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Quarterly Journal
of the
Florida Academy of Sciences

Vol. 35 March, 1972 No. 1
CONTENTS

The Armadillidae of Florida (Isopoda, Oniscoidea) George A. Schultz 1
Reassignment of Balanus tintinnabulum maroccana Broch Dea B. Beach 5
Intestinal parasites of the lizard Lygosoma laterale Garnett R. Brooks 8
Observations on the arboreal snail Orthalicus floridensis Alan K. Craig 15

Nereid shell blisters in the southern quahog clam
John L. Taylor and Carl H. Saloman 21

Occurrence of a rare skate in the western North Atlantic
Robbin R. Blackman 27

First Gulf of Mexico record of Ranzania laevis
Robert W. Topp and David L. Girardin 29

Five-year creel survey of two Florida lakes
Forrest J. Ware, Wesley V. Fish, and Louie Prevatt 31

The presence of Hyla squirella in the Bahamas Ronald I. Crombie 49

Additions to the Pleistocene avifauna of Arredondo, Florida
Carl David Frailey 53

Avifauna of Little Tobago Island James J. Dinsmore 55

Birds of the Lluidas Vale (Worthy Park) region, Jamaica
Alexander Cruz 72

Published August 215) 1972

QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Editor: Pierce Brodkorb

The Quarterly Journal welcomes original articles containing sig-
nificant new knowledge, or new interpretation of knowledge, in any
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Published by the Florida Academy of Sciences

Printed by the Storter Printing Company
Gainesville, Florida

QUARTERLY JOURNAL
of the
FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol, BE March, 1972 No. 1

The Armadillidae of Florida (Isopoda, Oniscoidea)
GerorcE A. SCHULTZ

THREE species of terrestrial isopod crustaceans of the family
Armadillidae are present in Florida. Cubaris murina Brandt was
introduced and Venezillo evergladensis Schultz and V. pisum
(Budde-Lund) are most probably endemic. Schultz (1961) noted
the presence of C. murina in south Florida and in 1963 he de-
scribed V. evergladensis as new and also from south Florida. In the
National Museum of Natural History the author discovered a single
gravid female specimen about 5 mm long of Cubaris pisum Budde-
Lund (1885) (USNM 45605) collected at the mouth of the Indian
River (near Jupiter Inlet?). It was collected in March 1874 (by E.
Palmer) before the species was actually described by Budde-Lund,
and the specimen was identified by Harriet Richardson. Since it
was first described it has not been collected again, but the species
is included in Van Name’s (1936) summary of New World terres-
trial isopods along with earlier references to it. The name of the
species is now Venezillo pisum (Budde-Lund) since the former
subgenus Venezillo now is considered to be a full genus. The single
specimen conforms in morphology to the very general description
of Budde-Lund (1885).

Venezillo pisum is briefly redescribed here and comparison is
made with the two other species of Armadillidae from Florida. The
species has never been illustrated before.

Frontal margin of cephalon slightly raised above tergum of
cephalon and broadly rounded in frontal view. About 15 ocelli.
Peraeonal segment I only slightly flared with shallow indentation
in expanded lateral part of segment. Lateral margin of peraeonal

2 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Fig. 1. Armadillidae of Florida. Cubaris murina Brandt: 1, ventral view
peraeonal segments I and II; 2, pleotelson; 3, lateral view. Venezillo pisum
(Budde-Lund): 4, ventral view peraeonal segments I, II and III; 5, pleotel-
son; 6, lateral view anterior part. Venezillo evergladensis Schultz: 7, ventral
view peraeonal segments I, II and III; 8, pleotelson; 9, lateral view anterior
part.

segment I with deep, well defined notch on posterior half of mar-
gin. Outside edge of margin (lateral view) higher or more dorsally

Scuuttz: Armadillidae of Florida 3

located, but extending caudadly more than inside edge (Fig. 6).
Peraeonal segment II with large inner notch and peraeonal seg-
ment III with very small interior notch (Fig. 4). Posterior margin
of pleotelson almost equal in width to width at medial part of
pleotelson (Fig. 5).

The placement of the species in Group Ila of Van Name (1936,
p. 330) is confirmed. According to Budde-Lund, V. pisum is uni-
formly brown, perhaps reddish brown in color and reaches a length
of about 5.5 mm. The specimen described here has no pigment
because it has been stored in alcohol for a long time.

The terrestrial isopods of Florida have never been collected on
a systematic, widespread, and intensive scale, so many regions of
the state never have been explored by carcinologists looking for
terrestrial isopods. Whether or not populations of the species still
are to be found remains to be seen. The species of the genus
Venezillo tend to live in the drier habitats when compared to most
common terrestrial isopods. They might be living in loose, but not
completely dry leaf litter, around the bases of buildings and under
refuse which is not subjected to the direct rays of the sun for a long
time during the day. The specific habitat preferences of V. pisum
remain unknown.

Venezillo evergladensis is a relatively small (maximum length
about 5.5 mm), gray and white isopod which is abundant around
the bases of houses in dense shaded leaf litter. It is abundant in
residential Miami and in surrounding suburbs. Schultz (1963) in-
cludes a discussion of some ecological aspects of specimens from
along the Tamiami Trail in the Everglades.

Cubaris murina is frequently an associate of V. evergladensis
in leaf litter and around the bases of houses (Schultz, 1961). It at
times is also abundant under the loose bark of rotten logs. The
species is distinct from both species of Venezillo in the nature of
the lateral edge of peraeonal segment I (Fig. 1). The specimens
have a larger average length than the two species of Venezillo, and
they are frequently 12 mm long. Specimens are a brick red in
color when seen in the field, but change to dark, somewhat reddish
brown in alcohol. The following key can be used to distinguish the
species:

4 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

la. With notch on posterior part of lateral border of peraeonal
segment Thi eee ee 2
1b. With notch inside or below (when viewing ventral aspect of
isopod) lateral border of peraeonal segment I (Fig. 1) _
SER € 5y Sa ths ee ee ee Cubaris murina Brandt
2a. Notch deep, well defined and slightly less than one-half length
of lateral border of peraeonal segment I (Fig. 4) _----
Ee ERM Dee e Mee eee ee. Venezillo pisum Budde-Lund
2b. Notch less than one-fourth length of lateral border of peraeonal
segment I (Fig. 7) Venezillo evergladensis Schultz

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author wishes to thank Dr. Thomas E. Bowman of the Di-
vision of Crustacea, National Museum of Natural History, Smith-
sonian Institution for aid in viewing V. pisum. He would also like
to thank the Theodore Roosevelt Memorial Fund of the American
Museum of Natural History for providing a stay at the Smithsonian
Institution.

LITERATURE CITED

BuppEe-Lunp, G. 1885. Crustacea Isopoda terrestria per familias et genera
et species descripta. Copenhagen, pp. 1-319.

ScHuLtz, G. A. 1961. Cubaris murina Brandt, an isopod crustacean new to
the United States. Crustaceana, vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 169-170.

—. 1963. Venezillo evergladensis, a new species of terrestrial isopod
crustacean from Florida. Trans. Amer. Micro. Soc., vol. 82, no. 2, pp.
209-213.

VAN NAME, W. G. 1936. The American land and fresh-water isopod Crus-
tacea. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. 71, pp. 1-535.

15 Smith Street, Hampton, New Jersey 08827.

Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 35(1) 1972

Reassignment of Balanus tintinnabulum maroccana Broch

Dea B. BEACH

IN THE process of revising the barnacle subgenus Megabalanus
Hoek, 1913, specimens from the type lot of Balanus (Megabalanus)
tintinnabulum maroccana Broch, 1927, were examined (Figs. 1a-i)
and were found to possess characters inconsistent with those of the
subgenus.

Megabalanus differs from other subgenera of the genus Balanus
da Costa, 1778, by the possession of well developed radii permeated
by pores parallel to the basis. Additionally B. tintinnabulum tintin-
nabulum Linnaeus, the type of the subgenus Megabalanus, and
other subspecies in the B. tintinnabulum complex exhibit 1) radii
whose summits are nearly horizontal, 2) a tergal spur that never ex-
ceeds one-fourth of the basal margin, 3) a spur furrow that is en-
tirely or partially closed by the infolding of the carinal and scutal
sides of the tergum resulting in the elevation of the spur above the
inner surface of the valve, and 4) distinct secondary denticulae on
both sides of the radial sutural edge.

The radii of B. maroccana are not permeated by pores ( Fig. 1i),
and possess oblique summits (Fig. le). Secondary denticulation
is not well developed (Fig. 1i). In the description of B. maroccana,
Broch (1927, p. 21) indicates that the spur is “one third to one half
of the greatest diameter of the plate” and that “the spur fasciole is
broad and shallow, and never closed .. .” (Figs. la-b).

The open spur furrow, the breadth of the tergal spur, the promi-
nence of the adductor ridge, the width of the radii, and the colora-
tion of the shell suggest relationship to the B. amphitrite complex.
However, it does not appear that B. maroccana can be readily iden-
tified with any other known member of this complex. It is there-
fore retained as a distinct species, and is transferred to the subgenus
Balanus.

LITERATURE CITED

Brocu, H. 1927. Studies on Moroccan Cirripeds (Atlantic Coast). Bull.
Soc. Sci. Nat. Maroc, vol. 7, pp. 11-38, pls. 1-4, text-figs. 1-10.

Department of Invertebrate Zoology, California Academy of

6 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Fig. 1. Shell, opercular valves, and mouth parts of a specimen from the
type lot of Balanus maroccana Broch: a, interior of tergum; b, exterior of ter-
gum; c, interior of scutum; d, exterior of scutum; e, external view of shells; f,
labrum; g, maxilla I; h, mandible; i, thin section of sutural edge of radius; a-d,
x 7.5; e, X 2: f-i, X 100.

Beacu: Reassignment of a Barnacle 7

Sciences, San Francisco, California 94119. Present address: Pro-
gram in Environmental Sciences, University of North Carolina at
Wilmington, Wilmington, North Carolina 28401.

Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 35(1) 1972

Intestinal Parasites of the Lizard Lygosoma laterale

GarnNETT R. Brooks

THE intestinal parasites of Lygosoma laterale, the ground skink,
have been described by Harwood (1932) and by Byrd (1937). In
a later paper, Harwood (1936) correlated the incidence of several
parasite species with the type of soil habitat associated with Lygo-
soma near Houston, Texas.

As part of a study on the biology of Lygosoma in Florida, data
were obtained which relate degree of parasitism with host age, sex,
and locality. These data also afford a comparison between two
widely separated populations of a single species. Information con-
cerning the food habits and population ecology of Lygosoma can
be found in Brooks (1963, 1967).

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Between August, 1960, and April, 1962, 381 skinks, of which 269
were adults, were collected near Gainesville, Florida. Adults are
defined as those with a snout-vent length (SVL) of 35 mm or
longer; juveniles, as those with a SVL of 34 mm or less. In each
individual, the entire digestive tract and the body cavity were
examined under a dissecting scope. Parasites were prepared for
study following standard procedures. Dr. M. A. Byrd, College of
William and Mary, aided me with species identification. Soil de-
scriptions were taken from “Soil Survey: Alachua County, Florida’,
Series 1940, No. 10, produced by the U.S. Department of Agricul-

ture.

DESCRIPTION OF LOCALITIES

Five populations of Lygosoma were restricted to very localized
areas, each of which afforded a sufficiently large sample size to
allow a comparison of parasite incidency between sites. None of
the localities, however, was uniformly sampled over a year’s period.
The five localities, their soil types, and their dominant vegetation
are described below. At all sites, Pinus taeda was the most fre-
quent species of pine and Quercus laurifolia and Q. nigra the most
abundant species of oaks.

Site A. This locality was in the Medicinal Plant Gardens on the

Brooks: Parasites of a Lizard 9

University of Florida campus and contained soil described as Fel-
lowship loamy fine sand. Dominant vegetation consisted of pines
and oaks; the herb layer, mainly grasses and sedges, was periodi-
cally mowed. A small stream flowed through the center of this site.

Site B. This locality was a cleared, well-drained, park-like area
bordered by pine woods. The soil is a complex of Arredondo-Fel-
lowship loamy fine sands. Dominant vegetation consisted of scat-
tered pines and oaks with a herb layer of grasses, sedges, and
weeds.

Site C. This site, located in a park-like pasture on a gentle
slope, has soil described as Fellowship loamy fine sand which re-
tains moisture and is well suited for pasture grasses. Dominant
vegetation consisted of scattered pines, oaks, and hickories, with no
understory; pasture grass and weeds comprised the herb layer. A
small herd of beef cattle roamed freely through this site.

Side D. ‘This locality consisted of overgrown lawns near two
abandoned dwellings, and the adjacent wooded areas. The soil,
Kanapaha fine sand which typically has good surface and internal
drainage, contained a variable amount of organic material. Scat-
tered pines and oaks, and a mixture of weeds, lawn grass, and
sedges at the herb layer constituted the dominant vegetation.

Site E. This site consisted of a small woods and adjacent
cleared areas, and contained soil classified as Arredondo loamy fine
sand-fine sand complex. The wooded area was a mixed deciduous
forest but some clearing of the understory had occurred prior to
this study. A small stream flowed through a portion of this site.

RESULTS

Five species of worms were recovered, four of which had been
described previously by Harwood (1932). Four of the worms
could definitely be identified, a tapeworm, Cylindrotaenia ameri-
cana; a fluke, Mesocoelium americanum; and two nematodes, Phys-
aloptera squamatae and Thubunaea leiolopismae. The fifth worm
was an unidentified larval acanthocephalan.

Yamaguti (1959) lists the nematotaeniid tapeworm, C. ameri-
cana, as being found in various anurans (Bufo, Hyla, Acris, Rana,
Pseudacris, Leptodactylus, Scaphiopus, and Arthroleptis), in one
genus of salamander (Desmognathus), and in Lygosoma. Har-

QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

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Brooks: Parasites of a Lizard 11

wood (1932), however, seriously questioned Joyeux’s (1924) iden-
tification of C. americana in the South African frog genus Arthro-
leptis. The number of tapeworms per skink was not determined
since they broke into numerous fragments when removed and were
unfortunately discarded. All were located in the intestine im-
mediately posterior to the pyloric sphincter.

All of the flukes found could be assigned to Mesocoelium ameri-
canum. This species was found in two genera of lizards (Eumeces
and Lygosoma) and in a snake (Storeria) by Harwood (1932). In
adult skinks, the number of flukes ranged from 1-33 (mean=5.6)
and in juveniles from 1-27 (mean=4.8). In both groups all were
found in the intestine immediately posterior to the pyloric sphincter.

The two species of nematodes were both spiruroids. Harwood
(1932) lists Physaloptera squamatae as being found in Lygosoma
and in a snake, Agkistrodon; Thubunaea leiolopismae, in Lygosoma
and in a frog, Acris. Individuals were found mainly within the
stomach, esophagus, or encysted on the stomach wall. In a few
cases several were found in the intestine or free in the body cavity.
In adult skinks, the number of P. squamatae ranged from 1-15
(mean= 2.2), that of T. leiolopismae from 1-33 (mean=4.6).

Three larval acanthocephalans were found encysted in the pos-
terior intestine; one in one lizard, two in another.

Table 1 shows the percentage of male and female adult and

TABLE 2
Percentage of parasitism and mean number of parasites per skink in
L. laterale listed by size group

Snout-vent length in mm

18-25 26-30 31-35 36—40 41-50
Parasite % Mean % Mean % Mean % Mean % Mean
C. americana 40 — 43 — 51 — 56 — 49 —
M. americanum ty - WA GBS BB ais} Bf B= 7
P. squamatae ene O Gielen 3 yey BAS} A BE Oh
T. leiolopismae 0 — CANO BO) NS AE yl
P. squamatae + YAO i Le 28) TL) 2 BS GD

T. leiolopismae

No Parasites 47 — = i! — 18 == 9 15 — 9 —
Age in Months* 0-3 3-6 6—10 9-18 14-42
Sample size 30 47 49 132 123

*From Brooks (1967).

12 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

juvenile skinks parasitized. Adults have a higher percentage of
parasitism in all categories. Although seemingly striking, the per-
centage differences of parasitism between adult males and females,
even in the case of nematodes, are not significant (tapeworms:
x’ = 0.38, P>0.05; flukes: y?= 1.86, P>0.05; nematodes: ,?=2.38, P
>0.05). The probability of an adult skink harboring all three types
of worms could be expressed as 0.53X0.28X0.51 or 7.6 per cent
(see Table 1), whereas the observed frequency is only 4.5 per cent.
Likewise, the expected frequencies of adults harboring tapeworms
and flukes, tapeworms and nematodes, and flukes and nematodes
could be estimated as 14.8 per cent, 27.0 per cent, and 14.3 per cent
respectively. There is no significant difference between the ex-
pected and observed values (,?=2.86, P>0.05).

Table 2 lists the percentage of parasitism for five age groups of
Lygosoma (age can be estimated by snout-vent length, see Fig. 6
in Brooks, 1967). The incidence of both species of nematodes and
the mean number per skink are directly correlated with age; that of
tapeworms and flukes are not. Both tapeworm and fluke parasitism
decrease slightly in the oldest age group. The number of nonpara-
sitized skinks decreases with increasing age.

The percentages of parasitism for adult skinks from five different
localities are given in Table 3. Each locality has a unique distribu-
tion of parasite occurrence. The greatest difference appears be-
tween Sites C and E, where the difference in fluke incidence is 10
and in nematode incidence, 6X.

TABLE 3
Percentage of parasitism and mean number of parasites per skink in
five populations of L. laterale adults

Locality
A B C D E
Parasite % Mean % Mean % Mean % Mean % Mean
C. americana 43 — 68 — 76 —— 4% =—— (6% —
M. americanum 4] 6.5 18 hes} 66 9.8 16 3.0 6 3.3
T. leiolopismae 39 «3.9 18 28 0 — Bil 6 52
P. squamatae 33 14 32) 14 AO le 4S ee eles

Tt. leiolopismae +> 5’ 6339 S550) ES) 10 sd 63) Se.
P. squamatae

No parasites 12 — ll — 3 — 26 — 10 —

Sample size 49 28 29 43 48

Brooks: Parasites of a Lizard 13

DIscussIOoN

Harwood (1932) found several worms, a fluke, Brachycoelium
daviesi, in 23 per cent, and two nematodes, Oswaldocruzia pipiens
and Cosmocercoides dukae, both in less than 5 per cent of his speci-
mens, that were not identified in Floridian skinks. My results also
differ from his in a quantitative manner. For all species in common
the incidence of parasitism in Floridian skinks was appreciably
higher than in the Texan population.

C. americana was present in 37 per cent of the Texas skinks
(Harwood, 1932) and were abundant in skinks living on clay soils
but absent from those living on sandy soils (Harwood, 1936). The
high incidence of infection (53 per cent) by this worm in Floridian
skinks might be explained by habitat differences. All of the Flor-
idian skinks were collected on a substrate of loamy fine sand or fine
sand. Harwood (1936) offered no explanation for the correlation
between clay soils and incidence of C. americana, and since my re-
sults are in direct opposition, any explanation must await an under-
standing of the life history of C. americana. If C. americana has
a direct life cycle as suggested by Joyeux (1924), the major limit-
ing environmental factor night well be moisture content (see be-
low) rather than soil type per se.

Less than 5 per cent of the Texan skinks were parasitized by M.
americanum (Harwood, 1932) compared to 28 per cent for Flor-
idian skinks. Since the life history of this fluke is unknown, it is
not possibie to compare intermediate host prevalence and ecology
between the two sites. Approximately 10 per cent of 381 skinks
from Florida contained pulmonate snails as food items (Brooks,
1963). There are no comparable data for the Texan skinks.

Thubuneae_ leiolopismae and Physaloptera squamatae were
found in less than 20 per cent and 4 per cent respectively of Texan
skinks (Harwood, 1932). Comparable figures for adult, Floridian
skinks were 32 per cent and 28 per cent respectively. Again, it is
not feasible to attempt an explanation of these differences since the
life histories of these nematodes are not known.

Locality site has a profound effect on the incidence of para-
sitism (Table 3). The level of parasitism by C. americana is the
least variable, but a range from 42-76 per cent is significant. These
extreme differences between localities, especially in the case of the

14 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

fluke and nematodes, emphasizes the importance of local habitat
conditions on parasite species abundance.

Since even the smallest skinks have a high level of tapeworm
parasitism (Tables 1 and 2), C. americana might either have a
direct life cycle (see Joyeux, 1924) or a small and relatively com-
mon intermediate host(s). Cylindrotaenia americana produces pro-
glottids, each containing eight embryos, which exit within fecal
pellets. The fecal mass of Lygosoma is relatively moist compared
with that of other lizards, and mature proglottids can be seen mov-
ing on the deposited mass. An interesting question is whether
another, or the same skink, would eat these proglottids. Small
skinks feed on very small food items and motion is the stimulus
which initiates feeding behavior.

LITERATURE CITED

Brooks, G. R. 1963. Food habits of the ground skink. Quart. Jour. Florida
Acad. Sci., vol. 26, pp. 361-367.

—. 1967. Population ecology of the ground skink, Lygosoma laterale
(Say). Ecol. Monogr., vol. 37, pp. 71-87.

Byrp, E. E. 1937. Observations on the trematode genus Brachycoelium
Dujardin. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 84, pp. 183-199.

Harwoop, P. D. 1932. The helminths parasitic in the amphibia and rep-
tilia of Houston, Texas, and vicinity. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 81,
pp. 1-71.

——. 1936. The effect of soil types on the helminths parasitic in the
ground lizard, Leiolopisma laterale (Say). Ecology, vol. 17, pp. 694-
698.

Joyeux, C. 1924. Recherches sur le cycle evolulif des Cylindrotaenia. Ann.
de Parasitol., vol. 2, pp. 74-81.

YamacuTl, S. 1959. Systema helminthum, vol. II. The cestodes of verte-
brates. New York, Interscience Publishers..

Department of Biology, College of William and Mary, Williams-
burg, Virginia 23185.

Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 35(1) 1972

Observations on the Arboreal Snail Orthalicus floridensis

ALAN K. Craic

INTEREST in the famous tree snails of southern Florida can be
traced back at least as far as the relatively early scientific account
of De Pourtales (1877). Investigators of the last century were pri-
marily concerned with the zoogeography of Liguus and the closely
related Orthalicus because they believed them to be unusually use-
ful in demonstrating certain aspects of Darwinian evolutionary the-
ory and the processes involved in speciation. These colorful snails
were also recruited as evidence to support geological theories re-
garding genesis of the Florida Keys. Pilsbry (1905, p. 38) sug-
gested that the occurrence of a single species of Liguus across a
wide range of south Florida islands supported Agassiz’s theory that
the Florida Keys were merely erosional remnants broken up from
what had once been a continuous landmass. This pioneer explana-
tion remained popular until the concept of eustacy became well
established.

Simpson seems to be the first to have suggested an alternative
explanation for the discontinuity of distribution: namely, that these
snails are randomly dispersed throughout southernmost Florida by
the action of hurricanes. This scattering of colonies is evident in
the comprehensive map prepared by Pilsbry (1912) who showed
all known populations of Liguus and Orthalicus that had been dis-
covered by field workers prior to that date. In this monograph
Pilsbry discussed both genera and concluded that Orthalicus was
less extensive (but perhaps more abundant), being found from
Cape Sable to Pavilion Key and in the “southern keys.” Today the
situation is completely reversed: colonies of Liguus have become
virtually extinct while Orthalicus continues to flourish.

Since both snails belong to the South American family Bulimuli-
dae it is apparent they represent faunal elements that have been
introduced into Florida from the south. In the case of Orthalicus
there are species ranging from southern Brazil to northern Mexico.
Consequently, we have three possible dispersal routes by means of
which this snail or its evolutionary progenitors arrived in Florida.

The least likely explanation involves a spread either naturally or
with human assistance from northern Central America across the

16 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

southern Gulf Coast region and ultimately into the Florida penin-
sula. This movement could only have occurred during some inter-
glacial interval of the Pleistocene when the climate was much
warmer in winter than at present. It is not at all certain that such
conditions actually existed; if they did then we must eliminate the
intervening Gulf Coast range and treat the Florida colonies as a
relict population. However, no fossil specimens of this genus have
been reported from Florida, thus invalidating this dispersal route
and the possibility that it evolved locally. Liguus is believed to be
a very recent (Holocene), recurrent introduction from either Cuba
or Hispaniola where related species are widespread. But, lack of
an indigenous Orthalicus in those localities means that it is very
unlikely to have had the same dispersal history. Species from
Central America are taxonomically similar to O. floridensis and we
must conclude that it was transported directly across the Gulf of
Mexico to the Florida Keys. The question as to whether this oc-
curred on a single or on multiple occasions (by means of hurri-
canes ) has not been resolved.

The present observations were made in connection with a de-
tailed phytogeographic study of Pavilion Key, southernmost of the
Ten Thousand Island group and part of the Everglades National
Park. The preliminary comments in this paper relate only to the
Pavilion Key population where a comprehensive study by special-
ists is much needed.

As Pilsbry (1912) shrewdly observed, these snails are basically
nocturnal and most active during wet intervals. Prolonged dry
weather will induce temporary estivation in Orthalicus without for-
mation of the strong mucus seal that is produced in the fall with the
onset of cold weather. Their internal distribution on the beach
strand vegetation of Pavilion Key suggests these snails are also rela-
tively halophobic. While the island maintains a vigorous popula-
tion, few specimens can be found on vegetation located along the
exposed foreslope of the beach strand where it is subjected to salt
spray. No specimens were observed feeding on the leeward man-
grove community. The greatest concentration of snails seems to
occur on certain preferred food trees at or near the inland boundary
of beach strand vegetation where plant density and microclimatic
conditions approach the characteristics of a true tropical hammock.

This avoidance of the extreme peri-littoral habitat does not nec-

Craic: An Arboreal Snail 17

essarily apply to choice of estivation sites, specimens occasionally
having been noted in cavities of storm-killed black mangrove [Avi-
cennia germinans (L.) Sterns] that line the western winter beach
berm of Pavilion Key. A few snails were noted estivating in ex-
posed positions high above ground in the branches of red man-
groves (Rhizophora mangle L.) immediately adjacent to the eastern-
most boundary of beach strand vegetation. It seems likely that
these specimens represent snails that were either wind-blown into
this habitat or wandered across interlocking upper branches. The
diurnal incursion of salty water at high tide makes deliberate migra-
tion overland unlikely.

Since the existing literature contains few explicit references to
feeding habits of arboreal snails in Florida it may be of interest to
note that Orthalicus have been observed actively feeding on Flor-
ida privet [Forestiera segregata (Jacq.) Krug & Urban], Jamaica
dogwood | Piscidia piscipula (L.) Sarg.], wild papaya (Carica pa-
paya L.) [see Fig. 1] white stopper [Eugenia axillaris (Sw.)
Willd.], and strangler fig (Ficus aurea Nutt.) in order of prefer-
ence. These snails were also observed on African bowstring hemp
(Sansieveria thyrsiflora Thumb.) key lily (Hymenocallis keyensis
Small), red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle L.), buttonwood (Con-

a ‘

Fig. 1. Orthalicus feeding on wild papaya, Pavilion Key.

18 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

ocarpus erectus L.) and agave (Agave decipiens Baker), but evi-
dence of feeding was not noted.

Some tentative identifications of fungi and algae present on Ja-
maica dogwood from Pavilion Key have been made in an effort to
determine the probable diet of these snails. Applying standard in-
cubation techniques, I.M. Master (research asst., Functional Biol-
ogy Dept., Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences )
was able to identify Fusidium, Zygosporium, Gliocladium, Clado-
sporium, Macrophoma, and Rhizopus colonies growing on the sur-
face of the branches. From separate cultures transferred to agar
plates Syncephalastrum, Penicillium, Cladosporium, Aspergillus,
Streptomyces, Verticillium, Cephalosporium, Fusidium, and Phoma
were identified. Most of these fungii are common general sapro-
phytes having a widespread distribution; no predominant fungus
was noted on the sample tested.

Thirteen adult specimens of Orthalicus were transferred in Oc-

20 40 60 80 100

Fig. 2. Scatter diagram; Length (mm)-Age (yrs) for Orthalicus floriden-
sis.

Craic: An Arboreal Snail 19

tober from Pavilion Key to a latitudinally equivalent location on the
east coast of Florida where they were released on a variety of exotic
ornamentals. The majority escaped within 48 hours but several that
remained on ylang-ylang (Cananga odorata Hook. f. & Thoms.) for
longer periods were observed to feed sporadically although no
macro-epiphytic flora was apparent. Better results were obtained
by placing the snails on banana plants (Musa sapientum) where
they ingested the cutin layer of petioles. This diet was evidently
not entirely acceptable as 11 specimens eventually relocated them-
selves on two mature cultivated papaya trees whose trunk surfaces
supported a flourishing algae mat. In slightly less than 14 days the
snails completely removed all visible trace of algae from the host
trees. They then began to disperse across a residential grass lawn
(treated with herbicides and insecticides) and were all found dead
within a few meters of the trees.

A statistical age-growth study was made from a representative
sample of dead shells collected at various points on Pavilion Key.
The results are shown on the scatter diagram (Fig. 2) which indi-
cates a mean age of 3.36 years and a corresponding length of 51.6
mm. The largest specimen collected measured an impressive
92 mm by 48 mm making it perhaps the largest indigenous terres-
trial snail ever recorded from the United States and one of the
largest arboreal snails found anywhere in the world. This excep-
tional specimen was so faded that no variceal age estimate could
be made. If each major dark brown variceal does in fact correspond
to a winter estivation period, then the maximum age noted among
the sample specimens was 7. However, any analysis based on these
markings may be affected by intermittent markings induced from
temporary estivation during dry spells. If the more prominent vari-
ceals correspond to a winter estivation instead of being continuously
deposited and resorbed, then all specimens in the sample died dur-
ing a winter season. This suggests Orthalicus is particularly sensi-
tive to cold. Every empty shell examined was intact without indi-
cations of crushing or breaking by crabs or other predators (Rhoads,
1899, p. 45).

The absence of Orthalicus colonies in the less accessible areas
of the heavily urbanized Florida east coast is probably related to the
lack of a suitable forage habitat. Their introduction into the few
remaining stands of hammock vegetation is recommended where

20 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

specimens of preferred food trees are present. A program of care-
ful redistribution would disperse the population and help insure
survival by reducing the possibility of extinction through destruc-
tion of the few remaining colonies.

LITERATURE CITED

DePourtates, L. F. 1877. Hints on the origin of the flora and fauna of the
Florida Keys. Amer. Naturalist, vol. 11, pp. 137-144.

Pitspry, Henry A. 1905. Land shells of the Florida Keys. The Nautilus,
vol. 19, 37-41.

1912. A study of the variation and zoogeography of Liguus in Flor-
ida. Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, vol. 15, pp. 429-471.

Rwoaps, SAMUEL N. 1899. Annotated list of land and fresh-water shells re-
cently collected in the vicinity of Miami, Florida. The Nautilus, vol.
13, pp. 43-48.

Department of Geography, Florida Atlantic University, Boca
Raton, Florida 33432.

Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 35(1) 1972

Nereid Shell Blisters in the Southern Quahog Clam

Joun L. TAyYLor AND Cart H. SALOMAN

THE nereid polychaete, Neanthes arenaceodentata Moore= Ne-
anthes caudata (della Chiaje), is the apparent cause of shell
blisters discovered in a population of the quahog clam, Mercenaria
campechiensis Gmelin, sampled in Boca Ciega Bay, Florida. Thus
far, nereid blisters have not been reported in quahogs from other
areas of Tampa Bay or in other coastal regions of the United States.
The worm-inhabited blisters were similar in appearance to scallop
blisters caused by the nereid Ceratonereis tridentata (Webster),
but different in appearance from blisters in hard clams caused by
the spionid Polydora ciliata (Wells, 1965; Landers, 1967). Addi-
tional reports on biogenous disfiguration of shells include those by
Wells and Wells (1962); Wells, Wells, and Gray (1964); Davis
(1967; Blake (1969); Evans (1969); Haigler (1969); and Jones
(1969).

BLIsTER INCIDENCE, LOCATION, AND DAMAGE

Shell blisters in Boca Ciega Bay quahogs were discovered in a
sample of living clams collected near the island of Tierra Verde on
December 9, 1968 (Fig. 1). The clams in that locality were six
years old and had the following average shell dimensions: length,
100.8 mm; height, 95.3 mm; width, 57.7 mm (Taylor and Saloman,
1970). During the following 16 months, monthly samples of at
least 100 living clams were taken. Incidence of blisters in that
period averaged 37 per cent and ranged from 30 per cent (March
and October, 1969) to 51 per cent (December 1969). Among
empty shells randomly collected in the same vicinity, a 44 per cent
incidence of blister damage was also noted. Live worms were col-
lected only from living shells, parasitism or another benefit to the
worm from some activity or function of the clam is indicated.

Shell blisters in 91 per cent of the clams were found on one
valve only, at the posterior end. Nine per cent of the quahogs had
blisters on both valves. Up to one-half of the inner shell surface
was raised by well-developed blisters, and in some clams the pos-

22, QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

HILLSBOROUGH

OLDSMAR
a ™

2
OLD
5 3
CLEARWATER DZ

ne
;

—

AV@NILNI

/

VINSNINId

JO

LITTLE
MANATEE
RIVER

ODJIXIW

KILOMETERS
eeeeceree
Ole 2s es as

NAUTICAL MILES

Ss
(<——)
eS Ola

Fig. 1. Sampling transects of a benthic survey in Tampa Bay, Florida.
The star indicates the location of a bed of quahog clams (Mercenaria cam-
pechiensis) infested with a nereid polychaete (Neanthes arenaceodentata)
found in shell blisters.

terior adductor and retractor muscles were partially destroyed
(Figs. 2 and 3). Density of worms in the sediment of the infected
clam bed was about 128 worms per m?, computed from the num-
ber of animals in five substrate samples obtained with a plug
sampler (Taylor and Saloman, 1969a).

TAYLOR AND SALOMAN: Blisters in Clam Shells 23

Fig. 2. Damage from a shell blister containing the nereid polychaete
(Neanthes arenaceodentata) in the quahog clam (Mercenaria campechiensis )
collected in Boca Bay, Florida.

ECOLOGY OF THE WORM

Neanthes arenaceodentata has been reported from shallow water
in temperate to tropical seas around the world. It inhabits floating
masses of algae, crevices, and interstices among rocks, shells, foul-
ing organisms, and sediments of sand or mud. Its diet consists
mainly of algae, but may include small animals (Pettibone, 1963;
Hartman, 1968). To our knowledge, N. arenaceodentaia has never
been reported in shell blisters.

Results of a benthic survey (Taylor, 1966) in which N. arena-
ceodentata was collected at 72 stations in Boca Ciega Bay and por-
tions of Tampa Bay, substantiate previous observations on the

24 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Fig. 3. Tissue damage to the posterior adductor and retractor muscles
(tip of arrow) of a quahog clam (Mercenaria campechiensis ) from Boca Ciega
Bay, Florida, at the margin of a shell blister containing the nereid polychaete
(Neanthes arenaceodentata ).

worms habitat. At more than one-half of the stations inhabited by
the worm, the bottom was covered with sea grasses and attached
algae. Average sediment particle size was 2.6 phi (fine sand), and
the average shell (calcium carbonate) composition by weight was
10.3 per cent (Taylor and Saloman, 1969b).

N. arenaceodentata was caught mainly in relatively high salin-
ity water in Tampa Bay. About 91 per cent of its occurrences were
seaward of transect 13 (Fig. 1), where average annual salinity ex-
ceeds 25 ppt. All collections containing more than 100 worms per
sample from a 14.2 liter bucket dredge (Taylor, 1965) came from
the shallow vegetated bottom of Boca Ciega Bay where salinity
normally exceeds 30 ppt (Taylor and Saloman, 1969b).

In northern waters, the upper size limit of N. arenaceodentata
is about 70 mm long by 4 mm wide (Pettibone, 1963). The largest
specimen collected in our survey was 30 by 4 mm, and the largest
found inside a shell blister was 20 by 1 mm. Worms longer than
15 mm were sexually mature, and gravid individuals were collected
in February, April, May, September, and November. Water tem-

TAYLOR AND SALOMAN: Blisters in Clam Shells 25

peratures during those months range between 9-31 C, and it seems
likely that the worm breeds in every month of the year. Year-
round breeding in subtropical waters has been found in a number
of other polychaete species in Biscayne Bay, Florida (McNulty and
Lopez, 1969).

No epitokous state has been reported for N. arenaceodentata,
and females produce from 143-791 young. The embryos are in-
cubated by the male for about 21 days, and during that time there
is a strong male-male and male-female fighting reaction. Embryos
are unciliated and do not pass through a pelagic stage. The young
reach sexual maturity in about two months, and males may repro-
duce more than once. Females are either eaten by the males or
die after spawning (Reish, 1957).

SHELL BLISTERS AND QUAHOG FISHERIES

The shell blisters containing N. arenaceodentata consisted of a
raised conchiolin membrane, which is produced by the clam and
separates the worm from the mantle cavity. In the blister cavity,
the worm accumulates fecal material and detritus, which gives the
blister a dark and unattractive appearance. Such a conspicuous
abnormality makes infested individuals unacceptable for commerce
in half-shell and steamer clams. Furthermore, blister formation
probably impairs the vitality of the host, and in well-developed
blisters, damage to soft tissues may cause clam mortality. Conse-
quently, recreational and commercial quahog fishermen should re-
gard N. arenaceodentata as a possible threat to hard clam fisheries
and report clams containing blisters to local or Federal conservation
agencies.

LITERATURE CITED

BuakeE, J. A. 1969. Systematics and ecology of shell-boring polychaetes from
New England. Amer. Zool., vol. 9, no. 3, ed. 2, pp. 813-820.

Davis, J. D. 1967. Polydora infestation of Artic wedge clams: a pattern of
selective attack. Proc. Nat. Shellfish Assn., vol. 57, pp. 67-72.

1969. Polydora infestation of Mercenaria mercenaria. Nautilus, vol.
83, no. 2, p. 74.

Evans, J. W. 1969. Borers in the shell of the sea scallop, Placopecten magel-
lanicus. Amer. Zool., vol. 9, no. 3, ed. 2, pp. 775-782.

Hacer, S. A. 1969. Boring mechanism of Polydora websteri inhabiting
Crassostrea virginica. Amer. Zool., vol. 9, no. 3, ed. 2, pp. 821-828.

26 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Hartman, O. 1968. Atlas of the errantiate polychaetous annelids from Cali-
fornia. Allan Hancock Found., Univ. of Southern California, Los An-
geles, 828 pp.

Jones, M. L. 1969. Boring of shell by Caobangia in freshwater snails of
southeast Asia. Amer. Zool., vol. 9, no. 3, ed. 2, pp. 829, 835.

LanpeErRs, W. S. 1967. Infestation of the hard clam, Mercenaria mercenaria,
by the boring polychaete worm, Polydora ciliata. Proc. Nat. Shellfish
Assn., vol. 57, pp. 63-66.

McNu tty, J. K., anp N. N. Lopez. 1969. Year-round production of ripe
gametes by benthic polychaetes in Biscayne Bay, Florida. Bull. Mar.
Sci., vol. 19, no. 4, pp. 945-954.

PetTrponE, M. H. 1963. Marine polychaete worms of the New England
region. 1. Aphroditidae through Trochochaetidae. U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull.
227, pt. 1, v.+356 pp.

Reso, D. J. 1957. The life history of the polychaetous annelid Neanthes
caudata (della Chiaje), including a summary of development in the
family Nereidae. Pac. Sci., vol. 11, pp. 216-228.

Taytor, J. L. 1965. Bottom samplers for estuarine research. Chesapeake

Sci., vol. 6, no. 4, pp. 233-234.

1966. Benthic project. In J. E. Sykes, editor, Report of the Bureau
of Commercial Fisheries Biological Station, St. Petersburg Beach, Flor-
ida, Fiscal Years 1962-1964. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv., Circ. no. 239.

pp. 5-8.

Taytor, J. L., anp C. H. Satomon. 1969a. Benthic project. In J. E. Sykes,

editor, Report of the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Biological Labor-

atory, St. Petersburg Beach, Florida, Fiscal Year 1968. U. S. Fish

Wildl. Serv., Cire. no. 313, pp. 3-10.

1969b. Sediments, oceanographic observations, and floristic data
from Tampa Bay, Florida, and adjacent waters, 1961-65. U. S. Fish
Wildl. Serv., Data Report no. 34, 561 pp. on 9 microfiche.

1970. Benthic project. In J. E. Sykes, editor, Report of the Bureau
of Commercial Fisheries Biological Laboratory, St. Petersburg Beach,
Florida, Fiscal Year 1969. U. S. Fish Wildl. Serv., Circ. no. 342, pp.
3-10.

WELLS, H. W. 1965. Nereid blisters in Florida scallops. Quart. Jour. Florida
Acad. Sci., vol. 28, no. 1, pp. 123-128.

WELLs, H. W., AND M. J. WELLS. 1962. The polychaete Ceratonereis trident-
ata as a pest of the scallop Aequipecten gibbus. Biol. Bull., vol. 122,
no. 1, pp. 149-159.

WELLs, H. W., M. J. WELLS, AND I. E. Gray. 1964. The calico scallop com-
munity in North Carolina. Bull. Mar. Sci. Gulf Caribbean, vol. 14, no.
4, pp. 561-593.

National Marine Fisheries Service Biological Laboratory, 75 -
33rd Avenue, St. Petersburg Beach, Florida 33706.

Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 35(1) 1972.

Occurrence of a Rare Skate in the Western North Atlantic
RosBIN R. BLACKMAN

Captures of Dactylobatus armatus Bean and Weed (1909), a
bizarre skate and only known member of its genus, have previously
been limited to five specimens. The original account was based on
two syntypes, an immature male, 278 mm total length (TL),
USNM 62914, Albatross Sta. 2624, 32°36’ N, 77°29’ W, 472 meters;
and a female, 264 mm TL, USNM 62915, Albatross Sta. 2666,
30°47’30” N, 79°49° W, 494 meters. Bigelow and Schroeder
(1953) gave a detailed description of Bean and Weed’s immature
male. The next reported captures (Bigelow and Schroeder, 1965)
were two females, one 316 mm TL, MCZ 42474, Silver Bay Sta.
3095, 28°23’ N, 79°49’ W, 338-348 meters; and the other, 250 mm
TL, MCZ 43073, Silver Bay Sta. 3726, 29°42’ N, 80°10’ W, 338-348
meters. Recently, they (1968) reported another male, 263 mm TL,
MCZ 45883, Oregon Sta. 5753, 29°29’ N, 79°53’ W, 667-695 meters.

This report adds six additional specimens collected from 1960-
1965 by the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service exploratory fishing ves-
sels Silver Bay and Oregon I. Available data are one female, 300
mm TL, Silver Bay Sta. 2074, 29°43’ N, 80°07’30” W, 366-369
meters; two specimens, sex unknown, one 290 mm, the others
length unknown, Silver Bay Sta. 3095, 28°23’ N, 79°49’ W, 338-347
meters; one female, 662 mm TL, USNM 202499, Silver Bay Sta.
5483, 27°40'30°” N, 79°48’ W, 371-366 meters; one specimen, sex
and length unknown, Oregon Sta. 5232, 29°59’30°” N, 80°08’ W,
384-402 meters; and one specimen, sex and length unknown, Ore-
gon Sta. 5265, 29°13’ N, 79°56’ W, 549 meters, now UF 12951, 9,
184.2 TL, 300 fms.

Of the eleven specimens known, nine were captured between
Vero Beach and St. Augustine, Florida in 338-695 meters, one off
Georgia in 494 meters, and one off Charleston, South Carolina in
472 meters. The six specimens reported here do not extend the
known range of the species.

The largest female (662 mm) is twice as long as the largest
specimen previously reported (316 mm). Measurements compar-
able to those made by Bean and Weed (1909) and Bigelow and
Schroeder (1953) revealed no significant differences in body pro-

28 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

portions or other morphological characteristics. The reproductive
system of this large female resembled that of nearly mature de-
velopmental stages of Raja erinacea described by Richards, Merri-
man and Calhoun (1963). The uterus, oviduct, and shell glands
were well developed, and the ovaries contained small pale globules.
The apparent near maturity of this 662 mm specimen indicates
that Dactylobatus armatus is one of the moderately large skates.

LITERATURE CITED

BEAN, B. A., AND A. C. WEED. 1909. Description of a new skate (Dactylo-
batus armatus) from deep water off the southern Atlantic coast of the
United States. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 36, pp. 459-461.

BicELow, H. B., AND W. C. ScHRoEDER. 1953. Fishes of the western North
Atlantic. Mem. Sears Found. for Marine Res., no. 1 part 2, pp. 323-327.

1965. A further account of batoid fishes from the western Atlantic.
Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., Harvard, vol. 132, no. 5, pp. 465-467.

1965. New records of two geographically restricted species of
western Atlantic skates: Breviraja yucatanensis and Dactylobatus ar-
matus. Copeia, 1968, no. 3, pp. 630-631.

Ricwarps, S. W., D. MERRIMAN, AND L. H. CaLtHoun. 1963. Studies on the
marine resources of southern New England IX. The biology of the
little skate, Raja erinacea Mitchill., Bull. Bingham Oceanographic Col-
lection, vol. 18, Article 3, pp. 15-18.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries,
St. Simons Island, Georgia 31522. Present address: U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers, Jacksonville District, P. O. Box 4970, Jackson-
ville, Florida 32201.

Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 35(1) 1972

First Gulf of Mexico record of Ranzania laevis

RoBeRT W. Torr AND Davin L. GrIrRARDIN

A LARGE specimen of the molid fish, Ranzania laevis (Pennant),
was caught in February 1967 by Mr. Ray Thornton, a commercial
fisherman, who hand-captured it in the surf two miles north of
Little Marco Pass, Florida (26°02’N; 81°46’W). The specimen,
in excellent condition, has been accessioned into the Florida Depart-
ment of Natural Resources collections (FSBC 4681). Data for the
specimen are as follows: total length 671 mm; length from snout to
upper posterior point of body, excluding clavus 611 mm, including
clavus 648 mm; greatest body depth 334 mm; predorsal length 548
mm; length of dorsal base 86 mm; preanal length 572 mm; length of
anal base 73 mm; length of pectoral fin 118 mm; head length 232
mm; snout length 86 mm; postorbital length of head 115 mm; length
of orbit 32 mm; basal elements in clavus 19; branched rays of clavus
19; dorsal rays 19; anal rays 19; pectoral rays 13; vertebrae 18;
weight at capture 10 kg.

Since R. laevis apparently does not exceed a length of 800 mm
(Fraser-Brunner, 1951, p. 98), we judge our specimen to be an
adult. Gonads, however, were macroscopically indistinguishable.

Robins (1966) reviewed western Atlantic records of R. laevis,
and described a specimen, presumably a juvenile, obtained from
off Palm Beach, Florida, representing the first record from Atlantic
waters of the United States. Of the four molid species known from
Florida, three have now been reported from the Gulf of Mexico.
Dawson (1965) summarized published records of Mola mola (Lin-
naeus) and Masturus lanceolatus (Liénard) from the Gulf, and
added new records of each. The example herein described, rep-
resenting the third species, constitutes the first record from the
Gulf of Mexico and the first adult from waters adjacent to the east-
ern United States.

We thank Mr. Leon Kenney, President of Pinellas Seafood, St.
Petersburg, for donating the specimen, and Mrs. Rita M. Moore of
the Suncoast Medical Clinic, St. Petersburg, for providing radio-
graphs.

30 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

LITERATURE CITED

Dawson, C. E. 1965. Records of two headfishes (family Molidae) from the
north-central Gulf of Mexico. Proc. Louisiana Acad. Sci., vol. 28, pp.
86-89, 2 figs.

FRASER-BRUNNER, A. 1951. The ocean sunfishes (family Molidae). Bull.
Brit. Mus. (Nat. Hist.), Zool., vol. 1, no. 6, pp. 89-121, 18 figs.

Rosins, C. RicHArp. 1966. The molid fish Ranzania laevis in the western
Atlantic. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci., vol. 29, no. 4, pp. 287-289.

Florida Department of Natural Resources Marine Research Lab-
oratory, St. Petersburg, Florida 33731. Contribution No. 145.

Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 35(1) 1972

Five-Year Creel Survey of Two Florida Lakes
Forrest J. WARE, WESLEY V. FisH, AND LoumE PREVATT

Laxes Griffin and Harris, with surface acreages of 9,100 and
16,500 respectively, were the study areas selected for this project.
Located in central Florida near the city of Leesburg, these natural
lakes provide a popular recreation area for this section of the State.
Historically, Griffin and Harris enjoyed excellent reputations for
their sport fisheries, but in recent years considerable local criti-
cism has developed concerning fisheries quality, especially in Lake
Griffin. Both lakes are showing signs of environmental degradation
from cultural eutrophication and can be considered eutrophic. Pres-
ent conditions are characterized by turbid waters supporting dense
blue-green algal populations, extensive bottom muds, and large
carrying capacities for fishes. Of the two lakes, Griffin is considered
more advanced in its eutrophic state.

During 1966 a creel survey of the present design was imple-
mented to document existing fisheries and monitor changes or
trends through time. The survey provided for seasonal and annual
estimates of fishing pressure, catch composition, and fishing success.
Results have been compiled and analyzed for the past five years.
The purpose of this paper is to present these findings, documenting
the fisheries quality of two Florida lakes and discuss aspects of the
creel design.

CREEL METHOD

The Griffin and Harris creel program evolved from a random-
ized systematic creel census that was employed by our agency
during the early Sixties. By 1964, certain limitations were realized
and a more efficient program sought. Dr. Don W. Hayne, Institute
of Statistics, North Carolina State University, was contacted for
consultation, and, working with Mr. James P. Clugston of the Com-
mission, he designed the stratified creel survey with non-uniform
probability sampling currently in use. The design was computerized
by the Cooperative Statistical Unit and now serves as a model for
creel surveys in other Southeastern States.

Stratification of the roving creel survey involves the designation

32 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

of areas within lakes, periods of time, and kinds of days (weekday
or weekend day). Within each time stratum samples are selected
randomly and with non-uniform probabilities, which are propor-
tional to the predicted daily patterns of fishing activity (determined
by prior study). Both stratification and unequal probabilities are
imposed to reduce the variance of estimates below those which
would occur if simple random sampling were used. In a practical
sense the area stratification facilitates implementation of the survey
over large areas of the lake and allows for separate area estimates.
Sampling in time, with non-uniform probability based on fishing ac-
tivity, ensures that most of the creel clerk’s effort will coincide with
most of the fishing activity. The basic value of the non-uniform
probability sampling scheme is discussed by Pfeiffer (1966).

Creel sampling schedule was set up on a basis of two-week peri-
ods the year around. Within each period five days were scheduled
for sampling each lake by random selection and included at least
one weekend day. This allowed for 10 work-days and four off-days
per sample period. Each sample day was also divided into two
periods; 7:00 am-1:00 pm and 1:00 pm-7:00 pm in order to include
the entire day. The non-uniform probabilities were then assigned
to each sample period within a day and according to the type of
day (weekend or weekday). Because of their large size, Lakes
Griffin and Harris were separated into six approximately equal areas
(Figs. 6 and 7). This facilitated the collection of data by requiring
the clerk to spend one hour in each area and provided for separate
area estimates (not presented here).

Creel data were transferred to I.B.M. cards and shipped to
North Carolina State University, where estimates were calculated
on the I.B.M. 360 System Computer, Model 75. Dr. Robert E.
Mason, Assistant Statistician, North Carolina State University, was
responsible for computer processing. He also served as primary
consultant concerning the mechanics of the design.

One characteristic of our creel survey, often not found in others,
is the measurement of fishing success by species effort. It is be-
lieved that such information provides a more accurate estimate of
the fishery quality for a species. In practice, only those fishermen
determined (by interview) to be fishing for a particular fish were
used in the estimate calculation of success for that species. This
accomplishes a measurement of the catch rate of bass, for example,

WaRE ET AL.: Five-Year Creel Survey 33

TABLE 1
Estimate precision for lakes Griffin and Harris creel survey

Approximate Per Cent

Year and Lake Criteria Estimate sD sp of the Mean
1966-1967

Lake Griffin Total Pressure 255,090 26,529 10.4
Lake Griffin Total Catch 238,620 65,620 27.5
Lake Harris Total Pressure 230,838 24 469 10.6
Lake Harris Total Catch 202,710 48,042 23.7
1967-1968

Lake Griffin Total Pressure 240,246 32,546 13.5
Lake Griffin Total Catch 219,018 40,028 18.3
Lake Harris Total Pressure 175,944 16,715 9.5
Lake Harris Total Catch 125,994 30,994 24.6
1968-1969

Lake Griffin Total Pressure 327,066 50,041 15.3
Lake Griffin Total Catch 300,942 61,091 20.3
Lake Harris Total Pressure 180,444 23,870 13.2
Lake Harris Total Catch 166,248 48,361 29.1
1969-1970

Lake Griffin Total Pressure 265,890 54,175 20.4
Lake Griffin Total Catch 270,744 88,330 32.6
Lake Harris Total Pressure 199,238 24,646 12.4
Lake Harris Total Catch 180,600 38,480 21.3
1970-1971

Lake Griffin Total Pressure 230,498 27,579 12.0
Lake Griffin Total Catch 222,892 75,494 33.9
Lake Harris Total Pressure 244,720 25,293 10.3
Lake Harris Total Catch 330,574 88,255 26.7

by bass fishermen and excludes other incidental catches of bass.
However, there are periods when estimates cannot be made by the
computer program in this manner. This occurs when there are no
records of fishing for a particular species or when catches are inci-
dental to fishing for other fishes. Mr. D. E. Holcomb of the Com-
mission implemented this modification in creel design during the
1967 creel year.

Computer output for our program provides estimates of fishing
pressure, both total and species-directed pressure in man-hours,
total numerical catch by species, and fishing success (number of

34 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

fish per man-hour of effort). Two important limitations of the data
are recognized; there is no estimation for weight of fish harvested
or of man-day use. Both of these criteria could be answered by ad-
ditional sampling, but this was not done in this study.

Another useful element of the computer output is the value of
“approximate standard deviation” (usually called standard error)
that is provided for each summary estimate. This gives an approxi-
mate plus or minus value as an estimate of precision. It should be
understood however, that an exact confidence interval cannot be
computed for these figures because the underlying distribution of
the estimates is not normally distributed (Dr. Don W. Hayne, per-
sonal communication). Examples of the precision of estimates ob-
tained in this study are provided in Table 1.

FINDINGS

The principal fishes sought-after by sport fishermen at lakes
Griffin and Harris were largemouth bass ( Micropterus salmoides),

350
= PRESSURE
300 = CATCH

= FISHING SUCCESS

= LAKE GRIFFIN

=o °MO

=LAKE HARRIS
250

200

150

NUMBER OF FISH AND MAN-HOURS (THOUSANDS)

50

G "H G H G H G H G H
1966-67 1967-68 1968-69 1969-70 1970-7)

Fig. 1. Estimated fishing pressure, catch, and fishing success for lakes
Griffin and Harris, 1966-1971.

WaRE ET AL.: Five-Year Creel Survey 35

black crappie (Pomoxis nigromaculatus ), bluegill (Lepomis macro-
chirus), and redear sunfish (Lepomis microlophus). For the pur-
pose of collecting creel data bluegill and redear were recorded in
aggregate and categorized as “bream”. Catfish species were also
reported as a composite since they constituted a relatively minor
portion of the fisheries. Species of Ictaluridae included channel
catfish, (Ictalurus punctatus), white catfish (I. catus), brown bull-
head (I. nebulosus), and yellow bullhead (TI. natalis).

Fishing Pressure and Catch. Annual estimates of fishing pres-
sure, catch, and success for the five year period (1966-71) on Lakes
Griffin and Harris are shown in Fig. 1. In general, the data show a
positive correlation between fishing pressure and catch, as pressure
was increased the catch also increased.

Fishing pressure was higher on Lake Griffin for all years except
1970-71. Range in annual pressure was from an estimated low of
230,498 man-hours in 1970-71 to a high of 327,066 man-hours during
1968-69 (Fig. 1). Calculations of fishing pressure on a per acre
basis varied from 25.3 man-hours per year to 34.9 man-hours per
year.

Annual catch from Griffin was correspondingly higher for all
years but 1970-71. Catch varied from an estimated low of 219,018
fishes in 1967-68 to a high of 300,942 fishes in 1968-69 (Fig. 1).
Annual harvest per acre ranged from 24.5 to 33.2 fishes.

Fishing pressure and catch for Lake Harris, the larger lake,
ranged from an estimated low in 1967-68 of 175,944 man-hours of
fishing and a catch of 125,994 fishes, to a high in 1970-71 of 244,720
man-hours fishing and a catch of 330,574 fishes; the highest yield
for either lake during the study period (Fig. 1). Calculated on a
per acre basis, exploitation of the fishery resource by sport fishing
was relatively minor in Harris, ranging from 7.6-20 fishes per year.
Fishing pressure per acre varied from 10.7-14.8 man-hours per year.

Lake Griffin Catch Composition and Fishing Pressure by Spe-
cies. The data in Fig. 2 illustrate fishing pressure directed at each
species and estimated composition of the catch over the five year
period. These data show that the sport fishery of Lake Griffin was
sustained largely by panfishes.

Black crappie was the most sought-after species by sport fisher-
men, sustaining 42.7 per cent of the estimated total pressure over a
four year period (species fishing pressure was not determined dur-

NUMBERS OF FISH AND MAN-HOURS ( THOUSANDS )

& 5 5
ao [o) a

G2
Os!
SLI

a
[e)

LMB

BC

* 19-9961

LMB

BC

89-296

LMB

BC

69-896I

BC

Ol-6961
y-@
an

HSIS1V9 = 9

uvsqsy GNV 11194N18
AlddVYD WOV1E= 94

SSV@ HLNOWS9YNV1

BC

(2-O26l

Fig. 2. Estimated fishing pressure by species and catch composition of
Lake Griffin, 1966-1971. *Pressure by species not available.

WaRE ET AL.: Five-Year Creel Survey 37

ing the first creel year 1966-67). Annual estimates of pressure for
crappie varied from 98,778-130,374 man-hours (Fig. 2). Similarly,
crappie accounted for over one-half the estimated total catch (51.2
per cent) for the creel period. The highest annual yield of this
species was 173,112 fishes during 1970-71 (19 fish/acre), and crap-
pie composed 63.9 per cent of the total catch for that year. Ac-
cording to our creel clerk the estimated average size black crappie
taken from Griffin is 12 ounces.

Bluegill and redear, categorized as “bream”, ranked second in
fishermen’s choice at Lake Griffin, based on man-hours of effort ex-
pended by fishermen. The four year summary indicated 32.4 per
cent of the total pressure was for these species. Annual fishing
pressure estimates for “bream” ranged from 72,192-110,742 man-
hours, while annual catches varied from 88,644-137,358 fishes (Fig.
2). “Bream” comprised 41 per cent of the total catch for the five
year period. Average weight of these species in Griffin is reported
at 8 ounces.

Almost one-fourth of the total fishing pressure (23 per cent) was
directed toward largemouth bass. Yet, this species provided only
6.4 per cent of the total catch during the period of study. Avail-
able evidence suggests the fishery is declining. In the first three
creel years, the catch of largemouth bass varied between an esti-
mated 19,434-23,772 fish and composed between 7.9 per cent and
9.4 per cent of the total catch, whereas in the last two years, the
catch dropped to 7,374 fish and 9,371 fish, a composition of 2.7 per
cent and 4.2 per cent of the total catch respectively (Fig. 2). Fish-
ing pressure for bass also declined from a high of 82,380 man-hours
in 1968-69 to a low of 47,684 man-hours in 1970-71. However, the
pressure drop was not proportional to the decrease in catch ( Fig.
2). Observations indicated the average creel-size bass was approx-
imately 2 pounds.

Catfish comprised a minor portion of the Griffin sport fishery.
Total fishing pressure for these species amounts to less than one per
cent for any creel year. Highest annual catch was estimated at
5,994 fish, a composition of 2.5 per cent (Fig. 2).

Lake Harris Catch Composition and Fishing Pressure by Spe-
cies. Fig. 3 shows the estimated fishing pressure for each species
and catch composition for Lake Harris during the five year study.
Several differences appear when comparing the Harris fishery with

LMB

BC

# 19-9961

LMB

BC

89-1961

LMB

BC

69-8961

LMB

BC

Ol-696)

LMB

BC

12-0261

Fig. 3.

NUMBERS OF FISH AND MAN-HOURS (THOUSANDS )

ool

n
a

os!

a ~
[o) oa

Lake Harris, 1966-1971. *Pressure by species not available.

2)

HSl4.1V9

u-@

YyvV3a03gy¥ ONV 111939N18

G2|

el:|

AlddvVY¥O OV1E

an)

SSV@ HLNOW39YV 1

002

Estimated fishing pressure by species and catch composition of

WakE ET AL.: Five-Year Creel Survey 39

Lake Griffin. Probably most significant is the better distribution of
the catch or “balance in fisheries quality” for Lake Harris.

Largemouth bass was the number one species fished for by sport
fishermen at Lake Harris. Of the total fishing pressure that was
estimable at the species level (4 years), 38.9 per cent was directed
at largemouth bass. Annual fishing pressure for bass was relatively
stable, fluctuating between 72,414-83,058 man-hours (Fig. 3). Only
during one creel year, 1970-71, did other species (“bream”) out-
rank bass in fishing pressure. Estimated annual catches of bass
varied between 27,246-39,084 fish (Fig. 3). Annual yields fluctu-
ated between 1.6-2.3 bass per surface acre. Bass composition of
the catch for the five year creel was 16.4 per cent. Their highest
catch composition was 23.5 per cent during 1967-68. The reported
average creel-size largemouth bass from Harris was 1 pound 8
ounces.

Bluegill and redear ranked second in fishing pressure by a nar-
row margin over black crappie. The “bream” fishery comprised 28.7
per cent of the estimated total fishing pressure. Annual fishing
pressure for these species varied between 38,850-88,387 man-hours
(Fig. 3). During 1970-71 they were the most popular species
sought by fishermen. “Bream” dominated the catch of the Harris
fishery, comprising 51.9 per cent of the total harvest for the five year
period. Annual estimated catches of “bream” ranged from 56,322-
201,943 fishes (Fig. 3). Highest annual yield per acre was 12.2 fish
in 1970-71. Average size of these species taken in the Harris creel
was estimated at 6 ounces.

Black crappie attracted 27.9 per cent of the total pressure and
provided 28.8 per cent of the estimated catch in Harris during the
study. Annual estimates of pressure varied between 40,422-71,996
man-hours, while annual catches ranged from 34,734-83,628 fish
(Fig. 3). Maximum estimated annual yield was 5 crappie per
acre. The average creel-size black crappie for Harris was reported
at 8 ounces.

Catfish in Lake Harris, as in Griffin, were a relatively minor
component of the fishery. The highest annual catch was 10,563
fishes, a composition of 3.2 per cent, and pressure attracted by these
species amounted to less than one per cent for any given year
(Fig. 3).

Seasonal Distribution of Catches. Seasonal trends in the fish-

NUMBER OF FISH ( THOUSANDS )

300

250

200

150

100

50

LMB

330,499

BC

SPRING

LMB

BC

SUMMER

FALL

LMB

534,706

Ss]

a = LAKE HARRIS
LJ =LAKE GRIFFIN

LMB =LARGEMOUTH BASS
BC =BLACK CRAPPIE
B-R =BLUEGILL AND REDEAR

= CATFISH

BC

WINTER

Estimated seasonal distribution of catch for lakes Griffin and Harris,

Fig. 4.
1966-1971.

WakE ET AL.: Five-Year Creel Survey 41

eries for certain species were strongly evident and followed similar
patterns in both lakes. Depending on species, a high proportion of
the catch was generally made during one or two seasons of the
year. Fig. 4 shows seasonal harvest by species for lakes Griffin
and Harris over the five year creel period. Trends depicted for
these lakes are generally representative for most waters in South
Florida (authors observations ).

Distribution of seasonal catch was most restricted with black
crappie. The principal harvest occurred during winter in both
lakes (Fig. 4). Substantial catches were also evident during early
spring, but dropped rapidly after mid-April. The harvest of crappie
was relatively insignificant during summer and fall seasons.

Bluegill and redear were also seasonal in the fisheries they pro-
vided. Highest yields were taken during spring, although summer
provided a significant portion of the harvest (Fig. 4). Relatively
few “bream” were caught during winter.

Largemouth bass showed very minor seasonal differences in
catch (Fig. 4). In Lake Griffin, bass were caught in greatest num-
bers during winter, in the next greatest numbers during spring.
Lowest bass yield was during summer. The largest proportion of
the Lake Harris bass catch was during spring and summer, but
seasonal differences were small for any given period in this lake
(Fig. 4).

Fishing Success. In this study success is determined by the
catch rate of numbers of fish for the man-hours of fishing effort. The
data are presented in two forms for Lakes Griffin and Harris, gen-
eral fishing success determined by total fish caught divided by total
fishing pressure for a given unit of time (Fig. 1), and fishing suc-
cess for each species as determined from data obtained from fisher-
men fishing for a particular species (most fishermen fished for a cer-
tain species in this study). Fig. 5 presents fishing success by spe-
cies for Lakes Griffin and Harris from 1967-1971. Calculations of
species success could not be made for creel year 1966-67 because of
limitations previously mentioned in creel design.

Overall fishing success for Lake Griffin was relatively stable for
the study period. Annual success estimates ranged from 0.91-1.01
fish per man-hour (Fig. 1). The stability exhibited by the Griffin
fishery has been largely related to the consistently good fishing af-
forded by panfishes (Fig. 5).

FISH PER MAN-HOUR

W

LARGEMOUTH BASS

BLACK CRAPPIE
INS TRV 0 OO = BLUEGILL AND REDEAR

LAKE GRIFFIN

1967-1968 1968-1969 1969-1970 1970-197]

one 5. Fishing success by species effort for lakes Griffin and Harris, 1967-

WakE ET AL.: Five-Year Creel Survey 43

Fishing success for largemouth bass at Griffin has shown a grad-
ual but steady decline. Our earliest estimate in 1967-68 found an
average catch rate of 0.26 bass per man-hour. By 1970-71 success
had dropped to an average of 0.14 bass per man-hour (Fig. 5). The
decline in bass fishing success is believed to be related to the lake’s
accelerated eutrophication or rate of degradation. Considerable
evidence has been collected in Florida showing largemouth bass to
be one of the first species to disappear from a fishery as lakes enter
into advanced stages of eutrophication (Fla. Game and Fish Memo
Reports, unpublished ).

Black crappie have exhibited a relatively stable catch rate in
Lake Griffin. Extremes in the estimates of average success have
ranged from a low of 0.93 crappie per man-hour in 1968-69 to a high
average of 1.22 crappie per man-hour for 1969-70 (Fig. 5). The
stabilized nature of the crappie fishery was somewhat unexpected
since the species is reputed to be cyclic in its fishery quality.

Lake Griffin bluegill and redear showed the greatest fluctuation
in fishing success. The lowest catch rate recorded was in 1967-68,
average success of 0.91 “bream” per man-hour, whereas best fishing
occurred the following year, an average catch rate of 1.43 “bream”
per man-hour (Fig. 5). One interesting aspect of these data is the
apparent lack of deterioration in fisheries quality for panfish at a
time when lake habitat conditions are known to be degrading ( Wil-
bur, 1969).

Sport fishing quality in Lake Harris showed considerable shift-
ing during the period of study, possibly reflecting better ecosystem
dynamics than Griffin. Studies have indicated better habitat con-
ditions and fish population structures associated with Harris (Fla.
Game and Fish Memo Reports, unpublished). General fishing suc-
cess on an annual basis varied between a low of 0.72 fish per man-
hour and a high of 1.35 fish per man-hour. During the last three
years the catch rate has been maintained at 0.90 fish per man-hour
or above (Fig. 1).

Good fishing for largemouth bass, the most sought-after species
on Harris, was indicated during the period of record. Success fluc-
tuated very little, ranging between 0.34 bass per man-hour and 0.40
bass per man-hour annually (Fig. 5). Although not as high as re-
ported from some Florida waters (R. L. Wilbur, personal communi-
cation), the Harris average catch rate of one bass for less than three

QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

44
LAKE GRIFFIN - LAKE COUNTY
9,100 ACRES
- - ~ OKLAWAHA RIVER
————e—ed
|} MILE
N

HAINES CREEK

TREASURE
{SLAND

Fig. 6. Creel areas for Lake Griffin.

WaRE ET AL.: Five-Year Creel Survey 45

hours effort compares favorably with national estimates reported
by Lagler (1956).

Black crappie maintained a catch rate above one fish per man-
hour during three of the four years of record on Harris. During
1967-68 the estimated fishing success was a low 0.70 crappie per
man-hour, whereas in the years following fishing success ranged be-
tween 1.03-1.17 crappie per man-hour (Fig. 5).

The Lake Harris “bream” fishery provided the highest fishing
success of the creel survey. Annual average catch rates were esti-
mated between 1.24-1.55 “bream” per man-hour ( Fig. 5).

Discussion AND SUMMARY

Although lakes Griffin and Harris are located within the same
watershed and adjacent to the same populous area, the creel survey
has shown their fisheries to be of distinctly separate qualities. Sport
fishing on Lake Griffin has been largely supported by panfishes;
black crappie during the winter months, and bluegill and redear in
the late spring and summer. The fishery for largemouth bass has
declined steadily since the study began. Bass fishing is now con-
sidered to be relatively poor. Fishing pressure and yields per acre
were higher on Lake Griffin.

Conversely, the Lake Harris fishery has shown a better catch
distribution among available game fishes. Largemouth bass were
chiefly responsible for the difference, providing a substantial portion
of the annual yield for each creel year. Bass also attracted a major
segment of the fishing pressure, which was probably related to the
relatively good catch rate. The fishery for panfish showed a trend
of general improvement during the study period. Bluegill and red-
ear comprised the greatest portion of the catch, although black crap-
pie yields were of significant importance, especially during winter
months.

Fishing success of Lakes Griffin and Harris compared favorably
with other waters in the southeast. Davis and Hughes (1963) pre-
sented a summary of fishing success for 10 southern reservoirs show-
ing catch rates varying from 0.50-1.96 fish per man-hour. Half of
these reservoirs maintained a success rate below 0.90 fish per man-
hour, which was the approximate mode for Griffin and Harris. A
recent study conducted on Beaver Reservoir, a relatively new im-

46 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

- - — DEAD RIVER

afte

CITY OF LEESBURG

HOWEY
BRIDGE
x

\
1 (LITTLE HARRIS )
\

\

LAKE HARRIS - LAKE COUNTY
16,500 ACRES

| MILE

Fig. 7. Creel areas for Lake Harris.

poundment in Arkansas, found an average catch rate of 0.62 fish
per man-hour (David Morais, personal communication). Jarman
et al. (1967), reporting on 12 state owned lakes in Oklahoma, found
catch rates ranging from 0.1-0.6 fish per man-hour. Reported fish-
ing success from a popular western reservoir, Lake Meade, was
shown to range from 0.30-0.81 fish per man-hour during a 10 year
period (Espinosa and Deacon, 1971).

Intensity of fishing pressure and yields from our Florida lakes
were generally lower, when compared to other southeastern lakes.
Byrd and Crance (1965) found average annual yields of 573 fishes
weighing 173 pounds per acre from 20 state owned lakes in Ala-
bama. They did not provide fishing pressure data in man-hours,
but as fisherman-trips, which averaged 135 per acre annually. Fish-
ing pressure on Oklahoma’s state owned lakes varied between 138-
622 man-hours per acre, whereas yields ranged from 68-242 fishes
per acre (Jarman et al., 1967). Ina study of Bull Shoals Reservoir,
Burress (1962) reported fishing pressure as high as 113.9 man-hours

WakrE ET AL.: Five-Year Creel Survey 47

per acre and yields varying between 44-76 fish per acre. The high-
est annual yield from lakes Griffin and Harris was 33.2 fishes per
acre (Griffin) while the heaviest annual fishing pressure was 34.9
man-hours per acre (Griffin). These data indicate the sport fish-
eries of Florida lakes could withstand considerably more fishermen
utilization.

Creel census design used in this study proved suitable to our
needs. Man-power required for the water area involved and com-
pilation of data was felt to be reasonable. The creel clerk’s job was
full time (260 man-days a year), while preparation of data for
computer processing approximated 12 man-days a year. Activities
of the project leader required only routine supervision of personnel
and review of field data and computer output.

Creel estimates provided by the program, as shown in Table 1,
were considered to be within acceptable limits. Percent standard
deviation of the estimate mean was below 25 per cent for three-
fourths of the estimates. The highest per centage was 33.9 per cent
(Table 1). For investigators desiring greater estimate precision
intensification of sampling effort would be indicated.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors extend their sincere appreciation to Dr. Don W.
Hayne and Dr. Robert E. Mason, North Carolina State University,
for their cooperation and assistance throughout the study. Mr.
Dennis Holcomb, Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commis-
sion, and Mr. James P. Clugston, University of Georgia, are recog-
nized for their contributions to the early phase of the project.

This study was financed in part by Florida Federal Aid in Fish
Restoration Project F-12.

LITERATURE CITED

Burress, RatpH M. 1962. Quantitative creel census on two arms of Bull
Shoals Reservoir, Missouri. Proc. 16th Ann. Conf. S. E. Assoc. Game
& Fish Comm., pp. 387-397.

Byrp, I. B., AND JoHNrie H. Crance. 1965. Fourteen years of management
and fishing success in Alabama’s state-owned public fishing lakes. Trans.
Amer. Fisheries Sco., vol. 94, no. 2, pp. 129-134.

48 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Davis, JAMES T., AND JANICE S. HucHes. 1963. Creel census on Bussey
Brake Reservoir for the first three years. Proc. 17th Ann. Conf. S. E.
Assoc. Game & Fish Comm., pp. 284-289.

Espinosa, F. A., JR., AND JAMES E. DEAcon. 1971. Comparative angler suc-
cess at Lake Mead (Arizona-Nevada). Prog. Fish Culturist, vol. 33, no.
3, 170-174.

JARMAN, Ron, CHARLES BENNET, CHARLES COLLINS, AND BRADFORD FE. BROWN.
1967. Angling success and recreational use on twelve state-owned
lakes in Oklahoma. Proc. 21st Ann. Conf. S. E. Assoc. Game & Fish
Comm., pp. 484-494.

LacLer, Karu F, 1956. Freshwater fishery biology. W.C. Brown Co., 421
pp.

PFEIFFER, PETER W. 1966. The results of a non-uniform probability creel
survey on a small state-owned lake. Proc. 20th Ann. Conf. S. E. Assoc.
Game & Fish Comm., pp. 409-412.

Wu.sur, R. L. 1969. The redear sunfish in Florida. Florida Game and Fish
Comm. Fish Bull. no. 5, 64 pp.

Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission, South Florida Region
Office, 2202 Lakeland Hills Blud., Lakeland, Florida 33801.

Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 35(1) 1972

The Presence of Hyla squirella in the Bahamas

RONALD J. CROMBIE

Barsour (1904) was the first to record the tree frog Hyla
squirella Sonnini from the Bahamas, on the basis of Museum of
Comparative Zoology (MCZ) 2419 and 51983 collected by G. M.
Allen on Stranger’s Cay, a small island north of Grand Bahama.
Steineger (1905) accepted this and included H. squirella in the
Bahamian fauna. Barbour (1914, 1930, 1935) retained the species
as part of the Antillean fauna in his zoogeographic study and in his
first and second lists of Antillean reptiles and amphibians. How-
ever, he deleted Hyla squirella from the third list (1937) without
comment; the species has remained unreported and the record un-
confirmed since.

Barbour (1914) re-examined the two Stranger’s Cay specimens
and compared them with Hyla femoralis and H. carolinensis
(=cinerea). He concluded that “there can be no doubt” that they
were squirella, although he did not compare them with the native
Bahamian species, H. septentrionalis.

The two “squirella” were reidentified as juvenile Hyla septen-
trionalis in the mid 1930’s. This presumably was Barbour’s reason
for deleting the species from his 1937 list. I have examined the
specimens and agree that they are recognizable as H. septentrio-
nalis, although both are immature (20.3 and 21.1 mm, respectively )
and not particularly well preserved.

Despite the reidentification of Barbour’s material, the question
still remains whether squirella does actually occur on Stranger’s
Cay. Barbour (1904) said of the supposed squirella, “Here they
were common; and their chirp, as was pointed out at the time by
Dr. Allen, who found them, was noticeably different from that of
the other indigenous batrachians.” He reported no other “indig-
enous batrachians” from Stranger’s Cay in either 1904 or 1914.
Furthermore, neither the call of Hyla septentrionalis nor that of
Hyla squirella could be accurately called a “chirp”. It must be as-
sumed that Allen was mistaken in his belief that the frogs he col-
lected were producing the sound. Thus, based on present infor-
mation, it seems unlikely that Hyla squirella occurred on Stranger’s
Cay in Allen’s time.

50 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

oo

A \

bs) 3

Fig. 1. Map of the Little Bahama Bank, showing Grand Bahama localities
for Hyla squirella (solid dots). Stranger’s Cay is indicated by an arrow.

While studying the MCZ Bahamian collections, I found a num-
ber of specimens of recently collected Hyla squirella, and later
found that additional specimens were recorded in the Albert
Schwartz Field Series (ASFS). All are from Grand Bahama; the
specimens examined include: MCZ 50631-3; Lucaya, Sept. 15; Oct.
28, 1964. MCZ 52210-2; Lucaya Beach, Dec. 9 and 16, 1964. ASFS
V2036-41; West End, July 5, 1959. ASFS V7155; 8 mi. SE West
End, Jan. 24, 1966. ASFS V7175-6; 8.2 mi. SE West End, Jan. 24,
1966. ASFS V13604-7; 8.7 mi. NW Eight Mile Rock, Jan. 14, 1968.

All this material is from the western, more heavily populated
section of the island. The field notes of James J. O’Hara state that
ASFS V2036-41 were collected in a chorus at the West End Inter-
national Airport. The most easterly record of the species is Lu-
caya, which is very close to the Freeport International Airport.

CrompiE: Squirrel Treefrog in Bahamas 51

The Grand Bahama population is unquestionably the result of
an introduction. However, the exact means of introduction is un-
certain. The centers of population density around the Bahamian
airports plus the abundance of squirella around the Miami Inter-
national Airport freight areas would suggest that the introduction
is a byproduct of the heavy air traffic between Miami and Grand
Bahama. It is strange, however, that squirella has not been found
in the vicinity of Nassau on New Providence, since that city shares
with Grand Bahama immense popularity as an easily accessible
foreign vacation area. It seems logical that stowaways could have
turned up there also.

In view of the hit-and-miss prospects for survival of most intro-
duced populations, it is conceivable that the species has been car-
ried to other islands and has not survived. The possible salt toler-
ance of squirella (Neill, 1958) would indicate that this species may
be an effective island colonizer and it would not be surprising to
find additional colonies on other Antillean islands in the future.

No deleterious ecological effects seem likely from the introduc-
tion of Hyla squirella. Although the species appears to be well
established and breeding on Grand Bahama (MCZ 50633 is a
gravid female), it is not likely to become a pest. Hyla squirella
is a small, arboreal species, which breeds in fresh water pools. It
is unlikely that it competes with the local Eleutherodactylus, which
are terrestrial frogs that breed in wet earth. It is even less likely
that squirella represents any threat to the much larger Cuban tree
frog, Hyla septentrionalis. These two species already occur sym-
patrically in the Keys and along the southern coasts of Florida with
no apparent conflict. In fact, it is possible that septentrionalis may
inhibit the spread of squirella in the Bahamas. The Cuban tree
frog is an extremely adaptable and hardy creature that can and
does feed on other frogs. This species’ spread from its native Cuba
has been aided by an apparently high salt tolerance (Neill, 1958;
Peterson et al., 1952) and by an ability to adapt to life around
humans.

SUMMARY

Whereas the earlier record of Hyla squirella (Salientia: Hyli-
dae) from Stranger’s Cay (Barbour, 1904) is refuted, a relatively
recent, unreported population on Grand Bahama is discussed. This

52 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

colony probably resulted from the heavy air traffic between Miami
and Freeport-West End. No injurious results of this introduction
are foreseen. It seems possible that Hyla squirella will become es-
tablished in other suitable Bahamian localities in much the same
manner as the Grand Bahama population.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I wish to thank Drs. James A. Peters and George R. Zug for
reading the manuscript and for providing laboratory space. I am
grateful to Drs. Ernest E. Williams and Albert Schwartz for the
loan of specimens and for providing working facilities on my visits
to Cambridge and Miami. Dr. Schwartz also deserves special
thanks for his continued encouragement and for pointing out the
intricacies of the problem dealt with in this paper.

LITERATURE CITED

Barsour, THomas. 1904. Batrachia and Reptilia from the Bahamas. Bull.
Mus. Comp. Zool., vol. 46, no. 3, 55-61.

——. 1914. A contribution to the zoogeography of the West Indies, with
especial reference to amphibians and reptiles. Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool.,

vol. 44, no. 2, pp. 205-359.

1930. A list of Antillean reptiles and amphibians. Zoologica, vol.
11, no. 4, pp. 61-116.
1935. A second list of Antillean reptiles and amphibians. Zoologica,

vol. 19, no. 3, pp. 77-141.

—. 1937. Third list of Antillean reptiles and amphibians. Bull. Mus.
Comp. Zool., vol. 82, no. 2, pp. 77-166.

Neri, WitFRED T. 1958. The occurrence of amphibians and reptiles in salt-
water areas, and a bibliography. Bull. Mar. Sci. Gulf and Caribbean,
vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 1-97.

PETERSON, HAROLD W., RONALD GARRETT, AND JOHN P. Lantz. 1952. The
mating period of the giant tree frog Hyla dominicensis. Herpetologica,
vol. 8, pt. 3, p. 63.

STEJNEGER, LEONHARD. 1905. Batrachians and land reptiles of the Bahama
Islands. In George B. Shattuck, editor, The Bahama Islands. Geog.
Soc. Baltimore, xxxii 630 pp.

Division of Reptiles and Amphibians, U.S. National Museum of
Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C. 20560.
Present address: Division of Amphibians/Reptiles, National Zo-
ological Park, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C. 20009.

Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 35(1) 1972

Additions to the Pleistocene Avifauna of Arredondo, Florida
Cart Davi FRAILEY

LaTE Pleistocene deposits at Arredondo, Alachua County, Flor-
ida, contain a rich avifauna (Brodkorb, 1959). It represents two
ecological communities, one a fresh water marsh with adjacent wet
meadows, and the other a scrub community. Two additional birds
are now added, an extinct vulture and the living short-eared owl,
both from Arredondo II. With these additions the total known
avifauna from the Arredondo Pleistocene stands at 45 species.

FAMILY CATHARTIDAE
Coragyps occidentalis (L. Miller)

Distal end of juvenile right tibiotarsus, PB 8422. This element
is more robust than in the living black vulture, C. atratus (Bech-
stein ).

The least anterior width of the intercondylar sulcus measures
4.3 mm in the Arredondo fossil. Six tibiotarsi of C. occidentalis
from the Pleistocene of Reddick, Florida, measure 3.6-4.2 (mean
4.3). In recent specimens the comparable measurement is 2.7-3.7
(mean 3.2) in nine C. a. atratus from Florida, and 2.9-3.1 (mean
3.0) in three C. a. brasiliensis from the tropics.

The distal width of the Arredondo tibiotarsus is 13.4 mm, and
it is 13.0-13.9 (mean 13.5) in four C. occidentalis from Reddick.
In nine Recent C. a. atratus it measures 11.3-12.0 (mean 11.7), and
in three Recent C. a. brasiliensis 13.0-13.9 (mean 13.4). The mea-
surements of the fossils from Arredondo and Reddick compare well
with those of 17 tibiotarsi of C. occidentalis from the Pleistocene of
San Josecito, Nuevo Leon ( Howard, 1968).

Coragyps occidentalis is known from three sites in Florida, Red-
dick (Brodkorb, 1957), Haile XI B (Ligon, 1965), and now Arre-
dondo.

FAMILY STRIGIDAE

Asio flammeus (Pontoppidan). Distal end of right tibiotarsus,
PB 8423.

54 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

The short-eared owl is separable by size from all other owls
except Asio otus. Although very similar superficially, the shaft of
Asio otus is smaller, and there is a small groove on the anterior,
inner (intercondylar sulcus facing) surface of the external condyle
not found on A. flammeus.

This is only the second fossil occurrence of Asio flammeus in
Florida. Ligon (1965) reported the first from Haile XI B.

These additions to the avifauna strengthen the conclusion that
the sites at Reddick, Arredondo, and Haile XI B are of approxi-
mately the same age, whether Sangamon (Webb, in press) or more
generally Rancholabrean (Ligon, 1965).

LITERATURE CITED

Bropxkors, Pierce. 1957. New passerine birds from the Pleistocene of Red-
dick, Florida. Jour. Paleo., vol. 31, no. 1, pp. 128-138.

—. 1959. The Pleistocene avifauna of Arredondo, Florida. Bull. Flor-
ida State Mus., vol. 4, no. 9, pp. 269-291.

Howarp, HmpEecARDE. 1968. Limb measurements of the extinct vulture,
Coragyps occidentalis, with a description of new subspecies. Papers
Arch. Soc. New Mexico, vol. 1, pp. 115-128.

Licon, J. Davi. 1965. A Pleistocene avifauna from Haile, Florida. Bull.
Florida State Mus., vol. 10, no. 4, pp. 127-158.

Wess, S. Davi. In press. Chronology of Pleistocene land mammals of
Florida. In S. David Webb, editor, Pleistocene mammals of Florida.
University of Florida Press, Gainesville.

Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Flor-
ida 32601.

Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 35(1) 1972

Avifauna of Little Tobago Island

JAMEs J. DINSMORE

IN RECENT years the study of island populations has received
considerable attention, especially the dynamic aspects of species
composition (e.g. Diamond, 1969). As some of these studies have
depended on limited lists of insular faunas, the following intensive
study of the avifauna of one island should be of value. From 23
September 1965 to 4 July 1966 I lived on Little Tobago Island in
the southern West Indies and compiled a list of the birds found
there along with population counts and other notes on the bird’s
habits. Roldan George of Speyside, Tobago, assisted throughout
my stay and continued observations from 4 July to 30 September
1966. Unless otherwise noted, all records refer to the period 1
October 1965 to 30 September 1966.

Little Tobago, a 280-acre island located at 11°18’N, 60°30’W,
is about 1 mile off the northeast coast of Tobago. The island is
very hilly with virtually no level ground and a maximum elevation of
464 feet. It has no permanent ponds or streams but one small
spring flows throughout the year.

Little Tobago has no permanent human inhabitants although a
caretaker spends occasional nights on the island and people have
lived there at various times in the past. Since 1928 it has been a
game sanctuary and all forms of wildlife are protected. Local
people have released goats on the island but in mid-1966 all of
them had been removed. Although a tree rat (Rhipidomys) has
been described from the island (Goodwin, 1961), I found no evi-
dence of it in 1965-66 and believe that perhaps its type locality is
Tobago proper.

Temperatures normally reach the low 80’s during the day and
drop to about 70F at night. Rainfall in 1966 exceded 85 inches.
The dry season lasted from mid-February to 19 April when 3.42
inches of rain fell. June and November were the wettest months.
Hurricanes are rare on Little Tobago but one in 1963 did extensive
damage to the vegetation.

The vegetation is mainly a deciduous seasonal forest (Beard,
1944), within which several distinct vegetation types occur. The
deciduous forest has an almost closed canopy and a scattered under-
story, and it is found over much of the wind-protected parts of the

56 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

island. The upper canopy ranges up to 50 feet in height but most
of the trees are from 35-45 feet tall. The fan palm (Coccothrinax
australis) and Gumbo-limbo (Bursera simaruba) are by far the
most common trees in the upper canopy. Young Coccothrinax are
the most common trees in the understory but Eugenia sp. and Maye-
pea caribaea are also common. The aroid Anthurium hookeri is
abundant at ground level. The degree of deciduousness varies with
the length of the dry season, Bursera being one of the first to drop
its leaves. In wet years leaffall is incomplete. Most of the under-
story species are evergreen.

Several parts of the island that were probably originally decidu-
ous forest were extensively damaged by the hurricane in 1963.
These parts now have few tall trees and are covered with thick
masses of almost impenetrable low brush. The rapid growing tree
Cordia collococca and the shrub Aphelandra incerta are common in
these areas.

Thick tangles of cactus (Cereus hexagonus, Hylocereus lemairei,
and Cactus broadwayi) and Plumbago scandens cover the steep
slopes and cliffs on the lower levels of the island, particularly on the
windward (east) side. Near sea level the vegetation is windswept
and planed off with a low mat of vines covering the ground.

Several almost pure stands of Coccothrinax australis are concen-
trated on the windward side of the island above the cliff vegetation.
These stands have few trees in the understory and again Anthurium
hookeri is abundant at ground level.

Eleven small garden plots cover about 8 acres, mainly in bananas
(Musa sp.). The gardens also have guava (Psidium guajava), sapo-
dilla (Achras zapota), and mango (Mangifera indica) with lesser
numbers of several other species. Papaya (Carica papaya) was cul-
tivated on the island for the birds but now grows wild, mainly in
openings such as those produced by the hurricane. Several aban-
doned gardens and a few acres around the two cabins are over-
grown with tall grass.

Although many ornithologists and naturalists have visited Little
Tobago to see the introduced birds of paradise, few have made
more than casual reference to other birds they saw. I have reviewed
the history of birds of paradise on Little Tobago elsewhere ( Dins-
more, 1970) and will not consider it in detail here. Despite all this

Dinsmore: Birds of Little Tobago 57

work, no one has previously published a complete listing of the
avifauna of this island.

The most recent listing of the birds of Tobago (Bond, 1970)
mentions several species that occur on Little Tobago, all of which
were either seen by me in 1965-66 or have been published previ-
ously.

In an attempt to estimate the population of all nesting land birds,
I divided Little Tobago into 36 sections, using paths and natural
features for division lines. These sections varied considerably in
size. I traversed each of these alone or with another experienced
observer and stopped often to note birds heard or seen. Except for
thrushes which were more active in the evening, all counts were
made prior to 10:00 am from March through June. Each bird seen
or heard was recorded on a field map and later these records were
transferred to maps of the whole island, one map per species. Ex-
cept for the extremely rough southeast corner of the island, all sec-
tions were covered at least once and some counts were refined when
it was obvious that I had erred in my original count. The totals of
the counts for each species are given in the left column of Table 1.
While many times we saw what probably were both members of a
pair, other times we saw or heard only one individual but undoubt-
edly a second was present, perhaps on a nest. The right column of
Table 1 gives totals per species when these “unseen but probably
present” individuals are added to the totals. This gives a probable
maximum number per species for the island.

I am aware of the pitfalls of my methods but with the limited
time available it was the only means possible. The counts were
made over a long period of time and certainly some birds moved
from one section to another, died, or young birds were added to the
island although I excluded the latter whenever their age was ob-
vious. The counts are certainly better than a guess and give at least
some idea of the abundance of birds on Little Tobago.

I counted other nesting species by a variety of methods. Some
were counted as they entered roosts (anis, cowbirds), as they flew
at peak hours of activity (swifts, martins, hawks), at nesting col-
onies (oropendolas), or from a boat or promentory where I could
see a lengthy stretch of shoreline (seabirds). Population estimates

58 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

TABLE 1
Population estimates of some Little Tobago birds
Species Number seen Probable maximum
in counts number present
Wild Fowl 141 150
Pale-vented Pigeon 92 120
White-tipped Dove 297 400
Rufous-breasted Hermit 57 75
Black-throated Mango 17 30
Ruby-topaz Hummingbird 90 175
Copper-rumped Hummingbird 57 80
Blue-crowned Motmot 245 350
Tropical Kingbird 101 130
Brown-crested Flycatcher 304 375
Yellow-bellied Elaenia 173 235
House Wren 359 600
Tropical Mockingbird 704 725
Bare-eyed Thrush 179 310
Red-eyed Vireo 129 210
Bananaquit 583 840
Blue-gray Tanager 250 310
Blue-black Grassquit 13 25
Black-faced Grassquit 134 175
Lined Seedeater 14 25
Yellow-bellied Seedeater 12 25

for these species are given in parenthesis after the species account.
In all I saw 59 species of birds on Little Tobago. The vernacular
and scientific names follow those of Meyer de Schauensee (1966).

ANNOTATED List OF SPECIES

Puffinus lherminieri. Audubon’s Shearwaters nest in the thick
masses of cactus and vines on the sea cliffs and in open stands of fan
palm where they burrow among the root masses of Anthurium. I
first found adults in nest burrows in early December and first saw
eggs on 24 January. Egg-laying continued until at least mid-Febru-
ary but most occurred during the last week of January and the first
of February. Two eggs had incubation periods of 51 and 52 or 53
days. The young remained in the nest burrows until late May or
early June. Eleven young birds stayed in the burrows an average
of about 75 days before leaving.

DivsmoreE: Birds of Little Tobago 59

I found 27 dead shearwaters with the sternum and neck stripped
of flesh. As I never saw shearwaters flying near the island in day-
light, they were probably killed by Barn Owls (Tyto alba). Seven
that I found on 9 June had been killed in the previous two days and
were probably young birds just out of the nest burrow.

I did not hear adults calling over the island in June when the
young were leaving the nests but by mid-August adults again were
near the island. Brown (1947) found numerous eggs and some
downy chicks on 31 March 1940 and Collins (1969) found partially
grown downy young on 29 April 1967, indicating that the breeding
cycle apparently is annual. (1,000)

Phaethon aethereus. I first saw Red-billed Tropicbirds on 27
September 1965 when two circled near the island. Their numbers
gradually increased, reaching a peak from December through Feb-
ruary and then decreasing until the last ones left in August. They
nest in crevices or under masses of cactus on the cliffs. I saw a
downy chick as early as 4 January but other nests contained an egg
as late as 21 March. Young birds started leaving the nests in April
but some were still present in late June.

Brown (1947) saw some eggs and downy to nearly fledged chicks
on 31 March 1940. Bond (1958) saw this species here on 29 Jan-
uary 1958 and considers the records of P. lepturus from Tobago
(Belcher and Smooker, 1934) doubtful (Bond, 1962), a stand I
agree with. (500)

Pelecanus occidentalis. Except for three seen on 25 March,
Brown Pelicans were absent from 15 February to 4 July, but during
the rest of the year I saw some at least several times each month.
In the period of absence, which coincides with their nesting season
at their nearest colony on Saut D’Eau Island, Trinidad (Brown,
1947), pelicans were still common on the western end of Tobago.
I saw no sign of pelicans nesting on Little Tobago.

Sula sula. Red-footed Boobies nest on St. Giles Island and out-
lying rocks 3.5 miles north of Little Tobago (Dinsmore and ffrench,
1969) and commonly fly near or over Little Tobago.

Sula leucogaster. A common resident, Brown Boobies usually
nest on steep slopes near the sea. Of 220 nests I located, I was
able to estimate the date of laying of 103 eggs to the nearest third
of a month, using the dates young reached various plumages and
back dating. I used plumage information compiled by Dorward

60 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

5

fo)

NUMBER OF NESTS

fe)
J J A iS) 10) N D J & M A M J J

1965 ———________1_1_________________ 1966
MONTH AND YEAR

Fig. 1. Estimated time of egg-laying, in one-third month intervals, for 103
nesting attempts by Sula leucogaster on Little Tobago, West Indies.

(1962) as a guide to ages. I found two definite peaks of egg-laying
(Fig. 1), one in July and early August and the second in December.
Limited data from a small part of the island indicates another peak
of laying in the summer of 1966, roughly a year after the one in
1965. All the young in the other nests I located seemed to fit into
one or the other of the two main peaks but I could not accurately
determined the date of egg-laying. Schreiber and Ashmole (1970)
note that Brown Boobies often have two peaks of breeding per year.
(600 )

Fregata magnificens. A few Magnificent Frigatebirds nearly
always are flying over Little Tobago but I never saw one land on
the island. Several thousand frigatebirds frequent nearby St. Giles
Islands where they nest (Dinsmore and ffrench, 1969).

Florida caerulea. Both adult and immature Little Blue Herons
were common along the rocky shoreline from September 1965 to
December, February, and again from June through September 1966.
I saw no nesting activity.

Nyctanassa violacea. I saw Yellow-crowned Night Herons every
month except November and December. They often roosted in the
dense shrubs above the cliffs and fed along the rocky shore-
line. On 26 April I saw two adults manipulating sticks at what
appeared to be the start of a nest, but they soon abandoned it. (4)

Coragyps atratus. I saw single Black Vultures over Little To-
bago on six occasions between 25 September and 27 May. Only
recently added to the avifauna of Tobago (Herklots, 1961), it also
has been seen at nearby St. Giles (Dinsmore and ffrench, 1969).

————

Dinsmore: Birds of Little Tobago 61

Buteo platypterus. I saw Broad-winged Hawks almost daily but
I saw no sign of their nesting. The nest mentioned by Baker (1923)
presumably was of this species.

On 2 May I counted 41 Broad-wings circling high over the is-
land while two others stayed low and away from them. The large
group gradually circled back toward Tobago where I lost sight of
them. These may have been migrants although on 31 March I saw
13 Broad-wings over the island. A specimen of the North American
race of the Broad-wing has been taken on Trinidad (Bond, 1968).
(3)

Pandion haliaetus. I occasionally saw a single Osprey from 16
October through 17 March and again from 29 August through 10
September.

Falco peregrinus. I saw Peregrine Falcons often from 21 Oc-
tober to 17 December and again from 28 January to 27 April. At
least two individuals were present. A regular winter visitor to Little
Tobago (Herklots, 1961), both Bond (1958) and Gilliard (1969,
p. 413) have seen it there in recent years.

Gallus gallus. Wild fowl may have been introduced to Little
Tobago around 1875 (Ingram, 1913) and certainly were present in
1909 (Ingram, 1911). They are shy and stay low in the brush,
being most abundant near the gardens. Wild fowl nested in De-
cember, May, and June.

Arenaria interpres. I saw groups of two to four Ruddy Turn-
stones along the rocky shoreline on three occasions (24 October,
22 April, 19 May).

Actitis macularia. Spotted Sandpipers are rather common along
the shoreline, extreme dates being 10 September 1966 and 19
May.

Larus atricilla. Laughing Gulls arrived on 9 March and rapidly
built up to peak numbers. I first found a nest with eggs on 27
April. Egg-laying reached a peak by mid-May and many eggs had
hatched by 10 June. Most nests contained one or two eggs al-
though a few had three. All the gulls had left the island by late
August. Gulls may have nested on Little Tobago in April 1930
(Belcher and Smooker, 1935). (750)

Sterna dougallii. A few Sterna terns were present until early
October in both 1965 and 1966. On7 April I saw Sterna terns near
Little Tobago and on 22 April 30-40 Roseate Terns were on the

62 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

south side of the island. Late in May I saw terns (almost certainly
Roseates) foraging near Little Tobago and on 28 May I located
their nesting colony on the northeast tip of Tobago (Dinsmore and
ffrench, 1969). They continued to feed near Little Tobago in June
and July and several times I saw adults with flying young.

Sterna anaethetus. I found Bridled Tern eggs close to the
shoreline all around Little Tobago, sometimes under rock and
rubble just out of reach of high waves. As this species resembles
the Sooty Tern, I may have overlooked it before I first noted one on
2 April. Eggs apparently were laid from mid-April through May
and I saw several chicks in June. By late August this species had
left the island. Although Herklots (1961) lists only Smith Island
as a breeding locality for this species on Tobago, it probably nests
regularly on Little Tobago. (150)

Sterna fuscata. I first saw Sooty Terns near the island on 8
March and on 9 March they were landing. I first noted eggs on
23 March and egg-laying continued into April. I first saw chicks
in early May but some probably hatched earlier. Sooty Terns nest
on the steep sea cliffs, especially under masses of cactus and in
clumps of Plumbago. By 8 August most had left the island. An
earlier record for Little Tobago indicates egg-laying occurred in
April 1959 (in Ashmole, 1963). (2,100)

Anous stolidus. A few Brown Noddies were present around
Little Tobago as late as 22 October 1965 but then were absent until
9 March when they arrived with the Sooties and Laughing Gulls
and rapidly built up in numbers. I first saw eggs on 12 April and
by mid-May chicks were present. They nest in low trees, among
the thick masses of cactus, and on rocky ledges all around the is-
land. Most had left the island by mid-August but a few remained
into September and perhaps later.

Belcher and Smooker (1935) suggest that the Brown Noddy
and Sooty Tern nest in Tobago both in April and July but I saw no
evidence of this in 1966. (1,200)

Columba cayennensis. Pale-vented Pigeons are common in the
deciduous forests. I found one nest in November and two each in
May and June. Of the latter four, three each had a single white
egg and the fourth had a young bird. Nests were generally low in
trees, often in the thick dry cliff vegetation.

Columbina talpacoti. Although the Ruddy Ground-dove is

Dinsmore: Birds of Little Tobago 63

common in dry shrubby areas on nearby Tobago, on Little Tobago
I saw single birds only four times in late October. All were in the
dry shrubby areas around the cabins.

Leptotila verreauxi. The White-tipped Dove is most abundant
in the deciduous forest and fan palm stands. I found ten active
nests, most of them a shallow platform of twigs and sticks low in a
tree or bush. Egg-laying in nine of them apparently started in
March (3), May (2), June (3), and July (1).

Coccyzus americanus. I saw a single Yellow-billed Cuckoo in
one of the gardens on 12 October.

Crotophaga ani. Smooth-billed Anis are a common resident in
the open brush and gardens. On 1 January I found an abandoned
nest in some tall grass between the two cabins. (70)

Tyto alba. I occasionally saw two Barn Owls from 23 March
to July but they probably had been present prior to that time. Sea-
birds, especially the nocturnal Audubon’s Shearwater, apparently
form a major part of their diet. (2)

Nyctibius griseus. I regularly heard a Common Potoo on calm
evenings throughout the year. Although I searched for it, I never
saw one. The visitors book on Little Tobago contains a record of
one being seen on 4 March 1963. (2)

Caprimulgus cayennensis. The resident White-tailed Nightjar
is conspicuous over open areas in early morning and late evening.
I found two nests on bare ground, one with one egg on 14 Feb-
ruary and subsequently deserted and the second with a fresh egg
on 3 May. A second egg was present by 7 May and both hatched
on 23 May. Adults gave no distraction display when disturbed
from brooding. By 4 June the young could fly and on 8 June the
nest site was deserted. (10)

Chaetura brachyura. The Short-tailed Swift is a common resi-
dent. On 30 May I could hear young birds calling from inside
two hollow trees but I could not reach the nests themselves. (200)

Glaucis hirsuta. The Rufous-breasted Hermit is a resident in
deep forested ravines, especially near Heliconia. J found only two
nests containing eggs, one each in December and March.

Anthracothorax nigricollis. 1 usually saw Black-throated Man-
gos perched high in trees at the edge of openings in the forest. I
found one nest 20 feet up in a Cecropia tree on 3 May but could
not reach it to see if it had eggs or young.

64 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Chrysolampis mosquitus. I first saw a Ruby-topaz Humming-
bird on 3 December and soon they were common throughout the
island. They seemed to prefer the forest edge but stayed lower
than Anthracothorax. J found nests with eggs on 20 January and
17 June but both were soon abandoned. I saw other nests being
built but found no broods.

Some birds were still present in early August but then appar-
ently left. Their calls and flashy colors make them hard to miss
and I am sure that they were absent until early December 1965.
On Tobago they have been noted as being absent from August to
February (Jardine, 1833).

Amazilia tobaci. The Copper-rumped Hummingbird is a com-
mon resident low in the deciduous forest. I found nests with two
eggs in November, January, and June and several others that were
abandoned before eggs were laid.

Ceryle alcyon. 1 saw a Belted Kingfisher on 26 and 29 Novem-
ber and 10 June and another one at nearby Speyside on 4 Novem-

ber.

Momotus momota. The Blue-crowned Motmot is an abundant
resident, seldom leaving the protective canopy of the deciduous
forest and fan palm stands. I located many nest burrows on steep
hillsides and banks on the island. In two I could examine the
eggs hatched around 30 May and 5 June at which time nesting
seemed to be active throughout the island. Both nests fledged
two young although a third egg in one failed to hatch and a third
young bird in the other grew slowly and was evicted from the nest
when about 15 days old. One nest was at the end of a straight 4-
foot burrow in a bank while the other was in an Anthurium root
mass and just a few inches from the entrance. I saw adults bring
millipedes, scorpions, large insects, and small lizards to the young.

Tyrannus melancholicus. Tropical Kingbirds are a common and
conspicuous resident of openings in the deciduous forests and hur-
ricane-disturbed areas, usually staying high in the vegetation.

Tyrannus dominicensis. I saw single Gray Kingbirds in hur-
ricane-disturbed habitat on Little Tobago on 13 October, 26 April,
and 2 May.

Myjiarchus tyrannulus. The Brown-crested Flycatcher is abun-
dant in deciduous forests and fan palm stands, generally staying
lower in the canopy than does Elaenia. I found several nests in

Dinsmore: Birds of Little Tobago 65

hollow trees but none were accessible to me. Egg-laying appar-
ently took place from early January into February. I saw adults
taking food to one nest early in February.

Cnemotriccus fuscatus. I saw single Fuscous Flycatchers only
four times (5 and 17 October, 21 April, 3 July) but it may have
been resident. Each was in dry brush at the edge of a garden or
in a clump of bamboo.

Elaenia flavogaster. Yellow-bellied Elaenias are common high
in the canopy throughout the heavily forested parts of the island.
Although I found no nests, it probably nested in February and
March.

Progne dominicensis. Caribbean Martins were common on Lit-
tle Tobago in late September 1965, still present on 17 and 29 Oc-
tober, and then absent until 10 February. After 15 February I saw
them almost daily. I saw birds going into cracks and crevices in
cliffs along the coast in May and June and they probably nested
there. (50)

Paradisaea apoda. In September 1909 Sir William Ingram re-
leased 48 Greater Birds of Paradise on Little Tobago (Ingram,
1911). These birds, of unknown sex, had been secured on the Aru
Islands off the coast of New Guinea. By 1958 certainly 15 and
perhaps 35 birds were present (Gilliard, 1969, p. 414).

In 1965-66 I located with certainty only 7 apoda; 4 adult males,
1 sub-adult male, and 2 female-plumaged birds. Males displayed
in every month with a peak in late February and March ( Dins-
more, 1969). I saw birds copulate but found no nests or signs of
nesting activity. They mainly utilized undisturbed areas of de-
ciduous forest but occasionally visited hurricane-disturbed areas
and fan palm stands. (7)

Troglodytes aedon. The House Wren is an abundant resident
on Little Tobago, almost every brushy area and ravine having a
pair.

Mimus gilvus. Next to the Bananaquit, the Tropical Mocking-
bird is the most abundant land bird on Little Tobago. It is com-
mon in all habitats, especially the brushy hurricane-disturbed areas.
I found nests with young on 3 April and 18 June. On 24 June I
found a nest with a mockingbird egg and chick and one Molothrus
bonariensis egg.

Turdus nudigenis. Bare-eyed Thrushes are abundant in hur-

66 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

ricane-disturbed areas and thick stands of deciduous forest but are
retiring and heard more often than seen. I found nests with 2 and
3 chicks in late June and early July.

Vireo olivaceus. Red-eyed Vireos are common in deciduous
forests and hurricane-disturbed areas but were less evident from
October to mid-February and some may have left the island in
that period. One nest started on 8 March was soon abandoned,
apparently after eggs had been laid. Another nest contained three
young on 22 June, two of which fledged.

Molothrus bonariensis. The Shiny Cowbird is common in the
open areas around the cabins and gardens. I found one cowbird
egg in a mockingbird nest on 24 June. (50)

Psarocolius decumanus. Crested Oropendolas are common in
the deciduous forests and fan palm stands although they range
over the whole island. I located six nesting colonies containing
about 120 nests. Five were in tall Royal Palms (Roystonea oler-
acea) and the sixth was in a tall Spondias monbin. They probably
nested in January as young birds appeared out of the nests in late
February. (200)

Protonotaria citrea. I caught, photographed, and released a
male Prothonotary Warbler on 24 October.

Dendroica striata. Y saw single Blackpoll Warblers foraging in
low brush in hurricane-disturbed areas on 15 October and 2 No-
vember.

Seiurus aurocapillus. I saw an Ovenbird on 21 November and
again on 1] March, apparently the first sight records for this species
in Trinidad and Tobago. In both cases I clearly saw the striped
breast, reddish crown, and lack of an eye stripe. Ovenbirds previ-
ously have been reported wintering in northern South America and
also as far down the Lesser Antilles as St. Vincent, 170 miles to the
north (Bond, 1956).

Seiurus noveboracensis. I saw single Northern Waterthrushes
10 times between 2 October and 5 January and again on 4 and 7
April.

Coereba flaveola. Bananaquits are the most abundant and
widely distributed land bird on the island. I saw them most often
in deciduous forests and hurricane-disturbed areas but they occur
throughout. I found nests with eggs in November and December
and nests with young in March.

Dinsmore: Birds of Little Tobago 67

Red-legged Honeycreeper (Cyanerpes cyaneus). This species
occurs sporadically in the gardens and deciduous forest, birds being
seen in October and fairly regularly from March to June. Roldan
George saw a pair copulating on 5 April but we found no nests.

Thraupis episcopus. Blue-gray Tanagers are abundant in the
deciduous forests and fan palm stands. I did not find any nests
but I saw recently fledged young on 10 January and 18 March.

Volatinia jacarina. Blue-black Grassquits live in the dry
shrubby cover around the gardens. They were absent from late
October until mid-March except for one seen on 15 February.

Tiaris bicolor. The Black-faced Grassquit is the commonest
finch on Little Tobago, and apparently the only one that is resident.
It is common in brushy areas around the gardens and _ hurricane-
disturbed areas. Roldan George found a nest containing three
eggs on 10 September.

Sporophila lineola. Wined Seedeaters are absent from the island
from late October until late May. They occur in open areas
around the cabins and gardens and probably breed on the island.

Sporophila nigricollis. Yellow-bellied Seedeaters are fairly com-
mon in open areas around the gardens and cabins. Except for
single birds on 17 December and 9 and 10 April, I saw none on
Little Tobago from late October to May. I saw recently fledged
young early in October 1965.

Besides the species I saw in 1965-66, several others have been
reported from Little Tobago. These include the American Oyster-
catcher (Haematopus palliatus) (Herklots, 1961), Zenaida auricu-
lata (Bond, 1959), another hawk, possibly Buteo nitidus (Gilliard,
1969, p. 413), and the Black Noddy (Anous tenuirostris) (Klein-
wort, 1967).

DIscussION

A puzzling feature of the avifauna is the lack of suboscines
other than the flycatchers. Ten species in five families occur on
Tobago (Herklots, 1961), some of them being abundant. At least
three are montane forest forms and thus would not find suitable
habitat on Little Tobago but others such as Thamnophilus doliatus
and Formicivora grisea live in low shrubby woodland on Tobago,
only 2 miles from similar habitat on Little Tobago.

Thus Little Tobago has less than half the number of species of

68 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

birds found on nearby Tobago (ca 170) although the lack of mon-
tane rain forest and freshwater habitats certainly account for much
of the difference. Tobago has a land area of 114 square miles,
some 200 times the size of Little Tobago and this too helps account
for the difference in number of species.

Of the 59 species reported here, I saw an egg, a nest, or re-
cently fledged young or know of breeding records for 30 species.
An additional seven species (Tyrannus melancholicus, Elaenia fla-
vogaster, Progne dominicensis, Troglodytes aedon, Cyanerpes cy-
aneus, Volatinia jacarina, and Sporophila lineola) almost certainly
breed on the island. The potoo, Barn Owl, Yellow-crowned Night
Heron, and Fuscous Flycatcher also may breed there occasionally.

Most species for which I have nest records nest in May through
July at the start of the wet season. The limited evidence I have for
finches indicates they breed late in summer. On nearby Trinidad
the Snows (1964) found a seasonal nesting pattern similar to that
I found on Little Tobago.

Several land birds seem to leave Little Tobago for part of the
year. All four finches probably nest on the island but apparently
only Tiaris is resident. I did not see the other three for most of the
winter and I doubt that I could have overlooked them. This move-
ment may be very local as the Eastmans (1958) saw all four on
Tobago between 16 January and 20 February.

I have already commented on the absence of Chrysolampis
mosquitus in the fall and Progne dominicensis in winter. Vireo
olivaceus seemed to be much less abundant in winter but may have
just called less then and was not noticed.

On the basis of observations in 1965-66 and records from the lit-
erature, with the possible exception of the Brown Booby, all the
seabirds on Little Tobago breed annually although not all at the
same time. The terns and the Laughing Gull are absent from late
summer to March or April and begin laying eggs soon after they
return. Tropicbirds have a more extended laying period, extend-
ing at least from November to February. All leave Little Tobago
for at least a month in late summer and individual birds are absent
for longer periods. Audubon’s Shearwaters apparently are present
for much of the year. Their egg-laying is more synchronized and
is mainly in late January and early February. The Brown Boobies
have two peaks of laying, late summer and again in winter, but

Dinsmore: Birds of Little Tobago 69

individual birds have not been marked to determine whether these
are separate groups of adults or if some are renesting attempts.

All of the above seabirds probably nest on nearby St. Giles Is-
lands. The nesting information available indicates that the indi-
vidual species have similar nesting periods on St. Giles and Little
Tobago (Dinsmore and ffrench, 1969). Both the Brown Noddy
and Sooty Tern lay in April on Soldado Rock off the southwest
coast of Trinidad (Belcher and Smooker, 1935; Ashmole, 1963).

Aruba, Bonaire, Curacao, Islas Las Aves, Isla La Orchila, Islas
Los Roques, Islas Los Hermanos, and Los Testigos, all at about the
same latitude as Little Tobago and to the west, have a variety of
seabirds breeding on them. These include all the terns found on
Little Tobago, the Laughing Gull, and, on some, boobies, Red-billed
Tropicbirds, and Audubon’s Shearwaters. In general the terns and
Laughing Gulls breed from May to July although the two noddies
on Los Roques and the Sooties on La Orchila start breeding in
February and March (Van der Werf et al., 1958; Phelps and
Phelps, 1959a, b; and Voous, 1963).

Shearwaters and tropicbirds breed in February and February
to April respectively, while Brown Boobies have a more extended
nesting period, perhaps from February to September. On Los
Testigos and Los Hermanos the boobies and tropicbirds had eggs
or young birds in January (Lowe, 1909). More information on the
shearwaters, boobies, and tropicbirds especially is needed. In gen-
eral however, the breeding seasons of seabirds on these islands
roughly coincide with those on Little Tobago.

The factors determining the timing of these seasons remain un-
known. The two peaks of breeding by Brown Boobies are par-
ticularly puzzling but for the spring nesting species I can suggest
two possibilities. On Little Tobago, much as on Curacao (Ansingh
et al., 1960), local fishing activity intensifies in March and April
when numbers of large predatory, commercially valuable species
arrive. Presumably this also means the arrival of smaller fish which
may be food for both fish and seabirds. Another possibility on
Little Tobago is that the Orinoco River in Venezuela floods from
March to mid-summer. Changes in the water are evident at Little
Tobago and perhaps this has some effect on seabird food supplies
but again more information is needed.

70 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Initiated and financed in part by the Forestry Division, Ministry
for Tobago Affairs, this study was made possible by the efforts of
R. G. Miller of that Department and Hollis Murray, then Conserva-
tor of Forests, Trinidad and Tobago. Roldan and Jeremiah George
of Speyside, Tobago, helped in innumerable ways in the field work
with the former providing three months of records to make this a
full year study. John T. Emlen, my faculty advisor, encouraged
me throughout this study. Graduate fellowships from the Univer-
sity of Wisconsin, Madison helped finance the work. David W.
Johnston and Alexander Cruz read drafts of this paper and offered
helpful comments.

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Department of Natural Sciences, University of Tampa, Tampa,
Florida 33606.

Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 35(1) 1972

Birds of the Lluidas Vale (Worthy Park) Region, Jamaica

ALEXANDER CRUZ

Durinc the past three years, the author has conducted investi-
gations on the avifauna of Jamaica. Five trips were made to the
island (June 14-August 17, 1969, December 20-26, 1969, April 14-
May 24, 1970, June 15-July 15, 1970, and June 4-June 24, 1971).
The main purpose of these visits was to study the ecology, be-
havior, and distribution of the Jamaican Woodpecker (Centurus
radiolatus ), but observations were also made on the total avifauna
of the island. Many of the birds found on Jamaica are poorly
known from the standpoint of distribution, ecology, and behavior.
Therefore, the following information on the avifauna of the Lluidas
Vale (Worthy Park) region, St. Catherine, Jamaica, should be in-
structive for future analyses. ;

DESCRIPTION

Lluidas Vale (1250 ft.) is located in an interior valley or polje.
Both cockpit and tower karst are present in the area. Cockpit
karst consists essentially of a succession of cone-like hills with al-
ternating enclosed conical depressions or “cockpits.” Tower karst
is made up of steep-sided, forest-covered hills or mogotes (Sweet-
ing, 1958). Each hill or group of hills is separated by a more or less
flat alluvial plain that is often seasonally inundated. More or less
permanent ponds and sinkholes are present at the base of the mo-
gotes. Much of the original vegetation has been cleared from the
valley, primarily for growing sugar cane, planting citrus, and rais-
ing cattle, but it is still present in the limestone mountains (Long
Mountain which is an extension of the Mount Diablo Plateau) and
cockpit hills surrounding the valley. Elevations vary from 1500 to
3250 ft. The vegetation of this area is classified as Wet Limestone
forest (Asprey and Robbins, 1953). This type of forest is found
in areas of limestone rocks where annual precipitation exceeds 75
inches and may range up to 150 inches. Many of the trees in this
region have epiphytes, lianes, and bromeliads growing in profusion.
Some of the characteristic trees of this community are broadleaf
(Terminalia latifolia), Jamaican cedar (Cedrela odorata), sweet-
woods (Nectandra spp.), bulletwoods (Dipholis spp.), various figs

Cruz: Jamaican Birds 73

(Ficus spp.), and many others. In the upland pastures, where
much of the original vegetation has been removed, characteristic
trees include guango (Samanea saman), large figs, prickly yellow
(Zanthoxylum martinicensis), pimento (Pimenta pimenta), and
trumpet tree (Cecropia peltata).

SPECIES ACCOUNTS

During the period of observation 87 species were recorded. In-
cluded in this count are 21 of the 24 species of land birds endemic
to Jamaica and 38 of the 47 species that breed in Jamaica (Bond,
1961) but also occur elsewhere.

The following terminology is used.

Common: Found on all visits to the proper habitat, often in

large numbers.

Fairly Common: Seen on a majority of visits to the proper
habitat.

Uncommon: Present each year in proper habitat and season(s),
but in small numbers.

Rare: Irregular occurrence in small numbers, not predictable,
and overlooked or absent on many visits to the proper habi-
tat.

Podiceps dominicus. Least Grebe; “Diving Dapper, Dabchick.”

Common permanent resident on freshwater ponds.

Podilymbus podiceps. Pied-billed Grebe; “Diving Dapper, Hell
Diver.” Fairly common permanent resident on freshwater ponds.

Butorides virescens. Green Heron; “Little Gaulin, Crabcatcher.”
Common permanent resident around freshwater ponds and marshy
areas.

Hydranassa tricolor. Louisiana Heron; “Gaulin.”. Uncommon
permanent resident on freshwater ponds and marshy areas.

Florida caerulea. Little Blue Heron; “Blue Gaulin, Gaulin.”
Uncommon permanent resident on freshwater ponds and marshy
areas.

Ardeola ibis. Cattle Egret; “Cattle Gaulin.”. Common perma-
nent resident, usually found in flocks among cattle.

Egretta thula. Snowy Egret; “White Gaulin, Gaulin.” Uncom-
mon permanent resident on freshwater ponds and marshy areas.

Nyctanassa violacea. Yellow-crowned Night Heron; “Night

74 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Gaulin, Crabcatcher.”. Uncommon to fairly common permanent
resident on freshwater ponds and marshy areas.

Cathartes aura. Turkey Vulture; “John Crow.” Common per-
manent resident throughout the area, but more common in open
areas.

Buteo jamaicensis. Red-tailed Hawk; “Chicken Hawk.” Un-
common to fairly common permanent resident in the hills and up-
land pastures surrounding the valley.

Falco sparverius. Kestrel; “Killy Hawk, Bird Hawk.” Fairly
common permanent resident in cultivated areas and upland pas-
tures.

Porzana carolina. Sora. Winter resident. An adult was ob-
served walking over the water lilies and along the marshy edge of
a small pond on April 23-25, 1970.

Porphyrula martinica. Purple Gallinule; “Coot.” Common dur-
ing the spring, but rare during the summer. Usually one or two in-
dividuals were observed on freshwater ponds with marshy border.
Those observed during the spring were probably transients or win-
ter residents.

Gallinula chloropus. Common Gallinule; “Coot.”._Common
permanent resident on freshwater ponds.

Fulica americana. Coot. Fairly common during the spring of
1970 in freshwater ponds.

Jacana spinosa. Jacana; “Spanish Coot, Coot.” Common per-
manent resident on freshwater ponds.

Charadrius vociferus. Killdeer. Fairly common transient dur-
ing the spring of 1970, but also observed as late as the 21st of June
1971. Observations were on recently plowed fields and pond
edges.

Columba _ leucocephala. White-crowned Pigeon; “Baldpate.”
Common permanent resident in woodlands and hills surrounding
valley.

Zenaida aurita. Zenaida Dove; “Pea Dove.” Common perma-
nent resident in open to semi-open areas, especially in the roads
going through the sugar cane fields and citrus areas.

Zenaida asiatica. White-winged Dove; “White-wing, Lapwing.”
Uncommon during the winter and spring, but very common dur-
ing the summer in upland pastures. Flocks up to thirty individuals
were observed.

Cruz: Jamaican Birds 75

Columbigallina passerina. Ground Dove. Common permanent
resident in open and semi-open areas.

Leptotila iamaicensis. White-bellied Dove; “White-belly.” Un-
common to fairly common permanent resident in undergrowth of
forested areas, occasionally occurring in more open areas.

Geotrygon montana. Ruddy Quail Dove; “Partridge.” Uncom-
mon to fairly common resident of the undergrowth of forested
areas and forest edges.

Geotrygon versicolor. Crested Quail Dove; “Mountain Witch.”
Rare to uncommon resident of undergrowth in forested areas, usu-
ally allowing close approach before flying and then flying only a
short distance.

Amazona collaria. Yellow-billed Parrot. Uncommon permanent
resident in the hills and mountains (Long Mountain) surrounding
the valley, but may be more common since many flocks of uni-
dentifiable parrots were observed flying.

Amazona agilis. Black-billed Parrot. Uncommon to fairly com-
mon resident of the Long Mountain area. Usually observed flying
or perched in small flocks of 2 to 6 individuals.

Aratinga nana. Olive-throated Parakeet. Common permanent
resident in wooded and semiwooded areas. Roosting flocks num-
bering thousands of birds were observed.

Forpus passerinus. Guiana Parrotlet. Common permanent resi-
dent in upland pastures and wooded hills.

Hyetornis pluvialis. Chestnut-bellied Cuckoo; “Old Man Bird.”
Fairly common in upland pastures and forested areas.

Saurothera vetula. Jamaican Lizard Cuckoo; “Rain Bird.” Un-
common permanent resident. More partial to wooded areas than
the preceding species, and more often heard than seen.

Crotophaga ani. Smooth-billed Ani; “Tick Bird, Black Bird.”
Common permanent resident in open areas, especially pastures.

Tyto alba. Barn Owl; “White Owl, Screech Owl, Potoo.” Un-
common permanent resident. Often observed flying over the pas-
tures and cane fields at dusk. One individual roosted during the
day in River Sink Cave at Worthy Park. Owl pellets obtained
from this cave showed that rats (Rattus) form a principal item in
its diet.

Pseudoscops grammicus. Jamaican Owl; “Brown Owl, Potoo.”
Rare to uncommon permanent resident, but may be more common

76 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

since its nocturnal habits make it difficult to find. One individual
roosted during the day in Swansea Cave at Worthy Park.

Nyctibius griseus. Common Potoo. Apparently rare, but may
be more common since its nocturnal habits make it difficult to ob-
serve. Seen on two different occasions (7 May and 1 July 1970),
when it was sitting upright on fence post in cattle pasture area.

Chordeiles minor. Common Nighthawk; “Mosquito Hawk.”
Uncommon summer resident. Usually observed flying towards sun-
set and on cloudy days.

Streptoprocne zonaris. Collared Swift; “Rain Bird.” Fairly
common permanent resident, often observed flying at dusk and on
cloudy days.

Cypseloides niger. Black Swift; Black Swallow, Swallow, Rain
Bird.” Uncommon permanent resident, observed under the same
conditions as the Collared Swift.

Tachornis phoenicobia. Antillean Palm Swift; “Swallow.” Com-
mon permanent resident in open to semiopened areas. Often ob-
served flying during the day.

Anthracothorax mango. Jamaican Mango; “Doctor Bird, Hum-
mingbird.” Fairly common resident in open and semiopened situa-
tions.

Trochilus polytmus. Streamertail; “Doctor Bird, Humming-
bird.”, Common permanent resident throughout the region.

Mellisuga minima. Vervain Hummingbird; “Bee Humming-
bird.” Fairly common permanent resident throughout the region.

Todus todus. Jamaican Tody; “Robin Redbreast.”. Common
permanent resident in wooded pastures and limestone hills sur-
rounding the valley.

Centurus radiolatus. Jamaican Woodpecker. Common perma-
nent resident in wooded and semiwooded areas.

Sphyrapicus varius. Yellow-bellied Sapsucker. Uncommon win-
ter resident in wooded and semiwooded areas.

Platypsaris niger. Jamaican Becard; “Tom Fool. Uncommon
permanent resident in wooded and semiwooded areas.

Tyrannus dominicensis. Gray Kingbird; “Petchary.” Common
summer resident in open and semiopened areas, often near human
habitations.

Tyrannus caudifasciatus. Loggerhead Kingbird; “Petchary.”
Common permanent resident in upland pastures and wooded areas.

Cruz: Jamaican Birds 77

Myiarchus stolidus. Stolid Flycatcher; “Tom Fool.” Uncommon
permanent resident, the rarest of the Myiarchus flycatchers in the
Lluidas Vale region. Observed in upland pasture areas.

Myjiarchus barbirostris. Dusky-capped Flycatcher; “Little Tom
Fool.” Fairly common permanent resident in upland pastures and
wooded areas.

Myiarchus validus. Rufous-tailed Flycatcher; “Big Tom Fool.”
Fairly common permanent resident in upland pastures and wooded
areas.

Contopus caribaeus. Greater Antillean Pewee; “Little Tom
Fool.” Common permanent resident in upland pastures and wooded
areas.

Hirundo rustica. Barn Swallow. Common spring transient.
Flocks numbering hundreds of individuals observed flying over re-
cently plowed fields.

Petrochelidon fulva. Cave Swallow. Common permanent resi-
dent. Occurring throughout the area, but more common in open
and semi-open areas. Breeding in caves and depressions in the
limestone hills.

Corvus jamaicensis. Jamaican Crow; “Jabbering Crow.” Com-
mon in upland pastures and limestone hills. Small flocks of 3-4 in-
dividuals were usually seen.

Mimus polyglottos. Northern Mockingbird; “Nightingale.” Com-
mon permanent resident in open and semi-open areas, often near
human habitations.

Dumeteila carolinensis. Catbird. Uncommon winter resident.
Observed in dense undergrowth in upland pasture area.

Turdus jamaicensis. White-eyed Thrush; “Glass Eye.” Fairly
common permanent resident in wooded pastures and hills.

Turdus aurantius. White-chinned Thrush; “Hopping Dick.”
Common permanent resident, more partial to open areas than pre-
ceding species.

Myadestes genibarbis. Rufous-throated Solitaire; “Fiddler.” Un-
common during the winter and spring. No individuals were re-
corded during the summers of 1969, 1970, and 1971. Possibly this
species undergoes a vertical migration as has been observed by
Kidd (1964).

Sturnus vulgaris. Starling. Fairly common in upland pastures,
where flocks of up to 30 individuals were observed.

78 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vireo modestus. Jamaican White-eyed Vireo; “Sewi-sewi.” Un-
common to fairly common permanent resident in wooded and
semiwooded areas.

Vireo altiloquus. Black-whiskered Vireo; “John Chewitt.” Com-
mon summer resident in semiwooded and wooded areas.

Vireo osburni. Blue Mountain Vireo. Uncommon permanent
resident in wooded areas.

Mniotilta varia. Black-and-white Warbler; “Ant Bird.” Com-
mon winter resident in wooded and semiwooded areas.

Helmitheros vermivorus. Worm-eating Warbler. Uncommon
winter resident of undergrowth in wooded and semiwooded areas.

Parula americana. Parula Warbler. Common winter resident
in wooded and semiwooded areas.

Dendroica magnolia. Magnolia Warbler. Uncommon winter
resident in wooded and semiwooded areas.

Dendroica tigrina. Cape May Warbler. Fairly common winter
resident in wooded and semiwooded areas.

Dendroica caerulescens. Black-throated Blue Warbler. Com-
mon winter resident in wooded and semiwooded areas.

Dendroica virens. Black-throated Green Warbler. Uncommon
to fairly common winter resident in wooded and semiwooded areas.

Dendroica striata. Black-poll Warbler. Uncommon spring
transient in wooded and semiwooded areas.

Dendroica pharetra. Arrow-headed Warbler; “Ant Bird.” Un-
common to fairly common permanent resident of forested areas and
forest edges.

Seiurus aurocapillus. Ovenbird. Uncommon winter resident in
undergrowth of wooded areas.

Setophaga ruticilla. American Redstart. Common winter resi-
dent in wooded and semiwooded areas.

Coereba flaveola. Bananaquit; “Beanie Bird.” Common per-
manent resident. Found throughout the region, but more common
in semi-open areas and near human habitations.

Euneornis campestris. Orangequit; “Swee.” Common perma-
nent resident in wooded and semiwooded areas and especially
common in citrus groves.

Pyrrhuphonia jamaica. Jamaican Euphonia; “Blue Quit.” Com-
mon permanent resident in wooded and semiwooded areas, but
often found near human habitations.

Cruz: Jamaican Birds 79

Spindalis zena. Stripe-headed Tanager; “Goldy, Goldfinch.”
Fairly common permanent resident in forested areas and forest
edges, including citrus groves.

Piranga olivacea. Scarlet Tanager. Uncommon spring tran-
sient in wooded and semiwooded areas.

Quiscalus niger. Greater Antillean Grackle; “Cling-cling.” Un-
common to fairly common, occurring around human habitations
and pastures.

Icterus leucopteryx. Jamaican Oriole; “Auntie Katie.” Common
resident in wooded and semiwooded areas. Occasionally observed
near human habitations.

Icterus galbula. Baltimore Oriole. Rare spring transient, one
male observed on 10 and 11 May 1970 in upland pasture area.

Sicalis flaveola. Saffron Finch; “Canary.” Fairly common per-
manent resident, occurring in semiwooded areas, upland pastures,
and gardens.

Loxigilla violacea. Greater Antillean Bullfinch; “Black Spar-
row. Fairly common permanent resident in wooded and semi-
wooded areas.

Tiaris olivacea. Yellow-faced Grassquit; “Grassquit.”. Common
permanent resident in open and semi-open areas.

Tiaris bicolor. Black-faced Grassquit; “Grassquit.” Permanent
resident, not as common as the Yellow-faced Grassquit, but occur-
ring in the same areas.

Loxipasser anoxanthus. Yellow-shouldered Grassquit; “Yellow-
back.” Uncommon permanent resident in wooded and semiwooded
areas.

Ammodramus savannarum. Grasshopper Sparrow. Fairly
common permanent resident of pasture areas.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Support during this investigation came from a National Institute
of Health Grant awarded to Dr. T. H. Patton and from a Frank
M. Chapman Grant awarded to the author. A number of persons
assisted in field work and participated in helpful discussion of this
project, particularly Philip Clarke, Dr. David W. Johnston, Dr.
Thomas H. Patton, and Michael Winegar. C. Bernard Lewis, Di-
rector of the Institute of Jamaica, was very helpful and made the

80 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

facilities of the Institute available to me. The Clarke family of
Worthy Park Estate not only provided strategic lodging, but their
friendly hospitality made the visits more pleasant.

LITERATURE CITED

Asprey, G. F., AND R. G. Rospsins. 1953. The vegetation of Jamaica. Ecol.
Mon., vol. 23, no. 2, pp. 359-412.

Bonn, JAMEs. 1961. (Field guide to) Birds of the West Indies. Houghton
Mifflin Co., Boston, 256 pp. 8 pl., 186 figs.

Kipp, E. R. G. 1964. Hillbirds at low altitudes at Mona Reservoir. Goose
Bird Club, Broadsheet No. 2, p. 9.

SwEETING, M. M. 1958. The karstlands of Jamaica. Geographical Jour., vol.
124, part 2, pp. 184-201.

Department of Zoology and Florida State Museum, University of
Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601.

Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 35(1) 1972

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CHRONOLOGICAL PROGRAM OF EVENTS

WEDNESDAY APRIL 5, 1972

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THURSDAY APRIL 6, 1972
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The Space Frontier Pg. 36
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Drugs and Alcohol Pg. 28
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(28 papers: detailed program avail-
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Members, Science Teachers and
Coordinators invited. Public
Welcome 222 Crummer
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Junior High Research Papers 108 Bush
2, BO)
Senior High Literary Research Bush Auditorium
Papers Pg. 39
9:00 am
to 5 pm Florida Science and Engineering Fair Enyart Field House

8:30 am
8:30 am
9:00 am
9:00 am
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11:00 am
11:45 am

| 12:30 pm

12:40 pm

/ 1:10 pm
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1:15 pm

2:00 pm

6:00 pm

7:00 pm
8:00 pm

7:30 -
12 am
8:15

8:30 am
9:00 am
11:00 am

1:30 pm

2:00pm

TECHNICAL SESSIONS
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(Reservations required)
Welcome to Rollins College
1972 Medalist's Address
Academy Business Meeting
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Session
Highschool Experimental Research
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TECHNICAL SESSIONS
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Physical Sciences Section
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Junior Academy Banquet
(Senior Academy welcomed)
(Reservations required)
Social period (Senior Academy)
Awards Assembly: Fair, Talent Search,
Junior Academy

SATURDAY APRIL 8, 1972
Removal of Science Fair Exhibits

PUBLIC TECHNICAL SYMPOSIUM
Biological Effects of Electrical
Power Generation I , Biological
Sciences and Conservation Sects.

Physical Sciences Section

Optical Society of America

Special Lecture: Pocket Fourier
Spectroscopy; Optical Society of
America, American Association of
Physics Teachers, and Physical
Sciences Section

PUBLIC SYMPOSIUM
Clean Air Technology for Surgery,
Science and Industry , Medical and
Physical Sciences Sections

PUBLIC TECHNICAL SYMPOSIUM
Biological Effects of Electrical
Power Generation II, Biological
Sciences and Conservation Sections.

Optical Society of America

Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences

326 Bush Pg. 4
328 Bush Pg. 7
114 Bush Pg. 16
325 Bush Pg. 21
308 Bush Pg. 23
301 Bush Pg. 25
134 Bush
Skillman Dining
Hall

Bush Auditorium

Pg. 40

Bush Auditorium

Pg. 40

326 Bush Pg. 10
328 Bush Pg. 13
114 Bush Pg. 18
107 Bush Pg. 36

308 Bush Pg. 23

301 Bush Pg. 25
Skillman Dining

Hall
Langford Hotel

Knowles Memorial
Chapel

108 Bush Pg, 29

326 Bush Pg. 20
328 Bush Pg. 37

Bush Auditorium
Pg. 37

Bush Auditorium
Jeyer he)

108 Bush Pg. 32

328 Bush Pg. 37

4 Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences

BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES SECTION

Friday 8:30 A.M., Session A
R. W. Long (University of South Florida) presiding

BS-1 Ordinal records for Florida fungi. B.R. POHLAD, DON R. REYNOLDS,
Florida Technological University.

8:45

BS-2 Microbial Ecology of Vascular Aquatic Plants.* BETTY OAKS,
W.S. SILVER, R.L. MANSELL, University of South Florida.--As a prelim-
inary to finding microbes which might be useful in controlling noxious
aquatic weeds, a study is being made of the autochthonous flora of
Eichhornia and Hydrilla. The effect of selection site, season and other
environmental conditions on the microflora will be discussed.

*Research supported by NSF GY-9180, SWFWMD and Florida Department of
Natural Resources.

9:00

BS-3 Effects of Irradiation on Fecal Coliform, M-Pyogenis, and M-
Smegmatis Bacteria. DAVID D. WOODBRIDGE, WILLIAM R. GARRETT, ROBERT F.
RICHMOND, PRISCILLA C. COOPER, Florida Institute of Technology.--Destruc-
tion of bacteria without chemical contamination of water is of prime
importance in man's fight against pollution. Under a contract with the
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, U.C.P.R. has found that the degree of kill of
bacteria is a function of the dissolved oxygen in the carrier solution as
well as the radiation dosages. Results are present of the effectiveness of
irradiation on three different bacteria at various levels of dissolved
oxygen.

9215

BS-4 Vegetational Changes in the National Key Deer Refuge - III.

TAYLOR R. ALEXANDER, JOHN D. DICKSON III, University of Miami.--This study
of a pineland area measures the effect of mechanical cutting and removal of
vegetation with a bulldozer as a substitute for fire to maintain deer browse
plants. Field work was done 28 months after bulldozing. Data from 50
quadrats show good recovery of woody pineland species and an increase in
herbaceous species used by deer. Deer use of the cleared area is heavy.

9:30

BS-5 Ethnobotany of Chokoloskee Island, Florida. DANIEL F. AUSTIN,
DAVID MACJUNKIN, Florida Atlantic University.--Floristic and historical
studies were made to determine man's prehistoric and historic effects on
the vegetation of Chokoloskee Island. Particular emphasis has been placed
on ethnic plant residuals, stands modified aboriginally and colonially,
and recently naturalized exotics. The current destructive impact of
residents and tourists on the ecology of the island will be described and
illustrated. Our study indicates that most, if not all, vegetation on the
island is experiencing secondary succession. The island flora contains
40% ethnic plants, 40% strand plants, and 20% classified as other (i.e.
Native, etc.).

Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences

9:45

BS-6 Nutrient Relationships in Mature and Fire Damaged Stands of
Sawgrass. K.K. STEWARD, W.H. ORNES, R.E. ELLISTON, PSRD, ARS, USDA,

Ft. Lauderdale, Florida.--Levels of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium

in the tissue of plants from mature unburned stands of sawgrass remained
constant from month to month. This indicated that levels in the tissue did
not change with increased age of the tissue. The levels of these nutrients
were initially higher in young tissue of plants regrowing after fires than
in plants from unburned mature stands. The highest levels in young tissue
occurred immediately after the fires and decreased over a three month
period to levels similar to those in plants from mature stands. The con-
centrations of the nutrients in mature sawgrass stands were at the extreme
low end of the range of previously reported values for Everglades vegetation.
These values expressed as percent of oven dry plant weight were 0.5 to 0.7%
nitrogen, 0.03 to 0.04% phosphorus and 0.5 to 0.7% potassium. Soil con-
tents of these nutrients were also low. Low nutrient levels in both soil
and plants indicated that sampling sites were infertile.

10:00

BS-7 Leaf Morphology in the Systematics of Chamaesyce (Euphorbiaceae)
of South Florida.* C.P. SREEMADHAVAN, University of South Florida.--This
paper will explore the possibility of using the following characters of
the leaf for recognition of specific and infraspecific taxa of Chamaesyce
S.F. Gray: (1) Size, shape, nature of the margin, apex, and base; (2)
Major and minor venation patterns; (3) Types of stomata; (4) Size, shape,
and arrangement of epidermal cells in relation to epidermal appendages;
and (5) Epidermal appendages. Reexamination leading to probable reassign-
ment of the following taxa is recommended: Chamaesyce ammanioides, C.
cumulicola, the three varieties of C. porteriana and the infraspecific taxa
of C. deltoidea.

*Research supported by NSF.

10:15

BS-8a An Investigation of the Stomatal Apparatus of Certain Bahamian
Flora.* BRUCE D. JACKSON, Miami-Dade Junior College, North.--Abaxial and
adaxial surfaces of Bahamian plants! were investigated as to (1) frequency
and size of guard cells; (2) subsidiary cell patterns; (3) presence of
outstanding epidermal appendages. Preliminary data reveal that plant
families have particular subsidiary cell patterns which would indicate
that these patterns may be used as a diagnostic tool.

*This paper was part of a directed individual research study under
Professor Harold Yaffa, Miami-Dade Junior College, North.

lthe plants used in this research were generously provided by Fairchild
Tropical Garden, Miami, Florida.

10:30

BS-8b The Phosphorus Nutrition of Hydrilla. K.K. STEWARD, PSRD, ARS,
USDA, Ft. Lauderdale, Florida.--(Hydrilla verticillata Casp.) was cultured
from vegetative propagules in nutrient solutions containing a range of

6 Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences

phosphorus (P) concentrations to study the P requirements of this aquatic
plant. The dry weight, total P accumulation and bicarbonate utilization of
plants increased with increased concentration of P in solutions and with
time. Bicarbonate utilization was directly related to increase in plant
dry weight. The levels of P in tissue were proportional to concentration of
P in solutions but decreased with time regardless of solution concentration.
The total P content of plants grown without added P remained constant
through seven weeks of growth. The P reserves in the propagules of these
plants were sufficient to produce a dry matter yield of 1127 mg after 50
days. The addition of 1.7 mg P produced a 57% increase in yield over the
same time period. The results of these experiments suggest that hydrilla
has a low requirement for P.

10:45

BS-9 Preliminary Biochemical Studies of the Effect of Diquat on Hydrilla
verticillata.* R.E. WOODWARD, R.L. MANSELL, W.S. SILVER, University of
South Florida.--Hydrilla populations in three Hillsborough County lakes were
sprayed with diquat by the bivert system. Observations were made on the
subsequent physical changes which occurred in each site. Samples were
collected and analyzed for changes in flavanoid and phenolic acid compe-
sition.

*Research supported by SWFWMD and Florida Department of Natural Resources.

11:00

BS-10 Qualitative Analysis of Phenolic Compounds in Eichornia crassipes.*

D.E. KING, R.L. MANSELL, University of South Florida.--Qualitative analysis
was done on leaves and flowers of naturally occurring populations of E.
crassipes. The flavonoid constituents, phenolic acids and their derivatives
were analyzed. A total of three falvonoid compounds were found to exist in
abundance and both free and esterified cinnamic and benzoic acid components
were identified.

*Research supported in part by an NSF Grant GY-9180.

1S

BS-11 Analysis of Phenylalanine-ammonia-lyase activity and anthocyanin

biosynthesis in developing flower petals of Impatiens balsamina L.
SUZANNE MRAS, R.R. HARRELL, JR., R.L. MANSELL, University of South Florida.--

The activity of phenylalanine-ammonia-lyase and the concentration of
anthocyanin pigment was determined in seven different stages of development
in flower tissue. The results show that the major synthesis of pigment
begins during the middle stages of development and ceases before maturation
of the tissue. Enzyme activity closely parallels the appearance of pigment.
The significance of this enzyme and its role in anthocyanin biosynthesis will
be discussed.

11:30

BS-12 Para-Coumaric Acid Hydroxylase Activity in Flower Petals of
Impatiens balsamina. DESTINY TOLEDO, R.L. MANSELL, University of South

Florida.--Acetone powders of I. balsamina flower tissue yielded active
preparations of p-coumaric acid hydroxylase. The activity of this enzyme
has been determined in four different stages of flower development. The
possible role of this enzyme in the biosynthesis of anthocyanins in this
tissue will be discussed.

Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences

33.13 The fine structure of Nocardia polychromogenes as revealed by
scanning and transmission electron microscopy.* C.S. HUANG, Chipola Jr.
College, G.E. MICHAELS, University of Georgia.--This paper will describe
the morphological characteristics of Nocardia. The cell growth of N.
polychromogenes on both Carbon Utilization Agar (CUA) and Nutrient Broth
plus 2% Yeast Extract (NBTE) were studied by scanning and transmission
electron microscopy (SEM & TEM). A 2% osmium tetraoxide was used to fix
the isolated colonies for SEM studies. Haystacked colonies with three
bands around the cylindrical arthrospores were found in N. polychromogenes.
The relationship between hyphael segmentation, fragmentation, and colonial
structure were revealed by SEM micrographs of N. asteroides. For TEM
studies, the cells were fixed by a modification of the procedure outlined
by Kellenberger. The cells were dehydrated in ethyl alcohol, cleared in
propylene oxide, and embedded in maraglass. Thin sections of the bacteria
were grown on NBYE for 36 hr and revealed the complex relationship between
vesicular mesosomes and transverse septum formation. Multiple and irregular
septation were found in 48 cultures.

*Research supported by NSF Grant GY-8550.

BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES SECTION

Friday, 8:30 A.M. Session B, Room 328

F. E. Friedl (University of South Florida) presiding

8:30

BS-14 Mesenterial Filaments from Manicina areolata (Linn.). RAYMOND
K. DUROS, University of Miami.--A brief study of the elongate filaments
abundantly extruded by the Common Rose Coral, M. areolata, and the nema-
tocyst capsules contained in them. Somewhat detailed descriptions of the
filaments and of the contained capsules are given. The latter constitute
two rather distinct types of specialized nematocysts, namely holotrichs
and microbasic p=mastigophores. Their discharge, probable functions, and
importance in coelenterate taxonomy are briefly reviewed.

8:45

BS-15 Preliminary notes on the sexual maturity and fecundity of

Idotea metallica, BOSC (Crustacea, Isopoda). F.E. PITTS, S.B. COLLARD,
University of West Florida.--Idotea metallica is a pelagic species of
marine Isopod, about which very little specific ecology has been reported.
Approximately 1000 specimens were captured by Dr. S.B. Collard in May,

1969, from the Mediterranean Sea while aboard the R/V Atlantis II owned

by Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. The specimens were taken with
neuston tows on transects from the Island of Rhodes to Naples. The labora-
tory study of the samples consisted of noting the relationships between
size of the female and fecundity, and between specimen size and apparent
sexual maturity. It was found that the numbers of eggs per gravid female
were not necessarily dependent on the numbers and types of factors involved.
It was also found that the sexes could be distinguished in younger specimens
than previously reported. Further, some specimens of both male and female
were found to be somewhat larger than sizes previously reported.

8 Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences

9:00

BS-16 Some Aspects of the Development of Clypeaster rosaceus. CHARLES

N. D'ASARO.--In an effort to determine the developmental origin of the
irregular characters of Clypeaster rosaceus, this species was cultured for
two months. The larvae were short-term planktotrophs and completed meta-
morphosis in one week. Post-larvae were reared until they were recogniz-—
able as clypeasteroids. The complete ontogeny was outlined up to that point;
and it was shown that the irregular characters arose days after metamorphosis.
Certain unexpected facts relating to the juvenile's habits were discovered.

9:15

BS-17 Reproductive periodicity and gametogenesis in a sand dollar,

Mellita quinquiesperforata, population near Tampa Bay, Florida. JACQUELENE
MOSS, University of South Florida.--The spawning time of a population of

the sand dollar, Mellita quinquiesperforata, was determined using four
different approaches: gonadal index, histological examination of gonads,
appearance of larvae in the plankton, and appearance of young in the bottom.
From gonad index, spawning appeared to begin in spring and end in early
summer. From appearance of larvae in the plankton and appearance of young,
a major spawning period appears to take place during spring, proceeding to
a lesser degree throughout summer and early fall. Histological sections of
gonads showed that Mellita became reproductively mature at one year of age
and young animals spawn earlier than older ones. Yearly comparisons indi-
cate water temperature as well as age composition of the adult population
influence beginning of spawning as well as duration. The population is not
synchronous.

9:30

BS-18 Histological Analysis of Neurosecretory Granules in Spinulosida
and Platyasterida (Echinodermata:Asteroidea). D.G. ATWOOD, University of

South Florida.--Neurosecretory granules were demonstrated in nervous tissues
of 3 asteroids (Echinaster echinophorus, Luidia clathrata and Patiria miniata)
using five common neurosecretory staining procedures. Fuchsinophilic granules
existed within the sensory and motor nervous elements of the radial nerve

and tube feet, as well as in sensory regions of the body epidermis and

cardiac stomach. No granules were found in the extensive nervous plexus of
the oral and aboral walls and Tiedemann's diverticulum of the pyloric caeca.
Fuchsinophilic substances within sensory elements ranged in diameter size
from diffuse particles to 2.0 microns, whereas granules within motor tissues
ranged from diffuse particles to 1.0 microns.

9:45

BS-19 Dissodactylus: A Commensal (?) Crab. DANA BETH TYLER, University
of West Florida.--The biological relationships between the pinnotherid

crab genus Dissodactylus and its various echinoderm hosts was investigated.
The ingestion of host tissue by the crab, possibly as an energy or nutrient
source, was tentatively demonstrated. It is hoped to more conclusively
show this by using histochemical techniques and dietary experiments. Larval
relationships to the host were also investigated.

Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences

10:15

BS-20 Anoxic Capacity of Glottidia pyramidata (Stim.) Dall, (Brachiopoda:
Inarticulata). J.H. SCHMIDT, University of South Florida.--Groups of from
10 to 20 organisms were subjected to zero oxygen tensions in filtered sea-
water in complete darkness for varying time periods up to 12 days. Juveniles
were able to withstand anoxia for up to 8 days with no mortality. Adults
could only withstand 48 hours of anoxia without considerable mortality.

Juveniles adapted to an anaerobic environment for 4 days and
aerobicly adapted juveniles were placed in Warburg flasks. Their oxygen
consumption rates were determined under identical conditions. Anerobicly
adapted animals consumed oxygen at an average rate of 103.2ul/g (dry wt.)
per hour. Aerobicly adapted animals consumed oxygen at an average rate of
48.8ul/g (dry wt.) per hour.

Deposition of a black pigment was noted during anaerobiosis in
the tissues of both juvenile and adult organisms. It was seen to disappear
from juveniles on return to an aerobic environment.

10:30
BS-21 Indications of anaerobiosis in Anthopleura krebsii Duchassaing and

Michelotti, and intertidal sea anemone. H.S. BOLTON, University of South
Florida.--Anthopleura krebsii has been observed to exist unsubmerged for

extended periods of time. Since the animal appears to be inactive at these
times, one might ask if its oxygen uptake decreases and if in fact the
animal maintains its metabolic functions at greatly reduced rates.

In studies on its respiratory rate, it was noted that, in the dark
with oxygen displaced from its seawater environment by nitrogen, A. krebsii
can exist for at least 14 days. Oxygen in this closed system was undetec-
table using the Winkler method.

Since oxygen is used when available, alternate respiratory pathways
are suggested. Schemes similar to those already described for the nematode,
Ascaris, and other invertebrates could be operable in this anemone.

10:45

BS-22 The sertoli cell-spermatozoan relationship in the teleost Poecilia

latipinna.* H. GRIER, University of South Florida.--An ultrastructural
investigation of the testis of Poecilia latipinna indicates that Sertoli

cells serve a supportive function for mature sperm as has been described

in higher vertebrates. The Sertoli cells of this teleost also ingest the
cytoplasmic remnant cast off by the spermatozoa during spermiogenesis.
Ingestion of the cytoplasmic remnants of sperm is characterized by increased
lysosomal activity on the part of the Sertoli cell.

| *Research supported by a Grant-in-Aid of Research by the Society of the
Sigma Xi.

11:00

BS-23 Pituitary eta cell function in embryos and juveniles of the teleost
Poecilia latipinna. H. GRIER, University of South Florida.

10 Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences

WETS

BS-24 Genetic factors affecting pupation site in laboratory stocks of
Drosophila melanogaster. JAMES P. MATTESON, JOHN R. BAYLIS, JR., University
of West Florida.--Differences between laboratory stocks of Drosophila
melanogaster in the location of pupae was observed. In some stocks all pupae
were located relatively close (<5 cm) to the food. In other stocks many of
the pupae were located a greater distance (<8 cm) from the food. Crosses
were made between "high" and "low" stocks and carried through several
generations. The results of these crosses indicate that pupation site
differences are under the control of polygenes.

11:30

BS-25 Courtship behavior and evidence for a sex attractant in the Caribbean
fruit fly. JAMES L. NATION, University of Florida.--Males of Anastrepha
suspensa (Loew.) court and attract females. Courting males distend the
pleural region of the abdomen to form a small bubble or puff on each side and
may also evert a pouch of cuticle surrounding the anal area. The wings may
be vibrated rapidly at intervals during the puffing behavior. Males can
attract females in a laboratory bioassay over a distance of 10 inches.
Percent attraction data for different ages of males and females will be
shown. Up to 50% of the virgin females in a laboratory test can be attracted
at 11 days of age. Attraction is less for flies that are younger or older
than this age. Mated females are still attracted to males, though in

smaller numbers than virgin females. Glands suspected of producing a phero-
mone have been found in males.

11:45

BS-2 5a The Destruction of Red Mangrove Prop Roots by the Wood Boring Isopod
Shaeroma destructor (Richardson) Along the West Coast of Florida A. H. REHM

University of Florida Research supported in part by - The Society oi the Sigma XI

BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES SECTION
Friday, 2:00 pm, Session A, Room 326

Joseph L. Simon (University of South Florida) presiding

2:00

BS-26 Polychaete Fauna Associated with Gulf of Mexico Sponges. DANIEL

M. DAUER, University of South Florida. Thirty-four species of polychaetous
annelids were found associated with eight species of sponges from the Gulf

of Mexico. All sponges were collected by scuba diving and placed individually
in plastic bags. The contents were sieved with a 0.5 mm sieve to obtain the
polychaetes associated with the sponge cortex. The sponges were dissected

to find the polychaetes living within the body of the sponge.

The polychaete fauna is dominated in total numbers and in relative
abundance by Syllis spongicola Grube. A few polychaetes (Branchiosyllis
oculata Ehlers, Branchiosyllis sp., and Polydora colonia Moore) were found
with high relative abundances and rare occurrences in different sponges.
Approximately 80% of the polychaetes found associated with sponges occur in
relatively low abundances and rarely in a large number of sponge species.
The majority cf polychaetes occur randomly with sponges. Their appearance
is determined primarily by the external morphology of the sponge rather
than by the species.

Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences

2:15

BS-27 Chaetognaths as Bioindicators in the Gulf of Mexico. ROBERT H.
MATTLIN, JR., University of West Florida.--Chaetognaths have historically

been shown to be useful bioindicators of certain watermasses. The present
study investigates the usefullness of chaetognaths as bioindicators of
watermasses in the Gulf of Mexico, with emphasis placed on the identification
of the Loop Current and its meanders. Chaetognaths from plankton samples
collected under the auspices of the State University System Florida Institute
of Oceanography during EGMEX I-V cruises are being utilized. Specimens were
collected using meter nets, neuston nets, and one-half meter opening-closing
nets. The systematics and numbers of specimens are compared from each
sampling location. Corresponding physico-chemical data are compared with
biological information. From these comparisons, the relationship between
species and abundance of chaetognaths and watermass characteristics are
being established.

2:30

BS-28 A preliminary Survey of Marine Tardigrades of Florida. D.J.
MCKIRDY, University of South Florida.--A survey was carried out from July,

1971 through January, 1972. Collections on both Florida coasts yielded
representatives of all four known marine tardigrade families comprising
five genera and eight species. Four are previously described species:
Batillipes mirus, Batillipes bullacaudatus, Batillipes pennaki, and
Echiniscoides sigismundi; while the remaining four are new or as yet un-
identified species of Batillipes, Stygarctus, Styraconyx, and Halechiniscus.
The latter three genera in addition to Echiniscoides, B. bullacaudatus,

and B. pennaki are reported for the first time from Florida. Taxonomic
characters used to distinguish species as well as relative abundances

and distributions are discussed.

2:45

BS-29 Comparison of Quantitative Methods for the Estimation of Plankton

Populations. SANDRA F. MILLER, University of West Florida.--Efficiencies
of various quantitative methods for the estimation of plankton populations

are being determined. The advantages and disadvantages of the most common
methods propose the need for such a comparison. Data from membrane filtra-
tion techniques, settling or sedimentation techniques, and live counts

for the estimation of organisms per unit volume, are being statistically
analized to determine precision within methods, compared with methods
incorporating biomass estimations. Accuracy, time involved, efficiency,
and expense of the methods will allow recommendations to be made, which
will help future investigators in choosing a method best suited to their
needs.

3:00 COFFEE BREAK

12 Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences

3a li

BS-30 The Lethal Pathogen, Labyrinthomyxa marina, and other Causes of

the Escambia Bay, Florida Oyster Mortality of September, 1971. J.A. QUICK,
JR., National Marine Fisheries Service of NOAA*%--An oyster kill (Crassostrea

virginica Gmelin) was reported on the commercial reefs in Escambia Bay,
Florida, on September 7, 1971, and an immediate investigation was launched
by the Florida Department of Natural Resources Marine Research Laboratory.
Mortalities had been rapid, extensive, and severe with 100% oyster loss in
most areas and most deaths occurring in three days. The direct cause was
an epizootic of the pathogenic fungus, Labyrinthomyxa marina (Mackin, Owen,
and Collier) Mackin and Ray, but several other factors indirectly contri-
buted to the kill, particularly the poor water quality of this industrially
polluted bay system. Shell aging showed the commercial harvest to consist
almost entirely of the second and third year classes indicating at least
three years would be required for natural recovery. Extensive oyster
relaying operations are underway to shorten this recovery period.

*Pinanced by the National Marine Fisheries Service of NOAA, through the
Commercial Fisheries Research and Development Act, (Public Law 88-309).

3:30

BS-31 A Preliminary Survey of Mangrove Communities in Florida.* J.M.
CARLTON, University of South Florida.--This paper will report on investiga-

tions being carried out on the plants associated with the mangrove vegeta-
tion of the Florida shoreline. Some preliminary work from selected sampling
stations along both coasts will be noted with reference to species composi-
tion and ecological factors affecting these communities.

A preliminary study of Rhizophora mangle L. on Virginia Key,
Biscayne Bay, will be reported on, having made use of aerial photographs
for determinations of growth rates over a five year period.

*Research supported by National Science Foundation and Tropical Botany
Seminar, University of Miami.

3:45

BS-32 A Quantitative Evaluation of Red-Tide Induced Mass Mortalities of
Benthic Invertebrates in Tampa Bay, Florida.* JOSEPH L. SIMON, DANIEL M.
DAUER, University of South Florida.--Mid-July to mid-August, 1971, a massive
outbreak of the Red Tide organism (Gymnodinium breve) occurred along the
west-central coast of Florida. Massive fish kills were reported especially
heavy in Tampa Bay. Sampling and analysis of data immediately after the
red-tide have shown that benthic intertidal invertebrates in parts of the
bay were almost completely eliminated. Quantitative data before and after
the outbreak showed that of the 22 commonest invertebrate species present
prior to the red-tide, only 4 species were present after - and those in
markedly reduced numbers. Among the species killed off were polychaetes,
amphipods, crabs, bivalves, gastropods, phoronids, and amphioxus. A study
is underway to follow repopulation.

&
Supported by NSF Grant GA-31769

Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences

4:00

BS-32a Problems of aquatic weeds. Hydrilla verticillata - a
case study. RAYMOND D. MARTYN, JR., DONALD S. MCCORQUODALE, JR.
& THOMAS T. STURROCK, Florida Atlantic University.

4:15

BS-32b Laboratory cultivation of Hydrilla verticillata.
DONALD S. MCCORQUODALE, JR., RAYMOND D. MARTYN, JR. & THOMAS
T. STURROCK, Florida Atlantic University.

4:30

BS-33 Organism-Substrate Relationships in the Fiddler Crab Uca minax.
NICHOLAS H. WHITING, University of West Florida.--Organism-substrate re-

lationships in the fiddler crab, Uca minax were investigated over a two-
year period. Sites studied involved locations on a thermally-augmented

tributary, as well as thermally-natural sites on the Escambia River, Pensacola,

Escambia County, Florida. Particular interest was directed toward the role
of temperature, oxygen and organic content of the substrate, as these para-
meters affect the spatial and temporal distribution of this species.

4:45 BUSINESS MEETING - BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES SECTION, Room 326

BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES SECTION
Friday, 2:00 pm, Session B, Room 328

Glen E. Woolfenden (University of South Florida) presiding

2:00

BS-34 Metabolic Characteristics of the Golden Mouse, Ochrotomys nuttalli.

P.G. DOLAN, Florida Technological University, J.N. LAYNE, Archbold Biological
Station.--The conductance, basal metabolic rate (BMR), and thermoneutral

zone (TNZ) and its limits were examined in the golden mouse, Ochrotomys
thuttalli, by means of oxygen consumption, in order to determine whether a
relationship existed between these physiological characteristics and the
ecology and distribution of the species. Comparisons were made with various
species and subspecies of Peromyscus.

Ochrotomys exhibited a lower BMR (1.20cc 09-g7)-hr-1) and a narrower
TNZ (3.0°C) than any Peromyscus of similar size. With the possible exception
of conductance, the study offers little evidence of a correlation between
metabolic rates and environmental conditions. The ecology and distribution
of Ochrotomys does not appear strongly influenced by its metabolic make-up.

13

14 Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences

2:15

BS-35 Nest-building Behavior in Three Subspecies of Peromyscus polionotus.
L.M. EHRHART, Florida Technological University.--Two measures of nest-build-

ing propensity were used to compare this behavior among populations of old-
field mice (Peromyscus polionotus) from central Alabama; Santa Rosa Island,
Florida; and Marion Co., Florida. Comparisons were also made between males
and females and between field-captured and laboratory-raised subjects. The
results suggest relationships between the strength of the nest-building re-
sponse and environmental factors. Motor patterns involved in nest building
are also discussed.

2:30

BS-36 Notes on a Trematode (Monogenea: Mazocraeidae) and its Host
Stromateus stellatus (Stromateoidei). ARTHUR BUTT, University of West

Florida.--Trematodes were collected from the butterfish Stromateus stellatus.
Collections were made off the coast of Correll, Chile in 1967 and preserved
in 70% alcohol. Trematodes were provisionally placed in the family
Mazocraeidae (four pair of U-shaped clamps, two pair of unequal and dissimilar
anchors, armed genital atrium, and two well developed prohaptors). Their
opisthaptors and related structures were asymmetrical. Nineteen of the
twenty-six trematodes observed had greater clamp development on the right
side. Trematodes were rather large (3.5-6.0 mm in length) in comparison to
the size of the gill filaments (7.5-10.5 mm in length). The host-parasite
association may be considered an example of hyperparasitism (sensu Mansueti,
1963). The butterfishes are associated with scyphomedusae and siphonophorans
which they seasonally feed upon voraciously.

2:45

BS-37 Notes on a Monogenetic Trematode and its Fish Host, Siganus
rivulatus. CARROLL BERNIER, SNEED COLLARD, University of West Florida.--

Fishes of the family Siganidae collected by gill net near acre (or Akko)

in Israel and preserved in 10% formalin-seawater, were necropsied for
metazoan symbiotes. Only monogenetic trematodes were recovered from

S. rivulatus (a known Red Sea-to-Mediterranean Sea migrator). The depauperate
symbiotic fauna observed may be an indication that heterogenetic helminths

and crustacea have not been as successful as their fish hosts in successfully
making the Suez Canal migration. A preliminary description of the trematode
and the host-parasite relationship is presented.

3:00 COFFEE BREAK

3:15

BS-38 Notes on Epigean Populations of Fishes in Subterranean Waters of
Florida. KENNETH RELYEA, BRUCE SUTTON, Jacksonville University.--No
troglobitic fishes are known from Florida subterranean waters, but several
species of epigean fishes are. These include: Anguilla rostrata, the
American Eel; Hybopsis harperi, the creek chub; and Ictalurus natalis, the
yellow bullhead. Subterranean populations of Hybopsis and Ictalurus from
caves west of Gainesville, in Alachua County, are discussed. Populations of
these fishes are apparently small and are found near sink-shafts which
afford a "funnel-effect" for energy input. Analysis of stomach contents of
the subterranean bullhead indicates some predation on troglobitic cray-

Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences 15

fishes, but the major food item appears to be springtails. Genetic and/or
developmental abnormalities suggest that the bullheads are isolated from
epigean populations.

3:30

BS-39 The Abundance and Size of Gulf Menhaden, Brevoortia patronus,
Caught by Seine Haul in Mulatto Bayou, near Pensacola, Florida, from June,

1969 to June, 1971. MICHAEL D. SCHMITT, University of West Florida.--
Mulatto Bayou is a semi-enclosed estuary, 214 acres in area, on the eastern

side of Escambia Bay, approximately 16 nautical miles from the Gulf of
Mexico. Three sites were seined twice monthly. Menhaden were counted and
the length of individuals in a representative subsample were measured.
Brevoortia patronus was present during all months except December, 1969 and
January, 1970. Juveniles, 20-30 mm standard length (SL), were present from
February to April in 1970 and 1971, and most abundant during the latter
month. From May to November, a second, larger size class of individuals
(60-100 mm SL) composed an increasingly larger part of the menhaden captured.

3:45

BS-40 Observations on the Behavior and Feeding Habits of the Atlantic
Needlefish, Strongylura marina (Walbaum) and the Halfbeak, Hyporhamphus
unifasciatus (Ranzani)--Suborder Exocoetoidei.* R.G. GILMORE, JR.,
University of West Florida.--Strongylura marina was found to inhabit a
Northwest Florida estuary (Pensacola Bay and vicinity) throughout the year
regardless of dramatic temperature and salinity change, while hyporhamphus
unifasciatus was found only during warmer months of the year (April-September)
but in the Gulf of Mexico year around. The feeding habits of S. marina were
found to be opportunistic reflecting the abundance of various food types
during the year and the ecotope in which it was found. The halfbeak was
also opportunistic and omnivorous in its diet.

*Section from Master's Thesis, University of West Florida, Pensacola.

4:00

BS-41 Current Research on the Biology of Bonefish, Albula vulpes, in
Florida Waters. GERARD E. BRUGER, Florida Department of Natural Resources.--
Aspects of the biology of the bonefish, Albula vulpes (Linnaeus), are under
investigation using juvenile and adult specimens collected in south Florida
waters. Significant differences are evident in growth rates of males and
females, the males weighing more than females until approximately 400 mm
SL. Bonefish may attain an age of over ten years. Confirmation of age
estimates is awaiting examination of museum specimens in the 85-200 mm SL
range.

Reports from investigators in south Florida and elsewhere indicate
that juveniles less than 200 mm SL may be found over mud bottoms in
Mangrove areas. This aspect of juvenile ecology parallels that of the
closely related elopomorphs, Megalops atlanticus and Elops saurus. Bone-
fish are carnivores, feeding primarily on bivalve mollusks, crustaceans,
and to a lesser extent, fishes.

16 Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences

Detailed histological studies of gonadal maturation are underway.
Specimens 200-300 mm SL collected at depths of 5.5-12.2 m between October
and December were ripe or ripening. Larger specimens collected at the
same time of year from shallow waters were not ripe. Since morphometric
and meristic studies indicate conspecificity, this aspect of their life
history is unexplained.

4:15

BS-42 Maintenance of Toxicity in Sphoeroides testudineus, the checkered
puffer. EDWARD LARSON, MURRAY GIRARD, WARREN ZEILLER, Miami Seaquarium.—-
A group of Sphoeroides testudineus, the checkered puffer, was maintained
under laboratory conditions. Assays for toxicity of various tissues by
the mouse injection technique were made on certain number of these fish

at the start of the experimental period and at intervals of 3, 6 and 9
months. Preliminary results show equal levels of toxicity. A group of
Lutjanus griesus, gray snapper, treated in the same manner, served as a
control.

4:30

BS-43 Limnological Festures of Lake Izabal, Guatemala. F.G. NORDLIE,
University of Florida.--Lake Izabal is a large, relatively shallow lake
forming the upper end of an estuarine system draining into the Gulf of
Honduras. While the water is fresh, many of the organisms present -
especially fishes - are of marine origin. An investigation of some basic
limnological features of the lake was carried out during two visits - one
in the late summer of 1969 and the second in the spring of 1970. The fea-
tures studied included oxygen and temperature profiles, plankton, primary
production, and bottom fauna. The most unexpected result of the investi-
gation was the discovery of large numbers of Tanaidacea in the soft muds
of the benthic regions.

4:45 BUSINESS MEETING - BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES SECTION, Room 326

PHYSICAL SCIENCES SECTION

Friday 9:00 am
P. L. Edwards, (University of West Florida) presiding

PS-1 Carbonate Geochemistry, or Everything You always Wanted to Know About the
Shell Game but Were Afraid to Ask WILLIAM H. TAFT and DEAN F. MARTIN Univer-

sity of South Florida

The results of field and laboratory studies of carbonate paradoxes will be sum-
marized. What makes a theoretically unstable form of calcium carbonate persist
in the marine environment? Why is the ocean supersaturated with respect to cal-
cium carbonate? Why isn't more calcium carbonate being formed in the ocean?
And, what are those metal ions doing in there, anyway?

Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences IL

9:30

PS-2 The Making and Use of Random Dot Stereograms. MICHAEL T. HYSON, Univer-
sity of Miami. Random dot stereograms represent an interesting class of visual
stimuli in which the information content may be precisely controlled through the

use of a digital computer.

They are of great use in the study of visual processing by the brain and
pattern recognition studies. The technique has, as well, many possible applica-
tion in the field of mapping, flight simulation, and remote sensing.

The use of the Calcomp and Milgo plotters as a more universal technique
will be discussed.

Various examples of stereograms will be presented by poloroid projection
and hand held viewer. Stereograms yielding planes and tilted planes will be
shown.

The relationship of this work to the single cell neurophysiology will be
discussed.

For those interested, a way to make such stereograms by hand will be
offered.

10:00 BUSINESS MEETING

10:30 COFFEE BREAK

10:45

PS - 3 Absorption Coefficient Spectroscopy in the Millimeter-Wave Region.
WILLIAM C. OELFKE, Florida Technological University.--Some new techniques

and spectrometer designs for the quantitative measurement of millimeter-wave
absorption coefficients in gases are discussed. A comparison is made between

the results of either phase locking a resonant absorption cavity to a modulated
microwave source, or phase locking the microwave source to a frequency modulated
absorption cavity. The results show that, the cavity modulated Fabry-Perot
spectrometer is the most desirable system for the measurement of gaseous
absorption spectra at pressures below 1 Torr as well as gaseous absorption
coefficients at elevated pressures.

11:00

PS - 4

Structural Changes of Discontinuous Metal Films after Deposition,
W.B. PHILLIPS, The University of West Florida, and D.N. BRASKI, Oak
Ridge National Laboratory. -- Electron micrographs of discontinuous
thin films of copper or gold, deposited at room temperature and
observed in situ in an electron microscope at high vacuum, reveal
pronounced changes in film structure when the film is heated above
500 K. These observed structural changes may be used to interpret

the double reversal in sign of the temperature coefficient of
electrical conductivity of similar films.

11:15

PS = 5 Propagation of Electromagnetic Pulses in a Collisional Magneto-
plasma.* C. E. SEYLER, JR., R. W. FLYNN, AND S. C. BLOCH, University of
South Florida.-- We describe computer solutions to the problem of the propa-
gation of electromagnetic pulses in a magnetoplasma, for propagation parallel
to the magnetic field. Our method is, we believe, a novel application of

18 Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences

the Fast Fourier Transform algorithm. The distortion of the pulse envelope
is calculated for various values of w p/®o >» W/W , V/Wo » and propaga-
tion distance in the plasma. b

Results are compared with earlier works on propagation in dispersive
media.

* Research supported in part by the Atmospheric Science Section, National
Science Foundation, Grant GA-10425.

PHYSICAL SCIENCES SECTION

Friday, 2:00 P.M.
S. C. Bloch (University of South Florida) presiding

PS-11 The Remarkable Eclipses of ¢ Aurigae--Can a Black Hole be Seen? ROBERT
E. WILSON University of South Florida It is shown that the mysterious eclipses of

the primary component of the binary system e¢ Aurigae can only be due to a structure
resembling the rings of Saturn--but with no visible object in the center of the rine
system. It appears that the central mass must be a star which has collapsed to its
gravitational radius, commonly known as a black hole.

2:30

PS - 12 The Importance of Research in Star Positions HEINRICH K. EICHORN von
WURMB University of South Florida The accurate determination of star positions is
ultimately necessary to calibrate distances in the universe and to describe our own
galaxy. Celestial data are of practical use in geophysics. For the verification of the
general theory of relativity star positions must be determined with extreme accuracy.

pS” - 13 Florida as an Astronomical Site’ ALEX G. SMITH and R.J. LEACOCK, Rose-
mary Hill Observatory, University of Fl Observatory, University of Florida In 1968 the new Rosemary Hill
Astronomical Observatory went into operation near Bronson, Florida, with a 30-inch
research telescope. Three years of continuous observations now make it possible to
evaluate the site in terms of meteroological conditions , atmospheric transparency, and
image stability.

*Supported by an NSF University Science Development Grant

3:15

PS - 14 4C05-34: The Most Distant Object in the Universe?* RICHARD HACKNEY,
KAREN HACKNEY, G. H. FOLSOM**, R. J. LEACOCK, R.L. SCOTT, and A.G.
SMITH, University of Florida, Rosemary Hill Observatory. The quasar 4C05-34 has
the largest red shift yet measured. If this effect is cosmological, the distance of
4C05°34 is enormous relative to the furthest known galaxies. Photographic efforts to
detect light variations in the quasar will be reported.

*Supported by an NSF University Science Development Grant.
** Presently with the Department of Physics and Astronom y, Agnes Scott College,
Decatur, Georgia.

Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences 19

3:30

PS - 15 A Search for Short-Term Optical Variations of BL Lacertae and 3C 120.*
KAREN HACKNEY, A.G. SMITH, R.L. HACKNEY, R. J. LEACOCK, R.L. SCOTT,
University of Florida, Rosemary Hill Observatory. A cooperative effort was made by
several observatories to observe the peculiar object BL Lacertae and the Seyfert galaxy
3C 120 in the optical, infrared, and millimeter wavelength regions of their spectra
simultaneously and continuously during five nights in November, 1971. Photographic
observations with a time resolution on the order of 15 minutes obtained with the 30-inch
reflector at Rosemary Hill are reported and discussed.

*Supported by an NSF University Science Development Grant.

3:45 COFFEE BREAK

4:00

PS- 16 Microstructure of One of Jupiter's Radio Sources.* R.J. LEACOCK and
ALEX G. SMITH, University of Florida, Dept. of Physics and Astronomy Past
University of Florida studies showed that Jupiter's 'B'' source of radio waves often
appeared double as the planet rotated. A recent investigation shows a similar doubling
as the satellite Io circles the planet. Implications for the theory of the radiation will
be discussed.

*Supported by the National Science Foundation.

4:15
PS-17 Structure of Circumstellar Envelopes About Be Stars. THOMAS H. MORGAN,
KWAN-YU CHEN, Univ. of Fla. -- The structure and nature of the circumstellar

material surrounding Be stars is studied by means of a simple hydrodynamical
approach.

4:30

PS-18 The Effect of Reflection on the Calculation of Radial Velocities of Close Spec-
troscopic Binary Stars.* W. J. RHEIN, Florida Tech. Univ. K-Y CHEN, University
of Florida The radial velocities of many binary stars are calculated from the doppler
shifts of observed spectral lines. It has been often assumed or stated in the literature
that if reflection between close stars were taken into account, the results of the calcu-
lations would be different. The model of a real system of close stars, RZ Comae
Berenices , was analyzed on a computer to investigate this effect. Results of the analysis
indicate that the effect of reflection is not significant in the calculation of radial velo-
cities for this system.

*Sponsored by NSF and NASA.

4:45

PS - 19 photoelectric Observations of UZ Puppis. RAYMOND H. BLOOMER, JR., Rose-

mary Hill Observatory, Univ. of Fla. -- Three color photoelectric observations
of the eclipsing variable UZ Puppis were obtained during the winter of 1971
using the photometer attached to the 30-inch telescope at the Rosemary Hill
Observatory. The light curves and their solutions are discussed.

20 Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences

PHYSICA L SCIENCES SECTION
Saturday, 8:30 am

C. R. Burnett (Florida Atlantic University) presiding

PS - 21

Determination of the Asymmetry Parameter of the Electric Field Gradient of
2Cl in Powder Samples. H. R. Brooker, W- W. Startup, Univ. of South

Florida. The method of Morino and Toyama for finding the asymmetry para-

meter of the quadrupole coupling constant of spin 3/2 nuclei has not been wide-

ly applied because of very stringent requirements on spectrometer sensitivity.

We have largely overcome this difficulty by applying time averaging. Compar-

ative results for para-dichlorobenzene and several other chlorine compounds
will be presented.

nee. Morino and M. Toyama, J. Chem. Phys. 35, 1289 (1961).

8:45

PS - 22 Use of the 13-Moment Approximation To Describe the Propagation of E-M
Waves_in the lonosphere. R.N. RIGBY, The University of West Florida. The com-
plex index of refraction for an Electro-Magnetic wave propagating in an ionized
gas has been calculated by using the 13-moment approximation to obtain solutions
to the Boltzmann Transport Equation. The approximations employ a cross-section
similar to Nitrogen's. The results are compared to the more accurate (but less
tractible) Chapman-Enskog approximation.

9:00 - PS 23

Ambipolar Diffusion Measurements in a Discharge Plasma.* J. T. Pytlin-
ski, W. D. Jones, and N. L. Oleson, Univ. of South Florida. -- Using an ion-

acoustic-wave technique! to measure plasma drift velocity and a Langmuir
probe to measure the electron-density profile, we have determined the plasma
diffusion ''constant'' as a function of radius for a steady-state argon discharge
plasma. The significance of the calculated diffusion constant with respect to
the ion mobility and ionization frequency will also be discussed.

*Research supported in part by USAEC Subcontract No. 3483.

K. Aksornkitti, H.C. Hsuan, and K.E. Lonngren, J. Appl. Phys. 40, 2674
(1969). at

9:15 - PS 24

Direct Energy Conversion in a Discharge Plasma. Dale D. Spurgin, W. D.
Jones, N. L. Oleson, Univ. of South Florida, and I. Alexeff, Univ. of Tenn. --

By immersing one probe of a probe pair in a weak localized magnetic field,
thereby greatly altering the electron mobility in the vicinity of the probe but
not the ion mobility, we have been able to convert the random thermal energy
of a simple discharge plasma directly into electrical energy. Preliminary
studies indicate that the maximum power extracted is a function of several
variables, including plasma density, magnetic field strength, and external
"load" of the probe circuit.

Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences 21

9:30 - PS 25

Effect of Impurities on Excitations of a Solid.*E. RHODES and P. ERDOS,
| Florida State University.--A simple Green function technique is described which
| may be used to find the excitations of a periodic lattice containing a substi-
| tuted impurity, when the impurity-host interaction is of short range. The
| technique has been applied to lattice vibrations, electron bands, and spin wave
| bands. A recent application to the linear chain ferromagnet is discussed.

{ *Research sponsored by the Air Force Office of Scientific Research, Office of
I Aerospace Research, USAF, under AFOSR Grant No. AFOSR-70-1940.

9:45

PS - 26 Nonlinear Oscillations of a _"Waterbag" Plasma.* D.J.
| STEENHOEK and R.W. FLYNN, UnavenrsutyrOrecOuthprloniday=— in the
_"Waterbag" model the electron distribution function is constant

within a certain region of phase space and is zero elsewhere. With
some restrictions this model is equivalent to a hydrodynamic
description with an adiabatic equation of state, but more general
/ behavior is also possible when "trapped" electrons and other
“multiple waterbag configurations are considered. The linear and
nonlinear behavior of such plasmas will be discussed.

*Research supported by Atmospheric Science Section, National
Science Foundation, and the Air Force Cambridge Research
Laboratory.

10:00 - 11:00 PS - 27

ROSAE, The Global Earth Control Satellite Net W. H. GRISHAM, Florida Institute of
Technology. ROSAE is a patented satellite net, which minimizes the physical
constraints on multiple function satellite networks. This concept was developed
for a broad spectrum of economic and socially beneficial satellite services. This
paper will address aerospace technologies appropos to merging: observation, communi-
cations, navigation, and data control functions in a global net capable of managing the
the world biosphere and man's socio-economic activities. Salient physical properties ,
geometry, kinematics, dynamics, orbital stability and major communication link
parameters are enumerated; the constraints on the various functions are optimally
integrated by this uniquely simple concept.

_ CONSERVATION SECTION

| Friday 9 A.M.
| John L. Taylor (National MarineFisheries Service) presiding

C-l Drought and Drainage as they Affect the Southern Florida Water System and
_ Ecology J.E. POPPLETON Florida Technological University

| 9:15

| C-2 Brown Pelican Studies - A Progress Report MICHAEL J. FOGARTY,
STEPHEN A. NESBITT, and LOVETT E. WILLIAMS, JR. Florida Game and Fresh
_ Water Fish Commission, Gainesville, Florida

22 Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences

9:30
C-3 Captive Breeding and Pen-Rearing of Marine Turtles ROSS WITHAM, Florida

Department of Natural Resources, Marine Research Laboratory, Jensen Beach,
Florida.

9:45
c-4 Five-Year Creel Survey of Two Florida Lakes..*- F.J.Ware, W.V. Fish,
and L. Prevatt; Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission - - Sport fisheries

of two Florida natural lakes, Griffin and Harris with surface acreages of 9,100
and 16,500 respectively, were surveyed from 1966 to 1971. The design employed
was a stratified creel survey with non-uniform probability sampling. The survey
provided for seasonal and annual estimates of fishing pressure, catch composition,
and fishing success by species. Characteristics of the creel design are dis-
cussed. - - Annual fishing pressure for each lake varied from 175,944 man-hours
to a high of 327,066 man-hours. Annual catches ranged from 125,994 fishes to
330,574 fishes. Principal components of the catch were largemouth bass,
Micropterus salmoides, black crappie, Pomoxis nigromaculatus, bluegill, Lepomis
macrochirus, and redear sunfish, Lepomis microlophus.

*This study was financed, in part, by Florida Federal Aid in Fish Restoration
Project F-12.

10:00

C-5 Nutrients and Bacteria in Small Lake Conservation WILLIAM R. GARRETT
and DAVID D. WOODBRIDGE University Center for Pollution Research, Florida
Inst. of Technology. The problem of pollution in small man-made lakes is becoming
increasingly more evident by the number of no swimming, boating or fishing signs
posted around them. Conservation of these lakes is dependent upon a detailed know-
ledge of the time relationship of nutrients and the bacteria that accrue. Variations
in concentration of nutrients and bacteria depend upon location and meteorological
conditions. Relationship of nutrients, rainfall, and bacteria are presented for two
lakes in Brevard County using the St. Johns River as a control.

10:15

C-6 Comparison of Carbon Fixation Rates in Two Estuarine Bayous JOHN K.
ADAMS, University of West Florida. Comparisons of carbon fixation rates in Mulatto
Bayou, a highly nutrified and disturbed system; and Catfish Basin, a relatively pristine
estuary, both in Santa Rosa County, Florida, have been in progress since July, 1971
and will continue through June, 1972. Weekly collection of samples from surface, 0.5
meter, and 1.0 meter depths, and their in situ incubation, involves the application of
the 14-carbon method employed against a weekly monitoring of physical-chemical data ,
including assays for phosphate, nitrate, and ammonia. Results to date suggest that
Mulatto Bayou is a highly productive system with correspondingly erratic and fluctuating
carbon fixation rates. In comparison, Catfish Basin shows substantially lower primary
productivity and correspondingly stable and steady carbon fixation profiles. These
results correlate with the high nutrient levels of Mulatto Bayou and comparatively

low nutrient concentrations of Catfish Basin.

10:30 Business Session

10:45 Coffee

Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences 23

11:00

C-7 The Effects of Physical Alteration on Water Quality in Mulatto Bayou,
Escambia Bay THOMAS S. HOPKINS University of West Florida Mulatto Bayou,
located on the east side of Escambia Bay has undergone major physical changes as

a result of the construction of Interstate 10 and subsequent real estate development.
The most recent physical alterations (1970) involved maintenance dredging in response
to local citizen's protests over loss of access to the bay. Beginning with the most
recent alteration and for 12 months following, water quality and flushing was studied.
In the dredged channel, dissolved oxygen values measured at 3 meters depth dropped to
below 4.0 mg/L almost immediately. Continuing observations indicate that during
summer months stratification develops, and dye studies confirm that excessive engin-
eering has resulted in poor flushing.

11:15

C-8 A Preliminary Investigation of some Benthic Parameters Influencing the
Distribution of Foraminifera. RICHARD D. SANFILIPPO, University of West Florida.
A survey of three estuaries near Pensacola, Florida was conducted to determine the
possibility of using foraminifera as biological indicators of water conditions. Sediments
and the water immediately above them were analyzed for several environmental factors
that affect the foraminiferal distribution patterns. Sediment composition and sedimen-
tation rate as well as poor water quality are important factors that appear to be corre-
lated with the diminishing numbers and diversity of foraminiferal populations. The
reliability of several procedures of sampling foraminifera and of measuring water
conditions in the estuary were compared.

11:30 €-9

Ecological and Hematological Studies on Clarius batrachus albina, J. W. Ward,
University of South Florida College of Medic of South Florida College of Medicine, Tampa; H. C. Davis, Aquarium
Supply Company, Tampa. This unwelcom, freshwater, edible, albino siluroid

was introduced into Florida by tropical fish importers and Prenenesa into streams
by home aquarists when it became too agressive and too large for the home
aquarium, This species possesses an auxillary respiratory apparatus in the
branchial cavity which enables it to live in an aquatic environment with a low
oxygen content and to make short excursions on land from one water source to
another, It is omnivorous and has a voracious appetite. Differential blood
counts were tabulated on peripheral blood by counting 500 leucocytes and 500

red cells. The following tabulation is recorded on a percentage basis:
Erythrocytes, 97; 19 micra in diameter, nucleus 5 micra. Erythroblasts, 3;

21 micra in diameter, nucleus 7 micra. Lymphocytes, (small) 40%. Lymphocytes
(large) 12%, 19 u. Neutrophil-like cells (ghost cells ?), 9%, 18 micra.
Monocytes, 20 micra, 5%. Thrombocytes, 34%, 6 micra. The spleen and mesonephri
are the principle hemopoetic organs, with isolated areas in the branchial tissue
and the mesenteries., Further studies are in progress.

SOCIAL SCIENCE SECTION

Friday 9A. M.
Ernest F. Dibble (University of West Florida, Dept. of History) presiding

"Symposium on Social Science Teaching!'!

SS = | The Uses of Visual ~ a in Social Science

Teaching, Milton McPherson, Troy State, Alabama.

24 Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of

SS 927 Maintenance of Reading Improvement for Dyslexic
Children, Anita N. Griffiths, Educational Counselor, Lakeland.

Coffee Break

SS - 3 The New Middle School Curriculum, Jane Dysart, University

of West Florida.

2:00 p.m. SOCIAL SCIENCE SECTION - - Ernest F. Dibble, Chairman

Mary Cathryne Park, Brevard Community College. Pioneering
adaptations of federal programs to meet the needs of the elderly

in Florida in a pattern that can be applied throughout the nation:
(1) Condominiums for the elderly under FHA (2) Rental Units, with
supplement, for low and middle income elderly (3) Section 23
supplement for rental living for elderly in rehabilitated structures
(4) Intermediate Care Facilities (5) Extended Care Facilities

(6) A proposal for group medical practice, with private, health
insurance for the elderly at minimum cost.

SS S15 A Social History of the Chilean Social Security

System, John F. Speight, University of West Florida. This paper
will outline the development of the Chilean social security system
in particular and will attempt a sociological explanation of the
role of social security as well as other forms of social welfare
in the development of Latin America. The major perspective taken
will be socio-historical and will focus on the Hispanic view of
man and the social contract, ideological conflicts surrounding

the demise of liberalism and individualism in the last decades

of the nineteenth century and the first few decades of the present
century, major organizational models employed in the establishment
of social security programs in Chile, prevailing welfare ideologies,
and how all these converge/diverge to affect the orgainzational
functioning of three Chilean social security funds since their
inception (1925-1930).

Coffee Break - Business Meeting, Social Science Section

SSe=)6 Transportation - Need for Greater Intermodal
Coordination, Albin N. Benson, formerly Federal Aviation

Agency. This paper will give examples which illustrate the lack
of intermodal coordaination in our transportation systems. It
will also point out areas where progress is being made. Benefits
derived from increased cooperation between the various travel
modes will be discussed as they apply to the situation in Florida.

Format: Discussants and session speakers will conduct a
short roundtable after papers are read.
Discussants: Norman Gilbert, Rollins College
Gilbert Lycan, Stetson University

Sciences

Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences 25

SCIENCE TEACHING SECTION

Friday 9am
L. B. Sanders (University of Florida) presiding

ST -1 Computer Physics For Undergraduates. JAYS. BOLEMON, Florida
Technological University. Special physics courses are being initiated at Florida
Technological University to instruct our majors in developing computer solutions

to physics problems. The problems selected are appropriate for both junior and
senior students studying mechanics ,electricity and magnetism, and modern physics.
The instructor presents an initial method and program, and the class is required

to improve the method and rewrite the program as their assignments. The students
gain competence in FORTRAN as they progress. When working problems to which
they know the answer, they must develop computer techniques to derive the solution
to the desired level of accuracy. Results of experiences over one quarter will be
presented.

9:15- ST -2
Implementation of Science Research Courses in Secondary School
Curriculum, by Robert F. Richmond and David D. Woodbridge,

Science Education Department,
Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne, Florida

Science Research courses have been instigated in the Brevard
County School system as a result of support by the Cooperative
College-School Science Program of the National Science Foundation.
The program consisted of actual research projects carried out by
the high school student under the direction of their research
instructor. Florida Institute of Technology staff members worked
in close relationship with the high school teachers on campus and
in their own classrooms. F.1I.T.'s direction and coordination
assured that each research task developed in a meaningful manner.

9:30 ST -3

A Simplified and Reliable Free-fall Apparatus for Laboratory Use B.J. JAIN,
Florida A & M University Traditional laboratory experiments on free fall use
indirect means for recording time and as a result, the inherent simplicity of the free
fall motion is lost. By synchronizing the motion of the body with the time measuring
device, a system for the automatic recording of the time has been developed which
greatly simplifies the apparatus and gives better values of 'g'.

9:45 Business Session
10:00 Coffee Break

10:30- ST - 4
flastery Concepts in Individualized Earth Science, CHARLES J. MOTT, Department
of Natural Sciences, Clearwater Campus, St. Petersburg Junior College

Auto=paced Earth Science using Mastery Techniques as taught at the Tarpon
Springs Center of St. Petersburg Junior College is outlined. A brief discussion
of the history of curriculum individualization via audio-tutorial techniques,
and the mastery techniques employed in this experiment are presented.

Comparisons are advanced and conclusions made concerning the implementation
of techniques of mastery learnings

26 Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences

10:45

ST - 5 Innovations In Space Science WILLIAM MELVIN TRANTHAM Florida
Keys Community College. In order to familiarize students enrolled in Biology at
Florida Keys Community College with short-term weightlessness, a single-engine
Cessna 210 aircraft was chartered by the instructor. Keplerian trajectories were
executed in the aircraft at an altitude of two thousand feet over the Gulf of Mexico,
generating periods of weightlessness lasting from three to five seconds. By the end of
five sequential trajectories most students were able to acclimate completely with all
phases of the trajectory. Utilization of this technique generated a more than average
amount of enthusiasm among the students and allowed them to experience firsthand

a sensation usually reserved only for astronauts.

11:00

ST-6 Students as Teachers ROBERT A. BERGIN and THOMAS G. PERTRAK
Palm Beach Garden High School and Howell Watkins Junior High School

Field trips are desirable in many science classes, but are often difficult to arrange
especially in junior high school. Students in senior high schools are able to leave
school for a field experience more readily, but are not as motivated as junior high
students. The authors teach marine biology to junior and senior high students in the
adjoining schools. Volunteers from the senior high class led a field trip for junior
high students, giving a "student-teacher" ratio of about four to one. Specific benefits
and drawbacks of the plan are discussed.

11:15

ST -7 The Emerging Role of the Science Supervisor: Behavior Modification.
Jack D. Strickland, Alachua County & John J. Koran, Jr., Univ. of Florida. --
There is an increasing emphasis in science teacher education upon influencing
teacher behaviors to correspond with desirable student outcomes in the contem- !
porary curricula.! A review of research suggests that we can specify behaviors
in science’ and subsequently modify them.3 This paper will be an attempt to
describe the emerging role of the science supervisor as a behavior modification
resource person in the public schools.

|
1Paul DeHart Hurd, New Curriculum Perspective for Jr. High School Science, (1970).
2John Smith, Journal of Research in Science Teaching ,.8, (3)Rabeezee

33. J. Koran, Jr., "The Use of Modeling,Feedback and Practice Variables to
Influence Science Teacher Behavior," Science Education in press, (1972).

SCIENCE TEACHING SECTION

Friday 2 pm
Harold Sims (St. Petersburg Junior College) presiding

ST - 8

WHAT 1S ECOLOGY ? HAROLD W. SIMS, JR. ST. PETERSBURG JR. COLLEGE, CLEARWATER
FLORIDA, A BRAND NEW FILM STRIP PRESENTATION EXPLAINING THE ORIGIN AND HISTORY
OF THE SCIENCE OF ECOLOGY AND SHOWING THE WIDE FIELD IT COVERS. THE ACTUAL

CASE HISTORY OF THE BUILDING OF THE CROSS FLORIDA BANGE CANAL, ILLUSTRATES A
PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF THIS KNOWLEDGE AND HOW THE LACK OF IT LEADS TO DISASTER.
THIS FILM STRIP IS BEING MARKETED NATIONWIDE BY WARREN SCHLOAT PRODUCTIONS, INC,
PLEASANTVILLE, NEW YORK,

|

Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences 21

2:30

ST - 9 Environmental Education: Training Under Simulated Conditions.
Donna R. Thompson, Alachua County and John J. Koran, Jr., Univ. of Florida.

The state of Florida has adopted guidelines for the education of teachers and
students in environmental education.! Behavioral outcomes can be classified
both in cognitive and affective domains. A critical problem is arranging
conditions under which students can have a wide range of experiences requiring
decision making and also be confronted with making these decisions under
simulated conditions. This paper will describe some behavior modification
approaches which may be of significance to this problem.?

lgnvironmental Education, Florida Master Plan, Department of Education, (1971).
2jJohn J. Koran, Jr., Two Paradigms for the Training of Science Teachers Using
Videotape Technology and Simulated Conditions, Journal of Research in Science
Teaching, 6, (1), (1969).

2:50

ST-10 Science As the Disposition Toward Knowledge Operating Within an Inter-
disciplinary Environmental Education Program. RICHARD C. TILLIS, Florida Master
Plan for Environmental Education. This paper will outline the basic philosophy and
structure of the Florida Master Plan for Environmental Education and define the

basic role of science education within the program.

3::05
ST -1l Environmental Education, ASensitivity Approach HAL SCOTT Florida
Audubon Society, Maitland, Florida Methods of teaching environmental education

through field experience in the natural environment. Learning by doing, not by being
told.

3:20 COFFEE BREAK

3:40

ST - 12 Strategies For Implementing Environmental Education Programs.
W. F. HAMMOND, Lee County Environmental Education Program.-- This

paper will identify proven strategies for implementing Environmental
Education programs into local school systems through teacher training,

community and student involvement.

3:55 ST - 13

"Entomology In Action" - A Career-Oriented Presentation for

High School »tudents by The Florida #ntomological Society.

By- “, B. Gresham Jr., President, Florida Entomological Society.
As one part of its Public Relations Program, The Florida

Entomological Society has made up a presentation for use by its

members consisting of 57 color 2X2 slides and a prepared script.

This presentation is available on loan to any member when he has

an opportunity to talk to junior or senior high school students

to interest them in a career in one of the disciplines in the

field of entomology.

28 Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences

4:15

ST-14 Modern Biology--An Approach to the Teaching of Biology to Science Majors:
Reflections after one Year.* C.S. HUANG Chipola Jr. College The teaching methods
of Modern Biology currently undergoing experimentation at the college. Emphasis

on the chemical aspects of life, the steady state systems, and environmental biology.
The laboratory manual stresses molecular-analytical procedures of biological investi-
gations. Students with strong backgrounds in science and mathematics have success-
fully completed their laboratory projects. Projects attracting students the most
include: (1) Blood chemistry (the determination of hemoglobin and cholesterol, (2)
Chemical analysis of urine (inorganic ions and organic compounds determination) , (3)
paper chromatography (separation of leaf pigment) and gas chromatographic techniques
(4) Coliforms test, BOD test, chemical analysis of water studies (samples from local
ponds and sewage plants, (5) Genetics (microorganisms isolated from nature are

used for mutation studies and DNA isolation).

*Research supported by Chipola Staff and Program Development Plan 1971-72.

4:30 ST -15
THE DIRECTIONS OF FLORIDA CONSERVATION ACTION, WILLIAM MA. PARTINGTON,
ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION CENTER, WINTER PARK, FLORIDA.

RANDON THOUGHTS ON WHAT DIRECTIONS FLORIDA CONSERVATION SEEMS TO BE TAKING, AND
HOW THIS 1S INVOLVING NEW TYPES OF ACTIONS AND THUS COMMUNICATIONS. WHEREAS

WE FORMERLY WERE ENGAGED IN CONFRONTATIONS, WE NOW ARE TRYING TO UNDERSTAND
EACHOTHER AND COOPERATE.

4:45 ST-16 Pat Purcell

ADDICTION: DRUGS AND ALCOHOL
Public Symposium, Medical and Social Sciences Sections

Thursday, 8:00 pm
Welcome: James G. Potter, President-elect FAS
Opening Remarks
Dr. Robert G. Sherrill, Jr. , Medical Director of Hillsborough County Hospital
Tampa; Chairman, Medical Sciences Section
Dr. Ernest F. Dibble, University of West Florida, Faculty of History, Chairman,
Social Sciences Section
Symposium Moderator: Judge D. Arthur Yergey, Former Juvenile Court Judge,
Orlando, Florida
Panelists

Dr. Walter E. Afield (Psychiatry) - Clinical Director of St. Joseph Hospital Men-
tal Health Center, Tampa, Fla.; Professor and Chairman of the Department
of Psychiatry, University of South Florida, Tampa.

Dr. Harold D. Brewer (Family Practice) - Plant City Florida

Dr. Sam A. Banks (Ministry) - Assistant Professor in Medicine and Religion,
Department of Community Health, College of Medicine, University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida.

Dr. Kenneth S. Finger (Pharmacology) - Dean of College of Pharmacy, University
of Florida, Gainesville, Florida

Dr. Charles V. Unkovie (Sociology) - Professor & Chairman of Dept. of
Sociology - Florida Technological University, Orlando, Florida

Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences 29

BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ELECTRICAL POWER GENERATION

Public Symposium,Biological Science and Conservation Sections.
Saturday 8:15 am

John L. Taylor (National Marine Fisheries Service), presiding.
Opening Remarks - John L. Taylor

8:30

BS & C-1 Environmental Research and Electric Power Generation KENNETH W.
PREST, JR. Florida Power Corporation, Environmental Affairs Biologist. Scientific
interest in the response of natural ecosystems to the stresses of industrial growth is
certainly not new. However, direct industrial participation in the support of such research
is becoming increasingly significant since the promulgation of the National Environmental
Policy Act of 1969. In response to the intent of this policy, reflected in the subsequent
requirements of such Federal Agencies as the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and the
Atomic Energy Commission, power companies are challenged to present a responsible
perspective of environmental awareness which reflects a comprehensive understanding

of the socio-economic and ecological implications of their proposed actions. An integral
aspect in the development of this perspective is the function of environmental-ecological
research. The coordination of research programs demands a realistic and systematic
approach if the company is to make a responsible contribution to improving the quality

of the environment and realize the benefits of its environmental investments.

During June 1970, the Florida Power Corporation established a Generation Environmental
and regulatory Affairs Department within which the Environmental Affairs Section has the
responsibility for developing the resources of environmental research. The functional
effectiveness of the Section depends on the conjoint accomplishment of three interrelated
objectives:

I. Develop and expeditiously execute environmental research programs upon which
successful licensing, engineering, construction and operation of power plants may be
based.

II. Utilize the knowledge gained through Company-sponsored and related environ-
mental research toward the development of Environmental Reports and thus the reality
of environmentally compatible electric power generation.

Il. Responsibly relate the Company's environmental activities to the public, con-
servation groups, scientific community and governmental agencies in order to promote
understanding of industrial-environmental interrelationships.

8:50

BS &C-2 The Complexities of Thermal Effects Evaluations EDWIN A. JOYCE, Jr.
Florida Department of Natural Resources, Biological Laboratory. The Marine Research
Laboratory of the Florida Department of Natural Resources has been studying the effects
of thermal effluents in the vicinity of the Crystal River Plant (Florida Power Corporation,
Crystal River, Florida). The two main objectives were to obtain baseline ecological

data prior to the opening of a nuclear generator which will double the present amount of
effluent, and to evaluate the effects of the presently functioning fossil fueled units.
Correlative studies were also conducted in Tampa Bay and in temperature controlled
rooms at the main Laboratory facilities in St. Petersburg.

The Crystal River ecological evaluation showed little evidence of temperature induced
damage or change. In fact, channel dredging appeared to have had the greatest deleter -
ious effects. In addition, water temperatures taken on a shallow oyster bar in upper
Tampa Bay were found to vary as much as 12°C within 24 hours and the highest reading
was 37°C. Living oysters ona natural bar withstood temperatures of 49.5°C when
exposed to the sun at low tide. Such findings indicate the complexity of making thermal
effects evaluations. Consequently, all factors must be considered and each case must
be judged on the basis of its own particular set of characteristics.

30 Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences

9:10

BS & C-3 The Making of a Power Plant, I: Environment and Design* T.E. PYLE,
R.C. BAIRD, K.L. CARDER, T.L. HOPKINS, D.W. WALLACE, University of South
Florida. In late 1970 the Marine Science Institute began a long-range study of the
Acnlote River and Anchorage near Tarpon Springs prior to construction of a power plant
at the river mouth. Within a few months university scientists made initial reeommenda-
tions for changing design of the plant. Supporting statements from conservation groups
and an economic analysis by industry led to the adoption in mid-1971 of the major recom-
mendation that an overland pipeline be substituted for the dredging of a channel for oil
barges. The critical problem now facing researchers, conservation groups and industry
concerns the proposed degree of cooling and method of discharge of heated water.
Although some significant design changes have been made as a result of environmental
information, it should be emphasized that others have not and that ecologists had no input
to the initial and probably more fundamentally important design stage, site selection.
*Research supported by Florida Power Corporation.

9:30
BS & C - 4 Title to be Announced ROGER STEWART Hillsborough County Pollution
Control Commission

9:50 BS & C- 5

CONSIDERATIONS FOR LOCATING POWER PLANTS IN TROPICAL & SUBTROPICAL REGIONS. |
By R.G. Bader, M.A. Roessler, G. L. Voss - University of Miami, School of Marine
& Atmospheric Science.

The continual growth and movement of populations and the technological develop-
ment of nations with accompanying industrial demands will require the construc-—
tion of huge power plants in coastal areas. These plants must be favorably
located and their heated effluent adequately disposed of in order not to cause
ecological damage.

This paper discusses some considerations for power plant siting and gives some
alternatives for development without severe damage to the environment.

10:10 BS & C - 6
LEGAL ASPECTS OF THERMAL POLLUTION. by D. O'Connor, Univ. of Miami, School of
Law.

Examination of the problem of legal regulation of thermal pollution,
including the jurisdiction of local, state and federal authorities. Appraisal
of existing decision-making authority as applied to site selection, construction
and operation of power plants, and a review of alternative basis for regulation
for balancing development needs and environmental considerations.

10:30 BS&C-7
ON THE ECONOMICS OF THERMAL POLLUTION by Lee Anderson ~ Univ. of Miami,
Department of Economics.

An economic model is presented that allows for the definition of the optimum
amount of thermal pollution. That point is, of course, dependant upon the costs
of pollution abatement and of pollution damage.

The remainder of the paper describes the procedure for applying this model
<o the real world. The discussion centers on the difficulties of the procedure
and the information that will be necessary from natural scientists to complete
alte

Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences 31

10:50 BS&C-8

EXCHANGE PROCESSES IN SHALLOW ESTUARIES by T.N. Lee and C. Rooth. Univ. of Miami,
School of Marine and Atmospheric Science.

A modular approach to the analysis of mixing and flow characteristics in
shallow tidal estuaries is presented using South Florida's Biscayne Bay estuary
as an example. The method depends on isolating relatively simple characteristic
flow regimes in different parts of an estuary. These can be considered as build-
ing blocks, which when recombined in different configurations are capable of
yielding a qualitative model for any specific estuary. Such models are of
immediate value in preliminary assessments of estuarine water quality and inter-
action problems. This method can serve as an effective base for further studies
where more precise information is needed.

11:10 BS&C-9

Predicting Thermal Effluent Movement in the Anclote Anchorage*
R. H. KLAUSEWITZ, Univ. of South Florida. -- This paper describes the study of
the hydraulic movement in St. Joseph Sound/Anclote Anchorage prior to installa-
tion of a power plant there. Research includes synoptic current measurements,
salinity distribution, nutrient distribution, particulate distribution and the
positioning of recording current and depth meters. A hydraulic model developed
by the staff has been employed to study the flow by computer. The model is being
calibrated by field current measurements, range ratio measurements, phase lag,
and overflight dye drops. This hydraulic model has capability to accomodate wind
stress additions, mud flat run-on and run-off, and blockages in the path of water
flow such as oyster bars or spoil banks. The output of the hydraulic model will
be used in a dispersion model to predict areas which will be affected by the
thermal effluent.

11:30 BS&C-10

Role of Historical Bathymetric Data in Resolution of an Ecological Problem*
J.C. McCARTHY, T.E. PYLE, Univ. of South Florida.-- In 1970 it was proposed that
a shoal south of Anclote Key near Tarpon Springs, Fla. be used as a spoil island
in connection with the dredging of a channel for fuel barge deliveries to
Florida Power Corp's. Anclote generating plant. As part of a study of this area,
soundings made by the U.S.C.&G.S. in 1884, 1926, and 1953 were used to prepare
bathymetric charts and, by means of overlays, to derive a net sedimentation/
erosion map. Results indicated that the proposed site was not accreting or
“becoming an island anyway" but that it had been in long-term dynamic equilibrium.
This finding and negative biological comments eventually led to adoption of an
alternative method of fuel delivery. The use of such reliable and widely
available data from a Federal agency should be encouraged in all studies of
effects of power plant construction.
* Research supported by Florida Power Corporation

32 Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences

11:45 BS&C-ll

Reconnaissance Mapping of Turbidity in Estuaries* T.E. PYLE,
JG: MecGCARTHY, Uniws Of Sowth Fllonida, GloMe GREEN -UnisveiOr

Florida.-- Knowledge of the distribution of turbidity and suspended
sediments in estuaries is important to a multitude of biological,
geological, and technological studies and projects. Transmissome-
ters measure the % transmittance of light over a lm or 10cm path
and can be towed at speeds up to 5 knots from a small boat to
provide a synoptic picture of turbidity over a large area. At the
same time water samples can be taken to determine total suspended
load, the ratio organic/inorganic particles and other parameters.
For more detailed studies the light source or photocell can be
changed to compensate for water color effects and the instrument

calibrated with formazin to give readings in JTU or FTU.
* Research_supported by Florida Power Corporation.

BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ELECTRICAL POWER GENERATION

Public Symposium, Biological Science and Conservation Sections.

Saturday 2:00 pm

Joseph L. Simon (University of South Florida), presiding.

2:00 BS&C-12 |
Problems of Quantitative Sampling in Relation to Near Shore and Estuarine

Fishes K. ROLFES, W. CAUSEY, D. MILLIKAN, W. FABLE, AND R. BAIRD, Univ. of

South Florida.-- Unlike many marine organisms fishes present a variety of

difficulties in quantitative sampling due to their size and mobility. The

problem is particularly critical in relation to site surveys where adequate

quantitative sampling is essential for providing base-line data for evaluation

of environmental impact. To date most surveys have had serious quantitative

drawbacks and have often been inadequate for environmental evaluation. A

sampling strategy employing a variety of methods is being developed for the

Anclote Environmental Study* by the Department of Oceanography of the

University of South Florida. The results to date, sampling bias, and the

multi-gear approach to site surveys are discussed.

* Research supported by Florida Power Corporation.

2:15 BS&C-13
Aerial Mapping of Seagrass Beds* J. FEIGL, T.E. PYLE,
R. CLINGAN, R. ZIMMERMAN, Univ. of South Florida. -- The extent of

seagrass beds in estuaries and shallow coastal waters can be
effectively and economically determined by using hand-held 35mm
cameras in light aircraft. Beds of Thalassia, Diplanthera and
Syringodium in Anclote Anchorage and St. Joseph Sound have been
mapped by this method prior to construction of a power plant at the
mouth of the Anclote River. Infra-red Ektachrome film has been
used to record the distribution of tidal channels, borrow areas,
sand flats and seagrass beds. This photography will provide the
basis for determining seasonal fluctuations in the boundaries of
these units and additional changes, if any, resulting from power

plant construction and operation.
* Research supported by—Florida Power Corporation.

Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences 33

2:30 BS&C-14

THE EFFECT OF HEATED EFFLUENTS ON A POPULATION OF THALASSIA TESTUDINUM IN
BISCAYNE BAY. by A Thorhaug, R. Stearns and S. Pepper - Univ. of Miami, School
Of Marine & Atmospheric Science.

The most important community in Biscayne Bay is that of the turtle grass,
Thalassia testudinum. A two year study of the area near the point of heat
effluence of a power plant was compared with the data from an uneffected area,
Card Sound.

The results of these studies showed that in areas consistantly +5 and +4°C
above the ambient that considerable damage to the Thalassia abundance and growth
was evident. In the #1°C area the growth and abundance patterns resembled those
in Card Sound except for flowering and fruiting of the plants.

2:50 BS&C-15

_ Recent Changes in Seagrass Dominants of Anclote Anchorage. *
R. J. Zimmerman, Univ. of South Florida. Certain seagrass

beds in Anclote Anchorage near Tarpon Springs, Florida have
changed from a dominance of Thalassia, reported in 1959, to
present dominance of Syringodium. The change is believed
largely due to a general increase in turbidity of anchorage
waters during that time. This view is supported by present
Seagrass zonation and present and past reports on water clarity.

*Research supported by Florida Power Corporation through
the Univ. of South Florida at St. Petersburg.

1m. C. Phillips, Fla. Bd. Conser. Prof. Papers Ser. No. 2

2ePD e960).

3:05 BS&C-16

Photosynthesis Response to Temperature in Marine Phytoplankton
with Reference to Adaptation. CHARLES S. YENTSCH University of Massachusetts

Marine Station Observations on phytoplankton grown at different temperatures in the
open oceans contribute a little to the scant knowledge on the effect of elevated temper-
atures on photosynthesis but are sometimes confusing because some algae adapt to
different temperatures. Thus, the instantaneous response of photosynthesis to temper-
ature, over a long time period, may not be indicative of how the algae are able to
maintain their photosynthetic capacity in a given temperature regime. Whether or not
the process of adaptation to different temperatures is specific or general to populations
is not known; also unknown is the time necessary for a given population to adapt to the
new temperature. However, recent evidence indicates that temperature acclimation
in marine phytoplankton is accomplished by a shift in species. Individual species show
little tendency to adapt.

34 Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences

3:25 BS&C-17
LABORATORY STUDIES OF TEMPERATURE TOLERANCES OF MAJOR BISCAYNE BAY ORGANISMS

by A. Thorhaug w/technical assistance of S.A. Bach and K. Kellar Univ. of
Miami, School of Marine & Atmospheric Science.

The physiology of tropical and subtropical estuarine organisms has enjoyed
scant attention. Temperature, a fundamental factor for their survival and growth
has been neglected. Laboratory studies were carried out on over 20,000 organisms ©
of 35 species and life stages, and these results were integrated with simultane-
ous field investigations of these species. Lethal limit studies employing some
18,000 individuals showed that the expected Gaussian or skewed Gaussian curve
did not materialize. Instead an abrupt death point occurred often with an
interval of 1°C and in many cases within 0.5°C resembling a step function.

Results will be discussed.

3:45 BS&C-18

Preliminary Study of the Effects of Heated Waste Waters from a Steam Power
Plant on Escambia River, in Northwest Florida. NICHOLAS DEGEORGES, University
of West Florida. The area under study from April to June 1971 near Pensacola, consists
of the cooling ditch, the lower end of Governors Bayou and the river from Governors
Bayou outfall to the Escambia Bay (coordinates Lat. 30°34'N, Long. 87°13'W). Temper-
ature ,salinity and dissolved oxygen data were collected. Faunal determinations were
made through plankton tows and growth platforms. Three distinct temperature zones
were found to exist: the first was ambient river temperature; the second was in the cool-
ing ditch, which was 3-6 C above ambient. Faunal differences between the river and the
cooling ditch were most distinct among the Copepod populations. The ditch had only
Cyclopoid Copepods; while the River had Calanoid Copepods at the beginning of the study
and as temperatures rose Cyclopoid Copepods began to appear and then predominate
in the river.

4:00 BS&C-19
Effects of Heated Effluent on the Benthic Fauna of Tampa Bay. ROBERT

W. VIRNSTEIN, University of South Florida. -- Benthic fauna near Tampa Electric
Company's Big Bend Power Plant on southeast Tampa Bay was studied from February,
1970, through August, 1971, both before and after plant operation. The plant
uses 240,000 gallons of bay water per minute heated 6-7 C. Preliminary
analysis of data indicate elimination of some species and a decrease in density

and diversity due to the temperature increase.

4:15 BS&C-20
OPTIMAL AND EXCLUSION TEMPERATURES FOR SUBTROPICAL ESTUARINE ORGANISMS by
M. A. Roessler and D. C. Tabb- Univ. of Miami

A model based on the exclusion of species from the heated areas of Biscayne
Bay is formulated to predict the impact of thermal additions on subtropical
estuaries or coastal bays. This model was constructed from data based on the
extent of damage with two 432,000 KWe fossil fuel units using 635 cfs cooling
water apiece. Optimum temperature appeared to be near 26°C and 50% of the
species were excluded at temperatures of 33°C or higher.

Predictions of the area to be affected with the addition of two 760,000 KWe
nuclear units using 1490 cfs cooling water apiece and with the proposed semi-
enclosed cooling canal system are made.

Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences 35

4:35 BS&C-21

| Radionuclides in Liquid Wastes Released from a Nuclear Power Plant = Anticipated

Doses to Marine Organisms and to Man. Bolch,W.E., C,H. Roessler, and W.E.S. Carne

A study of both current and anticipated concentrations of radionuclides in

| the environment is in progress at the site of construction of a Florida Power
_ Corp. nuclear power plant near Crystel River, Fla. Expected annual releases of

radionuclides are known. The specific activity approach has been used to calculete
future doses to marine animals and to man via seafood. Future dose levels are

| compared with the current ‘doses received from radionuclides of natural origin
and from fallout.

4:55 BS&C-22

Thermal Effluents and Mariculture VIOLET N. STEWART Big Bend
Marine Laboratory, Tampa Electric Co. Observations on Stone Crabs, selected
fishes, and oysters in the thermal effluent of a fossil-fueled power plant have
confirmed the adaptability of certain organisms.

Growth rates, reproduction, and behavior have been recorded at
elevated temperatures.

5:10 Concluding Remarks - J.L. Simon

CLEAN AIR TECHNOLOGY FOR SURGERY, SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY

Public Symposium, Medical and Physical Sciences Sections
Saturday April 8 1:30 P.M.

Moderator: Dr. Irwin S. Leinbach, Orthopaedic Surgeon, St. Petersburg,
Florida.

Panelists: Bertha Yanis Litsky, Consulting Bacteriologist and Specialist
in Environmental Control in Hospitals

Joseph Morris, M.D., Orthopaedic Surgeon, College of
Medicine, University of Florida

Terry D. Stinson, Clean Air Specialist, Manager of Operations
Support, Harris Semiconductor Division of Harris-Intertype
Corporation.

Alan C. Harter, M.D., Specialist in Aerospace Medicine,
Chief of Medical Services, Kennnedy Space Center

Kenneth P. Fallon, III, Operating Room Systems Division,
Codman & Shurtleff, Inc.

Warren Litsky, Ph.D., Director of the Institute of Agricultural
& Industrial Microbiology and of the Technical Guidance Center
for Industrial Environmental Control, University of Massachusetts

Hector J. Defelix, Specialist in Super Clean Areas, Principal
Production Engineer, Aerospace Division, Honeywell, Inc.

36 Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences

SPECIAL LECTUR&

The Space Frontier, WILLIAM M. TRANTHAM, Florida Keys
Community College. A 50 minute lecture-slide presentation to include the design
and testing of a jet powered skate-board by college students, Gemini Rendezvous,
Apollo 9, 11, 12, 15 and the Mariner 6 and 8 missions to the planet Mars.

(The above presentation has been prepared through the kind cooperation and assist-
ance of Mr. Bill Nixon, Educational Service Director of the National Space and
Aeronautics Administration; Mr. Gordon Wenger of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory
in Pasendena for the computer updated slides of Mariner VI and VII missions;

and Mr. Wernon MacPherson of Lockheed-California for the slides of the hyper-
sonic SR-71. Parts of the Presentation were given at the 1970-71 National Science
Teachers! Convention in Washington, and at St. Francis College in Biddeford,
Maine last March.)

AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF PHYSICS TEACHERS - FLORIDA SECTION

Friday 2:00 pm
Michael T. Kambour (Miami-Dade Junior College) presiding

PT-1 Single Concept Movie -- "Accelerated Motion", Joseph J. Boyle, Miami-Dade
Junior College, South Campus, Miami, Florida.

A six minute, super 8mm film produced by three students at Miami-Dade
Junior College, South Campus. Amusement park rides plus simple experiments
are used to study circular motion.

2:15 - PT -2

LET'S BRING MORE OF THE OUTSIDE WORLD INTO THE CLASSROOM, Stanley S. Ballard,

University of Florida. These are times when we are trying to establish the
relevance of physics to real life and are trying to reach non-scientists, to
impart to them some feeling of the nature of physics and allied hard sciences.
In order to reach the liberal arts students we must stay away from the jargon
of science and use a minimum of the mathematical treatment which seems so
elegant to us but may be frightening to them. We should select more attractive
examples of the operation of physical laws, taking them from actual life
situations rather than engineering applications. Our quizzes and examinations
should try to bring out independent thought rather than being pure recall or
mathematical exercises. All this represents a considerable challenge to our
conventional methods of teaching physics, but it is a challenge that we must
accept.

2:30 Business Meeting

2:45 SYMPOSIUM: Personalized Systems of Instruction

Moderator: Irving G. Foster
Florida Presbyterian College

PT-3 A Comparison of the Conventional Physics Lecture Course

to a Self-Paced Self-Study Competency-Based Approach
with Contract. JOSEPH L. AUBEL, University of South Florida

Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences

PT-4 A Course in 20th Century Physics Using an Individualized
Method. ROBERT J. GOLL, Miami-Dade Junior College, North

Campus.

PT-5 Laboratory Approaches in a Keller Plan Physics Course.
JOHN S. ROSS, Rollins College

PT-6 "Mini Courses" for Freshman Chemistry. MICHAEL T. KAMBOUR,
Miami-Dade Junior College, South Campus.

PT-7 Use of Individualized Instruction in a Course for
Science Teachers. CARL A. BABSKI, Miami-Dade Junior
College, North Campus.

DISCUSSION PERIOD.

OPTICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA - FLORIDA SECTION

Joseph G. Hirschberg (University of Miami) President, Presiding

Saturday, April 8, 1972
9:00 am Contributed Papers
10:30 Business Meeting
11:00 Joint Session with American Association of Physics Teachers
and Science Teaching Section
Pocket Fourier Spectroscopy - Bruce H. Billings, Immediate
Past President, The Optical Society of America
2:00 pm Contributed Papers

FLORIDA STATE SCIENCE TALENT SEARCH

This is open to students, grades 10 - 12, in all public and private schools.
Winners from the ten State Regions and the Junior Academy will present
papers on their investigations including some experimental work. A
$500 college science scholarship is granted by the William G. and Marie
Selby Foundation to the winner. Also two all-expenses-paid three-week
participantships in the National Youth Science Camp in West Virginia are
awarded to two senior boys through invitation of the Governor of Florida.
In addition, Certificates of Excellence and of Merit are awarded. All
interested are invited to attend the presentation of papers.

37

38

Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences

FLORIDA JUNIOR ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
Thirty Third Annual Meeting
Friday, April 7, 1972

8:00 Registration - Bush Science Center Foyer

9:00

9:00

PRESENTATION OF JUNIOR HIGH RESEARCH PAPERS

Chemistry Lecture Room - 108
Presiding - Joey Nolan

Thymine Dimer Photoreactivation Properties of Far-Ultraviolet
Irradiated Cells of Escherichia coli.
Donna Self - Roosevelt Junior High School

The Theorectical Reactivity of Carbon Suboxide in the Martian Atmosphere
Carl Ficarrotta - Cocoa High School

"The Mad Hatter Appears Again" - Mercury Pollution: A World-Wide
Problem
John Denninghoff - Edgewood Junior High School

Thermal Effect on Plankton
Alicia Sinclair - Nautilus Junior High School

Microwave Amplification and Pumping of Hydroxyl Molecules
George Ellis - Largo Junior High (Science Center)

Transplantation, Permeability, and Active Transport of the Small
Intestine of the Mesocricitus Auratus Auratus
Betty Ann Adams - Kennedy Junior High School

A Chemical Analysis of Sykes Creek
Margaret Ann West - Kennedy Junior High School

The Effects of Circulating Antibody as Related to the Immunologic
Enhancement of the SV40 Tumor in the Mesocricetus Auratus Auratus
Denise Anne Miller - Rockledge High School

PRESENTATION OF SENIOR HIGH LITERARY RESEARCH PAPERS

Bush Auditorium - 127
Presiding - Mike Pace

Quasars
Murlene Wiggs - J. M. Tate High School

Enzymatic Repair of Ultraviolet Induced Pyrimidine Dimerization in
DNA
Tim Jones - Cocoa High School

Phytochrome and Photomorphogenesis |
Lola Brabham - Gainesville High School

Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences 39

11:00

12:00

1:00

1:15

Benzoic Acid - 3 Hydroxyacetate: Synthesis and Contrast/Comparison
to Lesions Incurred by Acetylsalicylic Acid
George Zima - Cocoa Beach High School

The Relationship Between the Structure of Polyribosomes and the Time
of Their Appearance in Sea Urchin Eggs
Shonnie Gramly - Cocoa High School

Flowering and Fruiting and Its Relationship to Senescence in Plants
Barbara Frierson - Cocoa High School

A Study of the Evolution of Cellular Biochemistry in Relation to
Enzymatic Activity
Brian Stenquist - Naples High School
Culturing Methods of the Opalinids
Dave Seibert - Cocoa High School
SPONSORS' MEETING
Students invited to attend:

Senior Academy Sessions = Bush Science Center

Science Talent Search - Bush Science Center

LUNCH

GENERAL SESSION
Bush Auditorium - 127
Presiding - Ruth Babyak

Welcome - President, Rollins College
PRESENTATION OF HIGH SCHOOL EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH PAPERS

A Comparative Investigation of the Relative Medullary Thickness and Urine
Concentrating Abilities of Desert Rodents

Mike Pace - Merritt Island High School

Prevention of Endotoxin Shock by Antihistamines in Mice
Teresa Rittmanic - Merritt Island High School

The Pathological and Clinical Significance of Magnesium Depletion
Appearing in Cardiovascular Disease
Benjamin Max Mondschein - Miami Beach Sr. High School

The Prefection of a Method for the Determiniation of the Critical Surface
Tension of Powdered Polymers
John R. Minter - Terry Parker High School

40

Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences

A Study of the Effects of Colchicine and Trimethylcolchicinic Acid Methyl
Ether D-Tartrate on the Metabolism and Mitotic Index of Malignant Neo-

plastic Tissue

Joseph G. Nolan - Merritt Island High School

Mid-Brain Reticular and Caudate Nucleus Formation Influences on Sub-
Level Kindling of Anygdaloid Focal Epilepsy
Mark Rittmanic - Merritt Island High School

Auxin Chemistry: Mechanisms of 2, 4-D Herbicidal Action
J. Michael Verlander, Jr., Melbourne Central Catholic H. S.

"Water, Water Everywhere, Nor Any Drop to Drink"
Corey J. Mullins - Merritt Island High School

3:15 BUSINESS MEETING
Presiding - Mike Pace

6:00 AWARDS BANQUET- Rose Skillman Dining Hall

OFFICERS OF JUNIOR ACADEMY

PRESIDENT:

VICE PRESIDENT:
SECRETARY -TREASURER:
STATE DIRECTOR:

STATE DIRECTOR:

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE:

ROLLINS COLLEGE LIAISON
AND SCIENCE FAIR COORDINATOR

MERRITT ISLAND HIGH SCHOOL
EDGEWOOD JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL
COCOA HIGH SCHOOL

JUNIOR ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
LLOYD D. GRIFFITH

COCOA HIGH SCHOOL

FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
DR. FRANK DUDLEY
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH FLORIDA
MRS, PATRICIA DENNINGHOFF
MR. LARRY BECHTEL

MR, KEN MARX

MR. CRAIG BROSIUS

MR. DAVID MOSRIE

DR, ROBERT E. ROTH

eer Wb it, ORS

The following industrial firms will be exhibiting their
products at this annual meeting. The Academy wishes
to express its sincere appreciation for their support.
Unfortunately the list is incomplete because of the early
date of printing.

hisher Scientific Company... .. . Laboratory Supplies
MeGrawoHill Book’ Company... ... .. . . .Lextbooks
Hewlett-Packard Company... .. .. «|. .Electronics
faniero A Division of 3-M. ... .. . . . . Audio Visual
WitobeGicMemegioe cn is hc) os ss 4 oo es BuOlogical Supplies

SoyatOme Benz s 2). sis s « os). soclentific Equipment

ROLLINS COLLEGE]

WINTER PARK, FLORIDA |
r Rose Pen |

4

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ule

Y Onl:
Pee che i
S/Goat '

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DR. P NON PROFIT ORG.
Department o U.S
Ga

ION REQUESTED

8
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Zoology beeen of F
ille, Florida 32601
PERMIT 395

-- Quarterly Journal
of the
Florida Academy of Sciences

Vol, 35 June-September, 1972 No. 2-3

oe

_

CONTENTS

First occurrence of the violet goby in Georgia
Paul L. Wolf, Sheryl F. Shanholtzer, and R. J. Reimold 81

Vegetational changes in the National Key Deer Refuge-II
Taylor R. Alexander and John D. Dickson III 85

Composition of Thalassia testudinum and Ruppia maritima
Gerald E, Walsh and Thomas E. Grow 97

Noteworthy marine fishes from eastern Louisiana Jerry G. Walls 109

Antarctica, isostacy, and the origin of frogs
Coleman J. Goin and Olive B. Goin 113

Characteristics of the western Atlantic reef-fish fauna
Carter R. Gilbert 130

Annotated checklist of the Boynton Beach hammock
Daniel F. Austin and Joanne G. Weise 145

A sediment trap for use in soft-bottomed lakes
Frank G. Nordlie and John F. Anderson 155

New records for fishes in South Carolina waters
David M. Cupka and Robert K. Dias 158

Published November 5, 1973

QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Editor: Pierce Brodkorb

The Quarterly Journal welcomes original articles containing sig-
nificant new knowledge, or new interpretation of knowledge, in any
field of Science. Articles must not duplicate in any substantial way
material that is published elsewhere.

INSTRUCTIONS TO AUTHORS

Rapid, efficient, and economical transmission of knowledge by means of
the printed word requires full cooperation between author and editor. Revise
copy before submission to insure logical order, conciseness, and clarity.

Manuscripts should be typed double-space throughout, on one side of
numbered sheets of 814 by 11 inch, smooth, bond paper.

A Carson Copy will facilitate review by referees.

Mazrcins should be 1% inches all around.

TITLEs must not exceed 55 characters, including spaces.

Footnotes should be avoided. Give ACKNOWLEDGMENTS in the text and
Address in paragraph form following Literature Cited.

LITERATURE CrTeED follows the text. Double-space and follow the form
in the current volume. For articles give title, journal, volume, and inclusive
pages. For books give title, publisher, place, and total pages.

TABLES are charged to authors at $25.00 per page or fraction. Titles
must be short, but explanatory matter may be given in footnotes. Type each
table on a separate sheet, double-space, unruled, to fit normal width of page,
and place after Literature Cited.

LecENDs for illustrations should be grouped on a sheet, double-spaced, in
the form used in the current volume, and placed after Tables. Titles must be
short but may be followed by explanatory matter.

ILLUSTRATIONS are charged to authors ($17.00 per page or fraction).
Drawincs should be in India ink, on good board or drafting paper, and
lettered by lettering guide or equivalent. Plan linework and lettering for re-
duction, so that final width is 4% inches, and final length does not exceed 6%
inches. Do not submit illustrations needing reduction by more than one-half.
PHotocrarus should be of good contrast, on glossy paper. Do not write
heavily on the backs of photographs.

ProoF must be returned promptly. Leave a forwarding address in case
of extended absence.

Reprints may be ordered when the author returns corrected proof.

Published by the Florida Academy of Sciences

Printed by the Storter Printing Company
Gainesville, Florida

QUARTERLY JOURNAL
of the
FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. 35 June-September, 1972 No. 2-3

First Occurrence of the Violet Goby in Georgia

Paut L. WoxrF, SHERYL F. SHANHOLTZER, AND R. J. REIMOLD

Durinc a routine weekly survey of the aquatic fauna and flora of
an undisturbed salt marsh ecosystem, one living specimen of the
violet goby, Gobioides broussonneti Lacépéde, was collected. Pre-
vious collections of this species are reported by Gunter and Hall
(1963), Kritzler (1950), Miller (1966), and Tagatz (1968).

The violet goby has been collected from the following places in
the United States: St. Johns River, Florida; inland waterwater near
Salerno, Florida; St. Lucie Estuary, Florida; New Orleans; and
Freeport, Texas. Gunter and Hall (1963) report collecting G.
broussonneti from salinities of 0.22-0.24 parts per thousand (the
salinities being determined by chloride titrations and by a hy-
drometer). Miller (1966) reported these fish to be included among
the fresh water fishes of Central America, however no salinity ranges
were reported. Kritzler (1950) examined a specimen after it had
been caught in the intake screens to a power plant and then pre-
served and kept at the Jacksonville Florida Children’s Museum for
identification. Fowler (1947) reports identifying a violet goby cap-
tured and preserved nearly a month earlier. In both instances cited
-above the authors did not see the living fish and consequently only
speculated as to its appearance prior to fading in the preservative.
Tagatz (1968) collected seven G. broussonneti from the St. Johns
River, Florida, in salinities ranging from 0.0-23.7 parts per thousand
and a temperature range of 16.8-34.4C.

The violet goby reported herein was captured 2 July 1969 in the
Duplin River Estuary, Sapelo Island, Georgia. The fish was cap-
tured in a 10 foot otter trawl, 3/4” mesh, using a two speed of 2.0
knots. The trawl was made against the tide; the tide was within

82 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

one-half hour of high slack water. The water temperature in which
the violet goby was captured was 29.5C, while the salinity of the
water was 23.0 parts per thousand.

All proportional measurements were made in terms of standard
length unless otherwise noted. Measurements of the fish are listed
in Table 1. Table 2 provides a comparison of the measurements of
the fish captured with those reported elsewhere in the literature.
These determinations were all taken on the freshly captured speci-
men prior to preservation in 10 per cent hexamine buffered sea
water formalin. General body shape and coloration closely re-
semble specimens described by Jordan and Everman (1902).

The specimen described above represents the first reported oc-
currence of the violet goby north of Florida. This is the second
time also that the fish has been collected in higher salinity waters.
Further observations on the osmoregulatory ability of this fish are
needed to determine whether it should be described as a fresh

TABLE 1

Measurements of Gobioides broussonneti from Duplin River Estuary,
Sapelo Island, Georgia

Total length 400 mm

Standard length 315 mm

Body depth 12.6 in. Standard Length (S.L.)
Depth of caudal peduncle 21.0 in. S.L.

Predorsal length 4.6 in. S.L.

Length of dorsal 1.3 in. S.L.

Length of anal 1.7 in. S.L.

Height of dorsal 24.0 in. S.L.

Head length 6.1 in. S.L., 2.5 snout to vent
Length of caudal 3.8 in. S.L.

Depth of head 12.6 in. S.L.

Width of head 10.5 in. S.L.

Snout length 5.8 in. head

Postorbital length 9.0 in. S.L.; 1.5 in. head
Length of eye 13.0 in. head

Length cf longest pectoral 11.6 in. S.L.

Length of longest pelvic 11.6 in. S.L.

Length of upper jaw 15.0 in. S.L.; 2.5 in. head
Length cf mandible 16.5 in. S.L.; 2.7 in. head
Vent to caudal peduncle 1.8 in. S.L.

Vent to snout 2.3 in. S.L.

Interorbital space 1.25 diameter of eye

Wo.F ET AL.: Violet Goby in Georgia 83

TABLE 2

Comparison of measurements of Gobioides broussonneti from Duplin River
Estuary and G. broussonneti from Jordan and Everman (1902) and
Kritzler (1950)

Jordan
Duplin &

Measurement River Everman Kritzler
Depth in standard length 12.6 13 11
Head length in standard length 6.1 5.25-7.0 6.8
Head length in snout to vent 2.5 2.6
Head width in head length 1.4 1.3
Length of eye in head length 13.0 7-10 12.6
Least depth of caudal peduncle

in head length 2.8 2.9
Length of largest pectoral

in head length 1.9 1.6
Length of largest pelvic

in head length 1.9 1.4
Interorbital space (in eye diameter) 1.25 1-1 1/3
Snout length in head 5.8 4,75
Interorbital in snout 1.8 1.4
Least depth of caudal peduncle in head 3.5 2.9

water fish which strayed into the estuary or whether it is a truly
euryhaline species.

LITERATURE CITED

Fow.er, H. W. 1947. The Barrets—Gobioides broussonnetii Lacépéde—
obtained in Florida by Captain William B. Gray. Notulae Nature,
vol. 197, pp. 1-4.

Gunter, G., AnD G. E. Hatt. 1963. Additions to the list of euryhaline fishes
of North America. Copeia, 1963, no. 3, pp. 596-597.

Jorpan, D. S., anp B. W. EvERMAN. 1902. American Food and Game Fishes.
Doubleday, Page and Co. New York.

KrirzLeR, H. 1950. Broussonets’ Goby from the brackish water of lower St.
Johns River, Florida. Copeia, 1950, no. 1, pp. 64-65.

Mitter, R. R. 1966. Geographical distribution of Central American Fresh-
water Fishes. Copeia, 1966, no. 4, pp. 773-802.

Tacatz, M. E. 1968. Fishes of the St. Johns River, Florida. Quart. Jour.
Florida Acad. Sci., vol. 30, no. 1, pp. 25-50.

84 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Marine Institute, University of Georgia, Sapelo Island, Georgia
31327 (present address of senior author: Department of Biology
Lebanon Valley College, Annville, Pennsylvania). Contribution No.
229, Marine Institute, University of Georgia, Sapelo Island, Georgia.

Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 35(2) 1972( 1973)

Vegetational Changes in the National Key Deer Refuge-II

TAYLOR R. ALEXANDER AND JOHN D. Dickson III

Tuts report is the second one of a continuing study started in
1968 to determine vegetational changes in the National Key Deer
Refuge since the initial study in 1951 (Dickson, 1955). The first
report (Alexander and Dickson, 1970) documented the changes in
the northern part of Big Pine Key. The northern part was mostly
a prairie in 1951 and currently supports an entirely different vege-
tation type from the pineland that covers most of the Key. The
pineland is the subject of this study.

Most of the pineland occurs on four Keys: Big Pine, Little Pine,
No Name, and Cudjoe. Of these, No Name is outside the Refuge
and is being developed for housing. The pineland of Big and Little
Pine Keys is of great importance for deer range. Little Pine Key
is about 600 acres in size and of this about nineteen per cent is pine-
land. Big Pine Key is about 6,000 acres and about thirty-eight per
cent pineland. Since a large portion of this pineland on Big Pine
Key lies south of the Refuge, the amount of protected pineland with-
in the Refuge is very limited. The study reported herein was con-
fined to the pineland of Big Pine Key. A complete description of
the Refuge can be found in the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
pamphlet, R1-518 (1965).

The two objectives of the current study were to document the
changes in the pineland since 1951 and to provide information that
might be useful in decision making for vegetational management.
The latter relates mostly to the question of the use of fire on the
Keys to control plant succession in the pineland.

Data for the original study was collected during 1951-52 and
for the current study 1969-70. These two will be referred to here-
after as 1951 and 1969 data and the comparisons will be considered
to cover the changes over an eighteen year period. All the sites
used for quadrats had been fire-free during the period.

METHODS

Twenty quadrats, 3X100 feet were studied to analyze changes
in the tree and shrub population. Thirty quadrats, 3X3 feet were

86 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

examined for herbaceous vegetation. The smaller quadrats were
located within the larger. An attempt was made to randomly sam-
ple the area and follow procedures previously reported (Dickson,
1955), so that the 1969 data could be compared directly with those
of 1951. Plant names, numbers, heights and per cent of cover were
determined. The last was recorded as four classes: 1 (less than 1
per cent); 2 (1-5 per cent); 3 (6-25 per cent), and 4 (26-50 per
cent). Frequency figures are the percentage of quadrats in which
a species occurred. Density values are the average number of in-
dividuals per quadrat. Counts for trees and shrubs were converted
to plants per acre. Plants browsed by deer were noted, based on
information determined in 1951 from stomach and pellet analyses,
and direct observations. Plant names used are from the checklist of
Lakela and Craighead (1965).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Comparison of Tables 1 and 2 shows that 20 woody species
were listed in 1951 and 25 in 1969. Of the 25, nine were new to the
list and four species of the 1951 study were not found in 1969. The
new species are in the last half of the 1969 list and represent species
that are found in mature pinelands, usually as invasion species lead-
ing toward a climax forest. The one exception is important. It is
the exotic Schinus terebinthifolius, locally called Florida holly or
Brazilian pepper. As is the case with many exotics, this one is
spreading rapidly throughout the warmer areas of Florida. It is
bird-spread and will form dense stands at the expense of native
vegetation. It should be eliminated when found in the Refuge. One
of the four 1951 species not found in 1969 is Reynosia septentri-
onalis. It is very common on the northern end of the Key (Alex-
ander and Dickson, 1970). In 1951 it was listed but with low fre-
quency. It was not seen in any quadrat, nor contiguous pineland
areas in 1969. The other three, not counted in 1969, Suriana, Rha-
coma and Jacquinnia, were seen occasionally but did not occur in
the quadrats. Cassia bahamensis, occurring in 1969, did not appear
in the 1951 quadrats.

Pines have doubled in number during the 18 years. Several size
classes are present. However, there is a significant reduction in the

87

ALEXANDER AND Dickson: Vegetation of Deer Refuge

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ence in young pines.

number of pines over twelve feet tall. Two hurricanes (1960 and
1965) affected the area, and there were many fires prior to 1951
that weakened the older trees. Tree falls and standing dead trunks

90 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

are not uncommon. Figure 1 gives a fairly accurate picture of the
increase in young pines. The photographs were taken at the same
location.

Palms account for a great percentage of the total plant cover.
Coccothrinax argentea, silver palm, totals are reduced considerably
in the 1969 data. This is strongly reflected in the seedling count.
At the same time more large specimens were counted. For some
reason(s), the current reproductive rate is definitely less than dur-
ing the period preceding the 1951 study. Thrinax microcarpa, key
thatch palm, increased about three times during the 18 years and
appears to be reproducing at a steady rate as evidenced by the first
three size classes being well represented in the population. Sere-
noa repens, saw palmetto, appears to be failing significantly. This
is considered a sampling problem. It is still locally abundant, es-
pecially near the depressions in the limestone. These limestone
sinks were not encountered when plots were positioned in 1969.

Pithecolobium guadelupense, slightly increased its significance in
the habitat. Byrsonima cuneata was very stable in density but re-
duced in frequency. Eugenia longipes remained the same in cover
but only half as many seedlings were found in 1969. Metopium tox-
iferum increased in cover and frequency, but showed a drastic drop
in seedlings in 1969. Randia aculeata and Pisonia rotundata appear
to be failing. Small Erithalis plants were so closely cropped that
they were hard to identify and larger plants were browsed as high
as the deer could reach.

The differences between the totals in Table 1 and 2 are as fol-
lows. There were 2,371 fewer woody plants per acre at the end of
the observation period than at the start. There were fewer tall pine
trees. There was an increase of about 500 individuals per acre in the
4’-12’ class. This increase reflects the growth rate. The datum on the
under-one-foot class is considered very significant in that there
were 2,739 fewer individuals per acre in 1969. This is more than a
50 per cent reduction from the 1951 counts. Three possible reasons
are; lack of fire, drought occurrence and new mosquito ditches.

According to the Refuge records none of the quadrat sites was
burned after 1951. However, fire has been common in the pineland
prior to that time. Seedlings of many species are frequently com-

ALEXANDER AND Dickson: Vegetation of Deer Refuge 91

TABLE 3

1969-70 Understory Plant List
Acacia peninsularis Houstonia sp.
Anemia adiantifolia Hypericum sp.
Borreria terminalis Melanthera parvifolius
Cassytha filiformis Mikania batatifolia
Centrosema virginianum Morinda roioc
Chamaecrista keyensis Phyllanthes pentaphyllus
Chamaesyce conferta Physalis angustifolia
Chamaesyce serpyllum Piriqueta sp.
Chiococca pinetorum Pluchea foetida
Chrysobalanus pallidus Polygala sp.
Cirsium horridulum Polygala praetervisa
Caladium jamaicense Pterdium aquilinum
Cnidoscolus stimulosus var. caudatum
Crotalaria maritima Pterocaulon undulatum
Croton linearis Rhabdadenia corallicola
Cynanchium blodgettii Rhacoma ilicifolia
Dichromena colorata Rhynchosia parvifolia
Ernodea angusta Ruellia hybrida
Flaveria linearis Smilax havanenensis
Galacti parvifolia Stylosanthes hamata
Galium hispidulum Tragia saxicola
Gerardia purpurea Unknown (one)
Heliotropium leavenworthii Grasses (several )

mon following fire and then the numbers decline. The rainfall rec-
ord from the nearest station (Key West) shows that for the 10 years
prior to the 1951 study the rainfall was close to their 36-year average
of 37.6 inches a year. The study period years, 1951, ’55, 56, and
61 were drought years. Owing to the rocky and almost soilless con-
dition of the limestone surface, even moderate droughts could kill
seedlings before establishment. In January of 1964 the Monroe
County Mosquito Control District began a ditching program on Big
Pine. By completion in December of 1965, a total of 4,976 acres
(of about 6000) had been ditched (personal communication from
Director J. V. Denis, Monroe County Mosquito Control District,
Stock Island, Florida, 1971). These ditches are about sixteen inches
wide, vertical-sided, and are deep enough to allow tide water to
flow in them from the nearby open sea. This increases salt intrusion
into the substrate and also increases the rate of rainwater runoff,
thus reducing penetration of fresh water to the root zone. Both of

92 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

TABLE 4
Comparison of Common Understory Species

Species 1951 1969 Deer

F D C F D C Food
Species Occurring in Top 15 on Both Sampling Dates
1. Grass spp. 93 8.3 4 83 9.7 3
2. Chamaecristas keyensis 37 0.9 3 72 3.0 2
3. Ruellia hybrida 37 0.8 1 53 11,2) 1 e
4, Dichromena colorata Qi 0.9 1 AT 2.0 2
5. Galactia parvifolia 20 0.2 1 43 0.8 1 e
6. Cassytha filiformis 23 0.2 i 30 0.3 1 zi
7. Morinda roioc 13 0.6 1 27 0.5 2 =
8. Phyllanthes pentaphyllus 23 0.2 1 27 0.6 2
9. Smilax havanensis 23 0.4 1 23 0.5 1 =
1951 Species New to Top Fifteen in 1969
10. Melanthera parvifolius 3 0.1 1 40 0.7 1
11. Ernodea angusta U. 0.1 1 33 1.0 3
12. Anemia adiantifolia U 0.3 1 30 0.9 2
13. Crotalaria maritima ah 0.1 1 30 0.8 1 ie
14. Polygala grandifloria 3 0.1 1 30 0.4 1
15. Cirsium horridulum 3 0.1 I Ti 0.3 1
Species in Top Fifteen in 1951 but not in 1969
Gerardia purpurea 23 0.5 2 13 0.3 1 >
Croton linearis 20 0.3 3 13 0.2 1
Chamaesyce scoparia 17 0.3 1 — _- - a
Flavaria linearis 13 0.3 1 17 0.2 1
Pterocaulon undulatum 13 0.1 1 20 0.4 1
Physalis angustifolia 10 0.4 1 3 0.1 1 &
(F=frequency, D=density, and C—cover. )

these conditions contribute to water stress on the plants. Water
for survival is critical in this rocky and xerophytic pineland.

The understory species are mostly herbaceous. However, some
like Ernodea and Morinda roioc become woody. In general, all
understory species listed were less than a half meter tall. The 1951
list included 46 species; the 1969 included 45. Twelve species listed
in 1951 did not appear in 1969. Eleven species listed in 1969 did
not appear in 1951. These differences, in part, are probably due to
seasonal differences in sampling. Table 3 is a complete alphabetical
listing of understory plants for 1969. Table 4 summarizes the major
changes that occurred and includes all plants that are prominent
understory species. All of the other species listed in Table 3 occur

ALEXANDER AND Dickson: Vegetation of Deer Refuge 93

with a frequency of only 13 per cent or less and belong to cover
class 1.

The data reflect a fairly stable population in the understory for
the 18-year period. The range and extent of changes do not appear
unusual for this habitat. Grasses are somewhat less common in
1969. This is probably due to shading, especially from the increas-
ing height of the palm and shrub canopy and the lack of fire. The
most obvious change in the understory is the increased amount of
Ernodea. This vine-like shrub with prostrate branches grows in
dense mats and can dominate sizeable areas.

The pineland has not changed in overall appearance as much
as the northern prairie did under similar conditions and time (Alex-
ander and Dickson, 1970). In the latter case, plant succession pro-
ceeded from an open prairie to the thicket stages of a climax forest.
The moisture holding marl soil of the prairie as compared to the
rocky dry soil of the pineland was probably the main factor in the
differences in the rate of succession seen in these contiguous areas.
The pineland is on a mass of limestone and roots are restricted most-
ly to the accumulated organic litter and a few shallow solution
holes. Soil forming processes are slow in this environment and fires
burn accumulated organic litter so that large areas of bare rock are
repeatedly exposed.

That there is a rich assortment of species and their propagules
to initiate succession is well documented by this study and the plant
lists from previous studies (Dickon, Woodbury, Alexander, 1953;
Dickson, 1955; and Franklin, 1968). In spite of the above edaphic
restrictions on succession the pineland of the Keys will give way to
the climax of broad-leaved West Indian species if given enough
time (Alexander, 1958, 1967). This has been documented by Stern
and Brizicky (1957) on nearby No Name Key and by Dickson
(1955) on No Name and Little Pine Keys. Prolonged protection
from fire was the major factor on both Keys. Based on the evidence
from this study and Jack Watson’s (Refuge Manager) estimate in
1970 of fire-free years on most of No Name Key, it took about 50
years for broad-leaved species to completely overcome the pine for-
est and limit its reproduction. This is about twice the time for sim-
ilar stages to be reached on the mainland (Alexander, 1967). Deer-
use of the open pineland on Big Pine Key indicates the desirability

94 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

of this type of habitat in the Refuge and fire is a natural means of
maintaining an open pineland.

The use of fire for controlling and maintaining vegetation such
as pinewoods is well established ( Mutch, 1970). That fire improves
the growing condition of deer browse species was observed in the
earlier study (Alexander and Dickson, 1970). It is also known that
a pineland with accumulated fuel of leaf litter and undergrowth is
vulnerable to crown fire and death of the forest. Only a few refer-
ences on the response of Pinus elliottii to fire could be found and
these were for var. elliottii instead of the local var. densa ( Fowells,
1965). Hayward and Barnetti (1936) stated . . . “it has been estab-
lished as a fact that the highly desirable slash pine P. caribaea
More. (now P. elliottii) reproduces only on areas protected from
fire.” This statement was expanded and clarified in a more recent
report by Gruschow (1952). The latter has data showing that suc-
cessfully controlled burning on young stands of this pine is not
started until the trees are about 12 feet tall. Trees smaller than this
will suffer serious setbacks. Kaufman stated that “for natural re-
generations of slash pine (Pinus elliottii var. elliottii and var. den-
sa), burning to prepare the seedbed is a common practice. After
the seeds have fallen to the soil surface, until the young trees have
achieved some size, fire can destroy all efforts for regeneration.
Usually controlled burning in young stands is not started until the
trees are two inches at d.b.h. (diameter at breast height 41/2 ft.
above the soil surface) and about 15 feet tall. Under very optimum
conditions, slash pine much smaller will successfully survive very
carefully conducted controlled burning but the risks increase very
much. The densa (South Florida) variety of slash pine is somewhat
more fire tolerant than the elliottii variety” (personal communica-
tion from Professor C. M. Kaufman, School of Forestry, University
of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, 1970).

It should be noted that the densa variety has not been subjec-
ted to the same management by fire as has the elliottii variety. Also
there is the fact that much of what is known about the latter’s re-
action to fire has been learned in row-planted pines and in the flat-
woods of mainland Florida. Not much is known about the reaction
of the key-type pineland to fire. Historically, the Keys have suffered
many wildfires. Fires have undoubtedly served to maintain the pine-
land and arrest succession throughout recent time.

ALEXANDER AND Dickson: Vegetation of Deer Refuge 95

Before completion of this manuscript, wildfire burned about 340
acres of pineland on Big Pine Key, June 5, 1971. The authors ex-
amined the burn on July 9. The purpose was to evaluate the effect
on the local densa variety. The observations support the previ-
ously reported results given for the elliottii variety. Most of the
trees of the 4’-12’ class and under were dead, except where for
some reason the heat was not excessive. It should be noted that the
area had been fire-free for 20 years or more and the fuel load was
excessive. Most palms were recovering and many of the woody
plants were sprouting from their root-crowns.

It has been reported that a pineland once existed on Key Largo
(Alexander, 1953). Only a few of the pineland related species per-
sist on this Key. This part of Key Largo has been fire-free for many
decades and is now covered by a dense forest of West Indian broad-
leaved species. These observations indicate the pineland can be lost
by total protection from fire as well as by ill-timed and severe
burnings.

The problem becomes especially critical in the Refuge since the
land mass is so small. Wildfire can be replaced by controlled burn-
ing. Proper periodicity of burns can be determined only by regu-
larly conducted vegetation studies coupled with the need to main-
tain adequate deer browse.

LITERATURE CITED

ALEXANDER, TAYLOR R. 1953. Plant succession on Key Largo, Florida, involv-
ing Pinus caribaea and Quercus virginiana. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad.
Sci., vol. 16, no. 3, pp. 133-138.
1958. High hammock vegetation of the southern Florida mainland.
Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci., vol. 21, no. 4, pp. 293-298.
1967. A tropical hammock on the Miami (Florida) Limestone—A
twenty-five-year study. Ecology, vol. 48, no. 5, pp. 863-867.
ALEXANDER, TAYLOR R., AND JOHN D. Dickson III. 1970. Vegetational chang-
es in the National Key Deer Refuge. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci.,
vol. 33, no. 2, pp. 81-89.
Dickson, Joun D., III, R. O. Woopsury, AND T. R. ALEXANDER. 1953. Check-
list of flora of Big Pine Key, Florida and surrounding Keys. Quart.
Jour. Florida Acad. Sci., vol. 16, no. 3, pp. 181-197.
Dickson, Joun D., III. 1955. An ecological study of the Key deer. Florida
Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission, Tech. Bull., no. 3, 104 pp.
FoweE tts, H. A. 1965. Silvics of Forest Trees of the United States. Agricul-
ture Handbook, no. 271, U.S.D.A. Forest Service, pp. 458-463.

96 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

FRANKLIN, ALICELIA H. 1968?). List of plants on Big Pine Key, Florida.
Report to the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife—distributed as
PB 180221 by Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific and Technical Infor-
mation, Springfield, Va.

Gruscuow, GrorcE F. 1952. Effect of winter burming on growth of slash
pine in the flatwoods. Jour. Forestry, vol. 50, no. 7, pp. 515-517.
HrEywarp, FRANK AND R. M. BARNETTE. 1936. Field characteristics and par-
tial chemical analysis of the humus layer of longleaf pine forest soils.

Tech. Bull. 302, University of Florida, Agric. Exp. Sta., 27 pp.

LAKELA, OLGA, AND F. C. CraiGHEAD. 1965. Annotated checklist of the vas-
cular plants of Collier, Dade, and Monroe, Counties, Florida. Fairchild
Tropical Garden and University of Miami Press, Coral Gables, Florida,
95 pp.

Mutcu, Rospert W. 1970. Wildland fires and ecosystems—a hypothesis.
Ecology, vol. 51, no. 6, pp. 1046-1051.

STERN, WILLIAM L., AND G. K. Brizicxy. 1957. The woods and flora of the
Florida Keys—Introduction Tropical Woods, no. 107, pp. 36-65.

Biology Department, University of Miami, Coral Gables Florida
33124; Vining C. Dunlap Laboratories, Tela Railroad Co. (Subsid-
iary of United Fruit Co.), La Lima, Honduras, C.A.

Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci., 35(2) 1972(1973)

Composition of Thalassia testudinum and Ruppia maritima
GERALD E. WALsH AND THomas E. Grow

Litre is known at present about the nutritive value of aquatic
plants, especially in relation to annual variations in their chemical
constituents. Turtle grass (Thalassia testudinum) and widgeon
grass (Ruppia maritima) are common in the inshore waters of
Florida (Phillips, 1960). They are important constituents of estu-
arine nursery grounds for marine animals and many forms of plant
and animal life are associated with them (Hudson et al., 1970).
The seagrasses are eaten by fishes, turtles, and other aquatic ani-
mals (Randall, 1965), and birds (Olney, 1968). Detritus derived
from seagrasses is eaten by small marine animals (Menzies and
Rowe, 1969; Fenchel, 1970. Also, T. testudinum and its epiphytes
are important in biogeochemical cycles in estuarine areas (Parker,
1966).

Both T. testudinum and R. maritima have been used successfully
in preliminary experiments as fertilizers for tomatoes (van Breed-
veld, 1966) and as feed supplements for Sheep (Bauersfeld et al.,
1969).

Because of the importance of T. testudinum and R. maritima to
estuarine ecosystems, we investigated seasonal distributions of pro-
tein, carbohydrate, trace elements, and energy content of their
leaves and rhizomes. Also, the potential nutritive value of the sea-
grasses was evaluated.

METHOpS

Thalassia testudinum and R. maritima were collected between 6
June 1969 and 27 May 1970 from a mixed bed at the western edge
of Sabine Island in Santa Rosa Sound near Gulf Breeze, Florida.
They were taken in the morning to avoid possible diel variation in
the factors measured. Abundance of R. maritima was greatly re-
duced in February 1970 and enough plant material could not be
collected for all tests.

After collection, plants were taken immediately to the laboratory,
where the epiphyton was removed. The leaves were separated from
the rhizomes and all were washed quickly in a stream of distilled

98 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

water. Leaves and roots were dried to constant weight in an oven
at 100 C and ground in a Wiley mill to pass the 40-mesh sieve. The
pulverized material was stored in vacuo over anhydrous calcium
carbonate until tested.

Ash content was determined by combustion in a muffle furnace
at 55 C for five hours.

Total protein was measured by the method of Strickland and
Parsons (1965) using acetonylacetone (2,5-hexanedione) reagent
and the procedure was standardized against the Kjeldahl-Nessler
method. We report protein content as percentage of dry weight and
of ash-free dry weight.

Total carbohydrate was measured by a variation of the anthrone
method for particulate carbohydrate (Strickland and Parsons, 1965).
Fifty mg of each sample were suspended in 50 ml of 0.2 N H.SO, in
a 125-ml Erlenmeyer flash. The sample was hydrolysed at 100 C for
90 min. with mixing every 15 min. The hydrolysate was passed
through a glass-fiber filter of 0.45 porosity and 0.2 ml of the filtrate
was pipetted into a test tube. To this was added 10.8 ml of anthrone
reagent (0.2. g anthrone, 8.0 ml 95 per cent alcohol, 30.0 ml distilled
water, and 100 ml concentrated H.SO,). The solution was heated
at 100 C for five min. and brought quickly to room temperature in
an ice-water bath. After 15 min. the extinction was measured
against distilled water at 6200 A in a one-cm glass cell in a Beckman
DU spectrophotometer. Glucose was used in preparation of stan-
dard carbohydrate solutions. The data are expressed as percentage
carbohydrate in dry weight and in ash-free dry weight.

Concentrations of sodium, potassium, magnesium, iron, man-
ganese, and zinc in leaves and rhizomes were measured by atomic
absorption spectroscopy, using a modification of the method of
David (1958). Approximately 0.01 g of dried plant material was
placed in a 30 ml Kjeldahl digestion flask with two ml of a 1:7
sulphuric acid-perchloric acid mixture and 10 to 12 ml of nitric
acid. Digestion was continued until organic matter was completely
destroyed. Four glass beads were added to each flash to prevent
bumping.

After digestion, the flash was cooled to room temperature and
three ml of distilled water added. After gentle shaking, the contents
were transferred to a 25-ml volumetric flask. This washing pro-
cedure was repeated twice with five ml of distilled water and the

WaALsH AND Grow: Composition of Sea Grasses 99

hydrolysate taken to 25 ml with distilled water. The hydrolysate
was analyzed on a Beckman Model 1301 atomic absorption unit
equipped with a Beckman DB-G spectrophotometer. Concentra-
tions of the elements are reported as parts per thousand (ppt) of
dry weight.

Caloric contents were determined on a Parr Series 1200 adi-
abatic calorimeter. Fuse wire and acid corrections were made for
each determination and results are expressed as kilocalories per
gram of ash-free dry weight.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Ash. Annual mean values and ranges of values for ash, protein,
carbohydrate, and energy are given in Table 1. Annual variation in
ash content was not found and analysis of variance indicated that
all mean values were significantly different at the 0.05 level. The

TABLE 1
Annual means for ash, protein, carbohydrate, and energy contents of Thalassia
testudinum and Ruppia maritima between June 1969 and May 1970.

Component Annual Range
mean

Ash, % dry weight

T. testudinum leaves 24.5 20.6-26.9
T. testudinum rhizomes 23.8 21.4-25.4
R. maritima leaves 18.8 15.8-23.8
R. maritima rhizomes 22.4 18.6-24.8
Protein, % ash-free dry weight
T. testudinum leaves 25.7 13.6-37.1
T. testudinum rhizomes 11.0 7.7-14.7
R. maritima leaves 23.2 13.5-32.6
R. maritima rhizomes 20.0 14,1-26.9
Carbohydrate, % ash-free dry weight
T. testudinum leaves 23.6 18.3-35.8
T. testudinum rhizomes 72.1 54.5-80.3
R. maritima leaves 27.0 24,3-34.3
R. maritima rhizomes 63.6 52.0-73.3
Energy, Kceal/g ash-free dry weight
T. testudinum leaves 4.66 4,47-4.79
T. testudinum rhizomes 4.88 4,76-5.16
R. maritima leaves 4,44 4,28-4.69

R. maritima rhizomes 4,25 4.09-4.38

100 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

values obtained for ash contents were similar to those for most other
aquatic plants (Westlake, 1965) and for leaves of T. testudinum
(Burkholder et al., 1959).

Protein. There was considerable annual variation in the amount
of protein in ash-free dry weight of leaves. The highest value found
for T. testudinum leaves was 2.7 times that of the lowest, while that
for R. maritima leaves was 2.4 times greater. Annual variation in

RUPPIA LEAVES
RUPPIA RHIZOMES

THALASSIA LEAVES

THALASSIA RHIZOMES

PROTEIN, % ASH-FREE DRY WEIGHT

1969 MONTH 1970

Fig. 1. Annual variation of protein in Thalassia testudinum and Ruppia
maritima.

WALsH AND Grow: Composition of Sea Grasses 101

protein in underground parts was less. In both T. testudinum and
R. maritima, the highest concentration in the rhizomes was 1.9 times
that of the lowest.

During the annual cycle, the protein content of the leaves of T.
testudinum was always greater than that of the rhizomes (Figure 1),
the annual mean concentration in leaves being over two times
larger (Table 1). Concentration of protein in the leaves of T. tes-
tudinum increased in the late winter and spring between 9 January
and 16 April. Concentrations decreased rapidly thereafter, and
were lowest in summer on 2 July 1969. In the rhizomes, however,
concentrations of protein increased only slightly between 26 Febru-
ary and 16 April 1970, and fell less precipitously than did those of
the leaves.

The annual mean concentration of protein in the leaves of R.
maritima was slightly greater than that in the rhizomes, but concen-
tration was greater in the rhizomes in the summer months of May,
June, and July. Concentrations in the leaves reached a peak on 8
April 1970, and fell rapidly thereafter. Lowest concentration was
found in the summer on 4 August 1969. Concentration of protein in
the rhizomes of R. maritima rose slowly in the nine-month period
between 4 August and 14 May, with lowest concentrations occuring
in summer in June and early August.

The above findings are related to the functional aspects of leaves
and rhizomes. Leaves generally have a greater amount of protein
than rhizomes because they are largely concerned with biosynthesis
and, consequently, contain large amounts of enzymes and many
membranes. However, rhizomes are storage organs and contain
relatively large amounts of carbohydrate, as will be shown later.
Leaf protein is greatest in spring when biosynthesis is rapid, where-
as concentrations of carbohydrate in rhizomes are greatest in fall
and winter.

Bauersfeld et al. (1969) suggested that T. testudinum may be of
value as a feed additive for domestic animals. They reported that
the leaves of T. testudinum, after a single washing with distilled
water, contained between 9.0 and 14.1 per cent protein on a dry
weight basis, whereas the rhizomes contained 15 per cent. Burk-
holder et al. (1959) reported that the dried leaves of T. testudinum
contained 13.1 per cent protein. Neither study, however, reported
the dates on which samples were taken.

102 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

On a percentage dry weight basis, the protein contents of our
samples were: T. testudinum leaves, 10.3-29.7; rhizomes, 5.8-12.2;
R. maritima leaves, 10.9-28.5; rhizomes, 10.4-18.1. These values are,
in general, higher than those for many other plants. Among the

—— RUPPIA LEAVES
RUPPIA RHIZOMES

Cel PN etletelel Tot ttle Pp)
eo ee ome
20? °.

THALASSIA LEAVES
THALASSIA RHIZOMES

TOTAL CARBOHYDRATE, % ASH-FREE DRY WEIGHT

J J A S 0 N D J F M A M
1969 MONTH 1970

Fig. 2. Annual variation of carbohydrate in Thalassia testudinum and
Ruppia maritima.

WAaLsH AND Grow: Composition of Sea Grasses 103

aquatic plants, Myriophyllum sp. contained approximately 7.8 per
cent protein in dry weight (Oelshlegel, 1969) and Spartina alter-
niflora 8.9 per cent (Hall et al., 1970). Boyd (1970), in a study of
the protein content of 11 freshwater species, reported a range of
from 4.0 per cent (Typha latifolia) to 21.6 per cent (Nuphar ad-
vena). Yee (1970) reported 17.5 per cent protein in Hydrilla sp.
and 30.5 per cent in Pistia stratoides. Among foodstuffs, 114 lines
of corn contained 9.8-16.3 per cent protein (Davis et al., 1970), 49
varieties of grain sorghum contained 8.6-16.5 per cent ( Virupaksha
and Sastry, 1968) and wheat grain between 8.3-12.4 per cent (Chro-
minski, 1967).

Though high in protein, it is doubtful that these seagrasses could
be used directly as food by humans. The unanimous consensus of
a taste panel at the Gulf Breeze laboratory was that dried leaves
and rhizomes are gritty, and have a strong, unpleasant odor and
flavor.

Carbohydrate. In contrast to protein contents, carbohydrate
contents of rhizomes were greater than those of leaves (Table 1)
because rhizomes are storage organs for starch. Fig. 2 shows that
the carbohydrate contents of rhizomes, as percentage ash-free dry
weight, began to rise in July due to production and storage in sum-
mer, and attained peak concentrations in October and November.
Decrease in spring was probably due to utilization of stored carbo-
hydrate for biosynthesis and respiration.

The carbohydrate contents of the seagrasses tested were similar
to those of other plants. As percentage dry weight, T. testudinum
leaves contained between 12.5 and 25.5 per cent carbohydrate,
whereas the rhizomes contained between 41.5 and 62.9 per cent.
Leaves of R. maritima contained between 20.0 and 27.2 per cent
and rhizomes between 35.8 and 55.1 per cent carbohydrate. Re-
ported values for other plants, as percentage dry weight, are: al-
falfa, 13-25 (Raguse and Smith, 1965, 1966; Grotelueschen and
Smith, 1967); red clover, 14-21 (Raguse and Smith, 1966), and tim-
othy, 48 (Grotelueschen and Smith, 1967). Most of the values for
seagrasses were within these ranges.

Energy. The energy contents (Table 1) of all samples were
very similar to those reported for most other plants (Cummings,
1967) and no annual trends were observed.

Elements. Annual variations in concentrations of sodium, potas-

104 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

50 32.5

o.
goons worn’
o

ore
47 Sasson ace

CONCENTRATION, PARTS PER THOUSAND

LEAVES
innweass RHIZOMES

Weer stence \Posc@ase®

JUNAUSNONNEDI UNE MnAUMiN JJAS ON DJ FM AM
MONTH MONTH

Fig. 3. Annual variations of some elements in Thalassia testudinum.

sium, magnesium, iron, manganese, and zinc are shown in Figures
3 and 4. The variations appear to be associated with age and func-
tional aspects of the materials analyzed.

In several aquatic macrophytes, concentrations of some elements
decline with age. For example, concentrations of nitrogen, phos-
phorus, sulfur, calcium, and potassium decline with age in Typha
latifolia and in the bulrush Scripus americanus (Boyd, 1970). Con-
centrations of zinc, manganese and iron are lowest in mature
Spartina alterniflora (Williams and Murdock, 1969), and the
authors suggested that the decrease may be due to dilution of
actively growing tissues by structural material which contained
little of the elements measured.

Table 2 gives concentrations of the elements found in the leaves

WALSH AND Grow: Composition of Sea Grasses 105
32.5

24.5

16.5

325

2.50

1.25

° CONCENTRATION, PARTS PER THOUSAND

100 0.050 LEAVES
RHIZOMES
0.075
0.050 0.025
0.025
fo) 0
JJAS OND JF MAM JJdAS OND JF MAM
MONTH MONTH

Fig. 4. Annual variation of some elements in Ruppia maritima.

and roots of selected plants. Concentrations in the seagrasses were
always within ranges given in the table, even though annual varia-
tion was found for each element. Concentrations of zinc, manganese,
and iron were also similar to those reported for S. alterniflora by
Williams and Murdock (1969).

We cannot yet explain why the observed variations occurred be-
cause little is known about the multiple roles of each element dur-
ing the year. For example, magnesium is a structural component of
chlorophyll, but it was often in higher concentrations in rhizomes
than in leaves. This was probably related to the fact that it is also
a specific cofactor for many enzymes involved in carbohydrate
metabolism and its concentration depends upon age and seasonal
variation in physiology of the plant part.

106 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

TABLE 2
Concentrations, in parts per thousands, of some elements in the leaves and
roots of selected plants.

Plant K Mg Fe Mn Zn

Carrot
leaves 13.3 2.8 0.36-0.77 0.02-0.20 0.03
roots 16.8-59.2 Le 0.04—0.49 0.01-—0.09 0.01
Soybean
leaves 8.0 7.9 0.34 0.03-0.19 0.10
roots 14.4-15.6 10.7-31.8 = 0.02-0.15 -
Sunflower
leaves 16.2-19.0 11.0 = 0.07—1.27 -
roots 13.6-—38.0 1.3-12.7 0.03 = 0.02
Sweet potato
leaves 16.1-23.7 4,5-5.4 - - -
roots 6.8-17.4 OI 0.01-0.14 0.01-0.03 0.01
Tomato
leaves 5.2-37.6 6.2-15.5 0.28-0.54 0.05-4.93 0.03
roots 8.0-34.1 46 - - =

From Altman, P. L. and D. S. Dittmer (eds.), Biology Data Book, 1964.

In summary, in relation to other aquatic plants and food crops,
T. testudinum and R. maritima contain significant amounts of pro-
tein, carbohydrate, energy, and minerals. The nutritive value of T.
testudinum has been established (Bauersfeld et al., 1969) and that
of R. maritima is implied from the work reported here. Annual
variation in chemical composition, however, implies that the nutri-
tional value of seagrasses varies throughout the year.

LITERATURE CITED

ALTMAN, P. L., AND D. S. DirrMeEr (eds.). 1964. Biology data book. Federa-
tion of American Societies for Experimental Biology, Washington, D. C.,
xix + 633 pp.

BAUERSFELD, P., R. R. Kirer, N. W. DurAnt, AND J. E. Sykes. 1969. Nutrient
content of turtle grass (Thalassia testudinum). Proc. Intl. Seaweed
Symp., vol. 6, pp. 637-645.

Boyp, C. E. 1970. Amino acid, protein, and caloric content of vascular aquatic
macrophytes. Ecology, vol. 51, pp. 902-906.

BURKHOLDER, P. R., L. M. BURKHOLDER, AND J. A. RIVERO. 1959. Some chem-
ical constituents of the turtle grass Thalassia testudinum. Bull. Torrey
Bot. Club, vol. 86, pp. 88-93.

Curominski, A. 1967. Effect of (2-chloroethyl) trimethylammonium chloride
on protein content, protein yield, and some qualitative indexes of winter
wheat grain. Jour. Agr. Food Chem., vol. 15, pp. 109-112.

WALSH AND Grow: Composition of Sea Grasses 107

Cummincs, K. W. 1967. Calorific equivalents for studies in ecological ener-
getics. Pymanting Laboratory of Ecology, University of Pittsburgh. 2nd.
ed., 52 pp.

Davm, D. J. 1958. Determination of zinc and other elements in plants by
atomic absorption spectroscopy. Analyst., vol. 8, pp. 655-661.

Davis, L. W., W. P. WituiaMs, JR., AND L. Croox. 1970. Interrelationships
of the protein and amino acid contents of inbred lines of corn. Jour.
Agr. Food Chem., vol. 18, pp. 357-360.

FENCHEL, T. 1970. Studies on the decomposition of organic detritus derived
from the turtle grass Thalassia testudinum. Limnol. Oceanogr., vol. 15,
pp. 14-20.

GROTELUESCHEN, R. D., AND D. SmirH. 1967. Determination and identification
of nonstructural carbohydrates removed from grass and legume tissue
by various sulfuric acid concentrations, takadiastase, and water. Jour.
Agr. Food Chem., vol. 15, pp. 1048-1051.

Hatt, K. J., W. C. WEIMER, AND G. F. LEE. 1970. Amino acids in an estua-
rine environment. Limnol. Oceanogr., vol. 15, pp. 162-164.

Hupson, J. H., D. M. ALLEN, anp T. J. CosTELLo. 1970. The flora and
fauna of a basin in Central Florida Bay. U. S. Fish Wildl. Ser. Spec.
Sci. Rep. Fish. 604, pp. 1-14.

Menzies, R. J., AND G. T. Rowe. 1969. The distribution and significance of
detrital turtle grass, Thalassia testudinum, on the deep-sea floor off
North Carolina. Int. Rev. Ges. Hydrobiol., vol. 54, pp. 217-222.

OELSHLEGEL, F, J., JR. 1969. Potential for protein concentrates from alfalfa
and waste green plant material. Jour. Agr. Food Chem., vol. 17, pp.
665-668.

Ouney, P. J. S. 1968. The food and feeding habits of the pochard, Aythya
ferina. Biol. Conserv., vol. 1, pp. 71-76.

Parker, P. L. 1966. Movement of radioisotopes in a marine bay: cobalt-60,
iron-59, manganese-54, zinc-65, sodium-22. Publ. Inst. Mar. Sci., Univ.
Texas, vol. 11, pp. 102-107.

Puiiurrs, R. C. 1960. Observations on the ecology and distribution of the
Florida seagrasses. Florida State Bd. Conser., Prof. Papers Ser., No. 2,
St. Petersburg, iv + 72 pp.

RacusE, C. A., anp D. SmitrH. 1965. Carbohydrate content in alfalfa herb-
age as influenced by methods of drying. Jour. Agr. Food Chem., vol.

13, pp. 306-309.

1966. Some nonstructural carbohydrates in forage legume herbage.
Jour. Agr. Food Chem., vol. 14, pp. 423-426.

RANDALL, J. E. 1965. Grazing effect on seagrasses by herbivorous reef fishes in
the West Indies. Ecology, vol 46, pp. 255-260.

STRICKLAND, J. D. H., anp T. R. Parsons. 1965. A manual of sea water
analysis, 2nd ed. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada. Bull. No. 125. Ottawa, viii +
203 pp.

VAN BREEDVELD, J. F. 1966. Preliminary study of seagrass as a potential source
of fertilizer. Florida State Bd. Conser., Mar. Lab. Spec. Sci. Rep. 9,
pp. 1-20.

108 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

ViruPAKSHA, T. K., AND L. V. S. Sastry. 1968. Studies on the protein content
and amino acid composition of some varieties of grain sorghum. Jour.
Agr. Food Chem., vol. 16, pp. 199-203.

WEsTLAKE, D. F. 1965. Some basic data for investigations of the productivity
of aquatic macrophytes. In: C. R. Goldman (ed.), Primary Productivity
in Aquatic Environments. Mem. Ist. Ital. Idrobiol., 18 Suppl., Univer-
sity of California Press, Berkeley, pp. 229-248.

Wituuas, R. B., AnD M. B. Murpocx. 1969. The potential importance of
Spartina alterniflora in conveying zinc, manganese, and iron into es-
tuarine food chains. In D. J. Nelson and F. C. Evans (eds.), Sym-
posium on Radioecology, 2nd Nat. Symp., Ann Arbor, Michigan, pp.
431-439.

YEE THonc Tan. 1970. Composition and nutritive value of some grasses,
plants, and aquatic weeds tested as diets. Jour. Fish. Biol., vol. 2,
pp. 253-257.

Gulf Breeze Environmental Research Laboratory, Sabine Island,
Gulf Breeze, Florida 32561. An associate laboratory of the National
Environmental Research Center, Corvallis, Oregon. Contribution
No. 126.

Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci 35(2) 1972(1973)

Noteworthy Marine Fishes from Eastern Louisiana

JeRRY G. WALLS

Over the last ten years, a small collection of local fishes has ac-
cumulated at the Louisiana Wild Life and Fisheries Comm. Marine
Biology Laboratory on Grand Terre Island, Louisiana. Many of the
specimens were collected incidental to shrimp studies and saved for
later identification. Although most came from Barataria Bay, many
were collected between 15 and 25 miles south of Grand Isle, where
average depths of 15 to 25 fathoms occur. A few other specimens
were donated by charter boat captains who found their catches to
be of unusual interest. Although often poorly preserved, some speci-
mens in this collection are noteworthy and are reported here.

1. Hemanthias vivanus (Jordan and Swain). Red barbier. Three
specimens of this beautiful fish were caught on 4 Dec. 1970, by Mr.
Jess Lane, while fishing with squid bait for red and vermilion snap-
per. They were caught near Rig 122-C, southeast of Grand Isle
near the Mississippi River delta, at a depth of 260 feet. All three
specimens were of similar size. Data on the single available speci-
men follow: total length 343 mm; standard length, 257; depth at
anal base, 87.5; head, 85.5; snout, 27.5; eye, 19; interorbital, 19.5;
upper caudal lobe, 72; lower caudal lobe, 79; left ventral, 134; pec-
toral, 62; caudal peduncle depth, 40; dorsal spines: 1st, 10; 2nd, 20;
3rd, 72; 4th, 27; 7th, 22; 10th, 17.5; first dorsal ray, 26; first anal
spine, 11; second, 20.5; third, 23 mm. D. X, 13; A. III, 8; P,, 17-18;
P,, I, 5; pored L1. scales, 52; GR, lower limb, 26. This specimen was
a mature male with large (55 mm long), firm testes. The peritoneum
was white; stomach contents consisted of a small amount of blue-
gray mud and a packet of very small, silvery fish scales; the gas
bladder was expanded into the mouth.

Of Gulf of Mexico anthiids, only Hemanthias vivanus and H.
leptus resemble the present specimen. Louis R. Rivas ( in lit.,
Feb., 1971) separates H. vivanus from H. leptus by more gill rakers
(30 in H. vivanus vs. 26 in H. leptus), fewer pored lateral line scales
(48-50 vs. 55), elongated, flexible third dorsal spine (pungent and
of normal length in H. leptus), and the absence of a deeply lunate
caudal fin (deeply lunate in H. leptus). The present specimen
agrees with H. vivanus in the prolonged dorsal spine and nearly

110 QvuARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

truncate caudal fin; the scale count is intermediate, and the gill
raker count fits H. leptus. Available descriptions of these species
(Jordan and Evermann, 1896; Longley and Hildebrand, 1940, 1941;
Ginsburg, 1952) are confusing and provide little information of
value. The confusing aspects of the Louisiana specimen may be
due to normal variation and to sex or degree of maturity. It is re-
ferred to Hemanthias vivanus pending a revision of the genus.

2. Alectis crinitus (Mitchill). African pompano. Although ju-
veniles of this species are occasionally reported from the northern
Gulf of Mexico (Springer and Hoese, 1958; Richmond, 1968),
adults appear to be very rare. A large (615 mm SL, 10 pounds)
male was taken on hook and line (squid bait on snapper rig) by
charter boat captain Charlie Sebastian in late August, 1970. The
specimen comes from Block 130 south of Timbalier Island, about
40 miles south of Grand Isle, in about 185 feet of water. It appears
to be the first published Louisiana record, and the first adult re-
corded from the northern Gulf, excluding Florida. Measurements:
greatest depth, 270; head length, 171; eye, 33; pectoral, 184; longest
anal ray, 249 mm. The dorsal fin was still filamentous, with at least
one ray (others broken) extending beyond the caudal fin; filaments
were banded with black and white much as in juveniles. Black
blotches were present at the upper edge of the operculum, above
the eye, and on the dorsal half of the caudal peduncle. The testes
were large, unequal (right 82, left 70 mm long), and firmly con-
nected to the gut by tough membrane; surfaces were rough, like
shagreen. Stomach contents consisted of five large (90 mm total
length) mantis shrimp, Squilla empusa. All were doubled-up, with
the bend pointed posteriorly; three specimens were quite fresh in
appearance. The stomach, liver, and pyloric caeca were covered
by a partially transparent, tough, and adherent membrane; peri-
toneum white.

3. Kyphosus sectatrix (Linnaeus). Bermuda chub. This mostly
tropical and Gulf Stream species is reported by SCUBA divers to
occur in large schools near oil rigs in clear water south of Grand
Isle. The only available specimen, 265 mm SL, was speared 16 Aug.
1960, south of Grand Isle. Dawson (1963) reported one specimen
from off Cat Island, Mississippi, but the present specimen appar-
ently represents the first Louisiana record.

4. Holacanthus bermudensis Goode. Blue angelfish. This species

Watts: Marine Fishes from Louisiana 111

is also reported to be common near oil rigs in clear water. The avail-
able specimen measures 188 mm SL, with an indistinct nape spot
and a dark caudal fin with a light terminal band. It was speared
16 Aug. 1960, south of Grand Isle, and represents the first Louisiana
record.

5. Nomeus gronowi (Gmelin). Man-of-war fish. This pelagic
fish is seldom recorded inshore along the Gulf coast, and only three
small specimens are available. One specimen, 17.9 mm SL, was
taken on 16 April 1961, near the Freeport Sulphur Rig, 4 miles
south of Grand Isle. Two additional juveniles, 22.1 and 18.8 mm
SL, were dipnetted in the boat basin at Grand Terre I. on 7 Dec.
1961. All three specimens had three brown body saddles, one sad-
dle on caudal peduncle, and long black pelvics connected to the
body by a membrane.

6. Erotelis smaragdus (Valenciennes). Emerald sleeper. Daw-
son (1969) reported only two records of this goby in Mississippi
and indicated that it is rarely collected. Four Louisiana specimens
are in the collection, three from within Barataria Bay. Two juven-
iles (48.3 and 45.4 mm SL) were taken at Middle Bank Light in
April, 1969, and another juvenile (47.8 mm SL) was collected near
Independence Island, 20 Jan. 1971. In life this specimen was gray-
brown with numerous small dark spots on the sides; dorsal and anal
fins were streaked with brown, and the caudal fin was uniformly
dark brown. The single large specimen, 103 mm SL, was taken 25
miles south of Grand Isle in May, 1961. These specimens seem to
be the first recorded from Louisiana.

LITERATURE CITED

Dawson, C. E. 1963. Kyphosus sectatrix in the Gulf of Mexico with a new
record from Mississippi. Copeia, no. 1, pp. 181-182.

. 1969. Studies on the gobies of Mississippi Sound and adjacent waters

II. An illustrated key to Gobioid fishes. Publ. Gulf Coast Res. Lab.

Mus., no. 1, pp. 1-59.

Grnspurc, Isaac. 1952. Eight new fishes from the Gulf Coast of the United
States, with two new genera and notes on geographic distribution. J.
Wash. Acad. Sci., vol. 42, no. 3, pp. 84-101.

Jorpan, Davip STARR, AND BARTON W. EVERMANN. 1896. The Fishes of
North and Middle America. . . . Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 47, part 1,
pp. i-lviii, 1-1240.

LONGLEY, WILLIAM H., AND SAMUEL F. HILDEBRAND. 1940. New genera and

112 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

species of fishes from Tortugas, Florida. Carnegie Inst. Wash., Papers
Tort. Lab., vol. 32, no. 14, pp. 223-285.
1941. Systematic catalogue of the fishes of Tortugas, Florida with

observations on color, habits, and local distribution. Ibid., vol. 34, pp.
i-xiii, 1-331.

RicHmMonp, E. Avery. 1968. A supplement to the fauna and flora of Hom
Island, Mississippi. Gulf Res. Rpts., vol. 2, no. 3, pp. 213-254.

SPRINGER, Victor G., AND Hinton D. Horse. 1958. Notes and records of
marine fishes from the Texas coast. Texas J. Sci., vol. 10, no. 3, pp.
343-348.

P. O. Box 49, Hightstown, New Jersey 08520.

Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 35(2) 1972(1973)

Antarctica, Isostacy, and the Origin of Frogs
CoLEMAN J. GoIN AND OLIvE B. Goin

It is a basic tenet of zoogeography that an animal group arises
in and spreads from a single area, its center of origin. For larger,
more inclusive groups, as the more primitive members move out
from the center of origin, successively more advanced forms evolve
in the center. As they in turn spread, they tend to eliminate the
more primitive forms by competition. A large group that has been
in existence for a long time typically shows a pattern of distribution
in which the primitive species are located at the periphery of the
range, in areas that the more advanced members have not yet
reached or have reached only recently.

The more primitive members of many vertebrate groups are
found in the southern continents, in South America, Africa south
of the Sahara, and Australia. The order Testudinata (turtles) com-
prises two suborders. The more primitive suborder, Pleurodira, in-
cludes the side-necked turtles, which draw the head under the shell
by bending the neck to the side. Of the two families of side-necked
turtles, Pelomedusidae occur in South America and Africa and
Chelidae in South America and Australia. Fossil pelomedusids are
known from the Upper Cretaceous of North America and Europe.
The suborder Cryptodira includes more advanced forms, which
withdraw the head by bending the neck in a sigmoid curve. They
are widely distributed in the warmer parts of the northern conti-
nents. The only cryptodires to reach Australia are the marine tur-
tles, and cryptodires have probably been in South America and
Africa only since the Miocene.

Distribution patterns similar to that shown by the turtles are
found in many vertebrates. This led Matthew (1915) to postulate
a Holarctic center of origin for the majority of the groups of verte-
brates. Darlington, on the other hand, believes that most of the
groups arose in the Old World tropics.

Some vertebrates do not conform to the distribution pattern de-
scribed above and do not seem to have originated either in the
Holarctic or in the Old World tropics. One such group is the frogs

114 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

(Salientia). We believe that the evidence suggests an Antarctic
origin for this group. }

ANTARCTICA

This continent, which caps the southern polar region and is cov-
ered with ice, seems an improbable place to seek for the origin of
frogs, but certainly it was not always as it is today. Although no
petroleum or gas have yet been located there, “estimates of enor-
mous coal reserves in the Beacon sediments of the Trans-Antarctic
Mountains have been made from time to time” (Warren, 1965, p.
314). The climatic conditions under which coal is formed are also
capable of supporting an amphibian fauna. The Beacon Group
sediments lie on a peneplain of igneus and metamorphic rocks com-
plex and variable in both age and lithology. In the McMurdo Sound
District, the sediments are estimated to range in total age from
pre-Devonian to Jurassic. The formation containing Glossopteris
(Permian) is about 700 m thick in the upper Beardmore district, a
thickness unequaled in other areas so far measured. Glacial condi-
tions were present in the late Paleozoic and also in the Jurassic.

Among fossils previously reported from the Beacon Group are
Devonian freshwater fishes (Woodward, 1921) and Jurassic fresh-
water gastropods, fishes, and beetles (Adie, 1962). Plumstead
(1964) has given a review of the plant fossils of the Beacon Group.
The first amphibian material known from Antarctica is a fragment
of a labyrinthodont jaw taken at Graphite Peak in the Trans-Ant-
arctic Mountains by Peter Barrett in 1967. In 1969 Dr. E. H. Col-
bert and his party collected about 450 specimens of fossil vertebrate
material from exposed outcrops in Coalsack Bluff just a few miles
from their Beardmore Camp. Additional materials were collected
during a second field season. These fossils represent in essence the
Lystrosaurus fauna.

IsoSTACY

Seismic and gravitational studies ( Bentley, 1965; Gow, 1965) in-
dicate that the ice cover over wide-spread areas of Antarctica rang-
es between 2000-3000 m in thickness; in west-central East Antarctica
the land is under a load of 3600 m of ice. Isostatic studies indicate
that with this load part of the continent should be depressed about
1000 m.

Goin AND Gorn: Antarctica and Origin of Frogs 115

Antarctica is at present connected with each of the three south-
ern continents, South America, Africa, and Australia, by the follow-
ing undersea ridges at depths appreciably less than 1000 m: the
Scotia Ridge to South America; the Macquarie Rise to Australia;
and the Atlantic-Indian Rise, the West Indian Ridge, and the South
Madagascar Ridge to Africa. Of these, the Scotia Ridge appears at
the surface as the Falkland Islands, South Georgia Island, the
South Sandwich Islands, and the South Orkney Islands. The Mac-
quarie Rise reaches the surface as MacQuarie Island and, on the
prong that extends to New Zealand, as the Aukland Islands. The
Ridge to Madagascar and South Africa appears at the surface as
the Bouvet and Prince Edward Islands. These ridges are shown
in Figure 1.

Fig. 1. Present location of undersea ridges that might, at a time of iso-
static adjustment, have been emergent ridges or at least island chains that frogs
would have been able to cross.

There is no assurance that even if the main body of the continent
did rise 1000 m to attain isostatic balance during glacier-free times
its margins and the ridges would have risen an equal amount. How-
ever, had they been elevated by only one third that amount there
could have been either direct land connections or island chains be-

116 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

tween Antarctica and the southern continents since the crests of the
ridges rise in many places closer than this to the surface.

ORIGIN OF THE FROGS

The earliest known remains of any salientian-type animal are
some footprints found in the Ecca formation in the basal Permian
of South Africa. The prints are of the fore-feet and indicate the
presence of an animal that swam about or groveled on the bottom.
The earliest fossilized skeleton is that of Triadobatrachus (Proto-
batrachus) from the Lower Triassic of Madagascar. This animal

Fig. 2. Distribution of the three earliest evidences of salientians. “P”
are footprints from Permian Ecca beds of South Africa; “T” represents Triado-
batrachus from the Triassic of Madagascar; “J” is Vieraella from the Lower
Jurassic of Patagonia. This figure and all of the following distribution maps
are based on an Azimuthal Equidistant Projection, centered on the South Pole.

Goin AND Gorn: Antarctica and Origin of Frogs 117

had a froglike skull and showed a tendency toward elongation of
the hind legs. These remains indicate that the probable ancestors
of the modern frogs were present in Gondwanaland.

The oldest known real frog (order Anura) is Vieraella from
Patagonia, which shows that the basic anuran pattern had been es-
tablished by the Lower Jurassic. Notobatrachus is from the mid-
Jurassic of Patagonia. Upper Jurassic frogs are known from both
North America and Europe. Figure 2 shows the distribution of the
earliest salientian fossils.

DISTRIBUTION OF MODERN FROGS

The modern families of frogs are divisible into four primitive

Fig. 3. Distribution of the living members of the family Ascaphidae;
Ascaphus in the northwestern United States and Leiolopelma in New Zealand.

118 QvUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

families (Ascaphidae, Discoglossidae, Rhinophrynidae, and Pip-
idae); one family, Pelobatidae that “unquestionably couples the
more primitive with the advanced families but, none the less, is
separable from both” (Griffiths, 1963, p. 271); and the more ad-
vanced families like the Hylidae, Bufonidae, Leptodactylidae, and
Ranidae.

Ascaphidae. This most primitive family of living frogs is found
today in two widely separated populations: Leiopelma in the fog-
dampened ridges of New Zealand, and Ascaphus in the cold moun-
tain streams of western North America (Fig. 3).

Discoglossidae. Today represented by four living genera, this
family shows a typical relict distribution: Bombina in Europe and
eastern Asia; Discoglossus in Europe and northern Africa; Alytes

Fig. 4. Distribution of the living members of the family Discoglossidae.

Goin AND Goin: Antarctica and Origin of Frogs 119

in western Europe; and Barbourula on a single island in the Philip-
pines (Fig. 4).

Rhinophrynidae. This family is known from a single species,
Rhinophrynus dorsalis from the lowlands of Mexico.

Pipidae. This family of highly aquatic frogs comprises one
genus from the northeastern coast of South America and three from
Africa in a trans-continental belt south of the Sahara but not in-
cluding southern Africa or Madagascar ( Fig. 5).

Pelobatidae. The following three subfamilies of pelobatids are
recognized: Pelobatinae, which includes one genus in Europe and
northern Africa and another in North America; Pelodytinae (some-
times recognized as a separate family) with a single genus in Eu-

Fig. 5. Distribution of the living members of the family Pipidae.

120 QuaRTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

rope; and Megophryninae with about half a dozen genera and many
species in southeastern Asia and the East Indies (Fig. 6).

Ranidae. This is a large, modern family containing many genera
and hundreds of species. It is centered in Africa, where six of the
seven subfamilies occur; four of them are found no place else. One
subfamily is confined to the Seychelles Islands north of Madagascar.
Another extends from Africa across southern Asia to the northern
coast of Australia. The subfamily Raninae includes several genera
of local distribution in Africa and southern Asia and the cosmo-
politan genus Rana which has spread from Africa through Europe,
Asia, and North America and has reached the northern parts of
Australia and South America. Figure 7 shows the distribution of
the Ranidae except for Rana.

Fig. 6. Distribution of the living members of the family Pelobatidae.

Gorin AND Gorn: Antarctica and Origin of Frogs 121

Dendrobatidae. This family of three genera and about sixty
species is confined to Central America and South America. It is
sometimes classed as a subfamily of the Ranidae.

Rhacophoridae. This family of largely arboreal frogs is obvi-
ously derived directly from the ranids. At present it is found in
Africa, southern Asia, Japan, the Philippines, the East Indies, and
Madagascar. There are over a dozen genera and many species.

Microhylidae. This family is found in Africa south of the Sahara,
Madagascar, southern Asia and the East Indies to New Guinea and
the northern tip of Australia, and in South America. One genus
ranges north to central United States and one Asian group north to
Manchuria. There are about forty genera and many species. Figure
8 shows the distribution of the Microhylidae.

= F = 7. Distribution of the living members of the family Ranidae (except
ana).

122 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Phrynomeridae. This small family is confined to Africa south
of the Sahara. It contains only a single genus and about half a
dozen species. As the rhacophorids evolved from a ranid stock, so
the phrynomerids apparently evolved from a microhylid stock.

Bufonidae. Except for the cosmopolitan genus Bufo, the Bufo-
nidae are found in Africa south of the Sahara (but not Madagas-
car), southern Asia and the East Indies, and South America (Fig.
9). Bufo, with its many species, occurs on most of the major land
areas of the world except Australia, New Guinea, and New Zealand.

Atelopodidae. These toads are widespread in Central and South
America in the form of Atelopus, but the only other genus, Brachy-
cephalus, is found only in eastern Brazil.

Hylidae. This large family of tree frogs includes over thirty

Fig. 8. Distribution of the living members of the family Microhylidae.

Goin AND Gorn: Antarctica and Origin of Frogs 123

genera and several hundred species. Except for the genus Hyla
sensu lato, and Nyctimystes of New Guinea, it is confined to the
Americas from northern Argentina northward to extreme south-
western United States (Fig. 10). For the purposes of this paper, we
consider the weakly defined North American genera Pseudacris and
Acris to represent simply small groups of semi-specialized Hyla.
We are not the first to so consider them (Noble, 1931). Hyla is
widespread not only in South America but also in North America
and Australia. A single variable species extends across the Pale-
arctic Region from western Europe and North Africa to Japan.
Leptodactylidae. This is another large family with hundreds of
species. The geographic range covers South and Central America

Fig. 9. Distribution of the living members of the family Bufonidae (ex-
cept Bufo).

124 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

northward to extreme southwestern United States and Australia and
New Guinea. Heleophryne, a little-known genus that occurs in the
mountains of southern Africa, is sometimes placed in this family,
but this allocation is doubted by some herpetologists. Figure 11
shows the distribution of the Leptodactylidae.

Ceratophryidae. This family includes seven genera of wide-
mouthed, toadlike forms. It seems to have been derived from the
Leptodactylidae and is confined to South America.

Pseudidae. Two small genera of aquatic South American frogs
are placed in this family. Its relationships are obscure, but it may
have been derived from the Leptodactylidae.

Centrolenidae. This small family of arboreal frogs, which we

Fig. 10. Distribution of the living members of the family Hylidae (except
Holarctic members of the genus Hyla, sensu lato).

Goin AND Gorn: Antarctica and Origin of Frogs 125

believe to have been derived from the leptodactylids in South Amer-
ica, occurs only in tropical America.

Discussion

As we look at the data given above, several points stand out.
The oldest evidences of any frogs or froglike creatures are geo-
graphically close to Antarctica; Permian footprints in the Ecca beds
of South Africa, Triadobatrachus from the Lower Triassic of Mada-
gascar, and Vieraella from the Lower Jurassic of Patagonia.

Primitive living frogs have typical relict distributions with the
Ascaphidae in western North America and New Zealand, and the
Discoglossidae in Europe, North Africa, eastern Asia and the Philip-

Fig. 11. Distribution of the living members of the family Leptodactylidae.

126 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

pines. Except for the oceanic island of New Zealand, all of these
geographic points are peripheral when plotted on an Azimuthal
Equidistant Projection centered on the South Pole. Leiopelma is
the only frog on New Zealand and there is no evidence that any
other frogs ever reached there. The Pelobatidae also have a dis-
junct distribution in North America, Europe, and Southeast Asia
and the East Indies. Except for Leiopelma, the only primitive frogs
found in the southern land masses are the completely aquatic Pipi-
dae. Their habits may have sheltered them from competition with
the more advanced, more terrestrial forms. They are peripheral
ecologically.

Four of the big, modern families of frogs are centered in the
southern continents and have spread northward from them. The
Hylidae are most numerous in South America; several genera reach
extreme southern United States and the genus Hyla has spread
across much of North America and from there to the Palearctic
Region. Hyla is common in Australia and New Guinea where it has
given rise to the genus Nyctimystes. The Leptodactylidae are also
very common and diversified in South America and Australia. They
have spread northward to southern United States and to New
Guinea. If the isolated genus, Heleophryne, of the mountains of
southern Africa does belong to this family, it may have reached that
continent by rafting. The Ranidae have spread from Africa to south-
ern Asia, the East Indies, and northern Australia, and, in the form
of Rana, to most parts of the world except the central and southern
half of Australia and the southern half of South America. The
Bufonidae are well represented in Africa and like the ranids seem
to have spread from there to southern Asia and the East Indies.
Bufo has extended its range throughout much of the Palearctic. On
the basis of karyological data, the North American members of the
genus Bufo seem to be allied to the Palearctic forms and were prob-
ably derived from them. The South American bufos apparently
represent a separate stock.

The microhylids are most numerous in Southeast Asia, Mada-
gascar, and New Guinea. They are present in the northem tip of
Australia and in southern Africa. In the New World they extend
from Argentina north to central United States. The American micro-
hylids are apparently more closely related to the Southeast Asian
forms than to the African ones. Parker (1934) believes the group

Gorin AND Gorn: Antarctica and Origin of Frogs 127

originated in Southeast Asia from a pro-ranid stock sometime before
the close of the Mesozoic and spread from there southwestward to
Africa and Madagascar, southward to New Guinea and Australia,
and eastward to the Americas. He suggested that the scarcity of
microhylids in Australia in contrast to their great abundance in New
Guinea may result from their relatively recent arrival across the
Torres Strait but that it more probably reflects the difference in
climatic conditions between the two regions. If the latter alterna-
tive is correct, the microhylids may once have been more wide-
spread in Australia when the climate was more humid and the di-
rection of spread may have been northward to New Guinea and
Southeast Asia.

Except for the relict populations of Ascaphus, the discoglossids,
and the pelobatids, there is hardly a frog in the Holarctic Region
that is not a member of one of three vigorous genera, Hyla, Rana,
and Bufo.

It should also be noted that the large families that are centered
in more than one of the southern continents are not necessarily cen-
tered in adjacent continents. The bufonids are in Africa and South
America but the leptodactylids and hylids are in Australia and
South America.

Finally, there are several obviously derived families that should
be mentioned. The Rhacophoridae now exist in two separate popu-
lations, one in Africa and one in southern Asia. This distribution
can be explained in one of two ways. Either the rhacophorids
evolved in Africa from the ranids and accompanied them eastward
into southern Asia and the East Indies; or, as Laurent (1951) thinks
more likely, after the ranids had extended eastward and split into
two disjunct populations, each separate stock independently gave
rise to arboreal forms. The Rhacophoridae would then be diphy-
letic in origin. The Phrynomeridae stand in the same relation to the
Microhylidae that the Rhacophoridae do to the Ranidae. They (the
phrynomerids) are simply microhylids that are modified for climb-
ing. They apparently evolved in and are still restricted to Africa.

Other small families also probably evolved in the place where
they live today. We suspect that the Centrolenidae evolved from
the Leptodactylidae in South America much as the phrynomerids
did from the microhylids in Africa, and that the Atelopodidae arose
from the South American Bufonidae. On the other hand, if the

128 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Dendrobatidae are derived from the Ranidae, the ancestors of the
family probably arrived in South America from West Africa by
rafting. They are more similar to some of the African forms than
they are to Rana, and Rana itself apparently reached South America
too recently to have given rise to the distinctive dendrobatids.

CONCLUSIONS

The lines of dispersal of the major anuran stocks thus seem to
point back to an Antarctic center of origin for the group. The fossil
history of the frogs is not well enough documented to allow us to
say much about early events in the evolutionary history of the group.
If Triadobatrachus (order Proanura) of the very early Triassic is
on or close to the line leading to the frogs, the salientian stock may
have originated in the late Paleozoic. It is probable that the frogs
(order Anira) evolved from the Proanura in the Triassic and that
by Late Triassic or Early Jurassic times the radiation of the frogs
was under way. The best known of the Upper Jurassic and Cretace-
ous frogs of the Holarctic Region are placed in the primitive fam-
ilies Discoglossidae and Pipidae, but some fragmentary remains in-
dicate that representatives of the more advanced families were pres-
ent in the northern hemisphere in the Cretacous and possibly in the
Upper Jurassic.

We appeal to isostacy as an explanation for the routes by which
the modern frogs spread from Antarctica rather than to continental
drift because of the more or less random distribution of the major
families. The Leptodactylidae and Hylidae are centered in South
America and Australia, the Bufonidae in South America and Africa,
the Microhylidae possibly in all three, and the Ranidae basically
only in Africa. Thus while the frog families were evolving and
moving out from Antarctica, this continent was from time to time
variously connected with the three southern continents; with Africa
but not South America and Australia, with Africa and South Amer-
ica but not Australia, with Australia and South America but not
Africa, and also perhaps with all three at the same time. If the
radiation of the frogs had taken place before the fragmentation of
Gondwanaland, then it seems to us the major families should be
equally distributed on all three of the southern continents. On the
other hand, if continental drift began shortly before the radiation
of the frogs, there was probably a closer isostatic relationship be-

Gorn anpD Gorn: Antarctica and Origin of Frogs 129

tween Antarctica and the southern continents at that time than
there is today.

It is to be hoped that the discovery of additional fossil material
in Antarctica and the southern continents will not only elucidate the
early history of the frogs but will also contribute to an understand-
ing of the geologic history of Antarctica.

LITERATURE CITED

Apr, R. J. 1962. The Geology of Antarctica. Geophys. Monogr., vol. 7,
pp. 26-39.

BENTLEY, C. R. 1965. The land beneath the ice. In T. Hatherton, editor,
Antarctica. New York, Frederick A. Praeger, pp. 259-277.

Dar.incTon, P. J. Jn. 1957. Zoogeography. New York, John Wiley and Sons,
675 p.

Gow, A. J. 1965. The ice sheet. In T. Hatherton, editor, Antarctica. New
York, Frederick A. Praeger, pp. 221-258.

Grirritus, I. 1963. The phylogeny of the Salientia. Biol. Rev., vol. 38, pp.
241-292.

LaureENT, R. 1951. Sur la nécessité de supprimer la famille de Rhacophoridae
mais de créer celle des Hyperolidae. Rev. Zool. Bot. Afr., vol. 45, pp.
116-122.

MatTHEw, W. D. 1915. Climate and evolution. Ann. New York Acad. Sci.,
vol. 24, pp. 171-318 (reprinted, 1939, as Special Pub. New York Acad.
Sci 1):

NosteE, G. K. 1931. Biology of the Amphibia. New York, McGraw-Hill, 577
p. (reprinted, 1954, by Dover Publications ).

Parker, H. W. 1934. A monograph of the frogs of the family Microhylidae.
London, British Museum (Natural History), 208 p.

PiumsteEapD, E. P. 1964. Paleobotany of Antarctica. In R. J. Adie, editor,
Antarctica geology. Amsterdam, North-Holland Publishing Co., pp.
637-654.

Warren, G. 1965. Geology of Antarctica, In T. Hatherton, editor, Antarctica.
New York, Frederick A. Praeger, pp. 279-320.

Woopwarp, A. S. 1921. Fish-remains from the Upper Old Red Sandstone of
Granite Harbour, Antarctica. British Antarctica (“Terra Nova’) ex-
pedition, 1910. Natural history report. Geology, vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 51-
62, pl.

Museum of Northern Arizona, P. O. Box 1389, Flagstaff, Arizona
86001.

Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 35(2) 1972( 1973)

Characteristics of the Western Atlantic Reef-fish Fauna
CARTER R. GILBERT

THE western Atlantic reef-fish fauna is better known than that
of any similar area of the world, with the possible exception of the
Hawaiian Islands. This should give one an idea of how extremely
limited is our knowledge of the faunistically richer and geographi-
cally more vast Indo-Pacific region. Most of our knowledge of west-
ern Atlantic reef fishes has accumulated during the past 15 years, and
this can be attributed to three factors 1) the tremendous increase
in numbers of ichthyologists investigating the fauna, 2) the devel-
opment of SCUBA gear and rotenone-based fish toxicants, and 3)
the exploratory fishing activities of the U. S. Bureau of Commercial
Fisheries. Of the many new species that have been discovered
during this time, a high percentage are small, cryptic reef dwellers,
particularly of the families Clinidae and Gobiidae. For example, of
the 46 clinids (including the Chaenopsidae and Tripterygiidae)
and 41 gobies listed by Bohlke and Chaplin (1968) for the Ba-
hamas, 13 species in each family have been described since 1953.
In addition, two Bahamian gobies and one clinid have since been
named, and at least a dozen other known Bahamian species have
yet to be described. Many others undoubtedly remain to be discov-
ered. The same relative totals for the gobies reported by Starck
(1968) from Alligator Reef, Florida, are even more illuminating;
14 of the 27 species listed have been described within the same pe-
riod. Knowledge of most groups of marine invertebrates is even
substantially less than for the fishes.

Although it is unlikely that man’s activities will result in the
wholesale extermination of reef-fish species from extensive geo-
graphic areas, such as has occurred for certain freshwater forms,
the need for accurate and relatively complete lists from the various
parts of the western Atlantic is no less acute. The faunistic studies
for Puerto Rico (Evermann and Marsh, 1902), Haiti (Beebe and
Tee-Van, 1928), and the Dry Tortugas (Longley and Hildebrand,
1941) all are very valuable contributions; however, many of the
small reef dwellers were not collected because of the primitive div-
ing gear and lack of completely effective fish toxicants. Other use-

GiBERT: Western Atlantic Reef Fishes 131

ful works are those by Cervigén (1966) for Venezuela and by Cald-
well (1966) for Jamaica, although both of these suffer somewhat
from the paucity of reef collections below the 50 foot level. The
paper by Birdsong and Emery (1968), which lists collections made
by Birdsong and Walter A. Starck II from the poorly known west-
ern Caribbean, is also a valuable contribution. Other important re-
cent collections of fishes, for which published faunal reports have
not yet appeared, are from Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands (J.
E. Randall), Grand Cayman Island (J. C. Tyler and C. R. Gilbert),
Haiti (Tyler, T. Devany, and H. A. Feddern), Old Providence Is-
land (Tyler and Gilbert), British Honduras (D. W. Greenfield),
and from various islands in the Lesser Antilles (Tyler and W. N.
Eschmeyer). The most complete faunal studies, however, are
those by Béhlke and Chaplin (1968) for the Bahamas, and by
Starck (1968) for Alligator Reef and vicinity, in the northern Flor-
ida Keys. The latter undoubtedly is the most thorough study of a
limited reef area done anywhere in the world. These two works, to-
gether with the paper by C. R. Robins (in press), have provided
much of the information upon which the present paper is based.

Despite the large amount of data that has recently accumulated,
it is impossible to determine accurately the distribution patterns
for many species of western Atlantic reef fishes. Although basically
due to the incomplete geographical coverage of our collections, the
difference in abundance of various species, either on a permanent
basis or at a particular time, is an important contributing factor.
This is especially true of the smaller forms. Lack of consistency in
the composition of the coral reef-fish fauna from one time to an-
other is, in fact, the rule rather than the exception. Thus, collections
made over a limited period of time will almost invariably miss the
bulk of the species. For example, Starck (1968) recorded a total
of 517 species of fishes from Alligator Reef, Florida, of which 389
are true members of the reef community; however, the most thor-
ough collections from this area at any one time (i.e., day) probably
would not exceed 100 or 125 species. Sometimes rarity of usually
common species is the result of introduction of occasional strays
into an unfavorable ecological situation. Starck’s (1968) list in-
cludes at least 12 species that evidently fall into this category, all
of which are widespread in the Bahamas. Two of these (the
chaetodontids Centropyge argi and Prognathodes aculeatus) main-

132 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

tain permanent populations just north of Miami, where the water is
consistently more clear than in the Florida Keys, thus leading
Starck to conclude that water turbidity (coming from Florida Bay)
is the most important factor preventing the establishment of these
and other Bahamian species in the Keys. More often, however, the
rarity of a species is not so readily explained. A very important
thing to realize is that many, if not most, of the small reef species
are annuals. Thus, unfavorable environmental conditions during
spawning can result in an abrupt and drastic reduction in abun-
dance from one season to the next, as has been demonstrated by
Robins (1958) for the gobiid fish Gobiosoma macrodon in the Flor-
ida Keys. The opposite, of course, can also happen. Short genera-
tion time and cyclic fluctuations in size and composition of the gene
pool are very important factors in the evolution of coral-reef species.

The tropical western Atlantic fish fauna (as well as that of the
tropical eastern Pacific) was derived from the rich Indo-Pacific
fauna, elements of which reached the New World at some time prior
to the mid-Cenozoic (Rosenblatt, 1963). There are two possible
ways in which this could have happened 1) from the west, across
the broad, open eastern Pacific; or, 2) from the east, via the pre-
historic Tethys Sea. There is considerable evidence, and general
agreement among ichthyologists, that the latter route was by far the
more important. The Tethys Sea was once located in the area now
occupied by the Mediterranean Sea and the countries of the Middle
East. As a result, the faunas of the Indo-Pacific had free access to
the New World tropics, and many, though by no means all, Indo-
Pacific groups succeeded in reaching there. During Miocene times,
however, this connection was broken by uplift of the Tethyan syn-
cline, which effectively isolated the Mediterranean and New World
faunas from that of the Indo-Pacific. In late Pliocene the final up-
lift of Middle America occurred, thus splitting the New World
tropical fauna in two. Still later, most of the tropical Mediterranean
fauna was exterminated as a result of lowered temperatures result-
ing from Pleistocene glaciation; undoubtedly some of the New
World fauna was similarly affected, but to a much lesser degree
(Walters and Robins, 1961). As a result of the above series of
events, the faunas of the above four areas (eastern Pacific, western
Atlantic, Mediterranean, and Indo-Pacific) became progressively
less homogeneous with regard to one another, and each proceeded

GitsperT: Western Atlantic Reef Fishes 133

to develop its own unique characteristics. Because of the extermina-
tion of much of its tropical fish fauna and the complete elimination
of its living coral reefs, the Mediterranean, despite its intermediate
geographical position, has less in common with the other three areas
than they do with each other, at least as far as the reef fishes are
concerned. For obvious reasons the faunas of the western Atlantic
and eastern Pacific are the most similar, with many closely related
geminate species, and in some cases the same species, being present
in both areas.

The tropical New-World fish fauna is basically a diluted Indo-
Pacific fauna. It is characterized by 1) the absence of a number
of Indo-Pacific families, 2) nearly always by fewer genera and
species than occur in the same families in the Indo-Pacific, and 3)
by the near absence of any endemic families (the only exceptions
being the Chaenopsidae [Stephens, 1963] and Dactyloscopidae, and
some consider the former only to be a subfamily of the Clinidae).
However, several distinctive subgroups apparently evolved largely
or entirely in the New World, such as the subfamily Gobiesocinae
(family Gobiesocidae) (Briggs, 1955), the subtribe Labrisomini
(family Clinidae) (Springer, 1959), and the seven-spined species of
Gobiidae (Bohlke and Robins, 1968).

The fish fauna of the tropical western Atlantic is substantially
richer than that of either the eastern Pacific or eastern Atlantic,
particularly with regard to the rock or reef-inhabiting forms. This
can be attributed both to the more compressed tropical zones and
near-absence of coral reefs in the latter two areas. The fish fauna
of the western Atlantic, however, is not nearly so speciose as that
of the Indo-Pacific. Starck (1968, pp. 12-13) has estimated that the
fish fauna of Alligator Reef, Florida, contains approximately half as
many species as areas of comparable size in the Indo-Pacific. Con-
sidering that the Indo-Pacific region also is geographically much
more extensive than the western Atlantic, it is likely that at least
3.5 times as many kinds of reef fishes (or approximately 2500
species ) occur throughout the former area.

Although the Indo-Pacific as a whole is richer than the western
Atlantic, this does not tell the complete story. The difference in
numbers of genera and species between some groups is much more
pronounced than between others, and in one case (the Clinidae)
the situation is completely reversed. A comparison of the number

134 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

of genera and species of several typical reef families from the west-
ern Atlantic and Marshall Islands (Table 1) illustrates these points
(data from latter area from Schultz et al, 1953; 1960).

TABLE 1
Comparison of number of genera and species for some marine fish families

Western Atlantic Marshall Islands

Acanthuridae 1-4 4-29,
Apogoniidae (shallow-water ) 3-21 182
Blenniidae 6-15 15-35
Clinidae (including Chaenopsinae
and Tripterygiinae ) 14-60 2-6

Holocentridae 7-11 5-19
Labridae 7-19 21-55
Pomacentridae 5-15 5-4]

Although not included in Table 1, the total number of New-
World species of Gobiesocidae is approximately the same as for the
Indo-Pacific; however, unlike the clinids, this is not true for the
genera, which are about three times as numerous in the Indo-Pacific
(Briggs, 1955). The large total number of New-World gobiesocid
species is, in great degree, due to the explosive evolution of the
subfamily Gobiesocinae (particularly the genus Gobiesox) in the
eastern Pacific.

The most notable exception to the rule of greater species num-
bers in the Indo-Pacific is seen in the family Clinidae. A partial ex-
planation for this may be that competition from the closely related
blenniids has prevented extensive clinid speciation in the Indo-
Pacific, whereas many of the ecological niches occupied by the blen-
nies in the Indo-Pacific are taken over by the clinids in the New
World (Starck, 1968, p. 13). Another interesting aspect to this is
that only about half the approximately 15 western Atlantic blenniid
species are characteristic components of the tropical reef fauna
(Bohlke, 1959; Springer, 1962, 1967; Randall, 1966), whereas the
others occur in rocky situations outside the limits of living coral
reefs. Of these, most reef-inhabiting species belong to the sub-
family Salariinae, whereas most non-reef forms are of the subfamily
Blenniinae (V. G. Springer, pers. comm.). In contrast, no western
Atlantic clinid species lives totally out of the reef area. This situa-
tion differs somewhat from what one finds in the eastern Pacific,

GitBErT: Western Atlantic Reef Fishes 135

where five genera of clinids (including 13 species) are entirely re-
stricted to cool waters (Alloclinus, Cryptotrema, Gibbonsia, Heter-
ostichus, and Neoclinus) (Hubbs, 1952, 1953, 1954).

One of the most noticeable differences between the western At-
lantic and Indo-Pacific reef faunas is the relative contributions, in
terms of biomass, of certain fish families. This cannot be attributed
solely to differences in species numbers, although it may be factor.
In the western Atlantic the grunts (Pomadasyidae) and sometimes
the snappers (Lutjanidae) may occur in tremendous numbers, a
phenomenon one does not usually see in the Indo-Pacific (where
the Pomadasyidae is largely replaced by the closely related, or
identical, Gaterinidae). In the Indo-Pacific the surgeonfishes ( Acan-
thuridae) and cardinalfishes (Apogonidae), in particular, are much
more important, in terms of total weight, than in the western
Atlantic.

Although we are primarily concerned with the western Atlantic
reef fishes, it is necessary to consider briefly those fishes living in
other habitats as well. Robins (1971) recognizes two kinds of
tropical fish faunas, Continental and Insular. Continental faunas live
in regions where environmental change is the rule (temperature,
salinity, and turbidity), whereas Insular faunas occur in regions of
great environmental stability. Turbid waters, muddy or silty bot-
tom, and absence of coral reefs are characteristic features of the
continental habitat, just as clear water, bottom sediments composed
mainly of calcium carbonate, and extensive coral reef development
are usual features of the insular habitat.

Certain fish families are primarily continental in distribution, al-
though none (at least of those containing more than a few species )
is exclusively so. Typical continental families in the western At-
lantic include the Sciaenidae (of which all but six of the over 60
western Atlantic species are continental), Batrachoididae (only one
of 24 is insular, and that perhaps not entirely so; Walters and Rob-
ins, 1961), Sparidae, Ophidiidae, Bothidae, and Cynoglossidae.
Some, such as the Gobiidae, are about equally divided with regard
to numbers of continental and insular forms, and others (e.g., the
Pomadasyidae) contain mostly insular forms. The family Carangi-
dae in general, as well as certain individual species in other fam-
ilies (the sphyraenid Sphyraena barracuda, the gobiids Bathygobius
soporator and Gobionellus boleosoma, the gerreids Eucinostomus ar-

136 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

genteus and E. gula, the blenniid Blennius cristatus, the ophichthid
Myrophis punctatus, and the lutjanids Lutjanus griseus and L.
jocu), seem to be at home in either type of environment. All of
these are wide-ranging forms that evidently have an unusual ability
to adapt to a wide variety of ecological conditions. Those families
essentially limited to continental waters would be expected to have
limited mobility, both during larval and adult stages. Although
some do (e.g., the Batrachoididae), this is by no means always true.
As Robins (1971) points out, one of the most characteristic con-
tinental species is the Spanish mackerel (Scomberomorus macu-
latus), and only one of the nine Florida species of the ophichthid
eel genera Ophichthus, Bascanichthys, Echiopsis, and Letharchus
(a deep-water species of Ophichthus) occurs in the Bahamas. All
of the above are highly pelagic at some stage of their life history,
and there is nothing to prevent them from reaching insular areas.
This brings up a most important point, which Starck (1968) and
Robins (1971) have clearly shown: that the distinctions between
the continental and insular faunas are due in much greater degree
to ecological barriers than to physical barriers to movement.

The tropical continental fauna may be divided into northern and
southern components (Robins, 1971), the former extending from
central Florida (or in summer from the Carolinas) southward to-
ward the tip of Florida and around the Gulf of Mexico to Yucatan;
the latter extends from Yucatan southward. Exceptions to this oc-
casionally occur; for example, the northern sciaenids Menticirrhus
littoralis and M. americanus have been collected in the Caribbean
(Roy D. Irwin, pers. comm.), and the southern sciaenid Bairdiella
sanctaeluciae has recently been taken on the lower east Florida
coast (specimens in Unversity of Florida and Cornell University
collections ). Of the 30 species of Sciaenidae recorded for Venezuela
(Cervigén, 1966, pp. 499-539), however, only six occur in Florida
(four in the Bahamas); all but one (the above B. sanctaeluciae)
are clear-water inhabitants (atypical for sciaenids) of the genera
Equetus, Odontoscion, and Umbrina, and have insular, rather than
continental, distributions. Of the 26 species recorded from Guyana
by Lowe (McConnell), 1966, only B. sanctaeluciae and the insular
Equetus lanceolatus also occur in Florida. This distribution even
holds at the generic level, inasmuch as only seven of the total of 21
sciaenid genera are common to both the Guianas and Florida. As

Gumpert: Western Atlantic Reef Fishes 137

might be expected, those families of greater mobility are more likely
to have species of wide distribution. Thus, of the six species of the
eel family Ophichthidae (not including two species of Echelinae)
listed by Cervigén (1966, pp. 186-197) from Venezuela, three
(Echiopsis intertincta, Ophichthus gomesi, and Ophichthus ocella-
tus) are also elements of the Florida continental fauna.

The insular fauna extends, in pure form, from the Bahamas
southward through the West Indies. Because of its area and extent
of coral-reef development, the Bahamas may be considered to be
the center of the western Atlantic insular fauna. Bermuda and the
islands of the Fernando Naronha group (off the eastern hump of
Brazil) are distant outposts of this fauna. Varying degrees of mixing
of the insular and continental faunas occur in Florida, the Greater
Antilles, Trinidad, and along much of the Central and South Amer-
ican coasts. The richness of the Florida Keys fish fauna is due in
large degree to this mixing effect (Starck, 1968, p. 10).

In contrast to the continental groups, one finds a number of fam-
ilies in which all species (in the western Atlantic at least) are
more-or-less strictly confined to an insular habitat. This includes the
Chaetodontidae, Holocentridae, Apogonidae, Clinidae, Scaridae,
Labridae, and perhaps the Pomacentridae. For the first two families
this is invariably true, as it is for the Labridae (if one does not
consider the two northern cold-water genera Tautoga and Tauto-
golabrus). However, some of the other families contain representa-
tives which, though found in a basically insular environment, seem
to require a certain degree of continental influence. For example,
the clinid Starksia ocellata is always found in rocks or reefs and is
one of the most common of the Florida Clinidae. It is absent from
the Bahamas, but occurs in the Greater Antilles and along the Cen-
tral and South American coasts (Gilbert, 1971). Other examples
are the apogonid Astrapogon alutus and the scarid Nicholsina usta,
both of which are absent from the Bahamas and present in Florida,
where they are especially common along the west coast.

The insular fauna of the western Atlantic, in contrast to the con-
tinental fauna, is characterized by relative homogeneity; and some
species, nearly all with long-lived pelagic larvae, have very wide
distributions. For example, Labrisomus nuchipinnis (Clinidae),
Rypticus saponaceus (Grammistidae), Holocentrus ascensionis and
Myripristis jacobus (Holocentridae), Bothus lunatus (Bothidae),

138 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Acanthostracion quadricornis (Ostraciidae), Pomacentrus leuco-
stictus and Chromis insolatus (Pomacentridae), Diodon holacanthus
(Diodontidae), Epinephelus adscensionis and Paranthias furcifer
(Serranidae), Malacanthus plumieri ( Branchiostegidae), Scorpaena
plumieri (Scorpaenidae), Mulloidichthys martinicus (Mullidae),
Acanthurus bahianus and A. coeruleus (Acanthuridae), Balistes
vetula and Melichthys niger (Balistidae) all range from Florida to
Ascension Island and/or St. Helena or beyond (Cadenat and Mar-
chal, 1963). The vast majority of insular species, however, have
much more restricted distributions. Florida, for example, has eight
apparently endemic reef or reef-associated species (Hypoplectrus
gemma and Liopropoma eukrines [Serranidae], Lythrypnus phorel-
lus, Gobionellus stigmaturus, and Ioglossus calliurus [Gobiidae],
Starksia starcki [Clinidae], Emblemariopsis diaphana [Clinidae,
subfamily Chaenopsinae], and Ophidion selenops [Ophidiidae]. In
addition, the pomacentrid Chromis scotti, though recently discov-
ered in the Bahamas (C. R. Robins, pers. comm.), probably should
be included in this group. Although some of the above will likely
be discovered elsewhere, others probably will not. For example,
Hypoplectrus gemma is a fairly common, readily-observed species
in tropical Florida waters, and it seems unlikely that such a dis-
tinctive fish would have been overlooked elsewhere. Other western
Atlantic reef species undoubtedly have equally restricted distribu-
tions, although collections outside of Florida are not yet complete
enough to know just which species are involved, particularly the
deeper-living forms. The main point, however, is that there is no
clearcut division of the insular fauna into northern and southern
components, as there is for the continental fauna. Of the 23 species
of Clinidae (including the Chaenopsidae and Tripterygiidae) re-
ported by Cervigén (1966, pp. 660-689) from Venezuela, 14 occur
in the Bahamas and 13 in Florida. This contrasts sharply with the
very dissimilar sciaenid faunas in these two areas (see above).
The only island in the tropical western north Atlantic that is
sufficiently isolated that it could be a significant center of endemism
is Bermuda. This island, however, possesses relatively few endem-
ics, only 14 forms (or about five per cent) presently falling into this
category, none of which is very strongly differentiated (Collette,
1962; Caldwell, 1965; Briggs, 1966). The fauna is, in fact, on the
depauperate side, particularly with regard to the small cryptic reef

Gupert: Western Atlantic Reef Fishes 139

species. This problem has been discussed by Briggs (1966), who
points out that Bermuda is located sufficiently far north as to have
been adversely affected by the cooling effects of the various Pleisto-
cene glaciations. Insufficient time has elapsed since the last ( Wis-
consin) glacial period to permit recruitment and subsequent evo-
lution of a highly endemic fish fauna.

The only other area in the tropical western Atlantic that would
be predicted to harbor a substantial endemic fauna is the coast of
extreme eastern Brazil, including the offshore islands of the Fer-
nando Naronha group. This area has living coral reefs, and is over
1000 miles from the next closest area of extensive reef development
(i.e., Trinidad) (Bohlke and Chaplin, 1968: inside front cover).
Not only is the coastline to the northwest largely devoid of favor-
able habitat for most reef species, but two major river systems (the
Amazon and Orinoco) empty large volumes of turbid, hyposaline
water into the intervening ocean. One would expect, as a result of
this isolation, for some faunal endemism to have developed, and the
few available collections from this area indicate that such is indeed
the case.

This is not to say that all insular faunas will be as noticeably
homogeneous as that of the western Atlantic. For example, in the
eastern Pacific the long, linear open shoreline of the western Mid-
dle American coast (punctuated by widely separated rocky out-
crops); the absence of fringing coral reefs along shore and the
near-absence of closely adjacent offshore islands; the presence of
distant offshore islands (Galapagos, Cocos, Clipperton, and the
Revillagigedos); cold upwellings at various points along the coast;
and the geographical and physical nature of the Gulf of California
have resulted in numerous pockets of endemism among the basical-
ly insular fish groups. In contrast, the tropical western Atlantic is
a circular, semi-enclosed sea, containing numerous closely-adjacent
islands; and with rich coral growths present around nearly all the
islands and bordering much of the shoreline. In addition, the Gulf
Stream flows through the Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico, and up
the Florida Straits between the Bahamas and Florida. This current
is very important in distributing the pelagic larvae or adults of many
kinds of organisms, either directly or as a result of subsidiary “spin-
off’ currents (Caldwell, 1963).

I have reviewed a number of papers on western Atlantic reef

140 QvuaARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

fishes to see if I could find evidence of specific distribution patterns.
The results have not been very conclusive. There is some evidence
that distinct patterns do exist, although considerably more work is
necessary before these can be accurately delineated. To take one
example, the gobiid Gobiosoma louisae and the holocentrid Adioryx
poco have been recorded only from the Bahamas, Grand Cayman
Island, and Providencia (Old Providence) Island. This may be due
in part to the fact that neither of these species lives in very shallow
water; however, it could well be significant that neither has been
collected in Puerto Rico or the Virgin Islands, despite extensive deep
work by Dr. John E. Randall.

Although living coral reefs in Florida are found only a short dis-
tance north of Miami, the ranges of a number of reef-inhabiting
fish species extend considerably farther northward. Recent explora-
tory fishing by the U. S. Bureau of Commercial Fisheries has re-
vealed that apparent resident populations of reef species such as
Holocentrus ascensionis and Myripristis jacobus (Holocentridae),
Chaetodon sedentarius and Holacanthus tricolor (Chaetodontidae),
Anisotremus virginicus (Pomadasyidae), and Bodianus pulchellus
(Labridae) occur much farther north (to Cape Hatteras, North
Carolina) than was previously realized (Anderson and Gutherz,
1965). These fishes live in rocky outcroppings offshore, where they
are restricted to somewhat deeper water than is usual for more
tropic latitudes. Their restriction to these deeper waters is occa-
sioned by the cold winter temperatures inshore, coupled with the
moderating effects of the Gulf Stream offshore. The scarcity of
favorable habitat inshore may also be a partial, though less im-
portant, factor. A few of the reef species maintain permanent pop-
ulations in rocky inshore areas along the Florida coast, at least as
far north as Matanzas Inlet (ca. 50 miles south of Jacksonville).
The most notable of these is Labrisomus nuchipinnis (family Clini-
dae), a hardy, wide-ranging species that occurs south to eastern
Brazil and across the Atlantic to West Africa (Springer, 1959, p.
486). This species is excessively abundant in rocky situations along
the Florida coast, much more so than it ever is in coral-reef areas,
where it must compete with other closely related species. Other
reef species found here include Starksia ocellata (Clinidae), Aniso-
tremus surinamensis (Pomadasyidae), Scorpaena plumieri (Scor-
paenidae), and Abudefduf saxatilis and A. taurus (Pomacentridae )

GimBERT: Western Atlantic Reef Fishes 141

(Gilbert, 1969). The last four species, however, may not represent
permanent populations, but instead may be the result of a more or
less continuous recruitment of eggs and young from the south, which
are carried north and deposited by the Gulf Stream. In addition,
this rocky shoreline is also inhabited by certain other species that
either are rare in the tropics or do not occur there at all; Gobiesox
strumosus (Gobiesocidae), and Hypleurochilus geminatus and Hyp-
soblennius hentzi Blenniidae). Similar extensions of the tropical
reef fauna are known from the eastern and northern Gulf of Mex-
ico (Briggs, 1958; Caldwell, 1959, 1963; Springer and Woodburn,
1960; Caldwell and Briggs, 1957; Briggs and Caldwell, 1957; Daw-
son, 1962, 1963), as well as for the western Gulf (Hoese, 1959;
Springer and Hoese, 1958; Briggs, Hoese, Hadley, and Jones, 1964).
They apparently represent a mixture of both resident and non-resi-
dent species, the latter of which are annually recruited from the
south but do not survive the cold winter temperatures.

This paper was presented at a symposium on coral-reef biology
held at Bimini, Bahamas, in March, 1969, which was partly sup-
ported by ONR grant no. 552(07).

LITERATURE CITED

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BEEBE, W., AND J. TEE-VAN. 1928. The fishes of Port-au-Prince Bay, Haiti/
with a summary of the known species of marine fish of the island of
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Brrpsonc, R. S., anp A. R. EMeEry. 1968. New records of fishes from the
western Caribbean. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci., vol. 30, no. 3, pp.
187-196.

BOHLKE, J. E. 1959. A new fish of the genus Hypsoblennius (Blenniidae)
from the Bahamas. Notulae Naturae, no. 321, pp. 1-5.

BOHLKE, J. E., anp C. C. G. Cuaprin. 1968. Fishes of the Bahamas and ad-
jacent tropical waters. Livingston Publ. Co., Wynnewood, Pa., pp. v-
oti, Iai (Ile

BOu KE, J. E., anD C. R. Rosins. 1968. Western Atlantic seven-spined gobies,
with descriptions of ten new species and a new genus, and comments on
Pacific relatives. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, vol. 120, no. 3,
pp. 45-174.

Briccs, J. C. 1955. A monograph of the clingfishes (Order Xenopterygii).

Stanford Ich. Bull., no. 6, pp. ii-iv, 1-224.
1958. A list of Florida fishes and their distribution. Bull. Florida

State Mus., Biol. Sci., vol. 2, no. 8, pp. 223-318.

142 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

1966. Oceanic islands, endemism, and marine paleo-temperatures.
Syst. Zool., vol. 15, no. 2, pp. 153-163.

Brices, J. C., anp D. K. CALDWELL. 1957. Acanthurus randalli, a new surgeon
fish from the Gulf of Mexico. Bull. Florida State Mus., Biol. Sci., vol.
2, no. 4, pp. 43-51.

Briccs, J. C., H. D. Horse, W. F. HapLey, AND R. S. Jones. 1964. Twenty-
two new marine fish records for the northwestern Gulf of Mexico. Texas
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CaDENAT, J., AND E. MarcHau. 1963. Résultats des campagnes océano-
graphiques de la Reine-Pokou aux iles Sainte-Héléne et Ascension.
Bull. de l’Inst. Francais d’Afrique Noire, 25, vol. A, no. 4, pp. 1235-
1315, figs. 1-48.

CALDWELL, D. K. 1959. Observations on tropical marine fishes from the north-
eastern Gulf of Mexico. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci., vol. 22, no. 1,
pp. 69-74.

1963. Tropical marine fishes in the Gulf of Mexico. Quart. Jour.

Florida Acad. Sci., vol. 26, no. 2, pp. 188-191.

. 1965. A new sparid fish of the genus Diplodus from Bermuda. Fieldi-

ana (Zoology), vol. 44, no. 23, pp. 217-225.

1966. Marine and freshwater fishes of Jamaica. Bull. Inst. Jamaica,
Sci. Ser., no. 17, pp. 1-120.

CALDWELL, D. K., Anp J. C. Briccs. 1957. Some extensions of western North
Atlantic fishes with notes on some soles of the genus Gymnachirus.
Bull. Florida State Mus., Biol. Sci., vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 1-11.

Cervicon, M. F. 1966. Los Peces marinos de Venezuela. Vols. 1-2. Fund.
La Salle Cien. Nat. Monogr., nos. 11-12, pp. 1-951.

CotteTTE, B. B. 1962. Hemiramphus bermudensis, a new halfbeak from
Bermuda, with a survey of endemism in Bermudian shore fishes. Bull.
Mar. Sci. Gulf and Caribbean, vol. 12, no. 3, pp. 432-449.

Dawson, C. E. 1962. New records and notes on fishes from the north-central

Gulf of Mexico. Copeia, 1962, no. 2, pp. 442-444.

1963. Kyphosus sectatrix (Linnaeus) in the Gulf of Mexico with a
new record from Mississippi. Copeia, 1963, no. 1, pp. 181-182.
EVERMANN, B. W., anp M. C. Marsu. 1902. The fishes of Porto Rico. Bull.

U. S. Fish Comm. (1900), vol. 20, no. 1, pp. 49-350, 49 col. pls.
GruBert, C. R. 1968. Western Atlantic batrachoidid fishes of the genus
Porichthys, including three new species. Bull. Mar. Sci., vol. 18, no. 3,
pp. 671-730.
. 1969. A mass inshore movement of fishes on the Florida coast. Quart.
Jour. Florida Acad. Sci., vol. 31, no. 1, pp. 70-78.
1971. Two new Atlantic clinid fishes of the genus Starksia. Quart.
Jour. Florida Acad. Sci., vol. 33, no. 3, pp. 193-206.
Hoesr, H. D. 1959. A partially annotated checklist of the marine fishes of
Texas. Publ. Inst. Mar. Sci., vol. 5, pp. 312-352.
Husss, C. 1952. A contribution to the classification of the blennioid fishes of
the family Clinidae, with a partial revision of the eastern Pacific forms.
Stanford Ich. Bull., vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 41-165.

GiBERT: Western Atlantic Reef Fishes 143

1953. Revision and systematic position of the blenniid fishes of the

genus Neoclinus. Copeia, 1953, no. 1, pp. 11-23.

1954. Additional records of clinid fishes, with the description of a
new species of Cryptotrema from the Gulf of California. Copeia, 1954,
no. 1, pp. 17-19.

LoncLey, W. H., anv S. F. HmpEBRAND. 1941. Systematic catalogue of the
fishes of Tortugas, Florida, with observations on color, habits, and local
distribution. Carnegie Inst. Washington, Publ. no. 535, pp. i-xiii, 1-331,
34 pls.

Lowe (McConneELL), R. H. 1966. The sciaenid fishes of British Guiana. Bull.
Mar. Sci., vol. 16, no. 1, pp. 20-57.

RANDALL, J. E. 1966. The West Indian blenniid fishes of the genus Hypleuro-
chilus, with the description of a new species. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washing-
ton, vol. 79, pp. 57-71.

Rosins, C. R. 1958. Garmannia zebrella, a new gobiid fish from Trinidad,

with notes on the species of the subgenus Tigrigobius Fowler. Jour.

Wash. Acad. Sci., 48(6):192-198.

1971. Distributional patterns of fishes from coastal and shelf waters
of the tropical western Atlantic. In Symposium on investigations and
resources of the Caribbean Sea and adjacent regions, pp. 249-255.
FAO, Fish. Rep. 71-2.

ROsENBLATT, R. H. 1963. Some aspects of speciation in marine shore fishes.
Syst. Assoc. Publ. no. 5 (Speciation in the Sea), pp. 171-180.

Scuuttz, L. P., E. S. Heraup, E. A. Lacuner, A. D. WELANDER, L. P.
Woops. 1953. Fishes of the Marshall and Marianas Islands. Bull. U. S.
Nat. Mus., vol. 202, no. 1, pp. ii-xxxii, 1-685.

ScHULTz, L. P., W. M. CHapMaAn, E. A. LACHNER, L. P. Woops. 1960. Fishes
of the Marshall and Marianas islands. Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 202,
no. 2, pp. ii-ix, 1-438.

SPRINGER, V. G. 1959. Systematics and zoogeography of the clinid fishes of

the subtribe Labrisomini Hubbs. Publ. Inst. Mar. Sci., vol. 5, pp. 417-

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1962. A review of the blenniid fishes of the genus Ophioblennius
Gill. Copeia, 1962, no. 2, pp. 426-433.

1967. Revision of the circumtropical shorefish genus Entomacrodus
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1-150, pls. 1-30.

SPRINGER, V. G., anD H. D. HorsE. 1958. Notes and records of marine fishes
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Annotated Checklist of the Boynton Beach Hammock

DANIEL F.. AUSTIN AND JOANNE G. WEISE

East of highway A1A between the Boynton Beach Inlet and the
“developed” portion of beach in Boynton Beach, Palm Beach Coun-
ty, Florida, is a strip of land covered by a natural plant association
known as “Shore Hammock,” “Beach Hammock” (Harper, 1927),
or “Coastal Hammock” (Davis, 1943). This half-mile long ham-
mock is unique in that it is the last of its size existing on the eastern
peninsular coast of the state and is an extension of this type of
vegetation north of the last reported site (Alexander, 1958b). There
are scattered remnants of beach hammocks in a few spots along the
east coast, but north of the Keys they lack the complexity and un-
disturbed aspects of the hammock at Boynton Beach. Most of
these hammocks have been destroyed and replaced with hotels, mo-
tels, and condominiums (Alexander, 1958b). Even in 1927 when
Harper wrote his Natural History of Southern Florida this vegeta-
tion type was considered “very sparingly represented on the east
coast.”

Since the Boynton Beach Hammock is scheduled to become an-
other accession of the “Florida Gold Coast” syndrome of land “de-
velopment” in response to malignant population growth, it is imper-
ative that the plant species present be recorded. The site has been
used by different members of Florida Atlantic University as an
“outdoor laboratory” for several years, and their use will continue
until the demise of the hammock. Perhaps before this beach ham-
mock is destroyed, we will be able to record some of the biological
complexities that allowed its development and existence. The ac-
companying checklist is a small contribution to that record.

The vegetation of beach hammocks or, as they are sometimes
called, “cactus thickets,” is in many ways similar to the deserts of
the southwestern United States. Several spiny plants related to
desert species occur in the association. Among these spiny plants
are Yucca, Erythrina (Coral-Bean), Zanthoxylum (Wild-lime),
Caesalpinia (Nicker Bean), Opuntia (Prickly-Pear Cactus), Acan-
thocereus ( Barbed-Wire Cactus), and Agave (Century Plant). Most
of these prickly plants are restricted to the ocean side of the ham-
mock at the ecotone between the hammock and the beach.

146 QuARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

To the ocean side of the prickly zone is a beach plant associa-
tion common in subtropical and tropical latitudes throughout the
New World (Sauer, 1967). The portion inland from the prickly
zone contains the actual hammock. Common trees in the hammock
are Sabal palmetto (Cabbage Palmetto), Bursera simaruba (Gumbo
Limbo), Metopium toxiferum (Poison Wood), Coccoloba uvifera
(Sea Grape), Mastichodendron foetidissimum (Mastic), and Ficus
aurea (Wild Fig). The transition from open beach to the center of
the hammock involves a vegetational, water, and mineral content
gradient. The hammock itself is the most favorable habitat be-
cause of higher moisture, more stable temperature, wind protection,
and increased mineral content.

The substratum throughout the hammock is composed primarily
of sand. This sand is mostly a non-siliceous type derived from the
shells of sea bivalves; calcium content is very high. The substratum
forms a series of terraces between the hammock and shore which
coincide with the height of major tides, and a series of higher dunes
beneath the hammock. These dunes are part of old ocean deposits
(Cooke, 1939, 1945) which have been stabilized by the hammock
vegetation. The special xeric conditions of coastal hammocks make
them ecologically unique.

There are several noteworthy floristic differences between this
hammock and those described from other areas of Florida. The
ocean depth and currents and the prevailing wind patterns account
for some of the divergence from the beach hammocks described on
the western coast by Harper (1927). Kurz (1942) studied beach
areas north of that at Boynton Beach and consequently found heavy
influence from the temperate flora. Those hammocks described by
Phillips (1940), and Alexander (1958a) are inland hammocks dif-
fering in species composition from coastal hammocks.

The herb composition of the Boynton Beach Hammock is similar
to the description given by Harper (1927). There are some species
in each area which are unique, but this might be expected as a
result of dispersal from available floristic sources. The major differ-
ence is the complete absence of Bromeliaceae and Orchidaceae at
the Boynton Beach Hammock. Harper listed three widely distribu-
ted species of air plants, Tillandsia utriculata, T. balbisiana, and
T. fasciculata as well as the orchid, Encyclia tampensis. None of
these has been found at Boynton Beach.

AUSTIN AND WEIsE: Boynton Beach Vegetation 147

The hammock at Boynton Beach is not particularly rich in
species, with only 98 being found. The most characteristic feature
of the area is that these species represent 49 different families.
Twenty-six of these families are represented by only one species,
and twelve by only two species. The families dominating the ham-
mock in terms of numbers of species are, in order of decreasing size,
Leguminosae, Gramineae, Euphorbiaceae, Compositae, Rubiaceae,
and Convolvulaceae. Each of these families is represented by more
than three species.

A common problem with plant nomenclature in southern Florida
is that much of it is based on the system used by Small (1933).
Many of the problems of synonymy have been solved recently by
Liogier (1963, 1965a, 1965b, 1968), Lakela and Craighead (1965),
D'Arcy (1967), Radford, Ahles, and Bell (1968), Ward (1968), and
Long (1970). Where pertinent the names used, with a few excep-
tions, follow these authors. When exceptions occur, they are usually
followed by the synonym used by these authors, who are abbrevi-
ated with the first letter of their surnames, and the source. For
example, Catharanthus roseus (=Vinca rosea RAB, 1968: 847).
Names for the Anacardiaceae follow Gillis (1972); for the Euphor-
biaceae they follow Burch (personal communication). Names for
the Convolvulaceae follow the interpretation of the senior author.

The family sequence follows Dalla Torre and Harms (1900-
1907). Species are listed alphabetically under the appropriate
family.

PTERIDOPHYTA
Family Polypodiaceae
Acrostichum aureum L. One population on the lee side of the inner dune near
the SW corner. Austin 4414.
Phlebodium aureum (L.) J. Sm. A rare epiphyte in the hammock; on Sabal
in the northern end. Austin 4419.

SPERMATOPHYTA
Family Typhaceae
Typha domingensis Pers. A small population found in a depression at the SW
corner of the hammock. Austin 4409.
Family Gramineae
Cenchrus tribuloides L. Common on the southern end in disturbed areas.
Austin 4396.
Cenchrus echinatus L. Plants are scattered along the beach, being more or less
concentrated in the Uniola zone. Austin 4437.

148 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Paspalum vaginatum Swartz. Common near the bathing beach. Weise 1, 2;
det. by O. Lakela.

Pennisetum aff. latifolium Spreng. Forming a large clump in a pool near the
southern end; apparently an escaped cultivar variety. Austin 4397; det.
D. B. Ward.

Phragmites communis Trin. One population near the road in a depression at
the SW corner of the hammock. Austin 4411.

Spartina cynosuroides (L.) Roth? Mostly near the northern end. Weise 78.

Stenotaphrum secundatum (Walt.) Kuntze (St. Augustine Grass). Commonly
planted as a lawn grass.

Uniola paniculata L. Forming a distinct zone between the lower beach zone
(Ipomoea pes-caprae zone) and the outer edge of the Coccoloba zone.
Weise 12.

Family Cyperaceae

Cladium jamaicense Crantz (=—Mariscus jamaicensis RAB, 1968: 214).
Found in only one isolated depression near the southern end of the ham-
mock, Not in Lakela and Craighead (1965). Austin 4415.

Cyperus thyrsiflorus Schlect. & Cham. Uncommon and scattered around the
margins of the hammock. Austin 4403; det. J. Beckner.

Remirea maritima Aubl. Common on the middle beach. Weise 124.

Family Palmae

Cocos nucifera L. Scattered plants are found near the highway. Austin 4408.

Sabal palmetto (Walt.) Lodd. ex Schult. & Schult. Fairly common on inner
dune. Austin 4418.

Serenoa repens (Bartr.) Small. Fairly common near the bottom at the lee side
of the inner dune. Weise 11.

Family Lemnaceae

Lemna valdiviana Phil. Floating on water in a small standing pool at the SW

corner of the hammock. Austin 4410.

Family Commelinaceae
Commelina communis L. Rare. One plant found in a “blow-out.” A widely
spread weed. Austin 4392.

Family Liliaceae
Smilax bona-nox L. Fairly common and scattered throughout the hammock.
Weise 36; Austin 4405.
Yucca aloifolia L. Scattered along the ecotone between the Uniola and Cocco-
loba zones. Carrow & Marsh s.n.

Family Amaryllidaceae
Agave decipiens Baker. Not common. Scattered throughout the “prickly zone.”
Weise 77.
Hymenocallis latifolia ( Mill.) Roem. (=H. keyensis LC 1965: 26). One patch
near the northern end. Weise s.n. (4.28.1969).

Family Casuarinaceae
Casuarina equisetifolia Forst. A few plants, mostly near some which are plant-
ed by a house at the northern end of the hammock. Introduced. Austin
4379.

AUSTIN AND WEIsE: Boynton Beach Vegetation 149

Family Salicaceae
Salix caroliniana Michx. Several small trees occur near the road close to the
center of the hammock. Austin 4412.
Family Moraceae
Ficus aurea Nutt. Common along the inner dune.. Weise 85.
Family Polygonaceae
Coccoloba diversifolia Jacq. Rare, found only on the inner part of the ham-
mock. Weise 55; Austin 4421.
Coccoloba uvifera (L.) L. Very common and forming pure stands in a zone
between the beach and the hammock. Weise 28.
Family Amaranthaceae
Alternanthera maritima (Mart.) St. Hil. Common on the outer edge of the
Coccoloba zone. Weise s.n. (4.24.69).
Iresine celosia L. Uncommon and scattered along the ocean side of the ham-
mock. Austin 4404.
Family Batidaceae
Batis maritima L. Fairly common along the beach. Not in Lakela and Craig-
head (1965). Weise s.n. (4.24.69).
Family Phytolaccaeae
Rivina humilis L. Uncommon on the lee side of the hammock. Weise s.n.
(4.28.69).
Family Aizoaceae
Sesuvium portulacastrum L. Common on the beach. Not in Lakela and Craig-
head (1965). Weise 24.
Family Annonaceae
Annona glabra L. One tree found just north of the depression pool in the SW
corner of the hammock. Austin 4417.
Family Lauraceae
Cassytha filiformis L. Locally abundant along the ocean side of the hammock.
Parasitic on diverse hosts in many different habitats. Austin 4377.
Nectandra coriacea (Sw.) Griseb. Fairly common on the lee side of the inner
dune. Weise 65.
Family Capparidaceae
Capparis cynophallophora L. Fairly common within the hammock. More com-
mon on the lee side of the inner dune. Weise 50.
Capparis flexuosa (L.) L. Fairly common within the hammock. Weise 45.
Family Rosaceae
Chrysobalanus icaco LL. Common on the ecotone between the beach zone and
the Coccoloba zone. Austin 4407.
Family Leguminoseae
Caesalpinia bonduc (L.) Roxb. The Nicker Bean is common along the beaches
of Palm Beach County, but apparently more common south of Boynton
Beach. Weise s.n.; Austin 4413.
Canavalia maritima (Aubl.) Thouars. Common all along the beach zone.
Weise s.n.
Crotalaria pumila Ortega. Scattered, but locally common. Found mostly along
paths. Pfefferle s.n.

150 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Dalbergia ecastophyllum (L.) Taub. On the lee side of the southern end of
the hammock. Austin 4399.

Erythrina herbacea L. Uncommon. Scattered plants occur on the ocean side
of the hammock near the ecotone between the beach and the Coccoloba
zone. Weise s.n. (4.24.69).

Lysiloma latisiliqua (L.) Benth. (=—=L. bahamensis Benth.?). One tree near
the road on the northwest side of the hammock. This is apparently the
northern limit reported for the species. Carrow ¢ Marsh s.n.; Austin 4672;
Det. D. G. Burch.

Pithecellobium keyense Britt. Fairly common on the ocean side of the Cocco-
loba zone, scattered elsewhere throughout the hammock. Austin 4400.
Sophora tomentosa L. One individual plant was found at the northern end of

the hammock. Austin 4381.

Family Zygophyllaceae
Tribulus cistoides L. Locally common in the areas of high disturbance at the
southern end of the hammock. Absent elsewhere. Austin 4395.

Family Rutaceae
Amyris elemifera L. Uncommon. Weise 92.
Zanthoxylum fagara (L.) Sarg. A common plant in all parts of the hammock
except the dense central part of the Coccoloba zone. Weise 86.

Family Simaroubaceae
Simarouba glauca DC. Scattered, but fairly common within the hammock.
Weise 63.
Suriana maritima L. Rare. Occurring at the inner edge of the storm beach.
Weise s.n. (4.28.69).

Family Burseraceae
Bursera simaruba (L.) Sarg. One of the two most common trees in the ham-
mock. Often found from the second dune to the lower part of the lee side
on the inner dune. Weise 84.

Family Polygalaceae
Polygala grandiflora Walt. Scattered plants are uncommon in the southern
end of the hammock. Austin 4671.

Family Euphorbiaceae

Chamaesyce bombensis (Jacq.) Dugand. (—=C. ammanioides). Scattered, but
common along the beach. Weise 7.

Chamaesyce mesembryanthemifolia (Jacq.) Dugand. (=C. buxifolia). Com-
mon along the beach. Weise 125.

Cnidoscolus stimulosus (Mich.) Raf. Common in sunny areas along margins of
the hammock. Austin 4388.

Croton punctatus Jacq. Fairly common in sunny margins of the hammock.
Weise s.n. (4.24.69).

Phyllanthus abnormis Baillon. One plant found at the northern end of the
hammock near the outer edge of the first dune. Austin 4380.

Poinsettia cyathophora (Murr.) Kl. & Gke. Uncommon in sunny margins of
the hammock. Weise 81.

AUSTIN AND WEIsE: Boynton Beach Vegetation 151

Family Anacardiaceae
Metopium toxiferum (L.) Krug & Urban. Perhaps the most common tree in
the hammock. Very common on the lee side of the inner dune. Weise s.n.
Schinus terebinthifolius Raddi. An introduced species from southern South
America; now widely naturalized in southern Florida because birds spread
the seeds. Scattered throughout the hammock. Weise 108.
Toxicodendron radicans (L.) Knutze subsp. radicans. Fairly common on the
lee side of the inner dune.
Family Rhamnaceae
Krugiodendron ferreum (Vahl.) Urban. Common along with Randia aculeata
on the outer edge of the Coccoloba zone. Weise s.n.; det. O. Lakela.
Family Vitaceae
Parthenocissus quinquefolia (L.) Planch. Uncommon and somewhat de-
paupered where encountered; on the ocean side of the Coccoloba zone.
Austin 4402.
Vitis coriacea Shuttlw. Some large vines are found near the center of the
hammock on the lee side of the inner dune. Austin 4667.
Family Passifloraceae
Passiflora pallida L. One plant climbing on the Coccoloba uvifera near the N
end of the hammock, on the ocean side. Austin 4436.
Family Caricaceae
Carica papaya L. Scattered plants occur throughout the hammock. Not very
common. Weise 100.
Family Loasaceae
Mentzelia floridana Nutt. Scattered, but fairly common around margins of the
hammock. Weise s.n. (4.24.69).

Family Cactaceae
Acanthocereus floridanus Small. Not common, but there are scattered patches
with several individuals per patch on the lee side of the inner dune.
Austin 4401.
Opuntia dillenii (Ker.) Haw. Common in the “prickly” area between the
Coccoloba zone and the beach. Weise 26.

Family Combretaceae
Conocarpus erecta L. Near the center of the hammock near the road. Carrow
& Marsh s.n. (4.28.70); Austin 4416.

Family Myrtaceae
Eugenia axillaris (Sw.) Willd. Occuring in large patches from the middle dune
inland. Often in pure stands. Weise 116.
Eugenia myrtoides Poir. Often sympatric with E. axillaris. Weise 44, 97.
Family Myrsinaceae
Ardisia escallonioides Schlecht. & Cham. Fairly common and scattered through-
out the hammock. Weise 120.
Myrsine guianensis (Aubl.) Kuntze. Clumps scattered through the hammock;
apparently not as common as Ardisia. Weise s.n.
Family Plumbaginaceae
Plumbago scandens L. A few vines on the northern end. Austin 4670.

152 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLoRmA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Family Sapotaceae
Mastichodendron foetidissimum (Jacq.) Crong. Fairly common throughout the
hammock. Weise 114.
Family Oleaceae
Forestiera segregata (Jacq.) Krug & Urban. Several plants clustered near the
northern end of the hammock. Austin 4431.
Family Apocynaceae
Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don (=Lochnera rosea LC, 1965: 73; =Vinca
rosea RAB, 1968: 847). A common weed in disturbed and sunny spots
throughout. Introduced. Austin 4387.
Family Asclepiadaceae
Sarcostemma clausa Vail. Uncommon on lee side of inner dune. Weise s.n.

Family Convolvulaceae

Calonyction aculeatum (L.) House. Uncommon near road on the lee side of
inner dune. Austin 4398.

Calonyction tuba (Schlecht.) Colla. Four plants growing with Tournefortia.
Vitality not good but with some fruits on one plant. The only collection
known from Palm Beach County. Austin 4385.

Ipomoea acuminata (Vahl.) Roem. & Schult. (=I. cathartica LC, 1965:75).
Common along the margins of the hammock. Some plants climbing to
canopy within the hammock. Weise 122.

Ipomoea pes-caprae (L.) Sweet. Common on the beach. Weise 11.

Family Boraginaceae

Heliotropium parviflora L. Rare. Weise s.n. (4.24.69).

Tournefortia gnaphaloides (L.) R. Br. One fairly large clump of plants occurs
in about the middle area; there are smaller clumps at both ends of the
large one. The plants grow near the upper (storm) beach limit near the
prickly zone. The species is on the verge of extinction in the United States.
Weise 27.

Family Solanaceae

Salanum bahamense L. Rare. Weise s.n. (4.24.69).

Family Rubiaceae

Chiococca alba (L.) Hitch. Fairly common throughout the hammock. Austin
4389.

Ernodea littoralis Sw. Fairly common in “blow-outs” and near the ocean side
of the Coccoloba zone. Weise 123.

Psychotria nervosa Sw. Fairly common throughout the hammock. Weise 115.

Randia aculeata L. Common along the ecotone between the Coccoloba zone
and the beach. Weise 109; Austin 4390.

Family Goodeniaceae
Scaevola plumieri Vahl. Common on the beach. Weise s.n. (4.28.69).
Family Compositae
Baccharis halimifolia L. Uncommon near the highway inside the inner dune.
Carrow & Marsh s.n. (4.28.70).
Bidens pilosa L. ( =B. leucantha L.). Fairly common on the southern end
near the highway. Weise s.n. (4.24.69).

AUSTIN AND WEISE: Boynton Beach Vegetation 153

Helianthus debilis Nutt. Common on the upper beach and in the outer parts
of the first dune. Weise 127.

Mikania cordifolia (L.) Willd. Fairly common around margins of hammock.
Austin 4406.

Verbesina laciniata (Poir.) Gray (=V. virginica var. laciniata RAB, 1968:
1120). Not common. In isolated patches near the southern end. Weise
sn. (2.27.69).

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The Euphorbiaceae were determined by D. G. Burch; the Ana-
cardiaceae by W. T. Gillis. Determination assistance by these men
and by J. Beckner, O. Lakela, and D. B. Ward is gratefully acknowl-
edged. The original manuscript was read and criticized by J. Beck-
ner, W. T. Gillis, and D. B. Ward. This study was partially based
on an ecology term paper submitted by the junior author, and sup-
ported by a grant from the Florida Atlantic University Division of
Sponsored Research.

LITERATURE CITED

ALEXANDER, T. R. 1958a. High Hammock Vegetation of the Southern Florida

Mainland. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci., vol. 21, pp. 293-298.

1958b. Ecology of the Pompano Beach Hammock. Quart. Jour.

Florida Acad. Sci., vol. 21, pp. 299-304.

Cooxr, C. W. 1939. Scenery of Florida Interpreted by a Geologist. Geol.

Bull., vol. 17, pp. 1-118.

. 1945. Geology of Florida. Geol. Bull., vol. 29, pp. 1-339.

Datta Torre, K. W. V., anp H. Harms. 1900-1907. Genera Siphonogama-
rum.

D’Arcy, W. G. 1967. Annotated checklist of the dicotyledons of Tortola,
Virgin Islands. Rhodora, vol. 69, pp. 385-450.

Davis, J. H. 1943. The Natural Features of Southern Florida. Florida Geol.
Bull., no. 25, pp. 6-301.

Guus, W. T. 1972. Biosystematics and ecology of Poison-Ivy and the Poison-
Oaks (Toxicodendron: Anacardiaceae). Rhodora, vol. 73, pp. 370-443.

Harper, R. M. 1927. Natural resources of southern Florida. 18th Ann. Report
Florida Geol. Survey, pp. 27-206.

Kurz, H. 1942. Florida dunes and scrub, vegetation and geology. Geol. Bull.,
no. 23, pp. 1-154.

LaxkELa, O., AND F. C. CraicGHEAD. 1965. Annotated checklist of the vascular
plants of Collier, Dade, and Monroe Counties, Florida. Fairchild Trop-
ical Garden and University of Miami Press.

Liocier, Bro. A. 1963. Novitates Antillanae I. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, vol.
90, pp. 186-192.

154 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

. 1965a. Novitates Antillanae II. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, vol. 92, pp.

288-304.

. 1965b. Nomenclatural changes and additions to Britton and Wilson’s

“Flora of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands.” Rhodora, vol. 67, pp.

315-361.

1968. Novitates Antillanae III. Brittonia, vol. 20, pp. 148-161.

Lonc, R. W. 1970. Additions and nomenclatural changes in the flora of
southern Florida I. Rhodora, vol. 72, pp. 17-46.

Pumurrs, W. S. 1940. A tropical hammock on the Miami (Florida) Lime-
stone. Ecology, vol. 21, pp. 166-175.

Raprorp, A. E., H. E. AHLEs, AND C. R. BELL. 1968. Manual of the vascular
flora of the Carolinas. University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill.

SAvuER, J. 1967. Geographic reconnaissance of seashore vegetation along the
Mexican Gulf Coast. Louisiana State University Press, Baton Rouge.

SMALL, J. K. 1933. Manual of the southeastern flora. Reprint by the Univer-
sity of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill.

Warp, D. B. 1968. Checklist of the vascular flora of Florida I. Bull. Agr.

Expt. Sta., no. 762, pp. 1-72.

Herbarium, Department of Biological Sciences, Florida Atlantic
University, Boca Raton, Florida 33432.

Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 35(2) 1972(1973)

A Sediment Trap for Use in Soft-bottomed Lakes
FRANK G. NORDLIE AND JOHN F. ANDERSON

THE usual means of evaluating deposition rates work well for
situations involving thick strata or rapid rates of sedimentation but
are not satisfactory for short term studies, especially when low rates
of deposition are involved. The investigator wishing to evaluate
deposition rates over short periods (six months to a year, for ex-
ample, as is necessary in carrying out community energetic studies )
faces a paucity of suitable techniques. A few devices designed for
this purpose have been described (e.g., Raymond and Stetson, 1931,
and the later modification, Hough, 1955), but such large and elab-
orate devices were beyond our needs as well as means. Also they
must be set on the bottom, which precludes their use in situations
where the bottom deposits are not compact enough to prevent their
sinking. Consequently we designed and constructed from poly-
ethylene materials the simple and inexpensive sediment trap seen in
Fig. 1. We would like to express our appreciation to Mr. Paul
Laessle for preparing the drawings. The trap can be suspended at
any depth to avoid any potentially offending flocculent layer over
the compact bottom. The suspension rope is anchored on the bot-
tom and attached to a surface float. The length of the anchor line
is adjusted to eliminate slack and keep the trap in an upright posi-
tion.

CONSTRUCTION

The trap is constructed from a piece of polyethylene tubing 24
in. (61 cm.) in length with an outside diameter of 31/4 in. (8.3
cm.) and wall thickness of 1/8 in. (0.35 cm.). The inside diameter
of 3 in. (7.7 cm.) is equal to the outside diameter of a 16 oz. (ca.
500 ml.) screwtop polyethylene bottle. One of these bottles, with
bottom cut out and cap removed, is inserted neck-first into the top
of the polyethylene tube and driven down so that the bottom rim is
below the top of the outside tube. A second bottle, also bottomless
but in this case capped, is inserted neck down into the bottom of
the polyethylene tube and driven in so that the shoulder of the bot-
tle is above the lower edge of the tube. In our work we found that

NYLON LINE

24"

TRAP WELL BELOW
EUPHOTIG ZONE

Ree

ANCHOR
SAND FILLED PLASTIC
JUG USED AS ANCHOR

Fig. 1. Schematic drawing of construction and operation of polyethylene
sediment trap.

NorDLIE AND ANDERSON: Sediment Trap 157

the fit between the outer tube and the bottles was so snug that no
adhesive was necessary.

Holes were drilled below the upper margin and above the lower
margin of the outer tube to accommodate No. 3 nylon cord used to
attach the trap to the suspension rope.

The traps are filled with filtered water prior to setting in order
to sink them and to avoid contamination during setting (important
in studies of rates or organic deposition). The traps are emptied by
removing the screw cap from the lower bottle and collecting the
contents. Several rinses may be necessary to remove all of the sedi-
ment.

Our traps were successfully operated for a period of one year
in Lake Mize, Florida, a deep lake (ca. 25 m.) but with a small
surface area (ca. 0.86 ha.). The traps may be less appropriate in
large lakes with heavy wind action.

LITERATURE CITED

Hovucu, Jack L. 1955. Bottom sampling apparatus. In: Parker D. Trask (edi-
tor), Recent Marine Sediments—A Symposium. Soc. Economic Paleon-
tologists and Mineralogists. Special Publ. No. 4, pp. 631-664.

RayMonp, P. E., AND H. C. Stetson. 1931. A new factor in the transporta-
tion and distribution of marine sediments. Science, vol. 73, no. 1882,
pp. 105-106.

Department of Zoology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Flor-
ida 32601.

Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 35(2) 1972( 1973)

New Records for Marine Fishes in South Carolina Waters
Davip M. CupKA AND ROBERT K. Dts

INCREASED collecting along the eastern shore of North America
should result in range extensions for a number of fish species ( An-
derson and Gutherz, 1965). These range extensions will result partly
from stray, migrant and expatiate individuals, but some will repre-
sent unrecorded indigenous faunal components. Paranthias furcifer
Valenciennes (Serranidae) and Astroscopus guttatus Abbott ( Ura-
noscopidae) are recorded for the first time from South Carolina
waters and represent significant range extensions. The recorded
bathymetric range of Kathetostoma albigutta Bean ( Uranoscopidae )
is extended considerably with the captures of specimens in shallow
inshore areas. The single specimen of Paranthias furcifer probably
represents a stray individual of a species which normally does not
range this far north. The small specimens of Kathetostoma albigutta
may represent individuals which developed from pelagic larval
forms which drifted into the shallow capture areas. The specimens
of Astroscopus guttatus, because of their size and differences in lo-
calities and dates of collection, are felt to represent a species which
is indigenous to the ichthyofauna of South Carolina.

A single specimen of Paranthias furcifer (263 mm _ standard
length [SL]) was caught with rod and reel approximately 48 nauti-
cal miles ESE of Charleston (ca. la. 32° 23’, long 79° 02’; 9 Novem-
ber 1968; 46-55 m depth). The northernmost record for this species
in the western Atlantic is Bermuda (Briggs, 1958), whereas the
northernmost record off eastern North America is Miami (Smith,
1961). This specimen represents a range extension of approximately
420 nautical miles northward along the east coast of the United
States. P. furcifer has also been reported from the Gulf of Mexico
and the eastern Pacific (Smith, 1961).

Two specimens of Astroscopus guttatus (104 and 115 mm SL)
were captured with a 4.6 m, 13 mm stretch mesh otter trawl in Jones
Creek in Georgetown County (lat 33° 19.1’, long 79° 10.4’; 22
August 1969; water temperature 20.0 C). Another specimen (59
mm SL) was taken with a 6.1 m, 25 mm stretch mesh otter trawl
in Russel Creek in Charleston County (lat 32° 36.4’, long 80° 19.0’;
19 April 1970; over sand and mud in 3.0-7.6 m depth; surface water

CupKa AND Dias: Marine Fishes from South Carolina 159

temperature 21.5 C). Berry and Anderson (1961) gave the range
of this species as Long Island, New York, to Cape Lookout, North
Carolina. The collection of this specimen in Russel Creek repre-
sents a range extension of approximately 200 nautical miles south-
westward along the Atlantic coast of the United States.

A specimen of Kathetostoma albigutta (20 mm SL) was cap-
tured with a 19.8 m, 13 mm stretch mesh bag seine in Jones Creek
(lat 33° 19.1’, long 79° 10.4’; 9 November 1970; 1.0 m depth; sur-
face water temperature 16.8 C; surface salinity 32.3 ppt) and an-
other of the same species (21 mm SL) while seining at Hunting
Island Beach in Beaufort County (lat 32° 22.5’, long 80° 26.1’; 19
February 1971; 0.2-0.8 m depth; surface water temperature 10.5 C;
surface salinity 26.9 ppt). Previous workers (Berry and Anderson,
1961; Moe and Martin, 1965; Struhsaker, 1969) have shown this
species to occur in deeper water. This, however, may be partially
attributed to the fact that the vessels on which these specimens
were collected operated mainly in offshore waters. Berry and An-
derson (1961) examined 87 specimens (29-204 mm SL) collected
from 37-384 m with the majority coming from 55 m to 110 m. Moe
and Martin (1965) collected three specimens (70-239 mm SL) in
48 m of water in the Tampa Bay area. Struhsaker (1969) reported
K. albigutta as common, being taken in more than fifty per cent of
the trawl samples in the primary habitat of the species, which ac-
cording to Struhsaker’s definition is the lower-shelf and shelf-edge.
As far as we can determine our specimens represent the first inshore
records and the smallest individuals yet recorded of K. albigutta.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors gratefully acknowledge the assistance of Dr. Harry
W. Freeman, College of Charleston, who made available two of the
specimens of Astroscopus guttatus. We are also indebted to Dr.
William D. Anderson, Jr., Grice Marine Biological Laboratory, and
Mr. Charles M. Bearden, South Carolina Marine Resources Division,
who critically read the manuscript and offered valuable suggestions.

LITERATURE CITED

ANDERSON, W. D. Jr., AND E. J. GuTHERz. 1965. New Atlantic Coast ranges
for fishes. Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. (1964), vol. 27, no. 4, pp.
299-306.

160 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Berry, F. H., AnD W. W. ANDERSON. 1961. Stargazer fishes from the western
North Atlantic (Family Uranoscopidae). Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus.. vol.
112, no. 3448, pp. 563-586.

Briccs, J. C. 1958. A list of Florida fishes and their distribution. Bull.
Florida State Mus., vol. 2, no. 8, pp. 223-318.

Mog, A. M., AND G. F. Martin. 1965. Fishes taken in monthly trawl samples
offshore of Pinellas County, Florida, with new additions to the fish
fauna of the Tampa Bay area. Tulane Stud. Zool., vol. 12, no. 4, pp.
129-151.

SmirH, C. L. 1961. Synopsis of biological data on groupers (Epinephelus and
allied genera) of the western North Atlantic. FAO Fish. Biol. Synopsis
No. 23, 67 pp.

STRUHSAKER, P. 1969. Demersal fish resources: composition, distribution, and
commercial potential of the continental shelf stocks off southeastern
United States. Fish. Ind. Res., vol. 4, no. 7, pp. 261-300.

South Carolina Wildlife Resources Department, Marine Re-
sources Division 217 Fort Johnson Road, Charleston, South Carolina
29412.

Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 35(2) 1972(1973)

FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERS FOR 1972

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FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Founded 1936

OFFICERS FOR 1972

President: Dr. RicHarp E. GARRETT
Department of Physics, University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida 32611

President Elect: Dr. JaMeEs G. POTTER
Department of Physics, Florida Institute of Technology
Melbourne, Florida 32901

Secretary: Dr. Ropert W. Lone
Department of Botany, University of South Florida
Tampa, Florida 33620

Treasurer: Dr. RicHArp A. E>DwARpDS
Depariment of Geology, University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida 32611

Editor: Dr. PizERCE BRODKORB
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Gainesville, Florida 32611

Membership applications, subscriptions, renewals, changes
of address, and orders for back numbers should
be addressed to the Treasurer

Correspondence regarding exchanges

should be addressed to

Gift and Exchange Section, University of Florida Libraries
Gainesville, Florida 32611

— 2

~ Quarterly Journal
of the

Florida Academy of Sciences

Vol. 35 December, 1972 No. 4

CONTENTS

Notes on n parasites of gray squirrels from Florida
J. C. Parker, E. J. Riggs, and R. B. Holliman

Occurrence of two trematodes in Florida anoles
Richard Franz and Sam R. Telford, Jr.

Reproductive rates in white-tailed deer of Florida Richard F. Harlow
Food of the barn owl on Grand Cayman, B. W. I. David W. Johnston

Balanomorph barnacles on Chrysemys alabamensis
Crawford G. Jackson, Jr., and Arnold Ross

Synopsis of the species of Trachurus (Pisces, Carangidae )
Frederick H. Berry and Linda Cohen

Defensive behavior in Rana areolata and Hyla avivoca Ronald Altig
Commercial fishery on Lake Okeechobee, Florida Lothian A. Ager
Nuclear DNA and developmental rate in frogs K. Bachmann

Some airborne algae from North Central Florida
R. T. Parrando and J. S. Davis

Bird remains from pre-Columbian middens in the Virgin Islands
Pierce Brodkorb

161

163
165
alizfal

173

Lgl)
212
217
225

232

239

Published March 15, 1974

QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Editor: Pierce Brodkorb

The Quarterly Journal welcomes original articles containing sig-
nificant new knowledge, or new interpretation of knowledge, in any
field of Science. Articles must not duplicate in any substantial way
material that is published elsewhere.

INSTRUCTIONS TO AUTHORS

Rapid, efficient, and economical transmission of knowledge by means of
the printed word requires full cooperation between author and editor. Revise
copy before submission to insure logical order, conciseness, and clarity.

Manuscripts should be typed double-space throughout, on one side of
numbered sheets of 8% by 11 inch, smooth, bond paper.

A Carson Copy will facilitate review by referees.

Marcins should be 1% inches all around.

TITLEs must not exceed 55 characters, including spaces.

Footnotes should be avoided. Give ACKNOWLEDGMENTs in the text and
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QUARTERLY JOURNAL
of the
FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vol. 35 December, 1972 No. 4

Notes on Parasites of Gray Squirrels from Florida

J. C. Parker, E. J. Riccs, anp R. B. HOLLIMAN

In December, 1969, three male and one female gray squirrels,
Sciurus carolinensis carolinensis Gmelin, 1788, were collected on a
farm woodlot in Marion County near Ocala, Florida. These squir-
rels were examined for intestinal and blood protozoa and intestinal
helminths, which revealed at least two species of eimerian coccidia,
one species of cestode, one species of acanthocephalan and four
species of nematodes.

A review of the literature yielded only two references concern-
ing internal parasites in this host from Florida. Bond and Bovee
(1958) reported Eimeria sp. from this host and Chandler (1947)
reported Moniliformis clarki (Ward, 1917).

Analysis of the fecal material revealed the oocysts of two forms
of eimerian coccidia. The first was observed in all hosts examined
and was ellipsoidal in shape, resembling the organism described
as Eimeria sp. by Bond and Bovee (1958). The second resembled
the characteristic pyriform-shaped oocysts of Eimeria ontarioensis
Soon and Dorney (In press) and occurred in only one of the hosts
examined. Also helminth eggs were observed in all fecal samples.

The examination of the visceral organs revealed the cestode,
Raillietina bakeri Chandler, 1942, in the small intestine of 2 squir-
rels; one tapeworm was recovered from one host, two from the
other. The acanthocephalan, Moniliformis clarki Ward, 1917, oc-
curred in the small intestine of two hosts; 3 worms in one squirrel,
one in the other. The largest of these worms measured 325 mm in
length and filled most of the lumen of the small intestine. The
average length of the 4 worms was 167 mm.

162 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

The nematode, Heligmodendrium hassalli (Price, 1929) was
found in the small intestine of 3 hosts (1, 44, and 115 worms per
host). Twenty-five specimens of Strongyloides robustus Chandler,
1942, were recovered from the small intestine of one squirrel. One
specimen of Syphacia (Syphacia) thompsoni Price, 1928, was found
in the cecum of each of two hosts, and one Trichostrongylus calca-
ratus Ransom, 1911, was recovered from the cecum of a single host.

The examination of Wright’s stained blood smears for presence
of Hepatozoon and microfilariae was negative.

This report tentatively extends the present known distribution
of Eimeria ontarioensis from Canada to Florida. Apparently,
Syphacia (Syphacia) thompsoni, Heligmodendrium _hassalli,
Strongyloides robustus, and Trichostrongylus calcaratus are new
records for this host in Florida. Raillietina bakeri appears to be a
new host record.

We are grateful to Dr. R. S. Dorney of the University of Water-
loo, Ontario, Canada, for information on his new coccidian, E. on-
tarioensis.

LITERATURE CITED

Bonp, B. B., AND E. C. Bover. 1958. A redescription of an eimerian coc-
cidian from the flying squirrel, Glaucomys volans, designating it Eimeria
parasciurorum nov. sp. Jour. Protozool., vol. 4, pp. 225-229.

CHANDLER, A. C. 1947. Notes on Moniliformis clarki in North American
squirrels. Jour. Parasit., vol. 33, pp. 278-281.

Soon, B. L., AnD R. S. Dorney. In press. Eimeria ontarioensis n. sp., E.
wongi n. sp. and Eimeria sp. (Protozoa: Eimeriidae) from the Ontario
gray squirrel Sciurus carolinensis. Jour. Protozool.

Department of Biology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State
University, Blacksburg, Virginia, 24061.

Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 35(4) 1972 (1974)

Occurence of Two Trematodes in Florida Anoles

RICHARD FRANZ AND SAM R. TELFORD, JR.

THE digenetic trematode Alloglyptus crenshawi (Macroderoidi-
dae) was described by Byrd (1950) from a series of 30 specimens
taken from the small intestine of a single Anolis carolinensis col-
lected in Baker County, Georgia. No additional collections of this
parasite have been reported, to the best of our knowledge.

During autopsy of over 100 Anolis carolinensis from various
Florida localities, three were found to be infected with A. cren-
shawi. Eight specimens in all were removed from the upper small
intestines of lizards collected along the north shore of Redwater
Lake, 4 mi. E of Hawthorne, Putnam County, Florida. An addi-
tional 23 anoles from this locality were uninfected. All were col-
lected on a sandy ridge in a palmetto-live oak thicket within 50 feet
of the shoreline. These trematodes agree closely with Byrd’s de-
scription, but average somewhat smaller (2-3 mm) in length. All
specimens contained numerous mature ova.

Examination of 15 gastro-intestinal tracts from A. carolinensis,
including those of the infected lizards, revealed that ants and mos-
quitoes comprised 58 per cent of the ingested food items, followed
by winged termites (21 per cent). The remainder of the food items
included hymenopteran wings and two small snails, probably
Mesophix sp. Spiders and lepidopteran larvae, commonly fed upon
by anoles, were not found in these samples. Sellers (1971) reported
that Anolis carolinensis serves as host to another trematode, Uro-
trema wardi Viqueras, 1940, in Florida. This species was previ-
ously known only from Anolis porcatus of Cuba. We too have en-
countered Urotrema in Florida anoles: six specimens were removed
from an A. carolinensis collected at Hart Springs, Gilchrist County,
Florida. While slight differences in measurement are present, these
trematodes are probably best assigned to U. wardi, in the opinion
of Dr. J. M. Kinsella, Department of Veterinary Science, University
of Florida, who confirmed our identification of them.

The specimens have been accessioned into the collections of the
Florida State Museum, to which institution we are indebted for sup-
port of our continuing studies upon the trematodes of Florida rep-
tiles.

164 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

LITERATURE CITED

Byrp, E. E. 1950. Alloglyptus crenshawi, a new genus and species of digen-
etic trematode (Plagiorchiinae) from the chamacleon. Trans, Amer.
Microscop. Soc., vol. 69, no. 3, pp. 280-287.

SELLERS, L. G. 1971. Three helminths recovered from Anolis carolinensis.
Jour. Parasitol., vol. 57, no. 2, p. 355.

Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
32601.

Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 35(4) 1972 (1974)

Reproductive Rates in White-tailed Deer of Florida
RicHArD F, HARLOW

THis paper presents possible reasons for the low reproduction
rates of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in central Flor-
ida and attempts to show that overpopulation and quantity of avail-
able forage are not involved.

In most regions of the Southeast, quantity of available food is
sufficient, yet average reproductive rates are lower than for most
northern areas. Sileo (1966) assembled reproductive data on 8,564
white-tailed deer from 20 eastern states. He found that fecundity
rates of white-tailed deer in southern forests were significantly lower
than those of deer in either the northern forests or the central hard-
wood forests. In the South, fecundity of deer in the Coastal Plain
was lowest and that of deer in the Piedmont was highest. Forest
type and soil were found to exert the greatest influence on deer
fecundity. Short (1969) stated that most upland forests in the
South have infertile soils and produce roughages that are seasonally
deficient in net energy, protein, and phosphorus for deer.

In the present study, 99 does were collected from central and
north Florida for examination during February when food supplies
were considered lowest. All deer were inspected for fat content of
the bone marrow, pericardial and peritoneal fat, numbers of ecto-
and endoparasites, body size, weight, and stomach contents.

VARIATION IN REPRODUCTIVE RATES

No deer suffered from malnutrition. After adjustment for age
differences, body weight and physical measurements of the 61 does
from central Florida did not differ significantly (P<.05) from the
38 does from north Florida. However, the average reproductive
rate of does from central Florida was 0.98 fetus per doe as com-
pared to slightly over 1.5 in deer from north Florida. The reproduc-
tive rate of the central Florida sample was similar to that (1.06)
reported in New York where winter starvation was chronic (Cheat-
um and Severinghaus 1950). Reproductive rates of deer in north
Florida were comparable to those of northern white-tails on ranges
where winter foods were adequate.

166 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

AVAILABILITY OF FORAGE

Quantity and variety of available forage does not appear to be
limiting factors to herd fecundity in central Florida. Quantities of
available forage on four study areas during winter ranged from 80
pounds per acre (oven-dry) on the longleaf pine-turkey oak site to
from 400 to 1,800 pounds per acre on two flatwood sites and one
sand pine-scrub oak type. The number of species of major woody
plants available to deer ranged from 20 to 30 (Harlow 1959), and
the study sites contained small acreages of bayheads, hammocks,
and cypress swamps which added to habitat diversity.

DEER POPULATIONS

Deer numbers on three of the study areas in central Florida
were moderate to low, varying from one deer per 40 acres to one
per 100 acres. Only one area, the longleaf pine-turkey oak, had a
population density considered high—one deer per 13 to 20 acres
(Harlow 1959). The reproductive rate of adult does from this area
averaged 0.86, even lower than that of does from the other areas
which averaged 0.98. Also, a comparison of the weights of adult
does in the same age classes from the different sites showed that
deer from the longleaf pine-turkey oak type averaged lighter in
weight but not significantly (Harlow and Jones 1965). However,
an examination of the bone marrow of 20 deer sacrificed from this
area of comparatively high population during February 26 to March
3, 1962, by the Southeastern Cooperative Deer Disease Study, indi-
cated the deer were in good physical condition. The fat content of
the bone marrow exceeded 90 per cent. Low reproductive rates are
often associated with poor physical condition.

EFFECTS OF HUNTING

Deer hunting with dogs occurred annually on all vegetation
types, except the longleaf pine-turkey oak area which exhibited the
lowest reproductive rate. Hunting with dogs has been blamed for
poor deer reproduction; however, this has not been adequately
demonstrated. Such hunting occurs in north Florida where repro-
ductive rates are higher. On areas where deer hunting with dogs
is allowed, the peak of the rutting season has passed by the time
hunting season starts (Harlow and Jones 1965).

Hartow: Reproduction of Deer 167

Som FERTILITY

Low fertility of the soils of central Florida may be an important
factor limiting herd reproduction. The upland soils of northwest
Florida (particularly Leon, Gadsden, and Madison Counties where
the reproductive data from north Florida were collected) have
much more clay present in the subsoil than do upland soils in cen-
tral Florida, and, according to analysis, the upland soils of north-
west Florida also have higher potential fertility (Alsberg et al.,
1952).

Another possible limiting factor may be a lack of certain mineral
elements in the soil. Data supporting this possibility were reported
in a study of range cattle management in Alachua County, Florida,
by Camp (1932). His studies showed that the calf crop averaged
only 34.4 per cent in flatwoods and 37.1 per cent in pine-oak up-
lands, while calf crops in prairies averaged 54.1 per cent and those
in hammock habitats averaged 71.6 per cent. “Salt sick,” or nutri-
tional anemia, was reported to be common in pine-palmetto flat-
woods and pine-oak uplands, where the soils are mostly deep white
and gray sands without red clay which is found in prairies and
hammocks. Becker et al. (1931) found that “salt sick” occurs on
white and gray sandy soils and on many soils which have no clay,
and that affected cattle recovered when changed to clay ranges.
These soils low in clay are deficient in iron, or in iron and copper,
and it is believed that the “salt sick” condition was caused by the
scarcity of these elements.

Thornton et al (1960), however, states that “Preliminary results
of experiments underway but not yet completed, indicate a corre-
lation between the occurrence of ‘salt sickness’ in cattle and the
cobalt content of the soils upon which the animals were pastured.
These studies also indicate a relation to available phosphorus and
copper but the correlation was not as high as with cobalt. Cattle
were anemic when pastured on all soils containing less than 0.02
parts per million of available cobalt and only one case of anemia
was found on soils containing more than this amount.” If cobalt
is the trace element responsible for the poor performance of deer,
this is not the first instance in which it has been suspected of play-
ing a part. Smith et al. (1956) considered that inadequate cobalt
levels partially explain the poor reproductive performance of deer
in certain sections of North Carolina.

168 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

LIGNIN CONTENT AND THE AVAILABILITY OF MAST

Another factor influencing low reproductive rates of deer in cen-
tral Florida may be the high lignin content associated with forage
in the Coastal Plain. Halls et al. (1957) found that lignin content
of browse plants in the Georgia Coastal Plain varied from 21 per
cent in the summer to 26 per cent in the winter. They state that
this high lignin content renders the browse nearly indigestible and
that large quantities of lignin tend to decrease the digestibility of
other nutrients. The browse plants studied were also relatively low
in the more digestible portion of the carbohydrate fraction and,
therefore, low in energy. It is known that lignin reduces digestibil-
ity and energy value as well as intake.

Where forage is high in lignin content and low in energy over
large areas, mast crops may assume a very important role, depend-
ing on the extent that mast contributes to the annual diet of a deer
herd. Harlow and Tyson (1959) found a significant correlation be-
tween the abundance of acorn and palmetto mast and the weight
and reproduction of deer in central Florida. When mast produc-
tion was low, weights of harvested deer were lower than when
mast was abundant. Also, the percentage of harvested 1 1/2-year-
old bucks declined the second hunting season following the year
when mast growth was low. According to Morrison (1957), acorns
have no digestible protein but are high in fat, which produces en-
ergy. In central Florida, a lack of acorns and palmetto berries as
a result of periodic mast failures may further compound a detri-
mental effect on reproduction of the naturally high lignin content
of the forage.

Although high lignin content of the forage and mast failures also
occur in north Florida where reproductive rates are higher, I be-
lieve that it is the additional factor of soil deficiencies that accounts
for the lower reproductive efficiency of deer in central Florida.

This does not necessarily imply that deer populations from com-
paratively poor range cannot reach densities approaching those on
better range. I am only theorizing that herd increases will occur at
a much slower rate and that high densities will be sustained for
shorter periods.

CONCLUSIONS
It is obvious that more detailed information is needed on the

Hartow: Reproduction of Deer 169

nutritional requirements of deer in Florida and the inherent ca-
pacity of the different vegetational types to support white-tails.
Such data are necessary before we can develop adequate and eco-
nomically feasible management techniques to improve the range
and reproductive rate of particular populations. Possible avenues
of further investigation include:

1. Methods of increasing production of long-lasting, palatable,
nutritious foods such as grasses and clovers on deer range.

2. Methods of maintaining natural deer foods in the most palat-
able and nutritious state or perhaps through such techniques as pre-
scribed burning, fertilizing, and mowing.

3. Methods of increasing certain natural foods which are par-
ticularly high in energy content, such as acorn mast and palmetto
berries.

4, Methods of correcting mineral deficiencies.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Data on the reproductive rates, physical condition, and popula-
tion estimates of deer, and on the habitat characteristics of the
study areas, are a contribution of Federal Aid Project W-41-R, Flor-
ida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission, and the Southeastern
Cooperative Deer Disease Study, University of Georgia, Athens,
Georgia.

LITERATURE CITED

ALSBERG, H. C., J. M. Scott, B. W. ALLIN, anp O. C. Bryan. 1952. Agri-
cultural conservation and soils of Florida. Florida Dept. Agr. Bull, no.
91, 115 pp.

BEcKER, R. B., W. M. Neat, AND A. L. SHEALY. 1931. 1. Salt sick: Its
causes and prevention. II. Mineral supplements for cattle. Florida
Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. no. 231, 23 pp.

Camp, P. D. 1932. A study of range cattle management in Alachua County,
Florida. Florida Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. no. 248, 28 pp

CHEATUM, E. L., anp C. W. SEvERINGHAUS. 1950. Variation in fertility of
white-tailed deer related to range conditions. N. Amer. Wildlife and
Natur. Resources Conf. Trans. 15, pp. 170-190.

Hauts, L. K., F. E. KNox, anp V. A. Lazar. 1957. Common browse plants
of the Georgia Coastal Plain, their chemical composition and contribu-
tion to cattle diet. U. S. Forest Serv. Southeast. Forest Exp. Sta. Pap.
no. 75, 18 pp.

170 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Hariow, R. F. 1959. An evaluation of white-tailed deer habitat in Florida.
Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Comm. Tech. Bull. no. 5, 64 pp.

Hariow, R. F., anp F. K. Jones. 1965. The white-tailed deer in Florida.
Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Comm. Tech. Bull. no. 9, 240 pp.

Hartow, R. F., anp E. L. Tyson. 1959. A preliminary report on the effect
of mast abundance on the weight and reproduction of deer in central
Florida. Ann. Conf. Southeast. Assn. Game and Fish Comm. Proc., no.
13, pp. 62-69.

Morrison, F. B. 1957. Feeds and feeding. Morrison Publishing Co., Ithaca,
New York, 630 pp.

SHort, H. L. 1969. Physiology and nutrition of deer in southern upland for-
ests. U. S. Forest Serv. Southern Forest Exp. Sta., Nacogdoches, Texas.
Symposium on White-tailed Deer in the Southern Forest Habitat Proc.,
pp. 14-18.

SiLEo, L., Jr. 1966. Fertility analysis of the ranges of white-tailed deer in
the eastern United States. M. S. Thesis, Univ. of Connecticut, Storrs.
50 pp.

SmirH, F. H., K. C. BEEsonN, AND W. E. Price. 1956. Chemical composition
of herbage browsed by deer in two wildlife management areas. Jour.
Wildlife Management, no. 20, pp. 359-367.

THORNTON, G. D., W. W. McCatt, R. E. CALDWELL, AND F. B. Smiru. 1960
Soils and fertilizers. Florida Dep. Agr. Bull., no. 137, 70 pp.

Southeastern Forest Experiment Station, U. S. Department of
Agriculture, 105 Wilson Avenue, Blacksburg, Virginia 24060.

Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 35(4) 1972 (1974)

Food of the Barn Owl on Grand Cayman, B. W. I.

Davi W. JOHNSTON

DespriTE the wide distribution of the Barn Owl (Tyto alba) in
the West Indies, its breeding and feeding habits are poorly docu-
mented for specific islands. The most complete accounts of foods
are from fossil and subfossil cave deposits in Jamaica (Williams,
1952) and from numerous contemporary sites on Hispaniola ( Wet-
more and Swales, 1931). On Grand Cayman, an island of 71 square
miles and 180 miles south of Cuba, the Barn Owl has been known
as a resident since the earliest ornithological explorations in 1886,
yet prior to this paper neither nesting sites nor foods have been re-
ported for the island. The present brief account is ecologically sig-
nificant because this owl is the island’s sole resident avian predator.
Furthermore, the mammalian fauna, part of the owl's diet, is poorly
known.

One nest site, located inside an abandoned boat at the edge of
North Sound, was examined on 18 December 1970. In January 1970
it contained a single egg that subsequently disappeared. This site
must have been used previously because the wooden floors nearby
were paved with bones, chiefly those of Rattus rattus and Mus mus-
culus. Also present were remains of a single hermit crab (Paguri-
dae) and the mandible of Elaenia martinica.

Near Savannah, on the south end of the island, an active nest
was located on 19 December 1970. It was in a deep hollow of an
old mango tree (Mangifera indica) and contained three downy
young. Beneath neighboring mango trees were fresh and broken
owl pellets plus scattered bones. These included many skeletal
parts from Rattus rattus (30 skulls) and Mus musculus, one skull
each of Rattus norvegicus, Aristelliger praesignis, Brachyphylla
nana, Artibeus jamaicensis, and an assortment of avian bones. The
latter belonged to Leucophoyx thula, Quiscalus niger, Mimus poly-
glottos, Dumetella carolinensis, Dendroica (probably palmarum),
Coereba flaveola, and Centurus superciliaris. The avian remains
constituted approximately 40 per cent of the identified food items.

The two bats (Brachyphylla and Artibeus) have not been pre-
viously reported from Grand Cayman (Hall and Kelson, 1959) al-
though both Donald Buden (in 1970) and Albert Schwartz (in

172 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

1961) have collected Artibeus on the island. Buden also took
Brachyphylla there in 1970. Miller (1902) recorded both of these
bat species from Barn Owl pellets on Cuba.

Of ecological significance is the relatively high proportion of
avian remains in the Cayman material. For numerous continental
sites the Barn Ow] is renowned for its concentration on rodent prey
and for a low percentage (ca. 1 per cent) of avian prey (Wallace,
1948), but on islands birds may become more important or even
exclusive food items (Howell, 1920). On Hispaniola in addition to
rats, mice, lizards, bats and frogs, 29 species of birds were identi-
fied from Barn Owl pellets (Wetmore and Swales, 1931). It seems
likely that on some islands, such as Grand Cayman where small
mammal prey is reduced in diversity and total numbers, the Barn
Owl becomes alternatively a significant predator of birds and other
nonmammalian vertebrates.

Assistance in the identification of food items was given by Wal-
ter Auffenberg, Edward Bender, Pierce Brodkorb, and Ronald Pine.
A Biomedical Sciences Grant from the University of Florida sup-
ported the field work.

LITERATURE CITED

Hai, E. RAyMoNpD, AND KerrH R. Ketson. 1959. The mammals of North
America. Ronald Press, New York, vol. 1, pp. 129-137.

Howe i, A. B. 1920. Habits of Oceanodroma leucorhoa beali vs. O. socor-
roensis. Condor, vol. 22, pp. 41-42.

Miter, Gerrit S., Jr. 1902. Twenty new American bats. Proc. Acad Nat.
Sci. Philadelphia, vol. 54, pp. 409-410.

Wa t.aceE, GEORGE J. 1948. The barn owl in Michigan. Mich. State College,
Tech. Bull. no. 208, pp. 50-55.

WETMoRE, ALEXANDER, AND BRADSHAW H. SwaLEs. 1931. The birds of Haiti
and the Dominican Republic. Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 155, pp. 234-
236.

WiiurAMs, Ernest E. 1952. Additional notes on fossil and subfossil bats from
Jamaica. Jour. Mamm., vol. 33, pp. 171-179.

Department of Zoology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Flor-
ida 32611.

Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 35(4) 1972 (1974)

Balanomorph Barnacles on Chrysemys alabamensis
CrawForp G. JACKSON, JR., AND ARNOLD Ross

Tue Alabama red-bellied turtle, Chrysemys alabamensis (Baur)
ranges from Apalachee Bay, Florida to Mobile Bay, Alabama, in
marshes and mangrove-bordered creeks and other bodies of brackish
or fresh water (Conant, 1958). Although C. alabamensis was de-
scribed prior to the turn of the century (Baur, 1893), it remained
so poorly known that even its taxonomic validity was in doubt
until the work of Carr and Crenshaw (1957). During studies on
the insular herpetofauna in the upper Gulf of Mexico, we had the
opportunity of studying a specimen of this seldom-observed turtle
that was heavily fouled by the balanomorph barnacle Balanus im-
provisus Darwin (Fig. 1). Fouling by balanomorphs, and the oc-
currence near an offshore island, suggest that C. alabamensis is
relatively salt tolerant as Carr (1952) indicated for the congeneric
C. concinna mobilensis (Holbrook) and C. concinna suwanniensis
(Carr), which also occur in coastal areas of the upper Gulf. Previ-
ously Carr (1940) had noted the presence of barnacles on several
individuals of the latter in a heap of shells at Cedar Key, Florida.

The turtle was collected by W. T. Seibels on 17 December 1968
in shallow water off Dauphin Island, Mobile County, Alabama
(approximately 30°10'51.6’N, 88°15’12”W ), which is one of several
islands fronting Mobile Bay. The specimen, an adult male now
housed in the collections of the University of South Alabama (USA-
1253), measures as follows (in mm): carapace length 262, carapace
width 186, plastron length 228, anterior plastral width 105, posterior
plastral width 104, bridge width 84, shell depth 107, head width
34.5. The right side of the carapace shows evidence of multiple
injuries, all of which are well healed, and were probably incurred
when the turtle was much younger.

Balanus improvisus ranges widely in the Caribbean and Atlantic,
and has been reported from other regions about the world ( Utinomi,
1966; Carlton and Zullo, 1969). It is commonly found in the inter-
tidal zone and in shallow water estuarine environments on inani-
mate objects as well as in association with oysters and other mol-
lusks adapted to reduced salinities (Newman, 1967; Carlton and
Zullo, 1969). Because B. improvisus is able to conform osmotically

174 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Fig. 1. Dorsal view of the Alabama red-bellied turtle Chrysemys alabam-
ensis (Baur) fouled by the littoral barnacle Balanus improvisus Darwin.

JACKSON AND Ross: Turtle Barnacles ive

and remain active in low salinity waters for indefinite periods, it is
regarded as a highly successful estuarine species (Newman, 1967).
But low resistance to dessication is probably the limiting factor to
its successful settlement and widespread occurrence on turtles that
spend long periods out of water.

More than 600 barnacles settled on the carapace of C. alabam-
ensis. We measured 513 of these, which ranged in size from 1.0-10.2
mm, with a mean value of 4.2 mm. All of the specimens fall into five
size classes, probably from successive larval settlements in one or
more seasons. Under natural conditions at Beaufort, North Carolina,
B. improvisus reaches a rostro-carinal diameter of 4-5 mm in about
20 days (Costlow and Bookhout, 1957). We estimate that nearly
all of the present specimens are probably no less than two days
and no more than 10 weeks old. Several individuals have reached
a size that possibly indicates settlement during a previous season,
and thus are much older than 10 weeks.

Cypris larvae of intertidal and shallow water balanomorphs not
only select a particular site for attachment but orient at settlement
in response to either light intensity, water movement or currents,
surface contour or texture, or a combination of these (Crisp and
Barnes, 1954; Crisp and Stubbings, 1957). During the growth pe-
riod after attachment the barnacle may reorient in response to water
currents (Moore, 1933). From our study of the present specimens
it appears that 1) settlement was wholly within the interlaminal
grooves or in striae in the surface of the laminae, 2) apparently all
barnacles in the same groove are similarly oriented, 3) there is no
predominant angle of orientation with respect to the antero-pos-
terior axis of the turtle, and 4) none of the specimens appear to
have changed their initial orientation.

Present evidence suggests that true turtle barnacles and whale
barnacles orient initially in response to water currents (Crisp and
Stubbings, 1957). In general, these barnacles adopt an orientation
with the cirral net facing directly into the current, thereby maxi-
mizing the fishing capabilities of the net which is employed in
gathering food. The barnacle, however, is capable of partially ro-
tating the net and this may account for variations in the angle of
orientation from the antero-posterior axis of the host. Although
much of the work on barnacle settlement has been done with arti-
ficial, essentially planar surfaces, we believe that future studies

176 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

should be made on models with a laminar spindle configuration.
Use of such models would go a long way in helping to explain the
occurrence of intertidal as well as turtle barnacles on one area of
the host and not on another, and would also help to explain gross
variations in orientation of the barnacles from one position to
another on the same turtle.

We thank A. Floyd Scott, Curator of Amphibians and Reptiles,
University of South Alabama, Mobile, for permission to study the
turtle, and Jack Lahr, San Diego State College Photographic Lab-
oratories, for preparing the photograph.

LITERATURE CITED

Baur, G. 1893. Notes on classification and taxonomy of the Testudinata. Proc.
Amer. Philos. Soc., vol. 31, pp. 210-225.

Carton, J. T., AND V. A. ZuLLo. 1969. Early records of the barnacle Balanus
improvisus Darwin from the Pacific Coast of North America. California
Acad. Sci. Occ. Paper 75, pp. 1-6.

Carr, A. F. Jr. 1940. A contribution to the herpetology of Florida. Univ. of

Florida Publ., Biol. Sci. Ser., vol. 3, no. 1, 1-118.

. 1952. Handbook of turtles. Cornell Univ. Press, Ithaca, 542 pp.

Carr, A. F., AND J. W. CRENSHAW, JR. 1957. A taxonomic reappraisal of the
turtle Pseudemys alabamensis Baur. Bull. Florida State Mus., vol. 2,
no. 3, pp. 25-42.

Conant, R. 1958. A field guide to reptiles and amphibians. Houghton Mif-
flin Co., Boston, 366 pp.

Costitow, J. D., Jr., AnD C. E. BooxHour. 1967. Body growth versus shell
growth in Balanus improvisus. Biol. Bull., vol. 113, no. 2, pp. 224-232.

Crisp, D. J., AND H. Barnes. 1954. The orientation and distribution of bar-
nacles at settlement with particular reference to surface contour. Jour.
Animal Ecol., vol. 23, no. 1, pp. 142-162.

Crisp, D. J., AnD H. G. Srupsincs. 1957. The orientation of barnacles to
water currents. Jour. Animal Ecol., vol. 26, no. 1, pp. 176-196.

Moore, H. B. 1933. Change of orientation of a barnacle after metamorphosis.
Nature, vol. 132, pp. 969-970.

Newman, W. A. 1967. On physiology and behavior of estuarine barnacles.
Proc. Sympos. Crustacea, Mar. Biol. Assoc. India, pt. 3, pp. 1038-1066.

Utinomi, H. 1966. Recent immigration of two foreign barnacles in Japanese
waters. Proc. Japanese Soc. Syst. Zool., vol. 2, pp. 36-39.

Department of Biological Sciences, Mississippi State College for
Women, Columbus, Mississippi 39701; Department of Paleontology,
Natural History Museum, P. O. Box 1390, Balboa Park, San Diego,
California 92112.

Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 35(4) 1972 (1974)

Synopsis of the species of Trachurus (Pisces, Carangidae)

FREDERICK H. BERRY AND LINDA COHEN

TraAcuHuRus is one of three closely related genera (with Decap-
terus and Selar) of the carangid subfamily Caranginae. The genus
includes 13 species, one of which is described herein as new. It
occurs in most of the neritic and inner oceanic areas of all tropical
and temperate marine waters. Several species are of commercial
importance.

The genus and its species are diagnosed, and an analysis of
morphological variation in certain characters is given for the single
western Atlantic representative, Trachurus lathami. The distri-
bution of the species is shown in Fig. 1.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Methods and terminology follow Berry (1968, 1969). Major
characters used in distinguishing the 13 species are the position of
termination of the dorsal accessory lateral line beneath the dorsal
fin, numbers of gillrakers on the lateral side of the first gill arch,
numbers of scales and scutes in the lateral line, and relative heights
of scales in the curved lateral line and scutes in the straight lateral

TABLE 1
Frequency distributions of numbers of dorsal softrays in Trachurus
Species 28°29) *30) 31 432: 33) 34535 36 37% Mean
lathami 5 Oreos: 2B wiG = al 30.8
mediterraneus mn ee 30.9
picturatus 1 Ai Geom ow, 2 33.0
trecae ab ke Pl 30.2
trachurus 3. OD 8 Be 30.9
capensis Eel es 22a ae — oa! (532K),
margaretae Hn 29.5
indicus Loe a& B i 31.4
mcecullechi [ye sooo Nua. * al 31.2
declivis SNR ener) Caen | 32.7
japonicus ean MG! Tad, 30.7
symmetricus Ge tj Ee 32.6
murphyi OK De el 33.6

QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

178

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BERRY AND COHEN: Synopsis of Trachurus 179

line. Other useful distinguishing characters are pectoral fin length,
eye diameter, and body depth.

Frequency distributions of numbers of dorsal and anal softrays
are given in Tables 1-2, of gillrakers in Tables 3-5, and of lateral-
line scales and scutes in Tables 6-8. Relative sizes of lateral-line
scales and scutes are given in Table 9. The species can be identified
by the following dichotomous key.

A list of specimens of Trachurus examined is given at the end of

TABLE 2
Frequency distributions of numbers of anal softrays in Trachurus
Species 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 Mean
lathami DAT Oh Sousa lGn 22a tS 27.6
mediterraneus De (Ge al 27.2
picturatus 3 4 7 4 28.7
trecae Da Oe wkd tees) WA 26.6
trachurus pele One 9) 54, a4 Del
capensis Le ol 28.7
margaretae 22: 25.5
indicus ea 8s tae ae 27.3
mccullochi 1 Revi eh ak wate ea (Oa 28.2
declivis 2 a= 2, 29.0
japonicus Sue 6) 4 28.1
symmetricus Oh bp, fe} 28.1
murphyi Jeet eee rol 28:9
TABLE 3
Frequency distributions of numbers of upper limb gillrakers in Trachurus
Species 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Mean
lathami Oe BY CRs OR ee?! 13.9
mediterraneus ey } 4 14.6
picturatus I Gh 15.5
trecae 1 2 10 15.7
trachurus 5 9 G6 2 16.2
capensis Wooo ohh} ae}
margaretae iL OPS II 14.5
indicus 6 2 1 16.4
mcecullochi Sy sy sy all 15.8
declivis 1a 2 15.3
japonicus 2S ES 14.1
symmetricus 1? WO ey. A 15.7
murphyi Geom asl! 16.5

QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

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Synopsis of Trachurus

BERRY AND COHEN

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Synopsis of Trachurus

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184 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

this paper. The institutions in which they are preserved are given
in the section on acknowledgments.

Trachurus Rafinesque, 1810

Trachurus Rafinesque, 1810, p. 41 (type species ? Trachurus suareus Risso in
Curvier and Valenciennes, 1833—=Trachurus picturatus Bowdich, 1825).

Brachialepes Fowler, 1938, p. 46 (type species Selar tabulae Barnard, 1927
=Trachurus capensis (Castelnau, 1861) ).

Suareus Dardignac and Vincent in Furnestin et al., 1958, p. 444 (type species
Suareus furnestini Dardignac and Vincent, 1958—=? Trachurus mediter-
raneus Steindachner, 1868).

Diagnosis. A genus of Caranginae with teeth in a single row in
both jaws, a narrow longitudinal band of teeth on tongue and nar-
row band on each palatine, and vomer with a narrow anchor-shaped
arrangement of teeth. Scales in anterior (curved) part of lateral
line enlarged and almost scutelike. Dorsal accessory lateral line
extending posteriad to below middle of first dorsal fin or beyond.
First two anal spines subequal or the first one usually the longer.
Low scaled sheath along bases of dorsal and anal softrays; scales
on head extending anteriad above eyes, largely covering all oper-
cular bones, suborbital area, and on expanded portion of maxillae;
scales on membranes between anterior three or four rays of second
dorsal and second anal fins, and scales on membranes between
most rays of pectoral, pelvic, and caudal fins. A slight furrow on
dorsal edge of cleithral ridge, but no papillae. Anterior lobes of
soft dorsal and anal fins relatively low. Last softray of dorsal and
anal fins becoming displaced from rest of fin with growth in some
species, but not forming a detached finlet. First dorsal fin with
eight spines. Second dorsal fin with one spine and 28-37 softrays.
Anal fin with two spines followed by one spine and 24-31 softrays.
Gillrakers on upper limb 12-20, on lower limb 33-56. Lateral line
scales and scutes 66-107. Branchiostegal rays, seven. Vertebrae
10+ 14.

Synonymy. The type species of Trachurus is uncertain, although
most authors have cited it as T. saurus Rafinesque (=T. trachurus
Linneaus ) (see Jordan, 1917, p. 79). The genus was established by
Rafinesque (1810, p. 41), who included the three species Trachurus
Aliciolus, Trachurus Imperialis (with Trachurus Saurus listed under
that account), and Trachurus Aguilus, described on page 42 as new.

BERRY AND COHEN: Synopsis of Trachurus 185

Based on his account and his plate 11, only T. imperialis appears to
belong to the Caranginae, and it has generally been regarded as a
junior synonym of Caranx dentex (Bloch and Schneider 1801).
Later, Rafinesque (1815, pp. 20-21) listed five species under Tra-
churus. The first was “Trachurus saurus Raf. (Caraux trachurus
Lac. Scomber trachurus Linn.).” T. saurus Rafinesque 1810 in a
nomen nudum. If T. saurus Rafinesque 1815 were regarded as a
replacement name for T. trachurus (Linnaeus 1758), this would
invalidate the tautonym and first named species of the genus (as
we now know it). T. suareus Risso 1833, was documented by
Cuvier in Cuvier and Valenciennes (1833, p. 33) and examination
of the holotype (by Berry) discloses that it is a junior synoym of
T. picturatus (Bowdich, 1825).

Several genera of Carangidae, including the type genus Caranx
and Trachurus, may be regarded as technically invalid, but they
have entrenched usage and should be conserved. When the generic
limits and the nominal species are all finally analyzed, an appeal
for this conservation should be made.

Key to the Species of Trachurus

1. Dorsal accessory lateral line extending posteriad to beyond 5th dorsal
SOLtT ay meee ie tres SAMUEL Airy Ive a a Ue eee Ne ae eo Ne ola 2
Dorsal accessory lateral line temineune anterior to 5th dorsal softray__.5

2. Dorsal accessory lateral line terminating below 19th-32nd dorsal

SOhURAy Aaa nua aaeee eh A AOD SNP CORE Lae celina TI eA Ae iS oo ie AS cae wal 3

Dorsal accessory aera line terminating below 6th to 10th dorsal

SO ately sae ed em OE etal LE NA pe Se RIAs Geis Ea RU UR AON cee ea NINA, 4
3. Lower limb gillrakers 41-48 (Northeastern Atlantic)... trachurus

Lower limb gillrakers 49-56 (Southeastern Atlantic) == capensis
4. Scales and scutes in curved lateral line 40-43 (Australia, New

Hes and lb) ep erie A ag stent sAbe hed te ea WL TLS Feel wo ei Re aS declivis

Scales and scutes in curved fatal line 52-58 (Eastern Atlantic) picturatus
5. Dorsal accessory lateral line terminating below first 3 to 6 spines of

dorsaletine (astern eAtlamtic))s -mmeasemiea nnn esr sage MeN nee trecae
Dorsal accessory lateral line terminating below 7th dorsal spine to 4th
orsalteso ftrayan eee tein ymin, Mala OILE Bee Nha Sn aul ee ING Nee ee 6
6. Total scales and scutes in lateral line GB SB tere slat pee gral aad Lie as 8
Total scales and scutes in lateral line 93-107
7. Scales in curved lateral line low, 2.3-3.1 per cent SL (Northeastern
CLEC) neeet nee rtanaon ae see Newer aa Ue AML BNL ite toms Get pay oF ee Sa Na Nowe symmetricus

Scales in curved lateral line high, 4.6-5.6 percent SL (Southeastern
JERVGHLNG)) sake c Lhihe WN Sas Joe A pe ee a Me Sea pe eres ae ee murphyi

186 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

8. Scutes in straight lateral line high, 6.8-7.5 per cent SL and scales in
curved part less high than scutes in straight part, 1.30-1.48 ratio

(South Africa 6s 2 0 ty Le Re 2 margaretae
Scutes in straight lateral line low, 4.5-6.8 per cent SL, or scales in
curved part higher than scutes in straight part... == 9
9. Pectoral fin short, less than 27 per cent SL at sizes of 100 mm SL
and, larger (Easter Atlantic) === sae ne mediterraneus
Pectoral fin more than’27 per cent Sl 2 eee 10
10. Eye small at sizes greater than 165 mm SL, diameter 7.4 per cent SL
or less’ (Australias New, Zealanc))) ms ae ee eee mcecullochi
Eye 7:8 per cent SL or larger. EEE eee 11
11. Lower gillrakers 42-47; and scutes in straight lateral line not high,
4.8-5.4 per cent SL (Arabian Sea, Persian Gulf)... indicus
Lower gillrakers 33-40; or scutes in straight lateral line higher, 6.1-
7A-per cent SL... .. ee EEE EE eee 12

12. Height of scales in curved part and scutes in straight part of lateral
line greater, 5.5-7.0 per cent SL curved and 6.1-7.4 per cent SL
straight (Japan! and China)! 22 japonicus
Height of scales in curved part and scutes in straight part of lateral
line less, 4.2-6.2 percent SL curved, 5.0-6.8 per cent SL straight
(Westem Atlantic)... eee lathami

Trachurus mediterraneus (Steindachner )

Caranx trachurus mediterraneus Steindachner, 1868, p. 393 (type locality
Mediterranean Sea).

Trachurus mediterraneus ponticus Aleev, 1956, p. 178 (type locality Black
Sea).

PSuareus furnestini Dardignac and Vincent in Furnestin et al, 1958, p. 445
(type locality Morocco ).

Diagnosis. Dorsal accessory lateral line extending posteriad be-
neath dorsal fin to between eighth spine and third softray. Scales
and scutes in curved part of lateral line 39-48. Total scales and
scutes in lateral line 75-89. Height of scales or scutes in curved
lateral line, 3.3-4.3 per cent SL; in straight lateral line 4.5-5.3 per
cent SL. Ratio of height of straight to curved lateral-line scales
1.15-1.47. Total gillrakers, 50-59. Pectoral length 24.5-26.5 per cent
SL above 125 mm SL. Body depth 22.0-24.2 per cent SL. Eye
diameter 8.2-8.8 per cent SL.

Remarks. Conflicting opinions exist about the species and sub-
species of Trachurus and their proper scientific names in the north-
eastern Atlantic-Mediterranean-Black Sea area (see for example
Tortonese 1952, Aleev 1956, Blanc and Bauchot 1961, and Slasten-

BERRY AND GOHEN: Synopsis of Trachurus 187

enko 1965). We accept the opinion of Aleev (1956, p. 183) that
Scomber lacerta Pallas 1811 is a nomen dubium. Based on the
limited amount of material available in this study and our attempt
to ameliorate various pronouncements in the literature, we tenta-
tively recognize three species in the above area: trachurus, pictura-
tus, and mediterraneus.

Relationships. T. mediterraneus is most similar morphologically
to lathami (discussed under that species) and to indicus. Compared
to mediterraneus, indicus has a longer pectoral fin (27.2-32.5 per
cent SL vs. 24.5-26.7 per cent SL) and a greater body depth (26.1-
28.2 per cent SL vs. 22.0-24.2 per cent SL), but the differences in
gross appearance of the two species suggest that they are not closely
related phylogenetically.

Distribution. Northeastern Atlantic from the Bay of Biscay to
the Straights of Gibraltar and the Mediterranean, Black, Marmana,
and Azov Seas (Aleev, 1956); to Casablanca (if furnestini is a valid
synonym).

Trachurus picturatus Bowdich

Seriola picturata Bowdich, 1825, p. 123, fig. 27 (type locality Madeira).

Caranx suareus Risso in Cuvier and Valenciennes, 1833, p. 33 (type locality
Mediterranean; holotype 435 mm SL, MNHN B.869).

Trachurus melanosaurus Cocco, 1839, p. 1.

Caranx cuvieri Lowe, 1841, p. 183 (type locality Madeira).

Trachurus fallax Capello, 1868, p. 318 (type locality Portugal ).

Trachurus rissoi Giglioli, 1880, p. 27.

Decapterus longimanus Norman, 1935, p. 255, fig. 1 (type locality Tristan de
Cunha; holotype 412 mm SL, BMNH 1935.5.2.3).

Diagnosis. Dorsal accessory lateral line extending posteriad be-
neath dorsal fin to between 6th and 10th softrays. Scales and scutes
in curved part of lateral line 52-58. Total scales and scutes in lateral
line 93-100. Height of scales or scutes in curved lateral line, 3.6-5.1
per cent SL; in straight lateral line 3.9-5.4 per cent SL. Ratio of
height of straight to curved lateral-line scales 1.03-1.21. Total gill-
rakers 55-60. Pectoral length 23.4-29.3 per cent SL. Body depth
18.8-22.2 per cent SL. Eye diameter 7.1-9.7 per cent SL.

Remarks. We have not investigated the synonymy of this
species, but follow the account of Tortonese (1950), with the addi-
tion of two synonyms. A direct comparison of an adequate series

188 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

of specimens might reveal differences between those from the
North Atlantic and those from the South Atlantic.

Arrangement of dentition is similar in all species of the genus,
but variation was noted in three of nine specimens of T. picturatus
from Maderia; two had an enlarged head of the vomer (MMF 3432
and 3859), and one had an expanded vomerine shaft (MMF 21674).

Relationships. The very extended dorsal accessory lateral line
and the high number of scales and scutes in the lateral line differ-
entiate picturatus from all other Trachurus. T. picturatus appears
most closely related morphologically to murphyi and declivis. Sus-
pected hybridization is discussed under the account of T. trachurus.

Distribution. Northeast Atlantic in the Bay of Biscay, from the
Azores to the Canary Islands, and in the Mediterranean Sea (Aleey,
1956); southeastern Atlantic at Tristan de Cunha.

Trachurus trecae Cadenat

Trachurus trecae Cadenat, 1949, p. 668 (type locality Mauritania; two syn-
types, MNHN 50-71, 158-178 mm SL).

Diagnosis. Dorsal accessory lateral line normally extending
posteriad beneath dorsal fin to between the first and sixth spines.
Scales and scutes in curved part of lateral line 36-43. Total scales
and scutes in lateral line 71-78. Height of scales or scutes in curved
lateral line, 2.1-2.9 per cent SL; in straight lateral line, 3.2-4.0 per
cent SL. Ratio of height of straight to curved lateral-line scales
1.39-1.61. Total gillrakers 54-61. Pectoral length 28.3-30.3 per cent
SL at sizes larger than 125 mm SL. Body depth 25.0-27.1 per cent
SL. Eye diameter 8.4-9.4 per cent SL.

Remarks. The dorsal accessory lateral line is shorter and ends
farther forward in trecae than in other Trachurus. On the basis of
our definition of the termination point (from beneath the anterior
origin of a dorsal fin spine to the origin of the succeeding spine
posteriad), 656 specimens of trecae from throughout most of its
range had the following frequency distribution of accessory lateral-
line terminations:

spine position 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
number of specimens 3 8 36 192 (379 35 3.
In the three specimens (from three separate collections) with the
zero position, the accessory lateral line ended well anterior to the

BERRY AND COHEN: Synopsis of Trachurus 189

dorsal fin. Tabulations were taken on the left side of each fish.
The termination on the right was usually symmetrical, but varied
slightly in some specimens; two specimens from one collection

lacked the line on the right side.

Distribution. Mauritania to Angola.

Trachurus trachurus (Linnaeus )

Scomber trachurus Linnaeus, 1758, p. 298 (type locality Mediterranean ).

Caranx semispinosus Nilsson, 1832, p. 84 (type locality Norwegian Sea).

Trachurus europaeus Gronovius, 1854, p. 125 (type locality seas of Europe:
holotype BMNH 1853.11.12.95, length 189 mm).

Trachurus linnaei Malm, 1877, p. 421 (type locality Bohuslain, Sweden).

Diagnosis. Dorsal accessory lateral line extending posteriad be-
neath dorsal fin to between 23rd and 31st softrays. Scales and
scutes in curved lateral line 33-40. Total scales and scutes in lateral
line 66-75. Height of scales or scutes in curved part of lateral
line, 6.3-8.2 per cent SL; in straight lateral line, 6.5-7.9 per cent SL.
Ratio of height of straight to curved lateral line scale 1.05-1.23.
Total gillrakers 56-65. Pectoral length 26.6-28.2 per cent SL at sizes
larger than 150 mm SL. Body depth 21.6-24.1 per cent SL. Eye
diameter 8.2-8.9 per cent SL.

Remarks. Three of 23 specimens of Trachurus examined from
Madeira were intermediate in appearance and in certain characters
between the two species, trachurus and picturatus, known to occur
there. They may represent a distinct species, but we consider them
hybrids, especially because we have so few specimens from a single
oceanic location. The following text-table indicates the intermedi-
acy of the specimens we presume to be hybrids on the basis of
ranges of four characters; number of scales and scutes in curved
lateral line (A), number of scutes in straight lateral line (B), num-
bered softray under which the accessory lateral line ends (C), and
relative height of scales in the curved lateral line as percent SL
(D):

A B C D
picturatus 52-58 39-46 6-8 3.6-5.1
hybrids 44-46 30-38 15-23 5.8-6.5

trachurus 35-40 31-36 23-32 6.3-8.2

190 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

One hybrid (TABL 106537) has nine spines in the first dorsal
fin and eight associated interneurals. Eight first dorsal spines and
seven associated interneurals is the maximum number normally
found in most species of Caranginae. In examining thousands of
specimens of most species of the subfamily we found only one other
specimen with nine first dorsal spines, Uraspis secunda (Poey),
MCZ 16073.

One specimen from Madeira (256 mm SL, MMF 3409), with a
pug-nosed condition, had an extremely distorted and expanded
shaft of the vomer.

Because of our relatively small sample of specimens of trachurus,
we have not been able to analyze the possibility of subspecies in
this species. A clinal relationship in three meristic characters was
evident. A comparison of six specimens from Scandinavia, 11 from
the Mediterranean, and seven from Madeira, revealed mean in-
creases from 32.5-33.7-34.9, respectively, in scutes in the straight
lateral line, increases from 57.6-61.4-63.1 in total gillrakers, and in-
creases from 56.0-57.8-59.5 in sums of dorsal and anal softrays. A
similar trend was seen in specimens of the closely related capensis
from Nigeria and South Africa in means of total gillrakers but not
in other characters.

Relationships. The eastern Atlantic trachurus and capensis are
the only species of the genus with the accessory lateral line extend-
ing so far posteriad on the body (to beneath the 19th dorsal softray
or beyond). T. trachurus has fewer total gillrakers (56-65 vs. 66-
76) and higher scales and scutes in the lateral line (6.3-8.2 per cent
SL vs. 4.8-5.2 per cent SL in the curved lateral line: 6.5-7.9 per cent
SL vs. 5.5-5.9 per cent SL in the straight lateral line).

Distribution. Northeast Atlantic from Iceland to the Cape Verde
Islands and Mediterranean Sea eastward to the Bosporus (Aleev,
1956).

Trachurus capensis Castelnau

Trachurus capensis Castelnau, 1861, p. 43 (type locality South Africa).
Selar tabulae Barnard, 1927, p. 538 (type locality Table Bay, South Africa;
holotype in South African Museum, length 410 mm).

Diagnosis. Dorsal accessory lateral line extending posteriad be-
neath dorsal fin to between 19th and 27th softrays. Scales and scutes

BERRY AND COHEN: Synopsis of Trachurus 191

in curved lateral line 34-45. Total scales and scutes in lateral line
71-79. Height of scales or scutes in curved part of lateral line, 4.8-
5.2 per cent SL; in straight lateral line, 5.5-5.9 per cent SL. Ratio
of height of straight to curved lateral line scales 1.05-1.23. Total
gillrakers 66-76. Pectoral length 27.7-29.7 per cent SL, above 175
mm SL. Body depth 23.2-27.5 per cent SL. Eye diameter 7.9-8.5
per cent SL.

Remarks. Castelnau’s name of capensis is accepted for this
species following the opinion of Nichols (1920, 1935). Margaret M.
Smith (personal communication) informed us that the type of Bar-
nard’s tabulae had been examined by J. L. B. Smith, who found
that it was a Trachurus. The high counts of dorsal softrays (38),
and lower limb gillrakers (55) given for tabulae by Barnard (1927,
p. 538) cause us to synonymize these two nominal species.

Relationships. The relation to trachurus and differentiation of
capensis and trachurus are discussed under that species.

Distribution. Imperfectly known. Specimens examined by us
from Nigeria and South Africa. Reported westward to Delagoa
Bay by Smith (1961, p. 213). Apparently reported from Angola (as
T. trachurus) by Poll (1954, p. 117).

Trachurus margaretae, new species (Fig. 2)

Diagnosis. Dorsal accessory lateral] line extending posteriad be-
neath dorsal fin to between eight and ninth spines. Scales and
scutes in curved part of lateral line 33-36. Total scales and scutes
in lateral line 69-73. Height of scales or scutes in curved lateral
line, 4.7-6.0 per cent SL; in straight lateral line, 6.5-7.5 per cent SL.
Ratio of height of straight to curved lateral line scales 1.09-1.48.
Total gillrakers 52-58. Pectoral length 30.9-32.0 per cent SL at
157-154 mm SL, 25.9 per cent SL from 89.5-123 mm SL. Body
depth 23.2-26.1 per cent SL. Eye diameter 8.5-9.1 per cent SL.

Material. Holotype, USNM 93661, 123 mm SL, from Durban,
South Africa. Paratypes: USNM 153510, 3 specimens, 68.5-89.5 mm
SL, from Knysna Estuary, South Africa; SAM 16734, 174 mm SL,
South Africa; TABL 107267, 157 mm SL, Durban, South Africa.

Description of the holotype. Standard length 123 mm. Caudal
fin broken. Accessory lateral line ending under ninth dorsal spine.
Dorsal fin VIII, I-29. Anal fin II, 1-25. Pectoral fins I-20 (both).
Pelvic fins I-5 (both). Gillrakers 16+41 (right side), 15 over

192 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Fig. 2. Trachurus margaretae n. sp., holotype, Durban, South Africa,
123 mm SL (USNM 93661).

hypobranchial including one anterior rudiment. Gill filaments on
lateral side of first arch 33+ 81 (right). Pseudobranch filaments 21
(left). Branchiostegal rays 3+4 (both). Lateral line, curved
(right) 30 scales and 4 scutes; curved (left), 31 scales and 3 scutes;
straight (right), 38 scutes and 3 scales; straight (left), 39 scutes
and 3 scales. Vertebrae 10+ 14. Measurements in per cent SL:
head length 28.6; eye diameter 8.5; snout length 8.0; postorbital
head length 11.5; upper jaw length 10.7; maxillary depth 3.7; body
depth, 24.2 maximum vertical, 25.0 from first dorsal spine to pelvic
insertion, 25.0 from ninth dorsal spine to first anal spine; pectoral

BERRY AND COHEN: Synopsis of Trachurus 193

length 25.9; pelvic length 16.2; longest dorsal spine 15.5 (3rd);
longest dorsal softray ca. 14.0 (Ist); anal spine lengths, 6.4 (1st),
5.8 (2nd); longest anal softray ca. 13.1 (1st); maximum height of
scales or scutes in curved lateral line 5.8, in straight lateral line, 7.5.
Ratio of height of straight to curved lateral line scales 1.29. Ratio
of lengths of curved to straight lateral line 0.70 (both).

Remarks. Two species occur in South African waters and two
available names exist for Trachurus from that area. The later
named species (tabulae of Barnard) is not this new species, especi-
ally in view of the high lower limb gillraker count (55) given in
the original description. The first named species (capensis of
Castelnau ) has such an imprecise description (and we do not know
if a type specimen exists) that we relate it to the more common
species from South Africa, as has been done previously. We there-
fore describe the rarer T. margaretae as new.

Distribution. Currently known only from Durban and Knysna
Estuary, South Africa.

Name. Named in honor of Margaret Mary Smith, Director, J.
L. B. Smith Institute of Ichthyology.

Trachurus indicus Necrassov

Trachurus mediterraneus indicus Necrassov, 1966, p. 141 (type locality off
Oman, Arabian Sea).

Diagnosis. Dorsal accessory lateral line extending posteriad be-
neath dorsal fin to between seventh and eighth spines. Scales and
scutes in curved part of lateral line 37-41. Total scales and scutes
in lateral line 72-79. Height of scales or scutes in lateral line, 3.6-
5.1 per cent SL curved, 4.8-5.4 per cent SL straight. Ratio of height
of straight to curved lateral line scales 1.06-1.34. Total gillrakers
58-65. Pectoral length 29.9-32.5 per cent SL, at sizes larger than
168 mm SL. Body depth 26.1-28.2 per cent SL. Eye diameter 8.5-
10.1 per cent SL.

Remarks. In one specimen (TABL 105998) the accessory lateral
line is abnormally bent near its termination on each side of the
body; it ends abnormally short under the first spine on the right
side and under the fourth spine on the left.

Relationships. Discussed under the account of mediterraneus.

Distribution. Gulf of Oman and Persian Gulf.

194 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Trachurus mccullochi Nichols

Trachurus mccullochi Nichols, 1920, p. 479 (type locality Australian seas;
description based on account of McCulloch, 1915).

Diagnosis. Dorsal accessory lateral line extending posteriad be-
neath dorsal fin to between eighth spine and second dorsal softray.
Scales and scutes in curved part of lateral line 34-39. Total scales
and scutes in lateral line 71-77. Height of scales or scutes in curved
lateral line, 4.8-6.9 per cent SL; in straight lateral line, 5.0-7.3 per
cent SL. Ratio of height of straight to curved lateral line scales
0.98-1.18. Total gillrakers 53-61. Pectoral length 27.2-29.7 per cent
SL at sizes larger than 110 mm SL. Body depth 21.3-26.3 per cent
SL. Eye diameter 8.0-9.7 per cent SL on specimens 78-160 mm SL,
6.4-7.2 on three specimens 166-252 mm SL.

Remarks. Our material is in relatively poor condition and in-
sufficient for a thorough definition of this species. The three largest
specimens are certainly distinctive. The 16 smaller specimens
(which have relatively larger eyes) are assigned to this species, but
they are morphologically more similar to japonicus of the northwest
Pacific.

Relationships. T. mccullochi may be a southern hemisphere cog-
nate of japonicus, but it has a larger eye than that species at sizes
larger than about 220 mm SL. It is differentiated from lathami
under the account of that species.

Distribution. Australia and New Zealand.

Trachurus declivis (Jenyns )

Caranx declivis Jenyns 1841, p. 68 (type locality King George’s Sound, New
Holland, holotype BMNH 1917.7.14.30, 163 mm SL).

Trachurus novae zealandiae Richardson, 1842, p. 21 (type locality New Zea-
land; description based on the vernacular “Le saurel de la Nouvelle-Zeé-
lande” by Cuvier in Cuvier and Valenciennes, 1833, p. 26).

Diagnosis. Dorsal accessory lateral line extending posteriad be-
neath dorsal fin to between sixth to tenth softrays. Scales and scutes
in curved lateral line 40-43. Total scales and scutes in lateral line
81-82. Height of scales or scutes in curved part of lateral line, 7.5-
8.0 per cent SL; in straight lateral line, 6.8-7.4 per cent SL. Ratio
of height of straight to curved lateral-line scales 0.85-1.00. Total

BERRY AND COHEN: Synopsis of Trachurus 195

gillrakers 53-55. Pectoral length ca. 25.0-28.0 per cent SL. Body
depth 22.0-23.1 per cent SL. Eye diameter ca. 7.0-8.3 per cent SL.

Remarks. Examinatin of the holotype (by Berry) confirms the
identity of this species; the dorsal accessory lateral line is difficult
to discern in the somewhat damaged specimen but apparently ends
under the 10th dorsal softray on the left side and under the 9th on
the right.

Distribution. Australia and New Zealand.

Trachurus japonicus (Temminck and Schlegel)

Caranx trachurus japonicus Temminck and Schlegel, 1844, p. 109 (type locality
Japan).

Trachurus argenteus Wakiya, 1924, p. 145 (type locality Amakusa, Japan;
paratype FMNH 59421, 285 mm SL).

Diagnosis. Dorsal accessory lateral line extending posteriad be-
neath dorsal fin to between ninth spine and second softray. Scales
and scutes in curved part of lateral line 36-39. Total scales and
scutes in lateral line 69-73. Height of scales or scutes in lateral line,
5.5-7.0 per cent SL curved, 6.1-7.4 per cent SL straight. Ratio of
height of straight to curved lateral line scales 0.98-1.24. Total gill-
rakers 51-56. Pectoral length 28.9-30.9 per cent SL at 227 mm SL
and larger. Body depth 24.6-26.6 per cent SL at 227 mm SL and
larger. Eye diameter 7.8-8.3 per cent SL at 227 mm and larger.

Relationships. T. japonicus appears to be closest morphological-
ly to the most geographically distant species, lathami, but the sim-
ilarity may represent parallel evolution of morphological characters
in similar ecotypes. It is also similar to mccullochi. See under the
accounts of those two species.

Distribution. Japan and China.

Trachurus symmetricus (Ayres)

Caranx symmetricus Ayres, 1855, p. 62 (type locality San Francisco Bay,
California ).

Decapterus polyaspis Walford and Myers, 1944, p. 45 (type locality off Reeds-
port, Oregon; holotype SU 14375, 380 mm SL).

Diagnosis. Dorsal accessory lateral line extending posteriad be-
neath dorsal fin to between eighth spine and second softray. Scales

196 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

and scutes in curved part of lateral line 46-56. Total scales and
scutes in lateral line 93-107. Height of scales or scutes in curved
lateral line, 2.3-3.1 per cent SL; in straight lateral line, 3.9-4.4 per
cent SL. Ratio of height of straight to curved lateral line scales
1.29-1.73. Total gillrakers 54-59. Pectoral length 24.4-25.9 per cent
SL above 145 mm SL. Body depth 19.2-21.5 per cent SL. Eye
diameter 7.6-8.6 per cent SL.

Relationships. T. symmetricus and murphyi appear to be an
antitropical species pair; they may be separated by the smaller
scales and scutes in the lateral line of symmetricus and its fewer
average number of gillrakers on the lower limb.

Distribution. Alaska to southern Baja California, Mexico, and
the Gulf of California.

Trachurus murphyi Nichols

Trachurus murphyi Nichols, 1920, p. 47% (type locality Central Island of the
Chimchas, Peru; putative neotype AMNH 7259, 296 mm).

Diagnosis. Dorsal accessory lateral] line extending posteriad be-
neath dorsal fin to between first and fifth softrays. Scales and scutes
in curved part of lateral line 52-56. Total scales and scutes in lateral
line 94-106. Height of scales or scutes in lateral line, 4.6-5.6 per
cent SL curved, 4.8-5.7 per cent SL straight. Ratio of height of
straight to curved lateral line scales 0.98-1.07. Total gillrakers 58-
63. Pectoral length 30.2-32.1 per cent SL at sizes larger than 180
mm SL. Body depth 20.5-24.0 per cent SL. Eye diameter 8.0-9.1
per cent SL to about 300 mm SL, decreasing to ca. 6.3 per cent SL
at sizes larger than 400 mm SL.

Remarks. The type specimens of murphyi have been confused.
Nichols (1920:478) mentioned having two specimens from Peru in
the American Museum of Natural History when he described the
species as new, and he listed the “type” as AMNH 7259. The
AMNH catalog lists the holotype under this number and presum-
ably the second specimen as AMNH 7260. With the assistance of C.
Lavett Smith, three unlabeled or mislabeled AMNH specimens
were examined by Berry; they were the only three AMNH speci-
mens that could be regarded as types of murphyi. One measuring
256 mm bore a paper label with the number “7260” inside the
operculum, but because that specimen appeared to be japonicus, it

BERRY AND COHEN: Synopsis of Trachurus 197

was assigned a new number. A 295-mm specimen, with the tail
broken off and no label, is murphyi and is associated with AMNH
7260. An unlabeled 296-mm specimen with a damaged and over-
grown area of scutes on the straight lateral line of the left side fits
the brief description of the species by Nichols. That specimen is
assigned AMNH 7259 and is herein designated as the putative neo-
type of T. murphyi (in the sense of Whitehead, Boeseman, and
Wheeler, 1966, pp. 14-15).

Relationships. T. murphyi is most closely related morphological-
ly and geographically to T. symmetricus, which see. T. murphyi is
intermediate between the seven species that have the dorsal acces-
sory lateral line ending close to the first and second dorsal fins and
declivis of Australia and picturatus of the eastern Atlantic; murphyi
appears to be an ecotype of picturatus in that it has a large number
of scutes in the lateral line.

Distribution. Off northern Peru to south-central Chile.

Trachurus lathami Nichols ( Fig. 3)

Trachurus lathami Nichols, 1920, p. 479 (type locality Long Island, New
York; holotype AMNH 7351, 96 mm SL).

Trachurus picturatus binghami Nichols, 1940, p. 2 (type locality off Mobile
Bay, Alabama; holotype AMNH 15212, 73 mm SL).

Trachurus picturatus australis, Nani, 1950, p. 178 (type locality Quequén,
Argentina; holotype SIMACN 4175, 188.5 mm TL).

Diagnosis. Dorsal accessory lateral line extending posteriad be-
neath dorsal fin to between eight spine and fourth softray. Scales
and scutes in curved lateral line 31-42. Total scales and scutes in
lateral line 68-77. Height of scales or scutes in curved lateral line,
4,2-6.2 per cent SL; in straight lateral line 5.0-6.8 per cent SL. Ratio
of height of straight to curved lateral-line scales 1.08-1.28. Total
gillrakers on lateral side of first arch 46-54. Pectoral length 26.8-
32.8 per cent SL at sizes larger than 100 mm SL. Body depth 24.2-
27.5 per cent SL. Eye diameter 7.8-10.0 per cent SL; 7.8-9.2 per
cent SL at sizes larger than 200 mm SL.

Remarks. Many subjective species synonyms have been prolifer-
ated in certain groups of the Carangidae. Most of these are from
specimens of wide-ranging species collected in diverse places by
earlier workers. The reverse has been true of the genus Trachurus,

198 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Fig. 3. Trachurus lathami Nichols, Trinidad, 266 mm SL, 12.3 inches
total length (TABL 101836).

where the first-named species, T. trachurus (Linnaeus, 1758),
which occurs only in the northeastern Atlantic, often has been un-
critically assigned a world-wide distribution. During the last 40
years, Trachurus has been reported in the western Atlantic under
the following names: T. trachurus, T. declivis, T. lathami, T. pic-
turatus, T. picturatus binghami, T. picturatus australis, and two or
three species have been considered to exist in the western Atlantic
by several authors (as Nichols, 1940 and Nani, 1950).

No account that lists species other than lathami from the western
Atlantic is sufficiently convincing to justify the existence of any
other species than lathami there. We suspect that the high total
lateral-line scale counts (76-87) “estimated in 8 specimens of 27 to
35 mm.” from the western Atlantic by Nichols (1940) are in error.
All specimens we examined from the western Atlantic represent a
single species, and we presume that lathami is the only species of
Trachurus that occurs in the area.

We regard the poor description of Caranxom plumierianus
Lacépede (1802, p. 82, pl. 2), based on a drawing by Plumier from
Martinique, to be a nomen nudum. Jordan and Evermann (1896,
p. 911) suggested that it might represent a western Atlantic Tra-
churus. It might be equally well postulated that the description is
a species of Decapterus, Selar, or Caranx.

Relationships. T. lathami is morphologically most similar to
three other species. T. mediterraneus has a shorter pectoral fin
(24.5-26.7 per cent SL vs. 26.8-32.8 per cent SL for lathami, each
for specimens larger than 100 mm SL) and a less deep body (22.0-

BERRY AND COHEN: Synopsis of Trachurus 199

24.2 per cent SL vs. 24.2-27.5 per cent SL). T. mccullochi, at
sizes greater than 200 mm SL, has a smaller eye (ca. 6.4-7.2 per
cent SL vs. 7.8-9.2 per cent SL for lathami), a more pointed head
profile, and averages a lesser body depth. T. japonicus is the species
most distant geographically and most similar morphologically to
lathami; japonicus averages a slightly greater height of curved and
straight lateral-line scales (Table 9).

Distribution. From the Gulf of Maine to northern Argentina.
We have examined specimens from off Massachusetts, New York,
North Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana,
Texas, Mexico (Tabasco and Campeche), Colombia, Venezuela,
Trinidad, Grenadines, Surinam, French Guiana, Brazil (Sao Paulo),
and Argentina (Rio de la Plata).

VARIATION IN Trachurus lathami

Dorsal and anal fin spines. The dorsal fin had 8+1 spines and
the anal 2+1 spines in all 115 specimens counted. The third dorsal
spine is the longest, measuring about 12.8-14.9 per cent SL. The
first anal spine is normally longer than the second and measures
about 4.2-5.8 per cent SL at smaller sizes, decreasing to about 3.5-
4.2 per cent SL at sizes larger than 200 mm SL.

Dorsal and anal softrays. The numbers of dorsal and anal soft-
rays are positively correlated, with a mode at D31-A28 (Table 10).
The number of dorsal softrays is usually three more than the num-
ber of anal softrays, and ranges from one to seven more. The in-
dividual frequency distributions are shown in Tables 1-2. The first
softray of the dorsal and anal fins is usually the longest in each fin.
The first dorsal softray ranges 12.2-14.5 per cent SL at smaller sizes
decreasing to almost 11.5 per cent SL above 200 mm SL. The first
anal softray ranges about 10.8-13.3 per cent SL.

Pectoral fins. Each pectoral fin consists of one spine at its dorsal
origin and 19-20 softrays. The number of softrays is usually the
same on each side of a fish, but bilateral variation does occur (15.2
per cent of 66 specimens). Seven of the ten bilaterally variable
specimens had one less ray in the left fin than the right. The fol-
lowing frequencies of softrays were obtained: 19 both (2), 19-20
(4), 20 both (46), 20-21 (6), 21 both (8).

The pectorals are blunter at smaller sizes and the fin length is
about 20-22.5 per cent SL at 19-50 mm SL. The fins become longer

200 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

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BERRY AND COHEN: Synopsis of Trachurus 201

and pointed between about 55 and 95 mm SL, and are falcate
(28.5-32.5 per cent SL) above 140 mm SL. In Fig. 4 average values
are suggested, which were determined by a visual fit; 20.6 per cent
SL at 20-40 mm SL, 23.7 per cent SL at 50-75 mm SL, and 30.2 per
cent SL at 115-300 mm SL.

Pelvic fins. Each pelvic fin has one spine at its lateral origin
and five softrays (71 specimens). Pelvic fins averaged a greater
length at smaller body sizes (16-18.2 per cent SL to 100 mm SL;
14-16.2 per cent above 170 mm SL).

Gillrakers. Gillraker numbers of the upper and lower limbs of
the lateral side of the first arch tend toward a positive correlation,
with a mode at U14-L36 (Table 11). The individual frequency dis-
tributions. are shown in Tables 3-4 and the combined counts of both
limbs for individual specimens in Table 5.

TABLE 9
Relation of maximum heights of scutes in curved and straight parts of the
lateral line in Trachurus. Shown as ranges of per cent of standard length for
both straight and curved part scutes and as ranges of ratio of straight scute
height divided by curved.

Species Curved Straight Ratio

lathami 4,2-6.2 5.0-6.8 1.08-1.28
mediterraneus 3.3-4.3 4.5-5.3 1.15-1.47
picturatus 3.6-5.1 3.9-5.4 1.03-1.21
trecae 2.1-2.9 3.2-4.0 1.39-1.61
trachurus 6.3-8.2 6.5-7.9 0.96-1.15
capensis 4.8-5.2 5.5-5.9 1.05-1.23
margaretae 4.7-6.0 6.5-7.5 1.09-1.48
indicus 3.6-5.1 4,.8-5.4 1.06-1.34
mcecullochi 4.8-6.9 5.0-7.3 0.98-1.18
declivis 7.5-8.0 6.8-7.4 0.85-1.00
japonicus 5.5-7.0 6.1-7.4 0.98-1.24
symmetricus 2.3-3.1 3.9-4.4 1.29-1.73
murphyi 4.6-5.6 4.8-5.7 0.98-1.07

A single rudimentary gillraker on the anterior end of either the
upper or lower limb of the lateral side of the first arch was found
in 25.4 per cent of 126 specimens; 5 had the rudiment on the upper
limb and 27 had the rudiment on the lower limb.

Numbers of gillrakers over the hypobranchial portion of the low-
er limb for 118 specimens ranged 11 (10), 12 (47), 13 (40), 14

202 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

TABLE 10
Frequency distributions of numbers of dorsal and anal softrays, correlated for
individual specimens of Trachurus lathami

Anal softrays 28 29 30 31 32 33 34

30 1 1 2 1

29 1 7 12 2 i
28 12 19 6 2

27 1 6 10 13 3

26 i 2 5 2

25 2 2

24 1 1

(17), 15 (3), 16 (1). The ceratobranchial counts ranged 21 (3),
22 (4), 23 (46), 24 (38), 25 (22), 26 (5). Apparently there is
only slight positive correlation between hypobranchial and cerato-
branchial numbers of gillrakers. A dual mode for combined counts
occurs at H12-C23 and H13-C23.

Gillraker numbers apparently do not change as body length in-
creases between 60-305 mm SL.

Lateral line. The point of junction of the curved (anterior) part
of the lateral line with the straight (posterior) part is usually below
the eighth or ninth dorsal softray, ranging from the sixth to the
tenth softray. The junction is often bilaterally asymmetrical, end-
ing from 1-4 softrays farther forward on one side than the other
(this variation seems to be random, right or left).

The chord of the curved part of the lateral line (33-38.5 per
cent SL) is shorter than the length of the straight part (39-45.5 per
cent SL), and the lateral-line ratio ranges about 1.1-1.35. A slight
bilateral variation in the lengths of each part is apparently random.

Scales (non-scutellated) in the curved part of the lateral line
range 29-39 with the following frequencies: 29 (3), 30 (2), 31 (13),
32) (11), 33 (17), 34 (19), 35 (20), 36 (12), 37 (3); SSn(O}macnelne
counts from both sides of 50 specimens showed 17 with the same
number on each side, 21 with one more scale on one side, 11 with 2
more scales, and 1 with 3 more scales. Bilateral variation was ap-
parently random, right or left. The posterior end of the curved later-
al line has zero to nine scutes (pointed) with the following
frequencies: 0) (1), 1 (6), 2: (11); 3°(28)74 (30) o) C4) GaGa

.
|
|

BERRY AND COHEN: Synopsis of Trachurus 203

TABLE 11

Frequency distributions of numbers of upper and lower limb gillrakers, corre-
lated for individual specimens of Trachurus lathami

Lower limb gillrakers

Upper limb 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 4]
16 1 1 2
15 6 6 6 2 7 3
14 9 20 10 a 2 2
13 1 3 15 9 5 4 1 1
12 2

7 (0), 8 (1), 9 (1); counts from both sides of 51 specimens showed
20 with the same number on each side, 22 with one more scute on
one side, 8 with 2 more scutes, and 1 with 3 more scutes, and the
variation was apparently bilaterally random. Frequency distribu-
tion of the sum of scales and scutes in the curved lateral line is
shown in Table 6. The relation between the numbers of scales and
scutes in the curved lateral line for individual fish appears to be
inversely correlated; higher scale counts are associated with lower
scute counts.

Frequency distribution of the numbers of scutes in the straight
lateral line is shown in Table 7. Counts of straight lateral line scutes
of 58 specimens showed 18 with the same number on each side, 26
with one more scute on one side, 8 with 2 more, 4 with 3 more, 1
with 4 more, and 1 with 5 more. This bilateral variation is appar-
ently random; 19 specimens have more scutes on the left side and
21 specimens have more scutes on the right side.

The pored scales of the lateral line terminate over the median
caudal fin rays. The one to four scales (lacking points and thickness
of scutes), which form the end of the lateral line [1 (12), 2 (26),
3 (24), 4 (6)], are frequently lost in preserved specimens and thus
were not included in the counts of straight lateral line of the total
lateral line.

Frequency distribution of the total number of scales and scutes
in both parts of the lateral line (excluding the 1-4 terminal scales)
are shown in Table 8. Bilateral variation (apparently random) oc-
curs in this total count; in 57 specimens 11 have the same count on

204 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

TABLE 12
Frequency distributions of character index sums for dorsal-anal softrays,
upper-lower limb gillrakers, and scales-scutes in the lateral line for Trachurus
lathami, grouped by geographic area.

Dorsal-anal softrays
53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 Mean

Atlantic U. S. 4° 5 9 5S 3 = GeoRSS
Gulf U. S. 1 1 .3 21 #5. 10 5 5) Sic
Mexico i 1 [rc PA Il 59.3
Colombia-Surinam 3s ff & &§ EG B ® 57.8
Brazil-Argentina Die sie ee Die? 55.7

Upper-lower limb gillrakers
46 37 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 Mean

Atlantic U. S. 1 2: 7% 4 (9) 53>) Oe Poe IEAONS
Gulf U. S. A 4 13) 6) 2 Sir
Mexico 1 = 3 (93) =, = oF iD Or
Colombia-Surinam 2 = 4 7 ‘6 “8 4 Roel ORI
Brazil-Argentina 1... 2. 1) Sizes

Scales-scutes in lateral line

68 69 70 71 72 73 74° Wo Gee ean
Atlantic U. S. 1 5. 45 Ge See 72.0
Gulf U. S. 3: 3 (64. 927 ieee TPA 8)
Mexico 2 1 2 1 1 1 WARM
Colombia-Surinam 2 6 10 5 3) Seer
Brazil-Argentina 1 pe Teme ee eee eis a 71.6

both sides, 23 have one more scale or scute on one side, 15 have 2
more, 6 have 3 more, and 2 have 4 more.

Branchiostegal rays. Three ceratohyal and four epihyal rays on
both sides of 41 specimens.

Vertebrae. Ten precaudal and fourteen caudal centra in 21
specimens.

Body proportions. Head length about 27.6-32.8 per cent SL, de-
creasing slightly above 200 mm SL. Snout length about 8.3-11.4 per
cent SL. Eye diameter about 7.8-10.0 per cent SL, decreasing to
less than 9.2 per cent SL at sizes larger than 200 mm SL. Postorbital
head length about 10.0-13.8 per cent SL, decreasing slightly at
larger sizes. Upper jaw length about 10.7-12.9 per cent SL. Maxi-
mum depth of upper jaw about 2.8-3.8 per cent SL. Body depth
(maximum vertical) 24.2-27.5 per cent SL, average of about 25 per
cent SL (Fig. 4).

BERRY AND COHEN: Synopsis of Trachurus 205

BODY DEPTH (mm)

(mm)

PECTORAL FIN LENGTH

(0) 20 60 100 140 180 220 260 300

STANDARD LENGTH (mm)

Fig. 4. Relation of body depth (maximum vertical) and pectoral fin
length for Trachurus lathami. The regression lines and per cent SL values
were determined visually.

Geographic variation. Several meristic characters suggest shifts
of values by area of capture. Three character index values are used
in Table 12 to illustrate this suggestion, although the samples avail-
able from different areas are insufficient to define or suggest the
possible existence of subpopulations. Tabulations of the three char-
acters disclose that specimens from the United States and Mexico
are generally similar.

Counts of the sums of dorsal and anal softrays disclose that the
Colombia-Surinam sample averages more than one ray less than
the North American sample; the Brazil-Argentina sample averages
two rays less than the former. These counts suggest a decreasing
cline from north to south.

206 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Counts of the sums of upper limb and lower limb gillrakers
show that the U.S.-Mexico and the Colombia-Trinidad samples are
similar, but that the Brazil-Argentina sample has two or more addi-
tional gillrakers, which suggests a south temperate shift.

Counts of the sums of scales and scutes in the lateral line reveal
that the Colombia-Surinam sample has the highest average value,
which suggests a parabolic cline with increasing values in higher
latitudes.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This research was conducted through the Systematics of Fishes
Program of the Tropical Atlantic Biological Laboratory (TABL).
It was sponsored in part by the Laboratory Research Program of
Dade County Public Schools coordinated by James F. Miley. Phil-
lip C. Heemstra, Tomio Iwamoto, and Grady W. Reinert of the
TABL staff assisted in the research and preparation of the report.

We are grateful to the following individuals and institutions for
providing information on specimens and making specimens avail-
able: Marie L. Bauchot, Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle
(MNHN); Heraldo A. Britski, Departamento de Zoologia Sao
Paulo (DZSP); Harvey R. Bullis, USBCF Exploration and Gear
Research Base, Pascagoula; Daniel M. Cohen and Bruce B. Collette,
USBCF Systematics Laboratory, Washington; William N. Esch-
meyer, California Academy of Sciences; Warren C. Freihofer and
George S. Meyers, Stanford University (SU); Robert H. Gibbs, Jr.
and Stanley H. Weitzman, U. S. National Museum (USNM); Carter
R. Gilbert, University of Florida (UF); P. H. Greenwood and Peter
J. P. Whitehead, British Museum of Natural History (BMNH);
Leslie W. Knapp, Smithsonian Oceanographic Sorting Center; G.
E. Maul, Museu Municipal do Funchan (MMF); Giles W. Mead,
Tyson Roberts, and Myvanwy Dick, Museum of Comparative
Zoology (MCZ); J¢érgen Nielsen, Universitetets Zoologiske Mu-
seum (ZMC); M. J. Penrith and Frank H. Talbot, South African
Museum (SAM); C. Richard Robins, Rosenstiel School of Marine
and Atmospheric Sciences (UMML); Donn C. Rosen and C. Lavett
Smith, American Museum of Natural History (AMNH); Margaret
M. Smith, J. L. B. Smith Institute of Ichthyology; and Loren P.
Woods, Field Museum of Natural History (FMNH).

BERRY AND COHEN: Synopsis of Trachurus 207

SPECIMENS EXAMINED

Trachurus mediterraneus (26 specimens, 60.5-156 mm SL): Europe,
USNM 3563, 1 (116). Italy, AMNH 1508, 1 (95). Sebastopol, USNM 37248,
1 (127). Lebanon, TABL 104857, 6 (135-156); TABL 104707, 11 (60.5-135).
Black Sea, UMML 22344, 1 (74); MCZ 41942, 5 (86.5-149).

Trachurus picturatus (19 specimens, 95-435 mm SL): Azores, MCZ 16921,
1 (95); MCZ 16922, 1 (98). Madeira, TABL 105887, 5 (150-356); MMF
3858, 1 (240); MMF 3859, 1 (233); MMF 21674, 1 (204); MMF 3432, 1
(158); MMF 4616, 1 (154); MMF 3421, 1 (152); MMF 8860, 1 (144); MMF
3861, 1 (139); MMF 3430, 1 (113). France (Nice, MNHN B.869, 1 (415)
holotype of Caranx suareus. Tristan de Cunha, BMNH 1935.5.2.3, 1 (412)
holotype of Decapterus longimanus; BMNH 1927.12.6.76, 1 (412).

Trachurus trachurus X T. picturatus (3 specimens, 146-200 mm SL):
TABL 106537, 1 (146); MMF 5207, 1 (200); MMF 5305, 1 (192).

Trachurus trecae (528 specimens, 29-225 mm SL): Mauritania, MNHN
50-71, 2 (158-178) syntypes of T. trecae. Guinea, TABL 103676, 10 (147-
194); TABL 103681, 11 (121-148); TABL 103664, 2 (104-163); TABL
103672, 13 (114-124); TABL 102873, 1 (157). Ivory Coast, TABL 102762,
1 (103). Ghana, TABL 105446, 3 (110-122); TABL 105440, 4 (111-151);
TABL 105441, 1 (99); TABL 105440, 1 (108); TABL 103629, 3 (101-115).
Dahomey, UMML 16398, 14 (89-109); UMML 16586, 1 (119); UMML
16783, 4 (83-97). Nigeria, TABL 102764, 3 (129-134); TABL 102768, 1
(110); UMML 21320, 1 (125); UMML 15792, 17 (90-101); UMML 16033,
2 (91-107). Cameroon, TABL 102776, 3 (140-200). Gabon, TABL 102785,
8 (102-182); TABL 102787, 9 (124-144); TABL 105445, 1 (147); TABL
102781, 6 (120-140); TABL 103686, 7 (114-123); TABL 103684, 2 (117-
126); TABL 102786, 4 (117-123); TABL 103691, 1 (120); TABL 103687, 5
(110-119); TABL 105442, 6 (128-152). Congo, TABL 103688, 1 (120); TABL
103689, 1 (111); TABL 105443, 11 (29-44); TABL 103666, 3 (103-107).
Angola, TABL 102791, 6 (180-225); TABL 102792, 4 (181-210); TABL
102790, 5 (160-190); TABL 103695, 102 (78-117); TABL 103784, 62 (54-
153); TABL 103783, 36 (58-197); TABL 103722, 104 (89-184); TABL
103271, 41 (71-172); TABL 105864, 1 (214); TABL 105867, 4 (155-176).

Trachurus trachurus (32 specimens, 44.5-273 mm SL): Norway, USNM
23047, 2 (44.5-67); USNM 22067, 2 (45-68); MCZ 2968, 2 (65.5-75.5).
Denmark, USNM 39766, 1 (80). Spain (Cadiz), MCZ 22468-9, 2 (153-156).
Italy, AMNH 7181, 2 (131-133). Lebanon, TABL 104887, 14 (63-95). Ma-
deira, MMF 157, 1 (174); MMF 2733, 1 (160); MMF 3016, 1 (252); MMF
3207, 1 (273); MMF 3409, 1 (256); MMF 3831, 1 (121); MMF 4052, 1
(149).

Trachurus capensis (6 specimens, 175-342 mm SL): Nigeria, TABL 103663,
3 (209-242). South Africa, SAM 11915, 1 (175); SAM 11920, 1 (272); SAM
11947, 1 (342).

Trachurus margaretae (6 specimens, 68.5-175 mm SL): South Africa,
USNM 153510, 3 (68.5-99); USNM 93661, 1 (123) holotype of T. marga-
retae; SAM 16734, 1 (174); TABL 107267, 1 (175).

208 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Trachurus indicus (9 specimens, 89-176 mm SL): Oman, TABL 105384,
3 (168-176); TABL 105998, 1 (174); TABL 106517, 2 (89-103). Persian .
Gulf, ZMC CN. 3-5, 3 (118-126).

Trachurus mccullochi (19 specimens, 78-252 mm SL): Australia, New
South Wales, USNM 48810, 2 (111-120); USNM 59919, 10 (99-160); USNM
83046, 1 (124); USNM 148618, 1 (100); USNM 177110, 2 (78-131). New
Zealand, USNM 83061, 1 (252); USNM 177075, 2 (166-227).

Trachurus declivis (4 specimens, 163-270 mm SL): Australia, BMNH
1917.7.14.30, 1 (163) holotype of Caranx declivis; USNM 177009, 1 (164).
New Zealand, USNM 177075, 2 (205-270).

Trachurus japonicus (13 specimens, 70-295 mm SL): Japan, FMNH 59421,
1 (285) holotype of T. argenteus; AMNH 26826, 6 (118-128). China, TABL
107255, 1 (227); TABL 107256, 1 (295); USNM 130405, 1 (215); USNM
130608, 1 (254); MCZ 26324, 2 (70-76.5).

Trachurus symmetricus (26 specimens, 104-525 mm SL): Oregon, SU
14375, 1 (380) holotype of Decapterus polyaspis,; USNM 143676, 1 (392)
paratype of D. polyaspis. California, TABL 106328, 7 (303-490). Mexico, Baja
California, TABL 105868, 1 (148); TABL 105876, 6 (120-179); TABL
105875, 3 (104-107); TABL 105871, 1 (141); TABL 105876, 6 (132-225);
TABL 106329, 1 (525).

Trachurus murphyi (17 specimens, 94-552 mm SL): Peru, AMNH 7859,
1 (296) putative neotype of T. murphyi; AMNH 7260, 1 (295); TABL
105862, 1 (176); TABL 103720, 3 (361-418); TABL 103718, 2 (378-392);
TABL 104487, 1 (169); TABL 104481, 1 (200). Chile, TABL 103719, 4
(126-270); TABL 104690, 1 (94); TABL 105587, 2 (548-552).

Trachurus lathami (142 specimens, 19-305 mm SL); Massachusetts, MCZ
37141, 1 specimen (91 mm SL). New York, AMNH 7351, 1 (96) holotype of
T. lathami. North Carolina, TABL 105058, 1 (147); TABL 103653, 1 (115).
Georgia, USNM 198978, 2 (132-134), TABL 105053, 2 (96.5-102). Florida
Atlantic, TABL 103656, 3 (54.0-71.5); TABL 105056, 4 (120-145); TABL
105066, 1 (35); TABL 105065, 3 (19-33); TABL 105436, 24 (122-146);
TABL 103597, 2 (47.8-50.5). Florida Gulf, USNM 198972, 1 (106); USNM
199025, 1 (60); USNM 198985, 2 (146-152); USNM 198981, 7 (62.5-71.5);
TABL 106581, 3 (116-123); USNM 198980, 5 (55-73); UF uncat., 1 (150).
Alabama, AMNH 15212, 1 (73) holotype of T. picturatus binghami. (87
specimens, 57.5-305 mm SL): Mississippi, TABL 105083, 2 (115-125);
USNM 198984, 2 (140-141); USNM 198975, 1 (69.5). Louisiana, USNM
199033, 3 (140-143); USNM 198988, 3 (146-158); TABL 105073, 1 (156);
TABL 105046, 1 (144); USNM 198989, 1 (182). Texas, USNM 198982, 2
(102-104); TABL 105047, 2 (121-161). Campeche, Mexico, TABL 105048,
1 (138); USNM 198979, 3 (112-140); USNM 199031, 2 (138-139); USNM
199030, 1 (117); USNM 199030, 1 (139). Tabasco, Mexico, USNM 198971,
2 (57.5-81). Colombia, TABL 103205, 4 (117-129); TABL 105077, 1 (153);
TABL 101540, 8 (125-183); TABL 101475, 1 (251); TABL 105074, 11
(75.5-103). Venezuela, TABL 105863, 1 (196); TABL 101474, 10 (115-
127); TABL 107268, 1 (116); TABL 107269, 2 (106-110). Grenada, TABL
105075, 2 (124). Trinidad, TABL 105072, 4 (169-200); TABL 101836, 2

BERRY AND COHEN: Synopsis of Trachurus 209

(146-266); TABL 104854, 1 (305); TABL 105597, 1 (278). Surinam, TABL
105596, 1 (285); UMML 4007, 1 (198). French Guiana, UMML 11586, 1
(181). Brazil, Sao Paulo, DZSP 5249, 5 (135-146). Argentina, SU 52384,
2 (83-150).

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ADDENDUM

A publication reviewed after our submission of this manuscript
recommended a change in synonymy for one of the two Australian
species of Trachurus. In “A check list of the fishes recorded from
the New Zealand region,” Australian Zoologist, vol. 15, pt. 1, pp.
1-102, G. P. Whitley listed as synonyms four species described in
1843 by John Richardson, namely: Scomber clupeoides, Scomber
dimidatus, Trachurus novaezelandias, and Caranx sinus-obscuri.
We presume that these four might all be junior synonyms of Tra-
churus declivis (Jenys, 1841).

South Carolina Marine Research Laboratory, Charleston, South
Carolina 29412; Oberlin College New Media Workshop, Oberlin,
Ohio 44074. Contribution no. 205, National Marine Fisheries Serv-
ice, Southeast Fisheries Center, Miami Laboratory, Miami, Florida
33149.

Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 35(4) 1972 (1974)

Defensive Behavior in Rana areolata and Hyla avivoca

RONALD ALTIG

Aconistic behavior patterns have been reported recently for a
number of anurans in several families (e.g., Duellman, 1966; Bratt-
strom and Yarnell, 1968; Rivero and Esteves, 1969; Villa, 1969).
The functions of these patterns have usually been interpreted as
being territorial during breeding activities or as protection from
predators. Rana areolata might be expected to have aggressive be-
havior patterns for protection in the burrow against predators and
accidental intruders. Male Hyla avivoca call from elevated perches
that they occupy repeatedly each night, and agonistic behavior was
observed between such males.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Rana areolata from near breeding choruses at State College,
Oktibbeha County, Mississippi, were tested. A 65 diameter glass
tube projecting at a 20° angle through the floor of a large wooden
box served as an artificial burrow. Except for an observation slit
that could be covered by an opaque sheath, the tube was painted
black. Soil was placed on the floor of the box. Resident frogs (three
different individuals) readily ate small crayfish and appeared well
adjusted. After a week acclimation period, a shrew (Blarina brevi-
cauda), mouse (Peromyscus leucopus), snakes ( Natrix rhombifera,
Agkistrodon piscivorous), and other R. areolata were guided down
the burrow with at least a day between tests. Each intruder was
used several times. Other specimens were grouped in 20-gal
aquaria.

Male-male interactions between calling Hyla avivoca were ob-
served near State College, Mississippi.

RESULTS

As soon as the shrew approached the frog in the burrow, the
frog inflated, tilted the body forward so the head was nearly verti-
cal to the substrate, and lunged at the shrew. The frog moved for-
ward rather than move to the end of the burrow, but did not at-
tempt to bite. Multiple lunges followed, depending on the prox-

Autic: Frog Defensive Behavior 213

imity of the intruder, or the frog stood quietly in the tilted posture.
Loud screams typically accompanied the lunges and the shrew
immediately exited from the burrow. A dead shrew elicited a sim-
ilar response. Two of the frogs reacted more violently than the
other.

When confronted by the mouse or either species of snake, the
frog moved to the end of the burrow, inflated, and sat quietly with
its head tilted down. Contact by any of the animals did not elicit
the overt behavior above. When other frogs were introduced, the
resident showed little response, but if the frogs were maintained in
a group, each individual seen chose a favored resting place that
did not contact another frog if space allowed. Several times during
a feeding frenzy, a frog went beneath a piece of cardboard that was
the hiding place of a large male; usually the intruder would exit
rapidly, often in reverse, and the resident often followed to the
edge of the cardboard. Food was not involved.

If a specimen fresh from the field or one that had been allowed
to live in the artificial burrow was placed in the open, it routinely
assumed the posture shown in Fig. 1 when harrassed. Grouped
specimens seemed to lose this response quickly. Particularly touchy
individuals would behave thusly if one waved a hand over them
three feet away, while others needed to be touched. Contact on the
side caused the frog to tilt toward the contact point, and contact
on the head caused the frog to tilt the head down, stretch the rear
legs posteriorly, and lunge when touched. No sound or biting was
noticed.

Fig. 1. Defensive behavior in Rana areolata. Position assumed at approach
by shrew (left) and mouse or snakes (right).

214 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

On two occasions, the calling perch of the male Hyla avivoca was
invaded by another male; fighting ensued and in both cases the
resident won and the intruder retreated. In the first incidence, the
resident became aware of the other from about 18 inches away,
switched from a normal call to a short trilling chirp, oriented to-
ward the other frog, and approached him. Without contact, the
resident seemingly recognized the intruder as non-female and in-
itiated a grappling fight that start with an amplectic-type grasp
around the head from the frong. He chirped continually and jerked
the frog with his front legs about once every 5-10 seconds. The in-
truder tried to escape, the pair fell about 10 inches to a lower
branch, and the intruder finally escaped. The resident returned to
near his original post and began calling within 4 min. The total
encounter lasted about 8 min.

The second fight was similar, although the resident often seemed
to be losing the fight, and the total fight lasted about 15 min. Grasp-
ing with the front legs, jerking the intruder with the front legs,
kicking with the back legs, and chirping were prominent compon-
ents of the fight. The intruder in each case seemed to be primarily
concerned with getting away.

DISCUSSION

Rana areolata resembles only R. pipiens behaviorly. Most in-
dividuals are caught crossing roads to breeding choruses, and when
approached they seem complacent and often crouch with the fore-
legs over the eyes. If handled gently, they continue this posture
even after being picked up, but if they became alarmed, they es-
caped in frantic leaps or kick wildly if restrained. Perhaps in the
grassy areas where they spend most of their time they rely on cam-
ouflage, and the crouching position and dorsal pattern facilitates
this; observations of individuals in pens bear this out.

Blarina enter the burrows of R. areolata frequently and prob-
ably would not hesitate to attack at least a small frog. The response
of the frog indicates this intruder is not a welcome symbiont, and
the elicitation of the behavior by dead shrew may indicate that ol-
faction and not movement is important in causing a response. A
mouse of similar size caused no response, but Peromyscus are not
noted carnivores and lack salivary venom. It seems the frog would
respond to the snakes, but perhaps a motionless frog is less attrac-

Attic: Frog Defensive Behavior 215

tive to the snake (Diefenbach and Emslie, 1972). In such an in-
flated position at the end of the burrow, the frog presents large
areas of the glandular dorsolateral folds to the predator as well as
being turgid and difficult to grasp in the confines of the burrow.

The response of individuals in the open to motion overhead may
indicate birds (such as marsh hawks, Circus) are common preda-
tors. If crouching and camouflage fails, the frog stands high on its
legs to increase its apparent size and attempts to place large gland-
ular areas in the line of attack of the predator.

In summary, this solitary species has defensive behavior pat-
terns directed at predators and conspecifics. Perhaps the behavior
would have been more intense had the test animals not been breed-
ing, a time when at least the later behavior would have to be nulli-
fied. The defensive stance is similar to that of Leptodactylus pent-
adactylus (Villa, 1969), also a burrow-inhabiting species. No de-
fensive postures could be elicted from Scaphiopus holbrooki.
Rhinophrynus dorsalis that had been allowd to burrow would
react when harrassed. They spread the hind legs straight behind,
stood high on the front legs, and bent the head vertically between
the legs. This posture plus the inflated body nearly hid the head.
Neither of these species was tested with predators.

The behavior of the male H. avivoca likely serves as a spacing
mechanism around the pond; at this small pond there is a large
population of H. avivoca, and they are concentrated primarily in
small patches of button bush. The chirping call is typical of this
species when another frog of similar size approaches and may serve
to orient the female during the last few feet. H. cinerea and Gas-
trophryne carolinensis have a similar call.

LITERATURE CITED

BRATTSTORM, B. H., AND R. M. YARNELL. 1968. Aggressive behavior in two
species of leptodactylid frogs. Herptelogica, 24, no. 3, pp. 222-228.

DIEFENBACH, C. O., AND S. G. Emsuiz. 1971. Cues influencing the direction
of prey ingestion of the Japanese snake, Elaphe climacophora (Colu-
bridae, Serpentes). Herpetologica, 27, no. 4, pp. 461-466.

DUELLMAN, W. E. 1966. Aggressive behavior in dendrobatid frogs. Herpe-
tologica, 22, no. 3, pp. 217-221.

Rivero, J. A., AND A. E. EsTEEvEs. 1969. Observations on the agonistic and
breeding behavior of Leptodactylus pestadactylus and other amphibian
species in Venezuela. Breviora 585, no. 321, pp. 1-4.

216 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vita, J. 1969. Compartamiento defensive de la “Rana ternero”, Leptodacty-
lus pentadactylus. Rev. Biol. Trop., 15, no. 2, pp. 323-329.

Department of Zoology, Mississippi State University, State Col-
lege, Mississippi 39762.

Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 35(4) 1972 (1974)

Commercial Fishery on Lake Okeechobee, Florida
LotTHiANn A. AGER

LaxkE Okeechobee is a fresh water lake of approximately 450,000
surface acres with an average depth of 8.5 feet at elevation 13.5 feet
above mean sea level. Maximum depth at normal elevation is about
17 feet. Nearly one-seventh of the lake is littoral zone occupied
with a variety of aquatic plants, but predominately Scirpus, Typha,
Eleocharis, Fuirena, Eichhoria crassipes, Pistia stratiotes, Potamog-
eton illinoensis, and Vallisneria americana. Bottom substrates vary
from marl, sand, shell, muck, and rock. The lake basin is approxi-
mately circular. Water control structures are located on all major
inlets and outlets to prevent extreme fluctuation of the water level.

Past data indicate that Lake Okeechobee was of great economic
importance for commercial fishing and sport fishing. Until 1946 the
commercial harvest consisted primarily of catfishes (Ictalurus spp.),
black crappie (Pomoxis nigromaculatus), bluegill (Lepomis macro-
chirus), and shellcracker (L. microlophus) and was a substantial
influence on the local economy. When Lake Okeechobee came
under the jurisdiction of the Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish
Commission in 1946 restrictions on both gear and species were in-
duced by organized sportsmen in the belief that reduced or elimin-
ated commercial harvest of the panfishes would increase benefits to
sport fishermen.

Much unsubstantiated argument has taken place, both pro and
con, on the commercial aspects and their effects on sport fishing.
I intend to present factual information concerning the present status
of the commercial fishery and to explore ideas on the potential
exploitation of the available resources.

GEAR AND SPECIES HARVESTED

Under present regulations of the Florida Game and Fresh Water
Fish Commission, legal commercial gear is limited to wire traps,
trotlines, and pound nets and haul seines under special permit.
Wire traps are limited to a maximum length of seven feet, a maxi-
mum diameter of thirty-two inches, a minimum mesh size of one
inch and a maximum mesh of one and one-half inches, and a fun-

218 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

nel in one end only. Traps may not be fished in less than four feet
of water. Each licensee is permitted eighty traps. Trotlines are
limited to 1500 hooks during the daylight hours and an unlimited
number at night. Maximum length and depth of pound nets is lim-
ited to ten feet by twelve feet with a minimum mesh size of two
inches stretched. All devices must be adequately marked to identify
the licensee.

Wire traps are normally baited with pressed cottonseed and soy-
bean cake broken into five or six inch squares and sandwiched to-
gether with large rubber bands. Between one and two pounds
of bait is placed in the trap at each fishing, which occurs about
every third day. Each trap fisherman normally has about 150 traps
and fishes fifty each day, weather permitting.

Trotlines are baited with a variety of material, including shrimp,
maggots, grubs, dead minnows, soap, and occasionally hooks are
painted and fished without bait. Most trotlines are fished during
the night, being set before dark and removed soon after daylight.
However, some lines are left in the water at selected locations and
fished daily.

Commercial gear is to be used for the taking of non-game fish
and turtles. In Lake Okeechobee the commercial harvest consists
of channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus), white catfish (Ictalurus
catus), brown bullheads (Ictalurus nebulosus), yellow bullheads
(Ictalurus natalus), assorted hard-shelled turtles, and soft-shelled
turtles (Trionyx ferox). The catch of turtles is usually incidental to
fishing operations.

COMMERCIAL LICENSES

During the 1967-68 season, approximately 275 commercial fish-
ermen operated under nearly 500 commercial licenses (data ob- —
tained from boat registration and license sales records of the Game
and Fresh Water Fish Commission), compared to 138 fishermen
during the 1952-53 season (Dequine, 1953). The larger number of
licenses than fishermen results from the practice of some fishermen
purchasing licenses in his relatives’ names as well as his own, in
order to be entitled to operate additional commercial fishing gear.
A retail fish dealer's license is required in order to operate commer-
cial fishing gear and entitles the holder to sell fish and supplies in
any manner directly to the consumer or wholesaler. The license fee

Acer: Fishery of Lake Okeechobee 219

is $5.00 and must be accompanied by the possession of a valid
sport fishing license at a cost of $3.25.

Commercial fishing boats must be registered as such at a cost
rate according to the size of the boat.

DISCUSSION

Presently five wholesale fish dealers buy fish taken from Lake
Okeechobee. One of these dealers is from another part of the state
so that records on the poundages of fish that he purchased are not
readily available. The poundages of fish from Lake Okeechobee
included here (Table 1) were obtained from fish dealers in the
area. During the period from 1 January 1968 to 1 January 1971, a
total of 3,005,811 pounds of dressed channel and white catfish from
Lake Okeechobee were handled by these wholesale fish dealers.
This represents an annual average harvest of 1,001,937 pounds
dressed weight. These figures represent an increase over a previous
average figure for a ten-year period from 1936 through 1945 (Table
2) of 1,192,647 pounds of catfish rough weight (Dequine, 1951).

The average annual catch of bullheads during the recent period
was 45,600 pounds dressed weight. The average annual catch of
turtles was 10,248 pounds dressed.

The average annual catch of channel and white catfish repre-
sents a value to the commercial fishermen of $450,871.65 at the
average price paid of $.45 per pound dressed. The bullheads and
turtles represent a value of $19,567.80 for an average annual total
value to the some 275 commercial fishermen of $470,439.45. The
total value of the channel and white catfish to the wholesale fish
dealers at the average wholesale price is $651,259.05 as compared
to $241,523.00 for all food fish during the 1952-53 study ( Dequine,
1953).

The costs of commercial gear to the fishermen is difficult to
determine. Materials for wire traps are about $3.00 each plus labor.
Trotlines cost 3-6 cents per hook depending upon the quality and
quantity of the material used. No pound nets or haul seines are in
operation at the present. Bait for traps cost 20-30 cents per trap.
Bait for trotlines varies in cost depending upon the bait and the
individual fishermen. Gasoline for operation of commercial boats is
approximately $2.00 per trip. The cost of boats and motors has not
been estimated.

220 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

TABLE 1. Monthly harvest (pounds dressed weight) of catfish and turtles

Channel and

Month White catfish Bullheads Turtles
1968 January 66,160 11,165 403
February 39,953 8,120 491
March 33,969 5,669 1,686
April 54,044 2,495 3,319
May 60,536 1,477 i otoyi
June 59,582 1,230 527
July 103,756 1,267 761
August 65,537 1,808 1,072
September 59,311 2,138 iL tLe:
October 51,441 2,952 792,
November 46,444 3,065 405
December 77,845 5,045 227
Total 718,578 46,431 12,355
1969 January 87,184 9,670 230
February 54,506 3,586 502
March 54,462 2,288 488
April 73,317 2,416 719
May 93,699 2.186 1,389
June 105,555 1,652 995
July 85,114 6,068 996
August 81,742 4,833 960
September 50,299 3,658 1523
October 71,908 2,209 640
November 70,549 4,047 520
December 133,006 3,754 133
Total 961,341 46,367 9,095
1970 January 131,496 2.380 55
February 115,900 3,198 115
March 148,258 3,190 679
April 163,431 1,384 1,000
May 108,170 2,040 673
June 126,261 2,084 iL PPT
July 93,406 2.700 976
August 81,201 6,452 1,517
September 67,798 5,675 1,144
October 83,569 4,674 1,023
November 86,326 6,106 381
December 120,076 4,300 506
Total 1,325,892 44183 9,296
Grand total 3,005,811 136,981 30,746
Monthly average 83,495 3,805 854
Annual average 1,001,937 45,660 10,248

Lbs./acre/year 2.2, 0.1 0.02

AcER: Fishery of Lake Okeechobee 221

TABLE 2
Total catch (pounds rough weight) of bream, catfish, and crappie reported
from Lake Okeechobee 1936 through 1945 (Dequine, 1951).

Year Bream Catfish Crappie
1936 258,900 1,714,100 302,100
1937 541,800 932,400 343,700
1938 540,100 1,074,900 434,700
1939 540,800 1,180,600 721,000
1940 396,800 1,529,900 605,800
1941 121,628 1,551,924 784,351
1942 103,492 446,385 91,074
1943 682,717 919,469 359,613
1944 607,281 1,143,626 292,123
1945 494,991 1,433,168 287,913
Total 4,288,509 11,926,472 4,222,374
Average 428,851 1,192,647 422.237
Average lbs.

per acre 0.95 2.65 0.94

Figures from 1936 through 1940 were obtained from “Fishery Industries of
the U.S.” published by the U.S. Department of Commerce and Interior; those
from 1941 through 1945 were obtained from annual bulletins entitled “Re-
capitulation of Fish Census” issued by the Florida Board of Conservation.

PROJECTION

The harvest of channel and white catfish during the three year
period from 1 January 1968 to 1 January 1971 represents a catch of
about 2.2 pounds dressed per surface acre of water per year. Over
a year’s time this figure is below the potential natural production as
indicated by an annual removal of 61.71 pounds per acre rough
weight of catfishes from Lake George (Table 3) over a ten year
period (Dequine, 1951). One may assume that Lake Okeechobee
has a greater potential primary productivity per unit area now than
formerly because of the increased harvest so that potential produc-
tion of fish is greater. This results from more intensive agricultural
practices, the increased population of the area together with canal
construction and levee confinement of the lake and tributaries af-
fecting the nutrient content of the water. Because of the tremen-
dous sport fishery on Lake Okeechobee, however, commercial re-
strictions are so stringent as to prevent the harvest of any game
fish and thus limit the harvest of catfish. The harvest of catfish from
Lake Okeechobee does represent a significant portion of the econ-

222 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORMA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

TABLE 3
Total catch (pounds rough weight) of bream, catfish, and crappie reported
from Lake George 1936 through 1945 (Dequine, 1951).

Year Bream Catfish Crappie

1936 382,900 2,320,000 146,100
1937 249,300 3,087,700 146,600
1938 506,500 2,569,200 114,100
1939 81,500 — 401,100
1940 — — 136,100
1941 425,790 2,561,562 129,271
1942 626,983 2,797,681 166,841
1943 583,552 3,356,977 367,747
1944 780,684 2,868,075 261,119
1945 885,298 3,672,136 389,340
Total 4,522,507 23,233,431 2,258,318
Average 502,501 2,904,178 225,831
Average lbs.

per acre 10.67 61.71 4.79

Figures from 1936 through 1940 were obtained from “Fishery Industries of
the U.S.” published by the U.S. Department of Commerce and Interior; those
from 1941 through 1945 were obtained from annual bulletins entitled “Re-
capitulation of Fish Census” issued by the Florida State Board of Conservation.

Figures for catfish for 1939 and 1940 were available only for the eastern
“district” of Florida and could not be broken down into the area concerned.

Figures for bream for 1940 in question.

omy of the five surrounding counties and to those individuals who
rely in whole or in part on commercial fishing for their livelihood.

During the two-year study by the Florida Game and Fresh Wa-
ter Fish Commission from 1948 to 1950 (Dequine, 1951), there was
no evidence that the harvest of catfishes had either beneficial or -
detrimental effects on the composition of game, commercial, or
rough fishes. The past data demonstrated that the harvest of fish
by the methods employed did not reduce numbers of the species
from year to year because of the relatively small percentage of
younger fish taken in the operations. This assured the following
year’s crop. During the study from 1952 to 1953 in which bream
and crappie were included as commercial species, no indications of
decreased yield of desired species of fish to either sport or com-
mercial fishermen were evident other than those of a seasonal na-
ture (Dequine, 1953). The natural potential production of bream

Acer: Fishery of Lake Okeechobee 223

TABLE 4
Estimated potential annual harvest of bream, catfish, and crappie from Lake
Okeechobee based on sustained annual harvest from Lake George with re-
spective monetary values.

Bream Catfish Crappie

Surface acres 450,000 450,000 450,000
Estimated Potential
Annuar Harvest/Acre 10 lbs. 61 lbs. 5 lbs.

Total Harvest 4,500,000 27,450,000 2,250,000
Average Market
Price/Pound $.25 $.45 $.25
Estimated Potential
Annual Value $1,125,000 $12,352,500 $562,500
Grand Total $14,040,000

Prices quoted are those paid to the commercial fishermen by the wholesale
fish dealers or illegal fish buyers.

and crappie (Table 3) is evidenced by the commercial removal of
10.67 and 4.79 pounds per acre, respectively, over a ten-year period
from Lake George (Dequine, 1951) without any measurable detri-
ment to the sport fishery resource.

In order to more fully utilize the fishery resources available in
Lake Okeechobee, a more intensive commercial harvest program
must be applied. In addition, harvest of all species of fish must be
accomplished which necessitates creation of a demand for pres-
ently undesirable rough fish. An expansion of the commercial fish-
ery would provide a direct economic benefit to the fishermen in
excess of $14,000,000.00 per year based on potential harvest infor-
mation and present market prices (Table 4). To accomplish this
objective, commercial gear other than that allowed must be per-
mitted. To provide for supervision of the expanded industry, legis-
lative action must occur to establish a tax based on poundages har-
vested in order that the industry is regulated by monies of its own
creation.

SUMMARY

Commercial fishing gear permitted on Lake Okeechobee con-
sists of wire traps, trotlines, and pound nets and haul seines under
special permit. Channel catfish, white catfish, brown bullheads,
yellow bullheads, and turtles comprise the commercial harvest. Ap-
proximately 275 commercial fishermen took 3,005,811 pounds of

224 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

channel and white catfish dressed weight during the period 1 Jan-
uary 1968 through 1 January 1971; 136,981 pounds dressed of bull-
heads, and 30,746 pounds dressed of turtles representing a direct in-
come to the fishermen of $1,411,318.35. The harvest represents a
catch of 2.2 pounds of channel and white catfish per surface acre
per year which is about 5 per cent of the potential harvest. Re-
strictions on fishing gear to prevent harvest of bream and crappie
as well as bass restrict the harvest of the present commercial spe-
cies. Previous studies by the Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish
Commission determined that the commercial harvest of crappie,
bream, and catfishes would have neither detrimental nor beneficial
effects on sport or commercial fishing. To utilize more fully the
fishery resource of Lake Okeechobee, the commercial harvest of
virtually all species of fish must occur with commercial gear other
than that presently allowed. With a commercial harvest approach-
ing known potential production, the result would be an increase to
the local economy in excess of $14,000,000.00 annually and through
legislative action could provide monies for supervision and regula-
tion of the industry.

LITERATURE CITED

DEQUINE, JOHN F. 1961. Investigations of the Saint Johns River and Lake
Okeechobee, 1948-1950, with recommendations for management. Florida
Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission, 46 pp. (unpublished report).
. 1953. Preliminary progress report on Florida’s controlled seining pro-
gram, 1 April 1952 through 28 February 1953. Florida Game and Fresh
Water Fish Commission, 31 pp. (unpublished report).

Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission, 1140 S. Os-
ceola Stree, Okeechobee, Florida 33472.

Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 35(4) 1972 (1974)

Nuclear DNA and Developmental Rate in Frogs
K. BACHMANN

Go et al. (1968) described a relation between the time spent
as a tadpole in 21 species of frogs and their diploid nuclear DNA
amount. The interval from hatching to metamorphosis is from two
to four weeks in frogs with low nuclear amounts of DNA (Scaphi-
opus, Hyla septentrionalis) whereas species of Rana with high nu-
clear DNA amounts may overwinter as tadpoles. The tadpole stage
is subject to a variety of factors that influence its duration, such as
temperature and differences in the stage at hatching.

Early embryonic development can be timed much more accu-
rately and the strong dependence of embryonic developmental rate
on temperature allows adjustments for temperature effects (Bach-
mann, 1969). When the time elapsed at 20°C between the two-cell
stage and early tail bud stage (stage 16 of Pollister and Moore,
1937) is compared with nuclear DNA amounts in eleven species of
frogs for which such data exist, there results a straight-line relation
(Bachmann, in preparation).

Such striking correlation between nuclear DNA and develop-
mental rate could be of considerable significance if it holds true for
all frogs. Precise data on developmental rates under controlled con-
ditions are rare and all species for which such data have previously
been available are found in relatively mesic regions. Recently, the
temperature dependence of developmental rate has been deter-
mined for several anuran species of the arid southwestern United
States (Zweifel, 1968). Since no species from such an environment
was in the earlier sample, they presented particularly suitable mate-
rial for another test of the relation between nuclear DNA and de-
velopmental rate.

EXPERIMENTAL METHODS

Specimens of Bufo cognatus, B. debilis, B. punctatus, Rana
pipiens, Scaphiopus bombifrons, S. couchi, and S. hammondi were
obtained from the vicinity of the Southwestern Research Station at
Portal, Arizona. Nuclei were prepared from kidney and liver tissue
fixed in a 3:1 mixture of ethanol and glacial acetic acid for two

226 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

hours and from liver tissue fixed in ice cold 10 per cent formalin by
homogenizing in a 0.1 per cent solution of Tween 80. Washed free
from the detergent the nuclei were spread on slides, air dried, and
stored dry until staining. Feulgen staining was preceded by hydrol-
ysis in 5 N HCl at room temperature for prolonged periods of time
(30, 50, 60, 90 or 100 minutes) or in 1 N HCl at 60°C for 15 min-
utes. Total dye bound by individual nuclei was measured at 550
nm on a Barr and Stroud Integrating Microdensitometer. In order
to convert the absorption measurements to picograms (pg) of DNA,
specimens of Bufo bufo, B. marinus, B. terrestris, or Rana speno-
cephala were included in the experiments. Approximate diploid
DNA amounts for these species are 14.6, 11.3, 11.1, and 15.0 pg re-
spectively (Bachmann, 1970 a, b).

Developmental rates for the anurans of Portal, Arizona, have
been published (Zweifel, 1968). Determinations of the time inter-
val between the two-cell stage and beginning of gill circulation
(stage 20 of Pollister and Moore, 1937) have been taken from that
publication. Time intervals between the two-cell stage and stage 16
determined by Dr. Zweifel in the same experiments are published
here for the first time. These allow comparison with data on other
species compiled by Bachmann (1969).

TABLE 1
Diploid nuclear DNA amounts in eleven species of anurans.
Relative Nuclear Deter-
Species DNA Amount pg DNA _ Specimens minations
Bufo bufo 819 =+=0.69 =0.31 15.5 2 5
Bufo cognatus 5.91 =+0.49 =0.25 11.2 2 +
Bufo debilis 5.p9 ==0:22)7 £0109 10.6 2 6
Bufo marinus Sel O01 == 004 10.9 1 3
Bufo punctatus 561) 9201652027, 10.6 2 6
Bufo terrestris 5.75 +0.42 +0.14 10.9 5 10
Rana pipiens 9.48 +0.34 +0.20 17.9 ] 3
Rana sphenocephala 7 Oa O (l= 012.9 15.0 2 6
Scaphiopus bombifrons 1.50 =+0.15 =+0.06 2.8 2 6
Scaphiopus couchi 1:95-5==0107" ==0:02 3.6 3 11
Scaphiopus hammondi 1.62 +0.07 =+0.03 ool 2 6

The columns represent relative DNA amount with standard deviation of
the sample and standard error of the mean, absolute DNA amounts in pico-
grams calculated from these, and number of specimens and preparations.

BACHMANN: Nuclear DNA in Frogs 227

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Table 1 lists the results of the DNA determinations. Repeated
determinations on nuclei from different specimens isolated after
either formalin or ethanol-acetic fixation, and stained after a variety
of different hydrolysis schedules lead to rather large variation in the
results, but tend to cancel out systematic errors introduced by any
one preparative method. The DNA values obtained here therefore
represent a clear improvement over our earlier estimates (Goin et
al., 1968; Bachmann, 1970 a). In particular, the higher ratio between
the DNA values for Bufo bufo and Bufo marinus found in these de-
terminations agrees well with a higher ratio found by Ullerich
(1966). The measurements also confirm our earlier finding of the
virtual identity of nuclear DNA values in B. terrestris and B. marinus
and reaffirm the value of 15 pg DNA for the diploid DNA amount
of R. sphenocephala (and Eastern R. pipiens). Continued recalibra-
tion of the DNA values of certain marker species in our laboratory
leads to an increasing reliability of our relative DNA determinations
and their calibration in absolute units.

On the basis of these calibrations, Scaphiopus bombifrons ap-
pears to possess the lowest diploid DNA amount ever recorded for
an amphibian. Our earlier determination of the DNA amount in S.
holbrooki (Goin et al., 1968) corresponds to an absolute value of
about 3.2 pg and agrees well with the values recorded here. This
emphasizes the striking difference between the earlier value of
about 7.1 pg for S. hammondi (Goin et al., 1968) and the value of
3.1 pg reported here. The difference is too large to be due to meas-
uring error, and may even be suggestive of polyploidy.

All three Bufo species from Portal have intermediate DNA val-
ues for the genus. This includes B. debilis, while the very similar
species B. retiformis has a markedly higher DNA amount (Bach-
mann, 1970 a). The high value for the nuclear DNA of Portal Rana
pipiens is based on determinations made on a single specimen. Var-
iation in nuclear DNA, both in amount and in kind, among differ-
ent local populations of “Rana pipiens” might result in further evi-
dence on the puzzling problem of evolution in this species group.

The DNA values for Scaphiopus (about 3 pg), the three Bufo
species (about 11 pg) and Rana pipiens (18 pg) fall into distinct
non-overlapping groups. The same grouping of species is found

228 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

when developmental times are compared (Zweifel, 1968, p. 48).
Table 2 lists Zweifel’s determinations of developmental times be-
tween the two-cell stage and stage 16 at various temperatures. Val-
ues for the developmental times at 20°C have been interpolated
from the data using the equation proposed by Bachmann (1969).

Figure 1 summarizes these data and shows the calculated re-
gression lines between developmental time and nuclear DNA
amount. It may be noted that both lines have intercepts. This sug-
gests that there is a minimum timing beyond which the nuclear
DNA amount exerts its slowing effect. The close relation between
developmental timing and nuclear DNA amount is particularly sur-
prising since the mechanism relating the two must act very indirect-
ly, possibly by way of the nucleic acid metabolism of the growing
oocyte.

nT

1125 A
5

= @

<L100

bd

= @

|

< a
cL so~ _

fit e

=

a

Oo

—

LJ

cs

2 5 10 15 20

DIPLOID DNA AMOUNT (PICOGRAMS)

Fig. 1. Developmental rate and nuclear DNA amount for seven anuran
species. Times between the two-cell and stage 16 (squares) and stage 20
(dots) against nuclear DNA amounts in picograms.

BAacHMANN: Nuclear DNA in Frogs 229

TABLE 2
Time interval in hours between the two-cell stage and stage 16 in seven species
of anurans from Portal, Arizona.

et © Bufo Bufo Bufo Rana Scaph. Scaph. Scaph.
cognatus debilis punct. pipiens bombif. couchi hammondi

13.6 91
15.5 63 63
15.6 117 101 121 AT

108

100
Ikea 77
18.2 91 33 34
20.0 56) bd) 1148) (G6) 8 (oo) C29) 1029)
20.3 48 22,
21.0 38 24
2183 24
24.5 ilk 15

27
23

25.8 25
26.2 PA 11
31.2 15
31.5 31
31.7 IS

These values have been determined by Dr. R. G. Zweifel. Values at 20°C
are interpolated from the data.

This is indicated by two observations: (1) polyploid amphib-
ians produced by suppressing the second maturation division do not
show an increase in developmental times proportional to the in-
crease in nuclear DNA in every somatic cell; (2) the frog Ascaphus
truei is the only anuran species known at present which does not fit
the DNA-developmental rate correlation. Developmental times are
considerably longer (H. A. Brown, cited in Bachmann, 1969) than
the relatively low DNA amount of about 7 pg (Macgregor and
Kezer, 1970) would suggest. This species is the only anuran species
known to have eight functional oocyte nuclei throughout oogenesis
(Macgregor and Kezer, 1970). Mediation of the DNA effect on de-
velopmental rate by way of oogenesis, for instance through mes-
senger RNA synthesis for early development, would explain the ob-
served correlation as well as these exceptions. The closeness of the
correlation in spite of the obviously indirect mechanism involved is

230 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

remarkable. A clear relation between nuclear DNA amount and a
physiological feature of the whole organism, particularly one of
great ecological importance, should subject the nuclear DNA amount
directly to natural selection. This may be an indication of one set
of factors determining the size of the genome.

SUMMARY

The diploid nuclear DNA amounts of three species of Scaphio-
pus, three species of Bufo, and of Rana pipiens, all from Portal,
Arizona, fall into distinct groups with 3, 11, and 18 pg DNA re-
spectively. The developmental rates of these species from Portal
also fall into three distinct groups with Scaphiopus showing the
fastest rate, Bufo developing at intermediate rates, and Rana devel-
oping slowly. If such diverse factors as environmental adaptation
and nuclear DNA amount enter into the determination of the de-
velopmental rate of frog species, direct selective effects on genome
size can be expected.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I thank Dr. Noel Snyder for providing the specimens used for
the DNA determinations, Dean Theodore A. Ashford for travel
funds, and Dr. Ronald R. Cowden for his kind permission to let me
use the Barr and Stroud Integrating Microdensitometer at the Uni-
versity of Denver. I am especially grateful to Dean William H.
Taft for providing funds for an Integrating Microdensitometer for
research at the University of South Florida, and to Dr. Richard G.
Zweifel of the American Museum of Natural History, who provided
the data of table 2 and critically read a first-draft of this paper.

LITERATURE CITED

BACHMANN, K. 1969. Temperature adaptations of amphibian embryos. Amer.
Nat., vol. 103, pp. 115-130.

BACHMANN, K. 1970a. Specific nuclear DNA amounts in toads of the genus
Bufo. Chromosoma, vol. 29, pp. 365-374.

BACHMANN, K. 1970b. Feulgen slope determinations of urodele nuclear DNA
amounts. Histochemie, vol. 22, pp. 289-293.

Gow, O. B., C. J. Gorn, AnD K. BACHMANN. 1968. DNA and amphibian life
history. Copeia, vol. 1968, pp. 532-540.

Maccrecor, H. C. anp J. KezEr. 1970. Gene amplification in oocytes with 8

BAcHMANN: Nuclear DNA in Frogs 231

germinal vesicles from the tailed frog Ascaphus truei Stejneger. Chro-
mosoma, vol. 29, pp. 189-206.

PoLuistER, A. W. AND J. A. Moore. 1937. Tables for the normal development
of Rana sylvatica. Anat. Rec., vol. 68, pp. 489-496.

Uutenicu, F. H. 1966. Karyotyp und DNS-Gehalt von Bufo bufo, B. viridis,
B. bufo X B. viridis und B. calamita (Amphibia, Anura). Chromosoma,
vol. 18, pp. 316-342.

ZwEIFEL, R. G. 1968. Reproductive biology of anurans of the arid Southwest,
with emphasis on adaptation of embryos to temperature. Bull. Amer.
Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. 140, pp. 1-64.

University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida.
Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 35(4) 1972 (1974)

Some Airborne Algae from North Central Florida

R. T. PARRANDO AND J. S. DAvis

ALTHOUGH airborne algae have been collected and studied in
several widely scattered locations in the United States (Luty and
Hoshaw, 1967), there are no records previous to this study of air-
borne algae from Florida. The purpose of this paper is to report the
algae collected from the atmosphere over the University of Florida
campus from January to August of 1969. It is part of the M.S. thesis
of the senior author submitted to the Graduate School of the Uni-
versity of Florida.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The culture medium used in this investigation was Bristol's
medium (Bold and Parker, 1962) enriched by adding 2 drops of a
3 per cent solution of NaSiO, to each liter. This medium is widely
used for the culture of soil algae, soil being the source of most air-
borne algae.

All plates exposed to the atmosphere, receiving the rain water
or coated collector rods from the Rotorod sampled were cultured
under fluorescent lamps (Plantgro, Westinghouse ) with an intensity
of 400 foot-candles and with a 16-8 hr. light-dark cycle. The tem-
perature in the culture room was kept at 25-+2°C. Viable algae de-
veloped into macroscopically-visable colonies after 2 to 4 weeks.
Each of these colonies was transferred to a tube containing sterile
Bristol’s nutrient agar and kept as a stock culture under the lights
for subsequent study. All transfers were made in a sterile transfer
chamber.

SAMPLING METHODS

Hand-held agar plate. Agar plates containing the modified Bris-
tol’s medium were exposed from a moving automobile, from January
1969 to July 1969, according to methods of Brown, Larson and
Bold (1964). The plates were held by hand and in a vertical posi-
tion for 20 seconds to 5 minutes; the speed of the vehicle was 25
mph. After exposure, the plates were placed under the fluorescent
lights in the culture room.

PARRANDO AND Davis: Airborne Algae 233

Rain water. Rain water was collected in a sterile 125-ml Erlen-
meyer flask fitted with a small funnel. The flask and funnel assem-
bly was placed 10 feet above the ground at the time that the rain
started falling. Immediately after collecting the water, 2 ml por-
tions were transferred by a sterile 5-ml disposable pipette to agar
plates containing sterile Bristol’s medium. The water was dispersed
over the surface of the agar by swirling the dish on a flat surface,
and the plate was then placed under the fluorescent lights in the
culture room.

Rottorod sampled. This air sampling apparatus (Metronics As-
sociates, Palo Alto, California, Model 65A) is capable of sampling
particles from 5 to 100 microns in size and has a filtering rate of 60
liters per minute. The particles are impacted on the leading surface
of the clear plastic rotating collector rods coated with a thin layer
of silicone compound (General Electric G-697). Immediately after
each 10 minute sampling, the collector rods were taken from the
metal holder by sterile forceps and placed in a sterile transit vial.
In the laboratory, the exposed rods were taken from the transit vial
and streaked on the surface of an agar plate containing the sterile
nutrient medium. This procedure was conducted in a sterile transfer
chamber. Once streaked, the rods were left on the agar with the
silicone-coated surface down so that any viable cells left on the rods
would develop into colonies (Brown, Larson and Bold, 1964). The
plates were then placed under the fluorescent lights in the culture
room. The silicone compound was chosen to coat the rods since it
strongly retains the impinged particles.

Ten-minute samples were taken with the Rotorod sampler from
the 4 stations listed below located on the campus of the University of
Florida, from June 25, to August 19, 1969. Two of these stations
were located 12 feet above the ground in open fields and 2 stations
were located 12 feet above the roof tops of 2 different buildings.
The buildings were chosen for their height and for the lack of algal
growth on the roof, as far as the authors could observe.

Station 1. Top of the press box, Florida Field, approximately 90
feet high.

Station 2. Observation platform, Space Sciences Center, approx-
imately 60 feet high.

Station 3. Parking lot (paved), corner of Center Drive and
Museum Road.

234 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Station 4. Parade review grounds.

Sedimentation method. Sterile agar plates were exposed from
10 p.m. to 9 a.m. on 5 different occasions, 10 feet above the ground
in front of McCarty Hall. These samples were taken on clear and
relatively calm nights during the month of July, 1969. After ex-
posure, the plates were placed under the fluorescent lights in the
culture room.

The morphology of the algae was studied by making fresh
mounts from cultures grown on agar or in the liquid medium. The
morphology of the chromatophore of the green algae, an important
criterion established by Starr (1955) in the taxonomy of the Chloro-
coccales, was studied by using a blue light filter as proposed by
Friedmann (1966). The presence of a gelatinous matrix was dem-
onstrated by using a solution of methlene blue. Sudan IV was
used to determine the presence of fat or oil within the cells, and
solutions of I,-KI were used to demonstrate the presence of starch.
The number and position of the nuclei was determined by the
acetocarmine technique according to the method of Cave and Po-
cock (1951).

In order to promote the formation of zoospores in the zoospore-
producing genera of the Chlorococcales, the following technique
proved successful. A culture was started from a stock culture by
streaking the algae on fresh agar plates containing sterile nutrient
medium. When the culture was growing vigorously, the plate was
flooded with sterile liquid nutrient medium or sterile distilled water,
and the culture was then placed under the fluorescent lights for 24
hours. Microscopic observations were made the following morning.

All algal isolates were surveyed, and only Chlorophyta and Cya-
nophyta were present. All the blue-green isolates were identified;
Dr. Francis Drouet determined a number of the species in the Os-
cillatoriaceae. Although all the filamentous species of the Chloro-
phyta were identified, only 80 of the coccoid Chlorophyta were
identified because of time limitation; all of these belonged to the
orders Chlorococcales or Chlorosphaerales. In species determination
of the coccoid members of the Chlorophyta, Starr (1955), and
Brown, Larson and Bold (1964) emphasized the necessity of long
periods of observations of unialgal cultures before successfully dis-
posing of the taxonomy of most of these genera.

PARRANDO AND Davis: Airborne Algae 235

RESULTS

Hand-held plates. Seventy three samples were taken by this
method, 39 of which contained viable algae, yielding 193 colonies.
The usual number of impactions per plate ranged from 4 to 6; the
speed of 25 mph was found to yield the most impactions. The num-
ber of impactions was slightly higher during the spring and summer
months than during the winter. Twenty-five species were recovered
by this method of sampling. The most common species thus ob-
tained was the blue-green Schizothrix calciola, with 23 impactions.

Rain water. Thirty six plates were inoculated with rain water,
12 of which developed algal colonies after 2 to 3 weeks under the
fluorescent lights. Twenty unialgal cultures were obtained. Schizo-
thrix calcicola was the only blue-green recovered from rain water.
The most common species of the green algae thus obtained were
Chlorella vulgaris, C. saccharophila and an unidentified species of
Oocystis.

Sedimentation method. Five agar plates were exposed, 4 of
which were positive with 31 colonies isolated into unialgal cultures.
Only by this method was Scytonema ocellatum recovered. Several
members of the Chlorophyta were also obtained by sedimentation.

Rotorod Sampler. Sixty samples were taken by this method, 42
of which were positive, yielding 189 isolates when grown under the
fluorescent lights. Thirty-four samples were taken during the morn-
ing hours, between 9 a.m. and 12 noon. Twenty-one of these sam-
ples were positive, yielding 53 colonies which were isolated into
unialgal cultures. The morning samples yielded an average of 2.6
impactions per cubic meter of air sampled. Twenty six samples
were taken in the afternoon hours, between 2 p.m. and 6 p.m. dur-
ing the sampling period. In contrast with the morning samples, all
but 2 of the afternoon samples developed algal colonies when placed
under the fluorescent lights. A total of 136 colonies were isolated
into unialgal cultures from the afternoon sampling, yielding an aver-
age of 8.7 impactions per cubic meter of air. In the counting of the
number of impactions, the assumption was made that each impac-
tion was from a single cell which produced a single colony when
the collector rod was streaked on the agar surface.

The largest number of impactions obtained by the Rotorod sam-
pler was recovered during the dry part of the sampling period, when
the total amount of precipitation recorded was 0.10 inches of rain.

236 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

TABLE 1
Number of algal isolates obtained by 4 sampling methods
Species Hand Held Rotorod Rain Sedimen-
Plates Sampler Water tation Total

CHLOROPHYTA
Ankistrodesmus sp. 1 1 2
Chlamydomonas globosa Snow 1 6 u
Chlamydomonas sp. 1 1 2
Chlorella luteoviridis Chodat 1 1 1 3
Chlorella saccharophila

(Kruger) Migula 3 9 3 15
Chlorella vulgaris Beijerinck 3 3 4 10
Chlorococcum ellipsoideum

Deason & Bold 2 2
Chlorococcum scabellum

Deason & Bold 1 1
Chlorosarcina sp. 2 2
Chlorosarcinopsis aggregata

Arce & Bold 1 1
Chlorosarcinopsis dissociata

Herndon 1 if
Chlorosarcinopsis minor Herdon 1 1
Chlorosarcinopsis sp. 1 il
Hormidium flaccidium A. Braun 1 1 2
Nannochloris bacillaris Naumann 1 1 P)
Neochloris sp. 1 1
Oocystis polymorpha Grover & Bold 4 5 2 11
Oocystis sp. 1 1
Scenedesmus quadricauda 4 1 5
Oocystis sp.’ 3 3
Spongiochloris incrassata

Chantanachat & Bold 1 1
Stichococcus bacillaris Nag. 3 3
Stichococcus mirabilis Lagerh. 3 3

The temperature during the sampling period ranged from 20°C at
night to 37°C during the day. The wind direction seemed to have
little influence on the number of impactions. However, a wind speed
of 15 mph yielded samples with the largest number of impactions.
Partly cloudy skies favored higher numbers of impactions than did
clear skies. The relative humidity during the sampling period
ranged from 40 per cent to 100 per cent on several occasions dur-
ing the month of July.

PARRANDO AND Davis: Airborne Algae 237

TABLE 2
Number of algal isolates obtained by 4 sampling methods
Species Hand Held Rotorod Rain Sedimen-
Plates Sampler Water tation Total

CYANOPHYTA
Anabaena flos-aquae (Lyngb.) Breb. 1 1
Anabaena variabilis Kiutzing 5 1 6
Anabaena sp. . 2 2
Calothrix parietina (Nageli) Thuret 4 1 5
Fischerella ambigua (Nag.) Gom. 1 il 2
Oscillatoria formosa Bory. 1 1
Oscillatoria submembranacea

Ard. & Straff. 1 1
Nostoc commune Vaucher uf 7
Nostoc muscorum Ag. 5 5
Nostoc sp. 1 1 2
Porphyroshiphon notarisii

(Menegh.) Kiitz 1 1
Scytonema ocellatum Lyngbye 2 2
Schizothrix calcicola (Ag.) Gom. 23 5 1 3 32

Eighteen species were recovered using the Rotorod sampler. Six
of these species belonged to the blue-green algae and 12 species to
the green algae. The most common genera recovered by the Roto-
rod sampler were Chlorella, Chlamydomonas, Oocystis and Schizo-
thrix.

The identified species obtained by the various collection methods
are listed in Tables 1-2.

DISCUSSION

Schlichting (1969) indicated that several workers in the United
States and other countries have found a number of diatoms species,
yellow greens, and Euglenoids, from the air. The lack of diatoms
can not be the fault of an inappropriate culture medium, for other
investigators who have reported diatoms from the air used the same
basic inorganic medium used in this investigation. Furthermore,
our medium was made more favorable to diatoms by the addition
of silicon. It seems clear that Florida air over the University Cam-
pus from January to August of 1969 contained very low diatom con-
centrations. The Euglens omissions from our collections may well
be due to our culture medium which was not enriched with organic

238 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

carbon compounds. These missing algal groups also might be due
to our algae-poor soil (Smith, 1944; Smith and Ellis, 1943), which
is the source of most airborne algae.

Although many workers have reported Chlorococcum species to
be among the most common of airborne algae, only 3 isolates of 2
species were found in the investigation. The infrequently reported
Schizothrix calcicola was the most commonly occurring airborne
alga in our area.

LITERATURE CITED

Bop, H. C., AND PARKER, B. C. 1962. Some supplementary attributes in classi-
fication of Chlorococcum species. Arch. Mikrobiol., vol. 42, pp. 267-288.

Brown, R. M., D. A. Larson AnD H. C. Bop. 1964. Airborne algae: their
abundance and heterogeneity. Science, vol. 143, pp. 583-585.

Cave, M. S., AND M. A. Pocock. 1951. The aceto-carmine technique applied
to the colonial Volvocales. Stain Technol., vol. 26, pp. 173-174.
FRIEDMANN, I. 1966. Microscopy of algal chromatophores. Phycologia, vol. 6,

pp. 29-36.

Groover, R. D., anp H. C. Botp. 1968. Phycological notes 1. Oocystis poly-
morpha sp. nov. Southwestern Nat., vol. 13, pp. 129-135.

Lury, E. T., anp R. W. HosHaw. 1967. Airborne algae of the Tucson and
Santa Catalina mountain areas. Jour. Arizona Acad. Sci., vol. 4, pp.
179-182.

ScuuicuTING, H. E. 1969. The importance of airborne Algae and Protozoa.
APCA Journal, vol. 19, pp. 946-951.

SMitH, F. B. 1944. The occurrence and distribution of algae in soils. Proc.
Florida Acad. Sci., vol. 7, pp. 44-49.

Smiry, F. B., AnD H. R. Exxis. 1943. Preliminary report on the algal flora of
some Florida soils. Proc. Florida Acad. Sci., vol. 6, pp. 59-65.

Starr, R. C. 1955. A comparative study of Chlorococcum meneghini and
other spherical, zoospore-producing genera of the Chlorococcales. In-
diana Univ. Publications, sci. ser., no. 20, 111 pp.

Department of Botany, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
32601.

Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 35(4) 1972 (1974)

Bird Remains from Pre-Columbian Middens in the Virgin Islands

PIERCE BRODKORB

Durinc excavation of kitchen middens in the American Virgin
Islands Ripley P. Bullen of the Florida State Museum collected a
number of bird bones which he has asked me to study. In April
1960 he worked at the Magens Bay midden on the north shore of
St. Thomas. On the island of St. John he studied sites at Turtle
Point on Turtle Bay, at Francis Bay, and at Coral Bay. All the
middens are of pre-Columbian age with approximate dates of A.D.
500-1000, but Mr. Bullen believes that the Magens Bay site is the
youngest and the Coral Bay site the oldest. From Coral Bay only
a single indeterminate shaft of a humerus was obtained. Identified
remains from the other localities are listed below.

The only previous records of bird remains from the Virgin
Islands are from Magens Bay and from middens on the island of St.
Croix (Wetmore, 1918, 1937).

1. Puffinus lherminieri Lesson. Audubon’s Shearwater. Ma-
gens Bay, 5 bones, 2 individuals. Turtle Point, 8 bones, 6 indi-
viduals. Wetmore also recorded this widespread seabird from
Magens Bay and from St. Croix.

2. Sula leucogaster (Boddaert). Brown Booby. Magens Bay,
2 bones, 1 individual. Recorded from Magens Bay and St. Croix.

3. Fregata magnificens Mathews. Magnificent Frigate-bird.
Magens Bay, 4 bones, 1 individual. Also recorded by Wetmore.

4, Nyctanassa violacea (Linnaeus). Yellow-crowned Night
Heron. Magens Bay, 1 ulna. Francis Bay, 1 ulna. Recorded from
Magens Bay.

5. Butorides virescens maculatus (Boddaert). West Indian
Green Heron. Magens Bay, right femur, length 41 mm. Seven
Floridian specimens of the mainland subspecies, B. v. virescens
(Linnaeus), have femur lengths of 47.0-48.7 mm. Oberholser
(1912) showed that resident green herons from the West Indies
are smaller than the northern migratory form. This is the first fossil
record of the species from the West Indies.

6. Anas americana Gmelin. Baldpate. Magens Bay, humerus.
Reported from the St. Croix midden. This duck is a winter visitant
to the West Indies.

7. Nesotrochis debooyi Wetmore. Magens Bay, 1 bone. Francis

240 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Bay, 3 bones, 2 individuals. Magens Bay is the type locality of this
extinct genus of large rail. It has also been recorded from St. Croix
and Puerto Rico (Wetmore, 1922) but not previously from St.
John. Although sexual dimorphism in size is marked in the Ral-
lidae, it appears that this flightless bird may also show geographic
variation, as published measurements of Puerto Rican fossils exceed
those from the Virgin Islands.

8. Sterna fuscata Linnaeus. Sooty Tern. Magens Bay, 2 right
humeri. Turtle Point, right and left humeri. This seabird occurs
in tropical waters throughout the world, but the only previous
fossil records are from the Bahamas and St. Helena (Brodkorb,
1967). In Sterna the distal end of the humerus is more compressed
and the brachial depression deeper than in Anous. In S. fuscata
the external edge of the ectepicondylar process is nearly straight
or a little concave, so that its tip is only slightly set off from the rest
of the process; in S. anaethetus and Anous the external edge of the
process is constricted in the middle, so that the free half forms a
distinct spur. In S. anaethetus the shaft of the humerus is more
slender than in the other two species.

LITERATURE CITED

Bropkors, Pierce. 1967. Catalogue of fossil birds, Part 3 (Ralliformes,
Ichthyornithiformes, Charadriiformes). Bull. Florida State Mus., vol.
11, no. 3, pp. 99-220.

OBERHOLSER, Harry C. 1912. A revision of the subspecies of the green
heron (Butorides virescens [Linnaeus] ). Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 42,
no. 1916, pp. 529-577.

WEtTMoRE, ALEXANDER. 1918. Bones of birds collected by Theodoor de Booy
from kitchen midden deposits in the islands of St. Thomas and St.
Croix. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 54, no. 2245, pp. 513-522, pl. 82.

—. 1922. Bird remains from the caves of Porto Rico. Bull. Amer. Mus.

Nat. Hist., vol. 46, pp. 297-333, figs. 1-25.

1937. Ancient records of birds from the island of St. Croix with
observations on extinct and living birds of Puerto Rico. Jour. Agr.

Univ. Puerto Rico, vol. 21, no. 1, pp. 5-16, pl. 1.

Department of Zoology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Flor-
ida 32611.

Quart. Jour. Florida Acad. Sci. 35(4) 1972(1974)

QUARTERLY JOURNAL
of the
FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOLUME 35

Editor

PIERCE BRODKORB

Published by the

FLormA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Gainesville, Florida
1972

PUBLICATION DATES OF VOLUME 35

NuMBER 1: August 25, 1972
NuMBER 2-3: November 5, 1973

NuMBER 4: March 15, 1974

NEw TAXON PROPOSED IN VOLUME 35

Trachurus margaretae Berry and Cohen 191

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 35

NuMBER 1
The Armadillidae of Florida (Isopoda, Oniscoidea) George A. Schultz
Reassignment of Balanus tintinnabulum maroccana Broch Dea B. Beach
Intestinal parasites of the lizard Lygosoma laterale Garnett R. Brooks

Observations on the arboreal snail Orthalicus floridensis Alan K. Craig

Nereid shell blisters in the southern quahog clam
John L. Taylor and Carl H. Saloman

Occurrence of a rare skate in the western North Atlantic
Robbin R. Blackman
First Gulf of Mexico record of Ranzania laevis
Robert W. Topp and David L. Girardin

Five-year creel survey of two Florida lakes
Forrest J. Ware, Wesley V. Fish, and Louie Prevatt

The presence of Hyla squirella in the Bahamas Ronald I. Crombie

Additions to the Pleistocene avifauna of Arredondo, Florida
Carl David Frailey

Avifauna of Little Tobago Island James J. Dinsmore

Birds of the Lluidas Vale (Worthy Park) region, Jamaica
Alexander Cruz

NuMBER 2-3

First occurrence of the violet goby in Georgia
Paul L. Wolf, Sheryl F. Shanholtzer and R. J. Reimold

Vegetational changes in the National Key Deer Refuge-II
Taylor R. Alexander and John D. Dickson III

Composition of Thalassia testudinum and Ruppia maritima
Gerald E. Walsh and Thomas E. Grow

Noteworthy marine fishes from eastern Louisiana Jerry G. Walls

Antarctica, isostacy, and the origin of frogs
Coleman J. Goin and Olive B. Goin

Characteristics of the western Atlantic reef-fish fauna
Carter R. Gilbert

Annotated checklist of the Boynton Beach hammock
Daniel F. Austin and Joanne G. Weise

A sediment trap for use in soft-bottomed lakes
Frank G. Nordlie and John F. Anderson

New records for fishes in South Carolina waters
David M. Cupka and Robert K. Dias

ili

81

85

97
109

118

130

145

155

158

NUMBER 4

Notes on Parasites of gray squirrels from Florida
P. C. Parker, E. J. Riggs, and R. B. Holliman

Occurrence of two trematodes in Florida anoles
Richard Franz and Sam R. Telford, Jr.

Reproductive rates in white-tailed deer of Florida Richard F. Harlow
Food of the barn owl on Grand Cayman, B. W. I. David W. Johnston

Balanomorph barnacles on Chrysemys alabamensis
Crawford G. Jackson, Jr., and Arnold Ross

Synopsis of the species of Trachurus (Pisces, Carangidae )
Frederick H. Berry and Linda Cohen

Defensive behavior in Rana areolata and Hyla avivoca Ronald Altig
Commercial fishery on Lake Okeechobee, Florida Lothian A. Ager
Nuclear DNA and developmental rate in frogs K. Bachmann

Some airborne algae from North Central Florida
R. T. Parrando and J. S. Davis

Bird remains from pre-Columbian middens in the Virgin Islands
Pierce Brodkorb

iv

161

163
165
171

173

177
212
217
225

232

239

FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERS FOR 1972

American Medical Research Institute
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FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Founded 1936

OFFICERS FOR 1972

President: Dr. RicuHarp E, GARRETT
Department of Physics, University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida 32611

President Elect: Dr. James G. PoTTER
Department of Physics, Florida Institute of Technology
Melbourne, Florida 32901

Secretary: Dr. Ropert W. Lonc
Department of Botany, University of South Florida
Tampa, Florida 33620

Treasurer: Dr. RicHArRD A. EDWARDS
Department of Geology, University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida 32611

Editor: Dr. PizrcE BropKORB
Department of Zoology, University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida 32611

Membership applications, subscriptions, renewals, changes
of address, and orders for back numbers should
be addressed to the Treasurer

Correspondence regarding exchanges
should be addressed to

Gift and Exchange Section, University of Florida Libraries
Gainesville, Florida 32611

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