike’’ for a number of reasons. Hunger, ‘‘curiosity,’’ “‘anger,’’ and defense in protection of nest, eggs, and young are generally considered to be the principal causes. I have found in the stomachs of bass from localities other than the St. Johns River such items as adult water snakes (Seminatrix pygea), an adult red-wing blackbird (Agelaius phe- niceus mearnsi), a large chip of wood, adult rats or mice, and the wrapper from a loaf of bread. In 1940, I saw a seven pound black bass which had strangled in its futile attempt to swallow head first a five pound bass. These fish were picked up from the surface of the water apparently lifeless in Orange Lake, Marion-Alachua Counties, Florida. At the same locality another bass weighing approximately five pounds was found at the surface of the water with an adult bluegill (Lepomis macro- chirus purpurescens) stuck head down in its large mouth. The bass was helpless and was picked up without a struggle while still alive. Cases such as these are more frequently reported from the mud-bottomed, densely vegetated inland lakes of Florida. Further evidence that bass will capture objects which seem to be rather poorly selected for food is demonstrated by items found in adult bass stomachs from the St. Johns River. A one pound bass caught in 1942 had ‘‘swallowed’’ tail first a garfish (Lepisosteus osseus osseus) which was 185 mm. long. Its caudal fin was digested away leaving the caudal peduncle against the posterior end of the bass’ stomach while the gar’s head extended into the mouth of the bass and ap- peared as fresh as though still alive. During the spawning season sev- etal bass stomachs were found to contain such foreign items as pieces of plant roots, shell, rotten leaves, a pine cone scale, and pieces of sticks. The cases where catfish were ingested by bass should receive particular mention. Examination of the viscera revealed that in every instance except one the catfish was swallowed head first. When these stomachs were opened the serrated spines of the catfish were found SEASONAL FOOD OF THE LARGEMOUTH BLACK BASS 119 to be in the extended position and to have worked through the sto- mach walls. In cases where digestion had been completed the detached spines~were found in the coelomic cavity covered with tough brown tissue. In two instances catfish spines encased in this type of aberrant tissue were found imbedded in the liver of a bass. The relative importance of the major groups of food organisms eaten by adult St. Johns River bass are graphically shown ia Fizure 2. The innate ability of the adult bass to capture various types of food is an important factor in determining its food and feeding habits. The following discussion of the food items utilized seasonally by the dif- ferent sizes of adults is indicative of their habitat which seems to be - dependent to a great extent upon the abundance and availability of food organisms and the amount of natural cover present. Mysrpacea—Mysidopsis Cone specimen) was eaten by one bass col- lected in November. This fish was over 304 mm. in length, and the occurrence of one mysid in its stomach was probably accidental. Decapopa—Adult blass bass ate seven species of decapods found seasonally or throughout the year in the river. Next to fish, these organisms constituted the only other food considered to be of any importance which was found in adult stomachs during the nineteen months period of sampling. Three of these species—Palamonetes palu- dosa, Rhithropanopeus harrisit, and Procambarus fallax—comprised the large bulk of the decapods. The numbers of each species eaten appears to be closely correlated with the relative abundance of those available to the bass. Callinectes sapidus is extremely abundant in the river during the warm months and present in lesser numbers in winter, although it is seldom available to the bass. I have no authentic records of Calli- nectes from bass stomachs; therefore, it is not listed in Table 2. I do, however, believe that during the ‘‘soft shelled’’ stage specimens of the blue crab are occasionally captured by bass in the river. Local fishermen with considerable experience state this as fact. Palamonetes carolinus is normally considered a salt water species. However, it comes up the St. Johns as far as Welaka during some years, and was found in August in one stomach only. Penaus setiferus, also considered a salt water form, was recorded from three bass stomachs in May. These shrimp are known to migrate during summer as far south as Welaka where they are usually taken in large numbers. They are highly praised locally as an excellent bass and catfish bait as well as the most delectable shrimp for eating. 120 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES They were so scarce in the Welaka section of the river in 1946 that bait fishermen had to travel to Palatka in order to obtain enough for bait. Penaeus is generally caught in enormous numbers with cast nets at night along the bulkheads in the vicinity of Jacksonville. In the summer of 1936, I collected a small washtub full one night at Venetia, south of Jacksonville. This and other species of marine shrimp un- doubtedly form an important seasonal food varying in importance with their periodic abundance from year to year in the St. Johns River. Macrobrachium ohionis(2), primarily a fresh water shrimp, is the only one of four species of this genus not previously recorded from Florida, according to Dr. Fenner A. Chace. No information concerning this species or its relation to the food of bass in the St. Johns River is available except for the August record. 7 The habitat of Procambarus fallax indicates where the bass that captured it were feeding. Hobbs (1942) says that this species is prin- cipally a non-burrowing form which shows little restriction of habitat, but occurs abundantly where there is dense vegetation and in roots of floating water hyacinths generally throughout the year. It was eaten in considerable numbers during July, August, November, and De- cember. Procambarus pes occurred in three stomachs during October only. Its habits are similar to those of Procambarus fallax. The largest specimen of Rhithropanopeus harrisii, a small cancroid crab, found in a bass stomach was a male—length of carapace, 15 mm.; width of carapace, 20.1 mm. These crabs occurred regularly throughout the year in bass stomachs except in January and February when only a few stomachs were obtained for examination. They comprised an important element in the yearly diet, ranking next to Palemonetes palu- dosa in importance. Rhithropanopeus harrisiz is widely distributed, rang- ing from New Brunswick to Vera Cruz, Mexico. A bottom dwelling form, it occurs in salt, brackish, and fresh waters where it is found hiding in vegetation, under logs, and in the holes of rocks. It is re- corded from the St. Johns River as far upriver as Sanford along the border of Lake Monroe (Rathbun, 1930). I found it extremely abundant especially on hard or firm bottom in the deeper portions of the river and Little Lake George. Its habitat and abundance closely parallels that of Gobiosoma bosci (discussed under food of young bass) as de- termined periodically from specimens recovered from wooden crab traps. During the summer months when the blue crab (Ca/linectes) SEASONAL FOOD OF THE LARGEMOUTH BLACK BASS 121 fishing is at its greatest intensity in the Welaka region, I have seen hundred of Rhithropanopeus in the crab fishermens’ boats when they unloaded their catch at the fish houses. Ovigerous females and zooea larvz were collected in Little Lake George during May and June. One megalopa was collected in June. The fact that no Callinectes fe- males were observed with eggs during the entire course of this inves- tigation, although thousands were examined, leads me to believe that the zooea and megalopa are the larval stages of Rhitrhopanopeus harrisiz, since this crab was found’ with eggs as stated above. Princi- pally during the warm summer months, adults and immatures were collected in appreciable numbers among the Vallisneria and Naias, under and around sunken logs, and under fragments of consolidated shell mound material Gmainly Viviparus georgianus and Pomacea palu- dosa). All were in shallow water, whereas the optimum habitat seems to be in the deeper stretches of the river as in the case of Gobiosoma. The stomachs of twelve Anguilla bostoniensis obtained during Octo- ber and November contained twenty-eight specimens of Rhithropano- peus. Stomach analyses of five Dasyatis sabinus collected at depths of ten to twelve feet in July and September revealed thirteen specimens of this crab. Other fish which ate this crab are cited by Chable (1947), who records them from the stomachs of three species of sunfish— Lepomis auritus, Lepomis punctatus punctatus, and Chenobryttus coronarius —which were collected in the St. Johns River. No information was obtained which would explain the absence of this crab from the diet of ‘‘young”’ bass. Palamonetes paludosa was found in stomachs throughout the year except for the months of July, October, and January. Larger samples of adult bass for these months probably would have given positive rec- ords. It is ranked first in importance for all higher Crustacea taken as food because of the large numbers ingested during practically all seasons of the year. However, examination of more stomachs might prove Rhithropanopeus harrisii to be first in importance with Pala- monetes second. Orthoptera, Odonata, Hemiptera, Diptera, Araneida, and Gastro- poda, although found in bass stomachs, occurred sporadically and are considered as incidental food items of little consequence. Pisces—Micropterus salmoides floridanus is listed to point out the sig- nificant fact that of 679 adult bass stomachs examined for food not a single case of cannibalism was found. Fundulus seminolis was eaten in small numbers during seven months 122 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES | of the year. It is particularly abundant in the spring and early summer when large groups of breeding adults congregate over the shallow sandy bottom areas. It is locally called “‘Bullhead”’ and is an import- ant live bait minnow. Dorosoma cepedianum adults were observed to be one of the most abundant forms taken by commercial drag seines in the shallow ex- panses of the river and Big and Little Lake George. This gizzard shad, although looked upon with much distaste by the uninformed, occupies an important position in relation to the productivity of these waters. During the warm months of the year it is used extensively as bait for blue crabs, supplying an important need to this large com- mercial fishery. However, in winter when the crab fishing drops off the gizzard shad is used for catfish bait by wire trap fishermen. In addition, many tons ate chopped up, along with a few Lepisostews and Amia, by drag seine operators and raw, or cooked, are distributed over their seining grounds as bait for catfish. From the records in Table 2, Dorosoma appears to be the fifth most important food fish having occurred in appreenl le numbers during May, July, August, February, and March. No one species of catfish occurred in bass stomachs in appreciable numbers. However, taken as a group all catfish would occupy a posi- tion placing them fourth in importance. They were eaten eight months out of the year. Anchoa mitchilli diaphana, the Bay Anchovy, ranks next in import- ance to catfish, and was the only marine or anadromous species of fish eaten in appreciable numbers by adult black bass. The average stand- ard length of specimens collected in the river or found in bass stomachs was approximately 85 mm. No individuals under 80 mm. were col- lected. The infrequency with which this fish was taken in small numbers during fourteen months of seine sampling shows that Anchoa seldom frequents the shallow regions of the river. However, the large numbers found in the stomachs of bass during May, August, Septem- ber, October, and November, indicates that Anchoa is seasonally abundant in the deeper portions(?) of the St. Johns River. Five identifiable species of sunfish—Chanobryttus coronarius, Lepomis macrochirus purpurescens, Lepomis auritus, Lepomis microlophus microlophus, Enneacanthus gloriosus—were recorded from adult bass stomachs, but nO OMe species appears to be very important. A small amcunt of diges- tive action makes it extremely difficult to identify the various species of sunfish, and it will be noted that the majority fall in the “‘unde- SEASONAL FOOD OF THE LARGEMOUTH BLACK BASS 123 termined centrarchids’’ category in Table 2. This fact obscures the importance of the different species. Centrarchids taken as a group, however, form the second most important food of adult bass based on numbers consumed during the different seasons. Signalosa petenensis vanhyningz was noted by William Bartram, as eatly as 1773-74, who made some interesting observations on this fish and on Macropterus salmoides floridanus in the St. Johns River during his travels through Florida: Very early this morning we got on our way (but not without being persued by our enemy the Alegator) continually passing through prodigious shools of Trout which seemed to croud & fiil the river from shore to shore in such maner as to push each other out of water, & continually striking at small young fish that seemed to be going down the River. these small frys, were so amasingly numerous that the water seemed to shew nothing elce. they were about an inch long very thin of a bright silver colour & when the Trout came up with a schoole of them (which some times would be a quarter of a mile in length) the surface of the River was as it wer boiling, occationed by the inces- sant striking & jumping of the Trout at the small Fish; & now presented a very striking prospect to see the wretched condition of these unhappy little Fish for as constantly as The Trout came up with them and forced them out of their element into the Air, vast flight of a beautifull little white Bitterns flew out from the Shore amongst them & pick’t em up in the Air. . . . (Harper, 1943). According to Harper (1942) the locality described above is a spot in Lake Dexter near the entrance of the St. Johns River. Even today it is known as a “‘striking ground’’ from the large number of large- mouth bass that break the surface feeding on Signalosa at that same location. Bartram also mentions seeing several similar scenes as he passed upstream in the region about the present site of Hawkinsville which is approximately one mile south of Crow’s Bluff. Abundance: In addition to Bartram’s statement, Hubbs and Allen (1943) described the enormous numbers of Signalosa occurring once during 1933 and twice in 1941 in Silver Springs which flows into the Ocklawaha River (tributary of the St. Johns). In 1941 these fish died in such tremendous numbers at Silver Springs as to cause a very unde- sirable odor. In the boil of the spring they were seen in such dense schools that it was impossible to see through them. In the Welaka region of the St. Johns River Szgnalosa was observed in enormous schools at the surface in midstream and in the quiet waters of Little Lake George during the summer of 1941. Its abundance in this same region during 1946-47 was estimated to be much lower than for 1941 based on observations over a fourteen months’ period. It reached a maximum abundance in 1946 during the months of June, 124 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES July, August, and September as indicated by its frequency and abun- dance in population samples. Another indication of the importance of this excellent forage fish is gained from an analysis of the young and adult bass food data in Tables 1 and 2, which show that of all the identified species of fish utilized as food, Signalosa played the most important role during seven months of the year. To obtain a broader concept of the relation of this fish to the general economy of the river, stomach contents of several other species of fishes were exam- ined. The following were found to contain large numbers of Signalosa:- Pomoxis nigro-maculatus, Micropogon undulatus, Elops saurus, Paralichthys lethostigmus, Lepisosteus osseus osseus, and Strongylura marina. Further study would likely add other species to this list. Schooling: Signalosa was observed in dense schools numbering from a few hundred to several thousand individuals during July, August, September, October, November, and December, 1946. Data on the food of young and adult bass show that Signalosa was not fed upon during February, March, April, May, and June. It is an astonishing sight to see an enormous school of several thous- and individuals take evasive action in unison. Just before and after nightfall on the evening of August 21, 1946, I saw these fish in large schools at the surface extending over a wide area approximately one- fifth mile around Orange Point. The surface ripples resulting from their habit of swimming with their mouths open and just breaking water while feeding on plankton at the surface could also be seen up and down the river channel in this area as far as visibility permitted. Hundreds of bass were feeding on these schools and often as they struck an entire school would jump out of the water in an attempt to escape. The greatest activity of this sort was observed during’ the summer of 1941 when Signalosa was more abundant than in 1946. This spectacle took. place at the mouth of the Ocklawaha where it flows into the St. Johns River. The number of bass engaged in striking was conservatively estimated to be about one thousand. The weight of bass, which fed on schooling Signalosa, ranged be- tween one-half and three pounds. Predation was generally much more intense during the period of the swiftest outgoing “‘tide’’ at which time Signalosa swims against the current. ‘‘School”’ feeding may occur at any time of the day and, in most cases, lasts for only a few minutes. On occasions this activity extended intermittently over a period of several hours in one locality. SEASONAL FOOD. OF THE LARGEMOUTH BLACK BASS~ ° 125 In an effort to obtain a truer picture of the importance of Szgnalosa, many bass taken on ‘‘striking bars’’ were railroaded to the boat with rod and reel, or handline, in an effort to prevent regurgitation of their food. Another method was to allow the bass to swallow the bait before setting the hook in the hopes that this would have the desired effect. In only two cases were these methods successful, as evidenced by a compact ball of doubled over “‘shadines’’ found in these stom- achs. On nearly all other catches the bass were seen to break water One or more times after being hooked, and with mouth greatly dis- tended spew Signalosa over the surface. In some cases, additional fish were disgorged after the bass was boated; and later, partially digested ones were found in the live well and still two or three were present in the bass’s stomach. In view of the large number of stom- achs of ‘‘school feeding’’ bass examined during this investigation, the comparative ease with which a high percentage of Signalosa were regurgitated, and the tremendous numbers available throughout much of the year, the data for this species in Tables 1 and 2 greatly understates the true relationship of these two species. I know of no other region in Florida where young and adult bass have such an abundant seasonal supply of readily available food. Although there ate reports ‘of fluctuations, the consistently large catches of medium size bass from “‘schooling bars,’’ as well as a dis- proportionately large number of individuals in the upper weight brackets taken from year to year, has given this region a reputation for bass fishing unsurpassed throughout the country. | In Table 4 the data presented are the catch records of one skillful rod and reel fisherman for seventy days during June, July, August, and one day in September, 1941, which is indicative of the abundance of medium size bass in the Welaka region of the St. Johns River. All of these bass weighed between three quarters and three pounds and were caught while feeding on Sigualosa on ‘schooling bars’’ between Georgetown and Turkey Island. Observations and stomach examinations over a ten year peried on bass in sand hill lakes of North Central Florida strongly suggest that Labidesthes sicculus vanhyningi occupies a position in the economy of sand hill lake bass similar to that of Signalosa petenensis vanhyningz in the St. Johns River. An intensive comparative study of the cyclic periodicity, abundance and population pressure of Signalosa correlated with abundance and growth rate of bass in the river with a similar 126 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES TABLE 2. Tue Srasonat Foop or ADULT April Size range-fork length inmm.| 317-622 Total number ef stomachs examed stomachs 28 2il List of organisms eaten Total organisms No. stomachs Max. (one fish) Total organisms No. stomachs Av. per fish Decapoda (total) Palaemonetes paludosa Palaemonetes carolinus Macrobrachium ohionis (2) Penaeus setiferus . Rhithropanopeus harrisii Procambarus sp. Enc arn anus fallax S paeninsulanus ru = a= total) Orchelimum a a Odonata (total) aa SS Convene schna ingens (adult) 1931 | Snir ide epee 8 elostoma "tl [Seed ee eee ee Ne owe Se ee ee ee | Diptera iotallUndeMehinenomics an a ieee 310 10 Araneida (total) Dolomedes 4. sexpunctatus ane ea ae Gastropoda (total) Amnicola sp. ——— Pisces (total 4 70 2/5625 189 13 Trace A4 1S) WSs)PSsr2 50 214 2 14 Undet. fish beat Signaloso p. vanhyningi Dorosoma cepedianum Anchoa mitchilli diaphana Notemigonus c.bosci Ictalurus sp. Ictalurus |. punctatus Undet. ameiurids Anguilla bostoniensis Fundulus seminolis Gambusia a. holbrookii Heterandria formosa Undet. centrarchids Chaenobryttus coronarius Lepomis auritus _ Lepomis m. purpurescens Lepomis m.microlophus Lepomis sp. Enneacanthus gloriosus Menidia b.atrimentis Labidesthes s.vanhyningi Undet. atherinids Miscellaneous (total) Fish (?) eggs Naias guadalupensis Vallisneria americana Pinus scale Piaropus crassipes Detritus 1/38 9 3) 3°10 3-20 2 285 74 2 28574 127 SEASONAL FOOD OF THE LARGEMOUTH BLACK BASS 300-710 MM. p) MICROPTERUS S. FLORIDANUS he ote anak JO} SjDjoL —7I0 356 (US!) U0) “xOW ysij sad ay SyODWO}JS ON Swsiuo0bJso jD}OL (YS!) 2yO) “XOW ySij Jad “Ay SyoDWO}S ‘ON swsiup6i0 j0}0] (YS!} a0) “xDW ysij vad Ay SsyoDWO}S ON swsiup6s0 040) swsiud6s0 |pjo) (US!) 9U0) “xDW ysiy sad “ay SyODWOJS ON Swsiup6s0 |DjO) (US!) 8U0) ‘XOW ys sod “ay SydOWOJS ON Swsiupbso jDj}O) \ySi} au0) “xoW ysij Jad ‘Ay SYydOWOS ‘ON swsiuDbio |Djso) 2)21 17 1.21 3 (4S @U0) “xOW ysy sad ay] IR SYIDWOIS ‘ON a) J 219 96 557 46 1.26 3/42 34 1.29 3/14 13 61 IDS JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES study of the Labidesthes—black bass relationship in sand hill lakes would undoubtedly reveal many interesting facts and furnish data of potential value for future fisheries planning in Florida waters. Seventeen identified species of fish were recorded from the stomachs of adult bass. In addition to the ones listed and discussed above the ~ seven species remaining are important merely in that they illustrate | the wide variety of food-fish utilized by the bass. The examination of stomachs from time to time will undoubtedly reveal the presence of additional species of fish in the stomachs of adult bass. SEASONAL Foop oF Brack Bass By CLASSIFIED Groups The following information is graphically presented in Figures 1 and 2. These data are derived from the consolidation of the facts presented in Tables 1 and 2 into four natural groups to give a general clagsifica- tion of seasonal food of the fish studied and to show how these groups changed with size of the fish. Foop or YouNG Miscellaneous food items, composed mainly of fish@) eggs, appear in Figure 1 during April and August in small numbers, and for a small number of fish. The insect columns show a decided increase, due to Diptera (chi- ronomids), reaching a high peak in June when Cladocera reached a low. Insects were taken the rest of the year in almost negligible quan- tities except for September and October. No adult insects were found in the stomachs of any young bass. : Figure 1 clearly shows that Crustacea comprised the most important food of the young bass. Crustacea, (principally Cladocera), from a maximum peak in April, decrease in importance until July when Cla- docera become almost non-existent in the diet of young bass. From July through March, the Crustacea columns show only minor fluc- tuations remaining high due to the high rate of conse of My- sidopsis sp. and Decapoda. Fish show a gradual but steady increase in importance ‘with in- crease in size of the bass. They were taken in almost negligible quan- tities during the first three months when Crustacea and Insecta were the main foods. From August through March forage fish ranked next in importance to Crustacea. The abrupt peak in fish consumed, out- numbering all other groups, was during the month of July when the fry of Menidia beryllina atrimentis were eaten in such large numbers. Ds. FIGURE I AND FIGURE (02)019—2 HO YY —86 (bl) G9 AYVNYEss JIdWVS ON AYUVONV?E | YS8W3930 SNUOPIIO/J S SNIOBJAGOIIIP Ge (¢e)S9SG-29¢ (S9)OI12- 9 YaaW31d3S yi ao TVNOSV4AS 2 614 € (9)90G—zale (62) 2¢9-SOE TENTS ADM OW HSt4 Y3dd-SWSINVSYO JOON orm a UIE) (96)862-02 wo 2) z S = 7) m 2 oO n (o) 7) 2) QD z o = wo v m D oy o x 8 HSIj — Vaovisnys — SLOZSNI SNO3NVINZOSIN thi YAPGOLDO | YSEWSAld|aS| LSNONV 129 130 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES It is clearly shown in the tables and figures that the food of the largest young in the later months 1s basically the same as that of adults. Foop oF ADULTS The miscellaneous columns in Figure 2 represent mainly fish() eggs. Numbers taken in May and March outweigh all other food numerically; however, these eggs were eaten by only four fish. The column for miscellaneous in March was during the spawning period of black bass in 1946. The column for May could be due to the heavy spawning of other sunfishes known to have occurred at this time. If bulk rather than numbers had been considered the miscellaneous col- umns would be more accurately insignificant in contrast to the other categories. ; The insects eaten were principally adults with Cdonata comprising the main forms represented. They were taken in almost negligible _ numbers and only during the months of June, July, September, and October. Crustaceans show no decided fluctuations, being present in con- sistently significant numbers without any peaks or depressions. Pala- monetes paludosa, Rhithropanopeus harrisii, and Procambarus fallax are the main elements represented by these columns. Crustaceans, as food of adult bass, ranked second to fish based on rate of occurrence and tota[ numbers consumed. 3 Pesides the Crustacea, the only important group in the diet of adult bass was forage fish. Fish represented the prime food eaten by adults throughout the different seasons and no significant flucuations, peaks, or depressions appear. AMOUNT OF Foop tn Bass Stomacnus IN RELATION to Metuovs or CAPTURE The following discussion is based on the figures presented in Table 7. These results are generally in accord with the findings of other workers who have endeavored to determine the food of young and/or adult largemouth black bass in other re ions. The two methods of capture employed to collect bass which were analysed for stomach contents in this study were hook and line and seines. The data in Table 7 are based essentially on two different ‘classes’ of material as follows: young bass collected with seines and hook and line; and adults collected with seines and hook and line. Of the 679 adult bass stomachs obtained and examined from the St. Johns SEASONAL FOOD OF THE LARGEMOUTH BLACK BASS Pat River, 54% were empty. The highest percentage of empty stomachs occurred during the month of greatest spawning activity (yo% in April); otherwise, no seasonal trends were noted. The young bass collected with hook and line and seines showed a remarkably low figure for empty stomachs by comparison (10%). From my records and observations it seems that this percentage is almost entirely ac- counted for by young bass over 150 mm. which did regurgitate their food. In conclusion, hook and line and seines proved to be practical methods of obtaining adult bass in large numbers, however, a method which would eliminate regurgitation would produce material for a much more accurate picture partially eliminating the necessity of obtaining large samples. Young bass can be collected with seines without materially affecting the results of a food study. TABEESS LenGtTH FREQUENCY OF 659 YOUNG Bass FROM St. JoHNS RIVER IN 1946 Fork length | Apr.| May | June | July | Aug.| Sept.| Oct. | Nov.| Dec. | Jan. | Feb. | Mar. Gn mm.) 1S= 30M. 2. .8.: ATi S4.\) 33 31S 40 E . Hees 4a 25) eelG Mles50.-.. ae | Rae) Bye a BGO a. 8 ae eer tee = Gila 70), sea teeta 4051, 05 Ss m= 800805... Soo 5. ON ee 918 3 GIES OOM Se. Dem Tee ASN NA TO. 9 Deli aM) ae SIEI00 tae... _ 6 5) | LO 2 aN SB a 3 WOI195.), se. 2 TE 2) Pon Re eae alae Or, Ge) aah 126-150. ...... 25s Jk Oe De es SA eee aller IGT I S8 Se foi iene) ages) 3 2 D1 ine) ee 176-200... 2 ila | eee io ee Dicn Pala oil 2012251407, Pes Save Potala DMM s Seale 5% £ S 1 DICI5 0 see: Senedd tie jhe sae, Wee Dh We seas he 1 1 Dee D SH: 5 4. Teele ae uel 1 1 FT O299 3 @ An 5 1 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I wish to express my gratitude to Drs. J. Speed Rogers, B. B. Leavitt, T. H. Hubbell, H. B. Sherman, and H. H. Hobbs, Jr., who were or 132 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES are associated with the Department of Biology, University of Florida. Their valuable suggestions and criticisms, aid in obtaining financial support, facilities and equipment, and identification of material is TABLE 4 A Sport FisHERMAN’s CatcH REcorpD? | Month and | Bass Month and Month and | Bass |} Month and | Bass Dav Day Taken Taken Day Taken June 10 July 1 13. jsepé. 1 9 ca 18 js z. 12 ~ 19 7 4 =z 20 8 66 ie 21 10 3 47 = 22 11 5) 20 23 12 > 4 24 1S i 11 25 14 3 10 _ 26 15 1 12 i 27 16 3 4 : 28 17. 6 9 ; 29 18 3 8 ‘ 30 ; 19 4 12 20 5) 47 : 21 2 59 ; DD. 6 133 23 4 133 24 16 21 28 25 2 22) OL ; 26 8 23 7 16 24 ipl 28 8 25 29 14 26 7 30 oF | i 27 30 31 8 ‘ 28 55 29 65 30 54 31 52 Total number ofdays fished’ sasccec occu see ee eee 70 Lotal ‘stumber. of fish .cateht ee: 2s. ii ene Se ee 1,420 Total number of doubles .cageht. 23-22-7255 ee 15 Avetage number fish caught pet day 3.0. once oe ee saw eee eee 20.28 ell 3 Mr. Funk of Savannah, Georgia. SEASONAL FOOD OF THE LARGEMOUTH BLACK BASS 133 TABLE 5 LenctH FREQUENCY OF 383 ApuLT Bass From Sr. Jouns River Fork Length | Apr. | May | June | July | Aug.| Sept.| Oct. | Nov.| Dec. | Jan. | Feb. | Mar- —_—_ Gn mm.) 300-350. wise. 5 17 5 a7, DOr il +% he ho) 10 Deel Actehs= 22 SAO pines » Sipe 225) Sale Ol LG: 1 Sy) 6 3 4} 18 201-450"... 3. oe Lo Z: 4 ih 5 5) 3 10 4 . AS SOG... 4 4 2 5 3 Dialer: 3 a 2 DOLD Oe rss 2 3 1 Pie: ee 1 1 DL SOOOR es as. 1 2: 4 2 ae 1 Be pas? GOIl-G5O@ sn... 72 ii 3 1 (Spill==7/0.0)e ane il 1 7/17/50 eee 1 i gteatly appreciated. Also, I wish to thank my colleague, Mr. J. C. Dickinson for identification of the Copepoda; Miss Esther Coogle for aid in preparing tables and figures; and my wife, Virginia M. McLane for many hours spent in typing and reading the manuscript. SUMMARY An investigation of the stomach contents of the largemouth black bass was made over a twenty-three months’ period in the Welaka region of the St. Johns River. This included a complete analysis of 659 young and 679 adult bass stomach contents. It was demonstrated that the diet of young St. Johns River bass underwent a progressive change depending upon availability, abun- dance, and size of the food organisms, as well as size of the fish. The main categories of food of young bass were shown to be prin- cipally cladocerans, insects (larva, pupx, and nymphs), decapod Crustacea, and fishes; and that as the size of the young bass approached the size of adults their diet became essentially the same as that of the adults, consisting mainly of decapod Crustacea and fishes. The most significant food items of young bass proved to be Crus- tacea such as Diaphanasoma leuchtenbergianum, Mysidopsis sp., Palae- monetes paludosa, and the Shadine, Szgnalosa petenensis vanhyningz. Mysidopsis sp. was demonstrated to be an extremely important food element as well as a ‘‘bridge’’ from a diet of cladocerans and insects to one of fish and higher crustaceans. 134 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES The results of this study clearly demonstrate the fact that fishes formed the most important food of adult bass. The principal seasonal changes in diet of adult bass were shown to be correlated with seasonal abundance of two species of forage fish—the Shadine, Signalosa petenensis vanhyningi and the Bay Anchovy,- Anchoa mitchilli diaphana. The second and only other important food of adult St. Johns River bass was determined to be decapod crustaceans. The most important single species was found to be Palemonetes paludosa. Rhithropanopeus harrisii and Procambarus fallax were both found to be significant, rank- ing next to Palemonetes 1n 1mportance. The food of St. Johns River bass was found to agree, in general only, with the food of bass in other regions of the country, (Traut- man, 1940; Carr, 1942; Dendy, 1946; and others); however, the results show that the St. Johns is peculiar in that Signalosa was the dominant forage fish. Mysidopsis sp., Rhithropanopeus harrisii, and several other species of organisms—freshwater and marine—were found to be very significant food elements peculiar to the diet of bass in this river so far as is known at present. TABLE 6 SUMMARY OF YOUNG AND Aputt Bass Foop sy Groups? MISCELLANEOUS INSECTS CRUSTACEA FISH Month Young | Adult | Young | Adult || Young | Adult || Young | Adult Bass Bass Bass Bass Bass Bass Bass Bass April 83 .14 SIL NA Re ees ee 200. 42 .28 .06 Syl Mayas Fe Noma rege 2.86 LSD Ope ees see 45.15 .24 Be lp 1.93 Je sealer eos alee ror 3.42 .16 Syda Sil . 66 239 50 July. 4 ahs eee 18 ly .14 AUS? | Sores 5.78 1.14 August.... JOS ett: BS. ee |. seed 78 2. Leal 1325 Septembernlix. ec. 203i) .58 . 06 | 8.07 .24 1.39 91 Octobericedle bi ae eee . 88 “O20 apzeis sit .88 1.30 Novetiibera||ianan lees eee SOM eee aoe 3.90 .28 70 13 Decemibers {hes tee: eke rere ll reer eee ee ee ee | ae Fa Ls Ya Rashi i 64 January. Pols. ott Po eee SU eee 8 m8 3428: || Eee . 64 124 Bebruatyee | Sacer “3 Oeste wis. sel -50 LG 2.50 Matchiys 5p teen ee: 5.0581 SOLS YE io Saar P Ss 5.08 =.) 1.7/5) 1.10 4 Figures represent the number of organisms per bass. SEASONAL FOOD OF THE LARGEMOUTH BLACK BASS Gs ALABIEE 7] SUMMARY OF CONDITION OF STOMACHS EXAMINED EMPTY STOMACHS WITH TOTAL Month STOMACHS WITH FOOD EXAMINED . Young Adult Young Adult Young Adult Peis ey | 1 21 66 7 67 28 IN gees fateh a: oF) | 11 34 96 29 107 63 ine aa ! 4 9 84 él 88 15 hit es 12 21 171 28 183i 49 PU PUSE es nec. = 1 ot 18 58 46 65 64 123 Sepremiber..o..:.. | 6 oy 72 33 78 85 @etober 0.0)... .0.! I 63 8 44 10 107 November. ...25)): 3 115) 10 32 13 47 WecenIPeran essai hee. t. ASW sl ReNst ic ae 22 0) 70 Janugay ee. sl. | 0 8 14 17 14 25 February......... | 7 14 19) 8 19 wD. hilereclel ea eee ae 4 25 2 20 16 45 Nmmber pt young bass with empty stomachs...........-..¢+.2 0.0.55: 68 Number mt youweobass comtaiming food :....:22./44..9). 0. as La) eee 591 Riot ae eek a Ae een abe... 4 debate dittas ks dx uh aekh 659 MMM PcmGradwitibass with empty stomachs. ).....5.2.2..+..2:.. Gene 368 Nimimberotraduitbass containing food... 2.54.2. o.. cove eee hee 311 TOTES becioas Be Greta Grom ia adeeb Hiceced Shr at a a ee oR a ea 679 Grand Totals shia ogayets MAC Seedy see eae Pat, a Aa Aol PhS «4A: 4 fF « Biles oo alere 2 436 S HOM ACSRC OME aN Me TOO sere ayes Oly AA eo WIR: Night Adio eee ae ladh ace 902 SOMATA Tes emmnotetal os BL Ba og ee eo Oe a alo See a RT ne a 1) 338 LITERATURE CITED ADAMS, C. C. and T. L. HANKINSON 1928. The ecology and economics of Oneida Lake fish. Bull. N.Y. St. Coll. Forestry, PAE ie LSA. AIELEN| Es ROSS 1946. Fishes of Silver Springs, Florida. Privately published, 1946: 1-36. BAKER. F.C: | 1916. The relation of mollusks to fish in Oneida Lake. N.Y. St. Coll. Forestry. Tech. Publ. No. 4:1-366. 136 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BARTRAM, WILLIAM 1943. Travels in Georgia and Florida, 1773-74. A report to Dr. John Fothergill. Trans. Amer. Philos. Soc., new series, 33, Part 2:121-242. (Annotated by Fran- cis Harper). CARR, MARJORIE H. 1942. The breeding habits, embryology and larval development of the large-mouth black bass in Florida. Proc. New England Zool. Club, r0: 43-77. CHABLE,: -A=.C. : 1947. A study of the food baits and ecological relationships of the sunfishes of northern Florida. (Unpubl. Master's Thesis, Univ. Fla. Library, 1947.) CLARK, CLARENCE F. / ——. Food of some Lake St. Mary’s fish oie COUT p aE from Lakes Loramie and Indian. (Unpubl. manuscript.) COOPER, GERALD P. 1937. Food habits, rate of growth and cannibalism of young largemouth bass . (Aplites salmoides) in state-operated rearing ponds in Michigan during 1935. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc., 66 (1936): 242-265. DENDY, JACK S. 1946. Food of several species of fish, Norris Reservoir, Tennessee. Jour. Tenn. Acad Sct. 245 NOs 5205 -177- DERYKE, W., and WILL SCOTT 1922. The food of the fishes of Winona Lake. Ind. Dept. Conserv., 1-48. EWERS, LELA, AND M. W. BOESEL pHa" eee 1936. The food of some Buckeye Lake fishes. Trans. Amer. Fish. Sac, 65, (1935): Sigs O- FORBES, S. A. 1878. The food of Illinois fishes. Bull. Ill. St. Lab. Nat. Hist., 2: 71-89. 1880. The food of fishes: Acanthopteri. Bul). IJ. St. Lab. Nat. Hist., 3: 19-70. B) FORBES, S. A., and R. E. RICHARDSON 1920. The fishes of Illinois. Nat. Hist. Surv., St. of Ill., 2nd Ed.: 1-357. ~ GREELY, J. R. | | | : ‘1927. Fishes of the Genesee Region with annotated list. N.Y. St. Conserv. Dept., Supp. 16th Ann. Rept. (1926): 47-66. HANKINSON, T. L. 1908. A biological survey of Walnut Lake, Michigan. Mich. St. Board Geol. Surv., Rept. for 1907: 157-288. ; HOBBS, HORTON H., JR. <5 1942. The crayfishes of Florida. Univ. Fla. Biol. Sci. Ser., 3(2): 1-179: HOWELL, HHL, Ho S: SWINGLE, aad EV. SMITH. 1941. Bass and bream food in Alabama waters. Ala. Conserv., p. 3. SEASONAL FOOD OF THE LARGEMOUTH BLACK BASS 137 HUBBS, CARL L., and E. ROSS ALLEN 1943. Fishes of Silver Springs, Florida. Proc. Fla. Acad. Sci. 63-4): 110-130. MARSHALL, W. S., and N. C. GILBERT 1905. Notes on the food and parasites of some freshwater fishes from the lakes of Madison, Wisconsin. U.S. Bur. Fish., Rept. for 1904. 513-522. McCORMICK, ELIZABETH M. 1940. A study of the food of some Reelfoot Lake fishes. Rept. Reelfoor Lake Biol. Sta. 4: 64-75. MEEHEAN, O. LLOYD —-. The development of a method for the culture of largemouth bass in fertilized ponds on natural food. (Unpubl. Doctor’s Dissertation, Ohio State Univer- sity Library.) MOFFETT, JAMES W. 1943: A pfteliminary report on the fishery of Lake Mead. Trans. Eighth North Amer. Wildlife Conference: 179-186. NELSON, MERLIN N., and A. D. HASLER 1942. The growth, food, distribution and relative abundance of the fishes of Lake Geneva, Wisconsin, in 1941. Trans. Wisc. Acad. Sci., Arts and Letts. 34: Die LAG NOVY, WILLIAM S. 1939. The food and the growth of bass in certain southeastern Ohio waters. (Un- publ. Master’s Thesis, Ohio Univ. Library, 1939: 1-68.) agi Ves. Lt 1933. Biological survey of the upper Hudson watershed. IV. Studies on fish food in selected areas. N.Y. St. Conserv. Dept., Suppl. 22nd Ann. Rept., 1932: 130-156. PEARSE, A. S. 1918. The food of the shore fishes of certain Wisconsin lakes. U.S. Bur. Fish. Bull. 35: 249-292. 1921. Distribution and food of the fishes of Green Lake, Wisconsin, in summer. U.S. Bur, Fish. Bull. 37: 253-272. PIERCE, E. LOWE 1947. An annual cycle of the plankton and chemistry of four aquatic habitats in northern Florida. Univ. Fla. Studies, Biol. Sci. Ser. 4: No. 3, 1-67. RATHBUN, MARY J. ! 1930. The cancroid crabs of America of the families Euryalide, Portunidz, Atele- cyclidz, Cancridez, and Xanthide. U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. No. 152: 1-609. RIVERO, LUIS HOWELL 1937. Lhe introduced largemouth bass, a predator upon native Cuban fishes. Traas. Amer. Fish. Soc. 66 (1936): 367-368. SMITH, HUGH M. 1907. The fishes of North Carolina, North Carolina Geol. and Economic Survey r: LA Doe 138 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES TESTER, Ac lk 1932. Food of the small-mouth black bass (Micropterus dolomieu) in some Ontario waters. Univ. Toronto Studies, Publ. Ont. Fish. Res. Lab. No. 46: 171-203. TRAUTMAN, MILTON B. 1941. Fluctuations in lengths and numbers of certain species of fishes over a five- year period in Whitmore Lake, Michigan. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 70 (1940): 193-208. TURNER,,.G2 L. ands W,.. C. KRAATZ 1920. Food of young large-mouth black bass in some Ohio waters. Proc. Amer- Fish. Soc. (1920): 372-380. WEBSTER, DWIGHT A. 1942. The life histories of some Connecticut fishes. Sect. III, A fishery survey of important Connecticut lakes. Conn. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Sur., Bull. No. 63: M2227; s Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 10(4) 1947(1948) DIVERSITIES OF FLORAL VASCULAR ANATOMY IN PAMBURUS MISSIONIS (WIGHT) SWINGLE Frank D. VENNING University of Miami In recent years the floral anatomy of many plants in the orange sub- family has been given considerable study. Most of these investigations have been made in an effort to disclose characters of taxonomic and phylogenetic importance, as these relationships are of importance to the plant breeder and propagator. In 1875 Phillip Van Tieghem, the celebrated French anatomist, published a description of the vascular anatomy of the sour orange, Cztrus Aurantium, but, like so many sub- sequent anatomical studies, some discrepancies are apparent between the illustrations accompanying the text and the descriptions of the vascular bundle arrangement. Tillson and Bamford (1938) made ex- tensive studies of the vascular anatomy of 94 species comprising 29 of the 33 genera included in the orange subfamily, and described three main types of vascular organization for the 29 genera, based on the degree of fusion between sepal and petal bundles. Type 1 consisted of those genera showing no fusion between the sepal and petal midribs; type 2 exhibited fusion between the sepal midrib and the lateral petal bundles; type 3 showed fusion between the sepal midrib and the lateral petal bundles, and, in addition, the petal midrib and lateral sepal bundles were fused. Tillson and Bamford did not consider these types of vascular fusion to indicate definite phylogenetic trends within the subfamily. Swingle (14943) placed Pamburus in the subtribe Triphasi- ina, the minor citroid fruit trees, but states that ‘‘its relationships to the other genera of the subtribe Triphasiinz are still obscure and should be cleared up by a detailed study of the flowers and fruits.”’ As Pamburus was not included among the genera studied by Tillson and Bamford, this present work was undertaken at the suggestion of Dr. Walter T. Swingle in order to compare the vascular anatomy with the other genera of this subtribe as described by Tillson and Bamford. It was hoped that a better knowledge of the floral anatomy would lead to a better understanding of the generic relationships of Pamburus missionis, as it possesses several qualities which might lead to its becoming of economic importance.! 1 This plant is remarkably resistant to injury by insects or diseases, and tolerates low temperatures injurious to many species of tropical origin. It grows well on soils of high calcium content. In India, the wood is valued for furniture making. 140 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES MATERIALS AND METHODS Fresh flowers, flower buds, and young fruits were collected in May and June, 1943, from two trees growing at the U.S. Department of Agriculture's Plant Introduction Garden at Chapman Field, Florida. More mature fruits were gathered in September and November from the same source. Similar collections were repeated during the same months in 1944. A total of 44 flower buds, flowers, and young fruits were included in this study. Sections of stem tips, leaves, spines, and mature fruits were also studied. All of the material was fixed in 70% Formalin-Aceto-Alcohol, washed in water after fixation was com- plete, dehydrated with a teritary butyl alcohol series, and imbedded in paraffin. Transverse and longitudinal serial sections of all the material of the flower buds, flowers, and young fruits were cut on a rotary microtome at ten microns. Such sections permitted the accur- ate determination of the complex course of the vascular bundles in the receptacle. The slides are permanently filed in the Tropical Botany Histological Research Collection of slides at the University of Miami. FroraL DEscRIPTION A description of the flowers by Swingle (1916) will aid in inter- preting the anatomical descriptions following: Flowers small, 5- or 4-merous, borne in short racemes in the axils of the leaves on rather long pedicels. Calyx small, 4-5 lobed; sepals acute. Flower buds globose when. young. Petals 5 or 4, white, obovate. Stamens free, 8-10 (Twice as many as the petals); filaments free, slender, glabrous; anthers large, erect, linear-oblong. Pistil stipitate, seated on the prominent cylindric disk; style slender, short, ending in the much thicker sub- globase stigma; ovary subglobose.5 or 4 celled, with 2 ovules in each cell. Fruits, glo- bese, like a small orange in appearance, with the cells usually containing a single seed surrounded by a glutinous mucilaginous fluid Cacking true pulp vesicles). Peel rather thick, frm, with numerous oil glands. Seeds subglobose. OBSERVATIONS For the purposes of the present study, observations were restricted to the vascular anatomy of the pedicel, receptacle, calyx, and corolla of Pamburus. In the lower portions of the pedicel, the vascular elements are partly fused into a stele enclosing the pith; there are a few gaps in the continuity of the xylem, but the cambium and thin-walled vas- cular elements form-a continuous cylinder. In the receptacle, bundle- trace gaps appear in the cylinder as vascular bundles diverge to supply the floral organs. The stems of Rutaceous plants usually possess a tri- lacunal nodal structure (Sinnott, E. W., 1914), that is, a midvein and FLORAL VASCULAR ANATOMY IN PAMBURUS MISSIONIS 141 two lateral veins leave the stele to supply each foliar organ, and this seems to fe the underlying pattern for the floral organs as well, but because of modifications of the floral axis, shortness of internodes in tke flower, and specialization of the floral organs, the pattern shows great modification in receptacles of Pamburus. In studying tke course of the vascular bundles from the stele to the calyx and corolla, all three degrees of bundle fusion reported by Till- son and Bamford were found, often within a single flower. For example, some sepals and petals had independent midribs, that is, vascular bundles showing no fusion or exchange of bundle elements with any other vascular bundles (bundles 9and 12, Fig. 1). Examples of an inde- pendent pet | midrib but with fusion between the lateral petal bundles and the sepal midrib were found (bundle 13, Fig. 4); and fusion be- tween a petal midrib and lateral sepal bundles was also seen (bundle 16, Fig. 3). In addition, seven other major types of vascular fusion were seen; these are listed in Table I. In some cases sepals lacked a midrib (Fig. 3); these received their vascular supply solely from branches of lateral petal bundles. It was found that the vascular pat- tern varied greatly for each sepal and each petal of the same flower, and the pattern varied between individual flowers from the same raceme. No attempt is made to describe fully these complex arrange- ments in the text, but a detailed account of the complexities and ir- regularities of the vascular pattern in four of the 44 flowers studied is given in the explanations accompanying Figures 1 to 4. In no case were any two flowers found which showed the exact vascular pattern of another, nor were any single flowers found which exhibited the same vascular pattern for all sepals or all petals on that particular flower. It should be pointed out that the material studied was morpho- logically normal in every way. To partially check the irregularities found, collections were repeated the following year. These flowers showed as wide a range of variation in vascular pattern as had those of the previous year. Discussion It has been shown in Figures 1 to 4 that the vascular bundles in flowers of Pamburus vary from the simplest sort of arrangement, where a bundle leaves the stele and extends upward unbranched into a floral organ, to a very complex type exhibiting fusion of bundles supplying as many as three whorls of floral organs. 142 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Tillson and Bamford did not report any variations in the vascular patterns of species they described, but variations have been reported in the lemon by Ford (1942), and I have observed variations of floral vascular anatomy in other species of Citrus and allied genera. When so wide a range in the degree of complexity of floral vascular pattern is found within a single species, and even within a single flower of that species, it is difficult to see how much phylogenetic significance can be attached to the evidence afforded by the vascular anatomy of that species. ACKNOWLEDGMENT My thanks to Dr. Walter T. Swingle for suggesting this study, and to the Science Reserach Council of the University of Miami, under whose sponsorship the work was conducted. SUMMARY The floral vascular anatomy of the calyx and corolla of 44 flowers of Pamburus. missionis was studied, and is described in detail for four flowers. Great variation in the vascular pattern was found between individual flowers, and between the same organs of single flowers. Ten types of fusion between vascular bundles of the calyx and corolla are described. So great were the variations in vascular anatomy that not a single one of the flowers studied showed an identical pattern with any other. LITERATURE CITED FORD, ESS: 1942. Anatomy and histology of the Eureka Lemon. Bot. Gaz. 104(2.): 288-305. SINNOTT, E. W. 1914. Investigations on the phylogeny of the angiosperms. I. The anatomy of the node as an aid in the classificacion of angiosperms. Amer. Journ. Bot. 1(7): 203 322" SWINGLE, W. T. 1916. Pamburus, a new genus related to Citrus, from India. Journ. Wash. Acad. ScZ-) VAGa)ee3e8 533.8. 1943. The botany of Citrus and its wild relatives of the orange sub-family. The Citrus Industry 1: Chap. 4, University of California Press. TILLSON, A. H., and BAMFORD, R. 1938. The floral anatomy of the Aurantioideze. Amer. Journ. Bot. 25(10): 780-793. FLORAL VASCULAR ANATOMY IN PAMBURUS MISSIONIS 143 VAN, TIEGHEM, P. 1875. Recherches sur la structure du pistil et sur l’anatomie compatee de la fleur. Memores presentes par divers Savants a V Academie des Sciences de I’ Institute de France, Tome XXI, des savants etrangers. Paris. TABLES Types oF VascULAR EXCHANGE IN THE CALYX AND CorouuA: oF PAMBuURUS MuissIONIS Type 1—Independent sepal midrib; independent petal midrib (no ex- change) Type 2—Sepal midrib and a lateral petal bundle(s) Type 3—Petal midrib and a lateral sepal bundle(s) Type 4—Sepal midrib and a lateral sepal bundle(s) Type s—Petal midrib and a lateral petal bundle(s) Type 6—Petal midrib and a stamen bundle Type 7—Petal midrib and a dorsal carpel bundle Type 8—Lateral petal bundle and a lateral petal bundle(s) Type y—Lateral petal bundle and a lateral sepal bundle(s) Type r—Lateral petal bundle and a stamen bundle (This last type of exchange did not occur in the four flowers diagrammed in figs. 1-4.) Explanation of Figures Fig. 1: Diagram of a 4-merous flower, showing the ultimate disposition of vascular elements in the calyx and corolla after their divergence from the floral stele. 1: Sepal midrib which sends branches to the lateral petal bundles of adjacent petals. In one petal the branch does not unite with the lateral petal bundle, but remains a sep- arate bundle. 2: Independent lateral petal bundle, z.¢., a bundle extending from the stele into the petal with no exchange or fusion of vascular elements with any other bundle in the flower. 3: Independent petal midrib. 4: Lateral petal bundle which sends three small branches into the base of an adjacent sepal, and which may be interpreted as fusion of a lateral petal bundle with a lateral sepal bundle. 5: Independent sepal midrib. 6: A strong bundle when leaving the stele, 6 divides to form all of one and half of another lateral petal bundle, after having sent lateral branches to the two adjacent sepals (fusion?). 7: Independent petal midrib. 8: Independent lateral sepal bundle, which fails to fuse with the branch from 6. 9: Independent sepal midrib. 10: Lateral petal bundle which sends branches into two adjacent sepals. 11: Independent lateral petal bundle. 12: Independent petal midrib. 144 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES FIGURE 3 FIGURE 4 13: Sepal midrib which sends a branch to a lateral petal bundle. 14: A bundle which divides to supply half of the lateral petal bundles in one petal, and which sends a branch to one of the adjacent sepais. 15, 16, 17: Three small bundles which unite in the base of the petal to form the peta midrib. FLORAL VASCULAR ANATOMY IN PAMBURUS MISSIONIS 145 Fig. 2: Diagram of a 4-merous flower, showing the ultimate disposition cf vascular elements after their divergence from the floral stele. t: A relatively strong bundle which divides to form half of one and all of the other lateral petal bundles in one petal, after sending three small branches to the two adjacent sepals, and a branch to the midrib of one sepal. 2: Independent petal midrib. 3: Sepal midrib which sends branches to two lateral petal bundles of adjacent petals. 4: A bundle which divides to form half of the two lateral petal bundles of one petal, after sending branches into the two adjacent sepals. 5: Independent bundle forming half of a petal midrib. 6: Bundle forming half of a petal midrib, after sending a branch to an adjacent sta- men bundle. 7: Sepal midrib which sends a branch to a lateral petal bundle. 8: A bundle which divides to form a third of one and all of the other lateral petal bundles in one petal, after sending branches into two adjacent sepals. * 9g, 10: Two small bundles which unite to form a petal midrib. 11: A lateral petal bundle which sends a strand to the lateral petal bundle of an adjacent petal. 12: Sepal midrib which sends a branch to a lateral petal bundle. 13: Bundle which divides to supply half of one and all of the other lateral petz bundles of one petal, and in addition sends branches into two adjacent sepals. 14: Fused petal midrib and stamen bundle, with a branch to a dorsal carpel bundle. 15: Independent sepal midrib. Fig. 3: Diagram of a 5-merous flower, showing ultimate disposition of the vascular elements in the calyx and corolla. 1: Sepal midrib Gn two parts in the sepal)) which sends a branch to a lateral petal bundle. 2: Lateral petal bundle which sends branches into an adjacent sepal. 3: Independent petal midrib. : Lateral petal bundle with three small branches in an adjacent sepal. : Sepal midrib which supplies a branch to a lateral petal bundle. : Lateral petal bundle with branches in an adjacent sepal. : Independent petal midrib. : Lateral petal bundle which supplies the only vascular elements in an adjacent sepal : A bundle which divides to form half of one and all of the other lateral petal bundles in one petal, and in addition sends three branches into one adjacent sepal. to: Independent petal midrib. tz: Sepal midrib which exchanges elements with a lateral petal bundle. 12: A large bundle when leaving the stele, 12 divides to form half of one and all of the other lateral petal bundles in one petal, and in addition sends three bundles into the bases of two adjacent sepals. 13: Petal midrib which is fused with a stamen bundle. 14: Independent lateral petal bundle. 15: Lateral petal bundle which sends three branches into an adjacent sepal. Note that two of the sepals in this flower have no midveins. ‘Oo ON DUN Fig. 4: Diagram of a 4-merous flower, showing the ultimate arrangement of vascular elements in calyx and corolla. crane 146 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 1: Independent bundle which forms half of a sepal midrib. 2: Bundle forming half of a sepal midrib and half of a lateral petal bundle. 3: A bundle which divides to form half of both lateral bundles in one petal, and in addition sends branches into two adjacent sepals. 4, 5: Two independent bundles which fuse near the petal base to form the petal midrib. : 6: Independent lateral petal bundle which fuses with a branch from 3 in the petal ase. 7: Sepal midrib with a branch to a lateral petal bundle. 8: A large bundle when it leaves the stele, this bundle divides to form half of a sepal midrib, and also supplies three lateral sepal bundles for the same sepal. Other portions of the vascular tissue of this bundle form half of one and all of the other lateral petal bundles in one petal, and also supply an adjacent sepal with three small lateral bundles. g: Independent petal midrib. 10: Independent sepal midrib. 11: A bundle which branches to form half of both lateral petal bundles of one petals and also sends lateral branches into two adjacent sepals. ae A petal midrib which sends a strong branch to a lateral petal bundle of the same petal. =e A sepal midrib which supplies elements to two lateral petal bundles in adjacent petals. : 14: Lateral petal bundle with branches into two adjacent sepals. 15: Independent petal midrib. 16: Independent lateral petal bundle. Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 10(4) 1947(1948) INTERPRETATION OF RAINFALL RECORDS AT MIAMI, FLORIDA CoLoNeEL Lynn Perry | Miami, Florida Accurate and reliable observations recorded over long periods of time furnish valuable bases for the development of trends and inductive hypotheses. Fig. 1, plotted in 1944 and kept up to date, shows the annual rain- fall at Miami to scale. The records are continuous since 1896, with a few earlier observations. A glance at this figure shows: ;. An annual rainfall of over eighty inches in 1878, 1908, and 1929; about once in twenty-five years, plus or minus five years. 2. A very low annual rainfall in 1907, 1927, and 1944; about once in twenty years, plus or minus three years. 3. That years of very low rainfall are not nearly midway between years of very high rainfall and not always in a group of low rainfall years. 4. This indicates that the next year of extremely high rainfall may be expected between 1948 and 1958. 5. That the next year of extremely low rainfall may be expected between 1961 and 1967. No brief is held for assuming that two, or even three, make an average. All the data are presented; some conclusions must be drawn even though their vulnerability be in inverse proportion to the period of time over which continuous observations are available. The Everglades drainage program became active in 1910 but the full effect was not reached for a decade or more. It was intended to lower the water table, a mission which was successful. Miami is sup- plied with water pumped from wells and in 1944 the water in these wells subsided beyond the theoretical limit for which the pumps were designed to operate satisfactorily. The rated capacity of the Water Treatment Plant had been reached and a plan for enlargement had been authorized. In this plan, the sequence of construction naturally involved partial interruptions in the filtering capacity. As partial interruptions should be planned at periods of minimum water con- sumption, this study was made to determine: (1) What change in the average annual rainfall has accompanied the draining of the 148 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Everglades, and (2) When will prébable rainfall supply sufficient water to provide a rising water table. Observations have shown that one sporadic dry year has had rela- tively little effect on the water table. In other words, the ground-water level rises during wet cycles rapidly but the fal! during a dry cycle is more gradual. This 1s due, no doubt, to a combination of evaporation, percolation, transpiration, changes in the hydraulic grade line, and probably other factors. The number of years of rainfall influencing the ground water level, and the percentage of rainfall for each of these years, ate debatable. The dotted curve, beginning in 1900 at 54.4 inches, has keen computed by taking the arithmetical mean of the rainfall for the previous five years. This curve is called, “The Five Year Moving Average,’’ and the arithmetical mean is 58.08 inches. Fig. 2 shows ““The Five Year Moving Average’’ rainfall traced from Fig. 1. The wet and dry cycles stand out much better than the rainfall data on Fig. 1. A sine curve fits these data better than any one of sev- eral that were tried. It has a cycle of 24.5 years. The amplitude is 14 inches of rainfall, with a probably accuracy of plus one or minus five at the maxima, and plus or minus four at the minima. This study indicates the following answers to the two questions above: (x) That the present available data does not show that the drainage of the Everglades has been accompanied by any change in annual rainfall. That further data are necessary before a trend can be established, and (2) That 1946 should be the lowest year in the current ‘‘Moving Average’’ cycle and that the water table will be rising after that year. Many items enter into the setting of the time for the execution of out-of-door construction. It would Le difficult to assign a weight given to the results of this study in fixing the construction schedule at the Water Treatment Plant. Probably 1t ts sufficient to say that all interrup- tions were scheduled for the wet months (summer) of 1947. Further study of Fig. 2, together with a few points of local history, are revealing. The first public water supply at Miami was drawn from wells located near the mouth of the Miami River. This area was abandoned shortly after the turn of the century, after the low rainfall years preceding 1901. A well field was developed about two and one- half miles up the river near the present Golf Grounds Pumping Station and the Miami Country Club. This was abandoned in 1924, the next low point on the curve of Fig. 2, and the existing Lower Well Field was developed, five miles further upstream, on the Miami Springs Golf Foi Rie 2 bd, ut oO: | ce ma es i ao t L., OF tL. r-- ! i coo eal Es ' a ieee ee ee ee ee Se RAINFALL INCHES ie) 1825 19350 1935 1940 1948 1950 144.57 6757 4185 6554-7193 0465 32695531 84.38 73 51 6087 75506605 6879 47.91 773057 504274573971.55 Lt F680 AAS PA89S43459.016820 R BUREAU REPORTS DEPARTMENT OF WATER AND SEWERS ABLE J < . > VIOUS 5 YEARS ol w | a a 70) NS = | n) 0 i§ we Q oe 2 © x | | aie 350) ee a ; L PROBABLE A SERIES 5 YEA § 7 ol ° 1955 1960 1965 1970 149 ime), suffi- | 1940 ne for tidal wells north table tO ex- intru- Female , 1958 d sale 9 and Be ef ten sected PER YEAR ‘5 : ICHES ee UL i TL PRopacte Mr Sl yeAe Movin Wremaoe m-=ASHUAL RAINFALL POR PEEVIOUS’ BVEAES uv 5 a \ 7 ; é Fl f £ - 3 H } al ale { + | Trsopaeie z | | | W ice 2 | | | | | ate 2 | 1) | CURVE OF ae i | 5 YEAR MOVING AVERAGE bh id | | | RAINFALL. 3 | | : MIAMI = = | DEPAETMENT om WATEE AnD SEWERS tes: | | 1827, | | ! | | | | as | ee er ey ee eh, INTERPRETATION OF RAINFALL RECORDS AT MIAMI 149 Course. In 1939, (note the downward trend of the curve at that time), salt appeared in some of the wells of this field in concentrations sufh- cient to affect the potability of the water. The higher rainfall in 1940 and 1941 helped in the solution of this problem by providing time for construction. The Miami River was dammed to keep direct tidal action about a mile and one-half from the well field. Additional wells and raw water mains were built to bring water in from further north and west. All of the wells were in service during the low water table years at the lower arc of the curve in 1944, 1945, and 1946. Following the sine curve to the right, it appears reasonable to ex- pect ground water levels sufficiently high to prevent serious salt intru- sion during the next ten years of careful operation, even during the dry winter seasons. During the next down swing of the curve, 1958 to 1968, the ground water levels may be expected to recede and salt water percolate horizontally westward. This was serious in 1939 and may be expected to be more serious in the years following 1958. So it appears probable that the well field will serve for another ten yeats, during which time plans can be prepared to meet the expected requirements. Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 10(4) 1947(1948) . ae =! y IMé iv. v4 INS: * ‘