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THE

QUARTERLY JOURNAL

GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON.

EDITED BY

THE ASSISTANT-SECRETARY OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

Quod si cui mortalium cordi et curse sit non tantum inventis herere, atque iis uti, sed ad ulteriora
penetrare ; atque non disputando adversarium, sed opere naturam vincere; denique non belle et probabiliter
opinari, sed certo et ostensive scire; tales, tanquam veri scientiarum filii, nobis (si videbitur) se adjungant.
—Novum Organum, Prefatio.

VOLUME THE THIRTY-SIXTH.

em “reer
Par Tat {| Al fate ee
1880. ; * BSONAN ODS

a .
| ~ ‘e i,

c \

kee 32)

LONGMANS, GREEN, READER, AND DYER

PARIS: FRIED, KLINCKSIECK, 11 RUE DE LILLE; F. SAVY, 24 RUE HAUTEFEUILLE.
LEIPZIG: T. 0. WEIGEL.

ee)

¥

SOLD ALSO AT THE APARTMENTS OF THE SOCIETY,

MDCCCLXXX.

List

OF THE

OFFICERS

OF THE

GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON.

PARADE PAI IAA

Elected February 20, 1880.

PrestVent,
R. Etheridge, Esq., F.R.S.

Wice-Presivents.

John Evans, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S. J. W. Hulke, Esq., F.B.S.
Sir P.de M. Grey-Egerton, Bart.,M.P.,F.R.S. | Prof. A. C. Ramsay, LL.D., F.R.S.

Secretaries.
Prof. T. G. Bonney, M.A., F.R.S. | Prof. J. W. Judd, F.R.S.

SForeiqn Secretary.
Warington W. Smyth, M.A., F.R.S.

Creasuver,
J. Gwyn Jeffreys, LL.D., F.R.S.

COUNEIL.
Rev. J. F. Blake, M.A. J. Gwyn Jeffreys, LL.D., F.R.S.
Prof. T. G. Bonney, M.A., F.R.S. Prof. T. Rupert Jones, F.R.S.
W. Carruthers, Esq., F.R.S. Prof. J. W. Judd, F.R.S.
R. Etheridge, Esq., F.R.S. Prof. N. S. Maskelyne, M.P., M.A., F.R.S.
J. Evans, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R. S. J. Morris, Esq., M.A.
SirP.de M. Grey-Egerton, Bart.,M.P.,F.R.S. | J. A. Phillips, Esq.
Lieut.-Colonel H. H. Godwin-Austen. Prof. J. Prestwich, M.A., F.R.S.
J. Clark Hawkshaw, Esq., M.A. Prof. A. C. Ramsay, LL.D., F.R.S.
Henry Hicks, M.D. Prof. H. G. Seeley, F.R.S., F.L.S.
W. H. Hudleston, Esq., M.A. Warington W. Smyth, Esq., M.A., F.R.S.
Prof. T. M°Kenny Hughes, M.A. H. Clifton Sorby, LL.D., F.R.S.

J. W. Hulke, Esq., F.R.S.

Assistant-Secretary, Librarian, anv Curator.
W. S. Dailas, Esq., F.L.S.

Clerk.
Mr. W. W. Leighton.

Librarp and {Museum Assistant.
Mr. W. Rupert Jones.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Page
Buaxe, Rev. J. F., M.A. On the Portland Rocks of England.
Gbintes VILE AX.) orccife ples, 36 «Xs ee PAS ae a et eee 189

BuLEeNncowE, Rey. G. On certain Geological Facts witnessed in
Natal and the Border Countries during nineteen Years’ Residence 426

Bonney, Rev. Prof. T. G., M.A. Petrological Notes on the Vicinity

Ge the Upper Part of Loch’ Maree. os 0ci 3 cee eae eee 93
,and Rey. E. Hirt, M.A. The Precarboniferous Rocks of
Charnwood Forest.— Part III. Conclusion ..............008 337

Boss, P. N., Esq., B.Sc. Lond. Undescribed Fossil Carnivora from
the Sivalik Hills in the Collection of the British Museum.
ERE een CN Weta fe crcl, shot ot 8) saps Diss G Suarets ow N Ss yape AS Aww & 119

CaLiaway, C., Esq., D.Sc.Lond. Ona Second Precambrian Group
Pen Ree ETE CTU. oo ooh <0 ays c\vho a ate) staye, 2 <i oia eb w aes we woe. 536

CamErRon, J. M., and W. Jotty, Esq. On an apparently new
Mineral occurring in the Rocks of Invernesshire ............ 109

CaRPENTER, P. Herpert, M.A. On some undescribed Comatule
from the British Secondary Rocks. (Plate V.).............. 36

On some new Cretaceous Comatule. (Plate XXII!.).... 549

CoBBo_p, E.S., Esq. _ Notes on the Strata exposed in laying out the
Oxford Sewage-farm at Sandford-on-Thames...............- 314

Davis, J. W., Esq. On the Fish-remains found in the Cannel Coal
in the Middle Coal-measures of the West Riding of Yorkshire,

with the Descriptions of some new Species ..........se00e- 56
On the Genus Pleuracanthus, Agass., including the Genera
Orthacanthus, Agass. and Goldf., Diplodus, Agass., and Xena-
US, WOE. oh Er AhO ey a8) oieig a: ajay safe 65.9 0 ed suai nis, a odo + om 6 321
Dawkins, Prof. W. Boyp, M.A. The Classification of the Tertiary
Period by means of the Mammalia ............ “thivht oBaRE 379

Hint, Rev. E., M.A., and Prof. T. G. Bonney, M.A. The Pre-
carboniferous Rocks of Charnwood Forest.—Part III. Conclusion 337

HinpeE, G. J., Esq. On Annelid Jaws from the Wenlock and
Ludlow Formations of the West of England. (Plate XIV.) .. 368

iV TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Page
Horne, Joun, Esq., and B. N. Pracu, Esq. The Glaciation of the
Orkney Islands. (Plates XX VI. & XXVIL ))s avaver nie settee 648

Hueuss, Prof. T. M‘Kunny, M.A. On the Geology of Anglesey 237

Hu xe, J. W., Esq. Supplementary Note on the Vertebree of Orm-
thopsis, Seeley, = Eucamerotus, Hulke. (Plates III. & IV.).... 31

Iguanodon Prestwichn, a new Species from the Kimmeridge
. Clay, distinguished from J. Mantel of the Wealden Formation
in the S.E. of England and Isle of Wight by Differences in the
Shape of the Vertebral Centra, by fewer than five Sacral Verte-
bree, by the simpler Character of its Tooth-serrature, &c., founded
on numerous fossil remains lately discovered at Cumnor, near

Oxtord. “(Plates XVIIL“X®.) °.........5.0.. 0 ee 433

Hutt, Prof. E., M.A. On the Geological Relations of the Rocks of
the South ce Ireland to those of North Devon and other British
and (Contimental Districts: scitis oo bendcae 04. oe > Gale eee 255

JEFFREYS, J. Gwyn, Esq., LL.D. On the Occurrence of Marine
Shelis of Existing Species at Different Heights above the Present

Gieveliof the Sears s/s aj. s<je00)apeniauaiele deiowh gues ween eee 3ol
Jouiy, W., Esq., and J. M. Cameron, Esq. On on apparently new
Mineral occurring in the Rocks of Invernesshire ............ 109
Jupp, Prof. J. W. On the Oligocene Strata of the Hampshire
Basin, j (CPlate Wy. sj. sca koid ee Yeas see metualtie &- gee 137
Kirxsy, J. W.,-Esq. On the Zones of Marine Fossils in the Cal-
eiferous Sandstone Series of Fife: os o...de ahs b.. o qees d Oye 559

MacxrnTosu, D., Esq. On the Correlation of the Drift-deposits of
the North-west of England with those of the Midland and
Master Countess, asic vs die voi nieleielalde delete af query eet 178

MatzeT, R., Esq. On the Probable Temperature of the Primordial
Ocean of our Globe. ye sian eens ies aed dayne tieeec Ss eeaee 112

Marr, J. E., Esq., B.A. On the Cambrian (Sedgw.) and Silurian
Beds of the Dee vale? as compared with those of the Lake
Wishre LOE PLR Het Ua See De: We RE Meee ace 277

No an, JosePH, Esq. On the Old Red Sandstone of the North of
Trebamd o.oo. s isis et nue eazeunteueet ops aye aces Mey m5: ier ee iekotce renee 529

Owen, Prof. R., C.B. On the Skull of Argillorms longipennis, Ow.
(Plate EL.) aiice tet riete BeliaiS 5 fe Minos edanar maul, 6 yan ice 23

Description of Parts of the Skeleton of an Anomodont
Reptile (Platypodosaurus robustus, Ow.) from the Trias of Graaff
Reinet, 8. Africa, (Plates XVI. ‘& KV)... ana a eee 414

Pracu, B. N., Esq., and Joun Horne, Esq. The Glaciation of the
Orkney Islands. (Plates XXVI. & XXVIL)................ 648

Puruies, J. A., Esq. On Concretionary Patches and Fragments of
other Rocks contained in Granite. (Plate I.)

TABLE OF CONTENTS. v

Poote, H.8., Esq., M.A. The Gold-leads of Nova Scotia........ 307

Povuxton, E. B., Esq.. M.A. On Mammalian Remains and Tree-
trunks in Quaternary Sands at Reading .................06- 296

PrestwicH, Prof. J.. M.A. Note on the Occurrence of a new
Species of Iguanodon in a Brick-pit of the Kimmeridge Clay at
Cumnor Hurst, three miles W.S.W. of Oxford .............. 430

Rut ey, F., Esq. On the Schistose Volcanic Rocks occurring on
the west of Dartmoor, with some Notes on the Structure of the
Rete OE VGC RO 6 oars «0.5! 0 DS aceheiai ss wi dure RAw opsserené aire, o, cade 285

SeEeLEy, Prof. H. G. On Rhamphocephalus Prestwichi, Seeley, an
Ornithosaurian from the Stonesfield Slate of Poses Pcie, ah pit eae

Note on Psephophorus polygonus, v. Meyer, a new Type of
Chelonian Reptile allied to the Leathery Turtle. (Plate XV.) 406

—. On the Cranial Characters of a large Teleosaur from the
Whitby Lias preserved in the Woodwardian Museum of the
University of Cambridge, indicating a new Species, Teleosawrus
eae TMA (CESIUM NC ACE We )) oh 5 wil sucha ty hla: spon! of c's 9 Wes g d'ehust a. ey ae'G 627

On the Skull of an Ichthyosaurus from the Lias of Whitby,
apparently indicating a new Species (J. Zetlandicus, Seeley ), pre-
served in the Woodwardian Museum of the University of Cam-
Ee EMRE MORN Cy ce canes cries gree © pea css cms os qe 635

SHRUBSOLE, G. W., Esq. A Review and Description of the various
Species of British Upper-Silurian Fenestellide. (Plate XI.).. 241

Soxtuas, W. J., Esq., M.A. On the Structure and Affinities of the
Geman Pyotespbigie (Saber esi ses ag ewe dag tea da teens 362

SpuRRELL, F.C. J., Esq. On the Discovery of the Place where
Paleolithic Implements were made at Crayford. (Plate XXII.) 544

Stoxss, A. H., Esq. Notes upon the Coal found in Siiderée, Farde
LIS Eri lea angie sy ast; (eras aie oe ri A een ear ee Pps),

TwWELVETREES, W. H., Esq. On a new Theriodont Reptile (Cho-
rhizodon orenbur -gensis, Twelvetr.) from the Upper Permian
Cupriferous Sandstones of Kargalinsk, near Orenburg, in South-

SORT EVASBUA (i /5-)0)s ier arafarciels wislacriodsiaie sk yale vied cease ees 540
Ving, G. R., Esq. A Review of the Family Diastoporide for the
purpose of Classification. (Plate XIII.) ........ Gin ne Or 556
Watticu, Dr.G.C. A Contribution to the Physical History of the
Sie ee Cue me NLMPmn ee a aay sete a's cP sias a, o olae 2)» ave’ of cis. 0 0 5 68
Woop, Srartezs V., Esq., jun. The Newer Pliocene Period in
Beaerati, MLE OME.) 2k nmedis ce ec uan halide Ceesideees 457

vi TABLE OF CONTENTS.

PROCEEDINGS. ©

Page
pSvinm tea PERO OE eles piste liste te leusieceiei sks alu slangielis a 4) ol Ouettre meen ah 7
This af Honeramy Members Pe cites: 2° pore ole oles ale ube s Bee oe lel nea 15
inist Of Horeiom Correspondents ; ...... sje0e0: sees eae os eval eee 16
Tsistiot NWollastonm) Medallists 2h i. 244.05 clewlines cee cee od he gee Oe 17
hist of Manehison/ Medallists’, 5/01.) 2). 01+ «2,0»: efelelats alvin > « sje iene 13
nist ontiby emesis 7s jel awieys viele bee's ves as le eteie aia ss) 5 eee 19
ist orisiosoye Medallists. os ste. ce ees oe eu ¥ ona ape eiere 2 epee 20
MSTA TOTAL ARGC MIOLG ce a Fuinle wie nis 6 9 s(oie & olgty ale leiela we » 0 ellel etme sleet ens laa ene 21
Aoward ore merMiedals. CoC F<. ayiys dec s 6 melts wile dime toa: olil ayeioel > okeepnee eae 28
SAMITIVETS ay pA LALOR 5 fo:n ainsinlae-a aye sv lans aday geared ys saree he le en 33
Donations to the Library (with Bibliography) ..............005. 105

Catuaway, C., Esq., D.Sc.Lond. The Gneissic and Granitoid Rocks
of Anglesey and the Malvern Hills. (Abstract.) ............ yi

Davipson, T., Esq. Address delivered before the Geological Society
of France as Delegate from the Society ...........ccs0+cn0% 95

Hicks, H., Esq., M.D. On the Pre-Cambrian Rocks of the North-
western and Central Highlands of Scotland. (Abstract.) .... 1o1

Newton, E. T., Esq. On the Occurrence of the Glutton (Gulo
Juscus, Linn.) in the Forest-bed of Norfolk. (Abstract.) .... 99

LIST OF THE FOSSILS FIGURED AND DESCRIBED
IN THIS VOLUME.

[In this list, those fossils the names of which are printed in Roman type have

been previously described. |

Name of Species. Formation. Locality.
SPONGLE.
Protospongia fenestrata............... |Lower Silurian...| St. David’s ...
ECHINODERMATA.
Actinometra Loveni ........s0.sceeeee Galt, . occ ccpacess Folkestone ...
Mater Pl. Vid. 6: ccc sets... Great Oolite . Babli. i. cases
Antedon abnormis. Pl.v. f.8 ...... Bradford Clay...| Cirencester ...
—— equimarginata. Pl.v.f.4 . BH Maecenas Folkestone ...
qacurea.) Pl, xsuie fe ess. U. Greensand Blackdown ...
lonterrra. Pl xxi £.'6 |... "Wiltshire ......
Lundgreni. Pl. xxiii. f. 3 Chalk Margate ......
MUnenOra: VElwetals |... ciel ee eee Dover 2:2...
perforata. El. xxii. f.2...... Marpate_......
prisca. Pl. v.f.7.. Bradford Clay...| Cirencester ...
rotunda. PI. v. f. 5....-sseses. Neocomian ...... Haldon.........
——— ugosds ENV: £..2) .ceccencoee NUSSEX svwseeses
striata. Pl xxii. £5 .......<. Challe fe sny-sasennt WOWVED aaccecons

ANNELIDA.

Arabellites anglicus.

CUEMTINES . cdpacdenssageesenctandsale
— extensus. Pl. xiv. f. 12 ......
— obtusus. Pl. xiv. f. 16.........
Bee) EMETILEN dos eect secetseweccacecees

Soa, Pls: f 1S. saeco.
—— , Var. contractus. Pl. xiv.

Be ER RM atic Soe ocAs cs po Ses en svawhes
— sulcatus

PCH eSere eed Seer eesseetee

Plo sivak. 17.

Upper Silurian... Dudley, Lud-

low, &c.
Wenlock ......... Much Wenlock
Wenlock ......... tee ape
Wenlock ......... Much Wenlock
aa ees Dudley, Lud-

Upper Silurian... { long ke:
| Wenlock ......... Much Wenlock
Pie Dudley, Lud-

Upper Silurian... { low, &e.

}

Page.

362

Vill FOSSILS FIGURED AND DESCRIBED.
Name of Species. Formation. Locality. Page.

ANNELIDA (continued).

Eunicites chiromorphuvs, var. minor. \ (
Pa dyer tO 9 Se Noak. Saasigeh sci ade | 371
—— Clintonemsis ..............00000 ; 371
COROMALUSHeeecceche ti. sieboete cet |) am
er ea Wenlock £....5 9.4: Dudley. :cse5s 4 370
TAF ORR CE Me ee a tne vise wnsaten 370
unguiculus. Pl. xiv.f. 11 ... 372
MARIAM eet ose hee ec adie te teeeenes ( ae
Lumbriconereites basalis ............ Dudley, &c.... a
Nereidavus antiquus. PI. xiv. f. 21 } piauioek a Seana i 377
Cnonites aspersus. Pl. xiv. f. 7,8 |Upper Silurian... ae | 373
cuneatus ..... Ate eriensihia ii Shropshire ... 372
—— , var. humilis. Pl. xiv. $|Wenlock ......... Shropshire and
DEMO Keech eemere se ceanideank Sip saudades | Dudley ... 372
METS CUUANES! else] cialeeisieiscaealcteiceeine :
Seated, Dh ae a Upper Ludlow...) Ludlow ...... 373
naviformis. Pl. xiv. f. 3...... Wenlock... oc. Dudleye-.- 372
preacutus. Pl. xiv. f. 4...... Wenlock ......... Much Wenlock 373
regularis. Pl. xiv. £. Qissecdees : 372
Waiulatie Pl xiv 9 oe Wenloeisasie:| UuGl aaa 373
y 7, 7
Staurocephalites serruta. Pl. xiv. Wanlos ons Dudley, &e.... 376
f. 18-20 eeeeone OOO Oo :
PoLyZoa.
Ceramopora megastoma. PI. xiii... |Carboniferous....| Scotland ...... 359
Fenestella intermedia. Pl. xi. f. 3... 250
TELE AG Paes callie <0 Re ne Wenlock’ ...<'.:... Dudley......... 249
reteporata. Pl. xi. f.1......... 249
—— Tigidula ...........cseseesseseeee Upper Silurian...| Britain......... 248
Mo..vusca.
( Brachiopoda.)
Rhynchonella portlandica. Pl.x.f.8 |Portlandian...... | Portland &c. ...| 234
(Lamellibranchiata.)
Astarte polymorpha.’ PI. ix. f. 12... Swindon ...... 231
Siemauni. Pl. x.f. 5 ......... ss Swindon ...... 232
Cardium calcareum. Pl. ix. f.5 .. ee Bucks &c. ... 232
Corbula saltans. PI. ix. f. 9......... Bucks ‘.cncsmeee 230
Cypricardia bicosta .................. Calcif.Sandstone| Fife ............ 585
pestijera.. Pl ix. £1)... 0s \ ( BUCKS ..taseees 231
Cyprina elongata. P\. ix. f.14...... Bucks, Port- 232
Portlandian...... 4 land, &c....
-—- implicata. PI. ix. f.13 ...... | Bucks, Portland} 232

— swindonensis. Pl. x. f. 2...... \ Swindon ...... 252

FOSSILS FIGURED AND DESCRIBED, 1X

Name of Species. | Formation. | Locality. Page.

Motuusca (continued).

(Lamellibranchiata, continued).

rms ELIS FUG wee. icscnnsss , Swindon ......... 233
EE APU CHEE, 'accauis snes avivisincsicdnns Fortlandian..,... [BLY <a es 234
Myalina modioliformis ............... Calcif.Sandstone} Fife ..........s000s 585
Myoconcha portlandica. Pl. ix. f.10 ! RUBS ea asian pnistae 231
Peston Mani. 21x: f. Sicn.civeunes 2 Las Swindon ......... 234
Pleurophorus elegans ............0+000 Calcif. Sandstone} Fife ............... 586
Plicatula echinoides. Pl. x.f.6... |Portlandian...... Bueks 620... 60:50: 233
Sanguinolites abdensis ...............
GPU CHEUS. ©. Oaeeis sancesvecens Calcif.Sandstone| Fife ..........000. 586
Sedgwickia gigantea ..............0... :
Sowerbya longior. Pl. ix.f.8 ...... ] ‘ Bucks, Swindon} 231
Trigonia swindonensis. P\. x. f. 4... + |Portlandian...... Swindon ......... 233
Unicardium circulare. Pl. x. f. 1... J BRC ae scsits's siesta 232
( Gasteropoda.)
Bellerophon costatus.................. Calcif.Sandstone| Fife ............... 583
Cerithium bifurcatum. PI. ix. f. 5 \ earelandian { Swindon ......... 229
— Hudlestoni. Pl. ix.f.3......... eae ro A BUCKS) sicsacnpenns 229
TiQGNNA ANUIQUA. 62.0.5 cones vareesaeene
Littorina scotoburdigalensis ......... | Calcif.Sandstone| Fife .......:....00 584
Macrocheilus? striatulus ........000.
Manearceres, PL ix. £2) .csccoscesee BUCKS ea cesduesiea 229
ici PA ko fe bcc sk sexes Portlandian...... {Pond 4 ae 229
Rissoa acuticarina. Pl. ix.f.4 ... Bucks! ..o2¢e5.c0p) 230
MEOCHUS SEVFUIMDA.. ...<..50600--0csee. Calcif.Sandstone| Fife ............... 585
Tumuovdnerivs. Plix. f. 7 i .c5..... : Portland ¢2:5.ca.: 230
Deere Einmreg } OT { Swindon ......... 230
( Cephalopoda.)
Ammonites pseudogigas............... : Shotover ............ 228
Pilentite PL Me Bod) eget ex | i Cee { Portland &c......... 228
Nautilus planotergatus ............... } Gale. Shindetone:. Fits 583
Orthoceras cylindraceum ............ ' Tina [oh = Tiana
VERTEBRATA.
(Pisces. )
Compsacanthus Major......-..0+.08006- \ (| 62
UC ca Sie OER | 62
Orthacanthus dilatatus ............ Sie 64
Pleuracanthus alatus. P|. xii. f. 4... || 329
alternidentatus. PI. xii. f. 3.. | 328
—= CYTNAYICUS. .. 0000sc0cesivasnacesse 331
—— denticulatus. PI. xii. f.7...... Coal-measures...|Yorkshire......... {| 334
PENAL ood ees oai shandevnals eae | 326
—— Jeevissimus ...........ceceeeeeeeeee 325
— pulchellus. Pl). xii. f. 2......... | 327
ec RD Ee aCe 330
— tenuis. Pl. xii. f.2 ............ 327
Meardin PR suf, 6 asec. 334
Pycnodus pagoda. P\.x.f. 10...... Portlandian...... DP WET sce iacencentene 228

VOL, XXXVI. 2

x FOSSILS FIGURED AND DESCRIBED.

Name of Species. Formation. Locality.

VERTEBRATA (continued).

( Reptilia.)
Cliorhizodon orenburgensis ......... Upper Permian.,|S.E. Russia ...
Ichthyosaurus Zetlandicus. Pi. xxv. |Lias ............06 Whitby ......

Iguanodon Prestwichii. Ps. xviii.—

BOG) ah hoc aS aRee Maigac Cae ae ome
Ornithopsis. Pls. iii. & iv. ......... Wealden cn... a-a: I. of Wight ....0<:4
P Ua aa HOE VTL UNSER MUMS 1 veetotemac-ne South Africa ......
Psephophorus polygonus. Pl.xv... |Tertiary ......... Austria: .c. cc. scqees
Rhamphocephalus Prestwichi ...... Stonesfield Slate|Kineton ............
Teleosaurus eucephalus. Pl..xxiv... |Lias ............... WHitby, coca
( Aves.)
Argillornis longipennis. PI. ii...... |London Clay ...\Sheppey ............
(Mammalia.)
Canis CUTUIDMIALUBS! .e dads swaa omens \ (
WAMIS Sas coct ester ee tics docctnacdocunts
MCHISESP ete wegen todnaneasbene | |
FTY@NG STVAUENSIS 1. wnacciosacnecasnos
OUT mene ate spe cis = y's cloves sieccjthee : * oye
Wutra \patasindiea oo... tesiovee seaseees f | Rexiiaty yee ee 4
Macherodus paleindicus. PA. vi. |
1 (eae ie Ae er nm
sivalensis. Pl. vi.f.b\ .<....... |
WAVerra Baker? vsa..cosacddstevedtoess: \

Kimmeridge ...|Oxfordshire...

eosees

Page.

134
135
127
128
130
133

125
122
131

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

PLATE PAGE

Inciusions In Granite, to illustrate Mr. John A. Phillips's
I. paper on Concretionary patches and fragments of other
Focks contained in Granite cccgscwwws..:s.02-ecessceegansseneecone

II SKULL oF ARGILLORNIS LONGIPENNIS, to illustrate Prof. Owen’s
Pde EPMMR OPER ISINEL, Sececns orc tweccrdcsescacncceceecesaseruedwaneees 23

III. f Verresr& oF Orniruorsis, to illustrate Mr. J. W. Hulke’s
IV. 1 paper on that genus ....... mace cantina sewmianieswabmewaat dive vep/slans 3l

Vv British SECONDARY CoMATULA, to illustrate Mr. P. H. Car-
penter’s paper on those fossils ..........0cc2..:sessesseseneseroes 36

VI Fosstz CARNIVORA FROM THE S1vAuiK Hits, to illustrate
j PES AGHG RIAPICE cece sen see nv -neodevdsdcodosmensanseranemasies 119

SECTION BETWEEN SconcE Point AND THE NEEDLES, ISLE oF

Vil. Wicezt, to illustrate Prof. Judd’s paper on the Oligocene
Sinaia of the Eaminsiire asst ......<-...-c0n.ssenssssnccnansns 137

VIII . CoMPARATIVE SECTIONS OF THE PorTLAND Rocks oF ENGLAND,
: { to illustrate the Rev. J. F, Blake’s paper on that subject.. 189

IX. f Portuanp Fossizs, to illustrate the Rev. J. F. Blake’s
X. A ERE STIS i aN ator acta ene viral wid chav anon sSgana ae taam 228

XI British Upper SILuRIAN FENESTELLIDS, to illustrate Mr. G.
; W. Shrubsole’s paper on those fossils

XII eee oF PLevRAcANTHUS, to illustrate Mr. J. W. Davis's
: Pipe iB GG ROR ooo cciainn ennaennicovne cris svanne coaniiwiiaie 321

CERAMOPORA MEGASTOMA, to illustrate Mr. G. R. Vine’s paper
au { Ot CHG Pins OMORTME 6.n sis. disseneveesdencosiewessee hese taeaiatin ds 356

on Annelid-jaws from the Wenlock and Ludlow for-

Fossiz ANNELID-JAWS, to illustrate Mr. G. J. Hinde’s paper
ERY.
PORN a2 = sf unarsadcesieknavaxhane, Ceathnoniuestacddcwaanienediincuis 368

XV. PsEPHorHoRuS PoLyGoNvSs, to illustrate Prof. Seeley’s paper
Of that TOs ...cccsesvenens ose

eee eee ee eee ee eee eee eee eee ee eee eee)

xii EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

PLATE PAGE
XVI. © Puatypoposaurus rosustus, to illustrate Prof. Owen’s paper

XVM hon that Reptile ...0. cicscs<cpcetvecbolsdecee, ¢ eee 414

ae Ieuanopon Prestwicuit, to illustrate Mr. J. W. Hulke’s paper
XX. OM PHAb SPECIES (Gis). ves ceadiccece sceeee das oonescneweddeee eee teeeeeeee 4

XXI1 Mars anv Sections illustrating Mr. S. V. Wood, jun.’s paper

; on the Newer Pliocene Period in England ..............606 . 457

FLINT FLAKES IMBEDDED IN SAND, to illustrate Mr. F. C. J.
XXII. Spurrell’s paper on the place where flint implements were
made At CraylOrd cc. cc.ccccesiewsoeteivenssendvessdentyee eee eea eam 544

CreTacrous ComaTuLa, to illustrate Mr. P. H. Carpenter’s

eet { paper On those fEssils oc. cc. .+ ees cbe-webnnes ong ose eee 549

XXIV CRANIUM OF TELEOSAURUS EUCEPHALUS, to illustrate Prof.
z Neeley’s, paper on that Species: ..........sachex- neces sera enema 627

XXV ‘Sxuutut or IcutuyosauRus ZeTLANpicus, to illustrate Prof.
: Seeley's/paper on thatrapecies! jsccte..2..20;.aseeeteeenereeeneeee 639

XXVI GLACIAL CHARTS OF THE OrxyeEy Isuanps anp Norru SEA, to
XXVIL illustrate Messrs. Peach and Horne’s paper on the Glacia-
"o> tom of the Orkney Islands .. ce? ccsdein tee cones se Ee meee 648

ERRATA ET CORRIGENDA.

Page 79, line 24, for flints becoming read flints elsewhere becoming.
,, 048, note, for menalite read melanite.
Plate XX. fig. 2, the lines from the letters ‘“‘ng” should run to the smooth
instead of to.the broken surfaces.

THE

QUARTERLY JOURNAL

OF

THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON.

Vou. XXXVI.

1. On ConcrerionaRy PatcuEs and Fragments of otHER Rocks con-
tamed in GraniteE*, By J. AnrHur Puituips, Esq., F.G.S.
(Read November 19, 1879.)

[Puate I.]

No one who is in the habit of visiting granite-quarries, or who
has had freqttent opportunities of examining granite, either in a
dressed or in a polished state, can have failed to observe that it
frequently contains patches which resemble imbedded fragments of
older rock. These patches or nests are usually, although not always,
darker in colour than the granites in which they occur, while their
form may be either rounded or more or less angular. In the first
case the patch resembles an enclosed pebble, while in the second it
often presents the appearance of a fragment of slate or mica-schist.
Such patches most frequently have their outlines clearly and
sharply defined, but they occasionally merge by almost insensible
gradations into the enclosing granite.

They are usually finer in grain than the granites in which they
are found, and, from being less easily attacked by atmospheric
agencies, not uncommonly stand out in considerable relief from the
surfaces of weather-worn boulders. The union of the enclosed
patch with the enclosing rock is generally complete, and their

* In this paper fine-grained granitic patches or nodules, although not exhi-

biting a concentric structure, are spoken of as concretionary. ‘They are also
sometimes mentioned as concretions.

Q. J. G. 8. No. 141. ; B

2 J. A. PHILLIPS ON CONCRETIONARY PATCHES AND

cohesion is so perfect that it is seldom difficult to obtain hand
specimens exhibiting the line of junction of the two.

Such bodies sometimes enclose crystals of felspar similar in all
respects to those of the enclosing granite, excepting that in the
majority of cases their angles are more distinctly rounded; patches of
this kind occasionally contain others either of a lighter or of a darker
colour than themselves. The inclusions in granitic rocks, although
they have long attracted the attention of geologists, do not appear
to have been often a subject of investigation; they have, however,
been mentioned by various authors, who have accounted for their
presence in different ways.

In his ‘ Geological Classification of Rocks’ (p. 230), published
in 1821, Dr. John Macculloch writes as follows :—

‘‘The magnitude of the parts in granite is extremely various,
each constituent mineral sometimes exceeding an inch in di-
mensions, and at others being almost invisibly minute. Various
textures are also often united in a very limited space, or the rock
passes imperceptibly from fine- to coarse-grained. Occasionally also
irregular patches or veins, of a fine texture, are seen imbedded in a
coarser variety. In one rare instance the parts affect a spheroidal
arrangement.”

Naumann (1858) observes :—‘‘ Pseudofragmentary Concretions.
These appear like more or less sharp-angled fragments, but without
being so. Such concretions occur not unfrequently in granite and
syenite and in other rocks made up of crystalline silicates; they
have sometimes been quite erroneously interpreted, having been
really taken for what they seem to be” *.

The same author subsequently remarks:—“In this connexion
we have yet another opinion to consider, to which attention has
already been called (i. p. 919), the opinion, namely, that these
fragments are not really to be regarded as such, but merely as
fragment-like concretions. That concretions really sometimes occur
which in their form possess a deceptive resemblance to angular or
rounded fragments is certainly no more to be denied than that occa-
sionally fragments acquire the appearance of concretions (i. pp. 422
and 560) by the fusion and rounding of the contours” 7.

Hochstetter states that the island of Billiton is, like Banca,
principally granite, and that the rocks closely resemble the stanni-
ferous granites of the Carlsbad district, including a porphyritic
granite like that of the neighbourhood of Marienbad, containing the
same highly micaceous fine-grained dark enclosures of globular
form {.

Under the heading of ‘Segregation of Granites,” Jokély makes
the following observations :—‘ Besides the lamellar, spherical, con-
centrically-coated, and more irregular segregations also make their
appearance. The spherical is usually combined with the scaled,
whilst the spheroidal or ellipsoidal forms which are met with in

* C. F, Naumann, Lehrb. der Geognesie, 2. Auf. vol. i. p. 422,

t Ibid. vol. ii. p. 203.
+ F. Hochstetter, Jahrb. k.-k. geol. Reichsanstalt, 1858, p. 285.

FRAGMENTS OF OTHER ROCKS CONTAINED IN GRANITE, 3

many places are usually only the interior, harder nuclei of former
larger blocks of concentric structure, which remain behind as such
after their outer bark, as it were, has peeled off. Within suck
round blocks there is frequently an inner concretion, from 1 to 2
feet and more in diameter, which consists essentially of aggrega-
tions of mica, and probably may in most cases have been the first
inducement to the concentric scaled structure. Locally these con-
cretionary enclosures are called ‘souls.’ This segregation occurs
In most varieties of granite, but especially in the finer-grained
ones ” *,

A still more recent writer on the geology of Bohemia makes the
following observations on the granites of that country :—‘ One of
the most remarkable peculiarities of this variety of granite (horn-
blende granite) is the innumerable fine-grained enclosures which
it contains. They are always sharply segregated from the con-
taining rock, and are of all sizes, from that of the fist to that of a
pin’s head. The ground-mass of these fragments is of a dark colour,
consisting of mica and small quartz-grains, in which white orthoclase
crystals are for the most part porphyritically developed. The en-
closures also contain hornblende crystals, although not in such
quantity as in the enclosing rock. It is difficult to say any thing as
to the mode of production of these fragments ; but from the identity
of the constituents and from their great abundance, it would appear
that they were not derived from a rock broken through, but the
product, during the solidification of the whole mass, of a process of
segregation, the nature of which is entirely unknown tous. The
circumstance must be noted, however, that they are exclusively
confined to the area of the hornblende granite, but entirely absent
in the other varieties”.

A very remarkable example of concretionary granite is described
in the U.S. Report on the Geology of Vermont+. ‘The basis of
this remarkable variety of granite is rather fine-grained, white and
highly felspathic. The mica, however, is usually dark, and where
it exists in large quantities it gives the rock the aspect of syenite.
But there is no hornblende present. Scattered through this base
occur numerous spheroidal or elongated and somewhat flattened
nodules of black mica, from half an inch to two inches in diameter ;
and when elongated the longer axis is sometimes seen as much as
four or five inches long. ‘They are usually more or less flattened,
and have a shrivelled appearance like dried fruit. They sometimes
become so thin as to consist only of a few plates........ When
the nodule is elongated and the wrinkles correspond, as they always
do, to the longer axis, the resemblance is very striking to a dried

* Johann Jokély, “Geogn. Verhialtnisse in einem Theile des mittleren
Bohmen,” Jahrb. k.-k. geol. Reichsanstalt, 1855, p. 375.

+t F. von Andrian, “ Beitrige zur Geologie des Kaurimer und Taborer Kreises
in Bohmen,” ibid. 1863, p. 166.

t Report on the Geology of Vermont, by Edward Hitchcock, LL.D., Edward
Hitchcock, Jun., M.D., Albert Hager, A.M., and Chas. H. Hitchcock, A.M.,
vol, ii. p. 664, 1861. 9

B

4 J. A. PHILLIPS ON CONCRETIONARY PATCHES AND

butternut, more especially when stripped of itsepicarp. No wonder
they should be called‘ petrified butternuts’...... If a specimen,
somewhat flattened, be placed on its edge, and a moderately sharp
blow be given to it with a hammer, concavo-convex scales will be
chipped off even to the centre. They are composed of layers of
mica with granular quartz, and probably some felspar interposed.
The structure is evidently concretionary ; yet, as already intimated,
one can hardly avoid the suspicion that something has been ab-
stracted from some of them, causing a shrinkage.”

At page 721 of the same volume, the Rev. 8S. Hall remarks :
— These singular nodules seem to be imbedded in the granite
mass ‘ like plums in a pudding.’ They extend only a short distance
from the place where first found in Stanstead. From that place to
Craftsbury the granite exhibits no unusual appearance. At the
south village in the latter town is an immense bed of nodular
granite, some of which seems to be composed almost entirely of
nodules slightly cemented by grains of mica and quartz. Other
parts of the rock are very solid, and not inclined to decomposition
more than other granite.”

In a paper “On the Metamorphic Origin of certain Granitoid Rocks
and Granites in the Southern Uplands of Scotland ”’ *, Mr. J. Geikie,
F.R.S., describes ‘‘ nests” of altered rock which occur in some of
the grey granites of that district. These, he says, often exhibit
distinct traces of lamination ; and their most usual character is that
of an exceedingly fine-grained mica-schist, the dark or almost black
shade being due to the abundance of mica. ‘They are very irregular
in shape, and by no means confined to those portions of the rock
which abut upon the outlying bedded or aqueous strata, but are, on
the contrary, scattered imdiscriminately throughout the granite.
He subsequently proceeds to account for the presence of these nests,
and states that they “either represent such little detached por-
tions of shale as are of common occurrence in the Lower Silurian
greywackés, or they may be remnants of thin bands or beds of
shale that interleaved the original strata. Those who deny the
metamorphic origin of granite will probably suggest that the ‘nests’
of altered rock may have been caught up by the granite during
its progress through the strata that envelope it. But if this had
been the case, we should certainly expect to find the ‘nests’ not
only more abundant near the junction of the granite with the
stratified rocks, but indeed almost, if not exclusively, confined to that
area. They are not more characteristic, however, of one portion of
the granite than of another, but, as already remarked, are scattered
indiscriminately throughout. J am therefore forced to conclude
that the crystalline rocks described above have resulted from the
alteration in situ of certain bedded deposits. The occurrence of th
‘nests’ cannot be accounted for on any other theory.”

None of the published descriptions of these concretions or enclosures
in granites appear to have resulted from investigations founded
either upon chemical analysis or upon a microscopical examination

* Geol. Mag. vol. iii. p. 533.

FRAGMENTS OF OTHER ROCKS CONTAINED IN GRANITE. 5

of thin sections; and I have consequently been induced to avail
myself to some extent of those methods of research in the hope of
being thereby enabled to more clearly determine than has hitherto
been done the nature and origin of such bodies. In carrying out
this work, I first examined some of the principal quarries in the
granite districts of the west of England, and subsequently those in
the neighbourhood of Shap, in Westmoreland. I afterwards made
myself acquainted with those in the vicinity of Aberdeen and Peter-
head in Scotland, and examined numerous specimens from the dis-
trict about Fort William collected by Mr. C. W. Merrifield, F.RS. ;
finally the granite-quarries situated in the vicinity of Newry and
Castlewellan in Ireland were visited.

In the following pages I propose to describe the various granites
and their respective inclusions in the order in which the several dis-
tricts were examined, beginning with a quarry at Lamorna Cove in
West Cornwall, five miles south-west from the town of Penzance.

English Granites—The granite-quarries at Lamorna are situated
mainly in the cliff forming the more easterly shore of Lamorna Cove,
and they have, at various times, been somewhat extensively worked
for building-material. The granite from this locality is grey in
colour and moderately coarse in structure, occasionally enclosing
erystals of white felspar an inch and a half in length, together with
numerous smaller ones possessing a distinctly greenish shade.
Crystalline granules of a brownish transparent quartz are also abun-~
dant, as is likewise a nearly black mica, which is disseminated in
minute scales throughout the other constituents. Black patches are
exceedingly abundant in this granite, and have generally the
appearance of fine-grained enclosures with irregular outlines ; not
unfrequently these exhibit a texture closely resembling that of a
hardened slate or micaceous schist, and they are sometimes observed
to be traversed by strings or veins of the enclosing granite. The
frequency of the occurrence of black patches in this rock considerably
detracts from its value as a building-material, as may be seen in the
Museum building at Penzance, the front of which is constructed of
Lamorna granite containing numerous dark spots. In this quarry
the dark patches sometimes include imperfect crystals of quartz of
considerable size, resembling in all respects those of the surrounding
granite. |

When examined under the microscope the mica of this granite
appears to be chiefly of a dark brown colour, and is observed to be
marked by circular, or nearly circular, spots of a much darker shade ;
in the centre of many of these markings a crystal of apatite occurs
as a nucleus. This mica.is often penetrated by well-formed crystals
of unaltered magnetite, which is also found, although with less fre-
quency, in the crystals of felspar and quartz. The presence of
white mica is somewhat exceptional ; but this granite contains light-
brown tourmaline as well as a few small crystals of apatite.

The quartz of this rock encloses the usual liquid-cavities, which,
however, are not generally numerous; the felspar is in part ortho-
clase, but a notable proportion of a plagioclastic species is also

6 J. A. PHILLIPS ON CONCRETIONARY PATCHES AND

present. The crystals of orthoclase often enclose grains of quartz
and patches of a triclinic felspar.

Six different sections were prepared of as many dark micaceous
inclusions from this locality, and, with the exception of two, they
were found, when examined under the microscope, to differ from
one another in the fineness of their grain only. Four of the speci-
mens consist essentially of a mixture of granular quartz with felspar,
through which numerous flakes of dark mica are disseminated.

The felspar does not very often exhibit any traces of triclinic
striation ; but the plates of mica are usually arranged with their
axes approximately parallel to the same plane. As is almost
invariably the case in this locality, the inclusions are much closer
in grain than the granite, and the quartz, which is found chiefly
in patches, occurs mostly in granules from °75 millim. to 1 millim.
in diameter. In addition to the foregoing constituents, these patches
enclose minute and imperfectly crystallized garnets of a dark-green
colour, magnetite, or ilmenite, and imperfect crystals of tourmaline.
The larger crystals of garnet are sometimes ‘5 millim. in diameter,
while the smaller ones are frequently made up of an aggregation of
exceedingly minute blebs separated from one another by spaces
filled up with quartz.

The two remaining sections of inclusions from this locality differ
from the preceding only in containing a less proportion of felspar,
the absence of which is compensated for by the presence of a large
quantity of a bacillar colourless mineral, which is probably tremolite.

At Wicca Pool, Zennor, granite in the form of veins penetrates
for a considerable distance into the mica-slates forming the sea-cliff,
and fragments of slate which have been detached from the general
mass have become enclosed in the granite. These enclosed fragments
are angular, their outlines are sharply defined, and their union with
the surrounding granite along the surfaces of contact is complete.

In general appearance the included fragments can scarcely be
distinguished from specimens of the general mass of the micaceous
rock taken from along the line ofits direct contact with the in-
trusive granite, excepting that foliation has been almost obliterated.
Sections of the mica-slate in contact with the granite are seen under
the microscope to consist of a mixture of granular quartz, brown
mica, and a little white mica—the last being present in very small
quantity only, with a few occasional minute garnets and a
considerable amount of magnetite in the form of disseminated
grains.

Thin sections prepared from fragments found by Mr. H. Bauerman
enclosed within the granite do not differ materially from those made
from contact specimens, excepting that both the quartz and mica
are in this case more distinctly crystalline.

When seen in polarized light, sections cut from the included
fragments and those from the slate in immediate contact with the
granite veins are scarcely to be distinguished from one another, as
the grains of quartz in the contact-specimens then become well
defined; their average diameter, from ‘07 millim. to -1 — is
the same in both instances.

FRAGMENTS OF OTHER ROCKS CONTAINED IN GRANITE. 7

The grey granite extensively quarried in the neighbourhood of
Penryn is almost entirely free from patches differing materially,
either in texture or colour, from the surrounding rock. Such
bodies are, however, to some extent, represented by occasional
aggregations of a few large flakes of mica. One of these nests, of
about the size and thickness of a shilling, from Carnsew quarry was
found to consist of a mixture of greyish-white and black micas
without any admixture either of quartz or felspar.

The granites in the neighbourhood of St. Austell, the majority of
which are to a greater or less extent schorlaceous, and which are
sometimes marked by reddish-brown spots resulting from the per-
oxidation of ferrous compounds, are generally free from nests
differing in texture or colour from the surrounding rock; and although
several quarries in this district were examined, no specimens of in-
clusions were obtained.

At Gready, in the parish of Luxulyan, a large quarry has been
opened upon a coarse-grained grey granite containing a moderate
amount of black and silvery-white mica, with occasional crystals of
schorl. This granite sometimes contains spheroidal or ovoid bodies*
very dark in colour, and closely resembling water-worn pebbles of
fine-grained ‘“ greenstone”; these are firmly imbedded in the rock
and exhibit distinct and sharply defined outlines.

An inclusion from the Gready quarry, one half natural size, is
represented in fig. 1, Pl. I.

An examination of thin sections of the coarse-grained granite from
this locality does not afford much information which might not be
obtained by a careful study of hand specimens with the aid of a
lens.

The black and silvery-white micas are, however, seen to be often
interlaminated, while the former frequently encloses a considerable
amount of magnetite with occasional minute. crystals of apatite.
The dark mica in this rock is affected by the deeper brown spots
. previously referred to as occurring in the micas of other Cornish
granites, and the quartz contains the usual liquid-cavities. A
notable proportion of the felspar is triclinic, and the rock contains
a few small garnets.

Sections cut from rounded pebble-like patches found in this quarry,
when examined under the microscope, are found to be, with perhaps
the exception of schorl, composed of the same minerals as the
enclosing granite; but the crystals are much smaller and the pro-
portion of black mica is larger. A large portion of the felspar
has been rendered cloudy by an opaque product of alteration ; but
wherever the crystals have retained their original transparency a
preponderance of triclinic felspar becomes apparent. An alteration-
product of a greenish shade is also present.

The following analysis of a specimen of granite from Gready
quarry has, for convenience of comparison, been placed side by side
with one of a close-grained dark-coloured ovoid inclusion from the
same locality. The granite selected for analysis was that immediately
surrounding the inclusion of which the composition is given.

8 J. A. PHILLIPS ON CONCRETIONARY PATCHES AND

Granite. Inclusion.
; hygrometric ...... 13 18
pve 1 ois 59 1-25
pa eee Bue hese us, a Be Kou 69°64 65:01
Phosphoric anhydride ...... trace trace
PMN eee aI os ale a si, Site 17°35 NWS Y/
NETIC OKUIS o ecS ini e whae nine a 1:04 4°95
IETS Wig te asa isles ik nie ae hoe egy. 1:86
Manganous oxide .......... trace trace
LLALOC. ... Aarne RR RRM orgs 1:40 211
IVETE ST) tik as wtses + we gessesdy iyi eal 1:34
LEC LAST ane Panree ED 4-08 1:82
AON ee ote ps wn Sinope noes ate trace trace
SOUL OE REAR Berea 3°51 4-14
99°92 100°03
SCEMNC STAVILY cn ole taduse oes oa eae 2°73

The results of chemical analysis are thus perfectly in accordance
with those which might have been anticipated from a microscopic
examination of the two rocks. A considerable proportion of the
orthoclase in the granite is, in the inclusion, represented by a soda-
lime felspar, probably oligoclase, while the marked increase in the
quantities of ferric oxide and magnesia in the latter are doubtless
chiefly referable to an augmentation in the proportion of mica
present *.

The granite of the Cheesewring quarries, near Liskeard, is without
inclusions, but is traversed by veins of fine-grained granite, con-
* taining a pinkish biaxial mica (lepidolite), in which triclinic felspar

is abundant.

At Gunnislake the granite does not contain any patches pre-
senting definite and distinct ontlines; but wherever spots occur
they gradually merge into the normal rock. Sections prepared
from these indistinct aggregations are found to consist of a fine-
grained granite, in which triclinic felspar is perhaps somewhat
more abundant than in the surrounding rock.

The only granite which I have examined from the county of
Devon is that raised at the extensive quarries of Foggen Tor, near
the great prison of Prince’s Town on Dartmoor. This is a grey
granite, generally without pebble-like inclusions bounded by
distinct and well-defined outlines. A few patches of fine-grained
granite, considerably darker in colour than the surrounding rock,
were, however, found. The outlines of these are moderately
sharp, and, in one instance, a patch of this description encloses a
erystal of orthoclase, the angles of which are rounded, as well
as two distinct crystals of quartz, similarly modified. Fig. 2, Pl. L.,
represents this specimen, natural size,

* The Rev. S. Haughton, F.R.S., states that the second felspar in Cornish

granites is albite (Proc. Roy. Soc. vol. xvii. p, 209). There are, however, pro-

bably exceptions to this; and, in the present instance, the results of analysis
render the presence of orthoclase probable.

FRAGMENTS OF OTHER ROCKS CONTAINED IN GRANITE. 9

When thin sections of Foggen-Tor granite are examined under
the microscope, they are all seen to consist of orthoclase, quartz,
dark-brown mica, schorl, and a little silvery-grey mica; a plagio-
clastic felspar is also present; but no magnetite was observed. It
may, however, be remarked that this rock, like some of the granites
in the neighbourhood of St. Austell, is occasionally marked by red-
dish-brown spots, apparently resulting from the oxidation of some
mineral containing ferrous oxide.

A section of the fine-grained patch enclosing crystals of quartz
and a rounded crystal of orthoclase, when examined under the
microscope, is seen to be composed of the same minerals as the sur-
rounding rock, the only difference being in the dimensions of the
component crystals and the presence of a larger proportion of nearly
black mica.

This is, therefore, simply a nest of darker-coloured granite, and
is probably a concretionary product, although it has been ascer-
tained, by cutting through the specimen, that the large rounded
erystal of orthoclase does not extend beyond the darker fine-grained
patch into the normal granite. This granite sometimes contains
large druses or “‘vughs” lined with quartz crystals, while it oc-
casionally becomes decomposed into a soft kaolin, in which disso-
ciated silica is imbedded in the form of aggregated crystals of nearly
transparent quartz.

The well-known granite of Shap in Westmoreland, which is
remarkable for its beautiful crystals of pinkish-red orthoclase, and
is extensively wrought for ornamental purposes, encloses numerous
rounded patches of a darker colour than the surrounding rock,
which, at first sight, present the appearance of fine-grained inclusions
of trap. This granite, in hand specimens, is seen to consist of a
ground-mass of quartz, felspar, and black mica, porphyritically en-
closing large crystals of red orthoclase; but, when examined under
the microscope, it is found to contain, in addition to those minerals,
magnetite, titanite, a little apatite, hornblende, and occasionally
some triclinic felspar.

The patches in this granite are well defined, and generally more or
less rounded in outline, varying in size from that of a pea to that of a
water-melon. They are commonly much finer in grain than the
surrounding rock; and, on account of the presence of a larger pro-
portion of black mica, are, in a great majority of cases, considerably
darker in colour. In some instances a portion of the mica included
in these dark patches would appear to have become segregated
from the surrounding granite, which,in the immediate neighbour-
hood of the inclusion, is comparatively free from the presence of
that mineral.

The rounded pebble-like bodies which occur in this granite fre-
quently enclose crystals of the beautiful red orthoclase characteristic
of the surrounding rock ; but these are generally imperfect in form
and have their angles considerably rounded.

Fig. 3, Pl. I., represents a sharply defined inclusion in the Shap
granite, scale four-tenths natural size, which, in addition to nume-

10 ' J. A. PHILLIPS ON CONCRETIONARY PATCHES AND

rous small patches of red orthoclase, contains a large crystal of
that mineral, the angles of which are rounded.

A large dark-coloured fine-grained patch observed in this rock
contains a smaller one considerably lighter in colour and presenting
very distinct outlines. Besides imperfect and much-rounded crystals
of red and white felspar, this specimen encloses a large milky felspar
crystal of which the angles are perfectly sharp.

Six sections were examined, from as many rounded enclosures,
from the Shap quarries, and, without exception, the ground-mass of
the whole of them was found to contain all the various minerals
constituting the normal granite of the district, although the pro-
portion of dark mica present was in considerable excess. Triclinic
felspar appears to be more abundant in the inclusions than in the
surrounding granite, and a portion of this mineral shows cross
striation in polarized light; a few of the crystals exhibit concentric
lines of growth. .

In exceptional cases the patches in Shap granite, from the almost
_ total absence of black mica, are lighter in colour than the surround-
ing rock; and occasionally two distinct inclusions, differing both in
texture and colour, are found one within the other.

In addition to the rounded masses already described, this granite
encloses others of a more schistose character, which are often softer
than the rock in which they are contained. Sections of inclusions of
this kind are seen under the microscope to consist either entirely of
mica, or of mica associated with quartz and occasional crystals of
felspar. When composed of mica alone, these inclusions can scarcely
be regarded otherwise than as being of segregationary origin; but
where quartz in considerable quantity is also present a fragment of
mica-schist may sometimes have become enclosed in the granite.

The method of occurrence of such bodies in Shap granite will be
understood by reference to Pl. I. figs. 4, 5, natural size, care-
fully drawn by Mr. Frank Rutley. Whether these be the result
of included flakes of a stratified rock, or of the segregation of mica
only, it is evident that they must have been at least partially con-
solidated previous to the crystallization of the felspar. It will
be observed that in fig. 4 the inclusion is completely divided by
a large crystal of orthoclase, while in fig. 5 a crystal of that
mineral is traversed by fragmentary portions of a similar body. It
is somewhat unfortunate that, as the drawings were made from a
polished pillar, it was impossible to obtain thin sections of these
particular inclusions.

Scotch Granites —The Scotch granites of which J have examined
the inclusions are those in the neighbourhood of Aberdeen, Peter-
head, and Fort William.

The Aberdeen granites are grey in colour and fine in grain, and
are mainly composed of quartz and felspar, with colourless and dark
or nearly black micas. The granite of this district is regarded by
Prof. Haughton as being of metamorphic origin*, and is apparently
almost free from rounded or pebble-like inclusions.

* Proc. Roy. Soe, vol. xviii. p. 313.

FRAGMENTS OF OTHER ROCKS CONTAINED IN GRANITE. 11

When thin sections are examined under the microscope they are
found to be composed, in addition to orthoclase and quartz, of a large
proportion of a triclinic felspar, which Profs. Haughton and Heddle
have determined to be oligoclase*; this granite also contains a colour-
less and a nearly black mica, a few minute garnets, and occasionally
crystals of apatite and sphenet. A portion of the felspar exhibits
eross hatching in polarized light, and the quartz is frequently traversed
by hair-like crystals, which are probably either schorl or rutile.

A subangular inclusion obtained from Rubislaw quarry, two miles
west of Aberdeen, is about 5inches in length, and resembles a contorted
fragment of mica-schist. Sections of this specimen are seen to be com-
posed of quartz and felspar, with dark and colourless micas. A con-
siderable proportion of the felspar is triclinic, and the cleavage-planes
of the micas are parallel to the foliation of the rock. One or two small
garnets were also observed. Other inclusions from this locality, of
nearly similar appearance, but of smaller dimensions, were collected,
and on examination were found to have the same composition.

At Sclattie quarry, near Buxburn, I found a large piece of sil-
very grey schistose rock, weighing several pounds, enclosed in granite.
Its surfaces, which were in no way altered, were most completely
united with the granite, which was itself quite unaltered in the
immediate proximity of the enclosure; the line of junction of the
two rocks was therefore perfectly well defined. This inclusion,
which has the appearance of a mica-schist or a highly micaceous
gneiss, was found to be composed of quartz, felspar, and white and
dark micas. Many of the crystals of felspar evidently belong to a
triclinic species, while others exhibit cross striation when ex-
amined in polarized light. A few crystals of apatite were observed
in sections prepared from this inclusion.

Another inclusion found in the granite of Sclattie has nearly the
following dimensions—length 9 inches, width 7 inches, and thick-
ness 3 inches. This specimen, which is exceedingly hard, is of a
darker colour than the enclosing rock, and exhibits angles which
are but slightly rounded. It is distinctly stratified by alternate
bands of nearly colourless quartz and of some darker material, and
the whole of its exterior is so covered by a layer of black mica as to
render its separation from the surrounding granite an easy operation.
Under the microscope this is seen to consist, to a large extent, of
granular quartz, of which the outlines sometimes appear slightly
rounded. With this quartz are mixed a few fragmentary crystals
of felspar, of which some belong to a triclinic species, whilst
others show cross striation when examined in polarized light. This
specunen contains a considerable amount of brown or black mica ;
but white mica is also present, although in a less proportion. The
quartz and mica occur in more or less distinct layers ; and the black
and colourless micas are much interfoliated, their lamine being
frequently enclosed in quartz.

* Haughton, Proc. Roy. Soc. vol. xviii. p. 313; Heddle, Trans. Roy. Soc.
Edinb. vol. xxviii. p. 265, note.

t One very minute crystal only of sphene was observed in the sections
examined.

12 J, A. PHILLIPS ON CONCRETIONARY PATCHES AND

The inclusions found in the grey granite at Dyce quarry, six
miles north-west of the city of Aberdeen, are, for the most part,
foliated subangular masses of a dark bluish-grey colour, not unlike
the first of those described as having been obtained at Sclattie.
They are all distinctly foliated, and, on sections being examined,
are seen to be composed of quartz, felspar, aud the usual dark- and
light-coloured micas; these inclusions also contain a few minute
garnets, and a little magnetite, together with occasional needle-
like crystals of apatite. Some of the bands of this enclosed rock
are almost entirely composed of the two descriptions of mica, while
others decidedly resemble gneiss in their constitution.

One of the most remarkable specimens from this quarry was in the
form of a lenticular mass weighing considerably over a hundredweight,
and so covered externally by a thin layer of mica that it readily sepa-
rated from the enclosing rock. On being broken it was found to
consist of a granite possessing the same characteristics as that around
it, but at least one half finer in texture. Sections were prepared
from the fragments, and were found to be composed of the same
materials as the enclosing rock, with the addition of a little
magnetite, the presence of which was not observed in the latter.
Triclinic felspar (oligoclase) was also more than usually abundant.

At Kemnay, three miles west of the railway-station at Kintore, a
quarry is extensively worked on a granite of the same general cha-
racter as that wrought nearer the city of Aberdeen. In this locality
inclusions are extremely rare; but one of the specimens there ob-
tained is of great interest as affording evidence that some of the dark
patches in granites, which at first sight closely resemble enclosures
of a schistose rock, may in reality be the result of segregation.

Fig. 6, Pl. 1., represents the specimen referred to, one half natural
size. .

Sections of the dark material forming the inclusion in this rock are,
when examined under the microscope, found to be composed entirely
of black and colourless micas with their planes of cleavage all lying
approximately in the same direction.

The granite in this quarry is traversed by a dyke of very fine-
grained black mica-trap, which has sometimes a thickness of several
feet, but sends off various branches, some of which are not much
thicker than cardboard. This trap is so firmly soldered to the en-
closing granite that blocks of which one portion is granite and the
other trap do not, when struck, show a greater tendency to divide
along the junction than in any other direction. When cut perpen-
dicularly to the plane of junction, the granite and trap are seen to
be joined along a line as distinct as when two pieces of differently
coloured wood are planed to a joint, glued together, and subse-
quently polished. Some small fragments of granite which have be-
come enclosed in this trap are not in the slightest degree altered, and
their edges are as sharp as when first separated from the parent rock.

Under the microscope this trap is found to consist of a crystalline
felspathic ground-mass in which small flakes of dark mica and di-
stinct crystals of felspar are porphyritically enclosed,. The crystals

FRAGMENTS OF OTHER ROCKS CONTAINED IN GRANITE. 13

of felspar usually show twinning; but the largest of them do not
exceed ‘2 millim. in length, while the flakes of mica seldom exceed
‘15 millim. in diameter. In addition to felspar and mica this rock
contains a few minute grains of magnetite.

The granites in the neighbourhood of Peterhead differ from those
in the vicinity of Aberdeen in their dominant felspar being of a
pinkish-red hue, instead of colourless or greyish-white, as in the last-
named locality. These granites are regarded by Professor Haughton
as being of eruptive origin, and their second felspar is albite*.

Under the microscope thin sections of the granite from this
district are seen to consist of quartz, orthoclase, a subordinate amount
of a triclinic felspar, black or very dark-brown mica, a few needle-
like crystals of apatite, and occasional crystalline patches of titanite.
In addition to these minerals, vermicular chlorite occurs in the
granite of Black Hills, where the quartz also occasionally encloses
filamentary crystals, which are perhaps rutile.

The principal quarries worked in the district are situated at
Stirling Hill and Black Hills, a few miles south of the town of
Peterhead. In both these localities the inclusions almost invariably
assume an ovoid form, and usually vary in dimensions from the size
of a nut to that of a large apple; considerably larger ones are, how-
ever, sometimes met with. They are in nearly all cases darker in
colour and much finer in texture than the enclosing rock; their out-
lines are sharply defined, and they frequently enclose, porphyriti-
cally, rounded crystals of pinkish-red orthoclase.

Seven different sections were prepared of as many ovoid inclusions
_ from this district, and in every instance they were found to consist
of an exceedingly fine-grained granite containing all the various
minerals present in the enclosing rock. ‘The proportions of mica
and of triclinic felspar are, however, greater than in the normal
granite, and the amount of quartz is somewhat less.

This agrees with the results obtained by analyses of the average
granite and of the dark-coloured rounded enclosures :—

: : Granite. Inclusion.
erometric...... 21
eae alae ice 40 ‘76
Palvennyige 0. SUAS. OSLO! 73°70 64:39
AUS AA. otal, «3 14°44 15°99
Phosphoric anhydride ...... trace trace
Titanic Pat mt, lant distinct traces distinct traces
Werrig oxides ek. 4.2. 6% 2.
WETS oA" eee parti aeaes 1:49 5°98
Manganous oxide.......... trace trace
een CORES FALUN EE el 1:08 2°57
METSMGSIAT. fi) st. O88 . Aas trace I-67
cif BIE SC hese Osea. Ma aR a 4:43 2°46
Derr. 6 alee ae dye 4°21 4-96
100°39 100°44
Bpecilie eravity9? ss... ss... 2:69 2°73

* Proceedings of the Royal Society, vol. xviii. p. 313.

14 J. A. PHILLIPS ON CONCRETIONARY PATCHES AND

On comparing the foregoing analyses with those made of corre-
sponding Cornish specimens (p. 8) it will be observed that the
proportion of ferrous oxide as compared with ferric oxide is larger
in the latter than in the former case. This, perhaps, m some
measure arises from the black mica in the Peterhead granites being
Haughtonite, a highly ferruginous mineral,in which the iron is
mainly in the state of protoxide, and which Professor Heddle has
shown to be present in many of the Scotch granites.

The only exception to the rounded form of inclusion observed in
this district was found in a quarry at Black Hulls, and is repre-
sented two thirds natural size in fig. 7, Pl. I.

Under the microscope this specimen is seen to be composed of a
mixture of dark brown or black mica with granular quartz and
an occasional crystal of felspar, the lamine of the mica being so
arranged as to produce foliation. A small quantity of magnetite or
ilmenite is also present. In all rocks in which the mica in hand-
specimens appears black, its colour in thin sections varies from brown
to greyish brown.

Near the lighthouse at Buchan Ness this granite is traversed by a
large dyke of micaceous felsite, which, in places, becomes porphyritic
by enclosing crystals of quartz and orthoclase.

The granite of the Ardshiel quarries situated at Ballachulish, about
ten miles south-east of Fort William, consists essentially of a fine-
grained mixture of quartz, nearly colourless felspar, and dark mica,
very closely resembling in general character the granites of the
Mourne Mountains in Ireland. Under the microscope this rock is
found, in addition to the minerals above enumerated, to contain
hornblende, magnetite, sphene, and apatite; it is further observed
that both orthoclase and a triclinic felspar are present.

This granite contains numerous inclusions which are often darker
in colour than the enclosing rock, and frequently angular or sub-
angular in form. Some of these have evidently the same general
constitution as the enclosing granite, while others are manifestly
enclosed fragments of foliated rocks. Ten thin sections of as many
different inclusions from this locality were examined under the
microscope with the following results :—

The non-foliated crystalline inclusions, some of which exhibit
sharply defined angular outlines, were, without exception, fine-
grained granites precisely resembling the enclosing rock in all
respects, except in being finer in grain, in dark mica and hornblende
being more abundant, and perhaps also in a somewhat larger pro-
portion of triclinic felspar being present.

The enclosures exhibiting a decidedly schistose structure vary
considerably in composition, and have obviously been derived from
rocks differing both from one another and from the surrounding
granite.

Such specimens are sometimes composed of granular quartz, a few
fragmentary crystals of felspar, greenish-brown or nearly black mica,
a little hornblende, occasional small garnets, and a little magnetite.
In other cases hornblende and mica constitute a considerable pro-

FRAGMENTS OF OTHER ROCKS CONTAINED IN GRANITE. 15

portion of the rock, and these are associated with granular quartz
and fragments of felspar ; besides which there are often traces of an
amorphous felsitic ground-mass. Less frequently hornblende and
mica decidedly predominate—quartz, a small quantity of felspar,
garnets, and a little pyrites being also present. The hornblende
and mica in such rocks generally enclose numerous granules of
transparent quartz.

A fine-grained inclusion from this locality of over a foot in length
is composed of contorted bands varying in colour from light grey
to dark green. Under the microscope it is seen to consist largely of
a mixture of colourless and dark mica and hornblende, with a few
small garnets and a mineral which is probably sahlite, the shade
of the several laminz varying with the relative proportions of
the different minerals present in each. This rock does not contain
much free quartz; but a few small crystals of orthoclase and of a
triclinic felspar, as well as a small amount of a felsitic ground-mass,
_ are present.

The analysis of an average specimen of this inclusion afforded the
following results (sp. gr.= 2°93) :—

LY OR OTMELILG Fre. ain wha ns» te

eke { POMADUBSE, Ne vy ale’ 4 5 “70
at De ee ES eae Pe 52°43
Phosphoric anhydride .......... trace
BVM As aes ae 4 Satoh au ah anos 12°76
WeGHIC OOOO oe. Oh Sa ain eed Se 5 1:34
CRT OUS et ode a kia ad Siw ace vantages 4-54
Maneanous Oxide 5... was ses trace
LESTE, SOE PRUE ROME Rs eae ae ean 14°16
RE OSA Saha avis aha ees alas din 9°75
LEGER hs SERNA ene, © mre oe Re 1:09
SITS ROS SS eR ae cement 2-94

99°71

In many granites inclusions occasionally take the form of more or
less perfect crystals of felspar; and such specimens can only be re-
garded as being an extreme development of the enclosure of quartz
and mica in crystals of that mineral. This inclusion of other
minerals in felspar is a phenomenon well known to microscopical
petrologists.

A good example of a pseudomorphic inclusion of this kind was
brought by Mr. Merrifield from Glen Nevis, and on thin sections being
examined under the microscope the granite and its included pseudo-
morph are found to consist of the same minerals in nearly similar
proportions, except that dark mica is somewhat more plentiful in
the latter than in the former. The minerals present, in both instances,
are orthoclase, a triclinic felspar, dark greenish mica, hornblende,
sphene, magnetite, and apatite.

Irish Granites.—The only Irish granites which I have examined
are those of the north-eastern portion of the island; some of these

16 J. A, PHILLIPS ON CONCRETIONARY PATCHES AND

are remarkable for the number and variety of the dark-coloured
inclusions they contain, and they consequently afford unusual facilities
for the study of such bodies.

The Newry granite is essentially composed of quartz, orthoclase,
and black mica, and is usually made up of small and somewhat im-
perfect crystalline grains. It is, however, sometimes coarser in
texture, and occasionally becomes porphyritic by enclosing fragments
of felspar imbedded in a fine-grained ground-mass of a luish-grey
colour.

Near the Goragh-Wood railway-station rari is exposed for a
length of over 400 yards and to a maximum height of above 20
yards. The rock is here principally of the description locally known
as “‘ white granite ;” but close to the station it becomes porphyritic
for a width of about 35 yards, and this “ blue granite” is extensively
quarried for ornamental purposes. It exhibits some slight indica-
tions of foliation, and its colour is due to the presence of numerous
minute scales of black mica disseminated through the mass; the
imperfect crystals of felspar, porphyritically enclosed, rarely exceed
the dimensions of a small bean.

Immediately opposite the railway-platform the porphyritic granite
terminates abruptly against beds of a fine-grained schistose rock,
tilted at a high angle; this rock, which is above 60 feet in width,
separates the blue granite from the ordinary white variety.

The granites of Newry, or Slieve Croob, are regarded by Prof.
Hull * as being of metamorphic origin ; and Mr. F. W. Egan, author
of the memoir explanatory of the geological map of this portion of
Ireland, believes them to be derived from Silurian rocks by transition
through mica-schist and gneiss?. Mr. Kinahan, on the other hand,
classes them with eruptive granites and describes the blue granite
of Goragh Wood as an elvan which has come up through the Newry
granite and must consequently be of more recent date t.

Examined under the microscope this granite is seen to be
composed of quartz, orthoclase, a felspar exhibiting cross stria-
tion, a very few small crystals of a distinctly triclinic felspar, a
dark or black mica, green hornblende, sphene, a few needles of
apatite, with occasionally magnetite, pyrites, and perhaps a little
rutile. A specimen of the schistose rock taken near the centre of
the band against which the blue granite abuts, and consequently
about 30 feet distant from the granite on either side, was found to
be a fine-grained mica-schist. It is composed of finely granular
quartz, occasional fragments of felspar, numerous minute nearly
colourless garnets, small flakes of mica, usually of a dark colour,

a little green hornblende, and a few spots of magnetite and
a rites.

A specimen of the same schistose rock obtained from its immediate
junction with the blue granite is rather coarser in texture and is

* Building and Ornamental Stones of Great Britain &c., p. 45, note.

1 Explanatory Memoir to accompany sheet 59 of the maps of the Geological
Survey of Ireland, p. 12.

t ‘Geology of Ireland,’ pp. 209, 210.

os.
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Vol. XX

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Quart Journ Geol Soc Vol. XXXVI Pll

Hanhart smp

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INCLUSIONS tN GRANITE.

FRAGMENTS OF OTHER ROCKS CONTAINED IN GRANITE. 17

darker in colour than that at a greater distance from it, but does
not otherwise differ, excepting that fragments of felspar are some-
what more numerous, and that the mica has become almost entirely
replaced by green hornblende.

Some of the inclusions found in this locality are unquestionably
fragments of a rock of the character of that exposed in the cutting
opposite the railway-station. These, when of moderate dimensions,
are generally almost black ; and when thin sections of them are ex-
amined under the microscope they are found to consist of granular
quartz with a few fragments of felspar, dark mica, green hornblende,
often some minute garnets, crystalline patches of sphene, and occa-
sionally a little pyrites.

When included fragments of this quartzose rock are of large size
they, in the majority of cases, do not undergo alteration throughout,
but are darkened by the presence of a dissemiuated material of a
nearly black colour to a depth of about an inch only. In such cases
the junction of the inclusion with the surrounding granite is perfectly
defined, and the union of the two rocks is complete ; but the disse-
minated dark flakes gradually become less pientiful, and towards the
centre of the mass almost entirely disappear.

On examining thin sections of the interior or central portions ~
of such inclusions they are found to be composed of a rock contain-
ing granular quartz, some felspar, numerous nearly colourless garnets,
_ alittle dark mica, a few flakes of hornblende, and occasionally specks
of pyrites.

The exterior or altered portions are found to contain the same
granular quartz mixed with a few fragments of felspar, much green
hornblende porphyritically enclosing grains of quartz, some dark
mica, afew small garnets, an occasional small crystal of sphene,
and sometimes a little iron pyrites or magnetite.

The following analyses show the composition of the unaltered and
altered rocks respectively :—

Unaltered rock. Altered rock.
13 08

Water | hysrometric..:.. «1».

combined. 5 + «i: 38 36

SE ee, Re a oe ee ee 63°51 66:64
FAA DMUITID ch vueguhncea ds > (Biphbh alain 5 aut 13°42 Es war
Phosphoric anhydride ...... trace trace
Titanic SEES a eee traces traces
SAO OKA ot abl csnmdubieiiia coy 1:14 Beli at
AA a8 6 ats anh dso alesse 3°91 3°68
Maneanous O16. on. <s9's0d a trace trace
IT baal a age sia A A lbs nial 10°80 6:08
EIA oc. Sieh oe wage Goes 3°03 3°42
BAER i Shane oR «sys asa vis trace trace
LS ae Pe ee i 5 23 “40.
MN Ee nm eetainee ES SP 3°54 3°39
100-09 99-97

RUCCMIG OVA VU w. . sinkiie mune 2°84 2°79

Q.J.G.8. No. 141. C

18 J. A. PHILLIPS ON CONCRETIONARY PATCHES AND ©

Tu addition to inclusions obviously derived from adjacent rocks,
there are smaller ones of a somewhat similar dark shade, of which
the origin is not so immediately apparent. When sections of these
are examined under the microscope, they are found to be composed
of granular quartz with a subordinate amount of felspar and a
considerable proportion of dark mica; with these are associated
crystalline patches of green hornblende porphyritically enclosing
twinned crystals of felspar, occasional small garnets, and, exception-
ally, minute crystals of sphene.

Besides included fragments of extraneous rocks, the Goragh-Wood
granite encloses bodies which are apparently of concretionary origin.
These comprehend all the constituent minerals of the surrounding
rock, although not quite in the same proportions as in the normal
granite, since they are sometimes of lighter colour, from the com-
parative absence of black mica, while in other cases they exhibit a
dark shade in consequence of the greater abundance of that mineral.

Fig. 8, PLL, represents a concretionary enclosure in the Goragh-
Wood granite, one half natural size. Thin sections of this speci-
men are found to be composed of quartz, orthoclase, triclinic
felspar, black mica, sphene, a few needles of apatite, and some
imperfect crystals of magnetite or ilmenite. In these spotted con-
cretions the sphene is usually enclosed in white patches consisting of
a mixture of felspar and quartz; and sometimes assumes the form of
crystalline aggregations porphyritically enclosing either twinned
erystals of felspar or irregular grains of magnetite. In coarse-grained
granites concretionary inclusions sometimes affect the form of more
or less imperfect crystals of felspar.

The porphyritic granite near Bessbrook, which has been opened
out by extensive quarries, closely resembles that at Goragh Wood,
and appears to be nearly free from inclusions of every description.

At Moor Quarry, 13 mile south of Newry, the granite does
not materially differ from that at Goragh Wood, except that, besides
exhibiting less trace of foliation, it is somewhat lighter i in colour and
rather coarser in texture ; under the microscope it is seen to haye
an essentially similar composition.

Similar inclusions to those found at Goragh Wood are of frequent
occurrence in this granite; but those which appear to be of concre-
tionary origin are relatively more numerous than in that locality.

All who have carefully examined the Mourne granite appear to
agree with regard to its eruptive origin. Professor Hull further
regards it as having been intruded among the stratified rocks in a
state bordering on solidity, and with a temperature only sufficient
to indurate, but not to metamorphose, the Silurian rocks by which it
is surrounded *.

One of the most convenient localities from which unweathered
specimens of this granite and its inclusions can be obtained is
Ballymagreehan near Castlewellan, whence were procured the blocks
which now form the base of the Albert Memorial in Hyde Park.
This quarry is no longer worked, but the rock, which is of a brownish-

* Building and Ornamental Stones of Great Britain, p. 44.

FRAGMENTS OF OTHER ROCKS CONTAINED IN GRANITE. 19

grey colour, is finely granular and contains numerous dark in-
clusions.

When thin sections of this rock are examined under the micro<
scope they are found to be composed of quartz, orthoclase, a triclinic
felspar, which Prof. Haughton has determined to be albite*, a dark
greenish mica, green hornblende, some needles of apatite, a little
sphene, and occasionally magnetite or pyrites. The quartz of this
granite is often traversed by minute hair-like crystals, which are
perhaps rutile ; and the hornblende and mica are so mixed as almost
to suggest the possibility of one being sometimes an alteration-
product of the other.

The inclusions in this rock are, as is usually the case in granites,
of two kinds. ‘The first variety is commonly more or less ovoid in
form, is finer in grain than the surrounding granite, considerably
darker in colour, and sometimes encloses crystals of orthoclase of
considerable size. Such bodies contain all the constituents of the
enclosing rock and, with the exception that dark mica is in con-
siderable excess, they are present in nearly the same proportions.

Those belonging to the second category are angular or subangular
in form, very dark in colour, and often exhibit a distinctly foliated
structure. These are composed of granular quartz, black and greenish-
black micas, green hornblende, a few imperfect crystals of felspar,
specks of magnetite, with pyrites, and occasionally a little apatite.
A few minute crystals are also sometimes present of a mineral which
may perhaps be epidote,

General Conclusions.

The inclusions contained in granites are of two distinct kinds.
Those of the first class are the result of an abnormal arrangement of
the minerals constituting the granite itself; while those belonging to
the second represent fragments of other rocks enclosed within its
mass.

Inclusions of the first class are frequently, but not always, more
or less ovoid in form, and are, essentially, composed of a fine-grained
variety of the granite in which they occur; the proportion of tri-
clinic felspar present in such granitic inclusions is often greater than
in the rock which encloses them. |

They are sometimes porphyritic in structure, and contain crystals
of the characteristic felspar of the enclosing rock.. Thus, when the
felspar of the surrounding granite is either red or pink in colour,
that which is porphyritically distributed in the inclusion will, as a
‘rule, be correspondingly red or pink; whereas if white felspar be a
characteristic of the ordinary granite, the porphyritic crystals of the
inclusions will be likewise white.

The angles of felspar crystals so contained in inclusions are
frequently much rounded, and the presence of a large proportion of

* Quart, Journ. Geol, Soo. vol, xii. p. 189. ,
C

20 J. A. PHILLIPS ON CONCRETIONARY PATCHES AND

mica or dark hornblende in such bodies often causes them to be of
a deeper colour than the surrounding rock*.

- In addition to their general similarity in mineral constitution to
the adjoining granite, further evidence of the concretionary origin
of such inclusions is afforded by the fact that a second similar
nodule, differing from the first in colour or in fineness of grain only,
is occasionally found within them.

Crystalline granitic inclusions not unfrequently assume the form
of imperfectly defined crystals of felspar; these may be regarded as
an extreme development of the well-known phenomenon of the
enclosure of quartz and mica in felspar.

Another form of inclusion, giving rise to the production of a dark
fissile patch in granite, results from a segregation of mica from the
surrounding rock. An example of this kind of inclusion is seen in
the granite from Kemnay, Scotland, fig. 6, Pl. L., where it will
be observed that in the immediate vicinity of the enclosure the rock
becomes comparatively free from mica.

The formation of rounded inclusions in granite is believed to have
been usually contemporaneous with the solidification of the general
rock-mass, and to be due to forces of the same nature as those
which have resulted in the production of nodules in the well-known
Napoleonite or orbicular diorite of Corsica. Itis, however, probable
that inclusions having a similar form may have been sometimes
produced by the enclosure of pebbles of extraneous rocks.

In a few instances only have well-defined, angular inclusions of a
fine-grained granite been observed in granites of a coarser descrip-
tion ; in some cases these may be enclosed fragments of an older
granite, but in all the specimens which have been examined, such
inclusions have invariably exhibited the distinctive characteristics
of the enclosing rock.

Inclusions belonging to the second class are often schistose in
structure and are usually irregular in outline, being sometimes
traversed by veins of quartz, or divided by strings of granite, which
appear to have filled spaces caused by the floating apart of slaty
fragments in a granitic magma.

In many instances they are not materially altered, and in a
majority of cases inclusions belonging to this class are easily re-
cognized as being fragments of either gneiss, mica-schist, hornblende-
schist, or garnet-schist; comparatively few specimens only have
been met with so modified as to render their derivation difficult to
determine.

Slaty inclusions are, as a rule, either highly micaceous or highly
hornblendic; and an examination of the schistose rock in contact
with the granite at Goragh Wood, and of partially altered inclusions
from the same locality, shows that in that case the production of
those minerals is a result of granitic contact ft. It will be observed,

* ‘When sections made through both a pebble-like inclusion and the en-
closing granite are examined along their line of. contact, minute crystals are
observed to extend from the former into the latter.

t+ Mr. 8S. Allport has observed that in many cases slates in the immediate
vicinity of the Land’s-End mass of granite have become schorlaceous (Quart.
Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxxii. p. 408).

FRAGMENTS OF OTHER ROCKS CONTAINED IN GRANITE, Ae

on referring to the analyses p. 17, that the chief chemical changes
which have taken place in the rock are an increase in the proportions
of silica, iron oxides, magnesia, and potash, while there is a decrease
in the quantity of lime.

Inclusions distinctly belonging to the two different classes not only
occur in the same granites, but good examples of both descriptions
may be sometimes found in the same cubic foot of rock.

When schistose inclusions are found in ordinary eruptive granites,
they can only be regarded as fragments of extraneous rock which
have been caught up by the granite and enclosed within its mass.
In the case of granites which may, on the contrary, be supposed to
be of metamorphic origin, they will doubtless be looked upon by
those entertaining that opinion as portions of older rocks which
have, to a great extent, withstood the action of granitic metamor-
phism.

- The foregoing conclusions have been arrived at after an examina-
tion of only a limited number of rocks, but are probably capable of
more extensive application.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE I.

Fig. 1. Ovoid inclusion from Gready quarry, Luxulyan, Cornwall, one half

natural size. A fine-grained granite containing a large proportion of
dark mica: p. 7.

2. Inclusion in granite from Foggen Tor, Dartmoor, natural size, por-

phyritically enclosing granular quartz and a large crystal of orthoclase,
of which the angles are rounded: p. 8.

. Ovoid granitic inclusion in granite from Shap, Westmoreland, enclosing
a rounded crystal of red orthoclase, four tenths natural size: p. 9.

. Inclusion in Shap granite, natural size, divided by a crystal of red
orthoclase : p. 10.

3

4

5. A similar inclusion, natural size, in the same block of granite, passing
in a broken line through a crystal of orthoclase : p. 10.

6

t

. Segregationary inclusion of mica, one half natural size, Kemnay quarry,
near Kintore: p. 12.

. Schistose inclusion in red granite from Peterhead, Scotland, two thirds
natural size, composed of dark mica, granular quartz,and a few
erystals of felspar: p. 14.

8. Inclusion, one half natural size, in granite from Goragh Wood,
Ireland. In the centre of each of the light-coloured porphyritio
patches there is a crystal of sphene: p. 18,

Discussion.

The PrestpEent said that he had examined cases of this kind in
the Aberdeen granite, and had found that some were really frag-
ments of another rock, and others concretionary. He therefore quite
agreed in the limited observations with which Mr. Phillips had
concluded from a much laryer number. He thought the paper most
valuable, especially as bearing on the temperature at which granite
was formed.

Mr. Arrwoop remarked that on the western slope of the Wahsatch
range, in Utah, these concretionary nodules were very common in
the granites. Tunnels showed that they did not extend deep into

the rock, but occurred only near the point of contact with other
rocks,

99 CONCRETIONARY PATCHES AND FRAGMENTS IN GRANITE.

Mr. Ormerop said he had observed these inclusions on the eastern
side of Dartmoor; there the inclusions were generally oval, and
called ‘“mare’s eggs,” and the phenomena agreed with those de-
scribed by Mr, Phillips.

Prof. Ramsay said these inclusions might be seen remarkably well
on the steps of the Duke-of-York’s column. The subject appeared
to him to have been admirably worked out by Mr. Phillips. He
thought, however, that Mr. Phillips’s remarks were not inconsistent
with the idea that some granites were metamorphic.

Mr. W. W. Suytu congratulated the author of the paper, with
whom he heartily agreed. There were many cases to be seen in
Cornwall of fragments torn off from the neighbouring rocks, When,
however, you find aggregates, as of schorl, like balls, they must be
due to some kind of coneretionary action. The Elba granites showed
a tendency to aggregation with schorl and with mica.

Prof. SznLEy quoted cases from the internal structure of crystals
of augite and hornblende of the Siebengebirge, where similar con-
cretionary masses occur plentifully in the trachytic rocks, They
generally have angular sides, as though large felspar masses had
been altered and removed. ‘They are mostly rich in augite, are
often limited by a film of kaolin, and are quite as large as those in
granite. He thought they were analogous to septarian concretions
in clay, and due to the percolation of water removing materials from
one place and putting them down in another.

Prof. Jupp said Mr. Phillips had undoubtedly proved that there
are two kinds of these enclosures in granite. He suggested that a
third class might exist, namely, fragments brought up from below,
like the nodules composed of augite, olivine, and enstatite, which
are found in so many basic rocks.

Mr. Baverman thought that no great dependence could be placed

upon external contour as evidence of the local or foreign origin of
an included mass, as in graphic granite the quartz might take the
angles of the felspar or might be freely developed ; then the rounded
form of olivine masses might be due to interrupted development, and
not to their being included fragments. He exhibited a piece of
zircon syenite from Labrador; in it was a fragment, as it seems, of
a hornblende and. soda-lime felspar rock, which, on the other side,
took a true crystal form of hornblende.
- Dr. Hicks stated that sphene was common in the hornblende
eneisses of Scotland. He had observed many cases similar to those
described by Mr. Phillips, where the surrounding rock and included
fragments were identical, and where there was but little alteration
produced by the intrusion.

Mr. Puitrirs thought the disappearance of rounded fragments on
sinking deeper in the rock, referred to by Mr. Attwood, was only an
accident. He had found concretionary inclusions at all distances
from junction-surfaces. He thought that fragments coming up from
below, as referred to by Prof. Judd, would generally be dissolved or
ereatly diminished in size during their passage.

Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. Vol. XXXVL PI. II.

-—-—--—

\
/

/
A.S.Foord. del et lith. Mintern Bros, imp.

Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. Vol, XXXVL FEAL ML

Mintern Bros, imp.
Be eencond el CH Lic: SKULL OF ARGILLORNIS LONGIPENNIS.

a FD Se

aac

PROF, OWEN ON THE SKULL OF ARGILLORNIS LONGIPENNIS, 23

2. On the Sxuti of ARGILLORNIS LONGIPENNIS, Ow. By Professor
Owen, C.B., F.R.S., F.G.S., &. (Read November 5, 1879.)

[Puate IT.]

I wave been favoured by W. H. Shrubsole, Esq., F.G.S., to whom
I was indebted forthe humeral evidences of Argillornis longipennis*,
with a fossil from the same formation and locality (London Clay,
Sheppey), which, when cleared of matrix, has afforded the subject of
the following description.

It is a considerable portion of the skull of a bird (Pl. IL.),
wanting the lower jaw and fore end of the upper jaw: some pro-
minent parts are abraded, exposing a pneumatic cellular structure.

The length of the fossil is 5 inches 4 lines =135 millims. ; the
breadth across the lacrymals (fig. 2, 73) is 1 inch 9 lines = 45 millims. ;
across the mastoids (ib. s, 8) 2 inches =50 millims. ; but these pro-
minences have suffered abrasion.

The coalesced frontals (fig. 2, 11, 11’), which are 2 inches 6 lines =
63 millims. in length, have joined the preemaxillo-nasals (fig. 2, 15-22)
by a transverse suture, 1 inch 2 lines =30 millims. in length.
Posthumous pressure has driven this part of the frontal two or three
lines below such base of the upper mandible (fig. 1, 11, 22).

Defining the hind part of the frontal by a faint linear trace of a
fronto-parietal suture, 7, the breadth of the bone is here 1 inch
6 lines =37 millims. The whole of the preserved extent of the
frontal is smooth, devoid of intermuscular crest or ridges, feebly
convex behind the orbits, becoming as feebly concave transversely
between the orbits—this concavity expanding as the bone advances
and gains breadth, and the lateral surface becoming transversely
convex where the frontal, 11, joins the lacrymal, 73 (fig. 2).

But a small proportion of the assumed parietal (fig. 2, 7) preserves
its outer surface, which is smooth and unimpressed. That of the
parieto-occipital, overarching the cerebellar prominence (fig. 5, 7-3)
with the mastoid protuberance, 8, present only on the left side, as
also that of the occipital boundary of the upper half of the occipital
foramen, 0, are represented by the remains of the cancellous struc-
ture. The basi- and paroccipitals are broken away. On the right
side is preserved the thin convex inner plate of the cranial wall,
which protected the optic lobe (fig. 6, op). The breadth of the fora-
men magnum (fig. 5, 0) is 7 lines =15 millims. The depth of the
cranium from the hind end of the frontal to the lower surface of the
basisphenoid is 1 inch 6 lines =39 millims. ‘The base of the post-
orbital process, indicated on the right side (fig. 2, 12), and the cast
of the orbit in the matrix (fig. 1, 0), indicate the fore-and-aft
diameter of that cavity as about 1 inch 6 lines. The slender de-
scending process of the lacrymal (fig. 1, 73), 3 lines =6 millims. in
breadth, is convex across, concave vertically ; the upper expanded

* Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxxiv. 1878, p. 124, pl. vi.

24 PROF. OWEN ON THE SKULL OF ARGILLORNIS LONGIPENNIS.

part and the lower end of the bone are broken away on both sides.
The prelacrymal vacuity (fig. 1, 7) is arched above, and slightly ex-
panded at the lower base, which is made straight by the narrow
maxillo-malar bar, 21'—26 ; ‘from this is continued a small portion of
the suborbital part’ of the-malar.

The constituents of the preserved basal portion of the upper man-
dible have coalesced into a bony roof, sloping from a ridge-piece,
which soon becomes narrow as it Aremce: from the fronto-nasal
suture, 11-22. The short horizontal tract beyond the suture is di-
vided from the sloping sides by a pair of low, short, oblique ridges
(fig. 2, 15, 15), continued from the ends of the suture obliquely forward
and inward. The roof gradually narrows from a basal breadth of
1 inch 6 lines to one of 11 lines, where the snout-end of the upper
bill is broken away.

The sloping sides in advance of the ridges, 21, 22, fig. 1, are feebly
concave along the upper half, and as feebly convex toward their
lower border, which is traversed a little above the alveolar margin
of the upper jaw by a longitudinal groove (fig. 7, g). This margin
is broken away on both sides, and large cancelli of pneumatic cha-
racter are exposed.

At one short tract on the right side (ib. f), which appears
to be the uninjured alveolar border, there are the outlets of four
small vertical pits, like the sockets of teeth, but filled with matrix.
Of this portion a magnified view is given at fig. 7a, Pl. Il. The
part is, unfortunately, wanting on the opposite side, and along the
rest of the fractured alveolar borders on the right side (fig. 7) of the
upper mandible. The fractured fore end. exposes a nasal cavity,
n, fig. 4, below which is the widely cancellous structure of the
palatal floor, beneath the middle of which, in a longitudinal groove,
is a small portion of bone, p.

The fractured cancellous tracts of the alveolar borders of the
upper bill I take to be the base of those borders which, when entire,
contracted to a narrow margin, possibly dentigerous, and were divided
from the palatal surface by a longitudinal groove, the mesial side of
which was continued into a palatal tract, descending some way
below the alveolar border, and terminating in the ridge bounding
the side wall of a long and narrow mesial palatal vacuity—the
palato-naris (fig. 3, pn). The suture indicating the proportions
respectively contributed by the maxillary and palatine bones is
well marked on both sides; and, after a course from behind for-
ward of 15 millims., the fore end of the palatine underlaps the
broadening part of the maxillary plate. In advance of the pala-
tines, the maxillo-premaxillary portion of the palate is a continuous
roof of bone, longitudinally grooved at the mid line, at the fore end
of which is the fragment of bone above noticed. The exposed palatal
surface of the palatine gradually expands to a breadth of 10 millims.,
and as gradually contracts to where it changes the horizontal for the
vertical direction, bending forward anteriorly to bound the palato-
naris, and thence continued backward to apply itself to the inner
side of the fore part of the pterygoid, 24. The length of the palatine

PROF. OWEN ON THE SKULL OF ARGILLORNIS LONGIPENNIS, 25

is 2 inches 6 lines =63 millims.; the length of the palato-naris, pn,
is 1 inch 7 lines =40 millims.; the extreme breadth of this open-
ing is 5 lines =10 millims. It is closed behind by the przsphe-
noidal rostrum, 9, fig. 3, which is wedged between the bones
24’ & 20’,

The most prominent character of this part of the bony palate pre-
served in the present ornitholite is the degree in which it descends
below the level of the alveolar border to form that of the palato-
naris. In this character I find the nearest approach to the Albatross
(Diomedea exulans). In this bird, along nearly the hinder half of
the upper bill, the palatal process of the maxillary forms a ridge,
divided by a groove or channel from the alveolar border, which
channel gradually widens and deepens, chiefly by the descent of the
ridge below the level of the alveolar border, opposite the termina-
tion of which the maxillary palatal ridge becomes obtuse, and is
flattened and expanded where it is underlapped by the fore end of
the palatine. If the alveolar ridge was shaved off short of the
bottom of the groove, so much of the groove as is left in the orni-
tholite between the outer fractured border and the inner down-
sloping maxillo-palatine bones would be represented. But the pala-
tine part of the maxillary forms no ridge in the fossil; the flattened
surface is continued forward in advance of the underlapping part of
the palatine bone. In the Pelican the downwardly produced parts
of the palatines are posterior to the palato-naris. The Albatross
among existing birds presents the nearest, though a remote, resem-
blance to the palatine characters of Argillornis.

From Diomedea, Argillornis, like Odontopteryx*, differs in the
absence of the.basirostral external nostrils and of the superorbital
gland-pits. It resembles Odontopteryx in the absence of mesial or
lateral ridges, indicative of the temporal fossze, which characters are
strongly marked in the Cormorants and other Totipalmates lacking
the superorbital gland-pits. The fore part of the long frontal is re-
latively broader in Argillornis than in Odontopteryx, and the fronto-
nasal suture is consequently more extensive. The upper tract of
the upper bill is less defined than in Argillornis ; the basilateral
tract leading to the hinder commencement of the longitudinal lateral
groove is broader or deeper. This groove, commencing, as in Odon-
topteryx, below the prelacrymal vacuity, runs along nearer the al-
veolar border than in Odontopteryw. The state of the latter fossil
precludes a comparison of the palatal structures; and the circum-
stance that the specimen is unique forbids the making of sections of
the more important parts which such comparison would require.

I have remarked in a former paper f that the skull of Odonto-
pteryx seems too small for a bird with a wing-bone of the size of
that of Argillornis ; but this objection does not apply to the present
cranial fossil.

The length of this cranium from the upper border of the occipital
foramen to the fore border of the prelacrymal vacuity is 3 inches
* Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxix. 1873, p. 511, pls. xvi. & xvii.

t Ibid. vol. xxxiy. 1878, p. 128,

26 PROF. OWEN ON THE SKULL OF ARGILLORNIS LONGIPENNIS,

6 lines ; the same admeasurement in Odontopteryx gives but 2 inches

6 lines. I estimated the total length of the latter’s skull at 5inches
6 lines. Completing on the same scale the broken beak of Argil-
lornis (Pl. II. fig. 1), the skull gives a length of 7 inches 6 lines.
The degree in which the wing-bones of Argillornis resembled those
of Diomedea is so nearly that in which any resemblance can be
pointed out in the cranial fossil to the skull of the Albatross amongst
existing birds, that the probability of the cranial and humeral fossils
belonging to the same bird or species of bird from the Sheppey
locality of the London Clay appears to me to justify the reference
of the present fossil to Argillornis longipennis. If such a skull
should be hereafter discovered associated with the rest of the skele-
ton, in this or any other locality, so as to disprove such supposed
generic or specific agreement, the name Macropteron may, perhaps,
be accepted by the fortunate describer of such fossil remains of a
new genus.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE II,

Fig. 1. Side view of skull of Argillornis longipennis,
2. Upper view of the same.
3. Under view of the same.
4, Anterior fractured surface of upper bill.
5. Posterior surface of cranium.
6. Exposed part of inner wall of cranium, lodging the optic lobe, op.
7. Outline of part of the right side of the upper jaw.
7a. Magnified view of the alveolar surface of the small entire part, f, of
that side.

All the figures, save 7 a, are of the natural size.

Discusston.

Prof. Srrtey remarked upon the disadvantage under which the
Fellows of the Society laboured in attempting to discuss the subject’
when the specimen was not before them. The diagrams, as he
pointed out, differed from the description in many important parts.
If Prof. Owen’s description was rather to be relied upon, he argued
that the analogy with the Albatross was not made out. He should
have liked to know the evidence on which the skull was associated
with the limb-bone. }

Mr. Huxxe stated that the diagrams exhibited were very accurate
and intelligent copies of Prof. Owen’s sketches.

Mr. W. Daviss and Dr. Woopwarp stated that the fossil, which
they had both seen, greatly resembled, in general character, the skull
of the Albatross.

H. G. SEELEY ON RHAMPHOCEPHALUS PRESTWICHI. 27

3. On RuamenHocePHALus Prestwicur, Seeley, an ORNITHOSAURIAN
from the StonESFIELD Suate of Kineton. By H.G.Srexey, Esq.,
F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of Geography in King’s College, London,
(Read June 25, 1879.)

Pror. Prestwich has obtained from the Stonesfield slate of Kineton,
near Stow-on-the-Wold, a small slab which makes a yaluable con-
tribution to our knowledge of the structure of the skull in Ornitho-
saurs from the British Lower Secondary rocks. This specimen is
little more than a cast from the upper surface of the cranium, not
unlike in general character to the form originally described by
Goldfuss as Ornithocephalus Minsteri, The skull itself was un-
fortunately in the corresponding slab, which has not been preserved ;
but a few slight fragments of bone remain sufficient to show the
dense osseous tissue which is usual in Pterodactyles. The specimen
yields a clear impression, which displays the proportions of the
cranial bones, and the sutures between them, in a way so distinct
as to enable me to state that this animal was certainly different
generically from every other type which has hitherto been described.
Whether, however, it pertained to a distinct species from those in-
dicated by the fossils from Stonesfield which have already been
figured by Professors Huxley and Owen is a matter upon which
some doubt may be felt; but bearing in mind the relatively large
size of the jaws and teeth in those fossils, I am strongly of opinion
that this specimen indicates a smaller kind of animal, in which the
dentary apparatus was less developed, and I therefore venture to
suggest for it a specific name.

The remarkable feature which leads me to consider this specimen
to be the type of a new genus is its singular analogy to the Croco-
dilian skull, which has never been displayed to the same degree in
any other Ornithosaur. The fragment shows the parietal, frontal,
prefrontal, and nasal bones ; all these are arranged on the Crocodilian
plan, and yet the proportions of the parietal and frontal regions are
in no respect those of a Crocodile. All the bones aresmooth on the
upper surface. The parietal region is long, flattened above, slightly
convex in length, with a moderate median depression posteriorly,
where there are some longitudinal striations, as though the end of a
supraoccipital here overlapped the parictal bone; but the bone
terminates transversely in a sharp clean posterior edge, which is
sinuous, being convex in the middle and concave towards the sides,
where the bone widens out, giving off lateral wings towards the
squamosal region. The median suture of the parietal bones can
be traced, though it is not quite in the middleline. The bones be-
come constricted from side to side, the constriction being greatest
behind the middle, where they appear to be naturally notched on
each side. I do not see the signification of these notches, unless
they indicate the anterior termination of squamosal bones which

28 -H, G. SEELEY ON RHAMPHOCEPHALUS PRESTWICHI.

overlapped the posterior portion of the parietals and curved with
them backward and outward. There is on the lateral portions of
the parietal a slight impression of the bone, which also suggests to me

this interpretation. The pa-
rietal (p) terminates anteriorly
in a transverse suture in which
it joins the frontal bones (f) ;
this suture is nearly straight,
‘being curved slightly backward.
‘The length of the parietal bone
‘is exactly 3 centimetres; its
posterior width, as preserved
(which is less than the real
width), is about 25 millimetres;
‘the greatest constriction of the
‘bone from side to side just in
front of the notches appears to
be about 8 millimetres or rather
more, while the anterior width
of the bones at their union with
the frontal bones is 23 milli-
-metres.

There is a moderate trans-
verse depression on the skull
where the parietal bones join
the frontal. Unfortunately
there is no indication of the
character of this long cerebral
region, though it is evident that
there was a concavity below the
slender squamosal arch. The
parietal appears where it joined
the frontal bone to have given
attachment to the postfrontal,
at the back of the orbit, in the
usual way; but, apparently
from the sharp downward curve
of the postfrontal bone, no trace
of it is preserved. The width
of its union with the roof-bones
of the skull was about 5 milli-
metres. The frontal bones
measure in length 18 milli-
metres, are greatly constricted
in the orbital region and cupped
with almost semicircular bor-
ders for the orbits. The width
of the interorbital part of the
bones is 5 millimetres, and the

Cast of upper surface of Skull of
Rhamphocephalus _Prestwichi,

natural size.

ae = e:

ox, articular surface for occipital bone
Pp; parietal; f, frontal ; 0, orbit ; pf, pre-
frontal; 2, nasal.

extent of the bone posterior to the orbit at its outer border is 4 mil-

H, G. SEELEY ON RHAMPHOCEPHALUS PRESTWICHI. 29

limetres. The bone widens in front a little, but the front of the orbit
is formed, as usual, by the prefrontal bone (pf). The median suture
between the frontals is clear. There is a deep concavity between
the orbits in front, which is formed by the margins of the frontal
bone being elevated so as to form an upper orbital border, which
recalls the condition in Crocodiles. There are also elevated ridges
behind the orbits. The little that is seen of the inner orbital
border is smooth, vertical, and concave in length. The orbits appear
to have been oblique and to have looked upward and forward. The
length of that on the left side is about 16 millimetres. The frontal
bone (f ) terminates anteriorly in a forked suture, which receives the
ends of the nasal bones (7) in the middle, and the prefrontal bones (pf)
on the oblique external margins. The prefrontal bones, however,
are not very distinct from the nasal bones, though the suture appears
to run on the inner side of sharp ridges which form their inner
borders. But of this I cannot speak positively, as the anterior ter-
mination of the suture cannot be distinguished.

These prefrontal bones (pf), or prefrontal elements of the nasal, are
channelled in length; they reach backward to the orbit and are
about 2 centimetres long. The exact width of the specimen in
front of the orbit does not represent the width of the bones during
life. As preserved, the width is not more than 16 millimetres.
During life the width may have been 24 centimetres. The nasal
bones, as preserved, are 56 millimetres long. Where they join the
frontal elements they are about 4 millimetres wide. They attain
their greatest width where the slightly diverging prefrontal ridges
terminate on their sides, and are there about 9 millimetres wide
at rather more than a centimetre from the frontal suture. The
longitudinal median suture between the nasal bones is well marked
and wider than in the frontal region; yet the nasal bones form an
elevated median keel slightly convex in length and defined by a
well-marked channel on each side. The bones converge slowly
anteriorly and may have extended a little further than is indicated
by the specimen, if they terminated in a point. The circumstance
that the maxillary bones are not preserved is strong presumptive
evidence that the maxillaries were vertical, or at least formed a sharp
angle with the roof of the skull. It is perhaps remarkable that no
portion of the nasal bones can be identified as having entered into
the external nares, though in many Pterodactyles, such as Cyc-
norhamphus suevicus, there is no lateral indentation of the bones
in the nasal region. If we were to regard these nasal bones as
having extended to within an inch of the extremity of the skull the
total length of the head would not have been more than 53 inches,
and the toothed portion of jaw would probably not have exceeded
2 inches. The teeth I should infer to have been of about the size
of those of Cycnorhamphus suevicus of Quenstedt, which stood about
15 inches high.

The characters which especially distinguish this animal are, first,
the remarkable length of the roof of the skull, posterior to the orbits (0),
which amounts to about 38 millimetres ; so that if the orbits bounded.
the anterior part of the cerebral region, as is usual in Pterodactyles,

30 H. G. SEELEY ON RHAMPHOCEPHALUS PRESTWICHI.

there is here evidence of a cerebral elongation to which no other
Pterodactyle even approximates ; and it is difficult to believe that a ©
brain-cayity so long and narrow, as shown by the median constric-
tion, could have contained a brain of Avian plan such as is evidenced
by almost every specimen from Solenhofen in which an internal
mould of this region is preserved, as may be seen in the museums at
Munich, Heidelberg, and Haarlem.

Secondly, I do not remember in any other Pterodactyle any thing
like so great a constriction of the frontal region between the orbits ;
thirdly, the sutures between the bones are better marked than in
any other Pterodactyle which I have examined; and, fourthly, the
plan of structure of the roof-bones of this skull is so entirely Repti-
lian as to suggest the existence of Ornithosaurian animals of lower
grade than any which I have hitherto seen. The slender material
does not, however, justify speculation ; and it is quite possible that
this may prove to be a genus closely allied to some of those animals
for which the name Rhamphorhynchus has been appropriated ; and
I shall be quite prepared to find that all the Ornithosaurians
from Stonesfield belong to this or an allied genus which had Rham-
phorhynchus for its nearest ally, and which resembled that genus in
the characters of the postorbital arches.

There are indications, however, in the Stonesfield fossils of impor-
tant differences from the German types now included in Rham-
phorhynchus in the characters of the mandible and dentition, and the
relatively large size of the hind limbs, the femur being, in one of
these animals, 94 millimetres long, while the tibia has a length of
90 millimetres. This is far beyond the size of any species of
Rhamphorhynchus, and, indeed, is only to be paralleled in Dimor-
phodon and the larger short-tailed German Pterodactyles, which
have long hind legs and form the genus Cycnorhamphus. The wing-
phalanges in these Stonesfield animals are, however, unusually long,
longer than in any German species except perhaps Pterodactylus
vulturinus, which is imperfectly known. ‘The first phalange of the
wing-finger of the largest Stonesfield specimen is nearly 5 inches long,
while the second and third phalanges measure about 72 inches each,
while the fourth is 64 inches long. But the Oxford specimens
appear to indicate, from the different proportions of cervical verte-
bra, lower jaws, and bones of thé fore and hind limb, two or three
well-defined species. To these may be added another from the
Great Oolitic of Sarsden, of which the mandible has already been
figured in this Journal by Prof. Huxley*. Although in the latter
specimen nearly the whole skeleton appears to have occurred in the
same spot, no trace of a long tail of the Rhamphorhynchus type has
been met with. Among the Stonesfield specimens the sacrum con-
sists of at least five vertebree, and there are cervical and dorsal verte-
bre, including the atlas, which apparently is not ankylosed to the
axis, but no trace of a tail. These facts, taken in conjunction with
the relatively large size of the hind limb and sacrum and the cranial
differences, will, I believe, justify me in instituting a new genus for
this cranium and the other Stonesfield Ornithosaurs.

* Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xv. p. 658,

J. W. HULKE ON THE VERTEBRZ OF ORNITHOPSIS. 31

4, SuppLeMENTARY Norte on the Vertesr® of Ornirnopsts, Secley,=
Kucamerotvs, Hulke. By J. W. Hurxe, Esq., F.R.S., F.G.S.
(Read November 19, 1879.)

[Puares III. & IV.|

At the close of last session I brought before the Society some ad-
ditional evidence oi the existence in our Wealden times of a huge
Dinosaur whose yertebree were characterized by marvellous light-
ness; and I endeayoured to show, by an examination of all the
material at that time available for comparison, that although the
vertebre of this Saurian (Ornithopsis, Seeley, Hucamerotus, Hulke ;
Bothriospondylus, in part, Chondrosteosaurus, Owen) exhibited
correspondences with those of certain newly discovered American
forms (some of which had been recently noticed by Prof. Owen)
which indicated affinity with these, yet there coexisted such differ-
ences as seemed to me to disprove their generic identity.

The liberality of the Rev. W. Fox now enables me to place before
youphotographs and drawings which, for the first time, afford com-
plete information respecting the structure of the vertebral column in
the neck and trunk of this remarkable animal.

Neck.—Tbree cervical vertebrae in Mr. Fox’s possession show the
centrum in this region to be strongly opisthocelous. The articular
ball in this region is a larger portion of a sphere than in the trunk,
and the cup is correspondingly deeper. The under surface of the
centrum is singularly flat, a character which disappears in passing
backwards and is little apparent in the trunk. The neural canal is
very capacious. The preezygapophyses project considerably for-
ward beyond the front of the neural arch, overhanging here the
ball. Their articulating surface is large, of a roughly oblong form,
and directed upwards and inwards. It is a single surface for each
prezygapophysis; and the notch between the prezygapophyses is
non-articular. The additional articular surface forming the zygan-
tral arrangement present in dorsal centra is here absent; and the
associated zygosphenal bolt dependent from the confluent inner ends
of the postzygapophyses is necessarily also wanting in the neck.
The neural arch in all Mr, Fox’s specimens referable to the neck is
devoid of spinous process. From the root of each prezygapophysis
a lofty crest curves upwards, backwards, and inwards, and then
diverges and declines posteriorly, where it ends in a stout postzyga-
pophysial process bearing on its under and outer surface the articular
facet. The crests of opposite sides are separated by a mesial groove
very deep in front. There are two transverse processes, a lower on
the body and an upper on the arch. The lower transverse process
(parapophysis) springs from the side of the centrum towards the
front, a constriction separating it from the articular ball. From the
parapophysis a projecting ledge-like plate passes backwards along
the centrum to its posterior border. The upper transyerse process

32 J. W. HULKE ON THE VERTEBRZ OF ORNITHOPSIS.

(diapophysis) springs from the arch vertically over the lower, towards
which it inclines ; and both processes are joined by the branches of
a short forked riblet, which assist to enclose a large foramen. The
only riblet preserved is mutilated; but it is evident that its unat-
tached, free, distal border was extended forwards and backwards in
a direction nearly parallel with the vertebral column in an ordinary
manner. From the root of the diapophysis another projecting ledge-
like plate descends along the side of the arch towards the junction
of this with the centrum near the posterior border of this latter,
thus taking a direction approximately parallel with the lower plate.
Between these two plates, and much overhung by the upper one,
the side of the centrum is impressed with along narrow pit, crossed
slantingly and imperfectly subdivided by ridges. From each of
the neural crests, where these diverge behind, a prominent ridge
runs downwards and forwards towards the root of the diapophysis
of the same side, and another wider ridge descends nearly vertically
towards the centrum, its posterior margin forming the lateral boun-
dary of the posterior opening of the neural canal. Between these
two ridges, and above the diapophysial ledge-plate which bounds it
below, is a large very conspicuous depression. The average length
of the three cervical centra was probably not under 28 centim.,
which is about the length of the centrum I brought before the
Society last June. The large extent of the articular surfaces, the
crests and ridges, and the great length of the vertebre indicate a
very long, extremely mobile, strongly muscular neck. In the sin-
gular flatness of the under surface of the centrum there isa striking
resemblance to that of Apteryx Mantelli.

Trunk-Vertebre.—The best-preserved vertebra in Mr. Fox’s col-
lection (Pl. III. figs. 4, 5) referable to the trunk is, I believe, from
nearly the same situation as the neural arch I brought under the
Society’s notice in 1870. When placed ona plane surface, its height,.
taken from this to the top of its spinous process, is about 62 centim.
The centrum is opisthoccelous; but the prominence of the articular
ball is less than in the neck. The horizontal diameter of the ball is
greater than the vertical diameter, the actual measurements being
22°5 centim. and 14°6 centim. The length of the centrum taken
along the side from the base of the ball to the edge of the cup 1s, in
the present state of the fossil, 17:5 centim.; but before abrasion
it was probably not less than 20 centim. ‘The under surface of
the centrum is flattened transversely, but to a much smaller degree
than in the neck. lLongitudinally it is rendered very concave by the
swelling of the articular ends. It is marked by a low median ridge.
In the side of the centrum is the conspicuous opening of the large
internal chamber, described more particularly in my last note. It
is of an oval form, with the larger end in front. Its length is 13:5
centim., and its greatest vertical diameter is 5°4 centim. ‘The
chambers of opposite sides are separated only by a very thin median
partition. ‘The neurapophyses have an extensive attachment to the
centrum, their antero-posterior extent nearly equalling that of the
latter. They then contract to 13 centim. at a height of 1:5 centim.

J. W. HULKE ON THE VERTEBRZ OF ORNITHOPSIS. 33

to 2 centim. above the floor of the neural canal, and above this
again rapidly increase. The arch and processes exhibit the singu-
larly complex structure, less perfectly shown in my first fossil, shown
here in 1870. The inner aspect of each prezygapophysis has an
additional articular surface which, prolonged into the bottom of the
deep notch that separates the pair of prezygapophyses, forms with
this a zygantral arrangement. In correspondence with this a ver-
tical zygosphenal bolt-plate depends from the confluent inner ends
of the postzygapophyses. From the bottom of this zygosphenal
plate two sheets of bone descend upon the neurapophyses, roofing in,
after the fashion of an eave, the posterior opening of the neural
canal. The pre- and postzygapophyses are connected by a platform
continued along the neural arch in the level of its crown. This
platform is produced outwards and upwards in the form of a strong
and rather long transverse process, the free end of which is stout
and clubbed as for the attachment of a rib-tubercle. Below, a thin
vertical plate descends from the transverse process and platform
upon the side of the neural arch, on which it is lost slightly below
the mid height of the latter. Above, a similar thin plate connects
the platform with the neural spine. The articular surface for the
rib-head is just outside the preezygapophysis. Under the platform
are very deep cavern-like recesses. The neural spine arises by two
pairs of plates, of which the front are thinner, and spring from the
crown of the very lofty arch close to the prezygapophyses. Below,
these anterior plates are separated by a deep mesial groove. Above,
they gradually approach, the separating groove lessens till they meet,
when they again diverge and lose themselves in the anterior as-
pect of the transversely extended free end of the spinous process.
The posterior pair, stouter, more pillar-like, arise directly over
the postzygapophyses. They are not traceable so high as the ante-
_Tior pair. Below, between them, immediately above the zygosphe-
nal plate, is a deep pit. Above this they are separated by a narrow
median crest which ascends nearly to the top of the spinous pro-
cess, and served for the attachment of an interspinous ligament.
The transverse expansion of the free end of the spinous process,
so that the direction of its greatest measurement here crosses the
axis of the vertebral column, and its deep sculpturing, are two re-
markable features.

Until now our ideas of the form of these singular vertebre had
been drawn constructively from fragments of detached arches and
centra. The association of arch and centrum, which in 1870
I felt justified in affirming, on the evidence of such fragments,
is here first actually demonstrated in this magnificent fossil.
Another centrum, apparently from the same part of the vertebral
column as that just described, is 24 centim. long. The articular
ball is 22 centim. in its vertical diameter, and 16 centim. in
the horizontal. The under surface of the centrum is somewhat
flattened. The chambers and their lateral openings are very large.
A third centrum, about 23 centim. long, has a more cylindroid

Q.J.G.8S. No. 141. D

34 J. W. HULKE ON THE VERTEBRA OF ORNITHOPSIS.

figure; the under surface is only very slightly flattened. The
lateral opening and the chamber are smaller. J am inclined to
regard this centrum as having occupied a position in the vertebral
column posterior to the two just described. The form of the arti-
culations and the superadded zygosphenal arrangement are caleu-
lated to greatly limit the mobility of the vertebre on one another
in this region. With respect to the orifice of the large-sided cham-
bers in these vertebra, Prof. Seeley, finding them paralleled in
birds and Pterosauria, regarded them as pneumatic. Prof. Owen,
on the other hand, thinks that they were more probably filled
with chondrine; and in a recent discussion he supported this view
by a reference to the vertebree of fish. On this hypothesis it is not
apparent to me why the chambers should attain their maximum de-
velopment in the fore part of the trunk, be absent from the neck,
and lessen towards the loins. Why should such a connective sub-
stance as chondrine be thus limited in its skeletal distribution ?
Rather does not such limitation strengthen the opinion of their
being air-chambers? In Birds, particularly those endowed with
great powers of flight, e.g. Albatross, the pneumatic opening in the
side of the vertebral centrum is largest precisely in the same situa-
tion as in Hucamerctus ; it is also wanting in the neck, and it rapidly
lessens towards the sacrum. In noticing this parallel I would,
however, not be understood to affirm that Hucamerotus was capable
of flight.

Tail.—All the vertebree yet discovered which I can confidently
refer to the animal belong to the neck and trunk. I know of
none which bear chevron facets or other marks whereby to assign
them to the tail, a circumstance which is not without significance
when we consider the large number of vertebra in most reptilian tails.
May its caudal vertebree be, like those described in certain of the new
American forms, unchambered and relatively solid? In the same
Wealden beds which have yielded these cervical and dorsal vertebra
caudal vertebre not unfrequently occur. Of these, the most common
are those laterally flattened forms which are correctly assigned to
Iguanodon. Next in frequency are two types which have usually
been given to Cetcosawrt. Of these, one I have good reason to placein
the tail of Jguanodon immediately behind the spot where the trans-
verse process disappears. The other, which often attains much
larger dimensions than in Jguanodon, is also relatively shorter and
of coarser texture. May these belong to Hucamerotus? Not long
since I should have rejected this conjecture as unworthy of attention ;
but the late Colorado discoveries show that it would not be safe to
do so. |

es

ms

pve" te

t Quart. Journ.Geol.Soc Vol XXXVI PL.III

CBerjeau lith

VERTEBRA! ORNITHOPSIS

y
Q 4
“4
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fr ‘
fs
y
z
:
A

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IV

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J. W. HULKE ON THE VERTEBRZ OF ORNITHOPSIS. 30

EXPLANATION OF PLATES III. & IV.
All the figures are about one fourth the natural size."

Fig. 1. Side view of cervical vertebra. (No. II. 4, Mr. Fox’s Catal.) (The
prezygapophyses, the dia- and parapophysis and a piece of the
border of the posterior articular cup have been broken off.)

Fig. 2. bf ee ‘ia of another cervical vertebra. (No. 11.6, Mr. Fox’s

atal.

Fig. 3. Front view of another cervical vertebra. It is somewhat distorted by
pressure, and the left prezygapophysis, dia- and parapophysis have
been broken off. (No. II. 3, Mr. Fox's Catal.)

Fig. 4. Side view of the same (postzygapophysis broken off).

Fig. 5. Front view of trunk-vertebra.

Fig. 6. Side view of trunk-yertebra. (The free extremity of the diapophysis is
detached.) :

Fig. 7. Back view of trunk-vertebra. (No. II. 1, Mr. Fox’s Catal.).

In all the figures the letters have the following signification :—

prz, prezygapophysis. ¢, cup.
psz, postzygapophysis. s.c, side chamber.
za, zygantrum. n.cl, neural canal.
zs, Zyposphene. n.cr, neural crest.
p, parapophysis, pt, side pit.
d, diapophysis. 7, riblet.
, ball.
Discussion.

Prof. Srerey supported the view of the pneumatic character of
the vertebral cavities in this genus by reference to the Chelonians
and Birds, and believed that the tissue of the dorsal vertebre had
been excavated and absorbed owing to the pressure of an air-sac upon
the vertebr, due to a sacculate condition of the lungs. He pointed
out the value of the new evidence obtained with regard to the
neural arch; and (if we may accept the evidence of the American
genera as to the carpus and tarsals) we seem to have proofs in these
animals of the existence of a suborder of Dinosaurs in which peculiar
skeletal modifications are associated with a pneumatic skeleton.

Dr. Merron took exception to the explanation given by Prof.
Seeley as to the absorption of portions of the vertebre. He sug-
gested that the analogies were with the Sharks and Rays rather than
with Birds.

Mr. Hvrxz replied to Dr. Meryon that while the cervical vertebrze
indicate great mobility, the dorsal vertebre are very firmly locked
together. Against the view that the parallel of the singular cham-
bered. structure was to be found in the Sharks and Rays, he pointed
out that this structure is, in Ornithopsis, confined to the dorsal
region, and does not extend through the whole length of the ver-
tebral column, as is the case with cartilaginous fishes.

pd2

36 YP. H. CARPENTER ON COMATULA FROM

5. On some undescribed ComatuLe from the British SEcoNDARY
Rocks. By P. Hurperr Carpenter, M.A., Assistant Master at
Eton College. (Read December 3, 1879).

(Communicated by Prof. P. M. Duncan, F.RB.S., F.G.S., &,)

[Puate V.]

My work on the Comatule of the ‘ Challenger’ Expedition naturally
led me to a consideration of their fossil representatives; and I
found that although continental paleontologists have described
several species from the Jurassic and Cretaceous rocks of Central
Kurope, hardly one has been recorded as occurring in the corre-
sponding formations of the British area. It soon appeared, however,
that this is not. because we have none to record, but merely because
neither descriptions nor names have been given for those which we
have. In the following pages I propose to make good this defi-
ciency; but I would first express my sincere thanks to Mr.
Etheridge, of the Royal School of Mines, to Professor Hughes, of
Cambridge, and to Messrs. Henry Woodward and R. Ktheridge, jun.,
of the British Museum, for the ready kindness with which they have
allowed me to make use of specimens in the collections under their
charge. I am also greatly indebted to Dr. Wright, of Cheltenham,
for placing at my disposal two specimens from his own collection.

Schliiter* has recently published some descriptions, together with
excellent figures, of several new fossil Comatule from Germany,
Italy, and Sweden. At the same time he has expressed some views
as to their anatomy and classification which are inconsistent with
some of his statements of fact, and still more so with the results of
my own observations on the anatomy of the recent species.

He gives the following general descriptiont of the ‘‘ Knopf” or
centrodorsal piece, which is the part of the skeleton that is most
usually found fossil, frequently being the only part preserved :—

“‘ Besides the central pit lodging the heart or chambered organ. .... -
many species have five other smaller pits, disposed radially around the central
one. These radial pits, as shown by Greeff for Antedon europeus (Comatula
mediterranea) and by Ludwig for A. rosaceus, are blind saccular extensions
of the body-cavity, which penetrate into the apical skeleton, but contain
no special organs in the mature animal. In several (fossil) species there is a
stellate depression on the underside of the centrodorsal. Each ray of this star
corresponds with one of the radial pits, which become narrower from above
downwards. ‘The inner part of the star is filled up with calcareous deposit, as
a consequence of which the radial pits are also closed below.”

There are several points to be noticed in the above description.
In the first place, Schliter is hardly correct in saying that “‘ many
species ” have radial pits. Itis true that they occur in six out of the
eleven fossil species mentioned by him (including Glenotremites

* “Ueber einige astylide Crinoiden,” Zeitschr. der deutschen geolog.

Gesellsch, Jahrgang 1878, pp. 28-66, Taf. i.—iv.
t Op. cit. p. 33,

THE BRITISH SECONDARY ROCKS. 37

paradoxus, Goldf.), but they are wanting in three others (including
G. conoideus), while we know nothing as to their presence or absence
in the two remaining species, since their centrodorsal pieces have
not been found detached from the radials. They occur in the three
Tertiary species described by Edward Forbes*; while Quenstedt+
describes them in Solanocrinus scrobiculatus, though Schliiter could
not find them in his own specimen of this species. I have met with
them, or their equivalents, in three fossil species that I shall de-
scribe further on, though not in a fourth. With respect to fossil
Comatule, therefore, there is some ground for Schliiter’s statement ;
but this is far from being the case for the recent forms. I have
dissected the calyx of thirty species, but have only found radial pits
in three of them. In at least two of these, viz. Ant. rosacea (=A.
europeus, Greeff) and Ant. celtica, their presence is very uncertain,
and in the third (a new ‘Challenger’ species) they are of a very
unusual character. On the whole, therefore, they are not so fre-
quent as might be inferred from Schliiter’s description, only occurring
in sixteen out of forty-seven species which have been examined as
to this point. Then, again, these pits are not exactly blind saccular
extensions of the body-cavity, but merely the closed and slightly
expanded ends of the canals which are enclosed between the spout-
like processes of the rosette and the axial furrows on the inner faces
of the radials=. These axial canals are directly continuous with
the ventral furrows of the skeleton which lodge the dorsal portions
of the coeliac canals (parts of the body-cavity, it is true) of the rays
and arms; and if their dorsal ends are not filled up by calcareous
tissue, aS is usually the case in recent Comatule, they appear as
five openings near the centre of the under surface of the radial
pentagon. In any case, however, these openings of the axial canals
are closed by the ventral surface of the centrodorsal piece on which
the radials rest ; and this surface is sometimes, but rarely, marked
by the five radial pits corresponding to the openings (Pl. Y.
figs. 5a, 8a).

The last sentence in the passage from Schliiter’s paper which is
quoted above seems to imply that were the calcareous tissue removed
which fills up the dorsal star (of fossil Comatule) internally, the
radial pits would be complete perforations through the centrodorsal
piece. I cannot quite make out whether Schliiter believes that this
was ever really the case. Ifit were so (and I think it was so in
Ant. paradowa), then the canalicular extensions of the ccelom which
end blindly in these pits (or sooner) must have been continued down
the larval. stem outside the vascular axis; for this axis, as
Schliiter himself points out, contained five vessels which expanded

* nate of the British Tertiary Deposits,” Palzontogr. Soc. 1852,
ag ; Petuefactenkunde Deutschlands,’ Band iy. “ Echinodermen,” p. 179, Taf. 96.

rt See “On the Genus Actinometra,” Trans. Linn, Soc. 2nd ser. Zoology, vol. ii.
pp. 77, 78, pls. 4-6, g, Q, & pl. 8. fig. 3, a.r.c, a.i.c ; and also H. Ludwig’s ‘‘ Bei-
trage zur Anatomie der Crinoideen,” Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool. Bd. 28, Taf. xix.
fig. 74, Lr, Li.

38 P, H, OARPENTER ON COMATULZ! FROM

within the centrodorsal piece into the chambers of the so-called
“heart.” They cannot therefore have entered the lower open
ends of the radial pits, which usually lie altogether outside the cen-
trodorsal cavity (see Schliiter’s description of them in Ant. Retzi1,
p- 44); but they must have entered this cavity by the more central
part of the dorsal star, leaving the outer ends of its rays to the
radial extensions of the celom. This condition may possibly have
existed in such forms as Ant. semiglobosa and Ant. Retzu, which
seem to have retained their stem till a very late period of growth,
like the recent Ant. Sarsz, as there is a very large dorsal star.

But other fossil species, such as Ant. lettensis and Solanocrimus
scrobiculatus, resemble recent Comatule in retaining no permanent
traces of the attachment of a stem. We may conclude from this
that the separation from their stem took place at an earlier period
of development than in the case of A. Reizw, &e. For such forms
as these Schliiter’s statement does not hold good; the closure of
their radial pits below does not result from the obliteration of the
original dorsal star. Thus in Ant. rosacea this star disappears at a
very early period of growth, long before either it or the centrodorsal
piece itself reaches any thing like the size that they have in A. sem-
globosa, A. Retzii, or A. paradowa. This is well seen in pl. xhi.
fig 2 of Dr. Carpenter’s memoir* on this type. The dorsal star is a
minute opening in the floor of the wide basin-like cavity of the im-
mature centrodorsal piece, the side walls of which bend inwards
very slightly at the points where the radial pits would subsequently
appear. The calcareous tissue which closes the dorsal star in the
centre of the floor of this cavity must therefore be entirely distinct
from that underneath the later-developed radial pits, which is a part
of its side walls. Were this absorbed, and the pits thereby rendered
sufficiently deep to perforate the lower surface of the centrodorsal,
they would do so between the ends of the rays of the dorsal star
(supposing it to persist) and the circumference of the plate; and
the union of such openings with the rays would give the appear-
ance of a relatively large star, just as in A. semiglobosa. There are
other fossil species, such as Ant. sulcata and Act. Miillert (Pl. V.
fig. 6), which resemble most recent Comatule in having neither radial
pits nor dorsal star on the centrodorsal piece.

Schliter’s description of Ant. lenticularis contains the following
passage (p. 46) :—‘‘ The dorsal pole is slightly concave and shows a
small distinct star, which indicates the presence of radial pits on the
upper surface of the centrodorsal.” On p. 48 he points out that
there is no dorsal star in Ant. ctalica, but. only a simple round hole.
“‘ The nutritive canal of the stem was therefore not lobate, as in A.
lenticularis, but round, which also points to the absence of radial
pits.”

The last sentence refers to the shape of the opening in the middle
of the upper surface of the centrodorsal piece, which was formerly
regarded as the mouth. It surrounds the upper ends of the
chambers of the so-called “heart,” which occupies the central

* Phil. Trans. 1866, vol. 156.

THE BRITISH SECONDARY ROCKS, 39

cavity of the piece or the “heart-pit” (Schliiter), the “ nutritive
canal” of Goldfuss and Geinitz*. From these chambers there rises
up the “axial prolongation” (Dr. Carpenter) or ‘ dorso-ventral
vascular axis” (Ludwig) on its way to enter the visceral mass and
to join the oral vascular ring. The above-mentioned opening may
therefore be termed the ‘axial opening.”

Now I entirely fail to see why the presence of a simple round
hole on the under surface of the centrodorsal of A. italica, instead of
the ordinary stellate perforation, should determine the roundness of
the upper axial opening. In the first place, the expanded cavity
(nutritive canal) lodging the chambered organ is not necessarily
lobate, like the perforation in its floor; and, secondly, the shape of
the axial opening is not necessarily that of the nutritive canal into
which it leads. Thus in A. rosacea the centrodorsal cavity has a
rounded pentagonal or decagonal shape, but its upper opening is
frequently constricted and rendered lobate (more so than in any
fossil species) by the five projections of its lip that lodge the radial
pits. Further, evenif there be a round axial opening in A, tétalica,
it does not necessarily follow that the radial pits are absent as
Schliiter supposes. Neither does the presence of a stellate opening
(now closed internally) on the lower surface of the centrodorsal of
A, lenticularis necessarily involve the presence of radial pits on its
upper surface. In the latter case Schliiter’s argument would seem
to be as follows :—

1. Because there was a stellate dorsal opening there was a
“ lobate nutritive canal” (ventral).

2. Because there was a “ lobate nutritive canal” there were radial
pits around its border.

The first proposition is parallel to that already considered with
reference to A. italica, like which it does not appear to me to be
necessarily true. The chief difficulty which I feel about accepting
it is the great variability in the shape of the axial opening of A.
rosacea and A. celtica, which may be circular, pentagonal, decagonal,
as in Ant. essenensis and Ant. tourtiey, or more markedly 5-lobed.
The stellate dorsal opening of these forms is obliterated so very
early, that it would be hardly fair to base any argument upon its
shape. But in Glenotremites (Antedon) paradoxus the stellate dorsal
opening persisted through life as in some other fossil species. We
do not find, however, that there was always an axial opening of
corresponding shape. Thus in one of the specimens figured by

* Neither of these names isa good one. ‘The latter is a relic of the days of
Miller and Goldfuss, when the stem was believed to contain a prolongation of
the alimentary canal; while the former is based on the erroneous idea that the
chambered organis a heart. The second name is at any rate the more preferable
of the two; for the stem does enclose a vascular axis proceeding downwards
from the chambered organ, which is an important part of the blood-vascular
system.

ri The terms decagonal, lobate, and five-lobed appear to be used indifferently
by Schliiter. Thus he places A. towrtie, which he describes as haying a deca-
gonal opening, in the group “ Comatule with radial pits and a five-lobed
opening.”

40 P, H. CARPENTER ON COMATULZA FROM

Goldfuss (Taf. li. fig. 1) it is decagonal, almost what Schliiter would
call lobate ; in the other (Taf. xlix. fig. 9c) it is only pentagonal ;
so that in fossil as well as in recent Comatule the shape of the axial
opening was not constant. I do not think, therefore, that any cor-
relation can be established for A. lenticularis, any more than for
A, ttalica, between the shapes of the two openings, dorsal and
ventral, in the axis of the centrodorsal piece.

What I take to be the second part of Schliiter’s argument seems
even more unsatisfactory than the first; for although in recent
Comatule a lobate axial opening generally does have radial pits
around its border, yet this is not always the case, and the pits may
occur round a pentagonal opening, as in the fossil A. paradowu, while
Schliiter himself records that they may be sometimes present and
sometimes absent in Solanocrinus scrobiculatus, just as I have
found to be the case in A. rosacea and A. celtica. The occurrence
of such variations as these tells strongly against Schliiter’s proposed
classification of the fossil Comatule. He divides them into two
groups according as they have (A) radial pits and a 5-lobed axial
opening, or (B) no radial pits and an undivided opening. Were
recent Comatule classified thus, A. rosacea and A. celtica would
appear in both groups, while some individuals with lobate or decago-
nal openings but no pits, would find a place in neither!

Although not constant in their occurrence, the radial pits of these
two species are peculiar to them among all the recent Comaiule I
have examined. In no other species have I found any thing exactly
like them. They are not parts of the generally concave surface of
each radial area, but have distinct peripheral borders*, marking them
off from these surfaces. They have a precisely similar appearance
in Ant. rotunda (PI. V. fig. 5a), except that they are a trifle deeper
and more distinct than in A. rosacea; but they have nothing like
the relative size of the radial pits in most of Schliiter’s species.
Besides A. rosacea and A. celtica, I only know of one other recent
Comatula in which radial pits occur ; but their shape is very peculiar.
The axial opening is bluntly lobate, and the pits are situate at five
points on its projecting lip, or, rather, their central ends are; for
they bifurcate and extend outwards so as to occupy the best part of
each radial area, ending a little inside its margin. This feature is
of some interest; for in one of Goldfuss’s two figures of A. paradoxa
(Taf. xlix. fig. 9c) all the radial pits show a tendency to bifurca-
tion at their outer ends, two of them especially so. The same is
the case in our English example of this species (Pl. V. fig. 1) and
in Act. abnormis (Pl. V. fig. 8a).

I have shown elsewhere? that, omitting the little-known Comaster
of Goldfusst, the recent Comatulce may be referred to three well-
marked generic types, viz. Antedon, Actinometra, and Promacho-
crinus. Lovén’s Phanogenia is, I beliove, only an aberrant <Actino-

* “Actinometra,” pl. 4. fig. 15, q.

pligae’ Preliminary Report upon the Comatule of the ‘Challenger ’ Expedition,”
Proc. Roy. Soc. No, 194, 1879, p. 385. |

t Journ. Linn. Soc., etc Tol, xiii. pp. 454-456.

THE BRITISH SECONDARY ROCKS. Al

metra, while I do not think that Semper’s Ophiocrinus, with only five
arms, can be regarded as more than a subgenus of Antedon, with
which it is similar in all respects, excepting the absence of division
in its rays*. The same variation occurs in the ten-rayed Promacho-
crinus, one species having twenty arms and others but ten, as the rays
do not divide. The characters of the centrodorsal piece and calyx of
Ophiocrinus are essentially those of an Antedon, with which type it
also agrees in the central position of its mouth and the absence of a
terminal comb on the oral pinnules 7.

Actinometra differs from Antedon in several important characters.
The mouth is excentric, the ambulacra unequal, and the oral pinnules
provided with a terminal comb. These are not characters, however,
which could be of any palzontological value; but many such are to
be found in the peculiarities of its calyx. I have already referred
to this subject elsewhere +, though not systematically enough for
paleontological purposes. The following descriptions of the centro-
dorsal piece and calyx of Antedon and Actinometra are based upon a
personal examination of the external characters of over 200 species of
recent Comatule, and upon close comparison of the dissected calices of
eighteen species of Antedon and eleven of Actinometra. I trust, there-
fore, that they may be regarded as having some systematic value.

The centrodorsal piece of Antedon is extremely variable in its
appearance. It may have the shape of a shallow basin or a hemi-
sphere, either complete or flattened at the pole; or it may be conical
either perfectly so or more or less truncated ; or, lastly,it may be more
or less distinctly columnar. Occasionally it is a thick disk, almost
thick enough to be called columnar, with well-marked upright sides,
to which the cirrhus-sockets are limited, the whole (or nearly the
whole) of the dorsal surface being free from them. This is the case,
for example, in A. brasiliensis and A. macrocnema.

As a rule, there are at least two and, generally, three or more
rows of cirrhus-sockets, alternating in some species (Pl. V. figs. 4, 5),
but vertically above one another in others; while though there may
be a large central space free from them, it nearly always shows
traces of partially obliterated sockets, which are rarely found in this
position in Actinometra (Pl. V. figs. 6, 8).

The outer faces of the radials of Antedon are always much inclined
to the vertical axis of the calyx (Pl. V. fig. 4). They are usually
much wider at their dorsal than at their ventral ends, having a

* Schliter (p. 40) seems to be sceptical about Ophiocrinus with its “ quite un-
divided arms which are said to start directly from the centrodorsal, a fact that
rather wants a closer examination.” As all the recent examples of this type
which are known to science (including Semper’s original specimen) are in my
hands at present, I can speak positively as to its characters. De Loriol’s dis-
covery of a fossil species in the Urgonian of Switzerland (Denkschr. d. allg,
schweiz. Gesellsch. f. d. ges. Naturw. Bd. 23, Zurich, 1869, pp. 57-59) is of
considerable interest.

+ In one of the ‘Challenger’ Antedons only four rays divide out of the five,
the fifth remaining simple and undivided, as is the case with all the rays of
Ophiocrinus. This is a strong argument against the separation of Ophiocrinus
from Antedon as a distinct generic type.

} “Actinometra,” op. cit. pp. 61, 76, 81-84.

42 P. H. CARPENTER ON COMATULA. FROM

trapezoidal form; and the opening of the central funnel which is
bounded by their upper edges is very narrow, their ventral surfaces
being very small and having a steep inward slope. Hence when
the calyx is viewed from above (Pl. V. fig. 4a) the greater part or
even the whole of these inclined external faces is visible, always
down to the opening of the central canal in the transverse articular
ridge, and sometimes even the dorsal fossee for the attachment of the
elastic ligament. Most Antedons have large muscle-plates, which
greatly increase the height of the distal faces of the radials. In most
species they are simply continuations of the general straight line
of each face ; but in a few cases (A. celica, A. Eschrichiti, and a few
others) they are set on at an angle to the dorsal half of the face, and
stand up vertically around the opening of the central funnel. The
muscular fosse lodged in these plates are separated from those for
the attachment of the interarticular ligaments by ridges which start
from the raised rim around the opening of the central canal, and
usually run more or less obliquely outwards to meet the sides of the
radials. They are occasionally somewhat curved upwards, as in A.
Eschrichtii, and still more so in some specimens of A. brasiliensis and
A, rosacea (compare fig. 1A, on pl. xxxvi. of Dr. Carpenter’s
memoir, with pl. iv. fig. 14 of my memoir on Actinometra) ; while in
one ‘Challenger’ species (from Station 212) they run almost vertically
upwards for some little distance, and then curve outwards, so that
the size of the muscular fossee above them is considerably reduced.
The two muscular fossz on each articular face are either separated
by a strong vertical ridge, which ends below in the prominent trian-
gular rim around the opening of the central canal, as in A. celtica,
A. Eschrichtii, and A. equimarginata (Pl. V. fig. 4), or more
rarely, A. rosacea and A. prisca (Pl. V. fig. 7), there is a narrow
intermuscular furrow, which dies out below as it approaches the
above-mentioned rim.

As with the centrodorsal, so with the radials of A. brasiliensis
and A. macrocnema, which differ slightly from those of other Anie-
dons in the following points. There is much less difference than
usual between the width of the upper and lower ends of the distal
faces, which are comparatively low, so that their long axes are hori-
zontal, and not vertical, as is usually the case. Consequently the
centre of the upper surface of the calyx (especially in A. macro-
enema) is occupied by a wide funnel, the walls of which are formed
by the ventral surfaces of the radials. _

A. brasiliensis has fairly large muscle-plates; but they are quite
small in A. macrocnema, and the ridges separating the muscle- and
ligament-fosse are so slightly oblique as to be almost horizontal,
though their origin from the prominent and large rim of the central
canal is very marked. In each case, however, the general appear-
ance of the calyx is much more that of the Antedon than of the
Actinometra type.

The centrodorsal of Actinometra (Pl. V. figs. 6, 8, and fig. in
p. 51) is nearly always (so far as my knowledge goes) a low flattened
pentagonal disk with one or occasionally two rows of cirrhus-

THE BRITISH SECONDARY ROCKS. 43

sockets on its sloping sides, while the whole of its dorsal surface is
smooth, without any traces of sockets. Occasionally, however, the
centrodorsal is rather more convex, and only its flattened apex is
free from cirrhi, though this occupies a relatively larger area than
in most Antedons. The distal faces of the radials are nearly or
quite parallel to the vertical axis of the calyx, and also nearly or
quite as wide at their upper as at their lower ends. The ventral
faces, which in Antedon have a steep inward slope, are almost hori-
zontal in Actinometra, sloping very gently inwards towards the cen-
tral space. Hence the opening of the funnel becomes widely ex-
panded, and, when the radial pentagon is viewed from above, little
or nothing is seen besides the proper ventral faces of its component
radials, All the species of Actinometra which I have examined
have smaller muscle-plates than those of any <Antedon except A.
macrocnema, so that the distal faces of the radials are very low and
the muscular fossze quite inconspicuous. They are separated from
the ligament-fossze by very prominent ridges, which are either hori-
zontal or curved slightly upwards.. These start from the sides of
the radial, run inwards towards the middle line, and then turn
downwards so as to leave between them a wide furrow which gra-
dually dies away below, with the disappearance of its bounding ridges.
The only Antedon I know which presents features at all resembling
these is the anomalous ‘Challenger’ species from Station 212. The
arrangement of the ridges is essentially the same as in Actinometra,
though the shape of the distal faces of the radials is somewhat
different. No Actinometra has the distinct rim on the ventral side
ef the opening of the central canal that exists in all Antedons, in
which the transverse articular ridge rises up round the opening as a
prominent triangular rim.

There is one singular type of fossil Comatule, the Jurassic genus
Solanocrinus, Goldfuss*, which has been long regarded as distinct
from the recent forms, owing to the appearance of basal pieces
on the exterior of the calyx. Schliiter? merges Solanocrinus in
Antedon ; for he does not regard the difference between the basals
of the two types as of generic value. In the first type they are ex-
ternal, while in the second they are concealed and metamorphosed
into a rosette, having been relatively large and distinct during an
earlier stage of development. On this subject Schliiter remarks :—
“‘T have never yet seen this rosette, as basals are present in all the
species which I have examined.” Here, of course, he means basals
like those of Solanocrinus, which appear on the exterior of the calyx
between the radials and the centrodorsal. He describes eight new
species, five of which are based on the characters of the centrodorsal
piece only ; and it is therefore only an assumption on his part that
* basalia” were present in those five species. At the time Schliiter’s
paper was written this assumption was perfectly justifiable, in fact
the only one which could be made under the circumstances. It was
based on the fact that the only Comatulw, besides Glenotremites,
with interradial grooves on the ventral surface of the centrodorsal

* ‘Petrefacta Germania,’ i. p. 166. t Op. cit. pp. 86, 49.

44 P. H. CARPENTER ON COMATULA FROM

which were known at that time were the various species of Solano-
crinus*, the so-called Comaster tT of Lundgren, and the three small
centrodorsal pieces described by Edward Forbes+ from the Coralline
Crag. These last, having no calyx attached, proved nothing either
way. The same was the case with the isolated centrodorsal piece of
Glenotremites, the interradial grooves on which were described as
“ambulacra” by Goldfuss, and as sockets for the attachment of the
arms by Agassiz, Romer, Pictet, and Geinitz. Their real nature as
surfaces of attachment for the basals was first made clear by Lund-
gren§. The so-called Comaster, discovered by Schliiter, and first
described by Lundgren, has a centrodorsal with all the characters of
Glenotremites, viz. a more or less distinct dorsal star, and on the
ventral surface radial pits separated by interradial grooves. One
specimen retaining the calyx attached to the centrodorsal piece
resembles Solanocrinus in the presence, above the interradial angles
of the centrodorsal, of external basals which obviously occupy the in-
terradial grooves on its ventral surface. Here, then, is the real ex-
planation of the ‘‘ambulacra” of Glenotremites ; and Schliiter was
naturally entitled to suppose that all the Comatule described by him
with these interradial grooves had corresponding externa] basals
like those of Comaster (Aniedon) Retz, and presumably, therefore,
no rosette.

It is noteworthy, however, that in A. lenticularis and A. ztalica,
two out of the three species with the calyx preserved, Schliiter had
some difficulty in detecting the presence of external basals. In the case
of A. lenticularis he can only describe them as apparently showing
themselves in two places, beneath the sutures of the united first ra-
dials; while he neither describes nor figures them in A. ztalica, though,
since he says they are present in all the fossil species examined by
him, it is to be supposed that they exist in this one. An analogous
case to that of Schliiter’s specimen of A. lenticularis, viz. basals
appearing externally at some of the angles of the calyx, but not at
others, will be noticed further on in A. equimarginata (Pl. V.
fig. 4).

ze variations are perfectly explained by what is now known
respecting recent Comatule. I pointed out in 1877 || that in some
species of Actinometra the rosette is connected with five prismatic
or cylindrical rods that lie in a stellate series of interradial grooves
(the basal grooves) on the ventral surface of the centrodorsal piece.
“¢ These five rods, to which, taken together, the author has given the
name of the basal star, vary very greatly in the degree of their
development, not only in different species, but in different individuals

* Goldfuss, it is true, says nothing about such grooves, but merely speaks
of the basals as articulated on “finf strahlenformige Erhabenheiten.” These
interradial elevations were, however, grooved as in recent Comatule. Quenstedt
(‘ Echinodermen,’ p. 173) describes them as “‘ gefurchte Strahlen.”

t “Om en Comaster och en Aptychus fran Kopinge,” Ofversigt af Kongl.
Vetenskaps Akademiens Forhandlingar, Stockholm, 1874, No. 3, p. 69.

+ “Hchinodermata of the British Tertiary Deposits,” Paleontogr. Soc. 1852,

pp. 19, 20.
§ Op. cit. p. 65. | Journ. Linn. Soe. loc. cit. p. 452.

THE BRITISH SECONDARY ROCKS. 45

of the same species, and to some extent also in the same individual.
The reason of this is that these rods are not calcifications in a
nucleated protoplasmic network like the other pieces of the skeleton,
but they are simply formed by a more or less complete deposition
of calcareous matter in the five interradial planes around the fibres
of connective tissue which effect the synostosis of the centrodorsal
piece with the pentagonal base of the calyx.” At the same time I
drew attention to the striking resemblance between the basal rays
of Actinometra and the basals of Solanocrinus, noting, however, an
important point of difference between the two structures, viz. the
appearance of the latter on the exterior of the calyx, but the complete
concealment of the basal rays, as well as of the rosette, in those four
species of Actinometra which I had then examined.

During the past two years I have dissected the calices of a con-
siderable number of Comatule (26 species), and I have found the
basal rays to be always present in Actinometra, and generally so in
Antedon, the European species and Ophiocrinus being the exceptions.
I have also discovered that in some few species, both of Antedon and
of Actinometra, the basal rays do appear upon the exterior of the
calyx, as in the fossil Ant. Retzit and Ant. semiglobosa. Had I not
known from actual examination that these recent species have a
concealed rosette, I should of course have regarded the visible ends
of their basal rays as the unmetamorphosed embryonic basals, and
as homologous with the similarly placed basals of Pentacrinus asteria.
This is, in fact, the view which I have expressed with respect to the
basals of Solanocrinus ; but the extraordinary resemblance between
the calyx of Ant. macrocnema, from Sydney Harbour, and that of
S. costatus has led me to doubt its truth. The question is one of
great interest, but is beyond the limits of this paper. I am giving
it my best attention, and hope ere long to arrive at a definite con-
clusion respecting it. It is sufficient at present to notice that the
existence of basal grooves on the centrodorsal does not necessarily
imply the presence of external basals and the’absence of a rosette,
as is supposed by Schliiter. In some species both are present, and
in others only the rosette, so that it is comparatively unimportant
whether there are external basals or not in Ant. italica. I imagine,
however, that a resette is certainly present, as in all recent Comatule.

I have referred already to the curious differences in the degree of
development of the basal rays, not only in the same species, but
also in the same individual. ‘These are very marked in some of the
new “Challenger” Comatule, which may have three of the rays reach-
ing the outer surface of the calyx, while the others are invisible ex-
ternally, as in most recent Comatule. ‘This is a parallel case to
Schliiter’s specimen of Ant. lenticularis, which has only two visible,
and to a new fossil species, Ant. equimarginata (Pl. V. fig. 4c), the
unique specimen of which in the British Museum shows the ends of
three or, possibly, four of its basal rays on the exterior of the calyx.

I may mention here that these basal rays also appear exter-
nally in my single (dissected) specimen of Promachocrinus ker-
guelensis. ‘There are ten radials, five of which, alternating with the

46 P, H. CARPENTER ON COMATULA FROM

others, are separated from the centrodorsal by the small triangular
ends of the basal rays. The precise nature of these “ interradial
radials” puzzles me a good deal, and I prefer for the present to reserve
my judgment about them.

Let us now pass on to the Comatule which I have to describe.

1. Anrepon parapoxa *, Goldf. sp. Plate V. fig. 1.

Glenotremites paradoxus, Goldf. Petref. Germania, i. p. 159, Taf.
xlix. fig. 9, Taf. li. fig. 1.

Antedon paradoaxus, Schliiter, Zeitsch. d. deutsch. geol. Gesellsch.
1878, p. 42. 2

The Museum of Practical Geology contains two specimens of a
Chalk Comatula which agrees very closely with Gilenotremites para-
doxus as described by Goldfuss and Schliter. The centrodorsal is
hemispherical, with a deepish hollow at the pole. The bottom of
this hollow is occupied by a five-rayed impression, which is far more
distinct in the smaller specimen than in the larger. The cirrhus-
sockets are in 10 vertical rows, each row consisting of 2—4 sockets
more or less alternating with those of adjacent rows. The characters
of the sockets, as described by Goldfuss, are rather peculiar. ‘‘ They
are pierced in the centre by an oval hole, which has a slight elevation
at each side, and is apparently only absent from a few of the upper-
most pits [2. ¢. sockets]. The remaining. surface of the pits, as far
as their margin, is marked by very fine grooves, which here and there
are continuous with those of the adjacent ones.” Very similar
cirrhus-sockets occur in some of Schliiter’s new species, but only in
the Cretaceous ones; and even in these the central perforation has
not the oval or keyhole-shape that it has in A. paradowxa, and
another species (A. rugosa) from the English Chalk, which I shall
describe immediately.

The basal grooves on the ventral surface of the centrodorsal are
rather deep, and of an elongated pyriform shape, just as in Goldfuss’s
smaller figure (Taf. li. fig. 1). Their sides are more or less
distinctly plicated, showing traces of very minute ridges and furrows
(Pl. V. fig. 1), which run somewhat obliquely to the axis of the
grooves, and give them exactly the appearance represented in
Goldfuss’s figure. This, I believe, is the real nature of the ‘ paarweise
gegeniiberstehende Poren ” which Goldfuss imagined himself to have
discovered, so that he was led to describe the grooves as * Felder
der Fihlergiinge.”

I regard these markings as rather more characteristic of this
species and its allies than Schluter seems inclined to admit. He
says “there are, it is true, some irregular punctate impressions in
the original specimen, but they are not perforations. They are
unimportant and accidental, and have nothing whatever to do with
ambulacral pores.” Similar markings occur more or less distinctly

* Schliiter uses Antedon as a masculine name. I have given reasons else-
where (‘‘Actinometra,’ p. 16) for preferring to follow Pourtales, who makes it
feminine. ‘The latter course seems to be the more correct from an etymological
point of view (‘ Nature,’ vol. xv. p. 366).

1

THE BRITISH SECONDARY ROCKS. 47

in A. rugosa (Pl. V. fig. 2a); but nothing of the kind appears
in Goldfuss’s larger figure of A. paradowa (Taf. xlix. fig. 9), the
margins of the basal grooves being quite simple and not plaited at
all. I imagine that this difference is merely one depending on the
state of preservation of the specimen; for in the English examples
the plaiting is much more distinct at the sides of some grooves than
at the sides of others which are evidently more worn.

The same is probably the case with regard to the differences
between the English and German specimens in the nature of the
openings on the upper surface of the centrodorsal. The central
axial opening in the latter, the so-called mouth, is distinct from
the five large oval holes disposed around it, the so-called “ genital
openings.” In the English specimen there is a five-pointed axial
opening, the points of which, rather less deep than the centre, seem
to correspond to the ‘genital openings” of Goldfuss’s specimens.
This is probably due to accident, just as supposed by Geinitz* for
his specimens, the “‘hufeisenformig erhabene Leiste,”’ which Gold-
fuss described as forming the central boundary of the pits, having
been broken in the removal of the matrix; for the central ends of
some of the radial extensions of the axial opening have small pro-
jections from their sides, which look as if they were the remains of
broken bars bridging these extensions. I say “ bridging,” because
I do not think that these bars were the upper ends of very thin
walls separating the radial pits from the central cavity, as in
A, Retzii. From the condition of the specimen I should rather
judge that there was but one five-rayed cavity, and that the central
ends of the rays were bridged over by thin bony bars. The outer
ends of some of them have a tendency to bifurcation. This was
also visible in Goldfuss’s specimens, as is well seen im his fig. 9c on
Taf. xlix. Itis a peculiarity of some interest, because, as already
mentioned, it is exhibited in a much more marked degree by one of
the ‘ Challenger’ Antedons.

But the most curious feature in A. paradowa is its possessing
certain characters which are confined, with only one exception, so
far as I know, to two Antedons inhabiting respectively the northern
and southern extremities of the Atlantic. The one is the well-
known A. Hschrichtu of the Arctic Ocean and the north temperate
zone, and the other is a closely allied but not identical form from
the Southern Sea (Heard Island). In both of these species the
centrodorsal cavity is rather deep, and its walls are marked by strong
ribs, the lower ends of which are more or less distinctly visible
through the axial opening, projecting beneath its lip which their
upper ends help to support. Five of them, those at the inter-
radial angles, are often considerably larger than the rest, and may
be the only ones visible. In other cases, however, both these and
numerous smaller intermediate ribs are visible through the axial
opening, as is seen in Pl. Y. fig. 3. The ribs are much more

* “Das Hlbthalgebirge in Sachsen,” Palwontographica, vol. xv. pp. 91, 92,
Taf. xxiii. figs. 8-10.

+ Trans, Linn. Soc. ser. 2, Zool. vol. ii. pl. iv. fig. 11.

48 P, H, CARPENTER ON COMATULZ FROM

distinct in some specimens than in others, both species exhibiting a
great amount of individual variation in this respect. In the Heard-
Island specimen represented here, both the radial and the inter-
radial ribs are exceptionally distinct.

The presence of these ribs is very characteristic of the two polar
Aniedons. It does not appear to depend upon the depth of the
centrodorsal cavity ; for there are no ribs even in the deepest centro-
dorsal pieces of the northern A. celica or of A. phalangiwm (Medi-
terranean), though these centrodorsals may be externally higher
and internally deeper than those of small examples of A. Eschrichtii.
The same is the case with regard to the deep centrodorsals of some
new Antedons from the South Pacific. Only one of these, from
Station 170 (630 fathoms), just north of the Kermadec Islands,
shows any trace of ribs. There are only ten, five radial and five
interradial, and they are so faintly marked that they would readily
be overlooked by any one whose attention was not specially directed
to them.

Now in Goldfuss’s description of A. paradowa (p. 159) the fol-
lowing passage occurs :—

“The mouth is furnished with five blunt processes, only one of
which is preserved in the specimen figured ; so that the points of
attachment of the rest are visible.” According to Schliiter *, how-
ever, ‘the tooth-like process described by Goldfuss in the mouth is
nothing but a fragment of the calcareous matrix which has by
chance adhered to the specimen at this point.” It will be under-
stood that the term “ mouth” is here used to mean the central
opening on the ventral surface of the centrodorsal.

Schliiter has examined the original specimen figured by Goldfuss,
and therefore speaks with authority; but I cannot help suspecting
that the interradial process in question was of the same nature as
the larger ribs of A. Hschrichtic and of its southern representative
(Pl. Y. fig. 3). In the English specimen which I am describing
these interradial ribs are rather prominent; they stand out like
buttresses, projecting into the central cavity from the inner ends of
the basal grooves which they support; while there are traces of
smaller intervening ribs on the end walls of the radial extensions of
the central cavity—faint ones, it is true, in four cases, but tolerably
distinct in the fifth. It is the presence of these ribs which leads me
to think (as pointed out above) that the radial extensions of the
central cavity were continuous with it beneath bony bridges, and
not cut off from it as in A. Retziz; so that they are not precisely
equivalent to the radial pits of A. rosacea or A. rotunda (Pl. Y.
fig. 5a), which are merely excavations in the projecting lip of the
cavity or in the upper surface of its walls.

Diameter of larger specimen, 13 millims. ; of smaller, 6 millims.
Heights, 7 millims. and 3 millims. respectively.

Locality. Upper Chalk, Dover. Coll. Museum of Practical

eology.
pits * Op. cit. p. 48.

THE BRITISH SECONDARY ROCKS. 49

2. ANTEDON RUGOSA, n. sp. Plate VY. fig. 2.

The centrodorsal is a thick pentagonal disk with rounded angles
and steep sides, which bear about twenty-five cirrhus-sockets in two
irregular alternating rows. The sockets have keyhole-shaped per-
forations and striated margins like those of A. paradowa. ‘The
dorsal surface is flattened, with a deep central hollow, at the bottom
of which is a five-rayed impression. In the centre of the ventral
surface is a shallow five-rayed cavity without any ribs on its sides.
The rays have straight smooth sides, without any indications of plates
or bars separating them from the central space; so that I do not
imagine the stellate shape of the cavity to be accidental, as Schliiter *
suggests in the case of A. semiglobosa. The basal grooves have
plaited sides, but are less deep than in A. paradowa; in fact one
of them slopes gradually downwards at its central end on to the
floor of the central cavity, and is not raised slightly above it, as is
the case with the other four. The angles of the ventral surface,
where their outer ends lie, project rather prominently (Pl. V.
fig. 2,c). Beyond the ends of the rays of the central cavity there
is a furrow in the middle line of each radial area; its depth is
rather variable, for it is sometimes distinct and sometimes barely
traceable, ¢.g. the two furrows at the sides of that basal groove
which is so much lower than the rest.

. Diameter 9°5 millims.; height 3°5 millims.

Locality. Chalk (Sussex). Dixon Collection, British Museum.

Remarks. This species, while resembling A. paradowa in the
characters of its cirrhus-sockets and basal grooves, presents many
points of difference from that type. It is flatter, with a more pen-
tagonal outline and fewer cirrhus-sockets; while there are no ribs
on the walls of the central cavity, the appearance of which is very’
different from that of Goldfuss’s species. The striated cirrhus-
sockets, pentagonal outline, and stellate axial cavity (?) are points of
resemblance to A. semiglobosa; but the latter species has a hemi-
spherical centrodorsal with nearly fifty cirrhus-sockets, and the
sides of its basal grooves are not plaited.

3. ANTEDON EQUIMARGINATA, n.sp. Plate Y. fig. 4.

This is a well-preserved specimen, consisting of the united radial
pentagon and centrodorsal piece. The latter is a truncated hemi-
sphere (9°5 by 3-5 millims.), with a wide but shallow depression in
the middle of its under surface, and three incomplete rows of plain
cirrhus-sockets, placed more or less vertically above one another, on
its sides, seventeen or eighteen sockets in each row. Its ventral
surface is a good deal wider than the base of the radial pentagon,
the angles of which approach its margin (fig. 4,a); but there is a
considerable space between the incurved lower border of each radial
and the corresponding side of the roughly pentagonal centrodorsal.
These spaces gave support to the proximal portions of the second
radials, which would thus be partially invisible, the first, of course,

* Op, cit. p. 42.
Q.J.G.8, No. 141. E

50 P. H. CARPENTER ON COMATULZ FROM

being entirely so, to amy one examining the complete skeleton.
This concealment of the first radials entirely, and of the second
partially, is a peculiar condition which occurs in very few recent
Comatule ; but it is common to Schliiter’s three species A. sem-
globosa, A. lenticularis, and A. italica. In A. equimarginata, as in
the first of these, a small portion of the dorsal surface of the radials
is visible where it is slightly upturned at their lower angles. At
four of the angles (possibly only three) every two radials are sepa-
rated by a minute triangular piece (fig. 4, ¢) of very variable size,
which represents the end of a basal ray. At the other angle,
however, and perhaps even in a second (for it is very difficult to
decide), this piece is absent altogether, the corresponding basal
ray not quite reaching the exterior of the calyx.

The articular faces of the radials (fig. 4, 6) have nearly all the
characters of those of an ordinary Antedon. They are trapezoidal
in form and rather wider than high, with a considerable inclination
to the vertical axis of the calyx, so that almost the whole of them
is visible when the calyx is viewed from above (fig. 4, a).

The dorsal fossa for the elastic ligament is very large, as in some
other fossil Comatule, and takes up about 2 of the whole height of
the articular face. The middle of its upper portion has the usual
deep hollow just beneath the great transverse articular ridge. A
prominent rim rises from this ridge around the opening of the axial
canal, which is thus very nearly in the centre of the articular face.
From its upper border there proceed two slanting lateral ridges that
separate the large ligamentous from the small muscular fosse on
each side. There is also a prominent intermuscular ridge that
proceeds upwards from the same point and reaches the centre of the
ventral margin of the articular face; this is not notched, as is
usually the case, but quite even, and forms a part of the rim of the
deep central funnel.

Height 7 millims.; diameter 9°5 millims,

Locality. The Gault at Folkestone. Original in the British
Museum.

Remarks. The characters of this species are intermediate between
those of A. semiglobosa from the Greensand (= Kreidemergel, Goldf.)
of Speldorf and A. lenticularis of the Maestricht Chalk. Its re-
semblance to the latter species lies chiefly in the marked curvature
of the sides of the radial pentagon; but it is very like A. semi-
globosa in the shape of the centrodorsal and the articular faces of
the radials, and also in the upturning of the flanks of their dorsal
surfaces above the outer ends of the inconspicuous basal rays. The
articular faces, however, are less hollowed than in A. semzglobosa,
so that their opposed edges stand out less prominently than in this
species ; but these faces have a much more marked inward slope,
the dorsal fossa for the elastic ligament being visible to a greater
extent, when the calyx is viewed from above, than in either of the
two allied species. The relative proportions of the calyx also are
different from those which obtain in nearly all the other fossil
Comatule.

THE BRITISH SECONDARY ROCKS. 51

4. AcrrnomEeTRA LovEnt, n. sp.

This fossil consists of the centrodorsal, radials, and first two
brachials of what must have been a large Actinometra. The centro-
dorsal is exceedingly peculiar, and but for my experience with the
‘Challenger’ Comatule I should have been greatly puzzled what to
make of it. In fact it has been generally taken for the “ head” of
a Pentacrinus, to which it has a considerable resemblance, except in
the absence of external basals ; and even these pieces seem to be
wanting in some species of the genus (P. /sheri for example) as it
is at present constituted.

Actinometra Lovéni, n.sp. From the Gault, Folkestone.

Dorsal aspect of the calyx, showing the clefts between the first radials and the
sides of the centrodorsal, which shows no traces of the attachment of
erry. x 2.

In my preliminary report upon the ‘ Challenger ’ Comatule* I have
described how the centrodorsal of some tropical species undergoes
a long series of changes in its shape and relations, which do not
commence until some time after the loss of the stem and the entry
upon a free state of existence. These changes are of three kinds :—
(1) the loss of all the cirrhi and the gradual obliteration of their
sockets ; (2) the lowering of the centrodorsal to the level of the
radial pentagon, or sometimes even below it ; and (3) the appearance
of clefts at its sides between its ventral surface and the dorsal faces
of the first radials. These three features are combined in various
Ways in several tropical Comatule. The clefts are largest in Act.
stellata, Ltk., and in Lovén’s Phanogenia typica ; but in the former
species the centrodorsal is entirely devoid of cirrhi and altogether
below the level of the radial pentagon, while in Phanogenia it is a
trifle above the level of the radials and bears a few indistinct cirrhus-
sockets. Act. Lovéni presents a condition intermediate between
these two.

* Proc. R.S., No. 194, pp. 890-393. r
E

52 P. H. CARPENTER ON COMATULZ FROM

The centrodorsal bears no trace of cirrhus-sockets, and peripherally
is almost, but not quite, on a level with the radials. Its surface
rises a little from the periphery towards the centre, and then sinks
again. The Jarger portion of the dorsal surface is thus somewhat
concave, and the hollow is partially filled up with pyrites. The
radial clefts are very marked, but are chiefly due to the inner edges
of the radials being concave instead of straight, as the sides of the
centrodorsal are much less curved than in Phanogemia or Act.
stellata. Hence its outline is only very bluntly stellate. The first
radials are thus very much shorter in the middle than at the sides
along their lines of suture, the inner ends of which are in contact
with the points of the controdorsal star. The distal edges of the
first radials are also somewhat incurved and receive the convex
proximal edges of the second radials; these, as well as the
axillaries, are rather arched from side to ‘side. They are twice as
long as the first radials (along their middle line), have a nearly
straight distal edge, and are only partly united laterally. The
axillaries are broadly pentagonal and about half as long again as
the second radials; the first brachials oblong and partly “united
laterally, the opposed inner faces of each pair having small fosse
which lodged the ligament connecting them. The articulation
between them and: the second brachials was by ligaments attached
on either side of a vertical ridge as in Ant. rosacea. The second
brachials are bluntly wedge-shaped and rather convex, their distal
articular faces having the usual fossee for muscles and ligaments,
and a large pinnule-socket towards the outer side.

Total diameter across the circle of second brachials 21 millims.
Diameter of centrodorsal plate 5 millims.

Locality. The Gault of Folkestone. Original in the Woodwardian
Museum, Cambridge.

Remarks. The chief interest of this fossil is that it shows the same
altered condition of the centrodorsal as we now find in Actinometre
from the Philippines and the Malay Archipelago, all of them from
quite shallow water, 7. ¢. 20 fathoms or less.

I have much pleasure in dedicating this fine species to Prof. Lovén,
whose description of Phanogenia has helped me greatly towards
understanding thé peculiar features which it presents.

5. ANTEDON RotuNDA, n. sp. Plate V. fig. 5.

Centrodorsal hemispherical, slightly flattened at the pole, which
is free from cirrhus-sockets and marked by a shallow stellate im-
pression. Sockets polygonal, closely set in four alternating rows
with occasional traces of a fifth and even of a sixth. Ventral sur-
face very slightly concave, with a markedly circular outline, and a
faintly lobulated axial opening leading into a shallow central
cavity. Basal grooves rather wide, with rounded distal, and bluntly
pointed proximal ends. Central ends of radial areas occupied by
small shallow pits lying a little way from the margin of the axial
opening.

Diameter 4:5 millims.; height 2 millims,

THE BRITISH SECONDARY ROCKS. 533

Locality. The Haldon Greensand (Neocomian). Original in the
British Museum.

Remarks. The ventral surface (PI. V. fig. 5, a) of this elegant little
species has some resemblance both in shape and in appearance to
that of Ant. essenensis, Schliiter, from the later ‘* Cenomanien.” The
radial pits, however, are relatively smaller and less distinctly four-
sided than in Ant. essenenszs, and the cirrhus-sockets are considerably
more numerous and more closely set.

6. ACTINOMETRA ABNORMIS, 0. sp. Plate Y. fig. 8.

The centrodorsal of this peculiar little species is a thin, irregularly
four-sided plate with rounded angles. Its dorsal surface has gently
sloping sides, which bear about thirty rather deep cirrhus-sockets
in an incomplete double row. Inside the line of sockets the sur-
face is tolerably flat till near the centre, where it rises slightly. On
the slope of this central elevation are five somewhat lancet-shaped
pits, radial in position and rather variable in size and depth; three
of them are partially filled by small rod-like pieces all of different
lengths. At the apex of the specimen I found an irregular circular
pit nearly filled up by a small tubercle rising somewhat above its
edge.

On carefully cleaning away under water with a camel’s hair
brush the clayey material at the bottom of the internal cavity, I
found this tubercle to be the broken end of a tiny rounded rod.
This seems to have somehow found its way into the cavity of the
centrodorsal, and to have become fixed in its dorsal opening by the
hardening of the clayey matrix. The central cavity is rather deep,
with nearly vertical walls on which some of the internal openings
of the cirrhus-canals are just traceable. Its upper axial opening
is irregularly hexagonal with rather rounded angles, the ventral
surface of the plate sloping very gradually from its circumference
towards the opening, near the margin of which the slope increases
a little. On this steeper part are five shallow radial pits of variable
shape: two are roughly quadrangular, each with a low radial bar
dividing it into two parts; another is distinctly bifurcate, one
division being longer than the other ; while the two remaining pits
are rather indistinct, their distal ends not being very clearly separa-
ble from the irregular furrows in the outer parts of the radial areas.
The basal grooves, also rather indistinct, are narrow and parallel-
sided.

Diameter 4:5 millims.

Locality. The Bradford Clay, Cirencester.

Remarks. The discoidal shape of the centrodorsal and the limita-
tion of the cirrhi to its sloping sides are characteristic of Actinometra.
The presence of radial pits is unusual, for I have not found them in
any recent species of the genus.

The specimen was found by the late Dr. S. P. Woodward and
given by him to Dr. Wright of Cheltenham, who has kindly placed
it in my hands for description.

54 P, H. CARPENTER ON COMATULA FROM

7. ANTEDON pRIscA, n. sp. Plate V. fig. 7.

Besides the isolated centrodorsal just described (Act. abnormis), a
second specimen from the same locality, but with the radials attached,
was forwarded to me by Dr. Wright; but, to my great regret, it arrived
in a most fragmentary condition. The centrodorsal was in several
pieces, one or two fortunately being rather large ; while the radials
were all separated from one another, and one of them broken in two.
These, however, I have succeeded in fitting together sufficiently well
to be able to see their general characters. Between the lower angles
of the contiguous radials there appear externally the rounded ends
of small basal rods, just as in the species of Solanocrimus from the
White Jura of Germany and Ant. equimarginata (Pl. V. fig. 4, ¢).
These are possibly the ends of basal rays just as in recent Oomatule ;
but owing to the condition of the specimen it is impossible to make
out whether their central ends were connected with a rosette as in
the living species.

The greater part of the dorsal surface of the radials is synosteal
for their attachment to the centrodorsal, only a small peripheral por-
tion being turned upwards so as to appear on the exterior of the
calyx, where it would be barely visible except just at the angles.
There is thus considerably less of an ‘‘ outer dorsal surface ” than in
S. costatus, which this type resembles in most other points, viz. the
basal pieces appearing externally, the slope of the outer faces of the
radials and their shape, wide and low with large ligamentous and
small muscular fosse, which are separated by a slight furrow. The
latter features are usually characteristic of Actinometra, but they
also occur in Ant. macrocnema and Ant. brasiliensis, and are accompa-
nied, as in this fossil, by a greater slope of the distal faces of the radials
than I know of in any Actinometra. I have carefully compared the
radials of this fossil with those of eleven recent species of Actinome-
tra; but they have a much less resemblance to any of these than to
the radials of Ant. brasiliensis, the distal faces of which are also con-
siderably inclined to the vertical axis of the calyx. The large size
of the transverse articular ridge and the number of cirrhus-sockets
on the larger fragments of the broken centrodorsal piece also point
to this fossil being an Antedon. Except for having a notch in the
middle of their upper border and an intermuscular furrow descending
from it, the wide and low distal faces have a general resemblance to
those of Ant. equimarginata (Pl. V. fig. 4, 6, ¢).

Width of asingle radial 3 millims.

Locality. ‘The Bradford Clay, Cirencester.

Found by Dr. 8. P. Woodward; now in the collection of Dr.
Wright.

This is the oldest known Antedon, no species of Solanocrinus occur-
ring in Germany below the lowest beds (a) of the White Jura, which
correspond to our Middle Oolites.

8. AcTINoMETRA Mitieri, n. sp. Plate V. fig. 6.
Centrodorsal a thin pentagonal disk with from 2-4 sockets along

CBerjeau del et hth.

Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. Vol. XXXVI. P1. V.

Mintern Bros imp.
BRITISH SECONDARY COMATULA®

THE BRITISH SECONDARY ROCKS. 55

each side. The largest specimens (5°5 millims.) are the flattest, having
the widest cirrhus-free space. In the smaller ones the dorsal surface
is more generally convex, and the plate has less distinct sides.

Ventral surface flat, with a round axial opening. Basal grooves
shallow, slightly widening from central to distal ends.

Locality. The Great Oolite, Bath.

There are five specimens in the British Museum, one of which is
very small, and the others more nearly equal. All are very much
worn.

Remarks. This, the earliest known Comatula, is a good typical
Actinometra, so far as can be judged from the appearance of the cen-
trodorsal, which is very similar to that of many recent species from
the Philippines and Malay Archipelago. I dedicate it to Johannes
Miller, to whom we are indebted for its generic name.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE V.

Fig. 1. Antedon paradoxa, from the Upper Chalk, Dover. Ventral surface of
centrodorsal. x3.

2. Antedon rugosa, nu. sp., from the Chalk. Centrodorsal: a, ventral sur-
face; 6, dorsal surface ; c, from the side. »& 2.

3. Ventral surface of the centrodorsal of a new (recent) Antedon from
Heard Island. The lower ends of the ribs on the walls of the inter-
nal cavity are visible through the axial opening. x 3.

4. Antedon equimarginata, n. sp., from the Gault, Folkestone. Centro-
dorsal and radial pentagon: a, from above; 4, from the side, radial
view; ¢, from the side, interradial view, showing the end of one of
the basal rays between the lower angles of two contiguous radials.
x 4.

5. Antedon rotunda, n. sp., from the Haldon Greensand. Centrodorsal :
a, ventral surface; 6, from the side; c, dorsal surface.

6. Actinometra Miilleri, n. sp., from the Great Oolite, Bath. Centrodorsal:
a, ventral surface; 6, from the side; ¢, dorsal surface. x 3.

7. Antedon prisca, n. sp., from the Bradford Clay, Cirencester. Side view
of two contiguous radials, showing the end of a basal piece between
their lower angles. x 6.

8. Actinometra abnormis, n. sp., from the Bradford Clay, Cirencester.
Centrodorsal: a, ventral surface; 0, from the side, c, dorsal surface.

x 8.

56 J. W. DAVIS ON FISH-REMAINS FOUND IN THE

6. On the Fisu-REmarns fownd in the Cannet Coat in the MippiE
CoaL-MEASURES of the West Ripine of YorxsHrRe, with the
Descriptions of some New Spxcizs. By Jauus W. Davis, Esq.,
F.S.A., F.G.S., &. (Read November 5, 1879.)

In a paper I had the honour to read before this Society in 1876 *,
a section of the strata composing the West Riding of Yorkshire
Coal-field from the Elland Flag rock to the Blocking Coal is given.
The Blocking Coal is probably the equivalent of the Silkstone Coal
of the more southern part of the Coal-field, and is regarded by the
members of the Geological Survey as the most convenient stratum
to form the dividing line between the Lower and Middle Coal-
measures. The coal-seams yielding the fossil fish-remains which
form the subject of the present paper occur about 400 feet higher
in the series than the Blocking Coal. The following section may
serve to give an idea of the position of the Stone- or Gas-coal of
Adwalton and the surrounding district :—

fhe wa,
Minor: POCK: ; sisaswseeutuarinonals eorawsile sha cb.sea eR ryeaen cee ee 120 0
Blueareillacsousisballes.... . RG). ajoe oleae adate hea teoe Bededs 16 0
JOAN COAM,..<1xe ec laklon «a dclidle Bltals MENG ough aan eee te Sota, 462
Bhiwe slide ..cuasst. eee. Bes (in BOR o eek. HAA. ES, OR ee 24 0
COME WRB Beh AOU RO, Gd. DR AOL ILI, EG See co EE 0 10
Seabeeartha oe... eens Lee ee SO teas See ae RRS 6 0
Blue shale, with layers of ironstone ..... Rh Moe Re 13 0
White earth, with bands of ironstone ...........ceeecesceeeecees 4.20
iBlaek shale, with washracasie ess. akan ee eet teooeee eae 3 0
ADWALTON STONE OR CANNEL COAL....ccc.cccsevecccscscserssscees ve AE, AO
Seabecar bia icles cchavhenes mele Salentnmstan nae ael ne penen eee ene alesse rEee 2 0
SELON WH te SOME! MSs... sve eseoad.. temacenanennmane woth chee PO
Blue shale tise ete SRE RE Re ee ee 4 0
MPAA O AME Niern heheh sd sebee cay Wonacaaee non aeee aoe sek eee SOL eee ONG
White stomes*wath shales. 5,4. Lae oe Meigs ltinats sd aeeee lane ol 0
Forty-yarps Coat (Dewsbury Bank Coal, or the Flockton
Tham orvAdwalton-Black bed) o0t. Mees oven edeee 0
RNC eM eee Al ec eos yersiaiolove cared seveaiatee cin olaninionwigibe ae ve we ae ee Ee 3 0
APS as nal G aoe een ei mck es ede Reena abaaes cob a he Soothe See 43 0
inst BROWN, METATMICOAW ooo ccs i ewcees see dante a dowaaueenene 2 0
Sinton eeseMy SOS leach 2 wa deeles eves lceren wrod» nm snne weistesbePem eee eeeee 24 0
Srconp Brown Mera Coat, or Old Hards ...........c6eeeeeees 1 10
Ser UHC nic Ll meme a ine sctsttio = caisiecins a asa'eis o0in Susis bing anes anime ane ate en 3 0
Sottibine suale, wath IrOnstONne .... .....<sseecdasnenceounasaeseeanete 1Qs260
AD a aie SLL aicidlinedawwens csaaten asada eee eee Ee Omg
Ulan s ale ralaG AROMSTOME «... <3 c0isive<r.ceitmquheememnree One eree Someee 26 0
SEIS ROIS eae artes olay ols cies sininisie vais gra. aca OMe EE RE Cee Cee 20 O
BES poe ict patstecs ai. k wisi vicina eian oie so oelbis niece codigo eee Naee Re rearnee te eee 12 0
MME NON MOET NH OOAT<\.tan. asc nackeeanve tee coe Meee eaeem snot 2 10
RSS IGS IMG weet ae oeraaate «noe snared ovsul hie caste nie Ree Ia oe eRe 4 0
Measures wihlctwo thin Coals ¢..< .asdscesoee meeueeceeeesen eneteent 75 -O
Mipptetron Matin Coat, Cromwell Coal or New Hards ...... 4 8
Seat-earth with thin layers of coal intercalated ............... 10 0
INSURES Ac Eek iveraisisi''jn. Soin bie sone wc o:s a dio beta ene ees eRe eee ee 35 0
Mippueton 11-yarps Coat or Three-quarters Coal ............ 2 65
MISH SUES) -kicicsaiied css yn can's fae. ova eosin cuentas seen RERP I eReientNe as se 40 0O
BLOCKING OR SHKSTONE COAL «ess. ccecavsewsehaeemeimeecemas tee oon 3 4

* Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. 1876, vol. xxxii. p. 332,

CANNEL COAL OF THE WEST RIDING OF YORKSHIRE. 57

The whole series exhibits considerable variations in the character
and relative thickness of the strata. The coals, though perhaps
more persistent than the other members of the series, do not form
an exception. Sections exposed in pits and borings in different
localities prove the coals to thin off in certain directions and almost
disappear ; in some the coal is divided into two bands by lenticular
masses of shale or sandstone many feet in thickness; in others
two beds of coal gradually converge and form one thicker bed. In
this respect the Middle Coal-measures differ from the Lower Coal-
measures. The latter, especially in the Lower or Halifax series, are
remarkably persistent. The Halifax hard and soft coals extend over
the whole of the Coal-field with an almost uniform thickness. They
are worked a few miles from Leeds, at Halifax, thence southwards
to the Sheffield district, and also in Derbyshire and Nottingham-
shire.

The particular bed of coal which has furnished the material for
this paper is no exception to the general rule; if any thing, it is
more variable than any other coal in the series. The Adwalton
Stone Coal or Cannel exists over a district about 20 square miles in
extent. It has been, or is, worked at Adwalton, Carlinghow,
Bruntcliffe, Gildersome, Morley, Tingley, and Ardsley. On the
N.W. and W. the outcrop occurs a little beyond Carlinghow and
Adwalton. On the N.E. the measures, including the Cannel Coal,
are thrown by a fault against the Lower Coal-measures. On the
South and §.E. they gradually thin out and disappear. The
following sections serve to show how extremely variable is the
quantity or thickness of the Cannel Coal even in this small area.

Taking the colliery at Tingley as a centre, we have the following
section :—

ft. in.
Black shale with ironstone containing Anthracosi@ .......0006 0.6
Shell-bed, composed Of ANThrACOSIE cececccccsacscsseceeececsesses 0 9
MgC Et EVR COUNIA BML. sia aiy on cioa's cect Sap np peevegiale =p veces oteps 1 4
. Bubb or Drab” (an inipure coal) J. ii0 cctv esewe as Iv Ss
ee A aA To. Sicilia el APS bide des Semele ak Nash vanes 1 0
Cambonaceous shale), » baie ccanaise+<0sseexabepriine sdbanivgp omisermenv gs 0. 4
SEIN te goa tna, piss Satan ata ion nges ith deamacay ee

The “ Hubb” or “ Drub” is an impure Cannel Coal containing a
large percentage of earthy matter. It burns with a bright flame,
but is rendered useless for making gas by the great quantity of
ashes produced during calcination.

At Carlinghow, 23 miles 8. W. from Tingley, there is this section :—

1 eae ie
ANGUS OBI Ae. caret Seite cae te teed an o's set wa SncemeRfe stale MRtwawicte ie ih aaa’ « iS
SS RO, otha sake og aalen feos cetedateh edkbplalcinancna tie OQ 24
PM CR RIEB TE TS ais cn8 sa cdiawvice me aah hem upg wo Rem wig ce RP Une wn 94 04 0 9
“CULES ST 9, RM Coe bed eR, nee pipe a a a toda
To ERT at Mas Ree ORR LS ee Eee Ce Co Re be eee) a eed PIG

At Adwalton and Gildersome, at the N.E. extremity, the following
section has been exposed :—

58 J. W. DAVIS ON FISH-REMAINS FOUND IN THE

ft. im
Hotack BlalerGwttit OL). ssn. cess onsen sen toeguecrereeeee meer meat oe 0 7%
StoneCoaltor Camel i. .......slcedee ccs aves tree aan een eae on 0 93
Coat he So ee SD. . Pies wie idan REARS SR Ee ee ee 0 ll
IDES ee Oe Ge A NR Tear en: gree Nek NON 6 Bee 0 3
CACM adie Pen Ae RR a RN SRI rE nhs Oh ni ERT 0 2
PS SEN G-(E7 ete dg ON SAeT 0 hs Oe eer 5 ra J Recopincsie Be ab 0S
wale. ess es LL. a , SE ee ee ee pr
Senmeeanbiietsotstd. ols oat. eS ee ee 8 0

Between Gildersome and Tingley, in nearly a straight line, about
a mile from the latter, is Bruntcliffe, with this section :—

ft. im
reebsUto y ?? ote stisss AS ath ie chin than Sele oi satel sitesi bic oe c cee eetenee te 0 2
Stone,or Cannel Coals chances anne nhdanie tegen ben he eee 0 8
Be: WANING hace costa nreSes an meecoepels SMe ace a abe eee eee Oud
Blemaings Coal. Fivcenccjcavanciatecacaieranercdenteascebaen as-is eeuecne oO 6
DELOnevoreyr shale vet scun.tctase. cae nsce ecto ret shane tenet cegeeee 0 9
WMowaped Coal. .ocst ke seusser cee baenie se seen weasdeNosie qaeeest eee i 24

The Cannel Coal at West Ardsley, one mile south of Tingley,
is 6 inches thick, there being a second bed, very impure, 4 inches
thick, separated from the former by 7 inches common coal, &e. In
the opposite direction, 1} mile from Tingley, the Cannel Coal has
thinned out at Middleton colliery to the following dimensions :—

ft... ime
PSUGUUM PLOWS SIAC: -orsistous sisi cictereiareiersasisie caters dielaieeetemang dives naeneceeee 0 4
CamMels@ oars... Ceerec ites es tak cake e cent ceecas crest Ceceure ee eneree 0 14
Comumonl Coal wire pO Ek AA, vale eaeas onto eee clone ane O92
Cannel Coady ae. Bi cet 2 etre. «Beh hie dBase OQ; a
CommroniC oa cece. ces coed teh kis races Gee EERE eee QO 2:

At this pit the Cannel Coal has become diminished in thickness
to two thin beds 14 and 1 inch thick respectively, and a little
further eastward these finally disappear, their place being supplied
by a black bituminous shale. The Cannel Coal has a fine close-
grained texture; it is bituminous, and of adull black colour. It is
homogeneous, and breaks with a conchoidal fracture without any
trace of the lines of deposition, in this respect differing from
common coal. ‘The black bituminous shale, locally named ‘‘ Hubb ”
or “ Drub,” is somewhat similar in appearance to the stone coal,
and only differs from it in having a great proportion of earthy
matter in its composition. In some instances it contains a quantity
of mineral oil, as at Gildersome.

Before enumerating the remains of fossil fish found in the Cannel
Coal it may be worth while to consider the circumstances attending
the deposition of the coal-seam. The Cannel Coal is thickest in the
centre, and thins off in every direction; it becomes less pure, and
is replaced by black carbonaceous shales, towards the circumference
of the bed. The coals were probably aggregated in a small inland
lake, very shallow and liable to be dried up. The plants forming
the coal were washed into this lake by streams, and becoming
decomposed and settling to the bottom, accumulated in a homo-
geneous mass, prior to its being changed by pressure and chemical
causes into coal. The interlamination of shales, more frequent and
thicker nearer the sides of the lake, would naturally result from
the mud, also brought down by the streams, settling to the bottom

CANNEL COAL OF THE WEST RIDING OF YORKSHIRE. 59

more quickly than the leaves of the plants, but at the same
time carrying down with it a large percentage of carbonaceous
substances. In some parts the lake appears to have become filled
up or elevated above the water-level; and seat-earth filled with
Stigmarian rootlets was the result. From the seat-earth grew
plants whose remains have formed thin bands of ordinary coal.
Aiter the accumulation of the decaying vegetable matter, sometimes
deposited in water, and forming Cannel or gas-coal, at others on
land, and resulting in thin beds of ordinary coal, the whole was
submerged beneath the water, and an average of from one to two feet
of black bituminous mud, containing few traces of animal exuvie,
except an occasional layer of Entomostraca, was deposited. Above
the black shale there is a light-grey-coloured stratum, about 10
inches to a foot thick, which is almost or entirely composed of the
shells of Anthracosie. Countless numbers of the shells of these
mollusks occur; they are always found crushed. They were the
shells of animals such as would be found at the present time inhabi-
ting and luxuriating in semistagnant pools—weak and thin, suffi-
cient to serve for the protection of the mollusk in a mass of soft
mud in a quiet inland lake, but totally inadequate for its protection
if we imagine them to have lived in a flowing river or on the waye-
beaten shores of an old sea. Above the shell-bed are about 20
feet of bluish-white shales containing several layers of ironstone
nodules. Shells of Anthracosia are common in the ironstone, but
do not occur in the shale. All these facts point to one issue—that
we have in these beds an example of an inland lake of freshwater
origin. ‘This is a most important conclusion when we come to
consider the variety of fish-remains which have been obtained from
these strata.

The fossil fish are found in greatest abundance at Tingley ; where
the ccal has been worked elsewhere, fish-remains are either quite
absent or occur with great rarity. At Tingley they are found in
largest numbers between the Cannel Coal and “ Hubb;” many
beautiful examples, however, have been obtained from all parts of
the Cannel Coal, and they not unfrequently occur in the “ Hubb.”
The following is a list of the fishes which I have hitherto been able
to identify :—

Ceelacanthus lepturus, Agass.

Ctenodus elegans (tooth), H. & A.

Megalichthys Hibberti, Agass.

Rhizodopsis, sp. ?

Palzoniscus, sp. ?

Gyracanthus formosus, Agass.

Ctenacanthus hybodoides, Egerton.

Diplodus gibbosus, Agass.

Ctenoptychius pectinatus, Agass.

Helodus simplex, Agass.

Ostracacanthus dilatatus, Davis (gen.
et sp. nov.).

Compsacanthus triangularis (sp. noy.),
Davis.

major, Davis (sp. nov.).

Cladodus-teeth,

Petalodus.

Rhizodus-scales.

Ctenodus, sp. ?, ribs and bones.

Pleuracanthus lzvissimus, Agass.

erectus, Davis.

pulchellus, Davis.

— alternidentatus, Davis.

alatus, Davis.

robustus, Davis.

(Orthacanthus) cylindricus, sp.
ined. Agass., Davis.

Spirorbis carbonarius.

Entomostraca.

Julus ?

Anthracosia (Unio).

Labyrinthodont (?) ribs, teeth, and
other bones,

60 J. W. DAVIS ON FISE-REMAINS FOUND IN THE

Most of the fishes comprised in this list belong to the Elasmo-
branchii and Ganoidei; but whereas the Elasmobranchii are generally —
considered to be of marine origin, and the Ganoids rather to pertain
to fresh water, we have them both, in this case, fossil together, and
evidently deposited in the immediate neighbourhood of the spot
where they lived. The Sharks were of large size; the spines of
Gyracanthus and Ctenacanthus are not uncommon, those of the
latter being the largest I have seen from the Yorkshire Coal-field ;
some of them were quite 33 inches in diameter near the base. The
fossil remains of Megalichthys are also of very large size, many of
the scales being an inch in diameter, indicating fishes probably five
feet in length. Spines of Pleuracanthus and Orthacanthus, and the
teeth and other bones of Diplodus, are frequently found. Of the
spines several species have been found, and are of such peculiar and
varied forms, as to leave little doubt that Plewracanthus and Ortha-
canthus must be united to form one genus, with the Diplodus-teeth
also added. The remains of these genera are unique in richness,
and I propose to deal with them in a separate paper. By far the
greatest number of specimens, however, belong to the genus Cela-
canthus; the remains of hundreds of these fishes have been obtained
from a comparatively small area in the most exquisite state of
preservation. thizodopsis is rare; about half a dozen specimens
comprise all found. The teeth of Cienoptychius, Helodus, Cladodus,
and Petalodus are also very rare, so are the scales of Rhizodus and
the teeth of Ctenodus. <A single tooth of Ctenodus elegans with a
few head-bones and ribs of a larger species comprise the specimens
hitherto found of this genus.

There are two beds of Cannel Coal which in lithological and
paleontological characters bear so great a resemblance to the Cannel
Coal at Tingley, that it may be advisable to glance briefly at the
leading features of each for the sake of comparison with our own
beds and their fossils.

In the Report of the Geological Survey of Ohio, Paleontology,
vol. i. p. 284, Dr. Newberry describes a bed of Cannel Coal which
bears a close resemblance to the one at Tingley. It occurs at
Linton, on the Ohio river. At the base of a thick seam of ordinary
Coal (no. 6) is a thin bed of Cannel Coal. The Cannel is
only local in extent, and on tracing the thick coal in various
directions the Cannel is found to disappear. After careful study of
the deposit, Dr. Newberry considers “that there was in this locality,
at the time when the coal was forming, an open lagoon, densely
populated with fishes and salamanders, and that after a time this
lagoon was choked up with growing vegetation, and peat (which
afterwards changed to cubical coal) succeeded to the carbonaceous
mud (now Cannel) that had previously accumulated at the bottom of
the water.” ‘The species of fish found in this Cannel are about twenty
in number, and the amphibians are equally numerous. ‘The fishes
consist of nine species of Hurylepis, a small tile-scaled Ganoid, two
or three species of Coclacanthus (closely allied to C. lepturus of the

CANNEL COAL OF THE WEST RIDING OF YORKSHIRE. 61

English Coal-measures), scales and teeth of Rhizodus, spines of
Orthacanthus and Compsacanthus, and teeth of Diplodus.

The parallel between the Linton and Tingley beds of Cannel Coal
is very remarkable; they are both of an isolated and local character
and associated with common coal, they appear to have had a similar
origin, and, most peculiarly, they are each the depository of a large
number of fossil fishes. I doubt very much if there is any other bed
in the British coal-fields which has yielded a greater number of speci-
mens of fish or even a greater number of new species in so small an
area as the Cannel at Tingley; and Dr. Newberry remarks of the Ame-
rican beds that, “‘on the whole, this must be looked upon as one of
the most interesting localities of vertebrate fossils known on this con-
tinent ; and it is even doubtful whether any other equals it in the
number of species or in their zoological and geological interest.”

The researches of my friend Dr. Anton Fritsch, of Prague, in
Bohemia, on the gas-coals of Nyran and Kounova, during the past
few years, have resulted in the discovery of a remarkably large
number of Labyrinthodonts and fishes. The gas- or Cannel Coal of
Bohemia is situated much higher in the geological series than the
beds at Tingley or Linton. It is only about 30 metres below the
red and green clays of the Permian formation ; and the gas-coals with
the sandstones and shales above them are considered as passage-beds
between the Carboniferous and Permian formations. The coal-
seam is from a metre to a metre and a half thick, and consists of
alternations of ordinary coal, Cannel or gas-coal, shales and clays.
About the middle of the bed is a Cannel Coal 30 centimetres thick,
and under that are thin slaty shales 25 centimetres in thickness.
In the Cannel the remains of fishes or Labyrinthodonts are rarely
found, but in the shale beneath they are very abundant. Separated
from the shale by a thin bed of clay, there is a thick bed of slaty
shale, which contains a thin layer of clay ironstone and also the
remains of fishes, &c. The slaty shales beneath the gas-coal appear
to be very similar to the “ hubb” of the Cannel at Tingley ; and it
may be worthy of note that it is in these bituminous shales in each
instance that the remains occur abundantly. There has been found
altogether a fauna of 87 species; of these, 43 are Labyrinthodonts,
30 fishes, and 11 Arthropoda. The fishes occurring in greatest abun-
dance are :—Ceratodus Barrandei, Fr. (= Ctenodus obliquus, H.& A.) ;
Orthacanthus bohemicus, Fr. (=O. cylindricus, Ag.) ; Xenacanthus
(= Pleuracanthus, Ag.). There are thirteen species of Palwoniscus,
four of Amblypterus, two of Acanthodes, a Phyllolepis, a Gyrolepis,
and a new genus, Spherolepis kounoviensis, Fr. The remaining
eight species are Ceratodus applanatus, Fr., two species of Diplodus-
teeth (?), Xenacanthus Decheni, two species of undetermined genera,
and Hybodus(?) and Petalodus (?) The most notable features of the
Cannel-Coal series of Bohemia are :—the great number of Labyrin-
thodonts, most of the species being hitherto unknown ; the absence
of Elasmobranchs of the type of Gyracanthus and Ctenacanthus, which
in the Tingley beds are of frequent occurrence; and the preponde-

62 J. W. DAVIS ON FISH-REMAINS FOUND IN THE

rance of Ganoids of the genera Palconiscus, Amblypterus, and Acan-
thodes. The entire absence of Celacanthus and Megalichthys is also
peculiar. The fauna generally is of a Permian type compared with
either that of America or Yorkshire; and the supposition that the
beds form an unbroken connexion between the Coal-measures and
the Permian formation may happily prove correct.

CoMPSACANTHUS TRIANGULARIS, sp. nov., Davis. Fig. 1.

Spine. 2°5 inches in length, -2 inch in diameter at mid length,
where it is greatest. The spine on the posterior face is straight;
the anterior face is slightly curved. From
the centre the diameter becomes gradually Fig. 1.—Compsacanthus
smaller in each direction; at the apical triangularis, sp. Dov.
extremity it ends in a point; towards the Spine, nat. size.
base the spine is thinner and somewhat
crushed. The portion which has been im-
planted in the muscles contracts in size to
about three fourths the greatest diameter.
There is a large terminal cavity, which
passes up the centre of the spine towards
the point, becoming smaller, and the walls
of the spine proportionately thicker and
stronger, as 1t ascends. The lateral and
anterior surfaces are covered with a com-
bination of striations and flutings. The
lateral faces are compressed towards the
front, which gives a section of the spine a
triangular form. ‘The posterior portion is
circular; and the apex is armed with two
denticles, broad at the base, compressed
laterally, and ending in an obtusely rounded
point ; they are placed one behind the other
in a single row.

Locality. Cannel Coal, Tingley near
Leeds.

The spine described above differs from C. levis, Newb., in several
important respects. Instead of there being a series of twenty or
thirty denticles on the posterior median line, there are only two,
and these are not hooked and acuminate; the spine is shorter and
stouter ; its section is triangular. It has only one row of teeth; and
for this reason it is included in the genus Compsacanthus, Newb.,
with the specific designation triangularis, in allusion to its triangular
form.

CoMPSACANTHUS MAJOR, Sp. Nov., Davis. Fig. 2.

Spine. Part preserved, 7 inches in length; with the point, which
is wanting, the spine would have been about 7-5 inches in length;
the breadth is -55 inch at the base, and thence to the apex it
gradually and regularly tapers to a point. It is straight, and its

CANNEL COAL OF THE WEST RIDING OF YORKSHIRE.

surface is ornamented by a series
of longitudinal striations. On
the posterior surface there is a
single row of denticles, extending
from the apex 2 or 2°5 inches to-
wards its base. The denticles are
broad at the base along the longi-
tudinal axis, their sides are com-
pressed, and they terminate ob-
tusely ; eight of the denticles and
intermediate spaces are contained
in the space of 1 inch. The spine

is somewhat flattened, and presents —

an oval section; but this is pro-
bably due to compression, and the
spine may originally have been
nearly or quite circular. There
is an internal cavity, which is ter-
minal at the basal extremity and
extends almost to the point; the
cavity is central, and large in com-
parison to the diameter of the
spine.

Many of the Siluroid and Cy-
prinoid fishes of the fresh waters
of India bear on the anterior por-
tion of the first dorsal fin a bony
ray or spine, which is frequently
ornamented or armed with a row
of denticles along its posterior mar-
gin. Among the Cyprinoids may
be mentioned the Schizothorazx ;
and in a species of Suiluroid,
Macrones vittatus, Bl., kindly sent
to me by Mr. Francis Day, and
collected by that intrepid natural-
ist in one of the rivers of Northern
India, there are one dorsal and
two pectoral fins, protected by
spines; these present a close ex-
ternal resemblance to the spines of
Compsacanthus from the Coal-
measures of West Yorkshire. The
Macrones is a small fish, about 5
inches long; its head is covered
with a number of bony plates,
whilst the body is devoid of scales.
It has two pectoral and two ven-
tral fins, and an anterior and pos-
terior dorsal fin. AJl except the

‘aou ‘ds ‘uolnw snyyunonsdwog—'s “Bit

‘azis ‘yeu ‘ourdg

63

64 J. W. DAVIS ON FISH-REMAINS FOUND IN THE

latter are supported by fin-rays. The posterior dorsal is a cartila-
ginous fin, presenting the appearance and condition of those found
in Sharks.

The peculiar characteristic of special interest for our present
purpose consists in the presence of the bony spines or fin-defences.
The pectoral fins are each armed with a strong spine, the exposed
part of which is ‘5 inch in length, the diameter being equal to
about one tenth of the length. The posterior face of the spine is
straight, the anterior slightly curved, tapering to a sharp point; it
is somewhat flattened laterally, and ornamented with longitudinal
strie. On the median posterior surface is a single row of denticles,
fourteen in number, extending along the whole length of the ex-
posed part of the spine; the denticles are slightly recurved towards
the base, pointed, and about equal in length to the diameter of the
spine. Attached to and extending behind these spines are the
pectoral fins.

The dorsal spine is about two thirds the size of the pectoral ones.
It is straight, pointed, striated longitudinally, and has on its pos-
terior surface a single row of short straight denticles, seven in
number ; these point towards the base at an angle of 45°. It is not
connected with the dorsal fin, but stands alone. It isimplanted with
a peculiar interlocking joint in a triangular-shaped bone, formed by
a prolongation of the bony covering, extending backwards from the
occipital region of the head.

These characters present an analogy with the Compsacanthus—
spines, which appears to indicate a possible relationship between
the fossil spines and their modern representatives.

OsTRACACANTHUS DILATATUS, gen. et sp. nov., Davis. Fig. 3.

This is a very peculiar form of ‘“ Ichthyodorulite” connected
with certain other bones which have the appearance of being the
-exoskeletal plates of a fish. The principal part of this specimen

Fig. 3.—Ostracacanthus dilatatus, sp. nov.
Spine, nat. size.

consists of a bony protrusion or spine, which is 1-4 inch in
length. The base is imperfect; it now measures ‘5 inch; had it
been perfect, its breadth would probably have been °7 inch. From

CANNEL COAL OF THE WEST RIDING OF YORKSHIRE. 65

the base the diameter diminishes rapidly, and at half an inch
from the apex it is°15 inch. This diameter is maintained for -4
inch, the spine then terminating abruptly in an obtuse point.
The spine may originally have been round; it is now somewhat
compressed in form. The upper part is smooth, and covered with
hard black ganoine. The lower part is fluted with longitudinal
grooves, which increase rapidly in number by bifurcation. The
spine appears to be solid; no internal cavity or canal can be distin-
guished in this specimen. Its base is composed of chondriform bone,
z. ¢. cartilage with numerous minute osseous centres, a very similar
structure to that of the semiosseous skeleton of Plewracanthus.
Extending laterally from the base there is a mass of similar chondri-
form bone; contiguous to the spine it is produced into two or three
short denticles. It then becomes thinner, but again develops into
a mass which may very well have served as the base of a second
spine, providing one was present (see fig. 3). There is no distinct
evidence, however, of a second spine having been present on this
specimen; it has rather the appearance of a thick scale, somewhat
acuminate towards the centre.

The only fish-remains hitherto described which have any resem-
blance to these are comprised in the genus Byssacanthus* of
Agassiz. It is defined as containing spines more or less arched,
longitudinally furrowed, with the base much expanded. The spines
are about an inch in length and three quarters of an inch wide at
the base; they converge rapidly to an obtuse point, and are more
or less arched ; deep grooves extend longitudinally along each lateral
expansion reaching quite to the point. In some respects Byssa-
canthus presents features similar to those of the spine described
above. Both are obtusely pointed and expanded towards the base ;
but whilst in Byssacanthus the anterior portion of the spine is round
and strong, the posterior is much expanded and appears to be very
thin. The basal portion in my specimen radiates equally in all di-
rections from the point; the furrows in the latter indicate the homo-
geneous character of the spine by their similarity in form and
arrangement on all sides: in Byssacanthus they are very different ;
on the thick anterior portion the striations are parallel to the an-
terior margin and about equidistant, but on the posterior wing-like
expansion they diverge rapidly towards the base and become wide
apart.

The spine in its character and its attachment to the dermal
covering of the fish bears a strong resemblance to the spines of the
existing Trunk-fish, Ostracion cornutus. The Trunk-fish is a small
squarely-built fish, protected by a covering of six-sided plates. On
its anterior and posterior extremities the dermal covering is pro-
duced so as to form four bony spines, broad at the point of insertion,
rapidly contracting, thence continuing about the same diameter for
a short distance, and ending in a point. The spines of the Trunk-
fish are long and slender in proportion to their breadth, being fully
three times as long as the diameter of the base. The fossil spine

* Pois, foss. du Vieux Grés Rouge, tab. 33. figs, 11-14 and 15.
Q.J.G.8. No. 141. F

66 J. W. DAVIS ON FISH-REMAINS FOUND IN THE

is comparatively short and much stronger; but otherwise they are
very similar both in form and method of attachment.

Hitherto the fishes found in the Coal-measures have been classed.
as members of one of the two great groups which formed the
fish-fauna characteristic of the Carboniferous age, viz. the Ganoids
and the Elasmobranchs. In the genus Ostracacanthus, if the
diagnosis I have attempted should be substantiated by future
discoveries, there is evidence that fishes closely allied to some of
the more abnormal forms of the Teleosteans of the present day
existed during that period. Prof. Huxley* has expressed the
opinion that several of the fishes of the Devonian rocks are closely
related to the modern Siluroids. In the structure of the head of
Coccosteus the general arrangement of the bony exoskeleton much
resembles that of the tropical fish Clarzas; while the peculiar form
of the mandibles and the expansion of the bony elements usually
considered to be homologous with the coracoid and radius of other
fishes, so as to form a large ventral shield, offer many points of
resemblance to the Siluroid Loricarza. The Devonian Pterichthys
is also in several ways closely related to the modern Siluroids ;
and the fossil fish Cephalaspis has also certain resemblances to
Callichthys and Loricaria. Prof. Huxley remarks :—‘ At any rate,
I think the prima facie case in favour of the Teleostean nature
of Coccosteus is so strong that it can no longer be justifiable to
rank it among the Ganoids sans phrase; but even those who will
not allow it to be a Teleostean must attach to it the warning
adjunct of incertw sedis”; and, further, “ Why should not a few
Teleosteans have represented their order among the predominant
Ganoids of the Devonian epoch, just as a few Ganoids remain
among the predominant Teleosteans of the present day? When
it is considered that an ichthyologist might be acquainted with
every freshwater and marine fish of Hurope, Asia, Southern Africa,
S. America, the Indian archipelago, Polynesia, and Australia, and
yet know of only one Ganoid, the Sturgeon, a fish so unlike the
majority of its congeners that a naturalist might be well acquainted
with almost all the fossil Ganoids and yet not recognize a Sturgeon
as a member of the group, it will not seem difficult to admit the
existence of a Teleostean among the Devonian Ganoids, even though
that Teleostean should in some, even important, points differ from
those with which we are familiar.”

It may be somewhat premature, considering the fragmentary
nature of the specimen, to express an opinion that a fish resembling
the Teleostean Ostracion has been found in the Coal-measures. The
spine and its peculiar attachment, however, are totally different
from every other form of Ichthyodorulite with which I am conyer-
sant, and, providing the evidence on which Prof. Huxley bases the
arguments given above is held to be correctly applied, and that the
oldest Devonian fishes have many points of similarity and relation-
ship with the Siluroid family of the Teleosteans, the probability of

* Mem. of the Geol. Survey, decade x.

CANNEL COAL OF THE WEST RIDING OF YORKSHIRE. 67

the occurrence of fishes of a somewhat similar type during the suc-
ceeding Carboniferous age is rendered at least plausible. To distin-
guish this specimen, I suggest the generic name Ostracacanthus*,
from the resemblance of the spine to those of the Ostracion, and
adding the nomen triviale dilatatus, in reference to its wide and di-
lated base.

As already observed, the most abundant fossil fish occurring in
this bed of Cannel Coal is the Celacanthus. The specimens are
extremely well preserved, and, as might be expected, they are of
various sizes, up to 18 or 20 inches in length. I hope, at some
future meeting, to treat at greater length on the characters of this
genus. For the present it may be mentioned that the teeth were
undoubtedly small and sharply pointed; jaws with the teeth i situ
have not been found, but specimens are frequently met with in
which the alveolar spaces are well shown, extending in a single row
along the rami of the jaws. The teeth appear to have been loosely
held, and to have fallen away from the jaw when the fleshy parts
decayed. The air-bladder is well preserved and seems to possess
considerable resemblance to the bony air-bladders of some of the
Siluroid fishes of the fresh waters of Northern India.

The most striking features elucidated in the foregoing observa-
tions are the decidedly Teleostean facies presented by some of the
fish. There is an immense assemblage of the remains, considering
the small area over which the coal-bed extends; and for the most
part they consist of species whose nearest allies amongst living
fishes are found in the Teleostean Siluroids and Cyprinoids of the
rivers in the mountainous districts of Northern India and in South
America. There is a remarkable resemblance in the fossil Comp-
sacanthus to many of the species of the Saccobranchi and Macrones.
Sufficient is not yet known of the fossil fish to warrant an opinion
as to its internal anatomy, or even to say whether the head had a
bony covering similar to that of the recent fish; but if these parts
should not be found or identified, it may still be maintained that the
scaleless Siluroids and the cartilaginous dorsal fin of MJacrones are
indications of an ancestry which may very well serve as the type of
the fish which inhabited the waters existing during the period when
the Carboniferous rocks were being accumulated.

* "Oorpaxoy, a hard shell, and deav@a, a thorn.

F2

68 DR. WALLICH ON THE PHYSICAL

7. A Conrrisution to the Puysrtcat History of the CrErAcKoUS
Frrnts. By Surgeon-Major Watiicu, M.D. (Read December

17, 1879.)
(Communicated by the President.)

SomE years ago, whilst endeavouring to clear up the obscure points
in the history of the Cretaceous flints, | naturally turned for guiding
data to’such analyses as were forthcoming of the Chalk and Globi-
gerine ooze of the Atlantic. But the further my inquiries were
pursued in this direction, the stronger grew my conviction that
no more fallacious test of the percentage of silica originally present
in the White Chalk could be resorted to than that of assuming as
a standard the percentage it now contains, and hence that any
comparison of the calcareous mud with the ancient Chalk, instituted
with the view to determine this percentage, must necessarily prove
equally fallacious.

This result, however, was only to a certain extent unlooked for,

inasmuch as I had long previously suspected, on entirely distinct
grounds, that the almost complete absence of silica in the flint-bear-
ing Chalk did not arise from any deficiency in it of that substance
whilst it was yet in a plastic state at the bed of the ancient sea,
but was due to certain special conditions, which led not only to the
continuous elimination of the siliceous material for a time mechani-
cally associated with the calcareous mud, but to its consolidation in
the stratified layers alternating with the Chalk, which constitutes
by far the most striking and, at first sight, unaccountable feature in
this formation.
‘ In directing attention, at the outset of my observations, to the
writings of those who have preceded me in this line of inquiry, I
am actuated by two considerations, namely, a desire to show how
much remains to be done before our knowledge of the Chalk flints
can be regarded as even approximately complete, and to leave no
ambiguity as to the purport of my own investigations, in so far as
they can be regarded as original.

Twenty years ago Mr. Mantell, whilst epitomizing the works of
M. d’Archiac, Mr. Bowerbank, and others, described the nodules and
veins of flint that are so abundant in the Upper Chalk as having
been probably produced by the agency of heated water holding
silica in solution. The perfect fluidity of the siliceous matter before
its consolidation he considered proved, not only by the sharp moulds
and impressions of shells &c. retained by the flints, but also by the
presence of numerous organic bodies in the substance of the nodular
masses, and the silicified condition of the Sponges and other “‘ Zoo-
phytes” which swarm in some of the Cretaceous strata. The solvent
power of superheated water on rocks containing silex might there-
fore be fully adequate to produce all the phenomena presented by
the nodules, dykes, veins, &c. of the Chalk formation ; and the
chalk flints might pcssibly, he thought, have originated from the

HISTORY OF THE CRETACEOUS FLINTS. 69

quartz of granitic and other plutonic rocks dissolved in the heated
water and erupted into the basin of the Chalk formation.

There are other observers, however (Mr. Mantell goes on to say),
who are inclined to believe that the flints in the Chalk, and also in
the Portland Oolite and other calcareous deposits, owe their origin to
the Sponges, of which such frequent traces are recognizable in con-
- nexion with the flint. Mr. Bowerbank, he says, advocates this origin
for every kind of flint nodule and vein in the Chalk. But how
or why the silex, thus considered as representing the Sponges, should
have inyested or replaced organic bodies, and the Porifera in par-
ticular, Mr. Mantell contended was left wholly unaccounted for.
Prof. Ehrenberg, he said, suggested that the flints may be due to the
chemical segregation of silex derived from the siliceous remains of
Diatomaceee, Polycystina, &e.

In ‘The Student’s Elements of Geology’ (the latest of Sir Charles
Lyell’s works in which the subject of the flints is touched upon)* it
is stated that the origin of the layers of flint, whether in the form of
nodules or continuous sheets, or in veins or cracks not parallel to
the stratification, has always been more difficult to explain than that
of the White Chalk. But here, he says, the late deep-sea soundings
have suggested a possible source of such mineral matter. According
to Dr. Wallich it was ascertained that, while the calcareous Globz-
gerne had almost exclusive possession of certain tracts of the sea-
bottom, they were wholly wanting in others, as between Greenland
and Labrador. ‘ But in several of the spaces where the calcareous
Rhizopods are wanting, certain microscopic plants called, Diatomacee,
the solid parts of which are siliceous, monopolize the ground at a
depth of nearly 400 fathoms, or 2400 feet. The large quantities of
silex in solution,” Sir Charles then proceeds to say, ‘‘ required for the
formation of these plants may probably arise from the disintegration
of felspathic rocks. As more than half of their bulk is formed of
siliceous earth, they may afford an endless supply of silica to all the
great rivers that flow into the ocean. We may imagine that after
the lapse of many years, or centuries, changes took place in the
direction of the marine currents, favouring at one time in the same
area a supply of siliceous, and at another of calcareous matter
in excess, giving rise in the one case to a preponderance of Glo-
bigerine, and in the other of Diatomacew. These last, and certain
Sponges, may by their decomposition have furnished the silex which,
separating from the chalky mud, collected round organic bodies, or
formed nodules, or filled shrirkage-cracks”’ +.

Again, in his ‘ Principles of Geology,’ the same distinguished
author says, “‘ The homogeneous character of the White Chalk or upper
portion of the great Cretaceous formation throughout a large part of
Europe is now (1872) explained by discovering that it is made up
exclusively of the remains of the calcareous shells of Foraminifera ;
while the siliceous portion has been derived chiefly from plants called
Diatoms” f.

* «The Student’s Elements of Geology,’ 1871, p. 264. t Op. cit. p. 265.
{ Lyell’s or of Geology,’ 11th edit, (1872), vol, i. p. 216.

70 _ DR. WALLICH ON THE PHYSICAL

Here, then, we have placed before us the various opinions enter-
tained by geologists down to a very recent date, so far as pub-
lished researches are concerned. Before proceeding with my task,
however, I must, with a view to prevent my argument from becoming
in some measure unintelligible, correct a serious, though obviously
an unintentional, misconception on Sir Charles Lyell’s part as
regards the opinions always entertained and repeatedly expressed by
me in print on the subject of the Diatomaceew. I allude to the
statement, attributed to me, that certain areas of the North Atlantic
are ‘‘monopolized” by these organisms. So far from this being my
opinion, in a correspondence with Sir Charles which took place in
January 1870 I stated, in reply to a series of questions he put to
me, that I have never swerved from the view that the Diatoms are
plants—that my belief is that the whole of the Diatoms met with in
the deep-sea deposits have not lived there, but have sunk to the
bottom from the surface only after death—and that there is only
one group, namely the discoidal, which occurs in such profusion
at the surface, not of the North Atlantic, but of the tropical Atlantic
and other tropical seas, as to furnish any material contribution of
siliceous matter to the deep-sea deposits*.

It will, no doubt, be remembered that in 1869 the opinion was
promulgated by two very distinguished biologists that the “calcareous
mud of the Atlantic is not merely a Chalk formation, but a conti-
nuation of the Chalk formation; so that we may be said to be still
living in the Cretaceous epoch.” On the merits of this question I
think it right to say I have no intention of expressing an opinion,
my aim in pursuing the present inquiry being limited to an endea-
vour to explain, with a fair show of probability, the singularly unique
characters and mode of stratification of the Chalk flints. For aught
I have now to adduce on the subject, the battle of the epochs will
therefore have to be fought out on stratigraphical and paleontological
grounds. Nevertheless I feel bound to say that if the evidence fur-
nished by the lithological composition of the ancient chalk and recent
calcareous mud be correctly interpreted, we shall, at all events, detect
in it nothing to warrant the conclusion that in no part of the oceanic
areas yet explored is there any thing to be identified lithologically
with the true Chalk. On the contrary, so far as the prevailing
conditions of the existing sea-bed can be compared with those pre-
vailing during the Cretaceous period, we shall not even detect valid

* T would take the opportunity of here stating that a great deal of the mis-
conception prevailing as regards the rate and extent to which the purer siliceous
deposits are produced by the Diatomacee and Polycystina is ascribable to the
too prevalent practice of making arithmetical computations take the place of
observed facts in matters connected with biology. When HKhrenberg remarked
that “a single animalcule (meaning a Diatom), perfectly invisible to the naked
eye, could, under favourable circumstances, possibly be increased in four days to
140 billions of independent animalcules, that two cubic feet of a stone similar
to the polishing-slate or tripoli of Bilin might be formed in four days, and that
these, multiplying again during only eight days of undisturbed organic activity,
might in the same time afford a mags of silica which would equal the size of the
earth,” he simply played with figures. (See Scient. Mem. vol. iii. part x., April
1842.) Foe AE Mpa eH

>

HISTORY OF THE CRETACEOUS FLINTS. 71

reasons for doubting the possibility of cretaceous rock, with inter-
calated flint-beds, being to this day in process of formation, inas-
much as the requisite materials are still forthcoming, and, as already
urged, the physical conditions observable in the abyssal waters, after
a certain depth is reached, have in all probability never altered to
‘such an extent as to render a flint-bearing Cretaceous formation
even improbable.

So far as I have been able to discover from the writings of the
most recent authors who have discussed the mode of formation o
the flints, their explanations have stopped short just where, in
reality, the unique and by far most important and interesting points
in the history of these structures may be said to commence. Thus
we find it stated that, ‘‘ by some means or other, the organic silex,
distributed in the shape of sponge-spicules and other siliceous
organisms in the Chalk, has been dissolved or reduced to a colloid
state, and accumulated in moulds formed by the shells or outer walls
of imbedded animals of various classes.” We do not precisely know
how the solution of the silica has been effected, though, when “‘ once
reduced to a colloid condition, it is easy enough to imagine it may
be sifted from the water by a process of endosmose, the chalk
matrix acting as a porous medium, and accumulated in any con-
venient cavities”*.

But it must be obvious at a glance that this furnishes no expla-
nation whatever of the mode of production of the flints properly so
called, but only of the fossilization or mode in which siliceous casts
of organisms of various kinds imbedded in the chalk have been
formed—the question of the mode of formation of the flint-beds, and
their alternation with the strata of chalk (which is, in reality, the most
remarkable and unaccountable of the whole series of phenomena),
being left just as intact as before, no attempt having been made to
show, even asregards the quantity of the siliceous material contributed
from every recognized and available source, that, independently of
the colloid-producing substance which constitutes an indispensable
factor of the operation, there was enough silica present to meet the
requirements of the case. Whence, then, did all the silica come?
Why is it almost invariably found existing in layers parallel to
the stratification of the Chalk? And what has really been its
history, from first to last?

It is to these questions that I hope, on the present occasion, to
be able to furnish such answers as shall, at all events, form the
groundwork of a good working hypothesis, and one capable of
further elaboration as time and opportunity permit. Meanwhile I
may be allowed to state that the conclusions arrived at by me have
their origin in the assumption that, in the nearly total elimination
of the organic silica from the organic carbonate of lime, in the
almost constant aggregation of the colloid silica around some
foreign body, in the ultimate consolidation of the colloid material
into nodular masses or more or less continuous sheets, in the
stratification of these masses and sheets, and, collaterally, in the

* <The Depths of the Sea,’ by Sir Wyville Thomson, 1872,’ p. 482.

72 DR. WALLICH ON THE PHYSICAL

perfectly preserved state of many of the Cretaceous fossils, are to be
discerned the successive stages of a metamorphic action, whereby
the protoplasmic matter and silica present on the sea-bed, after
having first passed through an organic phase capable of resisting
disintegration and decay, became once more amenable to those
purely material forces in obedience to which they entered upon
their new and secondary phase as Flints*.

But, even yet, the chain of metamorphic action must have re-
mained incomplete but for the manifest connexion which I was
fortunately enabled, in 1860, to trace out between each of the suc-
cessive stages referred to and a condition of things then for the
first time noticed—namely, that the entire mass of animal life there
present is confined to the immediate surface-layer of the muddy
deposit, alternating periods being thereby established, during which
one of the two predominant animal types (Foraminifera and Sponges)
gradually overwhelms and crushes out the other over indefinite local
areas, the strata of chalk in the one case, and the intercalated flint-
beds in the other, being the issue of these contests.

Should it be asked, Why, then, do we find so striking a lithological
difference between the Chalk and the Atlantic mud? The answer is,
because our specimens of the mud represent only the constituent
materials forthcoming at a depth of a few inches beneath the surface,
where, if my hypothesis be correct, there must needs be accumulated
nearly the whole of the silica, Whereas, were it possible to obtain
specimens, say, from a depth of even a few feet, we should find that
all, save the small residuary portion detected by analysis in the
Chalk, had in like manner been eliminated from the mud.

Unfortunately, in such an inquiry, we have to deal with phe-
nomena that, owing to the very nature of the conditions, must for
ever present many conjectural points too important to be neglected,
and yet too obscured in the Cimmerian darkness of the ocean to
admit of experimental investigation under identical circumstances in
the laboratory. Hence we are driven to fall back on hypothesis, in
the hope of a time arriving when, by its means and improved appli-
ances, we shall be gradually guided to the truth.

I will now state, in the form of three hypothetical propositions,
the grounds upon which I have been led to infer that the chalk and
calcareous mud t were formed under, at least, approximately identical
conditions, and am still inclined to regard these two formations as
not lithologically distinct.

1. Were it possible to compare a given quantity of chalk, in the
condition in which it was formed at the bottom of the Cretaceous
ocean, with a like quantity of recent calcareous mud, no such dif-

* Much valuable information “On Quartz and other Forms of Silica” will
be found in a paper, bearing this title, from the pen of Prof. Rupert Jones,
E.R.S. Unfortunately: I was unable to ayail-myself of it, being unaware of its
existence until the present communication had been laid before the Geological
Society. Pek etait :

t The term “calcareous mud” applies throughout this paper to the common
Globigerine ooze as met with in the Atlantic, _

HISTORY OF THE CRETACEOUS FLINTS. Ta

ference in the relative percentages of carbonate of lime and silica
would be observable as could warrant us in pronouncing the two
formations to be lithologically distinct.

2. Were it possible to compare a given quantity of the recent
calcareous mud with a like quantity of the same material when
finally converted into a calcareous rock, the difference in the per-
centages of carbonate of lime and silica would correspond closely
with that now observable between the Chalk and the recent mud.

3. Were it possible to compare the percentages in, say, a hundred
cubic fect of recent calcareous mud with those in a like cubic
volume of flint-bearing chalk, they would be found to correspond,
due allowance being made in each case for minor discrepancies
resulting either from secular or local changes which affect the
supply of material or the due increase of animal life*.

Before proceeding, however, to apply these propositions to the
case of the flints it is essential that I should not only place beyond
doubt the adequacy of the sources whence are obtained the vast
quantities of protoplasm7 and silica required for the production of
the flint-formation, but should furnish satisfactory reasons for
entering into much more detail on this portion of my subject than
would under other circumstances be admissible. ‘These reasons
shall now be briefly stated.

I am prepared to prove that the main source of the protoplasm,
as well as of the silica, is to be found in the substance described, in
1868, by Prof. Huxley, under the name of “ Bathybius,’ and that
this substance is neither more nor less than sponge-protoplasm
derived from the deep-sea sponges which have been found swarming
in certain regions of the ocean, and will, I believe, be eventually
found to have constituted, in past geological periods, an all-important
factor in the production, from organic materials, of probably all cal-
careous and siliceous rocks formed at the bottom of the sea.

In the ‘Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science’ for Dec.
1868, Prof. Huxley described Bathybius.

In the succeeding number of that journal$ I endeavoured to
show that Bathybius, together with the “Coccoliths,” which were
regarded by Prof. Huxley as forming part and parcel of its structure,
do not represent any independent living type of being, that they
stand in no physiological, but only in an accidental and purely
mechanical relation to each other, and that analogy and the bulk
of direct evidence are in favour of the supposition that this widely
distributed protoplasmic matter is the product and not the source of
the vital forces already in operation at the sea-bed.

In order to render intelligible the conclusion I arrived at with

* Asa matter of fact, such discrepancies are at the present day encountered
in the calcareous mud obtained from different regions, and even at different
points in the same geographical area, the causes inducing them being, in all
probability, of the kind suggested.

t I have used this term throughout the present inquiry as being less technical
than sarcode, and less specialized than albumen.

t “ On the Vital Functions of the Deep-Sea Protozoa,” by G. 0. Wallicb, M.D.
Quart, Journ. Micr. Science for January 1869.

74 DR, WALLICH ON THE PHYSICAL

regard to this substance, I must bring to my aid the descriptions
given of it, the grounds upon which it had been pronounced by one
eminent geologist and chemist to be not even of organic derivation,
but an accidentally formed chemical product, and, lastly, the
evidence furnished (strange to say, by those biologists who were the
foremost to affirm its existence as a veritable “‘ Moneron”) in support
of my contention that it is nothing more than sponge-protoplasm.

In 1868 Drs. Carpenter and Wyville Thomson wrote as follows :—
“The remarkable abundance of sponges, which not improbably
derive their nutriment from the protoplasmic substance (Bathybwus)
that enters so largely into the composition of the calcareous mud
wherein they are imbedded, is a preeminently conspicuous feature
of resemblance” between the mud and the chalk—a resemblance
so striking, in their opinion, as to have led them to declare the mud
to be not merely a chalk formation, but a continuance of the Chalk
formation *.

According to Sir Wyville Thomson, “The Vitreous Sponges, along
with the living Rhizopods and other Protozoa which enter largely
into the composition of the upper layer of the chalk-mud, appear to
be nourished by the absorption, through the external surface of these
bodies, of the assimilable organic matter which exists in appreciable
quantity im all sea-water, and which is derived from the life and
death of marine animals and plants, and in large quantity from the
water of tropical rivers” ‘.

“This calcareous mud is the home of multitudes of exquisitely
formed glassy and other siliceous Sponges ; the chalk, on the other
hand, may be sard to contain no disseminated silica wihnteuer, beyond
a few grains. . . . . . Inone haul of the dredge, in the soft,
warm, oozy, chalk-mud, were brought up upwards of forty specimens
of vitreous sponges, many of which were new to science. .....
This mud was entirely filled with the delicate siliceous root-fibres of
the sponges, binding it together like hairs in mortar. It was actually
alive; it stuck together in lumps, as if there were white of egg
mixed with it; and the glassy mass proved, under the microscope, to
be living sarcode. Prof. Huxley regards this as a distinct creature,

and calls it Bathybwus. I think this requires confirmation” +.

According to Dr. Carpenter and Sir Wyville Thomson, “ It seems
highly probable that, at all periods of the earth’s history, some form
of the Protozoa (Rhizopods, Sponges, or both) predominated over all
other forms of animal life in the depths of the sea, whether spreading,
compact, and reef-like, as in the Laurentian and Palzozoic Eozoin,
or in the form of myriads of separate organisms, as in the Gilobige-
rine and the Ventriculites of the Chalk Ӥ.

In 1870 Prof. Huxley described Bathybius as “forming a living
scum or film on the sea-bed, extending over thousands upon

* Proc. Roy. Soc. no. 107, 1868, p. 192.

t “On Holtenia, a Genus of Vitreous Sponges,” Proc. Roy. Soc., June 1869.

t “On the Depths of the Sea,” by Prof. W. Thomson, E.RS. A paper
communicated to the Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. for Aug. 1869, pp. 119-121.

§ Ibid. p. 124.

HISTORY OF THE CRETACEOUS FLINTS., 75

thousands of square miles, ....so that it probably forms one con-
tinuous scum of living matter girding the whole surface of the sea-
poa’’ *.

In 1873, according to Sir Wyville Thomson, “there came up, im-
bedded in the Atlantic ooze, an extraordinary number of siliceous
sponges.” And referring to a dredging at a depth of 2435 fathoms,
‘in this, as in most other dredgings in the bed of the Atlantic,
there was evidence of a quantity of soft gelatinous organic matter,
enough to give a slight viscosity to the mud of the surface-layer.
If this mud be shaken with weak spirit of wine, and if a little of
the mud in which this viscid condition is most marked be placed in
a drop of sea-water under the microscope, we can usually see, after
a time, an irregular network of matter resembling white of egg,
distinguishable by its maintaining its outline and not mixing with
water. This network was seen gradually altering in form; and
entangled granules and foreign bodies change their relative posi-
tions. This gelatinous matter is therefore capable of a certain
amount of movement, and there can be no doubt that it manifests the
phenomena of a simple form of life” tT. ‘* Entangled and borne along
in the viscid streams of Bathybius we constantly find a multitude of
‘ minute calcareous bodies” +. And again, “ one of the first results
of deep-sea dredging was the discovery that the chalk-mud of the
deep sea is in many places crowded with sponges” §.

In 1877 the same writer says, ‘‘ Sponges extend to all depths ;
but perhaps the class attains its maximum development between
500 and 1000 fathoms. All the orders occur in the abyssal zone
except the Calcarca. At great depths the Hexactinellide cer-
tainly preponderate. In the Atlantic the Hexactinellid sponges
are very abundant to the depths of about 1000 fathoms along the
coasts of Portugal and Brazil” ||. ‘‘ Although all the principal
marine Invertebrate groups are represented in the abyssal fauna,
the relative proportions in which they occur is peculiar. Thus
Mollusca, in all their classes, Brachyourous Crustacea, and Anne-
lids are on the whole scarce; while Echinodermata and Porifera
greatly preponderate” Y.

We have now to look upon another side of this singularly phan-
tasmagorian picture. Hereis what Mr. Murray, of the ‘ Challenger,’
stated on the subject in his report dated 1876, based on the re-
searches of Mr. Buchanan :—“ In the early part of the cruise many
attempts were made by all the naturalists to determine the presence
of free protoplasm in, or on, the bottoms from our soundings and
dredgings, but with no definite result. It was undoubted, how-
ever, that some specimens of the sea-bottom preserved in spirit
assumed a very mobile or jelly-like aspect, and also that flocculent

* Speech by Prof. Huxley, following the reading of a paper ‘On the Atlantic
and Indian Oceans,” by Capt. Sherard Osborn, R.N. (Proc. Roy. Geograph.
Soc. for November 1870, p- 38).

+ ‘Depths of the Sea,’ p. 410. t Lbid. p. 413. § Ibid. p. 483

|| ‘The Atlantic,’ by Sir Wyville Thomson, 1877, vol, il. p. 343.

q] Lbid. pp. 352, 393.

76 DR. WALLICH ON THE PHYSICAL

water was often present. Mr. Buchanan determined that the amor-
phous matter was simply the amorphous sulphate of lime precipitated
by spirit from sea-water..... In all cases the jelly-like or mobile
aspect of the oozes was found to be due to the presence of the
flocculent precipitate from the sea-water associated with the ooze.
No free albuminous matter could be detected. When it is remem-
bered that the original describers worked with spirit-preserved
specimens of the bottom, the inference seems fair that Bathybius
and the amorphous sulphate of lume are identical, and that in placing
it amongst living things the describers committed an error” *,

We next come face to face with the opinion (somewhat distracting,
it will be admitted),’regarding the organic matter said to be diffused,
as a kind of providentially served “broth” +, for the nourishment
of the entire mass of the deep-sea Protozoa. On this point Messrs.
Carpenter, Jeffreys, and Thomson wrote as follows in 1869 :—“ But
the most novel and important feature in these analyses is the large
quantity of organic matter indicated by them as wnwersally present
in the water of the open ocean, at great distances from land, and at
all depths” t.

Lastly, the following is Mr. Buchanan’s commentary, published
in 1876, on the last-mentioned remarkable fact :—‘ In connexion
with carbonic acid, I may mention that I have frequently tested
waters, and especially bottom-water, for organic matter. None of
the methods in use for determining this substance in drinking-water
giving satisfaction when applied to sea-water, I had to content
myself with endeavouring to detect its presence. If the jelly-like
organism which had been seen by some eminent naturalists in spe-
cimens of ocean-bottom, and called Bathybius, really formed, as was
believed, an all-pervading organic covering of the sea-bottom, it
could hardly fail to show itself when the bottom-water was evapo-
rated to dryness and the residue heated. In the numerous samples
of bottom-water which I have so examined, there never was sufficient
orgamc matter to give more than a just perceptible greyish tinge to the
residue, without any other signs of carbonizing or burning” §.

These extracts, it will, I think, be admitted, speak for themselves,
and will be regarded by all who carefully peruse them as fully
bearing out the following conclusions :—(1st) that there is no such
living independent entity as Bathybius; (2nd) that the substance
which received this appellation is undoubtedly sponge-protoplasm ;
and (3rd) that this sponge-protoplasm is almost universally distri-
buted over those areas of the abyssal ocean that are occupied by the
calcareous mud.

As regards ‘‘ the identity of the amorphous sulphate of lime and
Bathybius,” as maintained by Mr. Buchanan, I have only to say
that I do not for a moment call in question the fact of an amorphous
condition of sulphate of lime being generated in sea-water, or muddy

* Proc. Roy. Soc. (‘Challenger ’ Reports) vol. xxiv. no. 170, pp. 580, 531.
t Proc. Roy. Soc. vol. xxiii. no. 159, for Feb. 1875, p. 238.

+ Proc. Roy. Soe. vol. xviii. no. 121, for Nov. 1869, a 476.

§ Proc. Roy. Soc. (‘ Challenger’ Reports) vol. xxiv. no. 170, p. 605.

HISTORY OF THE CRETACEOUS FLINTS. 77

water holding it in solution, under the chemical treatment described ;
but, with the greatest respect for the opinion of so able and con-
scientious an observer as Mr. Buchanan has proved himself to be,
I am quite unable to accept his explanation that amorphous sulphate
of lime and the glairy matter pervading and overlying the mud in
such vast abundance and so universally, which was described as
being actually alive and sticking together in lumps, as if white of
egg were mixed with it, which, moreover, proved under the micro-
scope to be “ living sarcode,” are, or can be, one and the same thing.
_ Fortunately the subjoined data relating to twenty samples of
bottom obtained on board the ‘ Challenger’ while traversing one of
the most important and typical sections of the Atlantic, stretching
across from Teneriffe to the entrance of the Caribbean Sea, furnish
a complete verification of the opinion just expressed by me. Ac-
cording to analyses by Mr. Brazier*, the average quantity of sul-
phate of lime present in seven samples of ‘“ globigerine ooze,” and
twelve samples of “red clay,” was only a fraction over | per cent.,
a quantity altogether insignificant, and obviously quite inadequate
to account for the presence of such enormous masses of glairy proto-
plasmic matter as have been described, on the assumption that it is
not true protoplasm, but merely a flocculent substance, derived, by
an artificial chemical method, and only in the presence of alcohol,
from sulphate of lime.

It is deserving of mention, in relation to the sulphate-of-lime ques-
tion, that in none of the published analyses of the deep-sea water
or mud obtained during the cruises of the ‘ Porcupine’ and ‘ Light-
ning,’ in the years 1868-1870, have I been able to find any notice
of that substance. This fact is of itself evidence, therefore, that
no very material quantity of sulphate of lime was then met
with; and putting all these facts together, it may, I submit, be
safely concluded that not only once (as in the 2435-fathom dredging
so graphically described by Sir Wyville Thomson), but on many other
equally important occasions, the dredge must have plunged head-
long into one of the ubiquitous sponge-beds—the glairy mass like
white of egg, the multitudes of spicules distributed like hair in
mortar throughout the mud, and the apparent residuum of contractile
power in the glairy substance, said to have lingered in it even after
it had been treated with alcohol, all furnishing distinct and un-
equivocal testimony to the fact that the substance in question was
no allotropic condition of a salt of lime, but veritable sponge-proto-
plasm, existing under conditions, of all others, pre-eminently cal-
culated to foster gigantic development.

In a very remarkable paper published in the ‘ Quarterly Journal
of the Geological Society’? in 1849, the late Mr. Bowerbank, while

* «The Atlantic,’ vol. ii. Appendix A, p. 569.

t As a matter of fact, twenty examples of mud were analyzed by Mr. Brazier ;
but as the twentieth was from the comparatively shallow depth of 450 fathoms,
I thought it expedient not to include it in the estimated percentages. The per-
centage of sulphate of lime in it was, however, exactly 1 percent. ‘The general
average is therefore in no wise yitiated.

78 _ DR. WALLICH ON THE PHYSICAL

discussing the properties of silica, says :—‘* But whence come the
enormous quantities of-silica which have entered into the structure
of fossils during the geological period, and which still continue to
be separated from the ocean? Various opinions have been offered
to account for these phenomena, such as extreme heat, great pres-
sure, thermal springs, and a peculiar gelatinous condition of silica,
produced by chemical manipulation, but of which we have no
authentic record in nature.” ‘None of these,” he continues,
“¢ appear satisfactorily to account for the vast deposits of silica that
we have to deal with in connexion with organic matter. Great
pressure and high temperature, there is no doubt, are active agents
in promoting the solution of silica in excess, with which some
mineral springs are charged, and these causes are perhaps power-
fully effective in the formation of certain mineral products in the
interior of the earth ; but as regards the supply of silica in the pro-
duction of fossils, and in its appropriation by living organisms, I
believe them to have infinitely less to do with these phenomena than
has hitherto been supposed. Much weight has been attached by
some writers to the probability of the spicules of the Spongiade
acting as nuclei for the attraction of silica in the process of their
fossilization ; but it is a remarkable fact that the true Halichondria,
in which the siliceous spicules abound, are exceeding rare in the fossil
state; while the remains of the true Spongia, in which the animal
fibre predominates, are very abundant.”

Now, to my mind, this looks very much like begging the entire
question, inasmuch as it had long before been regarded as an estab-
lished fact that, apart from all submarine sources of silica, there
must through all geological time have been an inexhaustible supply
of that material, derived from the disintegration of felspathic and
other rocks, carried down to the ocean by rivers and currents—more,
indeed, than the water can take up, judging from the barely appre-
ciable quantity found to exist in it. Of the sufficiency of this supply
there could therefore be no doubt, nor of the greatly augmented
solubility of the silica under the operation of increased pressure and
temperature, and, notably, the increased charge in the sea-water of
carbonic acid. Neither can there be any doubt as regards the suffi-
ciency of the organic agencies by which the silica held in solution
was being perpetually removed, nor of the general tendency of
silica, when undergoing solution, or in a colloid state, to seize upon
some foreign body and become aggregated around it. These are all
facts beyond dispute, the point requiring demonstration being :—
Through what special agency does all this enormous amount of silica
(after having been first eliminated from sea-water, and then secreted
by living creatures in the shape of shells, reticular frameworks, or
spicules, which constitute, as it were, the bones of the silica-secreting
Protozoa) become once more transformed, en bloc, into such masses
of mineral as the flints ?

Of these questions Mr. Bowerbank’s observations furnish no ap-
proach towards a solution.

The only arguments I think it requisite to answer in detail are

HISTORY OF THE CRELACEOUS FLINTS. 79

those used by Sir Charles Lyell, which were cited in an earlier part
of these observations. It is, I trust, needless for me to say that in
venturing to contest any opinion emanating from so illustrious a
source, | do so with the greatest reluctance, and only under a con-
viction that his conclusions, however justified by the data which
were at his command in relation to the profusion of the Diatomacez
in the Atlantic, and the predominating share taken by these or-
ganisms in the formation of the flints, were vitiated in consequence
of the data being erroneous. For, I repeat (and without fear of
contradiction) that in the North Atlantic, to which Sir Charles
Lyell’s remarks applied more particularly, there never has been met
with a true calcareous mud in which the percentage of Diatom-
remains is so great as to deserve mention in connexion with the
flint-formation. Neither is there any authentic evidence forth-
coming to show that Diatomaceous deposits have in time past ex-
isted, at depths such as that indicated (2400 feet), along the North-
Atlantic coast-lines, of sufficient importance to deserve mention.
Where they occur they are of Posttertiary origin, and haye been
formed in freshwater bottoms. Should this be granted, there is the
clearest warrant for assuming that the comparatively bulky siliceous
framework and spicule-system of the deep-sea vitreous sponges must
constitute the main source of supply of that material for the flints.
Indeed it is far from improbable that the true flints are produced
solely in the areas occupied by the sponge-beds, the flints becoming
more cherty and devoid of those characteristic amcebiform outlines
which, according to my hypothesis, are dependent on the presence
of, and the combination of the silica with, the accumulation of
nearly pure protoplasm still sufficiently recent to have resisted ad-
mixture with calcareous or other matter.

But it is not only necessary that an adequate supply of fresh and
free protoplasm should be present at the sea-bed, but that proto-
plasm, not of necessity pure and homogeneous, should be present in a
continuous flocculent layer overlying the calcareous deposit. Now
this is precisely the condition in which the subsidiary portion exists
which ‘is not derived from the sponges, but from the Foraminifera.
This very remarkable condition, of the full significance of which I
was not aware till the history of the deep-sea sponges was revealed
some ten years ago by Dr. Carpenter and Sir Wyville Thomson, was
first pointed out by me in 1860 as occurring over the Globigerine
areas of the North Atlantic ; and it has since then been completely
verified by the above-named observers. As it furnishes the key to
the entire process of flint-formation, 1 may be permitted to cite the
description given of it in part 1 of my ‘ North-Atlantic Sea-bed,’
published in 1862.

‘*The flocculent character is distinctly observable on the imme-
diate surface-layer of all the deposits, and in a few cases, in which
the quantity of extremely fine amorphous particles is excessive, it
extends to some depth. Such is the condition where the Forami-
nifera are either absent or constitute the smallest percentage of the
material. But, in the majority of the deposits, the flocculence does

80 DR. WALLICH ON THE PHYSICAL

not extend beyond half an inch, or an inch, below the surface, and
it is then replaced by a stratum of the utmost tenacity. This marks
the limit of the amorphous non-mineral particles, and the point at
which the consolidation of the heavier atoms begins. It appears
probable that the living Globsgerine are altogether confined to this
superficial stratum.” (Op. cit. pp. 138, 139.)

Of the source of the subsidiary protoplasmic layer but little
need be said in this place beyond pointing out that a very consider-
able portion of itis, in all likelihood, derived from the Globigerine,
which constitute, as a rule, from 70 to 85 per cent., but in certain
rare instances as much as 95 per cent. of the entire surface stratum
of the calcareous deposit itself. The quantity furnished by the
Globigerine, irrespectively of the other Rhizopodal families associated
with them in varying, but always in comparatively insignificant
proportions, must therefore be very considerable.

It has been shown how vast must be the supply of organic silica
derived from the deep-sea Sponges. It is therefore quite intelligible
why, so long as this predominant source both of protoplasm and
silica remained unrecognized, undue weight should have been
attached, by some writers, to the quantity of the latter material pro-
vided by the Polycystina, Diatomacee, and the still less numerous forms
of siliceous-shelled Protozoa, and by others to the quantity brought in
solution by the waters of the ocean from land sources. That the
siliceous remains of the organisms referred to do occasionally occur
in sufficient abundance to satisfy the wants of the microscopist, is 1n-
disputable. The silica of the flints cannot, however, be said to depend,
in any great degree, on these microscopic forms, as any one familiar
with the extent and structure of the siliceous skeletons and spicules
of the sponges will admit. But,in addition to this, I can state with
confidence that in no part of the North Atlantic, where the Globi-
gerine mud prevails (the mud declared to be a continuation of the
old chalk), do the remains of Polycystina or Diatomacee constitute, at
the most, more than from 4 to 6 per cent. of the entire deposit ; and
in no instance do they occur, either separately or collectively, in
such numbers as to interfere with or “ mask” the typical character
of the calcareous mud; nor, if we look at the matter only in its
relation to the flints, can we come to any other conclusion than
that their production, though of course increased to a very trifling
extent by accessions of silica from the whole of the subsidiary
sources alluded to, would not have been appreciably influenced
had the Polycystina and Diatomacee been altogether wanting*.

* IT have to observe in this place that it has been too much the custom in
estimating the percentage of the various materials present in the deep-sea depo-
sits, whether organic or inorganic, to base inferences on what is observed under
the microscope, quite forgetting that all mounted objects such as Diatoms or
Coccoliths are not even visible except as mere specks, unless seen under the higher
powers of the instrument. To identify the form of a Coccolith, for example,
under a lower power than + objective, is almost impossible ; but in order to see
it at all the whole of the heavier particles must be entirely removed, and the
lightest particles, amongst which are the Coccoliths and Diatoms, must be
separated by a process of elutriation. To deduce percentages from elutriated
residues is obviously, therefore, misleading in the highest degree.

HISTORY OF THE CRETACEOUS FLINTS. 81

A very important fact has to be here noticed in relation to the
siliceous materials which are supposed to be normally and uniformly
distributed throughout the substance of the calcareous mud at the
period of its deposition on the sea-bed. In order to understand the
full significance of this fact, it is indispensable to recollect that,
whereas the carbonate of lime of the effete Globigerine and other
Foraminiferous shells is to a certain extent redissolved in the water
charged with an excess of carbonic acid, and the amount thus abstracted
is too insignificant to produce any material diminution in the mass
of the calcareous deposit, nearly the whole of the organic, and proba-
bly a not inconsiderable proportion of the inorganic silica which has
been found present in some specimens of the Atlantic mud is dis-
solved under the conditions that prevail. For, whereas the cal-
careous matter is furnished partly from the débris of Foraminifera
which pass their existence only at the bottom of the ocean, and
partly from such as live at the surface and subside to the bottom
only when dead, the whole of the silea-secreting organisms, with the
solitary exception of the sponges, subside to the bottom only after death,
this being equally true whether the Polycystina inhabit the entire
body of the ocean from its surface to its bottom, or live only near or
atits surface*. The result is, that the whole of the organic silica, the
moment it reaches the bottom, comes into contact with the pro-
toplasmic layer and is retained by it. Hence the quantity present in
every sample of mud obtained (as all our samples hitherto have been)
by a mere dip into the superficial stratum of a few wmches in depth,
does not fairly represent the percentage of silica contained and sup-
posed to be equally distributed in the substrata, but only the accu-
mulated amount of that substance which has been getting accessions
for an indefinite period from the swperincumbent waters.

In the case of the sponges that occur in such numbers on every
square yard of the calcareous mud, and live more or less imbedded
in the soft and luxuriantly developed nidus of their own protoplasm,
the result described must necessarily take place in a still more signal
degree, since every spicule, and every particle of their siliceous
débris, is not only formed but accumulated within this protoplasmic
environment. ‘Therefore, instead of there being from 25 to 35 per
cent. of silica, soluble and insoluble, in the calcareous mud, at a
depth, say, of eighteen or twenty-four inches below the surface, there
is in all probability not more than is to be met with in an average
specimen of white chalk.

If we follow out to its legitimate issue a continuance of such con-
ditions as have been here described, it is obvious that a period must

* Tt will be seen on reference to my ‘ North-Atlantic Sea-bed,’ p. 127, and
also in a paper on the Polycystina, in the ‘Quart. Journ. Micros. Science’ for
July 1865, that I then called attention to the fact that the Acanthometre,
which are abundantly represented in the surface-waters of the ocean, are not
purely siliceous, and therefore yield to the solvent action of acids, and even of
water, much more readily than any other siliceous-shelled Protozoa with which
we are acquainted. Not a trace of their siliceous remains is to be found either
in recent or fossil oceanic deposits. This fact has been completely verified
by Sir W. Thomson, in his work ‘The Atlantic,’ vol. ii. p. 340.

GQ. s. G. S.. No, 141. G

82 _ DR. WALLICH ON THE PHYSICAL

arrive when the protoplasmic masses (which, owing to their inferior
specific gravity, always occupy this position in relation to the cal-
careous mud upon which they may be said to float so as to form an
intermediate stratum between them and the superincumbent water)
will become, if not supersaturated with silica, at all events so highly
charged with it in a now colloid state more and more closely ap-
proaching coagulation, as eventually to asphyxiate—so to speak— ~
the very organisms which have produced them.

If we turn to the less prominent, because negative, conditions that
prevail at the sea-bed, we shall perceive that they are of a kind
specially favourable for securing uniformity of results both as regards
the time occupied in their completion, and the nature of the changes
which are effected by them. Thus we know that the abyssal
waters closely bordering on the sea-bed itself are, in the majority
of cases, in a state so nearly approaching perfect quiescence, that
no current of sufficient energy exists to divert from their down-
ward course particles of matter so light and feathery as to have
taken probably many weeks, if not months, to sink down from the
surface of the sea to their final resting-place at the bottom. On the
other hand, there is nothing as yet known that could lead to the in-
ference that the periods required for the deposition and consolidation
of each succeeding stratum of chalk, and its accompanying stratum
of flints, bear any proportion to those gradual and more rarely re-
curring secular changes in the direction of the great oceanic currents
which (to repeat Sir Charles Lyell’s words) favour at one time in the
same area a supply of calcareous, and at another of siliceous matter ;
whilst, as a natural consequence, the prevailing uniformity of the
physical conditions must inevitably engender a corresponding uni-
formity and simultaneousness in the development, growth, and final
death and decay of the various lower forms of life that are under
its influence. If this be true, we might expect that over large
areas of the calcareous sea-bed a very preponderating number of
the sponges would, almost simultaneously; spring into existence from
the germs or gemmules left by a preceding generation, and as
simultaneously multiply and die, to be succeeded in turn by another
generation, and soon. We are thus furnished with an auxiliary,
though (as I shall presently show) by no means the most important
factor, in determining the simultaneous production of the flint
nodules and sheets over extended horizontal areas.

Although the analyses now about to be quoted are somewhat out
of place in this portion of my paper, 1 introduce them here as a re-
quisite preliminary to some observations on colloid phenomena which
follow, it being of importance that their bearing on these should be
clearly understood.

The first of these analyses to which I have to direct attention
is one, by the late Mr. David Forbes, of a sample of “ Atlantic
002e,” obtained from a depth of 1443 fathoms to the south-eastward
of the Rockall shoal, off the north-west coast of Ireland, during the
cruise of the ‘ Porcupine’ in 1869. ‘A complete analysis of this

HISTORY OF THE CRETACEOUS FLINTS, 83

sample,” Mr. Forbes observes in his Report, “‘ shows its chemical
composition to be as follows :—

Deemer Ons Ce OF WME. a. + aiusicpe © $e wt Ayo, 50°12
Alumina (with phosphoric acid) solubleinacids 1°33
Sesquioxide of iron, soluble in acids ........ rg i
Brica in a soluble condition ...22......).¢> 5°04
Fine insoluble gritty sand (rock débris) 26°77
Be cra. a 6 ake ee eee eae 2°90
2 ATTA BITES 1 eT a A la pep A a aa 4-19

Chloride of sodium and other soluble salts .. 7°48

100-00

‘Tf we compare the chemical composition as above with that of
ordinary chalk, which consists all but entirely of carbonate of lime,
and seldom contains more than from 2 to 4 per cent. of foreign
matter (clay, silica, &c.), it will be seen that it differs chiefly in
containing so very large an amount of rock matter in a fine state of
division. If we subtract the water, organic matter, and marine
salts, which would probably in greatest part be removed before such
mud could in process of ages be converted into solid rock, even then
the amount of carbonate of lime or pure chalk would not be more
than, at highest, some 60 per cent. of the mass. As regards the pro-
bable origin of the pebbles and gravel found in the various dredgings,
it will be seen from the description* that they consist principally of
fragments of volcanic rocks and crystalline schists. The former have
in all probability come from Iceland or Jan Meyen, whilst the latter
have probably proceeded from the north-west coast of Ireland.”

The next analysis is by Mr. W. J. Ward, and was made in the
Chemical Laboratory of the Geological Museum, Jermyn Street. It
is taken from ‘The Memoirs of the Geological Survey,’ vol. iv. p. 15
(by Mr. Whitaker, B.A.), the material being a sample of “the Upper
Chalk with Flints ” from the vicinity of Gravesend. In this there
were in 100 parts of the chalk :—

Paromita On UMC sis <j. ba. 6 actor. <.o,0 29 98°52
Ignited insoluble residue, chiefly silica... °65
a ts See UIC ie oe ay pack ws oie» © v0 14

99°31

The remaining fractional parts consist of other materials in very
minute quantities,

Lastly, there are two analyses of grey and white Chalk which I
quote from an address delivered by the President, Mr. Prestwich, at
the Anniversary Meeting of the Geological Society in Feb. 1871—
an address replete with valuable information of all kinds bearing

* A separate description is given of these 617 subangular fragments, in gene-
ral not above } to } grain in weight, the biggest only weighing 3 grains (‘ Depths
of the Sea,’ 1872, Appendix O, p. 514). M

G

84 DR. WALLICH ON THE PHYSICAL

on deep-sea exploration down to the period in question. These
analyses, like the first of the above, are by the late Mr. David Forbes,
whose note on the subject I here transcribe :—‘‘ The specimens of
Atlantic mud which I have examined differ very essentially from
chalk in composition; and no single one of them (if consolidated)
could be entitled to the appellation of chalk, as ordinarily under-
stood by geologists or chemists. In order to make a correct com-
parison of their composition with that of chalk, I was obliged to
make analyses of the latter rock, two of which I annex :—

Grey Chalk White Chalk,
(base of), Shoreham,

Folkestone. Sussex.

Carbonatevor limes iene sk sees 94-09 98-40
Carbonate of magnesia ........ 0-31 0:08
Insoluble woek debris: ii... )52..'65 3°61 1°10
Phosphoricracid: 2-2. 40) etecis- traces. Pe
Alumina and loss in analysis.... .... 0:42
Chloride: of SOOM i. hs. hee, 29 Se
Whalers betas ih eps taka acl. hacen: 0-70

100:00 100°:00”

Referring to these, Mr. Prestwich observes, in a later part of his
address :—‘‘ From what I have previously said, you will have un-
derstood that, lithologically, there is but little resemblance between
the Atlantic mud and our typical white chalk, none that could
ever have led a geologist into any error of determination. In fact,
in no part of the area yet explored is there any thing at all to be
identified lithologically with the true white chalk. ven if it were
found that the superposition were conformable, the difference of
mineral character is too marked. At the same time it is to be
observed that the area of the Atlantic is so vast that, variable as the
deposit now going on seems to be, rt ts probably little, if any, more so
than that which went on in some parts of the Chalk series in the bed
of the Chalk ocean over the old European area. Of the rate of the
present deposit we know nothing. Is it even going on everywhere
over the deep Atlantic?”

Again, Mr. Prestwich says :—‘‘ The Atlantic abyssal mud has been
found to contain from 50 to 60 per cent. of carbonate of lime, 20 to
30 of silica, with small variable proportions of alumina, magnesia,
and oxide of iron. Its appearance, when dry, is chalk-like ; but it
is to be observed that our chalk is a much more homogeneous rock,
containing from 95 to 99 per cent. of carbonate of lime, while even
our grey chalk contains from 80 to 90 per cent. The large propor-
tion of calcareous Foraminifera in the chalk, and of siliceous Poly-
cystina and vitreous Sponges im the Atlantic mud, may, however,
render this rather a question of proportion than of radical difference.’

Lastly, I have to cite Sir Wyville Thomson’s most recently formed
opinion on the subject, as expressed in his work ‘ The Depths of the
Sea’ (pp.480, 481). “It would seem,” he says, “ from the analysis
of chalk, that siliceous organisms were entirely wanting in the

—

HISTORY OF THE CRETACEOUS FLINTS. 85:

ancient Cretaceous sea. In chalk-mud, on the other hand, silica is
found in abundance, in most specimens to the amount of from 30 to
40 per cent. A considerable proportion of this is inorganic silica—
sand ; and its presence is doubtless due to the circumstance that our
dredgings have hitherto (1872) been carried on in the neighbour-
hood of land and in the path of currents..... A considerable
proportion of the silex of the chalk-mud, however, consists of the
spicules of Sponges, of the spicules and shields of radiolarians, and
of the frustules of Diatoms. And this organic silica is uniformly
distributed through the mass.”

Now three distinct and important Assumptions demand attention
in connexion with these reports and analyses.

In the first place, the assumption on which it will be remembered
a good deal of emphasis was laid by me at the beginning of this
paper—namely, that the chalk, as we now find it, gives on analysis
any thing like an accurate or, let me say, an even approximately
accurate idea of the percentage of silica, organic and inorganic,
present in it when it existed in the shape of calcareous mud at the
bottom of the old Cretaceous sea.

In the second place, the assumption (for it is obviously quite im-
possible that it can be any thing more in the present state of our
knowledge, as to what may, or may not, be found a very few inches
beneath the surface of the muddy deposit) that a specimen of bottom
obtained from such a thin superficial stratum (where, according to
my hypothesis, nearly the whole of the silica is either dissolved or
stored up that has been gradually accumulating since the stratum
of nascent chalk deposited simultaneously with it) furnishes a trust-
worthy index to the lithological constitution of any portion of the
subjacent mass.

And, in the third place, the assumption that the special analyses
of ‘‘ Atlantic mud” which have been cited—and which are the only
ones heretofore published, so far as I can discover, that have guided
scientific opinion on the subject—furnish a fair indication of the
quantity of insoluble silica (‘rock débris” of sorts) which is to be
found in samples of the typical mud procured from oceanic areas
sufficiently remote from currents capable of transporting such débris
from volcanic or other regions.

As regards one and all of these questions, I venture, for reasons
already adduced, to believe that generalizations have been formed
and relied upon which were based on data more or less inapplic-
able in each case, and were, consequently, in themselves faulty ;
and, further than this, with the most implicit faith in the absolute
accuracy of the analyses, both of my late friend Mr. David Forbes
and of Mr. Ward, I venture to affirm that, in the case of the former,
no more unfortunate and misleading example of “Atlantic mud”
could have been placed in the hands of this accomplished geologist
and chemist than that which was obtained from a position to the
south-eastward of Rockall. I know the ground from having tra-
versed it a little to the northward, in the ‘ Bulldog,’ in 1860;
and being thus able to form an opinion as to the probable source, of

_— e:

86 DR, WALLICH ON THE PHYSICAL

a large proportion at least, of the rock débris and volcanic detritus
which was found mixed with the mud in this region, I think there
cannot be a doubt as to these having been derived from the sources
suggested by the analyst. In most of the samples of mud obtained
in that oceanic area, and more particularly in the tract extending
across to the north-westward from the Faroes to Iceland, and again
from the north-western point of Rockall in a north-westerly direction
tewards Cape Rekianess in Iceland, I almost invariably detected
more or less rock débris mingled with well-marked volcanic materials.
I shall show presently why I consider the specimen of Atlantic
mud analyzed by Mr. Forbes, to which such a prominent place has
been given, a most unfortunately chosen one. But meanwhile, I
‘would observe that there is every reason to believe that, in the open
portions of the North Atlantic, the really typical mud supposed to
represent the Cretaceous material is more or less entirely devoid of
débris of this kind. But, for all this, the subject is in many respects
puzzling and complicated, inasmuch as pieces of rock of considerable
size have undoubtedly been found by me in mud obtained at
such distances from land as to render it extremely unlikely that
they could have been drifted by even the strongest currents known
to prevail anywhere out at sea in those latitudes. Moreover, as this —
occurs in oceanic areas which for ages have not seen the bottom of an
iceberg or even large masses of drift-ice—probably not since the
Glacial period—the rock débris can scareely be traceable to that
agency. Nor is it likely that it can have been transported and
dropped by fish; for the question at once arises, Where could fish
get it from? And surely the rock débris could not have lain to this
day in its present position at the sea-bed, uncovered, to any extent,
with sedimentary deposit, since the period when the areas in which.
they occur were shoal-water areas, and therefore subject to the in-
fluence of currents capable of moving such masses to long distances*.

Under these circumstances it is desirable that the following ad-
ditional facts indicating the exceptional condition of the sea-bed in
the channel between the Rockall shoal and the north-west coast of
Treland should be made more generally known than they appear to
be. It will be seen how well founded was Mr. David Forbes’s sur-
mise that the volcanic detritus in the 1443-fathom mud had been
drifted either from Jan Meyen or Iceland, when I state that be-
tween the Faroes and the south-western part of Iceland there
exists a channel where we found a depth of 680 fathoms. The
sounding was a most important and interesting one, since it was
here that I obtained the first clear and really indisputable evi-
dence of the presence of animal life at such a depth. From the
nature of the creatures brought up, and a number of conclusive
facts to which I need not now refer more particularly, but which have
also already been fully described by me‘, there are the strongest

* This subject was fully discussed in a paper contributed by me to the
tigi us ourn. of Science’ for Jan. 1864, and also in my ‘ North-Atlantic Sea-
bed,’ 3-7.

t North- Atlantic Sea-bed, pp. 3-7 and 147.

HISTORY OF THE CRETACEOUS FLINTS. 87

grounds for believing that the spot at which the sounding was
taken is a rocky one, and swept clear of any deposit by a current
setting nearly due south from Jan Meyen, and, as will be seen on
reference to any chart, flowing down in nearly a direct line to the
channel between Rockall and the Irish coast. Yet, in the ‘ Pro-
ceedings of the Royal Society’ (for Nov. 1869), the statement is
put forward by Dr. Carpenter that, “save in the narrow channel
of 682 fathoms, there is no depth greater than 300 fathoms along the
whole of the bottom (from the Faroes to Iceland), and an effectual
barrier is thus interposed to any current moving southwards at a
depth exceeding this”*. Whilst in the ‘ Proceedings’ for June
18727 this extraordinary assertion is repeated in a still more mis-~
leading fashion; for here Dr. Carpenter says, “In my Report for
1869, I pointed out that the comparative shallowness of the bottom
between Iceland and the Faroe Islands would interpose an effectual
barrier to any glacial current moving southward at a depth exceeding
300 fathoms,’—the result of these misstatements being that, in the
chart appended to Sir Wyville Thomson’s ‘ Depths of the Sea,’ in the
chart appended to Captain Davis’s paper “On the Course of the
‘Valorous’” in 1874 (published in the ‘Geographical Magazine’
for October 1875), and in the chart appended to Captain Markham’s
‘Threshold of the Unknown Region’ (published in the same year),
~ the 680-fathom channel is altogether omitted, the greatest depth
recorded in these charts between Iceland and the Faroes, being in
the former 500 fathoms, and in the two latter only 250 fathoms!
So far, moreover, from its being a fact that there is no depth
greater than 300 fathoms, I may mention that in the two soundings,
taken respectively at a distance of fifteen miles to the eastward and
westward of the 680-fathom bottom, the depths discovered were
350 and 368 fathoms. As I had the honour of presenting Dr. Car-
penter, in 1862, with a copy of my work, in which there is a chart
setting forth all these particulars, | am somewhat at a loss to con-
ceive how he could have committed such an error. Indeed it is
impossible to explain it on any other supposition than that this
author’s well-known scientific ardour caused him to remain blind
to the fact that the presence of the 680-fathom bottom in this
region was fatal to the theory he was at the time propounding
with reference to the deep oceanic circulation of this particular
region. On the other hand, it is but an act of justice to those who
superintended the soundings on board the ‘ Bulldog’ in 1860, to
state that these could not have been more ably conducted or more
thoroughly trustworthy in every respect.

Bearing in mind, then, the various circumstances now referred
to, I think we are fully justified in concluding that, for the pur-
poses of exact analysis and comparison (such analysis as can alone
be of service to the geologist), the whole of the methods heretofore
employed for obtaining an insight into the precise lithological com-
position of the rock-material now forming at the bed of the ocean

* Proc. Roy. Soc: for November 1869, vol. xviii. No. 121, p. 464.
t Proc. Roy. Soc., June 1872, vol. xx. No. 138, p. 591.

88 DR. WALLICH ON THE PHYSICAL

have been singularly insufficient, however valuable they may be (and
valuable they unquestionably are) to the naturalist and biologist*.

It is therefore quite possible that on analyses being made of mud
procured from oceanic areas free from any source of exceptional
mineral admixture, the percentage (30 per cent. or thereabouts) of
soluble and insoluble siliceous materials which has been supposed
to apply to the Atlantic mud generally may much more closely ap-
proximate to the small residuum which is known now to exist in
the Chalk. In connexion with this subject I cannot refrain from
quoting an admirable passage in Professor Prestwich’s Address,
to which I have already been so deeply indebted. It is as
follows :—“ In one point of view, the geologist has the advantage
over the naturalist. ‘The latter examines the coasts, and dredges
in the ocean, but he can only skim the surface, whereas the former
has the old sea-beds opened out to him..... What may be under
the surface of the Atlantic mud we know not. Is there a sucéession
of strata extending down to the equivalents in time of our chalk
strata? or would the equivalent of the latter prove to be merely
one part of a series, the other end of which would convey us back
to the Oolitic, Jurassic, Triassic, or even Carboniferous times?....
The present explorations, full of interest and valuable as they are,
are insignificant compared with the vast area of the ocean ” (Joc. cit.
pp. 49, 50).

It now only remains for me to complete the present preliminary
sketch of the agencies concerned in the formation of the flints from
the materials present wherever the calcareous mud of the Atlantic
is to be found, by stating that the Stratification of the Flints is due
to the fact, already touched upon in a previous page, that nearly the
whole of the silex derived from the Sponges on the one hand, and
the continual subsidence of minute dead siliceous organisms on the
other, is retained in the general protoplasmic layer which I have
shown maintains its position on the immediate surface of the cal-
careous deposit, and gradually dissolves the silex. This layer, in
virtue of its inferior specific gravity, rises with every increase in the
thickness of the deposit, until, at last, the supersaturation of the
protoplasmic masses with silex takes place, and the first step to-
wards the consolidation into flint is accomplished —the continuity of
sponge-life, and of the various other forms which tenant the calea-
reous areas, being secured through the oozy spaces which separate
the sponge-beds, and thus admit of both adult and larval forms
having free access to the overlying stratum of water.

That the predisposition of silica, itself in reality a colloid, to
form colloidal combinations with albuminous and other materials

* In 1863, at a Meeting of the Royal Geographical Society, I exhibited
various forms of deep-sea apparatus, and amongst these a Pelimeter, specially
designed by me for penetrating the deep-sea deposits to a considerable distance
and bringing up a core about 2 inches in diameter and from 10 to 15 inches in
length. The instrument was also adapted for giving distinct indications of
rocky bottom. This Pelimeter was highly spoken of by Sir Roderick Murchison

on 3) occasion referred to, (See ‘ Proc. Roy. Geograph, Soc.’ vol. vii. No. 2,
1863.

HISTORY OF THE CRETACEOUS FLINTS. 89

was known long before deep-sea exploration was dreamt of, is a
well-known historical fact ; it has been alluded to by most of the
writers who have attempted an explanation of the mode of forma-
tion of the flints. But the various conditions that present them-
selves, from the earliest elimination of the silica from the sea-water
to the period when it becomes finally consolidated, have never, that
I am aware, been consecutively followed out.

There is one distinguished authority, long since deceased, whose
unpretentious little volume, ‘ Researches in Theoretical Geology,’ is
so pregnant with valuable suggestions, which clearly pointed to truths
then only looming in the far future of his cherished science, that no
apology, I am sure, is needed for offering a short extract from his
remarks on the present subject. I allude, of course, to Sir Henry De
La Beche. To him, or rather through him in this particular instance,
are we indebted for the first clear suggestion in reference to the
peculiar molecular behaviour of comminuted particles of silica when
kept for a time in suspension along with clayey matter in water.
He stated that, according to Mr. Babbage, the mode of formation of
the chalk flints received an illustration in the common process of pre-
paring the plastic substance for the potteries: when flints, having been
previously burnt and ground, were suspended with clayey matter in
water, a deposit was produced which possessed the requisite distri-
bution of the particles of silica among the clay for pottery purposes ;
if this compound were used in proper time, the siliceous particles
remained disseminated ; but if allowed to continue too longat rest,
the silica became aggregated into small lumps, and the mass was
rendered useless for the manufacturer *.

But that the colloidal zdiosyncrasy of silica performed a much
more important function in the phenomena connected with the
flints than has heretofore been supposed,.appears to me to be indi-
cated by the evidence. ¢f the almost perfect incorporation of the
organic silica with a colloid material, the unique Amebiform nodu-
lation of the flints, and its homogeneousness, whether occurring in
nodules, in continuous sheets parallel to the stratification, or as
sluggish overflows into fissures in the Chalk. But for a very
highly developed colloidal condition of the materials these peculiari-
ties could not, I conceive, have presented themselves so uniformly
throughout the formation. From a mere aqueous solution the
deposit of silica would have exhibited totally different characters ;
there would have been a general infiltration into the substance of
the chalk, the particles of which would thereby have been cemented
together, so as to form a siliceous limestone; the various minute
organic forms in which the silica showed itself, though, no doubt,
capable of solution to a limited extent in water charged more or less
highly with carbonic acid, and aided perhaps by the stupendous
pressure, would have occasionally left more pronounced traces of
their original structure than is observable in the body of the flints;
probably all the fossils would have been either infiltrated with silica,
or a substitution of that substance would have taken place even more
* Published in 1834, pp. 98, 99.

90 DR. WALLICH ON THE PHYSICAL

frequently than we find it; there would have been no signs of the
specific contractility pertaining to colloidal silicic acid; the result-
ing siliceous mineral instead of appearing, when not rendered cherty
by insoluble matter, as “‘a@ colloidal glassy hyalite,”’ would have pre-
sented itself either as compact quartz, or possibly as an alkaline
silicate; and, lastly, there would have been wanting the evidence
of the greater portion of the siliceous material having been, as it
were, continuously waylaid and absorbed, as it descended from the
surface of the ocean, into the colloidal protoplasmic mass resting upon
the immediate upper surface of the calcareous deposit. |
If we compare the evidence thus furnished of marked colloidal
action with what is known of the properties of silicic acid when
in the presence of another powerful colloid, and favoured by the
nature of the conditions as to unlimited time, low temperature, the
presence of various alkaline substances and finely comminuted
mineral matter, and the reign of almost perfect quiescence, I think
it will be admitted that, although many doubtful and obscure points
still remain to be elaborated, as a whole the view here advocated re-
ceives substantial confirmation in most of its leading particulars*.
In conclusion, I beg to express a hope that, although the length
already attained by the present communication has debarred me
from bringing forward a number of important facts and observations
which would have materially strengthened my arguments, consider-
ing the complex nature of the inquiry and the special difficulties
belonging to it, the following conclusions have, on the whole, been
fairly sustained :—1. That the silica of the flints is derived mainly
from the sponge-beds and sponge-fields which exist in immense pro-
fusion over the areas occupied by the Globigerine or calcareous
“ooze.” 2. That the deep-sea sponges, with their environment of
protoplasmic matter, constitute by far the most important and essen-
tial factors in the production and stratification of the flints. 3. That,
whereas nearly the whole of the carbonate of lime, derived partly
from Foraminifera and other organisms that have lived and died at
the bottom, and partly from such as have subsided to the bottom
only after death, goes to build up the calcareous stratum, nearly the
whole of the silica, whether derived from the deep-sea sponges or
from surface Protozoa, goes to form the flints. 4. That the sponges
are the only really important contributors to the flint-formation
that live and die at the sea-bed. 5. That the flints are just as
much an organic product as the Chalk itself. 6. That the stratifi-
cation of the flint is the immediate result of all sessile Protozoan
life being confined to the superficial layer of the muddy deposits.
7. That the substance which received the name of “ Bathybius,”
and was declared to be an independent living Moneron, is, in reality,
sponge-protoplasm. 8. That no valid lithological distinction exists
between the Chalk and the calcareous mud of the Atlantic; and

* See a paper, by the late Mr. Graham, “ On the Properties of Silicie Acid,”
in the Proc. Roy. Soc. for June 1864, in which will be found a number of
interesting facts bearing upon the hypothesis put forward by me. I would
particularly direct attention to pp. 335-337.

HISTORY OF THE CRETACEOUS FLINTS, 91

pro tanto, therefore, the calcareous mud may be, and in all proba-
bility is, “a continuation of the Chalk formation.”

Discussion.

The Present stated that he had formerly studied this subject,
and come to the conclusion that, though deep-sea mud differs from
Chalk in many important particulars, yet still it was sufficiently
related to warrant a comparison. Since the remains of siliceous
organisms are absent from the Chalk, but flints present, whilst in
the deep-sea mud siliceous organisms are abundant and flints
absent, probably the material of the flints had been to a greater or
less extent derived from these organisms. Much, however, re-
mains to be learned.

Mr. Evans said that the author seemed to have given a vera causa
for the intermittent character of the Chalk flints. He doubted if
the protoplasm could be in any sense a producer of flint. There
was always a certain amount of silica in solution in sea-water ;
and there seemed evidence that, after the deposition of the beds,
a considerable quantity of silica was aggregated by a sort of
dialyzing process. This was shown by the deposition of flints in
walls in the Chalk &c., so that it was possible that the absence of
flint from intermediate layers might be partly accounted for in this
way.

Mr. Cuartesworte said the origin of flint was in great confusion.
He recapitulated some of the views which had been entertained on
the question. He said that the author was mistaken in supposing
that Dr. Bowerbank and Dr. Mantell agreed as to the origin of flint ;
for the latter did not suppose every piece of flint to be a sponge.

Prof. Szerey thought the author had neglected the geological
history of the occurrence of flint. He thought the fissures filled
with flint, and the tabular layers investing nodules, showed that
probably the flint had gradually come into existence in the Chalk.
The flint in the fissures must be, as it were, filtered from the
Chalk. In dealing with the question we must remember how flint
occurred in other formations; and the question which dealt with
the occurrence of flint in the Chalk must deal with it in other
formations, and as replacing shell and coral, as filling cavities with-
out replacing the shell, and as external investing masses round frag-
ments of fossils. He thought that the flinty masses of the Chalk
were very analogous to the septarian masses of the clays, and that the
flints had grown, and even now were growing. ‘The researches of
Dr. Graham on dialysis had cleared up the way in which flint in
Chalk may become soluble.

Mr. Wuitaxer remarked that previous speakers had said most
that he had to say. It must be remembered that flints occurred
not only in layers of nodules but in tabular layers, as in the Isle of
Thanet ; several of these at the present day were water-bearing,
which would be favourable to the theory of subsequent formation.
It was probable that flint had been deposited in more than one way.

92 ON THE PHYSICAL HISTORY OF THE CRETACEOUS FLINTS.

It would be interesting to compare analyses of Chalk where there
were many and where there were no layers of flint. He mentioned
a case where one of the green-coated flints at the base of the Thanet
sand was imbedded in a band of white flint in the Chalk below,
which latter, therefore, must have been formed round the former.

Mr. Hupizsron said that Mr. Mortimer, in a recent paper, had
stated that the upper flintless Marsupite Chalk of Yorkshire con-
tained twice as much silica as the middle or flint-bearing Chalk. At
North Grimston, in the Coral Rag, where the beds were flat, there
was no flint ; where they were bent, there were many flints.

Dr. Watticy said Mr. Charlesworth had quite misunderstood him
about Dr. Bowerbank’s and Mantell’s views. The time at his
disposal forbade his going into the whole question ; but, briefly, his
view was that the sponges attracted the colloidal silica which existed
at the surface of the mud.

ON THE VICINITY OF THE UPPER PART OF LOCH MAREE. 93

8. Prrrotoeicat Norss on the Vicrnity of the Upper Parr of Loca
Marer. By Rev. T. G. Bonnzy, M.A., F.R.S., Sec. G.S., Pro-
fessor of Geology in University College, London, and Fellow of
St. John’s College, Cambridge. (Read December 3, 1879.)

Te relations of the rocks on the western border of Ross and Suther-
jand have long been a subject of controversy. Into the details of
this it is needless to enter on the present occasion, as they have been
recently recapitulated by Mr. Hudleston in a luminous critical
sketch communicated to the Geologists’ Association and published
in their Proceedings*. The materials for this sketch are mainly
contained in our own Journal; and the last contribution to the sub-
ject was a paper read by Dr. Hicks on May 22, 18787. After lis-
tening to the ingenious theory put forward by that author, it occurred
to me that the question was one on which the testimony of the micro-
scope ought to be especially valuable. According I spent some days
last summer at Kinlochewe, in order to examine the rocks in the field
and to obtain specimens for microscopic work. I have now the
honour of laying before the Society the results of these investiga-
tions.
(1) Syenite of Glen Laggan.

Previous writers on the above section have agreed in stating that
a mass of igneous rock makes its appearance on the floor of Glen
Laggan, about two miles from Kinlochewe, and extends for some dis-
tance up the bed of the stream, apparently cutting off the quartzite
from the newer group. This rock is called diorite by Nicol,
syenite by Murchison, Geikie, and Hicks; it is shown by the last
author upon a sectiont as intrusive among the calcareous series
which overlies the quartzites.

Almost immediately on reaching the. spot where the “ syenite”
first appears on the floor of Glen Laggan§ I was struck with its
gneissic aspect. Without, however, halting for long, I walked up
the bed of the valley for about two miles, examining the rocks as I
went, and found this gneissic aspect continued. About 100 yards
from a cottage (perhaps three miles from Kinlochewe) there was indu-
bitable gneiss, the foliation dipping to about W. 30°S8.|| Near the
junction of the two upper branches of the glen I climbed up the right
bank for about 300 ft., and found clearly marked foliation, dipping at
25° to about 8.E.; and about 50 ft. above this a well-banded gneiss
occurs, dipping 30° to about E. Still higher up I found a sharper
dip, rather to E.S.E.4]

* Vol. vi. No. 2. t Published vol. xxxiv. p. 811.

t Q. J. G. S. xxxiv. p. 814. § Glen Cruchalie of Murchison.

|| The readings were made with a pocket compass, subsequently corrected
to true.

{ It may be well to mention that I am perfectly aware (see my paper
Q. J. G. S. vol. xxxiii. p. 893 &e.) that occasionally true igneous rocks exhibit
foliation. This possibility was always present to my mind during the exami-
nation of the above district ; but what I then saw seemed inexplicable in that way.

94 PROF. T. G. BONNEY’S PETROLOGICAL NOTES ON THE

I then returned to the well-known section at the lower end of this
““ syenite” massif. The stream has cut a shallow but picturesque
gorge in the crystalline rock, at the mouth of which the “ limestone”
is well exposed by the water side. The former rock chiefly consists
of a pink felspar and a green micaceous mineral, with variable
amounts of quartz and a little epidote. Everywhere its aspect is
rather that of a metamorphic than a granitic rock*, the green mineral
in most places giving it a foliated structure, which strikes from about
W. 20° N. to E. 20°S. in one part, to about N.E. and 8.E. in another.
This is particularly distinct on the left bank, about 30 yards above
the junction with the calcareous series, where the rock is beyond
question a rather felspathic gneiss.

On following the “ syenite” up the slope of the right bank of the
valley we find a green serpentinous-looking schist emerging from be-
neath it. This, on microscopic examination, proves to be a true schist.
It consists of quartz and felspar, with opacite, viridite, and a fibrous
chloritic or hornblendic mineral, the amount of the green constituent
being less than, from the colour of the rock, one might expect.
It exhibits a very marked fragmental structure ; but this I strongly
suspect to be due to crushing 2m situ.

The beds of the quartzose and calcareous series near the river dip
to about 8.S.E. at angles varying roughly from 20° to 30°. Some
100 feet up the slope the angle is 37°S.8.E. Further down the
stream the dip changes nearer to E., and there isaroll over. I care-
fully examined the relations of the “syenite” and of the calcareous
series, and could not find that they exhibited any of the ordinary
indications of the junction of an intrusive igneous and a sedimentary
rock. In most of such cases that I have examined (and they are
many), where the former rock is coarsely crystalline, the line of junc-
tion is firmly welded and usually found with ease, if a fair surface of
rock be exposed. Here, though the two rocks could often be seen
almost touching, no contact-specimen could be discovered, and every
appearance indicated that the junction is a faulted one. Neither of
the rocks changes in mineral character on approaching the boundary ;
both appear rather crushed{; and this structure becomes very
evident on microscopic examination, one of the specimens appearing
singularly like an angular quartz-felspar grit§. After much careful

* T do not refer here to foliation only, but a peculiar indefiniteness in the
outlines of the crystalline constituents and other characters.

t Roughly on the strike of the above, and higher up the hill, a rather schisty
grey rock appears to be overlain by the “syenite.” ‘There is, however, nothing
incompatible with this being a member of the newer series (which microscopically
it resembles more than the older) locally nipped by the latter. So that Ido not
think this one very dubious case sufficient to shake the body of evidence in
favour of the non-intrusive character of the “‘syenite.”

t The “syenite” is evidently much shattered, and is cut by numerous veins with
quartz, felspar, epidote, &c.

§ It is obvious that this structure (very visible in three specimens, selected
from near the line of junction) presents to upholders of an igneous origin for
the ‘‘ syenite” the following dilemma :—TIf it is not the result of crushing, but
an original structure, cadit questio ; if it is, then it is a most exceptional struc-
ture to be found near an igneous junction.

VICINITY OF THE UPPER PART OF LOCH MAREE. 95

consideration of the question, I have no hesitation in asserting that
all the so-called syenite (except some intrusive dykes) is simply a
rather granitoid variety of the Hebridean eneiss, and that its Junc-
tion with the calcareous series is a faulted one. The fault descends
the right bank of the valley, striking about E.S.E., changes its direc-
tion before reaching the river to a little E. of 8., and while crossing it
appears to change again, and emerge, striking about midway between
S.W. and S.S.W. (fig. 1). Here also the Hebridean gneiss can be

Fic. 1.— Sketch map of part of Glen Laggan.
Fault. B Fault.

Fault. / a
River. Fault.

a0) Torridon Quartzite I N

ie Sand- and Lime- SS pitied
) stone, stone. ——————| Bene ee
—~__ 40 =striking 40° 8. of E.

bts 40° 8. of E, with a dip of 25°.

Hebridean |
group.

25

followed along the hill-side, and traced to within a short distance of
the newer series; but I could not, though I searched carefully, find an
actual junction. On this side also I observed a case of very distinct
foliation in the “syenite,” dipping at about 45° to S. 20° W. Below
this spot the ordinary Hebridean gneiss can be traced by the river-
side at intervals, obviously forming part of the same series, to a sheep-
fold at the mouth of the glen. It is overlain by Torridon Sandstone,

which occupies, I believe, all the undulating shoulder between the
streams from Glen Laggan and Glen Docherty, except that in two

96 PROF. T. G6. BONNEY’S PETROLOGICAL NOTES ON THE

places the “‘ quartzite ” series crosses for a short space over to this
left bank of the former valley.

We have thus a very irregular slip of Hebridean gneiss, capped in
part by some Torridon Sandstone, bounded by two or more faults,
which bring down the quartzite and calcareous series on the one hand
and the newer gneiss series on the other (figs. 2 & 3)*.

In the section given by Sir R. Murchison (Q. J. G. &. vol. xvii.
p. 191) a small patch of “syenite” is also marked as occurring on
the right bank of Loch Maree, near its head. Of the gneissose
character of this I have not any doubt; but I also found there a
rock which, both macroscopically and microscopically, appears to be
a true diorite. I saw no signs of intrusion, and think the presence
of this patch of the older rock may be explained by faulting, though
I am not prepared at present to say in what manner that is to be
connected with the other faults.

Fig. 2.—Section in Glen Laggan along the line A in fig. 1.

Fault. Fault,

Fig. 3.—Section in Glen Laggan along the line B in fig. 1.

Dorren€
S=S=—=~
—————— <_<
_——S— SS SSSE—H_=
SS—SSSSSSSSaaESSaa_NBEBNB_EOSSSSSHQ
Fault.

(2) Hebridean Geiss, together with the so-called Syenite.

Tke macroscopic characters of this rock in the present district
have been already described by previous observers, so it will suffice
to make a few remarks on the microscopic structure of the Specimens
which I collected. These were obtained from the above-named
localities in Glen Laggan, at intervals on the right bank of Loch

* T had with me a copy of Dr. Hicks’s section (vol. xxxiy. 814 .
failed to reconcile it with what I saw on the cee Ve. 8) tae

VICINITY OF THE UPPER PART OF LOCH MAREE. 97

Maree, as far as Ben Slioch, and a little to the north of the Loch-
Maree hotel*. They vary considerably, some, as in the Laggan
valley, being mainly quartz and felspar, with a little of a green
micaceous mineral, others ordinary mica- or hornblende-gneiss,
others, again, rather hornblendic or chloritic schists. All, how-
ever, exhibit conspicuously that massive structure which early
observers rightly fixed upon as characteristic, and, as a rule,
are fairly uniform for a considerable vertical thickness. The
microscope shows that quartz and felspar are always present, exhi-
biting the rather irregular granular form characteristic of gneissic as
opposed to granitic rocks (fig. 4). The quartz is generally fairly clear,

Fig. 4.— Hebridean Geiss from near base of Ben Slioch.

enclosures or cavities being very minute, though in one or two cases
there is a considerable amount of dusty opacite. The felspar, usually
more or less decomposed, varies in quantity, rather predominating in
the specimens from near the junction in Glen Laggan. These appear
to contain microcline ; it is, perhaps, present in the others with con-
siderable quantities of plagioclase (probably oligoclase), as well as
orthoclase. Epidote microliths and other decomposition products are
present largely in some specimens. One of those from Glen Laggan
consists almost wholly of quartz and felspar, with a minute quantity of
a pale hornblendic(?) mineral, and a little opacite and magnetite,
being almost exactly like specimens from North Wales and Shropshire,
for which I have proposed the name granitoidite. Another (more
gneissic) contains a chloritic mineral and a little pale-coloured mica.
A third, macroscopically much greener than the others, appears to
owe its colour chiefly to quantities of very minute epidote.

Mica is conspicuously present in two specimens collected by the road-
side north of Loch-Maree hotel, in one from the floor of Glen Laggan,
some distance up stream above the gorge, and in one collected by
the shore of Loch Maree, at the south end of the base of Ben Slioch.

* The third group and most of the second are universally admitted to be
the Hebridean gneiss.

Q.J.G.8. No. 141. u

98 PROF. T. G. BONNEY’S PETROLOGICAL NOTES ON THE

In the first three cases the mineral is a green mica, probably an
altered biotite; in the last, with a little of the same, we have chiefly
a silvery-white mica, showing brilliant tints with polarized light,
probably margarodite or paragonite. Hornblende (green) with very
characteristie cleavage and strong dichroism is plentiful in the spe-
cimens from near the Loch-Maree hotel, in a hornblende schist from
near the above-named locality, under Ben Slioch, and in a dark com-
pact schist in the bed of a burn to south of latter. There is also a
little in the above Glen-Laggan specimens, and more dubiously in
others. Epidote is present in the last, and in numerous well-formed
crystals in the first two. Few specimens are quite free from it.
Apatite is distinctly present in the first three of the above specimens,
and more dubiously in others. One of them (# mile from Loch-
Maree hotel) contains numerous crystalline grains of a yellow-brown
mineral, which I have little doubt is sphene; and the same mineral
is present in other specimens. Opacite and grains of iron peroxide,
probably magnetite, occur in most in greater or less degree.

Microscopically, then, as well as macroscopically, this group of
rocks has well-marked characteristics, which we also find, as we
might expect, in the gneiss of the vicinity of Stornoway*. There is
also a certain family likeness to the old gneissic rocks of Anglesey,
Caernarvonshire, the Wrekin, and the Malvern Hills; and a resem-
blance may even be noted to specimens from West Greenland and
the Lofoten Islands, not to mention yet more distant localities.

(3) Torridon Sandstone.

In the case of this rock also we may refer to the careful descrip-
tions of earlier observers. I examined it on both sides of Loch Maree,
over the district mentioned above, and at Loch Torridon. Striking
instances of the breccia of gneissic rock at its base can be seen by the
roadside north of Loch-Maree hotel, and on approaching the base of
Ben Slioch on the opposite shore. Commonly the sandstone is fairly
uniform in character, a hard grit composed of rolled grains of quartz
and red felspar, from 51," to =)’ in diameter, with a little of a green
mineral, being at first sight wonderfully like a fine-grained granite ;
but now and then it becomes coarse and pebbly—a very pretty variety,
with the rolled fragments as big as large peas, occurring in blocks by
the road‘to Gairloch, eight miles from Kinlochewe. Specimens for
microscopic examination were selected from the last-named rock, from
a spot on the same road nine miles from Kinlochewe, from the lower
part of the series (at two levels) on the right bank, near to the base
of Ben Slioch, and lastly from the shore near Torridon. With minor
differences in detail, their general character is the same. They con- -
sist of fragments (usually well rolled) of quartz, felspar, and an
altered quartzose rock, in a fine granular matrix, in which some
secondary products have been formed. The quartz is generally rather
full of minute dusty-looking microliths. The felspar is often infil-
trated with ferrite, which in some cases brings out clearly the cleavage-

a The only other locality where I have had opportunity of studying itin the
eld.

VICINITY OF THE UPPER PART OF LOCH MAREE. 99

planes. Orthoclase, microcline (often fairly abundant), and plagio-
clase (? oligoclase) can be recognized. Characteristic crystals of the
last are not very common. The quartzose fragments are sometimes
either a highly altered quartzite or bits from stratule of this nature in
a gneiss ; certain of them (especially in the spécimens from Torridon)
have a schistose structure*. There are also a few fragments resem-
bling a rather decomposed fine-grained slaty rock. J am not able
to detect any indubitably fragmental mica or hornblende, and must
be content to call the green mineral which is sparingly present in
the matrix, and almost certainly a secondary product, by the vague
term viridite.. This matrix resembles a very fine sandy mud, gene-
rally much stained with ferrite and rather altered. The change is
most conspicuous in the second of the above specimens, which was
selected because it had a more marked appearance of alteration than
was usual.

(4) The Quarizite.

I again refer to the works of earlier observers for the macroscopic
characters of this rock. As its variations in this district appear un-
important, I have only examined two specimens, one from the right
bank of Loch Maree, a typical example of the pure white variety so
abundant on both sides of the head of that lake, the other a slightly
yellower and more granular quartzite from the Gairloch road, about
three miles from Kinlochewe. The first is composed chiefly of quartz
grains, rather irregular in size and form, containing a fair amount of
microscopic “ dust,” and with a minute quantity of ferrite now and
then interspersed. The edges of the quartz grains are commonly
“fused” together, as is usual in highly altered quartzites, the one
bein irregularly indented into the other, as if the two had been
pressed together when in a slightly viscous condition. A few small
fragments of felspar can be recognized, resembling that in the last
series. Cracks traverse the slide, filled apparently with minute frag-
ments of the rock itself, cemented by secondary quartz, perhaps indi-
cating local crushing of the mass. In the other specimen the only
difference worthy of note is that the grains are a little larger in size and
more irregular in shape ; that no felspar can be recognized, though
an earthy dark-stained mineral, generally torn away in grinding, pro-
bably indicates that it has been present ; and there are little scattered
clots of ferrite, and a few specks of a pale hornblendic mineral?. A
slice from the “ fucoidal” guartzite has also been examined. Except
that there is more fine silty matter among the quartz grains, there

* T have examined microscopically a fragment from a block (perhaps 2 cubic
feet) in a remarkable breccia north of the Loch-Maree hotel. It consists mainly
of quartz, in rather minute grains, with occasionally larger grains (of very irre-
gular outline) of felspar, with wavy microliths interbanded, scales of iron glance,
a fair quantity of epidote, and a little white mica. It is therefore a highly
altered schisty felspathic quartzite.

+ I did not examine into the disputed question of the conformity or uncon-
formity of the quartzites and Torridon Sandstone; the general appearance of
the two suggests the latter, as maintained by Sir R. Murchison ; but my friend
Mr. L. Ewbank, Fellow of Clare College, tells me that near Dundonnel (Little

H2

100 PROF. T. G. BONNEY’S PETROLOGICAL NOTES ON THE

is nothing special to note. Some at least of the “ fucoidal” markings
are probably Annelid-tubes ; one has been cut through in this slice,
but nothing special is shown.

My work, I may be allowed to mention, fully confirms the opinion
that the quartzites of the Bunter pebble-beds of the Midland Counties
have been derived originally from these quartzites of North-west
Scotland. I have been familiar with the Bunter pebbles of Stafford-
shire all my life (being a native of that county), and could not sepa-
rate some of them from certain of the varieties which I saw in the
neighbourhood of Loch Maree. Further, I have recently examined
two of these pebbles microscopically, and find also in them occasional
indications of wavy-banded and cross-hatched felspars. I have
also identified them in conglomerates of Old Red Sandstone and
Lower Carboniferous age in the more southern parts of Scotland,
notably in the sandstones near Brodick, Arran.

(5) The Calcareous Series.

Dr. Hicks* lays some stress upon the separation of the strata in
the bed of the stream by the gorge of Glen Laggan (“ blue flags,
sandstones,” &c.) from those seen higher up on the right bank
(“ limestones, calcareous sandstones,” &c.). Itseems to me, however,
that it is simpler to regard them as one series, continuous with the
quartzites below, but much more variable in mineral character, and
so in the amount of change which has been produced in them. ‘To
my eye they exhibited no signs of increased alteration in the neigh-
bourhood of the “syenite.” I have examined only one specimen
microscopically, from the immediate neighbourhood of the latter
rock. It is a rather muddy-looking crystalline limestone, to some
extent dolomitic, as I suspect, greatly crushed and recemented, in
part by infiltrated quartz. No traces of organic structure can be
found; and from the aspect of the slide I doubt whether such are
likely to have escaped obliteration, if ever they were present.

(6) The Newer Gneiss.

This series, as we have said, is brought into close juxtaposition
with the older gneiss in Glen Laggan. Here it forms a well-marked
escarpment, which, directly below the gorge, trends towards theS. W.,
and passes on behind the shoulder occupied by Torridon Sandstone to
the mouth of Glen Docherty, forming a continuous cliff, which, on the
right bank of that valley, is of considerable elevation. A fault passes
down the bed of Glen Docherty, shifting this newer series and its
escarpment to the northward, so that it 1s exposed on the left bank
of the river, near Kinlochewe Lodge, and, further, by the side of the

Loth Broom) he traced a gradual passage from the one to the other. A fallen
block which I found near the commencement of the quartzite, on the right bank
of Loch Maree, certainly appeared, macroscopically and microscopically, inter-
mediate between the two; the break, therefore, is probably rather local than
general.

* Q. J. G.S. vol. xxxiv. p. 813.

VICINITY OF THE UPPER PART OF LOCH MAREE. 101

Garrie, within a very short distance of the hotel*. The viewsas to
the relations of this series to the other rocks are concisely stated by
Dr. Hicks}, in speaking of the Glen-Laggan section, as follows :—
“¢ Prof. Nicol places a fault at this point, and says that the funda-
mental gneiss is here brought up to give it an appearance of over-
lying conformably the unaltered series. 1, however, hold, with Sir
R. Murchison and Mr. Geikie, that the next is a younger series,
and that it overlies the unaltered beds ; but I entirely demur to the
view held by them that the rocks which compose this group, as exhi-
bited here, should be called gneiss rocks, or associated in any way
with those which have undergone the metamorphic change so charac-
teristic of the pre-Cambrian rocks as known in this country, and which
could only be induced, I believe, by influences to which it is evident
these rocks, as shown by their position and undisturbed state, could
not have been subjected, and which would occur mainly during
periods of great depression combined with heat, moisture, and pres-
sure. On examination I found these upper beds everywhere unal-
tered, except near dykes, and the change there induced in them was
that now well known as partial or contact-alteration, and which
is so entirely distinct from true or general metamorphism. These
beds all dip to the 8.E. at a low angle, and attain a thickness of
several thousand feet. They are flag-like in character, and are made
up chiefly of fragmentary materials, but are occasionally slightly cal-
careous. They are much like some of the Lower Silurian flags in
Wales, and are in no degree more highly altered than many of those
rocks in the more disturbed districts.” He goes on to state that, in
his opinion, the lower rocks exposed by lateral streams on the north
side of Glen Docherty are very unlike those along the hill-side at the
higher levels. ‘‘ They were evidently much more allied to the gneiss
of the west side of Loch Maree; and the strike proves to be, as in
the latter, from N.W. to S.E., and hence in an entirely opposite di-
rection to that in the higher beds. ... . These gneiss rocks keep
at a low horizon for about four miles, or until we reach the top of
the Glyn. At this place they assume a reddish granitoid appearance,
and ascend considerably higher into the hill. For the next few miles
they are traced with more difficulty, and probably faulted, but rise
up again into the mountains as we approach Auchnasheen. The
upper or overlying beds are entirely lost at the ravine which sepa-
rates these hills from Ben Fyn and the range of mountains behind
Auchnasheen.”

One difficulty, inherent in this view, cannot, I think, fail to strike
the observer as soon as he has become familiar with the district. It
is the disappearance in so short a space of the entire thickness of the
Torridon Sandstone and the quartzites, not to mention the overlying
calcareous series. These, at the southern end of Loch Maree, can

* Here the dip is 8° to S.S.E.; about } of a mile higher up the stream 26°
to 8. The Glen-Laggan fault is prolonged up Glen Garrie, the quartzite still
plunging towards it, but its throw is diminished. It is remarkable in this
district how closely the streams follow the faults.

t Q. J. G.S. vol. xxxiv. p. 814.

102 PROF. T. G. BONNEY’S PETROLOGICAL NOTES ON THE

hardly be less than 3000 feet in thickness. The rock is sufficiently
exposed in the cliffs on the right bank of Glen Docherty to enable
us to see if they comprise any representative of these strongly marked
and peculiar beds. Much there could not be; for there is not room
for any great thickness between the admitted upper and the asserted
lower series. Not a trace is visible. Three thousand feet in three
miles! surely this is an unconformity which we could only accept on
the clearest and strongest evidence.

This evidence is, I fear, wanting. First, I cannot admit the ac-
euracy of Dr. Hicks’s statement about the unaltered condition of the
beds of the newer series in Glen Laggan. I examined them on the
ground with great care, and came to the conclusion that though their
flagey character is very marked, they are rightly classed with the
metamorphic rocks, consisting, among others, of dark green, rather
compact schists, soft dull-coloured mica-schists, and micaceous quart-
zites. In the cliff between Glen Docherty and Glen Garrie the
‘“metamorphic” character of the rocks is more conspicuous ; and I
cannot conceive it possible to call the beds exposed by the two streams,
at the entrance of Kinlochewe hamlet, any thing else than schists ;
yet that they are part of the same series it is impossible to doubt.
Typical specimens were selected for microscopic examination—two
from the face of the cliff in Glen Laggan (a, 6), two from the above-
named cliff between Glen Docherty and Glen Garrie (c¢, d), and one
from the left bank of the river, just to the east of Kinlochewe (e).

Of the Glen-Laggan specimens, (a) was chosen from a compact dark
green rock, (6) from a brownish-grey compact quartzose rock, with
some minute spangles of silvery mica. Both rocks are very “ flaggy,”
the former, on close inspection, showing a distinct though minute foli-
ation parallel to bedding (fig. 5); the latter is less distinctly foliated,

Fig. 5.—Micaceous Schist of the Newer Series, Glen Laggan.

but obviously altered. The microscope shows them to consist chiefly
of quartz and a micaceous mineral, with a fair amount of felspar,
some epidote, &c. Minute grains of quartz, as it were agglutinated

VICINITY OF THE UPPER PART OF LOCH MAREE. 103

together, compose the greater part of the slide, with the micaceous
mineral, both disseminated and in wavy bands, parallel with the
stratification. In this ground-mass are scattered larger subangular
grains, lying generally lengthwise, with the mica scales bending
round them, so that they form, as it were, “ eyes” to the slide. Most
of them are felspar, many are plagioclase*, one or two probably mi-
crocline. The micaceous constituent is rather fibrous, moderately
dichroic, showing bright colours with the two Nicols, and is uniaxial
or orthorhombic—probably a hydrous magnesia-mica ; but there may
be more than one mineral present—many small grains of epidote, a
fair number of iron oxide, probably hematite, and a little calcite in
(a). These rocks appear to me beyond question metamorphic in the
full sense of the term, though very distinct from, and not so ex-
tremely altered as, the Hebridean series ; for the quartz is wholly
unlike that in any sandstone, however indurated, and the mica
appears to have crystallized in situ. Specimens (c, d) resemble
respectively the two from Glen Laggan, but are a little more mica-
ceous; the microscope shows the differences to be merely varietal.
The only difference noteworthy in the specimen (¢) is that it is chiefly
quartz and mica; the latter is in larger scales, and there is certainly
another minute green mineral with it, showing strong dichroism,
possibly a chlorite f.

Proceeding up Glen Docherty, by the road which follows the
right bank of the stream, we pass, after the spot named above, the
shoulder of Torridon Sandstone, and then ascend the glen with the
newer series on both sides. At first not much rock is seen i situ
by the road; what there is appears to belong to this series. At
nearly 22 and 3 miles from Kinlochewe are slopes of screes derived
evidently from the cliffs high above the road, which indubitably con-
sist mainly of fine quartzose gneisses, foliated, as before, parallel to
the flaggy bedding. Higher up, rock is frequently exposed by the
road, but it is all of a similar character. The most highly altered is
a lead-coloured mica-schist, which, higher up, is exposed in a little
lateral ravine. This, however, is totally different from any member
of the Hebridean series, splitting with comparative facility, and
pulverizing under the hammer. Moreover, it is overlain conformably
by a flaggy quartz-schist, just like those already described. This, or
a bed nearly at same level, reappears in a cutting where the road
enters the open moorland at the head of Glen Docherty, rather more
than 34 miles from Kinlochewe. I have examined both rocks micro-
scopically. The former differs from those already described only in
having more mica and a rather more marked schistose structure
(fig. 6). There are certainly two species of mica, one colourless, the
other an altered biotite, rather more altered (and decomposed) felspar,
and some small, imperfectly formed garnets. The overlying rock is a

* The results of the optical tests vary so much that I cannot attempt to name
the species ; some agree with labradorite, some rather oligoclase,

t I have a suspicion it is uniaxial. The above slides, | may mention, have
been shown to Prof. Renard and Prof. Morris, both of whom agree with me
as to the true metamorphic character of the rocks.

104 PROF. T. G. BONNEY’S PETROLOGICAL NOTES ON THE

kind of gneiss, with a structure generally resembling the quartz-
schists described below, but containing a little more felspar (decom-
posed). The difference, however, is simply varietal.

Fig. 6.—Mica-schast from the upper part of Glen Docherty
(Newer Series of Author).

eS Say) ee

It is quite true that the mica-schists in the road dip (at about 30°)
a little W. by 8., and that in the ravine about to S.W. ‘The dip of
the gneissic rock a little above is nearer to the former; but on the
opposite side of the glen the rocks appear to preserve the usual south-
easterly dip; and these quartzose beds have a very shattered aspect ;
so that I have not the slightest doubt the change of strike is merely
local, and due to the neighbouring fault, as in the case already
described.

Between this point and Auchnasheen little rock is exposed near the
road, but nothing in the terrain suggests the introduction of any
group other than that from which Glen Docherty is excavated. From
Auchnasheen I ascended Ben Fyn, mounting by the right hand one of
two streams visible from the inn, and returning (in part) by the
other. A small quarry, about 200 ft. above the inn, gives a good sec-
tion of a gneiss with red garnets. The rock is flaggy in structure,
well foliated parallel to its bedding, dipping towards the E. at about
30° (rather rolled), having a general resemblance to the newer series
to the north-west, but more highly altered. Under the microscope the
rock is seen to consist of quartz, clear (with exception of some small
microliths and very minute cavities), orthoclase felspar, with some
plagioclase in good preservation (long colourless belonites are present
in some of the crystals), biotite and a little of the white mica already
described, and opacite, with two or three garnets. The rock is more
highly altered than the rocks already described, but still presents
some structural resemblance to them*. Above this for some 1200 ft.
the rocks continue to be flaggy, occasionally most conspicuously, but

* Some of the grains show a minute “ graphic” or, rather, vermicular structure.
Cf. ‘Nature,’ xiv. pp. 8, 68.

VICINITY OF THE UPPER PART OF LOCH MAREE. 105

always gneissic, sometimes more, sometimes less micaceous, this
mineral occasionally predominating. At 750 ft. is a quartzose gneiss,
very like those noticed in the series in Glen Docherty, and, micro-
scopically, nearly related to the quartz schists at the top of that glen
and on the cliff above Kinlochewe. On a shoulder at 1470 ft.
micaceous schist (dip about 45°8.); at 1830 ft. garnetiferous gneiss
(dip almost vertical, apparently to a little S.of W.). At 1900 ft.is an
intrusion of garnetiferous diorite ; its felspar is much decomposed, and
the hornblende projects from the weathered surface like the augite in
the gabbro of Skye. The garnets are sometimes as large as small
cherries. There appear to be two bosses of it, of irregular form and
possibly connected. The adjoining micaceous gneiss is locally twisted
and disturbed.

I continued the ascent to the edge of the corrie on the eastern face
of the mountain, and turned back (it being needless for my purpose
to proceed further) at a height of about 2480 ft. above Auchnasheen.
Over the upper part of the hill the dip of the gneiss is generally high.
Though lithologically similar to that in the lower part, it is less
distinctly flaggy, and the coincidence between bedding and foliation
is less conspicuous. After careful search I failed to find any horn-
blendic reck other than intrusive, and am certain that nothing
resembling the Hebridean series of Loch Maree could occur in the
comparatively short space between the spot where I stopped and the
summit. The strike of the rocks cannot be pressed too far as evi-
dence, for it is very variable. My notes include various points, from
nearly due N. to nearly due W. While travelling by a slow train to
Dingwall, I observed that the rocks as far as Strathpeffer were
flaggy gneisses, generally similar to those above described—a coarser
variety, with large scales of white mica, occurring near the latter
place.

(7) Igneous Rocks.

There are compact greenstone dykes, as already said, in Glen
Laggan, cutting the Hebridean series. One of them, on the left
bank, a little below the gorge, I have examined; but it has been
so much altered that it is difficult to give a good account of it. The
felspar (probably plagioclastic) has been largely replaced by minute
pseudomorphs. ‘There is some dark-brown mica and pale-green
hornblende (probably a secondary product), and’ what look like
diallage or augite crystals, replaced by ferrite, opacite, viridite, and
earthy-looking matter. Near the head of Loch Maree (right bank) I
collected a massive hornblendic roek, which appears on examination
to be a diorite, though the structure is obscured by decomposition.
There are two varieties of hornblende and many small garnets. The
diorite of Ben Fyn consists chiefly of hornblende and red garnet;
the former mineral is green and strongly dichroic, rather irregular in
outline, with characteristic cleavage. It contains many rather large

‘microliths, in some of which may be seen a small crystal of mag-
netite or some opaque mineral. Most are roundish in section, one or
two hexagonal, doubtless quartz. The garnet contains numerous

106 PROF. T. G. BONNEY’S PETROLOGICAL NOTES ON THE

minute belonites, as well as enclosures similar to the last in less
number, and microliths of hornblende (?). There are clustered grains
of a mineral rather resembling sphene, which also occurs in separate
erystals*. There is also quartz, with hornblende (?) microliths, plagio-
clase felspar, and possibly a little zircon. The slide, of necessity,
has been cut rather thick, so it is difficult to be certain of some of
the microliths. From the above description it will appear that the
rock might be named a hornblende-eclogite.

The bearing of the evidence of this district upon general questions
of metamorphism is highly interesting and important. Above the
comparatively unaltered Torridon Sandstones we have, as all allow,
the highly altered quartzite. Above the seemingly unaltered lime-
Stone series we have the true schists of the upper group, which also
become more highly metamorphosed as they are traced towards the
south-east. The possibility of the latter change will probably be more
readily admitted, as it might be explained by deeper entombment
under superincumbent strata, or nearer approach to regions of ele-
vated temperature, of which indications are given by the great
granitic masses of the Central Highlands. But how are we to explain
this alternation of metamorphism in a vertical direction? It shows,
I think, how important the mineral constituents of the bed and their
mode of association are as factors in the general result. In the
Torridon Sandstone well-rolled grains of moderate size occur in a
matrix, scanty indeed, but commonly just enough to separate them.
In the quartzite clear and perhaps rather less-rounded quartz grains
are in apposition. The latter have become agglutinated ; and the
same result may be seen to have happened in the former, where
two “clean” grains are in contact ; but the interposition of a little
“dirt,” as we may sometimes see in the quartzite, is an obstacle to
uniont. Felspar grains seem to unite less readily. The amount
of mineral change in the matrix seems to depend on both its consti-
tution, if homogeneous, and mode of association, if not. If, for ex-
ample, it contains the constituents of viridite or epidote in a right
state of division, these minerals are readily formed ; if not, change
is slow.

The muddy beds overlying the quartzite appear to have resisted
change, other than the formation of crystallized calcite (and perhaps
dolomite). The series above these, however, has been of a more
favourable composition ; and in it we see bed differing from bed in
the amount of metamorphism. But into these interesting questions
I must abstain from entering. I trust some day, when I have added
yet more to the large quantity of material which I have been for
some time past collecting, to invite the attention of the Society to

* Since the above was written, Prof. Renard has seen the slide, and was of
opinion that this mineral was more probably staurolite. Some of it certainly
suggests that the mineral is orthorhombic; but unfortunately no crystal that I
can discover in the slide gives quite conclusive evidence.

t Of this the preservation of Annelid-tubes in the quartzite is a marked in-
stance. These certainly occur occasionally, so that we need not here refer to
the so-called fucoidal markings.

VICINITY OF THE UPPER PART OF LOCH MAREE. 107
this most interesting question of the nature of mineral change in
metamorphic rocks, and the traces which they may have preserved
of their original structure.

From the above observations it results that I am unable to recog-
nize any marked similarity between the Hebridean series about the
upper part of Loch Maree and the beds which are seen on Ben Fyn
and in the upper part of Glen Docherty ; while both microscopic and
stratigraphic evidence, as I read them, point to the identity of the
latter with the beds exposed in the northern escarpment of the
newer series. In this series the effect of metamorphism varies in
degree, as we have already shown, and increases in amount as we
advance towards the Central Highlands; but the peculiar flagey
character of the strata (long since pointed out by the late Sir R.
Murchison) is retained ; and there is no resemblance, in any important
point, to the older series. It appears, then, to me that, so far as the
neighbourhood of Loch Maree is concerned, the views advocated by
that distinguished geologist and his feilow-labourer Prof. Geikie are
fully confirmed by microscopic evidence.

Discussion.

Dr. Hicxs stated that he had studied the district under the most
favourable conditions of weather, and had measured the section
foot by foot. The rock regarded by Prof. Bonney as gneiss was
so regarded at first by Macculloch and Hay Cunningham; but
they saw ground for changing that opinion, and believing that it
was intrusive, in which they were confirmed by Nicol, Murchison,
and Geikie. It also cuts across the beds of the older gneiss, as
shown even in Prof. Bonney’s diagram and map. He maintained
that the reading of the section in Glen Laggan which he had
already given is the true one. He objected to the diagrammatic
nature of Prof. Bonney’s sections. He insisted on the exact agree-
ment between the rocks of Ben Fyn and those of Gairloch, and
their distinctness from the micaceous flagstones of the younger
series. He pointed out that the strikes of the several rocks do
not bear out Prof. Bonney’s views. The N.W. strike of the lower
rocks in Glen Docherty is most marked; and this, with the high dip
and difference in the characters of the rocks, proved conclusively to
his mind that the micaceous flags of the upper series, with a N.E.
strike and low dip, rest here on a floor of the old or western gneiss.

Mr. Hupzeston had examined the district with the advantage
of Dr. Hicks’s sections and descriptions. He came to a conclusion
opposed to that of Dr. Hicks and agreeing with that of Prof. Bonney.
He was entirely opposed to Dr. Hicks’s views concerning the section
in Glen Docherty. He demurred to the importance which Dr.
Hicks attached to the differences of strike among the gneisses. He
regarded the section at Loch Maree as by no means suitable to serve
as a typical one.

108 PETROLOGY OF THE VICINITY OF LOCH MAREE.

Mr. Rurtey had seen structure like that in the metamorphic
rock described by Prof. Bonney in artificially altered sandstones.

Mr. Brake argued on general grounds against the correctness of
the section given by Dr. Hicks.

Prof. Szezrey had not examined the country with a view to
deciding between the contending views. He insisted on the great
variability of the rocks.

Prof. Bonney insisted that the map which Dr. Hicks relied upon
Was very inaccurate. Prof. Morris quite agreed with him as to
the evidence derived from the microscopic sections. He insisted on
the necessity of greater accuracy than Dr. Hicks had shown in fixing
the locality of his specimens. He was quite content to await the
judgment of future observers as to the accuracy of the views which
he was maintaining.

ON A NEW MINERAL FROM INVERNESSHIRE. 109

9. On an apparently New Minera occurring im the Rocks of
InvEeRNESSHIRE. By Witiiam Joxty, Esq., F.R.S.E., H.M. In-
spector of Schools, Inverness, and J. Macponatp Cameron, Esq.,

‘Fellow Inst. Chem., F.C.S., of the Chemical Laboratories, South
Kensington Museum. (Read June 11, 1879.)

(Communicated by Prof. J. W. Judd, F.R.S., Sec. G.S.)
[ Abstract. ]
I. Irs GEoLoGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL DiIsTRIBUTION.

Tae Moray Firth, from Duncansbay Head to Buckie, is enclosed
by the Old Red Sandstone, except some Jurassic patches near Brora
and Cromarty, and others near Elgin. In this area it is touched by
no Silurian except for a few miles between Inverness and Beauly.
The Old Red Conglomerate and other beds exist west of Inverness
in a triangular patch between Dochgarroch and Bunchrew. The
Silurian to the west of this forms an oblong semidetached area
surrounded by Old Red, except for a few miles on the south.
This Silurian patch has a general slope to the Moray Firth on the
north, into which it is drained. Its main stream is the Moniack
Burn, rising three miles north of Drumnadrochit in Glenurquhart,
running generally along its centre and falling into the sea west of
Lentran. The strata form a syncline, the axis striking roughly
N. and §., the rocks on the east dipping to N.W., those on the west
dipping generally to 8.E., but the latter much disturbed. They con-
sist chiefly of clay-slate, micaceous and chloritic schist, and gneiss.

A limestone, worked at several points, runs parallel to and near the
axis, of varying thickness, sometimes twelve feet, and often concre-
tionary and interbedded with other rocks. A red granite also
occurs in the Silurian near Abriachan; it is of commercial value,
and known as Loch-Ness granite.

Within this Silurian area the mineral which was the subject of
the paper occurs at five points, at three of these in situ, and has as yet
been found nowhere else. It is of a blue colour of various shades,
from ultramarine to bluish white, often striking and beautiful. It
occurs generally in a felspathic matrix, readily disintegrates under
water to a fine, blue, soapy, unctuous clay (caused probably by the
magnesia it contains), and is seldom found pure, and never yet in a
crystalline form, though it sometimes presents a glistening crystal-
line aspect. The sites where it has beem found are these :—

(1) Englishton Moor.—On the west side of Bunchrew Burn, a
little above the Public School of Kirkton, at No. 23 croft, near an out-
crop of limestone. It occurs here only in scattered blocks evidently
carried from the west at Moniack Burn, where it is in situ. It is
chiefly found in thin veins and plates in felspar. It was here that
the mineral first attracted special attention, during an excursion of
the Scientific Society and Field Club of Inverness, on September Ist,

110 W. JOLLY AND J. M. CAMERON ON A NEW

1877, at which both the authors were present—Mr. Jolly having
previously noted it in a preliminary examination of the ground along
with Mr. Cran, of Kirkton, and Mr. Cameron having, at the excur-
sion first suspected its rarity and subsequently analyzed it.

(2) Moniack Burn.—This passes through a very picturesque
gorge called Reelig Glen, enclosed by high cliffs, finely wooded, and
attractive to the geologist and botanist. The stream runs here
along a fault, near the synclinal axis, associated with a remarkable
conglomerate and with granitic, felspathic veins. A great fall of
rock took place last winter from the face of a high precipice in the
glen above Reelig House. The fallen débris contained much of the
mineral, associated with orthoclastic felspathic rock, interbedded with
clay-slate, and mica and chloritic schist, &c., not only in veins but
in regular strata some feet in thickness.

(3) Near South Clunes Farm.—It is also found in situ above this
gorge, on the east bank of the stream, at a limestone-quarry, where
it occurs in great purity in a felspathic rock in contact and bedded
with the limestone. It seems here to be more or less associated
with the limestone, which crosses the river from this point near the
fallen cliff, and runs to Rebeg farm, where also it is worked.

(4) Near Dochfour, at the north end of Loch Ness.—It occurs here
in rock in situ, on a new road to the Mansion House, about 150
yards north of a new bridge over Dochfour Burn. It is also asso-
ciated here with felspar in large masses, bright blue at first but
gradually losing colour by exposure, and easily disintegrating under
water.

(5) At Lochend, at the north end of Loch Ness.—It was found
here, not in situ, but in detached blocks in the burn near Lochend
Hotel, by Dr. Aitken and Mr. Wallace, members of the Inverness
Field Club. The blocks have probably come down the burn, but
their source has not yet been discovered.

II. Irs CuEemicat ANALYSIS.

The fragmentary blocks of orthoclastic felspar intermingled with
quartz and granite found scattered over Englishton Moor contain
the blue mineral in very thin veins or lamine. The first portions
submitted to analysis were from that locality, as it was here atten-
tion was first directed to it, and, at the time the first analyses were
made, this was the only place where it had been noticed in any great
quantity.

As it is unnecessary to dwell on the methods adopted for identi-
fying and quantitatively estimating the several substances entering
into the composition of this interesting mineral, we shall simply
give the following figures, which are the mean of several analyses
of specimens from different localities, and constitute the data from
which we have calculated the formula.

MINERAL FROM INVERNESSHIRE. 111

per cent.
SL SUN id ONG AOR Be 55:02
preva fis CE Pode © 3°37
Dprric omMde:. esis saben ie 19-03
Bornes omide !.... 42. paki 3°83
Caleictaxider’ 2 oi. Re 2°53
Magmueme oxide .°)./02 Ges. 12°95
STW) at [5 ia era 1:74
Phasphorc¢ oxide. .. 0.5; WE oy |
Loss’on tenition % oo ik sos « 1:45

100°25

These data point to Si, 8 BR, or Si, QR+ 1k, ) as the formula for
the mineral, and show it to belong to the bisilicate species, the oxygen-
ratio for the bases and silica of this species being as 1: 2, and the

general formula R Si,, or Si, (4R, R ,), although, so far as we are
aware, it is not identical with any known member of this series.

The general formula Si, (3R, 1R,) would seem to point to its re-
lation to egirite, a member of the amphibole group. In colour and
general appearance, however, it more resembles crocidolite, a member
of the amphibole subgroup, though there is no satisfactory agreement
between the analysis of the last-mentioned mineral and that of the
subject of this memoir.

If we suppose that in the formula Si, ZR, 1R,) 3R,=Mg,+Fe,

and that R represents a molecule of the sesquioxide of iron, and
keeping in view that the monoxide group, lime, magnesia, soda, and
ferrous oxide are mutually replaceable, the above figures point to
6 $i0,, Fe,0,, FeO, 2 MgO as the formula of the cineeal:

Properties , = Sait blue amorphous substance, sp. gr. 2°01, unacted
upon by acids except when in contact with them for some time.
On ignition it changes to a light-brownish powder. Between the
poles of a battery it fuses to a metallic bead slightly magnetic.

In conclusion, we thank Professor Frankland for permitting the
analyses to be performed ; in his laboratory, Professor Judd for valu-
able hints received, and Messrs. Linnell and Shilton for assistance in
preparing and analyzing some of the specimens.

Discussion.
Prof. MaskrLynz expressed a hope that purer specimens would

be obtained, and praised the authors for the discretion and caution
they had exercised in not giving a new name to this substance.

Tt R. MALLET ON THE TEMPERATURE OF THE

10. On the PropasLe. TEMPERATURE of the PrimorpIAL OcHan of
our GuopE. By Ropert Matter, Esq., F.R.S., F.G.8S. (Read
November 5, 1879.)

So far as my reading has,extended, I am not aware that any author
on physical geology or terrestrial physics has expressed any definite
views as to the temperature of the primordial ocean—that is, of the
large body of water which, as now collected together, fills the
existing basin of the seas and great oceans, the configuration of
which, like that of the surrounding continents, has, perhaps, not
very largely changed during what is called geological time. Some
very vague and indefinite notions may, indeed, be found in the writings
of the early and long-since obsolete cosmogonic authors to the effect
that the primordial ocean was probably at some indefinite period,
and to some indefinite extent, warmer than the sea as existing
within the period of human history ; but no attempt to assign its
temperature at any epoch anterior to our own has, to my knowledge,
yet been made. Nevertheless it seems to me that, on grounds of
very high probability deducible from admittedly physical laws, we
can approach this problem with a facility and certainty of result
greater than those which can be obtained in reference to many
physical questions smaller in extent and apparently nearer our
reach.

According to the calculations of Mr. Gardner, the extent of land
is about 37,673,000 square British miles, leaving out of consideration
the Victoria continent, and that of the sea 110,849,000 square miles.
That this cannot be regarded as furnishing the true proportion of
land and water is evident, as there is still, according to Gardner, an
Arctic unexplored area of 7,620,000 square miles, and the Antarctic
unexplored surface is of vastly greater extent.

An accurate knowledge of the mean depth of the ocean is equally
necessary to enable us to calculate the actual amount of water it
contains; but in this respect our information is still more imperfect.
We know the depths revealed by certain lines of soundings, and
probably the greatest depths of some oceanic abysses, but nothing
that can give us even an approximate estimate of the cubic volume
even of the oceanic waters of our globe ; whilst we are in profound
ignorance of the amount of water permanently consolidated into ice
and present as fresh water in lakes and rivers.

Previously published calculations of the total volume of water
existing on our terraqueous globe have been recently submitted to
revision by Dr. Krimmel (‘ Nature,’ Feb. 13, 1879), from whose
data I am enabled to make the following deductions. I must not
omit to notice, however, that there is no greater certainty in
Kriimmel’s final results than in those previously before the world, de-
pendent, as they are, upon the number which he assumes for the mean
depth of the ocean, viz. 1877 fathoms—a number which, however

PRIMORDIAL OCEAN OF OUR GLOBE. 113

carefully deduced by Dr. Kriimmel from a comparison of recent
soundings, is still perfectly arbitrary and admits of no verification.

Taking the surface of our globe at 173,289,984 square miles, and
the total volume of water upon it, as given by Kriimmel, at
238,367,880 cubic miles, this volume of water, if spread uniformly
over the globe, would cover it to a depth of 1:383 mile; and taking,
not 34 feet in depth as equal to the pressure of one atmosphere, but
36 feet (thus allowing for the diminished density of water at high
temperatures), the pressure due to 1°383 mile in depth would, at
sea-level, equal a barometric pressure (whether of water or vapour
it matters not) of 202°74 atmospheres. We therefore see that this
pressure so far transcends the limits of experiment that we cannot
even conjecture, in the present state of physical knowledge, the tem-
perature of steam that would correspond to it, or, what is the same
thing, we know nothing, even approximately, of the boiling-point of
water under such a pressure.

It is matter of common knowledge that, leaving out of view some
minor conditions, such as whether the liquid be free from dissolved
air, the material of the vessel, capillarity, &c., which slightly vary
the result, water boils in an open vessel, the barometer being at 30
inches, at 212° Fahr., or 100° Centigrade ; or, in other words, it
boils at that temperature under a gaseous pressure which, in round
numbers, is equal to that of a column of water of about 34 feet in
height.

It is also matter of common knowledge that this boiling-point of
water, or of any other liquid, is raised more and more if the liquid be
contained in a closed vessel (such as a steam-engine boiler), so that the
vapour already expelled may accumulate and its tension continually
augment. The boiling-point of any liquid is therefore only that
temperature at which vapour is freely expelled from it by ebullition
against the pressure, whether elastic or hydrostatic, of surrounding
bodies. Situated as we are upon the earth, we can only increase
this resistance by boiling water or other liquid in a closed vessel ; but
could we by any means increase the height of the barometric column
which measures the pressure of our atmosphere and of such water-
vapour as floats in it, no closed vessel would be necessary ; in other
words, the entire planet would become the closed vessel, and gravi-
tation alone would perform its function. Thus, for example, could
we remove from the ocean’s surface a plate of water of such a thick-
ness as would represent a plate covering the whole globe to the
depth’ of about 34 feet, then whether the water therein remained
liquid or were in the state of vapour, water in an open vessel would
then boil at a greatly increased temperature, due, namely, not to one
atmosphere, but to two atmospheres ; and this would be true of a
second or third such plate of water removed from the ocean and
vaporized, the temperature necessary to effect this last being
derived from the heated globe itself, and the temperature continually
rising with the increase of the weight of vaporized water already
in the atmosphere. The relations between temperature and pressure
of steam have been experimentally investigated by Regnault, and

Q.J3.G.8. No. 141. I

114 R. MALLET ON THE TEMPERATURE OF THE

the results given in a series of memoirs, of an elegance and:
accuracy not to be surpassed, published in the ‘Memoirs of the.
Academy of Sciences of France.’ The experiments were per-
formed by order and at the expense of the French Government;
and-the results which the memoirs contain remain to the. present.
hour the most accurate information we possess as to the relations
between temperature and pressure of aqueous vapour or steam.

Regnault’s experiments proceeded as far as a steam-pressure of 24.
atmospheres ; ; and, by extrapolation and empirical formule, the re-
sults have been extended up to a pressure of 50 atmospheres or:
beyond. These formule, and the results to which they lead, have.
not the same authority they seemed at first to possess; for almost:
nothing was then known as to the change in relation between tem=:
perature and pressure at some point of temperature differing with:
the constitution or chemical character of the evaporating body, which,

although suggested long ago by the remarkable experiments of
Cagniard de la Tour, attracted but little attention until the publica-
tion of Dr. Andrews’s researches in our own day, by whom this
change in the relation of temperature and pressure has been called
the ‘‘ critical point.”

It has been understood that Dr. Andrews has been engaged in.
endeavouring to ascertain experimentally at what temperature the
“‘ eritical point” for water is reached. The inquiry is, however, one
of great experimental difficulty ; and I am not aware that any result
has yet been arrived at. Some analogies, though not of a very pre-
cise character, suggest the supposition that it may be found at about
the temperature of melted zinc, or about 700° Fahr. HKyven were
this the extreme limit of temperature at which liquid water first
reached our earth’s surface, it would have been exalted enough to
have given rise to many remarkable geological phenomena, such as
are touched upon further on.

The experiments of Regnault need therefore to be extended, and
the extension of his results by calculation to be revised, before we
shall be in a position to. know with sufficient certainty what would
be the temperature of the last portions of water were the ocean
boiled dry and all the water in the state of vapour still floating over
our globe, or, what is the same thing, what would be the tempera-
ture of the water first deposited from such an atmosphere upon the
heated earth. While I have thus been able, I hope, to make clear
the line of physical argument by which, in general terms, these im-
portant deductions have been arrived at, it is plain that precise
numerical values cannot be attached to them until we shall have as-
certained, approximately at least, the actual volume of water existing
upon our globe, and shall also possess experimental information as
to the relation between temperature and pressure of steam extending
beyond Regnault’s limits,

So many circumstances concur in support of the nebular hypo-
thesis, that it seems to deserve rather the title of the nebular theory ;
but, in whichever light it be viewed, there must have been a time
when the surface of our planet was destitute of water, and when all

PRIMORDIAL OCEAN OF OUR GLOBE. - 115

terrestrial water existed as vapour floating as-an atmosphere round
the dry and heated planet ; and unless we assume the altogether im-
probable notion of successive creations of additional water, the whole
of our existing oceans, and all the other water of our globe, must
have then hung in vapour above its surface, constituting the chiefly
aqueous, but partly aerial, atmosphere of the primordial globe. For
want of numerical data, especially those relating to the pressure and
corresponding temperature of steam, and what the actual volume of
terrestrial and oceanic water was, we are unable to assign what the
temperature of our globe then was, though it must have been somewhat
higher than that of the.atmosphere above it, which was exposed to
cooling by radiation into space; and in this state of equilibrium
between heat and gravitation the slightest reduction of temperature
must have been attended with condensation of vapour, and with the
first deposit of liquid water upon our earth. It is not an extravagant
supposition, therefore, that the first drops of liquid water which ever
rolled upon the surface of our globe were at a temperature possibly
equalling that of liquid cast iron. However high must have been
the boiling-point of water, while it was all compelled to remain sus-
pended as vapour by the repulsive power of the heated globe itself,
this last was then, as now, in process of gradually cooling by loss of
heat by radiation into interstellar space. With every such decre-
ment of temperature, watery vapour must have been condensed and
precipitated in a liquid state upon the earth’s surface; but with
every such stage of cooling and condensation less water vapour
floated above our globe, and less barometric pressure resulted.
Hence the boiling-point, or, what is the same thing, the temperature
of liquefaction of the remaining aqueous vapour, and of the liquid
water produced by previous condensation, must have receded until,
in the course of ages, the temperature of ebullition of water reached
what we now find it to be. The boiling ocean-water continued to
cool until its temperature, as known in historic time and now, was
reached ; and to this other and, in some respects, more complex con-
ditions than those to which we have already referred concurred, as
we shall presently see. When we attempt to follow out the pro-
bable conditions that must have attended the gradual refrigeration
by radiation into space of a highly heated globe and a nearly
equally heated ocean, we are launched upon a mental voyage where
the imagination is often left without any sure guide from reason and
known natural laws; still, amid so much obscurity, we can discern
some outlines which may be regarded as true.

Upon the aerial conditions in relation to the heat and lght
derived from the sun through an atmosphere composed almost
wholly of steam, I shall only remark that such an atmosphere would
be much more oblate in form than our present atmosphere, and also
much less penetrable by the solar rays, and would therefore produce
far greater vicissitudes, both of light and heat, between summer and
winter, than now exist. There would always be, as Buffon long
since indicated, a great difference of temperature between the polar
and equatorial regions ; so that during the later stages fe deposi-

I

116 R. MALLET ON THE TEMPERATURE OF THE

tion of water upon our globe ice may have formed in polar seas,
while the equatorial ocean was too hot to permit the existence of
living organisms. At the same time the conditions of temperature
and refrigeration of an ocean so highly heated must have caused
oceanic currents of a volume and velocity, and hence of a transport-
ing power for solids, unparalleled in the present condition of our
earth. The great difference in temperature between the polar and
equatorial regions must have meaulton also in torrential rains such as
are now unknown.

Taking all these points into dander we may regard it as
highly probable that at about the epoch when the ocean-bed was
filled to nearly its existing level, the breaking up of solid rock-
matter then forming the surface of the globe, and its reduction into
a detrital state, must have proceeded at afar greater rate than at
any anterior or subsequent period of the history of our planet;
whilst from the known solvent power of water at high tempera-
tures, and from the tendency that heat and water alone, when left at
rest, possess to recompact and unite detrital matter into rocky
masses, we may likewise assume that this was also a period of
energetic rock-formation. If we consider the enormous masses of
detritus which we now find everywhere recompacted into rock, we
must admit that the conditions of rain, river, and littoral erosion
and transport, as we now witness them, will not account for these
evidences of ancient action, however much we may extend the limit
of time within which they may have acted.

M. Daubrée has observed the formation of various crystallized
minerals in the cavities and fissures of ancient brickwork, by depo-
sition from the warm waters of certain springs in the course of the
last 2000 years. The numerous and important observations recorded,
chiefly by Cotta, upon the disposition and constitution of the mineral
matters now found filling fissures and veins penetrating the earth’s
crust, seem to indicate that these were originally empty, or filled
with molten matter from greater depths below the surface. In either
case they seem at first to have been dry, though now filled with
mineral matters, generally crystallized, often deposited symmetrically
on both sides of the central line of the fissure. The characteristic
mineral contents of many veins also alter completely with depth.
Hence it seems not improbable that these and other phenomena pre-
‘sented by the contents of fissures and veins may be due to their
having become charged with water from the gradually filling ocean-
basin at a temperature far exceeding the present boiling-point
of 212° Fahr., and containing abundance of mineral matters in
solution.

To recapitulate in brief the chief points of the preceding paper.
At some remote epoch our globe, highly heated, was devoid of liquid
water, all the water belonging to it being suspended as vapour above
its surface; and in this state of things the boiling-point of water
must have been that due to the barometric pressure of the great
volume of water-vapour which formed the immensely greater por-
tion of our earth’s atmosphere. Secular cooling, however, continued

PRIMORDIAL OCEAN OF OUR GLOBE. ata LET

to take place; and as the temperature of the solid globe and its at-
mosphere, chiefly of aqueous vapour, was reduced, successive portions
of this vapour were condensed into water and deposited in the liquid
form, and at a temperature which, in the then state of things, was
its boiling-point. The boiling-point of water upon our globe was
therefore a maximum when all water was held as vapour in suspen-
sion; and as secular cooling proceeded the boiling-point became
lower and lower, as the water was divided between the vapour atmo-
sphere still in suspension and the liquid water already condensed and
deposited from it; and this continued, the boiling-point constantly
receding, and the temperature of the liquid water at its point of
deposition continually lowering, until the existing state of things
was reached.

So much seems to be to such an extent supported by known phy-
sical data that it may be considered certain. To its full esta-
blishment in a numerical form we need a more accurate determina-
tion of the total volume of water appertaining to our globe, and a
sufficient extension of the experimental determination of the rela-
tions between temperature and pressure of steam. The few deduc-
tions which I have made, rather by way of illustration than as at all
systematic, far less as exhaustive of the almost boundless field of
inquiry which seems to be opened up by the main propositions of this
paper, must be judged of for what they are worth by those who have
made themselves acquainted with what I have here ventured to set
before them.

DIscussIon.

The PrestpEnt said he had read the paper with much interest,
but thought that Mr. Mallet had overestimated the possible tem-
perature of the first deposited water, though, indeed, we were still
ignorant of the critical point for water; still he doubted whether
water could exist at a temperature higher than a dull red heat.
He thought that the geological action also was overestimated ;
nevertheless the subject had an important bearing on the structure
of some of the most ancient rocks.

Mr. Evans said there was one point which separated this question
from the ordinary experiments made on water; in them water was
held in a closed vessel; here the heat of the vapour could radiate
into free space at a low temperature. Then convection might have
caused considerable equalization of temperature before any con-
densation.

Prof. PrestwicH said that the cause introduced by Mr. Mallet
would tend rapidly to lower the temperature: if the equator and
poles were at different temperatures there would be such rapid air-
currents as to equalize the general temperature; also if the tem-
perature were so high in earlier times there would be more meta-
morphism.

Dr. Hicxs said that all we know of the earliest rocks was that
they were crystalline, but that the rocks following them had their

118 ON THE TEMPERATURE OF THE PRIMORDIAL OCEAN.

shells unchanged; so that the cause mentioned by Mr. Mallet could
hardly have acted since the very earliest days.

Prof. Bonnry asked whether, if the heat were still considerable in
Miocene time, as stated by the author, there would not be too great
heat for life in (for example) Old Red Sandstone time.

Capt. Gatton thought that at the period when the very high tempe-
rature, viz. that of molten iron, prevailed, water or watery vapour
could not have existed, and that when the cooling process had con-
tinued so as to admit of the formation of aqueous vapour and
water, the high temperature would still not have admitted of the
existence of life; consequently the time at which these elevated
temperatures prevailed must have been before the time when geo-
logical history began.

Mr. Maier said he did not suppose any part of the original
crust of the globe remained at present visible at the surface. Such
geological deductions as were made in his paper were only illus-
trative, and might be open to question. ‘The epoch at which the
phenomena occurred to which his paper referred was long anterior
to the existence of either animal or vegetable life upon our globe.
Hence the paleontological observations that had been made did not
seem to him to apply. What he does affirm as certain is that the
method he has indicated, requiring for its data a more extended
experimental knowledge of the relations between temperature and
pressure 1n aqueous vapour, and a more exact knowledge of the
total volume of water now upon our terraqueous globe, affords the
means of determining the temperature of our oceanic water at every
period, from that of the primordial ocean to our own day.

FOSSIL CARNIVORA FROM THE SIVALIK HILLS. 119

11. Undescribed Fosstz Carnivora from the StvAtrx Hixxs in the
Collection of the British Museum. By P. N. Boss, Esq., B.Sc.
(Lond.), F.G.S, (Read December 17, 1879.)

[Puate VI.]
INTRODUCTION.

Tue able descriptions by Falconer, supplemented of late by Riiti-
meyer and Lydekker, have made the Sivalik Ungulates widely known
in the scientific world; but the remains of the Carnivora, partly
on account of their comparative rarity and, perhaps, partly because
they mostly belong to forms which do not strike the imagination so
forcibly, have-had less attention bestowed on them. As long ago as
1836, Falconer and Cautley described two of the larger forms under
the names of Felis cristata and Ursus sivalensis*, The latter was
afterwards raised to the rank of a genus, called by Falconer, Hy«-
narctos, evidently in opposition to De Blainville, who, under the
designation of Sivalarctos, placed it at the head of his new suborder
Suburside. Subsequently Dr. Falconer described another novel and
highly interesting Carnivore under the title of Huhydriodon sivalensis.
All these descriptions will be found in the first volume of the Pale-
ontological Memoirsy. Owing to the untimely death of Dr. Falconer,
science was deprived of the rare advantage of a description of the
remaining Carnivora from the pen of that gifted comparative ana-
tomist. Most of them, however, had been figured by Mr. Ford for
the ‘ Fauna Antiqua Sivalensis’f, but were never published. At
the suggestion of Prof. Judd and Mr. Etheridge, I undertook an
examination of these; and through the courtesy and liberality of
Dr. Woodward, of the Geological Department, every facility was
afforded to me for my investigation. I have also to acknowledge
my obligations to Mr. Davies, of the Geological Department, whose
thorough acquaintance with the fossils was of great service to me;
and also to the authorities of the Zoological Department for the loan
of specimens from the Osteological collection, which, as yet unknown
to the public, contains hidden treasures of inestimable value. I am
also indebted to Prof. H. G. Seeley for several valuable suggestions.

Besides the three species accurately described by Falconer, Messrs.
Baker and Durand ably noticed the remains of several Carnivora in
the pages of the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal§$ ; and lately

* Asiatic Researches, vol. xix. ;

t Op. cit. pp. 315, 321, 331. The figures 1-4, pl. xxv., accompanying the
description of F. cristata in Pal. Mem., are wrongly referred to that species ;
<and the index to the unpublished pl. K (Pal. Mem. vol. i. p. 548) is, by an error,
headed Felis cristata.

t These figures are contained-in the unpublished plates K, L, M, N, O, P, Q,
now preseryed in the Geological Department of the British Museum,

§ Op. cit. vol. v. p. 579. pina ‘i

120 P. N. BOSE ON FOSSIL CARNIVORA

Mr. Lydekker has discovered four new and interesting species of
Carnivora*.

The following is a complete list of fossil Carnivora from the
Sivalik Hills known at present :—

-l. Amphicyon paleindicus, Lydekker.
2. Hycenarctos swalensis, Fale. et Cautl.
3. paleindicus, Lydekker.
4.¢Lutra paleindica, Falc. et Cautl. et nob.
5.{Mellivora (Ursitaxus) sivalensis, Fale. et Cautl.
6. Enhydriodon sivalensis, Fale. et Cautl.
7. Ictitherium sivalense, Lydekker.
8.7 Viverra Bakerit, nob.
9.$Canis curvipalatus, nob.
10.¢—— sp.?
11.7 Hyena sivalensis, Fale. et Cautl, et nob.
Aa Selina, nob.
13. Felis er ee Fale. et Caut.
14.+ ae
15. + Macher aS sivalensis, Falc. et Cautl. et nob.
Lost patleindicus, nob.
17. Pseudeelurus sivalensis, Lydekker.

Until lately the Sivalik fossils used to be quoted by paleontologists
as Miocene ; but the Geological Survey of India refer the ossiferous
Sivalik strata to the Pliocene epoch; and Messrs. Medlicott and
‘Blanford have, in their valuable ‘Manual of the Geology of India,’
entered into a very elaborate discussion regarding their age. From
the stratigraphical evidence, according to them, ‘“ there can be no
reasonable doubt that the Manchhar beds of Sind, as a whole, corre-
spond with the Sivalik formation of Northern India ;” and the Lower
Manchhar beds are shown by them to be most probably Upper Mio-
cene||.. But the evidence for correlating these beds with the Lower
Sivaliks (the Nahans), which are perfectly unfossiliferous, and the
‘* almost unfossiliferous Upper Manchhar beds to the ossiferous strata
of the Sivaliks,” is, to say the least, not incontrovertible. Correlation
of strata in the absence of fossils would be necessarily uncertain,
especially seeing that, as we are informed by Messrs. Blanford and
Medlicott, it is ‘extremely difficult to trace particular zones amongst
the confused and contorted mass of the newer Tertiary deposits in
the sub-Himalayan ranges and the Punjab.” There is no reason why
‘a part of the Lower Manchhars should not correspond to a part of
the Sivaliks above the Nahan group. Our knowledge of the Lower
Manchhar fauna is derived from remains which, according to

* Records of the Geological Survey of India, vol. x. pt. 1, p. 32, pt. 2, p. 83;
vol. xi. pt. 1, p. 108.

+ Described here.

t Described by Messrs. Baker and Durand under the generic name of “ Gulo”
(J. A. S. of Bengal, vol. v.).

§ Description of Messrs. Baker and Durand supplemented here.

|| Manual of the Geology of India, p. 581.

FROM THE SIVALIK HILLS, ~ 121

Messrs. Blanford and Medlicott, “are extremely fragmentary, and
chiefly consist of single teeth and broken portions of bones”*. Fif-
teen species of Mammalia have been determined from such remains ;
and of these ten are also met with in the ossiferous Sivaliks. One
would therefore feel some hesitation in referring the latter to an
age subsequent to that of the Lower Manchhars.

The paleontological evidence adduced by the learned geologists
is, according to their own admission, far more unsatisfactory. In
fact, in order to explain the Miocene facies of the Sivalik fauna, they
have had to adopt the theory that some of the European Miocene
forms survived in the Sivalik area during Pliocene times. The
theory is simple in itself ; and no objection can be raised against it.
But obviously we should have recourse to such a theory only if the
ossiferous Sivaliks were proved by clear stratigraphical evidence to
belong to the Pliocene epoch, or if the Sivalik fauna could be shown
to have decidedly stronger affinities with the Pliocene than with
the Miocene faunas of other localities. It is greatly to be regretted
that the exact horizons from which the fossils have been collected
are not known; and there can be no doubt that a few of these
(though their number must be very limited) are more recent than
the rest. But it is certain that by far the great majority of the
animals composing the Sivalik fauna lived at an epoch intermediate
between the Middle Miocene and the Middle Pliocene; and the
question is whether the fauna should be quoted as Upper Miocene
or Lower Pliocene. I shall here only attempt to answer this
question on the paleontological evidence afforded by the Carnivora,
the subjects of this description; but I may say that if the Sivalik
fauna were discussed as a whole, the answer would not be different.

There are 12 genera of Carnivora known from the Sivaliks. Of
these, six (7. e. half), viz. Mucherodus, Pseudelurus, Ictitheriwm,
Amphicyon, Hyenarctos, and Enhydriodon, are extinct. Of the 11
genera of Carnivorat known from the Miocene of Sansan and Simorre,
6 (2. e. a little more than half) are extinct, viz. Macherodus, Pseu-
delurus, Amphicyon, Hyenarctos (Hemicyon), [ctitherium (Thallas-
sictis), and Pseudocyon. The first five of these genera are common
to the Sivaliks; Macherodus ranges from Miocene to Pleistocene ;
but Pseudelurus, Amphicyon, and Hyenarctos are characteristically
Miocene genera, though the first and the third have been met with
in deposits of Pliocene age, the former in America, and the latter in
Europe. Amphicyon, however, is not yet known to have survived
the Miocene epoch. Enhydriodon has been hitherto confined to the
Sivaliks. Now if we examine the Lower Pliocene fauna of Mont-
pelliert, or the Upper Pliocene fauna of Mount Perrier §, we find
only one extinct Carnivore, and that the ubiquitous Macherodus.
The fauna begins to assume an altogether recent aspect. The
fossils found at Pikermi present, as a whole, a close parallel to those
from the Sivalik Hills—so much so that Messrs. Medlicott and

* Op. cit. p. 471

p ‘
t+ Pictet, ‘Traité de Paléontologie,’ tom. iv. p. 677.
+ Pictet, op. cit. p. 681. § Pictet, op. ctt. p. 683.

122 P,.N, BOSE ON FOSSIL CARNIVORA

Blanford have made the age of the latter to hinge on that of the
former. After quoting M. Gaudry’s authority to prove that the
Pikermi fauna is Pliocene and not Miocene, they conclude by saying
that ‘‘there can be, therefore, no reasonable doubt that the Pikermi
fossils, like the Sivalik, are of Pliocene age, and that the quotation
of them as Miocene is an error”*. But if it isan error to quote the
Pikermi fauna as Miocene, M. Gaudry himself, on whose authority
this conclusion is based, is guilty of it; for in his latest workT he
constantly cites the Pikermi fossils as Upper Miocene. Consider-
ing, therefore, the strong affinities of the Sivalik fauna, as a whole,
to the known Miocene fauna, and having regard to its close rela-
tionship with the Pikermi fauna, it would, I venture to suggest, be
advisable, for historical purposes, to place it on the same horizon as
the latter, and regard them as Upper Miocene. In the Sivalik
fauna, however, there is most probably an admixture of some
Pliocene forms.

It will be seen from the list given above that there are 17 species
of Carnivora known to occur as fossil in the ossiferous Sivaliks*; but
there are indications of some more. In the collection of the British
Museum there are several mutilated skulls belonging, most probably,
to small forms of Carnivora, but the affinities of which, in the absence
of dentition, I have been unable to determine exactly. We may
therefore safely add 3 more species, making the total number 20.
In the Sivalik area, at the present day, there are altogether 17 or
18 species of Carnivorat, showing a decrease of 3. The Carnivore
fauna of India consists of about 40 species §, that is to say, double
the number known from the Sivaliks. This is owing to the increase
in the smaller forms, the number of the larger forms having decreased.
The numerical strength of the existing Carnivore fauna of India
presents a striking contrast to the extreme poverty of the Ungulate
fauna (including the Proboscidians), which does not consist of more
than 27 species||. No less than 60 species of Ungulates (including
Proboscidians) are known from the Sivalik beds—that is to say, more
than double the number now inhabiting the whole of India. The
proportion of the fossil to the living Ungulates in the Sivalik area
itself, as pointed out by Messrs. Medlicott and Blanford, is as 5 to 2.
We therefore come to the conclusion that if the Carnivore fauna
has been impoverished, the impoverishment has been considerably
less than that of the Ungulate fauna.

MACHZRODUS SIVALENSIS, Fale. et Cautl. et nob. (Pl. VI. fig. 5.)

Two imperfect crania, six fragments of lower jaws, and two of
upper jaws, in the collection of the British Museum, are all labelled
Drepanodon (Machcrodus) sivalensis. Of the six specimens of lower

* Op. cit. p. 584. .
+ ‘Les enchainements du Monde Animal,’ Paris, 1878, pp. 48, 264, 265, 271,
273, &e.
{ Medlicott and Blanford, op. cit. p. 589,
§ Jerdon’s ‘Mammals of India,’ pp. 68-154.

| Jerdon, op. cit. p. 228.

FROM THE SIVALIK HILLS. . 123

jaw, two* evidently belong to Felis, probably to the Felis cristata of
Falconer; two others have been added to the collection since Dr.
Falconer’s death, and are not mentioned in the ‘ Paleontological
Memoirs.’ These are of much larger dimensions than, and other-
wise differ from, the two remaining fragments of lower jaw. Of the
erania, the size agrees with that of the former, which I have sepa-
rated as belonging to a distinct species.

Of the four specimens for which I have retained the specific name
of * swalensis”’t, two have been briefly described by Prof. Owen t.
One is a fragment of upper jaw with evidently the deciduous den-
tition, and the other is a portion of the lower jaw. ‘The first is thus
noticed by the learned paleontologist :—

‘¢ The molar series in the Sivalik Macherodus includes, in an ex-
tent of 14 inch, three teeth ; the first, which is simple, single-fanged,
and very small, is indicated by the socket; the second, measuring
8 lines in the antero-posterior diameter, is the carnassial or sectorial
tooth ; its crown is more compressed, its trenchant margins sharper,
and the inner tubercle less developed than in the normal species of
Felis. The socket of the third or tubercular molar is behind, or ina
line with the sectorial tooth, asin the milk-teeth of the Lion. What
remains of the canine indicates its great length; the breadth of its
base is 5 lines; it is much compressed; the inner surface is flat, and
both edges are finely but distinctly serrated.”

On a careful examination of the specimen§ in question, I am
obliged to differ from so high an authority as Prof. Owen in some
points contained in the description just quoted. The canine and
sectorial are in situ; and there is the alveolus for the back molar,
which, as in the deciduous dentition of Felis, is very large. But I
find no indication whatever of the presence of a molar between the
sectorial and canine ||; and I submit that, reasoning @ priori, we
should not expect to find that molar. The dentition in the speci-
men is obviously the deciduous dentition, as stated by Prof. Owen
himself]. In the adult Macherodus, with the single exception of

* no. 16537 and no. 16573 ; Pal. Mem. vol.i.p. 551; Fauna Antiq. Siv.

decaledick alate N, figs. 6,6a,7, 7a. I find that Mr. Davies, too, referred

to the genus Felis.

tnt Pomel oe the Sivalik Macherodus as Meganthereon Falconeri

(Cat. des Vert. Foss. &c. p. 56). M. Gaudry, following Pomel, mentions it as
Macherodus Falconeri (An. foss. de l Attique, p. 118).

‘History of Brit. Foss. Mamm.’ pp. 178, 179.

The specimen has been figured in one of the unpublished plates (pl. N) of
the ‘ Fauna Antiqua Sivalensis.’ But the artist, Mr. Ford, who was generally
very careful, has by an error represented a. tooth in front of the sectorial
(fig. 3a). The specimen has been refigured in Pal. Mem. (pl. xxv.). It is
numbered in the B.M. 16350. s:

| Dr. Falconer, in a note on Felis spelea (Pal. Mem. vol. ii. p. 456), ex-
presses the same opinion. He says :—“ In the Sewalik specimen [of Mache-
rodus| there is an interval between the carnassier and canine of 0'3 inch, part of
which has been artificially rubbed down ; but there is not the least indication of
a fang-pit or fang [Owen says there is, and that it is single-fanged and simple!].
(The italics are mine.) .
q Op. cit. p. 178.

124 P. N. BOSE ON FOSSIL CARNIVORA

Leidy’s somewhat aberrant species (MM. primevus) *, there are alto-
gether three molars, the anterior false molar of Felis (pm. 2) being
absent. Now this tooth replaces the first milk-molar, that is to say,
the molar between the deciduous sectorial and the canine +. Hence,
as the anterior premolar of Felis is absent in the adult dentition of
Macherodus, we should expect the corresponding molar of the milk-
dentition also to be absent in the latter. The anterior false molar
of the adult Macherodus is the homologue of the second of the molar
series in Felis, and, as in this genus, replaces the deciduous sec-
torial, the permanent sectorial taking the place of the large back
molar of the milk-dentition. Thus the deciduous dentition of the
upper jaw on each side in Machewrodus would be

d.i. 3, d.c. 1, dm. 2=6,

instead of
G;%, 0, .,C.1, d.ms-5 (vers) — 7.

There are two other points in Prof. Owen’s description which call
for a word or two by way of comment. He says that the “inner
tubercle of the sectorial is less developed than in the normal species
of Felis.” But it is not developed at all. Both edges of the canine
are asserted by the eminent naturalist to be “finely, but distinctly
serrated.” The serration of the posterior edge is distinct, but
the anterior edge is damaged; and we cannot determine whether
it was serrated or not.

The other fragment of upper jaw (B.M. no. 39730) evidently
belongs to an adult individual, and exhibits three molars 7m situ.
The canine has been removed, and the hinder part only of its alve-
olus is visible. It is separated by a short diastema (0°35 inch)
from the anterior premolar, which is the homologue of the second
of the molar series in Felis. It is two-fanged, the fangs being
divergent. The crown has been damaged; but the base shows
the tooth to have been smaller than the corresponding tooth of M.
neogeus, as well as of M. meganthereon. ‘The sectorial is interme-
diate in size between these two species; in antero-posterior length
it is a little less than double the deciduous sectorial, and is much
more*stout and less trenchant than the latter. There is no internal
tubercle, but a slight thickening of the cingulum is visible in its
place ; and a prominent flattened ridge (absent in the milk-sectorial)
ascends from the thickened portion to the summit of the second of
the three lobes into which the blade is as usual divided. In the an-
terior of these lobes a notch maps off a small lobe in front and a
considerably larger one behind. ‘The middle lobe has an elevated,
triangular, pointed crown; the posterior lobe has a low, horizontal,
sinuous edge.

Of the two fragments of lower jaw one has been briefly described
by the learned comparative anatomist I have quoted abovet. It

* «Anc, Fauna of Nebraska,’ p. 96. t Owen’s ‘ Odontography,’ p. 489.
{ Owen, ‘Brit. Foss. Mamm.’ p. 179, figs. 4, 4a; unpublished plate N,
Fauna Antiq. Siv.; fig. 6, pl. xxv. Pal. Mem, vol. i.

FROM THE SIVALIK HILLS. - 125

shows well the downward and forward extension of the mandibular
symphysis, which is more elevated than in M. meganthereon. The
canine is absent; but, from its inferred position, the diastema be-
tween it and the first false molar may be concluded to have been
shorter than either in MW. neogeus or M. meganthereon; and the
height of the ramus in front of the molar series is proportionately
greater than in these two species. These peculiarities are better
exhibited by the specimens to be described under the next species.
The crown of the first premolar is broken off, but it is entire in the
other fragment of lower jaw*. The anterior accessory cusp, which
is well developed in M. meganthereon, as well as in M. neogeus, is
entirely absent ; and the posterior is not so well marked as in these
two. The antero-posterior extent of the crown is less than in M,
meganthereont?. The next premolar (pm. 4) slightly overlaps the
carnassial, and is composed of a low anterior cusp, a deltoid middle
lobe, and a bilobed posterior cusp, the summits of all these pointing
backwards, as in the Brazilian and French species. The antero-
posterior length of the carnassial, like that of the preceding molar,
is intermediate between that of the corresponding tooth in these two
species.

Macuaropus PALIINDICUS, nob. (Pl. VI. figs. 1-4.)

The specimens just described indicate a species of Macherodus as
large as the Jaguart; but the two specimens of lower jaw§$ which
have been added to the collection since Dr. Falconer’s death, as well
as the two crania mentioned above, must have belonged to much
larger individuals, nearly equalling in size the Royal Tiger of
Bengal.

One of the fragments of lower jaw exhibits the symphysial ex-
tension downwards very well. In the other known species of
Macherodus the extension takes place below the canine; but in
M. paleindicus the downward prolongation of the outer border of
the ramus takes place further back, below the second false molar
(pm. 4). The fossa for the reception of the upper canine is much
better defined than in any other species. In the Brazilian, as well
as the French form, the border of each ramus curves upwards in
front of the anterior premolar, and then downwards to meet the
symphysial extension. But in both the Sivalik forms there is no
such curvature ; consequently the height of the diastema (especially
in M. paleindicus) between the canine and the first false molar is
considerably greater. This, coupled with the relative shortness of
the diastema, gives a very formidable look to the lower jaw of
M. paleindicus. As noticed by De Blainville in M. meganthereon||,
the mental foramen is situated further down than in the Lion or
the Tiger. I have observed, in addition, that there is, as a rule,

* B.M. no. 16554; figs. 8, 8a, unpublished plate N (¥. A. Siv.).

t The first premolar (pm. 3) is of very variable size in M. neogeus; and in
one of the specimens in the British-Museum collection it is entirely absent.

{ Owen, op. cit. p. 178. § B. M. nos, 48436 and 48437,

|| ‘ Ostéographie,’ genus Felis, p. 130.

123 P. N, BOSE ON FOSSIL CARNIVORA

only one mental foramen; and this, or, if there are two (as in a
specimen of the lower jaw of JZ. neogeus in the British Museum
collection), the posterior of these is situated in front of a vertical
line drawn from the front base of the anterior premolar; whereas
in the Lion or the Tiger, in which there is always more than one
mental foramen, the hindermost is situated behind that line. The
canine and the first false molar are indicated by their alveoli; in
antero-posterior length the latter is larger than the corresponding
tooth of M. meganthereon. The next molar (pm. 4) and the car-
nassial are im situ, but they are both damaged; they are about
the same size as the corresponding teeth in the Brazilian Ma-
cherodus. ;

. The remaining specimens consist of the posterior portion of a
skull* and a nearly entire, but mutilated, cranium, which has
been a good deal crushed.

They present the following peculiarities :—

. 1. The facial portion is considerably less in length than the
cranial, This is a peculiarity common to the other species of Ma-
cherodus, and also to the Felis cristata of Falconer, which, as noticed
by that learned comparative anatomist, is the only large feline
apical that presents this Hyzenoid characteristic.

. The sagittal crest, which is very prominent, slopes gradually
in sie up to its point of bifurcation. This characteristic is also
shared by the other two species of Macherodus, and, it is interesting”
to observe, by Felis cristata and I. grandicristata (?) alone of all the
larger forms of Felis.

3. The zygomatic process of the squamosal is prolonged vertically
downwards so as to form a strong and stout pedicel, sepanee by a
narrow valley from the mastoid.

4, The mastoid portion of the periotic is of much Bee extent,
and is prolonged further downwards than in either the Lion or the
Tiger.

_§. The occipital crest 1s very high.

The following measurements of M. meganthereon, and also of the
bones of the skull and the upper-jaw teeth of M. neogeus, have
been taken from the beautiful figures in De Blainyille’s Atlast; the
measurements of the lower jaw of the last species have been taken
from two specimens in the collection of the British Museum :—

* B. M. no. 39728; figs. 1, la, 12, le, unpublished pl. N (F. A. Siv.).
t B. M. no. 39729; figs. 2, 2a, ke., unpublished pl. N (F. A, Siv.).
t Ostéographie, Atlas, genus Felis, pls. xvil. and xx.

FROM THE SIYALIK HILLS. 127

gly M. pale- | M. megan-| M. neo-
(adult.) indicus. | thereon. | geus.

ee See

in. in, in. in.
UPpreEr JAw.
Antero-posterior length of pre-
molar 3 (first of the molar
EME Painccn cou aasnsSh vip tvgs 195 0-45 Pe 05
Antero-posterior length of the
BONLORIAE) 051. 5455. .c68. 0350804... 13 dit 11 1:67
Antero-posterior length of the
TRICE CONE 5.05 240059 uaagased a0 0-15

75 0-7

hed eRe eee eee Ep 0:275

Lower JAw.

Antero-posterior length of pre-
molar 3 (first of the molar
BOPIGRD 60. 0isiotacsiesieaysaiedean +s 0°35 0:5 0-4
Ditto, ditto of pm. 4 ............ 0-75 0-9 0°65 0-925
_| Ditto, ditto of carnassial.........| 0-95 Ai 0-75 1125

Length from the postorbital
apophyses to the border of the
TAPIA WOE aids scans ss ssencesnns- site 4-425 (?) 4-25 4:75

Length from the postorbital | ©
apophyses to the occipital crest re 6 4:75 6:25

Maximum height of the diastema
(outer border) between the
canine and pm. 3 ...... pias o's 1°75 2°3 1-175

Length of the diastema............ ee Lip i

Extreme height from the base of
foramen magnum to occipital
GROKEN, sede cd2b sei ands acvescdciee ida 41

[ With regard to the relations of the Sivalik species to MW. cultridens,
M. latidens, and M. palmidens, nothing can be said at present, as,
with the exception of an imperfect specimen of the milk-canine,
neither this tooth nor the incisors of the Sivalik species have yet
been discovered. MU. palmidens, however, could be distinguished
by the size and form of the two lower premolars. |

FELIs, sp.?

The specimen consists of a cranium* deficient in the facial por=
tion in front of the orbits. The zygomatic arches, brain-case, and
its base are beautifully preserved. The specimen is not mentioned
in the ‘ Paleontological Memoirs,’ but it is entered as Felis cris-
tata(?) in the catalogue of the British Museum, and, as I am in-
formed by Mr. Davies, comes from the Sivalik Hills. The skull
belonged to an animal considerably larger than Felis cristata, and
of about the same size as the larger varieties of the Royal Tiger.
The sagittal crest (slightly damaged posteriorly) is much thicker

* B. M. no. 49175.

128 P. N. BOSE ON FOSSIL CARNIVORA

and more prominent than in Felis cristata, and stands vertically on
the roof of the cranium. Its height anteriorly is six times greater
than the corresponding height in the Tiger. The ridges which
originate from behind the postorbital processes of the frontal are
stronger and run obliquely to a greater distance than in any other
large forms of Felis; and these, instead of perfectly blending to
form the sagittal crest, run parallel nearly as far as the occi-
put, forming a narrow and shallow groove along the median line of
that crest. The triangular valley included between the frontal
ridges in front of the parietal crest, as well as the frontal fossa
between the postorbital apophyses, slopes anteriorly, as in Felis
cristata, and not posteriorly, as in other large Felide. The depth
of the mesopterygoid fossa, as well as the length of the basicranial
axis, 1s very nearly the same as in the larger individuals of Tiger ;

but the breadth of the cranium at the zygomatic arches is propor-
tionately much smaller than in the latter.

inches,
Length of basicranial axis to the anterior ex-
tremity of the mesopterygoid fossa .... 5°075
Depth of the mesopterygoid fossa ........ 1:025
xtreme breadth at zygomatic arches...... 8°125
Greatest breadth between outer surfaces of
the occipitalecondyles «.... .222. 34s (2775

Further evidence is necessary before the species can be clearly
separated from J’. cristata. If it should prove a distinct species, as
T am inclined to think it will, I propose to call it F. grandseristata.

HyZna stvatensis, Falc. et Caut.? et nob.*

The specimens consist of a tolerably perfect cranium and portions
of palate and of upper and lower jawst. These indicate an animal
of about the same size as the living Indian Hyena (4. striata). One
of the specimens shows the incisors and the canine wm situ, the
former being much better developed than the corresponding teeth in
the living Indian Hyzena. The crown of the second premolar, which
is proportionately larger than in any of the living species, is formed
by a stout cone; the anterior accessory cusp, so well marked in the
living Indian Hyena, is entirely absent ; but the posterior accessory

* Dr. Murchison heads the indices to the plates L & M as Hyena sivalensis
(Fale. & Cautl.) (Pal. Mem. vol. i. p. 548); but in the same page he says :—
“Unfortunately ..... no account of it is to be found among Dr. Falconer’s
notes. This species is, no doubt, that designated Hyena sivalensis by Messrs.
Baker and Durand in the brief description given by them in the Journal of the
Asiatic Society for October 1835, vol. iv. p. 569.” IRf it were so, the specific
designation would be due to Baker and Durand, and not to Falconer and
Cautley. But I have not met with it anywhere except in the Paleontological
Memoirs, and on the unpublished plates L and M of the F. A. Siv., where the
name occurs in pencil writing, which Mr. Davies identified as Dr. Murchison’s.

t B. M. nos. 37133, 37137, 37138, 37139, 16583, 16578, 39731, 37141.
Figs. 2, 2a, fe 2c, unpub. pl. K; figs. 2, 2a, 20, 6, 6a, 7, 7a, 8, 8a, unpub.

pints; figs. 5 5, Ba, q, 8, 8a, unpub. pl. M. The cranium has been refigured i in
Pal. Mem, vol. i. figs, 1, 2, 3, 4, pl. 25, under the title of Felis cristata,

FROM THE SIVALIK HILLS. 129

cusp is present. The cingulum is very pronounced, except pos-
teriorly, and swells antero-internally into a talon-like prominence,
from which a well-defined ridge ascends up the crown. The third
premolar differs from the preceding in its greater size and in haying
the posterior accessory cusp proportionately less developed. The
fourth premolar or sectorial consists, as usual, of a blade divided into
three lobes and of a stout trihedral internal tubercle, separated from
the outer lobes by a deep valley; the elongation of the posterior
lobe of the blade approximates the fossil to H. crocuta. But the
tubercular is still more highly developed proportionately than in the
living Indian Hyzna, thus differing remarkably from the Cape
Hyena. This tooth is triangular and three-fanged. In the lower
jaw, the first and second false molars (pm. 2 and pm. 3) are entirely
devoid of the anterior accessory cusps so well developed in H. striata.
The third premolar (pm. 4) consists of a principal cone, a rudimen-
tary anterior accessory cusp, and a tolerably well-developed posterior
one. Two prominent longitudinal ridges, one anterior and the
other posterior, ascend up the principal cone and divide it into two
faces, of which the outer is much more convex than the inner.
The dimensions of the tubercular part of the first molar or carnas-
sial are intermediate between those of the corresponding part in the
striped and the Cape Hyznas. The accessory cusp at the inner and
posterior part of the base of that tooth is either entirely absent or,
if present, quite rudimentary, thus differing remarkably from the
living Hyena of India, and approximating to Hyena crocuta.

The large tubercular molar of the upper jaw in the fossil under
examination differentiates it from H. spelwa and the allied species,
or, rather, varieties, H. intermedia and H. Perriert*. It is distin-
guished from H. prisca and H. arvernensis by the absence of the
anterior accessory cusps in the premolarst. The antero-posterior
length of the upper tubercular in H. hipparconumt is proportion~
ately much greater. H. eximia§ is separated, by the presence of
premolar 1 in the lower jaw, from all other known species of
Hyena.

In its general outline the skull resembles that of H. striata. As
in the latter, the brain-case is swollen behind and not laterally com-
pressed as in H. crocuta or its allied fossil H. spelea. The sagittal
crest is very well marked. The lambdoidal crest is not so much re-
flected back at its apex as in H. spelea. The postglenoidal pro-
cesses are very stout and strong. The postorbital processes of the
frontal are very well developed, and are proportionately longer than
in any other known species.

It will be seen from what has been said that while in certain
characters, as in the form of the skull, the dimensions of the upper
tubercular, &c., H. sivalensis comes near to the most primitive of the
three living species of Hyzna, in certain other characters, and

* W. Boyd Dawkins, ‘ Nat. Hist. Rev.’ 1865.

T Blainville, ‘Atl. d’Ost.’ gen. Hyena, pl. viii.

t Gervais, ‘ Zool. et Pal. Fr.’ p. 242, pl. xii.

§ Gaudry, ‘ Anim. foss. et Géol, de l’Attique,’ p. 82, pls. xil., xili., xiv.

wa. No. 141, K

130 P, N. BOSH ON FOSSIL CARNIVORA

notably in the absence or extremely rudimentary character of the
postero-internal basal denticule in the lower carnassial, as well as
in the entire absence of the anterior accessory cusps in the upper
and the first two lower premolars, it approximates to the most dif-
ferentiated form, now represented by the Cape Hyzna. No other
species of Hyena is known in which there is such a remarkable com-
bination of characters shared by such divergent forms.
inches.
Length from occipital condyle to the front of the base
GE the Canine 2403422 0a). CE Sa ee 7°555

Height of occipital crest from base of foramen magnum 2°175

Upper jaw— 7

_ Antero-posterior length of alveolus of premolar 1 .. 0-175

Minimum ant.-post. length of premolar 2 ........ 0°65
Maximum ant.-post. length of premolar 2 ........ 0-775
Minimum ant.-post. length of premolar 3 ........ 0-675
Maximum ant.-post. length of premolar 3 ........ 0:875
Minimum ant.-post. length of sectorial .......... 1175
Maximum ant.-post. length of sectorial .......... 1-4
Transverse length of tubercular ................ 0°55
Height of the crown of incisor 1 ................ 0-25
Height of the crown of incisor 2 ................ 0-3
Height of the crown of canine ..........5°. aL ae 0-875
- Lower jaw—

Antero-posterior length of premolar 2............ 0-575
-Antero-posterior length of premolar 3............ 0°75
Antero-posterior length of premolar 4......... oe
Minimum ant.-post. length of carnassial .......... 1:05
Maximum ant.-post. length of carnassial .......... lie

Hymna FeLInA, nob. (PI. VI. fig. 6.)

The history of the specimen * on which this species, is, founded is
thus given in the ‘ Paleontological Memoirs’ + in the index to the
unpublished plate K (headed Felis cristata by an error), in explanation
of the figures 1, la, 1b, le:—“‘ Four different views of an imperfect
cranium from Mr. W. Ewer’s collection. The left maxillary bone
with the teeth is absent ; but the portion was found after the draw-
ing was made, and has been added to the specimen in the British
Museum.” .

Dr. Falconer entered the left maxillary bone alluded to here as
belonging to Hyena in the British-Museum Catalogue. The skull
as it now stands is-deficient only in the zygomatic arches, and evi-
dently belongs to an aged individual. The facial portion has
suffered a crush anteriorly, and is slightly distorted, in consequence.
The incisors have been removed. The crown of the canine has been
broken off, but its base shows it to have been proportionately
stronger than the corresponding tooth of Hyxna; this, however, may
be an individual variation. There is no indvcation whatever of the

* B. M. no. 15902. T Op. cit. vol. i. p. 548.

FROM THE SIVALIK HILLS. 131

presence of premolar 1, which is so constant in all known species of
Hyena, living or fossil; and the canine is separated by a short
diastema from premolar 2 (first of the. molar series in the fossil).
This tooth is two-fanged, and resembles the corresponding tooth of
Hyena in its dimensions, as may be judged by its base, the crown
being broken off. The second false molar too (pm. 3)is in form and
size hyenoid. The sectorial is proportionately larger than in the
living Indian Hyeena, and is provided with a very strong and stout.
internal tubercle. The alveolus of the tubercular molar, preserved
on the right side, is situated as in the Felide, and shows that tooth
to have been transverse and eaceedingly small, thus differing from
Hi, striata and H. swalensis. The sagittal crest is very prominent
and quite Hyzna-like, gently sloping on the sides; but the occi-
pital crest is proportionately higher than in any other species of
Hyena. The specific name given to the fossil is based on the
approach it makes to feline organization, especially in the entire
absence of premolar 1 from the upper jaw.

In the following measurements the skull of the living Indian
Hyzena* selected for comparison is a little smaller than the fossil :—

Hyena Living
felina. Indian Hyzna,

inches. inches.

Length from the postorbital apophyses to the

border of the incisors................ 5°0 4175
Length from the postorbital apophyses to the

summit of the occipital crest.......... 5°41 5:2
Height of the supraoccipital from the top of

Sppation MaenWA 8. 1-875 1°25
Length from the posterior extremity of the

basicranial axis to the hinder end of the

OEE gs ER yee ep 3°32 3°425
Length from this point to the hinder border

of the alveolus of incisor 1 .......... 4375 4:15

Length from the anterior end of the base of
the canine to the posterior end of the

TE LR) SNP pp cr4e Be aera 3°85 3°35
Length occupied by the molars............ 2°82 2°375
Upper jaw—

Antero-posterior length of canine at its base 0°75 0:575
px. 3 premolar 2.... 0°575 0:525
9 Ze e BAe Tia 0-775
a x sectorial ...... 1:35 1:07

VivERRA BAKERII, nob.

The specimens consist of a mutilated cranium with the third
premolar (pm. 3), the sectorial, and the two tuberculate molars of
both sides in situ, and a portion of the upper jaw containing the
‘sectorial and the first molar. On the authority of the ‘Palwon-

* B. M. no. 136,¢. It is from the Northern a
K

153 ; P, N. BOSE ON FOSSIL CARNIVORA

tological Memoirs’*, these have been labelled ‘* Canis,” but have a
note of interrogation added.

The skull indicates an animal of nearly the same size as the
Civet (V. civetta). The third premolar, which is proportionately
larger than the corresponding tooth in the latter, consists of a stout
triangular crown, and presents no division into accessory lobes ante-
riorly or posteriorly. The cingulum is well pronounced, and sends
up a ridge anteriorly, which, meeting with its fellow from behind,
divides the crown into two parts, of which the external is much
more convex than the internal. The sectorial is like the corre-
sponding tooth in the Civet, but proportionately larger. The ante-
rior of the two lobes into which its blade is divided is thick and
conical, with a small accessory lobule in front, and is mapped off by
a notch from the posterior lobe. The internal tubercle is stout and
strong, and separated by a deep valley from the outer lobes, as in
the Civet. The first tubercular is triangular and tricuspid, and is a
little larger than the corresponding tooth in that species. The two
subequal outer cusps are ground down into flattened crescent-shaped
‘disks ; andthe inner cusp is separated from them by a deep pit. The
second tubercular is proportionately longer laterally and narrower
antero-posteriorly than the corresponding tooth in the Civet.

There are only three other fossil species of Viverra which have
been made out with any thing like certainty, viz. V. antiqua and
V. exilis of De Blainville and V. sansaniensis of Lartet. The last
two are known by their lower jaws only, so that I am not ina
position to compare them with the present fossil. It is readily distin-
guished from V.antiqua by the proportionately smaller size of the
teeth, especially of the hindermost tubercular, in the latter species 7.

In the following measurements the skull of the Civet selected for
comparison is a little larger than the fossil :—

Length from the posterior extremity of the ae fo
basicranial axis to the anterior extremity inches. inches,
of the palate ..... We oe Oo ee eee 4°55 (2) 5-1
Length from the anterior extremity of pm. 3
to the posterior extremity of m.2 .... 14 1:25
Upper jaw— :
Antero-posterior length of premolar 3.... 04 0°32
Maximum transverse diameter of ditto.... 0-2 0-2
Antero-posterior diameter of the sectorial at
the base (outer border) ............ 0°6 0°5
Height of internal tubercle of sectorial .. 0-2 0-2
Transverse diameter at base of m.1...... 0-5 0°45
9 9 Tee Ein oie 0-4. 0:3
Antero-posterior diameter of ditto ...... 0-2 0°25

* Vol. i. p. 158. Mr. Davies had originally labelled the skull ‘Viverra.”
It is figured in an unpublished plate (figs. 1, la, 10, and 3, pl.Q). B.M.
-nos. 40188 and 40180.
+ Gervais, ‘Zool. et Pal. Fr. p, 228, pl. 28; De Blainy. Atl. d’Ost. (gen
Viverra), pl. xiii.

FROM THE SIVALIK HILLS. 133

Lutra PALzIndIcA, Fale. et Cautl. et nob.

A specimen of cranium (B. M. no. 37151), deficient in the zygo-
matic arches, and another of the lower jaw (B. M. no. 37152) are
so named in the index to the unpublished plate L of the ‘ Fauna
Antiqua Sivalensis’*. The cranium shows the alveoli of the three
incisors and the canine (on each side), and of the three anterior false
molars (of the left side). The sectorial and the tubercular of this
side, as well as the lower carnassial, are in situ.

In the number, form, and disposition of the teeth the fossil
agrees very closely with the living Indian Otter; but the skull of
the fossil is smaller, and the teeth proportionately larger. The brain-
case is broader and higher in the fossil than in its living represen-
tative. But the most characteristic feature in the fossil skull is the
form of the forehead. In the common as well as in the Indian
Otter the frontal narrows from behind the postorbital process, in
the shape of a triangle, up to its junction with the brain-case
proper: but in the fossil the part between the postorbital processes
of the frontal and the cranial cavity is wider and is of uniform
breadth throughout, so as to be quadrangular instead of triangular.
In this respect the fossil resembles a peculiar form of Otter described
by Gray as Lutronectist; but the orbit of the latter is scarcely
defined behind.

Lutra Bravardt (with which Gervais§$ and Pictet || incorporate
L. elevaris and L. clermontensis J) and L. dubia**, especially the
latter, are considerably larger than the Sivalik fossil. The tuber-
cular is squarer in Z. Bravardi than in either the living or the fossil
Indian Otter 7T. L. affinis is very like the common European Otter
(L. vulgaris), and thus readily distinguished from the fossil under

examination +t. ealtea Living
paleindica. Indian Otter.

Length from the posterior extremity of the inch. inch,

basicranial axis to the anterior of in-

eisor 1, taken’as modulus ;....,.2..... 1:0 1:0
Height of occiput from the top of foramen

SUGAR ATE SUBS ae iia genes SD Age ama 0:251 0-189
Greatest breadth of the surface of brain-case

opposite mastoid processes............ 0587 0-466
Minimum breadth of frontal behind its post-

VEEL PROCES IITs) bkieve*o 0b axe 0°216 0-141
Breadth of cranium at these processes ...... 0-251 0-209

Greatest height of lower jaw below carnassial 0°139 0-11

* Pal. Mem. vol. i. p. 552, ‘The specimens have been refigured in pl. xxvii.
(figs. 5& 7) of Pal. Mem.

t The skull of the Indian Otter I have had for comparison comes from
Madras, B. M. no. 1668 a.

{ ‘ Catalogue of the Carnivora,’ p. 107. It may be noted that in the absence
of the contraction of the frontal behind the orbits, as well as the proportion-
ately greater capacity of the brain-case, the fossil approaches the Polecats.

§ Zool. et Pal. Fr. p. 243. || Traité de Pal. tom. i. p. 210.
§[, Blainv. Ostéographie (gen. Mustela), p 52, pl. xiv.
** Blain. op. cit. pl. xiv. Tt Gervais, op. cit, pl, xxvii, fig. 6.

tt Gervais, op. cit. p. 244.

134 P. N. BOSE ON FOSSIL CARNIVORA

Lutra Living
i puleindica. Indian Oiter.
Upper jaw— inch, inch.
Length occupied by the incisors on each side 0-077 0-:061

molars and canines 0°385 0°343

Antero-posterior length of canine........ 0°084 0-061

& sectorial (outer
border) ee PLE ey 28 a 0°127 0-111
Maximum transverse diameter of tubercular 0-127 0-111

Antero-posterior length of tubercular (outer
HSEUOE)?. 2s) BOAO Ae he ea ai 0-09 0-084

Lower jaw—

Length occupied by the molar series .... 0°39 0°343

Antero-posterior length of carnassial .... 0°146 0-14

[The length taken as modulus in the above measurements is
3°575 inches in the fossil, and 4:075 inches in the living Indian

Otter selected for comparison. The absolute measurements can be
deduced from this. |

CANIS CURVIPALATUS, nob.

The specimen consists of a cranium deficient only in the zygo-
‘matic arches and in the anterior portion of the palate. The lower
jaw of the left side shows the three hinder premolars and the first
two molars in situ, and the alveoli of the first premolar and the
last molar. The lower jaw of the right side is broken off posteriorly,
but is more complete in front than its fellow of the left side and
shows the base of the canine. The cranium has suffered from a
crush, and has, in consequence, been somewhat flattened anteriorly ;
but no distortion, at least to any considerable extent, has taken
place. The cranium was briefly described and figured by Messrs.
Baker and Durand in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of
Bengal for 1836*. ° By comparing it with one of a living Indian
Fox (with which the fossil is most closely allied), those able pale-
ontologists found that the fossil, while agreeing generally with the
latter, differed from it in the greater breadth of the brain-case, the
height and thickness of the lambdoidal crest at the summit of the
supraoccipital, the greater concavity and size of the postorbital pro-
cesses of the frontal, and the closer approximation of the false
molars in the upper jaw; but they did not notice the following
important peculiarities of the fossil, nor did they give it any specific
name :—

(1) In all Canide, and more or less in all other Carnivora, the
basifacial axis is parallel to the basicranial axis; but in the fossil
now under examination the palate makes an angle, though a very

open one, with the base of the cranium, somewhat as in the Rabbit.
The specific name is derived from this the most characteristic
feature of the fossil.

* This description has been quoted in the Pal. Mem. vol. i. p. 341.

FROM THE SIVALIK HILLS, 1385

(2) The rami of the lower jaw are not so much compressed as in
the living species of the Canide.

(3) Each ramus, instead of being straight, forms an arc of a circle
between the angle and the mandibular symphysis.

(4) As in the upper jaw, the premolars in the lower jaw also are
closer together than in the Fox.

(5) The internal tubercle of the sectorial is stouter than in the
Fox.

(6) The upper tuberculars, especially the hindermost one, are pro-
portionately larger.

Messrs. Baker and Durand noticed a peculiarity about the frontal
ridges, that these, starting from the rear of the postorbital apophyses,
“ converge towards the occiput in a curvilinear direction, until the
distance between them is reduced to about half an inch, after which
they run nearly parallel for some distance, and then converge again,
till they unite near the occiput and become blended with the parietal
erest.” I find this peculiarity, which is absent in the European
Fox, well marked in both the specimens of the Bengal Fox* (Canis
bengalensis) I have had for comparison, as well as in the Fennecs yf.

Canis, sp.? (PI. VI. figs. 7-9.)

One of the two posterior parts of lower jaw < on which this
species is founded was labelled by Dr. Falconer as “ Enhydriodon ;”
and in a memorandum, published in the ‘ Paleontological Memoirs’ §,
he gives the measurements of the teeth and compares them with
those of the Otter. The carnassial and the tubercular following
it are a situ; but behind the latter there is a distinct alveolus for
a small molar, which must have escaped the attention of Dr. Falconer.
This tooth is im situ, though partially damaged, in the other frag-
ment, which is exactly similar to the one supposed by Dr. Falconer
to belong to his Enhydriodon. The specimens || indicate an animal
of the size of the Wolf; and the form of the teeth is exactly as in
that animal. On comparing the two fragments with the lower jaw
of the living Indian Wolf 4] from the osteological collection of the
British Museum, the rami are found to be higher and thicker and
the teeth proportionately smaller in the fossil. These differences
are exhibited by the following measurements :—

Living

Canis sp.? Indian Wolf,
inch. inch.
Ant.-post. length of the carnassial...... 0°95 1
pe 11 0) oe 0:425 0-475
Height of ramus below carnassial ...... it 1:025
PATICRHERS OF JEW. 2 stevie came ne ene 0°5 0-4.

These differences may be only varietal ; but it is highly probable
that further evidence will establish the distinctness of the present
form ; in which case I propose to call it C. Cautleyt.

* B. M, nos. 174% and 1740. +t B. M. nos. 182¢ and 815 a.

¢ B. M. nos. 40181 and 40182, § Vol. i. p. 337.

|| These have been labelled as “ Canis” by Mr. Davies.

qj “ Lupus pallipes” in Gray’s Catalogue. No. 164 g.

136 ON FOSSIL CARNIVORA FROM THE SIVALIK HILLS.

Figs. 1

EXPLANATION OF PLATE VI.

-4, Macherodus paleindicus, sp. nov.

1. Inner view of anterior portion of lower jaw,

2. Outer - ” ”
SF Front 9 9 ”
4. Outer ,, posterior

5. Upper deciduous dentition of Macherodus sivalensis.
6. Hyena felina, sp. nov.

7-9. Canis, sp. Fragments of lower jaw. |

r

Geol

art Journ

le

Q

Pa

Quart Journ Geel Soe.Vol XXXVI-PI VI

\ dmv. dim. 2.

Mintern Bros imp

AS Foord lith. SIVALIK CARNIVORA

"

+t 4

: >

j

/ \

i

.
uJ A;
;
by '
‘
i)

| a

i

oe a a “a

ON THE OLIGOCENE STRATA OF THE HAMPSHIRE BASIN. 137

12. On the Ox1aocrnr Sreata of the Hampsurre Bastn. By Prof.
Joun W. Jupp, F.R.S., Sec. G.S. (Read February 4, 1880).

{Puate VII.]
ConTENTS. Page
PTR EOE EPTOM 5: «ls sbigan ete desis ok caSUKa goth biak sve era DRNGR aaseteanse ve 137
Peary Ore TeviOUs MPIC»... «ccc -ra0 wars cagasranomnsnnoshenaviiewaerasy 139
PUR Siesta bical: MVIGeQCe. « sasas0idansanshsobass nngtounlnadateayincrnaseeeasar 142
PPE AEOMOGMICAL FIVGCDED ... 0.0, cst cenewanasdacadyenavedevactontinesien«avawen 148
V. Correlation of the Strata with Foreign Deposits.................sse000 150
VI. Subdivisions and Nomenclature of the Series ..............:.eeeeeeeenes 165
VII. Thickness of the Strata and their Development in different Areas 169
a rae raters Side oisownath spa oda gules ee MERE avIhan sae A aalas abled plow alns 173

I. Iyrropuction.

THERE are perhaps few portions of the series of British strata which
have attracted so large a share of the attention of geologists, both
in this country and abroad, as the fluvio-marine formation which
constitutes the highest member of the Tertiaries of the Hampshire
basin. When we remember the numerous memoirs which, since the
commencement of the present century, have been devoted to a descrip-
tion of these strata and of their fossils, it might well be supposed
that little can remain to be done, either in working out the order of
succession of the beds, or in determining their relations to the
deposits of other areas. That such is not the case, however, I shall
haye occasion to show in the memoir which I now submit to this
Society ; and it may be well that, at the outset of this inquiry,
I should briefly indicate the difficulties which beset the study of this
particular formation, and the causes which have led to the serious
discrepancies of opinion concerning the mutual relations and the
geological age of the strata which compose it.
Among the difficulties which confront the investigator of the order
of succession in these fluvo-marine strata of the Hampshire basin,
the most serious is found in the tendency shown by the various mem-
bers of the formation to undergo rapid variations in mineral cha-
racters within short distances. As in the Wealden and other similar
deposits formed in deltas, so here, we find the whole mass of strata
made up of lenticular patches of sediment dovetailing into one another
in the most complicated manner; so much, indeed, is this the case,
that we seldom discover any bed in the whole formation exhibiting
such persistency of character as to allow of its being traced over any
considerable area. Hence the art of the geological surveyor and
map-maker—which, in dealing with the more uniformly deposited
marine strata, often affords such valuable aid in making out the
order of succession of beds—is here comparatively useless. And
the perplexities of the geological surveyor are greatly increased
by the fact that all over the northern half of the Isle of Wight and
the New Forest, where these strata are developed, thick superficial

Q.J.G.8. No. 142. L

138 PROF. J. W. JUDD ON THE OLIGOCENE

deposits of sand and gravel almost everywhere conceal the under-
lying Tertiaries from our view.

Although additions to our knowledge of the fauna and flora of
_ these beds have been made by the examination of such isolated ex-
posures as are to be found in railway-cuttings, brick-pits, quarries, '
and wells, yet, in seeking to determine the relations of the several
beds to one another, we are obliged to fall back upon the more ex-
tensive and continuous sections exhibited in the sea-cliffs ; and it is
a fortunate circumstance that these coast-sections are both numerous
and well exposed.

It may be readily believed, too, that the frequent repetition of beds
deposited under similar conditions, and therefore presenting identical
mineral characters, will be a fruitful source of error, unless the aid of
the paleontologist be constantly invoked to enable us to identify the
several members of the formation by their organic remains. And
the geologist must be prepared to avail himself to the fullest extent
of the researches of investigators of strata of equivalent age in other
areas, where important light may be thrown upon the order of ap-
pearance of the forms of organic life which occur in our own district.

In my study of these strata, which has occupied me during many
years, I have endeavoured to avail myself, as far as possible, of
these different kinds of assistance. Moreover, in my examination
of the positions and relations of the strata, I have been greatly aided
by the publication of the admirable 6-inch and 25-inch maps of the
Ordnance Survey, which supply us with the means of plotting the
cliff-sections in a manner which was not possible at the time when
the geological survey of the island was made, when no Ordnance
map existed, except the obsolete and incorrect 1-inch.map of 1810.
I will now briefly enumerate the conclusions to which I have been
led by these studies.

The strata exposed at the base of Headon Hill, at the western
extremity of the Isle of Wight, are not, as supposed by previous
observers, a mere repetition, through an anticlinal fold, of the beds
seen in Colwell and Totland Bays, but are on a distinct and lower
horizon than the latter. These Headon-Hill beds are also found to
contain a different assemblage of fossils from that which charac-
terizes the Colwell- and Totland-Bay beds. I shall show that this
new reading of the succession of strata in the Hampshire basin
harmonizes much better with the order established by foreign geo-
logists and paleontologists than does the one usually accepted.
Indeed it will be made apparent, as the result of this investigation,
that the sequence of beds in this country agrees most closely with
that of the equivalent Middle Tertiary strata in France, Belgium,
and Northern Germany. Finally, it will be proved that the thick-
ness and importance of this series of strata is much greater than
has hitherto been supposed, attaining to not less than 800 or 900
feet; and it will be shown to belong to the lower division of a great
system of strata, which is represented, both in Europe and North
America, by deposits of enormous thickness, everywhere charac-
terized by large and distinctive faunas and floras.

STRATA OF THE HAMPSHIRE BASIN. 139

II. History or Previous Oprnion.

The foundation of our knowledge of the succession of the Tertiary
strata in Western Europe was laid by the publication, in the year
1808, of Cuvier and Brongniart’s ‘ Essai sur la Géographie Minéralo-
gique des Environs de Paris.’ It was through the study of this
work that Webster, who had already collected much valuable topo-
graphical information concerning the beds exposed on the coasts of
the Isle of Wight, Hampshire, and Dorsetshire, was enabled to
classify those fluvio-marine beds, with which we are now particularly
concerned, and to point out their equivalents among the strata of
the Paris basin. It would appear that Webster found in the Mu-
seum of this Society a collection of fossils procured from the neigh-
bourhood of Paris by Count de Bournon; and on a comparison of
these with the series of organic remains which he had himself ob-
tained from the several divisions of the Isle-of-Wight strata, he was
greatly impressed with their general resemblance. So interested
was he, indeed, by this discovery, that, without waiting for the
advent of more favourable weather, he set out in midwinter to re-
examine the Isle-of-Wight sections, with the aid of the new clue
which he had obtained. ‘The result of this investigation he gave to
the world in his twelfth and concluding letter addressed to Sir Henry
Englefield on February 11th, 1813*.

Cuvier and Brongniart had divided the Tertiary strata of the Paris
basin into five groups ; and it was with the upper three of these that
Webster correlated the fluvio-marine beds of the Hampshire basin.
Hence arose the division of the Isle-of-Wight fiuvio-marine beds
into a “‘ Lower Freshwater Formation :” a “‘ Middle Marine Forma-
tion,’ and an “ Upper Freshwater Formation :” and this classifica-
tion long held its ground; for it seemed to find support in the fact
that at many points marine strata might be observed with fresh-
water beds lying both above and below them.

But subsequent observations, especially those of M. Constant Pré-
vost, demonstrated that the simple classification of Cuvier and Brong-
niart did not hold good, even for all parts of the Paris basin ; while
Mr. Prestwich’s researches in this country proved that Webster and
those who followed his views, in seeking to bring into exact agree-
ment the succession of beds in the Paris and Hampshire basins re-
spectively, had confounded together deposits as distinct from one
another as the London, Bracklesham, and Barton Clays.

With respect to the fluvio-marine beds, however, Webster’s three-
fold division long held its ground, and was unhesitatingly accepted
by all geologists. The researches of Sedgwick, Lyell, Bowerbank,
Mantell, and others added many new facts to the stock of informa-~
mation acquired concerning these beds; while the important dis-
covery that they contain a mammalian fauna similar to that of the
gypsum of Montmartre (which discovery was made by Dr. Buckland

* *A Description of the Principal Picturesque Beauties, Antiquities, and Geo-
logical Phenomena of the Isle of Wight,’ by Sir Henry Englefield, Bart. (London,
1816), p. 226. 9

L

140 PROF. J. W. JUDD ON THE OLIGOCENE

in 1825*, and fully confirmed by Mr. 8. P. Pratt in 18357, and by
Prof. Owen in 1841 +), established the fact of their general parallelism
with the upper portion of the series seen in the Paris basin.

The first step towards the rectification of the classification of
the fluvio-marine strata was made by Mr. Prestwich in the year
1846. Inashort but very suggestive and valuable paper §, he showed
that at Hamstead and Bouldnor Cliffs, in the Isle of Wight, there
occurs a series of estuarine and freshwater deposits, which he re-
garded as overlying the whole fluvio-marine series, and which con-
tains, as he pointed out, a fauna of distinct character from that of
the underlying beds.

Although many details concerning the several strata were ob-
served and described in succeeding years by Mr. Searles V. Wood,
Dr. Wright, and the Marchioness of Hastings, both in the Isle of
Wight and on the opposite coast of Hampshire, while great additions
were made to our knowledge of the reptilian and mammalian fauna
by these and other authors, yet no new step in advance was made
in the classification of these beds till Edward Forbes turned his
attention to the subject in the year 1852. In the meanwhile the
difficulty of harmonizing the accepted classification of the Hamp-
shire beds with the divisions established by accurate observers
in various parts of the Continent was strikingly illustrated by
the discordant results arrived at by such able students of Terti-
ary geology as Constant Prévost||, d’Archiac4/, Dumont**, and
Hébert TT.

Forbes’s careful study of the relations of the beds exposed in the
cliff-sections of the Isle of Wight, combined with his thorough and
eritical examination of the fossils collected at different horizons,
enabled him to establish two very important points. In the first
place, he confirmed Mr. Prestwich’s determination that the strata
exposed at Hamstead and Bouldnor Cliffs overlie and are of younger
age than all the other strata of the fluvio-marine series. For this
upper series of strata, which he showed to contain a very distinct
and characteristic assemblage of fossils, Forbes proposed the name

* “On the Discovery of Anoplotherium commune in the Isle of Wight. By
the Rey. Prof. W. Buckland,” Ann. of Phil. ser. 2, vol. x. p. 360.

Tt “Remarks on the Existence of the Anoplotheriwm and Palgotherium in the
Lower Freshwater Formation at Binstead, near Ryde, in the Isle of Wight. By
8. P. Pratt,” Trans. Geol. Soc. ser. 2, vol. iii. p. 451.

t “Description of some Fossil Remains of Cheropotamus, Paleotherium,
Anoplotheriwm, and Dichobune from the Eocene Formation, Isle of Wight. By
Prof. R. Owen,” Trans. Geol. Soc. ser. 2, vol. vi. p. 41.

§ “On the Occurrence of Cypris in a part of the Tertiary Freshwater
Strata of the Isle of Wight,” Rep. Brit. Assoc. for 1846, Trans. of Sections,

. 56s :
| “Coupe d’Alum Bay et d’Headen-Hill, dans l'ile de Wight,” Bull. Soe.
Géol. France, t. viii. p. 76.

4 ‘Note sur les Sables et Grés Moyens Tertiaires,” Bull. Soc. Géol. France,
t; ix. p. 54.

*X vt Essai sur la co-ordination des terrains tertiairesdu Nord de la France,
de la Belgique, et de l’Angleterre,” Bull. Soc. Géol. France, t. x. pp. 158, 168.

tt ‘Comparaison des Couches tertiaires inférieures de la France et de l’An-
gleterre,” Bull. Soc, Géol. France, sér. 2, t. ix. p. 350,

STRATA OF THE HAMPSHIRE BASIN. 141

of the “‘ Hempstead Series” *. In the second place Forbes demon-
strated, by both stratigraphical and paleontological evidence, that
the thick freshwater limestones seen at Bembridge Ledge and in
Headon Hill respectively, are not, as had been supposed by all pre-
vious writers on the subject, on the same horizon, but that the
former of these belongs to a much more recent period than the
latter.

As the result of his observations of the strata and study of their
fossils in 1853, Edward Forbes proposed the total abandonment of
Webster’s classification, and the division of the fluvio-marine strata
of the Isle of Wight into four series—the Headon, the Osborne and
St. Helens, the Bembridge, and the Hempstead}. ‘This is the
classification which was adopted in the publications of the Geological
Survey, and is now generally received among geologists.

Unfortunately, Edward Forbes’s life was not spared sufficiently
long to enable him to complete his study of this important forma-
tion. While his observations on the three higher divisions of the
formation are very full and detailed, it is evident, from an exami-
nation of Forbes’s posthumous work, that he had been able to devote
far less attention to the study of the succession of beds and the
fossils of the lowest or Headon series. With regard to these strata
Forbes maintained, as almost all previous observers had done, that
the beds of Colwell and Totland Bays are on the same horizon as
those at the base of Headon Hill and at Hordwell Cliff.

It will be seen that Webster made the mistake of placing all
marine bands in the fluvio-marine formation upon one horizon.
Prestwich made the first rectification of this error by proving that
the Hamstead strata are superior to all the other fiuvio-marine
strata; and Forbes followed in the same direction, by showing that
the oyster-beds of Bembridge are on a distinct and much higher
horizon than those of either Colwell Bay or Headon Hill. I
shall now demonstrate that the Colwell-Bay marine beds are not,
as has hitherto been supposed, the equivalent of those of Headon
Hill and Hordwell Cliff, but that they occupy a distinct and much
higher horizon.

Since Edward Forbes’s premature removal from our midst, very
great and important additions have been made to our knowledge of
the fauna and flora of the fluvio-marine beds of the Hampshire basin,
To no one do we owe more for valuable additions to our knowledge
of the paleontology of this formation than to the late Mr. Frederick
EK. Edwards and Mr. 8. V. Woodi, who have collected and described

* In the choice of this name Forbes was singularly unfortunate. The name
of the farm near which the beds are exposed is ‘‘ Hamstead,” though it is mis-
printed ‘‘ Hempstead” on the old l-inch map of 1810. This name, as it now
stands, is not only quite unknown in the Isle of Wight, but runs the risk of
being confounded with localities in Essex and Hertfordshire.

Tt “On the Fluvio-marine Tertiaries of the Isle of Wight,” Quart. Journ.
Geol. Soc. vol. ix. p. 259; ‘‘On some new Points in British Geology,” Edin.
New Phil. Journ. vol. lv. p. 263.

¢ ‘A Monograph of the Eocene Mollusca, Cephalopoda and Gasteropoda,’
by F. E. Edwards, supplemented by S. V. Wood; ‘ Bivalves,’ by 8S. V. Wood,
Palzontographical Society, 1848-1877.

142 PROF. J. W. JUDD ON THE OLIGOCENE

so many of the fossils of the Lower Tertiary formations. Owing to
their labours and those of other indefatigable collectors, the num-
ber of known fossil forms from the fluvio-marine beds is at least
four times as great as was recognized by Edward Forbes.

At the same time the remarkable fauna of Brockenhurst, in the
New Forest, which was discovered by Mr. Edwards, has been care-
fully studied by Von Konen* and Dr. Duncan}, who have shown
the exact agreement of this fauna with that of the Lower Oligocene
in Northern Germany; while the Rev. Osmond Fisher+ and Mr. H.
M. Jenkins§ have recognized its identity with that of certain strata
in the Isle of Wight.

Last, but not least, must be mentioned the great advances which
have been made in our knowledge of the faunas of equivalent strata
upon the continent of Europe, especially those which we owe to the
researches of Deshayes in the Paris basin, of Sandberger in the
Mayence basin, and of Hornes in the Vienna basin, which have
supplied valuable means of comparison between the English and
foreign strata, such as were almost wholly wanting when Forbes was
engaged in the study of the Isle-of-Wight beds. Furthermore, many
able geologists, among whom may especially be mentioned M. Hébert
in France, MM. Charles Mayer and Renevier in Switzerland, MM.
Sandberger and Beyrich in North Germany, and M. T. Fuchs in
Austria, have occupied themselves with the question of the corre-
lation of the various European Tertiary deposits with great success.

Under these circumstances we are now supplied with the means
for making a much more exact and rigid comparison of the strata
of the Hampshire basin with those of the other European areas
than was possible twenty-five years ago. Foreign geologists, who
have endeavoured to correlate the British deposits of this age with
their equivalents on the continent, have experienced the greatest
difficulties, owing, as I believe, to the succession of beds in this
country having been hitherto misunderstood. It is on these grounds
that I venture to offer a new classification of these strata as the
result of researches which I have carried on for some time past.

ILI. SrraticRAPHICAL EVIDENCE.

We have stated that hitherto a serious error has been made in
reading the succession of strata exposed in the cliff-sections at the
western extremity of the Isle of Wight. The beds seen at Colwell
and Totland Bays have been regarded by nearly all observers as
being upon the same geological horizon as those exposed at the base
of Headon Hill, whereas, as I shall now proceed to show, the latter
altogether underlie the former. The primary cause of this mistake
concerning the succession of these beds is not difficult to discover.

* “On the Correlation of the Oligocene Deposits of Belgium, Northern Ger-
many, and the South of England,” Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xx. p. 97.

t ‘A Monograph of British Fossil Corals,’ 2nd series, Paleontographical
Society, 1866.

t Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. .vol. xviii. p. 67, footnote.

§ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. xxiv. p. 519.

STRATA OF THE HAMPSHIRE BASIN, 143

Almost every geologist who has studied the section in question has
assumed the existence of a great anticlinal fold, of which the sum-
mit is supposed to be seen in Totland Bay; and as the effect of this
great flexure, the strata seen at the base of Headon Hill are supposed
to be repeated, with an opposite dip, in Colwell and Totland Bays.
The manner in which this supposed anticlinal is regarded as having
affected the strata is illustrated in Prof. Edward Forbes’s memoir
(see Pl. VII. fig. 1), and also in Sheet 47 of the Horizontal Sections
published by the Geological Survey.

_ The circumstance which seems to have given rise to this correla-
tion in the first instance was the occurrence, both at Colwell Bay
and at the base of Headon Hill, of a band containing numerous
oysters and other marine shells, and especially characterized by
abundant and well-preserved specimens of Cytherea incrassata, Sow.
Now the “ Venus-bed,” as it was called by collectors, so well seen
in Colwell Bay, soon came to be identified with that at the base of
Headon Hill; and the term “ Middle Headon ” was applied to both.
At the same time the freshwater beds, lying respectively above and
below these marine bands, were correlated with one another and
termed “ Upper” and ‘“‘ Lower Headon.”

But Cytherea incrassata, Sow., 1s not by any means to be regarded
as an eminently characteristic shell marking a particular geological
horizon. According to the Geological Survey, it makes its first ap-
pearance in the Barton Clay, and ranges up certainly as high as the
Bembridge Marls. As I shall show hereafter, the ‘“‘ Venus-bed ” of
Colwell Bay contains a very different fauna from that at the base of
Headon Hill. A third “ Venus-bed” is found in the midst of the
Bembridge series ; and the failure of geologists, prior to the work of
Edward Forbes, to discriminate between this and the other “ Venus-
beds” led to the Headon strata being placed on the same horizon as
the Bembridge.

This correlation of the ‘* Venus-beds” of Colwell Bay and Headon
Hill has been productive of a great amount of confusion, as will
soon be made apparent when we critically examine the conclusions
of different authors who have written upon the subject. As early
as the year 1821 Mr. G. B. Sowerby pointed out that the so-called
marine bed of Headon Hill had little claim to be so regarded; for
the number of freshwater forms found in it is so great “thas it can
only be considered as having been deposited under estuarine con-
ditions. Sedgwick, who reexamined the sections in the following
year, seems to have clearly perceived the points of difference between
the beds in Colwell Bay and in Headon Hill.

Both Edward Forbes and Mr. Bristow appear to have experienced
the greatest difficulties in their attempt to correlate with one another
the beds above and below the ‘‘ Venus-beds” of Colwell Bay and
Headon Hill respectively. Thus they found it necessary to assume
that the beds called “* Upper Headon” at Colwell Bay have suddenly
expanded within a distance of less than two miles from 49 feet to
85 feet; while the thick beds of limestone which are so conspicuous
in the latter locality are entirely wanting in the former. The diffi-

144 PROF, J. W. JUDD ON THE OLIGOCENE

culties felt by the geological surveyors are brought out very pro-
minently if we carefully compare the several publications which they
have issued at successive dates. Thus, in the sections prepared to
illustrate the memoir published in 1856%*, 48 feet of strata, which
in the text of the memoir are described as belonging to the ‘‘ Osborne
and St. Helen’s Series,” are Placed m the ‘“‘ Upper Headon ;” but in
the sheet of ‘ Vertical Sections,’ issued in 18587, the first reading
is adopted, while in the general memoir on the Isle of Wight, eich
appeared in 18624, a return is made to thesecond reading. A com-
parison of these several publications of the Geological Survey must
lead every one to the conclusion that, by the assumption of the iden-
tity of the marine beds at Colwell Bay and Headon Hill, the authors
of these works had been led into inextricable difficulties and confu-
sion. All these difficulties are removed when we recognize the fact
that the Colwell- and Totland-Bay beds altogether overlie those ex-
posed at the base of Headon Hill.

There are not wanting indications, however, that several authors
were almost upon the point of recognizing the true succession of
beds at the western extremity of the Isle of Wight. Thus Dr.
Wright, in his admirable section of the strata between Cliff End
and Headon Hill§, clearly points out that the Limnean limestone
of How Ledge, and the sandy rock of Warden Point, are distinctly
recognizable high up in the north-eastern face of Headon Hill,
This being the case, it is clear that the ‘‘ Venus-bed” and Oyster-
bands of Colwell Bay, which are undoubtedly above the Limnean
limestone and sandy rock, cannot possibly be represented by the
brackish-water beds which occur just above the sea-level in the same
part of Headon Hill. Unfortunately, however, Dr. Wright did not
follow up this important clue to the true succession of beds which
he had discovered, but permitted himself to be carried away by the
usually accepted opinion that there exists only one marine stratum
with freshwater deposits above and below it.

Dr. Wright’s valuable observations were published in 1851; and
in the year following Prof. Hébert declared his conviction, as the
result of a personal examination of the Isle-of-Wight sections, that
the Colwell-Bay beds are upon an altogether higher horizon than
those of Headon Hill. Prof. Hébert, whose exact acquaintance with
the Lower Tertiaries of the Paris basin lends the greatest weight to
his opinions, pointed out that the marine beds:of Headon Hill and
Hordwell Cliff contain precisely the same fauna as “ the upper fos-
siliferous zone of Mortefontaine, Monneville,” &c., while the Colwell-
Bay beds agree in their fossils with the lower part of the Fontaine-

* Mem. Geol. Surv. ‘On the Tertiary Fluvio-marine Formation of the Isle
of Wight,’ by Prof. Edward Forbes, F.R.S. Compare plate 10 and p. 81.

t Vertical Sections, Geol. Survey, sheet 25.

t Mem. Geol. Surv. ‘The Geology of the Isle of Wight’ (sheet 10), by H.
Ww. Bristow, F.G.S8., plate 4.

Sar A Stratieriiiteal Account of the Section from Round-Tower Point to
Alum Bay, on the North-west Coast of the Isle of Wight,” by Dr. T. Wright,
Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. . 2, vol, vii. p. 14, and Proc. Cotteswold Nat.
Club, vol. i. p. 87.

STRATA OF THE HAMPSHIRE BASIN. 145

bleau Sands. Hence the distinguished French geologist argued that
Colwell-Bay beds are of younger age, and must overlie those of the
Headon Hill and Hordwell*. Unfortunately some of the points of
correlation insisted upon by M. Hébert in the same paper, were
such as could not be accepted by English geologists (and this was
forcibly pointed out by Lyell and Forbes); thus the really valuable
suggestions made by the French geologist came to be altogether
neglected by later writers upon the subject in this country.

Although I was led to the recognition of the true succession of
beds in the Isle-of- Wight section quite independently of these ob-
servations of Dr. Wright and M. Hébert, it is right to point out
how near these geologists were to the true solution of the problem.
I may add that I am convinced that although Prof. Edward Forbes
argued so strongly against the views of M. Hébert, yet before his
death he had begun to perceive the difficulties which beset the
accepted classification of the Headon beds, and that, had his life
been spared to complete that rigid paleontological examination of
the lower beds of the fluvio-marine series which he so successfully
accomplished with respect to the higher parts of the same series, he
would have so modified his classification as to have rendered the
publication of the present memoir unnecessary. In Forbes’s post-
humous memoir the account of the Headon beds occupies only
three pages, which are reprinted, almost without alteration, from
the memoir read before this Society by the author on the 4th of
May, 18537. :

If we now proceed to examine the supposed proofs of the exist-
ence of a great anticlinal by which the strata at the base of Headon
Hill are folded over so as to reappear in Colwell Bay, we shall find
that they do not stand the test of careful scrutiny and exact measure-
ment. Webster and other authors following him have well shown
how the Tertiary and underlying strata of the Isle of Wight have
been subjected to disturbances producing a series of fiexures, the
axes of which lie in an east-and-west direction, and which attain
their maximum development in the great anticlinal curve stretching
from Whitecliff Bay to Alum Bay and thence on to Studland Bay
on the Dorsetshire coast. But, in addition to these east-and-west
folds, the Isle-of-Wight strata exhibit evidence of having been
subjected to another set of flexures, at right angles to the former,
and having their axes striking north and south. The positions and
effects of this second series of flexures were well illustrated by Prof.
Edward Forbes in his memoir read before this Society +.

Now, from Cliff End to Headon Hill, the coast of the Isle of
Wight trends nearly north and south, and we have presented to us
in the cliffs a section nearly at right angles to the first-mentioned
series of folds. From Cliff End to Warden Point the beds have a
steady dip of from 2° to 3° to the north, interrupted only by several

* «Comparaison des couches tertiaires inférieures dea France et de 1’ Angle-
terre,” Bull. Soc. Géol. France, 2° ser. t. ix. p. 191.

t Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. ix. p. 259.
* t Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. ix. p. 260, fig. 1.

146 PROF. J. W. JUDD ON THE OLIGOCENE

slight dislocations and a small series of contortions. At Totland
Bay there is undoubted evidence of the presence of a slight anti-
clinal fold, having its summit near Widdick Chine, to the westward
of which the beds for a short distance have a slight dip to the
south. The great mural face of Headon Hill, however, has a trend
almost at right angles to that of the cliffs of Colwell and Totland
Bays ; and the section exposed on the face of the hill is nearly at
right angles to the second series of flexures which have been indi- —
cated as affecting the Isle-of-Wight beds. These strata seen in
Headon Hill have a slight dip to the west. Passing round Heather-
wood Point we again find the cliffs assuming a northerly and southerly
trend, and the beds are found dipping to the north, at an angle which
increases very rapidly, till at Alum Bay the strata assume a ver-
tical position, and near the Chalk are for a short distance actually
inverted.

Now; when these Isle-of-Wight cliffs are viewed from the sea,
the great changes which take place in the trend of the coast may be
easily overlooked ; and undoubtedly the first impression which is
made upon the mind of an observer is, that there exists a great anti-
clinal flexure, the summit of which is seen in Totland Bay, and that
the Colwell-Bay and Headon-Hill beds respectively lie in equivalent
positions on either side of this axis, and are therefore representatives
the one of the other.

If, however, instead of trusting to the general impression which
is produced by viewing these beds from a distance, we carefully plot
the section to scale by the aid of the admirable 25-inch maps of the
Ordnance Survey, allowing carefully for the changes in direction of
the cliffs, we shall find that the effect produced by the Totland-Bay
anticlinal has been very greatly overrated, and that, in consequence
of this, the true order of succession of the beds has been altogether
misunderstood. The strata of How Ledge and Warden Point are
seen in sucha true-scale section (Pl. VII. figs. 1, 2, &3) to be clearly
continued in precisely similar beds appearing underneath the gravel
of Headon Hill; the clays beneath are found to be a continuation
of those seen in Totland Bay; while all the underlying strata are
recognized as distinct from and on a lower horizon than those ex-
posed in the bays to the north of Headon Hill.

When we come to compare the succession and thickness of the
several strata exposed in Headon Hill and in the bays to the north-
wards, the correctness of this new reading of the section will become
strikingly apparent. The two series of beds can only be correlated
with one another, as has been attempted by previous observers, by
supposing that in the distance of a mile or two the most remarkable
changes have taken place, both in the mineral character and the
fossil contents of the several beds. But if, on the other hand, we
admit that the lowest beds in Totland Bay are represented in the
higher part of the Headon-Hill section, while the main part of the
strata at that localify are on a different and lower horizon, the dif-
ficulties and discrepancies will at once disappear. | |

Fortunately, however, I am able to adduce proofs of the most

STRATA OF THE HAMPSHIRE BASIN, 147

convincing kind of the correctness of the reading of these sections
which I now offer. If, as is supposed by the earlier interpretation,
the strata of Colwell and Totland Bays be only a repetition of those
of Headon Hill, resulting from the presence of a great anticlinal
flexure, then the well-marked white sands of Headon Hill ought to
be found near the summit of the anticlinal in Totland Bay. In this
position they are actually represented as occurring, in both the
longitudinal and vertical sections of the Geological Survey *, it being
supposed that they are concealed by heavy masses of talus which
cover that portion of the cliffs. Now within the last few years
excavations have been made at this locality for the purpose of erect-
ing the new reading-rooms; and it is found that the Headon-Hill
Sands do not occur in the position indicated by the Geological Survey,
but that beds are found which have their exact counterpart in the
Headon-Hill section, not at the base, but at a much higher part of
the series. I looked forward with great interest to the opening of
these sections in Totland Bay, as enabling me to apply a crucial test
to the two interpretations of the section ; and the results are such
as to remove any possibility of doubt upon the subject.

Again, the position of the Bembridge Limestone at Headon Hill
quite agrees with the interpretation of the section which I now
offer, but is altogether irreconcilable with that which has hitherto
been adopted. It is admitted on all hands that at the north-east
angle of Headon Hill the marine band (‘“‘ Middle Headon beds”)
makes its appearance just above the sea-level. Now the excellent
maps of the Ordnance Survey enable us to fix with the greatest
precision the height above the sea-level of the Bembridge Limestone,
which is so well exposed with all its characteristic fossils near the
cottage on the Warren. We thus learn that 250 feet of strata must
intervene between the Bembridge Limestone and the marine band
of Headon Hill; but the Geological-Survey section shows less than
one half of that thickness of beds, and in Colwell Bay the distance
between the Bembridge Limestone and the marine band is 120 feet.
Hence, if we believe that the marine bed at Headon Hill is identical
with that at Colwell Bay, we must suppose that in a distance of
little more than one mile a mass of beds 120 feet thick has expanded
to 250 feet, and, further, that the beds have been entirely changed
in their mineral characters. But 250 feet of strata is precisely
the thickness required by my interpretation. It may be objected
that the marine beds of Colwell Bay have never been detected in the
upper part of the Headon-Hill section, where they must exist ac-
cording to my view. But those who know the manner in which
the succession of beds is obscured in the upper part of Headon Hill,
through land-slips and the great capping of gravel, will feel little
surprise that this particular bed has never been seen there.

In the two diagrammatic sections on Plate VII. the two readings of
the succession of strata, as seen at the western end of the Isle of
Wight, are illustrated. Fig. 1 is exactly copied from the diagram

* Horizontal Sections, sheet 47; Vertical Sections, sheet 25.

148 PROF. J. W. JUDD ON THE OLIGOCENE

given by Prof. Edward Forbes in ‘his memoir on the Tertiary
Fluvio-marine Formation of the Isle of Wight (p. 89). In fig. 2
the relative heights are given in accordance with the measurements
of the Ordnance Survey; but the vertical scale is different from
the horizontal ; and the section illustrates diagrammatically the view
of the succession of beds which I now put forward. The section
fig. 3 on the same Plate is drawn upon the true scale, both vertical
and horizontal, the heights and distances being taken from the new
maps of the Ordnance Survey.

LY. PanmonrontogicaL EvipEnce.

I shall now proceed to show that the paleontological evidence in
favour of the correlation which I propose is not less complete and
satisfactory than the stratigraphical. According to the usually
received interpretation, a series of marine strata 100 feet thick in
Whitecliff Bay, the well-known and distinctly marked marine beds
of Colwell Bay, and the marine beds of the New Forest exposed at
Brockenhurst, Roydon, and Lyndhurst are represented at Headon
Hill by the brackish-water Middle Headon beds, and at Hordwell
Cliff by a band a few inches thick, containing both marine and fresh-
water forms.

But against this correlation several very serious objections may be
urged. In the first place, it must be noticed that at Whitecliff Bay,
at Colwell Bay, and in the several New-Forest localities, the strata
are of purely marie origin, and contain no admixture of fresh-
water shells, while in the last-mentioned reef-building corals
abound*, and to the existence of these an influx of fresh water is
known to be highly inimical. The so-called “‘ Middle Marine” beds
of Headon Hill and Hordwell Cliff are of totally different character,
exhibiting clear evidence of the prevalence of estuarine or brackish-
water conditions only. At both localities we find some shells be-
longing to marine genera, such as Aneillaria, Arca, Bulla, Cancel-
laria, Chemnitzia, Corbula, Cytherea, Fusus, Lucina, Murex, Natica,
Nucula, Ostrea, Pleurotoma, Psammobia, Scalaria, and Voluta, with
Balani and Serpule. But these marine forms are almost always
dwarfed in size, and exhibit clear evidence of having lived under
unfavourable conditions; while mingled with them we find shells
belonging to genera which usually frequent brackish water, such as
Cerithium, Cyrena, Hydrobia, and Odostomia, with other purely
freshwater forms, such as Limnea, Melania, Melanopsis, Potamomya,
and Planorbis.

The marine beds of Whitecliff Bay attain a thickness of 100 feet;
at Colwell Bay they are about 25 feet; while in the New Forest
their entire thickness, although it has never been determined, is
probably very considerable. These beds contain a very large and

* See the important memoir by Dr. Duncan “ on the Physical Geography of
Western Europe during the Mesozoic and Cainozoic Periods, elucidated by their
Coral Faunas,” Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. xxvi. (1870), p. 51.

STRATA OF THE HAMPSHIRE BASIN, 149

varied marine fauna, which, as I shall hereafter show, characterizes
a higher horizon in the geological series as displayed upon the
Continent than is represented by the brackish-water fauna of Headon
Hill and Hordwell Cliff.

Now, although in such series of strata as those of the Isle of
Wight we might be prepared to find marine beds passing at certain
points into others exhibiting evidence of brackish-water conditions,
yet it is impossible to believe that a thick mass of marine strata,
maintaining such a uniformity of character and of fossils at points
so distant as Whitecliff Bay, Colwell Bay, and Brockenhurst, could
lose all their distinctive characters and pass into brackish-water
strata at intermediate points like Headon Hill and Hordwell Cliff.
Moreover, as I shall proceed to show, the marine fossils of these two
sets of beds are not identical in character, as has been supposed, but
very distinct, the faunas being such as, at many points upon the
Continent, characterize two perfectly distinct horizons.

This distinction between the fauna of the Colwell-Bay beds and
that of the Headon-Hill and Hordwell-Cliff beds is rendered stri-
kingly apparent if we direct our attention to the species and varieties
by which certain genera are represented in these two deposits. The
genus Cerithiwm especially affords very interesting and valuable
evidence bearing on this point; and it was, indeed, while engaged
in a series of researches, commenced many years ago, with a view
to the determination of the genealogy and lines of descent of
the forms of this group, that I first detected the serious errors
which have crept into our classification and correlation of the
strata we are now considering. While the form now known as
Cerithium pseudocinctum, d’Orb. (with its variety C. trizonatum,
Morris) occurs in great abundance both in the marine beds of Col-
well Bay and all through the Headon series, two well-marked forms,
Cerithium ventricosum, Sow., and C. concavum, Sow. (with its varie-
ties C. pleurotomoides, Lam., and C. rusticwm, Desh.), are entirely
confined to the Headon beds, occurring similarly at Hordwell Cliff.
At both these latter localities these two forms of Certthium are
found in such prodigious abundance as to constitute the most cha-
racteristic fossils of the beds; and their total absence from the
Whitecliff-Bay, the Colwell-Bay, and the New-Forest beds is a most
significant circumstance.

Now, as long ago shown by M. Hébert, the form of Cerithium
known in this country as C. concavum, Sow., and in France as C.
rusticum, Desh., and C. plewrotomoides, Lam., is found at a very
definite horizon in the Paris basin—‘‘the Upper fossiliferous zone
of Mortefontaine and Monneville &c.”—the beds there, hke those
of Headon Hill, being characterized by the extreme abundance of
that fossil. More recently Dr. C. Mayer, of Zurich, whose researches
have contributed greatly to our knowledge of the exact correlation of
the various Tertiary deposits, has insisted upon the importance of
this paleontological horizon, which he has distinguished by the name
of “the Zone of Cerithium concavum’*. Dr. Sandberger, too, fully

* ©, Mayer, ‘ Table des Terrains Tertiaires Inférieurs,’ Ziirich, 1875.

150 PROF. J. W. JUDD ON THE OLIGOCENE

indorses the opinion of Hébert and Mayer as to the distinctness and
importance of this division of the Lower Tertiary series.*

When we come to study the whole of the marine forms of Headon
Hill and Hordwell, and to compare them with those of the Brocken-
hurst, Colwell-Bay, and Whitecliff-Bay beds, the distinction of the
two faunas becomes strikingly apparent. Nearly one hundred
marine forms are known from Headon Hill and Hordwell, while
almost twice that number have been obtained from the New-Forest
localities, Colwell Bay, and Whitecliff Bay. Of the forms found
at Headon Hill and Hordwell Cliff, less than one half occur at the
three other places. Again, if we compare both of the marine faunas
with that of the Barton series, we find that while nearly one third
of the Hordwell and Headon-Hill marine shells are Barton forms,
not more than one fifth of those occurring at Brockenhurst, Colwell
Bay, and Whitecliff Bay are found at Barton. On the other hand
the latter fauna has more species in common with that of the
Hempstead beds than has the former.

Summing up the results of this paleontological examination of the
beds, we find that the fossils in the Headon-Hill and Hordwell-Cliff
beds are almost identical, while those of Colwell Bay, Whitecliff Bay,
and of the New Forest localities also present the very closest agree-
ment with one another. But when we come to compare the fauna
of the two first-mentioned places with that of the other three, we
are struck by remarkable points of difference. In the first place, the
conditions indicated by the former are estuarine, of the latter purely
marine; secondly, more than one half of the forms found in the
former are different from those in the latter; thirdly, the former
exhibits a much closer approximation to the Barton fauna than does
the latter; and, fourthly (and most important of all), the fauna of
the former agrees with that of a series of beds occurring both in
France and Germany, which unquestionably underlie and are of
older date than beds containing the fauna of the latter. We thus
see that the paleontological evidence fully supports the conclusion
derived from a study of the physical evidence—namely, that the
Hordwell-Cliff and Headon-Hill strata are not, as has previously been
supposed, on the same horizon with those of Brockenhurst, Colwell
Bay, and Whitecliff Bay, but occupy a distinct and lower place in
the geological series.

V. CorrELATION oF THE Strata wits Forertcn Derostrs.

Since the date of the appearance of Edward Forbes’s posthumous
monograph ‘On the Tertiary Fluvio-marine Formation of the Isle
of Wight,’ so much has been done in the investigation of the faunas
and floras‘? of the several divisions of the series, and at the same

* Sandberger, ‘ Land- u. Sisswasser-Conchylien der Vorwelt,’ p. 198.

t The valuable collection of Lower Tertiary fossils made with such un-
tiring industry by the late Mr. F. EH. Edwards, and in part described by him-
self, Mr. 8. V. Wood, and Dr. Duncan in the publications of the Paleontogra-
phical Society, have fortunately been acquired for the nation, and are now in

STRATA OF THE HAMPSHIRE BASIN. 151

time so vast a fund of new information has been accumulated con-
cerning the age and relations of the equivalent beds upon the Conti-
nent, that geologists are now in a very different, and far more
favourable, position for estimating the evidence concerning the cor-
relation of the various beds than was the case at the time of Edward
Forbes’s death in 1854, This circumstance, taken in connexion with
the fact which I have now established, viz. the error hitherto made
in the determination of the order of succession of the beds, affords
sufficient warrant for that revision of the classification and nomen-
clature of the beds in question which I now propose to make.

_ As Professor Huxley has well pointed out, the time is approach-
ing when geologists will have to establish two distinct and parallel
systems of classification, for the formations of marine and fresh-
water origin respectively. In the series of beds which we are now
considering, we have such remarkable alternations of marine and
freshwater conditions that it will be of advantage to consider the
evidence afforded by the study of the marine fauna, and by the
freshwater and terrestrial fauna and flora respectively. The earliest
classification of the Tertiary strata—that of Lyell—was based en-
tirely upon the study of the marine Mollusca; and these forms still
constitute the safest guides in correlating the beds over different
areas; but, at the same time, so much attention has of late years
been devoted to the study of the freshwater and terrestrial shells
(the results of which have been admirably embodied in Dr. Sand-
berger’s ‘ Die Land- und Siisswasser-Conchylien der Vorwelt ’), that
great assistance may be obtained from these forms in the comparison
of the strata in different areas. Lastly, the flora and vertebrate
fauna occupying the land of the period afford the means of a third
series of comparisons. We shall proceed to the study of each of
these three kinds of evidence, in the order in which we have enu-
merated them, which is the order of their respective importance.

Confining our attention in the first instance to the forms of marine
life, we find that we have three well-marked horizons in the English
series which enable us to bring our strata into exact correlation
with those of France, Belgium, and Northern Germany, and, less
directly, with the deposits of the Alps, the Italian peninsula, and
Eastern Europe.

At the base of the Fluvio-marine series lies the richly fossiliferous
marine deposit of the Barton Clay. So long ago as 1857, Professor
Prestwich was able to enumerate no less than three hundred species
of Mollusca from this formation; and when all the known forms
contained in the numerous collections in this country come to be
described, the number of species from this deposit will probably be
found to exceed a thousand.

Now all paleontologists are agreed that the Barton Clay is repre=

the British Museum. ‘This splendid collection is so admirably arranged that
the work of the palxontologist who shall deal with these species is greatly
simplified ; and it is to be hoped geological literature will soon be enriched by
the publication of the as yet undescribed forms by the Palaontographical
Society, or, failing this, by the keepers of the national collection,

152 PROF, J. W. JUDD ON THE OLIGOCENE

sented in the Paris basin by the “ Sables Moyennes” or “ Sables de
Beauchamp,” and in Belgium by the “‘Systéme Laekénien” of
Dumont. Most geologists, too, regard this well-marked fossiliferous
zone as constituting the highest member of the Eocene or Nummu-
litic formation. This being admitted, we have an admirable and
safely established base-line from which to start in our comparison
of the English and foreign representatives of the succeeding geolo-
gical periods.

Lying upon the Barton Clay we find a great series of estuarine
strata, which in places attains a thickness‘of nearly 400 feet; and
this is succeeded by the beds containing the second marine fauna.
At Whitecliff Bay these marine beds are 100 feet in thickness ; at
Colwell Bay they are reduced to 25 feet, while in the New Forest
we have evidence that their thickness is considerable, though it has
never been exactly determined. Our knowledge of these marine
beds in the New-Forest area is derived entirely from an examina-
tion of exposures-in artificial openings—brickyards, wells, and rail-
way-cuttings. Some of the peculiar fossils of this horizon were ob-
tained so long ago as 1823 by Sir C. Lyell, and by him submitted
to Mr. Sowerby for description. Mr. F. E. Edwards made many
interesting collections from beds on this horizon at Brockenhurst,
Roydon, Whitley Ridge, and Lyndhurst, especially during the period
when railway-cuttings were being opened at the first-mentioned
of these localities. From information communicated to him by Mr.
Edwards, supplemented by his own studies, Von Konen, who was
well acquainted with the equivalent beds on the Continent, was
enabled to give the account of these beds which was published by
this Society in 1864*. Professor P. M. Duncan about the same time
described the important coral-fauna of these beds, the distinctive
character of which he was the first to recognize.

Now the marine fauna of these beds is a very rich and highly in-
teresting one. Von Konen was able in 1864 to enumerate 56
species of Mollusca as occurring at Brockenhurst; but we are now
acquainted with nearly 200 marine forms from the several localities
at wuich the beds representing this horizon occur.

The first point which claims our attention in connexion with this
second marine fauna is its striking distinctness from that of the
Barton beds. Of the 200 forms which it contains, not more than
20 per cent. are found in the Barton beds. Now this second fauna
is found to occur at many points upon the Continent, and always in
strata which distinctly overlie the Bartonian deposits. In the
Paris basin, it is true, this second marine fauna is not represented ;
for there the gypsum of Montmartre and other freshwater deposits
occur at this horizon, to the exclusion of marine beds; but in
Belgium, Northern Germany, and Switzerland we find the exact
equivalent of our English strata everywhere containing the same
well-characterized fauna. The fossils of the “ Tongrien inférieur ”
of Dumont (the Lower Limburg of Lyell), those of the strata which

* «On the Correlation of the Oligocene Deposits of Belgium, Northern Ger-
many, and the South of England,” Quart, Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xx. p. 97.

STRATA OF THE HAMPSHIRE BASIN. 158

over so large a part of North Germany overlie the Brown Coal, and
those of the “ étage Ligurien ” of C. Mayer agree so closely with the
forms found in the Isle-of-Wight and New-Forest beds as to put
their contemporaneity beyond question. The number of molluscan
forms obtained from this horizon at various points on the Continent
now greatly exceeds 1000; and everywhere the distinctness of this
fauna from that of the Bartonian is not less clearly marked than it
is in this country.

Up to the present time, however, the beds which in this country
contain this important marine fauna have not received a distinctive
local appellation ; and as their position in the geological series and
their relations to foreign deposits are now fully established, I propose
to callthem them the “ Brockenhurst Series,” from the locality in the
New Forest at which they have yielded the greatest number of fossils.

The appended list will serve to illustrate the richness and variety
of this second marine fauna. I have included in it a number of
MS. names given by the late Mr. F. Edwards; for although the forms
thus designated have not been described and figured, yet they are so
carefully arranged and so accessible for purposes of reference in the
British Museum, that I think I am justified in so doing. As to the
question whether these forms should be regarded as species or
varieties, I hold it to be one of very little importance ; enough for
us if they can be recognized as presenting constant and distinctive
characters, and are found characterizing definite geological ho-
rizons.

Fossils of the Brockenhurst Series.

W, found at Whitecliff Bay; C, at Colwell Bay; B, Brockenhurst and neigh-
bourhood ; L, Lyndhurst; x, pass down into Barton Series; @, pass up
into Hempstead Series.

x Marginella simplex, Hdw. OC.

estuarina, Edw. B, L.

Voluta tereticosta, Edw. MS. W, C.

geminata, Sow. B, L.

spinosa, Lam. C, B, L:

decora, Beyr. (V. maja, Edw.). B, L.

suturalis, Nys¢ (V. contabulata, Edw.). B.

depauperata, Sow. C.

Mitra gracilenta, Hdw. MS. B.

abbreviata, Kdw. MS. B.

polygyra, Hdw. MS. B.

Conorbis (Conus) dormitor, Sol., var. seminuda, Edw. B, L.
procerus, Beyr. (C. alatus, var. hemilissa, Hdw.). B, L.

Pleurotoma transversaria, Lam. B.

, var. cymea, dw. B.

, var. nana, Edw. C.

— pyrgota, Edw. B.

bellula, PAzll. B.

headonensis, Edw. OC, L.

DOE eee Bast. L.

, var. odontella, Edw. OC, L.

waa ie hiaarln, Edw. B.

subdenticulata, Goldf. (P. hantoniensis, Zdw.). B, L.

Borsonia sulcata, Rowault. C.

Q.J.G.8. No. 142. M

ve

e

154 PROF. J. W. JUDD ON THE OLIGOCENE

a Aporrhais (Chenopus) Margerini, de Kon., var. speciosa, Schloth. B.

zx Rimella rimosa, Sol. W, C, B,

x Hippocrenes (Rostellaria) ampla, Sow. (R. macroptera, Lam.). L.
Murex hantoniensis, Hdw. MS. B, L.

sexdentatus, Sow. C.

, var. cinctus, Hdw. MS. C.

x —— minax, Sol. B.

—— obtusus, Desh. B.

z« Typhis pungens, Sol. B, L.

Cantharus subcostulatus, Hdw. LL.

Pisania (Fusus) labiata, Sow. C, B, L.

—— , var. concinna, Hdw. MS. C.

—— nodicosta, dw. MS. B.

—— acuticosta, Hdw. MS. C.

x Clavella (Fusus) longeva, Sol. B, L.

, var. egregia, Bey OB.
Chrysodomus (Fusus) Sandbergeri, Beyr. B.
Leiostoma (Fusus) ovatum, Beyr. B.

x Strepsidura (Buccinum) armata, Sow. (B. bullatum, Phill.). W,B, L.
—— semicostata, Hdw. MS. C.

x Cominella (Buccinum) deserta, So/. (B. excavatum, Beyr.). B.

flexuosa, Edw. M:

ventricosa, Ti. MS. C.

xz Ancillaria buccinoides, Lam. C, B,L.

zx Cassis ambigua, Sol. (C. affinis, Phill.). B.

x Natica hantoniensis, Sow. B.

, var. obovata, Sow. B.

a —— conulus, Edw. MS. B.

grossiuscula, Edw.MS. B.

—— dubia, Hdw. MS. B.

— Studeri, Bronn. C,B.

labellata, Lam. B, L.

Cancellaria pyrgota, Edw. MS. (C. sex-muricata, 8. V. Wood). C, B, L.

elongata, Nyst. C, B,L.

roydonensis, Hdw. MS. B.

scrobicula, Hdw. MS. B.

xz —— evulsa, Sol. B.

Pyramidella (Turbonilla?) obscura, Edw. MS. B.
Turbonilla plicatella, Edw. MS. OC, B.

semilevis, Hdw. MS. B.

Odostomia loxodonta, Hdw. MS. C.

subumbilicata, Hdw. MS. C.

—— geminata, Edw. MS. C.

multispirata, Hdw. MS. C.

gracilis, Edw. MS. C.

angustata, Hdw. MS. B.

Hulima gracillima, Hdw. MS. C.

Scalaria levis, Morr. C.

tessellata, Hdw. MS. C, B.

Cerithium pseudocinctum, d’ Orb. W, C, B, L.

pyrgotum, Hdw. MS. O,B.

varians, Hdw. MS. C.

—— subconoideum, Edw. MS. C.

—— pliciferum, Hdw. MS. OC.

subventricosum, Hdw. MS. OC.

a Nematura parvula, Desh. C.

yemea, Forbes. OC.

Trochita (Infundibulum) obliqua, Sow. B.

Phorus cretifer, Hdw. B.

Teinostoma minutissimum, Edw. MS. C.

—— micans, Hdw. MS. C.

eS)

—

STRATA OF THE HAMPSHIRE BASIN. 155

Nerita aperta, Sow. O.
zstuarina, Hdw. MS. C.
Neritina concava, Sow. OC.
Tornatella (Actzon) hinneformis, Sandb. B.
altera, Desh. B.
Orthostoma crenata, Sow. B.
retiarium, Edw. MS. B.
x Ringicula parva, Hdw. MS. B.
Bulla estuarina, Edw. MS. C, L.
— Lamarckii, Desh. B.
— curta, Edw. MS. L.
simillima, Edw. MS. IL.
navella, Kdw. MS. OC.
Cylichna globulus, Hdw. MS. B.
ovalis, Hdw. MS. C.
Anomia Alcestiana, Nyst. B.
Ostrea velata, S. Wood. C.
— ventilabrum, Goldf. (O. prona, S. Wood . MWC, BL,
Pecten bellicostatus, S. Wood. B.
zx Avicula media, Sow. iB.
Dreissena unguiculus, Sandb. B.
Mytilus strigillatus, 8S. Wood. O.
Modiola Nystii, Kickl. MS. B.
ignota, Edw. MS. B.
z Arca biangula, Lam. B.
appendiculata, Sow. W, B.
— levigata, Caill. O, L.
duplicata, Sow. (A. sulcicostata, Nyst). B.
Trigonoceelia deltoidea, Zam. C, B, L
Nucula headonensis, Forbes. C.
nudata, S. Wood, B.C.
similis, Sow., var. B.
Leda propinqua, S. Wood. C.
minima, Sow. B.
Cardita simplex, Edw. MS. B.
paucicostata, Sandb. B.
deltoidea, Sow. W,B,O,L.
orbicularis, Goldf. B.
oblonga, Sow., var. transyersa, Edw. MS. B.
Crassatella hantoniensis, Hdw.
Lucina obesa, Hdw. MS. C.
concava, Defr. B,C.
—— pulvinata, Edw. MS. O.
bartoniensis, Edw. MS. B.
az —— Menardii, Desh., var. B.
Strigilla colvellensis, Hdw. MS. C.
Diplodonta suborbicularis, Hdw. MS. B.
— obsea, Edw. MS. B.
—— planiuscula, Edw. MS. B.
xz —— dilatata, Sow. B.
z« Oardium porulosum, Lam. B.
obliquum, Lam. B.
Edwardsii, Desh. B.
Protocardium hantoniensis, Edw. B.
«x Cypricardia pectinifera, Sow. B.
Isocardia transyersa, Nyst. B.
Scintilla angusta, S. Wood. ©.
Lepton tumidum, Hdw. MS. O.
Cyprina scutellaria, Desh. (Nyst). B.
—— Nystii, Hé. B.
a, Cytherea incrassata, Sow. sp. W, B,C, L.

m 2

156 PROF. J. W. JUDD ON THE OLIGOCENE

Cytherea turgescens, Edw. MS. B, L.
—— tumida, Edw. MS. B.
suborbicularis, Hdw. MS. B.
—— subelliptica, Hdw. MS. B.
hantoniensis, Hdw.MS. B.

zx ——Solandri, Sow. B.

£ elegans, Lam., var. B.

x Psammobia compressa, Sow. (P. stampinensis, Desh.). B,C.

, var. estuarina, Hdw. MS. B,

rudis, Lam. (P. solida, Sow.). C.

x Sanguinolaria Hollowaysii, Sow. LL.

a Tellina corbuloides, Hdw. C.
Syndosmya colwellensis, Hdw. MS. C.
Mactra filosa, Hdw. MS. C.

fastigiata, Hdw. MS. C.

Mya producta, Edw. MS. C.

xz Corbula cuspidata, Sow. W, C, L.

pisum, Sow. L.

Panopeea subeffusa, Edw. MS. C.

sulculosa,. Edw. MS. B.

corrugata, Sow. 3B.

Clavigella coronata, Desh. B.

Goldfussi, Phill. B.

Fistulana Heyseana, Phill. B.
Saxicava, sp. 5B.

Pholas, sp. 5B.

Teredo antenaute? Sow. B.

x Balanus unguiformis, Sow. B.
Solenastrza cellulosa, Dunc. B.
—— Keeneni, Dunc. B.

—— Reussi, Dunc. B.
—— gemmans, Dunc. B.

Beyrichi, Dunc. B.

granulata, Dunc. B.

Balanophyllia granulata, Dunc. B.

Lobopsammia cariosa, Goldf. sp. B.

Litharzea brockenhurstii, Dunc. B.

Axopora Michelini, Dune. B.

Madrepora Solanderi, Defr. B.

Remeri, Dunc. B.

— anglica, Dunc. B.

Of the 13 species of corals, 4 (namely Lobopsamnua cariosa,
Goldf., Madrepora Solandert, Defr., Solenastrea Kaneni, Dunce.,
and S. gemmans, Dunc.) are found in the Oligocene strata of the
Continent. Iam indebted to Dr. Duncan for valuable information
upon this point. It is only right to point out that the study of
these corals led Dr. Duncan to the conclusion that the Brockenhurst
strata are the representatives of the Oligocene of North Germany,
and that this conclusion was arrived at by him quite independently
of the work of Von Konen upon the molluscan forms in the same
beds.

Separated from the Brockenhurst series by about 300 feet of
estuarine and freshwater beds, we find the strata containing our
third marine fauna. This fauna is not represented, it is true, by so
large a number of species as either the Barton or the Brockenhurst
fauna; but we have, nevertheless, sufficient evidence of its distinct-
ness from both of them, and data by which we can correlate the

STRATA OF THE HAMPSHIRE BASIN. 15

deposits containing this third fauna with beds of the same age upon
the Continent. In the upper part of Hamstead (or “‘ Hempstead ”)
and Bouldnor Cliffs in the Isle of Wight, the only point at which
the beds of this age are clearly displayed, about 100 species of
marine Mollusca have been obtained. The distinction between this
fauna and that of the Barton and Brockenhurst series respectively
is shown by the fact that at Hamstead only five Barton and twelve
Brockenhurst forms occur. Indeed, as was clearly perceived by
Lyell, the nearest analogues to the Hempstead fauna are to be found,
not in the Eocene deposits, but in the Miocene.

The annexed list of Hempstead fossils sufficiently indicates the
character of this fauna; and there cannot be the smallest doubt as
to the foreign deposits which must be correlated with the beds con-
taining it. In the Paris basin we have the Lower Fontainebleau
Sandstone, in Belgium the Upper Tongrian or Kleyn-Spawen beds,
in the Mayence basin and Northern Germany the Marine Sands and
Septarian Clay, and in Switzerland the Lower Marine Molasse—each
of which contains a fauna presenting so many forms in common with
the fauna of the Hempstead beds as to leave no room for doubt as
to the approximate contemporaneity of all these deposits.

Fossils of the Hempstead Serves.

Voluta Rathieri, Héb. (V. Forbesii, Edw.).
detrita, Edw. MS.

Aporrhais (Chenopus) Margerini, de Kom., var. speciosa, Schloth.
Cantharus crebricostatus, Edw. MS.

Pisania (Fusus) labiata, Sow.

tricincta, Edw. MS.

parviuscula, Edw. MS.

Chrysodomus (Fusus) Edwardsii, Mor.

Cuma (Purpura) monoplex, Desh. (C. Charlesworthii, Edw.).
Natica conulus, Hdw. MS.

hempsteadensis, Edw. MS.

labellata, Lam.

Turbonilla (Pyramidella) subconvexa, Edw. MS.
micans, Edw. MS.

spiculoides, Edw. MS.

pseudospina, Hdw. MS.

scalaris, Edw. MS.

Cerithium plicatum, Lam.

, var. ryssum, Edw. MS.

, var. muticum, Ldw. MS.

, var. lineatum, Edw. MS.

, var. immeritum, Edw. MS.

, var. Galeotti, Nyst.

, var. intermedium, Sandb.

, var. papillatum, Sandb.
subcostellatum, Forbes.

— inornatum, Mor. (C. acutum, Sow. ?).
Lamarckii, Brong. (C. Sedgwickii, Mor.).
— elegans, Desh.

, var. Austenii, Forbes.
margaritaceum, Sow.

submargaritaceum, A. Braun.

— conoidale, Lam.

—— yenustum, Edw. MS.

———————

ns

a

———_

158 PROF, J. W. JUDD ON THE OLIGOCENE

Cerithium acuminatum, Hdw. MS.
— odontolon, Edw. MS.
asperulum, Edw. MS,

ligatum, Hdw. MS.

triseriale, Hdw. MS.

asperum, Edw. MS.

—— tropis, Edw. MS.

ornatissimum, Edw. MS.

—— cinctum, Brug., var. vectensis, Edw. MS.
, var. conjunctum, Forbes.
Rissoa turbinata, Lam.

diversa, Edw. MS.

paucicostata, Edw. MS.
obliquecostata, Hdw. MS.
Odostomia lineolata, Sando,
sulcifera, Edw. MS.

— nitens, Edw. MS.

micans, Hdw. MS.

Nematura pupa, Nyst.

parvula, Desh.

—— pygmeza, Forbes.

Teinostoma (Adeorbis) decussatum, Sando. sp.
-—— subumbilicare, Hdw. sp.

—— nitidum, Edw. MS.

affine, Hdw. MS.

Collonia trigonostoma, Edw. MS.
Neritina tristis,. Forbes,

striatula, Hdw. MS.

—— fulminifera, Sando:

marginata, Hdw. MS.
denticulata, Edw. MS.

——- planulata, Edw. MS.
Tornatella (Actzon) limnexiformis, Sando.
—— fasciolata, Hdw. MS.

Bulla celata, Desh.

—— Sandbergeri, Hdw. MS. (B. conoidea, Sandd., non Desh.)
—— conoidea, Desh.

Ostrea cyathula, Lam.

callifera, Lam.

longirostris, Lam.

Mytilus affinis, Sow.

—— strigillatus, S. Wood.

Modiola Prestwichii, Mor.

flabellula, S. Wood.
Deshayesii, Sow., var. hempsteadensis, 8S. Wood.
Lithodomus delicatulus, Desh.

Arca Websteri, Forbes.

Nucula sphenoides, Hdw.

Lutetia trigonula, Hdw.

Lucina Thierensi, Héb.

Cardium hempsteadianum, Hdw. MS.
—— nanum, Hdw. MS.

—— Htheridgii, Hdw. MS.

Cytherea Lyelli, Forbes.

Venus vectensis, Hdw. MS.

Forbesii, Hdw. MS.

Tellina Nysii, Desh.

vectensis, Hdw.
hempsteadiensis, Hdw.
corbuloides, Hdw.

Mya minor, Forbes.

hempsteadiensis, Hdw. MS.

STRATA OF THE HAMPSHIRE BASIN. 159

Mya donacialis, Hdw. MS.

Corbula vectensis, Fordes.

subpisum, @’ Ord,

Panopexa Heberti, Bosg. (P. minor, Forbes).
Pholas, sp.

If we now turn our attention to the forms of life contained in
the two groups of freshwater and estuarine strata alternating with
the three marine series which we have indicated, the views at which
we have arrived concerning the age and foreign equivalents of the
latter are supported and strengthened. The iowest of these groups
of freshwater and estuarine beds is more than 400 feet in thickness,
and exhibits many indications of the prevalence from time to time
of brackish-water and marine conditions. Hence there have been
collected from these beds a considerable number of marine forms, in
all about 100 species. Now if we examine their distribution, we
arrive at some interesting results. About one half of them occur in
the Brockenhurst series above, one third in the Barton below, while
one third are peculiar, and one sixth common to all three formations.

If we compare the British with foreign deposits, we find that the
marine fossils of this lower group of estuarine strata agree very
closely indeed with those of the series of beds developed at many
points of the Paris basin, as at Mortefontaine, Senlis, and Monneville,
and now well known to geologists under the name of the “ Zone of
Cerithium concavum,” Sow. ( Sous-étage de Mortefontaine” of C.

Mayer).

Marie Fossils from the Brackish-water Bands of Headon Hill and
Hordwell Cliffs.

[a Pass up into the Brockenhurst series. « Pass down to the Barton clay. ]

a Marginella simplex, Edw.
—— vittata, Edw.
a Pleurotoma headonensis, Edw.
a denticulata, Bast., var. odontella, Edw.
Woodi, Edw.
a,x Borsonia sulcata, Rouauilt.
a,x Rimella rimosa, Sol.
a, x Hippocrenes (Rostellaria) ampla, Sow.

a Murex sexdentatus, Sow.

Fasciolaria crebrilinea, Edw. MS.
Pisania (Fusus) scalaroides, Lam.

a Natica grossiuscula, Edw., MS.
Studeri, Bronn, var. clausa, Edw.
a, «2 —— labellata, Lam.

x Odostomia hordeola, Lam.

a loxodonta, Edw. MS.

a —— subumbilicata, Edw. MS.

a —— geminata, Edw. MS.

a —— wultispirata, Edw. MS.

a —— gracilis, Edw. MS.

x Turbonilla obliquecostata, Edw. MS.
sorella, Hdw. MS.

a Scalaria levis, Morr.

Cerithium concayum, Sow.

—— gyrostoma, Edw.

160 PROF, J. W. JUDD ON THE OLIGOCENE

a Cerithium duplex, Sow.
—— ventricosum, Sow.
contiguum, Desh. ?
—— multispiratum, Desh.
—— parvulum, Edw. MS.
—— cavatum, Edw. MS.
—— speculatum, Hdw. MS.
Ceecum Morrisii, Hdw. MS.
Lacuna clausa, Edw. MS.
Rissoa carinata, Hdw. MS.
——, var. denticulata, Edw. MS.

—— ditropis, Edw. MS.

Hydrobia polita, Hdw. MS.
a, « —— anceps, S. Wood.

—— Dubinsoni, Bowillot, var. rimata, Ldwu.
subangulata, Hdw. MS.
a,x Nematura parvula, Desh.

—— lubricella, A. Braun.

Trochus pictus, dw. MS.

Adeorhis zstuarina, Hdw. MS.
aperta, Hdw. MS.

a Nerita aperta, Sow.
estuarina, Hdw. MS.
a Neritina concava, Sow.
—— neritopsidea, Hdw. MS.
a Acton limneiformis, Sandb.
Ringicula ringens, Lam.
@& Bulla estuarina, Edw. MS.
Lamarckii, Desh.
— tenuicula, Hdw. MS.
wz Anomia tenuistriata, Desh.
a Ostrea velata, S. Wood.
a Avicula media, Sow.
a Dreissena unguiculus, Sando.
x
“
#

i)

Mytilus affinis, Sow.
strigillatus, S. Wood.
Modiola elegans, Sow.
, var. elegantior, S. Wood.
a Arca levigata, Caill.
a,« Trigonoceelia deltoidea, Lam.
a Nucula headonensis, Fordes,
tumescens, Hdw. MS.
ampla, Hdw. MS.
a lissa, Edw. MS.
a —— nudata, S. Wood.
a Cardita oblonga, Sow., var. transversa, Hdw. MS.
, var. serratina, Hdw. MS.
x Lucina inflata, Hdw. MS.

GA. obesa, Edw. MS.
x —— concava, Defr.
a —— pulvinata, Edw. MS.
x —— gibbosula, Lam.

pratensis, Hdw. MS.

a Strigilla colvellensis, Hdw. MS.
pulchella, Agass.

a, « Cardium obliquum, Lam.

a,x Scintilla angusta, 8. Wood.
nitidulum, S. Wood.

a, « Cytherea incrassata, Sow.
partimsuleata, Hdw. MS.
suborbicularis, dw. MS.

a

STRATA OF THE HAMPSHIRE BASIN. 161

a Psammobia estuarina, Edw. MS.
a, xv rudis, Lam. (P. solida, Sow.).
z Tellina ambigua, Sow.
reflexa, Hdw.
a,x Mya angustata, Sow.
a producta, Edw. MS.
a Corbula nitida, Sow.
a cuspidata, Sow.
a,x pisum, Sow.
fortisulcata, Edw. MS.
a,x Panopea subeffusa, Edw. MS.

The comparison of the terrestrial and freshwater Mollusca of these
two groups with one another, and with the forms contained in strata
of equivalent age upon the Continent, is now greatly facilitated by
the publication of Prof. Sandberger’s “‘ Land- und Siisswasser-Con-
chylien der Vorwelt.” The conclusions to which we are led are in
perfect agreement with those which result from the study of the
marine faunas. About 120 forms of freshwater and terrestrial
Mollusca have been described as occurring in these strata. Of these
more than one half are peculiar to the Headon beds, about one
quarter are peculiar to the Bembridge, while the remainder are
common to the two groups of strata. The distribution of these
forms is illustrated in the following Table :—

Freshwater and Terrestrial Mollusca of the Oligocene of the Isle of

Wight.
| | B
em-
bridge ree
group. eee
a | {
|
PAR SMI OL is Lo ihds alate scded siddazcawsasescedaovayiees | * |
peer SEE TEITS PUI Te Sota cde Pre nice eal os So wkie'ebe's> avin wales *

Re SE pte AND achat sharin staal ltuslaroie via vain iabni lela tae ee *
Fruticola (Helix) vectensis, Edw. ......ccccecscseersccececesees * *
Etyaiinia) (Helix) d) Urbanity HOW. jcccicocesvessewecveswaecven | * |
Meeranis (EIClE) OCCMIBR Py soos asec ivavecsisinaccinesciawedennans’s alow ag *
Patola (Helix) omphalus, Hw. ..........0-deccssacveseate coves * %
Strobilus (Helix) sublabyrinthicus, Hdw. ................0006. *

(Helix) pseudolabyrinthicus, Sandb. (= H. labyrin-

en Oo FW OGR, HOW BOY) feds. bec denunaverdnecwnasscatevt an * |
Gastrodonta (Helix) headonensis, Edw. .........cceeeseeceee| aes %
TSAHBEGS CONVOXUG, LO eile acacicuciconecseevensewweraverentes’ns % |
Glandina (Bulimus) costellata, SOwW........sesescscseseecsesees * | |
Amphidromus (Bulimus) ellipticus, Sow...................06- ‘See ae
Nystia (Dalim) poltta, Bu. - ciccccecseccncsvedevvtecar screens Pil at SU ulate
Pomatias (Bulimus) heterostomus, Hdw. ....0....ssceeveseese Cen ae es See

(Bulimus ?) vectiensis, Edw...............066 ars scheme i oped Mel
Cyclostoma (Pomatias) lamellosum, Edw. .ec..cscseeeeseeee ee ae |
EOE ATEN TER PONT ndss air do ules vocpavianenentdchacons «dus ssav' rr ae
Torquilla (Pupa) perdentata, Hdw. .........cesccecssssecsees ey hs
Clausilia striatula, HW. .0....1.s.csesescccesececescensercnceecens iif]
Magalomastoma (Cyclostoma) mumia, Lai. ...secceseereee) St |
Onilia ¢(Pupina?) Leevis, Law... 0.0 scccccncersdsnentecveles ) * |
BRI CRE AINS, MELD hers tone soc Poerdscainn ove Seda eatin dabibe a. | |

*
| |

=e MME, LOL: - cesiuexeowusuds tererstweniwecededesetanesuss’

162 PROF. J. W. JUDD ON THE OLIGOCENE

Freshwater and Terrestrial Mollusca (continued).

Assiminea conica, C. Prevost ......210..esseteecadbniae coven
Succinea sparnacensis, Desh. .........sseveesssseseees eassdeedaed
Tapada (Succinea) imperspicua, S. W ded\. dieivesanone
Himnes longistata, Brongn \jsgdoaes nt voce ananteieneccny paonene
p VEEL © sd rs idonnedaakeacsrevesadsecaebease Stedtnsdoasbed
fusiformis, SGU: Manica Bigctti De Bava has icy Blk a ah las ace
= 2-2) pyramidalis, Weslo cieus. trai steddagldadto dee alee adiaseaes:
CoLumeANIS, JSOW). | dMecctasevextat Seen csunencacdaes gaunt
=== Fabulumi, BLONG. sn desacstdcn tsar eerathaseue-seouemer meson res
GVM 7, BONGT oa siee Soke Sea astonee see Wea daeeaen cmc aenes
arenularia, BOM: vosecdvivora¥oeesers seineatnad Sonaaehee
— elongata, Marcel dé Serres....cccccccscecescsecsensescesees
saoae UTNITTIAS, (SOUL, 1s adits saci noah deat dipdaee ie dna atiecte saa
CHU CALA A HOU, ||) ¥iscdeiestociedrascensesumes wewseehs ode Gaur
ere PULCALE: LW. coh bi kode bndieu cos barton eae cae ae daca aaae
<= pibbosula, HdW. sseidsscccesscacssouvdsdvevsessess oGsedeoes
muxta, Baw. vera. Ta censasoeeteye as cddcabevaned Seaiaaeane
tumida, Hw. s.sccere sow adadde a3 sehcawddoewe Patecotcr cee
convexa, Edw. . SS UNG esing oie sabi ea asvoateaan wacheeeeee
subquadrata, [7 ene ee ee RENE Gs
=== Gostéllata;, FWwy visi< si xodonc¥ie itveies cali coerce ee
rer CHC LAR, LLU Ws Ni caeiian cata smnes trait RaW Gd Riets e satieltoR aaane eee
BAN OLS bien ET UON cero eked ou ers i cia ate deoistinict-tlcie yada cone
POE ae MAU els ovawndne seen nes nae veewc en eeen Meneeemeeee
Recah TVS) 2 // nO Bae Pe AM ne ite ee CERI eS eu
ESLTH0) Gite Pe 001 de eI Te
AMG YLOS (7) Meets, IA.” iansiseiedaeconanriswasse secs senesnasere siueien
Volletia elegans; iSO scccceesonecene ces sesisusleoiesanelantionicies sion
Nematura (?) pupa, Nyst

Parva gD esi) ois cs auch cdicosa eaau pie seep ua roneenioe Means aces
Planorbis discus, Hdw. ..cccccocccovecsecs Lisewdaposeerasirs Sole tt
Sowerbyi, Brong. ....ss.00+ sbidusdbapdesne sedaglcasecwednas
rotundatus, Brard .....cosssereeees calcu cuabeaesaatetanset
— obtusus, Sow. ....... alanis setios Seeeee eats decduscescaeers
—— platystoma, S. Wo00d .....s.00..sseeees sveopeaannds ae sveaeee
TENS, BONG cc Javascsinedacsesnosasessuncey aaddevarasnmegnaitns
tropis, Edw... Wieteewe ald hbavatees Sade gaavedeemaumeandeetad
hemistoma, SOW. .sccecssesssecssssvorencns ‘ gulaaavO ot eaai's«
elegans, Edw. (P. Baudoni ?, Desh.).........+06 Seana ee
biangularis?, HW, ...c00iscosececses iadcosectieteneeressewe®
Menetus (Planorbis) euomphalus, Sow, ...seccsseceesecseees
(Planorbis) goniobasis, Sandd. ......... gbiaeoy a0 eters
Helisoma (Planorbis) oligyratum, Sow........cscesssesceeseeee
Paludina (Bythinia) globuloides, H. Forbes .........1.s0.006
Lents, (Sou. ciieteusenwecseaet seo tcuvesnuskeate Shesudtadusis ee
—= concmnay SOW, divs sadscovane adeuiaa be dempeealanmeeens tuk
OF UCAS, SOW. Ny eeeree eokes ree etRee ee meee ee
———— lonta, VaR. secidssssudasic chen «a cneatdsan oat reneadmmerrerence
= INIMUIED, WSO ioe dan Sawienayonae-eis eouisnnepbaueepasernreunt es
angulosa; SOW): .,.2t vale Toni. obocb coe e ease emene teen.
Mitrula (Neritina) aperta, Sow. ...........csccseeees abs ewa een
Neritina. concava, J80t.),, .S.cccefionceeeasscononmeeneehueses eens
GSGIS, BOrnbas a. ietbuse helen Lees eea dene hemenemnee eee

OK OK ok

7K OK OK OK OK kK Ok OK OK OK Hk KOK KOK KOK OK OK

* OK OK

OK KH KK KK OK Kk OK

KK OK Kk Ok KE
*

STRATA OF THE HAMPSHIRE BASIN, 163

Freshwater and Terrestrial Mollusca (continued).

Bem-
‘ bridge Headon
group ae
Seumnenee Meroe, GO: WO0dsiiiaiiis ces svedesvaecdsdsducens veaceds ibe *
EMAMR AY OOD. 96's i246 se teaccesacdssaztsnanesnadivennecees ‘dis x
PURUUREDR ENED 5.5 cdi gdet oss. «ine sassutuawsemesdeadaawans ee %
Huchilus Chastelii, Nyst, sp. ............c.csecsenseeeneseeeeees *
Potamaclis (Melania) turritissima, Forbes ......csecsseeeees * *
neice. Wreptionia, SOW: sisie.dasccossessacteaeveve siecddaades vee * *
\ ne MAREE SOY 5 ix deb detva pied des vapavecrlassteesuceladiesd: % *
A SRM IR SHAY) 22 cath Ge cack as dn sdenedaddeeaauss nanetadess * *
D | —— Nystili, Duchastel .........sesessescsseseesesecsenseseeeees *
y BGM 105 nahi ioe ddaadsdsctsscoccaseadde casted sasbedseseds tie *
Sere TAREMED 7 six 5 226 cone dd dy oAwoe sash. caawndd cewtbaa ceed dete dbaee ead *
IV EVED boc ccndasctvbsrcades cavssdessstavaacduaens davaatsdsens oes *
er RASIIAS SIO: a ncstsstsvecds vasssdcsstscescuscdastavwetensens aes *
Pe BILCEEUPM ch, LMI... 05 cciteccsivcescsescecdacducedsdaicucsences %
re THM, FAOTPS Vike cttsecccdecdesactsecdciartecacwaccsddcebesds *
PE RTIIN P. «ok tp ah Savidcascodndsdveccescenabecedbenaees *
MNES MOTT i dvrcsscenvsbin cestccavtccsessbevertutects. cs *
meclanapels salalitay Sow: .. 206 .i6.0.s0cs.sddenedtieccecdecsennes *
EI MMIRINGESHIS! IMT: \ 5524 Cucbdak cv sib eins aus cevies ekesadeusas * *
MCN POTEET IS: GOW: oc oc-cccdsisestbisdeadccedeelsiacsdcicasdsees * *
SeMlarGides; ese. faeces star estat ade asd. is cass cen danes a
—— subcarinata, Morr. .i.....cccccsscecescscescssccscescsasesces ade *
PERRIS AD 2h ty wc wus dds Bhainceedalse va sobubor nes dine %
Hemisimus (Melanopsis) brevis, Sow. .......cseseesscsssesees x %
Macrospina (Melanopsis) carinata, Sow. ...........ssecseeees * *
PUmo Austen, Forbes & Mort: 6..0.ccis.cececieicisctcccssccecs *
——— Gibbsii, Forbes § Morr. .......c.cccccescscscccscsecscscees *
ee TTS OM on tose cBoatinnas ness daveceadwodsntdeedecadoait ee x
P= GUMORCONS, FAIO. MISS, | diccasancinavscdeccnsvcccaicev enone: ate *
ORMERNUEISIETS PADI WEES af LES sec dete tion pcvacs csr aedseeducces Fes *
Corbicula (Cyrena) obovata, Sow. ...........csecssessesceeeeees * *
Batissa (Cyrena) obtusa, FOorbes............ccccsceesseesensenees *
Cyrena semistriata, Desh. ....:sici0..scsscccscsesesucsececesens *
See CNP, MUD. a cade cites cus 0 cokes nteutnrascnesasatidieenees ess %
—— transversa, Forbes ..... aeeiiidPWeawesceraan mbeeaiwadadsenbes *
BEA Se RTGIRE: PICME:, 5.552220 acces bes tedids cccacsecteesdodecsts a *
Parra MENT, ICBM, heh a guvciob. dd oud adds. cdUTereeb ace dion. os os *
PyelaOrMs MGs «23 si29504s 2. 0s 2h pes dis ects savenanvee oa ata x
— pulchra, Sow., var. Wrightii, Forbes ............0.064. ie x
arenarig, S. WO0d .sscsocsscconses wadaueeavedeemdeccds dence ees *
MTP STE WY EMME es hascad tos cd coaets sree sditesulgseventuncncd ot x
——— Pibbostila, MOP. ....0.cccsseceiessscecccsscvccssececesescsces du x
Oyelas Bristovisy Porbes si isc: pisswstees. chstars docaes cacssenesss %
feet MINA MTR IGE AMD gio ss 5, 3 ch uh dod vaducAesdeenscdysosaceces ous *
MUO AMPUStALA, SOW. ccsic.ccceccuscoedesessseciecccescesates vas *
ee RCC NOPE. fala dics sits dey ses en sattackven sw aur isaecass Sens *
POtamiontya pla, Gow. 3255..253.. civics ects cotesieescoet * x
ee APNEA IU J. Saniod4 050d. cd dd sacle sancdsacedidessoresvene ee %
a AB BUIAER, BOW: <sicnsrcossassivssveseccscsdtssdesscsnoatsdise %

The freshwater and terrestrial Mollusca of the strata above the
Brockenhurst series in many cases belong to species which occur
likewise in the Calcaire de St. Ouen and the gypseous series of
Montmartre in the Paris basin, in the Paleotherium-Limestone of

164 PROF, J. W. JUDD ON THE OLIGOCENE

the South of France, and in strata of the same age in Belgium and
Northern Germany. The forms which occur in the beds below the
Brockenhurst series are many of them common to the Tongrian of
Belgium and the Lower Oligocene of Northern Germany.

A very considerable number of vertebrate forms has been ob-
tained from this great estuarine series of beds. Teeth of Squalus and
Myhobates, and scales and teeth of Leprdosteus, abound in the lower
group. Of reptiles we have the remarkable Crocodilus Hastingsie,
Owen (of which the fine Alligator hantoniensis of 8. Wood is believed
by both Owen and Huxley to be only a variety). With this Croco-
dilian we have also in the lower series of estuarine strata a number
of remarkable Chelonians, including Trionyx Henrict, Owen, T. Bar-
bare, Owen, T. marginatus, Owen, T. rivosus, Owen, T. planus, Owen,
T. crcumsulcatus, Owen, with Himys crassa, Owen, and E. hordwel-
lensis, Seeley. There have also been found at the same horizon some
Ophidian and Lacertilian remains that as yet remain undescribed.
In the Upper series of estuarine beds lying above the Brockenhurst
series, the only recorded reptilian form is the T’rronyw incrassutus,
Owen.

The study of the Mammalian fauna of these beds yields some facts
of considerable interest; ‘The beds above the Brockenhurst series
have yielded four species of Palwotherium, two of Anoplotherium,
one of Cheropotamus, two of Hyopotamus, and one of Dichobune.
The beds below the Brockenhurst series have yielded three species
of Paleothervum, all distinct from those of the beds above, with
representatives of the genera Palaplotherium, Dichobune, Micro-
chorus, Spalacodon, Hycenodon, and Dichodon. ‘There also exist
in the British and Woodwardian Museums, and in some private
collections, undescribed vertebrate remains, which, when carefully
studied, will probably throw much new light on the terrestrial life
of this period.

In 1862 Prof. Heer described the following ten species of plants
as derived from the black band of Hamstead in the upper of the
two estuarine series. These are Sequoia Couttsie, Heer, Cyperites
Forbesi, Heer, Sabal major, Ung., Andromeda reticulata, Ett., Nym-
phea Doris, Heer, Nelumbium Buchu, Ett., Carpolites Webstera,
Brong., Carpolites globulus, Heer, Chara Escheri, A. Brong., and
Chara tuberculata, Lyell, var. Of these no less than six, as pointed
out by Prof. Heer, are well-known species, found in Switzerland and
elsewhere in the Aquitanian and Tongrian divisions of the Tertiary
series, or in strata which are now classed with the Oligocene.

In the lower series of estuarine strata, or Headon group, Gyro-
gonites are the only common plant-remains. One of the forms,
Chara Wrighti, Forbes, is peculiar to the Headon group; and
another, C. tuberculata, Lyell, is common to both the Bembridge and
Headon groups. Mr. J. Starkie Gardner records a feather-palm
from these beds*.

* Monograph of the British Eocene Flora, Pal. Soc. 1879, p. 20.

STRATA OF THE HAMPSHIRE BASIN. 165

VI. Suspivistons AND NOMENCLATURE OF THE SERIES.

According to the classification of the Tertiary strata usually fol-
lowed in this country, it is necessary to divide the fluvio-marine
series into two portions, placing one in the HKocene and the other in
the Miocene. This is the grouping of the strata followed by the late
Sir Charles Lyell; and no one who has studied the faunas of the
Hempstead beds, and of their equivalents the Fontainebleau Sand-
stone of the Paris basin, and the Rupelian of Belgium, can for one
moment doubt that this classification is well founded. The fauna
of the Fontainebleau Sandstone and of the Rupelian being unques-
tionably more closely related to the Miocene than to the Eocene, it
is quite impossible to accept the grouping adopted by the Geological
Survey, and followed in most English text-books of geology, and to
extend the Eocene or Nummulitic series upwards so as to embrace
beds containing such faunas as those of the Brockenhurst and Hemp-
stead series.

On the other hand the inconvenience of breaking up so natural a
group of strata as that which the fluvio-marine beds of the Hamp-
shire basin manifestly constitute is apparent to every one; and it is
doubtless this conviction which has operated in preventing the general
acceptance of the Lyellian classification. It has been felt, and rightly
too, that no such break in continuity exists between the Hempstead
and Bembridge strata as would warrant their being placed in distinct
divisions of the geological series.

Fortunately a method of classification is open to-us which, while
it does not break up this natural group of the Fluvio-marine of the
Hampshire basin, yet enables us to refer its members to divisions of
the geological series which have been based on the careful and exact
study of the faunas of the Tertiary strata all over Europe. This
classification completely satisfies the apparently opposing require-
ments of the physical geologist and the paleontologist.

In the year 1854 Prof. Beyrich, in describing the nature and
affinities of the fauna which was yielded by the Tertiary beds of
Northern Germany, pointed out that the same difficulty is found in
defining whether they should be regarded as Eocene or Miocene as
is the case with the English strata which we are now considering.
He further showed how recent discoveries had added greatly to the
importance which must be attached to the beds on this horizon,
beds which he has demonstrated to be represented by deposits of
great thickness, not only in Hampshire but in the Paris basin, Bel-
gium, the Mayence basin, and Northern Germany ; and he suggested
that these strata form a division of such consequence, and containing
a fauna so distinct, that they deserve to be erected into a new
grand division of the Tertiary series. For this division of the
geological series Prof. Beyrich proposed the name of “ Oligocene,”
a term formed on the same principle as was adopted by Lyell in
devising names for the other divisions of the Tertiary strata.

This division of the Tertiary series, to which Beyrich applied
the name of Oligocene, has now come to be very generally recog-

166 PROF. J. W. JUDD ON THE OLIGOCENE

nized on the Continent. It has been shown that, not only in the
districts in which its existence was first made known, but also in
Switzerland, Italy, and Hungary, deposits are found, sometimes
attaining a thickness of several thousands of feet, which contain
the same well-characterized fauna, and must be referred to the same
division of the geological series. And by the labours of Beyrich,
Von Konen, Sandberger, Mayer, Von Hantken, and many other
paleontologists our knowledge of the extent and peculiarities of the
fauna has been greatly enlarged.

The marine fauna of the Hempstead beds unquestionably agrees
in the closest manner with that of the Fontainebleau Sandstone, the
Rupelian of Belgium, the marine sand of the Mayence basin, and
the clays of Hermsdorf, Cassel, &c. in Northern Germany. All of
these strata are now recognized as belonging to the Middle Oli-
gocene. |

The Brockenhurst beds contain a rich fauna, the analogues of
which, as we have seen, are not found in the Paris basin (where
the strata of this horizon are of freshwater origin), but which find
their exact representatives in the Lower Tongrian of Belgium and
the Clays of Lattorf, Egeln, and Helmstadt in Northern Germany.
These constitute the Lower division of the Oligocene.

With regard to the beds which underlie the Brockenhurst series,
those, namely, of Headon Hill and Hordwell Cliff, there is equally

little room for doubt. They unquestionably represent the “‘ Zone

of Cerithium concavum,” which was long ago recognized as exist-
ing in the Paris basin by Prof. Hébert, and of which the import-
ance has been more recently demonstrated by Dr. C. Mayer and
Prof, Sandberger. On one point some little difference of opinion
may still exist—namely, as to whether the strata of the Zone of
Cerithium concavum should be placed in the Eocene or Oligocene,
As we have already pointed out, a study of the marine forms which
they contain proves that the fauna is intermediate between those of
the Barton and Brockenhurst series. Both Dr. Mayer and Prof.
Sandberger incline to the view that they should be grouped with
the Bartonian, and regarded as an upper member of that division.
In this country, on the other hand, as also in the Paris basin, the
evidence appears to me to point in the other direction, and I can-
not but regard this Zone of Cerithiwm concavwm as the base of the
Oligocene—a view which is shared by Prof. Beyrich himself. As a
matter of fact, the fauna of the beds in question is so strictly inter-
mediate in character between the Barton and the Brockenhurst
faunas, that it may be regarded as a question of convenience
whether they should be grouped with one or the other. In this
country there can be no doubt that convenience demands that they
should be grouped with the other fluvio-marine beds.

In dealing with the classification of the Oligocene strata of the
Hampshire basin it is desirable to retain as far as possible the local
groupings which are already familiar to geologists, only making
such corrections as the new facts discovered concerning the succes-
sion of the strata prove to be absolutely indispensable.

167

STRATA OF THE HAMPSHIRE BASIN.

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168 PROF. J. W. JUDD ON THE OLIGOCENE

First in importance we have the strata containing the three marine
faunas, which, as we have seen, are so well characterized and are so di-
stinct from one another. The name of Bartonian is now accepted
everywhere for the strata containing the first and lowest marine fauna
and their continental equivalents. For the beds which contain the second
marine fauna, I have proposed the name of the Brockenhurst series.

For the beds containing the tiird and highest marine fauna, I
propose to retain the name of the Hempstead series. It is a very
unfortunate circumstance that, in selecting this name, Prof. Edward
Forbes was labouring under a mistake. As I have already pointed
out, Hamstead, in the Isle of Wight, is spelt in a different manner
from that of the well-known London suburb; while the name of
Hempstead is not only quite unknown in the Isle of Wight, but
belongs to localities in Essex and Hertfordshire. Nevertheless the
inconvenience of changing a name which has been so generally
adopted both in this country and abroad is so manifest that I do not
propose to interfere with it. It is desirable, however, to restrict its
application to the more purely marine strata constituting the upper
100 feet of the section in the Isle of Wight. 'The grounds on which
Prof. Forbes separated the estuarine marls below the marine strata of
Hamstead from the Bembridge marls below can now be shown to be
very unsubstantial. The occurrence of a lignite seam like the
“ Black band” of the Hempstead series is too common a circum-
stance in the case of these fluvio-marine beds to warrant us in
making it the limit between two series of strata; while the first
appearance of Hydrobia (or Rissoa) Chasteli, to which Prof. Forbes
attaches so much importance, loses its significance now that, as is
shown by Prof. Sandberger, the shell in question is recognized as a
freshwater form belonging to the genus Huchilus.

In dealing with the estuarine strata which separate these three
marine groups, the Barton, the Brockenhurst and the Hempstead,
I am impressed with the desirability of avoiding the multiplication
of names for small and local groups of these strata, where no good
paleontological grounds can be shown for such divisions. The strata
are so inconstant in their mineral characters, and it is so manifestly
impossible to trace them at the surface by the methods at the com-
mand of the geologicai surveyor, that such minute subdivision of the
beds can tend only to the confusion rather than to the elucidation of
their relations.

I therefore propose to extend the name of the Headon series so as
to cover all the beds between the Barton and the Brockenhurst series,
and to call all those strata which, as we have seen, belong to the
paleontological Zone of Cerithiwm concavum, the Headon group.
The divisions of Upper, Middle, and Lower Headon cannot, as I shall
show, be traced to any distance; and we therefore regard the aban-
donment of these smaller subdivisions as an actual advantage. The
Headon group, as now constituted, will embrace the whole of the true
Headon series, with certain others both above and below it.

To all the beds between the Brockenhurst and Hempstead series
I propose to apply the name of the “ Bembridge group,” which also

STRATA OF THE HAMPSHIRE BASIN, 169

includes strata both above and below the “ Bembridge series” of
Edward Forbes. It includes not only the Bembridge limestone and
marls of that author, but also beds referred by him to the base of
the Hempstead, the Osborne and St. Helens, and to the Upper
Headon. These great changes in the classification and nomencla-
ture of the strata are rendered absolutely necessary by the discovery
that has been made of the error in the existing views of the succes-
sion of the strata.

With respect to Forbes’s division of the “ Osborne and St. Helen’s
series,” I think that it had better be given up altogether, and on the
following grounds :—First, there are no good characters, either phy-
sical or paleontological, by which this division can be defined.
Secondly, the separation of this division from those above and below
it has been found so difficult, that even in the different publications
of the Geological Survey very serious discrepancies exist as to the
limits of the series; and thirdly, under this name beds lying below
the Brockenhurst series, as at Headon Hill, have been confounded
with others on a totally different horizon, above the Brockenhurst
series.

VII. Tatckness oF THE STRATA AND THEIR DEVELOPMENT IN
DIFFERENT AREAS,

Immediately above the richly fossiliferous Barton Clay we find a
series of sandy strata with subordinate argillaceous beds. At Alum
Bay these strata attain a very considerable thickness, which has
been variously estimated at from 100 feet to 200 feet ; it is probably
not less than 150 feet. These Headon-Hill sands are usually called
the Upper Bagshot beds; but it appears to me that it cannot but
be a source of confusion to base our classification of the Upper
Eocene strata on the poorly fossiliferous deposits of the London
basin rather than on the richly fossiliferous deposits of the Hamp-
shire basin. It is true that at Alum Bay the Headon-Hill sands
have not yielded any fossils; but the equivalent beds at Hordwell
Cliff contain a by no means scanty fauna, in which we find the same
admixture of marine and freshwater forms which characterizes the
overlying Headon strata. As, moreover, we detect in these beds
the eminently characteristic fossil Cerithium concavum, it seems
clear that we must regard them as constituting the lowest member
of the Headon group,

The Headon group, as exhibited at the western extremity of the
Isle of Wight, is about 400 feet in thickness. It consists in the
upper part of freshwater and terrestrial beds,—beds of limestone
containing Limnea, Paludina, Planorbis, and other pulmoniferous
Gasteropods, alternating with sands and clays containing freshwater
fossils, while beds of lignite, sometimes a foot or two in thickness,
indicate old terrestrial surfaces. But in all the lower part of the
series we find a tendency to the recurrence of brackish-water condi-
tions ; and in these intercalated fluvio-marine bands we find numerous
Cerithia, Cyrene, and dwarfed Ostree.

Q.J.G.8. No. 142, N

Comparative Vertical Sections oi the Oligocene Strata of the Hampshire Basin, :
(Scale, 2 inch to 100 feet.)

East End of Isle of Wight. | West End of Isle of Wight. New Forest.

Corbula-beds.
HEMPSTEAD SERIES
(marine).

Cerithium-beds.

=] White band.

Upper Bem ridge

Marls. Freshwater Marls.

Ser Maeape

= Black band.

Bembridge Lime-
stone.

“..

mn a
~

Lower Bembridge
Marls.

BEMBRIDGE GROUP (estuarine).
eee

BROCKENHURST
SERIES (marine).

-
*

Clays and
Limestones.

Pri iod
oo"
7

ge ~~" Sands and Lime- [eae
stones of Ward-
en Point and/=&

Freshwater Clays
Headon Hill.

&e., with lignites. =
Clays of
Totland Bay.

Brackish-water Beds.

Clays with Lignites
Sands.|:

[
|
|
|
a|
|
|

sezia] TIT.

HEADON Group (estuarine).

ee Ss ee

Sands and Clays.|=

BARTONCLAY(marine).

He aricon of Plant-remains described by Mr. ae and Prof. Heer ; II. Waviadh
of bed containing Insect and Crustacean remains discovered by Mr. A?’Court Smith ;
JIL. Horizon of bed containing Crocodilian and other Reptilian remains at Hordwell ;
IV. Horizon of bed with Mammalian remains at Hordwell. .

OLIGOCENE STRATA OF THE HAMPSHIRE BASIN. 171

When the beds of the Headon group are traced over to the oppo-
site coast of Hampshire, they are found at Hordwell, apparently
diminished in thickuess; and here we have evidence of the existence
of numerous reptilian and mammalian forms of life which do not
oceur in the Isle-of-Wight strata. Unfortunately, however, the
exposure is incomplete, only the lowest 100 feet of the group being
seen in the cliff section. The correspondence both of the freshwater
and brackish forms of the Mollusca at Headon Hill and Hordwell is
perfect, and leaves no room for doubt that the two series of strata
are upon the same geological horizon.

When we pass to the eastern extremity of the Isle of Wight, we find
at Whitecliff Bay a very different series of strata from that exposed
at Headon Hill. Immediately below the well-marked Brockenhurst
series at Whitecliff Bay we have a series of clays and lignites with
some. bands of ironstone, which appear to be entirely of freshwater
origin. These are estimated by Mr. Prestwich at 92 feet in thick-
ness ; but the officers of the Survey make them only 40 feet. My
own measurements indicate a thickness intermediate between these
two amounts, namely about 60 feet. Below these we have 200
feet of sands usually identified with the Headon-Hill sands, but
which I cannot but regard as representing all the lower part of the
Headon group. Unfortunately they do not contain any fossils, with
the exception of the casts of a few undeterminable bivalves. As is
well known, the Barton series is very imperfectly represented at
Whitecliff Bay, and it is difficult to draw a boundary either between
the Bracklesham and the Barton beds or between the latter and
the overlying fluvio-marine strata.

The Brockenhurst series is represented at Whitecliff Bay by 100
feet of purely marine strata. The identity of these with the beds
of the New Forest, so well worked out by Mr. Edwards and Herr
Von Konen, has already been recognized by Mr. Fisher* and by
Messrs. Jenkins and Codringtont. At Colwell Bay this marine
series is reduced to a thickness of 25 feet; but the number of its
fossils is so great as to render its correlation with the Brockenhurst
beds unquestionable. In the New Forest, unfortunately, we have
no clear sections showing the thickness and succession of the Brock-
enhurst series. A well-section, observed by Mr. Henry Keeping and
recorded by Mr. Wise in his work on the New Forest, shows that
the thickness of this marine series is certainly not less than at
Colwell Bay. Considering the wide area over which the fossils of
this horizon have been found, the thickness of the Brockenhurst
series in the New Forest is probably very considerable.

The Bembridge group consists of a series of beds which at the
western end of the Isle of Wight attain a thickness of more than
250 feet. In the midst of the series occurs the well-known lime-
stone of Bembridge, having a thickness of about 25 feet. We may
distinguish the beds above and below the Bembridge Limestone
respectively as the Upper and Lower Bembridge Marls. The Lower

* Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xviii. (1862) p. 67.
t bid, yol. xxiy. (1868) p. 519. F
N c

172 PROF, J. W. JUDD ON THE OLIGOCENE

Bembridge Marls separate the Bembridge Limestone from the
Brockenhurst series, and are about 100 feet in thickness. Their
fossils are entirely such as lived in fresh water. The Upper Bem-
bridge Marls are about 130 feet in thickness (including the lower
parts of the beds formerly referred to the Hempstead series), and
are much more richly fossiliferous than the Lower Bembridge Marls.
Near their base and at a little distance above the Bembridge Lime- .
stone occurs the band of fine-grained limestone which has yielded
to Mr. A’Court Smith such a large number of crustacean and insect
remains, some of which have been described by Dr. Woodward *
and the Rev. P. B. Brodiet. In the higher part of the Upper Bem-
bridge Marls there occurs a lignite bed (Black Band) which has
yielded a considerable number of plant-remains{. At the eastern
extremity of the Isle of Wight the Bembridge group is nowhere
exhibited in its entirety, but the thickness of strata above the
Brockenhurst series is found to be 220 feet.

The Lower Bembridge Marls are here about 140 feet in thick-
ness, and, as at the western extremity of the Isle of Wight, con-
tain but few fossils, and these entirely of freshwater species. But
at one point at the east end of the Isle of Wight (namely, between
Ryde and St. Helens) these lower beds of the Bembridge group
assume a totally distinct character, and are seen as strata of sand
and sandstone, occasionally passing into conglomerates. To the
upper part of this arenaceous representative of the Lower Bembridge
Marls, Prof. Forbes gave the name of the “‘ St. Helen’s Sands ;” and
the lower part he called the “ Nettlestone Grits.” The Bembridge
Limestone is very constant in character and thickness wherever it is
seen in the Isle of Wight. The Upper Bembridge Marls at the
eastern part of the Isle of Wight are generally similar to the beds
on the same horizon at the west end of the island; but about 5 feet
above the top of the Bembridge Limestone there occurs a band con-
taining Ostree, Cytherea incrassata, and other marine forms mingled
with freshwater shells. This band was long confounded with the
‘‘ Venus-beds ”’ of Colwell Bay and Headon Hill, its distinctness
from these being first established by Prof. Edward Forbes. Only
about 80 feet of the lower part of the Upper Bembridge Marls are
exposed at the east end of the Isle of Wight.

Although the Bembridge Limestone is found at Sconce, stretch-
ing beneath the sea in the direction of the Hurst-Castle promontory,
and isolated exposures of Bembridge beds are seen in Hampshire,
yet no continuous sections of the Bembridge group are found in the
New-Forest area.

The Hempstead series is only clearly exposed at the Hamstead
and Bouldnor Cliffs; but, as pointed out by Mr. Godwin-Austen,
there are proofs of the existence of these beds on the high ground
covered by Parkhurst Forest$, while Dr. Wilkins has found them

* Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxxv. p. 343.

t Proc. Warwickshire Nat. & Archzol. Field-Club, 1878,

t Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xviii. p. 369.

§ ‘On the Tertiary Fluvio-marine Formation of the Isle of Wight’ (1856), p.37.

STRATA OF THE HAMPSHIRE BASIN. tie

on the Osborne estate on the east side of the Medina*. It is not
improbable that under the extensive beds of gravel that almost
everywhere conceal the Oligocene strata in the northern part of the
Isle of Wight, the Hempstead beds may be present at many points.
They have not, however, been detected on the north side of the Solent.

The portion of the Hempstead series, as now limited by me,
which is exposed at Hamstead Cliff, is about 100 feet in thickness.
The incoming of brackish-water conditions at the base of the series
is marked by the appearance of numerous forms of Cerithiwm and
marine Mollusca. At the top of the series the marine forms become
much more numerous. The Hempstead beds represent, as we have
pointed out, the lower part of the Middle Oligocene; whether the
representatives of the remainder of the Middle Oligocene and of the
Upper Oligocene were ever deposited in the Hampshire basin we
have unfortunately no means of determining. It is interesting,
however, to notice that the Lower Oligocene and the inferior portion
of the Middle Oligocene deposits are in this country more than 900
feet in thickness.

VIII. Conctuston.

Whether we regard the enormous thickness of the beds deposited
during this portion of the Tertiary epoch, the marked and distinctive
characters of both the marine and terrestrial faunas, or the vast
changes in the distribution of land and water, of which we have
such clear proofs in the deposits of this period, it must be admitted
that the Oligocene is worthy to rank among the great divisions of
the Cainozoic epoch, and must be regarded as of equal value with
the Eocene, the Miocene, or the Pliocene.

It is clear that at the commencement of the Oligocene period
great changes must have taken place in the physical geography of
Europe and Asia. Large areas, in which marine deposits had been
slowly accumulating during the Nummulitic period, were now up-
heaved and formed dry land; and though the sea from time to time
re-invaded these areas, the deposits formed in Europe during the
Oligocene period were to a great extent of terrestrial and lacustrine
origin, while the marine strata were, for the most part, quite sub-
ordinate to these. During Eocene times marine conditions, due to
continued subsidence, prevailed ; and during Miocene times terres-
trial conditions, resulting from elevation, existed: the Oligocene
was deposited in a period of oscillation (one of enormous duration)
which separated these two epochs.

The reason why the importance of the marine fauna representing
the Oligocene was so long overlooked, is to be sought for in the cir-
cumstance that marine strata of this age are usually thin and sub-
ordinate to intercalated freshwater or estuarine beds ; and the fact
that the strata of this age are very frequently covered by thick
superficial accumulations long prevented the collection and study
of the fossils of the period.

It was during the Oligocene period that those great movements
commenced which resulted in that folding and crumpling of strata,

* Proc. Geol. Assoc. yol. i. p. 194.

%

174 PROF. J. W. JUDD ON THE OLIGOCENE

so strikingly exhibited in the Alps and Himalayas and the other
great ranges which constitute the axis of the eastern continent.
At the same time, too, began those volcanic outbursts along lines
parallel to this axis, which attained their climax mm the Miocene
period, and have not yet died out at the present day.

The Oligocene was a period at which, as we have seen, many 0os-
cillations in the level of the land and sea took place in this part of
the globe, elevation and subsidence alternating with one another
again and again. Hence we find the thickness of the several de-
posits exhibiting great variations within very short distances. In
eastern Hurope (Hungary and Transylvania) the Oligocene strata
attain a thickness of from 2000 to 3000 feet, and contain numerous
beds of coal, one of which, in the Tsilthal, measures no less than
90 feet. But in Northern and Western Kurope the Oligocene is re-
presented by a series of delta deposits of much less considerable
thickness. As, however, we approach the great mountain axis,
where the maximum amount of movement has taken place, we find
that deposits of enormous thickness have been accumulated, as in
Bavaria, Switzerland, and Northern Italy, where beds of this age
attain a thickness of from 19,000 to 12,000 feet.

That the Oligocene must represent a period of enormous duration
we cannot, ater what has been stated concerning the thickness of
the deposits, for one moment doubt. And ce conclusion is fully
sustained when we come to study the marine and terrestrial forms
of life which flourished while these strata were being accumulated.
The labours of Beyrich, Von Konen, Sandberger, and others have
now made known to us a marine fauna consisting of several thou-
sands of species; and this fauna is found to be clearly distinguished
alike from that of the Eocene below and that of the Miocene above.
The reasons why Lyell failed to recognize this great fauna and to
include it in his scheme of classification of the Tertiary strata, we
have already pointed out. The terrestrial fauna and flora of the
Oligocene is also as distinct from those of the Kocene and Miocene
respectively, as is the marine fauna; and the characteristic Oligo-
cene terrestrial fauna and flora have been recognized, not only in the
Eastern continent, but in North America.

That which has been asserted of the Oligocene formation gene-
rally, may be maintained with equal truth concerning its represen-
tatives in these islands, the fluvio-marine strata of the Hampshire
basin. These strata, although they unfortunately furnish only a
fragmentary record of the earlier portions of the Oligocene period,
are nevertheless between 800 and 900 feet in thickness. They con-
tain a marine fauna and a terrestrial fauna and flora agreeing in
the most perfect manner with those of the continental Oligocene ;
and, moreover, the great zones of life determined in the latter can,
as we haye pointed out, be clearly recognized in the former. Like
the continental Oligocene strata, our fluvio-marine beds were evi-
dently deposited during a period of oscillation which followed the
long-continued submergence of the EKocene or Nummulitic, and pre-
ceded the final and most violent of those movements to which the
plication and metamorphism of the Alpine rocks bear such striking

a

—

STRATA OF THE HAMPSHIRDE BASIN. 175

testimony, movements which brought about those terrestrial condi-
tions that prevailed over so large an area in Miocene times. Of these
great movements we are not without illustrations in this country ;
for striking evidences of them are afforded in the folded, uptilted,
and occasionally inverted strata of the Hampshire basin.

When it is further remembered that the classification of the
fluvio-marine strata in our Hampshire basin has always presented
peculiar difficulties to geologists, and that for a long time no course
seemed open to them between unnaturally extending the bounds of
the Eocene so as to embrace them, or else of breaking up this ho-
mogeneous mass of deposits and placing one part in the Kocene and
the other part in the Miocene, I think we may assert of any method
which avoids both of these inconvenient arrangements that it is worthy
of the most serious attention; and if I have not been altogether
unsuccessful in the manner in which I have presented the subject,
the exact agreement of our Hampshire fluvio-marine strata with
the lower divisions of the continental Oligocene must be clearly ap-
parent to everyone.

It is of course a matter of comparative indifference to geologists
whether they classify the Cainozoic deposits in three or four great
groups ; but I maintain that the thickness of the strata and the di-
stinctness of the fauna and fiora of the Oligocene are such as to
entitle it to take rank as a great system by itself, and that this is a
more natural arrangement than to group it either with the Eocene
or Miocene, or to divide it between those two systems of strata.

It is no answer to this argument to assert that beds are found
forming a complete transition from the Eocene to the Oligocene, and
others which bridge over the gap between the latter and the Miocene.
As our acquaintance with the geological series grows over widening
areas, such transition deposits will constantly be discovered. Few
will be bold enough to assert that because we find in the Vienna
basin a continuous series through the Miocene into the Pliocene,
therefore these two great divisions ought to be given up: for on
such grounds every possible classification and terminology of geolo-
gical deposits would have to be abandoned. I argue for the use of
the term Oligocene in this country because its convenience has been
felt and demonstrated over a large part of the continent, and be-
cause it enables us to get rid of serious difficulties connected with
the classification of a very important part of our British series of
strata.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE VII.

Tn fig. 1 is given a facsimile of the diagram published in Forbes’s ‘ Tertiary
Fluvio-marine Formation of the Isle of Wight, p. 89. In this section no
attempt has been made to maintain the relative proportions between the heights
of the several cliffs; and hence several serious errors are committed in joining
the different strata by means of dotted lines. The Headon-Hill sands are
represented as occupying not only the whole base of Headon Hill itself, but as
being largely developed in Totland Bay. Yet a careful examination of the
section will show that this view is quite erroneous. As the Headon-Hill sands
are 70 feet beneath the marine band (Middle Headon), we ought, if Forbes’s
view of the identity of the Colwell-Bay and the Headon-Hill marine beds be
the correct one, to find them in Totland Bay; for there are 120 feet of strata

176 PROF, J. W. JUDD ON THE OLIGOCENE

between the Colwell-Bay marine band and the shore at Totland Bay. Hence
Forbes was fully justified, taking his interpretation of the section, in placing
the Headon-Hill sands where he did; and the fact of their absence at this
point is clear proof that he was mistaken in his interpretation.

In fig. 2 the vertical and horizontal scales are different, but the relations
between the several heights, as fixed by the new Ordnance Survey maps, are care-
fully maintained. Now the position of the Bembridge Limestone on Headon Hill
is found to be 250 feet above the sea-level, at the point where the brackish-water
strata of Headon Hill crop out on the shore. The vertical sections of the
Geological Survey give the distance between the Bembridge Limestone and the
Headon-Hill brackish-water bed as 125 feet. The discrepancy is so great that
it 1s impossible to account for it by supposing a sudden thickening and change
in character of the whole of the beds. But the new interpretation, illustrated
by the dotted lines in this figure, removes all difficulties, and the strata of
Headon Hill are brought into exact correlation with those of Totland Bay.
Unfortunately that part of the section in which the Brockenhurst series would
be found is entirely concealed by a talus from the beds above and the gravel
which caps the hill.

In fig. 3 the same section is drawn upon the same vertical and horizontal
scale, so that the exact relations of the several beds are clearly shown.

Discussion.

The PRESIDENT, In proposing a vote of thanks, expressed his sense
of the value of Prof. Judd’s communication.

Prof. Prestwicn said that, notwithstanding the ability displayed
in the paper, he was not yet prepared to accept all the conclusions,
more especially as regards the correlation of the Headon-Hill beds.
It was his impression that the Headon-Hill sands just reappeared in
Totland Bay, and that the variation noticed by Prof. Judd in the
marine beds at Headon Hill and Colwell Bay might be due to the
more freshwater conditions which prevailed at the former place.
He doubted also if the beds at Brockenhurst quite bore out Prof.
Judd’s opinion. It must be remembered that these beds varied
much in thickness and in character. As to the importance of the
Oligocene formation, he quite agreed with the author.

Prof. Duncan referred to the contests on the subject of the term
Oligocene in the year 1863. He had studied the classification of
these beds from the point of view of their coral fauna. That
showed the existence of a formation intermediate between Eocene
and Miocene. SBeds in Scinde bore similar testimony to those of
Europe.. This was represented in Britain by the Brockenhurst
fauna, which he had considered the equivalent of the “ Tongrien
Inférieur.” He welcomed therefore Prof. Judd’s classification and
acceptance of the Oligocene.

Mr. Ernerince said Von Konen had identified the Oligocene in
England in 1868. He thought Prof. Judd had gone far to clear up
the difficulty which every student must have felt about the Colwell-
Bay beds. After reading the details given by Prof. Judd in his
paper, it might be possible to form an opinion as to the reason of
the remarkable oscillations shown in the south of England and in
Germany by this series. To clear up some of these difficulties
would be a great boon to the Tertiary geologist.

Prof. Szrrey thought that Von Konen had identified the Colwell-
Bay bed with the Brockenhurst [Prof. Judd explained it was so ;
but he had identified them with the Headon-Hill beds also]. There

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STRATA OF THE HAMPSHIRE BASIN. 177

was certainly some parallelism between the Middle Headon and the
Brockenhurst, though less than between the Colwell-Bay beds and
the Brockenhurst. He had therefore thought the marine series might
be one whole group representing the Brockenhurst. He inquired
where Prof. Judd proposed to class the Upper-Bagshot sands.
He asked what number of fossils were common to the above beds.
He objected to the classification of the Tertiary strata into Miocene,
Oligocene, Eocene, &c., as laying down laws before the evidence for
them was in existence, and thought it was better, seeing that the fossils
changed with the localities, to give local names to the formations.

Mr. Tawney stated Mr. H. Keeping’s objections to the identifica-
tion of the Colwell and Headon beds. He explained the greater
number of species in Colwell Bay by the imperfection of the collec-
tion from Headon Hill.

Rey. J. F. Braxe thought that the assemblage of fossils seen in
the field was more important than the regarding of rare fossils ;
adding that he thought the Colwell-Bay bed was distinct from the
Headon-Hill bed.

Mr. GARDNER said that the marine conditions seem to recede to
the east in going upwards in the Hampshire Basin. Examination
of the plants would lead him to draw the base-line for the Oligocene
below the Bournemouth beds. He thought also the evidence of the
Mollusca was not entirely opposed to this,

Mr. Wuiraxer, after speaking of the advantages of the large-
scale maps, criticised two of the sections on the wall as difficult
to compare. If the introduction of the term Oligocene would save
debates about whether a set of beds should be called Lower Miocene
or Upper Eocene, it would be a boon, as such debates were profitless.

Prof. Jupp said some of the objections now raised reminded him of
those brought against Forbes’s classification, when he proposed to
separate the Headon from the Bembridge series. He was, however,
convinced of the accuracy of his views. To Prof. Prestwich he said
the amount of the anticlinal had been exaggerated, the distance of
the Bembridge lmestone from the marine band on Headon Hill
did not correspond with the distance at Cliff-end. Just where the
Colwell-Bay beds should appear on Headon Hill the ground is wholly
masked. In his paper he had referred at length to Dr. Duncan’s
and Von Konen’s work. He agreed that there was not much im-
portance in a name; but the term Oligocene was established on the
continent, and it was very desirable to use it. He thought the
Upper Bagshot sands which contain Cerithiwm concavum should be
grouped with the Headon. He thought it was too late in the day
to get rid of the terms Hocene &c. He did not agree with the
identification which Mr. H. Keeping had made of the shells he
had collected for Mr. Edwards. In reply to Mr. Blake, he said
he had paid special attention to the representatives of the same
genus in the different beds. As regards Mr. Gardner’s remarks, he
said the position of the land in Eocene and Oligocene times was
quite different ; and the line could not be drawn where he placed
it, as the limits of the groups were founded, not on terrestrial, but
on marine faunas.

178 D. MACKINTOSH ON THE DRIFT-DEPOSITS

13. On the CoRRELATION of the Drirt-pEposits of the Norta-wust
of ENGLAND with those of the Miptanp and Easrern Countrss,
By D. Macxryrosu, Esq., F.G.S. (Read January 7, 1880.)

ConrTEnts.

Introductory Remarks.

Southerly Extension of the Upper Boulder-clay of Cheshire &e. into South
Shropshire.

Probable Extension of the Upper Boulder-clay along the lower course of the
Severn valley. -

Dispersion of angular débris from the Malvern Hills.

Low-level drifts south of Worcester.

Redistribution of Triassic Pebbles.

Drift-deposits of the Hast-Midland counties, around Nuneaton, Coventry,
Kenilworth, and Leamington, and in Leicestershire, Rutlandshire, &c.

Drift-deposits around Gainsborough.

Correlation of the Drift-deposits of West Yorkshire with those of Lancashire
and Cheshire.

Concluding Remarks and Suggestions.

Introductory Remarks,

My paper on boulders*, in the Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. for August
1879, terminated abruptly, owing to my having been advised to
postpone the concluding part, on the Correlation of the Drift-
deposits, which will form the main subject of this paper. But
before dismissing the special subject of boulders, I would refer to
a letter received from Mr. Charles Darwin, F.R.S. &c. (who was the
first to elucidate the boulder-transporting agency of floating ice), con-
taining an account of the great Ashley-Heath boulder (see p. 442
of paper), which he was the first to discover and to expose, by exca-
vating on one side and beneath it, so as to find that the block rested
on fragments of New Red Sandstone, one of which was split into
two and deeply scored. I have little doubt that this boulder went
south from some of the mountains around Ennerdale, as I have seen
boulders resembling it on Dent Hull, near Cleator. The facts men-
tioned in the letter from Mr. Darwin would seem to show that the
boulder must have fallen through water from floating ice with
a force sufficient to split the underlying lump of sandstone, but not
sufficient to crush it.

Southerly Extension of the Upper Boulder-clay of Cheshire ge.
into South Shropshire.

In the western part of the plain of Kast Denbighshire and Shrop-
shire the Upper Boulder-clay degenerates into a loamy gravel, which

* At p. 450, line 20 from the top, for “ Criffel granites” read “varieties of
Criffel granite ;” and at line 24 from the top of the same page, for “ Boulder-
clay,” read ‘‘ Lower Boulder-clay.” At p. 453, line 2 from bottom of table, for
“mass,” read “lower part.” At p. 448 I ought to have mentioned that the
distinguished local authority on the striated rock-surfaces around Liverpool, Mr.
Morton, F.G.S., had recently been led to doubt some of his former opinions
concerning their origin, and to favour the theory of ficating ice (see Proc.
Liverpool Geol. Soc. for 1876-77, pp. 294, 295).

OF THE N.W., MIDLAND, AND EASTERN COUNTIES. 179

in many places covers the middle sand-and-gravel formation, as
around Whittington, Oswestry, kc. South of Ellesmere it capriciously
caps the large sand-and-gravel mounds (eskers?), covers portions
of their sides, or lurks in the hollows between them; but the sharp
line between the upper clay and the underlying gravel or sand, so
strikingly displayed all around the Irish Sea, is frequently absent.
The subglacial mud, or source of supply in the Lake-district (to
which the uniform character of the clay over extensive areas is
chiefly owing), would appear to have been carried by the currents
which floated the boulder-laden ice in a southerly direction by way
of Whitchurch and Shrewsbury to Berrington, where the Upper
‘ Boulder-clay is scarcely distinguishable in appearance from the
horizontally continuous formation in Cheshire and Lancashire*.
In the extensive clay-pits lately opened near the Shrewsbury new
barracks the clay is a facsimile of the Upper Boulder-clay of
Cheshire and Lancashire, and the same in composition with the
exception of the absence of lime, which apparently did not find its
way from the Carboniferous rocks of the southern border of the Lake-
district so far south as Shrewsbury. In these clay-pits there is
generally a sharp line between the clay and the underlying sand,
which in some places is contorted, and which is said to reach a
thickness of 90 feet’. Most of the erraticsin the clay are from the
Welsh borders. Not more than one out of several hundred consists
of granitet. The stones are generally angular or subangular; and
exceedingly few of them are flattened or distinctly striated. Near
the ferry, a short distance south of the Shrewsbury Welsh bridge,
the upper clay, somewhat in the form of a wrapper, covers a large
mound of shelly sand and fine gravel, in the lower part of which several
granite (Eskdale and Criffel) boulders have been found (see fig. 1).
The upper clay, more or less underlain by sand, is well represented

Fig. 1.—Section near the Shrewsbury Welsh Bridge.

A. Md rigese Clay. B. Sand and fine gravel. C. Talus.

* T had not discovered this southerly extension of the upper clay when my
paper on sections around the estuary of the Dee (Quart. Journ. Geol, Soe. for
November 1877) was written.

+t The sand contains streaks and fragments of coal.

t Granite, however, is rather abundant in the lower unstratified gravel of
the neighbourhood.

180 D, MACKINTOSH ON THE DRIFI-DEPOSITS

between Shrewsbury and Wellington*. From the neighbourhood of
Crewe, Cheshire (where it is extensively distributed, in many places
over middle sand), it attenuates in a 8.8.E. direction along the line
of railway, and, so far as I could see, disappears at the water-
parting ; and on descending towards Stafford, instead of clay over
sand-and-gravel, sand-and-gravel over clay gradually makes its
appearance, About Stafford, between Stafford and Wolverhampton,
and along the North-western Railway for a great distance in a
S.S.E. direction, sand is found over clay.

Probable Kaxtension of the Upper Boulder-clay along the Lower
Course of the Severn Valley.

It is not necessary to suppose that the maximum surface-level of
the Upper-Boulder-clay sea on the north and west side of the great
Wrekin and Ashley waterparting was lower than (say) 600 feet above
the present sea-level, because an exhaustion of supply from the
great northern source would of itself prevent clay from crossing
many of the gaps in the waterparting. It is possible it may have
found its way through some of them in places to which my obser-
vations have not extended; and I have noticed the appearance of a
gradually degenerating extension of this clay from Cressage (where
it is tolerably represented), through the deep Ironbridge gap, nearly
as far south as Bewdley; and it may possibly have found its way still
further south. Here and there the clay covers gravel-and-sand with
a tolerably distinct line of separation ; but in most places it more
resembles a clayey wash which has come over and mixed with the
upper part of the graveland sand. The appearance of a surface-clay
in the Severn valley, about Buildwas and Bridgenorth, was long ago
noticed by Mr. Maw, F.G.S., whose paper in the Quart. Journ. Geol.
Soc. (vol. xx.) is full of accurate information and valuable sug-
gestions.

Dispersion of Angular Débris from the Malvern Hills.

In my former paper I suggested the possibility of a supplementary
distribution of small northern erratic pebbles along the lower course
of the Severn during shallow-water conditions, a few larger stones
having previously found their way to higher levels at least as far south
as Sutton (west of Hampton Loade station), and probably as far south
as Apperley Court, south of Tewkesbury. It would appear that there
has been a comparatively late dispersion of Malvern syenite (so-
called) around the Malvern hills and between the hills and the
Severn. This syenite composes an angular drift which overlies all
the other deposits, and which extends to low as well as to high
levels, as if the dispersion had taken place after the present confi-
guration of the ground had come into existencey. Those who think

* The considerable expanse of clay on Haughmond Hill up to nearly 500 feet
above the sea is probably on the same horizon. A degenerate attenuation of it
may be traced as far south as Church Stretton ; but it is questionable whether
it be represented even by loamy gravel as far west as Llanymynech.

+ Some years ago I had opportunities of observing many sections of drifts
around Malvern, where now very few are exposed.

OF THE N.W., MIDLAND, AND EASTERN COUNTIES, 181

that this uppermost drift could only have been distributed by a
cause operating independently of the hills, will require to have
recourse to the idea of a late submergence of the land, which may
have been brought about by a southerly extension of the Upper-
Boulder-clay sea. Others may agree with the eminent local authority,
the Rev. W. 8. Symonds, F.G.S., in believing that floods, caused by
the sudden melting of snow and ice on the Malvern hills, may have
been sufficient to scatter the rock-fragments. I have been led to
believe, from Mr. Symonds’s observations, that Malvern-hill débris
may haye been previously distributed, during the accumulation of
the high-level clays and gravels, which (from the latter consisting
to a great extent of Triassic pebbles) may possibly be on the horizon
of the somewhat similar drifts between Wolverhampton and Bridge-
north, which contain northern granite boulders*, and are probably
equivalent to the Lower Boulder-clay further north,

Low-level Drifts South of Worcester.

According to Murchison, Strickland, and Falconer, the following
would appear to be the descending order of deposits near the river
Severn south of Worcester :—

1. Coarse gravel, with blocks of Malvern-hill syenitef and northern

granite pebbles.

2. Estuarine sand and drift gravel, with Hlephas primigenius,

Rhinoceros tichorhinus, reindeer, &c., and sea-shells, including
Bulla, Ampulla, and Olwa, in addition to shells now found
around our shores.

3. Fluviatile deposit, with freshwater shells and Elephas antiquus,

Hippopotamus major, &e.

4. Red marl.

No. 1 may possibly have been deposited during the northern
Upper-Boulder-clay submergence. No. 2 may have been deposited
towards the close of the first submergence, and may represent the
middle sand and gravel of the north. The three shells now found
in warm latitudes (if correctly identified) might be regarded as in-
dicating a mild interglacial period. In the section there is nothing
to correspond to the Lower Boulder-clay of the north; but it ought
to be recollected that in the midland counties, and even in the north,
it is often represented by gravel, and in some places not represented
at all. The low level at which the fluviatile deposit occurs near the
present channel of the Severn (the estuarine shell-bed above it being
not more than 30 ft. higher than the river) seems to show that in
preglacial times the level of the river was very nearly as low as at
present, thus indicating that the Severn valley, with its wide
alluvial flats, may have been excavated in preglacial times—in this
respect corresponding to the northern valleys. It is at the same

* As stated in my former paper, granite boulders were found in high-level
drift at Apperley Court.

+ The Rey. W. 8. Symonds has elsewhere found Malvern-hill débris covering
up the remains of extinct Mammalia; and the fact certainly lends support to

the idea of an interglacial period, during which the animals lived, succeeded by
a return of cold conditions, which caused their extinction.

182 ’ D. MACKINTOSH ON THE DRIFT-DEPOSITS

time possible that the river in preglacial times may have been chiefly
occupied in deepening its channel, and that the process of widening,
by lateral undermining, may have chiefly occurred in interglacial and
postglacial times—in other words, after the accumulation of the
high-level drifts.

Redistribution of Triassic Pebbles.

It is well known that south and south-east of the Wrekin and
Ashley waterparting (as well as around the waterparting itself)
there are extensive Triassic pebble-beds, which have been broken up
and redistributed in a 8. and 8.E. direction, probably for the most
part by oceanic currents and waves; for it would be unreasonable
to suppose that all the great and often continuous spreads of pebbles
could have been uprooted and transported by floatingice. Along with
Scottish, Cumbrian, or Welsh erratics, they may be seen imbedded
in clay, loam, or sand at least as far south as Bromsgrove*. Their
distribution must therefore have taken place during a part, if not
the whole, of the period of the great northern boulder-dispersions.
It is worthy of remark that in the neighbourhood of the lower course
of the Severn many sections of so-called drift consist of Triassic
pebbles zn situ. A notable instance of this may be seen in Spring-
Hill gravel-pit, between Bewdley and Kidderminster, which contains
no drift belonging to the glacial period excepting a few local fragments
on the surface and the harder parts of limestone burnt for manure (?).
It is likewise worthy of remark that many published sections of
quartzose and flinty gravel are calculated to mislead, because their
details show no greater changes of conditions during their accumu-
lation than often take place in a few days on a sea-beach subjected
to alternate denudation and deposition.

Drift-deposits of the Hast-Midland Counties.

As may be gathered from my former paper, the area between
Wolverhampton and Stafford may be regarded as the meeting-ground
of erratics from the N.N.W. and of erratics from the K.N.E., the
former chiefly granite and felstone, and the latter chiefly Cretaceous
and Jurassic débris. Over this meeting-ground both sets of erratics
would appear to have been precipitated into a drift-matrix resulting
from a submergence which extended round the Pennine hills from
the source of the N.N.W. erratics to the source of the H.N.E. erratics.
From the area between Wolverhampton and Stafford the deposit
with Cretaceous and Jurassic débris (after losing its erratics from
the N.N.W.) extends over the east-midland counties until it gra-
duates into the Chalky Clay, thus rendering it probable that the
Chalky Clay is on the same horizon with the deposit containing
erratics from the N.N.W. between Wolverhampton and Stafford.

* Besides large boulders, I saw many pebbles of Arenig felstone imbedded,
along with Triassic pebbles, in loamy clay or sand between Hagley and Catshill.
Mr. Amphlett, of Clent, tells me that these drifts are sometimes separated from
the underlying rock by a distinct line of demarcation.

OF THE N.W., MIDLAND, AND EASTERN COUNTIES. 183

This deposit I have hitherto been led to regard as a southerly con-
tinuation of the Lower Boulder-clay of Lancashire, Cheshire, &c.
(see my former paper, and the concluding part of this paper ).

Drift-deposits around Nuneaton, Coventry, Kenilworth, and
Leamington.

In this area the drift-matrix consists of redistributed local shale,
clay, or marl belonging to the Triassic, Permian, or Carboniferous
formations. The stones, in addition to quartzose and other pebbles,
consist of flints, a few chalk fragments, and erratics from the Pennine
hills, Charnwood forest, Hartshill, and fragments or fossils of Jurassic
rocks. These erratics (which chiefly came from the north and east) are
commonly imbedded in what is locally called ‘‘ top clay,” of a brown or
red colour, which graduates downwards into underlying marl, shale,
&e. This clay contains chalk flints (rather fitfully distributed, but
generally very little chalk debris. In one of the Kenilworth gravel-
pits the redeposited Triassic pebbles, intermixed with large angular
chalk flints and coal-dust, graduate downwards into a pell-mell local
boulder-loam, which is probably the equivalent of the Wolverhampton
and Stafford Boulder-clay. At Lillington, near Leamington (in
1865), the red marl, with a few stones near its surface, was overlain
by a mass of stratified fine gravel, consisting of Triassic pebbles,
Gryphites, &c., above which there was a considerable thickness of
obliquely laminated fine sand, surmounted by 2 feet of clay with
pebbles (see fig. 2). In 1878 no section was exposed lower down

Fig. 2.—Section at Lillington, near Leamington.

rn
’ =
OEE Be

INNS

> “ @ er a «/ ; :
vA D HTN
p 4/4 yN el oa 4 Kyi i yh
A. Compact clay. ' B. Laminated Sand.
C. Fine gravel. D. Red marl.

than the fine sand. At the Stoke-Heath clay-pits, near Coventry,
the clay (which contained a large boulder, probably from Charnwood
forest) here and there graduated into gravel on the same horizon,
and contained a few (but only a few) chalk-fragments and chalk-
fiints. Around Nuneaton the clay (with “trap” boulders) contained
many flint chips and small Triassic pebbles, but scarcely any chalk;
and the specimens of the clay I brought away with me did not
effervesce with ordinary tests. Near Rugby railway-station (March
1879) the matrix of the drift seemed to be locally derived clay, chiefly

184 D. MACKINTOSH ON THE DRIFT-DEPOSITS

of a red or brown colour, with great masses of chalk imbedded and
partly dispersed through the clay. As some interest attaches to the
western boundary of what may be called the true Chalky Clay, I may
state that I agree with Mr. Harrison, F.G.S., in believing that it
does not extend further west than Charnwood forest ; and I like-
wise believe that for a considerable distance east of that boundary
the clay itself is of local derivation, and that the chalk-fragments,
however numerous or large, are erratics dropped into the clay
by floating ice. The occurrence of local, indirectly local, or erratic
stones in locally worked-up shale, marl, clay, &c. is a phenomenon
not confined to the midland counties of England. It may be seen
exemplified around Matlock, Belper, &c., southward across the
central plain of England as far, at least, as the Jurassic escarpment,
south-westward at least as far as Usk, Monmouthshire, and west-
ward along the Welsh valleys as far as St. George’s Channel.

Drift-Deposits of Leicestershire, Rutlandshire, &e.

Professor Judd, in his Survey Memoir on the geology of the area
lying between some of the districts above noticed and Lincolnshire,
describes the Boulder-clay as being often underlain by sand and
gravel (with brick-earth), and covered by gravel-beds, which are
partly interstratified with the upper part of the Boulder-clay. These
eravel-beds consist of stones which were derived from the Boulder-
clay. The clay contains more and more chalk-fragments and flints
eastwards, until in some places it becomes almost reconstructed
chalk. Professor Judd in places found the clay graduating into
gravel on the same horizon, as if the supply of clay had become
exhausted while the stones continued to be carried forward. IL
had previously noticed a similar gradual replacement of clay by
stones, but never fully understood it until I had read Professor
Judd’s explanation, which ought never to be forgotten in tracing
Boulder-clays to greater or less distances from their sources of
supply. He describes enormous boulders of oolite and marlstone,
one of them (on Beacon Hill) being 600 feet in diameter, and refers
their transportation from their parent rocks to the period of the
glacial submergence. ‘They are found in the lower part, as well as
on the surface of the Boulder-clay, This clay would appear to be
horizontally continuous with the great boulder-bearing clay and
gravel in the neighbourhood of Wolverhampton. In the British-
Association Boulder Report for 1878, Mr. Molyneux, in describing
the boulders west of Burton-on-Trent, says:—‘ The boulders or
rock-masses occur principally at from three to ten feet below the
surface, intermixed with blue and yellow clay, and: consist of
angular, subangular, and rounded fragments of Carboniferous lime-
stone and chert, Yoredale Sandstone, Millstone Grit, ranites [from
the Charnwood or Mount-Sorrel district—D. M.], porphyry, syenite,
greenstone,” &c., “with smaller fragments of Liassic and Oolitic
rocks.” In many parts of the eastern midland counties there is a
considerable thickness of gravel or sand above the horizon of the
clay with chalk débris.

OF THE N.W., MIDLAND, AND EASTERN COUNTIES. 185

Drift-Deposits around Gainsborough.

At Gainsborough and southward, though at no great distance from
the Lincolnshire chalk-wolds, I saw a clay of varying colour
graduating downward into the underlying marl of Triassic or sub-
sequent age. On the summit of the Triassic escarpment it mainly
consisted of directly worked-up gypseous marl, with a considerable
quantity of chalk débris, which, however, was nowhere thoroughly
incorporated with the clay itself—so little so that the greater part of
the clay would not effervesce with ordinary tests. The chalk was
not a constituent of the clay, but an addition. The clay, along with
the chalk erratics, contained Bunter pebbles, fragments of Carboni-
ferous rocks from the Pennine Hills, igneous and metamorphic rocks
including gneiss (from Norway?). It was covered with, or graduated
upwards into, sand, with Bunter pebbles, wholly or partly derived
from the clay. Between Retford and Bawtry, as may be seen in
the railway-cuttings, there are beds consisting of rearranged Bunter
pebbles and sand, which contain a few chalk-flints, but very few
other erratics. This gravel-and-sand is apparently on the same
horizon as the Gainsborough sand, and in places is covered with a
clayey wash which may be a southerly attenuation of the Hessle
clay of Yorkshire. The underlying gravel-and-sand may represent
the great gravel-and-sand formation around York, under or in the
lower part of which comes the remarkable lenticulation of laminated
stoneless clay, and under this the “carrion,” which is a clay or loam
with boulders of Millstone Grit and Mountain Limestone from the
Pennine Hills, and which can be traced westward through gaps in
these hills. Its relation to the purple-clay of East Yorkshire is still
uncertain*.

Correlation of the Drift-Deposits of W. Yorkshire with those of
Lancashire and Cheshire.

In 1867-70 I endeavoured to trace the connexion between these
deposits by way of the Aire and Wharfe valleys and the plain of
Craven. I was fortunate in meeting with many clear sections
during the drainage of towns and excavations for house-sites ; and
the results were very briefly stated in a paper which appeared in
the ‘ Proceedings’ of the West-Riding Geological and Polytechnic
Society. Lowest of all is the blue clay, which nowhere rises higher

* In the western part of the vale of York, Jurassic débris from the north or
east are associated with Millstone Grit and Mountain Limestone from the west ;
and Gryphites have been reported as having gone far up the valley of the Aire ;
but as the Rey. N. Tute found Lias fossils near Leeds, which had been brought as
railway ballast from the foot of the Hambleton Hills, little reliance can be placed
on such reports. There can, however, be no doubt that Mr. Tute found Shap
granite in the yellowish-brown clay which overlies the very dark-coloured or
blue clay west of Ripon. After crossing Stainmoor, the Shap granite may have
gone south by Richmond to the neighbourhood of Ripon. The precise position
of Shap boulders in the drift-deposits of the east coast of Yorkshire has not, I
believe, been yet ascertained. Granite from the south of Scotland has been
found on the coast near Scarborough; but whether it accompanied the Shap
granite over Stainmoor, or went east along the upper course of the Tyne, and
then south-east, it might be difficult to ascertain.

Q.J.G.8. No, 142. i)

186 D. MACKINTOSH ON THE DRIFT-DEPOSITS

than about 600 ft. above the sea-level, which contains many
glaciated stones, and which, I now believe, may have been accumu-
lated under land-ice. The yellow or yellowish-brown clay above it
rises to much higher levels, contains fewer glaciated stones, and
differs from the blue in the kind of boulders or relative percentage
of different kinds of boulders it contains. Above the brown clay, at
intervals, there is a great thickness of sand or gravel, which often
forms esker-like mounds, as in- the neighbourhood of Esholt and
Bingley, in the valley of the Aire. In the plain of Craven the
numerous large and curvilinear mounds, which have been regarded
as glacial moraines, may be seen in sections to consist of sand
or clay with numerous well-rounded and evidently waterworn
stones. Between York and Lancaster, by way of the Aire or
Wharfe valleys and the plain of Craven, the sand and fine gravel
(which are scarcely ever found at high levels) were probably not
distributed until after the emergence of the higher parts of the
Pennine Hills—in other words, until the valleys had become
converted into straits and sea-lochs. As may often be seen in
Cheshire and Lancashire, there is sometimes in the West Riding the
appearance of a cleanly-eroded surface of sand or fine gravel uncon-
formably overlain by clay, loam, or coarse gravel, with good-sized
boulders. At Marley sand-pit, near Keighley, sand at least 20 ft.
thick is unconformably surmounted by 10 ft. of loamy clay, with
striated boulders (see fig. 3) up to 2 ft. in diameter (1870). North

Fig. 3.—Section in Marley Sand-pit, near Keighley.

of the White Hart Inn (between Aberford and Bramham) a bed of
dark clay and sand is covered with sand and gravel which had eyi-
dently been eroded before the deposition of a capping of reddish clay
with boulders. Other instances might be stated. I have not had
an opportunity of ascertaining how far these Upper Boulder-clays
may represent the Hessle clay of East Yorkshire ; but I believe they
are on the same horizon as the much more continuous Upper
Boulder-clay of the plain of Lancashire and Cheshire and of the
valleys on the western side of the Pennine Hills.

Concluding Remarks and Suggestions.

After much consideration and correspondence with geologists, I
~ have been induced to leave open the question of the correlation of
the Norfolk ‘till,’ Middle Glacial sand, great Chalky Clay, purple

OF THE N.W., MIDLAND, AND EASTERN COUNTIES. 187

clay, Hessle sand, and Hessle clay of the east with the Lower blue
and brown SBoulder-clays, Middle sand-and-gravel, and Upper
Boulder-clay of the north-west. In all attempts to correlate
these deposits, it ought not to be forgotten that the lower brown
clay and upper clay of the north-west maintain very much the same
character (irrespectively of the subjacent rocks) over extensive areas,
and that this is especially the case with the upper clay, which, with
extremely little variation, extends along certain lines continuously
from at least as farnorth as Carlisle to Berrington, south of Shrews-
bury (about 160 miles), and from the neighbourhood of Glossop as
far west at least as Menai Strait (about 100 miles); in other words,
the Upper Boulder-clay of the north-west (especially if we make
allowance for the great mass of it which in all probability runs
under the Irish Sea) covers an area equal to that of the Chalky Clay
of the east; but the Chalky Clay differs very much from the upper
clay of the north-west in frequently varying its character with the
rocks on or near to which it rests, and likewise in often attaining a
much greater thickness than the upper clay of the north-west, which
is more a wrapper than a leveller of preexisting mequalities. There
is a bare possibility of the drift with many large boulders around
Wolverhampton (which, in an easterly direction, seems to graduate
into the Chalky Clay) being of the same age as the upper clay of the
north-west (which approaches at least as near to Wolverhampton as
Wellington); and if so, the upper clay of the north-west may
represent the Chalky Clay of the east. But three facts would appear
to militate against this idea :—(1) the upper clay of the north-west,
unlike the Wolverhampton clay, contains exceedingly few large
boulders*, as may be seen in the numerous and extensive excavations
lately made for obtaining brick-clay ; (2) the existence of exten-
sive gravel-beds in the east-midland counties (though not in East
Anglha) above a more or less chalky Boulder-clay, which are not
represented above the upper clay of the north-west+; (3) the
difference in character between the middle non-glacial sand of the
north-west, with no contemporaneously transported erratics (ex-
cepting near the mountains), and the middle glacial sand of the
east, with many contemporaneously transported erraticst. Some
time ago I corresponded for several years with Mr. 8. V. Wood,
F.G.S., on the subject of the correlation of the drifts of the north-
west and east. He then regarded the purple clay of E. Yorkshire
(which is horizontally continuous with the Chalky Clay of Lincoln-
shire) as the oldest deposit in the east with which the lower brown

* An exception, however, to this general rule, was lately met with in the
Bootle-Dock excavations, near Liverpool, where many large boulders of dolerite
and diorite (‘‘greenstone ”), from the south of Scotland, were found.

t It ought, however, to be recollected that, on the same principle, the theory
which synchronizes the Chalky Clay of the east with the Lower Boulder-clay of
the north-west would require an adequate representation of the middle glacial
sand of the east under the lower clay of the north-west, which is not to
be found.

t See Mr. Penning’s paper on the Physical Geology of East Anglia &c., Quart.
Journ. Geol. Soc. for May 1876. :

0

188 DRIFT-DEPOSITS OF THE N.W., MIDLAND, AND EASTERN COUNTIES.

clay of the north-west could be correlated, and seemed inclined to
the opinion that the Hessle clay of Holderness might represent the
upper clay of the north-west, as both were characterized by grey or
ash-coloured vertical fractures. But I was not then aware of the
southerly extension of the upper clay of the north-west, or of its
extreme range of altitude, which reaches quite 600 ft. in a typical
form, and probably from 700 to 800 ft. in a degenerate and attenuated
form. The question remains as to the age of a great sheet of
chalkless clay which Mr. Wood lately found extending northward
from York through Durham (Geol. Mag. for Jan. 1878). Should
this clay prove to be of Hessle age, the Hessle clay might then be
regarded as extending from the Wash* to the river Tyne, and
therefore more likely to be the equivalent of the upper clay of the
north-west than if it had been entirely limited to Holderness and
the immediate neighbourhood.

Note.—In this paper I have made very little reference to the
evidence of the relative age of deposits furnished by Mollusca,
because I do not consider it in all cases reliable. Mr. 8S. V. Wood,
Jun., F.G.8., believed that the lower brown clay of the north-west
could not be older than the upper part of the purple clay (above the
chalky clay) of the Yorkshire coast; but he relied on shells found
in intercalations of sand, consisting of a mere streak at Dimlington,
and at Bridlington of a very limited bed in the midst of large
boulders, the latter suggesting the possible flotation by ice of the
shell-bearing sand from an older deposit.

* See Mr. Jukes-Browne’s paper on the Southerly Extension of Hessle
Boulder-clay in Lincolnshire, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. for August 1879.

REV. J. F. BLAKE ON THE PORTLAND ROCKS OF ENGLAND. 189

14. On the Porttanp Rocks of Enetanp. By the Rev. J. F. Braxs,
M.A., F.G.8S. (Read January 7, 1880.)

[Puates VITI.-X.]

UntixE the Kimmeridgian and Corallian rocks, the Portland
series has been frequently examined in all its localities by compe-
tent observers, and there might seem, at first sight, to be little ad-
ditional or desirable information to obtain. Yet when all the
extant materials are put together they seem to serve but slightly
towards the history of the deposits in their varying relations to each
other and to similar rocks abroad. There is first the masterly work
of Fitton, forming the basis of our present knowledge ; yet many ques-
tions have arisen since its epoch which wait for a reply. The typical
sections along the coast have been touched on by several authors—as
Buckland and De la Beche*, Bristow 7, and Damon; and the Port-
land stone has been well described ; but the lower part of the series has
been neglected. The district of the Vale of Wardour has attracted little
attention, though it has been mapped by the officers of the Geological
Survey. Of the important exposures in the neighbourhood of Swindon
many descriptions have been given§; but they do not agree with each
other, and are all defective. Little addition has been made to our
knowledge of the Oxfordshire and Buckinghamshire area, although
Prof. Phillips in 1871|| added the names of several and the figures
of a few species from the series, which he took no pains to compare
with those of foreign authors. The most important event in relation
to these rocks was the visit of M. Semann to this country in 1865.
He was struck by the resemblance of the fossils of the Hartwell
clay to those of parts of the Boulogne cliffs to which had been as-
signed the name of Middle Portlandian ; and M. De Loriol4/, after
an examination of the series of fossils from this locality and from
Swindon, identified many as French species ; and his co-author M.
Pellat stated that the clay of Hartwell should be called Middle
Portlandian, and that the Lower Portlandian is absent from England.
These statements have been most useful as opening up questions of
the highest interest ; for it has been necessary to inquire with what
right the name of Portlandian has been adopted in France, and
whether any part of the series is absent from England, and thus to
reexamine some portion of the Kimmeridge Clay.

In our introduction to the “ Corallian Rocks of England ”** Mr.
Hudleston and I regarded the series we were about to describe as a

* Trans. Geol. Soc. 2nd ser. vol. iv. p. 17.

t Geol. Surv. Horizontal Sections, Sheet 56. t Geology of Weymouth.

§ Godwin-Austen, Q. J. G. 8. vol. vi. p. 454, Mem. Geol. Survey, Sheet 34 ;
Proc. Geol. Assoc. vol. iv. p. 543.

|| Geology of Oxford and the Valley of the Thames. See also Wright,
‘ British Fossil Echinoderms,’ and Lycett ‘ The Fossil Trigoniz,’ Pal. Sce.

“| Mémoires de la Soc. Phys. et Hist. Nat. de Genéve, tome xix.

** Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxxiii. p. 261.

190 REV. J. F. BLAKE ON THE

local development in a great pelolithic formation, and deprecated the
extension of the name “‘Corallian” to beds of probably various ages,
which only agreed with our own in occurring in the Oxford-Kim-
meridge seas, and in containing corals. Just the same might be said
of the Portland rocks ; only I should now express it differently. The
‘““normal”* deposits throughout the European area in the later
Jurassic times were argillaceous ; andin England we have two impor-
tant “ episodes,” the Corallian and the Portlandian. In the various
countries of the continent they also have episodes, two, or more than
two; but how far they agree in age with ours has yet to a great ex-
tent to be determined. At present all the later ones have been called
Portlandian ; and thus confusion has arisen. I shall now endeavour
to show that, as far as the rocks which have been called Middle and
Lower Portlandian at Boulogne are concerned, their normal repre-
sentatives exist in the mass of the Kimmeridge Clay, and are rightly
classed as part of that formation—and also to describe the relations °
of the various parts of the true Portland episode to each other, and
thus to obtain an insight into those final oscillations which con-
verted the open argillaceous ocean into the lake-bearing and cycad-
growing continent of the Purbecks.

1. The Island of Portland.

It will first be necessary, at the risk of repeating well-known
facts t, to describe in, detail the typical section in the Isle of Port-
land, inorder to place in their proper relation facts which are not so
well known. Fig. 1 (Pl. VIII.) gives the generalized section of
the several exposures in the island. |:

The line of demarcation between the Portland and the Purbeck is
very clear and constant, consisting of a layer of clay, not lying
exactly on an eroded but on a very uneven surface. The lower
Purbeck beds known as the ‘“‘ Cap” and the “‘ Skull Cap” are botry-
oidal limestones or indurated calc-tuffs. They have therefore been
derived from the denudation of the Portland rocks which had else-
where emerged from the sea at an earlier date, though here the
emergence had been so recent that very little atmospheric action
had occurred. The separating layer, however, contains remaniés
Portland flints. This gives us the expectation of finding here a
more complete development of Portland rocks than at such places
as show more erosion.

No. 1 is the “ Roach,” which may be characterized as a shell-
limestone. Itis to be noted that throughout it is distinctly oolitic, and
especially so at the top; it contains chalcedonic masses which can
scarcely be called flints. It isso variable in thickness and so incor-
porated with the bed below that it must be taken as forming part of
it. The shells which characterize this are :—first, the Cerithium
portlandicum, which is not, to my knowledge, found in any other

* See my paper on Geological Episodes, abstracted in ‘ Nature,’ Sept. 4, 1879.
t Damon’s description of these beds is most accurate, and draws attention to
points which are insisted on below.

' PORTLAND ROCKS OF ENGLAND. 191

bed in Portland; Sowerbya Dukei, and Bucconwm naticoides appear
also to be peculiar, though infinitely more rare.

The Trigonia gibbosa*, Iucina portlandica, Pecten lamellosus,
Ostrea expansa, and Natica elegans, it retains from earlier times ;
but Cardium dissinvile appears to have died out.

No. 2 is the “ Whit bed,” whose qualities have made the island so
famous. The difference in its thickness in the different quarries has
long been noticed, especially its increase towards the west. The
fact is, it may be seen dying out, and very false-bedded if traced
beyond the quarries to the east. It is not properly oolitic, and
contains very few fossils. The true Ammonites gigantcus appears,
however, to be peculiar to it, those so called from other beds belong-
ing to distinct species. These uppermost beds are thus proved
local, even in the Island of Portland itself. The fact that they do
not occur elsewhere on the coast or at Upway in the same character,
while the Purbecks remain similar, indicates some slight amount of
unconformity between the two series. The Roach and Whit bed
are also, it would seem, separated by unconformity, or at least con-
temporaneous erosion, from the beds below, and thus constitute a
stage in the episode of a very marked character.

Nos. 3-9 may be characterized as the flinty series. No. 3 is the
“‘Curf,” which varies in inverse proportion to the Whit bed, as
though the erosion of one had formed the basin for the other. Itis
also oolitic, and contains, according to Damon, abundant Ostrea
solitaria.

No. 4 is the “ base’”’-bed, which, though very like the Whit bed
in appearance, is distinguishable from it by the presence of strong
irregular bands of flint. This and No. 3 are the home of the rare
Isastrea oblonga and its perforating Inthodomi. The rarity of
corals may account for the scarcity of oolitic rocks.

No. 5 and those below cease to have workmen’s names applied, as
they are not quarried. The upper block is full of Trigonia gibbosa,
and may be named the Zrigonia-bed. It is of so changing a thick-
ness as to suggest its being deposited on an uneven surface. In one
place it is seen lying on No. 6, and is not more than from 4 to 6 feet
in thickness ; whilst in the oreat cutting of the Verne Fort, further
to the north, it cuts irregularly into No. 8 and reaches nearly 20 feet.
At this spot it has been compared by Damon to the Roach, from
which, as he remarks, it may be distinguished by the change of
fossils, Perna mytiloides taking the place of Cerithium portlandicum.

No. 6 is a remarkable mass “about 3 feet in thickness. The upper
part is solid flint; but the lower part is a rubble-bed, made of broken
masses of limestone like the beds below, with a siliceous cement.
Here is another evidence of the irregularity with which the final
changes took place, which warns us that Nos. 3 to 5 may represent
another local deposit.

No. 7 requires distinction, though essentially part of No. 8, be-

* T cannot appreciate the differences which have led Messrs. De Loriol and
Lycett to establish a new species(?) Z. Damoniana for these ; the varieties pass
indefinitely into each other.

192: _ REY. J. F. BLAKE ON THE

cause the lower part is so full of Serpula gordials as to almost
merit the title of Serpulite. It also contains abundance of Ostrea
multiformis. It serves as a guide in strictly local correlation,
though it would be absurd to suppose all Serpulites, even if of the
same species, to be necessarily continuations of the same deposit.
To this portion, which is more free from flints, a thickness of 6 feet
may be assigned.

No. 8. This constitutes the main mass of the flinty series ; the
layers are irregularly spaced and of various thicknesses; some
portions of these are false-bedded; and it is more chalky than the
beds above No. 6. Fossils are rather scarce; but on the surface of
the blocks are fucoid markings, and there are numerous specimens
of rather large Ammonites—the Am. boloniensis of De Loriol, which
is easily distinguished from -Am. giganteus by its shape and the re-
gularity of its rib-bifurcation. Here also we find associated with
Trigoma gibbosa the T. ncurva, which, as it does not ascend into
the higher beds, indicates a rather lower horizon everywhere.
There is also a broad Perna, like P. Flambarti. These fossils are
chiefly found in the block at the base, which is more brashy, and
has a thickness of 1 foot 8 in. Including this the series is about
26 feet thick.

No. 9 is a shell-bed. It abounds in small oysters and Serpule ;
but Trigonte are not more abundant than other fossils. As it
supplies us with the fauna of the flinty series, it 1s of great
importance, though it has been by no means thoroughly searched.
The most noticeable are :—Ammonites pseudogigas, which has great
nodosities like A. giyas, but they are more numerous; A. triples,
a very characteristic form; Pleurotomaria rugata and P. Rozet,
the latter being met with in the so-called Middle Portlandian
of Boulogne; Cardium dissimile, which thus appears to mark
a lower than the highest horizon at Portland; Oyprina elongata, a
new species, but found elsewhere ; Lima rustica, Pecten lamellosus,
Trigoma gibbosa and T..mecurva and probably other species ; and in
places abundance of Pleuwromya tellina, whose place in the series at
Portland it is important to fix. The thickness is 7 feet 6 inches.

These nine are the Portland Stone; and it appears that they form
two subdivisions, separated from each other by their stratigraphy,
lithology, and fossils, though forming part of the same general
series. The upper may be called the Building-stone, and the lower
the Flint-beds. The total thickness of the former may be put at a
maximum of 12 feet, while the latter is about 68 feet, and is divi-
sible into two slightly unconformable masses.

The rocks which succeed the Portland Stene in a downward di-
rection, beyond being called the Portland Sand, have been but little
noticed, though they are not inaccessible or uninteresting, and afford
valuable means of correlation.

No. 10 is a stiff blue marl of a thickness of from 12 to 14 feet, in
which I have not succeeded in finding any fossils; but which from
its mineralogical character (so different from that which one might
expect from the title Portland Sands), and from similar occurrences
elsewhere, is an important bed.

PORTLAND ROCKS OF ENGLAND. 193

No. 11 consists of about 26 feet of very curious material: it is a
liver-coloured mixture of marl and sand, with isolated nodules and
thick continuous bands of a sandy cement-stone. The fossils in.
these cement-stones are not numerous, but they are useful ones. We
find here Mytilus autissiodorensis, which occupies the same horizon,
both elsewhere in England and at Boulogne, with Pecten solidus,
Cyprina implicata (as at Boulogne), Cyprina elongata, an Isocardia,
and Ammonites Boisdini (?) and A. baplex.

No. 12 is a perfect lumachelle of small oysters, the Hxogyra
bruntrutana. These exclude all other shells, and by themselves
form the mass of the rock with a marly infilling. Itis 7 feet thick.

No. 13 consists of 10 feet of yellow sandy beds with hardened
bands clearly marked off form the bluer beds below. They contain
but few fossils beyond Cyprina implicata and an Arca.

No. 14 is a mass of sandy marl, gradually changing into true
Kimmeridge Clay, the probable junction being inaccessible or covered.
More of this can be seen on the western side than beneath Verne
Fort, where all the other members are better observed. At least
30 feet are exposed for examination; but there may be much more.
They are speckled blue and yellow, and have many small-sized
doggers towards the upper part, but larger ones below. A good
series of fossils might be collected from this mass; those I have
noted are of great value for correlation; they are:—the true Am-
monites biplex; an ornamented new species of Nateca, which I call
imcisa ; Lima boloniensis, which marks a special horizon at Boulogne;
Pecten Morini and Avicula octavia, very characteristic forms; Tri-
gone incurva, muricata, Pellati, and a new undulate species
(though there is a total absence of 7. gibbosa) ; also two new Bra-
chiopoda (the first hitherto recorded from British Portland rocks),
Rhynchonella portlandica and Discana Humphresiana. Plewromya
tellina also occurs, occupying the vertical position.

In all this series (Nos. 10-14), which constitutes the ‘ Port-
land Sand,” I have not seen any glauconite, nor are there any
pebbles to my knowledge; but a gradual change is demonstrated
—undisturbed by local variations, and only exhibiting the distur-
bances elsewhere by slight alterations in the character of the de-
posits. The fauna, though connected with that of the Portland
Stone, is more allied to that of the upper part of the Kimmeridge
Clay—a fact of which, in my opinion, the French geologists make
an inverted use.

2. St. Alban’s Head and Kimmeridge (fig. 2, Pl. VIII.).

A comparison of the above typical section, derived from both
the east and west sides of the isle (between which, in the lower
parts, there is little difference), with the development twenty miles
to the east, will give an idea of the rapidity with which changes
are taking place.

_ The great quarries on the coast to the south of Worth Maltravers
give admirable sections of the upper beds. The botryoidal Purbeck
limestone and underlying shale are at once recognized; and then

194 REV. J. F. BLAKE ON THE

No. 1 is a creamy limestone, with Trigonia gibbosa and Pecten
lamellosus, about 9 feet 6 inches thick. It has yielded a Brachiopod
like Waldhewmia bolonensis.

No. 2 is a vacuous bed, like the roach, with casts of the Trigonia
and Perna mytiloides, 4 feet 8 inches.

No. 3 forms parts of No. 2, but is clearly separated below. It is
an oolite with a shell-band, with Perne towards the top and bottom,
5 feet.

These three are the only possible representatives of the building-
stones. In the absence of flints and in the character of the rock
there is similarity. In the want of the characteristic shell, Ceri-
thiwm portlandicum, and the abundance of the Pecten and Perna
found in Portland on lower horizons, there is so much difference as
to lead to the conclusion that these are either continuations of the
flinty series or deposits in a separately eroded area.

Following these are :—

No. 4. A brownish-weathering, suboolitic block, 8 feet in thick-
ness, the upper part full of Trigoniw, and a few flints near the
base.

No. 5. A band of flinty rock, varying from 2 feet 6 inches to
4 feet, with an irregular base filled with indurated clay.

No. 6. A solid suboolitic rock, 8 feet 6 inches thick. The grains
are very coarse, and broken shells very numerous, with Trigome.

These appear to represent the base-bed and Zrigonia-bed of the
island under a slightly different form. The latter were deposited on
an eroded surface formed at the expense of the succeeding rock.

This, No. 7, is a valuable building-stone, for which the quarries
are worked. It is a fine-grained suboolitic rock, with few fossils,
rather flinty towards the base, and about 10 feet thick; it is fol-
lowed by

No. 8. A brown sandstone, 1 foot 6 inches. Had these occurred
in the island, they would doubtless have been worked towards the
north-east corner; but they occupy the interval bettveen No. 5, the
Trigonia-bed, and No. 7, the Serpulite, of the typical section,
though they are scarcely equivalent to No. 6, which represents the
result of their contemporaneous erosion.

No. 9 may be taken as 16 feet, all of which is very flinty; it is
full of fucoids, and has, towards the middle part, as great an abun-
dance of Serpula gordialis as at Portland. Ammonites boloniensis
is also abundant.

No. 10 constitutes the main mass of the flinty series, and forms the
capping of St. Alban’s Head and the cliff facing west. It is not very
accessible ; but I have measured 50 feet, whichiincludes a shell-bed
at the base, like that in Portland; the rest is very unfossiliferous,
and, after exposure to the sea, has much the aspect of a calcareous
grit, there being much siliceous matter even between the flints. °

A comparison of the total result at this spot with that in Port-
land shows that the only possible representative of the building-
stone is swollen to 19 feet by the addition of a higher bed (if this
be the right interpretation), while the flinty series has expanded to

PORTLAND ROCKS OF ENGLAND. 195

98 feet, partly by the intercalation of new beds and partly by the
thickening of the rest.

In the Portland-sand series the peculiar features of the island are
not repeated: the clay band at the top cannot be recognized; and
the oyster-bed is certainly absent. Thus the whole might be de-
scribed as sandy marl with indurated bands. The parts, however,
of the series have characters by which correlation is made possible,
and a proof afforded that much more is here visible.

Thus No. 11 consists of 39 feet of the liver-coloured mixture,
which indurates into two blocks of sandy cement-stone. Above the
upper block should be the clay; but it is scarcely less sandy than
the rest. Ammonites biplex and Mytilus autissiodorensis are here
abundant. There are also Pecten solidus, Trigonia incurva, T’. Pellati,
and another species more nearly allied to 1" g gubbosa.

No. 12 shows no particular change at the top; it is all dark,
hard, sandy marl, with numerous small cement-stones, lying in bands,
and the two lower bands uniting into continuous beds. This con-
trasts well with the overlying series, and has a thickness of 42 feet.
Exogyra bruntrutana is scattered throughout this and the next.

No. 18 is a strong band of cement-stone, with abundance of
Thracia tenera and some other ill-recognizable fossils, 2 feet.

No. 14. Another mass of indurated sandy marl, 30 feet in thick-
ness, and containing Lhynchonella portlandica.

No. 15. Another, but thicker, cement-stone, nearly 5 feet. This
is probably nowhere exposed in Portland.

No. 16 may be taken as the rest of the sand, the line of separation
between it and the Kimmeridge Clay being more or less arbitrary.
There are indurated bands, and more marly beds, which throw out
the water. In the lowest of the subdivisions thus made, but nearly
40 feet from the base of the whole, Lingula ovalis is rather abundant,
which seems to me a significant fact. The total amount of this No. 16
is about 126 feet.

Adding the thicknesses of these several beds, we arrive at 244 feet,
which is demonstrated to be not far removed from the true thick-
ness of the Portland Sand here. If this seems extravagant it
may easily be checked. The height of the cliff is about 500 feet.
It is capped by 50 feet of Portland Stone; and my former estimate
of the Kimmeridge Clay, taken from the same limiting line to the
base of the cliff, was 173 feet, which would leave 277 feet for the
Portland Sand if all were horizontal.

The description of this district would end here but for the fact of
the French geologists introducing the terms Middle and Lower Port-
landian, and asserting the latter to be absent from England. I have
therefore reexamined the Kimmeridge Clay here in order to cor-
relate it with the strata of Boulogne (see fig. 1). The measure-
ments of the upper Kimmeridge have been checked, and it has been
ascertained that the clays of Kimmeridge Bay are really lower than
any to the east by their fauna and succession, and have a total thick-
ness as actually seen of about 183 feet. They reach the anticlinal
at the western end of the bay, and then dip rapidly down and towards

196 REV. J. F. BLAKE ON THE

the land in the direction of Worborrow. In the lowest 28 feet of
shales I have found Ammonites alternans associated with Hxogyra
virgula and Am. biplew. We are therefore fairly in the Lower Kim-
meridge, but not at its base; and we learn that all the series is here
more or less shaly, as it was in the sub-Wealden boring. Nowif we
add all these ascertained measures together, we find just 1100 feet
between the base of the Portland Stone and the lowest part of the
Kimmeridge Clay visible, which is not, however, its base. It seems
absurd to suppose that with this enormous thickness any part of
the series should be absent, and that such member should be found at
Boulogne, where the total thickness between the Portland and Coral-
lian is less than 450 feet. We should rather expect that any division
found at the latter place would be expanded to twice its amount;
and it is with such an idea that we must seek out equivalents. The
fact is that in England we possess the normal formation, to which the
name Kimmeridge was originally applied; while at Boulogne we find
an episode having no relation to the Portlandian above, but to which
the name of “ Boulognian” may well be given. The episodal cha-
racter may be easily seen in the cliffs on either side of the town,
where conglomerates are found, and an actual dying off beneath the
Fort du Mont de Couple.

It is beyond the scope of the present paper to notice the succes-
sion here any further than it may throw light on our English equi-
valents. The upper part of their ‘“‘ Middle Portlandian” is our
Portland Sand; as M. Pellat states, it is more sandy than the shales
below, and has the aspect of the St.-Alban’s beds with their small
nodules; it contains such leading fossils as Mytilus autissiodorensis,
Pecten Morini, Avicula octavia, Astarte scalaria, Iima boloniensis,
Perna Bouchardi, Pecten lamellosus, Astarte Semanm. ‘This amounts
to 57 feet, which is not a quarter of the corresponding beds at St.
Alban’s. The lower part of their ‘ Middle Portlandian ” consists of
soft sandy marls and shales, with cement-stone bands, not at all unlike
the top of the Kimmeridge at Chapman’s Pool. The Cardium mori-
nicum (or, as I previously called it, C. striatulum), Belemmnates
Souichiz, and Discina latissima serve to prove the identity.

Referring to my section on the Kimmeridge coast*, in Nos. 1 to 9
I have traced three bands of fossils. No. 5 contains abundance of
Dentalium Quenstedti, apparently not yet found at Boulogne. No. 7
has a species of Alaria, perhaps A. cingulata (Koch & Dunk.), which
occurs also in the Lower Kimmeridge; and No. 9 is full of Discina
latissima. These last two occur in the same order at Boulogne; but
the comparative thicknesses of the deposits are 252 feet in England
and in France 44 feet. We are thus forced to look for the normal
representatives of the Boulognian episode in the beds from No. 10
downwards of my section. The place of occurrence of this episode
is not so far removed but that we may hope to trace some mark of
its occurrence at Kimmeridge ; but the fossils, being mostly ‘‘ co-va-
riants,” will yield us little assistance. The general character of the
deposits at Boulogne is as follows:—There are three more ferru-

* Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxxi. p. 198.

PORTLAND ROCKS OF ENGLAND. 197

Fig. 1.— Comparative Sections at Kimmeridge and Boulogne.
(Scale 250 feet to 1 inch.)

Boulogne. Kimmeridge.

———— =
~ncoes eee
—_<-<2----"
-<-—
——<—=—=

Portland Flinty Series

wee wn a + a eee eee
_—— _ —

ATCT SOS SEES NS a

Coc e cuts PO AM ats ean at. » Si
4 ww ~~,

| A i La one

28 @tzeceons02 SESS S SA ‘ ;~

Se IN “

ee Se ;
"DUNssyD) DUWSYCT

Oo
‘pynun dihboxsy

- Corailian

198 REY. J. F. BLAKE ON THE

ginous and sandy masses, of which the two lower are conglomerates,
and the intervening beds are more marly and tend to run into
cement-stone. Although these alone have been called “‘ Lower Port-
landian,” some 55 feet lower down another group of sand and sand-
stones is met with. A somewhat similar grouping, on a much
larger scale, is seen in the section between Emmets Hili and Hen
Clitf. My Nos. 10 to 12 are a peculiarly laminated sandy series,
which I called “‘ paper slab.” Following this is a group of cement-
stones and dicy clay, Nos. 13 to19. Then there is a very solid
paper slab, followed by papery shales, to correspond to the upper
conglomerates, including Nos. 20 to 22. The more mixed material,
including a cement-stone, occupies Nos. 23 to 28, and then the re-
presentative of the lower Boulogne conglomerate is a massive rock,
No. 29, below which, indeed, are other more sandy beds at some
distance, which may correspond to those in the Kimmeridge Clay at
Boulogne.

The beds thus reckoned in England amount to 244 feet as.
against 40 feet at La Créche and 50 feet at Portel, which is not
far removed from the proportional increase proved in the overlying
beds. But we are not without aid from the fossils. It is very re-
markable that Hxogyra virgula occurs in thousands beneath the so-
called “ Lower Portlandian,”’ and it extends upwards to the base of
the clays overlying the lower conglomerate, where it forms almost a
lumachelle; yet it dies out suddenly. Other small oysters become
abundant, and even form beds ; but they take the place of H. virgula,
which is nowhere to be seen. In the Kimmeridge cliffs I searched
diligently each bed from No. 10 downwards to find out at what
horizon this characteristic oyster is first met with. Nowhere could
I find it till I reached No. 28, where it is fairly abundant; and this
bed occupies exactly the position where it is first seen in Boulogne,
according to the above correlation. The whole series is, unfortu-
nately, but feebly fossiliferous ; the most abundant fossil is an Am-
monite, which, I think, from its adult characters, must be A. supra-
jurensis. If this be so, itis another proof of the correlation.

I hold it therefore proved, by as good proofs as can be had under
any similar circumstances, that the Boulognian episode is of the age
of the lower part of the Upper Kimmeridge—that its representatives
are not absent from England, but they are not episodal in the
typical district at least. In just the same way we have in England
no Pterocerian episode as yet discovered, though the lower part of
the Kimmeridge is continuous. The existence of this Boulognian
episode has misled the French geologists, in spite of their claim to
be guided solely by the fauna, to associate these beds with the Port-
land rocks, with which they have very little in common, their in-
variant fossils being those of the Kimmeridge Clay ; and Dr. Fitton
was right when he regarded them as an “accident” in that
formation.

3. Upway.
The section at this place (fig. 3, Pl. VIII.) is small but instructive.

PORTLAND ROCKS OF ENGLAND. 199

The topmost bed, No. 1, is a solid block, of a thickness of 3 feet
6 inches. The upper foot is a creamy limestone, not at all oolitic ; the
next foot is a shell-bed, full of Trigonie, but with no Cerithium port-
landicum ; and the rest is a suboolitic limestone with few shells.
The identity of this with the uppermost three beds at Worth, which
are there 19 feet thick, is very obvious. The upper portion is cited
by Damon as belonging to the Purbeck, and quoted to show the
amalgamation of the two deposits. I have seen no proof of its being
Purbeck; and the corresponding bed at Worth is full of Zri-
one.

. No. 2 is chalk and flint, the latter in large masses, and most
abundant towards the middle; the chalk, however, is good enough
to burn for lime. The total thickness is about 40 feet, This is
said to be succeeded by

No. 3, a hard clay. There can be as little doubt that No. 3 cor-
responds to the clay at Portland which underlies the flinty series to
- which No. 2 here corresponds. As this in the same way corresponds
to No. 10 at St. Alban’s, there must be 48 feet of rock, including the
quarried stone at Worth that is here absent. We may regard this
as a proof that the topmost beds, both here and at Worth, do repre-
sent the building-stones in different areas, and that the unconfor-
mity between them and the flinty series is a well-marked one. The
smaller amount’ of siliceous material in this locality apparently
encouraged vertebrates to frequent it, since the remains of Pycnodus,
Chimera, and Turtle were obtained at one visit. The ordinary
fossils are those of the flinty series, e.g. Cardium dissimile, Pecten
lamellosus, Trigonia gibbosa, Lucina portlandica, and Ammonites
boloniensis. ,

I have not been able to visit Corton, where the Portland sand is
said to be exposed and to yield Belemnites. In Ringstead Bay this
part of the series is intermediate in development between that at
Portland and that at St. Alban’s. For the upper bed is 14 feet of the
sandy cement-stone, the clay having died out; it is succeeded by a
3-feet lumachelle, as in Portland, and, finally, the hardened sandy
marl ad libitum, containing the same undulate Zrigonia as at Port-
land, and another like 7. gibbosa.

The changes in the Portland series thus demonstrated in its typical
locality prove its essentially episodal character. The two most con-
stant portions are the lower part of the flinty bed and the sandy
cement-stones.

4. The Vale of Wardour.

Although the common fossils and the whiteness of the limestone
tell the geologist at once that the rocks of this district are Portland,
he soon finds, on coming to details, that they require study before
their relations to those of the typical district are made out. The
succession of the beds must be traced in yarious quarries; but a
general account will be given of the whole.

In the Museum of Practical Geology is a large block of stone from

200 REV. J. F. BLAKE ON THE

this district, in which the junction of the Purbeck and Portland is
said to lie, the one half of the stone being of marine and the other
of freshwater origin. I do not know on what evidence this rests:
my own observations, possibly too brief for the purpose, did not
reveal any such united stratum; nor do I read any proof of it in
Fitton. But it induces me to give an account of the Purbeck beds
seen in the great quarry of Chicksgrove overlying the Port-
land.

Section of Rocks above the Portland between Chilmark and Lealam.

ft. in.
@, White fmely laminated Timestone .....:.. eas2s.-- -npeels-iaesionetse eee 3 0
6. Black ‘“‘surface-soil,” with many rounded pieces of limestone and
silieified trunks of Grees....,..0..2.000. ssaeee eect eee 1 foot 6 inches to 2 O
ce. Creamy irregular limestone, in some places turning into a lighter
“ surface-soil” above, with larger pieces of limestone, in others
haying a vacuous limestone at the top )..2....<0..---...10n-- <4 eee eee 6 0
ad. Cale-tuit passine into the above... cae. ce. seetiecce aaneeec- ae eee 1. 4
é. Brownish coloured very clean-grained oolite without fossils, and with
strong fiints at the top mmsome places. 5.....05..:..----2.s-0n0- see eee 0 8
J. Irregular botryoidal limestone, passing into a consolidated brash and
sometimes chalcedomic 23... .04.-..necsr(eaben --eopineenedae eh. epee eee 4 6
g. Brown clay with small remaniés fossils and shell-fragments ............ 0 3

This does not agree exactly with Dr. Fitton’s account. The details
doubtless vary in different quarries. He alludes to a bed occupy-
ing the place of 6 as “a dirt bed,” and remarks upon the flints of e;
but he has not, apparently, seen g and the first few feet below it,
as he states that ‘the freshwater strata here rest immediately upon
a bed containing marine fossils without the intervention of any clay
or dirt.” Certainly none of the above strata contains marine fossils,
while the bed immediately below g does. Hence I conclude that,
whatever the appearances may have been in Dr. Fitton’s time, a
careful examination will always show that the Purbeck is divided
from the Portland by a well-defined line. It would, indeed, be
remarkable if it were otherwise, and the events which should make
it so almost inconceivable. The Portland series, therefore, com-
mences with

No. 1 (PL. VIII. fig. 4). This is a fine-grained brown oolite, the
grains having no intervening cement. It is a remarkable rock; and
é is probably derived from the denudation of it in the neighbour-
hood. The lower part of this is shell-brash, full of empty casts of
Cerithium portlandicum &e. This cannot be the junction-rock
alluded to above, as the upper part of it could not well be proved
to be of freshwater origin. Thickness 1 foot 8 inches. ;

No. 2. A thick mass of rock, finely oolitic at the top, where it
contains Cerithium portlandicum, and becoming softer and changing
to a fine shell-brash below. There are also vacuous bands here. It
makes a magnificent white building-stone, very free and soft when
first extracted, and rings under the hammer like a bell. The simi-
larity of these two rocks to the Whit bed and Roach of Portland is
almost too striking, as the latter are not in character even at Upway.

PORTLAND ROCKS OF ENGLAND. 201

Nevertheless they occupy the same position in the series, and Nature
must have repeated herself in independent areas. Unfortunately
the thickness of this mass and its relations to the bed below cannot
be accurately ascertained, as the junction is covered in the only
quarry in which I have seen this part of the formation. It may be
16 feet.

No. 8. White chalk, like that of Upway, having abundance of
flints, both in beds and in fissures, throughout the upper 14 feet,
but none in the lower 12 feet. This is sufficiently pure to burn for
lime; towards the base, however, it becomes harder and more
shaly. It is remarkable for the abundance of its common Portland
fossils, such as Pecten lamellosus, Cardium, dissimile, Lucina port-
landica, Pleuromya tellina, and Ostrea expansa. It has also many
Trigome, both 7’. gibbosa and clavellate ones, and a few rarer fossils.

No. 4 consists of two parts, which vary rapidly; the upper part
is a solid block of about 2 feet to 4 feet, with few fossils except
Trigowie; the lower is a softish limestone, crowded with fossils,
and making up a total of 8 feet. This is one of the most fossili-
ferous beds of the formation ; and the fossils are beautifully preserved
as calcite. The most common is Astarte rugosa, every fragment
containing it. Associated with this is Certthiwm concavum, which
appears really to differ from C. portlandicum, and to be found in
this bed to the exclusion of the latter. There is also C. Bouchar-
dianum, Nerita transversa, var. minor, with its colour-spots, and
Neritoma stnuosa in great abundance.

No. 5 is a Trigonia-bed, scarcely separable from the beds below,
and varying from zero to about 4 feet. The species is 7’. gibbosa
as usual.

No. 6 is the great mass of stone for which all the quarries in the
neighbourhood are worked. It is a fine freestone, more or less false-
bedded, and consisting of great blocks in fairly thick beds, but in
places somewhat concretionary. It is more of a sandstone than a
limestone, though somewhat calcareous. Here and there in some
quarries are thin bands of flint, in others bands of Trigonie pre-
served in chalcedony. According to Fitton, a similar chalcedonic
band has yielded the Jsastreea oblonga. Large Ammonites boloniensis
are found here, and A. biplex. The total thickness of this has not
been ascertained; the greatest amount seen is 17 feet; and this is
certainly not far off the maximum.

No. 7. In one valley, about two miles W. of Tisbury, the stone
No. 6 was traced down the slope by surface-fragments from the
Astarte rugosa-bed at the top to an outstanding mass of a T’rigonia-
bed, which is thus proved to underlie the stone ; but of its thickness
or arrangement no particulars could be ascertained.

These form the only rocks which would by any one be referred to
the Portland Stone. As far as No. 3 they agree fairly with the
Upway beds, and so with part of the flinty series of Portland. The
fossiliferous zone below is not met with in the same form to the
south, though its most abundant fossils are found in Portland, and
probably in the flinty series. The lower bed (No. 6), which is

Q.J.G.8. No. 142. P

202 REV. J. F. BLAKE ON THE

really the most important in this district, is a very distinct deposit,
most like the lowest beds at St. Alban’s; only the flints happen to
be scarce. The prevailing Ammonites and the Trigonic at the base,
and the occurrence of the coral permit of no separation paleonto-
logically, and we are forced to regard this as a downward develop-
ment of the Portland Stone. Yet it is lithologically a calcareous
sandstone, and, if the cementing material be anywhere absent,
actually a sand.

The succeeding rocks in this district have never been described,
and they are with difficulty followed in fields and road-cuttings.
The best section is seen in the road leading from the village of
Hazelton to the railway, which, confirmed by others, gives us :—

No. 8. Yellow impure sand becoming marly at the base, often
coloured brown by iron; thickness unknown, but cannot be much
more than the maximum seen, viz. 12 feet. No fossils have been
seen in it.

No. 9. Impure calcareous bed, rather rubbly, with large grains
of Lydian stone or glauconite, 3 feet 6 inches. Blocks of rock of
the same character strewn on the fields have yielded a remarkable
fauna to a very short search, viz. Trigona Pellati, T. variegata,
T’. concentrica, T. Micheloti (?), Mytilus jurensis, Perna Bouchard,
Pecten concentricus (?), Astarte supracorallina (?), Hxogyra bruntru-
tana, and Serpula sp. Indications of some of these are seen also
where the block is zn situ.

No. 10. Harder bed of the same character, 3 feet 6 inches, with
Trigoma Pellati, Ostrea bruntrutana, &c. In one spot, on the road
from Tisbury to Wardour, this bed is alone seen; it only reaches
18 inches in thickness at most, and is scarcely continuous, but, as
it were, in eroded blocks enveloped in the sand above, which is here
not so argillaceous.

No. 11. A yellowish-grey uncompacted calcareous stone, with no
fossils seen ; its base is not traceable; but at a depth of 21 feet from
its top the springs break out. These measures are checked by the fact
that at the Tisbury station the stone No. 6 is worked in a quarry
about 40 feet above the level of the railway, which is on Kimmeridge
Clay ; so that that thickness is an upper limit for the intervening
beds.

The character and fossil contents of these beds are different from
those of any other locality. The fossils indicate a period anterior
to the usual Portland Sand; indeed they point to an episode similar
to the Boulognian. The yellow and hence peroxidized ferruginous
sand is very different from the blue sand of the coast sections, and
may indicate a more superficial deposit. The diminution and erosion
of the hard block No. 10 cannot be much relied on, as the section is
not sufficiently removed from surface influences of a later date; but,
on the whole evidence, it appears to me that we have here an area
which was elevated previously to the period of the Portland Sand,
received its calcareous and shelly accumulations, and then escaped
the great deposits of sand which are so alike at Swindon and at
Portland, but have here only a representative of afew feet. From the

PORTLAND ROCKS OF ENGLAND. 203

absence, however, of any intervening Kimmeridge Clay, it can
scarcely be so old an episode as the Boulognian.

Devizes.

The exposure of Portland rocks in this neighbourhood, as marked
by the Geological Survey, is a feeble one. It may, however, be
considered as modelled on the Swindon type, though exposing only
the lower beds. The topmost part of the Kimmeridge Clay is very
sandy, and contains the usual Swindon and Hartwell fossils; the
greyish-yellow sands overlie this; and above these, again, at Crook-
wood, are some fissile limestones, with Pecten lamellosus and Trigonia
grbbosa.

Swindon.

The sections in this neighbourhood are the most extensive and
interesting out of the islands of Portland and Purbeck; and yet,
though the locality has been visited again and again, they really
seem almost unknown, and the interpretations placed on the phe-
nomena visible in the great quarries themselves are strangely con-
tradictory.

The first point of interest is the relation of the Purbeck to the
Portland. Dr. Fitton merely notices the presence of botryoidal
limestone over the Portland. Mr. Brodie* describes the Purbeck
beds only, proving their freshwater character by the contained
fossils, and states most truly that ‘‘the surface of the Portland
strata has been greatly denuded previously to the deposition of the
overlying group; for in many cases the latter is deposited in hollows
and cavities, where the Portland Sand has suffered erosion by water.”
On the other hand, Mr. Godwin-Austen f states that ‘‘ with the dip
of the beds south these disturbed bands of clays and sands are seen
to be surmounted by layers of tranquilly deposited sandstones in
thin layers, interstratified with sands, and in these the forms of the
marine Portland reappear.” No such sands and sandstones are
recorded by any other observer; their precise supposed position is
not indicated; the names of the marine shells are not given ; and I
have searched for any such in vain. On this statement the author
founds the belief that “‘ the Wealden (Purbeck) is not, as has hitherto
been represented, a freshwater accumulation of an area of dry land
subsequent to the oolitic period, but was contemporaneous with the
Portland, and perhaps even with older portions of the oolitic series.”
This view is not confirmed by the officers of the Geological Survey
in their memoir on this district; but in the report of the excursion
of the Geologists’ Association to Swindon in 1876 under the guidance
of Mr. Moore t it is stated that above a “so-called Purbeck bed,”
“the regular Portland limestone comes on again rich in casts of the
usual Portlandian shells, showing most clearly how ‘ Purbeck’ and
‘ Portland’ conditions, inosculated at this spot, and that....we
actually have the Portlandian overlying the Purbeck on the east

* Quart. Journ. Geol. Soe. vol. iii. p. 53. + Ibid. vol. vi. p. 466.
{ Proc, Geol. Assoc. vol. iv, p. 548, Ps
rs

204 REV. J. F. BLAKE ON THE

side of the great quarry at Swindon.” It is obvious that a quarry
that can give rise to such ideas must show a very remarkable
section ; and in fact a more complicated and at the same time
instructive series of sections I have never seen. The whole result
of their study, however, is, distinctly to negative the idea of any
intermixture of formations, and to show that the one is unconform-
able to the other.

I have carefully traced every bed through every part of the
quarry, and have examined each for fossils, so far as to settle the
question of the marine or fluviatile origin of the beds; and I now
present a continuous section (figs. 2-7, p. 205) which will, I believe,
demonstrate the truth of the idea of unconformability.

The particular section which really shows a very peculiar
development of true Portland rocks beneath the Purbeck is in the
N.E. corner (fig. 2); it will therefore be best to begin at that point
and trace the beds either way.

The northern face of this quarry shows an eroded surface of the
main Portland rocks of the district, which for the sake of distine-
tion may be called for the present the basal sands. In the hol-
lows of this surface and for a few feet above are some flaggy lime-
stones, the relations of which to the deposits succeeding to the
south are obscured by a “ pot-hole,” but which appear to belong
to a set which overlie all the other beds in these quarries. No
fossils have been discovered in these flags. The eastern face shows
also an eroded surface, but a more regular one; and lying on it is
(a) a lenticular mass of brownish earthy sand; it is of very limited
- extent, as it may be traced in less than a hundred yards from its
commencement to its close, andis never more than 4 feet thick. It
contains black carbonaceous patches; and hardened parts of it have
Trigonia gibbosa, Cerithium portilandicum, and Lucina in them. A
tooth of Goniopholis and freshwater shells have been reported from here.
Upon this is (6) a white creamy limestone of more uniform thickness,
but of no greater horizontal extension. It has an even surface below,
but above is festooned by the encroachment of the succeeding beds
before its consolidation. This contains Turritella (cf. minuta, Koch
& Dunker), and a little Gasteropod like a smooth Turbo, but which
has not sufficient character for naming. In some places it also
contains abundance of Cerithiwm portlandicum. The next deposit |
(c) is a dark earthy clay, at first sight like the material of a “ dirt
bed ;” but both this and a are distinguished from the somewhat
similar overlying beds by the absence of any rolled stones. The
dark clay is no more extraordinary than similar deposits in the
Chalk. The termination of these three takes place together at the
same spot, where they are all rounded off between the succeeding
deposit and the basal sands, as in the figure. Overlying this, and
forcing it to take up its irregular shape, is (d) a shell limestone
composed of Cerithiwm porilandicum and Astarte rugosa, with more
occasionally Trigonia gibbosa, Pecten lamellosus, Cardium dissimile,
Neritoma sinuosa, Buccinum angulatum, and Corbicella Moreana.
These have collected in hardened blocks, which sank into the soft

PORTLAND ROCKS OF ENGLAND. 205

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mud below or became agglutinated to the basal sands when a and ¢
had died out.

This passes up into (e) a bed which below is a calc-tuff, but which
gradually changes through a fine-grained broken-shell limestone
into a fine white unfossiliferous limestone, and continues in an
irregular manner into (f) a rather thick-bedded limestone. These
three have a maximum united thickness of about 12 feet. They die
out one after another against the basal sands, whose upper part has
hereabouts a more continuous hardened block. The termination of f
is not seen; but the end of the others may be traced in the interval
between the two quarries. In the next quarry to the south, how-
ever, the top block of the basal sands has again 6 inches of stone
full of Cerithiwm porilandicum surmounting it, showing that d is
discontinuous by erosion and not by lack of deposit. The beds thus
enumerated are nowhere else seen in the quarries; but the Purbecks
which overlie the basal sands on the western side may all be iden-
tified with those that are to follow. ‘The first of these (g, fig. 3) is a
light limestone brash, 6 feet in thickness where first seen, but rapidly
diminishing to zero. Incorporated in it are various stones derived
from the three lower beds, containing, of course, the fossils of the
beds from which they are derived; but there are sandy masses as
well, so as to leave no doubt of the remanié nature of the stones ;
towards the top this bed becomes more compact. Further on in the
same quarry-face are two shallow erosions such as might be made by
a winding river; and they are half filled by deposits similar to g,
dying out on their sides. These are darker-coloured at the base,
and contain very obvious stones. The compact upper portion (/) is
continuous into the first hollow, and is then cut off, but occurs
again in the next hollow ; it attains a maximum of 2 feet, when it
becomes quite a creamy limestone and yields small Paludine.
Above this comes (7) a dark line of earth which becomes black
towards the east, and contains many little white stones, as if it were
a ‘dirt bed” or vegetable mould. This passes into (/) a limestone
brash, which yielded me ‘a crocodilian scute. These two beds com-
mence at one end of the quarry at 1 foot, increasing to 4 feet, and
then die away to 21 feet. Above comes (/) some thin-bedded ferru-
ginous-looking stone, which gradually thickens: the base is still
more ferruginous and solid; but I have not seen any fossils in it.
The topmost deposit (m) beneath what may be an overwash of any
age, though distinct from the modern soil, is another dark earthy
band similar to 7 or the base of g. All these numerous beds die out
shortly to the south, though the manner of their disappearance is
not visible; for in the next quarry (fig. 4) we find nothing but the
flagey beds of the first, N.E., pit overlying the basal sands.

Having thus followed the several beds along the eastern side, we
are able to understand better the appearance presented hy the western
face of the greater quarries (figs. 5-7). None of the deposits from
a to f can be recognized; but. the basal sands present an undulating
surface, on which lies a brownish calcareous earth with stones of
various sizes along the bottom, and attaining a maximum of 3

PORTLAND ROCKS OF ENGLAND. 207

feet. This reminds us at once of g, especially as seen in the last
erosion, and is no doubt its continuation; for upon it we find a
creamy limestone similar to h, whose thickening in one direction and
dying-out in the other may here be traced. This, again, is followed
by the representatives of the earth and the brashy limestone 7 and
k, here full of Cyprids. The blocks at the base are, in one or two
cases, of large size, containing Cerithium portlandicum ; and there are
rolled fragments of Kimmeridge(?) Clay ; but usually they are only
small white stones, and the limestone becomes compact towards the
top. The thin-splitting ferruginous rock follows for about 1 foot ;
and then succeeds a line of laminated dark earth between two
lighter bands; and over all comes 3 or 4 feet of flagey limestone,
which may be, but is not proved to be, the same that overlies the
basal sands at the north and south extremities of the eastern
section. But the extraordinary series of local deposits is not yet
exhausted ; for the ferruginous beds (1) which disappear to the south,
when traced northward come to a bank, against which they end,
and have derived blocks on the slope at their base. This bank is
formed by first another dark clay band like 7, and then by k, a
mass which is rubbly towards the base, but calcareous towards the
top, and has a limestone band in the middle. All here is covered
by the dark sandy soil referred to the Lower Greensand.

We have now to determine where among these deposits the
Portland rocks end, and thereby to learn the nature and circum-
stances of formation of the upper beds of that series. The section
given in the Geological-Survey Memoir of the N.E. quarry shows
that, while d and e are considered Portland, f is considered Purbeck.
That of the western side makes 2, or /, or m the first Purbeck bed,
according to the part of the quarry it 1s supposed to be taken from ;
while / is said to contain Trigonice, and the f on this side is called
Portland Limestone, because of the nodular fossiliferous masses it
contains. Mr. Brodie’s section, however, makes h contain Planorbis,
and reckons it as Purbeck. I certainly saw no Trigonie in h, nor
any thing but impressions of small shells, except on the east side,
where the Paludine occur. I could find no freshwater fossils in f ;
but its general behaviour, lying in hollows, and being filled at its
base with derived Portland blocks and small stones, proves its
unconformity to the Portland, and that it was deposited under
circumstances that are only to be found in the Purbeck. On the
other hand, d is undoubtedly Portland by its fossils; and, as a
matter of fact, all the fossils found in the actual beds above g are
freshwater, all those of the beds below d are marine. As for e and
f, they attach themselves to d both actually and in their range; and
yet ¢ is a calc-tuff, like the usual base of the Purbeck, and both
appear to be unfossiliferous, Their character, therefore, at present
is doubtful, and we must draw the upper line of the Portland either
above f or above d; in the latter case it would certainly be easy to
obtain a block of which the upper part would be Purbeck and the
lower Portland. This inclines me to include the two in the
latter.

208 REV. J. F. BLAKE ON THE

In the general section of Swindon (see Pl. VIII. fig. 5) we may
therefore include all the deposits from a to f, as :—

No. 1. This is shown to be exceeding local in range, and different
in character from any other Portland rock ; but its origin cannot be
satisfactorily discussed until after the description of the succeeding
beds.

No. 2, hitherto called the ‘‘basal sands,” have much of that
character ; but even when most sandy they are still calcareous, and
in parts consist of comminuted shells. There are many irregular,
hardened, calcareous blocks, and some lines crowded by T'rigonia
gvbbosa of many varieties and other shells, especially about 9 ft. from
the base. A good deal of it is false-bedded; and the blocks often
lie parallel to the false dip, and not to the true. It is of uneven
thickness, owing to erosion at the top; the maximum measurement
is 27 ft. It would be impossible for any one who, like Dr. Fitton,
had examined the Portland series in other districts to mistake the
nature of these rocks. They are the obvious equivalents of the
Tisbury stone and the lower portion of the flinty series at Portland.
Here they have a minimum of consolidating silica, at Portland a
maximum. ‘They are accordingly so described by him; and in this
he is followed by Godwin-Austen and Damon. But, for some reason
(nowhere stated), the Geological Survey has called these beds Portland
Sands, and coloured them so on the map; and hence they have been
in late years so considered. This has led to further errors and to
an unfortunate overlooking of the true Portland Sand in this district.
_ The principal fossils of these calcareous sands (besides the usual
Trigoma, Perna, &c.) are Ostrea solitaria, Lima rustica, Mytilus
unguiculatus, Cyprina pulchella, Corbula dammariensis, and Pleuro-
mya tellina ; but they are not common.

No. 3. The beds which follow these in the quarry, and which
appear to have been seen only by Mr. Godwin-Austen, are of consi-
derable interest. They are very fossiliferous, and present a greater
development than the corresponding beds at Tisbury and Portland.
They are only seen in the deepest parts of the great quarry—at the
present time towards the south-west end. Here are 7 ft. of rubbly
limestone-rock full of Trigonia gibbosa, the middle part entirely
made of them. This is used for roads only; but the lowest part
is said to be burnt for lime. At its base is a great accumulation of
Lydian stones, or grains of glauconite. These subdivisions do not
seem very constant in character, nor the shells always the same; for
the section given by Mr. Godwin-Austen of the opposite (N.E.)
corner is somewhat different in detail. Fortunately, however, these
beds have a wider range and some economic value, and hence are
quarried at several places in the neighbourhood. The nearest to
Swindon is that, long known, on the north of the road to Coate.
Here are two sections succeeding one another on the dip, which is
to the south. In the first, nearest the road, only the ordinary sandy
beds, with their great indurated blocks (as in the great quarry), are
to be seen; but in the second, succeeding these in perfectly clear
sequence, are the following :—

PORTLAND ROCKS OF ENGLAND. 209

Section north of the Road to Coate.

ft. in.

a. Caleareous sands, with hard block (as in great
SETI) pie estonia a0 anv ore ean een ebins 0
6. Cardium- and Trigonia-bed ............eeeeeeeee 3.8
ce. White chalky rock, with Cardia................. ane
d. Limestone brash, with Trigonié.................. 26
e. Glauconitic limestone, in two beds..............- Dive

There cannot be the slightest doubt, then, that these beds succeed
those of the great quarry in a downward direction. The supposition
that they corresponded to the beds overlying the ‘“ basal sands ” has
led to the introduction upon the map, at this spot, of a fault which
does not exist. This quarry forms part of a slight synclinal fold ;
for on the other side of the road is another, in which the beds dip
to the north. This shows the same succession—the “ basal sands”
at the top and the remainder of the beds below, the last becoming
very argillaceous. There is some doubt whether the glauconitic
bed ought not to be separated from the rest, though it doubtless cor-
responds to the base of No. 3 at Swindon. These quarries show a
very interesting fauna, as in the following list :—

Fossils of the Trigonia-beds near Swindon.

cc. Ammonites boloniensis (De L.). Anisocardia pulchella (DeLor.).
pectinatus (P2.). ce. Cardium dissimile (Sow.).
Boisdini (De Lor.). Lucina portlandica (Sow.).
Pleurotomaria rugata (Ben.). ce. Pleuromya tellina ( Vol¢z).
Natica elegans (Sow.). Thracia tenera (4g.).
ec. Trigonia gibbosa (Sow.). Mytilus unguiculatus (Phil/.).

Voltzii (Ag.).

boloniensis (De Lor.).
incurva (Ben.).

pernoides (67m.).

(in é) Carrei (Mun. Chal.). Lima rustica (Sow.).
(in e) Cyprina elongata (Blake). ornata (Buv.).
Cypricardia costifera (Blake). Pecten lamellosus (Sow.).

The quarry to the east of the reservoir reaches to the upper part
of these beds, having No. 2 overlying. It is characterized by the
abundance of Ammonites, Pecten, and Pleuromya, as above.

The outlier at Bourton (Pl. VIII. fig. 6) shows, for the most part, a
continuation of these beds. In the southern quarry little but loose
sandy limestones, with very few fossils, are seen. ‘These no doubt cor-
respond to the “ basal sands” of Swindon. The only fossil actually
seen was Z'rigonia gibbosa ; but both this and Ammonites become more
abundant towards the top. In another quarry in the village, the suc-
ceeding rubbly beds are full of various fossils—Plewrotomaria rugata,
Pecten lamellosus, Trigonia gibbosa, Cardium Pellati, Cyprina swin-
donensis, &c. The most noteworthy feature is the abundance of Echino-
brissus Brodiei, which, like all other Portlandian urchins, is elsewhere
so rare. The Cardium, recorded also by M. Semann from Swindon,
and compared by M. De Loriol, is distinctly different from C. dissimile,
and belongs to the lowest true Portland beds at Boulogne; and the
Cyprina is found at a lower horizon at Swindon. Besides these are
many Ammonites not seen in situ—A. boloniensis, A. biplex, and a

210 REV. J. F. BLAKE ON THE

curious form not seen elsewhere,—perhaps the A. Bleicheri of
Boulogne. These beds have a thickness of some 8 ft.; and they are
succeeded by a strong solid block 3 ft. thick, for which the quarry
is worked. This contains few or no 7rigonie, but is full of Perna
Bouchardi and oysters. Its base is full of dark-coloured stones of
various materials and sizes. Among them are Lydian stones and
light-coloured quartz; but some are hardened phosphatic nodules
derived from fossils of previous formations, among which a Cardiuwm
and a Plewromya are recognizable, doubtless from some part of the
Kimmeridge Clay. The inference to be drawn from these nodules
must not be overlooked. Glauconitic grains, derived doubtless in
the same manner, are usually characteristic of the sand below; and
similar nodules occur in the lower beds at Tisbury ; but all are absent
in the district of Portland. Hence these more northern districts
were more rapidly upheaved than those to the south, and brought
earlier into the conditions which are necessary for calcareous
deposits. Below this hardened block comes a mass of argillaceous
shell-conglomerate, like No. 5 of Swindon, to be noticed hereafter.
All these features indicate that the fossiliferous Bourton beds, though
of a similar structure to the Trigonia-beds at Swindon, represent
a slightly earlier date as well as that at which the latter were
formed. ‘These, therefore, are the earliest rocks which in this
district can be referred to the Portland Stone, and are parallel to
the Trigonia-bed at the base of the Tisbury freestone.

The similarity of the succession noticed in the various districts as
yet described shows that the order of events was the same, but affords
no proof that they were synchronous ; the evidence of the fossils, on
the contrary, goes to show that the more northern were the earlier ; -
and this we must bear in mind in interpreting the higher beds.

The ‘basal sands” of Swindon have been seen to be covered with
shelly masses abounding in Astarte rugosa, just as the freestone of
Chicksgrove is. These masses have other fossils in common; but
the Cerithiwm is not concavum, but portlandicum, and therefore
ceases to be a guide, and we must take the base of the chalky beds
of Chicksgrove and Upway as the anterior limit for the age of No. 1
here. Ifthe Purbeck be always of the same age, the posterior limit
would be the age of the Roach; and thus the few small beds, limited
to the N.E. of the Swindon quarry, would represent a long interval
of time—+too long for their obviously rapid deposition. No doubt
there may have been Cerithium-beds overlying f (if that be truly
Portland), of which the blocks in g are the only remnant; but there
is no proof of this. Moreover we must not forget the difference
in character between the Purbecks of Swindon and those of more
southern districts. In the latter we have uniform deposits over con-
siderable distances, lying on unevenly but not deeply eroded Portland
rocks; in the former there are the carvings of rivers, the transported
blocks, and the rapid dying-out of deposits—all features charac-
teristic of subaerial action. Seeing, then, that we have reason to
believe that the earliest ‘“‘ Portland Stone” here antedated that at
Portland, we are justified in concluding that the land here emerged

PORTLAND ROCKS OF ENGLAND. 211

sooner from the ocean, and, moreover, more rapidly; hence the
regular deposits reached only to the “‘ basal sands.” Then incursions
from the land produced the strange mélée of the beds a to d, as sug-
gested by Mr. Godwin-Austen ; and finally the newly risen Portland
was carved out by the river whose course is still marked in the
quarry. The more gradual elevation of the south left time for
the deposition of the Whit bed and the Roach; and when the sea was
finally expelled its place was taken by a large shallow lake, ofttimes
dried up, and during portions of the minor oscillations supporting
forests of cycads and conifers, whose growth on the spot, well known
there, is sought for in vain at Swindon. We are led, therefore,
to this apparently strange conclusion, that the freshwater strata of
Swindon, though unconformable to those below, and representing the
Purbeck in the order of events, are probably in point of actual time
as old as some parts of the Portland. ‘This conclusion will be found
confirmed by a study of the districts further north.

No. 4. Below the limestones at Swindon, and for some way round,
is a very stiff clay, which rapidly breaks down on exposure to the
weather. It is very retentive of water, and makes a base for the
wells of the town and for the reservoir to the south. I haveseen it
in several places; but in only one, a newly-made well in the town,
were any fossils obtainable. These were Trigonia incurva or Pellati,
Perna Bouchardi, Mytilus autissiodorensis, Corbula dammariensis,
Arca Beaugrandi, and Cyprina elongata—a fauna which decides
their correlation with the Portland Sand. I have not seen the
true thickness; but it was reported to me as 20 feet, which must
be a maximum. It will be remembered that just such a clay
precedes the shelly limestones in the Isle of Portland. This clay, at
Swindon, has unfortunately been mistaken for the Kimmeridge Clay,
which has had the effect, first, of inducing the reference of the rocks
above to the Portland Sands, and, secondly, of causing a neglect of
the underlying beds. It was to the latter that Dr. Fitton alluded
when he wrote of the Portland Sands, though they appear to have
been not well exposed in his time.

No. 5. This bed is so well exposed in road-sections to the north and
west of the Swindon hill, and contains so interesting a fauna, that
it is extraordinary that it should have attracted so little attention.
As seen in the great road-cutting on the north slope of the town, its
upper part is a sandy glauconitic clay, full of fossils, and the lower
part is a regular lumachelle of Ewogyra bruntrutana. The total
thickness is not here seen, but it must be more than 6 feet. On the
western slope of the hill there is another road-exposure of these and
the beds below. Here the present portion is a sharp ferruginous
sandstone of brown colour, very irregular in its manner of lying, as
though near its termination. It occupies, however, the same
position, and must be a modification of the other form; Dr. Fitton
alludes to a third form of it. The fossils also are somewhat different,
and the oysters scarcely make a lumachelle. These beds have not
been half searched ; they would yield a very large fauna. A few
hours on different occasions have produced the following :—

ZAZ: REV. J. F. BLAKE ON THE

Fossils of the Portland Sand, Swindon.

Ammonites biplex (Sow.). e. Trigonia Pellati (De Lor.).

GC pectinatus (P.). swindonensis (Blake).
Alaria Thurmanni (Cont.). Arca velledz (De Lor.).
Cerithium Lamberti (De Lor.). Mytilus autissiodorensis (Co?z.).

ec. Turbo Foucardi (Co7z.).
Delphinula globosa (Lwv.).

longzevus (Cont.).
boloniensis (De Lor.).

Pleuromya Voltzii (Ag.). Perna Bayani? (De Lor.).
Plectomya rugosa (f06m.). 2 Bouchardi (Opp.).
c. Pholadomya tumida (4g.). Pinna suprajurensis (D’ Ord.).
Sowerbya longior (Blake). Lima boloniensis (De Lor.).
ce. Astarte polymorpha (Conz.). ce. Pecten Morini (De Lor,).
. Semanni (De Lor.). suprajurensis (D’Oré.).
Myoconcha portlandica (Blake). solidus (Rom.).
Semanni (Dollf.). Placunopsis Lycetti (De Lor.).
Cyprina swindonensis (Blake). Ostrea bononiz (De Lor.) ?
pulchella (De Lor.). multiformis(Koch & Dunk.).
Lithodomus, sp. Exogyra bruntrutana (Thurm.).
Lucina fragosa (De Lor.). * Acrosalenia Kcenigi (Desm.).

Cardium Morinicum (De Lor.).

More, perhaps, of these are new than the list would indicate;
but whatever names are assigned, the fauna itself is very distinct
from that of the Portland rock. Trigonia gibbosa has not yet
arrived, nor even Cardium dissemile. Many of the forms are cha-
racteristic of the so-called middle Portland of Boulogne or of the
highest ‘“ Portlandian” beds of other districts. Indeed the relations
are closer to the Kimmeridge Clay than to the Portland Stone; yet
the stone most certainly belongs to the Portland Sand, and cor-
responds to Nos. 11, 12 of the typical section, with which it shows a
wonderfully close agreement. At Bourton the bed beneath the
conglomeratic rock is just like the top of this at the north of
Swindon, and contains Pecten Morini and Pholadomya tumida.

Up to the present day there has scarcely been known a particular
fauna for the Portland Sand. It has not been separated paleonto-
logically from the Stone; and the fossils quoted from it are often
those of the basal bed of the latter. In Dr. Fitton’s list, which is
still the longest, the only named species which do not also occur in
the Stone, are two Serpule, a Lima, Trigonellites, and Ostrea solitaria.
In Prof. Phillips’s list Hemicidaris Davidsoni is the only one; but,
in reality, many of his additions belong, in all probability, to this
horizon, though quoted as from the Stone. Such, for example, must
be his Pecten nitescens (=P. solidus), Pinna lanceolata (=P. swpra-
jurensis), Modiola pectinata (=Myt. autissiodorensis), Pholadomya
rustica and inequalis (=P. tumida), and Ammonites pectinatus
(which is the same as A. Devillei, De Lor.; but Phillips’s name has
the priority). The present list, with those that occur in Dorset-
shire, will, to a certain extent, supply the deficiency.

No. 6. A series of loose yellow-grey or white sands, with enor-
mous doggers, some at the top being a compact calc-grit, with Tr7-
gonia Pellatt and Plewromya Voltzi, some nearer the bottom being
glauconitic and more fossiliferous, with Perne also. Below these

* Found by Mr. Hudleston.

PORTLAND ROCKS OE ENGLAND. 913

the sand becomes much more argillaceous, but is not retentive of
water, which bursts out above some sandy-clay beds crowded with
the usual fossils of the Kimmeridge Clay. The line between the
two formations is, perhaps, somewhat arbitrary; but the porous or
non-porous nature is of some consequence, and the fossils suddenly
cease above the water, except in the doggers. This latter fact is of
no consequence paleontologically, as it may simply prove that the
percolating waters have removed the fossils ; but it adds to the proof
of the lithological change. Including all this, the total thickness at
the north of Swindon may be estimated at 50 feet, which is pro-
bably not beyond the truth. Mr. Godwin-Austen’s section at
Bourton makes this only 7 feet witha query. I did not see it there ;
it may have thinned in that direction, but scarcely to so great an
extent.

I must here confess that I was in error about the Kimmeridge
Clay at Swindon being all Lower Kimmeridge. The sandy beds at
the top belong to the Upper by their fossils ; those belonging to it
are such of the list on p. 211 (Q.J. G.S. vol. xxxi.) as occur in the
general list with W. only against them. The same may be said of
the clay at Hartwell; it is Upper Kimmeridge ; the fossils recorded
1. c. p. 212, only prove its relation to the Lower Kimmeridge. The
range of these sandy beds, and the fossils here and elsewhere found
in them, prove them to correspond to the strata above the first paper
slab of the typical section. This error was corrected by the perusal
of M. Seemann’s statements. Unfortunately, from their misnaming
these beds Portlandian, I had not read MM. De Loriol and Pellat’s
work, in which these statements are made. A further examination
of the beds, however, has made me fully concur in them,

Oxfordshire.

In this county there is no place where the whole of the Port-
landian rocks can be seen in one section, and no special feature is
presented by those that are visible ; hence the chief importance here
is the means of connexion afforded between the counties of Wilts and
Bucks, The various members of the formation dip gently to the
east, and are overlapped unconformably by the ferruginous sands of
a later period; so that one has to traverse miles in order to pass
through a comparatively small thickness, and we must wait for the
interpretation of the sections till Buckinghamshire has been ex-
amined.

The uppermost beds of the Portland here shown spread out in a
broad area by the villages of Great Hazeley and Great Milton. The
section at the former place has been admirably described by Dr. Fitton,
who saw a lower bed of stone than is now visible; and I need only
point out the general characteristics for the sake of comparison. The
base of all these quarries (Pl. VIII. fig. 7) is a yellow sand (4), not in
the least glauconitic, which extends downwards some 10 or 12 feet.
In this must be contained the lower bed of stone mentioned by Dr.
Fitton. The lowest stone (3) now seen is a shell-brash limestone,
mostly devoid of fossils, least compacted at the top, but hardening

214 REV, J. F. BLAKE ON THE

below by an accumulation of shells, so that at the base it is full of
Trigonia gibbosa and other fossils. This varies in thickness in the
quarries from 5 feet to 8 feet, but is always the object of the exca-
vations. It is separated from the overlying rocks by a thin band
of clay, still full of broken Trigome, which, in an ill-preserved
state, abound throughout all the sections where any fossils occur at
all, and especially towards the base. ‘The next bed (2) is similar to
the one below, but has the appearance of rolled masses of stone, so
consolidated by similar material, that the separate pieces are scarcely
recognizable, the whole being from 4 feet to 5 feet thick. The top (1)
is a solid block of gritty limestone, 2 feet thick, with Perne. The
chief fossils lie here in beds Nos. 2 and 3. The upper one contains,
among others, Cerithium portlandicum ; and the lower one has Tvi-
gona meurva, Lima rustica, Pecten lamellosus, Ostrea expansa,
and Pleuromya tellina. The presence of the last two is worthy of
note. A similar section may be seen at Cuddesdon, where the road-
way of the village.is for some space made by No. 2. But it is dif-
ficult to find in this district any exposure of the lower beds. Pits
are opened and closed again so rapidly that it is a chance at any
moment whether any are visible. ‘There is a road-section to the
west of Great Milton, which might well commence at the base of
No.4; but its indications are not very satisfactory. It would show
that there is a rubbly limestone (5) with Plewromya and Cardiwm
(? dissemile), which is very argillaceous towards the centre, and is
followed below by nodular sand (6). The thicknesses, which are
not great, cannot be accurately ascertained. Glimpses may be
caught of a similar succession at Cuddesdon and Garsington. At
the former, dark rubbly beds with green grains and small pebbles
form the upper boundary of a pond, so that they are probably pre-
ceded by clay; and at the latter a temporary excavation showed
4 feet of rubbly green glauconitic beds full of fossils, in which Car-
dium Pellati, Trigona incurva?, and Ammonites biplex abounded,
but Trigonia gibbosa was very rare. This became very soft and green
towards the base, with a number of small stones. Not more than
30 feet intervene between this and the Kimmeridge Clay, which, all
over this district, is of the same sandy character at the top as it is
at Swindon.

We are now able to place in its proper position the well-known
section at Shotover given by Fitton*, Phillipst, and Semannt. |
This gives, as the latter author has shown, a bank with fossils, in-
cluding Trigonia gibbosa at the top, and doubtless the home of many
of the fossils quoted by Philips. This corresponds to No. 5, and is
succeeded downwards by non-glauconitic non-fossiliferous sands, and
then sands which are both glauconitic and fossiliferous and contain
the huge doggers, as at Swindon. The total thickness seen here is
estimated by Prof. Phillips at from 70 to 80 feet. There can be no
mistaking these sands, with their glauconitic grains and fossils such

Moe. cit. poate. t Geology of Oxford, p. 418 and pl. 16.

t De Térial and Pellat, Mém, Ac. Soc. Phys. et Hist. Nat. Geneve, tom. xix.
p. 192, pl. i.

PORTLAND ROCKS OF ENGLAND. 215

as Pholadomya tumida (rustica, Ph.). They are the strict representa-
tives, not as Prof. Phillips seems to have thought, of the “ basal
sands” of Swindon, but of No. 6 of that station, the great series of
sands which lie beneath the fossiliferous zone. ‘This is important, as
showing that here, at least, the sands have scarcely diminished in
thickness, though, from the order of the beds as given by Dr. Fitton,
it is plain that we cannot trace individual portions ; for the sand and
clay which should represent Nos. 4 and 5, seem here reversed in
position.

The whole interpretation, however, of this Oxfordshire district
must be postponed till after the description of the remainder of the
Portland rocks in Buckinghamshire.

Buckinghamshire.

There is a singular uniformity in the deposits, which spread over
a considerable district, here, commencing on the south at a line from
Brill to Thame, and ending on the north at a line from Quainton
to Stukeley, beyond which no deposits of this age have been traced.
Numerous sections in this area are given by Dr. Fitton. Mr. Brodie
has given part of that at Brill*; and the succession at Hartwell is
figured by Semann‘ with much accuracy. A generalized account,
therefore, of the beds will be of most value, indicating where each
portion may best be seen (see figs. 8, 9, Pl. VIII.).

In some places the top of the Portland rock is uncovered or is fol-
lowed by ferruginous sands of a far subsequent date; but in many
the succeeding rocks are white limestones and dark clays with
freshwater fossils, usually referred to the Purbeck. In these cases
there is no such tumultuous river with large Portland blocks as
has carved out the hollows at Swindon; but the beds follow in an
undisturbed manner, as they do in the Isle of Portland and at Chicks-
grove, or even more so. In the quarry at Hartwell there 7s a great
erosion of the upper beds, and the space is filled with dark stony
earth; but this is in the freshwater strata only, and there is no
stone above to give a posterior limit to the age of the erosion. At
Long Crendon also is a bed immediately above the Portland, which
has at its base great pieces of a white calcareous stone imbedded in
a greenish white clay; but these are not Portland stones, and there
is no proof of erosion. At South Oving, at Quainton, and at Brill
the succession is very regular, and no indication to the contrary is
given in any of Dr. Fitton’s sections. We may conclude, therefore,
that there were neyer any more Portland rocks deposited in this
district than those now seen, and that they are not merely dimi-
nished in appearance by the overlap of more modern strata.

No. 1. The uppermost Portland rocks in all the quarries seen are
composed of compacted shell-brash—the size and quality of the par-
ticles probably depending on the shells broken up, as they vary very
much. The absence of oolite in this district is remarkable (what
does occur is in the Purbeck at Brill), a point in which these beds

* In Wright’s Monograph of Brit. Foss. Echin. Pal. Soe. p, 854,
t De Loriol and Pellat, loc, cit. pl. i. fig. 7, and p. 189,

216 REY. J. F. BLAKE ON THE

agree with those at Chicksgrove*. ‘This upper Portland bed is
often separable into two, the upper being more broken, but having
abundant T'rigonie at its base, which in most northern quarries
are much perforated by small Lithodomz. 'The lower block makes a
solid building-stone, which is often the object of the quarries. The
total thickness of this portion is pretty uniform at about 4 feet,
however much the minor more consolidated bands may vary. In the
quarry at Bierton, near Aylesbury‘, the character seems different ;
for the fossils are Mytilus pallidus and some unrecognizable bivalves,
and the resulting rock is much softer. This latter character, how-
ever, is repeated at Coney Hill, near Over Winchenden, where is a
very important section ; examined, however, in the direction of the
dip, along the road from Aylesbury to Thame, it retains the cha-
racter at its escarpment, but is diminished to 3 feet. The ordinary
Trigonia is T. gibbosa ; but Semann mentions 7'.? Pellat: as from here
at Hartwell, and Dr. Fitton mentions the only Belemnite known
in the Portland Stone as coming from this at Quainton.

No, 2 is a more or less creamy limestone, but not always retain-
ing that character, and having a very fossiliferous band at the base.
It is, indeed, divisible into three blocks, when the upper part is the
most creamy and abounds in small well-preserved fossils, especially
Natica ceres, the middle is a harder block, and the basal portion is
hardened by the great abundance of T'rigonie and other shells. At
Coney Hill this part is thicker than usual, and the three blocks are
4 feet, 4 feet, and 1 foot respectively, the top one very rich in fossils.
The lower parts of this are of considerable economic value in the
northern portion of the area, where they are the object of the
quarries for building-stone and lime; and a large part of the village
of Whitchurch has this for its natural paving. Where the base is
consolidated by shells, the thickness is from 8 to 9 feet on the
whole; but towards the south the lower part loses its abundant
shelis, which become more uniformly distributed, and it becomes a
brown non-creamy limestone, called the “ greys,” with an underlying
whiter rock, making, with the upper creamy parts, a total thickness
of 13 feet. These features are seen in the quarries at Brill and
Crendon. From Dr. Fitton’s account of a pit near Stukeley, it would
appear, on the other hand, to diminish towards the north. The
fauna of this portion is extensive.

Fossils of the Creamy Limestones of Buckinghamshire.

c. Ammonites boloniensis (De Lor.). |
ce. —- triplex (Sow.). e.
pseudogigas (Blake). |
Belemnites, sp. {
Alaria Beaugrandi (De Lor.). |

Natica elegans (Sow.).
ceres (De Lor.).
incisa (Blake).
Marcousana §).
(—— Hebertana §).

* The Purbeck beds here also agree in having flinty masses in them.

t The spot is marked by a fault on the Survey Map, and Gault and Green-
sand introduced, of which there is no sign in the quarry.

{ Fide Dr. Fitton.

§ Fide M.Semann. I have seen none like them, though looking particularly
for them.

PORTLAND ROCKS OF ENGLAND. Ag

Cerithium portlandicum (Sow.). ce. Trigonia gibbosa (Sow.).
Hudlestoni (Blake). incurva (Ben.).

Orthostoma acuticarina (Blake). — Pellati (De Lor.).

Pleurotomaria rugata (Ben.). tenuitexta (Lyc.)?.

Pleuromya tellina (4g.). Arca Beaugrandi (De Lor.).
Voltzii (4g.). - Nucula depressa (Blake).

Nezra portlandica (Coztt.). Mytilus autissiodorensis? (Cott.).

Corbula dammariensis (Buwv.). c. Perna Bouchardi (Opp.).

. Pecten lamellosus (Sow. .
suprajurensis (D’Or0.).

ie)

Lithodomus, sp.
Astarte rugosa (Sow.).

Cyprina implicata (De Lor.). Lima rustica (Sow.).
— elongata (Blake). c. Ostrea expansa (Sow.).
Cypricardia costifera (Blake). c. bononiz (De Lor.).

Lucina portlandica (Sow.). Exogyra bruntrutana (Zhurm.).
minuscula ? (Blake). Plicatula echinoides (Blake).
Anisocardia pulchella? (De Lor.). Serpula quinquangularis ( Gold/.).

Cardium dissimile (Sow.). Kchinobrissus Brodiei*, ( W7.).

ealcareum (Blake).

The most characteristic of these is the little Watica cercs, which
marks an horizon in the true Portlandian of Boulogne. The other
Natice mentioned by De Loriol as found here by M. Semann come
from the Boulognian grits; I have not been able to see any thing
like them in Buckinghamshire. Of the fossils usually occurring in
higher beds Cerithiwm portlandicum is only common in one place.
LIncina portlandica and Astarte rugosa are rare. The first of these
three seems always to be commonest in the uppermost beds of a loca-
lity, whatever their age ; perhaps its presence is a sign of approaching
freshwater conditions. The Cardium is the true dissimile, and not
Pellati, which occurs abundantly below. The larger oysters are
abundant ; and the Plicatulais not rare. De Loriol mentions Serpula
coacervata as common on the shells from this district; but the
common Serpula is not that species, which I have seen nowhere from
Portland rocks ; it is not even S. gordialis, but a carinated species,
which becomes abundant below.

No. 3. Throughout the whole district there is, underlying these
limestones, a bed of yellowish brown sand, which is blue when first
extracted. It is not at all glauconitic, and contains but few fossils.
Towards the north, at Quainton, there is at the base a Serpulite, the
species being S. quinquangularis ; it does not form a hard rock, and
reaches a thickness of 2 feet. The nearest spot to this at which
this portion of the series is seen again, viz. Coney Hill, shows this
to be very local, as it has diminished to 6 inches, and is not solely
composed of Serpule. The whole thickness, however, a little under
5 feet, remains the same; and I have nowhere seen more than
6 feet. The only interest attaching to this bed is its constancy,
and the fact that it occurs within the limits which we must assign
to the Portland Stone as distinguished from the Portland Sand.

No. 4. This is a mass of rubbly limestone of very peculiar cha-
racter, seen admirably in the quarries towards the north. Dr.
Fitton mentions it in his section at Quainton as the “ middle rock
and rubble, abounding in fossils.” It may still be seen there; but

* Fide Mr. Brodie.
oa. G. 8. No. 142. Q

218 REV. J. F. BLAKE ON THE

its character is best observed at Coney Hill. Here about 8 feet are
exposed, showing several layers of alternately large and small rubble,
the large being composed of the internal casts of shells, which in some
cases retain fragments of the shell attached; and yet, when they
are extracted immediately from the rock, there is no sign of the rest
of the shell in the matrix. We are therefore forced to the conclu-
sion that the deposit is a redistributed one, the shells having become
fossilized in an earlier matrix, from which they have been rolled
out. The peculiar character of the fossils, as will be seen, points
to the same conclusion. At an admirable section at Lodge Hill,
made for drawing up stone for the building of a mansion at the
summit, 12 feet of these rubbly beds appear, the base being im-
bedded irregularly in the underlying sand.. They may also be re-
cognized by their fossils, occupying the Great Western railway-
cutting east of Aylesbury. At Brill, this part of the series can only
be traced in a rough cliff-face over the brickyards ; but some rubbly
beds of the same character have a thickness at one place of 6 feet
6 inches. The following is the fauna observed :—

Fossils of the Rubbly Beds of Buckinghamshire.

Ammonites boloniensis (De Lor.). e. Trigonia Pellati (De Lor.).
——- pseudogigas (lake). incurva (Ben.).
triplex (Sow.). — Voltzii (4g.).
biplex (Sow.). —— muricata (Goldf.).
pectinatus (PA.). gibbosa (Sow.).
Pleurotomaria rugata (Ben.). —— Manseli (Lyc.).
Natica turbiniformis (26m.). Micheloti (De Lor.).
Thracia tenera (4g.). Perna Bouchardi (Opp.).
ce. Pleuromya tellina (4@.). Lima rustica (Sow.).
Sowerbya longior (Blake). —— ornata (Buv.).
ce. Myoconcha portlandica (Blake). bifurcata (Blake).
Cyprina implicata (De Lor.). _ Pecten lamellosus (Sow.).
Brongniarti? (Pict. e¢ R.) Ostrea solitaria (Sow.).
Unicardium circulare (D’O7rb.). Plicatula Boisdini (De Lor.).
ce. Cardium Pellati (De Lor.). echinoides (Blake).
t: dissimile (Sow.). Serpula quinquangularis (Goldf.).
Mytilus jurensis (6z.). Glyphea, sp.

boloniensis (De Lor.).

In this fauna the scarcity of Gasteropods is at once noticed ; this
may be accounted for by their having been destroyed in the break-
ing up of the old beds. The Ammonites pectinatus is an important
introduction for the purpose of correlation. Its presence and the
change of the common Cardium and Trigonia into other species,
mark an earlier date; and several fossils which are new or peculiar
have the same tendency.

No. 5. Thesection at Lodge Hill, before mentioned, shows a suc-
cession of sand and shell-beds, doubtless of the same character as
No. 4, and of very little consequence, though here reaching 12 feet
6 inches. They areseparated, because, on the one hand, they are not
glauconitic, and, on the other, they are less constant than the over-
lying rubble beds. They are seen also in the cutting near Aylesbury,
but towards the south they appear to die out, thus being comple-
mentary to the sand below.

PORTLAND ROCKS OF ENGLAND. 219

No. 6. The glauconitic beds. These appear to have been seen in
several places by Dr. Fitton where I can now find no exposure. At
the Lodge-Hill cutting such stone is just visible, but there is not
more than 16 feet between the top and the Kimmeridge Clay. In
the brickyard at Hartwell, about 6 feet of very glauconitic material
almost immediately overlies the Kimmeridge Clay. Similar rock is
continued northwards to the Warren, Stukeley ; and to the south of
the area in the section at Brill, 5 feet of glauconitic matter is found
beneath the rubble bed No. 4. These contain hardened masses of
stone full of broken fossils, and at the base a pebble-bed full of
Lydian stones. I have recorded only Ammonites bolowensis, A.
pseudogigas, and A. biplex from these beds; but they haye not been
properly searched.

_ No. 7. The last of this series are argillaceous sands which lead
down into the Kimmeridge Clay, but are not distinctly glauconitic.
Like the lowest bed at Swindon, they chiefly differ from the true
Kimmeridge Clay in being barren of fossils ; and the two can scarcely
be separated at Hartwell, while at Brill only 6 feet are seen. On
the other hand, Dr. Fitton has recorded a thickness of 30 feet of
sands near Thame, and stated them to contain huge calcareous doggers
like those met with at Shotover. I have not been able to confirm
this ; but I think they mnst be a development of this part of the
series.

The whole thickness of the Portland rocks in this district can thus
be estimated on the average to be no more than 60 or 70 feet,
including the sands at the 8.K. corner. Thus a great reduction has
taken place from Oxfordshire, and still more from Wiltshire. A
similar reduction is seen in the underlying Kimmeridge Clay, as
Exogyra virgula is reported a short distance below the pits at Hart-
well. This reduction, however, is mainly due to the thinness of the
Portland Sands, while the expansion or contraction of the Stone de-
pends upon how it is related to the more southern deposits, which
we must now proceed to discuss.

In the first place it is obvious that we can trace the same sequence
in Oxfordshire as has been described in Bucks. The brashy beds
above, the more consolidated beds below, with their base full of
Trigonie, with Ostrea expansa and Pleuromya tellina, underlain by
non-glauconitic sand, are all repeated; and in the space below are
glauconitic beds and non-glauconitic concretionary sands. While, then,
the tendency in the two counties is obviously for thesands to somewhat
change their character by the dying-out of the concretionary beds as
we pass to the north, the upper part remains sufficiently constant to
justify us in seeking still further relations with the beds in Wiltshire,
Bourton being no further removed from Great Hazeley than the latter
is from Stukeley.

There are but two interpretations of the Buckinghamshire and
Oxfordshire beds which can be advanced with any show of reason.
The first and perhaps most natural assumption without particular
study is, that we have here thin representatives of all the Portland
deposits elsewhere reaching a far greater thickness. The other is,

Q2

220 REY. J. F. BLAKE ON THE

that we may match these beds with some part of those at Swindon,
and that we have in them only a portion of the series elsewhere found.

We have seen, indeed, that the Swinden rocks are part only of
those at Tisbury ; but then the former are exceptional in other
respects, and higher rocks may have been denuded there, which
should be found again further north. There is therefore no par-
ticular presumption in favour of the latter interpretation, nor is there
any against it; for though the Portland Sands below are seen to thin
out, if we compare Portland, Swindon, Shotover, and Brill, the
thinness of them at Tisbury, and perhaps also at Bourton, shows that
this is not a general phenomenon. The point must therefore be de-
cided by observation of detail.

If now we compare the northern sections with that at Swindon,
and especially that part which is seen on the road to Coate, as de-
tailed on p. 209, there is a certain amount of agreement—more than
can be found by a comparison with any other part of the series. To-
wards the lower part the basal sands often consist of a kind of
shelly brash, which will compare with No.1. The two Trigonia-
beds with the white chalky rock with Cardia recall well the three
parts of No. 2, especially the T'’rzgonia-bed at the base, which is seen
both in Oxfordshire and, in a slightly different form, at Bourton.
The glauconitic limestones below these, which are really much more
sandy than those above, may well represent, in a changed aspect,
the underlying sands, with their preceding rubble beds; or it may
be that the clay of Swindon represents these. If we take this cor-
relation and test it by the fossils, we shall find so remarkable a con-
firmation that no doubt is left in my mind as to its correctnesss.
The following are found in both sets of deposits :—

Fossils common to the Limestones of Buckinghamshire and the Trigonia-
beds of Swindon and Bourton, and peculiar to these or most common
im them.

Ammonites pectinatus (P2.). *Pleuromya tellina (.Ag.).
*Natica elegans (Sow.). Thracia tenera (Ag.).
' Trigonia Voltzii (4g.). Mytilus unguiculatus (Ph.).
*Cyprina elongata (Blake). boloniensis (De Lor.),

*Cypricardia costifera (Blake). *Hchinobrissus Brodiei (W7.).
* Anisocardia pulchella (De Lor.).

Of these such as are marked with an asterisk occur in the creamy
limestones, which are thus not to be separated as a higher part than
that at Swindon. Other fossils have the same tendency. Thus, the
Ammonites are those of low horizons, as are Trigonia Pellati,
Lima rustica, Kxogyra bruntrutana, and an abundance of Ostrea ex-
pansa, and Pleuromya tellina. .

I regard, therefore, the whole of the limestones of Buckingham-
shire as an expansion of the Z’rigonia-beds of Swindon, except that
the brashy beds at the top correspond to part of the ‘basal sands ”
of the latter place, but not to the whole.

Ii this be the true correlation of the Portland limestones, it follows
that, as the freshwater Purbecks succeed them without interruption,

PORTLAND ROCKS OF ENGLAND. 9>1

they must have been deposited during the period in which, at Tis-
bury and Portland, the remainder of the flinty series, the Whit-bed
and the Roach were being formed, and they are thus older than some
portions of the Portland rocks.

Summary.

The facts arrived at by this investigation may be briefly recapitu-
lated as follows :—

In all the sections near the coast, the Purbeck is separated from
the Portland by a line of clay ; but the uppermost bed of the former
is not always the same, and the line of junction, though not eroded,
is irregular. The Portland series shows first the Whit-bed and
Roach characterized by particular fossils, and especially by Ammonites
giganteus, and lying with local unconformity on the next beds.
The characters of this part differ in the various localities; and it
almost thins out at Upway. It may be known as the Building-stone
series. Below is the Flinty series, divisible into several parts, highly
fossiliferous at the base, and characterized by Ammonites boloniensis
&e. This isthickest at St. Alban’s, and becomes very chalky at Upway.
The Portland Sands contain a variety of beds (clays, cement-stones,
and oyster-beds), and have a peculiar fauna distinct from the lime-
stones above ; but these characters are not constant.’ The thickness
must be assumed much greater than has usually been done, unless
the limit of the Kimmeridge Clay is unduly raised, and it is esti-
mated at 277 feet. The Boulognian episode to which, unjustifiably,
the name of Lower Portland has been given, is represented by normal
shales and cement-stones on the Kimmeridge coast, all the beds
being here much expanded, but recognizable by their general suc-
cession and the introduction’ at definite horizons of the character-
istic invariant fossils.

In the Vale of Wardour the Purbeck is also marked off from the
Portland by a band of clay, the succession is very similar, and beds
corresponding to the Whit-bed and Roach may be recognized. The
Flinty series is far less flinty and more chalky, and it has at its base
a well-marked zone of fossils. A development of it downwards
takes place here in the shape of some sandy freestones largely
worked, containing several layers of Tirigonie, especially one at its
* base. Below the limestones, the true Portland Sand is very thin
and brown, and is underlain by a curious rubbly kind of stone ap-
pearing to belong, by its fossils, to an earlier date.

At Swindon the relations of the Purbeck to the Portland are
most remarkable, the latter being carved out in hollows which contain
rolled blocks of it, evidencing a land surface and rapid changes ; but
as the uppermost part of the Portland here corresponds only to the
top of the freestones of Tisbury, and the higher parts are wanting,
this erosion may have taken place in Portland times. The main mass
of the quarried stone is of the same age as that at Tisbury; and at
the base we find some fossiliferous beds in various well-marked blocks,
and containing a peculiar fauna; these Z’rigonia-beds have a conglo-

292 REY. J. F. BLAKE ON THE

meratic base, and are underlain by a local bed of clay, more allied to
the beds below. The Portland Sands are found below this in the
form of extremely fossiliferous sandstones or shell masses, which are
glauconitic. They contain a well-marked fauna almost restricted to
them. The base of the series is a thick mass of sands with huge con-
cretionary masses in the lower part.

The districts of Oxfordshire and Buckinghamshire are made on
the same model. The *‘ Purbeck” beds of the latter county lie
uniformly on the Portlands as in the south ; but the underlying lime-
stone corresponds to the Zrigonia-bed of Swindon. Hence the former
are of earlier date than the Purbecks of the latter place, and still
earlier than those of the Isle of Purbeck, and were formed in Port-
landian times. There are here still older deposits than at Swindon,
which may yet be reckoned as belonging to the Portland Stone,
consisting of redeposited beds with strange fossils. The fossiliferous
Portland Sand is much diminished in importance, but continues its
glauconitic character to the extreme north; while the lowest sands
with their rounded masses are continued to Shotover and Thame,
and there almost disappear.

Thus the Portland Sand had two maxima, one to the north of
Tisbury and one to the south; but with regard to the Portland
Stone, the oldest beds are found in the north, and as we go south
later and later deposits are successively introduced before the traces
of freshwater conditions appear. These were the final result of the
gradual elevation in all cases, and were not of the same age through-
out, but followed immediately on the period of the beds below.

It may be of interest to indicate the exact age of the different
beds of the Portland series which are used for building-stones. In
each case they owe their qualities to local conditions, and are not of
necessity of any value because they can be geologically called “ rare
land Stone.”

Building-stones of the Portland Series.

Locality. Part of the series. Observations.
(1). Roach. Shelly;
Isle of Portland (2). Whit-bed. The celebrated stone.

(3) Top of the Flinty series.|Good stone.
Isle of Purbeck...... (7) Middle of the Flinty|Suboolitic freestone.
series.
(2) A bed corresponding to|A beautiful white stone,
Vale of Ward the Whit-bed. ringing under the hammer
Be ee bt | Kaela part of thejA soft freestone, very sandy.
Flinty series.
(2) Same part of Flinty|Very irregular hard stone.
series as the last.

BOOB ayes cits (3) Trigonia-beds below the|Poor.
last.
Oxfordshire »....¢s.2: (3) Same age as the last. {A fair stone.

Buckinghamshire ...|(2) Same age as the last. _|Ditto.

PORTLAND ROCKS OF ENGLAND. 223

Conclusions.

Accepting the above results we can now give some account of the
Portlandian episode in England. Remembering that little trace of
any such episode can be detected either at Speeton or beneath Sussex,
we learn that the elevation which introduced the circumstances
capable of yielding sandy and calcareous deposits took place spora-
dically. We also know from the borings in London and at Ware
that 30 miles from their most easterly outcrop the Portland rocks
are not to be traced; but on this much reliance cannot be placed,
for they may have been removed by precretaceous denudation. So
far as our knowledge at present extends, the earliest rise took place
along the main axis between Boulogne and the Mendips, and gave
the peculiar character to the lower part of the beds west of Tisbury,
while the Portland area was scarcely affected by it, and the clay to
the north was rendered more sandy. Further physical changes of
a nature unknown to us brought about the denudation of some
sandy rocks and developed the great sandbacks, which pass from
Swindon to Shotover and die away to the north-east, and which
diminish from St. Alban’s Head towards Portland and Upway and
are not to be recognized in the Boulogne area. On the north side
of the elevation these sands are partly glauconitic, the amount of
green matter becoming greatest as they thin away to the north;
while on the south side I have failed to find any glauconite, and on
the line itself at Tisbury the slight thickness of sand exposed is
brown as from the presence of a peroxide of iron. These peculiarities
point to a different history of the deposits. The dark glauconitic
(? all) grains are certainly not due to Foraminifera directly, calca-
reous specimens unfilled with dark matrix being present with them,
and they having no shape derivable from such a source. Many of
the dark-coloured stones are not glauconitic but Lydian stones.

Slight succeeding oscillations introduced the clay of Swindon and
Portland and the upper bed of sand in Oxon and Bucks; but the
seas were henceforth clear of these, and Mollusca flourished in one
place to have their broken remains deposited in another, either of
recognizable size or ground to the finest powder to form the chalky
rocks. In one of these oscillations in the northern district a colony
of Mollusca which had flourished and died and had their remains
_ compacted to a rock, was broken up and the débris deposited again
as the rubbly rock of Buckinghamshire.

The shallower sea to the north was soon. nearly filled, while the
axis of elevation travelled northwards, so that the former became
an inland lake, and the accumulations at Swindon brought the sea-
bottom so near the margin of the land that irregular deposits took
place in it, though still marine ones. Shortly, however, this spot
became dry land, suffering minor oscillations, marked by the erosion
of bed after bed, the accumulation of unsorted débris, and the
deposition of freshwater limestones. Meanwhile the sea to the south
was still open, chalky and flinty masses of considerable thickness
continued to be formed, varied at last by rougher deposits formed in
more troubled water, till finally the last of the marine animals

224 REV. J. F. BLAKE ON THE

was killed off, and a wide area became exposed to the atmosphere.
The freshwater conditions of the rocks of the Isle of Purbeck in-
troduced a new era, which it is not my object to discuss.

With this history of the formation of the Portland rocks the
earlier local elevations affecting countries to the south of England
have nothing in common. They were not even the prelude to the
changes above recorded ; for after the Boulognian episode had begun
and ended, the sea-bottom once more assumed its former position,
and fresh deposits of clay (which had never ceased to fall on the
British area) commenced again, and only gradually through the
Portland Sands gave place to calcareous rocks. We may therefore
rightly object to the use of the term Portlandian for rocks which
neither in organic contents. nor in physical history have any thing
to connect them, and restrict the name to those which have formed
the subject of the present description. We are even led to ask
what amount of justification there is for the title Portland Sands
as applied to the lower beds. If the choice lay between including
these in the Kimmeridge Clay and including some more of the
clay beds below them in the Portland series, 1 should unhesita-
tingly take the first alternative; for while the true Kimmeridge
Clay has very little in common with the Portland Stone, it has
much with the Portland Sand, and the latter has as much with
it as it has with the Portland Stone. Moreover, in dividing the
Portland Sand from the Kimmeridge Clay we have to draw a
somewhat arbitrary line; but the line above is generally a well-
marked one. It is these facts which have led the French geologists
to include with the Portland Sand the upper part of the Kim-
meridge Clay in one group, called by them the ‘“‘ Middle Port-
landian.” Yet, if there were no more to be said than this, the
logical result would be the abolition of the Portland Sands. We
have seen, however, that it is a variable mass developing local
features and expanding and contracting in thickness, thus acting
after the manner of an episodal formation and not like the normal
Kimmeridge Clay. We have seen, too, that at certain spots a well-
marked special fauna may be found init. These features indicate
that at the period of its deposition in any locality (a period which
may have varied in absolute time from spot to spot) the tranquillity
of the Kimmeridge sea-bottom had been disturbed, and those changes
commenced which finally closed the Oolitic period in this country.
To the final deposits due to these changes we give the name of
Portland Stone ; and hence to the results of their precursors, and to
these alone, can we rightly give the name of Portland Sand.

PORTLAND ROCKS OF ENGLAND.

List of Fossils of the Portland Series o

S.

England.

Upper beds at Swindon and

n
4 *
| 2s) eet |e ele
5= 3 3 S jaa) Sis
BS | Sih emimae le, bes,
; 3 ro) o i) 5 = 5
le a) el cae ee: (ee
Nore.—Names or stars enclosed [Fie | S| a |e in |S [ole |
' in brackets indicate that the occur- | Bis a = es 5 =. a a
_ rence has been previously recorded, "| 2 aie lS re 18 682 g|
but has not been verified. Sela | a] 8 2 lcélslec
S\Se/S 18 | 8 le 8laalSiee
| Aa ja/ai|\piae © AE
—_—|————$ | —__ | a | | Se i
MDW. | DE. | Ee es eee td |
ee eine as * |
be poutchit, D’ Ord. ..........0..0200.| ++ *
_ Ammonites giganteus, Sow. .........|+-- Ss bee eee se
| —— pseudogigas, Blake ............++4)++- * Pe ag ee ene? Fe) a
m= boloniensis, De Lor. ..........00|++- * os +e | # | « lel x
— triplicatus, Sow. .............ssee./e+ on a ere ie ela ee eee
BIPNOX, SOU, .........cscceceswassece|eee * | x | «| * | * ae
—— pectinatus, Ph. ..... ...sesseseee[eee daa) |) Mae * x |
—— Bleicheri?, De Lor. .........00.|-+- es *
—— Boisdini, yg Nees | «? oe
Alaria Beaugrandi, De Lor. .........|.-- a ais *
—— (ef. Thurmanni, Cont.) .........]..- x
Buccinum naticoides, Sow........00...[+++ 4 ae die ee
—— angulatum, Sow. .........sesessefee | ess Py pela
Mvatica elegans, Sow. ........s0.esee00-[e- see eae wie. || ob se le
me — elegans, De Lor. non Sow. ......|.2.| se2 | soe | sae | coe | one | one | ¥
Ty ES ei oe sueife case lesen Hetes *
RUM EEEES erodes enccaccxtoanls-- * die
furbiniformis, Rom. .........0.-|-- *
Marcousana, D’ Orb.| <...-.....+|>«- x |
}|—— Hebertana, D’Ord.] ............|.-. ey
Pseudomelania (cf. multispirata, Et.)\... ae ea baa
erithium portlandicum, Sow. ......|... [x] | *
—— concavum, Sow. ............ sicher weet Lae
Bouchardianum, De Lor. ......|...
Boisdini, De Lor. ee ie
a Dn Peet baa
bifurcatum, Blake ...... Ee ae Wie
Hudlestoni, BRAKE Node cic wiasntn a es *
Turritella minuta, Koch Gage ||...
‘urbo Foucardi, ee a a away eee
apertus, a on a eae bs aa
Delphinula globosa, Buv. ............/.. glean | ox
[Littorina, paucisulcata, Ph.] .........}... [x?]
Neritoma sinuosa, Morris ............/.+ os sta [*]
| Nerita minor, De ae ee A a
| Trochus permedius, CE es eee Oe Pose lp ees . caw gfe
Pleurotomaria rugata, Ben, .........|... wnt : x | * |*
| Rozeti, De Lor. .......0.: = eee eae em ee 2.
_Rissoa acuticarina, GMO) 3 es.cstiaed Nain PE ee eee A *
va fellina,-Ag. ..0a0.. igctiegralas Tee If Pee ae * | * |] *
Voltzii, # date Semen eee | Fie , 4G. b avost omuiaenanicl
— 3 BD. ccccccucescccecnesecceccves cooee.| ©
| Plectomya rugosa, DIMES cds endicwnncanos see) eae *
| Pholadomya tumida, 4g. ............]... [x] | *
Meeericia tonera, Ag. ...,....-2..0..0.-00.|+s- as 71,0 HB AR ean
Nexra portlandica Cl es Be 0G Uy oi *
Corbula saltans, SO as we Ree

Building-stone of Portland.

Flinty series of coast.

a
=|
~
2
=
<a}
ae 3| om el
aN |S ee
eee een *
%
| #
|
*
ets Pa NS 5
* eee *
* |*
a@ee * *
* eee ee
%
x
*
*
*
ae
% *?
*
% /
er ¥
ee *
*| x
*

226 REV. J, F, BLAKE ON THE
I
Inst of Fossils (continued).
2 2) So |
a \elele
e i@|a| o
eB ee ie
He [ai sis
alg | aid ls
| wD =| Pal
Sats aera, 3 rs
4 oO Nn 1) a mn
s1o'a/ S| S| &
O(S a! 8) = | By
alq7| & | 6 24
€ | mle pp
V.,LV.| 00 | Of. | oT.
Sowerbya longior, Blake............1..J0+ x
Myoconcha portlandica, Blake ......|... x
Seomtannis Dolefe a. wee Acadee cestaliee %
Cypricardia costifera, Blake :........}...

Anisocardia pulchella, De Lor. ......}... Be fh ak
Isocardia autissiodorensis, Cott.......|... * | x
Astarte rugosa, Sow. ...0.5....be00cees}e0s fe .

—— Semanni, De Lor. ............00. {ee %

—— polymorpha, Cont. ......c6....00:{00: %

supracorallina, D’Orb. ......... *?

[ OWatR, SOW.) 25522 dea vadoctees cee eepet des eae
Cyprina elongata, Blake...............).+- xl *
—— swindonensis, Blake ............|.+. Be ees Meee
—— implicata, De Lor. .........00.00.[e0 Pe || ie Shae
-——— puchella, De Lor. si... ccscececeeleos x

Broneniarti, Pec. 66 Fe. tic. 2.102}. ~
Unicardium circulare, D’ Orb. ......|...
Corbicella portlandica, Damon ......|...
Moreeama: Bao. 2..i0:. 5th edeats feds
Lucina portlandica, Sow. ............].+-
qleboia,, Cont. os3.. 2. vis paredgeostaae ee
tragosa;| De DOP. 02. .0.0502cbecset fos *
minuscula, Blake ? i... sksecsseos Los
Cardium dissimile, Sow. ............+6.]-+ Sie [x]
Pella De Bor 4. dois ecses eels * ‘Fe
Pealcareum, L1OK6 .:..csesi0e032|-- i *
Morinieum, De Doors’ >..052...00|-- %
Trigonia pibbosa, Sow. .........s20e+|+«:
tenurtexta, Lye. 0 Se.c.ssses.ceslons
Mansel, 2:@: osc. tis.cevatdeses salen: Sais) eee mas
UNGCULV A, (BONEGE fods.cchescwnaloaaleise xP] * | x
Tadiata, BENE A.eseietsedacan oct %
Relat, We Lor s.0 sean aos ok ECE aay Be SE A ae:
Noltza)Agh. Beye, J kwcctv deere ee ae
mutictta: Goldf.<.284. sia deve hesk * | x
varlegata, Credmer ......0.0.0-00- *
Garver De Lome: @. sist vadeed eee *?
—— concentrica, Ag. ...........c.e.08 *
— Micheloti, De Lor. .............4. x? oe
— cymba, Cont. ............0085 Cake aie teat [+]
—— swindonensis, Blake ............)..- * | *
mbinie, ‘CONT. iss: fonds haved sae -keheds [x]
MME chica siawaite amcusias deassseeksiatendesedllaats ae ero}
Nucula obliquata, Blake .......0.00++ +0 eee
Arca Beaugrandi, De Lor. ...ccccscceeleee % | wee | ae
(ef. velledze, Dé Lot.) scv.te.decdhosa| Bear ¥ oe
Lithodomus portlandicus, Damom ...|...| e+ | es. | sve | eee
——, small sp............. Hae vatdela sen eters ~ | & | ees
Modiola pallida, Sow. .......ceceeseseeefeee aa 61) eeeositl eee vere

; i
m re} [<D) .
. CoMl
2 {8 ld (8 [5] Je
se fee (8 | Jk
a Ge a= by os Ad] 3 8]
3) ° Ble = Lele oy |
—
=) oO |) 3 S Ke} fo) ail
fo 18 [sie ie (2)
aan mist |e «lal Oo | Se
[<) 2 1O ° Dm m a
m SH ce
S ja gitlo Sebel & | 2
2 jFBls/8318 sie] & | ao
oa 2=/Oq > a=
a 0/g S|5.5]/h 2 >
ols gS 9 Flor al e ial
gO|S SS) eal SR le! Ble
& |O ie | | & |
a ipa |
8.1 7.1.6] 5.7) ae
a ee
* |
*
* *
* | x
[xe] | % fecef cas ae eRe
[x]
eee *?
* *
*
*
¥ * * %
*
* * * % * *
* *
? x [*| *« | * TEL # |x
%
* * |* *
* *
* *
* *
*? *
*
ae *,
%*
eee * * x
ece eee ee eee eee ee *
ace *

oe a ae

PORTLAND ROCKS OF ENGLAND.

Inst of Fossils (continued).

227

Shotover and glauconitic

Base at Tisbury.

[Modiola bipartita, Sow.]............00./e0
Mytilus jurensis, Rom. ...........00+ 2 eee
— unguiculatus, Ph. ......eceeeesss eee] eee
— autissiodorensis, Cott. .........|... iP
— boloniensis, De Lor. .....c.sceee{ee.| oes
— longzevus, Cont. .........ssceeeees|e-- ac
Pinna suprajurensis, D’Orb. .........|... [*]
merna “mytiloides” ........0...--.000|s+. :
— Bouchardi, Oph. ..........cecseees MY vex
— ?Bayani, De Lor.......... pismtilee:
Avicula octavia, D Orb. .........ss000.|...
Plicatula Boisdini, De Lor.............|... wee
PENI DUIEH, BIGKE .ccssneascasaselece| «0s
EIT PUBLIC, ISOW), oo oacce.cccnecnenese|o0.
= boloniensis, De Lor. ............|..-
f— oOrnata, Buy. ........2..-20eecees|e0-
| —— bifurcata, Blake ..............200-|.. ae
} Pecten lamellosus, Sow. ...............|... [x]
— suprajurensis, D’ Orb, ............|... ste
Wipes Sie Bats 5. vice. asassaacte. | is:
Ue eee cae [+]
— conceutricus, Koch & Dunk. ...|*?
Placunopsis Lycetti, De Lor. .........|...
Ostrea expansa, Sow. ...............000[.2-
— bononia, De Lor. ..........0.00. 00.
— wultiformis, K.g D. .........4...
—— solitaria, Sow. ..............ceeeres[ees gat
Gryphea dilatata, Sow.]...............|... [x]
_Exogyra bruntrutana, Zhurm. ...... : Sy eee
[—— spiralis, Goldf.] ........... oe ee
Waldheimia boloniensis, Rigaur ...|... ec
Rhynchonella portlandica, Blake ...|...| ...
Discina Humphresiana, Dav..........)... me
mangula ovalis, Sow. .......ccsc.secese[eos| os
Serpula gordialis, Schi. ...............)... oe
— quinquangularis, Goldf..........|... [x]
MIE onic ds ~ decinnas esas «tn gh Be
Echinobrissus Brodiei, Wr. .........|...| ...
Acrosalenia Keenigi, Desm.............|... *
: | re er a ce
| Isastraea oblonga, Flem. .............4..+.

Q
i
5
=)
@®
~~

Steneosaurus gracilis, Ph. ............|... [*]
Ceteosaurus longus, Owen ............|... ae
Goniopholis

ie aes

TOO wee eee wee eee ee eeeesioee| sae

Swindon sands and clays.

Lower sands of the coast.

*

Upper sands of the coast.

anes

a ole

Rubble-beds of Bucks and

*K

* OK

KOK:

limestone of Bucks

Oxon.
Trigonia-eds of Swindon.
Freestone at Tisbury and

Creamy
and

7. 16) 5

[*]

[x] |] *

wee | HI] 4%

*?

eee * eee

x |*

¥ eer) eee

* |x] x
*

x |*

ae ee

ae ee a

%

* ||

*

Swindon.
Upper beds at Swindon and

| | Building-stone of Portland.

Chalky series at Chicksgrove.

Flinty series of coast.

aS
Nog
bo

—o

228 REV. J. F. BLAKE ON 'PHE

Notes and Descriptions of Portland Fossils.

Pycnopus PAgopDA, spec. nov. Pl. X. fig. 10.

A small species characterized by the very peculiar arrangement of
the teeth on the vomerine bone, which is the only part preserved.
The general shape of this is long and narrow. It is bounded by 4
series of close-set oval teeth on each side, with their long axes
pointing inwards and backwards. The central line is occupied by
six large transversely oblong teeth, which are so far separated as to
allow between each pair two obliquely subtriangular teeth of inter-
mediate size, having their axes pointing inwards and backwards.
All these teeth are quite smooth.

In the Flinty series at Upway ; found by J. Badcock, Jun., during
the visit of the Geologists’ Association.

AMMONITES GIGANTEUS, Sowerby.

Portland Ammonites are commonly quoted under this title; but
De Loriol has pointed out that Sowerby’s description and figure do
not apply to the specimens so named, which have more than twice
as many exterior as interior ribs, while in Sowerby’s species the ribs
only occasionally bifurcate. Such occur only in the building-stones
of Portland ; and I have accordingly used De Loriol’s name .A. bolo-
niensis for the others.

AMMONITES PSEUDOGIGAS, Spec. Nov.

I confer this name on certain specimens which have on the inner
half of the whorl large knobby ribs which bi- and trifurcate. It has
the whorl as much inflated as in A. gigas; but the ribs are more
numerous than the knobs in the latter species and are more truly
ribs.

AMMONITES TRIPLICATUS, Sowerby. PI. X. fig. 7.

The figure given by Sowerby is of a very small specimen, in which
the characters are not well seen. ‘There is, however, a species in
the Flinty series to which this name has become attached, but which
has never been properly figured, and it is therefore given in Pl. X.
fig. 7. Itis nearly allied.to A. hector, D’Orb.; but the ribs pretty
regularly divide into three, and not more, at the larger diameter,
though the smaller ribs are at first four times as many as the large
ones.

AMMONITES PECTINATUs, Phillips.

This I think to be the same as A. Devillez, De Loriol, because the
young of the latter has as numerous ribs as the former, according to
the description, and a specimen showing the peculiar proboscis-like
form of the aperture had also fine ribs on the inner whorls. Never-
theless A. pectinatus acquires a size larger than any known speci-
‘mens of A. Devillei without showing the changes. If they be
distinct, then both species occur in the Swindon Sands.

PORTLAND ROCKS OF ENGLAND. 929

Atarta Braveranpti, De Loriol.

This is a well-marked species, with two strong keels on each
whorl, of small size, and pretty common in the creamy limestones
of Bucks. See Mém. Soc. Nat. et Phys. de Geneve, tom. xxiii. pl. ix.
fig. 19.

Narica ceres, De Loriol. Pl. IX. fig. 2.

This characteristic species is well marked by its acute spire, well-
separated whorls, and deep, almost ornamental lines of growth.
The British specimens are perfectly consonant with the author’s -
figures and description.

Natica mncisa, spec. noy. Pl. IX. figs. 1, la.

This is very nearly allied to WV. ceres, with which it is Cone
associated. Its distinguishing characteristic is a broad depression
running longitudinally along the upper part of the whorl, so that
the top and middle line are swollen. There are deep, subornamental
lines of growth ; and these are crossed by closer-set fine longitudinal
lines. The spire is short and not very acute. The umbilicus is
moderate in size. NV. ceres shows slight traces of a longitudinal de-
pression and lines; but in this they are so marked as to render the
shell more like Neritoma sinuosa.

In the creamy limestones at Coney Hill and Quainton, rather
common ; also in the Portland Sand, Portland. |

CrerttHium Huptestont, spec. nov. Pl. IX. fig. 3.

This has an apical angle of 17°; and five whorls are visible; they
are only moderately convex and slightly separated. The ornaments
are on the upper half of each whorl (7. e. nearer the apex); transverse
ribs, thirteen in number, in the last two whorls ; these have a gentle
convexity backwards, and die off at each end, leaving the lower half
uncovered. This has three sharp longitudinal lines; and four more,
parallel to them and finer, cross the ribs. The base is covered by
the longitudinal lines only. Length 43 lines. This is nearly allied
to C. septemplicatum, and is probably the same as De Loriol’s exam-
ples figured in the ‘ Bulletin de la Soc. Sc. Hist. Nat. de l’Yonne,’
2nd ser. tom. i. pl. ii. fig. 4; but the ribbing and folding of Romer’s
species is much more regular.

In the creamy limestones of Coney Hill and Hartwell.

CERITHIUM BIFURCATUM, spec. nov. Pl. IX. fig. 5.

Apical angle 24°, whorls rather inflated, sutures distinct, last
whorl, not including the beak, half as large again as the penulti-
mate. Ornaments about eighteen elevated transverse ribs with a
slight convexity backwards, strongest towards the top. Halfway
across the whorl they give place to “two smaller ones, one being the
continuation of the original. These are all knotted by longitudinal
lines of alternating strength, about eight in number. The "base has
only knotted longitudinal lines. Total length about inch. This

930 REV. J. F. BLAKE ON THE

is somewhat similar to M. De Loriol’s C. Lamberti, but differs in
details.
In the Swindon Sands, west of Swindon.

Turso Foucarpi, De Loriol. Pl. IX. figs. 6, 6a.

The English specimens which I refer to this species have
flattish whorls and well-marked sutures. The upper sloping part of
the whorls has three granular longitudinal lines, the upper one
having the largest granules; these are followed below by two
strong granular ridges on the same level, with a concavity trans-
versely striated between, this concavity forming the suture of the
earlier whorls. The base has concentric granulose lines of unequal
strength. It is imperforate and has a twisted columella. De
Loriol states that his species has sometimes two rows of granules at
the edge, in which case there is little difference.

Rather common in the Swindon Sands, west of Swindon.

TuRBO APERTUS, spec. noy. Pl. IX. fig. 7.

This is only known as a cast. The spire is low, apical angle
about 95°; whorls two, probably subquadrate and bicarinated, the
upper keel the stronger. The aperture was greatly expanded; and
the umbilicus was open. It seems worth while to name this, as it
is rather common in the Roach; but at present it can scarcely be
said to be known. I have seen no figures of foreign species of
which this could be the cast.

RissoA ACUTICARINA, spec. nov. Pl. IX. fig. 4.

Apical angle 27°; whorls turreted, with a sharp keel, which is
ornamented by fine transverse widely spaced lines. The last keel is
thus divided into low knobs; and there are longitudinal lines on the
base of the whorl. Length 2 lines, This is nearly allied to the
‘R. unicarina of Buvignier ; but the keel is so much sharper as to
completely alter the shape of the whorl.

Rather common in the creamy limestones of Bucks.

THRACIA TENERA, Agassiz.

This name is used to denote a much broader shell than our
ordinary 7’. depressa. ‘The two species are frequently united by
authors ; but there do exist two perfectly distinct ones, and the Port-
land forms agree very well with Agassiz’s figures, as do those of
Boulogne.

CoRBULA SALTANS, spec. nov. Pl. IX. fig. 9.

Minute, length + the breadth, valves very nearly equal, beaks
nearly median, anterior side elliptically rounded ; posterior side
obliquely truncated, the hinge-margin remaining nearly parallel to
the pallial border for some distance, and there being a flat area sepa-
rated by a line which is concave towards the pallial border. This
gives the shell a humpbacked appearance.

It is nearly allied to C. fallax and C. dammarvensis ; but neither
of these has the shoulder-like posterior side.

4

PORTLAND ROCKS OF ENGLAND. 931

Common in the creamy limestones at Coney Hill and Quainton,
and in several other places.

SowERBYA LON@IOR, spec. nov. Pl. IX. figs. 8, 8a.

Length + the breadth, beaks nearly median, valves moderately
inflated ; posterior angle well marked, almost produced at the pallial
border; anterior side most convex towards the pallial border.
Muscular impression deep. This differs from S. trzangularis in the
great length of the posterior angle, the more rounded pallial border,
and more median beaks. :

In the rubbly limestones near Aylesbury, and in the Swindon
Sands.

MyoconcHa PORTLANDICA, spec. noy. Pl. IX. fig. 10.

Only known by the cast, which cannot be referred to that of any
known species. Its general form is spathulate ; that is, it is thick
anteriorly and becomes broader and thinner posteriorly. It appears
to vary in shape in the different examples, possibly from the state
of preservation. In some it is more curved than in the figured
example. There are slight ridges on the cast radiating from the
umbo; and the pallial line is crumpled; the shell had strong folds of
growth, where preserved. ‘The muscular impressions are well seen;
the posterior one is large and remote. Length 43 inches.

Abundant in the rubbly limestones at Coney Hill, and found
associated with M. Semanm in the Swindon Sands.

CYPRICARDIA COSTIFERA, spec. nov. Pl. IX. fig. 11.

Valves inflated ; apices recurved, nearly median; posterior side
having its oblique area bounded by a raised rib, and concentrically
striated, as is the rest of the shell obscurely; breadth a little less
than the length. This is very like an Jsocardia. Its rib distin-
guishes it from all others.

Moderately common in the creamy limestones of Coney Hill.

ASTARTE RUGOSA, Sowerby.

I cannot find any difference between this and Astarte cuneata
among the numerous specimens I have seen. De Loriol affirms that
its hinge is exactly like that of the Cyrenas of the Weald; but a com-
parison of it with the hinges of recent Cyrenas and Astartes, leaves
no doubt of its belonging to the latter, especially from a peculiarity
not perhaps noticed before, but very obvious on the casts from
Swindon. In these and in Astartes only, there are very narrow
lateral teeth and sockets, such that the posterior tooth is in the
right valve, and the anterior tooth is in the left valve, fitting into
sockets in the opposite valve, and so making a deep impression on

the cast.
ASTARTE POLYMORPHA, Contejean. Pl. IX. fig. 12, 12a.

These specimens agree very well with the author’s description ;
but being very characteristic of the Swindon Sands, and possibly

232 REY. J. F. BLAKE ON THE

different from those occurring in the Osmington Oolite, they are
figured for greater certainty. These are depressed ; umbones nearly
median. There are two or three deep concentric furrows, and three,
five, or more well-marked ribs between. The hinge shows the same
arrangement of alternate lateral teeth as noted above.

Astartzs Sauannt, De Loriol. Pl. X. fig. 5.
This is perfectly characteristic, and an important fossil for corre-
lation. In the Swindon Sands of Swindon.

CYPRINA ELONGATA, spec. nov. Pl. IX. figs. 14, 14a.

Breadth a little more than 2 the length; thickness of the double
valves 2 the length. Beaks a little anterior, rather prominent,
anterior border subtruncately rounded; posterior side with a very
feebly marked-off slope, which makes the border subtruncate ;
pallial border gently convex. Surface with concentric lines of
growth. The ligament is often preserved in those behind the um-
bones. This differs from C. implicata by being more elongated,
and hence less trigonal. Its thickness is also less.

Abundant in the T'rzgonza-beds of Swindon, the creamy limestones
of Coney Hill, and in the Flinty series and upper part of the Port-
land Sand in the Isle of Portland.

Cyprina mmpricata, De Loriol. Pl. IX. figs. 18, 13a.

Our specimens agree perfectly with the type, and occur chiefly on
a lower horizon than the last, namely in the rubbly limestones of
Aylesbury, and in lower beds in the Portland Sand on the coast.

CYPRINA SWINDONENSIS, spec. noy. Pl. X. fig. 2.

Breadth not quite two thirds the length; valves not very inflated ;
beaks 2 anterior, not prominent; anterior border rounded, posterior
border obliquely truncate, the hinge-line sloping downwards, and a.
broad ill-defined area extending from the umbo to the posterior
side; pallial margin greatly and uniformly convex. Shell with
rough concentric lines of growth. This has a resemblance to C.
Loweana, Lycett; but its pallial border is not so convex, and the
posterior region is more markedly truncate.

Common in Swindon Sands, Swindon.

UniIcarpiIum crrcuLaRE, D’Orbigny. Pl. X. fig. 1.

D’Orbigny’s short description of a Unicardium from Portland
rocks, in his ‘ Prodrome,’ “ espéce circulaire, renflée, plus courte sur la
région anale, ridée concentriquement,” answers very fairly for our
species, which Mr. Damon appears to have found also at Portland.
In point of fact its chief feature is its circular outline ; but it is not
very inflated. It is not uncommon in the rubbly limestones of
Quainton, Coney Hill, &c.

CaRDIuUM? CALCAREUM, spec. nov. Pl. IX. fig. 15.
. This is a rather obscure species allied to C. Dufrenoycum,
Buvignier. ,

PORTLAND ROCKS OF ENGLAND. 233

Height 4 the length. Posterior side truncate, with an angular »
margin. No ribs seen on the truncated portion; the rest of the
surface has fine concentric lines. It is not certain that this is a
Cardium; but it only differs from C. Dufrenoycum in appearance
by being broader and wanting the radiating ribs on the truncated
part.

It is rather widely distributed, and is best preserved in the chalk
of Chicksgrove.

TRIGONIA SWINDONENSIS, spec. nov. Pl. X. fig. 4.

Breadth 2 the length, united thickness 2 the length. The um-
bones situated very near the anterior border, not very prominent ;
the anterior border is ouly slightly convex, and rounds off rapidly,
with a marked change of curvature into the pallial border, which is
gently and uniformly rounded; posterior border rounded, passing
into the pallial border. The posterior hinge-line is only slightly
concave, and slopes but slightly, making the whole figure a rounded
trapezoid. Escutcheon moderately narrow, concaye, with its upper
border raised; only lines of growth onits surface. Area narrow, by
degrees becoming very slightly different in direction from the lateral
portion of the shell. Itis subdivided by a groove bounded below by
very small tubercles. The area is bounded by two other rows, the
lower set the larger. Lateral portions have the tuberculated coste
separated from the area by a very shallow depression ; ribs not more
than twelve in number, at first pointing posteriorly, and then making
a rapid bend to the anterior side ; the tubercles are compressed and
strongest at the bend, dying off as usual anteriorly ; lines of growth
well marked. The elongated form permits only of comparison with
T. Pellati, T. muricata, and 7. ineurva. From the first it differs by
the direction of the ribs and its tubercled border of the area, from
the second by the fewness of its ribs and the details of the area, and
from the last by its oblong shape and regularity of ribs, though the
specimen figured by Dr. Lycett in ‘The fossil Trigonie,’ pl. ix.
fig. 4, under the latter name may very likely belongs to this.

In the Swindon Sands, west of Swindon.

Dams, sp.) Pl. 1X, fig. 16.

A small example, looking as if it belonged to this genus, is figured
from the freestones of Swindon ; it may nevertheless be the Corbula
Bayani of De Loriol.

PLICATULA ECHINOIDES, Spec. nov. Pl. X. fig. 6.

General axis oblique. Upper valve slightly convex, most so at
the apex, where the valves were adherent; four or five irregular
lost ribs, rising to spines which are not prolonged into tubes ; these
ribs bifurcate, or are only marked by the spines; there are fine
interme. te elevations, but no striw; the lines of growth are con-
spicuous. Under valve undulating; spines, which are tubular, not
confined to the elevations; the whole surface covered with radiating
rounded riblets. This is very nearly allied to P. echinus, Deslong-

Q.J.G.8. No. 142. R

234 REV. J. F. BLAKE ON THE

- champs, from the Kimmeridge Clay; but the spines on the more
convex valve are far less numerous, and they are not produced into
tubes. It differs from P. virgulina, Kt., in its shape and the length
of the spines. Plicatule all look so much alike that few venture to
name them; there can be little doubt, however, that this is dis-
tinct.

It is rather common in the lower beds of the Portland Stone, as
in the creamy limestone of Quainton.

LIMA BIFURCATA, spec. NOV.

I have not sufficiently good materials to illustrate this species ;
but it seems to me a distinct one. The two valves have very little
convexity ; and the general shape is like that of Lima rudis, but
more quadrate. It has, in the cast, great rounded ribs, which to-
wards the end bifurcate into two smaller ones, and this is its dis-
tinguishing feature.

It is not uncommon in the rubbly limestones of Coney Hill and
Aylesbury.

Prcren Morini, De Loriol. Pl. X. fig. 3.

This characteristic Portland-sand fossil is distinguished ic its
bifurcating punctated striz, which are very close-set.

R#AYNCHONELLA PORTLANDIOA, spec. nov. Pl. X. fig. 8—8d.

Shell longer than wide, outline irregular, beak prominent; fora-
men of moderate size, its lower half bounded on each side by the
deltidium. Imperforate valve very convex at first, short, sloping
down in two long tongues and having three nearly obsolete ribs
on each side, in addition to the median elevation. Perforate
valve convex in the middle line at first, but soon bending round
at right angles into a long tongue, so as to be concave from
side to side; this tongue is generally simple, as in R. acuta, but
appears to be variable, some having it bifid, or even trifid, but differing
in no other respect from the type. There are ribs on each side of
this valve corresponding to those on the other. There are no longi-
tudinal riblets on this species, though the lines of growth are clearly
seen. One can scarcely feel quite certain whether this is a distinct
species from &. subvariabilis. That species comes from the Kim-
meridge Clay of Pottern, Wilts, which is the equivalent of the
Swindon and Hartwell clays, and therefore very little removed in
time, if at all, from the deposits whence these are derived. These, .
too, have a singular resemblance to &. variabilis of the lias. The
distinguishing features, as compared with the Kimmeridgian form, are
(1) the greater inflation of the shell, so that a side view shows a
triangle whose base is as great as its altitude ; (2) the prevalence of
one central fold only ; (3) the smoothness of the surface; (4) the
larger foramen. It is also very near to fH. Hoheneggert, Suess, but
is more quadrate ; and the latter, though common, is not found with
a single fold.

Common in the lower part of the Portland Sand at Black Ven,

PORTLAND ROCKS OF ENGLAND. 235

Portland, and less common in corresponding beds at St. Alban’s
Head.

Note.—Of the fossils described from the Kimmeridge Clay (Quart.
Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxi. p. 196) the name Inoceramus expansus
had been previously used, and must be changed for JZ. rasenensis; and
Leda lineata had been previously described by Rigaux and Sauvage,
in the ‘ Journal de Conchyliologie,’ under the title of Z. venusta.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

Puate VIII.

Comparative Sections of the Portland Rocks of England, with a generalized
theoretical section extending from St. Alban’s Head to Buckinghamshire.

PuaTeE IX.

Natica incisa, Blake. Creamy limestones of Coney Hill.
ceres, De Loriol. Creamy limestones of Coney Hill.

Cerithium Hudlestoni, Blake. Creamy limestones of Coney Hill.
Rissoa acuticarina, Blake. Creamy limestones of Coney Hill.
Cerithium bifurcatum, Blake. Swindon Sands, W. Swindon.

Turbo Foucardi, De Loriol. Swindon Sands, W. Swindon.
apertus, Blake. Roach, Portland.
, 8a. Sowerbya longior, Blake. 8, Rubbly limestones, Aylesbury; 8 a,

Swindon Sands, W. Swindon.

9. Corbula saltans, Blake. Creamy limestones of Coney Hill.
10. Myoconcha portlandica, Blake. Rubbly limestones at Coney Hill.
ll. Cypricardia costifera, Blake. Creamy limestones of Coney Hill.
12, 12a. Astarte polymorpha, Contejean. Swindon Sands, W. Swindon.
13, 13 a. Cyprina implicata, De Loriol. Rubbly limestones, Aylesbury.
14, 14a. elongata, Blake. Trigonia-beds, east of Swindon.
15. Cardium? calcareum, Blake. Portland chalk of Chicksgrove.

16. Leda? sp. Freestones, Swindon.

PLATE X,

Unicardium circulare, D’Orb. Rubbly limestones, Coney Hill.

Cyprina swindonensis, Blake. Swindon Sands.

Pecten Morini, De Loriol. Swindon Sands.

Trigonia swindonensis, Blake. Swindon Sands.

Astarte semanni, De Loriol. Swindon Sands.

Plicatula echinoides, Blake. Rubbly limestone, Coney Hill.

. Ammonites triplicatus, Sow. Flinty series, Portland.

8-8 d. Rhynchonella portlandica, Blake. Lower Portland Sand.

9. Discina Humphresiana, Davidson. Dwarf form. Lower Portland Sand,

Black Ven. °
10. Pycnodus pagoda, Blake. Flinty series, Upway.

Fig.

09 DO

a Le

Fig.

ee IRS pa

Discussion.

Mr. Huprzston agreed generally with the author’s conclusions ;
but he differed from him in one point—namely, in considering the
“roach” to constitute a good geological horizon, an uppermost
‘division of the Portlandian, characterized by the abundance of
Cerithiwm and Cyrena. He quite agreed with Mr. Blake in his

reading of the Swindon section. He commented on the absence of
R2

236 REY. J. F. BLAKE ON THE PORTLAND ROCKS OF ENGLAND.

the Lower Portlandian (zone of Ammonites gigas) in the south of
England.

Prof. Morris bore witness to the accuracy of the observations of
the author. He referred to the bed of phosphatic nodules which,
in the Aylesbury area, overlies the Kimmeridge, and contains a
number of peculiar fossils. This bed has been traced for some
distance. He regarded Cytherea rugosa as a form of Cyrena and
indicating the first incoming of estuarine conditions. At Hartwell
the transition from marine to freshwater conditions is very well
marked.

Prof. Srrtzey thought that part of the beds in the central districts,
now regarded as Neocomian, are really, as supposed by William
Smith, of Portlandian age. -He regarded the Portlandian as essen-
tially a sandy series, graduating down into the Kimmeridge Clay
below and the Neocomian above, and considered that the Portland
Limestones were mere accidents due to differences of condition.

Prof. T. R. Jonzs had not succeeded in finding fossils in the black
clays of Swindon which would enable us to decide whether they are
of freshwater or of marine origin. He noticed the occurrence of
worn septaria on the top of the side of the quarry; and stated that
he had found fossil wood, like that of the Purbeck beds at Portland,
in another bed near the top. He remarked that a chalky bed in the
Portland beds at Upway contains Cretaceous Entomostraca.

Prof. Ramsay informed the author that the block in the Museum
of Practical Geology, referred to in the paper as being Portlandian
in the lower part and Purbeck in the upper, contained Cyprids in
the higher part of it. He agreed with the author as to the phy-
sical geography of the district during the Portlandian period.

Mr. Wuairaxer stated that at the time when the Geological
Survey of Buckinghamshire and Oxfordshire was made it was found
very difficult to separate the Portland Limestone from the Portland.
Sand.

Prof. Watrer Kurprrne referred to the existence of Portlandian
forms in the Potton and similar beds in the Midland Counties. He
thought that these were derived from Portlandian strata, which
must have been originally spread over wider areas. He thought
that the black pebbles in the Portlandian and Potton beds are de-
rived from Carboniferous rocks forming part of the great Paleozoic
ridge.

The AurnHor did not agree with Mr. Hudleston as to the limits
of the Trigoma gibbosa. He did not regard the “roach” as a
continuous deposit, since in different sections it occurs at different
horizons. The zone of An:monites gigas is certainly not to be dif-
ferentiated as a distinct series in the Kimmeridge section. Possibly
a representative of the Portland may exist in Lincolnshire.* He did
not regard Entomostraca as being always good characteristic fossils.

Eas wasners
Be eee =
o er ee

.

: “Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. Vol ALIVE PL FI

COMPARATIVE SECTIONS OF THE PORTLAND ROCKS OF ENGLAND.

Scale #8 ft.to an inch.

Ch eae ra ve

| Swindon

Upper Sands

ag: Backs

Swindon. y :
Oxfordshire.

Portland
* Denotes the building -stone beds.
'
Generalized Theoretical Seclior.
on ee “nae!
= z ik op a ————— ram re Teas Park
Flinty Series C—O Creamy Timestones
- esa ice = é Se ea me i in
Senecio ep it Be ee eee
fs — : —
S Albans Head Portland Upway Tisbury S wirdon Oxon Bucks :
Daxceariero Lim. 22 Brorono S' Covent Ganoew

Quart. Journ. Geol. Sos .Vol. XXXVI. Pl. IX.

pam ef

Bros.imp.

mtern

x

M:

A.§.Foord lith

PORTLAND FOSSILS.

Quart. Journ.Geol.Sos Vol. XXXVI.PIX

Mintern Bros.imp.

AS Foord lith.

PORTLAND FOSSILS

h

T. MSKENNY HUGHES ON THE GEOLOGY OF ANGLESEY, 231

15. On the Geotoey of AnetEsEY. By T. M°Kunny Hucuns, M.A.,
F.G.S., Woodwardian Professor of Geology, Cambridge. (Read
February 25, 1880.).

Tue rocks to which these notes chiefly refer were described by Prof.
Henslow under the heads of Quartz Rock, Chlorite-schist and Grau-
wacke, in a paper read before the Cambridge Philosophical Society in
1821. He evidently considered them to be distinguishable members of
one group, drawing attention to the passage from the quartzite into the
schists, and to the generally coinciding dip of the clay slate and schists,
even where, as at Porth Corwg, there is a small discordancy between
the two, caused by a fault. He points out that green slates and
brecciated conglomerates occur in the upper part of the black-slate
group; but he records no fossils from which the geological horizon of
the beds described can be determined, and his sections do not give
much more than the geographical succession of the rocks over the
areas referred to in this paper.

Prof. Ramsay (Mem. Geol. Sury. vol. ii. p. 175) describes the
Cambrian and Silurian Rocks of Anglesey asin great part resembling
those of Caernarvonshire. The Cambrian rocks, he further remarks,
are, asarule, highly metamorphic, like those in the promontory of Lleyn
(Cambrian in his nomenclature includes only the Harlech group).
The Silurian (¢. ¢. the Lingula-flags and all above them), he goes on to
say, are also sometimes metamorphosed into mica-schists and gneiss,
while in other places they are rich in Caradoc or Bala and Llandeilo
fossils. Unfortunately the genera and species of the Graptolites are
not recorded except from one locality mentioned in the appendix,
where it is said that Grapiolithus, sp., and Diplograpsus teretiusculus
occur near Glanygors. Probably the localities rich in Bala fossils are
those referred to by Salter, in the Appendix, p. 258, where he says,
“The multitudes of a dwarf variety of Orthis calligramma give a
Caradoc aspect to the grits.”

It is clear that the four great masses of gnarled schists, the
_ Holyhead mass, the Amlwch mass, the Llangefni mass, and the
Menai mass, were considered by Prof. Ramsay to be metamorphosed
Cambrian, 2. ¢. Harlech beds, with the exception of certain beds near
Cemmaes and some in the central axis from near Llanfaelog to the
north end of Llaneilian mountain, which are spoken of as altered
Silurian. .

By others since the great masses of gnarled shale have been con-
sidered to be Pre-Cambrian, and some of the conglomerates have been
referred to a Pre-Cambrian part of the pericd still earlier than the
gnarled shale.

Before we can with safety speculate upon the age of the gnarled
series, it is desirable to endeavour to clear up the evidence with regard
to the age of the fossiliferous grauwacke ; and the following short
communication deals chiefly with this question, the conclusion arrived
at being that the beds hitherto referred to the Caradoc are Tremadoc,
that they are succeeded by Arenig, and that there are higher slates
among which we shall by and by probably identify the Lower Bala.

238 T, MSKENNY HUGHES ON THE GEOLOGY OF ANGLESEY.

To work the section upwards, we notice that we always have the
quartz-jasper conglomerates above the gneissic rocks. There is
never any group like the gnarled series associated with the beds
that immediately succeed the gneiss; but the quartz-jasper conglo-
merates pass by alternations of beds into grey sandstones, which
weather brown or yellow, as may be seen in Porthlygan on the
N.E. coast and along the N.W. flank of the central axis from
Llanerchymedd to near Llanfaelog. This is clearly the “ grit with
multitudes of a dwarf variety of Orthas calligramma” that Salter spoke
of. But the species is O. carausw, a plano-convex shell of smaller
size and with fewer ribs than O. calligramma, and a characteristic
Tremadoce fossil; I found also near Tyhen Neseuretus ramseyensis,
another Tremadoc form. They exactly resemble specimens from the
Tremadoc of Ramsey Island in the character of the rock and mode
of preservation of the fossils.

The Tremadoc sandstones are succeeded by black slates, into which
they often pass up by alternations, as may be seen along the coast N. of
Porthlygan and beyond the fossiliferous sandstones N. and N.W. of
Llanerchymedd. On theS.E. side of the central axis there is not so
clear an exposure of the conglomerates and Tremadoc sandstones.
Brown sandstones, however, occur near Llangwyllog church, and in a
quarry a little to the south of it. Resting on these sandstones are black
shales from which I procured a small fragment of a Trilobite and a
number of Graptolites, most of which are common forms in the
Arenig. These black shales twist round and are seen in the rail-
way-cutting E. of Llangwyllog Station to be faulted against the green
gnarled series. Mr. Lapworth has looked over the Graptolites for
me, and refers them to the following species :—

Dicellograptus, n. sp. allied to D. Climacograptus celatus, Lapw.
sextans, Hall. Glossograptus ciliatus, Hmmons.
Diplograptus dentatus, Brongn., sp. And some newformsof Diplograptus &
foliaceus, Murch. Glossograptus.

Climacograptus confertus, Lapw.

Hardly any of the specimens are sufficiently well preserved to show
all the specific characters ; therefore it is possible that when we have
collected a larger number some of these determinations may be shaken,
and it is probable that the list will be largely added to.

From the evidence before him, Mr. Lapworth is inclined to refer
the bed to the middle part of the “ black-shale group,” expressing
some doubt as to whether they should be called Highest Arenig or
Lowest Llandeilo. The fragment of a Trilobite consists of three
body-rings ; and from the number of these in a given space, and the
relative breadth of pleure to axis, it agrees very well with Zri-
nucleus Murchisone.

On the whole I am inclined to refer the Llangwyllog beds to the
Arenig, and expect to find the Llandeilo forms by and by in the
slates of Llanbabo and Llanelian.

We have therefore two horizons, Tremadoc and Arenig or Lower
Llandeilo, pretty clearly determined by characteristic fossils. The
beds with Graptolites at Llangwyllog rest on brown sandstones, and
pass up into black slates or shales, On the west of Llanerchymedd

T. M‘KENNY HUGHES ON THE GEOLOGY OF ANGLESEY, 239

an immense series of similar black shales suceeeds the fossiliferous
brown sandstones, passing up into slates with subordinate sand-
stones and, in the upper part, containing a few irregular beds of
felspathic slates and breccias.

The black-shale group succeeds the brown sandstones everywhere
with a general northerly or northwesterly dip from west of Llan-
erchymedd to the coast east of Amlwch, where they dip as if they
passed under the green gnarled beds.

A difficulty occurs west of Llanerchymedd : What becomes of the
black slates as we follow them 8.W.? ‘They must have thinned
out or been faulted out or overlapped. I think we have faults and
an overlap of the Treiorwerth beds.

In Henslow’s collection in the Woodwardian Museum there are a
few fossils labelled from Treiorwerth. I have not yet verified the
locality by finding the fossils myself in place; but the rock looks
like the grey calcareous sandy part of the felspathic brecciated con-
glomerate of Treiorwerth, and very different from the quartz-jasper
conglomerate of the base of the Cambrian. The fossils collected by
Henslow in the shale of Treiorwerth are mostly mere casts; but I
think the following genera and species occur amongst them :—

Nebulipora, a form like N. lens and = Orthis, various sp., ? O. testudinaria,

a smaller var. Dalm., ? O. crispa, M’ Coy.
Petraia elongata? Strophomena rhomboidalis, Wilck.
Atrypa marginalis, Dalm. Euomphalus, sp.
Meristella angustifrons, M’ Coy. And one specimen of a curious fossil,
, Sp. which, for the present, we can only
Orthis calligramma (?), Dalm. suggest may be
, var. plicata, Sow. Acantholepis Jamesii, M‘Coy.

——-protensa, Sow.

These fossils refer the beds with considerable probability to the
May-Hill group, under which I include the Lower Llandovery ; but
they are not conclusive, and I hope on another occasion to offer
further evidence on this head.

The great black-shale group appears to dip under the gnarled
series; and it seems improbable that they are everywhere thrown
down into this position by faults.

Another group of fossiliferous sandstones and shales overlies the
gnarled series, as at Glanffynon and near Llanpadrig.

It seems therefore worth considering whether the gnarled shales
may not be the equivalent of the Bala volcanic series deposited be-
yond the region of principal volcanic activity.

Discussion.

Prof. Ramsay said that in the area of Llanberis and Nant-
ffrancon the Tremadoc slates had not yet been proved beneath the
other Lower Silurian rocks. He had himself, with Mr. Etheridge,
observed Arenig slates in Anglesey, between the Cambrian rocks
and the Carboniferous Limestone north of Beaumaris. That had
already been published. He could not agree that the grits and
schists of the northern part of Anglesey could represent the Bala
yolcanic series of the mainland. These, in places, contained fossils.

240 T. MSKENNY HUGHES ON THE GEOLOGY OF ANGLESEY.

He thought the northern region of Anglesey represented the Cam-
brian grits and slates of Caernaryonshire and Merionethshire; in
the Anglesey district there was no trace of volcanic matter. The
metamorphosis of the Anglesey rock was very great, as had long
ago been noted by Sir H. Dela Beche. He described the nature
of the alteration these rocks had undergone. He held that the
strike of the strata and other evidence proved faults in the districts
where Prof. Hughes doubted their existence.

Dr: Hicxs expressed his agreement with most of the remarks of
Prof. Ramsay. He thought that the rocks were metamorphic; and
that was proved by the specimens which Prof. Hughes had brought
forward. He instanced cases of contortion alone not disturbing
the general character of a rock. In this district all the rocks were
highly altered ; and he could not believe they were Bala beds, but
that they were of Pre-Cambrian age. But he quite agreed with
Prof. Hughes in his recognition of the Tremadoc rocks. They
were, perhaps, a little nearer to the Lingula-flags. Faults of the
kind required by the ordinary theory were common in them.

Prof. Bonnry said that he thought much more convincing evi-
dence was required before these schists, which he held to ke truly
metamorphic, could be regarded as altered Bala rocks ; mere re-
semblance did not suffice; and such examination as he had made
had led him to an entirely different conclusicn from Prof. Hughes.
It was very improbable that beds so much altered should overlie so
creat a thickness of comparatively unaltered beds.

Mr. Krrrrne mentioned some instances in the beds of Landon
age, near Aberystwith, which indicated a structure similar to
that described by the author; and expressed his doubts whether the
schists were of Pebidian age. He thought there was much parallelism
between the Lleyn peninsula and the island of Anglesey.

The PresipEnt said that as regards the Lower Silurian rocks
of Anglesey Prof. Hughes had added much to our knowledge.
Neseuretus ramseyensis was a distinctively Tremadoc form; and
Orthis carausii was quite distinct from O. calligramma, and also
matked a Tremadoc horizon. He thought Mr. Lapworth’s deter-
mination of Arenig Graptolites also might be thoroughly trusted.
It was also possible that representatives of the Lower Llandovery
beds might be present.

Prof. Huenss, in reply, said he was glad to have his views as to
the unconformity near ‘I'reiorwerth confirmed by Prof. Ramsay, as
it was in that area he suspected the overlap of the May-Hill beds.
In the absence of fossils through a great thickness of sedimen-
tary rock, the Gnarled Schists (unpromising rocks for search) agreed
with the green slates of Chapel-le-dale. He had not seen any thing
in the arrangement of the contorted lamine in adjoining beds which
could not be better explained by crushing than by foliation. He did
not suggest that they were metamorphosed rocks, but sedimentary
rocks outside the volcanic area altered by mechanical action ; and he
did not think that there was any thing in the minute structure or
constituents of any part of the series inconsistent with this view.

BRITISH UPPER-SILURIAN FENESTELLID®. 241

16, A Review and Description of the various Spxcres of Britisx
UprEr-SILuRIAN FENESTELLIDZ. By Grorce WILLIAM SuRvB-
soLE, Esq., F.G.S. (Read February 25, 1880.)

PLATE XI.

I nave been recently engaged in investigating some of the Paleozoic
Polyzoa, more particularly the Upper-Silurian Fenestellide : the re-
sult I beg to lay before the Society.

The Silurian group of the Fenestellide has by no means proved
hitherto so interesting a field for research as the Carboniferous
series. I find that only three paleontologists have entered the
field—Lonsdale, Portlock, and Prof. M‘Coy. The former, in Mur-
chison’s ‘Silurian System,’ gives an account of four species of
Fenestella and two allied forms, which are most likely Fenestelle.
Prof. M‘Coy, in the Cambridge Catalogue, describes two more
species, and Portlock one from the Silurian strata in Ireland, making
nine species in all, viz. :—

Fenestella antiqua, Lonsd., Murch. Sil. Syst. pl. 15. fig. 16.
Milleri, Lonsd., ibid. pi. 15. fig. 17.
prisca, Zonsd., ibid. pl. 15. figs..15, 18.
reticulata, Lonsd., ibid. pl. 15. fig. 19.
Retepora infundibulum, Lonsd., ibid. pl. 15. fig. 24.
Gorgonia assimilis, Lonsd., ibid. pl. 15. fig. 27.
Fenestella rigidula, M‘Coy, Brit. Pal. Foss. pl. 1 c. fig. 19.
patula, M‘Coy, ibid. pl. 1c. fig. 20.
Gorgonia regularis, Portl., Geol. Londonderry, p. 324, pl. 22. fig. 3.

Prof. M‘Coy’s portion of the work has the advantage of being full,
clear, and definite. On the other hand, Lonsdale, from causes to
which I shall allude, has not been so fortunate or successful in his
descriptions. Indeed the work of Lonsdale in arranging the Fenes-
tellee of the Murchison collection can only be regarded as provisional.
With the scanty material at his command it could not be otherwise.
He says himself on this point, ‘It is very difficult to establish
species from fragments” *.

To assist me in the work, I have carefully gone over all Lonsdale’s
type specimens of Fenestella, now in the Museum of the Geological
Society, with the result that I can quite confirm what he says, that
he had only “ fragments” to work from, and those destitute of re-
liable specific character. For the most part they are mere frag-
ments of the reverse side of the polyzoarium, weathered, showing,
of course, no cellules, and altogether valueless for the accurate defi-
nition of any species. ‘This state of things accounts for the ambi-
guity and generalities in Lonsdale’s descriptions ; while the absence
of data, such as measurements of interstices, or dissepiments, or
number of cellules, as adopted by Prof. M‘Coy, renders it impossible,
from his text, to distinguish between the various species. In not
one of the Silurian species of Fenestella described by Lonsdale do I

* Murchison’s Sil. System, p. 678.

242 G. W. SHRUBSOLE ON THE VARIOUS SPECIES OF

find any reference to the number of pores between dissepiments
or in any given space. This omission is fatal to the future recogni-
tion of the species. Hisinger* committed the same mistake in
describing Letepora reticulata ; and Prof. M‘Coy remarks that in
consequence “it is scarcely possible ever to determine Hisinger’s
species with certainty.” Hence, from the same cause, Prof. M‘Coy,
in compiling the Cambridge Catalogue, found it necessary to de-
scribe anew two of Lonsdale’s species of Fenestella from Dudley.
There are probably in all not more than five species of Silurian
Fenestelle ; and yet, with six species already described, Prof. M‘Coy
found a difficulty in assigning two of the ordinary types to any of
the then described species. The two species which, in consequence,
Prof. M‘Coy described were Fenestella rigidula and Fenestella patula ;
the latter is only the young growth of one of the species. The type
in the Woodwardian Museum is not sufficiently well preserved to say
which of the several species. So it comes to this, that of the eight
species of Fenestelle described by Lonsdale and Prof. M‘Coy, virtu-
ally only one species remains which is fully and accurately de-
scribed so as to. be recognized from the text, viz. Fenestella rigidula,
M‘Coy.

nae familiar with the appearance of the Carboniferous Fenestel-
lide, with the wonderful order and regularity of their calcareous net-
work, the first sight of Lonsdale’s figures of the Silurian Fenestellide
is puzzling, to say the least of it. Apparently they form a strange con-
trast to them in outward form—cells visible only in the upper part of
the polyzoarium, carina enlarged, smoothed and rounded, interstices
abnormally thickened, and dissepiments placed at all angles. One
half of Lonsdale’s drawings of Fenestelle present these anomalous
forms of growth. The question naturally arose, Have we here true
Fenestella-growth ? A careful examination of the various reputed
species furnished the answer. The explanation of these peculiarities
is that the conical base of several species of Fenestella is the subject
of an abundant incrusting growth, which, in most cases, follows
exactly the line of the insterstice, which it conceals, as well as the
cell-aperture, at the same time not otherwise interfering with the
general outline of the Fenestella. Unfortunately portions so covered
over have become typical Fenestella, and as such appear in Lonsdale’s
drawings. Nor do I find any caution respecting this abnormal
growth. Silence on this head leads me to suspect that the true
nature of the growth was not detected, and, more, that it was posi-
tively regarded as part of the Fenestella. Indeed there is no doubt
on this point—that Lonsdale was misled by the incrustation, which
he distinctly notices and would regard as an indication of maturity
on the part of the polyzoon ; for when describing the specific cha-
racters of the genus, he says :—‘‘ In well-preserved specimens of the
base of apparently old corals the pores or foramina on the side of
one branch have united by growth to those on the side of the ad-
joining branch, and constitute solid bars, either stretching trans-
versely and simply across the intervals, or uniting obliquely, three and

* Brit. Pal. Foss. p. 48.

BRITISH UPPER-SILURIAN FENESTELLID®., 2438.

sometimes more together”*. This admirably describes the appearance
of the principal incrusting growth found on the base of Fenestella,
and is also well shown in several of the drawings ; but it has nothing
whatever to do with true Fenestella-growth. There is no doubt about
the polyzoary of the Fenestella undergoing a change with age; but it
is not of the erratic character mentioned by Lonsdale, nor by the
formation and junction of new cross bars at various angles. All
that occurs as the polyzoon attains maturity is that the whole of
the existing structure receives an additional thickening of calcareous
matter; and, as will be readily seen, the oldest portion, namely the
base, would receive in time the greatest amount of deposit, and con-
sequent thickening of its part over the other portions of the poly-
zoary. Continuing my investigations respecting these incrusting
organisms, I have found, in all, four species which thus disfigure and
obscure the base of Fenestella. Two of these are found on Lons-
dale’s species; and two I have since discovered. The most common
incrustation is apparently a coral, a portion of the case of which
fills the hollow spaces between the lines of the interstices, which are
crossed in an irregular manner by tabule, which seem to take the
place of the dissepiments of the Fenestella. This particular organism
is depicted in four of Lonsdale’s drawings of Fenestella priscat.
Another parasite, in the sense I have mentioned, is an Aulopora,
whose lines of growth run smoothly along the interstice, greatly in-
creasing its dimensions, while here and there are given off the cha-
racteristic tubular bodies. This is also seen in the drawing of
Fenestella Millerit. Another of the organisms might be an incrust-
ing polyzoon, judging from the peculiar branched or lobed bodies
which are alternately given off from the stem, which follows the
line of the keel of the interstice of the Fenestella. Another species
is very similar in structure to some of the Alveolites of the Carboni-
ferous Limestone. This-I have found incrusting one of the pre-
ceding growths.

It is obvious that in the weathering which the remains have under-
gone the outer organism would suffer the most ; notwithstanding
this, all the incrusting forms mentioned can be satisfactorily made
out. I may mention, in connexion with these incrustations, that the
growth invariably commenced at the base, and rarely extended be-
yond one inch from that point. I have in no case found it on any other
portion of the polyzoarium. from this I infer that in time there was
a loss of vitality at the base of the polyzoon, which allowed the growth
of the several incrustations.

When Fenestelle became thus obscured by parasites and worn away
by weathering, we cease to wonder at the confusion and uncertainty
attending Lonsdale’s species. And more, with every wish to do
justice to an early worker and careful observer among the Polyzoa,
it is not possible, with the material left by him at our disposal, to
make out the species intended. The only course which I see open is
to follow Prof. M‘Coy’s example, and begin de novo by describing

* Murch. Sil. Syst. pp. 677, 678. t Murch, Sil. Syst. pl. 15. fig. 15,
t Murch. Sil. Syst. pl. 15. fig. 17.

244 G. W. SHRUBSOLE ON THE VARIOUS SPECIES OF

the remaining species left undescribed by Prof. M‘Coy. Before doing
so I ought perhaps to say something more in justification of the ex-
treme course I have adopted in setting aside the several species of
Lonsdale’s Fenestelle, and will therefore notice them more in detail.

FenEstetia ANTIQUA, Lonsd., Murch. Sil. Syst. p. 678, pl. 15. fig. 16.

This is the first of Lonsdale’s species, and synonymous with the
Gorgonia antiqua, Goldt., which has long been accepted as a Fene--
stella. This reference to Goldfuss's well-known drawing clears up
any mystery there may be about Lonsdale’s species. Goldfuss’s type
is from the Devonian of the Eifel. A very superficial acquaintance
with the subject is sufficient to enable any one to know that there is
little affinity between the Devonian and Silurian forms of Fenestella.
On the other hand, the Devonian may well be compared with the
Carboniferous. I have no doubt that the Gorgonia antiqua, Goldf.,
is the equivalent of the Fenestella plebeia, M‘Coy. On the other
hand, I know of ‘no species in the Dudley Limestone that could be
compared with Gorgonia antiqua, Goldf., or its better-known repre-
sentative the Fenestella plebeia, M‘Coy. In this view I am borne
out by Prof. M‘Coy, who states that Gorgonia antiqua, Goldf., ‘does
not probably occur in Silurian strata”*. The principal point of re-
semblance that I see between the drawings of Lonsdale’s and Gold-
fuss’s species is, that they are both very much denuded and unfit for
typical work. eI might hazard a conjecture as to the species, from
the fragment figured by Lonsdale, I should say that it is an eroded
fragment of the somewhat overdrawn Fenestella rigidula, M‘Coy.
The unsoundness of this reference to Gorgonia antiqua, Goldf., is
seen in the fact that some years later Murchison, in ‘ Siluria,’ states
that Fenestella wnnqua, Lonsd., is now assigned to Menestella sub-
antiqua, D’Orb.T, and further mentions that it is both an Upper and
Lower Silurian species.

FENESTELLA PRISCA, Lonsd., Murch. Sil. Syst. p. 678, pl. 15. figs. 15
& 18.

Several drawings of the conical base of this species are given as
typical examples of Fenestella-growth to illustrate the genus. Most
of them are so disfigured by the coral growth previously mentioned,
as wholly to conceal the Venestellat. Again, the type is from the
Devonian of the Eifel, the Retepora prisca, Goldt., and with no more
success than in the case of Fenestella antiqua ; for, apart from other
considerations, the drawing of the Silurian species when enlarged
scarcely equals the natural size of Retepora prisca, Goldf. This
difference in size is fatal to its identity with Goldfuss’s species,
apart from the indistinctness of the drawings. Indeed the error
seems to be admitted, since in Murchison’s ‘ Siluria’ it is mentioned
that the Fenestella formerly referred by Mr. Lonsdale to Fenestella
prisca, Goldf., is now Fenestella Lonsdaler, D’Orb.§ The drawing of

* Brit. Pal. Foss. p. 50. + Murch. Siluria, p. 180. |

t Murch. Sil. Syst. pl. 15. figs. 15x, 15 a, 150%, locx.
§ Murch. Siluria, p. 216.

BRITISH UPPER-SILURIAN FENESTELLIDZ. 245
it is a reproduction of the cup-shaped Fenestella base, with the ap-
pearance of reversed fenestrules from incrusting remains, as ori-
ginally given by Lonsdale in the ‘ Silurian System.’ The value of this
reference to D’Orbigny is considerably lessened when it is known that
he takes Lonsdale’s Fenestella prisca for the type of his new species,
offering the very doubtful advantage of a change in the nomencla-
ture only. The same mode of treatment is adopted in the case of
Fenestella antiqua, Lonsd., which became the type of D’Orbigny’s
Fenestella subantiqua. I have mentioned that most of Lonsdale’s
drawings of Fenestella prisca are disfigured by the enveloping coral
to which I have alluded. On the other hand, Fenestella Milleri,
Lonsd., is covered with a species of Aulopora. In practice, I find
that in our museums it is usual to assign the Fenestella base, covered
as in Fenestella prisca, to -Fenestella Milleri. It is not a matter of
much moment, since the identity of this particular species is past
recovery ; the probabilities of the case are in favour of their being
the same species. This growth on Fenestella prisca is readily de-
tected by the peculiar shape of the so-called fenestrules, which
are often twice as broad as long. What I take to be the tabule
of the coral occur more frequently than the dissepiments of the
Fenestella; hence the alteration in the shape of the fenestrules.
This in itself is quite a reversal of the usual order of growth, and
a feature as yet unknown in the Fenestellide. Prof. Nicholson,
indeed, mentions an instance (Fenestella filiformis*, from the Devo-
nian of America) in which the order of the fenestrules is thus re-
versed. The identification of this species as a Fenestella I consider
to be reasonably open to doubt, since the author states that the pori-
ferous face is unknown, thus leaving the true character undeter-
mined. Can it be that the poriferous face is covered up with some
foreign growth, as in the Silurian forms? It seems strange that,
as in this case, the attempt should be made to describe a new species
of Polyzoa without haying seen the cells or celluliferous face. I may
remark here that this is not the first time in which the incrustation
on Fenestella has proved a source of error to paleontologists. Some-
thing akin to this led Prof. M‘Coy to found the genus Hemitrypa,
which in a former paper I showed to be Fenestella membranacea
(Phil.), incrusted by a minute coral or polyzoont. This is from
the Carboniferous Limestone. Phillips mentions a similar form in
the Devonian Limestone.

Five years after arranging the Silurian Polyzoa we find Lonsdale
suggesting the parasitic nature of the genus Hemitrypa, in reference
to some fossils from Yan Diemen’s Landt. He makes no allusion
whatever to the occurrence of the same growth among the Silurian
group of Polyzoa.

FEenesteLLA RETICULATA, Lonsd., Murch. Sil. Syst. p. 678, pl. 15.
fig. 19.
The specimen in the Museum of the Geological Society is a frag-

* Geol. Mag. 1874, p. 199. tT Quart. Journ, Geol. Soc. vol. xxxv. p. 282.
+ Darwin’s ‘ Volcanic Islands’ (1844), p. 168.

(246 G. W. SHRUBSOLE ON THE VARIOUS SPECIES OF ;
ment of the reverse face, showing, of course, no cells, and there-
fore valueless for specific purposes. It is not possible with such
material to determine the species. The species is lost ; for the most
that can be said of it is that, judging from the irregular character of
the fenestrules, as given in the sketch, it is the young stage of some
Fenestella.

Fenzsterta Mitrert, Lonsd., Murch, Sil. Syst. p. 678, pl. 15. fig. 17.

_ This was intended by Lonsdale to be a new species. The type
specimen in the Museum is the conical base of apparently a Fenestella,
with the coral growth incrusting and wholly concealing it, so that
not a cell-opening is visible. Lonsdale says that ‘‘ the pores are
most apparent in the upper part,” evidently because of the growth
around the base. The drawing shows this to be a species of Aulo-
pora. With the specimen and drawing both silent, and specific de-
tails absent, the species lapses as a matter of course. Prof. M‘Coy en-
countered all this, and felt the impossibility of recognizing Lonsdale’s
species, and, still unwilling that the name of one who did good work
at the Crinoids should be set aside, resolved to revive the name for
a newly found Bala species, a very much larger and different form
in every way, and one that does not occur in the Dudley beds. Some
fifteen years after the publication of the ‘ Silurian System,’ Murchi-
son, in ‘ Siluria,’ gives for the first time a sketch of the pore-face of
Fenestella Millerc, Lonsd. Meantime, as we have seen, Prof. M‘OCoy
had appropriated the name to another species from another horizon.
The question now arises, which of these species should retain the old
name—the one from Bala or that from Dudley, Lower or Upper Silu-
rian ?

I think that Prof. M‘Coy’s species should still be known as
Fenestella Millert from the circumstance that it was the first to be
adequately described, while Lonsdale gave a name only, and no
proper description of the species. Another reason for this decision
is that there is good reason for believing that Murchison’s Fenestella
Millert of 1854 is only Fenestella rigidula, M‘Coy, without the
doubtful appendages on the keel.

RETEPORA INFUNDIBULUM, Lonsd., Murch. Sil. Syst. p. 679, pl. 15.
fig, 24, ;

This is a true Fenestella. In mistake Lonsdale assigned it to
Retepora. He says of it, “‘ The arrangement of the pores is similar to
that in Fenestella, but on the inner, and not the external surface.”
As a rule the greater number of the Silurian Fenestellide have the
pore-face on the outside of the polyzoarium, but not all. This
arrangement of outside pores prevails in those species having the
conical or cylindrical base. Others which are widely cup-shaped, with
a more open arrangement of the fenestrules, have the pores on the
inner side, in this respect corresponding to the Carboniferous species.

Lonsdale was clearly in error in giving generic value to the cir-
cumstance that in this particular Fenestella the cellules were on the
inner instead of the outer surface of the polyzoary. The generic

C—O

- BRITISH UPPER-SILURIAN FENESTELLID®. ‘Q47

differences between these fenestrate forms, thanks to the labours of
Prof. M‘Coy, are now much better understood ; the fact that this form
has the pore-face on the inner side of the polyzoarium is not suffi-
cient to ally it with Retepora. I cannot say more about this species
than that it is a true Fenestella. I have seen three specimens ; and
in each case the pores were not visible. This recovered species will
not increase the number on the list, since there is good reason to
believe, from the thickened nature alike of interstice and dissepiment,
that it is only the aged condition of one of the existing species.

Goreonta assrmitis, Lonsd., Murch Sil. Syst. p. 680, pl. 15, fig. 27.

This is a polyzoon of large dimensions. Lonsdale remarks of it
that ‘it is impossible to determine if the fossil be a true Gorgonia ;
but, from its great resemblance to the axis of some existing species,
I have ventured to place it in that genus”*. Prof. M‘Coy regarded
it as a true Gorgomat, and mentions the occurrence among
the Carboniferous fossils of some specimens referable to this
“‘obscure species ” as he calls it. Lonsdale’s drawing of this species
shows a fragment ofthe base. The branches are said to anastomose—
a feature pertaining to Retepora, but not to Fenestella, whose branches
are united by dissepiments. If the drawings and description are to
be received as exact, then there can be no doubt of its being a Rete-
pora. At the same time, I think that Lonsdale intended to describe
a large form of Fenestella which is common in the Dudley Limestone,
while from some defect he gave it characters which would assign it
to another genus. One thing is clear, whether Lonsdale’s species be
a Retepora or Fenestella, it has not as yet been described in either
genus. To avoid the difficulty which might arise if a true Retepora
assimilis should be found, it will be well to describe it under the
name of Fenestella reteporata, for reasons which I shall allude to
later on. In ‘Siluria’ it is stated that Gorgonia assimilis is Fenes-
tella assimilist. No description is added; and the drawing is that
of the fenestrules only, thus practically leaving the form unde- ©
scribed.

Fenestetia patuta, M‘Coy, Brit. Pal. Foss. pl. i. C. fig. 20.

I have examined the type specimen in the Woodwardian Museum,
and find that it is only the young frond of one of the described forms,
so far as I can ascertain. The cells are not so visible as they are
made to appear in the drawing. There is no good reason for re-
garding it as a separate species. Its retention, therefore, on the list
of Silurian species is unnecessary. Its case is analogous to that of
Fenestella frutew, M‘Coy, which is an early stage of Fenestella
plebeia, M‘Coy.

FENESTELLA REGULARIS, Portl. Geol. Londonderry, p. 324, pl. 22,
fig. 3.
This species Portlock described and figured from the Silurian

* Murch. Sil. Syst. p. 680. t McOoy’s Carb. Foss. Ireland, p. 196.
{ Murchison’s ‘Siluria,’ p. 215, 216.

948 G. W. SHRUBSOLE ON THE VARIOUS SPECIES OF

schists of Desertcreat, Ireland. Unfortunately, the reverse only was
exposed ; consequently the details by which alone it could be recog-
nized are unknown. ‘The polyzoary, from its wide, nearly flat ex-
pansion, would seem to favour the supposition that it belongs to the
Carboniferous rather than the Silurian type of Fenestella.

Coming now to speak of the species to be described, I may truly
characterize them as haying strong individual features, which clearly
define them, not only from one another, but also from their congeners
in other formations. It will be seen that I have considerably re-
duced the number of species. In the state of uncertainty in the past
as to their real character, it 1s impossible to say to what extent
they may have been repeated. I by no means wish it to be under-
stood that I consider the present list as to the number of species
either full or complete. There is work yet to be done; the main
details, and character of Fenestella (Retepora) infundibulum (Lonsd.)
remain to be worked out. In addition, I have traces or fragments
of two other species, the details of which are not sufficiently complete
to warrant publication. One species is intermediate in size between
Fenestella lineata and Fenestella reteporata; the other is much
smaller than any /enestella I have yet met with from either Carboni-
ferous or Silurian formations. It has one hundred and twenty-five
interstices measured transversely to the inch. I would suggest that
‘it should be provisionally known as Fenestella dudleyensis. As re-
vised, the Silurian species of the British Fenestellide will be as
follows :—

FENESTELLA RIGIDULA, M‘Coy, Brit. Pal. Foss. p. 50, pl. t. C. fig. 19.

This species and Fenestella patula were first described in the
Cambridge Catalogue. I have not succeeded in tracing it either in
the Woodwardian Museum or elsewhere. ‘The marked peculiarity
about it is the double row of small cells on the keel. This I have not
been able to verify. It is due to Prof. McCoy to state that Hall
describes an American form, Menestella elegans, as having the keel
‘“‘margined on each side by a row of small oval cells’*. I have
mentioned before that I regarded the character of this species as some-
what exaggerated. My reason for so saying is that Prof. M‘Coy was
clearly in error in claiming the same exceptional cell-character for
some of the Carboniferous species, which have proved to be not true
cells, but prominences, the remains of aformer ornamentation. The
difficulty is not lessened in consequence of its being stated that the
cells are only half the size of the ordinary ones. Now Fenestella
intermedia, it is true, does carry in part a cell on the keel, but then
it is of the same size as the other cells. I strongly suspect that this
feature of the inferior cell is very much overstated. The explanation
is probably the following :—Some years ago, what is now known as
a prominence on the keel of Fenestella, the remains of a spiniferous
ornamentation, was regarded in some way as a reproductive organ.
Lonsdale termed them “abraded vesicles” +, while Prof. King

* Hall, Pal. New York, vol. ii. p. 164
+ Geology of Russia, vol. i. App. A. p. 680.

BRITISH UPPER SILURIAN FENESTELLIDZE, 249

would regard them as “ gemmuliferous vesicles” *. Atany rate the
drawings and description of this species are so circumstantial that we
cannot do otherwise than retain it, notwithstanding the doubts I
have expressed as to its identity.

FrnesTELLA RETEPORATA, sp. noy. Plate XI. figs. 1-lc.

Sp. char. Polyzoary, base conical, opening outwards, forming ex-
pansions of considerable size. Interstices—obverse, strong, sinuous,
keeled, rounded, often angular from erosion ; reverse, striated longi-
tudinally : four interstices in the space of two lines transversely.
Keelstrong, rounded. Dissepiments often less in size than interstices,
recessed, not so wide as fenestrules, giving in consequence a waved
line to the interstice ; two dissepiments in the space of two lines
longitudinally. Pores small, circular, less than their diameter apart
when not worn down; from eight to thirteen pores between
dissepiments. Fenestrules irregular, oblong, narrower at either end,
twice as long as broad.

Obs. There is no fear of confusing this species with either of the
other Dudley forms. Its ample size, irregular habits of growth,
and large number of pores between dissepiments are its distin-
guishing features, and clearly markits identity. Ishall allude later
on to the interest attaching to this species on account of its possessing
traces of its relation with the genus Retepora, which, while abundant
in the beds below, has not as yet been found in the Dudley beds.

Locality. Wenlock Limestone near Dudley.

FENESTELLA LINEATA, Sp. nov. Plate XI. figs. 2, 2 a.

Sp.char. Polyzoary, base strong, cylindrical or conical, attachment
solid; growth, rapidly opening outwards, forming wide funnel-
shaped expansions, folded or plaited on their outer margins. Five or
six inches in diameter. Interstices on the poriferous face, keeled,
rounded when perfect, often angular from erosion ; reverse, finely
striated longitudinally: ten interstices in the space of two lines
transversely. Keel fine, straight, with slight prominences ; as
seen when freshly or partially weathered out, it appears as a series
of very regular and parallel lines, suggestive of its specific name.
Dissepiments on pore-face thin, recessed, often expanding at the
junction with the interstice ; seven dissepiments in the space of two
lines longitudinally. Pores placed on the outer surface of the poly-
zoarium, small, round, prominent, own diameter apart, one or two
between dissepiments, and one in each angle formed by the junction
of dissepiment with interstice; latter feature not always persistent,
in which case there are three or four pores between dissepiments.
Fenestrules on the reverse face oblong, becoming oval towards the
base of the polyzoarium ; on obverse face a very narrow aperture.

Obs. This species is the common form in the Upper Silurian
group, and tolerably abundant in the Dudley Limestone, in this
respect occupying a corresponding position to the ’enestella plebera,
M‘Coy, among the Carboniferous species. If the nature of Lonsdale’s

* King’s Perm. Foss. p. 87.
Q.J.G.8. No. 142, 8

250 G. W. SHRUBSOLE ON THE VARIOUS SPECIES OF

species could be definitely determined, I have no doubt that
most of them would be included under the head of this species.
There is also an undoubted correspondence in many details between
this species and the 7. rigidula, M‘Coy. The main difference, and
that a serious one, is that Prof. M‘Coy figures his species as having
a double row of small cells on the keel, while /’. lineata has a single
row only of the prominences. I have exantined many specimens of
Fenestella from the Dudley beds without finding as yet one having
the small double row of cells on the keel. The regular mode of
erowth, and rigid straightness of the interstice and keel, at once
distinguish this species (J. lineata) from all others in the Silurian
group.
ey Wenlock Limestone near Dudley.

FENESTELLA INTERMEDIA, sp.nov. Plate XI. figs. 3, 3a.

Sp. char. Polyzoary, extreme base solid and strong, somewhat
conical in shape, ultimately forming wide open expansions. Inter-
stices on the ebverse face broad, full, and rounded, having for the
length of two or three fenestrules two rows of pores, succeeded by
widening of the interstice and three rows of pores. This is repeated
over the expansion. The three-row series of pores immediately
precede the bifurcation of the interstice. Reverse, finely striated
longitudinally. Width variable, alternately narrow and wide.
Dissepiments thin, recessed, not expanding at junction with inter-
stice ; six dissepiments in the space of two lines longitudinally.
Keel thin and fine between the two rows of pores; a corresponding
line winding between each line of the three-row series of pores.
Pores on the inside of the polyzoary small, circular, prominent,
level with the keel, their diameter apart, three between dissepi-
ments. Fenestrules on the poriferous face very narrow, wider on
the reverse, nine in the space of two lines measured transversely.

Obs. This very fine species, which up to the present time has been
strangely overlooked, except that I find it as Fenestella patula in the
Woodwardian Museum, is by no means uncommon in the Dudley
Limestone. It is met with in two very different conditions—first,
when worn down, in which case the interstice is bare and cylin-
drical, and at certain distances on the site of the keel are two or
three cell-openings. In this stage it is easily recognized by the cells
occupying the place of the keel ; while in the more perfect condition
of the polyzoon, the poriferous face of the interstice is broad, flat,
and slightly rounded at the sides, and has two or three rows of
pores arranged in the manner described—not on the keel, as claimed
for F. rigidula, M‘Coy, but in the place of the keel. This, I may
remark, is a unique feature among the British Fenestellide, no
similar appearance being on record. The contrast presented be-
tween the two conditions to which I have alluded—the broad
interstice with its irregular row of prominent circular pores and
fine delicate keel, winding in and out between them, and fenestrules
nearly obliterated by the spread of the interstice on the one hand,
and a bare round branch with worn-down cell-apertures and wide

BRITISH UPPER SILURIAN FENESTELLID®. 251

fenestrules on the other—is so great that the error of making the
latter into a new species might be excused; it is an instructive
incident in the history of the Paleozoic Polyzoa. Taken altogether,
we may claim for this species a premiership of beauty among
beautiful forms.

_ Since writing the above I have ascertained that Hall mentions* a
species (Polypora incepta), from the beds of the Niagara group (the
Upper Silurian of North America), allied to the foregoing, only with
the Polypora-character still more developed by having the rows of
pores increasing from two to four instead of from two to three, as in
Fenestella intermedia. In this case he assigns, rightly, I believe, the
species to Polypora, on account of its having so many as four rows
of pores on the interstice. As to the question whether Fenestella
intermedia, with its three rows of pores, ought also to be included
with Polypora, it may fairly be left open for consideration. It is to
be borne in mind that the Polypora-features are not so strongly
marked in it as in the other case, and that the facies generally is
that of Fenestella ; to refer it to Polypora, therefore, would be to
ignore its leading character. It may be, and is, difficult in practice
to draw the line as to where Fenestella ends and Polypora begins. The
genus Polypora was founded by Prof. M‘Coy for that division of the
Fenestella family having more than two rows of cells on the
interstice ; the usual number of rows of cells in Polypora is from
three to ten. These intermediate or compound forms, as Polypora
incepta or Fenestella intermedia, were then unknown, and the
difficulty as to classification had not arisen. enestella intermedia
is clearly one of those connecting links between allied genera which,
while they serve to unite the family as a group, are somewhat difficult
to classify. Perhaps, on the whole, less violence will be done by
allowing F. intermedia to remain with the Wenestelle than by in-
corporating it with Polypora; for I believe that Hall, in speaking
of his species, with its decided Polypora-affinities, is impressed with
its strong leaning to Fenestella. He says:—-“ It is the only species _
of Polypora that has fallen under my observation in this geological
period ; and its characters are probably more analogous to those of
Fenestella than are those of the Carboniferous period. Polypora
incepta (Hall) probably shows the first departure from the character
of true Fenestella”+. The latter position may now more truly be
claimed for Fenestella intermedia.

Locality. Wenlock Limestone near Dudley.

I may observe that, in describing these species of Fenestella, I
have endeavoured to do so from the best-preserved specimens
obtainable, and that, after the examination of some hundreds of
examples, I have not succeeded in procuring all the evidence with
regard to certain details of structure that I could wish. For instance,
I have no doubt that the keel of Fenestella reteporata possessed the
usual spiny appendage. As yet I have not succeeded in tracing it.
The same remark will apply to other details. A general caution is

* Hall’s Pal. New York, vol. ii. pl. 40 p. fig. 5. Ibid. p. 167.
s 2

252 G. W. SHRUBSOLE ON THE VARIOUS SPECIES OF

here requisite. The altered appearance presented by a worn-down
specimen of Yenestella from the Dudley Limestone is very great ;
this will necessitate certain allowances when the species under exa-
mination are, as is usually the case, much weathered and denuded.
The cell-apertures, in good specimens, are small and round, and quite
their diameter apart. When worn down, the cell-aperture is large,
and the intermediate spaces between the cells nearly obliterated or
they have only the body-wall between them. Again, in the more
perfect examples the obverse face of the interstice is full and rounded,
with a prominent keel; when worn down, the sides of the interstice
have a sharp angular face—a great contrast to what it had been. In
the one case the fenestrules may be narrow originally, and become
altered to wide by erosion. So, too, with the reverse face; in
Fenestella-growth the lines of construction give rise to strong
striations on the reverse side of the polyzoary, which, however, in
the Silurian species, are seldom seen, as the structure is generally
worn down and smooth.

Certain features would be constant in the Fenestellide (I allude
to the keel, the small circular pore, and the striations on the reverse)
were it not that they had been worn away from a variety of causes.

It may be interesting here to compare polyzoal life, so far as
concerns the Fenestellide, at the two great horizons of its growth—
the Silurian and Carboniferous, the early and late Paleozoic. The
Lower Silurian forms have special interest, on account of their
apparent relationship with the Graptolites, which they seem to re-
place in the higher series. Unfortunately the material available
for comparison is so scanty, and the special organs so imperfectly
preserved, that the affinities between the genera cannot well be
ascertained, at least for the present. No such reasons, however,
exist to hinder the comparison between the species found in the
Upper Silurian Limestone and those of the Carboniferous Limestone.
The result of the comparison is that we discover that the Silurian
forms have a distinct facies of their own, being often more minute
in structural details and altogether different in the general outline
of their growth, at the same time having the true and marked
features of Fenestella-growth. 'To indicate some of the peculiarities
of the Silurian Fenestellide, I may mention the strong conical
structure, often solid and slightly bulbous at the extreme point of
the base, of Henestella lineata ; this would seem to indicate a species .
capable of being firmly attached by its base, and adapted to resist
the action of powerful currents of water. A glance at Lonsdale’s
drawings of the Fenestellide will show how frequently they were’
possessed of this strong basal attachment ; we have nothing, strictly .
speaking, among the Carboniferous forms to compare with it, with.
one partial exception—the Fenestella membranacea (Phil.). So it
comes to this, that the strong conical base of the Silurian Fenestella
is now only partially seen in one of the Carboniferous species.; The
leading type in the polyzoary of the Carboniferous Fenestellide is
a flat expansion, slightly depressed in the centre, which formed its
point of attachment; while numerous rootlets from various parts of

BRITISH UPPER SILURIAN FENESTELLIDZ. 253

the structure, but more especially from near the base, served to secure
it in position, which would seem to have been the sides of projecting
rocks or suitable exposures. Of these non-poriferous rootlets,
which are quite a feature in the Carboniferous Fenestellide, and
notably so in Fenestella plebera, M‘Coy, we have no trace whatever
in the Silurian species. We may notice the beginning of the Car-
boniferous type of polyzoarium in the wide cup-like expansion of
one of Lonsdale’s forms, Retepora infundibulum. The resem-
blance here is all the more complete, since the poriferous face is on
the inside of the polyzoary, as in the Carboniferous species. Again,
we may compare the position of the poriferous face. In Fenestella
lineata, a prominent and leading species among the Silurians, it is
on the outside of the polyzoarium ; in all the Carboniferous species it
is on the inner side of the same. So, too, we may notice that the pre-
vailing Silurian species are all much smaller than the Carboniferous.
Our knowledge of the cell-character in the Silurian Fenestelle is
necessarily limited; but this we may say, that as yet no material
difference has been noticed, either as to cell-structure or internal
arrangement, as compared with the Carboniferous. The angular
knife-edged character of the interstice in Silurian species, often
alluded to by Hall* and Lonsdale? as a distinguishing mark, is the
result of denuding agencies; the original condition may often te
seen by careful searching in some fold or protected part of the poly-
zoarium, when it will be seen that the obverse face was full ard
rounded, with projecting circular pores, similar to the Carboniferous
types.
There are, besides what I have mentioned, several interesting in-
dividual features which may be noticed. For instance, in the lower
horizon of the Bala beds Retepora is abundant and Fenestella scarce ;
while in the Dudley Limestone Fenestella is abundant and Retepora
absent, so far as I am aware. The interesting point here is that
some of the Fenestelle in the Dudley beds, in which as yet we have
no record of Retepora having been found, have strong affinities to
Retepora or, more strictly speaking, Polypora, M‘Coy; for the genus
Polypora is really the connecting-link between Retepora and
Fenestella, combining, as it does, many of the features of either
group. It is not too much to say of Fenestella intermedia that
there is on the polyzoary an alternate interchange of polyzoal
features ; that on a branch may be seen for a short distance the
double row of cells divided by the customary keel, succeeded by
three rows of cells and no keel strictly speaking; this interchange
of character is persistent over the expansion. Thus we have here
typical Fenestella and typical Polypora, not only on one branch, but
on the whole—an alternation of character, Fenestella and Polypora,
that, to say the least, is very interesting, as showing the connexion
between Letepora and Fenestella. I have not met with any like
features among the Carboniferous species, and therefore conclude
that they are confined to the Silurian types.

Another species having evident affinities with Retepora, even more

* Hall’s Pal. New York, vol. ii. p. 50. t Murch. Sil. Syst. p. 678.

254 BRITISH UPPER SILURIAN FENFSTELLIDZ.

marked than the preceding, is the species I have described as
Fenestella reteporata. In size and outline the species is decidedly
Retepora in character. It has none of the straight lines and general
uniformity of structure which are so characteristic a feature of the
Fenestellide. Instead of this we have irregular interstices, and
fenestrules of all shapes. The dissepiments, however, show most
markedly the character of Retepora. Not on all, but on some of
them, it is most difficult to distinguish between the dissepiment and
interstice, so near do they approach in character the anastomosis of
the branch, which is the distinguishing feature in Retepora. The
likeness is further assisted by the occurrence here and there of cells
on the dissepiments. These latter features are not so marked or
persistent as to cause any doubt as to its being a true Fenestella,
while they indicate clearly the direction whence the disturbing in-
fluence came.

I desire to express my obligations to Professor Hughes of Cam-
bridge, and also to the officers of the Geological Society, for much
assistance in examining the type specimens under their charge.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XI.

Fig. 1. Fenestella reteporata, Shrubsole. A specimen of the natural size in the

Woodwardian Museum, Cambridge.

la. Obverse view, X x 12 diameters.

16. Reverse view, < 12 diameters.

le. Ring of pits, within cell-mouth.

2. Fenestella lineata, Shrubsole. Portion of obverse surface, x I2 dia-
meters. Only partially weathered from matrix.

2a. Reverse face, X 12 diameters.

3. Fenestella intermedia, Shrubsole. From the cabinet of G. H. Morton,
F.G.8. Portion of obverse surface, x 12 diameters.

3a. Reverse face, x 12 diameters.

Discussion.

The Prustpent remarked upon the value of this communication,
and upon the service done by the author in reducing the number of
supposed species of Polyzoa in the Carboniferous and Upper Silurian
rocks,

Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc Vol. XXXVI. PL XT.

7 SSE et

MinternBro® imp

aTLURIAN PNESTELLA ,

C. Berjeaur del et lith

GEOLOGICAL RELATIONS OF THE ROCKS OF THE SOUTH OF IRELAND. 255

17. On the Grotocican Retarions of the Rocxs of the Sourn or
Iretanp to those of Nortu Drvon and other British and Conti-
nental Districts. By Professor Epwarp Hutt, M.A., LL.D.,
F.R.S., &c., Director of the Geological Survey of Ireland.
(Read March 10, 1880.)

I, IyrRopvction.

Havine in a former communication to this Society* endeavoured to
prove that the great series of purple and green grits and slates
which form the southern highlands of Ireland belong to the Upper-
most Silurian period, and that between them and the succeeding
beds of the Old Red Sandstone there occurs everywhere a wide
hiatus (a gap of unrepresented geological time), indicated not only
by visible unconformities but also by absence of intervening beds at
various points, it now becomes desirable to inquire, and, if pos-
sible, to determine what formations in other districts may be sup-
posed to fill up the hiatus above referred to, and then, having de-
termined this point, to see what inferences may be drawn concern-
ing the physical geology of the regions referred to at the various
stages indicated both by the presence and the absence of consecutive
strata.

This inquiry naturally leads one to cast a glance at the neigh-
bouring coasts of England and Wales as the districts where light
may be looked for on these questions; and I propose in the follow-
ing pages to make a comparison of the series of beds in both coun-
tries, namely the South of Ireland and North Devon, and adjoining
districts north of the Severnt. It will also be desirable, with a
view to a fuller investigation, to refer, when necessary, to the Devo-
nian and Carboniferous series as it occurs in Belgium and Scotland,
and to see how far it is comparable with, and sustains our observa-
tions of, the Devonshire section.

Views of previous Authors.

Previous Investigations.—It is almost unnecessary for me to ob-
serve that there are few districts of the British Isles which have
received more careful scrutiny, and are the subjects of more elabo-
rate memoirs, than those of North Devon and West Somersetshire,
and I am therefore happily relieved from the necessity of any at-
tempt at lengthened description. The geological literature of the
district has been carefully summarized by Mr. Etheridge in his

* “On the Geological Age of the Rocks forming the Southern Highlands of
Treland, generally known as the Dingle Beds and Glengariff Grits and Slates,”
Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxxv. p. 699 (1879). I find that Prof. Ralph Tate
states, with much precision, that the Dingle beds are the equivalents of the
‘“‘Tilestones of England, South Wales,” &c. (‘ Historical Geology,’ Weale’s series,
p- 72). Iwas unaware of this when my former paper was published.

+t I confine my observations to North Devon, as it furnishes the key to the
structure of South Devon and adjoining parts.

256 PROF, E. HULL ON THE GEOLOGICAL RELATIONS

elaborate paper ‘‘On the Physical Structure of West Somerset and
North Devon”*, from which I shall have occasion to quote rather
frequently ; and the reader may be referred to it for an account of
what others have done in this field of inquiry. This paper renders
any attempt of the same kind altogether useless.

It is also scarcely necessary for me to do more than to allude to
the controversy which called forth Mr. Etheridge’s exhaustive
paper. We all recollect with what ardour and ability my friend |
and predecessor, the late Professor Jukes, endeavoured (as we may
say) to obliterate the great group of marine beds established by
Murchison and Sedgwick under the name of ‘‘ Devonian” from off
the geological map of the British Isles and of Western Europe. If
success had been possible, he ought to have succeeded; but for myself,
I feel satisfied that success was impossible, because the evidence,
both physical and paleontological, in favour of the views of the
founders of the ‘‘ Devonian System” is overwhelming ; and if any
doubt on this point remained after Professor Jukes’s papers had seen
the light, it has been completely removed by the essay of Mr.
Etheridge, supplemented, in the same volume of our Journal, by
that of a careful and accurate observer, who for years had studied
these rocks on the spot, Mr. Townshend M. Hallt. A recent visit
to the district confirms me in the belief that between the “ Foreland
Grits ” and the Carboniferous Limestone there is a great and con-
secutive series of marine beds, and that it is comparable (with cer-
tain modifications) to the Belgian section of the same rocks.

II. STATEMENT OF THE CASE.

Perhaps the simplest way of presenting my subject will be to
state the case in a series of separate propositions or theses, and then
to offer for consideration the evidence upon which they are based.
Considered in the order in which I propose to treat them, they may
thus be stated.

First. Having, in the paper already referred to, shOwn that
between the Glengariff grits and slates (which, for brevity, I shall
henceforth call “the Glengariff beds”) and the succeeding forma-
tions, either of Old Red Sandstone or Carboniferous age, there is a
wide hiatus of unrepresented time, I shall endeavour to show that
this is filled up in the south and south-west of England and in Bel-
gium by the great series known as ‘the Middle” and “ Lower
Devonian” beds, lying between “ the Foreland Grits” on the one
hand, and “the Pickwell-Down Sandstone ” on the other.

Secondly. That, consequently, while a deep sea in which were
deposited the Middle and Lower Devonian beds overspread the
south of England and adjoining continental areas, land conditions
prevailed in the south of Ireland during the same period.

* Quart. Journ. Geol. Soe, vol. xxiii. p. 568.

tT “On the Relative Distribution of Fossils in the North-Devon Series.”’ In
a recent joint paper by Messrs. Champernowne and Ussher, “‘ On three traverses
made in North Devon,” they state that their observations go to confirm Mr,
Etheridge’s views.

OF THE ROCKS OF TAE SOUTH OF IRELAND. 257

Thirdly. I shall offer some observations on the points of analogy
and contrast between the Old Red Sandstone of the South of Ireland
and its representatives in North Devon, Belgium, and Scotland.

Fourthly. I shall endeavour to show the true position in the
region of “ Siluria” of the Old Red Sandstone on the one hand, and
the equivalents of the Glengariff beds on the other, and indicate the
geological position of the “ Cornstone” group in the Devonian series,
and conclude with some general observations.

III. Carnonirerovus AND Op Rep Serres.

Descending Series in the South of Ireland and N. Devon.—In order
to prepare the way for the consideration of the first thesis, it is
necessary to give a brief description of the descending series imme-
diately underlying the Carboniferous Limestone in the districts of
the South of Ireland and North Devon, and by comparing them
together to obtain a clear idea of the position of the hiatus as
it occurs in the former district. In this comparison my views are
happily in unison with those of the late Professor Jukes*, the late
Mr. Saltery, and (I believe I may also say) of Mr. Champernowne,
F.G.8., who has devoted so much time to the study of the rocks of
Devonshiret. The only objections which can with any plausibility
be urged are those based on the occurrence of fossils in the one
district not found in the other; but all such objections seem to me
to disappear when the important differences which were prevalent
in the physical geography of these districts respectively are taken
into consideration.

The descending series of beds below the Carboniferous Limestone
in both districts having been frequently and fully described, only a
brief summary is here necessary. I shall commence with that in

the South of Ireland.

Descending Serres, South of Ireland.

Carboniferous Limestone. Coralline, crinoidal, and shelly limestone;
sometimes cleaved (thinning towards the south-west).

Carboniferous Slate (top beds). Black slate with calcareous bands full of
fossils (2). Black and grey slate, with few fossils (1).

Coomhola Grit. Grey and olive-green slates and tiles with fine-grained
hard grey grits, with marine shells and some plants, the whole having
a maximum thickness in Co. Cork of 5000 feet §.

Old Red Sandstone||. (a) “ Kiltorean beds;” fine-grained, yellowish,

* “On the Carboniferous Slate,” &c., Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxii.
p. 348, &e. t Ibid. vol. xix. p. 474.

t “The Devonian Question,” Geol. Mag. March 1879,

§ Jukes and Geikie, Man. Geol. p. 586.

|| The Old Red Sandstone with the Kiltorcan beds ut the top and the con-
glomerate at the base is the ‘‘ Upper Old Red Sandstone” of Scottish geolo-
gists, which “ graduates upwards into the Lower Carboniferous Sandstones,” as
stated by Professor Geikie (‘‘The Old Red Sandstone of Western Europe,”
Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinb. yol. xxviii.) ; the ‘‘ Lower Old Red Sandstone and Con-
glomerates” of Lesmahago and the Pentlands is doubtless the representative
of the Glengariff or Dingle beds, as suggested by Prof. Geikie ; but the ques-
tion remains, Are they not really of uppermost Silurian age ?

258 PROF, E. HULL ON THE GEOLOGICAL RELATIONS

greenish, and reddish sandstones and shales, with fish (Asterolepis,
Bothriolepis, Glyptolepis, Coccosteus, and Pterichthys), also Ano-
donta Jukesii and plants (Adiantites, &c.): (0) the above passing
down into massive reddish-brown and purple soft sandstone with a
conglomerate base*, the whole about 3000 feet thick.

The basal conglomerate of the Old Red Sandstone is everywhere
unconformable to the rocks on which it rests over the South of Ire-
land, as frequently insisted on by the late Sir R. Griffitht. This
unconformity is equally conspicuous, whether it refers to the con-
tact of the conglomerate with the Uppermost Silurian beds in the
promontory of Dingle, or to the Lower Silurian beds of the Come-
ragh or Galtee Mountains. On the other hand, all the beds from this
conglomerate upwards into the Carboniferous Limestone are appa-
rently in perfect conformity with each other, notwithstanding the
change from the apparently freshwater “ Kiltorcan beds” into the
marine ‘“Coomhola-Grit series” which succeeds to them. The
hiatus in the South of Ireland is therefore at the base of the Old Red
Conglomerate.

LY. Drviston BETWEEN THE CARBONIFEROUS AND OLp REp SANDSTONE
ForRMATIONS.

A recent author has included the Old Red Sandstone of the south
of Ireland in the Carboniferous group, on the ground that “in no
place in Ireland has it a defined upper boundary, one group gradu-
ating into the other”t. Although this view finds some support, if
the purely stratigraphical relations of the two series alone be re-
garded, yet it seems to be untenable upon paleontological and phy-
sical considerations, to which sufficient weight has not been allowed
by the author above quoted. In the first place, the occurrence of
Anodonta, together with the absence of any traces of marine organ-
isms, seems to point conclusively to the lacustrine origin of the upper
beds at least (‘‘ Kiltorcan beds ”’) of the Old Red Sandstone ; on the
other hand, the moment we pass upwards into the slates and grits
of the overlying ‘“ Coomhola series,” we are met by abundant evi-
dences of the prevalence of marine conditions in the occurrence of
such genera as Avicula, Cucullea, Modiola, Mytilus, Rhynchonella,
and Spirifera, and other forms which connect these beds with the
Carboniferous system.

Again, the occurrence in the Kiltorcan beds of the remains of fish,
belonging to recognized Old Red Sandstone forms, both in Scotland
and elsewhere, such as Asterolepis, Bothriolepis, Glyptolepis, Cocco-
steus, and Pterichthys, none of which ascend into the Carboniferous
series of other districts, or into the Carboniferous-Slate series of
Ireland, places the relations of these beds to the Old Red Sandstone
beyond question. In fact, it is abundantly clear that lacustrine

* This great conglomerate is well shown in the banks of the river Suir at
Waterford, and the escarpments of the Comeragh Mountains in Co. Water-
ford, and of Caher-con-ree in the Dingle promontory. See Section I. sheet 18,
of the Sections of the Geol. Surv. Ireland, &c.; also Jukes, Quart. Journ. Geol.

Soe. vol. xxii. P- 328. t Journ. Geol. Soc. Dubl. vol. viii. passim.
t Kinahan, ‘ Geology of Ireland,’ p. 63.

OF THE ROCKS OF THE SOUTH OF IRELAND, ~ 259

conditions prevailed over the area of the South of Ireland during the
deposition of these beds, and that thus by their fossils and physical
relations they correspond with the deposits of those great inland
lakes which modern geologists, such as Mr. Godwin-Austen and
Professor Ramsay, regard as the basins of deposit for the Old Red
Sandstone*. |

This distinction between the lacustrine fauna of the Old Red
Sandstone and the marine fauna of the succeeding beds has been
noticed by Prof. Haughton as well as Mr. Baily, and my late col-
leagues Messrs. Jukes and Salter. It seems to me that in this di-
stinction we have a well-defined ground of classification, which is
also concurrent with slight, but definite, distinctions in the litholo-
gical characters of the beds themselves over considerable areas.

In accordance, therefore, with the above views supported by so
strong a body of evidence, I shall continue to regard the line of
division between the Old Red Sandstone and the Carboniferous
series as traceable at the base of the Coomhola-grit series, or at
the top of the Kiltorcan beds with Anodonta and Palwopteris. From
these premises I now pass on to describe briefly the corresponding
series in North Devon, as generally recognized.

VY. Descenpine Serres, Norra Devon anp W. SomMERSET.T
(Carboniferous and Upper Devonian.)

Carboniferous Limestone. (Benn Quarry.) Dark earthy carbonaceous lime-
stone in regular beds (Posidonomya Becher‘).

Carboniferous-Slate Series. (Barnstaple beds.) Top beds, dark schists
(contorted) resting on light-grey slates, with calcareous nodules.
Cyathocrinus distans &c. seen at Barnstaple station.

‘ Pilton beds” (Phillips). Slates of a purplish or greyish tint, Brachio-
pods, crinoidal stems, and a small Crustacean (Phacops latifrons) ; thin
intermittent bands of limestone are common, and are highly fossili-
ferous f.

3 ” (Hall), also called ‘““Marwood Beds”, by Jukes and
Salter. Light grey and olive-green slates with bands of hard grit, and
calcareo-ferruginous beds with three species of Cuculle@a. These beds are
shown in the railway-cutting north of Braunton Church.

Below the above are found (east of the village of Upcot) yellowish and
greenish flags and shales, passing downwards into purple sandy shales
and grits, sometimes of a pale green colour, similar in appearance to
the ‘‘ Kiltorcan beds.”

“ Pickwell-Down Sandstone.” Purple and red sandstones with thin shaly
bands in the upper part; greyish grits, sometimes massive, with thin
shaly bands, in the lower; no fossils; the bands of shale, though re-
quiring to be mentioned, are quite unimportant.

* R. Godwin-Austen, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soe. vol. xii. p. 51; Prof. A. C.
Ramsay, 207d. vol. xxvii. p. 243; Prof. Geikie, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinb. vol. xxviii.

art 1.

: t+ Descriptions of these beds will be found in the writings of several authors;
but I give those written down by myself during my visit in the autumn of
1879, under the friendly guidance of Mr. Townshend Hall and Mr. Ussher.

- { Hall, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxiii. 374. According to this author,
the Pilton beds form the uppermost member of the Devonian series. This view
was also maintained by the late Mr. Salter, who, however, recognized the presence
of some forms found in the Lower Carboniferous series of the 8. of Ireland
(ibid. vol, xix. p. 482).

260 PROF, E. HULL ON THE GEOLOGICAL RELATIONS

That the “ Pilton” and “ Cucullea-” or “ Marwood ” beds are the
equivalents of the ‘“‘Coomhola grits and slates” of the South of
Ireland, and therefore (as shown above) of Lower Carboniferous
age, is evinced by a community of species to a large extent. Of these
the following have been kindly determined for me by Mr. Baily,
F.G.8., from the collections of the Irish Geological Survey :—

Species common to the Pilton and Marwood beds of Devonshire, and
to the Coomhola beds of the South of Ireland.

Brachiopoda: Chonetes hardrensis, Rhynchonella pleurodon,
Streptorhynchus crenstria, Strophomena rhomboidalis, var. analoga,
Producius scabriculus, Spirifer Uri, Lingula squamiformis.

Conchifera: Cucullea Hardingu, C. trapezium, C. amygdalina,
Avicula damnoniensis.

The great majority of the forms range up into the Carboniferous
Slate, and some into the Carboniferous Limestone, and clearly prove
the strong Carboniferous, rather than Devonian, affinities of the Pilton
and Marwood beds.

VI. RELATIONS BETWEEN THE IRISH AND DEVONSHIRE SECTIONS.

Having thus far described the general descending series of both
districts, it is necessary to pause at this point, because the analogy
between the two series here ceases altogether; for, as I believe,
and as I hope to be able to demonstrate, the underlying Middle and
Lower Devonian series of Devonshire is entirely unrepresented in
the Irish area, nor do we again begin to correlate the beds till we
arrive at the basement formation of all, namely, “ The Foreland
Beds.”

With regard, however, to the series above described, there isa re-
markable concurrence of opinion between the most eminent geologists
who have made the comparison, that all the beds from the base of
the Carboniferous Limestone down to the top of the Pickwell-Down
Sandstone are representatives of the Lower Carboniferous Slate and
Coomhola grit of the South of Ireland.

This view was clearly put forward by the Rev. Dr. Haughton,
F.R.S., as far back as 1855, in a paper read before the Geological
Society of Dublin*, and was laid down and defended, both on strati-
graphical and paleontological grounds, by the late Mr. Salter in the
year 18637. Mr. Salter shows that, while the Carboniferous Slate
and Barnstaple beds are characterized essentially by Carboniferous
forms, the Pilton and Marwood beds (Cucullea-zone) contain some
Upper Devonian forms, many of which are found in the Coomhola-
grit series of the Co. Cork.

The correlation thus established by Haughton and Salter is, in
the main, the same as that subsequently adopted by Jukes t and

* «*On the Evidence afforded by Fossil Plants as to the boundary line between
the Devonian and Carboniferous Rocks,” Journ. Geol. Soc. Dubl. vol. vi. p. 227.

t “On the Upper Old Red Sandstone and Upper Devonian Rocks,” Quart.
Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xix. pp. 488 &e.

{ Supra cit. p. 345 et seq.

OF THE ROCKS OF THE SOUTH OF IRELAND. 261

Etheridge *. Both of these authors agree in considering the
Barnstaple, Pilton, and Baggy (or Marwood) beds as on the same
general geological horizon as the Carboniferous Slate and Coomhola
Grit, and, moreover, the Pickwell-Down Sandstone as the represen-
tative of the (Upper) Old Red Sandstone of the South of Ireland.
For my own part, I think it is impossible to come to any other con-
clusion from a consideration both of their stratigraphical position,
their lithological constitution, and the organisms they respectively
contain. Considering the geographical distance between the south-
west of Cork, in which the Coomhola beds are most fully developed,
and North Devon, the general similarity on all these points is re-
markably striking, and the differences are only such as might be
expected to arise over tracts of similar extent at the present day.

The points of greatest difference between the faunas of the two
areas seem to be, first, the occurrence of a few Upper Devonian
species peculiar to the Pilton beds, such as Phacops latifrons, not
found in Ireland ; and, secondly, the occurrence of the lacustrine or
freshwater Anodonta Jukesiz, which has not yet been found in Devon-
shire, in the upper part of the Old Red Sandstone in Ireland.

(1) At the time when it was supposed that there was “an unbroken
sequence ” from the Glengariff beds of the South of Ireland into the
Coomhola grit and Carboniferous Slate, and that the Glengariff beds
were the representatives of the Middle and Lower Devonian series7,
it was very difficult indeed, if not impossible, to account for many
of the paleontological distinctions between the Upper Devonian beds
of North Devon and the Lower Carboniferous beds of the South of
Treland ; but when it is known that (as I have endeavoured to prove
in the paper already referred to) there is everywhere a great
hiatus between the Glengariff beds and the succeeding series, whether
Old Red or Carboniferous in Ireland, while there is a continuous
ascending series in Devonshire, the causes of these differences at
once become apparent. In Devonshire, many of the species belonging
to the (so-called) Upper Devonian (Pilton beds) come up from the
underlying Middle Devonian beds, having migrated for some distance
eastwards or southwards, and undergone modification of form during
the stage of the Pickwell-Down Sandstone, and then returned when
the conditions became favourable for their sustenance and vitality.
But no such ascent was possible in the Irish area, and all the species
(about 47 out of 56) which are found in the Lower Carboniferous
beds of Ireland and in those of the “ Upper Devonian” beds of
Devonshire were derived by migration from the Devonshire area.
The general conclusion from all this is that we must eliminate the
Marwood and Pilton beds from the Upper Devonian, and place them
in the Lower Carboniferous series.

2) The occurrence of Anodonta. Certain strata lying just below
the “ Cucullwa-zone” and above the Pickwell-Down Sandstones,
similar in appearance, as well as in position, to the Kiltorcan beds of
the South of Ireland, may possibly yet be found to yield this re-

* Supra cit. table xii. p. 698. t See Etheridge’s table, loc. cit,
t Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxxv. p. 699.

262 PROF, E. HULL ON THE GEOLOGICAL RELATIONS

markable freshwater mussel. Up to this time, however, it has not
been discovered in Devonshire*.

This is not surprising when the relations of the strata in each dis-
trict are considered. In the South of Ireland the Old Red Sandstone
deposited along the slopes of subsiding lands}, giving rise to the bed
of shingle now formingits conglomerate base, was favourably situated
for the formation of lucustrine conditions. The formation is in all
probability the deposit of a lake, the waters of which were inhabited
by the peculiar fishes of the period as well as by this large freshwater
mussel. It may have been otherwise, however, with the represen-
tative beds in the Devonian area. The Pickwell-Down Sandstone
is here underlain, as well as overlain, by essentially marine
beds, those of Ilfracombe and Mortehoe ¢; and it is possible that the
lacustrine conditions of the South of Ireland gave place to marine con-
ditions over the Devonian area during the same time. This view
finds support in the fact (which I will again advert to) that the re-
presentative beds in Belgium (Psammites du Condroz) contain marine
fossils.

(3) It will now be apparent why the Pickwell-Down Sandstone,
though the representative of the Old Red Conglomerate of the South
of Ireland, is not itself a conglomerate. The conglomerate of Ireland
was formed along the flanks, and over the edges, of older uncon-
formable beds; but this was not so in the case of its representative.
Hence the difference of mode of accumulation and in composition.
Reduced to a tabulated form, then, it may be taken as generally agreed
that the following are the representative beds of the Lower Carboni-
ferous and Upper Devonian, or Old Red Sandstone, in each distriet:—

Representative Beds.

South of Ireland. North Devon.
( Carboniferous Limestone. Carboniferous Limestone.
Twas Cactoni: | Carboniferous Slate. Barnstaple beds.
ferous beds. Coomhola Grit and Slate Filton sa M a bed
{ (passage-beds). Baggy (oh op eds
uculle@a-zone).
Old Red Sand- ( Kiltorcan beds. Upcot beds ?
stone or Upper , Old Red Sandstone and ; f
Hocoman. Conglomerate. Pickwell-Down Sandstone.

VII. Mipptz anp Lowrr DrvonrAn Bens.

The great series of marine fossiliferous strata which underlies the
Pickwell-Down Sandstone in North Devon, and constitutes ‘‘ the
Middle and Lower Devonian ” series of Sedgwick and Murchison §
not being represented (except perhaps in its lowest part) in the

* Anodonta has been found in Northumberland by Mr. Lebour, F.G.S., in
beds probably corresponding in position to the Kiltorcan beds of the South of
Ireland.

+ As I have shown in my former paper supra cit.

{ The Mortehoe slates have not yielded fossils. The absence of calcareous
bands and the micaceous character of the beds are indicative of the absence of.
fossils; but they may be regarded as the upper members of the Ilfracombe
series.

§ Rep. Brit, Assoc. 1836; ‘ Siluria,’ 4th edit. p. 272.”

SF ll ah

OF THE ROCKS OF THE SOUTH OF IRELAND. 263

South of Ireland, only requires a brief notice here. These beds
haying been repeatedly described by previous writers, from the
Rey. D. Williams * and Mr. Weaver + down to Messrs. Townshend
Hall t and Etheridge t in more recent times, I here give descrip-
tions taken chiefly from my own note-book. The beds are described
in descending order :—

(1) Mortehoe Slates. Glossy micaceous slates, uniform in texture, and
such as might have originated from the waste of gneiss or mica-schist :
unfossiliferous.

(2) Lifracombe beds. A variable series of grey slates and thin grits, con-
taining numerous bands of blue earthy limestone (‘“ Stringocephalus-
limestone ”), chiefly in the lower part. These beds are highly fossili-
ferous, containing polyzoa, corals, and mollusca in abundance.

(3) Hangman Grits (Martinhoe beds of T. M. Hall). Hard, fine-grained,
red, purple, and grey grits with bands of slate rising from below the
Ilfracombe slates at Combe-Martin Bay. ‘These beds, like those of the
Pickwell-Down Sandstones, form high tablelands or downs, traversed
by deep dells leading down to the sea.

(4) Lynton Slates. Greyish sandy slates and fine grits, cleaved, passing
down into calcareous banded slates and earthy limestones, highly
fossiliferous. These beds break off into scarped cliffs, ridges, and tors
along well developed planes of jointage. Corals, polyzoa, crinoids,
spirifers &e., are abundant.

(5) Foreland Grits. Massive coarse- and fine-grained grey, purple, and
green grits, with bands of schist. Pebbles of quartz, quartzite, and slate
sometimes occur. ‘The beds are contorted, and their base is nowhere
visible§. Fucoid and linear plant-remains occur, resembling those
from the Glengariff beds of Ireland.

Fossils.—The Middle Devonian ; or Ilfracombe beds have yielded,
according to Mr. Etheridge, 73 known forms, of which about 20
come from the Lower Devonian or Lynton beds; but only three
forms from the Lower, and 28 from the Middle Devonian beds are
found in the Carboniferous beds generally ||, and not a single form
out of either the Lower or Middle divisions has been discovered
in the Glengariff grits or slates of Ireland, with which they have
been correlated by some authors.

Thickness of beds—A_ careful estimate of the thickness of the
Devonian beds of North Devon has been made by the Rey. Dr.
Haughton, which, as being the most recent, I here insert, though the
question of thickness of strata is not one materially affecting the
subject under consideration. Dr. Haughton’s estimate] is as
follows :—

(a) From the lowest beds at Lynmouth, occupying the summit of
the great anticlinal arch, up to the [fracombe marine limestone,
4400 feet.

(6) From the Ilfracombe limestone to the Cucullwa- and plant-beds

* Rep. Brit. Assoc. 1839, Trans. of Sections, p. 95.

t Proce. Geol. Soe. Lond. vol. ii. pp. 589, 590.

t Supra cit. See also Dela Beche, ‘ Rep. Devon. Corn. & Somer.’ plate 3, &e.

§ See De la Beche’s section, plate 3, supra cit. In placing the Foreland
Grits at the base of the Lower Devonian, I adopt at this stage the prevalent
view. Further on it will be seen that there is reason for supposing deg form
the connecting link between the Devonian and Silurian series.

|| Supra cit. pp. 674, 675.
«| Journ. Roy. Geol. Soc. Ireland, vol. v. (new ser.) pp. 126, 127,

264 PROF, E. HULL ON THE GEOLOGICAL RELATIONS

of Baggy Point and Marwood, 5200 feet. In all of Devonian beds
proper, 9600 feet.

(c) From the Cucullwa- and plant-beds to the flinty calcareous
slates of Barnstaple, 2200 feet.

Absence of the Middle and Lower Devonian Series in Ireland.

After the description above given of the Middle and Lower
Devonian beds of North Devon, it may be asked, Where is such a
group to be found in the South of Ireland ?

According to the views I entertain, they are not represented at
all. As I have already shown, the Old Red Conglomerate of the
South of Ireland has no immediate predecessor in the formations of
that country. The hiatus and unconformity which are so marked
between the Glengariff beds on the one hand and the Old Red or
Lower Carboniferous beds on the other * show that certain strata
are absent over this area; and if the correlation I have indicated
above between the Devonshire and Irish sections be correct, then
it follows that the Middle and Lower Devonian beds exactly occupy
the place of the missing strata inthe South of Ireland. Any attempt
therefore to correlate these beds with the Glengariff or Dingle series
appears to me an error; and it is not till we reach the basement-
beds of the whole series of North Devon, viz. the Foreland grits
and slates, that we have any real representatives of the Glengariff
beds, which, on grounds already stated, I consider to be of Upper
Silurian age f.

The view which I now venture to offer for explaining the rela-
tions of the Devonian series to the formations of the South of Ire-
land seems to meet the difficulties which have hitherto beset this
problemt. I have already shown that in the South of Ireland the
succession of the strata was interrupted after the formation of the
Glengariff or Dingle beds. Up to this, from the base of the Upper
Silurian series, throughout the Wenlock, Ludlow, and Gengariff
stages, deposition went.on uninterruptedly ; and then came cessa-
tion of deposition, elevation of the sea-bed, and denudation. Lyvery-
where between the Glengariff beds and those which succeed them,
whether Old Red Conglomerate, Kiltorcan flags, or Lower Carbo-
niferous grits and slates, there occurs a break in succession of strata,
an hiatus, indicative of land-conditions and the absence of certain
strata for which we are obliged to look elsewhere. Now, as all the
beds from the Carboniferous Limestone to the Pickwell-Down sand-
stone inclusive, are clearly represented in the South of Ireland by
the Carboniferous Limestone, the Carboniferous Slate, the Coomhola
Grit, and the Old Red Sandstone, it is clear that the Middle and
Lower Devonian beds of Devonshire are in reality the missing
strata. But before pursuing this subject further I wish to show

* The relations of these bedsare illustrated by a diagrammatic planand sections
in my paper above quoted, p. 713.

t Ibid. pp. 703, 715-718, &e.

t These views were first briefly sketched out in a paper published in the
‘ Geological Magazine,’ Dec. 1878, and have received the approval of Mr. A
Champernowne, F.G.S., in the Geol. Mag., March 1879.

OF THE ROCKS OF THE SOUTH OF IRELAND. 265

that there is reason for believing that the Glengariff beds really have
some representatives in the Devonshire section, and this in the very
basement beds of the whole series of strata represented in North
Devon, namely the Foreland grits and slates.

VIII. Tur Forerand Grits, possiBLE REPRESENTATIVES, IN PART, OF
THE GLENGARIFF Bens.

No one who compares the Foreland with the Glengariff beds can
fail to admit the strong resemblance they bear to each other, except
for the greater predominance of grits in the former*. The section,
however, of the Foreland beds is imperfect; the base is nowhere
visible, as shown by De la Beche; but as far as it extends, the re-
semblance is almost complete. I have already described these beds,
and remarked on the resemblance of the plant-remains they con-
tain to those of the Glengariff beds. All things considered, we
cannot be far wrong in supposing that the Glengariff beds at the top
of the Silurian series of the one country are on, or about, the same
geological horizon as the basement-beds of the Lower Devonian series
of the adjoining country. In each case they may be regarded as
the connecting links between the Silurian and Devonian groups,
and therefore as occupying a nearly similar, if not identical, strati-
graphical position. If this be admitted, we are now in a position
to complete the entire geological history for both countries, each
furnishing to the other the missing links in the geological chain,
thus enabling us to understand both the analogies and distinctions
in the physical events of the great period which intervened be-
tween the Silurian and Carboniferous epochs.

I have endeavoured to represent in the annexed Table (p. 266) the
geological series of the south of Ireland and North Devon ; and to
avoid repetition I have placed in juxtaposition the representative
series in Belgium, to which I will refer subsequently.

As regards South Devon, I have nothing to add to what. has
already been written by various authors. The North-Devon sec-
tion, so complete and clearly laid open, is admittedly the key to
that of South Devont. . As Mr. Etheridge has shown, the Middle
Devonian limestone of Newton Abbot and Plymouth is not only
more fully developed as a limestone formation than its representative
at Ilfracombe &c., but it contains a much larger assemblage of marine
fossils, while there are grounds for believing that the representa-
tives of the Upper Devonian beds are less clearly represented, or
are concealed by faults along the margin of the Carboniferous area,
or, finally, are cut out by the granitic intrusions. To determine
these points fully will require a very careful and detailed survey f.

* Prof. Jukes describes them as “thick massive grits of green and red
colours with purple slates, . . . the whole being similar to many parts of the
Old Red Sandstone of the south-western portion of Iceland,” meaning thereby
the Glengariff beds.— Additional Notes, &c. p. 9 (1867).

t+ Except that the “‘ Upper Devonian Limestone” with Goniatites at Chud-
leigh, described by Dr. H. Holl and Prof. Romer, seems to be unrepresented in
North Devon (see Geol. Mag., April 1880).

{ Dr. Holl considers that in South Devon there is an unconformity between
the base of the Culm-measures and the underlying Devonian rocks.

Q.J.G.8. No. 142. T

PROF. E. HULL ON THE GEOLOGICAL RELATIONS

266

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OF THE ROCKS OF THE SOUTH OF IRELAND. 267

IX. Beneran Sxctions.

A recent visit to the valleys of the Meuse and Ourthe in Belgium,
following on a study of numerous maps and memoirs*, has enabled
me to obtain a clearer idea than I previously possessed of the Devo-
nian series of that country with a view to comparison with that of
North Devon and the south of Ireland. After observing the splen-
did sections along these rivers of the beds from the Carboniferous
Limestone down towards the base of the Devonian series, it was
impossible to come away without being impressed with the impor-
tance of the Devonian rocks amongst the formations of Northern
Europe, fully justifying Sir R. Murchison, Prof. Ferd. Romer, and
other geologists in giving them a position second to none amongst
Continental groupst. The distinct infraposition of the Upper Devo-
nian beds to the Carboniferous is perfectly clear and indisputable
in the sections of the Meuse, north of Dinant, and in those of the
Ourthe, south of Lidge. The beds are different from the Carboni-
ferous both in mineral character and order of succession; so that it
is impossible to suppose they can be repetitions. At the same time
the beds themselves are wonderfully bent, flexured, and folded; but
there is no difficulty in determining their position and relations to
each other when once the succession has been clearly made out.

That the Devonian beds of Belgium are representative of those
of North Devon is abundantly clear as regards their paleontology,
the main distinction in their composition being the greater predomi-
nance of limestones in the Belgian area, and of sedimentary beds in
Devonshire.

It seems to me very difficult, if not impossible, to determine the
representative beds in Belgium and Devonshire, except in a few
cases. That the “ Psammite du Condroz” is the equivalent of the
“‘ Pickwell-down sandstone” has been recognized by Prof. De-
walque, and does not admit of a doubt. In Belgium, however, it
is in all probability a marine formation, Spirifers and other fossils
occurring in the lower part; and it is overlain by fossiliferous shales
(representing the “‘ Lower Limestone Shale” of England), by which
it is separated from the Carboniferous Limestone. The “ Calcaire
de Frasne,” with Spirifera disjuncta, which underlies the “ Psammite
du Condroz,” is an important limestone formation in the Liége
district, though apparently represented only in South Devon. It is
considered by Prof. de Koninck to be a subordinate member of the
Upper Devonian group. The “ Calcaire de Givet” is the most im-
portant limestone member of the series, and, as indicated by its
fossils, is the representative of the Ilfracombe and Plymouth Lime-
stones on the one hand, and of the Eifel Limestone on the other.

* Dumont’s Carte géologique de Belgique, maps and sections of the districts
of Dinant and Namur, issued by the government survey under M. le Directeur
Dupont. Sections and specimens, in the Museum of Brussels, by MM. Dumont,
Gosselet, Dupont, and Mourlon; together with memoirs by MM. Gosselet, De
Koninck, Dewalque, &e. &e.

t I was unfortunate in not being able to examine the Lowest Devonian beds
with the attention I devoted to the Upper and Middle.

22

268 PROF, E, HULL ON THE GEOLOGICAL RELATIONS

The Lower Devonian beds of Belgium were deposited against a
shelving shore formed of Lower Silurian rocks, the Upper Silurian
beds being absent: hence these beds are often in the form of con-
glomerates, belonging to different geological horizons, deposited
against the shores of “ the Créte du Condroz”*.

X. Tue BovLonnals.

Of the numerous descriptions of the Paleozoic series in the Bou-
lonnais, the latest is that by Dr. Charles Barroist, who has given a
very clear statement of the succession of the beds from the coal-
measures of Locquinghen down to the lowest beds of the Devonian
series as there represented. A brief réswmé may here be useful,
together with an indication of the representative beds in North
Devon.

Section of the Paleozoic Serves of the Boulonnais. Synonyms.

Coal-measures of Locquinghen.
Hardinghen Sandstone (Millstone Grit).
Limestone with Productus giganteus,
Napoleon marble, P. wndatus.
Haut-bane Limestone, P. cora.
Dolomite, with Crinoids.

Carboniferous
Limestone.

Upper part: Marwood
Fiennes Sandstone, with Cucullea beds, or Coomhola

+

Hardingii Grits.
Dance oi: Lower: Pickwell-down
Devonian, % Red Clays and Shales. Sandstone.
Her Hes sae Spirif a pe Calcaire de Frasne.
| Shales of Beaulieu and Dolomite
of Nores.
Blacourt Limestone, Orthis stri-) Cale. de Givet, or Ilfra-
Middle atula. combe beds,
Deen Conglomerates, red Shales and

green Sandstones of Blacourt. | Hangman Grits, &e.
Kerns and Calamites.

Lower Devonian absent. The Lower Silurian beds underlie the Middle
Devonians. é

XI. Representative Bens or Soura WALES AND THE
Wetsa Borpszrs (Rzeron or Srrvria).

Jt is insisted upon by nearly all writers that on the borders of
Wales, near Ludlow, there is a perfect conformity and actual pas-
sage from the uppermost Silurian into the lowermost beds of the
Old Red Sandstone (or “Cornstone formation”). While this is
allowed to be the case in the direction of Shropshire, it is hinted by
Sir R. I. Murchison § that in Brecknockshire, Caermarthenshire, and

* On this subject, see the papers by MM. Cornet et Briart, Ann. Soc. Géol.
de Belgique, t. iv.

t Proc. Geol. Assoc. vol. vi. ; also Sir R. Murchison, ‘Siluria,’ p. 411, 4th
edit.; Mr. Godwin-Austen, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. ix. p. 231, &e.

t De la Beche, Mem. Geol. Survey, vol. i. p. 50; Ramsay, Phys. Geol. and
Geogr. of Great Britain, 5th edit. p. 104; Murchison, ‘Siluria’, 4th edit.
p. 246. § Lbid. p. 247.

OF THE ROCKS OF THE SOUTH OF IRELAND. 269

Pembrokeshire there is an unconformity between the two forma-
tions ; this is the direction in which le the tracts of the south of
Treland on the one hand, and Devonshire on the other; and owing
to the overlap of the Old Red Sandstone near Caermarthen onto the
Lower Silurian rocks, the passage-beds are hidden from view *; we
have therefore no opportunity for comparing the Lynton and Fore-
land beds with their presumed representatives in time north of the
Bristol Channel until we reach the district of Usk, a considerable
distance therefrom. Nevertheless there seems no objection to the
supposition that the purple and reddish sandstones, shales, and con-
glomerates of the Ridge of the Trichrag?t, underlying the so-called
“Old Red Sandstone”? near Llandovery, are the representatives of
the Foreland beds on the one hand, and of the Glengariff beds on
the other.

The Pickwell-down Sandstone and the Old Red Conglomerate of
the south of Ireland are, it may be assumed, represented by the
«« White Sandstone and Conglomerate” underlying the “ Limestone
Shale,” this latter being the representative in a greatly reduced
form of the Carboniferous Slate of the south of Ireland, and the
Barnstaple, Pilton, and Marwood beds of Devonshiret. Between
these two horizons lie the red, grey, and greenish sandstones and
marls, with earthy limestones of ‘the Cornstone group,” which
must therefore represent the Middle and Lower Devonian beds de-
posited under conditions differing from those under which the
Devonshire strata were formed. Mr. Godwin-Austen and Prof.
Ramsay are of opinion that these beds are lacustrine§ ; I would
venture to suggest, as more probable, that they were of estuarine
origin, and connected with the open sea which spread over the
Devonian region to the south. Mr. Salter discovered in 1862 a
bed of Serpula (S. advena) in the marls of the “‘ Cornstone series ”
at Caldy Island in South Pembrokshire, showing the introduction
of marine conditions at least in this district. Prof. Dewalque has
pointed out that similar red sandstones and marls occur amongst
the Devonian rocks of Belgium, separating the Calcaire de Frasne
from the Calcaire de Givet, both being highly fossiliferous marine
limestones. I have myself seen these beds, which are laid open to
view in several fine sections along the valley of the Ourthe, near
Liege. It must be admitted, however, that although “the Corn-

* De la Beche, ibid. p. 60.

t Hor. Sect. Geol. Survey, sheet No. 3, by Sir H. T. De la Beche and Prof.
Ramsay.

t In these shales, as they occur in Pembrokeshire, the late Mr. Salter recog-
nized numerous forms characteristic of the Pilton and Marwood beds, such as
Avicula damnoniensis ( a very abundant and typical form), Cucullea trapezium,
Rhynchonella laticosta, Bellerophon bisulcatus, and two other species, besides
other unnamed forms of Plewrotomaria, Nucula, Sanguinolites, Modiola, Axinus,
and Discina. That the Limestone Shale is the equivalent of the Barnstaple,
Pilton, and Marwood (or Cucullza-) beds, seems, therefore, to be well supported
by fossil evidence. (Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xix. p. 478.)

§ Phys. Geol. Great Brit. p. 105. The absence (so far as known) of the Old
Red Sandstone fishes from the marine Devonian beds is remarkable, and is ex-
plained by the authors above referred to.

270 PROF. E, HULL ON THE GEOLOGICAL RELATIONS

stone formation ” of Hereford and Monmouth appears from its po-
sition to be inevitably the equivalent of the Middle and Lower De-
vonian beds, the paleontological differences are remarkably con-
trasted. As Sir H. 'T. De la Beche originally, and Prof. Ramsay
subsequently, have so well pointed out, the discoloration of the
waters by peroxide of iron seems to have had the effect of driving
mollusks and corals from the region of the Devonian rocks north
of the Severn, while fishes (such as those whose remains are found
in the Cornstone group) could readily swim without injury in the
waters from which the peroxide of iron was thrown down, so long
as they did not disturb that substance at the bottom*. Hence,
while the Devonian estuary over the area lying to the north of the
Severn was unfitted to be the habitat of mollusks, corals, and
crinoids, these animals flourished abundantly in the more open and
purer waters of the sea which ranged over Devonshire, the south of
England, and eastward towards the Rhine. The beds containing
Serpula, discovered by Mr. Salter at Caldy Island, were probably
situated on the margin of the estuary on the one hand, and of the
more open sea on the other. It would therefore tend to a clearer
appreciation of the true relations of these strata if they were to be
called by some term such as that of “ lacustrine Devonian beds ”
rather than that of ‘Old Red Sandstone,” to which they have cer-
tcanly no tatley.

XIT. Scorranp.

According to the latest researches on the subject of the Old Red
Sandstone of Scotland, there are but two divisions—a ‘‘ Lower,”
passing down conformably into the Upper Silurian shales, and an
“Upper,” graduating upwards into the Lower Carboniferous Sand-
stones, with a complete discordance between the two seriest. These
relations correspond exactly to those of the Glengariff beds of the
south of Ireland on the one hand, and of the Old Red Sandstone on
the other.

“¢ The Lower Old Red Sandstone” of Scotland consists of sandstones,
shales, and conglomerates, with cephalaspid and pteraspid fishes and
large eurypterid crustaceans. ‘The Upper Old Red Sandstone,”
consists of red and yellow sandstones with a base of conglomerate.

* Infra cit. p. 51.
t+ The thickness of the “‘Cornstone formation” is probably not so great as
generally supposed. Some horizontal sections of the Geological Survey (¢. g.
Sheet No. 3) only show a thickness of 2500 to 3500 feet, while others (e. g.
Sheet No. 5) show a thickness of about 6000 feet. This, however, is somewhat
‘doubtful, as the dip of the beds is unseen for upwards of a mile; but this
amount may be taken asa maximum. ‘The generally small dip of the beds, the
occurrence of outliers of Carboniferous, and inliers of Upper Silurian rocks,
occasionally over the great triangular area west of the Severn, all tend to make
us hesitate in accepting the statements sometimes. made of the vast thickness of
these beds. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soe. vol. xix. p. 476.
t Prof. Geikie, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xvi. p. 512; Trans. Roy. Soe.
Edinb. vol. xxviii. p. 347.

OF THE ROCKS OF THE SOUTH OF IRELAND. o71

In all physical aspects, therefore, the resemblance between these
groups in Ireland and Scotland is complete*.

The great hiatus which exists in Ireland between the Old Red Con-
glomerate and the Glengariff beds, occurs also in Scotland between the
** Upper Old Red Sandstone” and the “‘ Lower Old Red.” The sections
- made by the Geological Surveyors in the south of Scotland, show this
very clearly. If, therefore, I am right in supposing that this hiatus
is filled up by the Middle and Lower Devonians for the Irish area,
it holds good equally for the Scotch ; and we are thus able to inter-
calate a missing chapter in the interesting physical history of
Scotland.

Notwithstanding the almost certain identity in time of the so-
called “* Lower Old Red Sandstone” of Scotland with the Glengariff
beds, it is impossible to doubt that it is a formation in the main of
lacustrine origin, at least over the Caithness area (‘‘ Lake Orcadie”
of Geikie). The evidence in fayour of this view is too palpable to
leave room for doubt, notwithstanding that at times the sea-waters
may have made brief incursions. Thus in the district of Tinto and
Carmichael, in the south of Scotland, a fossiliferous band is seen in
the channel of Carmichael Burn which has yielded fossils of a de-
cidedly Upper Silurian character. They consist of Orthoceras dimi-
diatum, Dithyrocaris striata, Graptolites (fragment), and Beyrichia.
This band is considered by Professor Geikie to be 5000 feet above
the base of the Lower Old Red Sandstonet; and a band occurs
near the base of the formation in the district of Lesmahago, con-
taining Beyrichia and some obscure remains of Pterygotust. But
there is no reason why lacustrine conditions may not have prevailed
over the Scottish area while the sea overspread the south and west
of Ireland. These lacustrine conditions may also haye extended
over the north of Ireland, as there is every probability that ‘‘ the
Fintona beds ” which occupy so large a tract east of Lough Erne,
and which lie unconformably on the Lower Silurian beds of Pomeroy,
are representative of the “ Lower Old Red” of Scotland.

If these views are correct, it follows that the term “ Lower Old
Red Sandstone ” is synonymous with Uppermost Silurian, and that
the beds of that name in Scotland are the equivalents of “the
passage-beds ” of the Welsh borders, “ the Foreland grits ” of North
Devon, and the “ Glengariff beds” of the south of Ireland. On the
above grounds I suggest the term “ Lacustrine Upper Silurian ” in-
stead of the name hitherto in use in the Scottish area.

Evidence from Fish-remains.—I must here anticipate an objection
which will probably be urged on the score of the evidence from fish-

* Prof. Geikie admits the resemblance between the Lower Old Red of Scot-
land and the Glengariff or Dingle beds (/. c. foot-note, p. 347). This view is
also stated by Prof. Ralph Tate in his ‘ Historical Geology’ (Weale’s series),
pp- 78, 79, who also concurs with me in considering the Upper Old Red of
Scotland to be the representative of the Old Red Sandstone of Ireland.

+ Mem. Geol. Survey Scot., Explan. of Sheet 25, p. 14.

{ Ibid. 13. Silurian fossils have also been found in conglomerate of
Baths Howe, Pentland Hills, supposed to be derivative, and are described
by Mr. R. Etheridge, Jun., Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc. Edin. 1874.

272 PROF. E. HULL ON THE GEOLOGICAL RELATIONS

remains. Out of a list of between 50 and 60 species enumerated
by Prof. Geikie from ‘“ the Lower Old Red Sandstone” of the north
‘ot Scotland (Lake Orcadie), not one occurs in the Upper Silurian
beds, according to Sir R. Murchison*. But it should be recollected
that, according to Professor Geikie’s own showing, the northern
basin was completely isolated from that of the borders of Wales
(the Welsh lake), which, as I have hinted, was rather in all pro-
bability an estuary opening out upon the sea in the direction of
the Bristol Channel, Devonshire, and the south of England, which
would sufficiently account for the complete dissimilarity in the ich-
thyic fauna of the two regions. Comparing the list given by Sir R.
Murchison with that of Mr. Etheridge, however, I find that in other
districts the following seven species are common to ‘“‘the Lower
Old Red, and the Ludlow and Passage-beds,” viz. Auchenaspis
Salteri, Kgert., Cephalaspis Murchison, Egert., C. ornatus, Egert.,
Onchus Murchisoni, Ag., Pteraspis Banks, Huxl. & Salt., Pt. trun-
catus, Huxl. & Salt., and Pt. Lleydu, Ag. Several genera of crus-
taceans are also common to both.

From these considerations I draw the conclusion that there is
really in the British Isles, as elsewhere, only one formation of “Old
Red Sandstone” properly so called—namely the upper member of
that name in Scotland, the yellow sandstone and conglomerate
below the Carboniferous Limestone of South Wales and Hereford,
the Pickwell-down sandstone of Devonshire, and the Old Red Sand-
stone and conglomerate of the south of Ireland. It would also
appear that ‘‘the Cornstone group” are not the representatives of
the “Lower Old Red” of Scotiand, but of the Middle Devonian
and part of the Lower Devonian beds of Devonshire and the Conti-
nent; while ‘“‘the Lower Old Red” of Scotland is the lacustrine
equivalent of the Uppermost Silurian beds both of Herefordshire and
of the south of Ireland, namely the Glengariff or Dingle beds.
These seem to me the logical conclusions to be drawn from the facts
and arguments stated in this paper. The following table will pre-
sent the above conclusions in a condensed form :—

* «Siluria,’ 4th edit. p. 586. Compare with Geikie’s list swpra cit. p. 452.

273

OF THE ROCKS OF THE SOUTH OF IRELAND.

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274 PROF, E. HULL ON THE GEOLOGICAL RELATIONS

SuccussivE Puystcat PHAszs.

It would appear from the above, that at the close of the Upper-
Silurian period, represented in Ireland by the Glengariff beds, in
Wales by the Upper Ludlow and Passage-beds, and in Scotland by
the Lower Old Red Sandstone, there was a general elevation
of all the northern and western portions of the “British Isles, ac-
companied by flexuring of the strata, and followed by extensive
denudation. In the area of the south of England, however, and
adjoining continental districts it was otherwise. Here there was,
on the contrary, continuous depression ; and the sea overspread this
area, in which were deposited the Lower and Middle Devonian beds.
With the Upper Devonian stage, or Old Red Sandstone proper, the
submersion of the western and northern portions of the British Isles
began. Lacustrine conditions were established over the south of
Ireland, portions of Scotland, and the north of Ireland. In the
waters of those lakes the Old Red Conglomerates and succeeding
beds with Anodonta were laid down ; ae which, by a figther
general subsidence, at the commencement of the Carboniferous
period the sea-waters flowed in, establishing themselves over all
the lower regions, and prevailing generally throughout the lower
and middle stages of that formation.

GENERAL DEDUCTIONS.

If the above views and arguments be correct, it follows :—

lst. That there is only one formation which can properly be
termed the ‘‘Old Red Sandstone.” This is represented in Devon-
shire by the Upper Devonian Sandstone of Pickwell Down, by
the Old Red Sandstone and.Conglomerate (including the Kiltorcan
beds) of the south of Ireland, the Upper Old Red Sandstone of
Scotland, and the Psammite du Condroz of France and Belgium.

2nd. That the so-called ‘“* Lower Old Red Sandstone ” of Scotland
is the lacustrine representative of the Uppermost Silurian beds of
the English and Welsh borders, and of the Glengariff beds of the
south of Ireland, and forms the connecting lmk between the Silu-
rian and Devonian formations.

ord. That the hiatus between the “Upper” and “Lower Old
Red Sandstone” of Scotland, and between the Old Red Sandstone
and Glengariff beds in Ireland is filled up in Devonshire by the
Middle and Lower Devonian formations.

4th. And, assuming that the Foreland grits are (in part) the
equivalents of the Upper Ludlow rocks on the one hand, and of the
Glengariff beds on the other, it would appear that all over the
British Islands, except the south of England and the Welsh borders,
land-conditions prevailed from the close of the Upper Silurian stage,
throughout the Lower and Middle Devonian stages; at the close of
which there was a general re-submergence, with the formation of
lakes and estuaries, during the Upper Devonian or Old Red Sand-
stone period. These lakes and estuaries were overspread by the
waters of the sea at the commencement of the Carboniferous
period.

BELGIUM.

Carboniferous Beds (e)..< <R | EBe=]=|=:

mers

Us ae PE

sua

(
|
Old Red Sandstone wo

— — - ~~ —-

iz aD ay
[b-s,|}-

4

it

Passage- and Upper Silu-
rian Beds (a)

ee

$$
SYN T Uye

pe eal

[To face page 274.

Sa ‘ai: Carboniferous Limestone.
== Shales &e.

+] Psammite du Condroz.

Schistes de Famenne.

Calcaire de Frasne.

Purple and red sandstones
and marls.

| Calcaire de Givet.

Compurative Sections of Devonian, Old Red Sandstone, and Carboniferous Formations.

SOUTH OF IRELAND.

_ areal Cy =
—Ee— Carboniferous Limestone.

=| [Slate.
Lower Carboniferous

Coomhola Grits, &e.

Carboniferous Beds (e)..-

S
=

7 Kiltorcan beds.
Red Sandstone

Old Red Sandstone (d)... (d)
and
{ ‘| Conglomerate.
Middle Devonian (c)
Hiatus
(Zi)
Nowlh
Lower Deyonian (6)
Glengariff Grits
(4)
and
Pausage- and Upper Silu-
rian Beds (a) Slates.

Ludlow and Wenlock beda.

NORTH DEVON.

SS SSS eee

en

Carboniferous Limestone.

Barnstaple Slates.

Pilton beds,

Marwood beds.
Upcot Flags.

Pickwell-Down Sandstone.

Mortehoe Slates.

Ilfracombe beds.

>| Hangman Grits.

Lynton Slates
and
Limestones.

Foreland Grits (base
invisible).

HEREFORDSHIRE &c.

Estuarine
Devonian beds.

“*Cornstone group.”

Passage-beds

1 Ludl
=| Upper Ludlow
Rocks.

(qh)

(5)

BELGIUM.

eg Mell
wa

{=
E
!

My ‘t
WJ
de

[Vo face page 274.

Carboniferous Limestone.
Shales &e.

Psammite du Gondroz.

Schistes de Famenne.

Caleaire de Frasne.

Purple and red sandstones
and marls,

Calcaire de Givet.

Poudingue de Burnot,

Lower Silurian beds.

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OF THE ROCKS OF THE SOUTH OF IRELAND, 275

_

: Discussion.

Mr. Coamprernowne, speaking of North Devon, agreed that the
‘Pilton and Marwood beds should be referred to the Carboniferous,
down to the top of the Pickwell-Down Sandstones. As for the latter,
he considered them, with similar beds in South Devon, Upper
Deyonian, and, with equal justice, true Old Red Sandstone. He
thought the Morte and Dartmouth slates corresponded. The cal-
careous horizons of the Ilfracombe Morte series were inconstant ;
and in the South-Devon reefs a certain amount of irregularity might
cause the Pickwell beds to rest on limestone, as at several points
they appeared to do. As for the Foreland grits, he was inclined
to think they might be the same as those of the Hangman, thrown
down on the north by afault. In the Quantock Hills it seemed to him
that we have a great grit series, combining in itself the characters,
colours, &c. of both the Hangman and Foreland series, in which
case the basement series (supposed to be the Lynton grey beds) would
be buried beneath them, as there is not a trace of them to be seen
in these hills. In all other points he fully agreed with Prof. Hull.

Prof. Ramsay said that he was not aware that Mr. Godwin-
Austen had published an opinion that the Old Red Sandstone was
a freshwater deposit. There were two important points in this
valuable paper :—(1) The gap in Ireland between the Upper Old
Red Sandstone and the Glengariff grits. In Wales there was a
perfect passage from the uppermost Silurian into the Old Red Sand-
stone. South of Llandovery the Upper Silurian was overlapped by
sandstone and conglomerates, which at last got to overlie the Lower
Silurian in Pembrokeshire; and there was very probably a break
towards the middle of the Old Red Sandstone. The upper part
also passed gradually into the Carboniferous series. In Scotland
there are two Old Red Sandstones, viz. a lower and upper series, sepa-
rated in places by well-marked unconformity. (2) The position of
the Glengariff beds. He did not see why these might not be of
the age of the Lower Old Red Sandstone of Scotland and South
Wales, though there were lithological differences. He thought the
abnormal conditions under which these appear to have been accu-
mulated justified retaining for them the name of Old Red Sandstone.

Mr. Ussner objected to the name Upcot Flags being applied to
any part of the Devonian series below the Baggy beds. He
pointed out the uncertainty of correlating the Pickwell-Down grey
sandstones with the “* Psammites du Condroz ” by lithological affi-
nities, as the grey sandstones are merely local basement-beds of the
Pickwell (Upper Devonian series), and when traced towards West
Somerset, give place to purple slates, which pass down into the pale
greenish Middle Devonian slates. He hinted at the bare possibility
of the Foreland grits being a faulted repetition of the Hangman, as
suggested by Mr. Champernowne, though the general dissimilarity
between the two series, and the superposition of Lynton beds on the
Foreland grits at Oare, were strongly against such a supposition.

276 GEOLOGICAL RELATIONS OF THE ROCKS OF THE SOUTH OF IRELAND.

Mr. Juxrs-Browne said that, as he understood, the conglomerate
at the base of the Irish Carboniferous series was confined to one
horizon; but on Prof. Hull’s theory every bed ought to become con-
glomeratic as it approached the land. Had Prof. Hull considered
that point ?

The PresipEnt said that he wished to make a few remarks on the
excellent paper which they had heard. The Foreland rocks were
different from any thing to the south of them. Resting upon these
grits occur the Lynton slates, with many Brachiopods; then the
Hangman grits ; then the Ilfracombe series, with corals in limestone
bands, like those of Torquay ; then the Morte slates, above which,
in due succession, occur the Pickwell-Down, and the Marwood, Pilton,
and Barnstaple beds. These last he paralleled with the Coomhola
erits in Ireland. He felt convinced that the Foreland beds could
not be the same as the Hangman grits. Prof. Hull, he thought,
had shown conclusively that in Ireland there was a great hiatus
between the Pickwell-Down and the Lynton beds, or the Middle
and Lower Devonian. The structure of North Devon is repeated in
South Devon.

The AvrHor, in reply, expressed his gratification at the way in
which his paper had been received. He could not admit that the
Foreland grits and slates were possible equivalents of the Hangman
grits repeated by a fault, their characters and position being dif-
ferent; on the other hand, their resemblance to the Glengariff
beds was most striking. The point to which Mr. Jukes-Browne had
called attention was difficult of explanation. He reminded Pro-
fessor Ramsay that, in his previous paper, he had endeavoured to
prove the Upper-Silurian age of the Glengariff beds, not only from
their conformable position to the fossiliferous Upper Silurian on the
coast of Dingle, but from their supposed representation by the un-
doubted Upper Silurian grits and slates of Muilrea in West Mayo,
on the banks of Killary harbour. If this were so, he considered the
name of ‘‘ Lower Old Red Sandstone” for equivalent lacustrine
beds in Scotland would be untenable; and he suggested instead of
“‘ Old Red Sandstone,” as applied to the Herefordshire ‘ Cornstone
Group,” the name of ‘“‘ Estuarine Devonian.” He was glad to hear
Mr. Champernowne’s correlation of the beds of North and South
Devon.

ON THE CAMBRIAN AND SILURIAN OF THE DEE VALLEY. QT7

18. On the Camprian (Sedgw.) and Sizurtan Bens of .the Derr
VALLEY, as compared with those of the Laxe District. By
J. E. Marr, B.A., F.G.S. (Read June 25, 1879.) 5

In comparing the beds of the Dee valley * with those of the Lake
district, we find a strong similarity in strata referred to the same
age, as we might expect, considering the proximity of the two
areas. The chief differences appear to be due to the two areas
having been affected by intense volcanic action at somewhat dif-
ferent periods, the effects of which were felt throughout the ages
which followed the period of outburst. This had the effect of
causing a local physical break to occur earlier in the northern than
in the southern district. But such local breaks as occur in volcanic
districts, although more apparent than breaks more widely spread
in extent, which are frequently somewhat obscure (owing probably
to a uniform action of upheaval, and hence a check of denudation),
cannot be of any thing like such value as the latter in assisting
classification.

The end of the period of great volcanic activity in the Lake dis-
trict, being soon followed by a period of depression (during the
deposition of the Coniston-Limestone series), did not allow of much
denudation of the volcanic materials. On the other hand, in the
North Welsh area, the period of great vulcanicity was soon suc-
ceeded by a period of upheaval (viz. that at the end of the Cam-
brian epoch); hence the products of volcanic activity were not
covered by much sediment, but suffered great denudation; and in
consequence of this the Silurian beds of the Dee valley are, as a
general rule, composed of coarser materials than those of the Lake
district, and seem to have been, for the most part, deposited in
shallower water.

It seems very probable that the Snowdonian area was occupied
by dry land soon after the last volcanic outbursts there, and that it
remained so during the Silurian epoch, causing some of the animals
of the neighbouring coasts to migrate ever and anon from the
shallower-water conditions which obtained in the Dee-valley area
to the deeper waters of the Lake district, of which a few examples
will be presently pointed out.

The following table gives, in one column, a list of the Cambrian
and Silurian beds of the Lake district; and in a parallel column
are given the corresponding beds of the Dee valley.

* T have received much valuable assistance from my friend A. 8. Reid, Esq.,
of S. John’s College, Cambridge, in examining the Dee-valley area,

278 J. E. MARR ON THE CAMBRIAN AND

Epoch. Formations. Lake district. Dee valley.
( Upper Ludlow. Kirkby-Moor Flags. | Unrepresented.
Lower Ludlow and} Bannisdale Slates. do.
Upper Wenlock. .
(| Coniston Grits. do.
|
| ii. Upper Coldwell Dinas-Bran Beds.
Beds.
ie 8. Wenlock, con- { Middle Coldwell) Grits above Penyglog
fa 4 tinued. rs Beds. quarry &e.
fs) * {Lower Coldwell
4 | [ Beds.
7
| i. Brathay Flags. Flags of Penyglog
quarry, Maeshir, &c.
| ‘7. Tarannon Shales.| Pale Shales. Tarannon Shales.
| .
| 6. Graptolitic Mud-| Graptolitic Mud- | Graptolitie Mudstones.
| stones. stones.
\5. May-Hill Group. | Basement-beds of | Corwen Grits, Cerrig-y-
Silurian. drudion Grits, &e.
(4. Upper Bala. Ashgill Shales. Hirnant Limestone ?
ra | . O.-alternata beds, Cer-
<< | rig-y-drudion ?
ae j 3. Middle Bala. Coniston Limestone.| Bala: Limestone and
ie | | overlying shales.
eI | 2. Middle Bala in} Borrowdale Series. Shales and Andesitic
oe) | part, LowerBala. ashes of Berwyns.
\ 1. Arenig. Skiddaw Slates. Beds of Taihirion and
Arenig.

1. The Areng Beds.

The lowest beds of the Dee-valley area have yielded fossils at
Taihirion, near Arenig (see Cat. Cambr. & Sil. Foss. of Woodw.
Mus. p. 22 e seqg.). It is needless to treat of them at length, as
their contemporaneity with the Skiddaw Slates is generally allowed,
and also their lithological resemblance to that formation, and the
fact that they show signs of great volcanic activity in Wales, but
not in the Lake district.

2. The Lower Bala Beds.

At the close of the Arenig period vulcanicity appears to have
shifted its action from North Wales to the Lake area; and the Lower
Bala of the Lake district consists of a series of ashes and lava-flows,
well known as the Borrowdale series of Professors Harkness and
Nicholson.

The Dee-valley beds of this age are made up of imperfectly
cleaved shales, with a few ash beds, and some doleritic masses,
which occur along lines parallel to the strike of the beds, as mapped
by the Geological Survey. The ashes and doleritic rocks are seen on

SILURIAN OF THE DEE VALLEY. : 279

the slopes of the Berwyns, south of Llandrillo. About 300 yards S.E.
of the farm of Blaenydre, which is about a mile south of Llandrillo,
occurs an ash, which varies from a fine rock with calcite to a coarse
rock containing fragments some of which are apparently andesitic.
Prof. Bonney has kindly examined this and other rocks micro-
scopically ; and his descriptions are given below*.

One of the doleritic rocks is well seen on the side of Clochnant,
about a mile and a half E.S.E. of Blaenydre, where it is traceable
by a broken edge of outcropt.

The occurrence of the andesitic ash is of interest, pointing, as it
does, to a connexion with the Borrowdale volcanic series, as de-
scribed by the Rev. J. Clifton Ward (Mem. Geol. Survey, Lake
Dist. p. 13 et seqq.).

3. The Middle Bala Beds.

Although this period was one of great volcanic outbursts in the
Snowdon district, it appears to have been comparatively quiescent
in the Dee-valley area; consequently we here get a strong litho-
logical resemblance to the Lake-district beds of this horizon. The
Bala Limestone has been correlated with the Coniston Limestone,
but would seem to have been deposited during the earlier part of
the Coniston-Limestone period, as above it a series of shales occurs,
whereas similar shales are intercalated with the bands of limestone
in the Lake district.

At this period we get the first signs of those migrations towards
the Lake-district area which occur at least twice in the later de-
posits. Though many of the fossils of the Bala Limestone are
identical with those of the Coniston Limestone, we find that two of
the commonest Trilobites of the former, Phacops apiculatus and
Trinucleus concentricus, a8 also the genus Echinospherites, which is
very typical of this rock, are not found in the Coniston, but occur
abundantly in the overlying Ashgill Shales¢.

* [Rock 300 yds. 8. E. of Blaenydre. This seems to be a true ash, 2. €. pyro-
clastic rock ; there are at least. two marked varieties among the fragments :—
one of scoriaceous aspect, with base rather dark from opacite, and distinct felspar
crystals having glass enclosures, mostly plagioclase; the other generally with
microlithie crystals, and some indications of flow-structure. It is very probable
that, as you suggest, the rock is an andesitic ash. It is rather decomposed in
parts, secondary products being formed, and ferrite replacing opacite.—T. G. B.]

tT [Rock from side of Olochnant. A crystalline rock, consisting of well-pre-
served augite, much decomposed felspar, and a serpentinous mineral or minerals,
with iron peroxide, probably (in part at least) ilmenite. The felspar appears to
have been plagioclase; a little of a monoclinic zeolitic mineral in radiating
aggregates is now present, possibly heulandite. The serpentinous mineral may
replace olivine ; but in some cases the form of the grains does not very well
accord with this supposition. There is one crystal of a brown hornblende, a
variety which I have occasionally met with in old crystalline augitic rocks.
This is one of those coarse doleritic rocks ‘common in Wales, and more likely
to have been intrusive than interbedded.—T. G. B.]

¢t Ina former paper (Q. J. G. S. vol. xxxiv. p. 872) I stated that Echino-
spherites Davisti, E. balthicus, E. mammosus, Holopella, and Holopea were
Coniston-Limestone fossils; the beds containing them haye since proved to be
in the Ashgill-Shale series.

280 J. E. MARR ON THE CAMBRIAN AND

Another remarkable instance is seen in the Brachiopod Leptena
quinquecostata, which is found in the limestone of Bala, but in the
Lake district has not been certainly found lower than the beds in-
tercalated with the Graptolitic mudstones, where it is abundant ; it
occurs there also in the middle and upper Coldwell beds.

Section in the Neighbourhood of the Rectory, Cerrigydrudion.
(Length of Section about 3 mile.)

IS cevesee anazescsaazsncees N. Repl OOaNViserssecertsspse-s-encaneeeren N. 10° E.
BIE o Ge othe ere ee W.N.W, s
: a
Quarry, 200 be
yards S. of ep
Tynyrhydd. gS

= u=----=. Rectory. D

b
a]
tan)
5
oe Millpond.
!
1
|
1
!
1
p

a. Grey Bala Shales.

b. Undulating series of calcareous grey grits, false-bedded and ripple-marked,
with many clay-galls. (Near the top of these are blackish-grey cleaved
bands, as at x.) The whole of d is probably the equivalent of the Corwen
Grits, and passes up into ¢.

ec. Leaden-black, cleaved, pyritous shales, with many Graptolites=Graptolitic
Mudstones. d. Pale-green cleaved shales=Tarannon Shales.

4, The Upper Bala Beds.

It is somewhat difficult to know which of the Dee-valley beds
should be included under this head. The Hirnant Limestone is
placed here by Salter and others (see Cat. Cambr. & Sil. Foss. Woodw.
Mus. p. 72); and it is characterized by Orthis hirnantensis, stated
by Davidson (in his ‘Monograph of Paleozoic Brachiopoda’) to be
undistinguishable from Strophomena siluriana, the characteristic
Brachiopod of the Ashgill Shales, which are also placed on this
horizon. |

There is also a calcareous grit, from which I obtained Hchino-
spherites Davisii, yast below the pale shales by the roadside about
mile 8.W. of Maeshir, which is probably to be referred to this series.

Neither of these beds shows much correspondence in lithological
character with the Ashgill Shales; there is one locality, however,
where the beds do bear a strong lithological resemblance to these
shales, viz. the shales with Orthis alternata, seen by the roadside, one
mile south of Cerrigydrudion. Besides abundance of Orthis ulternata,
they contain Crinoid stems, Beyrichia, and Lingula ; and in them is
seen an ash bed*. They occur not very far from the outcrop of

* [Rock 1 mile S. of Cerrigydrudion. A rock probably of pyroclastic origin,
but so much altered by pressure and subsequent chemical change that it is
difficult to form an opinion. Certainly many of the fragments are of igneous
origin. The felspar is much decomposed, and various secondary products are
abundant. All that it would be safe to say is that the fragments do not belong
to the more acid group of lavas, probably they are andesitic ; but seeing that
the rock has been much altered, they might be yet more basic. (If the rock is
rich in carbonate, the latter is probably the case.)—T. G. B.]

SILURIAN OF TH DEE VALLEY. 281

the Silurian beds, and nevertheless are troughed in by large faults
on all sides; hence they must be very high up in the Bala series ;
and they are quite different lithologically from any other Bala beds
in the neighbourhood. Orthis hirnantensis is recorded by Salter from
Cerrigydrudion ; and it most probably comes from these beds.

It may be remarked that ashy beds occur in the Ashgill Shales
of the Lake district, at Spengill.

5. The May-Hill Group.

In a paper by Prof. Hughes (Q. J. G. S. vol. xxxiii. p. 207) a
series of gritty beds is described under the name of the Corwen
Grits, and these beds are taken to represent the base of the Silurian
(Sedgw.), and correlated with the Austwick Conglomerates &c. of the
Lake district. At the rectory, Cerrigydrudion (see Section, p. 280),
an undulating series of calcareous grey grits, false-bedded and
ripple-marked, with numerous clay-galls, is seen resting uncon-
formably on the Bala beds; and these grits are intermediate in
lithological character between the Corwen Grits and the Plasuchaf
beds near Cyrnybrain, described also by Prof. Hughes in the above-
cited paper. They were apparently unfossiliferous where examined,
though Pentamerus oblongus, quoted from Cerrigydrudion, was pro-
bably found in these beds.

The beds at the rectory form a strong feature; and the base is
seen to rest in an undulating manner upon the underlying even-
bedded Bala beds. These gritty beds, and the immediately over-
lying ones, which I shall presently describe, are included by the
Geological Surveyor in the Bala Series.

In lithological character, the gritty series of Cerrigydrudion
resembles the calcareous and gritty bands at the base of the Silurian
of the Lake district proper, e.g. at Skelgill and Pullbeck near Am-
bleside, and Appletreeworth Beck near Coniston. Towards the top
it contains one or two finer blackish grey bands, which show
cleavage.

6. The Grapitolitic Mudstones.

In the Cambridge Museum, “ Graptolites sp. with very narrow
cells ” is placed among the middle Bala fossils and recorded (Cat.
Cambr. & Sil. Foss. Woodw. Mus. p. 39) as from Bala. The matrix
in which the fossil occurs is excessively like that of the Graptolitic
Mudstones of the Lake district ; and the species itself is Monograptus
argenteus, Nich., which characterizes a single zone of the Graptolitic
Mudstones in the neighbourhood of Windermere &c. I was there-
fore led to infer the occurrence in this district of the equivalents
of the Graptolitic Mudstones, and, although unable to detect them
in the country immediately around Bala, obtained the following
section near Cerrigydrudion (see fig. p. 280).

In this section the gritty beds on the horizon of the Corwen Grits
lie, as already described, unconformably upon the Bala beds of the
valley, and they pass up into a series of well-cleaved blackish
pyritous mudstones, exactly like those seen in Church Beck, near

Q. J. G. 8. No. 142. U

282 J. FE. MARR ON THE CAMBRIAN AND

Coniston. From these mudstones the following species were ob-
tained :—

Ovarian capsules of Graptolites ? Monograptus tenuis.
Monograptus convolutus, var. a, com- gregarius.

munis. colonus.
—— Sedgwickii? Climacograptus teretiusculus ?

They are seen near a millpond about 250 yards W.N.W. of
the rectory, and curve round, so as to become exposed again in a
quarry close to the mill, which is further down the stream than the
pond and about the same distance from the rectory. Here about
15 feet of them are seen, but there is no indication of the top beds
being visible. In each place they contain thin bands of subordinate
erit.

They are succeeded in ascending order by the Tarannon Shales
of the Survey, which are exposed in natural sections and in a quarry
near the farm of Tanygraig, just above the mill-pond.

There are therefore three reasons for referring these beds to the
Graptolitic Mudstones :—First, lithological character, which we
have seen already to be of considerable importance in comparing
the two areas. Secondly, stratigraphical position; for these beds
occur between the Tarannon Shales, which have been correlated by
Mr. Aveline with the Pale Shales of the Lake district (Geol.
Mag. Decade ii. vol. ii. p. 282) and the gritty beds which Prof.
Hughes correlates with the Austwick Conglomerates. Thirdly,
paleontological affinity: of the Graptolites found, all save one are
characteristic Graptolitic-mudstone fossils in the Lake district ; this
one, Monograptus colonus, is characteristic of much higher beds,
the upper Coldwell beds, and supplies another instance of migration
from Wales to the Lake district. With regard to the palzonto-
logical evidence, we can state at once, from the presence of Mono-
graptr, that the beds are Silurian ; for there is no well-authenticated
instance of a typical Monograptus occurring in the Cambrian series ;
also we may infer, from negative evidence, that these beds are not
the equivalents of the Brathay Flags, for in that case Monograptus
priodon and M. vomerinus would certainly be among the first fossils
found ; but the only other Graptolitiferous beds in England about
this horizon are the Graptolitic Mudstones themselves ; consequently
there can be no doubt that these beds must be referred to that
series.

Similar black beds are seen above the Corwen Grits of Nant
Caweddu, near Corwen.

7. The Tarannon Shales.

These beds have, as before remarked, been identified by Mr.
Aveline with the Pale Shales of the Lake district, which they
exactly resemble, except that, like the Graptolitic Mudstones of the
Dee-valley area, they are more cleaved than is usually the case with
the corresponding beds of the Lake district.

SILURIAN OF THE DEE VALLEY. 283

8. The Denbighshire Grits and Flags.

There are three distinct subdivisions of this series in the Dee-
valley area. (1i.) The lowest of these consists .of the banded slates of
Penyglog quarry &c. These have been identified with the Brathay
Flags of the Lake district, which are quite similar; they contain
also the same fossils. From the beds of this series at Penyglog I
obtained Acroculia haliotis, which has not yet been found below the
upper Coldwell beds of the Lake district.

The same beds occur iz the course of a stream about 4 mile south
of Maeshir, where they are faulted against the Tarannon Shales:
they here have somewhat the same lithological character as the
Graptolitic Mudstones, but contain numerous well-preserved speci-
mens of Graptolites, among which were Monograptus priodon and
M. vomerinus in great abundance; Retioliies Geinitzianus and Or-
thoceras also occurred.

These beds in the Dee valley are succeeded by (ii.) Gritty beds,
e. g. those above Penyglog quarry, which are probably on the
horizon of the lower, and perhaps also of the middle Coldwell beds,
_ than which, however, they are much coarser, indicating a shallower
sea at this period than was the case in the Lake district.

(iu1.) The highest Silurian beds of the Dee valley are well
exposed on the hill near Llangollen upon which Dinas-Bran Castle
stands. They have been correlated with the Llansannan Shales by
the Geological Survey. In lithological character they resemble the
upper Coldwell beds of the Lakes, having the same peculiar character
of breaking into prismatic blocks; they also form the marked screes
so typical of the upper Coldwell beds. This identification is
rendered more certain by the correlation of these beds by the Geo-
logical Survey (Mem. Geol. Surv. vol. i.) with the Llansannan
Shales, which have a well-marked upper-Coldwell fauna. In the
case of these shales, however, as in the case of the Dinas-Bran beds,
many of the fossils which occur are not found in the Lake district
lower than the Kirkby-Moor Flags and Bannisdale Slates.

The following list of fossils from Dinas Bran is compiled from
the Woodwardian Museum and my own collection :—

Spongarium Edwardsii, Murch. Cucullella coarctata, Phill.
Serpulites dispar, Salt, ' | Ctenodonta.

Fayosites fibrosus. Theca Forbesii, Sharpe.
Actinocrinus pulcher. Holopella gracilior, M‘Coy.
Ceratiocaris. Orthoceras tenuicinctum, Portl.
Rhynchonella nayicula, Sow. laqueatum, Hall,

—— nucula, Sow. Cycloceras ibex, Sow.
Ambonychia acuticostata, M‘Coy.

Of these fossils, Spongaritum and Rhynchonella occur in the Ban-
nisdale Slates and Kirkby-Moor Flags of the Lakes ; but most of the
other fossils are found in the upper Coldwell beds. The identifi-
cation of these beds with the upper Coldwell beds depends on the
following facts :—(i.) the lithological and petrological character ;
(ii. ) Hiei stratigraphical position ; “Gia) the correlation by the Geo-
logical Survey with the Llansannan Shales, which have a decided

v2

284 ON THE CAMBRIAN AND SILURIAN OF THE DEE VALLEY.

upper-Coldwell fauna; (iv.) the character of the fauna of the beds
themselves, which resembles the upper-Coldwell fauna, mixed with
fossils occurring at a higher horizon in the Lake district, and indi-
cating a migration.

These beds, although so like the upper Coldwell beds, were de-
posited in a shallower sea, as indicated by the micaceous character
of the beds, the numerous ripple-marks, and tracks and borings of
Annelids.

The beds above the upper Coldwell beds of the Lake district do
not seem to be represented in the Dee valley; but since the highest
beds of the latter area show extremely shallow-water conditions, it
is possible that this may be not altogether due to denudation, but
partly to deposition having ceased in the area for some period.

ON THE SCHISTOSE VOLCANIC ROCKS OF DARTMOOR. 285

19. On the Scuistose Votcantc Rooxs occurring on the west of
Dartmoor, with some Notzs on the Structure of the Brent Tor
Votcano. By Franx Rutty, Esq., F.G.8., H.M. Geological
Survey. (Read January 21, 1880.)

(Communicated by permission of the Director-General of the Geological Survey.)

AFTER examination of the schistose beds of rock on the western
margin of the Dartmoor granite, I experienced great difficulty in
coming to any satisfactory conclusion concerning the origin and real
nature of many of them. ‘These rocks had already been described
by Sir Henry De la Beche, in his Report on the Geology of Cornwall,
Devon, and W. Somerset, as schistose ashes; and his well-known
keenness in detecting lithological peculiarities naturally induced me
to accept his opinion, especially as it seemed in some instances to be
a very correct one. There was, however, one point which caused
me considerable perplexity. I could not reconcile the very fre-
quent occurrence of a densely amygdaloidal structure with the per-
sistently schistose character of these rocks. If the amygdaloidal
condition implied a once vesicular structure, and if the rocks
should on this account be regarded as lavas, how then was the
schistose character to be accounted for? I was not then acquainted
with any instance of schistose lava. On the other hand I could
not understand why, if these rocks were ashes, they should be amyg-
daloidal. In my memoir* on the eruptive rocks of Brent Tor and its
neighbourhood I endeavoured to account for the schistose structure
in lavas, and for the amygdaloidal condition in ashes, and in many
places expressed my doubt about the true character of these rocks.
Ever since those lines were written I have been anxious to venti-
late this matter, and, if possible, to arrive at a more satisfactory
solution of the difficulty. It is to Mr. John Arthur Phillips that I
owe the suggestions which have at last helped to settle the
question. On expressing my doubts to Mr. Phillips, and after
showing him the specimens which I had collected, he at once stated
his belief that these schists were precisely similar to some which
he had met with in Cornwall, and which he had examined and de-
scribed as lavas. On re-examining my microscopic sections I was
still unable to satisfy myself that he was right in his conclusion ;
but I thought my sections were perhaps not sufficiently thin, and
therefore made an examination of some new and better ones which
were prepared by Mr. Cuttell. At once I realized the truth of Mr.
Phillips’s views. The majority of the types which I had selected
were evidently lavas of a more or less vesicular character, while the
others were ashes, fine tuffs (Schalsteins), or sedimentary schists.
In some of the latter amygdaloidal structure is present; and it is
just possible that even these may represent greatly altered lavas.
One section cut from a specimen collected by Sir Henry De la Beche,
and labelled ‘‘ Vesicular ash,” is an unquestionable lava. Never-

* Memoirs of the Geological Survey, 1878.

286 F. RUTLEY ON THE SCHISTOSE

theless Sir Henry was certainly right in his views concerning some
of these rocks, which present the appearance of fine sediments in
which fragments of scoriaceous and other volcanic rocks are im-
bedded ; and it was doubtless from a consideration of these particular
rocks that he was led to generalize, and to regard nearly the whole
of these schists as ashes. The schistose structure has doubtlsss
resulted from the pressure of the superincumbent strata which once
covered this area, a circumstance which I pointed out in my official
memoir. It may, however, also be partly due, in some cases, to the
profuse development of vesicles compressed and elongated in the
direction of flow. ‘That these beds are alternations of lava-flows,
tuffs, and tufaceous sediments I have no longer any doubt.

I have learnt the importance of examining only the thinnest
possible preparations of rocks of this class, and the importance of
expressing a guarded opinion when microscopic rock-sections fail to
reveal distinct characters; I would also here thank Mr. H. W.
Bristow for affording me facilities for the re-examination of some
of the specimens collected for the Survey.

The structure of the schistose lavas is in some cases quite clearly
shown when very thin sections are examined under the microscope;
but as they have all undergone considerable alteration, it is not easy
to speak with certainty about their original mineral constitution.
There are numerous little felspar crystals to be seen in them; and
they sometimes lie with their longest axes in definite directions
more or less approximating to the direction in which the vesicles are
elongated, and which also coincides with the planes of bedding and
schistosity. A considerable quantity of viridite is present in most
of these rocks; in some cases it seems to be allied to green earth,
and in others to a scaly chlorite-like mineral. I cannot help
thinking that these rocks may owe their present fissile character to
the elongated vesicles which occur so plentifully in them.

The felspars are usually very minute, and are often represented
by pseudomorphs only. These lavas were most likely similar to
some of the highly vesicular basalt lavas erupted at the present day.

There is an important consideration suggested by the comparatively
uniform character of these rocks in the Tavistock, the Saltash, and
the Cornish districts ; and it seems to me possible that it may be one
which should to some extent influence the position of the boundary
line between the Devonian and the Culm series on the west of Dart-
moor. In dealing with this question I am fully aware of the value
of paleontological evidence, and how such evidence must of neces-
sity dominate over any argument based merely upon lithological cha-
racters. Unfortunately, in parts of this country, and especially in
the critical part now under discussion, fossils are, I believe, few and
far between ; and I therefore venture to offer the following remarks in
the hope that they may incite paleontologists to focus their atten-
tion for a short time on a small tract of country which seems at
present to be doubtful ground. I refer to the tract lying between
Tavistock on the south and Lidford on the north. Here the lavas
and their associated ashes and tufaceous sediments crop out in strips

VOLCANIC ROCKS OF DARTMOOR. 287

or belts which, for the most part, trend in an approximately east and
west direction, while on the west of Brent Tor they are shown on the
Survey map to sweep round ina rude semicircle. These strips, which
I shall call the volcanic series, dip at very low angles or are in some
places approximately horizontal; and I believe that in many cases
they are repetitions of the same bed or set of beds—a view ably ad-
vocated by Dr. Harvey B. Holl in his paper on the older rocks of
South Devon and East Cornwall*.

If this be really so, how can we have one part of a bed situated in
the Devonian, and another part of the same bed cropping out in
Carboniferous rocks? yet, as the Survey map now stands, this appears
to be the case. Justice must, however, be done to the statements
published by Sir Henry De la Beche, since in his Report already
cited, at page 116, he says “‘ The boundary is certainly unsatis-
factory between the Tamar and the granite near Tavistock.” Again
an important statement occurs at pages 119, 120 :—“ In the country
near Dunterton, Milton Abbot, Lamerton, Brentor, Mary Tavy,
Peter Tavy, and Tavistock, the mass of schistose ash accompanied
by greenstone and other trappean rocks is very considerable. In
this district also the geological date of the solid trappean rocks
may be questioned ; but that of the schistose ash is clearly the same
with the various grits and shales, it being merely doubtful to which
of the two great systems of rocks some of the beds may be referred
near Milton Abbot, Lamerton, and Tavistock. Some perfectly
similar rocks occur in both ; and the boundary between them, as has
been above noticed is not clearly defined.”

Further on, on the same page, Sir Henry says, “There can be
little doubt that the principal band [7. e. the Milton-Abbot and Dun-
terton band of the volcanic series| is included in the upper series,
as it can be seen to rest upon very characteristic rocks of that series.
With a more southern band of a similar ash commencing with
Endsleigh, and which is well exhibited in some quarries on the line
near Combe, continuing thence by Lamerton and Kilworthy to
Sowtentown, there is not the same certainty.” With the most pro-
found respect for Sir Henry Dela Beche’s opinions, J cannot refrain
from pointing out the probability of beds near the junction of two
perfectly conformable formations exhibiting alternations in litho-
logical character which render it impossible in a very limited area
such as this to speak with any certainty as to the precise formation ;
and since Sir Henry adduces no palzontological evidence in support
of his opinion, I think it becomes an open question whether weight
should or should not be attached to his statement. The point I wish
to establish is this, that we have at Saltash, as recorded by Mr. J. A.
Phillips, some schistose lavas in the Devonian series identical with
some of those which occur in the Devonian series further north, in the
neighbourhood of Tavistock—and that similar rocks occur still further
north, round about Brent Tor, and trending westward as though
they belonged to the Launceston and St.-Clether series of erup-
tive rocks which are included in the Devonian area. If, then, the

* Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. 1868, vol. xxiy. p. 407.

288 F, RUTLEY ON THE SCHISTOSE

schistose rocks of the volcanic series in the vicinity of Brent Tor are
merely repetitions of those about Tavistock, ought they not all to be
regarded as of late Devonian age? and may they not be correlated
with those in the Saltash district, which are unquestionably Devonian?
That this southern Devonian series of rocks has been elevated by
the underlying granitic masses, such as that at Hingston Down,
seems to be clearly indicated by the well-marked east-and-west trend
of the long elvan dykes which cross the country ; and if this be the
case, the discrepancy in the dip of the rocks about Brent Tor and
those about Saitash is sufficiently accounted for, while at the same
time we can readily realize the denudation of the once intervening
and more elevated portions of these schistose rocks over a tolerably
wide area. Mr. J. A. Phillips adduces good reason for thinking that
some of these lavas and tuffs were restricted to small dimensions ;
and he is doubtless right to a certain extent. I cannot, however,
help thinking that in other cases they covered a very considerable
area; and I believe that some of the Saltash and Tavistock schistose
lavas may possibly have represented a large and once continous
flow. I do not, however, wish to urge this opinion very strongly,
as I have not visited the Saltash district, but have merely examined
one or two specimens collected by Mr. Bauerman. I would also
disclaim any desire to remove my neighbours’ landmarks or tamper
with existing geological boundary lines, when ignorant of all the
arguments which may be brought to bear upon such a question,
since this paper has been written merely to record a little additional
information concerning the nature of the schistose volcanic beds of
the Brent-Tor district and to direct the attention of geologists to a
very small area in which they may possibly rectify a “scientific
frontier ” by carrying the Devonian rocks a mile or two further north.

Before any more really careful work can be done to elucidate the
structure of this district and the stratigraphical relations of the
eruptive rocks which occur so plentifully in it, it will be necessary
to survey it upon a map of larger scale, a proceeding which would
prove beneficial to miners as well as to geologists.

The rocks treated of in this paper are, for the most part, situated,
as already mentioned, in the immediate vicinity of Brent Tor; and
it seems more than probable that they emanated from it, as suggested
by Sir Henry De la Beche. Having now discussed the characters
of these schistose beds of lavas, tufts, and tufaceous sediments, it
may not be out of place to attempt, by a series of sections, based in
part upon the Survey Map, to restore the old volcano itself.

Treating the subject broadly, we may say that Brent Tor stands on
an irregular oval basin (fig. 1) occupied by its lavas, tuffs, and ashes,
which are interstratified with sediments hitherto considered to be of
Carboniferous age, but which, as I have suggested, may possibly turn
out to be Devonian. The basin is cracked across in a nearly north-
west and south-east direction by a fault, the downthrow being to the
west. Brent Tor is situated on the downcast side of the fault; and
it is to this fact that its preservation is due. The basin-like area is
mainly represented by Heathfield. Further to the west the beds

VOLCANIC ROCKS OF DARTMOOR. 289

Fig. 1.—Plan of the Brent-Tor Basin, showing the Faults and the
lines of the following Sections.

E.

are thrown into long anticlinal and synclinal folds. On the west a
small and nearly triangular area includes all that remains of the
Brent-Tor volcanic series in this direction. To the south it is
possible, as suggested in this paper, that the schistose beds about
Saltash, ten or twelve miles distant, may belong to this volcanic
series.

The first section which I have taken to illustrate the relations of
the beds is one running N.N.W. across Ram’s Down (fig. 2). It

Fig. 2.—Section (1) across Ram’s Down.

N.N.W. §.8.E.
Milton
Ram’s Down. Abbot. Combe. Twowell.

lies on the west of our typical basin. Here two beds of the volcanic
series are seen, the older marked with the letter c, the younger with
d. As they undulate, and their crests have been denuded, there are
three separate exposures of the bed c¢, flanked on either side by the
bed d. In speaking of these exposures as beds, it should be under-
stood that they commonly consist of a series of beds (lavas, tuffs, &c.).
' The next section (fig. 3) runs in a 8.8.E. direction, from Littonary
Down, across Heathfield,to Tavistock. From Meather toChurlhanger
we see a synclinal disposition of the beds, which dip northwards to-
wards Lower Chillaton and Quether, while on the south the bed ¢
is repeated by several undulations, and is then succeeded south of
Tavistock by what I believe to be two older lava-flows, lettered re-
spectively aandb. These four series of beds a, b,c, and d represent,
so far as I can ascertain, the whole of the Brent-Tor volcanic series
subjacent to the stack of lavas and agglomerates which constitute
the tor itself.

F. RUTLEY ON THE SCHISTOSE

290

‘a's

ma
!

OSPNIT “Lavy, Lae py "IO, quorg *9U0ISYUO PL ‘é “uMOg
IBUOIT

‘(qnng fo apes yynos) s07, quarg fo abpy wsoyynog oy buayonoy (¢) UWOYII—F “SIT

separ is oi)

eee eee
we ee ae
a ee ae

—— ee

i]
*HOOISIART, *YOIApIVe A -AqQIOMTE ‘resuvypInyO “r0Y3tO

Quether,.-----—-----.)
Lower

Chilla-

ton

‘yoojsuamy, 07 unog huwuoyrT woul (Z) uoysgy—e “Sty “AUNN

VOLCANIC ROCKS OF DARTMOOR. 291

In fig. 4 we have a N.W. and S.E. section, passing from Littonary
Down on the north to Mary Tavy and Ridge on the south, and just
cutting the southern boundary of Brent Tor. We have here the
broadest part of the Heathfield basin. The turn-over of the vol-
canic beds c at Monkstone appears to be a probable though by no
means a certain rendering. -

Sections 4 and 5 (figs. 5 & 6) are taken in a N.W. and S.E. direc-

Fig. 5.—Section (4) East of Brent Tor.
N.W. §.H,
Bowdon. Cross Roads.

Fig. 6.—Section (5) Hast of Brent Tor.

N.W. S.E.
W. Lang-
stone, Road. Burn.
ea |
ai. el Cc
hme ae

tion through the little triangular area on the east of the Brent-Tor
fault. Here the volcanic beds ¢ and d only are represented, and the
flexure and northward dip of ¢ must again be taken as an expedient
but not very trustworthy version of what may possibly occur along
this ine. In drawing these sections I have fully accepted the data
furnished by the Survey Map; but, from a short examination of the
ground, I am inclined to think that in some few instances the boun-
dary lines are not absolutely correct.

Fig. 7 is a section taken a little west of north through Brent Tor,
ranging from Bowdon to Tavistock. Here the whole of the Brent-
Tor volcanic series of lavas, agglomerates, tuffs, ashes, and the
associated sediments is shown. ‘The fault is also indicated ; and the
feeder of the volcano is represented as coincident with the fault.
The denuded portions of the cone are also suggested.

Fig. 8 is a chimera which may embody a certain amount of truth.
Here the downeast is shifted up to its normal position: we see the
old furnace in full blast, and its long undisturbed lava-flows a, 8, c,
and d, with tuffs, ashes, and sediments interbedded.

The little black hummock represents what remains of the original
cone,

In fig. 9 I have roughly indicated the possible relation which
may exist between the volcanic series of Brent Tor and that of
Saltash, the granite of Hingston Down lying about halfway between
the two series and pushing up the intervening beds in an anticlinal
fold. The dotted lines are mere suggestions of the vast thickness of
strata carried from off this area by denudation. I have also indi-

F. RUTLEY ON THE SCHISTOSE

292

‘uorepnuep fq poaouea soos (//, ‘em00 OY} JO UOT}I0d Sursstyy GM

‘WMeT “WA
v7) -
———— : aT A ELSE — oe pa ee
Janay Day 0 EAE LES A) Zu Jaee7 nas
{
rs
MLE ROS aie 5 ys,

—

a cee ee
eae) SSS ee

"oud O44 JO SUTeUMOL Jey} [Te sjuoserder uoryZod yoetq oy], *pa10jsav woZ, woug—'g “Siz

\
Spnser- =, oe meen
Li ee _—
a> merge

(LEE
‘(qnng usasayy bu0pn) soy, yuong ybnoup ‘gy pun ar hgunau (9) wormpagy—") *B1q

—

VOLCANIC ROCKS OF DARTMOOR. 293

cated the possible alteration of the boundary lines between the
Culm series and the Devonian rocks.

Fig. 9.—Diagram to illustrate the possible Relation of the Brent-Tor
Volcanic Series with that of Saltash.

8.
Brent Tor. Saltash.

(The dotted lines indicate rocks now removed by denudation.)
C. Carboniferous. D. Devonian. G. Granite of Hingston Down.

Fig. 10 is an attempt to show in a diagrammatic manner the down-
throw of the existing portion of the old Brent Tor volcano between
the two faults, which were first described by Dr. Holl. That these

Fig. 10. Diagram to illustrate the Manner in which part of the Brent
Tor Volcano has been faulted.

aT)
lh
Loe

al

A. Chief part of the cone. C. Fault running N.W. & S.E.
B. Part of the cone faulted down. D. Fault running nearly N. & 8.

faults originated as radiately disposed fissures emanating from the
axis of the cone seems highly probable, since similarly situated
fissures are common in many modern volcanos. From this diagram
: it will be seen that by far the greater portion of the cone has been
long since removed by denudation. A considerable amount of the
downcast part must also have disappeared, leaving only the mere
mole-hill from which I have endeavoured to reconstruct the moun-

tain which geologists will always associate with the name of Sir
Henry De la Beche.

The flue of the voleano was probably situated somewhere along

the line of junction of the two faults. The superior portion was

294 F. RUTLEY ON THE SCHISTOSE

most likely denuded together with the upcast part of the cone;
while the remainder may either be faulted beneath the present
surface of the ground, or may possibly be represented by a basalt
which occurs at the foot of Brent Tor on the northern side.

In dealing with the preceding questions I have merely expressed
opinions which are based upon a fair but not very extensive series
of facts, all, unfortunately, which we have at our disposal at pre-
sent. More must be learnt concerning the lie of the beds before
we can speak positively upon many of the questions raised in this
paper. There yet remains much for geologists to work out in
the country between the Tavy and the Tamar. In speaking of the
possible relation between the volcanic series of Brent Tor and that
of Saltash I am fully aware of the danger of basing arguments merely
upon lithological characters ; and I should be loth to assert, because
two series of rocks were identical in mineral constitution, in strueture,
and in mode of occurrence, that they therefore belonged to the same
geological horizon. The broader questions discussed in this paper
are neither to be solved by a few weeks of desultory stone-breaking,
nor by a life-time of speculation based upon imperfect data.

More facts must be accumulated before we can thoroughly un-
derstand the structure of the Brent-Tor district.

Discussion.

The PresipDENT, in returning thanks to the author, stated that he
had met with amygdaloidal cavities, due to the giving off of gases,
in some of the older slaty ashes.

Mr. THorre called attention to a specimen of lapilli from Brent
Tor, found in the joints of a limestone at Newton Abbot. He
thought these proved that the 8.W. wind blew in Devonian times.

Prof. Ramsay wished to ask the President where the slates with
amygdaloidal cavities were.

The PrestpDEnt said in Cumberland.

Mr. Eruzriner thought that in the area treated by the author
the junction between Devonian and Carboniferous (as marked in
the Survey Map) was brought too far south, and that these rocks
will prove most valuable as indicating the boundary-line here, as
in Cornwall. It was unfortunate that no fossils had as yet been
discovered in the area under notice.

Prof. Huaurs agreed in removing the boundary-line further
north. He was perplexed at hearing Mr. Thorpe speak of open
fissures existing in Devonian times in Devonian rocks, and still to
be seen. He pointed out that the material was arranged vertically,
as in a calcareous deposit, not horizontally as if dropped into an
open fissure; and he asked whether Mr. Thorpe had tested the
material with acid.

Mr. Tuorrr gave some explanation of the mode of occurrence.

Prof. Bonney agreed that many of the rocks were lavas, but
doubted if crushing accounted for their foliation. <A foliated structure

ee |

VOLCANIC ROCKS OF DARTMOOR. 295

might come from resistance of hard amygdaloids, cleavage, alteration
of a fluidal structure, and deposit on a fissile face. He thought,
perhaps, the last the most probable explanation in this case, as
the cavities did not appear materially crushed.

Prof. MaAskELyneE said that a spongy lava saturated with water
which had no exit would not necessarily crush.

Mr. Baverman agreed that these rocks were small lava-flows
interstratified with shales. He compared these Brent-Tor rocks
with the Nassau Schalstein.

Mr. J. A. Purixies said that analyses of this rock showed that
the lime in the carbonate of lime had been derived from felspars.
He exhibited a specimen of Nassau Schalstein. Cornish Schalstein
contained ‘64 per cent. of phosphoric acid; that from Nassau
‘57 per cent. Staffelite occurred below the Nassau Schalstein.

The AvrHor thought that Mr. Thorpe’s specimen was not a vol-
canic, but a calcareous tufa. He thought the schistose structure due
to the elongated vesicles, so that the rock split along the planes of
least resistance. Prof. Maskelyne’s suggestion was well worthy of
consideration.

296 E. B. POULTON ON MAMMALIAN REMAINS AND TREE-

20. On Mammatian Remains and TREE-TRUNKS im QUATERNARY
Sanps at Reapine. By Epwarp B. Povrrton, Esq., M.A., F.G.S.,
of Jesus College, Oxford, Burdett-Coutts Scholar of the Uni-
versity, formerly Demonstrator in the Biological Department of
the University Museum. (Read January 21, 1880.)

Tue pit furnishing some interesting sections to be described in the
following paper is situated on the Redlands estate, at Reading, a
little east of the new Grammar School, and about a mile south-east
of the market-place. The pit is about halfway up the south slope
of the conjoined Thames and Kennet valleys, and is 36 feet above
the river-level. It has been worked for gravel and sand for some
years, and recently for clay ; and the gravel-bed, from 10 to 15 feet
in thickness, has been cleared out over an area 276 feet in length
from north to south, and of about the same average length from
east to west, where, however, the boundaries are irregular and, to
the east, partly effaced. The beds exposed in the north face are
far more perfect and instructive than elsewhere. This face, about
20-25 feet in average height, and, where completely exposed,
65 feet in length, is drawn to a scale of ;4 in. to the foot in
fis. 1.

A. About 12 feet thick, represents the gravels and recent strata overlying
certain reconstructed beds of sand and clay.

(1) 1 foot 6 inches thick, is the superficial alluvium containing elements
derived from the waste of the gravel below.

(2) 2 feet 6 inches thick, is transitional between the alluvium and the under-
lying gravel. It consists of rounded and subangular flints scattered
thinly through a base of yellow clayey soil.

(3) 8 feet thick, is the gravel containing bones of land-mammalia. A rough
stratification is apparent ; and there are some intercalated beds of sand.
A considerable thickness of this, with long, ramified, lateral prolonga-
tions, is seen about the centre of the exposed gravel. There is a large
amount of ferruginous cement, and everywhere a deep staining of
iron oxide.

No river-shells were detected, although I made a careful search
for them, assisted by much earnest inspection of kind friends. I
found a flake about halfway up the gravel-bed; but this may have
fallen from the higher alluvium, although this derivation appears
doubtful, because the vertical face of the cliff affords such slight
opportunity for lodgment*. The elements of the gravel are derived
from the following sources, in the order of their relative preponder-
ance :—

(a) Chalk. Subangular flints, derived from the waste of the
chalk, are the chief constituents of this gravel. Some few are quite

* Since writing the above another, more perfect flake was found by me (April
8th) on a gravel-path near the pit. The gravel certainly came from the pit ;
and it is highly probable that the flake was carried with it. Neither of the spe-
cimens can be referred with certainty to either the Neolithic or the Palzolithie
period.

OS =< —_

Fig. 1.—Section in North Fuce of Pit near Reading. (Scale +, inch to 1 foot.)

TRUNKS IN QUATERNARY SANDS AT READING. 297

Sole» Sa
S96 I

ee
=
Pe Nae fe
Se

+>

coc @e@2 ©
pao vt bo OF &

unworn and have sharp
edges ; they must have been
transported by floating ice-
blocks and so have escaped
rolling. Flint casts of An-
anchytes and Galerites are
tolerably common ; and one
good example of a Ventri-
culite was found. Of the
more perishable constituents
of the Chalk, a few rounded
nodules of hard chalk and
a worn fragment of Jno-
ceramus-shell were found.
(3) Tertiaries. There is
a considerable proportion of
rounded flints derived from
the destruction of these
beds. A fair specimen of
Ostrea bellovacina from the
same source was also found.
(y) High-level gravels.
There occurs, thinly scat-
tered through all parts of

rd *s
tise i) the gravel, a small propor-
ae fo rutalts ahS, ti tion of rounded quartzite
ad rai is i masses derived from the
"4 | fe pad ‘ih waste of the high-level gra-
Male cheap te vels that once formed an
a ea, uninterrupted layer across
I. = ras os | the then unexcavated valley.
ad leh ee (6) Occasional elements
[ae ‘| Sa rr transported from a distance.
e alee ed Worn fragments of Ostrea
2 Neale P16 8 LOY (chiefly O. dilatata) occur ;
aN ME EAR 1! and one worn Nerinea was
ey ik Sra ae found from the Oolites near
< = Oxford. A small piece of
een blue, fissile limestone, when

broken, showed the charac-

teristic structure of Forest Marble. This must have been carried
4] miles if derived from the nearest source, Islip on the river
Ray, and if it followed the general direction of the river-valley
without taking the sinuous curves of a river.

This description holds good for all the gravels of the four faces of
the pit. The west and north are still well seen; the east and south
are now entirely covered up.

B. The reconstructed beds, about 9 feet thick. These consist of Tertiary
elements (Woolwich and Reading beds, and to some extent the basement

Q.J3.G.8. No. 142. x

298 E. Bs. POULTON ON MAMMALIAN REMAINS AND TREE-

beds of the London Clay) altered and rearranged by fluviatile agency and
interpenetrated by river-gravels and with bones of land Mammalia and tree-
trunks. At either end, east and west, of this north face, reconstructed .
clays intervene between a thick bed of sand and the superimposed gravels.
Centrally, however, the clays are absent, and the gravel and sand come into
contact. Here, however, in the lower part of the gravel slight indications
of the clay may often be found, but no regular layer. To the east end of
the section many layers of intermixed clay, sand, and gravel intervene
between the gravels and sand, forming the group of beds marked a (1, 2,
3, 4) in fig. 1, while the west gravels and sand are separated by only one
subdivision, the equivalent of the eastern uppermost layer, and therefore
marked a (1). The characters of the reconstructed clays (beds a) are as
follows :—

(1) 2 feet thick, east and west side. Large fragments of mottled clays from
the upper part of the Woolwich and Reading beds. ‘These are entirely
unstratified, and there is an irregular intermixture of rounded flints
(from waste of Tertiaries) and subangular ones (from chalk). Above,
this layer passes into the gravel, with no definite line of demarcation, by
the gradual cessation of the clay-masses. Additional proof of the Post-
glacial and fluviatile origin of this layer is found in a few rounded
quartzite masses, from the high-level gravels, which were taken from
its lowest part. In one part of this bed on the west side the clay
masses more resemble those of (2) layer in being finely broken and
slightly laminate.

(2) 1 foot 6 inches, east side. Finely broken mottled clays, slightly stratified
and containing fragments of bivalve shells. The stratification and shell-
fragments are entirely quaternarily imposed characters, both completely
absent in the Tertiary clay from which the bed was derived. ‘The shells
are so fragmentary that identification is impossible; their general ap-
pearance, however, is such as to render probable their origin from the
basement beds of the London Clay, which crops out higher up the slope.
The last 4 inches of this layer graduate into a yellow sand overlying the
white sand (3). Scattered’ flint pebbles occur thinly throughout the
layer. ar oe

(3) 6 ae thick, east side. Fine white sand.

(4) 6 inches thick, east side. Coarse fragments of mottled clay, roughly
stratified, and with white sand between the layers. Gravel is present,
especially in the lowest part, overlying the thick bed of sand (0).

These four beds, above described, thicken ont eastward; while to
the west the lower ones rise to the surface of the sand (0), and they
all die out between it and the gravel. ach of the four thins away
at this point ; and there is a tendency towards their coalescence or
interlamination, especially in (2) and (3). These beds indicate
powerful and rapid currents transporting the materials from the
Tertiary clays higher up the slope, and cutting away the sands pre-
viously deposited by gentler aqueous agency. ‘he lowest bed (4)
on the east side, and (1) on the west, overlie the sands quite uncon-
formably, the laminz of the latter being cut through very sharply.
The currents must have been very powerful to remove masses of the
extremely tough and stiff mottled clays. They cannot have been
long continued, or the clay masses would not have been angular
but would have been further disintegrated and redeposited else-
where, losing the readily apparent characters by which their origin
is at once seen. The broken lumps are of exactly the same colour
and structure as the undisturbed beds higher up the slope. The

TRUNKS IN QUATERNARY SANDS AT READING. 299

force of the aqueous agency is further seen in the steep incline on
which the beds are deposited; deposition in comparatively still
water would have produced horizontality in the strata.

(6) This stratum consists of a bed of sand 9 feet thick where it extends up-
wards to the gravels with no intervening clays. Its base is not seen in
this north face ; for water is reached at the level drawn on the section. It
is derived mainly from the destruction of the “ Buff Sands” of the
Woolwich and Reading series. The sands are generally white, but often
yellow or orange, from ferruginous staining, especially near the in-
cluded tree-trunks, one of which often disgolors the sand for a few feet
round it. The sand-grains immediately surrounding the trunks are
often bound together into an extremely hard conglomerate by a ferrugi-
nous cement ; and the whole is generally firmly adherent to the trunk
itself. Small pebbles occasionally occur in the sands. The whole bed
gives one the impression that it was subject to long-continued but gentle
fluviatile action, as compared with the clays above. The condition of
the bones found in this bed is in favour of this view; for they are very
waterworn and yet unbroken, while those of the gravel above are often
broken sharply but their surfaces are far more perfect. Curiously the
shifting currents and eddies of fluviatile deposition have produced a
result strikingly like the original ‘‘ Buff Sands” from which these beds
were derived. ‘The general irregular arrangement of the bedding only
is given over the main part of the section (although the imbedded
plant-remains («) exposed in the face are accurately placed); but to the
west and below, a series of beds showing the oblique laminations very
distinctly are drawn carefully to scale.

The beds are lettered in the order of their deposition.

(a). The first deposited, and forming the axis of the group, is
horizontal, and was therefore probably thrown down in compara-
tively still water. The laminz are of coarse yellow and white sand,
becoming deeply orange from ferruginous colouring in some parts.
Small pebbles are common ; and there are thin laminated clay-seams
in the lower part and to the west—additional proofs of the gentle
aqueous agency.

(6). Then followed swifter currents from the east and directed
downwards, cutting away the west part of (a), so that its lamine
terminate abruptly in a slope of 45°. Against this, as the current
became gentler, the bed (6) was deposited of fine white sand below,
coarse above.

(c) and (d). Then currents from the west cut away (6) and (a)
nearly horizontally, and (c) and (d) were deposited on them.
These are of very fine white sand. There is an unconformability
between (c) and (d) to the west, caused by some change in the
current after (c) was thrown down. Last, they form one bed.

(e). After this, more rapid currents from the west removed the
east part of (d) and (a); and on the steep slope thus formed the
fine white sand forming the bed (¢) was deposited. In its lower
part a few angular lumps of bluish clay occur, evidences of the
rapidity of the currents, probably derived from the destruction of
the ‘* Leaf-beds.”

(f). Finally gentler currents from the west planed off the tops of
(6) (d) and (¢), and on them deposited the laminated sandy clay

x2

300 E. B. POULTON ON MAMMALIAN REMAINS AND TREE-

(f). This contains traces of vegetable matter in which no structure
can be made out; and there is much oxide of iron in the layers and
concentrically laminated nodules. I found in this clay a few
rounded flints still retaining their green coating and thus proving
that the materials had partially been derived from the lowest bed of
the Woolwich and Reading series, the layer of green-coated flints
just above the Chalk. This rendered probable the view that the,
laminated clay itself was derived from the destruction of the Leaf-
beds, which occur just above the green-coated flints in the undis-
turbed Eocene strata. The clay much resembles that of the Leaf-
beds in its blue colour. The sandy intermixture is, of course, a
newly imposed character given during the redeposition among these
beds of sand. ‘The clay is horizontal west, but east it descends a
steepish slope ; and towards the bottom of this a large tree-trunk (#)
is seen, partially enclosed in the clay, and exposed in transverse
section. The relation of the tree-trunk to the slope gives the im-
pression that this water-logged mass, rolling down under the slow
action of the current from the west, has been the cause of the
cutting away of (e) to a slope, while further west the beds (6) and
(d) are planed off horizontally. Further probability is given to
this view by the fact that east of the trunk the clay-band again be-
comes horizontal before it dies away, in a few feet.

Imbedded Remains. These have nearly all been found in the ex-
cavations at this north face; and hence the whole organic remains of
the pit are best described here, since nothing different has been
found in other parts. Omitting the indication of man by the flake
probably belonging to the gravel (A), the remains of the pit are of
three kinds—Mammalian bones and teeth, tree-trunks, and derived
shells.

Mammalian Remains. These have been partly found in the gravel
(A) and partly in the sand B(b). Many were found in the laminated
coarse sand marked (a) to the west and below, thus occurring quite 8
feet below the under surface of the gravel (A). The bones and teeth
were distributed in various directions to different collectors; and
those from the gravel and sand have been indiscriminately mixed.
The difference, however, is generally easily recognizable, remains

rom the gravel being broken rather than waterworn, usually
stained yellow with iron oxide, and sometimes still showing the
smaller constituents of the gravel adherent to their surface, while
those from the sand are more waterworn and whiter. In some
cases I have direct testimony as to the beds in which they were
found. The identification of the species, or even in some cases
naming the bones, was extremely difficult ; but putting together the
characters of the ‘bones and teeth, the following list was made out,
and may be taken as trustworthy :—

ELEPHAS PRIMIGENIUS..

(1) Two perfect molar teeth of young individual between sand (2) and gravel
(A), also fragments of teeth from gravel.

TRUNKS IN QUATERNARY SANDS AT READING. 301

(2) Portion of left scapula with part of glenoid cavity. Gravel (A).
(8) Proximal epiphysis, with articular surface intact, of one of the first
phalanges of right hind foot. From sand (6).
(4) Many fragments from gravel are evidently Hlephas from their size, but
they are unidentifiable.
Bos PRIMIGENIUS.

(1) Right scaphoid, in good condition. Sand.

(2) Right distal articular extremity of right metacarpal or metatarsal.
Sand.

(3) One of the last dorsal vertebre of a young individual, the posterior
epiphysis being lost. (Sand?) This broken specimen can only be con-
sidered approximately identified.

Equus FOSSILIS.

(1) Two molar teeth and some fragments. One certainly came from between
the sand and gravel ; the rest are undecided.
(2) One of the last two lumbar vertebree, much waterworn. (Sand.)
(3) First phalanx (?). Gravel.
(4) Proximal half of left metacarpal, very small specimen. Between sand
and gravel.
RHINOCEROS TICHORHINUS (?).

A portion of the articular surface of an astragalus shows undoubted peris-
sodactyle characters, and is too large and shallow for Equus. It may be Rhi-
noceros. (Gravel.)

For the loan of the specimens from which the above list has been
made, or for information on this subject, I have to thank Mr. F. W.
Andrewes, of Christ Church, Oxford; Mr. C. H. Armstrong, of
Friar’s Street, Reading; and Mr. Walter Palmer, of The Acacias,
Reading. In some of the most difficult identifications I have to
thank Prof. Flower, and Mr. Jackson and Mr. Robertson of the
University Museum, for much kind help, and above all Prof. Rol-
leston for the use of the splendid collection of comparative osteo-
logy and for the teaching that I have had in that subject in his
department during many years.

Tree-trunks. ‘These occurred in the sand-bed B (6) exclusively,
and chiefly in its lower part. Those at present exposed in the face
are seen in fig. 1 (wv, ), generally in transverse section. The trunks
are afoot or more in diameter, and some of them several feet in length.
They are always horizontal, and had probably been carried down by
the stream from some distant locality, as I could never detect any
traces of lateral branches or, indeed, any indications of bark. The
structure is very much obscured by the iron oxide with which they
are impregnated. All attempts to render the tissue transparent
failed ; and hence some siliceous replacement is probable together
with the.iron. Sometimes the wood is friable or even pulpy, some-
times extremely hard and interpenetrated by quartz-grains in a
ferruginous matrix. At first the attempt was made to grind sec-
tions of this indurated part ; but much labour, with a very doubtful
prospect of success, was saved by examining the softer tissue as an
opaque object by reflected light. Some less-altered fibres from the
centre of a mass of wood whose periphery was quite obscured by
iron oxide were chosen for examination. This central tissue split up

302 =. B, POULTON ON MAMMALIAN REMAINS AND TREE-

readily into its component fibres on being merely touched with the
needle; and these, when examined witha No. 4 Hartnack, in the
manner mentioned above, showed all the characteristic appearances
of the tissue of Pinus. Fragments of the medullary rays were seen
quite distinctly crossing the pitted vessels at right angles. I have
to thank Prof. Lawson for his kind help in working at, and making
out the structure of, the wood.

Derived Remains. Between the sand and gravel, where these
come into contact and the clays are absent, a curious admixture of
derived and proper remains occurs. As shown in the above list, teeth
of horse and Elephas and a bone of horse were found here ; but with
them were the following derived remains :—

(1) Ostrea dilatata, from the Oolites at Oxford, abundant but worn.

(2) Worn fragments of Znoceramus from the Chalk ; and a worn Belemnite,
probably from the same source.

(3) Ostrea bellovacina from the Woolwich and Reading Series. Abundant
and perfect.

(4) Shell-masses from the basement beds of the London Clay, with many of
the shells still very perfect and recognizable (Natica, Pectunculus, &c.).

This heterogeneous collection, found at one horizon only in the
deposits, serves to indicate the diverse and widely separated strata
from which the bed has been formed.

[I was anxious to procure the entire section of this interesting
and very perfect face, and thus to gain a complete knowledge of all
the beds over the Chalk at this point. However, on digging at the
base of the sands, water came in at all points along the face. This
is held up by some clay-bands above the Chalk; and their top was
reached by the spade. The clay may be the reconstructed Leaf-
beds, or perhaps these beds continued under the reconstructed sands
in an unaltered condition. The sand was so full of water at this
level (about 1 foot beneath base of cliff) that we could not com-
plete the section. Hence in fig. 1 the face terminates below in
a water-line. To reach the Chalk we chose a spot 78 feet south of,
and at right angles to, the east end of the north face, just under the
imperfect and irregular east face of the pit. Here we suffered no
inconvenience from the water, and the Chalk was reached in about
5 feet. The pit was dug by Mr. F. W. Andrewes (my friend and
former pupil) and myself; and I must express my hearty thanks to
Mr. Andrewes for his help in the really considerable labour of
cutting through the stiff clay, as well as for many other services
in connexion with this work. The owner of the pit, Mr. Winter,
kindly gave us permission to do as we liked, and afforded. us every
assistance in his power. The pit sunk was 5 feet long by 2 feet
wide ; and the Chalk was seen at a point 5 feet 4 inches below the
greatest depth reached by the men, and as nearly as possible 30 feet
from the surface. Careful measurements of the beds dug through
in the pit, and those above, gave the following results. The dotted
vertical line (AB) in fig. 2 shows the section here described :—

TRUNKS IN QUATERNARY SANDS AT READING. 303

ft. in.
‘A { Alluvium and concealed gravel... 6 8
Onatarnar ; Gravel exposed ......... PCI EPR REE 10 0
y: |z Reconstructed clays ... ....+. esesssseveeses absent.
; { Reconstructed sands ....1...0..0+008 deksank 8 3
( ( 1. Laminated clays (blue, yellow and
! grey, with plant-remains) ...... eee Leal
| 2. Sand and thin 2 Re Fl A : 2
| 3. Laminated clays (bluer than 1, but
rit with plant-remains as there) ......... (i:
Panini e) Be, 4. Yellow sand (with an indurated ferru-
; | ginous layer below, 1-2 in.)............ 3
Bi 5. Homogencous blue clay (non-laminate,
with concretions of iron-pyrites and
( a little vegetable matter) .............. a an
D Green-coated pebbles, and sand (no
: | fossils) ....... jateeeee ae ere or Pee teeP arias 93
Secondary. Chalk.

Total 29 1123

Fig. 2.—Probable Section of Junction between Tertiary Beds and
Quaternary reconstructed Beds.

N i :
= et eS Pete L ee
1 & ¥ wo 9
: em eo a AoE EE len ee eeeny ih ae Sel wg ee
a Se ee > engi ip eee 4 Fling, Gravets
age! > Oe cea ag ee 8 /
S =
2,4 E
ies : => 2]
Biininteseesesesotas os Sas cana Do So cee! o 5 a SUE Coated fliMG oe
hath as
1
hawenes oa Grom af
iB
a. Reconstructed beds. 6. Woolwich and Reading beds.

e. Unaltered Tertiary.

-The group of beds A and B correspond in this east face to the
gravels and recent strata, together with the reconstructed quater-
nary series of fig. 1(A and B). Beneath this the beds numbered
1 to 5(C) were met with. At the point where these were first
reached all evidences of reconstruction ceased ; there was no inter-
mixture with river-gravels, no imbedded Post-tertiary remains, no
disturbance. The laminated clays 1 and 3 obviously represent
the “ Leaf-beds” discovered by Prof. Prestwich in the cutting of
the G. W. R. line to Newbury and Basingstoke. There are none of
the delicate impressions, however, shown in the latter beds in that
locality or at Katesgrove. The position of the beds C, just over the
green-coated pebbles, D, is also indicative of their correspondence
with the Leaf-beds.

304 E, B. POULTON ON MAMMALIAN REMAINS AND TREE-

The whole series 1-5 probably corresponds to the Leaf-beds, with
a little local variation. Beneath the bed D, and covering the
Chalk, was a flat flint so traversed by vertical fissures that it was’
easily removed in cubical blocks. It extended over the entire bottom
of the pit, and was therefore, as far as we saw it, 5 feet x 2 feet in
area, and about 6 inches thick. At the sides it was continuous
under the green-coated pebbles ; and thus we could not find its true
size. But while the undisturbed Tertiary beds thus underlie the
sands and clays exposed in the east face, the latter are reconstructed
quaternary beds, although their lowest part, just above the Leaf-
beds may be undisturbed and Tertiary, as shown in fig. 2, at the
line A to B. In nearly the whole height of this eastern exposure
of sand (about 8 to 10 feet), and along its whole length (151 feet),
irregular bands of clay-fragments occur, some still angular and re-
taining all the appearance they presented when the river-currents
detached them from the unaltered Tertiary beds higher up the slope
and transported them to this spot. Above the sand in the east face,
as in the north, the reconstructed mottled clays intervene in
patches between the sand and gravel. These clays are largely in-
tersected by bands of gravel, and contain scattered pebbles. There
is none of the lamination observed in the north face. Tracing these
reconstructed beds of the east face southward, towards the series
from which they were derived, they disappear beneath a vast pile of
rubbish ; and no indication of the transition is afforded. Neverthe-
less our pit at the base of this east cliff proved that the lower beds
of the Tertiary series are continued unaltered under these derived
strata ; and therefore the transitional line was then reached, as shown
in fig. 2. The west face, shorter but well exposed (83 feet 6 inches
‘ long), is also reconstructed as far as it can be seen; and its south
end affords no hint of the transition.

In the south-west corner of the pit, the sands have been exposed
far south of the extreme southward extension of the west face of
sand (for the gravel is first worked independently, and cleared out
over a much greater area than the sand) ; and here too the beds are
reconstructed. ‘Therefore the transitional line cannot be looked
for anywhere along the westward, north, and south limits of the

it.

. On the other hand, further east, at the base of the former south
face (now a slope of turf), the men worked a bed of homogeneous
clay for some little time for brick-making ; and in the sands below
they found no tree-trunks or bones, and there was no evidence of
disturbance. The unfossiliferous character of the clay and the
oblique lamination of the sands were distinct and characteristic.
This south point is 276 feet from the north face. In this distance,
therefore, to the south, are the unaltered mottled clays and buff
sands of the Woolwich and Reading series, while to the north are
reconstructed beds of the elements of these strata intermixed with
the remains of a more recent period,

Somewhere south of the present exposure of the east face is the
line of junction, which may have been in the form of a low cliff or

‘TRUNKS IN QUATERNARY SANDS AT READING, 305

slope, of which the base was prolonged horizontally under the re-
constructed bed (as seen in our pit), gently rising to the south as it
approached the cliff. Fig. 2 is a section of the probable transitional
line with the beds north and south of it. Such a line would be
reached if the east face were exposed up to the south face. The
line of junction is dotted in; for its exact direction can, of course,
only be surmised. The irregularity in the junction between the
unaltered and reconstructed beds, as shown by the latter extending
further south at the west side of the pit, is only to be expected
when it is remembered that the transitional line represents the
sinuous margin of a river, and any little bay indenting the bank
would carry the reconstruction into the concavity.

The relation of all these beds exposed in the pit to the whole
south slope of the river-valley is well seen by ascending the incline
to the limits of the Redlands estate (south). The arrangement is
shown in a diagram in fig. 3; and the outcrop of the beds there

Fig. 3.— Diagrammatic Section of South Bank of River-valley.

(Slope greatly exaggerated, rise 79 feet in about 1 mile.)
N. 8.

River River Reconstructed—
Thames. Kennet. Clays. Sands.

a. Alluvial plain. e. Mottled clays.
6. River-gravel. f. Buff sands. Woolwich and
c. High-level gravel. g. Leaf-beds. Reading Series.
d. Basement beds of London- Ah. Green fiints.
clay. z. Chalk.

drawn can be verified quite satisfactorily. The gravel-bed (A in
fig. 1) is seen to belong to the general system of the river-gravels.

South of the pit, ascending the slope, these gravels thin off and
leave the mottled clay exposed at the surface ; higher up these beds
are covered by the basement beds of the London Clay, which were
well exposed in digging the foundation of a house near the top of
the slope. The basement beds are again capped, at the summit
(79 feet above the river), by the entirely unstratified, unfossiliferous,
high-level gravels, consisting of a large proportion of rounded quart-
zite masses and subangular flints.

Thus the south slope of the river-valley at the Redlands estate,
affords a very perfect example of a typical valley-slope, and in ad-
dition presents the more exceptional appearances of the reconstruc-
tion of the Tertiary beds by fluviatile agency, in such a manner that
the easily removable elements of the latter remain, though altered
in structure and intermixed with the organic and inorganic remains
of very different ages and widely diverse conditions. And the sec-

306 ON MAMMALIAN REMAINS, ETC., AT READING.

tions in this pit add another to the scattered evidences that occur
at intervals along the valley of the Thames, proving the existence in
some Postglacial time of a larger river occupying its valley and
flowing at a level from 20 to 30 feet higher than the present; and
in some parts of the pit the beds are so perfect as to afford evidence
of the direction even of the minor currents of the river, while the
organic remains give us valuable proof as to the fauna and flora that
lived on its banks. When my attention was first directed to this
pit, I perceived to some extent the interesting nature of the recon-
struction, and sent a short account of it to Prof. Prestwich; and he
very kindly came down and visited the pit, and pointed out that the
reconstruction was even more extensive than [hadimagined. I fol-
lowed out his kind suggestion and made drawings of the best sections,
and took careful notes of all parts of the pit; and from these and
the specimens I have been able to collect, this paper has been
written.

Discussion.

Prof. Prestwich remarked on the interest attaching to the finding
of mammalian remains not associated with coarse gravel, but in
finely stratified fluviatile beds, which do not otherwise occur between
Oxford and Reading in the Thames valley. The finding of con-
temporaneous tree-trunks is exceptional.

Mr. Warraker said that great masses of reconstructed Tertiaries
beneath the gravels had not been found at other points in the
Thames valley. He suggested that the reconstruction might be
due to landslips and the action of springs.

Prof. T. McK. Hueuxs instanced a similar case of the reconstruc-
tion of Tertiary beds at the Upnor-Castle section.

The AvrHor said certain proofs of fluviatile action in the recon-
structed beds were found in the rolled tree-trunks, the waterworn
bones, and the fine lamination of the sands and clays. In some
instances the direction of the minor currents could be traced by the
finely-bedded sands.

H. 8. POOLE ON THE GOLD-LEADS OF NOVA SCOTIA. 307

21. Tue Gotp-1tEAps of Nova Scorma. By Henry 8. Poors, Esq.,
M.A., F.G.S., Government Inspector of Mines. (Read March

12; 1879.
[ Abridged. |

Tue character of the auriferous rocks of Nova Scotia was a subject
cf some discussion a few years ago*, when it was suggested that
the gold obtained was from “ quartz beds of contemporaneous age
with the quartzite and the slate with which they are interstra-
tified.”

Dr. T. Sterry Hunt, reporting on this province the year before
the subject was brought to the attention of this Society, wrote :—
‘*‘ So far as my present observation goes, I think that to describe the
gold-lodes otherwise than as interstratified beds would be to give a
false notion of their geognostic relations. The laminated structure
of many of the lodes, and the intercalation between their layers of
thin continuous films or layers of argillite, can hardly be explained
in any other way than by supposing these lodes to have been formed
by successive deposition at what was, at the time, the surface of the
earth.”

This description well expresses the appearance of our gold-dis-
tricts ; but the theory that the “ leads,” as the lodes are locally called,
are contemporary beds with the slates and quartzite has not since
been generally accepted ; nor has it gained ground with the further
knowledge derived from working, nor been adopted by any of the
miners, among whom are men experienced in other gold-producing
countries.

My position having enabled me to visit frequently the several dis-
tricts and see the leads in their varying stages of exploitation, I
have kept in mind the theory in question, and especially examined
the relation of the leads to the containing rocks. Some of my
observations I have expressed in the following notes.

Surface-geology of the Gold-fields.

The general features of the districts, and the position of the leads
in relation to the country and rocks, may be thus briefly sketched.
Along the whole Atlantic seaboard of Nova Scotia, from Seaterie to
Cape Sable, Paleozoic rocks extend. ‘The lines of stratification have
an almost universally east-and-west course, and, generally speaking,
are parallel with the coast-line and with the axes of upheaval, not
only of the hill-ranges, but likewise of the anticlinal folds that bring
the gold-leads to the surface. The Jeads also conform, with almost
unvarying persistency, with the strike of the slates and quartzite-
beds, following even the plications of the strata with remarkable
regularity, thus giving rise to the idea that they might be contem-
poraneous beds and not intrusive veins.

* Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxvi. p. 477.

308 H. 8. POOLE ON THE GOLD-LEADS OF NOVA SCOTIA.

While quartz veins are not confined to the districts where gold is
found in paying quantities, those that have been discovered to be
auriferous are generally about the axes of anticlinal folds, and pre-
sent an appearance which may be compared to a series of diversely
shaded sheets of paper sharply bent together, tilted at one end, and
cut horizontally. The lines of various shade which the sheets would
then show approximately represent the position of the leads and the
interbedding slates and quartzites. And, further, as that side would
be the more highly inclined on which the lateral pressure found —
the least resistance, so do the strata incline at these anticlinals. In
the districts of Sherbrooke and Uniacke, for instance, the strata are
vertical on the south and incline to the north at an angle of 45°.
In other districts, as Waverley, Renfrew, and Moose River the ver-
tical and inclined dips are reversed. At Sherbrooke the leads on
both sides of the anticlinal are auriferous, and are only the width
of the main street apart; while at Uniacke the north dip is two
miles away from the working-belt. On the top of Laidlaw’s Hill,
in the district of Waverley, the lead lies so flat that it is worked
‘“‘longwall.”’ Init the gold is chiefly found where it is crumpled
together by the folding of the strata and forms what are called
‘“‘ barrels.” These “ barrels” or “rolls” have been followed down
on both the north and south dips. On the crest they run in the di-
rection of the axis of the anticlinal; and on either side they trend
to the north and south, representing, as it were, the resultant of
the forces encountered in the upheaval. In the overlying stratum
the position of the plication in the quartz is marked merely by a
moderate undulation. The quartz having yielded in the greatest
degree to the lateral pressure would indicate that, at the time of the
upheaval, it was in a more plastic condition than the containing
rocks, and the more when it is observed that the rolls contain angular
fragments of slate, and send offshoots and tongues of quartz up into
the superjacent stratum.

The auriferous rocks are supposed to be contemporaneous with
those of the Cambrian ; but the horizon of the belts has yet to be de-
termined. It has been suggested by those who consider the leads to
be bedded deposits, that only the lowest rocks of the series contain
the gold-leads, which the anticlinal folds have brought to the sur-
face. But the lithological characters of the several districts point
to the existence rather of three groups in which auriferous leads
exist :—the lowest, composed of beds of slate and grits crumpled
and contorted and cleaving transversely to the lamine (in these
no paying lead has been found) ; the middle, of compact beds in
which quartzite predominates and the cleavage-planes generally
conform to the lines of deposition (strata of this group in the neigh-
bourhood of anticlinals are intercalated with numerous quartz-leads,
some of which only are auriferous to an appreciable extent). The
upper group, in the extreme western section of the province, consists
of olive-green fissile slates associated with beds of micaceous sand-
stone and at least one plumbagineous bed. Some of the strata are
highly chloritic ; in the true gold-districts chlorite is a rare mineral.

H. S. POOLE ON THE GOLD-LEADS OF NOVA SCOTIA. 309

Mr. Selwyn, Director of the Canadian Geological Survey, states that
some of these sandstones contain pebbles of a grey quartzite, and
that he is inclined to believe that these rocks will be found to occupy
the position of some division of the Quebec group. Of the relative
age of the gold-bearing veins that are associated with the rocks of
this section there can be no doubt; for when they are exposed by
the tide at Gegoggan and Cranberry Head, they are seen to angle
across the beds, to swell out into masses 6 and 8 feet wide, to pinch
within a distance of a few feet into less than as many inches, and again
expand and contract. Such veins have been found to contain a little
gold; and one at the Cream-pot, Cranberry Head, while not so irre-
gular as some at Gegoggan, yielded as much as one ounce of gold to
the ton of quartz.

Mining Experience.

Mining-operations have not been confined to the bedded leads ;
for rich streaks of quartz have been worked in cross leads and in
the so-called angling leads. - The angling leads are true veins, gene-
rally very small; they have the general east-and-west course, but
break across the strata at slight angles. In depth they gradually
steal across a bed of slate, but, on meeting quartzite, break short
across to the next stratum of slate, and so on downwards. In nearly
all cases the angling leads have been found to contain more gold
when they passed through a quartzite bed.

The true cross leads as yet proved are barren, and of later age
than the interstratified leads; but besides them there are bands of
quartz connecting two parallel leads, and there are offshoots which
are often called cross leads. They insome cases appear to affect the
productiveness of the regular leads. For instance, at the junction of
across lead with the belt lead at Montagu some spots gave as high
as 40 ounces of gold tothe ton. And at Cariboo (area 629, block II.)
an offshoot appeared to govern the direction of the richest portions
of the lead; the stope which cut it, 40 feet wide and 20 fathoms
deep, yielded 12,000 ounces, chiefly from parcels taken on the line
of the offshoot. Whether the yield from the bedded leads is in
reality affected by the position of cross leads and offshoots may be
doubted ; for there are many more offshoots, and perhaps cross leads,
than there are gold streaks. But it appears to be a rule that the
dips of the gold streak and offshoot are in the same direction. One
thing is certain, that the contents of the leads are irregularly distri-
buted, and that their metallic minerals are not uniformly mixed, but
are aggregated about certain spots and in certain directions. The
paying beds are generally small, of a few inches only; many will
not average 4 inches in width; and one of 8 inches is regarded as
of good size, though some thicker have been worked. Regularly
interstratified stringers, threads, and offshoots of quartz may be
seen extending from them into the walls. A stringer from the Wel-
lington lead proved rich when it passed through the slate footwall,
but barren in the succeeding bed of quartzite. The Murray lead in
the same district of Sherbrooke showed at one spot a number of

310 H. §. POOLE ON THE GOLD-LEADS OF NOVA SCOTIA.

stringers entering the footwall. The quartz from them collected
together yielded 7 ounces of gold.

Sooner or later in the working of the regular “ bedded ” leads ir-
regularities characteristic of veins are met with. Late operations
at Waverley on the Union lead, one of those referred to in proof of
the bedded origin of the leads, have shown the quartz to cease, while
the line of fracture is seen to continue its regular course. In one
stope a large “ horse” of quartzite cut off the quartz; in another
the quartz formed a compact ‘‘ roll” 8 feet wide, from which rami-
fied into the footwall a number of suckers.

In the course of working the parallel leads a layer of quartz is
sometimes noticed to “take in” in the adjoining bed of slate. One
such layer was opened at a depth of 600 feet in the hanging wall of
the Wellington lead.

In both slate and quartzite walls of leads, crevices containing little
or no quartz occasionally contain gold. One flat-lying crack in the
quartzite wall of a strong barren lead at Uniacke gave 3 ounces of
gold, where there was only a little iron-rust and no quartz visible.
Gold is also found in the slate walls of rich leads; and from some
mines more slate than quartz goes to the stamp-mill. It is found
associated in the leads with calcite, felsite, mica, chlorite, with
common, magnetic, and arsenical pyrites, with copper-pyrites, galena,
and zine blende. Crystals of gold have also been found, and gold
imbedded in crystals of quartz, in cavities of leads.

There are yet other characters suggestive of true veins. Often
there is a narrow band of crushed slate next the lead, called “ gouge,”
on account of the ease with which it is extracted by a thin long
pointed pick. Its fissile nature is probably due to disturbance at
the time the lead was formed. Again, these leads are known to taper
out, and what may be called their continuation to start in the side
slate, and expand to the original thickness from beyond the termi-
nation of the quartz at first worked.

While many of the gold-bearing leads are regular and persistent
for hundreds of feet and lie parallel with wonderful uniformity, a
careful following shows local troubles. Rolls and barrels and off-
shoots have been mentioned, and also their apparent influence on
the productiveness. Breaks and dislocations of the strata are not
uncommon; and while many undoubtedly are of later age, some
appear to be contemporaneous. A head or fault divides the Suther-
land lead at Sherbrooke without shifting the strata; and on one side
of it there are more bands and a greater thickness of quartz than on
the other. |

Another character, unmistakably that of a true vein, is occa-
sionally met with in the “ bedded” leads. For example, in the so-
called Barton lead at Tangier, at one spot the writer saw in the
middle of the quartz a flake of slate about 10 feet long and an inch
thick. The flake had rough edges, and had evidently parted from
the hanging wall; for a trail of fragments at its ends marked its
course from a depression in the wall. [Fragments of slate, too, are
often found in the leads, lying in every direction ; in parts films of

H. S. POOLE ON THE GOLD-LEADS OF NOVA SCOTIA. 311

slate give the leads a ribbon-like structure, and suggest a series of
expansions of the fissures and successive depositions of quartz marked
by the adhering films of slate.

As it is from mining experience that the weightiest arguments
against the bedded origin of the leads can be adduced, fuller refer-
ence 1s made to matters that affect the mining than may seem war-
ranted in a geological paper. There are yet a few observations
worthy of note. The constituents of the leads are not uniformly
mixed: in the Hay lead 60 ounces of gold were aggregated in one
spot ; and extended workings in the same lead failed to find else-
where more than a few pennyweights of gold to the ton of quartz
and calcite, the latter a principal component of the lead. The
working portions of the leads are small, and the yield of gold not
uniform. So far, experience does not encourage extended search
beyond the limits of a working “‘ streak” by sinking or driving levels ;
and the writer is not aware of the discovery in depth of a paying
streak not known on the surface.

Relative Age of the Leads and Granite.

It has been suggested that the so-called granites which blot large
portions of the Paleozoic belt are not intrusive, but are merely highly
metamorphic rocks. That in every case they are so seems hardly
compatible with structural characters observable, and which may
here be briefly noticed. On traversing the country under review,
the hill-tops are often seen denuded of all detrital matter save a few
isolated boulders, and the junction of the granite with the sedimen-
tary rocks is in many places exposed.

At Mooseland, for instance, exposures show the line of contact as
clearly as would wooden models specially designed to do so; and
there the following observations may be made :—Granite occupies
the highest ground, presenting a curved margin, in part parallel
and in part transverse to the strike of the bedded rocks, which are
highly inclined and locally broken. Tongues and veins extend
from the parent mass of granite between the opened strata; and in
one about 2 feet wide there lies obliquely a thin slab of quartzite
half an inch thick and 6 feet long, which has evidently fallen away
from one of the walls. Another spot shows a larger slab, about 10 feet
long and 1 foot thick, which has fallen forward into the body of the
granite while the latter was still in a plastic state. Its original site can
without doubt be ascertained by measurement. Parallel to a vein of
pure quartz a vein of granite only half an inch wide, 200 feet from
the main mass, demonstrates the plasticity, if not fluidity, of the
granite; but whether it was derived from excessive local metamorphism

or injected from below, is open to question. The sharpuess of the

broken edges and the locally disturbed condition of the beds along
the line of contact certainly suggest the latter, while the crystal-
line structure of the protruding tongues seems to confirm it; for, as
in a chilled casting, the crystals are coarse in the centre and fine
next the walls, from more rapid cooling. The crystallization of the
mass is, in spots, streaked and irregular near the sedimentary rocks ;

312 H. 8. POOLE ON THE GOLD-LEADS OF NOVA SCOTIA.

and fragments of quartzite may be found imbedded in it. That the
intense heat of the granitic mass affected the structure of the con-
tiguous strata is evident from the development of andalusite crystals
in the quartzite, and of garnets in the slates,—the former at Moose-
land and near Fifteen-Mile Stream; and the latter close to the gra-
nite of Cochran’s Hill, Sherbrooke, in the walls of gold-leads, and
even imbedded in the quartz itself.

A most interesting spot bearing on the subject of this note is on
the barrens near the west shore of Moose Lake, where a quartz-lead
rising somewhat above the level of the containing quartzite is capped
by granite and pierced by small tongues of granite, suggestive, if not
conclusive, that the leads are of greater age than the granite.

Glaciation and the Leads.

Grooves and striz on the surface of the rocks protected from
further action by a covering of earth are common throughout the
region. Glaciers, an ice-sheet, and icebergs have each their adyo-
cates to account for them ; and the amount of denudation that they
have occasioned is variously estimated. The labours of the gold-
prospector have supplied some data which should not be overlooked
in forming a conclusion on the subject. The experience of the
gold-miner leads him, when he finds the “ throw ” of a vein, as he
calls the float or shoadstones, to seek to the northward. He gene-
rally expects to find it within 100 feet of where the “throw” —
comes to the surface—on the hang of a hill, and where the cover is
heavy, at a greater distance than where the surface is flat and the
soil thin. In exceptional cases, where a rich throw has been found,
trenches have been dug for many hundreds of feet, and every inch
of the ground examined without discovering thelead. The so-called
Rose lead at Montagu is still unknown, though the throw or drift
of similar appearance, and supposed to have come from one lead, has
been found to extend over 1000 feet of ground*. Another instance
occurred this summer (1878) at Cariboo: large boulders of quartz,
weighing in all some 40 tons, which were obtained from one spot,
yielded largely, and great search was made for the lead from which
they had been derived ; but the exploring-trenches both to the north
and south failed to finda lead. The boulders were found resting on
the bed-rock, which at the particular spot where they were found
was on a level with the surface, while about it the surface-soil was
deep.

eee of other rocks have been traced to their source miles
away. In the neighbourhood of Halifax the drift contains frag-
ments of limestone from the Lower Carboniferous and of amygda-
loidal trap from the Triassic of the Bay of Fundy, some sixty miles
distant. A lump of iron-ore was found on digging a well at Ham-
mond’s Plains, of similar appearance and composition to that of the
nearest known ore, that of Brookfield, thirty miles to the north.
These instances are sufficient to show that while the drift has carried

* Since traced 2200 feet in the direction of the striz, and a rich mine opened.

H. 8. POOLE ON THE GOLD-LEADS OF NOVA SCOTIA. 313

much of the “ throw ” or detached pieces of the rocks but a short
distance, it has removed some pieces to very great distances. In
general the drift is from the north—though, some prospectors say, on
some hill-tops itis from the south, indicating the existence of counter-
currents in the shallow waters, supposing the drift to have been due
to a northern current and not to an ice-sheet. The angular shape
and size of the fragments show that the disjointing force was not a

- comminuting one. It would further appear that the abrasion of the

surface due to the drift was not extensive. On the turn of the
Oldham anticlinal the surface is serrated, with the tops of the ridges
alone planed off, and the general appearance suggests that the
present contour was given before the ancient surface, broken by frost
and weather, had its fragments torn away and a new surface formed
by the attrition of blocks set in ice passing over it. In some cases
the very blocks apparently that made the striz have been turned
over and expose their under surfaces fluted in a similar way to the
surface of the bed-rock. Close to the Wellington railway-station a
narrow band of rock may be seen slightly elevated above the general
level and transversely crossed by striz evidently of later origin than
the displacement of the band; for the strive are deeper in the band,
and their continuations on the undisturbed surface do not take in
for 2 or 3 inches from the elevated edge of the band.

Gold in Carboniferous Conglemerate.

At Gay’s River the Carboniferous conglomerate is worked in a
small way for the gold which is found mixed with the lower portion
of the bed. In the “ runs” or hollows of the slate the bed-rock is
also removed to a depth of 3 or 4 feet for the gold contained in the
backs or crevices of the slate. The goldis not very fine; and pieces
weighing over a pennyweight are only occasionally found. Usually
the surface of the grains is rough, not as though it were fresh from
a lead, but rather as if each grain or piece of gold had been first
smoothed by attrition and afterwards had fine particles attached
to it.

The Total Yield.

Although of interest to the geologist and miner, the gold-fields of
Nova Scotia are not of great importance. The annual yield of late
years has only been about 13,000 ounces; the largest produce of any
one year was 27,000 ounces. The gold obtained is noted for its
fineness.

Discussion.

Mr. J. A. Puriires confirmed the views of the author as to the
leads of Nova Scotia being true mineral veins.

Mr. W. W. Smyrz stated that he thought the author of the paper
had rendered a most useful service to geology in completely up-
setting the theory (based on imperfect observation) of the bedded
origin of the leads.

Q.J.G.8. No. 142. YX

314 E, §. COBBOLD ON THE EXPOSED STRATA OF THE

22. Norzs on the Strata exposed in laying out the Oxrorp SzwacE-
FARM, at SanproRD-on-THamEsS. By Epaar 8. Copzorp, Esq.,
F.G.S., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. (Read February 25, i880.)

Tue strata under consideration consist of the upper and middle
members of the Oxford Oolites, together with the Kimmeridge Clay ;
and though little novelty can be expected in a paper on such well-
studied and readily accessible deposits, it is hoped that at least one
or two important facts may be put on record.

The area treated of is only about 14 mile in length from east to west,
and one mile from north to south. Itis situated about 4 miles S.E. of
Oxford, on the south side of the Thame and Aylesbury branch of
the Great Western Railway, and east of the turnpike road from
Oxford to Dorchester & Henley. Though small, it presents some
interesting variations in the strata.

Previous to the laying-out of the 350 acres selected for sewage-
irrigation, a number of trial-holes were dug to ascertain the nature
of the subsoils and substrata, and subsequently a complete system of
land-drainage was carried out, necessitating the digging of trenches
from 3 to 8 feet deep and not more than 66 feet apart all over
the land. There was therefore ample opportunity for obtaining
accurate information on the superficial development of the various
strata. 3

At Headington a generalized section of the beds appears to be
somewhat as follows :— :

Kimmeridge Clay. &.
Coralline Oolite........... okaay aioe gaiamas ender (say) 15
Comat o.4.. 0h cote ttr sae (say) 15

DIE YA cde cvecepnceben eg etessn gues soenccaeencmanee ener 2
Shel l-Pedhe. ic: 2. 8ien foze stk5 roads bod de eondeucescnehe 3
Cal car cons NGrit 25.7 stetsiee wees ve oseee cane neeen seine 60

Oxford Clay.

In the neighbourhood of Sandford and Littlemore, the Coral Rag
and part of the Coralline Oolite are replaced by marls which are in
places full of small oysters and Serpule, with a few other fossils,
but show no trace of corals*. These marls may be best seen in
the railway-cutting west of Littlemore Station, where they have
been thrown into long undulating curves, as shown in the section
(fig. 1), and have been traced to a distance of about one mile on all
sides.

Northward they may be seen at an old quarry on the top of
Rose Hill, Iffley; westward, at a small quarry behind the village
of Kennington‘on the other side of the Thames valley ; southward,
in Sandford Hill; eastward, in the side of a small pond near the

_ * One specimen of Thecosmilia has been obtained oa the sewage-farm, from
the lowest bed of the marls.

Fig. 1.—Section of Railway-cutting near Littlemore, Oxford.

Ww.
10 Pocket filled pea
veal with
ae) Oxford angular
Sewage- 3 fragments of
River pumping 4 ime- Level
: Thames, Station. Pocket, stone. Crossing. Road Bridge.

emore.

oe Re oT pee.

ww ee ee - e e e ee eeee

FS OI OLIV ar. eB ert ont
es a OTE ET
—>

4

1877-1878. |

Fig, 2.—Section along Road

through Sandford. Fig. 3.—Section on Sewage-farm. Fig. 4.—Section along Lane to Farm.
N. 5. NW: 8.E. W. ER.
Trial-hole No. 1. ra :
Sandford Site of Roman Trial-hole 8 Trial-hole
Bridge. Lane. Brook. Pottery. No.2. py No.3. Fence. Turnpike Road.

OXFORD SEWAGE-FARM, AT SANDFORD-ON-THAMES.

‘
'
'
{
'
|
1
1 ms
1 =>
|

= Slt,

pr
Sees ae

<a
<<

sy Calcareous Grit

WEE : : oralline-
ieeviny With Concretions. 4~%]|Limestone,

olite Marl, C= jClay. p=

+=

316 E. 8. COBBOLD ON THE EXPOSED STRATA OF THE

crossing of the railway by the cross road from Cowley to Garsington ;
and south-eastwards over a considerable portion of the sewage-farm.

A vertical section of the beds in the railway-cutting is given in
fig. 5. Here there are about 17 feet of alternate layers of marl
and clay, 37 in number and varying from 2 feet to 3 inches in thick-
ness. At the base the marl seems to graduate into limestone 1 foot
3 inches thick, which is succeeded by a bed of fine sand 2 feet thick
with fragments of shells and spines. Below this is a very compact
and hard limestone very full of shells, also 2 feet 6 inches thick. It
was from this bed that most of the stone was quarried of which the
bridges on this part of the line were built.

This is followed by the fine soft sand of the Calcareous Grit, which
contains very few fossils, and several layers of concretions of sandy
limestone. At 12 feet 9 inches below the top of this sand is a much
more continuous layer of similar stone, which has been found in
many places on the sewage-farm.

In the longitudinal section of the railway-cutting (fig. 1) the
strata are seen to be inclined at a slight angle westwards; but the
actual dip and strike have not been ascertained. At the Littlemore
Station, however, the inclination is reversed, and there seems to be
a slight anticlinal axis somewhere near the level crossing west of
the road ; but this may be apparent only, as the line of section neces-
sarily follows the curvature of the railway.

From the west end of the cutting the section is prolonged to the
river Thames, passing through the site of the sewage-pumping sta-
tion, the foundations of which came in a deep irregular depression
in the surface of the Oxford Clay, suggestive of an old river-course,
but at a lower level than the existing one.

The level of a spring on the side of the hill is also shown, as
giving a probable indication of the height to which the Oxford Clay
rises on this side of the valley.

No strata corresponding to the Coralline Oolite of Headington are
to be seen in this cutting; but apparently in the folds of the marls
on the west slope of the hill there are some pockets containing an-
gular fragments of limestone. Similar pieces may also be seen scat-
tered over the surface of the hill above the cutting ; so that possibly
it might be met with at a higher level.

In laying the sewage-pumping main along the road up Sandford
Hill an interesting section was exposed, a sketch of which is given
in fig. 2. At the foot of the hill the shell-bed (here very full of
Gervilla) and its accompanying sand were found. These were suc-
ceeded by marls having a vertical height of about 15 feet, of a bluish
grey colour, unlike those in the railway-cutting and on the farm,
which are more or less white. As the road has been made ina
cutting in the side of the hill, the change of colour may be due to
the oxidizing effect of the weather not having yet penetrated so
deep.

Above the marls was a thickness of about 12 feet 6 inches of very
hard fine-grained limestone in 3 or 4 layers with hardly any fossils,
evidently answering to the Coralline Oolite of Headington. Above

OXFORD SEWAGE-FARM, AT SANDFORD-ON-THAMES.

VERTICAL SECTIONS.

Fig. 5.— Railway-cutting Fig. 6.—Quarry on Sewage-
near Lnttlemore.

arm.
ft in. F za
1 3 {EGG soil with Pebbles.
Bie : A Contorted Marl.
3 { 5 3:|Marl Rubble.
1 @... Marl.
: Bi Clayey Sand.
ate imestone with Fossils
0 and.
2 0 { Limestone with Fossils
Sand.
1879.

ZEA

: a ' BS ee. :
b
for)
= Ex < Tt ARs
; A os : AY? : nN
WY f Ni EHO,
NaN
aes NN

| eS Fig. 7.—Trial-hole No. 3.
lo)
| e ft. in.
| 8 ey, PA mS Soil.
| 4.
i=) cor
=
9 : is = 1 t6 Clay.
‘ °
EE at ae “ Oyster” Bed,
: wm =
: e 1 0.. =| ** Brown Earth.”
; a Ley Bas “‘ Black Earth.”
: | 5 Lon... x Marl Rubble.
+ On y Hard Blue Stone.
0 9 ...2=== Marly Clay.
4 0 6.. s| Blue Stone.
=|
5 0 Marly Clay.
| =| Bottom of Hole.
|1878 >>| 1877.

Seale 3 in. to | foot.

317

Fig. 8.—Trial-hole

No. 1.
hs o { eae erate Black Soil wriets
Pottery.
a 1 Sand.
2 6 Coneretionary

“wy | Limestone.

Sand.

1877.

Fig. 9.—Trial-hole

No. 2.
ft. in
Eo Soil.
Marly Lime-
ae stone.
0 10 Sand.
Za :
1 04 ZA CG Limestone with
OZ Fossils.
Sand.
1877.
No. 4.
ft221Ns
OolGus.
P70:
ues
1 OFS

* Detritus of Marl (small Oy-
ster-shells),

318 E. 8. COBBOLD ON THE EXPOSED STRATA OF THE>

this, again, was a stratum of very sandy limestone 2 feet 6 inches
thick, suggesting a trace of the Upper Calcareous Grit.

Then followed compact Kimmeridge Clay, containing vertebree of
Phosaurus and quantities of crystals of selenite, also at the end of
the section near the surface a marly layer with some good specimens
of Rhynchonella inconstans. The inclination of the base of the Kim-
meridge Clay was ascertained to be 1 in 60 in the direction of the
road (8.8.H.), which would give a thickness of 20 feet at the end of
the section.

At the junction of the Kimmeridge Clay with the Coralline Oolite
was a peculiar, bright-red, earthy layer from 4 to 6 inches thick.

A section at right angles to this along the lane leading from the
south end of fig. 2 to the farm was also exposed, and is given in
fig.4; but it was too shallow in the lowest part of the road to show
the junction of the clay with the marls, which, it may be noticed,
again show long undulations, and rise to a higher level than the
clay, implying either a very sharp bend in the strata or a fault
through the lowest point of the section.

On the west side of the sewage-farm is a quarry sunk through
the base of the marls to the shell-bed below, which is used for road-
making. A vertical section here (fig. 6) shows the shell-bed and
sand resting on the Calcareous Grit, with the marls above. Where the
latter are within 3 feet of the surface they are much contorted and
mixed up, so as to lose their original bedding, and here and there
are balls or nodules of brown clay (probably foreign to the marls)
surrounded by concentric layers of darker and lighter material.

As considerable quantities of stone were required for making
roads, it was hoped that the same bed might be found on the other
side of the farm ; and several trial-holes were sunk with this special
object.

At no. 1 (fig. 8) a layer of concretionary stones, similar to that
in the sand of the railway-cutting at 12 feet 6 inches below the top
of the Grit, was found.

At no. 2 (fig. 9) the shell-bed is shown, but here it has dimi-
nished in thickness to about 1 foot, and as there was a considerable
quantity of water in the sand, it was not worth working.

At no. 3 (fig. 7) it was hoped that the Coralline Oolite would
be found as in Sandford Hill; but on sinking through the clay, marl
was at once found, with only two layers of stone 1 foot and 6 inches
thick respectively. It was also of a blue colour, similar to that in
Sandford Hill.

Subsequently a small quarry was opened (at C, fig. 3), close to trial-
hole no. 1, which exposed a quantity of Roman pottery. Several kilns
have since been found here, and in order to show the proximity of
the Kimmeridge Clay, the section (fig. 3) was constructed. It has
never been wholly exposed, and is therefore somewhat hypothetical
as to inclination of strata; but it was proved in many places by
subsequent excavations, and may be taken as tolerably correct.

The inclination was arrived at by setting off below the shell-bed
in trial-hole no. 2 a depth of 12 feet 6 inches, which was supposed to

OXFORD SEWAGE-FARM, AT SANDFORD-ON-THAMES. 319

give the surface of the concretionary stone shown in no. 1. In
order to prove this to some extent, heights of 15 feet and 14 feet
6 inches were set off above the base of the marl, corresponding to
the observed thicknesses in Sandford Hill; and lines drawn through
these points parallel to the assumed bed of rock in the Grit repre-
sented the tops of the marl and limestone, if present. This construc-
tion showed that instead of the Coralline Oolite being denuded, as
was at first supposed when marl was found under the clay of trial-
hole no. 3, it had entirely changed its character in the short distance
(1 mile) from Sandford.

Also, as the upper line intersects trial-hole no. 3 very nearly at
the depth where marl was found, there can be little doubt as to the
general accuracy of the section.

As coral-bearing strata are found on either side at Headington and
Cumnor, there seems to have been here a gap in the reefs, which is
filled with a more clayey deposit; and it is suggested that the influx
of clay may have been due to the muddy discharge from some river
which might hinder or altogether check the growth of corals, while
it was favourable to that of oysters. The width of the marl deposit
cannot be more than 33 miles, that being the distance between
Headington and Cumnor ; so the supposed river cannot have been
very large or very far off. Further, the rapid thinning-out of the Coral-
line Oolite of Sandford Hill (within possibly a length of 4 mile) points
to a further constriction in the river’s influence, which (if reliable)
gives a possible clue to the direction from which it flowed, viz. S.E.
It seems therefore probable that the Paleozoic rocks known to exist
beneath London may have been above water in the later Oolite
period and have had considerable extension to the S.W. and E£.

A considerable portion of the sewage-farm is upon the Calca-
reous Grit; and the many trenches have yielded the following few
fossils :—

Ammonites plicatilis. Ostrea gregaria.
cordatus (?). , Sp. (small).
Modiola bipartita. Serpula, sp.
Gervillia aviculoides. Sponge ?
Pecten vagans.
Perna, sp. Hemipedina marchamensis, from Hey-
Ostrea dilatata (large). ford Hill Lane, Littlemore.

Many beds of rock were met with in the sand; but no continuous
section was obtainable. The lower beds seemed hard and flaggy with
oolitic granules on the surfaces; those nearer the top frequently
presented irregular sponge-like shapes, and were very soft and fri-
able; while the upper beds were generally concretionary and more
compact.

The bottoms of the small valleys which intersect the farm are
filled with peat from 4 to 6 feet deep, in which have been found
Roman pottery (at 3 feet), freshwater shells, bones of deer, domesti-
cated pig, cow, horse, and dog. Under the peat, patches of gravel
of a very local character are found, quite unlike that in the Thames
valley.

320 ON THE EXPOSED STRATA OF THE OXFORD SEWAGE-FARM.

At trial-hole no. 4 (fig. 10) this gravel is composed almost entirely
of small oyster-shells derived from the marl. The peat here is
covered with a superficial clay, probably brought down by atmo-
spheric denudation from the Kimmeridge Clay on the hill near by.

It is hoped that these notes may not be altogether without in-
terest, as they may preserve some account of the various sections
exposed in the laying-out of the Oxford sewage-farm, which have
since been covered up, and are not likely to be again accessible.

Discussion.

The Preswent said the paper was an exceedingly interesting and
useful one, as placing on record what had been done.

Prof. Prestwicn said the area, though small, was extremely in-
teresting, as the sections differed so much from those of Headington
and Cumnor. The evidence, however, was perhaps too small to
found a theory upon.

Mr. Huptzston said that clay was not unfrequently mixed with
the Coral Rag. Probably that clay might come from the source
which supplied the clays of the contemporaneous portions of the
great Pelolithic formation of the Fenland.

Prof. SzeLry said that north of Oxford the Coral Rag became
split up into clays; the fossils changed with this.

The Presipent said the specimen obtained of Hemzpedina mar-
chamensis, and also some of the other fossils were remarkably fine.
As the sections were closed, such a record of the facts observed as
was furnished by this paper was of much importance.

J. W. DAVIS ON THE GENUS PLEURACANTHUS, AGASS. 321

23. On the Genus Prevracantuus, Agass., including the Genera
OrrHacantuus, Agass. and Goldf., Diptopus, Agass., and XENA-
cantaus, Beyr. By James W. Davis, Esq., F.S.A., F.G.S8., &.,
Hon. Sec. Yorkshire Geological & Polytechnic Society. (Read

January 21, 1880.)
[Puare XII. ]

Hirnerro specimens of Plewracanthus have not been discovered in
this country which would serve to illustrate the general characters or
zoological position of this geaus of fossil Fish. Teeth of Diplodus,
almost invariably associated with the spines named Plewracanthus, Ag.
and Orthacanthus, Ag., are found in all the great coal-fields. In
Staffordshire, Scotland, Lancashire, and Yorkshire, wherever fish-
remains are found, there is some proportion of specimens of these
genera. All the examples recorded are from the Coal-measures.

Though in England we have only the teeth and spines fossil, in
Germany and Bohemia several examples have been discovered in
which the whole of the fish is preserved. These specimens appear
to be higher in the geological series, and have been relegated to
certain passage-beds between the Coal-measures and the Permian,
and to the Permian rocks themselves.

The ichthyodorulite Plewracanthus levissimus was described by
the late Prof. Agassiz, in his ‘ Recherches sur les Poissons Fossiles,’
from an imperfect specimen obtained from the coal-shales of Dudley.
On page 330 of the same classical work, whilst discussing the
‘“‘ défenses des Raies,” a second spine is mentioned as somewhat re-
sembling Plewracanthus, and, in all probability, related to it. It
was named Orthacanthus cylindricus, and is figured in the third
volume, plate 45. figs. 7-9; but the description was deferred to a
supplementary volume, which, unfortunately, has never been written.
At the same time that these spines were discovered, there were also
found a number of fossil teeth, which were described and figured by
Prof. Agassiz as Diplodus gibbosus.

In 1847, Goldfuss* described a very fine specimen showing the
form of the head, vertebral column, pectoral and ventral fins, and
the spines still in position, imbedded in a cartilaginous mass im-
mediately behind the occipital region of the head. The spine in
this instance is round, has a median ridge on the dorsal aspect;
and on each side of the ridge, separated by a narrow groove, is a
row of denticles. This is clearly the Orthacanthus of Agassiz. The
fish was named by Dr. Goldfuss Orthacanthus Dechenii.

In the following year, M. Beyrichy described and discussed the
relationship of a fish resembling in all essential respects the one
described by Goldfuss, except that the spine, instead of being round,
like Orthacanthus, “is flattened before and behind, and has on each

* Beitrage zur Fauna des Steinkohlengebirges: Bonn, 1847.
+ Bericht der konigl. preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1848, p. 24.

Q. J.G.S8. No, 143. %

"B22 J. W. DAVIS ON THE GENUS PLEURACANTHUS, AGASS.

side rows of sharp, short, hook-shaped, backward-pointing teeth.”
This is evidently the same as Agassiz’s genus Pleuracanthus: but

. Beyrich gives it the new generic name Xenacanthus, remarking that
the Orthacanthus Dechenic of Goldfuss must be given up in favour of
Xenacanthus, and that though the name Pleuracanthus of Agassiz has
priority, and would have been well suited to embrace this new fish,
it was too well known as the name of a spine only.

In 1855, Sir Philip de M. Grey-Egerton, at the Glasgow meeting
of the British Association, pointed out that the spines of Pleura-
canthus and Xenacanthus and the Diplodus-teeth all belonged to the
same genus of fossil fish; and two years later, in the ‘Annals and
Magazine of Natural History,’ the same ichthyologist, considering
publication as the test of priority, enforces the claim of the genus
Pleuracanthus.

Prof. Rudolph Kner*, in 1867, in an elaborate paper on the
genera Orthacanthus, Goldf., and Xenacanthus, Beyr., after a care-
ful examination of all the Bohemian specimens available, arrived at
the same conclusion as to their identity that had been put for-
ward twenty years previously by Beyrich. Notwithstanding this,
the specimens which have been figured in illustration of his views
embrace examples with spines of both the Pleuracanthus and Ortha-
canthus type.

The principal difference between the genera Orthacanthus and
Pleuracanthus in the type specimens figured by M. Agassiz lies in
the position of the two rows of denticles or barbs. Both spines are
figured as straight, and have an internal cavity open at the base
and extending far towards the point. In Plewracanthus the denticles
are situated on the lateral faces of the spine, the two rows being as
widely separated as possible; whilst in Orthacanthus they are very
close together and extend along the posterior face. A reference to
the series of spines described in the following pages, along with
those already described and figured in the memoirs of the State
Survey of America, will prove that the difference in the relative
position of the rows of denticles must either be of small generic
importance or that many new genera will have to be formed for
their accommodation. Almost every intermediate stage between the
two forms is now known; the denticles extend at every angle
between the sides and back of the spine. After careful consideration
of the specimens, one is led to the more natural conclusion that
they have been borne by fishes having characters of a single generic
type, and that they should consequently be included in the genus
Pleuracanthus, Agass.

The teeth of Diplodus have hitherto been found associated in-
discriminately with the spines of Pleuracanthus and Orthacanthus ;
and there has been no generic difference detected in the somewhat
numerous species of Diplodus-teeth : this renders the probability of
the spines belonging to different species of the same genus very great,
and stamps their relationship almost with certainty.

A short time ago I had the pleasure of describing two new species )

* Sitzungsberichte der kaiserl, Akad. der Wissensch. Band lv. 1867.

ee ——

J. W. DAVIS ON THE GENUS PLEURACANTHUS, AGASS. 323

of the genus Compsacanthus, Newb., to this Society *. ‘The general
characters of that genus suggest a close proximity to Plewracanthus :
the terminal opening and the internal cavity, the straight, acu-
minate, dagger-shaped form of the spine, and the close, compact,
fine-grained structure of the bone closely resemble Plewracanthus ;
its method of attachment to the body, and its position immediately
behind the head, were, in all probability, similar in the two genera ;
in general appearance Compsacanthus presents a close approxima-
tion to some of the Pleuracanths, its only distinguishing feature being
its possession of a single row of denticles along the posterior face.

The genus Plewracanthus appears to haye been composed of fish
differing in many respects from any known to exist at the present
time. In external form they were formidable, somewhat fiat-shaped
fish, with a large head, large broadly expanded pectoral fins,
gradually tapering body, and large flat abdominal or ventral fins.
The tail is not well known, but appears, from imperfect impressions
preserved in some of the German strata, to have been unilobate,
with the caudal fin extending along the dorsal and ventral aspects,
and encircling the end, somewhat after the manner of that of an
eel. Immediately behind the occipital region of the head extended
the defensive spine. The latter was probably one fourth or one
fifth of the entire length of the fish. The body may have been
covered with minute pointed granulations or shagreen; but in the
majority of the specimens the skin appears to have been without
scales or other protection.

The head was massive, much depressed, and nearly round in form.
Extending in the form of a half circle along the anterior margin,
the jaws constitute a prominent feature. They were armed with
comparatively large, sharp, three-pronged teeth, which extended,
row behind row, from the circumference towards the centre of the
large mouth, very closely approaching the character and formation
found in the Sharks of the present day. The jaws and various con-
stituents of the cranium appear to have consisted of cartilage with
a multitude of closely approximating ossicular centres. In the
fossil state this conformation has a very characteristic and pretty
appearance; it was happily compared by Beyrich to a species of

mosaic. The little bony centres are square in form with the corners

rounded off, and shine with a bright and lustrous black appearance.
Many of the specimens from the Cannel Coal of Yorkshire are im-
pregnated with iron, which, in the form of pyrites, has replaced the
cartilaginous parts, thus encircling the black glittering enamel-like
specks of bone with a golden setting.

Possibly owing to the soft and easily compressed character of the
skeleton of the head, the orbits in the fossils are not distinguishable,
and the position and size of the eyes arenot known. There are indi-
cations, however, which might lead to the inference that they were
widely separated, and situated about; half the diameter of the head
from the extremity of the snout. In the specimen described by Dr.
Goldfuss there are two conical depressions, pointing anteriorly out-

* Quart. Journ. Geol. Soe. vol. xxxvi. p. 62.
Z2

324 J. W. DAVIS ON THE GENUS PLEURACANTHUS, AGASS.

wards, which may have been connected with the nostrils. Dr. Kner
considers that there were certainly four or five gill-arches, which
were furnished with a few long teeth. The gill-arches were at-
tached to the substance of the hyoid bones, their union with the
shoulder-girdle being similar to that in the Squalide. Immediately
behind the large jaws the head seems to have been contracted in
width. From the centre of this part the spine emerged. It was.
not connected by any articulation, but appears to have been simply
implanted in the cartilaginous mass of the occipital region. In all.
the specimens where the spine is present, it is found lying in close
proximity to and along the dorsal surface of the fish.

In the vertebral column the vertebre were cartilaginous, except
the apophyses to which the ribs were attached; these appear to:
have been more or less bony. The ribs were short and somewhat
rudimentary, broad at the base for articulation, and ending in a.
point. Immediately behind the spine there originated a dorsal fin,
which extended along the back to the caudal extremity. Besides.
the spinous processes attached to the vertebra and the spinous rays
which constituted the fin, there were two series of interspinous.
bones, the latter articulated in the usual manner.

This arrangement probably extended a short distance beyond the
abdominal fin. The interspinous bone next to the spinous process
of the vertebrae then disappears, the second one being continued
nearly to the caudal extremity of the body. A fin also extended
along the ventral surface of the body, and, joining the dorsal one,
formed a single-lobed tail. .

The pectoral arch was large and strong. Dr. Goldfuss* describes
it as being built up on either side of an inner bone composed of a
single piece, which, on the hinder part, is bent on its outer edge in
the shape of a knee. This edge is beset with fin-rays. The ante-
rior ones are very short and thin; those following are long and thick.
Just before the knee-shaped angle springs a strong, distinctly jointed
ray. It carries on its outward side seventeen thick strong fin-rays,
which become fibrous towards the end, and on its inner side a
number of smaller and closer fin-rays. It is not clear by what:
means the knee-shaped bones were attached to the remaining bones
of the shoulder-girdle. In a well-preserved specimen of the pectoral
fin from the Cannel Coal at Tingley, all the larger fin-rays are
jointed, the joints between each articulation averaging about half
an inch in length. The fin has probably belonged to a much larger
fish than the one described by Dr. Goldfuss. All the fin-rays were
semicartilaginous, with innumerable minute centres of ossification. |

The pelvic arch was constructed on a similar basis to the pectoral
one. A broad, short, knee-shaped bone sprang from the vertebral
column; and to this was attached an articulated primary ray, as in
the pectoral fin: but whereas in the latter small rays sprang from
the inner side of the primary ray, in the ventral fin only the outer
portion supported fin-rays. Dr. Kner describes the pelvic bones as
forming a ventral shield studded with hook-like appendages. These

* Op. Cite *

J. W. DAVIS ON THE GENUS PLEURACANTHUS, AGASS. 325

‘he considers may have served a similar purpose to that of the claspers ,
in cartilaginous fishes or the sheat-fishes. In some specimens they
are absent ; and these he concludes were female fishes.

The zoological affinities of this genus have been the subject of
much careful research. Prof. Agassiz considered it as representing
‘a fossil Ray nearly related to Zrygon. Dr. Goldfuss consigned
‘the genus to the Selachians, from its resemblance to Squatina ; and,
more recently, Dr. Kner has contended that it constitutes a distinet
order between the Selachians and the Teleosteans, having many
features in common with each, and forming an intermediate link
between the cartilaginous and bony fishes.

PLEvRACANTHUS, Agassiz (Davis).

Spines more or less circular in section, with an internal cavity,
terminal at the basal extremity, extending towards the apex; straight
or slightly curved, and gradually tapering to a point ; surface of the
‘spine, where not denticulated, smooth or finely striated. Implanted
portion of base short, with thinner walls than the exposed part of
the spine. Along some part of the surface there extend two rows of
denticles ; these may be widely separated and lateral, they may ex-
-tend in close proximity along the posterior surface of the spine, or
the two rows may occupy any intermediate position between the two
“specified.

‘1. PLEURACANTHUS Lzvissiuvus, Agass. Fig. 1.

Spine 8 or 9 inches long, -6 to -8 of an inch in largest
diameter at the base, tapering evenly to a fine point. Straight, oval
4n section, with an internal cavity extending from the base to within
a short distance of the point. Anterior and posterior faces smooth
or finely striated; their lateral junctions are armed with a row of
acuminate denticles (fig. 1), strongly curved towards the base, with an

Fig. 1—Pleuracanthus levissimus, Ag.

Denticles of spine, enlarged.

inclination towards the posterior face of the spine. Each denticle
occupies about -1 of an inch, Near the point they are smaller, and
at the opposite extremity somewhat larger. They extend from the
point along two thirds the length of the spine.

M. Agassiz, who described this genus and species from an imper-
fect specimen obtained from the coal-shales near Dudley, lays con-

326 J. W. DAVIS ON THE GENUS PLEURACANTHUS, AGASS.

siderable stress on the presence of a large groove or channel extend-
ing along the inferior face of the spine. In the several specimens in
my own cabinet from the Lower and Middle Coal-measures of York-
shire, there is no evidence of such a groove; the anterior and pos-
terior faces are, as nearly as possible, one the counterpart of the other.
The upper part of the spine was strong, the internal cavity very
small; and the specimens remain uncrushed. The lower part of the
spine was thinner, and the cavity proportionally larger, the result
being that the walls of the base are frequently crushed together and
broken. It appears probable, judging from the figure of Plewra-
canthus in the ‘ Poissons Fossiles,’ that the basal portion of the spine
was crushed in this manner, and misled M. Agassiz into supposing:
that there was a deep groove extending along the spine. Examples.
from the Staffordshire Coal-field, probably from the same stratum from
which M. Agassiz’s specimen was obtained, fail to exhibit any traces.
of this groove. .
Localit y. L. C.M. near Halifax, and M. C.M. x Tingley.

2, PLEURACANTHUS ERECTUS, sp. nov. Fig. 2.

Spine straight, 3°5 inches long, -4 inch wide at the Fig. 2.
base, converging in straight lines to an acute point.
Oval in section; the transverse diameter one third
greater than that between the posterior and anterior
faces. An internal canal traverses the spine nearly its
whole length; near the base it is oval in form, and the
walls are thin and crushed; thence the cavity contracts
and becomes circular, occupying the centre of spine.
Externally the anterior and posterior rounded faces
are covered with longitudinal striations; and a number
of small pittings are studded indiscriminately over the
surface, sometimes on the ridges, at others in the fur-
rows. At the junction of the anterior and posterior
faces the lateral edges are produced, and form a series
of blunt compressed projections or denticles. They
extend fully three fourths the length of the spine, and
are from 22 to 24in number on each side; they are orna-
mented similarly to the general mass of the spine.

Locality. Cannel Coal, Tingley (M. C.M.).

.P. erectus is a particularly straight example of the
genus ; and from this character I have ventured to
derive its specificname. In general form it is some-
what similar to P. levissimus, Ag.; but it is different
in almost all the details. It is more elegant-looking,
and converges from the base straight to the point on
all sides. Its denticulation in no way resembles that of
P. levissimus, excepting in its lateral arrangement.
The teeth are broad at the base, widely separated, and
very blunt-pointed; in P. levissimus they are closely
set, long, and acuminate ; the spine is less than half — Spine, nat.
the size of that of the latter species. size.

Pleuracanthus
erectus, Davis.

eS

J. W. DAVIS ON THE GENUS PLEURACANTHUS, AGASS. 327

3. PLEURACANTHUS TENUIS, sp. noy. PI: XII. fig. 1.

Spine remarkably long in proportion to the diameter; the basal
and apical extremities are wanting; when perfect, it probably
measured 6 inches in length. It is -2 inch in diameter. The basal
half of the spine is rotund in section; on the remaining portion
the anterior and posterior faces are depressed, and their connexion
with the sides forms a right angle, so that the form of the spine
nearly approaches a square (fig.3). Extending along the upper half.

Fig. 3.—Pleuracanthus tenuis, Davis.

Section of spine, nat. size.

of each lateral face is a row of blunt denticles tipped with bright
ganoine. The surface is covered with fine longitudinal striations and
a great number of minute punctures, which together give it a re-
ticulate appearance. There is an internal cavity, wide and round at
the base, and smaller near the apex. The cavity extends the whole
length of the part preserved. The spine probably converged to a
point when perfect.

Locality. Bone-bed, Better-bed Coal, Clifton near Halifax
(1. C.M.)

Pleuracanthus tenwis is a sufficiently peculiar species; the great
length, small diameter, and slightly curved form are characteristics
which at once distinguish it from all other species having the
denticles arranged on the opposite lateral faces of the spine. It
very nearly approaches in form the spine of the recent Trygon,
the body of the spine being nearly square in section, and tapering
very little until the apex is reached. ‘The teeth in the recent
form are long, pointed, recurved towards the base, and extremely
close together; in the fossil one they are rather widely separated,
broad at the base, and end in an obtuse point. It is, further, the
only species having lateral rows of denticles which is curved.
It is not an uncommon occurrence to find spines approaching more
or less to the form P. cylindricus (Ag.)—that is, with the teeth
on the posterior aspect, which are curved. Several examples are
known both in this country and America, but none, so far as I know,
of the P. levissimus type.

4, PLEURACANTHUS PULCHELLUS, sp. nov. Pl. XII. fig. 2.

Spine small and straight, 1°5 inch in length, and ‘1 inch broad
at the base. Its breadth, for about three fourths the length is
nearly uniform; it then becomes rapidly acuminate, and ends in a
point. Anterior and posterior faces smooth and considerably de-
pressed, the diameter from back to front being equal to half the
transverse diameter. An oval cavity extends from the base internally.
The part of the spine implanted is small, its walls thin and fre-

328 J. W. DAVIS ON THE GENUS PLEUKACANTHUS, AGASS.

Fig. 4.—Pleurdcanthus pulchellus, Davis.

Denticles of spine, enlarged.

quently crushed ; the upper two thirds of the length are armed on
each lateral face with about twenty exquisitely beautiful little
denticles ; they are firmly attached, recurved towards the base, and
culminate in an acute point (fig. 4). !

The beauty of this little ichthyodorulite has suggested its specific
name. |

Locality. Cannel Coal, Tingley (M. C.M.).

It is possible that the small spine, P. pulchellus, may be the
immature form of some other species; but I have at present no ev1-
dence that such is the case. JI have in all half a dozen specimens ;
and they are all of the same size within the eighth of an inch. It
most resembles P levissimus, Ag. There is a considerable sim1-
larity in the denticulation of this form and the type of Agassiz; at
the same time the method of insertion in the mass of the spine 1s
different. If these were young and immature specimens, we ought
also to find them of other and intermediate sizes ; but hitherto such
has not been the case. It is possible that further evidence may be
found; but for the present it will be better to distinguish these
spines as a distinct species.

5. PLEURACANTHUS ALTERNIDENTATUS, sp.nov. Pl, XII. fig. 3.

Spine straight, 25 inches in length when perfect, °2 inch in
greatest diameter at the base. From the base the diameter of the
spine decreases until it ends in a blunt point; the internal cavity 1s
terminal, circular, and comparatively small ; external surface striated
longitudinally ; anterior and lateral faces circular in section; the
posterior depressed and about the width of the diameter of the spe
(fig. 5).

Fig. 5.—Pleuracanthus alternidentatus, Davis.

Section of spine, nat. size.

The angle formed by the junction of the lateral and posterior faces
is set with seven or eight widely separated obtuse denticles, ex-
tending from the apex along one third of the length of the spine.
They present the peculiarity of being inserted alternately, the
denticle of one side being opposite to the depression on the other.
From this characteristic I have applied the nomen triviale as above.

Locality. Coal-measures, Middleton near Leeds. Leeds Literary
and Philosophical Society’s Museum.

J. W. DAVIS ON THE GENUS PLEURACANTHUS, AGASS, 329

P. alternidentatus is more nearly related to P. alatus than to any
other. It is, however, easily distinguished by its more robust ap-
pearance, the diameter being greatest between the anterior and pos-
terior surfaces, whilst in P. alatus the transverse diameter is greater.
The walls of the spine in this species are much thicker and stronger
than in P. alatus. The point of most divergence consists perhaps in
the widely separated and alternate denticles.

6. PLEURACANTHUS PLANUS, Agass. (sp. indet.).

In the ‘ Poissons Fossiles,’ tome iii. p. 176, M. Agassiz records a
spine of Plewracanthus, to which he has appended the specific name
planus ; itis said to be from the Coal at Leeds. Sir Philip Egerton,
who possesses the type of P. planus, writes me “that it is about 4
an inch in length, the basal end being absent; there are six or seven
strong hooklets on each side imbedded in the matrix. The exposed
surface is quite smooth and flat.”

7. PLEURACANTHUS ALATUS, sp. nov. Pl. XII. fig. 4.

Spine. Length 2-2 inches, breadth -2 inch; the general form is
straight. A slight appearance of curvature is given by the anterior
face curving from the base to the apex, whilst the posterior is
straight. From the basal end to the middle the spine has been
erushed ; it appears to have been uniform in diameter; from mid-
length to the apex it becomes gradually smaller, and ends in a fine
point. It is uniformly striated on the anterior and posterior sur-
faces ; the intermediate furrows are frequently broken into a suc-
cession of pittings, especially the lower parts. There is an internal

Fig. 6.—Pleuracanthus alatus, Davis.

a. Section of spine, nat. size. 0. Denticles, much enlarged.

cavity, open and large at the base. In section the posterior face
forms a much-depressed curve, the anterior curvature forming a semi-
circle above it (fig. 6 a); the lateral angles formed by the junction
of the two are ornamented or armed with a row of denticles (fig. 6 5),
numbering ten on each side. They extend from the point °8 of an
inch. The denticles are broad at the base, closely set and short,
terminating obtusely, with a slightly trenchant edge parallel to their
longitudinal axis. Those nearest the apex of the spine are less pro-
duced than those lower down.
Locality. Cannel Coal, Tingley (M. C.M.).

330 J. W. DAVIS ON THE GENUS PLEURACANTHUS, AGASS;

8. PLEURACANTHUS ROBUSTUS, sp. nov. Pl. XII. fig. 5.

Spine. Length 3°5 to 45 inches. Breadth, about mid-length, -4
of aninch. From the middle the diameter of the spine becomes
smaller in each direction ; towards the apical extremity it contracts
rapidly, and terminates in an obtuse point; the base is reduced to
three fourths the largest diameter. The spine is straight along the
dorsal side; the opposite one slightly curved. The lateral and an-
terior surfaces are covered with fine but very decided longitudinal
furrows, numerous towards the base, and disappearing, without
anastomosis, towards the apex. ‘The general form of the spine in
section (fig. 7 a,b) is rotund, the lateral faces being produced out-
wardly so as to meet the more depressed curvature of the dorsal
aspect. The dorsal surface is wide, embracing nearly one third of
the entire circumference of the spine. It is produced so as to form
a large median ridge ; and along the centre of this there are a number

Fig. 7.—Plewracanthus robustus, Davis.
a b

a. Section of the spine near the base. é. Section nearer the point.
. e. Denticles, enlarged.

of small punctures, which occasionally coalesce and form a slight
groove. On each side of the median ridge is a proportionally deep
furrow. The angles formed by the outer edges of these furrows
and the sides of the spine are armed with a series of large closely-set
acuminate denticles (fig. 7c). They extend from the surface of the
spine ‘1 of an inch, being nearly one half the diameter of the spine
they are very strongly implanted, and recurved towards the base
The outer surface of the denticle, z. ¢. the one forming the largest
curve, is produced in the form of a minute carina or keel. There
are about twenty denticles, extending rather less than one half the
length of the posterior face. The internal cavity is round, and,
except at the base, is comparatively small; it is in the centre of the
spine. The walls of the cavity are thin where it has been imbedded
in the muscles of the flesh; they gradually gain in thickness and
strength until the cavity ends in a point about 1 inch from the distal
end, the remaining part being solid.

The preceding species, viz. Plewracanthus robustus, alatus, and
alternidentatus, possess features in which, speaking broadly, they are:
somewhat similar to each other. Whilst, however, they possess this.

_ —————

J. W. DAVIS ON THE GENUS PLEURACANTHUS, AGASS. SOL

general similarity, they differ considerably in detail. P. robustus is
a larger and stronger spine than either of the others; it has quite
double the number of denticles on its posterior surface ; and the
space between the two rows of denticles is produced so as to form
a very distinct median keel ; it is deeper from back to front; and the
internal orifice is proportionally small. PP. alatus is a broader spine ;
its diameter is greatest from side to side; whilst P.ulternidentatus is
as nearlyround as possible—neither of the latter two possessing apos-
terior median keel. The posterior teeth differ in each of the species.
In P. robustus the teeth are long, arched, and terminate in a fine
point ; they present the appearance of being implanted in alveolar
cavities. The denticles of P. alatus are short, broad at the base, and
obtusely pointed ; they seem rather to be produced from the body
of the spine than implanted; they are opposite to each other, and
in this respect differ from those of P. alternidentatus, in which the
denticles alternate; in the latter also the denticles are much wider
apart, the spaces between them being quite double the breadth of
the base of the tooth.

An ichthyodorulite from the Linton coal-beds of America is de-
scribed by Prof. J. 8. Newberry in the Paleontological part of the
‘Geological Survey of Ohio,’ p. 56, pl. lix. fig. 7. It is somewhat
similar, judging from the figure, to P. alatus. It is more slender ;
the teeth are more numerous, acute, and recurved ; itis also straight
and round. VP. alatus is slightly curved, and the teeth are blunt.
The American specimen is named by Dr. Newberry Orthacanthus
gracilis.

9. PLEURACANTHUS crLInDRIcus. Fig. 8.

Orthacanthus cylindricus, Agass. Poiss. Foss. vol. iii. pl. 45. figs.
7, oc, 9.

Prof. Agassiz gives a figure of this species along with the name,,
but does not describe it. A reference is made to the genus in the
third volume of the descriptive text, p. 330, as a straight spine, of
circular form, with two rows of sharp teeth, the specimen being
from the Coal-formation near Manchester.

The length of the spine in a perfect state and full-grown is from.
16 to 18 inches. The one I have before me is 16 inches in length.
Its greatest diameter, 2 inches from the basal extremity, is *7 of an
inch. From this maximum thickness it tapers gradually and per-
sistently towards the apex, which ends ina sharp point. The spine:
is circular in form throughout its entire length. There is a round
cavity extending from the base to about two inches from the point..
Where the thickness of the spine is greatest the cavity occupies one
third the diameter, and slightly approaches towards the anterior
surface ; thence the cavity gradually contracts to a point towards
the apex. In the opposite direction the cavity is terminal, the
orifice becomes rapidly extended, its walls thin out, and end in a
sharp edge at its basal extremity. One inch and a half appears to
have been imbedded, the remainder exposed. The external surface
is covered with well-marked fine longitudinal striations, which be-

332 J. W. DAVIS ON THE GENUS PLEURACANTHUS, AGASS.

come finer or altogether disappear near the point. On the posterior
‘face there is a double row of obtusely pointed denticles two tenths

Fig. 8.—Pleuracanthus cylindricus, Davis.

a. Section of spine, 6. Portion of posterior surface, showing denticles.
¢. Denticles, enlarged.

-of an inch apart, except near the apex (where the space between
them is much reduced), slightly curved towards the base. They ex-
tend from the point downwards 71 inches, and increase somewhat
irregularly in size with the diameter of the spine or towards the
base. The denticles are firmly implanted, round near their base,
but contract and form a cone elongated transversely to the longitu-
dinal axis of the spine; so that whilst the points are towards the
base, they are also turned decidedly away from the centre of the
spine (fig. 8). In the specimen figured by M. Agassiz*, a median
ridge is represented along the posterior face, between the two rows
of denticles, and continuing the whole length of the spine. In the
specimens I have examined this does not occur: there is sometimes
a level surface between the denticles ; but more frequently there is a
very decidedly hollow groove, which rarely, however, extends far
beyond the termination of the denticles.

A section of another spine is represented in fig. 8a, in which
the denticles are very widely separated. It is of the same species as
the specimen described above; and all the intermediate stages may
be traced. In this instance the spine is of the same diameter as the
one represented in fig. 8 6, whilst the denticles are four tenths of an
inch apart, or double the distance. There is also in this example a
most decided groove, equidistant between the rows of denticles, and
quite one tenth of an inch across.

Locality. Not uncommon in the Coal-measures.

I am indebted to Mr. John Ward for placing at my disposal the
beautiful specimens from which the above descriptions have been
principally derived. They are from the ironstone shale at Fenton,
in Staffordshire. They are much larger and in better preservation
than any I have seen from the Yorkshire Coal-field. |

* Op. cit.

~~ a

J. W. DAVIS ON THE GENUS PLEURACANTHUS, AGASS. 333°

Dr. Goldfuss, in 1847, described and figured Orthacanthus De-
chenii*, found in Coal-measure sandstones at: Ruppersdorf, in Bohe-
mia. The whole remains of a fossil fish were found, with the spine
still attached to the back part of the head. ‘The fish probably mea-
sured 18 inches, and the spine 4-8 inches. The spine is described as
‘a single, straight, plain, circular, bodkin- or spike-shaped spine,
bearing on the posterior surface a row of barbs or denticles slightly
distant, alternately right and left of a somewhat elevated median.
ridge.” An enlarged figure of the spine is also given. The distinct
median keel, together with the alternate and widely separated den-
ticles, appear to distinguish this spine sufficiently from any other
species since described. Its nearest relative is O. cylindricus of
Agassiz, with which it agrees in being straight, circular, and taper-
ing toa point. O. cylindricus, however, has no median keel; and
its denticles are close and, for the most part, opposite.

Orthacanthus bohemicus, Fritsch, from Kounova, Bohemia, appears
in most respects to be closely related, if not identical with, P. cylin-
dricus. It is straight, and finely striated longitudinally. The two
rows of denticles are rather closely approximated, and appear to be
separated by a median groove.

The three species P. robustus, P. alternidentatus, and P. alatus are
extremely interesting, because they serve to bring together into one
genus the Pleuwracanthus and Orthacanthus of M. Agassiz. They form
intermediate links between the two; the lateral teeth of Pleura-
canthus levissimus give place in these species to others, which, though
not so widely placed as in P. levissimus, are still very wide apart ; the
posterior surface enclosed by the two rows of teeth occupies fully one
third the circumference; and in this respect they differ equally from
the Orthacanthus cylindricus figured by M. Agassiz, in which the
two rows of denticles are very close together.

Orthacanthus is a circular spine. Not only does this apply to
O. cylindricus, but to other species which haye since been described.
Pleuracanthus is depressed, forming an oval section. In the species
under consideration a triangular form is assumed, caused by the rows
of denticles projecting beyond the basal line at its junction with the
sides; this is especially the case in P.alatus. It has already been
mentioned that the specimens of P. (Orthacanthus, Ag.) cylindricus
vary much with respect to the position of the posterior denticles ;
in the type specimens they are quite near together, whilst others,
similar in all else, have the rows of teeth placed wide apart. In the
example figured (fig. 8 a) the denticles are almost as widely sepa-
rated as in P. robustus or P. alatus. Taking all these circumstances
together, we are driven to the conclusion that there is no generi¢
difference between Plewracanthus and Orthacanthus. When Prof.
Agassiz described the two genera, only the extreme forms were
known; and they appeared sufficiently distinct to warrant their generic
separation. During later years many other intermediate forms have
been found; and, as was suggested by Sir P. Egerton, the approxi-

* Beitrage zur vorweltlichen Fauna des Steinkohlengebirges (Bonn, 1847),
plate 5. figs. 9-11.

334 J. W. DAVIS ON THE GENUS PLEURACANTHUS, AGASS.

mation of the rows of denticles is now proved not to be a feature of
such importance as to render a distinct genus necessary; indeed
the frequent occurrence of the denticles of P. cylindricus widely
separated renders this feature of little value. Taken in conjunction
with the fact that nearly all the species of Orthacanthus described
since O. cylindricus have been more or less curved, there can be no
reason why-the genus should not merge in Pleuracanthus.

10. PrevracantHus WarpI, sp. nov. Pl. XII. fig. 6.

Imperfect spine, 6 inches long, base and point wanting ; broadest
part °5 inch, and the opposite end -3 inch indiameter. It is curved
backwards. The anterior surface is semicircular im section, and
covered with very fine longitudinal strie. The sides are produced
somewhat squarely ; posterior portion, from the median lateral angle
to the point of insertion of the denticles, is depressed, as in fig. 9.

Fig. 9.—Pleuracanthus Wardi, Davis.

Section of spine, nat. size.

There are two rows of denticles, extending along 4 inches of the
posterior face of the spine in this specimen. In a perfect example
the extent of denticulated surface would considerably exceed this
length. The rows of teeth are about one tenth of an inch apart,
and are separated by a median groove; they are obtusely pointed ;
the intervening spaces are connected together so as to form a con-
tinuous longitudinal ridge, produced from the surface of the spine,
rather than a series of separate teeth. The internal cavity is large
in proportion to the size of the spine.

This species is distinguished from P. cylindricus, the species to
which it is most closely allied in form and characteristics, by its
decidedly curved form, by the arrangement of the denticular lines
so as to form a continuous ridge with slight obtuse projections, and
by the narrower space constituting a simple groove between them.
I have much pleasure in employing the name of Mr. Ward, of
Longton, in order to distinguish this spine specifically. Like most
workers in fossil ichthyology, I have been much indebted on many
occasions to his uniform kindness and willingness to render assistance,
either by his extensive knowledge or the ample contents of his
cabinets.

Locality. New Ironstone (Ragmine), Fenton, Staffordshire.

11. PLEURACANTHUS DENTICULATUS, sp. nov. Pl. XII. fig. 7.

Spine. Length 2:2 inches, diameter :2 of an inch ; basal end not
perfect. From the base it becomes gradually smaller, and ends in a
fine point. It is slightly curved dorsally. The anterior and lateral

J. W. DAVIS ON THE GENUS PLEURACANTHUS, AGASS. 335
‘surfaces are round and smooth; the posterior is depressed, one tenth

of an inch across at the base, contracting to a small groove towards
‘the apex; the angles formed by the contact of the posterior and

Fig. 10.—Pleuracanthus denticulatus, Davis.

Denticles of the spine, enlarged.

lateral faces are armed with a series of closely set denticles (fig. 10),
which are small, comparatively broad at base, contracting suddenly, -
then forming a earinated apex, pointed at the extremity towards
the base of the spine. There are 20 denticles on each side in the
space of an inch; and in the specimen figured there are 45 on each
side. A circular cavity (which appears, as usual, to be terminal) ex-
tends towards the point; it is large in diameter in proportion to the
spine.

Locality. Better-bed Coal, Clifton, near Halifax.

Several specimens which have been obtained from the Cannel
Coal at Tingley may probably be referred to this genus. They pre-
sent some points of difference ; but these may probably be accounted
for by the relative position of the two stratigraphically, the Cannel
Coal being several hundred feet higher in the Coal-measure series
than the Bone-bed. The Tingley spines are slightly compressed
laterally ; the anterior and lateral faces are striated near the basal
extremity ; the posterior denticles are small and much resemble
those of the Bone-bed specimens ; the base is better exposed, its walls
are rather thin, and the internal cavity is large; the spines ex-
pand towards the base. A perfect example will be about 3-5 inches
in length.

P. denticulatus appears to be most nearly associated with P.
Wardi, and with a spine described by Dr. Newberry (in the Pale-
ontological volume of the ‘Survey of Ohio,’ vol. i. p. 332, pl. lix.
fig. 4) as Orthacanthus arcuatus. The latter is described as finely
striated longitudinally on the anterior surface—the posterior surface
occupying one third the circumference, and having a low ridge along
the median line. The denticles extending along the latero-posterior
angles are much closer together and more numerous, and from the
figure appear to be quite different in character from those in my spe-
cimen. In all these particulars the two species are clearly divergent ;
in other respects they are similar; in curvature and general form
they are evidently very closely related.

P. denticulutus is easily distinguished from P. Wardi by the large
size of the latter, the peculiar squareness of its lateral faces, and
its obtuse teeth connected together by intermediate ridges. In
these respects they differ essentially from each other.

336 J. W. DAVIS ON THE GENUS PLEURACANTHUS, AGASS.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XII.

. Spine of Plewracanthus tenuis, Davis, nat. size.

. Spine of Pleuracanthus pulchellus, Davis, twice nat. size.
Spine of Plewracanthus alternidentatus, Davis, nat. size.
Spine of Plewracanthus alatus, Davis, nat. size.

. Spine of Pleuracanthus robustus, Davis, nat. size.

. Spine of Plewracanthus Wardi, Davis, nat. size.

. Spine of Pleuracanthus denticulatus, Davis, nat. size.

Fig.

ATO Sub Oo bo

Discussion.

The PresrpEent stated that in the southern division of Yorkshire
fish-remains are much more common than is usually supposed.

Dr. Duncan remarked upon the variability of spines in fishes.
He welcomed the reduction in the number of genera, but was not
prepared to accept Mr. Davis’s views on the affinities of these fish,
especially in the absence of all Teleosteans from the Secondary for-

mations.

The AvrHor stated that many tons of fossil fish-remains must
have been destroyed before the interest of the coal band was dis-
covered. In reply to Dr. Duncan, he deprecated the acceptance of
negative evidence as to the absence of Teleostean forms in Mesozoic
times. He argued that both Celacanthus and Plewracanthus were
probably freshwater fishes, the former possessed of an air-bladder.

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SPINE

THE PRECARBONIFEROUS ROCKS OF CHARNWOOD FOREST. 337

24. The Prucarnoyrrerous Rocks of CHaRnwoop Forrst.—Part ITI.
Conclusion. By the Rey. E. Hitt, M.A., F.G.S., and Professor
T. G. Bonney, M.A., F.R.S., Sec.G.8. (Read May 26, 1880.)

ConTENTS.
1. The Northern District. 4. Bardon Hill.
2. Additional correlations. 5. Fragments in agglomerates.
3. The district of Sharpley, 6. The Slates.
Ratchet Hill, and Peldar Tor. 7. Igneous Rocks,

In our former communications on this region we gave a general
description of the northern district. Though some points were
worked ont in detail, yet less time was devoted to this than to the
more accessible districts, and several difficulties remained, on which
we hoped that renewed work and wider experience would throw
some light. Accordingly, during the last two years we have repeatedly
visited the neighbourhood, and added largely to our collection of
rocks and slides*; the present paper contains the results of these
studies, which we venture to hope will not be without interest.

(1) The Northern District.

In our brief notice of the beds in the Blackbrook and Charley
region, as we had paid no minute attention to them, we followed
previous writers in calling some of them quartzites. As will appear
from the descriptions below, no rock here can properly be called a
quartzite ; and we propose to denote this important group, apparently
the lowest visible among the Charnwood beds, simply as the Black-
brook series. The normal rock is a pale-greenish sandy-looking
rock, commonly much stained with ferrite from the Trias, more or
less finely banded, and somewhat cleaved. It is best seen near the
‘Blackbrook toll-gate, on the Ashby and Loughborough road, and here
is of a pale greenish grey colour, with reddish stains, somewhat com-
pact and decidedly like a quartzite. Under the microscope it éxhibits
a clear matrix full of very small microliths (belonites &¢.) of a very
pale green colour, with irregularly disseminated subangular ‘grains
of quartz, and some felspar, now and then stained with ferrite. The
microliths are probably a pale fibrous variety of hornblende. With
crossed Nicols many parts of the slide show a cryptocrystalline
structure, resembling that of a devitrified rhyolite, distinct frag-
ments of which rock appear to be present. From the structure we
should suspect that the rock originally was largely composed of a
pumiceous dust. The rock by Charley church, which has a general
resemblance to the above, and is probably on nearly the same
horizon, strongly confirms this view. It is composed chiefly of
small fragments, apparently rather angular, but looking as if much
compressed, which very closely resemble bits of a rather decomposed

* More than 60 slides have been prepared, all by Mr. F, G. Cuttell, making
| the total number examined from Charnwood about 150.

Q.J.G.8. No. 143. Qa

‘838 . ° REV. E. HILL AND PROF. T. G. BONNEY ON THE

glassy trachyte, indications of a fluidal structure being still dis-
cernible. Among these (besides the above microliths) occur very
- angular fragments of quartz and a few of felspar crystals.

At Upper Blackbrook, on a ridge, are beds containing plenty of
visible quartz grains, and small fragments of a decomposed, whitish,
very compact felsite. On Ives Head, and east of Finney Hill are coarse
grits, the grains being principally decomposed felspar or felsite, as
if waterworn volcanic material. Some beds, as on the west side of the
bed of the old Reservoir, are of finer material, compact flinty slate. A
greenish mottled variety occurs in the garden of the farm-house by
the isolated outcrop near Charley Wood. It is an ashy grit, seen,
under the microscope, to consist of rather rounded grains of felspar
with some quartz, and numerous fragments the exact nature of
which it is hard to determine; but some certainly seem to be
trachytic lapilli, and the whole is not improbably detritus from
a trachytic volcano. One of the quartz grains contains a relatively
large irregular enclosure which is almost certainly a devitrified
glass.

We do not, with our present knowledge, feel in a position to corre-
late all the outcrops. The series forms a well-marked base to the
Charnwood rocks; and the similarity of outcrops on the same strike
seems to show that there is little disturbance by cross faults. On the
other hand we have more than once suspected some repetition of beds
by strike-faults, particularly at Blackbrook. There are arguments
both for and against this view.

The beds in this northern region on the east side of the
anticlinal have hitherto been supposed to differ entirely from this
Blackbrook series. This view we accepted in our former notices.
But when we came to examine them more minutely, it appeared
that with some differences they had also many common characters.
At Short Cliff and some other points green slaty rocks are found closely
agreeing with some of the Upper-Blackbrook beds. At the Whittle-
Hill quarry and to the west of it are whitish ashy-looking fine grits
or gritty slates, whose materials recall the white decomposed felsitic
fragments of Upper Blackbrook. The rock of Moorley Hill, where
two large quarries are opened, is externally very different; yet,
under the microscope, even this appears to have affinities with the
rest. Here are dull greenish banded grits, some beds being very
fine. The microscope shows the coarser rock to be composed of
angular and subangular fragments of quartz, felspar (both orthoclase
and plagioclase), with rock-fragments, some appearing to be tra-
chytic, and one showing. very distinct traces of fluidal structure.
There is iron peroxide, some decomposed ilmenite, and a good amount
of viridite; and the felspathic constituents are much decomposed.
The materials have probably been arranged by water.

_ An outcrop about half a mile west of this, seemingly of the lowest
beds on the east side of the anticlinal (a quarter of a mile south of
the east end of Whitehorse Wood), shows soft ashy grits and fine
slaty: rock, some of the latter being very like some Blackbrook
varieties, while the other is akin to Moorley Hill. Microscopically,

PRECARBONIFEROUS ROCKS OF CHARNWOOD FOREST. 339

the green rock shows the usual constituents, with some signs of
decomposition, a larger proportion of viridite, including some chlorite.
The materials are probably waterworn.

There is rock in the spinney by the New-Cliff quarry which is
externally different from most of the Blackbrook series. It has,
however, something in common with the Ives-Head beds. This is
a coarse greenish-grey grit, of well-rounded grains. Microscopically,
even this has a general resemblance to the specimen from Moorley
Hill, except that the greater part of the green mineral is doubly
refracting. In both, the felspars with their included microliths
and general structure recall those in many modern trachytes.

(2) Additional Correlations.

On the west side of the anticlinal the Blackbrook series appears
everywhere to be overlain by the coarse ashes of the Monastery,
Hanging Stones, &c., the agglomerates of the High-Towers region,
and the rocks of Sharpley. If, then, we are right in supposing
that the lowest beds on either side of the anticlinal belong approxi-
mately to the same series (and the throw of the strike-faults is
much less than was formerly supposed), the equivalents of the
coarse agglomeratic rocks of the western side ought to be found
above the beds already described on the eastern. Bearing in mind
the possibilities of change in aspect, we minutely reexamined all
the latter district, with the following result:—The soft ashes and
pale green flinty slate of Whittle Hill have obvious affinities with
the Blackbrook type. But in a spinney due north of the quarry,
at no great distance, we found rock clearly in situ, not only of an
entirely different type, but so closely resembling the Monastery
coarse-ash beds, that without the labels our hand-specimens could
not be distinguished from some of them. The microscopical evi-
dence agrees with this. There are the usual constituents, a good
deal decomposed, with much hornblende giving a more or less schistose
structure, and but little quartz. The rock-fragments much resemble
devitrified rhyolites; and in parts of the slide the fragmental
structure becomes almost obliterated, while in others it is very
distinct.

For this correlation there is additional evidence. Above the
coarse ashes of the Monastery and Hanging Stones are vast piles of
agglomerates. Here, on the eastern side, no such agglomerates
occur, so far at least as we know; but we do find at more than
one point beds of a dark-green grit, which have no small resem-
blance to the matrix of some of the agglomeratic beds. Also a thick
grit bed on the Buck Hills * has much likeness to a bed on the
High-Towers ridge; and though most of the beds hereabouts are
banded slates which have no obvious equivalents across the anti-
clinal, yet it may be noticed that there are indications of stratified

* The coarser rock of the Buck Hills contains a considerable amount of
quartz; and the microscope shows many lapilli, one or two exhibiting acicular
microliths of felspar, as well as included crystals of the same mineral.

242

340 REY. E. HILL AND PROF. T. G. BONNEY ON THE

beds at several points near the Monastery, and doubtless those great
agglomerates are extremely local and exceptional formations.

We showed, in Part I., that the Monastery coarse-ash beds belong
to a horizon which can be traced down the whole western side of
the anticlinal as far as Benscliff Wood. Distant from them about
a mile, measured across the strikes, we meet at several points
(Markfield, Ulverscroft mill, &c.) with agglomerates containing
slate which can be traced through Bradgate across the anticlinal to
the wood of Blores Hill. We have since traced the Markfield beds
(Altar-stones) some distance further to the north-west, and have
been struck by their strong likeness to some of the beds at Abbot's
Oak (Green Hill), which appeer to overlie by a very short interval
the slate agglomerate on High Towers. We have also discovered
an agglomerate identical with the Blores-Hill mass in the grounds
north-east of Roecliffe Hall. Its strike points to Woodhouse-Eaves
Mill, where, also, are beds with fragments of slate. No equivalents
can be identified on the continuation of this strike in the grounds
of the (Woodhouse) Hanging Rocks; but there is probably some
slight bending or faulting ; for beyond, at three different outcrops in
the Outwoods, are agglomeratic rocks with large fragments of slate,
to all appearance belonging to the same horizon *.

We have thus traced the horizon of the great slate agglomerates
round three fourths of the circumference of the Forest, from Lough-
borough Lane in a circuit about to High Towers. As we mentioned
above, the coarse-ash beds, whenever found, occur at a distance of
about a mile from this horizon. Now the distance from the coarse ash
on the Whittle Hills to the slate agglomerates in the Outwoods is
almost exactly a mile. Thus the evidence for the identity of the
coarse ash above Whittle Hill with that round the Monastery is as
strong as the nature of the case admits.

It follows that our estimate of the throw of the anticlinal fault (given
in Part II.) must be considerably reduced. The horizon of the
slate agglomerates, judging by their position at Roecliffe Hall, must
also be much nearer that of the grit and pebble beds than we had
previously supposed.

The beds on Longceliff appear by their strikes to underlie those on
the Whittle Hills. Yet they have, as we said, no resemblance to
the Blackbrook series. Their affinities are rather with those of a
much higher horizon. In one or two places fragments of the pinkish
felsite were distinctly seen with the eye. Several slides have been
examined. Quartz grains are present, similar to those of the
Sharpley-Peldar district, and broken felspar crystals also with similar
microlithic inclusions f, and numerous lapilli, mostly of the usual
rhyolitic type ; epidote is present, with much chlorite, viridite, and the
usual fibrous hornblendic mineral. On the whole these Longcliff beds
have much in common with the finer portions of the beds of the
north-western district already described. There is alsoamong them

* We may notice, in passing, that the agglomerates of this horizon contain

fragments which we took originally to be purple slate, but now recognize to be
purple rhyolite. tT See p. 343.

—— a a 2 ae

PRECARBONIFEROUS ROCKS OF CHARNWOOD FOREST. 341

an agglomerate with slate fragments ; and slate fragments belong in
general only to the higher portions of the Charnwood series. We
are inclined, therefore, to think them dropped down here by some
faulting. A chain of greenstone intrusions (two of which are new
discoveries) extends from New Cliff, over Long Cliff, to the Buck Hills,
and may possibly have some relation to the position of the fault, if
such exists.

The annexed section, which is only diagrammatic, may serve to
render clearer our idea of the general relation of the beds on either
side of the anticlinal at the northern end of the Forest. It isdrawn
in accordance with Prof. Bonney’s view—that the Blackbrook-toll-
gate beds are about the lowest of all, and that a fault parallel with
the anticlinal fault has a larger throw than it.

Fig. 1— Diagrammatic Section (on a line curving to N.) to express
the probable relation of the beds in the northern part of Charn-
wood Forest.

Blackbrook. Moorley.

2 on A oe eee

1
1
1
1
4 -
'
1
'

a. Sharpley Rock. b. Coarse Agglomerate. ce. Fine Volcanic series.
d. Blackbrook series, slaty in upper part. e. Trias.

(3) District of Sharpley, Ratchet Hill, and Peldar Tor.

We gave in Part I.* a general description of these beds, stating
that, after careful comparison of the Sharpley rock, that of the base-
ment beds of Ratchet Hill, and the rock of Peldar Tor, we consider
them the equivalents one of another. We have subsequently ex-
amined more minutely the whole district, with the following results :—
In the first place, we have detected the characteristic rock which
forms the ridges of High Sharpley, at the base of Peldar Tor itself
(near to Spring-Hill Farm), in two little spinneys to the north of this,
and near another farm in the direction of Kite Hill. We have also
traced this rock to the north of High Sharpley, and found that at last
it is either split up by small slaty bands, or contains lenticular
fragments of slate, and passes at one place into a purplish agglo-
meratey. There is then a very considerable mass of rock of the type
found at High Sharpley, and it clearly underlies the beds visible in
the main part of Ratchet Hill and Peldar Tor; further, among the
lowest beds of the former, together with a green rock, like that of
Bardon Hill, is some of the Sharpley type. : Microscopic examination
also showed that the difference between these two rocks was more
apparent than real.

It results, then, that the Ratchet-Hill and Peldar-Tor rocks are

* Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxxiii. p. 777.
t On the map, just under the ¢ in ‘“ Swanymote.”

342 REY. E. HILL AND PROF, T. G. BONNEY ON THE

about on the same horizon; and though the former are much less:
uniform than the latter, containing well-marked agglomeratic beds,
yet parts may be found even here very closely corresponding with
the typical Peldar-Tor rock. On that hill fragments seem to have
become rare and small; but the crystals of quartz and felspar are
rather larger.

This rock of High Sharpley is one presenting several difficulties.
Its ground-mass is of a purplish grey colour, and is compact, much
like a felsite, containing numerous crystals (often fairly perfect)
of quartz and felspar, sometimes as much as + inch in diameter,
but generally rather less. It has a distinct though imperfect
cleavage, the surfaces being wavy (doubtless owing to the resistance
of the included minerals). ‘These surfaces have a very faint satiny
lustre, giving the rock at first sight a slightly schistose aspect.
Cleaved felsites do, indeed, sometimes look rather schistose; but the
latter structure is usually very local; while the thickness and extent
of this Sharpley rock is considerable, and its character uniform*.
Further, there is in its aspect something hardly to be described in
words, which to the practised eye suggests a doubt of its igneous
origin. Here and there we note a very faint indication of a frag-
mental structure ; and at the western end of the southern ridge, and
again about halfway along it, the rock becomes unquestionably
clastic, containing in an ashy matrix fragments of a purplish por-
phyritic felsite, which is itself extremely like the typical Sharpley
rock 7.

Eight microscopic slides have been prepared from different parts
of the ridges of High Sharpley, and four from other outcrops in the vi-
cinity. The ground-mass of these is often, at first sight, remarkably
like that of an acid lava, as it consists of a transparent base, crowded
with microliths of opacite and ferrite, with epidote and (?) sericite,
generally rather irregular in form. ‘The first and second are so
arranged as to give the slide a more or less granular structure,
which in some cases is. well defined, and then the ground-mass is
more translucent. In one or two of the slides a vague indication
of fragmental structure can be discerned. In this ground-mass are
scattered crystalline grains of quartz and felspar (small and large),
of iron peroxide, and of epidote and viridite replacing some other
mineral. With crossed Nicols the rather granular aspect of the slide
nearly or quite disappears, and the field resembles a glass crowded
with inumerable microliths, mostly, if not all, felspar, often rather

* We have received from a friend a partial analysis of this rock, which may
give a general idea of its composition :—

SiO, a ccbcuuen seuuareesengencneneeree = 68:05
Al,O ;
co: } ie ctl ta oa 26-23
CORD T : cceudty euats ti hl Ra e 1:28
DEO es shit eeck Ucplansduaenepee noes 1:10
A Wealies &0. ..2532icecsyotenncetes ogeck 3°34
100-60

+ The same rock is found on Ratchet Hill and elsewhere: see p. 344.

PRECARBONIFEROUS ROCKS OF CHARNWOOD FOREST. 343

~wavy and indefinite in outline, bearing a general resemblance to a
ryptocrystalline structure common in devitrified rhyolites. On
rotating the stage other microliths appear in the dark parts; and it
‘is doubtful whether any glass really remains. Minute quartz grains,
.so far as they can be recognized, are not numerous. Most of those
present are from % to} inch. In outline they vary, being some-
times rounded or subangular, sometimes showing crystalline angles ;
they are often traversed by cracks ; occasionally they include a little
of the ground-mass and specks of viridite, but usually are fairly
clear, though here and there are a good many enclosures, some being
opacite, but many almost colourless, like minute cavities (fig. 2). The

Fig. 2.—Portion of broken Quartz Crystal, with Inclusions of Matrix
minute Cavities si Sc. High Sharpley. (Enlarged.)

ayn

Lee “i aT se pare. ‘ng we si) iit | He

or awed Ie

pee ut hich oe an i
ri

22-5

bie

felspars are rather decomposed and stained with ferrite; but ortho-
clase and a plagioclase, probably oligoclase, can be recognized. Both
include numerous microliths of epidote, viridite, and perhaps another

Fig. 3.—Felspar Crystal with Inclusions resembling Brown
Glass, §c., Hig es se oe Y Be )

es ve soe MF

Re

i ely

ANE wea aA ae
i Nt / il

aS
‘fp SU
at l oe i a

Ease ;
Rite meals i
Nee

ih ie
ye iB
Peace 7a ual baal

= ta
ah Weis Gt aecarten
rather similar mineral, together with a substance much resembling a
brown glass * ; these often. lie in the planes of cleavage (fig. 3). These
felspars are frequently in perfect crystals, but sometimes appear

* The general aspect of these felspars is remarkably like those in many
trachytes. |

344 REY. E. HILL AND PROF. T. G. BONNEY ON THE

broken. The large grains of epidote are obviously of secondary forma-
tion ; from their octagonal outline and angles we may, in two cases,
safely assert the original mineral to have been augite ; viridite ap-
pears, both associated with it and alone, probably also replacing a
kindred mineral. }

Slides cut from the rock at the base of Peldar Tor, from the
Sharpley-like rock in the Bardon-Hill pit, and from the outcrops
mentioned above have been carefully studied: their differences from
the above are merely varietal; and the green rock at the base of
Ratchet Hill, though containing a little more viridite, is in all
essential points identical.

The question, then, we have to answer is: Are these rocks lavas?
and if not, how is their porphyritic structure to be explained? Cer-
tainly they are not unlike lavas ; the cryptocrystalline ground-mass,
the included crystals, would not ill agree with a devitrified rhyolite
such as we can examine in the Wrekin district, or between Caernarvon
and Bangor. Still, on closely studying the ground-mass of these
Sharpley rocks, we note various minute points of difference, such as an
indefiniteness of structure, a suggestion here and there of fragments,
which seem to separate them from every undoubtedly igneous rock
which we have studied. The persistent schistose character of the
rocks over so large an area is also most difficult to explain on that
supposition. So also is the gradual passage of the undoubtedly
fragmental bands (in the southern ridge) into the normal rock.
Were the latter a lava, the line of demarcation between it and
the ash-bands should be a definite one, and be detected without
much difficulty, as the rock-surfaces exposed are favourable to
examination. After repeated study in the field and with the
microscope, and comparisons with numerous type specimens, we
cannot alter our original opinion that these rocks of High Sharpley
are not lavas.

We are then called upon to explain their porphyritic structure.
The quartz and felspar grains closely resemble those occurring in
many other Charnwood rocks which undoubtedly are of clastic
origin ; they also resemble them in having clear, sharp boundaries,
even when broken. ‘There is not that indefiniteness of outline
and appearance of melting away (as it were) into the surrounding
ground-mass which commonly characterizes crystals (especially of
felspar) when developed in situ, im schists; the structure of the
ground-mass also does not resemble that of schists ; nor do the rocks
themselves in this part of Charnwood Forest suggest very extensive
metamorphism. The idea, then, of a development in situ, as in the
case of many crystals of garnet, dipyr, hornblende, chiastolite, &c.,
seems inadmissible. But if so, the aspect of the included minerals,
and the general structure of the rock, can only be explained on the
supposition that it is a tuff. The bands already mentioned,
which are undoubtedly fragmental, are certainly of volcanic origin.
The structure of the fragments in them and in the agglomerates of
Ratchet Hill and elsewhere is almost identical with the ground-
mass of these Sharpley rocks. Still, if the latter be of fragmental

PRECARBONIFEROUS ROCKS OF CHARNWOOD FOREST. 345

origin, it may fairly be asked, What has become of the lapilli?
why are they not as usual more or less clearly defined in the slide?
To this we may reply, that here and there we do meet with faint indi-
cations of these ; that in two intercalated bands separated by no clear
line of division they unquestionably occur; that a similar tendency
to disappear may be occasionally noticed in slides from rocks in
other parts of Charnwood which are of undoubtedly clastic origin ;
and, lastly, that in some comparatively modern tuffs a similar ob-
literation of the fragments may be witnessed *.

We suppose, then, that this rock of High Sharpley and elsewhere
was once a rather fine uniform rhyolitic tuff, consisting of lapill
and volcanic dust, mixed with quartz and felspar crystals, which per-
haps no long time after deposition was exposed to the action of per-
colating water or vapour, and, as it were, partly rotted 7, but without
destroying the included felspar crystals. It was then consolidated,
cleaved, and gradually brought to its present condition. The rock
of High Sharpley much resembles some of the “‘ porphyroides” of the
Ardennes, the chief difference being that sericite is much less con-
spicuously present in the former than in the latter +.

We described in Part II. the ordinary rock of Peldar Tor. Since:
then we have had additional sections prepared. The study of these
and our field-work confirm us in the opinion, there expressed, that
the rock is of clastic origin. We may, however, remark that the
quartz and felspar crystals are in most respects identical with those
of Sharpley ; and the general character of the ground-mass, especially
with crossed Nicols, is the same. As the rock in the main mass of
Ratchet Hill$ is indubitably pyroclastic, and is now proved by super-
position on the typical Sharpley rock to be equivalent to that of
Peldar Tor, our view as to the nature of the latter and of Sharpley
receives additional confirmation §. z

The rock near Copt-Oak church (noticed vol. xxxili. p. 771) has

* As, for example, in a white tuff from Monte Venda,’Euganean Hills, of the
British-Museum collection, for a sight of which we are indebted to Mr. T. Davies,
F.G.S. Since writing the above, we find a somewhat similar case described
by re Geikie, ‘ Volcanic rocks of Firth of Forth,” Tr. R. 8. Hdin. vol, xxix.
p. 474.

t Lapilli are very commonly outlined by a black margin, which probably
largely owes its colour to ferric oxides. The passage of water or vapour through

‘the mass would decompose the iron oxide (forming carbonates, &e.), and thus
obscure the structure.

{t I am indebted to Prof. Renard for specimens of porphyroides from
Laifour and Mairus (deseribed in the well-known memoir ‘ Les Roches Plut. de la
Belgique’ &c.). Early in the present year, I fortunately had the opportunity.
of showing him my collection of rocks and slides from Charnwood. He in-
formed me that the resemblance of the Sharpley, Peldar, and Bardon-Hill rocks
to those of the Ardennes was most remarkable, and expressed a distinct opinion.
that none of them were lavas. In the above memoir it is suggested that the
quartz and felspar crystals have been developed ¢ situ; but after examination
of my collection, he stated that, in the case of Charnwood, he thought the
view mentioned above worthy of serious consideration.—T. G. B.

§ A careful search over the rocky ridge will show here and there near the.
base a tendency to recur to the Sharpley type, and higher up bands closely
approaching the Peldar-Tor type.

346 REY. E. HILL AND PROF. T. G. BONNEY ON THE

some resemblance to members of the above series. We had feared
that its decomposed condition would unfit it for microscopic ex-
amination; but Mr. Cuttell has succeeded in preparing us a good slide
from a specimen rather of the Sharpley type. Except for the entire
or almost entire absence of quartz, and the larger amount of viridite
and ferrite present, it is remarkably like that rock. The ground-mass
is similar; the included felspar crystals, often sharp-edged as though
broken, are in all respects identical. Part of the green mineral is
rather fibrous, dichroic, and probably a chlorite. The ferrite has
infiltrated into cracks. This rock, then, is probably about on the
horizon of the Sharpley series.

(4) Bardon Hill.

The quarry here has been much enlarged since the date of Part II.
A considerable mass of the purple schistose rock in the upper quarry
has now been excavated. As already stated, it much resembles that
on High Sharpley, except that it has fewer quartz grains. It appears
to pass up irregularly into a greenish rock; and at one place there
seemed to be a parting of this between two bands of the purplish
rock. Its thickness also seemed variable. The dip was not very
clearly marked, but appeared to be about 48° N.W., the strike of
the cleavage being W.10°S. This rock seems to end abruptly ; as the
foreman said,“ it dies out at a slither.” The approximate N.K. to $8. W.
strike differs much from that of the “‘shaly band” in the lower pit, which
is W.N.W.toE.S.E. Itis, then, very probable that a fault runs near
the northern flank of the pit. On reexamination of the “ shaly band”
we were struck with a resemblance between the less decomposed
portions of it, the ashy bands of High Sharpley, and parts of the
purplish rock in the upper pit. Microscopic examination has not,
however, strengthened the evidence for this resemblance ; for our
slide of the first appears to consist of broken felspar crystals, often
much decomposed, a few grains of quartz, and a large quantity of
viridite so arranged as to give a rather schistose aspect to the rock,
no part preserving the peculiar cryptocrystalline structure noted in
the others. Still, in our slide from the purplish rock in the upper pit,
there is a small lenticular band consisting wholly of broken felspars
(with epidote); so that the identity is yet possible. If this were the
case, and the shaly band an attenuated representative of the Sharpley
rock, then that already described * as so curiously like the Peldar-
Tor rock would be in its right place, and the typical compact green
rock f of the pit would belong to some part of the Peldar-Ratchet

* Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxxiii. p. 781; vol xxxiv. p. 205.

t As this rock, perhaps more than any other of its kind in the Forest, re-
sembles a true felsite, we have had additional slides prepared. We retain, how- ~
ever, our former opinion that it is not an igneousrock. We need only refer to
our descriptions given at p. 206, vol. xxxiy., and repeat that our study of all
these peculiar rocks in the northern district confirms us in the opinion that they
are not only clastic, but also have been tuffs, and that the amount of alteration
which they have undergone is not sufficient to account for their porphyritic
character.

PRECARBONIFEROUS ROCKS OF CHARNWOOD FOREST. 347

series. The resemblance of the breccias in the upper part of the hill
to those of Cadman has already been noticed.

Be this as it may, the rocks of Bardon Hill, as a whole, have a
marked resemblance, especially under the microscope, to the group
described in the last section; thus it is very probable that this
Sharpley-Cadman series, in an attenuated condition, reappears here
on the other side of a synclinal, which most likely is more or less
broken by faults.

(5) Fragments in Agglomerates.

A few fragments from the agglomerates have already been de-
scribed in Part II.; but in the hope of throwing light on the structure
of the Sharpley rock and obtaining hints for conclusions, ten care-
fully selected fragments have been subsequently examined micro-
scopically, They are from the following localities :—Ratchet
Hill (2), Gunhill (1), High Towers (4), Timberwood Hill (1), near
Whitwick school-house (1), Whitwick Parish Quarry (1). The speci-
mens from Ratchet Hill have a minutely cryptocrystalline ground-
mass with scattered crystals of quartz, felspar, magnetite and secon-
dary epidote. The first two minerals resemble those in the Sharpley
rock ; and there is much similarity in the ground-mass. One of the
High-Towers specimens (from an agglomerate nearly opposite to the
lodge) shows a faintly mottled structure, which is rendered more
distinct by a marked difference of colour on applying a selenite
plate. Probably it is the remains of a structure similar to those
figured by Zirkel in plates vi. and viii. of his “‘ Microscopical Petro-
graphy” (U.S. Geol. Explor.). We find also that the mottled pink
and green fragments, somewhat like syenites in macroscopic structure,
differ but little from the purple fragments. The ground-mass is
eryptocrystalline, and in this particular specimen shows fairly distinct
traces of a fluidal structure. The others call for no special note.
The microliths in the Whitwick School-house fragments (rather de-
composed) are more acicular than in the others; that from the Whit-
wick Quarry (also rather decomposed in parts) exhibits distinctly an
irregular fluidal structure. In our former notice (vol. xxxiv. p. 208)
we doubted whether two specimens from the last locality were
igneous; having in the interval enjoyed many opportunities of studying
both the older trachytic rocks and the “ hilleflinta ” group generally,
we have now no hesitation in recognizing all as igneous. The
structure then described is analogous to that mentioned above in one
of the High-Towers specimens. 3

These fragments also, allowing for decomposition and the formation
of some secondary minerals, present very considerable resemblance
to many rhyolitic rocks of much more recent date, such as those of
Hungary ; it is even possible that an undevitrified base may oc-
casionally remain. Their structures are hardly distinctive enough
to throw much light upon correlation. The Gunhill and Whitwick
School-house specimens, which differ more from the ordinary type,
are most alike; but it is quite possible for all to belong to the same
general series. Field evidence inclines us now to regard the Gun-

348 REY. E. HILL AND PROF. T. G. BONNEY ON THE

hill rocks as representative rather of the Kite-Hill than the Cadman:
group. |
(6) The Slates.

The microscopic structure of three varieties of slate was de-
scribed in Part II. The structure of one of them (from the quarry
near Forest Rock Inn) appearing on further investigation to be rather |
exceptional, we have examined a few more slates in the hope of ob-
taining some help in correlation. The only one among them which
presents any resemblance to it is a specimen from a locality east of
Grace-Dieu grounds. The peculiarity of the Forest-Rock-Inn slate
is that the slide with ordinary light is unusually clear, resembling a
glass in which anumber of very minute microliths, ofa pale yellowish-
green colour*, withsome specks of ferrite, are irregularly disseminated,
so as to leave occasional clear interspaces ; and this base, with crossed
Nieols, exhibits a kind of devitrified structure. The other slide has
very similar microliths and brown specks, a clear matrix showing
a similar structure with crossed Nicols, but more obviously clastic,
fragments of felspar crystals being in places distinct. There seems
to be some evidence for correlating these two rocks; but, unfortunately,
this does not help much, as the position of each in the series is un-
certain, and probably both are bounded by faults.

In the Whittle-Hill honestone the matrix seems to be fairly clear,
with little earthy matter, but crowded with minute microliths as
above, looking asifit were composed of comminuted felspar, in which
occur rather larger grains of felspar and quartz. The microliths are a
little more wavy in outline than those in the other rocks, and assume,
with crossed Nicols, a golden-yellow tint. ‘There are small clusters
of ferrite, associated with granules, which are probably garnet.
This rock has a slight resemblance to the other two.

The specimen from the quarry west of the School House, Grace
Dieu, has also a slight resemblance to the above, but is more
crowded with yet smaller microliths, and has a good many specks of
ferrite or some pale earthy mineral. A flinty slate from a knoll on
the west side of Old-John Hill rather resembles the last. There are
occasional distinct felspar fragments and quartz, with grains of epi-
dote, which the microliths may also be.

The slate of Beggar’s Nook is distinctly banded ; the felspar frag-
ments are rather angular and sometimes long, quartz apparently
rare, microliths as before, but the general appearance more earthy.
The slate of the summit of Old-John Hill, on the whole, resembles
the last. The slate of Groby Quarry, which may be taken as a fair
example of the roofing-slates of the Forest, differs much from all
the above. It has the usual microliths, with a fairly uniform frag-
mental structure, consisting of subangular quartz, decomposed
felspar, grains of opacite, ferrite, viridite, and mica. The viridite,
like the microliths, is no doubt a secondary product; but the mica
seems an original constituent. It is generally clear and gives bright
colours with crossing Nicols ; but occasionally it is interbanded with
a pale green variety. Probably a little alteration has taken place.

* Perhaps epidote ; some of the darker grains are not unlike menalite,

PRECARBONIFEROUS ROCKS OF CHARNWOOD FOREST. 349

(7) Igneous Rocks.

We have not revisited more than one or two of the localities
where these occur since the date of our last paper, and therefore have
nothing to add from personal knowledge ; but we have detected two
new outcrops on the north-eastern side of the Forest—one in aspinney
between Whittle and Buck Hills, the other just east of the high road
on the crest of Nanpanton. Both are of the northern type (see vol.
xxxiy. p. 216), rather compact and decomposed. We could not
succeed in hitting off their junctions with the sedimentary rocks; but
amore minute search, under favourable circumstances, may yet dis-
cover them.

Mr. 8. Allport, however, has been fortunate enough to find
junctions, exposed by further quarrying, between the hornblendic
granite and the so-called Brazil-wood gneiss, showing that the
former, as we predicted, is intrusive in the latter*. He justly ob-
jects to applying to this the name “ gneiss,” though we are not per-
suaded that the term which he proposes for it, “‘ micaceous schist,” is
much better. He has also been able to prove that this rock is only
.a member of the Forest series exceptionally altered by “‘ contact
metamorphism” f+. Mr. W. J. Harrison had previously discovered
small garnets in the “ gneiss” +. The same gentleman has kindly
forwarded to us specimens of a very coarse variety of the “‘syenite”
from a pit near Stony Stanton, on the road to Sapcote. This might
almost be called a hornblendic granite rich in felspar, some of the
-erystals of the latter mineral being nearly an inch long,

Conclusion.

As the result of the above investigations, we venture to extend,
with some modifications, the correlations proposed in our first paper
(vol. xxxiii. p. 784), as follows:—The Charnwood-Forest rocks
seem to fall naturally into three great groups, which, however, are
not separated by any very sharp lines of demarcation. The lowest is
the Blackbrook series. The middle group has for its base the coarse
ash-beds of the Monastery, the Hanging Stones, Timberwood Hill,
Chitterman Hill, Benscliff, and (east of the anticlinal) the spinney
above Whittle Hill. In the north-west region this group contains
the immense agglomeratic masses of the High-Towers area; in the
north-east the finer volcanic grits of the Buck-Hill district, and
probably Longcliff; but here and in the rest banded slates pre-

dominate. Rather high up in the group the beds of slate-agglo-
merate form an horizon which, as above described, can be traced
nearly round the Forest district, and might, if thought desirable, be

* Geol. Mag. dec. ii. vol. vi. p. 181.

t The ashy rocks in the Stable Quarry, Bradgate, and at Stewards-Hay
Spring (vol. xxxiii. p. 201) are also examples of contact metamorphism. In the
first part of our paper the term “schist” was two or three times used where we
ought to have said ‘‘schistose rock.” In the sense in which we think it right to
use the former, viz. denoting rocks which are either distinctly “foliated ” or have
undergone a similar amount of change, there is (apart from the Brazil-wood
rock) no schist in the Forest.

¢ Midland Naturalist, vol. ii. p. 77.

300 THE PRECARBONIFEROUS ROCKS OF CHARNWOOD FOREST..

used as the base of a subdivision. Above this, in the north-west,
appear to come the Sharpley and Peldar rocks, with the agglomerates
of Cadman (and their equivalents in Bardon Hill), which are pro-
bably succeeded by the finer beds of the quarry near Whitwick
School House. Some portion of this upper subdivision may be repre-
sented by the Forest-Gate beds in the north-east; and the upper
limit of the group further south seems to be marked by the pebble-
beds and quartz grits of the (Woodhouse) Hanging Rocks, the
Brande, the Stable Quarry (Bradgate), and Steward’s-Hay Spring.
The hichest zone, visible only in the more southern part of the
Forest, contains the less-banded workable slates of Swithland and
Groby.

The beds are elevated in an elongated dome-shaped anticlinal, of
which only one half is visible, and the vertex points to the south-
east ; so that denudation has exposed the lowest beds at the northern
end, and the others lap round them in rudely elliptical zones. These
are interrupted by the anticlinal fault or faults, and, at the north-
western corner, by many fractures, which greatly perplex the
investigator.

' Much yet remains to be done in the Forest region ; but we are not.
hopeful that more of importance will be accomplished (unless new
quarries are opened) without constant and minute reexamination of
the ground, such as is impossible for any but residents in the vicinity.

We therefore now take our leave of Charnwood Forest, in the
hope that some of the local geologists will continue our task. We
are well aware that some at least of our conclusions are founded on
imperfect evidence, and we cannot hope to have avoided error; but
we may fairly claim to have bestowed upon our work considerable
time and pains. We venture therefore to deprecate hasty criticism,
and trust that our mistakes may be judged leniently.

Discussion.

Dr. Sorby said that, in preparing his Address, he had found great:
difficulty in deciding between altered ashes and eruptive rocks. His
work had chiefly been among the Westmoreland rocks. He con-
sidered this one of the most difficult problems, and was very glad to.
hear the authors’ conclusions.

Mr. Tawney entirely confided in Prof. Bonney’s results. With
respect to the secondary development of the crystals, having been
shown many of the thin slices, by the author’s kindness, he thought
it was especially clear that the quartzes had been derived, viz. from
a rock like a quartz-felsite.

Dr. Hicks expressed his agreement with the view of the authors
as to the Sharpley rocks being tuffs. He thought the Charnwood
series pre-Cambrian.

The Prestpent stated that gold had recently been found in small
quantities by Mr. How in the “quartz-veins of Peldar Tor.

Rev. E. Hitt said the authors were inclined to regard the Charn-
wood rocks as pre-Cambrian. ‘The occurrence of gold was new to

them.

ON THE OCCURRENCE OF MARINE SHELLS. oak

25. On the Occurrence of Marre Suetis of Existine Sprcres at
Dirrerent Heteuts above the Present Leven of the Sea. By
J. Gwyn Jurrreys, Esq., LL.D., F.R.S., Treas.G.S8. (Read
June 9, 1880.)

WHILE engaged in working out for the Zoological Society the
Mollusca of the Expeditions which I undertook in 1869 and 1870
in H.M.S.*‘ Porcupine,’ I was much struck by the discovery, at
great depths in the North Atlantic, of certain shells in a living state
which had been previously known only as Subapennine and South-
Italian fossils, and were considered extinct.

To give some idea of the extent to which such changes of sea
and land must have taken place within a geologically recent period,
I subjoin an extract from my paper on some of the‘ Porcupine’
Mollusca, which was published in the ‘ Proceedings’ of the
Zoological Society for 1879, pages 586 and 587. With reference
to Malletia excisa, I said, “ It will be seen that the last species, as
well as many other deep-water shells which have been noticed in
the present paper, are Calabrian and Sicilian Tertiary fossils. Be-
sides these species, others of the same kind, and which had been
also considered extinct (viz. Leda or Tindaria solida, Seg., Nucula
glabra, Ph., and Malletia dilatata, Ph.), occurred in the ‘ Challenger ’
Expedition. The communication between the North Atlantic and
the Mediterranean must have been formerly very different from
what it is now, when a barrier or ridge in comparatively shallow
water exists outside the Straits of Gibraltar, between Capes
Spartel and Trafalgar. It is improbable that deep-sea Mollusca,
even in their embryonic state, could have migrated or been trans-
ported under such conditions from one sea to another. The south
of .France and Italy must have experienced a great elevation,
and perhaps a succession of them, since the Pliocene period. For
instance, the average depth at which Malletia excisa has been now
found living is 15074 fathoms, or 9044 feet, being very nearly five
sixths of the height of Mount Etna above the present level of the
sea; and to this submarine elevation must be added the height of
the Pliocene beds above the sea-level. Professor Seguenza informs
me that M. excisa occurs in Sicily, as well as in Calabria, at a height
of 600 metres, or nearly 2000 feet, and that these fossiliferous beds
attain double that height in other parts of the same district ; so
that the total elevation may be estimated at from 11,000 to 12,000
feet. Mount Etna is 10,874 feet high.” .

Numerous fossiliferous beds, showing a greater or less amount
of oscillation, have been observed throughout the whole world,
and especially in the northern hemisphere. In Shetland and
Scotland they extend from a depth of 80 fathoms (480 feet) to a
height of at least 500 feet above the sea, making together an
elevation of nearly 1000 feet. In England and Wales they appear

53 15924 J. GWYN JEFFREYS ON THE OCCURRENCE OF MARINE

from the level of the sea-shore to Moel Tryfan in Carnarvon-
shire, at heights of between 1170 and 1850 feet. The last-named
deposit is a raised beach; I will give a list of the fossils at the
end of this paper. On the Wicklow Hills, in Ireland, the Rev.
Maxwell Close is said to have found marine shells at the height of
1300 feet. In Scandinavia, the range of level is from 50 fathoms
(300 feet) to 540 feet sm. =840 feet. In Russia, Murchison and
Verneuil noticed sea-shells of arctic species 250 English miles from
the White Sea, and 130 feet above its level; and Count von
Helmersen has lately stated that such shells occur in Siberia, nearly
500 miles southwards. In Canada, the late Sir William Logan has
recorded a raised sea-beach with shells on Montreal Mountain at
460 feet above the Atlantic. In the arctic regions fossiliferous beds
are widely distributed, and attain an elevation of from 50 to 1000
feet. The extent of subsidence there is not known. In addition
to the above-cited. testimony of Professor Seguenza, Professor Judd
_tells me that in the isle of Ischia he found shells of apparently
Mediterranean species at a height of 2000 feet *.

With respect to* the dimatal nature of these shells, I am not
aware that any arctic or peculiarly northern species have been
noticed in the raised beaches which fringe the western and southern
coasts of England (e.g. Barnstaple Bay, and Hope’s Nose near
Torquay), nor in the north or west of France; but they especially”
characterize all the other countries and places-above mentioned, as
well as Sicily, where such northern forms as Cyprina islandiea,
Mya truncata, Saxicava norvegica, and Buccinum undatum are not
uncommon as Tertiary fossils, although now absent’ from the
Mediterranean. How is this to be accounted for? The specu-
lative and unscientific notion that species “‘ retreat” in consequence
of altered conditions, will not help us to answer this question.

Another question arises as to the permanence or long duration of
the: oceanic basins, a subject which has been lately treated by my
friend and colleague Dr. Carpenter, in his very interesting Lecture at
the Royal Institution of Great Britain, and has since been discussed in
‘Nature.’ As it has been shown that Malletia excisa and many other
existing species of Mollusca which at present are known to inhabit
great depths only, are found in a fossil state at considerable heights
above the present level of the sea, so as to show an elevation of
from 11,000 to 12,000 feet, or nearly 2000 fathoms, such elevation
having taken place at a very late and comparatively recent stage of
- the Tertiary or Post-Tertiary epoch, and considering that no trace
of any organism belonging to even the Miocene formation-has been
detected in any of the deep-sea explorations (although the rate at
which the slight submarine deposit, far from land, is formed by the
débris of surface-animals and plants, is known to be exceedingly
slow), can we rightly assign to the present oceans that geologically
remote antiquity which is claimed for them? Dr. Carpenter says,
“The deep-sea soundings of the ‘ Challenger’ have brought out

* See also Lyell’s ‘Hlements of Geology’ and ‘ Principles of Geology’ as to
the height of Newer Pliocene beds in Sicily.

t

SHELLS ABOVE THE PRESENT LEVEL OF THE SEA. 353

this remarkable fact, that the ocean-floors present a uniformity of
level which corresponds with that of our most level and extensive
continental plains.” This may be so; the ‘Challenger’ soundings
were uecessarily few and far between; but the numerous and
close-set soundings lately taken for the new submarine telegraph-
cable from Valentia to Newfoundland tell quite a different tale, and
serve to show the extreme unevenness of the ocean-floor in the
North Atlantic, to say nothing of the depth of 748 (between 1168
and 1260 fathoms) ascertained by the ‘ Bulldog’ soundings, and of
690 (between 1450 and 1230 fathoms) i in another part of “the same
ocean, ascertained by the ‘ Valorous’ soundings. More data would
certainly be desirable.

Mr. Murray, one of the ‘ Challenger’ naturalists, and who has
especially studied the oceanic deposits, gave at Manchester, in
December 1877, two admirable lectures on- the physical and
biological results of that Expedition, and expressed his belief that
the ocean-basins are of “vast antiquity,” but that “on the whole
they have been areas of subsidence.” The word “ antiquity ” is, of
course used relatively to the question of the time occupied in the
subsidence, which we have no means of ascertaining or even
guessing.

It may be said that Sicily has long been the seat of intense
y8lcanic energy ; but has not every other part of the world been in
its turn also subject to similar action?

T append a list of the marine organisms which have been found
on Moel Tryfan by Mr. Trimmer, Mr. Darbishire, Capt. Drury Lowe,
Professor Ramsgy, Mr. Etheridge, Mr. Bateson (the proprietor of the
Alexandra slate-quarries), and Mr. Mackintosh. The specimens col-
lected by Mr. Trimmer are im the Museum of this Society ; and
other specimens are in the Museum of Practical Geology. I have
examined all the specimens—except some of those included in
Mr. Darbishire’s list, which I will give in italics.

MOLLUSCA.

ConcHIFERA.
Ostrea edulis, Linné.
Pecten opercularis, J.
Mytilus edulis, LZ.
M. modiolus, ie
Leda pernula, Miller,
Pectunculus glycymeris, L,
Cardium echinatum, L.
C. fasciatum, Montagu.
C. edule, Z.
C. norvegicum, Spengler.
Cyprina islandica, L.
Astarte sulcata, Da Costa ; and var. elliptica.
A. borealis, Chemnitz.
A. crenata, Gray (“crebricostata,” Forbes).
A. compressa, Mont.
Venus exoleta, L. *
Tapes virgineus, L,

Q.J.G.8. No. 143, 238

«

ie

3

4 J. GWYN JEFFREYS ON THE OCCURRENCE OF MARINE

T. geographicus, Ch, (“ pullastra,” Mont.).
Tellina balthica, Z.
T. calcaria, Ch. (“ proxima,” Browz).
Donazx vittatus, Da C. (“ anatinus,” Lamarck).
Mactra solida, Z.; and var. ‘‘ elliptica,” Brown.
M. subtruncata, Da C.
Corbula gibba, Olivi (** nucleus,” Laz.)
Mya truncata, L.
Saxicava norvegica, Sp.
S. rugosa, L.
27 species and 2 varieties.

SoLENOCONCHIA.

Dentalium entalis, Z.
D. striolatum, Stimpson (“abyssorum,” M. Sars),

GASTROPODA.

Patella vulgata, L.
Fissurella greca, L. (‘ reticulata,” Da C.).
Trochus magus, L.
Lacuna divaricata, Fabricius.
Littorina obtusata, Z.
L. rudis, Maton.
L. litorea, L.
Turritella terebra, D.
Natica afinis, Gmelin (“ clausa,” Broderip ard Sowerby)..
Trichotropis borealis, Brod. and Sow.
Aporrhais pes-pelecani, L.
Purpura lapillus, L.
Buecinum undatum, L.
Murex erinaceus, L.
Lrophon barvicensis, Johnston.
T. clathratus, £.; and var. truncata.
T. latericeus, Fadr.
Fusus antiquus, L.
fF. gracilis, Da ©.
Nassa reticulata, J.
NN. inerassata, Mill.
Pleurotoma nebula, Mond.
P. rufa, Mont. -
P. pyramidalis, Strézz.
P.turricula, Mont.
Cyprea euwroped, Mont.
28 species, and 1 variety.

CRUSTACEA.

CirRIPEDIA.

Balanus Hameri, Ascanius.
B. crenatus, Bruguiére.

ANNULOSA.

ANNELIDA.
Serpula triquetra, L.

PROTOZOA.

SPONGIA.
Cliona, 2 species.
Total 60 species, and 3 varieties.

SILELLS ABOVE THE PRESENT LEVEL OF THR SEA. B00

Eleven of the species of Mollusca in the above list are arctic or
northern, viz. Leda pernula, Astarte compressa, A. borealis, A. cre-
nata, Te ee calcaria, ee norvegica, Natica affinis, Trichotropis
borealis, Trophon elathratus (typical), 7’. latericeus, and Pleurotoma
pyramidalis ; the first, third, fourth, fifth, seventh, and three last
are Norwegian and not British. These species represent a depth
of from ten to twenty fathoms. The other species are littoral,
or inhabit shallow water; and I believe they still live in Carnarvon
Bay. All the organisms are more or less fragmentary, perhaps
owing to glacial action. They are all together 63; but that number
might be considerably increased by future observers.

Discussion.

The Prusrpent pointed out that one great value of this paper
consisted in its giving a complete list of the very fragmentary
forms found in the Moel-Tryfan beds.

Mr. W. W. Suyru said that fossils had not been found in any of
the superficial deposits on the flanks of Mocl Tryfan; the hill
has been rendered easily accessible by a narrow-gauge railway.

Prof. T. M‘K. Hueurs asked the author if he distinguished
between those deposits in which the shells appeared not to have
drifted far from their habitat and those in which, as in the case ot
Moel Tryfan, they were evidently the dead shells thrown up on a
shingly shore. He drew attention to the fact that the flints &c. in
the Moel-Tryfan beds, apparently derived from the destruction of
ancient gravels, pointed to a travelling beach ; and the state of the
shells, very few of which were whole, agreed with this view.

Mr. Wurraxer asked if the author had attempted to compare the
sands with shells of East Anglia with those of Moel Tryfan.

Mr. Braxe objected to the views of Dr. Carpenter, by pointing
out that the Chalk, which is said to be a deep-water formation, yet
exists at considerable heights above the present sea-level.

Dr, Woopwarp referred to the value of the collection of shells of
existing species found at great elevations by the recent Arctic Ex-
pedition.

The Presiprent stated that some very delicate shells were found
entire and uninjured at Moel Tryfan.

The Avrmor (in reply) said that the Moel-Tryfan deposit was not
strictly a glacial one. The fauna has a Norwegian rather than an
Arctic facies. The broken appearance of shells may be due to other
causes than glacial action. He stated that some of the Moel-Tryfan
shells (e.g. Lellina balthica) are quite perfect.

356 G. R. VINE ON THE FAMILY DIASTOPORIDA.

26. A Review of the Family Disstororipm for the purpose of
Classification. By Grorce Rosrert Vinz, Esq. (Communi-
cated by Prof. Duncan, M. B. Lond., F.R.S., F.G.8.) (Read
May 12, 1880.)

[Puare XIII]

Tue Diastoporide are a group of adherent Polyzoa belonging to the
suborder Cyclostomata. Busk defines the generic characters thus:—
«¢ Zoarium crustaceous or foliaceous, discoid or indefinite in outline;
adnate and sessile, or pedunculate and erect; no canceli”*. This
restricted definition limits the group to almost a single genus ; for
the Mesenteripora of Blainville is the only other genus classed by
Smitt and Busk among Diastoporide, and the non-cancellated surface
separates this small family from the Discoporellide.

In this review of the recent and fossil Diastoporide we must bear
in mind the restriction formulated by Busk, because as we go back-
ward in time the necessity of this caution will be apparent. The
family was never prolific either generically or specifically ; but in
nearly all the seas, from the Lower-Silurian era to the present, re-
presentatives of the family are generally found in deep-sea deposits.
Their geographical range now is chiefly northern ; and their bathy-
metrical range in the past was as variable as now.

In his definition of the genus Diastopora, Busk says :—‘ Zoarium
adnate, discoid or flabelliform, centric or excentric, margin entire or
lobed ; cells towards the centre wholly immersed, usually suberect,
and partially free towards the margin; mouth elliptical or subor-
bicular, horizontal or oblique” 7. As there is no typical species in
which the whole of these characters are preserved, we are compelled
to seek them in the five species catalogued as recent and fossil by
Busk. But there are specific characters not embraced in the generic
definition, to which I wish to direct attention. In D. simplex the
suriace is coarsely punctate, and there are no “ adventitious tubules.”
In D. obelia, Johnst., the surface is finely punctate, and a small
‘“‘ adventitious tubule rises from the back of some of the cells.” In
D, patina, Lamk., the central cells are immersed and usually closed,
whilst the marginal ones are erect and open; and in D. congesta,
D’Orb., the cells are decumbent, the surface is spotted, and a secon-
dary disk arises from the surface of the primary one. In pl. xxxiv.
of the ‘ Cyclostomata,’ Busk gives a figure of D. sarniensis, Norman,
but no descriptive text. Norman, however, claims for this species a
separate identity; but the most characteristic feature is its size,
“and here and there among the open-mouthed cell-tubes there
occurs a tube which, instead of being open, is closed above with a
little cup, from one side of the centre of which rises an umbonal-
like process, which is perforated at the apex. Probably these organs

* Mus. Cat., pt. iii. Cyclostomata, p. 27. t Ibid. p. 28.

G. R. VINE ON THE FAMILY DIASTOPORIDA, BDt

are connected with the reproduction of Diastopora, and are homolo-
gous with ovicells”*.

These are all the recent and fossil Diastopore given by Busk in
the ‘ Cyclostomata’ and in the ‘ Crag Polyzoa.’ Mr. Waters, in his
papers on the Naples ‘‘ Bryozoa” + and in his paper on the “ Bryo-
zoa from the Pliocene of Sicily “+, revives one of the synonyms of
Busk’s D. obelia, the D. lato-marginata of D’Orb., and adopts D. fla-
bellum, Reuss, in the place of D. simplex, Busk, on the ground that
D’Orbigny had already appropriated the term for a fossil species $.

In this review of the family I wish to direct the attention of the
paleontologist more particularly to the Paleozoic forms; but it may
be advantageous as a more accurate study if I give a stratigraphical
list of the fossil Diastoporide, gleaned from works that are acces-
sible to me; for the remarks made upon the species from Recent to
the Chalk, and from the Carboniferous to the Upper Silurian, are the
results of original investigation.

RECENT, Species already given.
Post-Trerriary. Diastopora obelia, Flem. Garvel Park, Scotland.

PLIOCENE. simplex, Busk’s ‘Crag Polyzoa,’

meandrina, Wood, Mor. Cat.

jlabellum, Reuss, Waters’s ‘ Bryozoa of Naples.’
Miocens. — , Reuss, Manzoni’s ‘ Bryozoi d’Aust.’

Uprer CHALE.

grandis, D’Orb., ‘* D. ramosa very doubtful.”
Sowerbii, Lonsd., Mor. Cat.
Wetherelli, Morris, Mor. Cat.
glomerata and congesta, D’Orb., Busk’s Cat.
clavula, D’Orb., Mor. Cat.

-—— tuberosa, D’Orb., Mor. Cat.

-— papyracea, D’Orb., Mor. Cat.
OouLitTs. Berenicea foliacea, Laimx., Mor. Cat.
verrucosa, Milne-Edw., Mor. Cat.
diluviana, Milne-Edw., Mor. Cat.
Eudesiana, Milne-EKdw., Mor. Cat. ||

GREENSAND.

Lis. striata, J. Haime. Lias of Valica 4.
q antipodium, Tate, African form **.
CARBONIFEROUS. megastomus, M‘Coy, ‘ Irish Fossils.’

* Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist., January 1864.

t Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist., April 1879, p. 272.

+ Manchester Geol. Soc. Trans., May 1878.

§ The Rev. T. Hincks, in his new work on British Polyzoa, does not admit
the rendering of Mr. Waters, but gives a new name, D. suborbicularis, to D.
simplex (Brit. Polyzoa, vol. i. pp. 464 to 466).

|| Llea and Bidiastopora, D’Orb., require reworking; and I shall be glad if
paleontologists will help me in this matter.

4 If Lerenicea striata, J. Haime, of the Lias of Valica, may be taken as the
type of our foreign Secondary rocks, it may be taken also as the type of our own
Oolitic species. I have not seen Haime’s figure ; but Manzoni, in his ‘ Briozoi'del
Pliocene antico di Castrocaro,’ gives good figures of Diastopora (Berenicea)
striata, J. Haime.(p. 44, tay. vi. fig. 74, and tay. vii. fig.79), which very closely
resemble our species from the Inferior and Great Oolite of Cleeve and
Kidlington.

** Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. 1867, p. 162. ‘‘The only Polyzoon hitherto
known in the Secondary rocks of South Africa.”

358 G. R. VINE ON THE FAMILY DIASTOPORIDE.

DEvoNIAN. Ceramopora huronensis, Nicholson, Geol. Mag. 1875.
SILURIAN, Uprer. ——— éncrustans, Hall, Pal. of New York, vol. ii.

ohioensis, Nicholson, Ann. of Nat. Hist. 1875.
Berenicea irregularis, Lonsd., Sil. Syst. p. 679, pl. 15. fig. 20.
heterogyra, M‘Coy, Pal. Foss. pl. i.c. fig. 17.

SILURIAN, LOWER.

It is impossible to look over this list without some sense of shame
that this indiscriminate nomenclature should be allowed to infiuence
the minds of those who undertake the task of introducing to the
paleontologist new species of fossil Diastoporide. Between the
Berenicea of Lamouroux, the Ceramopora of Hall, and the Diasto-
pora of Smitt and Busk there is a wide difference—so much so that,
though all the genera are incrusting, there are special features about
the Palzozoic that are not found in the Secondary, Tertiary, or re-
cent forms. For the present many of the species in this list may he
conveniently left with the Diastoporide ; but I would strongly ad-
vise those who are in possession of good characteristic specimens of
Secondary forms to allow them to be examined by some competent
authority, so that this review may be completed, because some few
that are catalogued are not Diastopora or even Diastoporide.

The generic characters of Lamouroux’s Berenicea, as given by
M‘Coy, are as follows:—“ Parasitic: cells united in a spot-like
crust, radiating from a centre; adhering throughout, not cirewm-
scribed ; mouth at the distal extremity of each cell; substance sub-
membranaceous”’*. In the ‘ Brit. Pal. Fos.’ p. 44, M‘Coy very pro-
perly checked Lamouroux’s wider characters ; and his description of
the genus suits more particularly some at least of the Palseozoic
forms. The B. heterogyra, M‘Coy, of the,,Lower Silurian rocks of
Coniston, is a remarkable species. From his description it seems to
me to be a true Diastoporid of a very peculiar type; but the size of
the cells in the length (three to the space of one line), occupying the
same space as the ten or eleven pores crosswise, is very unusual.
M‘Coy says nothing about the interspaces between the cells in
his species. The B. irregularis of Lonsdale is very insufficiently
described ; but as the locality of his fossil is given (Dudley), iden-
tification is not so difficult. The species, however, requires rework-
ing: and in doing this I find that the cells are very sparsely punc-
tate ; and when sections are made for microscopic examination, the
interspaces between the cells of this species are plain, and the mode
of bifurcation and the attachment of the cells are also of a peculiar
type. The cell-pores, too, are not so fully developed as in the genus
Ceramopora, nor are the cell-mouths so distinctly marked. It seems
to me, however, to be a very unwise procedure to substitute another
name for these Silurian species; I therefore propose that M‘Coy’s
definition for the genus in ‘ Brit. Paleozoic Fossils’ be adopted, and
entirely restricted to the “ very thin calcareous foliaceous ” forms of
the Silurian rocks of this country at least.

In the genus Ceramopora, Hall, we have an altogether different
type of the family Diastoporide. In this genus we have an in-/
crusting polyzoon with pores separated by interspaces as well as the

* Carb. Foss. of Ireland, 1844.

G. B. VINE ON THE FAMILY DIASTOPORID-E. 359

-cell-walls, the interspaces being occupied by fine tubuli. In size
and shape the American species do not differ very materially from
the Dudley Berenicea ; butin Nicholson’s C. ohioensis* we obtain an
altogether new feature. The cell-arrangements of figs. 7 and 7 a are
similar in character, when favourably selected, to those of Carbonife-
ous species. The true type is seen in figs. 7¢and 7 d. In these figures
“the cells appear in the form of rounded oval apertures, arranged
in diagonal rows, but separated by a vast number of small rounded
foramina, which appear to be the mouths of interstitial tubuli. In
this condition the fossil presents much the appearance of certain
‘species of Cheetetes (Monticulipora)” t. This is a Silurian form from
the Cincinnati group. The C. incrustans of Hall has a nodulose or
tuberculated surface ; and in the C. huronensis, Nicholson, the surfaces
between the cells are smooth, but the cells are distinctly separated,
and the generic character of the species is well marked in the
pores.

All these species are comparatively small in the apertures when
compared with the Berenicea megastoma of M‘Coy, of the Carboni-
ferous formation (Pl. XIII.). This species is more closely allied to
Ceramopora than to Berenwcea. The patches vary in size from one
quarter up to nearly three quarters of an inch in diameter. The
patches radiate from a centric or excentric point. The cells toward
the centre are depressed, the cell-mouths are raised, having a circular
form when worn, triangular when pretty perfect. The cells have a
pyriform appearance, best seen in worn specimens; but when thin
sections are made for microscopic study, the pyriform character is
seen better still, and the interspaces are filled with what Nicholson
calls “interstitial tubuli.” In addition to these observations I can-
not do better than conclude this description with a few remarks by
Mr. John Young on this species :—“ Our specimens show the cha-
racters of M‘Coy clearly ; but I have been fortunate in finding in
the shales of Capelrig, Hast Kilbride, examples of the species show-
ing, besides, that the perfect cells were closed by a thin calcareous
cover, pierced by a narrow slit or opening, just under the raised lip
of the cell, and, further, that amongst the cells there is a minute
cellular structure, best seen in slightly worn specimens ”t. In this,
as well as in other respects, the Capelrig species differs from the well-
preserved specimens from Hairmyres; and in one of my specimens
a secondary disk rises, or, rather, covers a portion of the primary one.
The arrangement of the cells and the thin calcareous surface-cover-
ing are also different. It appears, therefore, that we have in our
Carboniferous Limestone series two distinct species instead of one.

The Secondary forms of the Diastoporide approach nearer to the
Recent than to the Paleozoic; but on these I have already expressed
my opinion.

It is clear, then, from all that has been said, that the Paleozoic
representatives of the family Diastoporidee differ very materially from

* Ann. & Mag, Nat. Hist. 1875, vol. xv. pl. xiv. figs. 7-7 d.

t Ibid. p. 183.
} Newspaper report. Address to the Geol. Soc. of Glasgow, Oct. 1879.

360 G. R. VINE ON THE FAMILY DIASTOPORIDZ.

the more recent members. If the whole are to be classified under
one family name, a course highly advantageous to the study of
Polyzoa, it will be necessary to take into consideration the more pro-
minent characters, and place the species of the different formations.
under suitable genera. I have already suggested this course to Prof

Nicholson ; and he writes me as follows :—“ The Paleozoic Polyzoa
of the types Ceramopora, Berenicea, and Diastopora are at present
in a totally chaotic condition, and must all be reworked out by
modern methods.” In accordance with this suggestion I now pro-
pose, either for acceptance or discussion, the following grouping of the
family, premising at the same time that the whole of the Paleozoic.
Polyzoa are being reworked out by myself for the purpose of classi-
fication, and, if permissible, will be submitted, from time to time,
to the Society for consideration.

Class POLYZOA, J. V. Thomson.

Subclass Hotoprancuta, E. Ray Lankester.
Order Gymnotamata, Allman.
Suborder II. Cycrosromata, Busk.
Family IV. Drastoporipm, Busk*.

Recent and Tertiary.. Genus I. Diastopora, Johnston.

pecondary Assn » I. To be reworked.

Paleozoic (in part) .. ,, IIL. Ceramopora, Hallt.

Paleozoic (in part).. 4, IV. Berenicea, MCoy’s description
restricted.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XIIT.

Fig. 1. Ceramopora megastoma (Berenicea, M‘Coy), Lower Carboniferous Lime-
stone shales, Hairmyres, Scotland. The common adherent form..
In some specimens the “ ectocyst” is well preserved in fragments ;.
when this is so, a delicately punctured structure enyelops the celJs.

2. Slightly rubbed polyzoary, showing the “interstitial tubuli” of Nichol-
son (“ Polyzoa from Silurian Rocks of North America,” Ann. & Mag.
Nat. Hist., March 1875).

3. Specimen, more transparent, showing a greater abundance of the
“ tubuli.”

Figs. 4, 5. Slightly oblique cells and interstitial tubuli. In many of the tubult.
there are the remains of fluids (chylaqueous ?), in the form of iron-:
pyrites.

(From drawings by the aid of camera lucida by my son, G. R. Vine, jun.)

* Fam. IV. Diastoporide, Busk, ‘Marine Polyzoa,” pt. 3..
+ Ceramogora, Hall, Pal. of New York, vol. ii. 1852.

Quart. Journ.Geol. Soc.Vol XXXVI. Pl XII.

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G. R. VINE ON THE FAMILY DIASTOPORID. 361

Discussion.

Prof. Duncan expressed his sense of the value of the paper, which
was the work of a most industrious student. His remark on the
distinction between the modern and ancient forms of Diastoporide
showed that he had grasped the most important principle. The
specimens were common ; but still the distinctions were difficult to
ascertain.

362 W. J. SOLLAS ON THE STRUCTURE AND

27. On the Structure and Arrinitres of the Genus Protosponera
(Salter). By W. J. Sorzas, Esq., M.A., F.R.S.E., F.G.S., &.
(Read May 12, 1880.)

1. Lirerature.

1864, Satrer, Q.J.G.S. vol. xx. p. 238, pl. xii. fig. 12a, 6.

1871, Hicks, Q. J. G.8. vol. xxvii. p. 401, pl. xvi. figs. 14 to 20.

1877, Zirrer, Abh. der k. bayer. Akademie der Wiss. 2. Cl., xiii.
Bd. “ Studien ti. fossile Spongien ” (p. 45 sep. copy).

1877, Carrer, Ann, and Mag. Nat. Hist. Ser. 4, vol. xx. p. 177.

2. History.

SALTER, Who was the first to introduce this Sponge to our notice,
describes it as exhibiting a loosely reticulate skeleton, composed of
large cruciform spicules, the rays of which lie all in one plane and
cross each other at an angle of 80°. He adds that the only sponge
resembling it is his Amphispongia, which he regards as allied to
Grantia—a view quite in accordance with his ideas in general on the
Paleeozoic sponges, most of which he seems to have referred to the
Calcispongia. In a foot-note he gives a quotation from a letter by
Dr. Bowerbank, who, in equal accordance with his general opinions
as to the affinities of fossil sponges, regarded Protospongia as allied
to the recent horny sponge Spongionella, Bwhk., its orginally horny
fibres having, according to him, been replaced by iron-pyrites.

Hicks describes some spicular remains which he thinks may be-
long to Protospongia, and gives a diagrammatic figure of a fine
specimen which he had discovered of Salter’s original species, P.
fenestrata.

ZrrrEL places these Sponges with the Hexactinellide, and in his
group Dictyonina, which is nearly equivalent to Carter’s Vitreo-hexac-
tinellidee. He further more closely defines its relations by placing it
in the family Kuretide. Certainly the resemblance of the ordinary
specimens of Protospongia to my Hubrochus clausus, also a member
of the Kuretide, is very great, and at one time, long before the pub-
lication of Zittel’s monograph, led me to regard them as allied;
fresh facts, however, have since shown me that this view is not
correct.

CaRTER considers it probable that both Acanthospongia of M°Coy
and Protospongia of Salter are the remains of Sarco-hexactinellid
sponges. ‘This view, as regards the latter, is entirely confirmed by
my own observations.

Through the kindness of Professor Hughes I have been favoured
with an opportunity of fully examining the unique and beautiful
specimen of Protospongia fenestrata which has been figured by Dr.
Hicks (loc. cet.) and presented by him to the Woodwardian Mu-
seum, Cambridge. Dr. Hicks also has himself generously presented
me with a number of the ordinary specimens of Protospongia ; and

AFFINITIES OF THE GENUS PROTOSPONGIA. 363

after a study of the whole of the material which has come under my
observation, I feel no difficulty in definitely assigning to Protospongia
its place amongst the other sponges. Moreover, as Dr. Hicks’s figure
of his specimen is almost purely diagrammatic, I have ventured to
insert here a fresh drawing of part of it, kindly made for me by my
friend Mr. T. H. Thomas, of Cardiff. The great interest which must
necessarily attach to the best-preserved specimen of the oldest known
sponge renders excuse for this second representation of it needless.

3. DeEscRIPTION.

The specimens on which Salter’s description was based were
crushed and flattened forms in which the skeleton appears as raised
lines or narrow thread-like ridges arranged in a lattice-like reticula-
{ion on the bedding-planes of the slate which serves as a matrix.
Dr. Hicks’s specimen (fig. 1), on the other hand, presents us with the

Fig. 1.—Part of the specimen of Protospongia fenestrata, in the
Woodwardian Museum. (Natural size.)

spicules of the sponge in their original form, unaltered, or but slightly
altered by pressure, and standing out in free relief from the weathered
matrix, which has in several places been artistically cleared away
from beneath them.

In this state of perfect preservation the spicules are clearly not
fused together into a continuous network; they are separated and
free, and only form a network by the interlacing of their extremities.
Their form also is somewhat different from that of the spicules of
crushed specimens.

Horm of the Spicules.—Each spicule is quadriradiate, with its
centre raised some slight but variable distance above the plane in
which its rays terminate. Its general form may be most easily
described by imagining it as modelled upon a low four-sided pyra-
mid, the centre of the spicule lying upon the apex, and its four rays

364 W. J. SOLLAS ON THE STRUCTURE AND

one over each of the four inclined edges of the pyramid. The base
of the pyramid must be regarded as rectangular, a little longer than
broad ; for even in the uncrushed state the rays of the spicules do
not form right angles with each other, but include one pair of oppo-
site angles of less, and another of more than 90°. Probably, how-
ever, this departure of the rays from strict rectangularity is due to
the pressure which brought about the cleavage of the slate in which
the spicules occur ; for it is noticeable that the spicules of any single
specimen are all similarly orientated; 7.¢. the larger angles all look
one way, and the smaller another, as if some general distorting force
had acted upon all the spicules at once, closing up the rays in one
direction and opening them out in another.

Four rays are all that each spicule can be shown to possess; but
a fifth might naturally be expected to be present, having its origin
from the under surface of the spicular centre, and a position coin-
ciding with the morphological axis of our imaginary pyramid.
Whether such a ray actually exists or not, [ have been unable to
determine, though certain obscure indications lead me to believe that
it does. On the other hand, it is quite clear that no ray was given
off in the opposite direction, 7. ¢. from the upperside of the middle
of the spicule upwards ; for this side is perfectly preserved and clearly
visible, and yet affords no trace of the existence of such of a ray ; 1b
has evidently been always as smooth and devoid of ornament as it is
now.

The spicular rays are quite circular in section and almost com-
pletely cylindrical in form, scarcely tapering at all, so far as they
can be traced—except in the case of the smaller spicules, the rays of
which are evidently acute cones ; none of the spicules, however, shows
the ultimate termination of a single ray ; for the ends of the rays are
either broken off, imbedded in the slate, or hidden by passing beneath.
the arms of adjacent spicules. In size the spicules are of four dif-
ferent grades: in the largest forms the spicular rays are +3 of an inch
long, so that the whole spicule measures as much as 2% of an inch
between the ends of two opposite rays ; in the second-sized spicule
the rays are 4, of an inch long, in the third =3,, and in the fourth
size z, of an inch long; thus each spicule is twice the size of the

ne next succeeding it in the scale.

Arrangement of the Spicules—The largest or primary spicules
form a framework, which is filled in by the smaller forms. The
secondary spicules are placed so that the centre of each coincides
with the centre of the square which would be formed by completing
the rectangle included between the adjacent rays of the primary
spicule. The four rays of the secondary spicule proceed from their
origin directly towards and at right angles to the sides of the imagi-
nary square, one to each side ; those which approach the rays of the:
primary spicule descend beneath them and become lost to observa-
tion. The tertiary spicules are similarly arranged ; but in their case
the squares within which they lie are chiefly real and not imaginary,
some of the squares being formed by two rays of the primary and.
two of the secondary spicules, others having two sides formed by

AFFINITIES OF THE GENUS PROTOSPONGIA. 365

the secondary rays, and one by a primary ray. [The imaginary
square of the primary spicule may have been, and probably was,
equally actual; but in the specimen before us there is nothing to
show this. ]

The rays of the tertiary spicules end by passing beneath the rays
of the primary or secondary spicules, just as the rays of the secon-
dary passed beneath those of the primary spicules.

The quaternary spicules are arranged in like manner, their centres
lying in the centres of the squares formed by the other spicules, and
their rays being directed at right angles to the other rays, beneath
which they terminate. Sometimes, however, one or more rays of a
quaternary spicule overlap, while the remainder underlap, the rays
of the surrounding spicules; but this is quite exceptional. The
spicules are thus symmetrically arranged, their rays all lying regu-
larly disposed in two directions at right angles to each other, and
so building up a network with square meshes. The following
figure (fig. 2) will serve as a diagram of this arrangement.

Fig. 2.—A single lurge spicule of Protospongia, with the smaller
spicules filling its iterspaces.

One notices in Dr. Hicks’s specimen a tendency to depart from
strict rectangularity in the meshes, through a general approach of
the spicules at one end of the specimen and a general divergence at
the other, as though the part of the skeleton exposed had once be-
longed to a more or less spherical sponge, and not to one having the
form of a mere flat film or plate. The symmetry of the arrange-
ment is also liable to be disturbed by many minor irregularities, a few
of the smaller spicules being more or less differently oriented from the
remainder. In one case also the centre of a quaternary spicule ap-
pears to be seated almost exactly upon the ray of one of the larger
forms, from which one might infer that this particular spicule, at all
events, did not posses a fifth ray.

Thickness of the Sponge-wall.—As regards this we have as
yet no certain knowledge; but it appears to have consisted of
more than one layer of spicules. In the specimen two layers
of sponge-structure are shown at different levels, separated by a
little “cliff.” But not much is to be concluded from this; for the ‘ cliff’
may be merely due to a ‘slip’ or minute fault which has shifted an
originally single layer of sponge-structure to different levels ; or even
if this be not the case (and the presence of a layer of iron-oxide
continuing the direction of the lower layer beneath the upper seems
to show that it is not), there still remain three possible interpre-
tations of the double layer: the sponge, for instance, may have
been thin-walled and sacciform, and its collapse may have brought

366 W. J. SOLLAS ON THE STRUCTURE AND

the walls of opposite sides close together; or it may have been am
incrusting flat film, and the two layers may indicate the successive
growth of two different individuals on the same spot; or, finally,
the two layers may represent the outer and inner surface of one and.
the same sponge-wall, which in this case must have been of some
considerable thickness.

Form of Sponge.—Of this also we are entirely ignorant. It may
have been flat and incrusting; or, on the other hand, it may have been
sacciform and anchored in the slimy ooze of the sea-bottom by a
tuft of anchoring spicules, of which Dr. Hicks’s Protospongia major,
may be the imperfectly preserved remains.

Mineral State of the Spicules—Without doubt the spicules were
originally siliceous; they consist now, however, of iron-pyrites, which,
by superficial oxidation, has led to the coating of the spicules witha
thin red layer of iron-rust.

Taxonomic Position of the Sponge.—The position of the sponge
with regard to others is by these observations definitely fixed. It
consists of cruciform spicules of various sizes disposed to form a
regular square meshwork, the rays of the smaller spicules underly-
ing at their terminations the rays of the larger ones. Such spicules.
so disposed are to be met with among the Hexactinellid Sponges.
alone ; the absence of one (or possibly two) of the rays which should
be present to render the spicules literally hexactinellid is of no im-
portance; in several characteristic forms of recent Hexactinellids
similar spicules are common, along with others of the genuine sex-
radiate type. The suppression of one, two, three, or even four
arms of the hexactinellid spicule may easily take place without af-
fecting its undoubted Hexactinellid character.

Again, the spicules of Protospongia are separate ; they are not
united either by envelopment in a common coating or by ankylosis:
and hence they must clearly be assigned to the Lyssakina of Zittel,
a group nearly equivalent to Carter’s division of the Sarco-hex-
actinellidee.

The nearer relations of Protospongia cannot at present be defined.
Its chief differences from other Lyssakine Hexactinellids depend on
negative characters, and consequently may very possibly be but the
expression of our present imperfect knowledge of its original nature.
For the present we must rest content with the knowledge of the
fact that it is a true Lyssakine Hexactinellid.

Discussion.

Prof. Duncan expressed his pleasure at hearing so good a descrip-
tion of an ancient sponge. We were much indebted to Bowerbank,
Carter, Zittel, and Mr. Sollas for their work among the sponges. He |
had himself obtained from a coral dredged from about 500 fathoms
in the Atlantic a sponge which presented some analogies to Proto-
spongia. He would be glad to know if Mr. Sollas thought Proto-
spongia part of the dermal structure of a large sponge. ,

AFFINITIES OF THE GENUS PROTOSPONGIA. ez.

Dr. Hicxs described his discovery of Protospongia. He had never
found it otherwise than pyritized. This condition, he had observed,
was particularly common in fossilized horny organisms in the Cam-
brian rocks.

The Prusrprnrt remarked on the abundance of pyritized remains
at certain horizons, and on the value of the collection made by
Dr. Hicks from the Cambrian rocks.

Mr. Sotnas said he inclined to the view that Protospongia was
part of the dermal structure ; but still it was strange that no other
part was found, and so far as the evidence went it was quite as
strong for the sponge being complete. As for the occurrence of
pyritized fossils, one might expect that under similar circumstances
fossils would be similarly preserved.

368 G. J. HINDE ON ANNELID JAWS FROM THE WENLOCK AND

28. On Annutip Jaws from the Wentock and Luptow Formations
of the Wast of Enetanp. By Gores Junnines Hine, Esq.,
F.G.S. (Read May 12, 1380.)

[Puate XIV.]

In the paper which I had the honcur to bring before the Society in
the early part of last year, on Annelid jaws from the Palzozoic
rocks of Canada and Scotland”, I ventured to express an opinion that
these small bodies would be very likely found in rocks of similar age
in this country. Since that time I have had the opportunity of
searching various exposures of the Silurian rocks at Dudley, Much
Wenlock, and Iron Bridge, in Shropshire, all well-known localities
for Wenlock fossils ; and in each place I have discovered Annelid
jaws more or less abundantly. In quarries at Stoke-Hdith, and near
Ludlow, the rocks of Upper Ludlow age also yielded these remains,
though by no means so abundantly or in such a good state of
preservation as the Wenlock rocks—a result perhaps rather owing
to the less favourable character of the matrix for their preservation
and to the more limited exposures of the rock-surfaces than to any
deficiency in the number of the Annelids. Altogether, from the
above-mentioned localities my search produced between two and
three hundred specimens of these minute remains: but the greater
number of these proved on examination to be only fragmentary
specimens ; many perish in the process of cleaning them away from
the matrix; and thus only about one fourth of the total number are
available for description. It is a matter of surprise that these
fossils, occurring thus numerously in a district renowned as a clas-
sical hunting-ground for Silurian fossils, should hitherto have
escaped the notice of geologists; but their very small dimensions
(the largest specimen met with not exceeding one fifth of an inch
in length) will sufficiently explain the cause of their long con-
ccealment.

The character of the rocks containing these jaws is closely similar
to that in which they abound in Canada. In the Wenlock district
they appear in the bluish-grey calcareous shales or mudstones
which form strata of greater or less thickness between the beds of
limestone ; and in quarrying this rock these intervening shales are
usually piled up on one side in large mounds of debris. It is only
on the surfaces of shale recently exposed that these fossils are
visible; nor are they by any means uniformly dispersed in it; for whilst
‘in one part of a quarry fragments can be noticed on every slab of
rock, in another part of the same quarry similar shale proves desti-
tute of all traces of them. The Upper Ludlow rocks, as shown in
quarries at Stoke-Edith and on the banks of the river Terne at Lud-
low, are more arenaceous and of a much harder character than
those of Wenlock age; and consequently these fragile remains have

* Quart. Journ. Geol. Soe. vol. xxxv. p. 370.

LUDLOW FORMATIONS OF THE WEST OF ENGLAND. 369

suffered more injury than in the deposits of finer material. There
are in these same Upper Ludlow strata the shelly tubes of Serpu-
pulites longissimus, Murchison, and the transversely striated
riband-like markings of T’rachyderma coriaceum, Phillips, both of
which forms have been referred to Annelids; but I have not met
with any of the jaws in such juxtaposition with either of these
fossils as to give ground for the supposition that they may have
belonged to the same animals.

In respect to the condition in which these jaws occur, there is a
close correspondence with the American forms. They are composed
of the same brittle chitinous material, and when unweathered they
have the same glossy black lustre. Unfortunately, also, they have
been similarly detached from their natural positions and indivi-
dually scattered in the muddy sediments, so that there is the same
difficulty about their satisfactory classification. In addition to the
minute bodies which can be definitely determined to be portions of
the mouth-apparatus of Annelids, there are on some of the rock-
surfaces numerous minute, dark, chitinous fragments, of no definite
shape, which are not improbably portions of the skin of the same
animals. Similar fragments are also present in some of the Ame-
rican rocks ; and if they are rightly referred to the horny integument
of these Worms, these animals must have possessed a greater amount
of chitin in their skins than their modern congeners, whose body-
covering is of such a delicate character as to render it very unlikely
to leave any traces in the fossil state. Judging from the quantity
of these fragments, and the number of the jaws, the Errant Annelids
must have been very abundant, at least locally, in the Silurian
period.

Whilst there is a similarly great variety of form in the English
fossil jaws, there is no striking difference from those already described
from America, but, on the contrary, a most remarkable resemblance,
considering the great distance which intervenes between the re-
spective localities whence they come. Equally remarkable, as proving
the persisteney of form and wide dispersion of these animals, is the
fact that whilst some forms are common to the relatively equivalent
Clinton and Niagara rocks of Canada, an equal number of these
jaws are identical with those from the older Cincinnati group of
America, a formation generally regarded as the equivalent of the
Bala of this country. Even in the jaws which I regard as distinct
from the American forms, it will be seen, on comparing the ap-
pended description and figures with those of the former paper on the
subject, that the variations are but small in amount, and principally
depend on minor differences of form. As a rule, the dimensions of
the jaws, even of those of the same species, are less than in the
American examples, the largest English specimen met with not ex-
ceeding 24 lines in length, whilst some of the American forms are
33 lines long.

In classifying these jaws I have adopted the same grouping as in
my former paper, not, however, without being thoroughly conscious
of its tentative character, as serving for palsontological reference

Q.J.G.8. No. 1438. 2¢

370 G. J. HINDE ON ANNELID JAWS FROM THE WENLOCK AND

rather than as presenting exact zoological arrangement. Indepen-
dently of the difficulties arising from the detached positions of the
particular jaws which compose the mouth-apparatus of the same
animal, it would appear, if we may judge from their great variations
in existing Annelids, that these organs are very insuflicient for a basis
of classification. On this point M. Claparéde, one of the greatest
authorities on recent Annelids, makes the following remarks *:—“ If
it is possible to make use of the jaws in a certain measure as cha-
racteristic of the tribal divisions, on the other hand their employ-
ment appears impossible, or at least very difficult, for the limitation
of the genera; and I acknowledge that this fact surprises me. On
one hand very different jaws are met with in the same genus; on the
other, identical jaws are frequent in different genera.”

As there is every indication that the Silurian Annelids possessed
the same variations in their mouth-apparatus which thus charac-
terizes the living. members of the same order, it will be seen that,
in the absence of other recognizable structures, much uncertainty
must inevitably attend the arrangement of these fossil jaws under
different generic divisions.

In addition to giving descriptions of new forms, I have deemed it
useful to make brief references to show which have been already
described from the American rocks.

ANNELIDA POLYCH ATA.

Genus Eunicrres, Ehlers.

Kvnicttes mMasor, Hinde.

Eumeites major, Hinde, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxxy.
plate xviii. fig. 1

The only English specimen of this species met with is less trun-
cate posteriorly, has more acute denticles, and is smaller than the
generality of the typical forms from the Cincinnati group. Its
length is 14 line, width 2 line.

Locality ‘and formation. Wren’s nest, Dudley: Wenlock group.

Kunicires curtus, Hinde. (PI. XIV. fig. 1.)

Jaw consisting of an oblong compressed plate, widest in the an-—
terior portion, the posterior end truncate, the base nearly straight ;
on the upper margin a series of twelve denticles, the first six of which
are subequal, blunted, and nearly upright, and the others pointed
and directed backwards. Length 1 line, width 7 line. This form
is allied to H. varians, Grinnell, sp., but is shorter, more compressed,
and with fewer denticles.

Loc. and form. Much Wenlock : Wenlock group.

* Annelides Chétopodes du Golfe de Naples, p. 24.

~ —=—-_--— °° ° ° °

LUDLOW FORMATIONS OF THE WEST OF ENGLAND, 371

EUNICITES VARIANS, Grinnell, sp.

Nereidavus varvans, Grinnell, American Journal of Science, Sept.
1877, p. 229.

Eumeites varians, Hinde, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. yol. xxxv.
p. 375, pl. xviii. figs. 2, 3, 5.

The examples of this species correspond with the American forms
in almost every respect, save that they are of much smaller size.
The jaw is nearly straight; the anterior portion is slightly convex
and incuryed, and the posterior end blunted. On the upper margin
there are from ten to eighteen teeth, of which the first three or four
are nearly upright and rounded, and the others more or less acute
and directed backwards. In some of the specimens there are indi-
cations of a small rod or support attached to the inner side of the
anterior portion of the jaw, of a similar character to the flangelike
base occurring in the genus Lumbriconereites. The specimens vary
from 3 line to 1 line in length.

Loc. and form. Wren’s Nest, Dudley: Wenlock group.

EvunicttEs cLINTONENSIs, Hinde.

Hunicites clintonensis, Hinde, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxxv.
Bool, pl. xix. fig. 21.

Less difference exists between the forms of this species and £. va-
ruans than in the Canadian examples of the two species. In
L. clintonensis, however, the anterior portion is more elevated and
the denticles are more uniform than in Z. varians. There is a great
resemblance also between this species and Lwmbriconereites ba-
salis, H.; but this latter has a wide basal flange supporting the
ridge which carries the denticles. This flange is not always ex-
posed to view; and it is probable that some at least of the examples
referred to L. clintonensis may really possess the flange which is

_ distinctive of the genus Zumbriconereites.

The average length of the specimens is 1 line.
Loc. and form. Much Wenlock; Wren’s Nest, Dudley: Wenlock

group.
EvunicitEs cononatus, Hinde.

Eumicites coronatus, Hinde, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxxv.
p- 381, pl. xx. fig. 9.

The examples of this form are somewhat smaller, less convex,
and with two or three more denticles than the forms from the Clin-
ton rocks of Canada. They closely resemble the “ paragnaths” in
the recent genus Hunice. Length 2 line, depth 2 line nearly.

Loc. and form. Wren’s Nest, Dudley: Wenlock group.

EvnIcITEs cHTRoMoRPHUS, Hinde, var. minor. (Pl. XIV. fig. 10.)

Jaw triangular, strongly convex, the sides gently curved, on the
upper margin six upright blunted teeth. Length of upper edge
2 line, depth 2 line nearly. This variety is much smaller, less ex-
tended, and with fewer denticles than E. chiromorphus.

Loc. and form. Wren’s Nest, Dudley: Wenlock sa

20

one G. J. HINDE ON ANNELID JAWS FROM THE WENLOCK AND

EuNIcITES unevicuLus, Hinde. (Pl. XIV. fig. 11.)

Jaw somewhat semioval, flattened, or slightly concave; the base
straight, with a small oblique projection at the anterior end; an
arched upper margin, with nine denticles, of which the two largest
are slightly incurved. Length 4 line, depth j line. This form,
like the two preceding, appears to have been one of the “ para-
gnaths,” or small anterior jaw-plates of the animal.

Loc. and form. Wren’s Nest, Dudley: Wenlock gronp.

Genus (inonrres, Hinde, 1879.
CENONITES REGULARIS, Hinde. (Pl. XIV. fig. 2.)

Jaw subtriangular, compressed, with a slightly projecting knob-
like elevation at the angle in the centre of the base, a prominent
curved hook at the anterior end, the upper margin straight and
carrying a series of thirteen teeth. Length 1 line, width 2 line.
This-form is allied to @. cuneatus, H., from the Cincinnati group,
but differs in its more triangular outline, the elevation at the basal
angle, and its larger size.

Loc. and form. Wren’s Nest, Dudley: Wenlock group.

CENONITES NAVIFORMIS, Hinde. (PI. XIV. fig. 3.)

Jaw oblong, compressed, the basal margin curved and haying a
. small notch in the centre, the posterior end truncate; the anterior
tooth bent slightly out of plane with the plate of the jaw; on the
nearly straight upper margin are ten blunted denticles. Length
1 line.

This form is closely related to @. amplus, H., from the Clinton
group of Canada, from which it is distinguished by the uniform
series of teeth and the notched base.

Loc. and form. Wren’s Nest, Dudley: Wenlock group.

CENonITEs cunEATUS, Hinde.

Gnonites cuneatus, Hinde, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxxy.
pp. 811, ool, pl xvii. fig. 11.

The English examples of this form, with the exception of a slight
difference in the curvature of the anterior hook and a less number
of the minute denticles, are identical with those from the Cincinnati
and Clinton formations of America. The specimens do not exceed
half a line in length.

Loc. and form. Iron Bridge, Shropshire; Wenlock group.

Cinonires cunratus, Hinde, var."numimis. (Pl. XIV. fig. 6.)

Jaw semioval, compressed, with a delicate anterior hook, slightly
bent outwards, and on the nearly straight upper margin of the jaw
11 subequal denticles. The variety differs from the typical @. cu-
neatus in the relatively smaller anterior hook, which is followed,
without any interval, by the smaller denticles. Length 4 line.

Loc. and form. Iron Bridge; Wren’s Nest, Dudley: Wenlock
group.

LUDLOW FORMATIONS OF THE WEST OF ENGLAND. 373

CENONITES INZQUALIS, Hinde.

Enonites inequalis, Hinde, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxxv.
p. 376, pl. xviii. fig. 8.

The anterior hook is of a more blunted character, and the den-
ticles are not so prominent as in the figured examples of this form
from the Cincinnati group; but in these respects it closely agrees
with the American specimens from the Clinton group, which I have
referred to the same species." Length 13 line, width } line.

Loc. and form. Ludlow: Upper Ludlow formation.

CEnonitTEs pra&acutus, Hinde. (PI. XIV. fig. 4.)

Jaw elongated, narrow ; the anterior portion widest, and strongly
curved inwards, the posterior extremity obliquely blunted; the
anterior tooth incurved, followed by a series of acutely pointed teeth,
about thirteen in number. Length 2 line.

This form is allied to @. inewqualis, but may readily be distin-
guished therefrom by the incurvature of the primary tooth and the
acutely pointed character of the smaller denticles.

Loc, and form. Much Wenlock: Wenlock group.

CENoONITES INsIGNIFICANS, Hinde. (Pl. XIV. fig. 5.)

Jaw narrow, elongated, of nearly equal width throughout, slightly
bent towards the posterior end; in front a single prominent tooth,
followed immediately by six extremely minute denticles, which
spring from the anterior third of the upper margin, the remaining
portion not showing any denticles. A slightly elevated ridge borders
the basal margin. Length 3 line.

Loc. and Form. Ludlow: Upper Ludlow group.

CENoNITES ASPERSUS, Hinde. (Pl. XIV. figs. 7 & 8.)

Jaws composed of an elongated, compressed or slightly concave
plate, either rounded or truncate at the posterior extremity, having in
front a stout single hook, either in the same plane with or oblique to
the main portion of the jaw; the upper margin nearly straight, in
some instances apparently smooth, in others provided with minute
crenulations or very numerous small denticles. There is considerable
variation in the different exafiples of this abundant form; but they
all appear to belong to the same species. One of the largest speci-
mens has a length of one line, and is about } line in width, whilst
the smaller forms are about half this size.

Loc. and form. Much Wenlock; Wren’s Nest, Dudley: Wenlock
Group. Ludlow; Stoke Edith: Upper Ludlow.

CENONITEs TUBULATUS, Hinde. (Pl. XIV. fig. 9.)

Jaw narrow, elongated and subcylindrical, basal margin undu-
lated; the posterior extremity apparently truncate; anteriorly a
relatively stout obliquely curved hook, and on the upper margin a
row of minute denticles or crenulations. Length 1 line.

374 G. J, HINDE ON ANNELID JAWS FROM THE WENLOCK AND

This species, in its elongated tubular form, differs considerably
from any other form of these jaws. It appears to be rare, as I have
found only a single specimen.

Loc. and form. Wren’s Nest, Dudley: Wenlock group.

Genus ARABELLITES, Hinde, 1879.

ARABELLITES CORNUTUS, Hinde.

Arabellites cornutus, Hinde, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxxv.
p. 377, plate xviii. figs. 13, 14, 15.

This beautiful form occurs equally well preserved in the Silu-
rian rocks of England as in the Cambro-silurian of Canada. The
only variations that can be noticed are that the anterior hook is re-
latively more robust, and the smaller denticles are more acutely
pointed and slightly further apart from each other. There is more
uniformity in the dimensions of the English specimens, which average
1d line in length and 3 line in width; there are about 14 of the
smaller denticles, the last three being extremely minute. It is an
interesting fact that these Wenlock specimens are identical with the
forms from the relatively older strata of the Cincinnati group of
Canada ;‘ whilst the allied species A. elegans, from the contemporane-
ous or homotaxial Clinton group, does not appear to be represented in
the Wenlock strata.

Loc. and form. Much Wenlock: Wenlock group.

ARABELLITES EXTENSUS, Hinde. (Pl. XIV. fig. 12.)

The main portion of the jaw formed of a relatively thick, some-
what concave plate with a prominent knuckle-shaped posterior ex-
tremity ; the basal margin is curved, with a stout sharp-pointed an-
terior hook oblique to the main portion ; the upper margin is prolonged
backwards to form an extended arm on which there is a series of
recurved denticles. The number of denticles altogether on the
upper margin is about 15. Length 13 line; width i line.

The tooth-bearing extension renders this species very distinct
from any of the preceding. A form closely allied to, if not identical
with the present species also occurs in the Cincinnati group at
Toronto; but the only example I have of it is not sufficiently perfect
to allow of description.

Loc. and form. Much Wenlock ; Iron Bridge: Wenlock group.

ARABELLITES sprcatus, Hinde. (Pl. XIV. fig. 13.)

Main portion of jaw subrhomboidal in form and concave, with an
elongated anterior hook, the extremity of which is wanting in the
specimen ; the posterior extremity is hollowed out, and has an ele-
vated spike-like projection at the corner of the base; the upper
margin is nearly straight and extended backwards beyond the main
portion of the jaw; there-are about 10 small denticles. The reverse
or inner side of the jaw shows a deep groove beneath the anterior

LUDLOW FORMATIONS OF THE WEST OF ENGLAND. 375

margin, which extends to the cavity passing just below the upper
hook. Length 13 line; width nearly 4 line.

This form is allied to the preceding, A. extensus, but differs in the
spike at the corner of the base, the less extension of the upper
margin, and the fewer denticles.

ARABELLITES SPICATUS, var. conTRAcTUS. (Pl. XIV. figs. 14 & 15.)

Jaw oblong, convex, with a relatively elongated anterior hook,
not in the same plane with the anterior portion of the jaw, but
obliquely curved (the point of the hook is wanting in the specimen) ;
the posterior extremity is obliquely truncate; there are from 7 to
10 small denticles on a slightly elevated ridge, which extends in an
oblique direction below the upper ridge of the jaw. On the reverse
or inner side there is a deep groove traversing the jaw subcentrally,
and extending to the oval aperture of the cavity below the hook.
Length 1 line.

This variety differs from A. spicatus in wanting the extension of
the upper margin, and in the different position and smaller number
of the denticles.

Loc. and form. Much Wenlock: Wenlock group.

ARABELLITES suLcatus, Hinde.

Glycerites sulcatus, Hinde, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxxv.
p- 380, pl. xix. fig. 1.

The specimens in the Cincinnati group, from which I described
this species, presented only the reverse or inner side of the jaw, and
led me to suppose that it consisted merely of a simple curved hook
similar to that present in the existing genus Glycera. I have now,
however, been able to extract some of these jaws quite free from
the rock matrix, and find that they possess on the front or outer
surface a row of minute denticles, which would indicate that they
more closely approach the genus Arabellites ; and I therefore pro-
pose to place them under the latter genus. Examples of this form
quite undistinguishable from specimens from the Cincinnati group
are by no means unfrequent in the English Silurian.

Loe. and form. Much Wenlock; Wren’s Nest, Dudley: Wenlock
group. Ludlow: Upper Ludlow group.

ARABELLITES oBTUSUS, Hinde. (PI. XIV. fig. 16.)

Jaw subtriangular, compressed, the base straight, with a short
blunted extension below ; the anterior tooth curved, followed by a
series of five blunted denticles. Length 3 line.

This small form appears to be allied to A. crenulatus, from the
Cincinnati group, from which it differs in the form and number of
its denticles as well as in its smaller proportions.

Loc. and form. Much Wenlock: Wenlock group.

ARABELLITES ANGLICUS, Hinde. (Pl. XIV. fig. 17.)
Jaw somewhat crescentiform, compressed, the anterior border ox-

376: G. J.. HINDE ON ANNELID JAWS FROM THE WENLOCK AND

tending obliquely downwards to form a rod-like prolongation, the
posterior end truncate, a relatively stout curved anterior hook sepa-
rated by an interval from the 8 blunted nearly upright denticles on
the slightly arched upper margin of the jaw. Length 1 line; width
8 line. Abundant.

This form of jaw is of the same type as A. lunatus, H., but differs
in the projecting anterior hook, the truncated extremity, and the
fewer denticles. |

Loc. and form. Much Wenlock; tron Bridge: Wenlock group.
Ludlow; Stoke Edith: Upper Ludlow group.

ARABELLITES SIMILIS, Hinde.

Arabellites similis, Hinde, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. x xxv
pp. 382, 384, pl. xx. fig. 8.

Examples of this form, though not unfrequent, are in a poor state
of preservation ; so that it is difficult to determine whether they pro-
perly belong to this or the allied form A. cristatus. Whilst some
are undoubtedly identical with A. similis, there are certain speci-
mens which in their dimensions and the form of the denticles appear
to be intermediate between A. semilis and A. cristatus.

Loc. and form. Much Wenlock: Wenlock group. Ludlow;
Stoke Edith: Upper Ludlow group.

Genus Lumpriconereires, Ehlers, i868.

LUMBRICONEREITES BASALIS, Hinde,

Lumbriconereites basalts, Hinde, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol.
xxxy. p. 383, plate xix. fig. 22.

The English examples of this species do not possess the stout
anterior tooth, and are of smaller dimensions than the Canadian
forms; but in their general figure, number of denticles, and di-
stinctive flange they are similar. Average length 1 line.

Loc. and form. Much Wenlock ; Wren’s Nest, Dudley : Wenlock

group. .
Genus StavrocepHatites, Hinde, 1879.

STAUROCEPHALITES SERRULA, Hinde. (PI. XIV. figs. 18-20.)

Jaw elongated, compressed, in some instances having the anterior
border slightly incurved ; generally, however, the Jaw-plate is flattened
and in shape like the blade of a common hand-saw ; the posterior
end narrowed and slightly truncate; on the upper margin a series
of from 15 to 17 denticles, gradually diminishing in size towards the
posterior end. The denticles are of very varying forms in different
examples—either short and rounded, triangular and pointed, or
needle-shaped; and they are either upright or directed backwards.
In the majority of examples the anterior tooth is but slightly larger
than the next following it in the series; but occasionally it is more
prominent, yet similar in form and direction to the others in the

LUDLOW FORMATIONS OF THE WEST OF ENGLAND. ati

same jaw. ‘There is a great variety in the size of different examples,
the smallest being only § line in length, while the largest is 25 lines
long and 2 line wide.

This form approaches very closely to the S. niagarensis, H., from
the Niagara formation of Canada; but it is less incurved, and gene-
rally a wider and larger speeies. It is the most abundant of any
of the Annelid jaws, and occurs in all the localities of the Wenlock
formation in very excellent preservation.

Loc. and form. Much Wenlock; Iron Bridge; Wren’s Nest,
Dudley: Wenlock group.

Genus Nererpavus, Grinnell, 1877.

NEREIDAVUS ANTIQUUs, Hinde. (Pl. XIV. fig. 21.)

Jaw elongated, widest at the posterior extremity and gradually
tapering to the anterior obliquely projecting hook; the central por-
tion slightly concave ; the basal margin curved; the nearly straight
upper margin carries numerous minute crenulations. The reverse
or under surface gently convex, and near the posterior end an oval
aperture. Length 1 line; greatest width + line.

Loc. and form. Iron Bridge, Salop: Wenlock group.

Summary.

Of the 27 forms mentioned in this paper, 21 are found only in the
Wenlock group; 4 are common to the Wenlock and Ludlow, and
2 are restricted to the Ludlow group. There are in the Wenlock
strata 8 forms which have already been described from the Ameri-
can rocks ; of these, 2 are met with in the Cincinnati and Clinton
groups as well as the Wenlock, 3 appear in the Cincinnati and
Wenlock and are absent from the Clinton, and 3 are present in the
Clinton and Wenlock and not in the Cincinnati group. Two of the
forms from the Ludlow group are also present in the American
rocks ; one of these is present in both the Cincinnati and Clinton, the
other in the Cincinnati group only. The close relationship of these
Annelid remains in such widely separated localities is not only shown
by the number of the forms which are identical, but also by the
very general resemblance which exists in those forms which are
here provisionally described as new.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XIV.
Fossil Annelid Jaws from the Wenlock and Ludlow Formations.

Fig. 1. Eunicites curtus, H.: X 12. Much Wenlock.

. Enonites reqularis, H.: X 12. Dudley.

naviformis, H.: X 12. Dudley.

preacutus, H.: X 12. Much Wenlock.
insignificans, H.: X 16. Ludlow.

. —— cuneatus, yar. humilis: X 16. Iron Bridge, Salop.

SP SUB obo

378 ANNELID JAWS FROM THE WENLOCK AND LUDLOW FORMATIONS.

Gnonites aspersus, H.: X 12. Stoke Edith.

>: X 12. Much Wenlock.

tubulatus, H.: X 10. Dudley.
chiromorphus, var. minor. X 16. Dudley.
unguiculus, H.: X 16. Dudley.

_ Arabellites extensus, H.: x 10. Tron Bridge, Salop.

spicatus, H.: X 12. Much Wenlock. :
spicatus, var. contractus: <X 12. Fig. 14 represents the upper

or outer, fig. 15 the under or inside of this species: x12.
Much Wenlock.

. —— obtusus, H.: xX 12. Much Wenlock.
. ——anglicus,H. X 12. Much Wenlock.
. Staurocephalites serrula, H. ‘Three different examples of fhis

species. Fig. 18, x 10; fig. 19, x 8, and fig. 20, x 20. All
from Dudley.

. Nereidavus antiquus, H.: X 12. Iron Bridge, Salop.

et el
“il
a
a
pe

Quart. Journ.Geol.Soc:Vol. XXXVI P1.XIV.

x12. xh x12.

Mintern.Bros imp.

FOSSIL ANNELID JAWS.

ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE TERTIARY PERIOD. 379

29. The Cuasstrication of the TrrtIARY Perron by means of the Mam-
mania. By W. Bory Dawxnms, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor
of Geology in Owens College. (Read April 14, 1880.)

CoNTENTS.
1. Introduction.
2. The Value of Invertebrates and Vertebrates in Classification.
3. The Principle of Classification.
4. The Eocene Mammalia of Britain and France.
5. Characteristic Forms of the Three Eocene Divisions.
6. The Miocene Mammalia.
7. The Lower-Miocene Mammalia of France.
8. The Characteristic Lower-Miocene Forms.
9. The Mid-Miocene Mammalia of France.
10. The Characteristic Mid-Miocene Forms.
11. The Upper-Miocene Mammalia.
12. The Characteristic Upper-Miocene Forms.
13. The Lower-Pliocene Mammalia of France.
14. The Upper-Pliocene Mammalia of France and Italy.
15. The Characteristic Upper-Pliocene Forms.
16. The Development of Antlers in the Deer.
17. The Pleistocene Mammalia.
18. The Early Pleistocene Mammals of Britain.
19. The Magnitude of the Break between the Plio- and Pleistocene Periods.
20. The Mid-Pleistocene Mammalia of Britain. “4a
21. The Late Pleistocene Mammalia of Britain. :
22. The Prehistoric Mammalia of the British Isles.
23. The Characteristic Forms.
24. The Historic Mammalia of the British Isles.
25. The Prehistoric and Historic Divisions belong to the Tertiary Period.
26. General Conclusions.

1. Introduction.

Tue classification of the Tertiary, or the third of the great life-
periods, sketched in outline more than fifty years ago, and since then
altered in no important degree, seems to me not to be in harmony
with our present knowledge; and the definitions of the series of
events which took place in it have been materially modified by
recent discoveries in various parts of the world. The terms
Kocene, Miocene, and Pliocene* no longer express the idea of per-
centages of living species on which they were based, and Qua-
ternary, Post-Tertiary, and Recent are founded on an assumed great
break in the life-history between the present day and the Tertiary
period, comparable to that which separates the Secondary from the
Tertiary or the Primary periods, a break which has been disproved by
more recent inquiries. It has therefore seemed to me opportune to lay
before the Society the results of the investigations which I have
carried on for some years into these questions, and to propose a
classification of the Tertiary period of Europe by appealing to the

* The “Miocene” and “ Pliocene ” of the text have been substituted for the

“« Meiocene ” and “ Pleiocene ” of the author, which appear to him to agree better
with their Greek roots,

380 W. B. DAWKINS ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE

Mammalia, by applying the same method by which the Pleistocene
and the Prehistoric periods have already been defined*.

2. The Value of Invertebrates and Vertebrates in Classification.

The Eocene, Miocene, and Pliocene divisions of the Tertiary period
are based upon the varying percentages of living Mollusca in a com-
parison of three thousand fossil with five thousand living forms ; and
the term Pleistocene? was subsequently invented to imply a nearer
approximation to existing nature. Since that time the number of
living Mollusca in the various groups has been materially altered by
a wider area of observation, and it has been found impossible to map
off the Pleistocene from the Pliocene on the one hand, and from the
Prehistoric on the other, by their means, since by far the larger
majority of the Mollusca now living in our seas date from the Pli-
ocene age. In other words, the Mollusca have not changed with
sufficient swiftness to allow of their being used to classify the later
Tertiary divisions. Nor have the invertebrate faunas of Europe
generally changed fast enough to mark the later Tertiary divisions.
They arrived at their equilibrium towards the close of the Secondary
period. The lower vertebrates also had passed through their most
important biological changes before the beginning of the Tertiary,
and in the Kocene age we find ourselves confronted py fishes, am-
phibians, and reptiles belonging, for the most part, to living genera.
It is only when we appeal to the highest of all, the Placental Mam-
malia, that we are able to note specific changes which are sufficiently
rapid for the purposes of classification. They appear in the Eocene
age, as Prof. Gaudry happily terms it, “‘en pleine évolution”+, and
were in the same transitory condition throughout the greater part
of the Tertiary that is seen in the lower animals of the Primary and
Secondary periods.

3. The Principle of Classification.

The fossil Mammalia of Europe, and (so far as I am able to judge
from the works of Marsh, Leidy, and Cope) of America also, pre-
sent stages of specialization which coincide with the geological
divisions, and enable us to attach new definitions to the old names,
as follows :—

* International Congress of Prehistoric Archeology. Norwich volume.
t Lyell, ‘ Principles,’ 1st edit. iii. 1833; ‘ Antiquity of Man,’ Ist edit. p. 3.
{ Les Enchainements.

TERTIARY PERIOD BY MEANS OF THE MAMMALIA. 381

Characteristics.

VI. Hisroric, in which the events are re- ; Historical Record.
corded in History.

VY. Prenistoric, in which domestic ani- | Man abundant. Domestic ani-
mals and cultivated fruits appear. mals. Cultivated fruits.

IV. Pxxtstocens, in which living species of | Man appears. Living species
Placental Mammals are more abun- abundant.
dant than the extinct.

III. Purocenz, in which living species of | Living species appear.
Placental Mammals appear.

II, Miocenz, in which the alliance be- | Living genera appear.
tween living and Placental Mam-
mals is more close than before.

I, Eocene, in which the Placental Mam- | Living Orders and Families ap-
mals now on the earth were repre- | __ pear.
sented by allied forms belonging to
existing Orders and Families.

This may be represented by the following diagram :—

LIVING SPECIES

NO EXTINCT SPECIES

SSSR Se SSS SSeS eases enKene See Le A SS Sm es

LIVING SPECIES
V. PREHISTORIC

ONE EXTINCT SPECIES

Ser ONSEN EAS 8 se nn en SE eS ee eH
Yj

LIVING SPECIES
ABUNDANT

SEVERAL EXTINCT SPECIES

LIVING SPECIES
RARE

EXTINCT SPECIES
ASUNDANT

IV. PLEISTOCENE

Y
LS SL a gS
Y y Y

Il. PLIOCENE

Il. MIOCENE LIVING GENERA
LIVING FAMILIES
|. EOCENE

AND ORDERS

SECONDARY PERIOD

382 W. B. DAWKINS on THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE

The orders, families, genera, and species in the above table, when
traced forward in time, thus fall into the shape of a genealogical tree,
with its trunk hidden in the Secondary period, and its branchlets —
(the living species) passing upwards from the Pliocene—a tree of
life, with living mammalia for its fruit and foliage. Were the ex-
tinct species taken into account, it would be seen that they fill in
the intervals separating one living form from another, and that they,
too, grow more and more like the living forms as they approach
nearer to the present day.

It must be remembered that in the above definitions the fossil
marsupials are purposely ignored, because they began their specia-
lization in the Secondary term, and had arrived in the Hocene at
the stage which is marked by the presence of a living genus—the
Didelphys*. Each of the above groups of mammalia will be taken
separately, beginning with the Kocene period.

4. The Eocene Mammalia of Britain and France.

The Mammalia which lived in Eocene Britain and France fall
naturally into three groups—(1) the Lower or Pre-nummulitic,
(2) the Middle or the Nummulitic, and (8) the Upper or Post-
nummulitic. . In determining the British species in the accompany-
ing lists, I have used the works of Prof. Oweny, and have to
acknowledge the valuable aid of Mr..William Davies, of the British
Museum, in which collection, and in the Woodwardian at Cam-
bridge, most of the specimens are preserved. Those of France,
obtained principally from the works of Professors Gervais and
Gaudry t, have for the most part been checked by me in the Jardin des
Plantes in Paris and other French collections.

4a. Principal Eocene Mammalia of Britain.

LOWER EOCENE.

MMARSUPIALIA.
~ Didelphys colchesteri, Ow. Woolwich and Reading beds, Kyson.

UNGULATA PERISSODACTYLA.

Hyracotherium leporinum, Ow. Woolwich and Reading beds, Kyson.

cuniculus, Ow. Woolwich and Reading beds, Kyson.
Coryphodon eoceenus, Ow. London Clay, Harwich.

" Pliolophus vulpiceps, Ow. London Clay, Harwich.

MID HOCENE.

UNGULATA PERISSODACTYLA.
Lophiodon minimus, Ow. Bracklesham.

* =Peratherium of Gervais. In the view in the text, I am following
Gaudry.

t ‘Paleontology’ and ‘ British Fossil Mammalia.’

{ Gervais, ‘ Paléontologie Francaise,’ 4to, 1859; Gaudry, ‘ Sur les Enchaine-
ments du monde animal,’ 8vo, 1878,

TERTIARY PERIOD BY MEANS OF THE MAMMALIA. 383

UPPER EOCENE.

MarsvupPIALIA.
Didelphys. Hordwell.

Carnivora (MarsuPiAqiA).
Hyznodon leptorhynchus, Blainv. Hordweil.

UNGULATA PERISSODACTYLA.

Anchitherium radegondense, Gerv. Bembridge.
Palxotherium crassum, Cuv. Hordwell.
magnum, Cuv. Bembridge.

medium, Cuv. Binstead.

minus, Ow. Hordwell.

Paloplotherium annectens, Ow. Hordwell.

UNGULATA ARTIODACTYLA NON RuMINANTIA.

Anthracotherium. Hempstead, Bembridge.
Miecrocherus erinaceus, S. V. Wood. Hordwell.
Cheropotamus Ouvieri, Ow. Isle of Wight.
Dichodon cuspidatus, Ow. Hordwell.
Anoplotherium commune, Cuv. Binstead.

Uneunata ARTIODACTYLA RuMINANTIA.

Dichobune ovinum, Ow. Binstead.
—— cervinum, Ow. Binstead.

RopDENTIA,
Theridomys.

Primates, LEMURIDA.
_ Acotherulum.

4b. Principal Eocene Mammata of France.
LOWER EOCENE=ORTHROCENE, Gervais, p. 324.
MarsuPIALIA CARNIVORA.

Arctocyon primzvus, Gerv. Palxonictis gigantea, Blainv,

UncGuLatA PERISSODACTYLA,
Coryphodon anthracoideum, Ow.

MID EOCENE=EOCENE, Gervais, p. 327.

UnGuLata PERISSODACTYLA.

Lophiodon, 10 species. Propalxotherium, 2 species,
Pachynolophus, 5 species.

UNGULATA ARTIODACTYLA.
Anchilophus. Heterohyus.

Unauiata ArtiopAcTYLA RuMmINANTIA,
Dichobune.

384 W. B. DAWKINS ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE

UPPER EOCENE=PROICENE, Gervais, p. 328.

MarsvuPiAqiA.
Didelphys, Cuv.=Peratherium, Gerv., 5 species.
Proviverra cayluxi, Gaudry*.
Hyzenodon, 3 species.
Pterodon dasyuroides, Blainv.

Unaunata PERissoDACTYLA.
Anchitherium (?) Dumasii, Gerv. Paloplotherium, 2 species.
radegondense, Gerv. Lophiotherium ceryulum, Gerv.
Palzotherium, 6 species.

UnGuLataA ARTIODACTYLA.

Anoplotherium eommune, Cuv. Cheropotamus parisiensis, Cuy,
Kurytherium latipes, Gerv. Cebocheerus, 2 species.

UNGULATA ARTIODACTYLA RuMINANTIA.

Amphimeeryx, 2 species. Cainotherium (Hyzgulusj, 2 species.
Dichobune leporinum, Cwv. Xiphodon, 3 species.

Carnivora (? ManrsupPIA.tiA).

Canis (?) parisiensist, Cuv. Galethylax Blainvillei, Gerv.
Cynodictis lacustris, Gerv. - Tylodon Hombresii, Gerv.
Cyotherium parisiense, Gerv. Amphicyon.
e ; 7
- RopENTIA.
Plesiarctomys Gervaisii, Brav. Theridomys, 2 species.

Sciurus fossilis, Cuv.
«

CHIROPTERA.
Vespertilio parisiensis ft.

Primates, LEMURIDZ.
Adapis parisiensis, Cuv,
Adapis (Aphelotherium) Duvernoyi, Gaudry.
Acotherulum.
Tapirulus hyracinus, Gerv. »

5. Characteristic Forms of the Three Eocene Divisions.

_ The few Lower-Hocene mammals which have been preserved pre-
sent characters of great importance. Not only are the marsupials
represented by.a living genus, Didelphys (Opossum), but, as Prof.
Gaudry has pointed out§, decided traces of a marsupial ancestry are
to be observed in the Arctocyon and the Palewonictis—the former being
allied to the bear in its dental characters and to the Marsupials in
the low organization of its brain, and the latter in its teeth re-
sembling the Tasmanian Dasyure. They show that at this time
the European Carnivores were intermediate between the Marsupials
and the Placental mammals.

* Les Enchainements, ec. 1. "a
t This Eocene genus is too imperfect to be satisfactorily defined.

{ This Eocene genus has not been satisfactorily defined.
§ Les Enchainements.

TERTIARY PERIOD BY MEANS OF THE MAMMALIA, 380

The presence of a living Marsupial genus in a fauna in which
Placental living genera are absent might be expected, since the
Marsupials lived throughout the Secondary period, while the
Placental mammals only appear in the Tertiary. ‘The former there-
fore in the Lower-Eocene age were in a more advanced stage of evo-
lution than the latter.

The Tapir-like Coryphodon is widely distributed, and marks the
horizon of the Lower Eocene, not merely in France and Britain,
‘but in Switzerland and North America. It was pentadactyle, and
possessed a brain shown by Prof. Marsh to be remarkably small.

The genus Lophiodon appears to be characteristic of the Mid-
Eocene Mammalia of Europe. '

In the Upper Eocenes the Carnivora present the same association
of Marsupial with Placental characters which.has been observed in
the Lower Eocenes, and have not yet lost the traces of their descent
from a long line of Marsupial ancestors... Among the European
Ungulates the Palzothere and Anoplothere are the two most charac-
teristic forms. ae
_ The Upper-Eocene forests of France were also-haunted by repre-
sentatives of the highest order of Mammalia, or the Primates, which
includes the families of Man, the Ape, andthe Lemur. The Adapis*
of the Paris basin, classified by Cuvier with the Anoplotheres, has
recently been proved to be related to the last of these, as well as to
the hoofed quadrupeds and Insectivores. To the same family also
belong the Necrolemurt, discovered in the south of France, and the
Ceenopithecus t of Riitimeyer, found in Switzerland. The family is |
also proved§$ by Marsh and Cope to have inhabited the forests of
North America during the whole of the Eocene age in New Mexico,
Wyoming, Dakotah, and Nebraska. None of these are identical
with any living genus of Lemurs; but all possess characters bringing
them into relation with one or other of the families of hoofed qua-
drupeds living in the Eocene period.

6. The Miocene Mammalia.

The Miocene Mammalia, represented in Britain by the Hyopo-
tamus, are well defined by discoveries made in various parts of the

* ‘Gervais, ‘ Zool. et Paléontologie Générale,’ p. 28 e seg.; ‘Journ. de Zool.’ -
i, p. 476; ‘Phosphorites de Quercy, Tarn-et-Garonne et Lot,’

t Filhol, ‘Journ. de Zool. ii. p. 476; Gaudry, op. cit. iv. p. 21; Delfortrie,
op. cit. . p. 476; Gaudry, ‘ Les Enchainements,’ ch. x.

{ Riitimeyer, ‘ Ueber die Herkunft unserer Thierwelt’ (4to, 1867), p.52. The
Yauna of the Bohnerz, in which the Cenopithecus was found, is considered by
Heer to be of Mid-Eocene age. It seems to me more probable thatit represents
also the Upper and Lower divisions. The local deposit of Bohnerz (iron-ore)
in Switzerland had begun in the Cretaceous age, and may have been continued
throughout the Eocene period. The fauna contains characteristic forms of
Upper- as well as Middle-Kocene species.

§ Marsh, “Introduction and Succession of Vertebrate Life in America,”
American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1877; Cope, “ Hyop-
gee Report of U.S. Geological Survey of the Territories, Fossil Vertebrates,
eta Sarde s

Q.J.G.8. No. 143. i” 2D

386 - W.B. DAWKINS ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE

Continent, and appear to me to fall naturally into three divisions—
Lower, Middle, and Upper.

7. Lhe Lower-Miocene Mammalia of France.

The animals which characterize the Lower Miocenes of France
consist of the following species derived from (1) St. Gerand-le-Puy
(Allier), (2) Vaumas and St. Pourcin-sur-Hetre (Allier), (3) Issoire,
Volvie (Puy-de-Dome).— Gervais, Zool. et Paléont. France. pp. 341 et
Seq.

MARSUPIALIA.
Didelphys= Peratherium (3)*.
Hyzenodon leptorhynchus, de Laiz. (2).

UNGULATA PERISSODACTYLA.

Rhinoceros minutus, Cuvier (3).
Tapiris Poireri, Pomel (2).

Uneutata ARTIODACTYLA.

Palzocheerus (Hyotherium) (1), (8).
Anthracotherium magnum, Cav. (3).
Hyopotamus borbonicus, Gerv. (2).

UnGuiata ARTIODACTYLA RUMINANTIA.

Dremotherium Feignouxii, Geoff: (1), (3).
Amphitragulus elegans, Pomel (1), (3).
Cainotherium commune, Gerv. (1), (3).
Synaphodus brachygnathus, Pome (8).

CARNIVORA.

Amphicyon gracilis, Ponvel (1). Mustela Croizeti, Pomel (8).
brevirostris, Gerv. (8). elegans, Gerv. (1).
Viverra primzeva, Pomel (3). «+ sectoria, Gerv. (3).
antiqua, Blainv. (1). angustifrons, Gerv. (1).
Potamotherium Valetoni, Gerv. (1). minuta, Gerv. (1).
Mustela plesictis, de Laiz. (1).

RopEnTiA.
Steneofiber viciacensis, Gerv. (1). Myoxus murinus, Pomel (1).
Sciurus (1). Cricetodon (8).
Theridomys breviceps, Gerv. (3). Titanomys visenoviensis, Meyer (1).-
Blainyillei, Gerv. (8).
INSECTIVORA.
Hrinaceus arvensis, Blainv. (3). Sorex antiquus, Pomel (1).
Myogale naiadum, Pomel (3). Talpa acutidentata, Blainv. (3).

Plesiosorex soricinoides, Gerv. (8).
Mysarachne Picteti, Pomel (3).

antiqua, Blainv. (3).

The Mammalia of Ronzon, Villebramar, and Le Puy-en-Velay, con
sidered by Prof. Gaudry?t to belong to a still lower horizon of the

* These numbers relate to the above localities.
* + ‘Les Enchainements,’ p. 5, and ‘Les Animaux Fossiles de Mont Léberon,’
4to, p. 86.

TERTIARY PERIOD BY MEANS OF THE MAMMALIA. 387

Miocene than the above, will probably, as Prof. Gervais suggests,
ultimately be classed with the Upper Eocene.

8. The Characteristic Lower-Miocene Forms.

It appears from the examination of the lists of Miocene species,
which I have selected as typical, that at least twenty-three living
genera appear in the Miocene age, of which the following betong to
the lower division :—

Rhinoceros, Rhinoceros. Hedgehog, Hrinaceus.
Tapir, Lapirus. Dormouse, Myoxus.
Mustela, Mustela. Water-Shrew, Myogale.
Viverra, Viverra. Mole, Talpa.

Squirrel, Sciwrus.
The genera surviving from the Hocene are :—

Didelphys. Anchitherium.
Hycenodon.

The genus Xziphodon is represented by the more specialized Am-
piatragulus.

The two most characteristic genera are the hog-like Hyopotamus
and the Anthracotherium, with back teeth like the hog, and with
premolars, canines, and incisors as well adapted for piercing and
dividing flesh as in the Carnivores. There were no true hogs, nor
representatives of the family of elephants ; and in a large and varied
group of animals representing the deer and antelopes there were none
bearing antlers or horns.

The most important fact presented by this fauna is that the
opossums still lingered in the forests of Europe, and that the Mar-
supial ancestry of the Carnivores still asserted itself in the singular
combination of characters offered by the Hywnodon. With the
close of the Lower Miocene age we bid farewell to the European
Marsupials; and none of their characters have been observed in the
Placental mammals of the Old World in any subsequent age.

9. The Mid-Miocene Mammalia of France.

The next well-defined horizon in the history of the Miocene mam-
malia of Europe is offered by the faunas of (1) Sansan, (2) Simorre,
and (3) St. Gaudens, in the south of France, described by Professors
Lartet, Gervais, and Gaudry, and given in the following list, i
which the numbers relate to the localities.

EpENTATA.
Macrotherium giganteum, Lar‘. (1).

PROBOSCIDEA.
Mastodon angustidens, Cuv. Dinotherium intermedium, Kaup (2).
tapiroides, Cwv. (1), (2).
2D 2

388 W. B. DAWKINS ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE

UnGguuAtTA PERISSODACTYLA.

Anchitherium aurelianense, Gerv. (1). | Rhinoceros cimogorrhensis, Laré. (2).

Rhinoceros brachypus, Lart. (2). Aceratherium tetradactylus, Lar‘. (2)
-—- sansaniensis, Lar, (1).

UNGULATA ARTIODACTYLA.

Sus cherotherium, Blainv. (1). Listriodon splendens, Meyer (2).
lemuroides, Blainv. (1). Chalicotherium grande, Gerv. (1).
Cheromorus simplex, Gerv. (1).

Uneunata ARTIODACTYLA RUMINANTIA.

Antilope clavata, Gerv. (1). Micromeryx Flourensianus, Lav‘. (1).
Dicroceros elegans, Lart. (1).

CARNIVORA.
Hyzenarctos hemicyon, Lar‘. (1). Pseudelurus quadridentatus, Gerv.
Amphicyon * zibethoides, Blainv. (1). (1).
Thalassictis (?) incerta, Lar?. (1). Lutra dubia, Blainv. (1).
Viverra sansaniensis, Lart. (1). Mustela hydrocyon, Larz. (1)

exilis, Blainv. (1).
Felis media, Lart. (1).
Machairodus palmidens, Gerv. (1).

taxodon, Larv. (1).
genettoides, Lart. (1).
zorilloides, Lart. (1).

. RODENTIA.
Castor subpyrenaicus, Lar. (2).
Steneofiber sansaniensis, Gerv. (1).
Sciurus sansaniensis, Lat. (1).

Cricetodon sansaniensis, Lart. (1).
medius, Lart. (1).
minor, Lar?. (1).

Gervaisianus, Lart. (1). Lagomys (‘Titanomys) sansaniensis,
Myoxus sansaniensis, Lar?. (1). Lart, (1).
INSECTIVORA.
Erinaceus sansaniensis, Lar‘. (1). Talpa sansaniensis, Lart. (1).

Myogale sansaniensis, art. (1).

minuta, Blainv. (1).

CHIROPTERA.

Vespertilio noctuloides, Lart. (1).
murinoides, Lart. (1)...

PRIMATES, SIMIADA.

Pliopithecus antiquus, Gerv. aby
Dryopithecus Fontani, Lart. (3).

10. The Characteristic Mid-Miocene Forms.

The new living genera are Sus, Cervus, Antilope, Felis, Lutra,
Castor, the hogs being remarkable for the small size of their
canines, and the deer and antelopes for their small antlers and
horns. The rhinoceroses are larger in bulk than those of the
Lower Miocene ; and some, probably the females, are hornless. The

* Prof. Gaudry, remarks that the Amphicyon of the’ Mid-Miocene strata pos-
sesses “des réminiscences de l’état marsupial” (‘Les Enchainements,’ p. 24).

TERTIARY PERIOD BY MEANS OF THE MAMMALIA, 389

genera Anchitherium and Amphicyon are among the survivors from
the Upper Eocene. The Proboscidea are represented by the Deino-
there and the Mastodon, while the Edentates are represented by a
gigantic anteater, the Macrotherium. The genus Machairodus also
appears for the first time, as well as the Hyenarctos, found also in
the Miocenes of the Sevalik hills.

The higher apes also haunted the Mid-Eocene forests of France,
Switzerland, Germany, and Italy. The Pliopithecus of Sansan is
considered by Prof. Gervais* and Dr. Forsyth Major to be allied to
the anthropoid division; while a second, the Dryopithecus of St.
Gaudens, according to Prof. Lartett, rivalled man in size, and,
according to Prof. Owen §, is allied to the Pliopithecus and to the
gibbons. A third, found at Steinheim in Wiirttemberg, is referred
by Prof. Fraas|| to the genus Colobus (Colobus grandevus) ; and a
fourth, Oreopithecus, is stated by Prof. Gervais to be allied to the
anthropoid apes, the macaques, and the baboons. —

Man is believed by Dr. Hamy4] and M. de Mortillet** to have
belonged to the Mid-Miocene fauna of France, on the grounds that
the splinters of flint found in the Mid-Miocene strata at Thenay by
the Abbé Bourgeoisyy, and that the notches on a rib of Halithertum
found-at Ponancé by M. Delaunay are beyond a doubt artificial and
human. The evidence, however, seems to me to be unsatisfactory.
It is most unlikely that man, the most specialized of the Mammalia,
formed part of a fauna in which no other living species of mammal
was present. He belongs to a far more advanced stage of evolution
than that of the Mid-Miocene age, as may be seen by the examina-
tion of the diagram, p. 381; and the evolution of the animal kingdom
had at this time advanced as far as, but no further than, the Simiade.

11. The Upper-Miocene Mammaha.

The labours of Dr. Kaup, of Darmstadt, followed many years
afterwards by the remarkable discoveries of Prof. Gaudry in Italy
and France, enable us to form an adequate idea of the Mammalia
living in Europe in the Upper-Miocene age. The following list is
compiled principally from the work of the last-named author tt.

* Zool. et Pal. Franc: p. 8.

Tt Atti della Soc. Ital. di Se. Nat. xv. 1872.

t Comptes Rendus, xliii. 1856. The late development of the wisdom-tooth,
considered by Lartet to be a character peculiar to this animal, is met with also,
as Forsyth Major remarks, in the Macacus rhesus. It has not, therefore, the
importance which is attached to it by Lartet and Lyell (Student’s Elements,
p. 196). See also Gaudry, ‘ Les Enchainements, p. 237.

§ Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. xxvi. p. 18.

|| Die Fauna von Steinheim, Wiirtt, nat. J ahreshefte, xxvi. 1870, p. 145.

«| Hamy, Paléontologie Humaine, p- 45.

** Mortillet, Revue Préhistorique, 1879, p. 119.

tt Bourgeois, Congr. Int. Archéol. Préhist, Paris vol. p. 67, Brusseis vol.
p. 81.
tt Les Animaux Fossiles et la Géologie de l’Attique, 1862-68 ard Les
Animaux Fossiles de Mont Léberon, 4to.

390 - W.B. DAWKINS ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE

eluse, Mont

Léberon.

France; Vau-

EDENTATA.
Ancylotherium pentelici, Gaudry ......
Macrotherium .........6.eeeeeeer eee sm Gee

PROBOSCIDEA.
Mastodon pentelici, Gaudry § Lartet..., ...
Mastodon turicensis, Schi7z.........++++++ |
longirostris, Kaup ...--.s+eseeeeeees |
Dinotherium giganteum, Kaup .........

PERISSODACTYLA.
Rhinoceros pachyenathus, Wagner ......
Schleiermacheri, Kaup ........-++-
Aceratherivm ~ .....:00.2..sceeseerseess: to?
Leptodon grecus, Gaudry ...... Ben ene
Hipparion gracile, Christol .........++.++-
TAPS ceeceeseceeeeeesscenersreceeeenerere es

ARTIODACTYLA.
Chalicotherium ...2.-<..7.22000<000+0----- ios
Sus erymanthius .........

major, Gerv., = var. \
paleocheerus, Kawp .....-ssseeeeee
antediluyianus, Kaup .........6-+++
antiquus, Kaup ........-. er

RUMINANTIA,
Camelopardalis attica, Gaudry § Lartet
Helladotherium Duvernoyi, Gaudry ..
Palsotragus Rouenii, Gaudry .......-..--
Paleoryx Pallasii, Gaudry .............-.
Tragoceros amaltheus, Gaudry...........-
Tragoceros Valenciennesi, Gaudry ......
Palzoreas Lindermayeri, Gaudry ......
Antedorcas(?) Rothii, Gaudry............
Gazella brevicornis, Gaudry .......-..+
deperdita, Gaudry .............00++
Dremotherium pentelici, Gaudry ......
Doreatheriwm, 0 .oe5. 20: 928ha-aeeeeaee oe
Cervus Matheroni, Gerv. ........-00-eerees
ae AMO CETOS: IRC Uae ce etre penieneeel rece
dicranoceros, KGUp ......s.0c0ceeeee- mee

CARNIVORA.

Simocyon diaphorus, Gawdry ..........4: fey
Mustela pentelici, Gaudry ..........2++-- sat
Promephitis Lartetii, Gaudry ...........-

Ictitherium robustum, Gaudry ......... Sas
hipparionum, Wagner .............+- *
Orbison, Wager. 23k -. mse ere se *
Hyena eximia, Roth § WaGner sso *
cheretis, Gaudry § Lartet ......... wats
Hyzeenictis greeca, GaUdry,........coseeeee- pa
Machairodus cultridens, Kaup. ......... x
Felis attica, Gaudry ....... i nels vis eat tante ae a

RODENTIA.
Hystrix primigenia, Gaudry ....... idee

Primates, SrmraDsz.
Mesopithecus pentelici, Wagner ......... ees
Dryopithecusi(?), \piecscen-cesnesesnncner ser

qin : Con-

p)
cud.

Sy

Attica,
Pikermi.

Greece:

*K OK

Ps

Ke

Kk Ok ok OK

x

*K OK

<

>

kK

=e
Se SAT ey

Hungary:
Baltavar.

*

ak

Besse-Darm-

stadt, Eppels-

Germany :
heim.

TERTIARY PERIOD BY MEANS OF THE MAMMALIA. ‘391

12. The Characteristic Upper-Miocene Forms.

The new living genera of the Upper Miocene are :—

Giraffe, Camelopardalis. Hyena, Hyena.
Gazelle, Gazella. Porcupine, Hystrix.
And the extinct genera surviving from the Mid Miocene are :—
Macrotherium. Aceratherium.
Mastodon. Chalicotherium.
Dinotherium. Machairodus.

The Edentates still lived in Germany and Greece; and the Hzp-
parion was abundant in Middle and Southern Europe.
The horns of the rhinoceros and of the antelopes are larger than
-in the Mid-Miocene age; and the antlers of the deer, still small, are
considerably larger than before, arriving at their maximum deyelop-
ment in the Cervus Matheroni, Gerv., of Mont Léberon*. The
canines of the hogs still remained very small.
Numerous apes intermediate between Semnopithecus and Maca-
cus lived in the wooded slopes leading from Pikermi towards the
plain of Marathon and down to the great plains, now submerged,
which extended southwards towards Africa and eastwards towards
Asia Minor. A large ape found at Eppelsheim extends the range of
the Simiade as far north as lat. 49° 43’ or 14° beyond the present
northern limit of the Old-World apes. It is worthy of remark that,
‘in the New World the Laopithecus, Marsh, of the Miocene strata
of Nebraska is found from 14° to 15° north of the present range of
the American Monkeys. From this it may be inferred that the
-climatal change by which the Simiade have been restricted to their
present habitats, has been the same in the New and the Old Worlds.

13. The Lower-Pliocene Mammalia of France.

The history of the Pliocene Mammalia of Europe may be studied
most conveniently from the points of view offered by the groups of
-animals discovered at Montpellier, and at Mont Perrier and Issoire
in Auvergne, belonging to the upper and lower divisions, and those
-of the upper Val d’Arno in Italy, belonging to the former. The
following lists are founded on those of Professor Gervais, with the
- addition of certain species identified by Dr. Falconer and myself.

LOWER-PLIOCENE MAMMALS OF FRANCE—STAGE OF
MONTPELLIER.
PROBOSCIDEA.
Mastodon arvernensis, Falc.,= M. brevirostris, Gerv.
UnGuLATA PERISSODACTYLA.
Rhinoceros megarhinus, Christol, = Tapirus minor, Serres.

UNGULATA ARTIODACTYLA.
Sus provincialis, Gerv.

* Dawkins, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xiv. p. 402.

392 |W. B. DAWKINS ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE

UneuLata ARTIODACTYLA RUMINANTIA,

Antilope Cordieri, Christ.
Cervus cusanus, Cr. et Job.
australis, Serres.

CARNIVORA.
Ursus minutus, Gerv. (? Ursus Felis Christolii, Gerv.
arvensis, Cr. et Job.) Lutra affinis, Gerv.
Hyzenarctos insignis, Gerv.
RopDENTIA.

Chalicomys sigmodus, Gerv.
Lagomys loxodus, Gerv.

PRIMATES, SIMIADA.

Semnopithecus monspessulanus, Gerv.
Macacus priscus, Gerv.

This group of animals presents no living species of Mammalia,.
and it is only classed with the Pliocene because of the presence of
well-defined Upper-Pliocene species, such as Mastodon arvernensis,
Rhinoceros megarhinus, Ursus arvernensis, and Cervus cusanus.
The extinct genera Hycnarctos, Mastodon, and Hipparion survived.
from the Miocene ; and the two apes belong to the living genera,
Macacus and Semnopithecus. None of the deer possess large antlers ;
nor have the hogs large canines.

14. The Upper-Pliocene Mammalia of France and Italy.

The Upper-Pliocene mammals of France and Italy are repre-
sented by the following groups, of which the one has been defined.
by MM. Croizet and Jobert * and Prof. Gervais +, and the other by
Dr. Forsyth Major f.

UPPER-PLIOCENE MAMMALIA OF FRANCE—OF MONT PERRIER.
AND ISSOIRH.
PROBOSCIDBA.

Mastodon arvernensis, Cr. et Job.
Elephas meridionalis (of Malbattu), Nestz.

UnGuuATtTA PERISSODACTYLA.

Rhinoceros (elatus ?)
Tapirus arvernensis, Cr, e¢ Job.
Hipparion gracile (of Malbattu), Kaup.

_ Uneunata ARTIODACTYLA.
Sus arvernensis, Cr. et Job.

* Recherches sur les Oss. Foss. du Département du Puy-de-Dome: 4to, 1828..
t Zool. et Pal. Frang. p. 349.
t Soe. Ital. di Antrop. et di Htnol. April 20, 1876, p. 10.

TERTIARY PERIOD BY MEANS OF THE MAMMALIA. 393

UNGULATA ARTIODACTYLA RUMINANTIA,

Bos elatus, Crozz. Cervus etueriarum, C7. e¢ Job.
Cervus polycladus, Gerv. pardinensis, C7. ct Job.
(=C. ramosus, Cr. e¢ Job.) arvernensis, Cr. et Job.
ardens, Cr. et Job. cusanus, Cr. et Job,
cladocerus, Pomel. tetraceros, Dawk.*
perrieri, Cr. et Job. —— cylindroceros, Dawk.*
(=C. issiodorensis. ) polignacus, Robert.

; CARNIVORA.
Ursus arvernensis, Cr. ef Job. Felis issiodorensis, Cr. et Job.
Canis borbonicus, Brav. Machairodus cultridens, Gerv.
Felis pardinensis, Cr. et Job. Hyena arvernensis, Cr. e¢ Job.
arvernensis, Cr. et Job. —— perrieri, Cr. et Job.
brevirostris, Cr. et Job. Lutra Bravardi, Pomel.
RODENTIA.
Hystrix refossa, Gerv. Arvicola robustus, Pomel.
Castor issiodorensis, Croizet. Lepus Lacosti, Pomel.

Arctomys antiqua, Pomel.

UPPER-PLIOCENE MAMMALIA OF ITALY—OF ao UPPER
VAL D’ARNO.

PRoBOSCIDEA.
Mastodon arvernensis, Cr. e¢ Job.
Elephas meridionalis, Nes?z.

UnGuLaTA PERISSODACTYLA.

Rhinoceros etruscus, Fu/c.
megarhinus, Fale.t
Equus Stenonis, Cocchi.

UnGuiata ARTIODACTYLA.
Hippopotamus major, Cuv.
Sus Strozzi, Menegq.
UnGuLaTA ARTIODACTYLA RUMINANTIA.

Bos etruscus, Fale. Cervus dicranios, Nes?z.
Cervus ctenoides, esti (MSS.). etueriarum, Cr. et Job. §
perrieri, Cr. e¢ Job. t ‘

CARNIVORA.
, Canis etruscus, Major. Canis Falconeri, Major.

Ursus etruscus, C2v. Mustela.
Hyena perrieri, Cr. e¢ Job. Machairodus (3 sp.).
Felis.

RopeEntTIA,
Castor plicidens, Major. Hystrix.

rosiniz, Majcr. Lepus.
Primates, SIMIADZ.
Macacus (Aulaxinus) florentinus.
» sp., Cocchi.
* Dawkins, Q. J. G.S. xxxiv. p. 402. t Determined by Dr. Falconer.

: Determined by myself in ihe ‘Museum of the University of Florence.

§ Determined by myself in the Geological Museum of the University of |
Bologna and in the Castello Valentino, Turin, where there are also specimens.
of Machairodus latidens, Ow., and JZ. cultridens, Kaup.

394 --W. B. DAWKINS ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE

15. The Characteristic Upper-Pliocene Forms.

The study of the Upper-Pliocene Mammalia presents the following
important characteristics. The Hippopotamus amphibius was widely
distributed through the forests of France and Italy; and numerous
deer of the section Axeidee are probably identical specifically with
the deer of Southern and Eastern Asia, of the types of Awis, Rusa,
and Cervus taivanus*. Hipparion appears for the last time ;
and with the extinction of Macacus florentinus the family of apes
passed away from among the European fauna. The disappearance
of the apes from Europe at the close of the Pliocene age is one of
the most important facts in the history. of the fossil mammals. In
the Upper Miocene they ranged as far north as Eppelsheim. In
the Lower Pliocene they were restricted to the forests of the south
of France, and in the Upper Pliocene to those of Italy. Their
southern retreat and final extermination in Europe are probably
due to a climatal change, to a lowering of the temperature, which
arrived at its minimum in the Pleistocene age.

The evidence as to the presence of man in the Italian Pliocenes,
brought forward by Dr. Cocchi and Prof. Capellini +, seems to me
to be unsatisfactory. The Pliocene Mammalia are not sufficiently
specialized, do not contain a sufficient number of living species, to”
make it probable that man belonged to the Pliocene fauna.

The four most important new living genera are the oxen, the
horses, the bears, and the elephants. The first of these, Bos etruscus,
was sometimes without horns, as in a skull pointed out to me in
1877 by Dr. Forsyth Major in the museum at Florence. This
interesting specimen renders it likely that horns were originally a
sexual character peculiar to the bulls, transferred afterwards to the
cows. ‘The cows, however, possessed horns in the succeeding Pleis-
tocene age, in the deposits of which fossil polled cattle are unknown.
If this view of the origin of horns be accepted, it is easy to explain
the singular ease with which the horns have been bred out of some
of the domestic cattle, in_a comparatively short time, by selection
earried on through a few generations, and our polled cattle may be
looked upon as a reversion to an ancestral type. The small size
also of the tusks of the domestic hogs, as compared with those of
the wild boar, may be explained in the same manner.

The horses inhabiting the Val d’Arno in the Upper-Pliocene age
were intermediate in the structure of their feet and teeth between
the common horse and the Hipparion, and may perhaps indicate
that the deposits in which they occur are later than those of Au-
vergne with the remains of Hipparion. The elephants are repre-
sented by the Llephas meridionalis of the Upper Pliocene of France
and Italy. The bears are small, and with the canine teeth not so
large as in the Pleistocene Ursus arctos and U. speleus.

* Dawkins, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soe. vol. xxiv. p. 402.
+ Mem. della Soc. Ital. di Sc. Nat. ii. no. 7, 1867.
¢ Atti della Reale Accad. dei Lincei, ser. 2, tom. iti. 1876.

TERTIARY PERIOD BY MEANS OF THE MAMMALIA. 395

16, The Development of Antlers in the Deer.

The Pliocene deer occupied a position intermediate between those
of the preceding and succeeding ages in regard to their development
of antlers. In the Lower Miocene none of the Cervide were
antlered. In the Mid Miocene the antlers bore simple forked
crowns; and in the Upper Miocene they become more complex, but are
still small and erect, like those of the roe. In the Upper Pliocene
they are larger and longer, and altogether more complex than they
were before, some forms, such as the Cervus dicranios of Nesti,
being the most complicated antlers at present known. ‘The deve-
lopment of antlers reaches a maximum in the Irish elk of the Pleis-
tocene and Prehistoric ages. ‘These successive changes are like
those which take place in the development of the antlers in the
living deer, which begin with a simple point and increase in size
and in the number of tynes up to their limit of growth. It is
worthy of remark that in the Mid-Miocene strata of Thenay
small erect branching antlers, without a burr or rose and persistent
through life, represent an intermediate: form between the deer and
the antelopes. Similar antlers to these have been figured and
described by Professors Leidy and Cope from the Upper Miocenes or
Lower Pliocenes of the United States.

The Pliocene Mammalia of the Coralline, Red, and Norwich Crags
are so imperfectly known, so fragmentary, and so mingled with
Miocene fossils while they were exposed to the dash of the waves on
the Pliocene shore, that it is better not to attempt to give a sys-
tematic list of those occurring in Britain.

17. The Pleistocene Maminalia.

We come now to that period in the history of life when the
existing species of Mammalia preponderate greatly over the extinct,
to the Pleistocene age, in which the living species stand to the
extinct in the relation of fifty-six to twenty-two, out of a total of
seventy-eight. They fall naturally into three divisions, as I have
already pointed out in previous communications to the Society :—
the Early-Pleistocene, or that of the Forest-bed group; the Mid-
Pleistocene, or that of the Brick-earths of the lower Thames ; and

the Late-Pleistocene, or those of most of the river-deposits and
most of the caves *,

18. The Early-Plestocene Mammalia of Britain.

The Early-Pleistocene Mammalia from the Forest-bed of Norfolk
and Suffolk, given in the following list, are remarkable for the
association of Pliocene species with living and extinct species before
unknown. It will be remarked that the whole of the new living
species are now to be found in the temperate regions.

* Quart. Journ. Geol. Soe. vol. xxviii. p. 410, xxiii. p. 91.

396 _W. B. DAWKINS ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE

Survival from Pliocene—Living species=1.

ippopotamus.......2. 5.8 Hippopotamus amphibius.
Survivals from Pliocene—Extinct species=7.

- Southern elephant ............ Hlephas meridionalis, Nesti.
Big-nosed rhinoceros ......... Rhinoceros megarhinus, Christol
Etruscan rhinoceros ......... R. etruscus, Fale.

Sedgwickis deer .5......d-ceh oe Cervus dicranios= C. Sedqwickit.

Deer Olmeoulonaces wee C. polignacus, Robert.

Sabre-toothed lion ............ Machairodus latidens ?, Ow.

Bear of Auvergne* ......... Ursus arvernensis, Cr. & Job.
New comers—Living species=15.

HUOESO oo stte tala afoot sdeae Equus caballus, L.

NWVATGOD DAT rents. esccc ss Sus scrofa, L.

Uneasy ees eB AE use Bos primigenius, Bo}.

UOC! Sep ee dail Ae sedathen Cervus capreolus, Ls

SAG tas o teats Sateen toe ee “C. elaphus, L.

Top ee UeeR ns cnt nce dame MAR nce. Canis vulpes, L.

Wolt W ocr acces Cae: Sea C. lupus. L.

Squire tree See verso Sciurus vulgaris, L.

Beaver: Cea: fe ses ee Castor fiber, Li.

Red field-vole ..............-+0 Arvicola glareolus, Sehreb

Wiater-vole ....s008- ss agueeene A. amphibius, L.

IVC. oie weeptiecaameiie sae salese Talpa europea, L.

Common shrew <..7--1-...-... Sorex vulgaris, L.

Musk shrew .7.......-+6- we-:-..9. moschatus.

Glutton ? wast eeu) scene atetars Gulo luscus, L. ¢

New comers—Extinct species =7.
Straight-tusked elephant ...Hlephas antiquus, Fale.

MilamiiMOth wc. .cseosensa-- 06 E. primigenius, Blum.

lista elle fy. wepenasaeatetae «ae Megaceros hibernicus, Owen.
Thick-antlered deer ......... Cervus verticornis, Dawk.
Deer of the Carnutes......... C. carnutorwm.

Cave-bear ...............+.-... Ursus speleus, Goldf.
Bixtimet WEAVER nt -2.s0-c-re Trogontherium Cuviert, Owen.

Elephas meridionalis, Rhinoceros etruscus, Cervus dicramos, and
C’. polignacus appear for the last time in the Harly Pleistocene, in
association with the new species. Among the latter, Elephas anti-
quus, EL. primigenius, Ursus speleus, and Trogontherwwm are the
most important of the extinct species.

The recent identification of the Mammoth by Prof. Leith Adamst,
in the fauna of the Forest-bed, confirms the truth of the views of
Dr. Falconer and myself§, based on other evidence, which haye
been doubted by some very competent observers.

19. The Magnitude of the Break between the Plio- and Pleistocene
Periods.

An analysis of the above list shows that the break in the succes-
sion between the Pliocene and Pleistocene ages is very great, more

* It is very probable that the smaller Bear of the Forest-bed may be
Ursus ferox, as Mr. H. 'T. Newton suggests.

+ Identified by Mr. H. T. Newton. t In a letter to the author.

§ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxxv. p. 138.

TERTIARY PERIOD BY MEANS OF THE MAMMALIA. 397

than two thirds of the species being new. The proportion, how-
ever, of the Pliocene survivals to them being eight as compared
with twenty-two, shows that it is not sufficiently great to allow of a
classification in which the Tertiary ends with the Pliocene. It is
simply a new and more advanced phase of the Tertiary, similar in
kind to those which went before and follow after. If we turn our
attention to the Invertebrates, there is no break at all to be
observed between the Pliocene and Pleistocene, all the Pleistocene
forms being found in Pliocene strata, and the same continuity
being presented as that which we shall note presently in the
Vertebrates of the Pleistocene, Prehistoric, and Historic periods.
It is therefore obvious that the Tertiary life-period cannot in any
sense be viewed as having come to an end at the close of the
Pliocene age.

20. The Mid-Pleisiocene Mammalia of Britain.

The fluviatile deposits of Ilford and Grays Thurrock in Essex, at
Erith and Crayford in Kent, and at Clacton on the Essex coast,
present us with a group of animals intermediate between those of
the Early and Late Pleistocene. Their most important characters
are noted in the following list (p. 398), in which it will be seen —
that Rhinoceros megarhinus and the Hippopotamus are the only two
Pliocene species in the fauna; the latter appears here for the
last time. It must also be remarked that Ovibos moschatus, dis-
covered by myself in 1857, and more recently by Mr. Cheadle, and
the Marmot, discovered recently by Mr. Flaxman Spurrell at Cray-
ford, show that the winter cold was severe, and that the arctic
Mammalia in their journey southwards had arrived as far as the
lower valley of the Thames.

The climate at this time was colder than it ever had been before
in Britain, and was gradually passing into the glacial condition. It
is very likely, as I have pointed out in my paper on the Lower
Brick-earths of the Thames valley*, that the upper strata covering
the fluviatile deposits with the fossil remains are glacial, and that
therefore the deposits beneath are referable to the Preglacial age.

Man is proved to have lived in the valley of the Thames at this
time by a flint flake, discovered by the Rey. Osmond Fisher, in my
presence, at Crayford in 1872 7, and by a second, found at Erith by
Messrs. Cheadle and Woodward in 18764, and, lastly, by a recent
discovery of the relics of a paleolithic factory at Crayford (shortly to
be described by Mr. Flaxman Spurrell).

With the exception of the marmot and the musk-sheep, the
whole of the living species consist of animals now found only in
temperate or warm climates. Horses, uri, bisons, and mammoths
were the most abundant animals.

. * Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxiii. p. 91. t Geol. Mag. 1872, p. 268
. } Proc. W. Lond. Scient. Assoc., Sept. 1876.

398. W.B. DAWKINS ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE -

a

3 \o
: oe
Mid-Pleistocene Mammalia. oe |2ES 4
i i = [mes
2 | 8 4| 85
A Oko
Suryivals from Early Pleistocene—Living species=11.
EL OSer 40. LAL eee teee renee ns LGU S COOLEST So ce ects + scsee cae x | « | *
HORUS Ph ikat: ian eBeractodgonee Seen eee Bos primigenius, Bo}...........0000- x | * | x
PROS U5 chan slau eee Neomese Cervus capreolus, Ta. ine dices ondaseos x | *
HAO 5 «/ caealctciana cic eisteevemer sees Celopleis, Mis tas one eaten Ren aac Set se Ha dae
EL PP OLaMWUUS . ye-eaerta-c caer Hippopotamus MA7OPr ...1.1.0..e20e- x | *
WY kd Way 4 eth aes. ccm ose ISUCSPAO TORO ls ote seed tome nema eel he
Ox, 550A Ab oackameeenemeaee Canis vulpes, Was. o2e 0 ie, Se. ee ion eee se
Wiollg eit tah deco tention onerous Cs UBS) MG ee | SM GB. de Seconda x | * | x
BLOW Weal csseepesiok else OUSUS QTCHOS! Ms. Men cewaciiaieasinee * | * | x
Gaye mats cei te eke nicest Castor Faber MG Waseem. vi siciewn x | *%
W aber ratte oc.52foceoemsnce vie nee Arvicola anvphibius, L. .....-.0.++- x» | x 1x
Survivals from HarlyPleistocene—Extinct species =4.| :
Straight-tusked elephant ....Hlephas antiquus, Fale. ............ 3. see alee te
Memenmotln’ J). 2421 segto- eee E. primigenius, Blum. ,...........- x1 see
Big-nosed rhinoceros ......... Rhinoceros megarhinus, Chyistol..) y | x |
Brigtaielie: sccctithiasivtinn ceieleeeasooe Megaceros hibernicus, Ow, .......+- se Pigg ie
New comers—Living species=9.
Minsk HCC py oc stasis cnisinine ceiedon- Ovibos moschatus, Deam. .......... “ff *
IERES CEN deepsea ad BOSOW PTUSCUS.. Goce nnigeninncnie “dates spt eal Gapanas
CPi BER vias cnc nace gecinanes Ursus ferox, Lew. & Clark......... se) je, ge
QHREE eee ee ee eenes Lutra vulgaris, BYR. 0.2.1. .cenee- ae
Spotted nyeema: v.62. --.e.c0 se Hyena crocuta, ZimmM. ...........- % Bx
Wallin eaili< 52 eresnpstdens. ieee sam: WCLDS GOCUS, Mins ir vodee decades cackon ules
LIT) CMe eet Aas, ERRE eRe Tn TE LEO) Mit poe becker oso see seat ian kb eoae 2 ace
PITTI OB esate. op 8 Seiceroisle se sees SPE IMEOO TIES ie dactcitop onto ares %
ABI Pe Coma ticiarsrrctarelsoitmoncen coe sate rie clon ni asetydetaebiae anele senile degteee %
New comers—Extinct species= 2.
Woolly rhinoceros.......... alin CLCHOFIUIUES MO MV a teto ceiearoles onto % | counted
Small-nosed rhinoceros ...... R. leptorhinus, Ow. (= RB. heni-| * | * | x

teechus, Fale.)

21. The Late-Pleistocene Mammaha of Britain.

It is unnecessary to discuss at any length the characters of the
Late-Pleistocene Mammalia of the caves and river-deposits, as they
have already been brought before the Society in previous com-
munications}. The arctic Mammalia were present in Britain; and
vast herds of reindeer, such as those found in the river-deposits at
Windsor, and more recently at Rugby, and in the limestone fissure
at Windy Knoll, near Castleton, in Derbyshire, swung to and fro,
according to the season, over Pleistocene Hurope, as far south
as the Alps and the Pyrenees. The living species preponderated

t This may ultimately be proved to be a survival from the Harly Pleistocene.
{ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soe. vol. xxviii. p. 410, xxxili. pp. 607 & 724, xxxyv. p. 724.

TERTIARY PERIOD BY MEANS OF THE MAMMALIA. 399

greatly over the extinct, standing to them in the relation of forty to
seven. ‘Ihe primeval hunter is represented by the implements left
behind in the river-deposits and in the caves, belonging to two
stages of culture. The earlier and ruder is, 1, that ofthe river-drift
man, as he is termed by Mr. Evans t, whose rough stone héches lie
scattered over England south of Peterborough, the whole of France,
Spain, Italy, and Greece, North Africa and Palestine, and have been
shown by recent researches to occur over the greater part of India ;
the later, 2, that of the cave-man, whose implements are of a higher
order and have a different distribution, being restricted to that portion
of Europe bounded to the south by the Alps and the Pyrenees, to the
north by Yorkshire, to the west by the ancient coast-line of the
Atlantic, and to the east by Poland and the Lower Danube. It 1s,
in my opinion, probable that these implements belong to different
races, of which the latter is very likely to be identical with the
modern Eskimos. They are proved by the discoveries at Hoxne,
Bedford, and in the Pont-Newydd Cave, to have lived in Britain
after the deposit of Boulder-clay in those districts; but they are very
likely to have arrived in Europe along with the other living species.
of animals in pre-Glacial times. The Glacial period was not, as
Thave proved in a previous communication to the Societyt, a hard
and fast line dividing one fauna from another. It was merely an
episode in the Pleistocene age, during which the climate was
exceedingly severe in Northern Europe, and during which the
arctic species ranged as far south as the Alps and Pyrenees, their
northern pastures being either covered by snow and ice, or sub-
merged beneath the waves of the sea.

2 |
2 «|
Late-Pleistocene Mammalia in Britain. 4B g mE |
mi la |
BIO 8
Survivals from Karly and Mid Pleistocene — Living
species= 24,
A GLEC nia sceneectreccsant enna Liguus COOGHUS, Ts, .....00s0ascaevanemereneen * | #
Brown’s fallow-deer ......... Cervus Brownt, Dawk........ccccesees es...| %
POG) Ji svascue aptgen cer eepeninnse's Cy cappreolus, Vis sucenascasensweregiadeeie sn sue oe
EHE i wehbbeWe oRUAdaeReeaak os CC aphiis, Visiy denatyarcvandapeauueyeiars a
WO ees sae mean tet taeienin a Bos primigentys, Of. «1.1000» scthevenens x
SON 427. eck peaks abet vcs «2 Bison CUrPOpEUs, GN. .00s0cecsvscccnsenseess x | x
MING SICC DY, cnjeicizc sine ceniee «eo Ovibos moschatus, Dest. ...+.secsesseeeee *
Hippopotamus ............06 Hippopotamus aimphibius, B. .......2.00 % | %
WV SG, DORE ieee chars fence. sus scrofa, Ls. cd hee x | *
Wahid Gabi icat Gate aaa ccisciews CUES: COOUSE TL, .caube. cuthcude Sandee eee x | *
dc eae) es cae 2 60; 1a.) soni senotipiananetievetaane ‘SS nkags * | *
Spotted hyzena ................ Hyena CTOCUU LNW <.. ocisnntcatennncteneaiacs x | *
WHOL Sac cankcompeeren tess 4-5 Cagis pus, Li... diesen tocenes rem eemesnues x | *
IP OR Santen: pemeae teas ton cnins Ge CULES, Li. L.c¢ ec0ntvennseeeaeradaaneence tes x | x
OUGEE i ssmewareetassidetrens seas ahs Lntra vulgaris. Trxl. sssesesccssserevsaee * | *

T ‘ Ancient Stone Implements.’ + Quart. Journ. Geol.’Soc. vol. xxxy. p. 724-

«

a

400 W. B. DAWKINS ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE

3

| T

) Late-Pleistocene Mammalia in Britain (continued). 3 = 3 B

; = 2

: meios

| ee Ger 6 RAL Ursus ferox, Lew. & Cl. ......00. es

SS A Cee eee Galo lusomsiGs oh se caceoecslex (ip cect x bs

Pe ORT WONS 6s a cee Arvicola amphibius, L.......ccc.cceceeseees nt WE

| Red field-vole | ............s00. A. glareolus, Schreb................eeesecees * | *

REREG |... cc cceusetee ener DLepus timidus, G.iccc Ak Sas x | *

Bie LS eee ee, ERE SER Castor fiber Es. ASE es ROR x | *

b #eRIOUSS ches.ctis Koc Mus aursculas; Th. 2.5.55 att «sd aed ¥i;*

Ps RaW ccc te tancereekr eee Sorex wulgares, Ta... <cnk. 5s nSeseaeaen + | *

| Matese..e ss eececcseeseeeeeenteeeseseeens Rear ee Gee eRe Re *] *

/ :

‘Survivals from Early and Mid-Pleistocene — Extinct

| species= 7.

| Straight-tusked elephant ...ilephas antiquus, Fale...............c00e0. a AP
| UN Seale pete ee wccossti, premagensus, Elam. ............ccnceceee TS

Woolly rhinoceros............ Rhinoceros tichorhinus, Cuv............0. ville peed

Small-nosed rhinoceros...... Rt. teptorhines; OW. T.25..... 5 ie ee

Pats elles ee8 lnk) co PEG % Megacoros hibernicus, OW. .........0.0008- * |] *

Machairodus ..................Machairodus latidens, OW. .....s.eseccceee] "| *

NTIS 2, Stns scan costcians Ursus speleus, Goldf, ..........000 wancucial eee ae

New forms—Living species= 15.

PS Se oe ee eee eee Cervus tarandus, L. .. nica tee x | *
BOA eee Canis lagopus, Ta. os. sscescesississessacese *
US ee etn Roto Meles taxus, Lh. .....i.... boiacknecaeteaeeeee *
RSEORAG Docs sac nce cca caceacces kane Dee eeSiRls Oteines, BIR ee Pt x

Weasel ........ pakgeeenccekuxane M. putorius, L. ....... ee *

Marth | 2502 scoys Joc ec es, dies et ete cee stots so

Cafier cat ..... ae toet ere cece Felis caffer, Desm. ...... daa sucew eh eeeanee ee

LT gh Se eee eae eg FA FP pardlas, De. cc ch cree x

jt ERR et BP. Gate, Temi. 05. agin hucacn inte obec ae

Short-tailed field-vole ....... Arvicola agrestis, Li. ...........s.eeenaees oct] eae
| Continental field-vole ....:..A: arwalis, Th. ci..c. 3. see sees eens eens oe .

Russian vole ..............., 00. A. tatiiceps, Keys. u. BL. ............c008 # |

Pouched marmot ............. Spermophilus citillus, Pall. .............0. = |]

Arctic lemming ........ cocae Mas lemans, Va..<. co. cco cnecnccne ee * | x
| Norwegian lemming ......... Myodes torquatus, Pal. ...............0es00s =

22. The Prehistoric Mammalia of Britain and Ireland.

The Prehistoric Period, as I have defined it in a paper read before
the International Congress of Prehistoric Archeology, in Paris and
in Norwich, is the next phase of the Tertiary which we have to
examine. It covers all the events which took place between the
Pleistocene age on the one hand, and the beginning of history on
the other. To it belong most of the alluvia and peat-bogs and
beaches, usually termed Recent, as well as the contents of certain

+ =R. hemitechus, Fale.
¢ Identified by Prof. Busk among the remains found in the Pin-hole,

Cresswell.

TERTIARY PERIOD BY MEANS OF THE MAMMALIA. 401

caverns containing the remains of wild animals now living in
Europe, mingled with wild or half-wild animals which had escaped
from their servitude to man. The principal species are given in the
following list :—

_——<——— =X |

Britain, | Ireland.

EE SE SS
re re | ee | es

MITE Bante Aen aicnk bcs eo iw cvad seve cwwdevedeie oven si caenenmae
RERUIIEY, Wie REIL ce Canna niveidi <ap <tndnnadivd~athiesahaenammenele
TE et ae Ts ae ae selene walabneetn aun nemen

* x

Mae Slit Ret date coe asian a vd Caan gacnd~nurie'yd daldyus evan GNaps

PERE aunbeaccobesare PELs Led dates dacantdabnabaset areas cupereerere

"kK ee KK ROK K

*

*

ee Seer rehenea bac hn Wee c cee Linke meamaeh OPEL ET ceiedt
Ree ee oe cman enGuh onlea nna dy mide canes
EUS x cwccaes eee ree Reece wersgcadenehieene ie Shai

Wild boar ..cccssnss. aevarccesns BGR eee Eanes eee eer re

Q
Le 1
ee
m,
ta
z
KKK KOK OK KOK OK wk KOK OK KOK OK KOK OK
*

*

Domestic animals.

TRO ia cient edanascdswedes venenys Canis familiaris, Li. ..scsscceoes
a ee eee Equus caballus, L......e0seeeees
alerts vanaRins ann) a> UPR a ee ee
MR AE si sae crssiahin sp = 203s Capra hirews, L.. ...0s0sssesees
BRIREBOPD, \.cccunsnrsexnncaeden Bos longifrons, OW. ..seseeseees
METEOR. dete wasdpacks ope AR) Ale a ee bade

8
Pac canchernntenses S. palustris, Rit.

* K KK K
* KKK K XK

93. The Characteristic Prehistoric Forms.

The most important feature of the Prehistoric period is the
arrival of a race of men totally distinct from those of the Pleisto-
cene, and in a far higher state of culture. The Neolithic farmer
and herdsman first of all appears, bringing with him the domestic
animals of the above list, and some of the cultivated seeds. Sub-
sequently bronze became known, and then iron, each of these sub-
stances standing for an outward sign of a civilization better than that
which had preceded it, Thus we have the Neolithic succeeded by
the Bronze age, and that by the Iron,—the history of Britain
beginning late in the last of these three divisions.

Among the wild animals the Irish elk demands especial notice,

Q.J.G.8. No. 143. 2E

402 W. B. DAWKINS ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE

not merely from its existence in vast numbers in Ireland, but from
the fact that it is the sole survivor from the Pleistocene into the
Prehistoric age which has since become extinct. It is rarely met
with in Britain. The true elk was also rare, but has been met
with in several localities in the bogs of Northumberland, Yorkshire,
and Scotland. In the south it is described by Prof. Owen from
Walthamstow, where it was associated with the goat, Celtic short-
horn, and reindeer. The last animal is rare in Kngland, and com-
paratively abundant in Scotland and Ireland. It has not been
found in Prehistoric deposits further south than the valley of the
Thames. The Urus was comparatively abundant in Prehistoric
Britain, and it was hunted by the Neolithic men who excavated
the chalk for the sake of the flint in Cissbury Camp. It survived at
least as late as the Bronze age, since its remains occur in a refuse-
heap of that age in Barton Mere, near Bury St. Edmunds*. It
was probably exterminated in Britain before the close of the Pre-
historic period, while it found a secure shelter from man in the
forests covering Central Germany as late as the sixteenth century.

The domestic animals introduced by the Neolithic farmers consist
of the dog, horned sheep, goat, Celtic short-horned ox, and hog,
some of which, such as the short-horned ox, the marsh-hog, and the
goat, escaped from the servitude of man, and reverted to a wild
state in the forests as yet untouched by the woodman’s axe. The
domestic horse also may have been introduced in a state of domesti-
cation; but it may have been descended from those so abundant in
Britain in the Pleistocene age.

24, The Historic Mammalia of the British Isles.

It remains for us to consider, in conclusion, the more important
changes in the fauna of the Historic period, or that period of which
the written record is preserved, and which may be said to begin in
Britain with the landing of Julius Cesar, 3.c.55. The chief points
to be noted are the absence of the Irish elk and of the true elk and
urus from the British fauna. The reindeer still lingered in the
north of Scotland, and was used for food by the dwellers in the
burgs of Caithness, in which district it was hunted by the Earls of
Orkney in the year 1159. The extinction of some and the in-
troduction of other animals into Britain enable us to divide the
Historic period in the same manner as the preceding divisions of
the Tertiary have been made; and the following Table, taken from
my work on Caye-hunting, gives an outline of the principal of
these changes t.

* Proce. of Suffolk Inst. of Archeol. and Nat. Hist. June 1869.

t The authorities for these facts and dates are given in my ‘ Preliminary
‘prostiee British Pleistocene Mammalia,’ Paleontological Society, 1878, chapters
ii, and ii.

TERTIARY PERIOD BY MEANS OF THE MAMMALIA. 403

Animals extinct :— | AD
rows DEP .. hk iiiececs.css- eirea 500-1000.
DG) 6 2) eae ee a 1200.
pees ined »» 1100-1200.
ea 85.5 as optic hen ane . 1680.
0 aa ee ee ; 1620
Animals introduced :—
Domestic Fowl ........ .»- before 55 B.C.
Hallow deer ........5....¢2'. . eirca 50-100 A.D.
Bitasahh) 0. See Ai.. A 50-100 A.D.
Domestic ox of Urus type Be 449 A.D.
L's TREE ree a id » 800-850 A.D.
BRM i eee Ca os os sree ends a « », 800-1000 A.D.
Ppmnon Pat... >. le... »» 1727-1730 A.D.

25. The Prehistoric and Historic Periods belong to the Tertiary.

If the list of Prehistoric Mammalia be compared with that of the
late Pleistocene, it will be seen that great differences are to be
observed. No less than seventeen Pleistocene species have dis-
appeared from Britain in the interval separating the one from the
other, some having become extinct, others: having retreated to the
north or to the south, or to the shelter offered by the forests of
Central Europe, or to the cold climate of lofty mountains. It must,
however, be remembered that all the wild Prehistoric animals were
living in the preceding age, and that from the Pleistocene age
down to the present time the wild fauna and flora of Europe have
been what they are now. The continuity has been unbroken.
It is therefore evident that the Tertiary period must be extended
so as to include the events of our own times.

26. General Conclusions.

From this imperfect outline of the groups of Placental mammals
living in Europe in successive times, it is obvious that they present
us with a means of classifying the Tertiary period with greater
detail and certainty than those of the lower animals. The groups
chosen as typical are those which seem to me to be the most im-
portant; but it must be noted that their apparent isolation is
merely the measure of the imperfection of our knowledge and of
the geological record. They show that in the Tertiary period the
Placental mammals were gradually becoming more specialized and
more like living forms. When living forms appear, man appears
also in the Pleistocene age. A reference to the table in which
these changes are represented (p. 381) will at once show that it is
hopeless to look for Eocene or Miocene man, and that his existence
in the Pliocene is most improbable. The relation of the groups to
one another proves further that each phase of the Tertiary is in-
timately connected with that which went before and that which
followed after, and that the Tertiary period embraces all the events

which happened from the close of the Secondary to the present day.
25 2

404 W. B. DAWKINS ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE

Discussion.

The Prusrpent spoke of the great difficulties in the way of classi-
fication in the Tertiaries, whatever group of Invertebrata was chosen.
Prof. Szznny said that he had not quite understood in what
respect Prof. Dawkins’s classification differed from those already
existing as founded on Mollusca. Much of the evidence on which
he had to work was, he thought, very fragmentary. This objection
especially applied to the older divisions of the Tertiary. He was
not convinced that the genera could be used for purposes of classifi-
cation as Prof. Dawkins had used them. The definitions which he
himself would use of genera or species would differ from those used
by Prof. Dawkins; and so different results would follow. Another
objection that he had was to the assumption that animals had
become extinct from climatal causes ; for, historically, we know that
man has destroyed many forms of life in Europe, and thus the
differences between the Historic and Be noric faunas might be
explained. .

Mr. Cuartesworts said the. anthon ail given no new factors to
aid in the classification of the Tertiaries ; for‘he had used the names
founded on the old molluscan classification. » He thought there were
more extinct genera in the Crag than the author seemed to admit.
In the Crag ‘the Polyzoa were more related to the’ Meee the
Mollusca to. “the Pliocene.

Mr. Wuiraxer said that he did not see “where Prof. Dawktv's
classification differed from the present one; for the Lyellian terms
abounded in his paper, which should rather have been called ‘ the
range and evolution of. Mammalia in Tertiary times.” For himself
he doubted whether the Crayford brick-earths could be called Middle
Pleistocene and not Upper. Prof. Prestwich had long ago found
the Musk-sheep in the Thames valley, near Maidenhead, in beds of
much the same age as.those at Crayford. Asa working Tertiary
geologist, he did not see how to apply Prof. Dawkins’s system ; for
though he often got plenty of shells, he had never found a single
mammalian remain in beds below the Pliocene. So how could he
classify by Mammalia? He thought the system proposed was un-
practical. If “doctors differ” as to the genera and species of
Mammalia, the classificatory value of the latter is doubtful. |

Rey. J. F. Brake said no doubt rocks in the field must first be
studied stratigraphically ; but the larger groupings were dependent
on the fauna contained. This, he thought, was the line Prof. Boyd
Dawkins had adopted; but he had a shown where his classifica-
tion differed from the received one. He thought, however, that the
Mammalia had already been used for classification of the Tertiaries.

The Prestpent remarked that, to his mind, the chief feature in the
paper was its history’ of ‘the Miocene fauna, which was so little
known in Britain. Whether this mode of classification was novel
or not, the way in which the facts were clearly massed was most
valuable. He would not himself reject cither mode of classification ;

TERTIARY PERIOD BY MEANS OF THE MAMMALIA, 405

to the majority of students, however, he thought the Invertcbrata
would always be the more valuable.

Prof. Boyp Dawxins said he had not asserted that the Inverte-
brata were of no use; but he would ask, Could the more modern
Tertiaries be classed by their Invertebrata? In the older beds no
doubt the Invertebrata were of use in classification. He had used
the old terms because he did not see any reason for inventing new
ones. He had never asserted that the mode of classification was
new; but he would be glad to learn where the method which he
had adopted in applying it was to be found. He believed that
the system he had proposed would be found to be more than a
“ parochial ” system, and to apply to America and Asia equally with
Kurope.

406 PROF. H. G, SEELEY ON PSEPHOPHORUS POLYGONUS.

30, Nore on PsupHopHorvus PoLyeonus, v. Meyer, a NEw TrpE of
Cuetonran Reprive allied to the Luarnery Turtin. By Pro-
fessor H. G. Surnzy, F.R.S., F.G.S., &. (Read May 12,

1880.
(Prats XV.)

Wuen I was in Vienna in the spring of 1879, Franz Ritter von Hauer,
the Director of the Imperial Geological Survey, requested me to
examine and describe the remarkable organism on which Von Meyer
had founded the genus Psephophorus, which, although noticed by
himself, by Von Meyer, and, more recently, by Dr. Fuchs, has never
been figured. Its nature was at first sight so problematical that
opinion leaned to the conclusion that it was the dermal covering
of an Kdentate closely allied to the Armadilloes. The dorsal sur-
face of the fossil was perhaps insufficient to settle this question
without a good deal of comparative work; but Von Hauer cour-
teously allowed me to partially develop some fragments of bones,
which are imperfectly preserved on the underside of the intractable
sandstone matrix of the slab; and these fragments of proccelous
vertebre proved to be altogether reptilian ; and though differing from
the vertebree of known reptiles, yet, by the forward projection of the
_ zygapophyses, they indicate the animal to be Chelonian, and there-
fore show the fossil to be more nearly allied to Sphargis than to any
other type in the Chelonian order.

When Von Meyer first gave a name to this genus (‘ Jahrbuch,’
1846, p.472), it was only known to him by isolated dermal plates ;
but subsequently a drawing was sent to him by Partsch, and on
that he made a further note in the ‘ Jahrbuch’ for 1847 (p. 579).
This specimen, then in Pressburg, he describes as a fragment of a
carapace, containing seventy bones touching each other, and show-
ing the impressions of many others. Among these dermal bones
rises a middle row, in which the plates are longer and more evenly
pressed together in front and behind, while the other plates are
placed together irregularly. He adds his conviction that it may be
referred to the Dasypodia. It remained without further notice till
1868, when Von Hauer, in the ‘ Verhandlungen der k.-k. geolo-
gischen Reichsanstalt’ (p. 387), mentioned briefly that the fossil
had been acquired for the Museum of the Imperial Geological Survey
in Vienna. He also, in 1870, in the same publication (p. 342),
makes a note on Psephophorus, mentioning that the museum had
acquired not only the original type specimen, but a second larger
slab, fitting the first, and containing a larger portion of the same
carapace; for while the first piece contained six median plates,
characterized by a raised keel, extending in a straight line, and
sixty-four smooth lateral plates in a connected position, on the second
slab of sandstone are five more median plates and nearly a hundred
more lateral plates. These form together an even arched shield,

_ PROF. H. G. SEELEY ON PSEPHOPHORUS POLYGONUS. ‘A407

about thirteen Vienna inches long, and fifteen at its greatest breadth.
Numerous bony plates are said to be scattered through the mass of
the sandstone, besides other bone-fragments ; and Von Hauer considers
that there is a second shield, which lies parallel to the first, and
under it, at aninterval of scarcely half an inch. Von Meyer had made
another short note on this fossil in the ‘ Berichte iiber die Mitthei-
lungen von Freunden der Naturwissenschaften in Wien’ for 1851
(p. 3), which Von Hauer well epitomizes by saying that although
the animal had originally been regarded by Von Meyer as belonging
to the Armadillo family, he subsequently showed the striking re-
semblance of the carapace irom Neudorfl with one from the Zeuglo-
dont Limestone of North America, which Miller had figured and
compared with the dorsal shield of Dermatochelys in his work on Zeu-
glodon. But, beyond drawing attention to its resemblance to the
Psephoderma alpina from the Upper Trias, and pointing out some re-
semblances which that genus presents to the crocodilian type of
armour, Von Hauer expresses no opinion on the systematic position
of the genus. Finally Dr. Th. Fuchs, in notes on his travels in Italy,
printed in the ‘ Verhandlungen der k.-k. geologischen Reichsanstalt’
for 1874 (p. 220), remarks that in the zoological department of the
Museum at Florence he saw the remarkable shield of Sphargis
cortacea ; and adds, ‘‘the full resemblance to our Psephophorus is
so evident that I cannot imagine that any one who had seen the
two could remain a moment in doubt7on this matter.” Von Meyer
appears to have inclined towards the Chelonian hypothesis, in conse-
quence of Miiller’s account of the Sphargis in the Zoological Museums
in Padua; and it only remained for Fuchs to confirm the accuracy of
this interpretation.

The slab of hard sandstone in which the specimen is preserved is
46 centimetres long, and about 41 centimetres wide. It only shows
a small portion of the shield, which originally covered the back of
the animal, the principal part preserved being 33 centimetres long
and 35 centimetres wide. It is divided into two portions by an
elevated longitudinal median keel or crest. The lateral parts are
inclined to each other at an angle of about 155 degrees. The keel
does not appear to be quite straight ; and it would be difficult to
assert positively that it occupied a lateral position in the body,
though this probably was the case. The keel is rounded, and formed
by a single row of polygonal plates, portions of eleven of which are
preserved ; nine occupy a length of 28 centimetres. Nothing could
be more remarkable than the extreme irregularity of size and form
of the ossicles which make up the lateral portions of the carapace.
Some small ossicles are nearly circular, others ovate, triangular, sub-
quadrate, but mostly of irregular forms with five, six, or more sides,
which are sometimes convex, sometimes concave, and often with
sharp angles at the points where they join the neighbouring little
plates. Occasionally a minute plate occurs which is hardly a centi-
metre in diameter ; but most of the plates are from two centimetres
and a quarter to two and a half centimetres in diameter. Their
substance is very dense, almost like the palatal teeth of Plethodus or

408 PROF. H. G. SEELEY ON PSEPHOPHORUS POLYGONUS.

the armour of a ganoid fish. There is no trace of the plates haying
been ankylosed together ; for although they for the most part still
retain their natural positions, they have separated sufficiently to
show that the original connexion was maintained by a fibrous or
coriaceous investiture. On the dorsal surface the plates, except in
the median keel, nearly all show a beautiful radiating sculptured
ornament, which certainly recalls that seen in some of the larger
Armadilloes, rather than the condition in any reptile. On the under
surface the plates are perfectlysmooth. As arranged, the transverse
measurement of the plates appears to be greater than the longitu-
dinal measurement, five plates occurring transversely in one place
in a distance of twelve centimetres, and six or seven occupying the
same distance longitudinally.

It is difficult to say which should be regarded as the anterior
part of the fossil, as the remains are so fragmentary that they give
no indication whatever of its complete form or size; but I incline
to believe, from the analogy of the curved ridge in Sphargis, that it
is an anterior fragment from the left side. The plates are remark-
able for their thickness, which sometimes amounts to nearly a centi-
metre, though most of them are thinner. Towards one corner of the
slab are a few plates, much thinner, partly covered with matrix,
which look as though they might have belonged to an under or ven-
tral armature ; but having regard to the state of preservation of the
fossil, it would be unsafe to overlook the probability that they may

be a portion of the carapace displaced and inverted, or of its margin,

which would naturally have an inverted position. But Psephophorus,
unlike Sphargis,may have also possessed a ventral shield of thin plates.
A question may arise as to whether the fragmentary bones on the other
side of the slab, which is about six centimetres thick, are portions
of the skeleton of the same animal; but all probabilities seem to me
to lean in that direction ; for this fossil was evidently stranded, much
as porpoises and other animals are thrown up on sandy shores at
the present day, and the skeleton, becoming knocked to pieces, has
been scattered. The resemblance of the carapace to that of a mammal
is certainly sufficiently close to have justified any one in so regarding
it; and the large size of the armour-plates, as well as their sculp-
tured surfaces, would support this resemblance; but the elevated
rounded keel, increasing in height as it passes onwards, with the
_ somewhat flattened sides of the shield, are more in harmony with
Sphargis; and if skeletons of the covering of Sphargis had been pre-
pared in our Museums, it is certain that the same kind of irregular
arrangement of the plates would have been recorded. There is little,
except the relatively large size of the plates in the fossil and their
perfect ossification, to distinguish them from the comparatively small
elements which make up the bony skeleton of the covering of the
leathery turtle.

So far as I am aware, the dermal shield of Sphargis, though often
figured, has never had its osteological. characters described ; for the
thin epidermic covering conceals bones which constitute a shield
which is only comparable to a tessellated pavement, corrugated by

PROF. i. G. SEELEY ON PSEPHOPHORUS POLYGONUS. 409

the seven longitudinal ridges which extend along it. The main median
ridge is most elevated posteriorly ; but the three lateral ridges on
each side maintain about equal elevation throughout their respective
lengths, and converge towards each other very slightly anteriorly,
and more markedly towards the posterior end. A specimen in the
British Museum has a length of a hundred and fifty centimetres ;
_the greatest transverse width round the curve of the back is more
than a hundred centimetres, though the width from side to side in
a straight line in the same position is not much more than seventy
centimetres. The bones which form the median ridges are often
three centimetres long, and abut against each other by transverse
sutures, much as in the fossil; but the ridges in the recent Sphargis
are sharper and more broken by irregularities, owing to the fact that
some plates have the ridge developed to a greater height than others.
In the wide part of the carapace, the transverse width between two
lateral ridges is about sixteen centimetres, and in this distance
fourteen or fifteen polygonal bones may usually be counted. Ante-
riorly the plates become rather smaller, and seventeen or eighteen
plates may be counted between two ridges; and it is also here ob-
served that the transverse measurement of each plate is usually
greater than its longitudinal measurement. The plates mostly vary
from half a centimetre to over a centimetre in diameter. Some of
the plates appear to give indications of a slight radiated surface-
wrinkling, like that seen in some parts of the fossil; so that, as
Miller first suggested and Von Meyer afterwards asserted, the re-
semblance of Psephophorus to Sphargis is close, and quite justified
Fuchs in stating that it was only necessary to see the two types to
admit their general identity. In fact, there is nothing but difference
in the size of the plates to distinguish the two genera, as far as the
shield is concerned. It is, of course, impossible to say how many
longitudinal ridges may have extended along the carapace of Psepho-
phorus. If there were many, the interspaces between the ridges
certainly wanted the concave character visible in the recent genus ;
and this apparent flatness of the carapace leads me to suspect that
in Psephophorus the ridges may have been fewer than in Sphargis.
The slight longitudinal curvature visible in the median ridge in the
fossil, together with the slight transverse elongation of the bony
plates, would lead me to regard the specimen as being probably part
of a lateral ridge from the anterior portion of the shield, and not far
from its margin; for what has appeared to be the under shield
formed of thin plates, imperfectly seen at its posterior end, where
many plates of the skeleton have been broken away, would well
correspond to that part of the carapace of Sphargis which is bent
round inferiorly at the outer sides of the shield; so that when
fossilized, these portions might then present the appearance of two
shields superimposed on each other.

It will readily occur to any one familiar with the Chelonia that
the type which is represented by Sphargis and Psephophorus, differs
from all the other members of the order, not only in having the ribs
entirely separate from the carapace, but also in the fundamental

410 PROF, H. G, SEELEY ON PSEPHOPHORUS POLYGONUS.

plan upon which the representative of the carapace itself is con-
structed ; and I believe that we have here an indication of a primary
division of the Chelonia to which paleontological discoveries may
hereafter give more importance than can at present be claimed for it.
From the point of view of evolution, it may fairly be anticipated
that the pavement-shielded type of Chelonian preceded that in which
the dorsal shield is formed of symmetrical bones. Perhaps the most
remarkable character in the dermal skeleton of Sphargis is the fact
that the bones of the plastron, although only forming an outer ring
to the ventral surface, are already defined and homologous with those
of the ordinary Chelonian, in which the carapace is specialized. And
this leads me to draw attention to the fact that the dermal bones of
Sphargis, which may be detected without difficulty on the dorsal
surface of any ordinary shield, are altogether invisible on the interior
side of the shield, which was in contact with the neural arches of
the dorsal vertebre and the slender flattened ribs ; so that it is quite
evident that the ordinary carapace of a Chelonian is in no way re-
presented by the dermal skeleton of Psephophorus or Sphargis. Im-
pressed by the fact that the dorsal ribs of Crocodiles bear upon their
hinder margins plates of fibro-cartilage, which in the Hatteria also
exist and are sometimes converted into bone, and believing that
these plates are homologous with the epipleural elements or uncinate
processes which become greatly developed and blended with the ribs
of certain birds, I have been led to speculate on the probable occur-
rence of such cartilaginous elements upon the dorsal surfaces of ribs
of Chelonians, and to believe that the development and ossification of
such plates upon the Chelonian rib would lead to a transference of
the osseous matter from the superficial portion of the skin to its
deeper-seated layer, and hence to the growth of epipleural plates,
which would become the costal plates of the carapace. The granu-
lations on the shield of Zrionyx, on such a view, indicate dermal
bones like those of Sphargis—which were originally separate, but have
become blended with the bony elements which were subsequently
developed beneath them. The costal plates are said to be always
distinct from the ribs in the young turtle when first hatched. They
are certainly very small in the young of some of the Trionychide, in
which, indeed, they remain throughout life but partly united with
the endoskeleton. It is the impossibility of logically accounting for
the development of the Chelonian carapace without the aid of this
hypothesis that leads me to attach more than ordinary importance,
in a classificational point of view, to the characters presented by
Psephophorus, which are only otherwise paralleled by the small spe-
cimen which Miiller figures from the Zeuglodont Limestone of North
America, and by the living Sphargis.

The best-preserved vertebral fragment (Pl. XV. fig. 2), as already
mentioned, is Chelonian in its characters. A few scattered plates
occur intimately associated with the vertebra. Altogether there are
fragments of five vertebra preserved. None shows the whole of either
centrum or neural arch; nor do they collectively throw much light
upon each other. It is difficult to affirm with certainty the region

PROF. H. G, SEELEY ON PSEPHOPHORUS POLYGONUS. 4l\1

of the vertebral column to which they belong, though I am disposed
to believe that they chiefly pertain to the later cervical or dorsal
series, and there is a fragment which appears to be a portion of a
rib. The best-preserved specimen rests on its side, partly imbedded,
and fractured through its length. The centrum is about five and a half
centimetres long, or but little longer than the later cervical vertebree
of Sphargis. It shows cancellous tissue along its fractured length ;
but in the processes this is covered by a dense outer layer. The base
is concave in length, the constriction being greatest towards the an-
terior end. The anterior end is cupped concavely, is about two and
a half centimetres deep, and has the articular cup vertical. The pos-
terior articular end was a well-rounded ball, and considerably deeper
than the anterior cup. The neural arch is, unfortunately, much less
perfect than the centrum. Projecting anteriorly just above the
neural canal is asmall process ; and above this is the right side of the
neural arch, which reaches forward and upward in a wedge-shape,
having a total length, from its posterior termination near the middle
of the centrum, of about five centimetres, and gives no indication of
facets of the zygapophyses, which could not have looked inward.
Its total height from the base of the centrum, as preserved, is about
six centimetres; the distance for which it extends anterior to the
articular face is about two and a quarter centimetres. From the
middle of the right side of the centrum, at about its junction with
the neural arch, is given off a transverse process, which has a strong
expanded base, is somewhat compressed, and directed outward and,
possibly, upward. It is imperfectly preserved at the end. Imper-
fect as these indications are, they amply show that we have here to
do with an animal which differs not only generically from Chelonians,
but in characters in which all other genera agree.

Two other centrums are exposed so as to show their length. Both
appear to be moderately concave at the expanded anterior end, and

_ slightly convex at the narrower posterior end. These vertebre are

about five and a half centimetres long. One shows the hinder part
of the centrum to be rounded from side to side (it probably had a
descending process in front); the other shows a strong flattened
transverse process, which is directed slightly forward, and expands
a little anteriorly towards its free end. The fourth fragment indicates a
smaller vertebra, apparently caudal, which has the prezygapophyses
strong and short, and curved apparently forward and upward, with
the facets looking inward. The pointsin which these vertebre differ
from those of all Chelonian reptiles are, the apparently massive cha-
racter and great development and height of the neural arch, and the
extraordinary transverse processes, which are both ankylosed to the
centrum.

In Chelonians such processes are limited to the caudal region ;
but in no respect have we here the characteristics of caudal vertebra,
except in the small and imperfect specimen, in which the end of the
centrum appears to be flattened. And I believe the evidence rather

points to the yertebre belonging to the later cervical or dorsal
region.

472 PROF, H. G. SEELEY ON PSEPHOPHORUS POLYGONUS.

It would appear that the absence of transverse processes in the
Chelonian, while so characteristic of the crocodile in the dorsal
region, may have come to be correlated with the mode of develop-
ment of the carapace, and the consequent way in which muscular ten-_
sion on the bones was changed ; but when the carapace is free from
the ribs, the condition of the dermal skeleton is not very different, as
regards its position and relation to the endoskeleton, from what obtains
among the Crocodilia; and although Sphargis does not develop trans-
verse processes for the attachment of the ribs, it must be remembered
that Sphargis is the only member known of a great division of the
Chelonia which must have included many types of organization, and
is probably as important morphologically as al the other Chelonia put

together.

The anterior position, however, of the fentigorse process in one
vertebra, just behind the anterior articulation, is altogether in har-
mony with the Chelonian plan. There is no indication that the ribs
were attached by a double articulation to the transverse processes,
as among Crocodiles; but then it may be remembered that this cha-
racter is only found in the first six or seven dorsal vertebrae of the
erocodilian skeleton ; so that I am led to believe that the many points
in common, both in soft and hard structures, which the Chelonian
and Crocodilian orders possess, lead us here to look for a group which
may have more nearly connected them than any form previously
known. In the characters which can be compared, Psephophorus
seems to me to differ more from existing Chelonians than they differ
among themselves; and hence I believe it will prove to be the type
of a new subordinal division, which, however, it is impossible at
present to fully define in the absence of the more important osteo-
logical characters. The following classification gives in a condensed
form the results to which this study of Psephophorus has led up.

The characters of the carapace indicate three primary divisions of
the Chelonian order :—First, the

ASPIDOCHELYID#, comprising Turtles, Emydians, and Tortoises, in
which the symmetrical bony carapace is covered with symmetrical
horny scutes ; secondly, the

PELTOCHELYID®, including the Trionychide, in which the symme-
trical bony carapace has a granular surface-structure, and is
covered by an undivided dermic substance without scutes; and,
thirdly, the

DERMATOCHELYID®, represented by the Sphargidee, in which the cara
pace is not developed, but is represented by a bony skeleton
within the skin, resembling a tessellated pavement.

The remains are from Neudorfl, near the river March, which forms
the boundary between Austria and Hungary. Von Hauer refers the
sandstone there to the second or upper Mediterranean series of the
Austrian Neogene. Fish-remains from this formation have been
described by Count Minster in his ‘ Beitrage zur Petrefactenkunde;’
and the deposit also yields Gasteropods, Bivalves, and Kchini.

I would express my grateful thanks to Professor Suess for direct-

Quart. Journ. Geol.Soc.Vol XXXVI. Pl. XV.

A.S Foord hth Mintern Bros.imp.

PSEPHOPHORUS.

PROF, H. G. SEELEY ON PSEPHOPHORUS POLYGONUS. 4138

ing my attention to this remarkable specimen; to Director von Hauer,
not only for facilities afforded me in studying the specimen, but for
the beautiful photographs which accompany my paper; to Dr.
Giinther, of the British Museum, for the opportunity of demonstra-
ting its affinities with Sphargis by studying the skeleton of that type;
and to the Council of the Royal Society for assistance in investigating
this type in a distant locality.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XV.
(Figures half the natural size.)

Fig. 1. Portion of dermal shield of Psephophorus polygonus, Von Meyer, showing
part of an elevated longitudinal keel with polygonal plates on each
side of it, which differ in form and size and mostly show a superficial
radiated ornament. Beyond the point where the figure lis placed, the
slab shows thin plates with a smooth surface, which may be marginal.

2. Vertebra from the under side of the slab, probably cervical, fractured
longitudinally and imbedded in the matrix. a. The anterior cup. 6.
The posterior ball. c. A fragment of the neural arch blended with
the centrum. d. Transverse process of the right side, imperfect,
but directed outward and upward.

Discussion.

Mr. Hutxr agreed with the view taken by Prof. Seeley of the
specimen. As to the classification proposed, it would require careful
consideration.

Prof. Duncan said the possible existence of something like ribs
in the cervical region was interesting. The position of the shoulder-
girdle in the Chelonians was always a difficulty. This, however,
might have been gradually assumed during the early stages of life ;
but the presence of cervical ribs rendered the former existence of
the scapula outside the dorsal ribs and in front very difficult of
comprehension. . The classification of the Chelonians was at present
in great confusion. He thought there was much to be said for
the simplicity of Prof. Seeley’s classification.

The Prestpent asked whether these dorsal-shielded forms preceded
the others in time or not.

Prof. Szerzy said the specimen was Pliocene, 7. ¢. the newer di-
vision of the Tertiary. It comes from Neudorfl, near the borders
of Hungary and Austria, and is associated with Manatees and Che-
lonians of ordinary type. It has been compared by von Hauer with
Psephoderma alpina from the Trias in the Munich Museum. This
specimen he had seen, which he thought was not a Chelonian,
though it might be an antecedent form or even a fish, like Ostracion.
It was curious that the Mesozoic Chelonia belong, so far as known,
to those with well-developed carapaces ; but he thought that Sphargis
was nevertheless the more primitive type.

414 PROF. OWEN ON AN ANOMODONT REPTILE FROM

31. Duscriprion of Parts of the SxeLzron of an ANoMoDONT RepriLE
(PLaryPpoposauRuS* RoBustus, Ow.) from the Trias of GRAAFF
Reiner, 8. Arrica. By Prof. Owsn, C.B., F.G.S., &. (Read
April 28, 1880.) |

[Puates XVI. & XVII]

In a former paper a dental character in a Triassic reptile was
indicated which is repeated in some implacental members of the
Mammalian class. I have also noticed a like correspondence in
the skeleton of another reptile from the same formation in South
Africa 2.

Pursuing the work of extricating fromthe matrix the Triassic
fossils since received from that continent, indications still more
interesting of such relationship have come to light, which I now
proceed to submit to the Geological Society.

The evidence of the genus and species of: extinct reptile above
named, forming the subject of the present paper, consists of a series
of seven thoracic vertebra, with portions of ribs, a sternal bone,
scapula, and a right humerus, all cemented to a mass of dark
quartzose rock. A smaller mass included a femur with the pelvis ;
but the latter 1s still under the chisel. The parts exposed in the
first block are the left side of the vertebra, the scapula, and the
whole of the anterior surface of the humerus, which bone remains
attached, somewhat behind its natural position, to the right side of
the present portion of thorax.

Vertebroe.—Of each vertebra the centrum is subcompressed ; the
sides are slightly concave lengthwise between the thick convex
_ borders of their mutually articulating terminal surfaces; these are
concave (Pl. XVI. fig. 1, a,b), the hinder one (0) is the deeper ; the
extent of intervening part of centrum (c) is 5 lines. The external
smooth lateral surfaces slightly converge towards the narrow in-
ferior one (ib. fig. 2). The neurapophysial suture (ib. fig.1, 2’ 1’) is
unobliterated.

The neurapophysis (ib. fig. 3,7) ascends, slightly contracting antero-
posteriorly and inclining outwards to form a neural platform, from
the sides of which the usual di- and zygapophyses are developed ;
from the summit of the arch rises a neural spine, xs. ‘To the dia-
pophyses of two of these vertebre the proximal portions of the ribs
(ib. fig. 3, pl) are attached; these are subcompressed and feebly
channelled along the side exposed.

The following are dimensions of the above parts of the thorax:—

* mharvs, broad; TOUS, foot; cadpos, lizard.
tf. . On: Cynodraco major,” Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxxii. 1876, p. 960;
‘Descript. and Illustr. Catalogue of the Fossil Reptilia of 8. Africa,’ Ato, 1876,
p. 70.
aa Descriptive and Illustrated Catalogue,’ p. 48.

THE TRIAS OF GRAAFF REINET, S. AFRICA. 415

in. lin.
eerie Ot CenenIM, 6:22). y sade caer Bde ee Pewee 1.6
FSI Se COMETUM 6). gic. ns is gs Bedale hye g oo aos he eG
Depth of articular terminal concavity (hinder).... 0 9
Height of neurapophysis including postzygapophysis 1 6
ne Ot. meal API... a0. os welled sages ene 2.0
Tena Obese’ of BUIIO, 0.4 |. ¢ ss ae waa eee 0; 9
eneth of summit of spine. « ., 4+). i) eajewale ml 8 £50
Phiekness of summit: of spine... ola. eed mame 0 4
REO VE UBT cree dix vials ace yen a og ee eae eee On 6
MIRE GE, GE ELD 6's Z eras ne one dain Nao Me 0 4to3
Length of best-preserved rib ........2..2 000 eee (ome

Of the genera of §.-African Triassic Reptilia hitherto indicated by
vertebre (not differentiated like those of the “ tretospondylian ”
group), the following differences are shown in comparison with the
present genus.

The dorsal vertebree of Plaiypodosaurus are smaller than the
caudal ones of Massospondylus* the centrum of which is 4 inches
3 lines in length. Of Pachyspondylus* the caudal centrum is 2
inches 6 lines in length; that of Leptospondylus* is 2 inches 2:
lines in length. The formal differences of these caudals suggest:
more marked ones in the thoracic vertebre of the same genera; but,
none have as yet been received.

The vertebrae of Platypodosaurus agree more closely with those of
the Anomodont Reptilia (Dicynodon and Oudenodon) ¢ ; they differ.
in the minor depth of the terminal concavities from the vertebra of.
Kasticephalus t and Anthodon§g.

The nearest approach to the biconcave structure of vertebra in:

existing Mammals is shown in a Monotreme (echidna) in which the
unossified part of the ends of the centrum is dense at its periphery,
and presents a definite cavity (a) filled with fluid|| (Pl. XVI. fig. 4).

Sternum.—Save in the instance of Kisticephalus microrhinus and
Saurosternon Bainii, I have sought in vain for evidences of sternal.
structure in the §.-African reptiles until the exposition of the fossils
here described.

The flat symmetrical bone (Pl. XVI. fig. 5), hexagonal, but with
the angles so rounded off as to approach a circular form, I regard as
the anterior one of the sternum proper, repeating in its large re-
lative size that which is usually unossified in modern Lizards, but
which is well ossified in Ornithorhynchus (ib. fig. 6, a—c).

* The vertebrae referred to the above genera are described in my ‘ Catalogue
of the Fossil Reptilia and Pisces in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons
of England,’ 4to, 1854, pp. 97-100. They were transmitted by Ch. E. H. Orpen,
Esq., M.D., from the Drakensberg range of mountains, near Harrismith, Cape

of Good Hope, and from a formation which, by indications afforded by the.

sl letter, I stated to be ‘“‘ probably of the age of the New Red Sandstone in
urope.”

t Cat. S. Afr. Reptilia, 4to, 1876, pp. 40, 48, pls. xxxv.,, lii., liii.

t Op. cit. p. 63, pl. lxix, § Jb. p. 88, pl. Ixx, fig, 2.

|| Art. Monotremata, Cyclop. of Anat. vol. iii. 1841.

eee

A416 PROF. OWEN ON AN ANOMODONT REPTILE FROM

As in this Monotreme, the fossil shows an anterior articular sur-
face (a, a’) indicative of amore advanced “episternal” element. The
present anterior “ sterneber ” is 6 inches in length and the same in
breadth ; the average thickness may be put at 4 an inch, increasing
at the articular parts of the margin, of which there are four, the
lateral ones (6,/b') being the broadest, swelling anteriorly to a thick-
ness of 1 inch. The swelling in the lateral (6, 6) and posterior (c, c’)
joints is towards the outer surface of the bone; that of the anterior
joint (a a’) turns towards the inner one.

The outer surface is feebly concave between the lateral joints, and
also between each of these and the hinder joint ; transversely, below
the lateral joints, it is as feebly convex; the surface is smooth, with
faint lines radiating towards the periphery.

The inner surface is feebly concave both lengthwise and across ;
it is traversed by a low median narrow rising, hardly to be called a
ridge, which is thickest and most prominent at the anterior joint
(a') and subsides before reaching the posterior one. This latter sur-
face indicates the abrupt diminution of size, especially breadth, of
the second sternal bone which had been articulated therewith.

I conclude from the character of that surface that such continuation
of a sternal series was present, as in the Chameleons and Scines, and
that the hinder surface (¢, c’, fig. 5) gave partial attachment to a pair
of sternal ribs, not total asin Varanus and Iguana. The lateral
articulation (6, 6’) shows two convex surfaces divided by an oblique
groove; the lower and larger surface probably gave attachment to
a sternal rib, as in Ornithorhynchus (fig. 6); the upper, narrower
and longer one may have joined the coracoid, as in Monotremes.
The relative size of the foremost sternal bone, if followed by a
second of the size indicated by the joint-surface with the first,
would offer a Monotrematous character, but one of an importance
secondary to that which would be afforded if the anterior articular
surface of the large sternal bone supported an episternal element of
the 'T’-shaped character shown in both Ornithorhynchus and Echidna,
as well as in [chihyosaurus and most modern Lacertians.

Such is the character of that bone in the labyrinthodont fossil
transmitted, under the name Batrachosaurus, by Mr. A. G. Bain to
the British Museum, and subsequently called Saurosternon by Prof.
Huxley *; also in the specimen described and figured by me in the
‘ Catalogue’ of Mr. Bain’s fossils, on which I was at that time en-
gaged tf, and in which it is noted that ‘ the episternum shows the
clavicular groove on each transverse branch, as in that of Labyrim-
thodon leptognathus”t. This groove for the reception of the clavicles
is more feebly marked in Ornithorhynchus, and is obliterated by con-
fluence of the clavicles therewith in old animals, as in the specimen
figured by Clift to show the resemblance of the scapular arch in that
mammal to the same part of the skeleton in [chthyosaurus §.

* Geological Magazine, vol. v. 1868, p. 201, pl. xi. fig. 1, ¢.

T ‘Catalogue’ &., 4to, 1876, pl. Ixx. fig. 3. t Op. cit. p. 69.

§ ‘As this form of the sternum (in IJchthyosaurus) appeared at the same
time quite new, I was very anxious not to fall into an error, and was reexamin-

THE TRIAS OF GRAAFF REINET, 8. AFRICA. 417

The correspondence between the aquatic reptile and mammal is
not carried out in other parts of the skeleton of the Oolitic Ichthyo-
saur; but in the older form under description I proceed to show

such in the scapula, in the chief bone of the limb articulated to the

complex scapular arch, and in the femur.

Scapula.—In the ‘Catalogue of South-African Fossil Reptilia’
two types of scapula are described and figured—one in a species of
Dicynodon *, the other in a species of Aisticephalusy. In the former
the marginal acromion shows an articular surface for junction with
an epicoracoid ; in the other the acromion is a thinner plate and
does not show such distinct articular surface. ‘The resemblance in
these reptilian scapule to that bone in the Monotremes is noted ¢ in
the ‘ Catalogue.’ .

The right scapula of Platypodosaurus (Pl. XVII. figs. 1 & 2) was
transmitted in a separate block of matrix, which had been detached
from that enclosing the portion of the thorax with the right

_humerus; it was part of the same skeleton. In clearing away the
matrix from such detached scapula the terminal phalanges of four
digits of, most probably, the fore paw of the same reptile were
exposed, adhering by a moderate thickness of matrix to the inner or
concave surface of the scapula (ib. fig. 2). This bone, as in most
Reptilia, and as in the Ormithorhynchus, is narrow in proportion to
its length; a portion only of the glenoid surface for the humerus is
preserved at the distal end. The length, following the slight bend
or curve of the bone, is 10 inches; the basal breadth is 43 inches;
but some portion is here wanting from the anterior border.

The entire bone might have shown a breadth like that of Kisticee-
phalus, but more restricted towards the proximal end (a, 6) as in Dicy-
nodon§. Sufficient of the fore margin is preserved to show that it de-
scribes, as in Dicynodon, a sigmoid curve convex along the proximal
half (a to 6); then, as the bone loses breadth, it becomes concave, this
eurve being deepened by the production of the spine or acromion, é,
which terminates the fore border 24 inches above the distal articular
surface. But the fore border is as it were resumed near the inner
side of the acromion, completing the concave curve of that border of
the scapula, ¢’, as it advances to the coracoid articular surface, f,
here broken away. Hence the spine or acromion, e, may be said to
rise from part of the anterior border, or costa, and also from the

ing, with Mr. Clift, the different specimens, when it struck him that there was
something similar to. this mechanism in the sternum of the Ornithorhynchus
paradoxus” (Home, Sir Everard, in ‘Phil. Trans.’ 1818, p. 32, plate ii.). “The
“chief value of the papers on the “Fossil Remains of an Animal more nearly
allied to Fishes than any of the other classes of animals” (Phil. Trans. 1814,
p. 576; 1816, p. 320; 1818, p. 32; and 1819, p. 216, Proteosaurus) is yielded
by the accurate and beautiful figures of the first discovered parts of Ichthyo-
sauri contributed by William Clift, F.R.S. Cuvier subsequently pointed out the
correspondence of the lacertian sternal apparatus with that of Monotremes,
in the concluding volume (y.) of his ‘Ossemens Fossiles’ (4to, 1824), p. 290.

* Op. cit. pp. 47, 57, pls. lxix. & Ixx. t 1b. p. 53, pl. lxix. figs. 8, 9.

¢ 10. p. 48. 1 § Op.-ctt. Diy x noay,

Q.J5.G.8. No. 145. 2

A418 PROF. OWEN ON AN ANOMODONT REPTILE FROM

outer surface or dorsum near the anterior costa. The resemblance
of the scapula of the Platypus to that of Platypodosaurus, in general
form, is “increased by the origin of the spine close to the anterior
costa, and by the spine being bent forwards so as to seem to form
a continuation of the external surface of the scapula” *.

The external surface of the scapula of Platypodosawrus (Pl. XVII.
fig. 1)is flat in the proximal or basal half (a to 6), and is here marked.
by longitudinal striz ; it becomes convex, both lengthwise and across,
at the distal or humeral half (6 to e’), save where this expands beyond
the acromion to form the coracoid articular surface, f, when it be-
comes concave both transversely and longitudinally. The hind
border of the scapula, ¢, describes a concavity along its distal two:
thirds, its proximal third being straight, as in Dicynodon leoncceps 7.

The inner surface (ib. fig. 2) is longitudinally concave, flattened
at the proximal expansion; at the distal one it is transversely
convex, swelling out to contribute to the humeral articular surface
(ib. d), concave where it extends upon the beginning of the expan—
sion for the coracoid joint. The acromion curves towards this
aspect, and terminates in a thin border (ib. e'), showing no sign of
an articular surface for an epicoracoid or clavicle, such as exists in
Dicynodon$; in this respect the process resembles rather the
acromion in Kistecephalus §. A clavicle or episternal may have been.
attached by ligament to the free margin of the acromion in Platy-

podosaurus.

The striated superficial markings on this and other bones of
Platypodosawrus recall the character of those in some Labyrintho-
donts. Fractures of the dorsum scapule, or convex outer surface,
expose a lamellar or stratified texture of the bone; the surface of
such lamelle, exposed beneath a superficial compact layer a line in
thickness, also shows, but more faintly, longitudinal strie.

In Echidna (EL XVII. fig. 4) a ridge (qg) is developed which repre—
sents the “scapular spine ” of iieher: mammals, the second ridge and
process (¢) answering to the second “spine” in Megatherium, the latter
alone is present in Ornithorhynchus as in Platypodosaurus ; but the
process (€) is common to both monotremes as to the Triassic reptile ;
and the term ‘‘ acromion ” is here applied to it, as by Meckel|| in his
Monotreme.

Humerus.—The humerus (Pl. XVI. fig. 7) repeats the general pro-
portions of that of Pareiasaurus{], with characters shown in the same
bone of Cynodraco** and Dicynodon Tt ; but its breadth in propor-
tion to the length is exaggerated by a special production of a tricipi-
tal process (Pl. XVi. fig. 7, d) near the subsidence of the teretial
ridge(c'). This additional characteristic is not developed in the Cape
reptilian humeri above cited; but it is present in that bone of the:

* Art. Menotuehiete, ‘ Cycl. of Anat.’ vol. ii1. Sele Ps ae fig. 173, 9.

ti LO.) cit, pls Tacx tig. ‘tee 4

§ Jb. pl. xix. figs. 8 & 9, e.

|| Ornithorhynchi paradox Descriptio Anatomica, fol. 1826.

al Catalogue, wt supra (4to, 1876), p. 11, pl. xix.

a* 1b. p. NOpl. sexvin, tt Jd. p. 48, pls. xli. & xii.

THE TRIAS OF GRAAFF REINET. S. AFRICA. 419

Ornithorhynchus (Pl. XVI. fig. 8) and Echidna (fig. 9), and also,
though less marked, in certain Marsupials (Phascolomys * and Noto-
thervum 7).

The length of the bone here described is 104 inches; the breadth
of the proximal end is 57 inches; that of the distal end is 52 inches ;
that of the shaft across the deltoid (f, f’) and tricipital (d) crests is
52 inches ; below these crests the breadth suddenly decreases to 23
inches; and the thickness (ancono-thenal diameter) of the shaft here,
including the bridge (/), is 24 inches.

The head or proximal articulation (@) is indicated by the greater
breadth of the convexity of that end of the bone towards the ento-
tuberosity (c), where it is 14 inch ancono-thenally ; it is continued
of similar character, rough as for syndesmosal articulation, but losing
breadth, to the upper border of the ectotuberosity (6). The deltoid
crest (f), continued distad and ulnad from this tuberosity for an extent
of 62 inches, swells out into a rough surface at its end (f”), the
narrower distal border of which extends radiad at right angles to
the axis of the shaft and is continued into the bridge of bone (/)
which crosses and completes the entepicondylar canal (0, 0).

About halfway down the deltoid ridge a second lower one is con-
tinued from its thenal margin upon the thenal surface of the shaft
(at @, e’), and represents the pectoral ridge.

The border of the humerus, continued from the entotuberosity (c),
extends obliquely thenad, distad, and ulnad, subsiding upon the thenal
surface of the bone (¢’), and, with a similar thenal inclination of the
deltoid ridge (6, f), renders the proximal third of the intervening
thenal surface of the shaft (g) slightly concave transversely. This
surface, regaining its level, continues distad uninterruptedly to the
bridge (4). The thickened border or production of the humerus
from the entotuberosity (c) may be regarded as the teretial ridge. A
distinct process (d), to which the term ‘‘tricipital” seems applicablet,
extends, independently, from the radial border of the shaft midway
between the angle of the entotuberosity and that of the entepicon-
dyle (7). The extent of the base of this tricipital ridge or process
is 24 inches ; it projects ? of aninch from the line or contour of the
radial border of the humeral shaft.

From the least radio-ulnar diameter of the shaft below the del-
toid and tricipital crests, the bone rapidly expands to the breadth
above noted, which includes the ent- (2) and ect- (2) epicondylar pro-
ductions. The short narrower part of the humeral shaft is crossed
obliquely by the “ bridge” (i), the length of which may be put at 2
inches, its breadth at 8 lines. The length of the outlet (0') of the
entepicondylar canal is 1 inch 3 lines; its breadth is 5 lines. The
distal joint-surface (/) for the antibrachium is developed from the
-ulnar half of the expanded distal end of the bone; it is simply
convex, and projects mainly from the thenal surface of that end.
The ectepicondyle (f) is continued proximad as a thick supinator

* Researches on the Fossil Remains of the Extinct Mammals of Australia (4to,
1877), p. 361, pl. ci. + Ib. p. 517, pl. exxvii.
{ As affording origin to part of the triceps muscle in Monotremes.

252

420 PROF. OWEN ON AN ANOMODONT REPTILE FROM

ridge (h') anconad of the ulnar border of the narrow part of the
humeral shaft. The entepicondyle (2) forms an angular prominence
terminating below the radial border of the shaft.

The above characters of the humerus of the Platypodosaurus have
been deemed worthy of detailing by reason of the Monotremes pre-
senting the nearest resemblance to such bone in the vertebrate series.

In these alone (Ornithorhynchus, Pl. XVI. fig. 8, and Echidna, ib.
fig. 9) have I found such characters repeated, but even with some
exaggeration of the proportions of breadth to length. The crests
(f, ¢',), continued distad and palmad from the ento- (c) and ecto-
(6) tuberosities, leave a deeper intervening concavity at the proxi-
mal part of the palmar surface of the shaft, almost defining, as by a
low curved ridge-like border, such concavity in the Echidna (fig.
9,9). In both genera, also, besides the ridge extending distad from
the entotuberosity, c, there is a distinct angular tricipital ridge or
process (d) as in Platypodosaurus ; and this is most developed in
Echidna, though with a minor relative extent of the base.

The bridge (<)* is broader relatively than in Platypodosaurus ;
so much so in Platypus as to carry the entry of the entepicondylar
canal to the radial margin of that expansion of the distal end of the
humerus (fig. 8, 0). The transverse development of the bridge is so
much greater in Echidna (fig. 9, &) that it assumes the character of
the palmar surface of the distal expansion of the shaft, and the entry
of the canal is pushed, as it were, quite to the anconal surface, and
the shaft thus seems to be perforated antero-posteriorly, but with
the normal obliquity (ib. 0’).

Cuvier notes the transference of the articulation (7) for the
antibrachium to the ulnar portion of the distal expanded end of the
humerus in Ornithorhynchus t, and also the proportion of the distal
breadth to the length of the humerus in that low quasz-reptilian
type of mammal: both characters are exaggerated in Hchidna (fig. 9).

The attachment of the large “teres major” to the ridge c’, and the
origin of a considerable parc of the “ triceps extensor cubiti” from
the process d, in the Monotremes t, have suggested the terms applied
to these ridges in the humerus of Platypodosauwrus.

Manus.—Of the digits cemented to the concave surface of the
scapula (Pl. XVII. fig. 2), that next the humeral end (v) shows the un-
gual, 3, and middle, z, phalanges, with part of the proximal phalanx,
on the hypothesis of the phalangial formula being the same as in fig. 5,
copied from the subject of plate li. figs. 2 and 3 of my ‘Cata-
logue ’§.

* In a humerus of a large Dicynodon recently transmitted by Mr. Thos.
Bain, the ossification of the ‘‘ bridge,” which seems to have extended distad from
the fore part of the shaft along the primitive ligament, has not completed the
confluence with that part at the distal end of the bridge.

+t “Ta poulie articulaire qui est ici tout-a-fait globuleuse, se trouve loin d’étre
placée au milieu de l’os; elle est au tiers externe.” (Lecons d’Anatomie Com-
parée, ed. 1835, tom. i. p. 386.)

+ Meckel, ‘ Ornithorhynchi paradoxt Descriptio Anatomica,’ fol. 1826; Owen,

Art. Monotremata, Cyclopedia of Anatomy, vol. iii. 1841, p. 377, fig. 180.
§ Op. cit. p. 54, pl. lit.

THE TRIAS OF GRAAFF REINET, S. AFRICA. 421

The ungual phalanx is broad, subobtuse; in length 13 inch, in
breadth 1 inch 2 lines, that of the articular surface being 11 lines.
The phalanx supporting the ungual one is 9 lines in length and 1
inch 3 lines in greatest breadth, its proportions being nearly those
of the second phalanx of the fifth digit in the Dicynodon(?) above
cited. The pair of convexities near the distal end of this phalanx
indicate the bicondylar trochlea. The outer surface is abraded from
the preserved distal end of the first or proximal phalanx. This
digit, which I take to be the fifth or ulnar one of Platypodosaurus,
is relatively shorter and thicker than in the Decynodon (2) cited.

Of the next (fourth) digit (Iv) a smaller fragment of the proximal
phalanx is preserved. The second phalanx, 2, seems to have been
one inch in length and the same in breadth. The ungual phalanx,
3, 1s | inch 7 lines in length, 1 inch 1 line in breadth ; but all these
phalanges have suffered abrasion of the exposed (dorsal or anconal)
surface. ‘The third digit (a1) is represented by the ungual, 3, and
a small part of the second phalanx; the former is 1 inch 9 lines
in length and 1 inch Slines in breadth. The second digit (12) loses
size; its ungual phalanx, 3, is 1 inch 4 lines long, 1 inch 1 line
broad. Of the first or radial digit there is no trace; nor would the
portion of matrix supporting the above-described bone be big
enough to have preserved any trace of it had it existed.

Each of the ungual phalanges are slightly deflected. The digits
have formed part of the left fore foot. The breadth of this paw, if,
as is most probable, it was pentadactyle (as in the subject of pl. lu.
fig. 2, op. cit.*), may have been 8 inches. From the relative length
of the second phalanges of the fourth and fifth digits compared with
those of the above subject, the paw of Platypodosaurus seems to have
been somewhat shorter in proportion to the breadth. The ungual
phalanges are more obtuse ; the terminal angle is less produced. The
claws they supported appear to have heen adapted rather for
fossorial work than for prehension or laceration of a struggling prey.

Though relatively shorter, the ungual phalanges have more the
proportions of those of Ke Midd than of Ornithorhynchus ; they differ
still more from the homologous phalanges in the smaller Cape
reptile (fig. 5).

Femur.—At the time (1876) of the publication of the Catalogue
of South-African Fossil Reptilia I had but insufficient data for a de-
scription of the femur in any species. A proximal portion of that
bone in Paresasaurust (Pl. XVII. fig. 8) affords, however, a few
characters for comparison with the femur of Platypodosaurus. The
trace or impression of the hind limb in Saurosternon indicates the
femur to be somewhat slender and a little longer than the
humerus. In Saurosternon Griesbachii t it is one third longer and
there is a trace of a “third trochanter” projecting slightly from the
inner surface of the shaft; but no such trace is shown in the speci-
men of S. Bainie.

* On this hypothesis the ungual phalanx of the innermost or first digit, 1,

is added in outline to those in fic. 4,
th Ops ctta peta: t Ib. p. 88, pl. Ixx. fig. 4.

499 PROF, OWEN ON AN ANOMODONT REPTILE FROM

Of Platypodosaurus the proximal portion of the right femur
(Pl. XVII. figs. 6 & 7) was successfully extricated from the matrix ;
it is 7 inches in length, 2 inches across the longer diameter of
the shaft at the fractured end. But what proportion of the length
of the bone is preserved cannot be determined from the specimen ;
it seems to include at least one half of the femur. So far as the
shaft is preserved, there is a feeble trace of a small or third tro-
chanter close to the inner border. ‘The outer or great trochanter (ib.
b, b') is remarkable for its extent longitudinally, which measures
© inches and terminates abruptly at almost a right angle with the
shaft. The great trochanter is relatively shorter, and more gradually
pubsides upon the shaft, in Paresasaurus (ib. fig. 8, 6, 6'). From
the upper part of the head of the femur (a) what answers in Pla-
typodosaurus to the neck (fig. 6, ¢) extends outward more hori-
zontally than in Pareiasaurus (fig. 8, ¢), but equally without any
concavity or depression, and gradually, thickens from 9 lines across
near the head to 1 inch at the proximal end of the great trochanter.
The anterior surface between the head and great trochanter is
slightly concave through the prominence of these parts; and there is
no eminence dividing that part of the anterior surface of the femur
‘“‘into two facets,” as in Parerasaurus*. The posterior surface of the
proximal portion of the femur of Platypodosaurus shows a pair of low
broad ridges dividing such surface into three subequal longitudinal
tracts, the two outer ones of which are slightly concave across. There
is a Submarginal trace of a “small trochanter;” but such process,
in the femur of Pareiasaurus (ib. fig. 8, f), projects like a tube-
rosity from the middle of that surface. A transverse polished
section of the fractured end of the femoral shaft of Platypodosawrus
(ib. fig. 6a) exhibits a well-defined medullary cavity of corre-
sponding elliptical form ; but it is not more than 8 millims. in long
diameter, that of the section exceeding 2 inches. In Pareiasaurus
the peripheral portion of the femoral wall, for an extent of about one
seventh of the long diameter of the section of the shaft (ab. fig. 8 a),
presents a compact structure; but this somewhat suddenly degene-
rates into a looser spongy texture, the large cells or interspaces
of which are occupied by a matrix susceptible of polish. In one
portion of a femur of Par. bombidens the looser osseous tissue had
so far decomposed that the invading matrix simulated the appear-
ance of a large medullary cavity; but this showed instructive
evidence here and there of osseous tissue, and presented no
boundary such as is shown in Platypodosaurus, where the true
narrow cylinder is as well defined as in Ornithorynchus and
Echidna (fig. 9a), though of less relative size. .

The fossil femur on which the reptilian genus Huskelesaurus,
Huxley, is founded is stated to show ‘a large and distinct
medullary cavity”.

The chief characteristic of the femur of Platypodosaurus is the

* Loc. cit. specimen No. 8. A. 28.
t Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society, vol. xxxiii. (1866) p. 2.

_sonerre

z

wa
A.S Foord.del et lth.

:
!
4
4

one Sahl pS es

Quart Journ.Geol. Soc Vol. XXXVI.P1 XVI.

Mintern Bros ump

OSAURUS
AS Foord del et lith. PLATYPOD

Mintern Bros map

PLATYPODOSAURUS.

_S Foord del et lith

THE TRIAS ‘OF GRAAFF REINET, 8. AFRICA. 423

Jongitudinal extent and well-defined ridge-like form of the great.
trochanter, in which, as in the proportions of breadth and fore-
and-aft compression of the proximal (probably) half of the bone, I
find the closest agreement in the femur (Pl. XVII. fig. 9) of the
Spiny Monotreme (Hehidna hystrix).

From the number of correspondences presented by parts of the.
skeleton of Platypodosawrus with homologous ones in the skele-
tons of the two existing genera of Monotrematous Mammals,
one is led to relieve the dry work of comparison by speculations on
the vast number and variety in gradually advancing structure of
air-breathing vertebrates, offsprings of the strange reptilian forms
exemplified by their remains in Cape localities—but which, of old,
may have spread over lands extending thence northward and east-
ward, now in great part submerged, and of whose inhabitants a
remnant stil survives and lurks in the burrows and waters of
Australia. One may also conjecture, on the derivative hypothesis,
that the higher class of Vertebrates, as represented by the low
ovoviviparous group now limited to Australasia, may have branched
off from a family of Triassic Reptilia represented, and at present
known only, by the fragmentary evidences of such extinct kinds as
that which forms the subject of the present communication. But
this is far from being the only instance of correspondences between
organisms, both animal and vegetable, of the Cape of Good Hope
and those of New Guinea, Australia, and Tasmania.

The European Triassic reptile Placodus, nearest akin to the Cape
Endothiodon, has the molar dentition of each mandibular ramus
represented in one species by two low, broad, subquadrate plates
which overhang the border of the bone (Pl. XVII. fig. 11). In the
young Ornithorhynchus the molar dentition of each mundibular
ramus is represented by two similar plates, which in the adult be-
come confluent, also overhanging the supporting bone, and still indica-
ting their primitive separation (ib. fig. 10). True it is they are not
calcified in the duck-mole; but, in other more significant characters,
this mammal alone repeats the Placodont ones. I may add that the
- rami of the mandible in both divaricate anterior to the symphysis,
as in figs. 10 & 11, Pl. X VIL.

The fossils of Platypodosaurus which have afforded the foregoing
descriptions were obtained by EH. J. Dunn, Esq., of Oaklands, Clare-
mont, Cape of Good Hope, from a quartzose Karoo formation 3500
feet above the sea-level, near Graaff Reimet, and were transmitted as
a donation to the British Museum.

Postscrivt (British Museum, 22nd June, 1880).—I have received
this day a copy of a “Second Contribution to the History of the
Vertebrata of the Permian Formations of Texas,” by E. D. Cope
(zead before the American Philosophical Society, May 7th, 1880).
In this paper the Author states:—‘‘The order Theromorpha
- approximates the Mammalia more closely than any other division of
Reptilia. This approximation is seen in the scapular arch and
humerus, which nearly resemble those of the Monotremata, espe-
- glally Echidna, and in the pelvic arch, which Owen has shown, in

424 PROF. OWEN ON AN ANOMODONT REPTILE FROM

the suborder Anomodontia, to resemble that of the Mammals, and,.
as I have pointed out, especially that of Echidna” (p. 1).

In the pelvis of Dicynodon tigriceps, described and figured in my
‘Descriptive and Illustrated Catalogue of the Fossil Reptilia of
South Africa’ *, the sacrum includes six ankylosed vertebre, and
the expanse of the iliac bones resembles that in many placental
mammals; whereas in Hehidna the ilia are strong but narrow
three-sided columns, and the sacral vertebre are but three in number..
The chief pelvic characteristic in that Monotreme is in the marsupial
bones, which exceed the ilia in length. Ihave not detected any
evidence of these bones in the South-African reptilian fossils which
I have hitherto examined. The particulars of the monotrematous
characters of the scapular arch and humerus are not given; nor are
any figures of the subjects of Professor Cope’s paper appended
thereto ; but the author states (p. 22) ‘that they will appear in the:
Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society.” The discovery
of the: fossil marsupial bones in the pelvis of the Permian Reptile
will be one of much interest.

(EXPLANATION OF PLATES XVI. & XVII.
Puate XVI.
Platypodosaurus robustus.

Fig. 1. Two dorsal vertebree, vertically and longitudinally bisected, in outline :-
2 natural size.

2. Transverse vertical section of middle of centrum, in outline: 2 nat.
size.

3. Side view of a dorsal vertebra: # nat. size.

4, Vertical longitudinal section of two dorsal vertebre of Echidna hystria +
nat. size.

5. Foremost sterneber: 3 nat. size. a’, anterior articular surface; JU’,
lateral articular surface; c', posterior articular surface.

6. Sternum of Ornithorhynchus paradoxus: nat. size. a, a', anterior arti--
cular surface; 6, 0’, lateral articular surface ; ¢, c’, posterior articular '
surface.

7. Humerus; rather more than 3 nat. size.

8. Humerus of Ornithorhynchus paradoxus: nat. size.

9, Humerus of Hcehidna hystrix: nat. size.

Prats XVII.

Fig. 1. Seapula of Platypodosaurus, outer surface: % nat. size.
2. Scapula of Platypodosawrus, mer surface: 3 nat. size.
3. Scapula of Ornithorhynchus paradoxus, outer surface: nat. size.
4. Scapula of Echidna hystrix, outer suriace : nat. size.
5. Digital bones of the fore paw of Dicyncdon(?), outer surface: nat. size.
6. Proximal part of femur of Platypodosaurus, front surface ; 6a. Trans--
verse section of shaft of the same: 3 nat. size.
7. Proximal part of femur of Platypodosaurus, inner border: % nat. size.
8. Proximal part of femur of Pareiasaurus, front surface; 8a. Transverse *

section of shaft of the same: + naf. size.
9. Femur of Echidna hystrix, front surface ; 9 a. Transverse section of shaft
of the same: nat. size.
9'. Femur of Echidna hystrix, inner border: nat. size.
10. Portion of right mandibular ramus and molar teeth of Ornithorhynchus-
paradoxus : nat. size.
11. Portion of right mandibular ramus and molar teeth of Placodus Meyert :-
$ nat. size. .

e

* Ato, 1876, pp. 40, 41, pls. xxxvi. & xxxvil.

THE TRIAS OF GRAAFF REINET, S. AFRICA. 425.

DISCUSSION.

Prof. Sretzy, after having had the opportunity of inspecting the
specimens, by the courtesy of Prof. Owen, had arrived at the same
conclusions with the author as to the distinctness of this form. He
was not able to follow the author in dividing the reptiles of South
Africa into Dinosauria, Anomodontia, and Theriodontia, and asked
Prof. Owen to state how these groups differ in vertebral characters,
that we might judge of the affinities of the fossil. All seemed to
him to show remarkable mammalian resemblances, as had been
pointed out by the author; but he doubted whether this implied
the evolution of Mammalian orders from the South-African reptiles,
as Prof. Owen had suggested. He alluded to the remarkable modifi-
cation of the humerus found in the Mole, as throwing light on the
singular modifications of form which may result from burrowing-
habits; and suggested that, as the Ornithorhynchus also burrows
and its resemblances to the fossil do not extend to the more
important parts of the skeleton, the correspondence was more likely
to show merely that the humeral bones were used in similar ways
in the fossil reptile.

Prof. Owen stated that the orders of the fossil reptiles which he
had established were distinguished by characters as well marked as
those which separate some of the orders of living Reptilia. In reply
to Prof. Seeley he pointed out that the form of the phalanges in the
form he described are those which belong to omnivorous forms like
the Anomodonts, and not to carnivorous forms lke the Theriodonts..

A426 REY. G. BLUENCOWE ON CERTAIN GEOLOGICAL FACTS

82. On certain GuoLtocicat Facts witnessed in Natat and the
Border Countries during nineteen Years’ Residence. By the
Rey. Gzorcz BrencowzE. Communicated by Rev. Henry
GrirritH, F.G.S. (Read November 19, 1879.)

Tus basal strata of Natal as seen on the coast are shales, which are
succeeded by sandstones of various kinds for from twenty to twenty-
five miles into the interior, after which, about the same distance of
hard shale occurs in deep beds. ‘The valley of the Umgeni seems to
have been formed by subsidence, as the sandstone hills in the neigh-
bourhood are greatly cross-fractured, and the beds dip with an
inclination nearly corresponding to the surface-curve. This also is
the case with other, shallower valleys in the neighbourhood. There
are also, on the upper edge of the northern side of the Umgeni valley,
cliffs, from which the front has fallen away, which are without a
dip, as also in several other cases in the vicinity where the original
level has been maintained, the edge of which presents a perpendicu-
lar cliff.

In the northern and north-western portion of Natal a white
sandstone prevails, which increases in the thickness and hardness of
the strata as we ascend. This part is a succession of irregular
ridges and truncated cones in every variety of relative position.
The present configuration seems to have arisen from denudation, as
the sandstone of the remaining hills is horizontal and without cross-
fracture. There is also a high plateau, known as the Biggars-Berg,
about 50 miles long, which corresponds in structure and height with
the highest of the remaining hills, and appears to be the only part
which has been free from the denuding force which has scooped out
the valleys and abraded the hills around. The substance of this
plateau is sandstone, in strata from 3 to 20 feet thick; and it has a
capping of trap, which is generally basaltic, and from 20 to 100 feet
thick, while the average height above the surrounding valleys is
about 1000 feet. The surrounding valleys are thickly strewn with
broken-up trap of sharp angularity, which forbids the supposition
that the fragments have been brought by a stream from a distance,
but implies that they are near where they first fell.

In this district of horizontal sandstone the coal of this part of
South Africa is found ; and the seams reach from a few miles to the
north of Ladysmith to the edge of the mountains in the Lydenburg
district of the Transvaal, and east and west from near Rorke’s Drift
to afew miles east of the junction of the Mooi river with the Vaal.
There has been no search for coal; and it is only known where it has
been casually seen in the face of a cliff or in the bottom of a water-
course. On the Dundee and adjoining farm, there is one seam 10
feet thick; and about a quarter of a mile further up, at a perpendicular

WITNESSED IN NATAL AND THE BORDER COUNTRIES. 427

height_of from 15 to 20 feet above, there are three more. of only a
few inches, between which are interposed equally thin strata of
sandstone ; and a third of a mile yet further up there is another
seam of coal 7 feet thick, and less than 20 feet in perpendicular
height above the three. Seven miles west-by-north from Rorke’s
Drift, there is a seam 3 feet thick; and a mile south in horizontal
distance, and 800 feet above it, is another of the same size; while
a mile and a half north-west occurs a third, about 1000 feet above
the first.

In nearly all the lower strata of these sandstones occur circular
holes with perpendicular sides, going through the stratum in which
they arefound. Generally they are from 8 to 14 inches in diameter ;
and in a ford of the Ingoko river they occupy more than half of the
horizontal surface ; but this is a special case. On the farm Dundee,
there is one 3 feet in diameter which passes through a stratum of
from 25 to 30 feet. These holes seem to have been occasioned by
deposits of sand around the trunks of trees, which now occasionally
occur to the depth of from 2 to 5 feet in one rain. ‘The thick strata
of these sandstones, from their homogeneous continuity, seem to
have been deposited at one time, whereas in the smaller basal strata
something like lamination can be detected, and occasionally wave-
prints, neither of which have I seen in strata of 20 feet or more.
It also sometimes happens that a very hard stratum rests on one
which isso soft that the atmosphere corrodes the face, while the
rain finds its way through the fissures of the superincumbent strata,
and washes out large caves.

One spur of the Biggars-Berg terminates about a mile from
Rorke’s House, which stands in a denuded hollow, with an isolated
hill of the same structure as the Biggars-Berg at the back, having
all its sides but one greatly abraded. Isandhlwana is about two
miles to the east of the last-mentioned hill, and is the final one in
that direction which stands forth with perpendicular sides revealing
its structure, while its irregular grass-covered trap capping presents
the appearance of a couchant lion, as if keeping guard over the stony
frontier. About two miles below Isandhlwana, immediately below
the place where the few who escaped crossed the Buffalo, half the
river-bed is cut out of a solid mass of trap, not columnar, and which
has been deposited on its present irregular bed, as shown by a curve
of diverse grain and colour on its perpendicular face. This is about
1509 feet below the basaltic capping of Isandhlwana. There are
several other deposits of trap at this lower level within a mile and
a half, those near the mouth of the Isibindi partly basaltic, and
in a valley immediately to the west of the Buffalo in horizontal
slabs.

In crossing the Tugela by the. Greytown and Biggars-Berg road,
we ascend a valley on the Biggars-Berg side which for a distance of
three miles and an aggregate depth of 500 feet has been washed out
of brown, blue, and black shales of fine lamination, and exceedingly
friable ; and near the termination of the shale the Umsinga Mountain

428 REY. G. BLENCOWE ON CERTAIN GEOLOGICAL FACTS

rises from: its foot to more than 1500 feet. But just at its present
foot a mass of basaltic trap is found resting on the shale, and
bounded on all sides but its perpendicular face by the sandstone
and shale of the Umsinga and an adjoining denuded ridge. The
distance from the top of this isolated mass of trap to the base of the
trap capping of the Umsinga is not less than 1000 feet, and the
horizontal distance is not more than a third of a mile. The sur-
rounding strata, so far as seen, are undisturbed.

The peculiar feature of the geology of the Orange Free State at its
line of junction with Natal is the existence of isolated mountains of
sandstone and trap, which rise to an average height of 2000 feet from
the present general level, and which, from their sameness of structure,
evidently at one time formed parts of a continuous line of country
of the same elevation. Through the whole of this line there is no
evidence of volcanic eruption by which the trap has been thrown up,
nor is there present indication of the abrading force by which the
intervening mass of trap and sandstone has been carried away.

In the south-western part of the Transvaal, near Potchefstroom,
occur rounded hills of a creamy white stone, with small red specks
like oxide of iron: it is of very fine granulation, dense and opaque.
It is not lime, and cannot be described as quartzose.

In the central portion of the Transvaal, the Magaliesberg runs
east and west about 70 miles. This range is a series of sandstone
upheavals presenting a face from 400 to 700 feet deep, with a back
slope of several miles. In some cases the sandstone in this range
is In a quartzose condition.

About 30 miles to the north-east of the Magaliesberg we enter on
the large metallic deposits which are the distinguishing mark of this
part of the Transvaal. Mountains of very rich iron-ore succeed
each other up to the Gold-fields, near to which hematite abounds
in horizontal slabs and nearly perpendicular ridges.

Pilgrim’s Rest, the most extensive and richest Gold-field yet
wrought, is a gorge running at right angles to the Blyde river, in
an easterly direction, at an average depth of 1000 feet. The tops
of its undenuded sides are covered with lava; all the gold found in
it is molten ; and calcined quartz to a depth of 18 inches covers the
original bottom and sides of the excavation, except in the course of
a stream which at some former period has poured with great violence
through the gorge, so as to round the blocks of lava with which its
bed was covered.

Immediately over the ridge, at the eastern end of Pilgrim’s Rest,
the Mac-Mac diggings are found, where the violent aqueous and
igneous actions just referred to have not prevailed. There is not the
capping of lava to the hills; and the gold found here is bright and
angular, as though it had just fallen from its quartz matrix.

WITNESSED IN NATAL AND THE BORDER COUNTRIES. 429

Discussion.

Prof. T, Ruprrr Jonzs said that although much was yet to be
learned about the district, large areas had been already examined,
and the paper added something to our knowledge, though several of
the phenomena mentioned in it had been previously described. He
made some remarks on the coal formation of the Stormberg and
Natal.

.— Se ee eee ’

430 PROF. J. PRESTWICH ON A NEW SPECIES OF

33. Norn on the Occurrence of a New Spxcizus of Iauanopon in a
Brick-pit of the Kimmeriper Cray at Cumyor Hurst, three miles
W.S.W. of Oxford. By Prof. J. Prestrwicn, M.A., F.R.S.,
F.G.S. (Read April 28, 1880.)

Tuer fact of this discovery was briefly announced in the Geological
Magazine for May 1879*. Since then the further progress of the
works has made clearer the position of the seam in which the bones
were found, and shown more exactly its relation to the mass of the
Kimmeridge Clay and to the overlying Lower Greensand, about
which some doubt was expressed at the time. This and the many
fossils now obtained from the Jguanodon-seam must remove all such
doubt.

The pit is situated to the left of the road leading from Oxford to
Cumnor, at the foot of an outlying mass of Lower Greensand, forming
a conspicuous and isolated hill rising to the height of about 500 feet.
The Kimmeridge Clay here immediately underlies the Lower Green-
sand, without the intervention of the Portland beds (which are
present on the other side of the Thames valley at Shotover), and rests
upon the Coral Rag, which crops out at a distance of a few hundred
yards both to the eastward and westward of the pit.

A tramway driven into the side of the hill led to the discovery of
the bones in a thin sandy seam intercalated in the clay, and, at the
point where discovered, about 4 feet deep beneath the surface.

The prolongation of the tramway, however, has now shown that the
sandy seam runs into the hill, dipping at an angle of from 3° to 4°;
and by following up the beds till they pass under the Lower Green-
sand, it is evident that the zone to which the Jyuanodon belongs is
about 34 feet beneath those sands. The following is a section of
the pit as it is now opened out in a length of 340 ft. :—

Section at Cumnor Hurst.
W.N.W. E.S.E.

* During my absence from Oxford in the Easter of that year, a workman
took a bagful of bones to Dr. Rolleston, who, perceiving their importance,
kindly secured them for the geological department. Livery facility has been
afforded me, both by the owner and the manager of the works, to follow up
this interesting discovery; and with the aid of my assistant, Hy. Caudel, a
large portion of the skeleton has now been recovered.

IGUANODON FOUND IN THE KIMMERIDGE CLAY. A435

dit clio

1. Coarse ferruginous sands and grit without 1. Lower

NOSE Shae cas shrek cenide/ Aik slmwinedjessed aoe Mae Reese 10 a} Greensand.
av iaent-coloured Clay: .../.. 000<.-m<-asoseca tenes ees 20)
b. Dark grey clay with numerous layers of small

ferruginous and caleareous nodules and a

layer of large tabular Septaria, few fossils... 18 O | 2. Kimmeridge
eu@lay with) band of fossils. ....4.<.0. +... sae qerene i460 f Clay:
d. Seam of clay laminated with white sand, Jgu- |

GHOUON=VOU sep ccectiids coh; eens 2-00 Sane ereeeee 0 3}
e. Clay with large Septaria, lower down ......... 4+)

There is reason to suppose that the entire skeleton of the Igwano-
don was lying in a position across the driftway, in the thin but
conspicuous seam of clayey sand d; but it was not until the removal
of great part of the clay that attention was directed to it, and it
was with difficulty that many of the bones were afterwards re-
covered. Unfortunately, the bones of the head suffered much in
the removal, and have been in great part lost; but the vertebrae
aud limb-bones, which are harder and more compact, are but little:
damaged, and have been in great part recovered.

Owing to the sandy and porous nature of the seam, the shells.
found in it were mostly decomposed and difficult to recognize. One
very characteristic shell of the Kimmeridge Clay, although rare in
the Oxford district, occurs here in profusion, viz. Gryphea virgula ;
with these have been found small species of Astarte and Pleuroto-
maria, a Trigona, with specimens of Trigonellites latus, and Lingula
ovals.

From the clay (¢) below I have obtained Lucina lineata, Ichthyo-
saurus (vertebre and portion of ribs), Plosaurus, Dakosaurus
(1 tooth) ; while the clay above (c) is rich in the ordinary fossils of
the Kimmeridge Clay, as the following list will show :—

Astarte. Pinna lanceolata.
Cardium striatulum. Thracia depress.

Lima. Trigonia gibbosa.
Modiola bipartita. Pleurotomaria reticulata.
Myacites recurvus. Ammonites biplex.
Pecten nitescens. Serpula tetragona.

Perna mytiloides. Vertebree of Plesiosaurus.

In the upper bed of clay (6) Ammonates biplex is tolerably common
also; but the other fossils are not so numerous. It would appear
therefore that the horizon on which the Jguwanodon occurred is in
the upper part of the Kimmeridge Clay of this district. It is here
greatly reduced from the great development it has south in Dorset-
shire; for at Cumnor its total thickness cannot exceed from 70 to
80 feet. Largely as the Kimmeridge Clay is worked elsewhere in the
neighbourhood of Oxford, not a single bone of Jguwanodon has
hitherto been found in it; nor have the remains of [guanodon been
found elsewhere lower in the geological series than the Lower
Greensand and Wealden strata of Kent and Sussex.

One other instance, however, has recently came to my knowledge
of the occurrence of Jguanodon in the Oxford district. In the fine

432 ON A NEW IGUANODON FOUND IN THE KIMMERIDGE CLAY.’

collection of fossils from the Lower Greensand of Faringdon, made
by Mr. Davey, of Wantage, and now in the Oxford Museum, there
are two teeth of Jguanodon ; but whether they belong to the Lower
Greensand, or whether they are to be classed with the numerous
derived fossils found in those beds, it is difficult tosay. As, however,
they are not much worn, they may be of Lower-Greensand age.

The presence of drifted wood and of the Jguanodon in the Kim-
meridge Clay of this district, and of large Dinosaurs at Swindon,
together with the great thinning of this formation as it trends to
the south-west, render it probable that land in that direction was
not far distant, and that that land may have been the same as that
of the proximity of which we have more distinct evidence in the
many quartz, slate, and metamorphic rock-pebbles present in the
Lower Greensand of Faringdon, a deposit evidently formed near an
old shore. This land, since submerged and covered by upper Cre-
taceous strata, was in all probability the prolongation of the old
axis of the Mendip and Ardennes, the elevation of which took place
in Permian or Triassic times.

My friend Mr. Hulke has kindly taken charge of this Kimmeridge
Iguanodon ; and in his hands I feel sure that its structural peculi-
arities and relationship will be accurately determined and esta-
blished.

(For Discusston see page 456.)

IGUANODON PRESTWICHIL FROM THE KIMMERIDGE CLAY. 433

34, Iavanopon Presrwicui1, a new Species from the Kimmuriper
Cray, distinguished from I. Mantentt of the Wealden Formation
in the S.L. Ss England and Isle of Wight by Differences in the.
Shape of the Vertebral Centra, by fewer than five Sacral Verte-
bre, by the simpler Character of «ts Tooth-serrature, Sc.,
founded on numerous fossil remains lately discovered at Cumnor,
near Oxford. By J. W. Hurxs, Esq., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Ktead

April 28, 1880.)
[Puates XVIII.-XX. ]

These fossils, which Mr. Prestwich has kindly given me an
opportunity of studying, are, for the extent of information they
convey of nearly every part of the skeleton, the most important
Tguanodont remains yet discovered at any one time in this country.
The only others that may vie with them are those in the well-known
Mantellian Maidstone block, in the British Museum, and some,
said to represent the greater part of a skeleton, reported to have
been found several years since at Hastings, preserved in a private
collection, inaccessible, which in their entirety have not, so far as I
can learn, ever been examined by an anatomist.

The Cumnor fossils appear to have formed part of one skeleton.
They represent an animal between 10 and 12 feet long, which had
not reached maturity. Its head was lzard-like, with large eyes
and capacious nostrils. Its neck was very flexible and moderately
long. Its trunk, particularly the thoracic region, was long, and
borne on stout clawed limbs, of which the hinder were much stouter
than the fore. The tail, of considerable length, tapered very gradu-
ally; and for more than half its length it was flattened laterally.

Unfortunately, as too frequently happens, the removal of the
fossils by the unskilful hands of day-labourers has occasioned
much damage and many losses. ‘The bones had been already much
crushed by the pressure of the beds ; but many of the fractures are
plainly quite recent. These injuries are not, however, without
some compensating circumstances ; for the broken surfaces afford in
several instances an insight into structural details which may not
be so well perceived in an entire bone. This is especially exem-
plified in the remains of the head, in which the persistence of the
sutures and the broken surfaces discover structural details not to
be seen in the skull of an old Iguanodon from Brooke, Isle of Wight,
which I brought under the notice of the Geological Society in 1870,
and which till very recently was the only fragment of an Iguanodon
skull which had been identified and described. Taken together, the
Cumnor and Brooke skulls give a nearly complete anatomy of this
part. The Iguanodont dentition, particularly the maxillary, has
never been so well shown as by these Cumnor fossils. I may
instance also, as matters in which they haye proved highly instruc-
tive, the variations of the form of the articular surfaces, and also of

Q.J.G.8. No. 143. 24

434 J. W. HULKE ON IGUANODON PRESTWICHII

the length of the vertebral centra in different regions of the column,
and the structure of the tarsus.

A conviction of the value of this skeleton for future reference has
led me to describe with greater detail than would otherwise have
appeared necessary all the more important and better-preserved
bones.

Head (Pl. XVIIL.).—This has been much crushed and broken.
The most instructive pieces preserved are:—I. 1*, the basis cranii as
far forward as the hypophysial fossa ; I. 9, the back of the skull, and
the sides nearly to the same extent as the base; I. 10, the frontal
region; I. 3,4, 8, parts of both mandibular rami; and I. 2,5, 6,7, —
portions of both maxille.

I.1(Pl. XVIII. fig. 3).—The occipital condyle has a reniform out-
line. Its horizontal diameter is 29 millims., and its vertical diameter
19 millims.; these figures, however, do aa convey a correct idea of
the extent of the articular surface in these directions, which is greater
vertically than horizontally, an arrangement manifestly associated
with greater angular mobility of the head up and down than from side
to side at the occipito-atlantal joints. The condyle is composed mainly
of the basioccipital bone; and only a small part at its upper lateral
corners is contributed by the exoccipitals. At the under surface a
well-marked constriction or neck separates the condyle from a
pair of blunt pyramidal swellings, divergent downward extensions
of the basisphenoid, corresponding in position to the posterior pair of
similarly placed processes in extant lizards. Against these basi-
sphenoidal swellings laterally the neck of the basioccipital expanding
abuts, whilst mesially it sends downwards and forwards a short
triangular process which is wedged in between them. ‘This inter-
calated basioccipital process has a low but sharp median crest,
which begins behind in a small pit, pierced by vascular foramina
lying in front of the condyle.

When the front of the fossil is viewed there are apparent,
1st, below, in the middle line, a rough broken spot, about 12 millims.
in diameter, where the presphenoid has been split off; 2nd, above
this a smooth vertical groove, ending above in the floor of the
cranial cavity—it is obviously the posterior half of the hypo-
physial pit; 3rd, on each side of this an uneven fractured boss, the
junction of ali- and basisphenoids.: Hach of these bosses overhangs
the smooth antero-lateral surface of the descending basisphenoidal
process of its own side; and there is immediately beneath it a
winding groove, which rises from the undersurface of the skull
through the hypophysial fossa into the cranial cavity ; it marks the
course of the internal carotid artery. A branch of this groove,
ascending in a backward direction, enters the skull through the
principal foramen of exit for the 5th nerve.

Pl. XVIII. fig.4. The upper surface of the fragment exhibits (1) a
mesial trough, hofaon of bielccall-chambenh Whisks 75 millims.
wide near the foramen magnum ; and here it is relatively deep. An-
teriorly it widens through a space of 26 millims., and then deepening

* These numbers refer to labels attached to the bones.

FROM THE KIMMERIDGE CLAY. 435

forms a wide depression behind the hypophysial pit. Throughout this
extent, 38°5 millims., the floor of the skull-chamber consists of a
continuous unbroken piece, basioccipital, which ends taperingly in
the depression behind the sella turcica, where the basisphenoid
comes into view. Thus the basioccipital overlaps the basisphenoid
on the upper as also at the under surface of the basis cranii.

Laterally the persistence of the sutures and the foramina of exit
for the cranial nerves makes it possible to recognize in sequence
from behind forwards (1) a stout exoccipital, articulating with the
basioccipital by a broad serrated suture, and perforated at 10 millims.
from the foramen magnum by an aperture (for 9th nerve?). At
6 millims. in front of this opening is another groove (for trans-
mission of-vagus’?), which appears to pass out between the ex-
occipital and opisthotic elements. This, again, is followed by a very
conspicuous groove, situated where the basioccipital attains its
greatest breadth in the floor of the skull-chamber. In front of
this, where the prootic might be expected, is the upper opening of
a deep funnel-like pit, which descends within the bone into the
basisphenoidal process visible at the under surface of the skull.. The
form of this pit does not suggest the transmission of blood-vessel or
nerve, whilst its situation hints that it may be part of the auditory
apparatus, possibly an air-channel connected with the middle ear.
The fact that in old Iguanodons the inferior basisphenoidal pro-
cesses are hollow sinuses * favours this conjecture. A wide groove,
presumably for the 3rd nerve, separates the prootic and ali-
sphenoid.

Pl. XVIII. fig. 5. Another fragment (1.9) comprises the back of
the skull and the sides nearly to the extent of the piece just described.
The supraoccipital bone contributes the upper boundary of the
foramen magnum, as in extant lizards. It is not excluded from this
opening as in crocodiles—a point worthy of notice, because the general
form of the occiput, so far as it can be recognized in this fossil, has a
erocodilian likeness, as has also the occiput in my Brooke Iguanodon-
skull. Immediately above the foramen magnum the supraoccipital
stretches laterally outwards to what are apparently the roots of a
stout suspensorium (for the attachment of the quadrate bone), now
broken off and missing. This is a strong pyramidal projection,
below constructed of the blended exoccipital and opisthotic, above
of another and distinct part, parietal. Between these two parts of
the suspensorium the broken surfaces show that an extreme lateral
extension of the supraoccipital intrudes. Nearly at its mid-
height this bone abruptly contracts to less than half its breadth
below (22°5 millims), being here encroached on and overlapped by
the suspensorial extension of the parietal. This narrowing of the
supraoccipital is too symmetrical to be altogether due to the down-
ward crushing of the parietal upon it; it has doubtless been in-
creased by this, but is a natural conformation. The upper border
of the supraoccipital is a smooth edge, which was connected with

* T learned this many years ago ina fragment of a very large old skull
in the collection of the Rev, W. Fox.
26 2

' 486 J. W. WULKE ON IGUANODON PRESTWICHII

the parietal by sutura harmonia. In their present mutilated state
the back and sides of the skull form a rude pyramid, of which the
base of the posterior face is notched by the foramen magnum,
and the postero-external angle is formed by the truncated sus-
pensorium.

The lower borders af the fragment correspond to the upper
borders of the basis cranii. They, as also the inner surface, are too
mutilated for description.

On the under surface of the base of the right suspensorium is a
wide groove, directed forwards and inwards. It exactly corresponds
to the groove in the Brooke skull to which I lately referred, and
may have lodged the stapedial rod.

Pl. XVIII. figs. 1, 2. A third fragment of the skull (No. I. 10)
comprises parts of the parietal and frontal regions and of the left
temporal bar. The parictal bone is single; no trace of mesial suture
joining two halves is discernible. This is mentioned:because in the
nearly allied Hypsilophodon such a suture has been thought to exist.
The sides of the parietal fall off steeply from a sharp median crest,
which divides in front, and, bending outwards, here forms the an-
terior boundary of the upper temporal opening. There is no parietal
foramen.

The frontal is a very large bone. Its length Nr, Epcer
with the shortness of the parietal; and its. breadth also is con-
siderable. It consists of two halves, united by a very evident
mesial suture. Its structure is very dense, without diploé. Deep
sutural indentations in its right border show that the pre- and
postfrontal bones approached each other very closely, and that the
frontal formed but a small part, if’ any, of the upper border of the
orbital opening. The direction of this opening is lateral, as in
Hypsilophodon Foxit. The postfrontal bone, of which part is pre-
served on the leit side, is large; its smooth orbital surface is of
great extent ; a long slender branch separated the orbital from the
lateral opening ; and a stronger branch directed backwards forms the
anterior. part of an upper temporal bar.

In the undersurface of the fossil are shown:—Ist. A large lozenge-
shaped mesial hollow—the vaulted inner surface of the skull—
narrow behind, in its longer diameter sinuous, being convex in the
parietal part and concave in the frontal. Its greatest width coin-
cides with the parieto-frontal suture. It narrows anteriorly at a
line drawn through the middle. of the orbital surfaces; and in front
of this it expands for the reception of the olfactory lobes, which
must have been of large size—an inference confirmed by the large
size of the nasal chambers, indicated by the great size of the nasal
bones. 2nd. Laterally, on each side of:the vault of the skull-
chamber is the smooth orbital surface lately, mentioned. Its out-
line is roughly rhomboidal. The two outer sides are sutural, as
already mentioned, and afforded attachment to the pre-and post-
frontal bones. The inner angle is rounded off, and the two inner
sides make a continuous curve. Ofthis the posterior 2 are broad and
rough as if sutural, and the anterior 7 isa thin, smooth, free crest. —

FROM THE KIMMERIDGE CLAY. 437

Jaws.—Other very instructive pieces are fragments of both.
maxille and of both rami of the mandible. Of the maxillary frag-
vaents, No. I. 21s the most important. Its outer alveolar border,
77 willims. long, has in this space the sockets of 9 teeth. Imme-—
diately above this free border the bone rapidly swells, acquiring
greater bulk mainly by expansion of the outer wall, which in its
ascent slants outwards as high as the level of the upper ends of the
tooth-fangs, above which it again falls inwards towards the mesial
line. The inner dentary wall, a thin plate, rises nearly vertically
as high as the tops of the tooth-fangs, above which it ‘bends out-
wards, and joins the outer wall of the bone.

Above the alvcolar border the outer surface of the maxilla is
pierced by a row of conspicuous foramina, as in Megalosawrus and
Teratosaurus.

Viewed from above, this piece of the upper jaw shows at the inner
side the smooth surface overlying the ends of the tooth-fangs, and
outside this a broken edge. Nearly in the middle of this edge,
sunken in the substance of the base, outside the tooth-fangs, is a
remarkable oval pit, 13 x 7 millims. across at its mouth, and
7 millims. deep. Its surface is perfectly smooth. The outer
margin of this pit is a thin smooth lip, which apparently formed the
lower border of a conjugate anteorbital foramen. Behind, at its inner
side in the dry skull, the pit seems to have freely communicated
with the naso-buccal cavities. Behind the pit is a narrow groove, of
which the outer border is a thin natural edge. I am disposed to
view this as the sutural groove for the reception of the front margin
of the jugal bone, which fixes this as the hinder part of the jaw, and
shows it to belong to the left side. In front of the pit is another,
wider groove, the significance of which is less obvious. In the piece
No. 1. 5, the corresponding part of the right maxilla, this groove
descends from the pit forwards in the subs stance of the j jaw outside
the teeth. Near its origin it is joined by a lesser channel, which
begins not far from the jugal groove near the back of the jaw, and
passes forward skirting the inner border of the pit. Do this pit
and the wide grcove proceeding from it represent the glandular
grooves which tunnel the hinder part of the maxilla in the crocodile?
May the lesser groove have transmitted a branch of the 5th nerve?’
Less imperfect materials must answer these questions.

The fossils No. I. 3, 4, are considerable portions of the mandibular
rami. They have the well -known Iguanodont form, and do not
need particular description.

Dentition.—-In every piece of maxilla or mandible ontne teeth,
the crowns of all which were in full wear at the animal’s death
have been broken off and lost; in most instances this damage is
quite recent; but their fangs and the germs of many successional
teeth remain, and these afford very complete information respecting
the perfect form of the mature upper and lower teeth, and also of
the manner of succession.

The crown has the compressed, ridged, serrate form characteristic
of the family Iguanodontide.

438 J. W. HULKE ON IGUANODON PRESTWICHII

Upper Teeth (Pl. XVIII. fig. 7).—The crowns of these are narrower
in the antero-posterior direction, and the primary ridge in their
outer stoutly enamelled surface is stronger than in the lower teeth,
characters noticed by Melville, Mantell, and also by Owen, which may
serve to distinguish these teeth when detached from the jaw. This
ridge divides the outer strongly enamelled surface unequally, being
much nearer to the anterior margin. At the free end of the unworn
crown it ends angularly at the meeting of the anterior and posterior
borders. Of these the former is nearly straight, whilst the latter
bends towards the angle in a full sweep. The most prominent part
of the ridge is nearly at the mid-length of the crown, and from here
it declines towards a cingulum, which marks off the crown from the
fang. The outer surface between the primary ridge and the front
straighter border of the crown has the form of a wide, deep, smooth
groove, whilst the space between it and the distant posterior curved.
border is sculptured by several minor longitudinal ridges, which
start from the minuter cusps of the terminal serrature, and are
separated from one another by narrow grooves. These secondary
ridges are fewer, and the grooves between them narrower towards
the middle of the crown, and they subside towards the cingulum.
The serrature is limited to the free end and the front and posterior
border of the distal half of the crown. In the half next the fang
these borders are smooth uninterrupted ridges. The cingulum is a
sinuous inconspicuous line crossing the outer surface of the tooth in
a double curve, the two ends of which are convex towards the fang.
One of these corresponds to the basal end of the primary ridge; and
the other is nearer the distant border of the crown. The cusp be-
tween the curves is nearly equidistant from the two borders, but
slightly nearer the primary ridge. In a tooth which has descended
so far beyond the outer alveolar border that the cingulum is 5°5 to
6 millims. distant from it (No. 5 in I. 2, fig. 7), the outer surface of
the exposed part of the fang is covered by wavy lines. ‘The inner
surface of the crown is gently convex, smooth, and even, and un-
sculptured, the terminal marginal serration being scarcely prolonged
upon it. In a favourable light faint transverse markings are appa-
rent on it. A longitudinal swelling subdivides this surface un-
equally ; the correspondence of its position to that of the primary
ridge on the outer surface makes this the thickest part of the
crown. .

The lower teeth (Pl. XVIII. fig. 6) have much broader crowns than
the upper. In the angulation of the hinder margin of the crown, the
curve and greater length of the anterior margin, the unequal division
of the thickly enamelled inner surface by a primary ridge, they
prefigure the teeth of Iguanodon from the Wealden-beds in 8.E. Eng-
land and the Isle of Wight. They differ, however, from these in one
detail, the character of the serrature. The free edge of the small
plate-like cusps of this is in such Wealden teeth minutely mamil-
lated; but in these Cumnor teeth the margin of the lamella is even.
I found this difference in teeth of very nearly the same size. Perhaps
in relative simplicity of sculpturing the Cumnor Iguanodon’s teeth

FROM THE KIMMERIDGE CLAY. 439

more closely resemble the teeth in the dentary piece of a mandible
obtained from near the horizon of the Purbeck cinder-bed at
Swanage, figured by Prof. Owen in Foss. Rept. Wealden and Pur-
beck Formations, Suppl. v. pl. i. (1874).

Several broken teeth show that both upper and lower tecth have a
large pulp-cavity (Pl. XVIII. fig. 8). It is now filled with calcite, :
which, by its whiteness, contrasts strongly with the dark dental tissues.
The cavity passes far into the crown, towards the base of which it is
widest; and it contracts greatly towards the end of the fang, which
it pierces as a minute inconspicuous pore. The fang in both jaws
tapers to a point. I particularly mention this because, though
known and described already, it has been lately asserted that such
tapering ending of the fang, with accompanying reduction of its pulp~
cavity almost to its obliteration, is unusual in [guanodon Mantel.

Succession.—The replacement of older teeth as their crowns are
worn out, by germs developed in reserve cavities lying nearer the inner
surface of the jaw, is more completely iulustrated by these Cumnor
fossils than by any which had previously come under my notice. Four
successional phases of upper and lower teeth are apparent. In the
maxilla, I. 2, may be seen :—1, stumps ready to be shed, as that
marked No. 5, where the cingulum is 5:5 to 6 millims. beyond the
outer alveolar border; 2, teeth the crowns of which were in full
use, as that marked No. 4, where the entire crown has emerged, the
cingulum lying nearly in the plane of the alveolar margin ; 3, germ.
crowns, Which have emerged only 4 or 4, and had not come into
use, as Nos. 1, 3, 10, 12, 14; 4, quite small germ-crowns, which
only just peep over the inner parapet. In these four phases the
younger lie inside the older teeth, alternating with them, the arrange-
ment being such that, when one of the oldest teeth is ready to fall
out, a fully formed successional tooth moves outwards into its place.

The fragment of lower jaw, I. 3 (fig. 6), illustrates for the lower
teeth, even more beautifully, the same four phases, the same grouping
and progression. Nos.1,3,5, are teeth nearly worn out; Nos. 2,4, 6,
teeth in full use; Nos. 7, 8, 9, crowns scarcely half emerged; and
Nos. 10, 11, minute germs only just visible above the inner parapet.

An idea of the size of the teeth may be gleaned from the follow-
ing measurements. The maxillary piece, I. 2, in a space of 75
millims, contains the sockets of an outer series of 9 teeth. The
breadth (2. e. antero-posterior dimension) of a fully formed upper
crown is 9°5 millims.; the length of a fang (I. 5) is 20-5 millims.
The dentary part of the left mandibular ramus, I. 4, in the space
of 94 millims., has the sockets of an outer series of 12 teeth; and
the fragment of the right ramus, I. 3, contains sockets of six outer
teeth in the space of 51 millims. The greatest breadth of the
largest lower-tooth crown is 12°5 millims., that of other crowns
varying between 10 and 11°5 millims.

The head of this Cumnor Iguanodon, so far as may be inferred
from the pieces recovered, may have been about 20 cm. long, a
size which may be considered moderate. In its general form it was

440 J. W. HULKE ON IGUANODON PRESTWICHII

obviously much more lizard-like than crocodilian. The preponder-
ance of Lacertilian resemblance is not merely a superficial one; it is
evident in many structural details. In the occiput the shape, so
far as is shown in this fossil (and in this it agrees with my Brooke
Iguanodon-skull), has certainly a greater resemblance to that of a
crocodile than lizard; but this superficial likeness is outweighed by
the lizard-like entrance of the supraoccipital bone into the foramen
magnum, from which it is excluded in the crocodile. In the upper
surface of the skull the shape and size of the upper temporal open-
ings, the form of the parietal bone, the division of the frontal bone,
the large size and form of the nasal bones, are all lacertilian cor-
respondences. ‘The form of the maxilla, the mode of articulation
of the mandible by a suspended quadrate not wedged into the side
of the skull, and the dentition are other lizard-resemblances. On
the under surface of the skull the downward extension of a median
process of the basioccipital bone is at first sight a crocodilian feature ;
but it differs from the crocodilian’s basioccipital in direction and
relations. However, whatever value may be attached to this super-
ficial similarity, it 1s more than balanced by the divided palate,
shown by the free exposure of the basioccipital and basisphenoid
bones throughout their whole extent, and by the absence from the
maxille of any trace of palatal extension, or of attachment of those
bones which in the crocodile close the palate and separate the nasal
and buccal passages.

Vertebral Column.—Sixty-four centra and a considerable number of
pieces of neural arch and processes give very complete information as
to the structure of every part of the vertebral column. Of the centra
25 are presacral, 4 are sacral, and 35 are postsacral or caudal.
For convenience of reference, they have been consecutively numbered
in what appears to be their natural sequence in the column; but
probably several are missing from in front and behind the sacrum.

Neck (Pl. XIX. figs. 1-4).—Of the 25 presacral vertebree, 7 have,
either wholly upon the centrum, or jointly on this and on the arch,
an articular process for the attachment of the lower branch of a
torked riblet—a lower or capitular costal facet, parapophysis—which -
stamps them cervical. Some are much crushed; and in all the neural
arch is much mutilated. All are opisthoccelous, the posterior surface
cupped, the anterior convex. Both surfaces retain marks of a con-
centrically laminated intervertebral cartilage. The contour of the
anterior surface is almost a rhomb, in which the infero-lateral sides
include an angle of about 100°; the upper angle is cut off by the
neural canal; and the supero-lateral and infero-lateral sides include
an angle of about 80°. The horizontal exceeds the vertical diameter.
The lateral non-articular surfaces of the centrum are concave longi-
tudinally, and they are indented by a depression, which is deeper
towards the front. Below this depression the opposite sides of the
centrum meet in a median keel. The borders, where at each end
the sides and articular surfaces meet, and the keel are rugose in
all the cervical vertebree, as in most of the succeeding presacral
centra.

FROM THE KIMMERIDGE CLAY. - AAT

The atlas and axis are lost. In No. 1 of the cervical series the
lower transverse process or parapophysis, preserved only on the left
side, is an oval facet 5x 4 millims. in extent, which projects from
the side of the centrum, near its anterior border, below the semi-
diameter. Close behind it, agglutinated to the centrum by matrix,
is a small hatchet-shaped bone, having on one margin an articular
facet, the form and size of which so nearly agree with those of the
parapophysis as to suggest, in connexion with its nearness to this,
that it is a neck-riblet. The sides of this centrum are convex in
the vertical direction. From the size and position of the parapo-
physis, I think it probable that this vertebra was next to the
axis, or the third in natural sequence.

In No. 2 the parapophysis is higher on the side of the centrum ;
itis also more prominent than in No.1. It is close to the anterior
border of the centrum, just external to the neuro-central suture.
From it there passes backwards a ridge which divides the side of
the centrum into a smaller upper area lying between the ridge and
neuro-central suture and a larger lower area between the ridge and
inferior median keel. The depression (mentioned in the description
of No. 1) is in the lower area; and its deepest’part is in front. A
large vascular foramen pierces the bottom of the depression. The
middle of the centrum is constricted, the horizontal transverse dia-
meter being here 29 millims., whilst at the ends it is 40 millims.
The upper surface of the centrum contributes at each end a large
triangular piece to the floor of the neural canal; but at the middle
of the canal only a narrow piece of it appears between the neura-
pophyses.

In No. 3 the parapophysis touches the neuro-central suture,
which in front spreads outwards on its upper surface. The neura-
pophysis in this, as in all the neck-vertebre, has an extensive attach-
ment to the centrum, its antero-posterior dimension nearly equalling
that of the upper surface of the centrum. At each end it spreads
out very conspicuously. The arch, of which more is preserved than
in any other neck-vertebra, was evidently dwarfed. On its left side,
just external to the preezygapophysis, are indications of an upper
transverse process for attachment of rib-tubercle, now broken off, a
diapophysis, in the level of the spring of the arch.

In No. 4 the parapophysial facet rests jointly on the centrum
and neurapophysis; but the former constitutes the greater part.

In No. 5 the parapophysis is similarly situated; but in No. 6 it
is on a slightly higher level, the centrum contributing the lesser

art.
; In No. 7 the parapophysial facet lies just above the neuro-
central suture, on the dilated antero-external corner of the neura-
pophysis.

In No. 8 no distinct trace of rib-facet is perceptible here; and
in No, 9 the facet has certainly risen above the base of the neura-
pophysis.

Accounting all cervical in which the supporting process for the
attachment of the rib-head is wholly or partly on the centrum, the

442 . J. W. HULKE ON IGUANODON PRESTWICHI1

neck of this Iguanodon certainly contained not less than 9 vertebre.
From the foremost of these preserved, No. 1 (probably the third in
natural sequence) to the 7th, and indeed through the 8th and 9th,
which in general form most resemble cervical centra, a gradual
increase in bulk of the vertebral column takes place from the head
to the trunk, and a gradual ascent of the parapophysis is ob-
servable.

The following measurements show the dimensions of Nos. 2 and 3,
the least distorted centra in this series :—

Now. | Note

mm. mm.

Length along upper surface of centrum ......... 41° 40°5
» lower . Hib Miner, Aa xy 35°5 4]:

Diameters.

Anterior surface, vertical .........0:ssssssceeseceess 25 26
‘af ic MAORIZOM Call rei coedeasaranaese ee 37 42
Posterior suriace, vertical’... . csc. ss-sceeseceees 30 él
is we) OmizOnbale seiner teas. 40 Al
Horizontal diameter at middle of centrum...... 29 36

anterior articular surface becomes plane, and the posterior is less
hollow. In these there is no rib-head facet upon the centrum ; but in
one (Pl. XIX. fig. 5), No. 11, which retains a large part of its neural
arch, this facet is on the anterior margin of the (upper) transverse
process, very close to the prezygapophysis. It is an oval, 17 x 19
millims., directed outwards, and indicates a rib of considerable
stoutness. The transverse process—diapophysis—is broken off just
beyond the rib-facet. It had a broad basal attachment to the arch
in the level of its crown, extending from the pre- to the postzyga-
pophysis, after the manner of the platform mentioned by Prof.
Owen as characteristic of Jguanodon Mantelli. This platform is
upborne by a strong buttress, which rises obliquely forwards to its
under surface from the lower and back part of the neurapophysis
near the neuro-central suture. In front of this buttress is the para-
pophysial facet, and behind it is a deep three-sided hollow. The
prezygapophyses of this vertebra look upwards and inwards. A
line drawn perpendicularly to the plane of the left preezygapophysis
includes, with the spinous process, an angle of about 45°. The
sides of this centrum (No. 11) are concave longitudinally and gently
convex vertically. ‘The keel is less strongly marked than in the
cervical vertebre. The length of the neural surface of this centrum
is 50°5 millims., and the vertical diameter of the articular ends is
38 millims. The length of No. 10 is 42 millims.

In No. 13 the rib-head facet lies further outwards from the pre-
zygapophysis upon the transverse process than in No. 11. This
vertebra is therefore thought to have occupied a place in the ver-
tebral column posterior to No. 11. The length of the centrum,
measured along the neural surface, is 55 millims.; and the vertical
diameter of the articular end is 46 millims. The sides are much
crushed; but it is evident, notwithstanding this mutilation, that

FROM THE KIMMERIDGE CLAY. 443

the horizontal diameter of the ends did not exceed the vertical as
in the neck. The borders of the articular ends are prominent and
slightly everted.

The anterior articular surface of all the presacral vertebre behind
where the neck and trunk join (in which region it is plane) is
slightly hollow; and this is also its shape in the tail. The posterior
articular surface of all the vertebrae behind the neck is decidedly
concave. ‘This character—the greater concavity of the posterior
articular surface—is of use in determining the direction of a disso-
ciated centrum when other indications are lost.

The sides of the centrum, in what I may call the middle dorsal
region, are gently convex in the vertical direction, and concave
longitudinally. At its middle the centrum is slightly constricted.
The constriction is much less than that represented in the figure of
a thoracic vertebra of Jguanodon Mantelli given by Prof. Owen in
the Foss. Rept. of the Wealden Formation, Suppl. IT. t. 7. fig. 6.

In No. 11 the facet for the rib-head is 9°5 millims. distant from
the preezygapophysis ; in No. 13 it is 18°5 millims. from it; in No. 18
the interval is nearly the same. It appears from this that the out-
ward movement of the capitular facet, from the root of the (upper)
transverse process—diapophysis—to the free end of this, takes
place through a larger series of vertebre in this [guanodon than in
extant crocodiles, and that the middle thoracic region was longer
in the Dinosaur. In a skeleton of Crocodilus niloticus, presented in
1875 to the Hunterian Museum by the Hon. EH. F. C. Berkeley, at
the 19th vertebra the capitular costal facet merges into the tuber-
cular facet at the free end of the transverse process; and the rib
articulating here retains scarcely any trace of division. In this
skeleton the passage of the capitular facet from the centrum to
the free end of the diapophysis is completed through a chain of 8
vertebrae, the 12th to 19th inclusive. In this Iguanodon’s vertebral
column the capitular facet, withdrawn from the centrum in No. 8,
is still near the root of the diapophysis in No. 18. The large pro-
portion of Iguanodont vertebre in which the rib-head facet is close
to the preezygapophysis, which I have obtained in the Isle-of-
Wight Wealden beds, had long attracted my notice.

Behind No. 16 the bulk of the centrum much increases. Many
of the centra in the front and middle of the trunk are much crushed ;
but, allowance being made for this mutilation, the excess of the
horizontal over the vertical diameter, so noticeable in the articular
ends of the centra in the neck, is clearly not repeated here.

In No. 17, where the centrum has escaped distortion, the anterior
articular surface has a nearly circular outline; its horizontal and
vertical diameters are each 51 millims. The vertical diameter of
the posterior end is also 51 millims., the horizontal being somewhat
greater, 57°5 millims. The borders of both ends are prominent,
and slightly everted (as in the root of neck); and the rugosity of
the adjoining part of the lateral non-articular surface is strongly
marked. ‘The sides of the centrum here, as in the anterior thoracic
region, are gently convex vertically. The inferior median keel is

a

444. J. W. HULKE ON IGUANODON PRESTWICHIL

less prominent here than in the last-mentioned region. The con-
striction of the middle of the centrum is also in these Cumnor
fossils less than in those from the Wealden formation, described in
the work to which reference was very lately made. The transverse
horizontal diameter of No. 17 at its middle is 41 millims, at the
anterior end 51 millims, and at the posterior end 57 millims. In
this part of the column the preezygapophysis has a more horizontal
direction than in the front of the trunk. :

In the loins the centrum increases greatly in bulk, and this more
by augmentation of its width and depth than by addition to its
length. In No. 21, which I place here; the horizontal diameter of
the anterior articular surface is 64 millims., and the vertical dia-
meter 56 millims.; the same diameters of the posterior articular
surface are 74 and 52 millims., the horizontal diameter in both
instances preponderating. The average length of the centrum in
this region is 54 millims. These proportions give to the lumbar
centra an appearance of stoutness and shortness. The anterior
articular surface is very flat, whilst the posterior surface is dis-
tinctly concave, the concavity being greater in the vertical than in
the horizontal direction. The sides of the centrum are, in the
vertical direction, more cylindroid than in the dorsal region. The
inferior keel is more marked than in the posterior dorsal vertebra,
owing to a slight flattening of the surface on each side of it, which
increases its prominence. The anterior articular processes look
inwards and upwards. The posterior articular processes greatly
overhang the plane of the posterior surface of the centrum. They
are separated from one another by a deep groove. The neuro-central
suture is almost the same length as the upper surface of the cen-
trum; but the neurapophyses soon contract, principally by the
forward slant of their posterior border. In No. 20 the lengths of
the neuro-central suture and centrum are 50 millims., whilst at
the height of 15 millims. the neurapophysis has an antero-posterior
extent of only 32 millims. (PI. XIX. figs. 6-8.)

The spinous processes of all the presacral vertebree have been
broken off. So far as may be gleaned from the stumps remaining
on some of the arches and from detached dissociated fragments,
they had in the trunk a great antero-posterior extent ; near their
root their front margin is a thin edge; their posterior border is
deeply grooved ; they had a backward slant. In none of the trunk-
vertebre is there any indication of a capitular costal facet on the
pier of the arch, as represented in the figure of the dorsal vertebra
of Iqguanodon Mantelli in the Fossil Rept. of the Cret. and Weald.
Formations, p. 109, pl. 35; and the evidence afforded by these remains
(it is not claimed to be complete) seems to show that the rib-head
facet, when it left the neuro-central suture, passed directly from this
to the (upper) transverse process, as in extant crocodiles. In the
skeleton of Croc. niloticus the transfer occurs at the 12th vertebra,
in which the capitular facet is on the diapophysis, whilst in the 11th
vertebra it is on the neuro-central suture.

Sacrum (Pl. XX. figs. 1,2).—The true sacral vertebree (as defined

FROM THE KIMMERIDGE CLAY. 445

by their ankylosis, the junction of the free ends cf their lower trans-
verse processes, and the connexion of these with the ilium) are four.
Although now disconnected (ankylosis not having yet occurred, owing
to the immaturity of the individual), the terminal surfaces of the
centra fit each other so truly that their natural sequence is not, 1
think, open to doubt.

With the anterior surface of the foremost sacral centrum ae
culates another, in precisely the same manner as that in which the
true sacral centra are joined together. It is the last lumbar
vertebra, No. 23. By the identity of its mode of union to the first
sacral centrum, and by the large support it affords to the first-sacral
lower transverse process, it so closely resembles the true sacral
vertebra, and dynamically forms so obviously a part of the sacrum,
that Drs. Melville and Mantell were not very culpable in regarding
it as the first true sacral centrum.

The last lumbar (Pl. XX. figs. 1, 2, U1) is bulkier than any of the
true sacral centra. Its form is depressed ; ; its anterior articular sur-
face is nearly plane, very slightly concave. Itis smooth; and it was
evidently capable of movement upon the next centrum in advance, to
which it was attached by an intervertebral disk of the ordinary
structure and form, the marks of which are still apparent. The ver-
tical diameter of this face is 52°5 millims., and the horizontal diameter
about 66 millims. Its posterior terminal surface is plane. It is
marked by radiating impressions suggestive of intimate union to the
next centrum by a thin film of ossifying cartilage. Its minimum
horizontal diameter in the plane of the neural canal is 40 millims.,
and its maximum diameter, which is nearly on the level of its mid-
height, is 71 millims. It will be seen from a comparison of these
numbers how greatly the centrum expands behind. Here near
the posterior border the centrum attains the maximum horizontal
diameter of 91 millims., forming the anterior boundary of a deep
notch in the articulated sacrum between the last lumbar and first
sacral centrum, which afforded a very firm attachment to the first
lower sacral transverse process. ‘The sides of the last lumbar
centrum, in the vertical direction, at first slope outwards from the
nenral surface until the level of the lower limit of the notch just
described is reached. From here they bend rather abruptly in-
wards to an inferior median keel, at each side of which the surface
is transversely nearly plane. Longitudinally the sides of the
centrum are very concave; the concavity is increased by the pro-
minence of the posterior margin. The neuro-central suture is
relatively shorter than in the other lumbar vertebre; the groove
of exit for the last lumbar nerve limits it behind. At a short
distance from its posterior limit the suture has a conspicuous in-
dentation, repeated in the last true sacral vertebra.

The first true sacral centrum (No. 24) is much smaller than the
last lumbar. In front, at its junction with this, it is much ex-
panded, but towards its middle it rapidly contracts. The inferior
median keel, conspicuous in the last lumbar centrum, is here
scarcely noticeable. Tho form of the centrum is more cylindroid;

446 J. W. HULKE ON IGUANODON PRESTWICHII

its neural arch plainly rested chiefly on this, its proper centrum,
and was only to a very limited extent borne on the last lumbar.
The length of the neuro-central suture is only about $ of that of the
upper surface of the contrum, the attachment being limited behind
by the wide groove of exit of the first sacral nerve, which emerges
over the side of the centrum rather behind its middle. Behind this
nerve-groove is the rough sutural surface descending on the postero-
lateral border of the centrum, of which the upper part afforded a
limited attachment to the neural arch of the second sacral vertebra,
and the lower part formed one side of the notch between it and this
latter, where the second lower sacral transverse process was im-
planted. This process was evidently smaller than the first.

In the second sacral centrum (No. 25), the dimensions of the
anterior and posterior terminal surfaces do not much differ. The
centrum is evenly and slightly constricted at its middle. The non-
articular part or side is cylindroid in the vertical direction, slightly
flattened below the neuro-central suture, and again at its under
surface, where longitudinally it is concave. It has no median keel.
The groove of exit for the 2nd sacral nerve is slightly further back
than the corresponding groove in the lst centrum. The notch in
the posterior border of the centrum for the second lower transverse
process descends only a slight distance.

The third sacral centrum (No. 26) differs little from the second.
Its under surface is somewhat flatter, and towards the posterior
border it has a slight depression. Its lower transverse process is
partly borne on the postero-lateral border of the second centrum.
The groove of exit for the third sacral nerve is slightly nearer the
posterior border of the centrum.

The fourth sacral centrum (No. 27) is distinguished from the others
by the smoothness and concavity of its posterior surface, which
evidently allowed the anterior caudal centrum to play upon it
through the medium of an ordinary intervertebral disk. The
neural arch rests on the whole length of its own centrum and
slightly on the third centrum. The fourth sacral nerve emerged
through the intervertebral foramen between it and the first caudal
vertebra, and not across the side of its own centrum as in the
first three sacral vertebrae. The under surface shows the same
flattening and slight hollow noticed in the third centrum.

With the exception of the anterior surface of the last lumbar or
false sacral vertebra, and of the posterior surface of the fourth sacral
centrum, all the terminal surfaces of the sacral vertebre are rough ;
their union with one another was evidently too intimate to allow
of movement; and had the animal reached maturity they would
probably have become coossified.

The length of the entire sacrum, including the last lumbar
vertebra, is 29 centims., that of the last lumbar being 52 millims. ;
of the 1st sacral centrum, 50 millims ; of the 2nd, 55 millims.; of
the 3rd, 49 millims.; of the 4th, 50 millims. When the centra are
articulated the outline of the under surface of the sacrum is ren-

FROM THE KIMMERIDGE CLAY. 447

dered sinuous by the constriction of the middle of the centra and
the prominence of their terminal borders.

The neural canal correspondiug to the last lumbar and three
foremost sacral centra is very capacious; at the fourth centrum it
becomes abruptly contracted.

It will have been noticed that only the false sacral centrum (last
lumbar) wholly supports it own neural arch, and that, as regards
the four true sacral centra, the arch, whilst resting mainly on its
own centrum, is also borne in part on the centrum next before it.
This seeming advance of the arch, by which it comes to lie over the
interval between two centra (first noticed, I believe, by Owen in a
Wealden sacrum referred by him to Iguanodon Mantel, formerly
in the collection of the late Dr. Saull, and at his death acquired
by the British Museum, and also found by him in a sacrum of
Megalosawras), has its probable explanation in the persistence
throughout life of an early embryonic phase. In the chick it has
been ascertained that each permanent vertebra comprises the
anterior and posterior halves of two consecutive protovertebre.
The neural arch, after this second segmentation of the vertebral
column, comes to rest on the anterior half of the permanent vertebra.
The intervertebral space between two permanent vertebrae corre-
sponds to the middle of the centrum of a protovertebra.

In the Dinosaurian sacrum it appears as if the transformation
of the proto- into the permanent vertebra was not completed in the
sacral region of the column; the second segmentation mapping out
the permanent centra is effected, but the arches retain their pri-
mitive positions.

On comparing this Cumnor sacrum with the type fossil in the
British Museum, to which I have very recently referred (No. 37685,
Brit.-Mus. Catal.), some notable differences are evident. Of these,
the smaller number of centra, 4 in the Cumnor sacrum (the British-
Museum sacrum has 5 centra), is the mostimportant. It is certain
that 5 is the true number of centra in the latter; for they are
firmly coossified in undisturbed natural sequence; but the reference
of this fossil to Jguanodon Mantell wants the confirmation which
its association with other indubitable Iguanodon-remains might have
afforded, and no such verified sacrum has since been found with
which to compare it.

The proportions of the centra in the Cumnor and British-
Museum sacrum No. 37683 are also very different, as the subjoined
measurements show. In the former the centra are shorter and
stouter, and they want the remarkable lateral compression and
strongly carinate form so conspicuous in the latter, which is well
represented in Prof. Owen’s figure of this in his Foss. Rept. Wealden
Formation, t. ili.

448 J. W. HULKE ON IGUANODON PRESTWICHII

Measurements.

Last 1st 2nd ord Ath 5th
Lumbar.| Sacral. | Sacral. | Sacral. | Sacral. | Sacral.

——_—_ | —- —-—.

Wealden Sacrum.
(No. 37685, Brit.-

Mus. Cat.)
Length along under-{| mm. mm. mm. mm. mm. mm,
BUINEACO Ic ations cls sak 71 62 80 65 76°5 76

Transverse horizontal
diameter at middle
of centrum ,........ has 35 28 28 28* 65

Cumnor Iguanodon. |(No. 23) {| (No. 24)|(No. 25) | (No. 26) | (No. 27)
Length of centrum... 52 56* 52* 52* 52*
Horizontal transverse |.

diameter at middle

of centrum ......... 69°5 44 415 43 43

. That these differences of form have a specific value will be, I
think, allowed by all. The fewer sacral vertebree in the Cumnor
sacrum have a somewhat higher import. Have we here an earlier
phase in the development of the Dinosaurian sacrum than that
exemplified in J. Mantel? The earlier age of the Cumnor Igua-
nodon, as indicated by its gisement, Kimmeridge Clay, would be in
harmony with this. )

Tul.—tThirty-five postsacral vertebre are recovered. It is
probable that a couple of the foremost are missing, since all those
procured have cheyron-facets, and in extant lizards and crocodiles
these are absent from a small number of the foremost caudal
vertebree.

In No. 28, probably the foremost of our series, the centrum is
larger than in those which I have placed behind it. The anterior
articular surface is nearly plane, very slightly concave, whilst the
posterior surface, as in all the other caudal vertebre, is distinctly
concave. ‘The sides of the centrum are, in the vertical direction,
gently convex; they meet at the under surface of the centrum in a
blunt wedge-form. In the longitudinal direction they are gently
concave. ‘The under surface at each end is encroached on by the
chevron-facet, which is continuous with the terminal articular
surface. In this vertebra (No. 28) the length of the neural surface
is 50°5 millims., and the distance between the anterior and pos-
terior chevron-facet on the under surface is 19 millims. A strong
transverse process juts out from the neurapophysis at the height of
12 millims. above the neuro-central suture.

No. 29 (Pl. XIX. fig. 9) has a peculiar and distinctive obliquity,
produced by the downward and backward slant of its under surface,

* Approximate measurements; small chips off edge prevent actual measure-
ments of this dimension.

FROM THE KIMMERIDGE CLAY. 449

‘which meets the chevron-facet at an acute angle. (I have obtained
similar caudal vertebre in the Isle of Wight.) The sides of the
centrum are vertically slightly convex. The narrow under surface is
more encroached on by the anterior than by the posterior chevron-
articulation. ‘The transverse process arises rather lower than in
No. 28. ‘The spinous process has a strong backward slant.

Through the next four vertebree, Nos. 30-33, the transverse
process sinks on the arch towards the neuro-central suture, and it
also becomes smaller. In No. 30 its size is greatly reduced, and
it arises in the plane of the neuro-central suture, which is very
indistinct. In No. 35 a slight swelling is the only vestige of the
transverse process; and even this is absent from the succeeding
vertebrae.

The suppression of the transverse process is soon followed by the
isappearance of the neuro-central suture, which ceases to be
recognizable in No. 37. Of the succeeding centra many have been
much squeezed in by laterally applied pressure. To this they have
yielded in such a manner as to suggest that the middle of the
centrum was very imperfectly ossified, and perhaps permanently
cartilaginous, as was thought characteristic of the caudal vertebree
referred to Porkilopleuron, but is now known to obtain in Mega-
losaurus. In No. 37, the 10th in the caudal series, the posterior
cheyron-facet is notched in front; and from this notch a slight groove
passes forwards along the under surface of the centrum.

In No. 41 (Pl. XIX. fig. 11) the anterior chevron-facet has almost
disappeared. On the side of the centrum is en angular longitudinal
ridge; between this and the situation of the neuro-central suture
is a shallow depression; and below the ridge a small better-marked
hollow. The ridge is gradually lost in the succeeding centra. The re-
duction in bulk is attended with diminution of length of the centrum.

In the smallest vertebrae, towards the end of the tail, the centrum
has a simple cylindroid form (Pl. XIX. figs. 12, 13). In these the

arch is reduced to extreme simplicity, a mere hoop bearing an

anterior and posterior pair of articular processes. The spinous

process ceases in No. 51. A slight rugosity marks the situation of —

the chevron-joint, so conspicuous in the first half of the tail. The
anterior chevron-facet first disappears. Both articular surfaces in all
the caudal vertebree are concave. i

The change in form of the articular surfaces of the vertebral centra,
traceable through the column, is highly instructive. In the neck
these surfaces are convexo-concave, opisthoccelous ; at the root of the
neck the anterior ball is less convex, the posterior cup less deep ; in
the fore-trunk the anterior surface is plane, the posterior slightly
concave ; in the loins the anterior surface is very slightly concave,
the posterior surface more so; and in the tail both surfaces are
concave. Variation in length of centrum, shown by the annexed
measurements, is not less worthy of notice; for it had been asserted
that the length of centrum was constant for the same vertebral
column, although this is not borne out by the skeletons of extant
reptiles.

Q.J.G.8. No. 143. on

450 J. W. HULKE ON IGUANODON PRESTWICHII

Lengths of Veriebral Centra measured along tehir upper surface*.

Neck. Trunk. Tail.

mm. mm. mm
No.1 43° No. 10... 42 No. 28a. 50:5
sake 41°5 Ae. Hea ao Pi EO sO:
igh ya aaa IS Pe RA its st) 5K) aR ND a
PNG: MEU eo a Sere oO ee | Ee
5p cages ORS
sithecs re:

ot ET cus
Bo Bones eee

Pelvis and Hind Limbs.-—The sacrum has just been described ; the
other parts referable to the hip-girdle are portions of both ilia, of
both pubes, and: of one ischium. The limbs are represented by
pieces of both femora, of both tibice and fibule, ossa tarsalia, meta-
tarsals, and phalanges,

dd, lit, No. iv. 1.—Part of the right ilium comprises the acetabulum
and all that part of the broad flat plate which lies above and behind
it. The greatest vertical dimension at the acetabulum is 135
millims. ; the length of the mutilated preacetabular part is 110
millims, ; the coxal articular surface is an oblong, 80 millims.
long. It is widest behind, being here 43 millims. across. This
surface, which is coarsely pitted ‘(a8 if an epiphysial incrustation
had been detached from it) is imperfectly divided at 45 millims.
from its posterior limit by a slight projection. The part behind
this is hollowed; that in front of it is nearly plane, or slightly
convex. From the hinder and outer corner of the joint-surface a
prominent angular ridge curves upwards and forwards over the
joint, and gradually subsides on the smooth surface above it. A con-
spicuous sinuous line above the acetabulum probably marks the
attachment of the capsular ligament. ‘That part of the ilium which
comprises the joint is the stoutest part of the bone. The inner
surface of the ilium is sinuous. Above the acetabulum are the im-
pressions of attachment of sacral ribs.

The pieces iv. 2, a, 6, ¢, d, are fragments of the left ilium. Of
these, iv. 2a shows that the acetabular part was produced for-
wards as a long slender process, which was longer than the post-
acetabular part of the bone.

Pubes.—The fossils iv. 16, iv. 17, correspond essentially with
Wealden Iguanodont bones, now, I think, generally accepted as
pubes. They are too mutilated for description. They show that
the pubis formed part of the acetabulum as in Lizards.

Ischiwm.—tThe peculiar curve of the fossil iv. 18, and the process
indicated on one margin near the stouter end, identify this as part
of the long blade of an Iguanodont ischium.

Femur.—These large and strong bones are principally represented.
by their extremities. The head, iv. 3, lv. 4, has the subglobular

* The lengths of the sacral centra are already given in another Table.

FROM THE KIMMERIDGE CLAY. 451

form met with in Wealden thigh-bones. The condyles have been
much split (iv. 12, 13, 10, 11) into many pieces; but the deep
narrow anterior intercondyloid notch, characteristic of the femur of
Wealden Iguanodonts, is plainly recognizable here. The medul-
lary cavity was very large; and the portions of bone referable
to the diaphysis show that this was a relatively thin tube of bone
enclosing a very large quantity of unossified substance.

Tibie.—tThe pieces iv. 5, iv. 6, are the knee ends of the right and
left tibia. They show an imperfect condylar division of the gonal
surface, and that the precnemial crest was remarkably large and
strong. ‘The fossil iv. 7, the distal end of the left tibia, agrees
essentially in form with the same part in Wealden Iguanodons
from the Isle of Wight. The entering angle in the antero-external
surface, the salient angle in the postero-internal surface, and the
malleolar division of the articular surface into a stouter and shorter
inner and a narrower and longer outer half, each having a different
aspect adapted to corresponding subdivisions of the proximal surface
of the tarsus, are well illustrated by these fossils.

Tarsus.—This comprises two distinct bones, a larger inner bone,
the equivalent of the astragalus (Pl. XX. figs. 5, 6), and a smaller and
outer one, the representative of the calcaneum (Pl. XX. figs. 3-6).

The astragalus agrees substantially with the Wealden form*. It
has a somewhat quadrilateral figure. The upper surface is the
counterpart of the inner two thirds of the distal articular surface of
the tibia as far outwards as the notch in this latter, but not in-
cluding what may be conveniently called the outer tibial malleolus.
It is divided into two parts, each of a rudely triangular outline. Of
these the inner and larger, a wide shallow hollow, looks upwards,
inwards, and backwards, whilst the outer division, a deep narrow
trough, looks upwards, outwards, and backwards, when the bone is
placed in the position it would take if it were articulated with the
tibia, and the longer axis of the distal end of this latter were
directed from without and behind forwards and inwards, the direc-
tion it probably had in progression.

The under surface of the astragalus forms the larger inner part of
a wide articular pulley, convex from behind forwards, and gently
coneave from without inwards. This trochlear surface rises some
distance on the front of the bone. The inner border of the bone is
so deep that it deserves to be termed a surface. It is smooth ; its
outline is a rude crescent with blunted horns. Of these the pos-
terior meets the hinder border of the bone (a thin lip with a down-
ward and forward slant) in an angle which underlies the salient
posterior angle of the tibia. The anterior surface forms the
ascending lip or process, which fits into the retiring angle in the
front of the tibia. The inner half of this lip rises gradually ; and the
outer falls abruptly. The outer border of the bone, much shorter
and much thinner than the inner, is the outer boundary of the
narrow trough-like part. Here the upper or tibial and the trochlear
surface nearly meet.

| * See Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxx. p. 24.

2H 2

452 J. W. HULKE ON IGUANODON PRESTWICHIL

The Calcanewm (Pl. XX. figs. 3, 4), smaller than the astragalus, is
(to borrowa simile from the older anatomists)a somewhat boat-shaped
bone, wider behind than in front. It has an upper, an under, and
an outer surface. The under surface is crescentic, strongly convex
from back to front, and less convex transversely. It forms an are
of a circle, and was plainly part of a trochlear joint. The upper
surface is subdivided by a prominent ridge, directed obliquely from
behind forwards and inwards, into a posterior part, a deep trough
parallel with the ridge, and an anterior part somewhat quadrilateral
in shape, with the anterior corners rounded off, and the outer and’

posterior sides longer than the two others. The outer surface,.

vertical, is non-articular; below, behind, and in front it is slightly
encroached on by the trochlear surface. Its lower border is an arc;

its upper border is straight. Rather behind the middle this latter

is interrupted by the outer end of the ridge mentioned as sub-

dividing the upper surface. The inner border of the bone is thin
and crenated; here, as lately mentioned, the upper and under
surfaces nearly meet.

When the caleaneum is placed with the border which I have
termed inner touching the outer border of the astragalus, and the
upper or crural surfaces of the bones are viewed, it is evident that
the deep trough in the caleaneum behind the oblique ridge in its
upper surface forms the outward continuation of the trough in the
outer half of the upper surface of the astragalus, and that it arti-
culates with the outer tibial malleolus, which, as I have already
said, is not borne on the astragalus. The quadrilateral depression
in the upper surface of the calcaneum, lying in front of this tibial

trough and of the oblique ridge, received the lower end of the fibula,.

the distal part of the shaft of which rests in a splint-like manner
on the front of the tibia parallel with its outer border. Viewed
from beneath, the convex under surface of the caleaneum is seen to
complete the pulley, of which the astragalus forms much the larger
part. The mutual adaptation of the two bones is so suggestive,
that this alone would have justified the identification of the lesser
bone with the os calcis, a bone previously unrecognized ; but I for-
tunately obtained confirmation of the true skeletal position in a
hind foot of Hypstlophodon Foxit, a closely allied form, in which I
found the bones 7m situ joined to each other, as also to the tibia and
fibula, in the manner described *.
- In the articulation of its tibia with the caleaneum, as well as:
with the astragalus, the Iguanodon’s foot differs from the hind.
foot in the three extant orders, Chelonia, Lacertilia, Crocodilia—in
each of which the distal end of the tibia rests wholly on the
astragalus, which latter, by an outer facet, is in contact with the
fibula. But in the very point wherein the Dinosaurian foot differs-
from that of living reptiles, it closely resembles the foot of birds.
* Sinee this was written, by. the courtesy of M. E. Dupont, the Director,
T have had an opportunity of studying some of the very instructive Iguanodon-

remains lately acquired by the Museum of Natural History at Brussels, and
have been gratified by finding the bones in natural articulation as described,

FROM THE KIMMERIDGE CLAY. 453

In a communication to the Geological Society, in 1869, Prof.
Huxley demonstrated the agreement of the Dinosaurian astragalus,
which he had shortly before identified in Megalosaurus, with the
distal condylar element of the bird’s tibia, which Gegenbaur had
shown to comprise the equivalent of the astragalus in extant
reptiles.

In most birds, as is well known, the individual distinctness of the
tibio-tarsal elements is soon lost by the accrescence of the tarsal
part to the tibia, their individuality continuing longest in the
keelless birds, of which the Aptery« furnishes an admirable example.
In Dinosauria, Prof. Huxley showed that the astragalus remained a
distinct part throughout the whole life. In the bird, as remarked
by Gegenbaur, the combination of two tarsal elements in the single
bone which is regarded as the equivalent of the astragalus, is
hinted by the facility with which, at an early embryonic stage, the
bone sometimes separates into two pieces in the attempt to detach
it from the tibia. In this Cumnor Iguanodon, and also in the
Wealden Iguanodon and in Hypsilophodon, the distinctness of the
calcaneum is clearly preserved throughout life. It obtains also in
Megalosawrus, and it may fairly rank as a Dinosaurian character.
In Dinosauria the eo and calcaneum together are the homo-
logue of the astragalus of the young bird,

In the grown bird the relation of the fibula to the caleaneum is not
apparent ; but it is otherwise in early embryonic existence, when
the fibula and tibia are of equal length, and the distal end of the
former reaches the mass of tissue out of which the proximal tarsal
element is afterwards evolved. In the I[guanodont foot these early
developmental phases are, as it were, permanently fixed.

Amongst the Cumnor fossils there are none which I can identify
as elements of a distal tarsal row ; and from the study of two hind
feet of Iguanodon which I dug out in the Isle of Wight, and also
of several feet of the allied Hypsilophodon, I suspect that such
elements, if they ever had a distinct existence, soon lost it by fusion
with the basal ends of the metatarsals. This coalescence of distal
tarsal elements with the metatarsus is foreshadowed in Compso-
gnathus, in which the former are represented by thin inconspicuous
disks united to the metatarsals, a narrow line marking their
primitive separateness. In /guunodon probably such separateness
is restricted to the embryo. :

Metatarsus—Parts of four bones are referable to this segment
of the foot. Nos. iv. 24, 25, 26, are the distal trochlear ends
probably of the two lateral and the middle metatarsals of the right
foot; iv. 27 is the trochlea of the left middle metatarsal. Nos. 33,
30, 36, are fragments of their proximal ends and shafts.

The trochlea is wide and shallow. In the middle metatarsal it
reaches higher on the front of the joint than in the lateral meta-
tarsals, and the outer is rather stouter than the inner condyle. In
the lateral metatarsals the condylar division, less marked in the
outer one, is restricted to the plantar surface, and the front of the
joint is conyex transversely and in the direction of the long axis

A54 J. W. HULKE ON IGUANODON PRESTWICHII

of the bone. In the inner metatarsal the inner condyle is narrow
and prominent, the outer condyle broad and low.

Phalanges.—Of these 13 are preserved; iv. 29, 22, 39, are
probably the 1st, 2nd, 3rd phalanges of the inner toe of the right
foot ; their greater length distinguishes them from iy. 42, 43, which
are referable to an outer toe, the phalanges of which are distin-
guished for their shortness. The unguals are very strong, laterally
compressed, and impressed with a deep submarginal nail-groove.

Shoulder-girdle and Hore Limb.—The only parts of the segment
of the skeleton which can be certainly identified are the scapule
and proximal ends of the humeri.

The Scapule, ii. 1, 2a, 2b, closely resemble those of Wealden
TIguanodons from the Isle of Wight. The glenoid end shows the
usual rough sutural coracoid surface, and the smooth concave glenoid
part for articulation of the humerus. The coracoid part near its
posterior border is furrowed by a conspicuous groove, which enters it
from the thoracic aspect. The dorsal end of each scapula is missing,
so that the length of this bone is unknown.

The fossil 111. 6 so closely resembles typical Iguanodont coracoids,
that its nature can scarcely be doubted. Its form is simple, as in
Wealden Iguanodonts; and, as in these, it is remarkable for its
relatively small size.

No. i. 4 is, I have no doubt, the proximal end of the left
humerus. In its general form, and especially by the presence of
a strong process at its posterior border, it closely imitates a very
large humerus which I obtained several years since at Brooke Bay.
No part of the shafts or distal ends of the humeri can be identified ;
nor can I speak with certainty of the bones of the forearm. Some
imperfect bones, which I regard as metacarpals, are more slender,
and appear to have been relatively longer than the metatarsals.
A reconstruction of the fore foot out of these imperfect and disso-
ciated remains must necessarily be so conjectural that I have not
attempted it. :

For this Kimmeridgian Iguanodon, the distinctness of which
from the Wealden J. Afantelli is demonstrated (a) by the different
shape of the thoracic vertebre, the centrum of which is wedge-
shaped in the Kimmeridgian Ieuanodon, very constricted in the

. Wealden Iguanodon, (6) by the flattening of the under surface of

the centra in the sacrum of the Kimmeridgian, which in the
Wealden is keeled, (¢) by the smaller number of sacral centra in
the Kimmeridgian’ Iguanodon, and (d@) by the relative simplicity of
the margina! serrature of its teeth, I propose the specific name Prest-
wichiti—Iguanodon Prestwichi.

—— *
ss

FROM THE KIMMERIDGE CLAY. 45

Ou

EXPLANATION OF PLATES XVIII., XIX., XX.

All the figures are two thirds of the actual size, except those of the jaws, which
are X2, and figs. 8, 9, Pl. XX. which are diagrammatic, .

Puate XVIII.

Fig. 1 (No. I. 10). View of undersurface of part of vault of skull. f frontal
: bone; pf, postfrontal ; p, parietal.

2. The upper surface of the same fragment. ‘The lettering is the same.

3. Fragment of occiput. fm, foramen magnum; so, supraoccipital.

4, The under surface of a fragment of the base of the skull. oe, occipital
condyle; Bo, basioccipital; Bs, basisphenoid; ¢, carotid groove ;

hp, hypophysial pit. |

. The upper surface of the same piece.

. Fragment of the right maxilla (outer surface) showing three teeth :—1,
a mature germ, not yet in wear; 2, acrown, which was in full use at
the death of the animal; the free edge is notin the line of actual wear,
but an accidental fracture ; 3, a fang extended considerably beyond
the border of its socket.

7. Another fragment of a maxilla, showing :—s, an empty socket ; f, the fang
of a tcoth, of which the crown had been fully extended, and in full
wear. It tapers to a blunt point; and the pulp-cavity, large at the
junction of the fang and crown, is contracted to a small opening at.
the free end of the fang. g, a mature germ, at the base of which are
remains of an almost completely extended fang.

8. A fragment of the dentary part of mandible. 1, 3, 5, fangs, of which
the crowns must have been almost worn away; 2, 4, 6, crowns of
teeth in full wear; 7,9, 11, germs, of which about half is extruded
beyond the inner parapet of the aveolus ; 8, 10, smaller germs, of which
only the tip is visible.

Figs. 6, 7, 8, are X2.

So Or

PratTe XIX.

d, diapophysis; », parapophysis; prz, prezygapophysis; psz, postzygapo-

physis; @, anterior articular surface.

—

Fig. 1. Front view of cervical vertebra (ii. 3).

. Posterior view of the same.

. Side view of the same.

. Inferior view of the same.

. Side view of a thoracic vertebra (ii. 11).

. Side view of a lumbar vertebra (ii. 20).

. Anterior view of the same.

. Posterior view of the same.

. Side view of a caudal vertebra, from near sacrum (ii. 28). Centrum

oblique (ii. 28).

10. Side view of a caudal vertebra (ii. 32) posterior in position to ii. 28.

11. Side view of a caudal vertebra from a part of the tail where the trans-
__ verse process has disappeared (ii. 41).

12 (a1. 53) & 18 (ii. 58). Vertebree from very near the end of the tail.

CO GO ST OD CHB GO DO

Puate XX.

Kig. 1. The last lumbar vertebra and the sacrum, seen from below.
2. The same, seen from above.
In both, //, last lumbar ; 152s, Ist & 2nd sacral centra; 2e, neural
canal; ng, nerve-groove.
3. The os calcis, its outer surface.

456 oN IGUANODON PRESTWICHIE FROM THE KIMMERIDGE OLAY.

. The same, its upper surface. f, the fibular portion; 7, the tibial

portion.

. The astragalus (a) and os calcis (c), seen from below.

Front view of the bones of the legs, with the proximal tarsal series: 7,
tibia ; f, fibula; a, astragalus; ¢, calcis.

. Side view of same.

This and the preceding figure are restorations.

. The leg and proximal+tarsal elements of a young fowl. The letters indi-

cate the same parts as in fig. 6.

. The hind limb of a chick, showing at this stage the fibula as long as the

tibia, and the distinctness of the tarsal elements. After Gegenbaur.

© @& ST Ge -

Discussion.

Prof. Owxw stated that a specimen existed in the British Museum
showing the bones of the hinder limb of a Dinosaur, i. e. Scelido-
saurus, Which, though never referred to, gave much information as
to the homologies of the bones. This paper, however, was most
valuable, and he believed the author had established the specific
distinctness of the form. He asked Prof. Seeley what genus in the
Mammalia gave a dentition like that of the Triassic Placodus. He
found it in Ornithorhynchus ; but the broad, flat crushers were un-
calcified in that sauroid Mammal.

Prof. Sertey spoke of the high value of Mr. Hulke’s paper.
Specimens existed in Belgium showing the bones of Jgwanodon in
situ, and gave independent evidence of the accuracy of the author’s
conclusions ; but those who had seen them could not, as they had
been shown in confidence, describe them. He thought the specimen
on the table showed traces of Teleosaurian characters in the ex-
panded frontal bone and in other parts of the skeleton. He would
even attach more value than the author had done to the differences
of the vertebral column, pelvis, teeth, and limb-bones from those of
the ordinary Jguanodon; and he thought they might be generic, rather
than dependent on age.. He attached great importance also to the
separation of the astragalus and the os calcis. Here there could be
no doubt of specific distinctness from Wealden forms; and he
believed that the differences were important enough to justify the
author in placing the animal in a new genus.

Mr. Hurxe said he had studied the specimens of Sceldosaurus
much, and doubted whether the bones were truly not displaced.
The Belgian specimens, however, gave the fullest evidence of the
structure of the Dinosaurian tarsus.

Quart Journ. Geol. Soc Vol. XXXVI_P1XVIII

Hanhart lith
J Berjeau lith

IGUANODON PRESTWIcHIT.

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Quart Journ Geol.Soc VolLXXXVIPLYX

Berjeau hth

Hanhart imp

ON THE NEWER PLIOCENE PERIOD IN ENGLAND. 457

30. The Newer Putocenr Pertop a Enetanp. By Searuus
VY. Woop, Jun., F.G.8. (Read March 24, 1880.)

[Puate XXT.]

In Two Parts.

Part 1, comprising the Red and Fluvio-marine Crag and the Glacial
formations.
Part 2, comprising the Postglacial formations.

Parr 1.
Stage I. The Red and Fluvio-marme Crag.

Tae movements by which the conditions of sea and land have changed
in England from the time when the Red Crag began to form appear
to me to have been so continuous that the formations from this
point onwards can be studied with advantage only as one geological
group ; and as these have all accumulated during one great move-
ment of depression and reelevation, the Newer Pliocene period seems
to me the most suitable term for the lapse of time which they mark.

The commencement of this Crag in England is marked by the
accumulation of those beds of which a small remnant is preserved
in the cliff at Walton Naze. During its progress the continuous
destruction of the antecedent accumulations of the same forma-
tion, as well as of the beds of the Coralline Crag, furnished
that peculiar mass of comminuted shell of which the successive
portions of the formation are made up. ‘The character of tha
beds, and the highly and often continuously oblique character of
the bedding, with other evidence on which I do not stop here to
dwell, indicate that nearly all that part of the formation to which
the term Red Crag (as distinguished from the part represented by
the Chillesford beds) has been applied was accumulated between
high- and low-water marks, when the rise and fall of the tide was
considerable.

The Walton bed, as my father has shown, is destitute of many
species of Mollusca which occur in the Red Crag of the northern
(or Butley and Chillesford) extremity of the formation, while the
beds occupying the intervening area afford some, though but slight,
evidence of the horizontal transition between the two. ‘These
species are either those of Arctic habitat, or those which, having
since become extinct, lived nevertheless into that succeeding period
when the evidences of glacial conditions of climate become con-
spicuous. Now while this is the case with the fauna, it is im-
portant and confirmatory to find, as is the case, that though at its
northern extremity (7. ¢. at Butley and Chillesford) the Red Crag
passes uninterruptedly upwards into the Chillesford Clay, the reverse
of this is the case at the southern (or Walton) extremity, if the bed
of laminated clay, which there averspreads the Crag, be the Chilles-

Q.J.G.8. No. 144. 21

458 S. Ve WOOD, JUN., ON THE NEWER

ford bed. In the former the Red Crag, gradually losing the oblique
character, passes up by a series of horizontally bedded sands with
molluscan remains (of which the uppermost part has been known as
the Chillesford bed) into the Chillesford Clay. At Walton, however,
the bed of sand passing up into laminated clay, with which the Crag
s overlain, is not only unconformable to the Crag, but passes over
its edge so as to rest on the London Clay. It is not clear to me
now whether these beds at Walton represent the Chillesford Clay,
or whether they may not represent the Contorted Drift; but if they
do represent the former, then this clay into which the Butley Red
Crag passes uninterruptedly upwards is as unconformable to the
Red Crag of Walton as it is to the Coralline on which, in the neigh-
bourhood of Butley, it also rests. Whichever way it may be re-
garded, there is no continuation of this southern extremity of the
Red Crag into the Chillesford beds as there is of the northern. |

North of the ridge of Coralline-Crag rock which, occupying the
parishes of Sudbourn, Iken, and Orford in the south-east of Sheet
50, and of Aldborough in the south of Sheet 49 of the Ord-
nance Map (of which a diminutive reduction is given in Map No. 1
of the accompanying plate), bounds the marine portion of the
Red Crag, there sets in the fluvio-marine portion, which ranges
thence northwards nearly, but not quite, to the north of Norfolk in
Sheet 68. This portion, I have for many years contended, is, as
regards its lower beds, synchronous with that newer part of the
marine accumulations which make up the Red Crag of Butley
in the north-east corner of Sheet 48, and of the neighbouring
parishes of Boyton and Chillesford, being altogether newer than the
Red Crag further south, and which occupies the northern centre o°
that sheet. Nothing, however, so old as this fluvio-marine portion
even the most recent part of it (the Chillesford Clay), occurs in m
view along the North-Norfolk coast-section which extends throug
Sheet 68, such fluvio-marine beds as occur there containing Tellin
balthica, a shell unknown from the Crag, and introduced by th:
commencement of the movements described in Stage II. Th
northernmost point at which the beds of this fluvio-marine part o!
the Crag (and these are the latest even of that part) are to be foun’
is Aylsham, in the south-east of Sheet 68.

These facts appear to me to show that during the accumulation
of the Red Crag there was a gradual movement of elevation in the
southern part of the area occupied by that Crag, and of depression
in the northern. By this the first accumulations represented by the
Walton bed became land, and then successively the parts immediatel;,
to the north of it. As this took place the sea encroached at the
northern extremity of Sheet 48, so that newer beds of similar fore-
shore oblique character formed over the parishes of Butley, Chilles- —
ford, and Boyton, containing a fauna so distinct from that of the
Walton bed. ‘These beds of Butley, Chillesford, and Boyton are
bedded up against the principal remnant of the Coralline Crap
which has escaped destruction from the waters of the Red Crag;
and which destruction furnished so large a spoil of mollusean remains

PLIOCENE PERIOD IN ENGLAND. 459

to the sands of the latter. On the north side of this remnant (the
upper part of which consists of hard rock) the Red Crag assumes the
fluvio-marine condition, which it maintains thence to its furthest
northern extremity in Sheet 68. Of this, the lowest portion, 7. ¢. the
part precisely synchronous with the lowest beds of Butley, Boyton,
and Chillesford, occurs only at Thorpe, near Aldborough, in the south
of Sheet 49, in wells in the south-east of 50, and at Bramerton in the
centre of 66.

Further depression then took place over this northern area, ac-
companied probably with further elevation of the southern. This
carried the head of the estuary from Bramerton up to Aylsham, in
Sheet 68, and also submerged the Coralline-Crag remnant which
divided the fluvio-marine from the marine area—the result being
that a sheet of laminated micaceous clay was deposited over both the
fluvio-marine portion of the Red Crag and that part of the marine por-
tion which was latest accumulated, viz. that of Butley and its neigh-
bourhood, as well as over the Coralline Crag which divided the two
areas. This sheet of clay having been first observed at Chillesford,
where it overlies this newer part of the Red Crag, has gone by the
name of the Chillesford Clay; and where either marine (as at Butley
and Chillesford) or fluvic-marine conditions (as at Bramerton) had
preceded it, this clay is separated from the Crag by sands. In the
marine area at Chillesford these sands, horizontal in their upper
part, gradually assume the oblique or foreshore character towards
their base as they graduate into the highly oblique red foreshore |
Crag there. In their central portion these are full of valves of the
estuarine mollusk Scrobicularia piperata, all detached; but in their
upper layers, just under the clay, they contain the remains of Mol-
lusca preserved by the tranquil accumulation of sediment afforded
by deeper water, so that both valves of the Lamellibranchiata are
united. Conditions exactly analogous prevail at Bramerton ; for
there the fluvio-marine Crag is overlain by sands of similar thickness
to those with Scrobicularia at Chillesford ; and in them at one of the
Bramerton excavations that shell is common. These beds at Bra-
merton are succeeded by further sands just under the clay, and con-
taining a bed of shells corresponding to the tranquilly preserved bed
at Chillesford ; and in this fluvio-marine conditions can scarcely be
detected.

Between Bramerton and Aylsham this laminated clay not only
becomes thin and more sandy, but the sands beneath it diminish
much in thickness, and there is no fluvio-marine bed divided by sands
from a more marine one as at Bramerton,.but a fluvio-marine one
only; and in my view this part of the Crag represents only the
sediment of the estuary after it had, by the depression of its head,
been pushed back northwards, and the Bramerton part of it had
become marine, while the Butley foreshore had become submerged.

While the Chillesford sand and clay are thus the uninterrupted
continuation, by slight submergence, of the fluvio-marine Crag of
Bramerton and Thorpe by Aldborough, and of that newest portion
of the marine Crag, they are not so of the oldest. As already men-

Zhe

460 S. VY. WOOD, JUN., ON THE NEWER

tioned, the Walton Crag is overlain by alternations of laminated clay
and sand. The elevation of this in the cliff is between 50 and 60 feet;
and at about the same elevation* at Hawks Mill, Needham Market,
in the Gipping valley, six miles N.W. of fig. I.a, I found a section
of highly micaceous laminated clay passing up into micaceous sand f.
If this be not the Chillesford Clay, then I think we may infer that
the laminated deposit, unconformably covering the Walton Crag is
not that clay either, and that this and the rest of the southern part
of the Red Crag remained in the state of land; but if it be, then
the depression described carried the sea not only over the Walton
bed, but also up the Gipping valley, though by what route, unless the
intervening area was submerged, is not apparent; for, with the ex-
ception of the two patches at Walton and Needham, not a vestige
of the Chillesford Clay or sand occurs south of Butley, although the
Red Crag ranges south of that place for twenty miles. The Red
Crag between the Deben and the Orwell attains, even in its unaltered
condition, 7. é. with shells, to an elevation of nearly 80 feet at one
place (Bealings), and still higher at another spot near Sparrow’s
Nest, three quarters of a mile north of the line of fig. I. (where it
was erroneously shown as a boulder in the sections of the ‘ Intro-
duction to the Crag Mollusca,’ Supplement); but generally, in
both this and in its altered or decalcified condition of red sand,
occasionally containing casts of shells, it lies at and below 60 feet,
being overlain, without any distinguishing linet, by from 20 to
30 feet of the yellow sand marked ? in fig. I., which seems to me
to be a continuation of the Lower Glacial sand 67. Throughout
its range from this limit northwards the base of the Chillesford
Clay, however, though from the deeper water of the estuary in that
direction it descends to Ordnance datum on the coast in the north
of Sheet 49, never exceeds, and, I think, nowhere quite reaches,
an elevation of 50 feet, which is about that of the patches at Walton
and Needham; and the molluscan remains preserved in the upper-
most beds of the Crag thus overlain show no transitional character
to connect them with the shell-bed just under the Chillesford Clay,
as do the upper beds of the Red Crag at Chillesford and Butley.
If, therefore, this clay overspread the intervening area, it doubtless
did so unconformably to the Crag of this part, as it does at Walton ;
and possibly the highest eminences of this, such as those at Bealings
and Sparrow’s Nest, were not covered by it. However this may
have been, the Chillesford Clay seems to have been completely re-
moved over nearly all the marine part of the Red-Crag area; and
this I infer can only have taken place by the waters of the Lower
Glacial sea under which the sands 67 accumulated, and which sea,
removing this clay, covered with its sands the chief part of the
south-east of Sheet 50, as well as the extreme north-east of 48,

* All the elevations mentioned in the paper have reference to Ordnance datum.

Tt This had its laminz at one end turned up to the vertical, evidently by that
pressure of the ice, during the later part of the Chalky Clay, which gave rise to
the features described in Stages III. and IV.

t As to this see the remarks as to Wilford-bridge section in Stage IT.

PLIOCENE PERIOD IN ENGLAND. 461

where they surround islands of the Chillesford Clay, and form, as
described in Stage II., the chief part at least of the sands of Dun-
wich Cliff.

The limits of the Crag estuary in Sheet 66 can be traced with
much approximation to truth. In fig. [X., drawn through the
fluvio-marine Crag and Chillesford Clay at Thorpe by Norwich, these
beds occupy a higher level, and have a greater thickness of chalk
intervening between them and the datum-line than is the case at
Bramerton, two miles to the south-east. The Crag also is thinner
and all of it is fluvio-marine, the division into a fluvio-marine bed
below and a marine one above (which exists at Bramerton) not ob-
taining here for the reasons already explained ; and this part of the
Crag is therefore more nearly synchronous with the marine than
with the fluvio-marine part of the Bramerton section. ‘To the north-
west and west of fig. IX. large excavations occur in which both
the Crag and the Chillesford Clay are absent, and the chalk, rising
to a proportionately higher level, is overlain direct by the sands 67.
From this it results that the slight depression which extended the
estuary in the way already described did not suffice to submerge
the site of Norwich or the area to the north-west of that city, no
trace of either a7 or a2 occurring in that direction, and the chalk
also rising westwards. One head of the estuary having been carried
by this depression northwards up to Aylsham, a branch was in
the same way carried past Norwich southwards for several miles,
coinciding apparently with a valley which, in the condition re-
sulting from the manifold changes treated of in this memoir, is
now represented by that of the Tese, the northern branch being
similarly represented by that of the Bure. This branch was pro-
bably divided by land from the head of an arm of the earlier part
of the main estuary which stretched up past Bungay from the south ;
and in it both the Crag and Chillesford Clay are but thinly repre-
sented, the former passing sometimes, near the head of the valley
about Saxlingham, into shingle, and the clay which overlies it
presenting but a small admixture of mica. The Crag-shingle at
Dichingham House near Bungay is full of the Crag-shells; but at
Saxlingham I was informed that mammalian remains only occurred
in it.

The river which fed this estuary with the mud from which the
Chillesford Clay resulted must have flowed from some region of
mica-schist or of granitic rock, and most probably, therefore, from
North Britain. At the base of this clay in Easton Bavent cliff
(north-east of Sheet 49) I observed rolled chalk, similar to that
which is so abundant in the Cromer Till (62), to be imbedded, and
the clay in this part to be occasionally contorted slightly. This
shows that glaciers had at this time begun to grind down the chalk-
country, and to discharge their moraine into some arm of this river ;
and as North Britain, by reason of its latitude, would be propor-
tionately more glaciated, it seems most probable that the profusion of
mica which characterizes the clay was produced from the grinding
of these rocks in North Britain by the ice, which by this time had

462 S. V. WOOD, JUN., ON THE NEWER

enveloped the northern part of the kingdom, and terminated in the
principal branch or branches of this river. The preglacial valley
through which this river flowed from North Britain appears to me
to have been that in which the town of Cromer stands, and in which
the greatest thickness of the beds described in Stage II. have accu-
mulated. At the time of the Crag this part of it stood higher than
now, its slope having been changed by the depression that intro-
duced Stage II., the relative height of the area in the south-east of
Sheet 68, and the adjoining parts of 66 and 67, having also been
changed by the same cause, and by the great reversals of inclination
which England underwent during the period examined in this
memoir. The gentle slopes of this valley have, however, remained
unaltered by these movements for some miles on either side of
Cromer ; for while beneath that town the chalk sinks to low-water
mark or below it, it rises from there gradually both to the east and
west, so as to attain the beach-surface above high-water mark about
four miles to the east and two and a half miles to the west of the
town. On the surface of this flat valley of chalk grew the vegeta-
tion which has long been known as the Forest-bed ; and in swamps,
meres, or tributary streams there were accumulated the clays with
land and fresh-water Mollusca and mammalian remains associated
with it. These beds are thus, in my opinion, of Crag age, and the
mammalian remains preserved in them those of the Mammalia which
then inhabited England—all those remains found in the Crag itself,
even the fluvio-marine portion, or most of the latter at least, being
derivative and belonging to inhabitants of some period or periods
antecedent. The clay with mammalian remains, which has its sur-
face penetrated by roots, and out of which a hollow has been
scooped and filled in with a laminated freshwater deposit, con-
taining at its base a bed of Unios at Kessingland and Pakefield
Cliff (north of Sheet 49), and which is there overlain directly by the
Middle Glacial (c) and the Chalky Clay (d), is not of the same age ;
and though mammalian remains from it have, by the use of the
term ‘“ preglacial forest-bed,” been confounded with those from the
beds just mentioned, this freshwater and mammaliferous formation
is later than the Crag, since it occupies a valley scooped through or
out of the Chillesford Clay, and at one end of this it rests on that
clay*, The eastern side of the original Crag valley in which these
forest-beds of Crag age thus accumulated extends from Cromer nearly
to the south-eastern extremity of Sheet 68; for to that distance these
beds show themselves along the coast beneath the formations of
Stage II. Very near to this extremity these formations, thinning
much, sink below the beach-line, and the further extension of the
forest-beds becomes concealed ; and though the Contorted Drift rises
above the level of the sea here and there in the interval, it is not
until the north of Sheet 67 is entered that. this formation rises to
any height above Ordnance datum ; but,as it does so, the cliff, which
should present a section of it, overlain by the Middle Glacial and the

* See Section of this cliff by Harmer, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxxiii.

p. 134

PLIOCENE PERIOD IN ENGLAND. 463

Chalky Clay, is hidden by blown sand, and the extension of these
forest-beds there cannot in consequence be detected. At Hopton and
Corton Cliffs, however (about the centre of Sheet 67), it is said (for I
have not personally been fortunate enough to meet with the base of the
cliff sufficiently cleared of beach to see them) that they reappear
immediately under the Contorted Drift shown in fig. XIII. The
earlier beds of Stage II. being here absent, there is nothing to
show the age of the forest-remains of this part beyond their priority
to 63.

During this stage we find no indication of the presence of the sea
over any other part of England than the south-eastern part of Nor-
folk, the eastern part of Suffolk, and the north-eastern part of Essex.
From sections discovered by the Survey the marine area appears to
have stretched up the Stour valley to Sudbury.

Stage II. The Lower Glacial beds.

The movement giving rise to the beds cf this series was one of
depression, apparently not continuous, but broken into two move-
ments, of which the first was, compared to the second, of no great
extent. This first movement of depression, extending in an in-
creasing degree over northern Norfolk, seems to have been accom-
panied at the outset by elevation in north-east Suffolk, so that a part
of the laminated clay, forming the latest accumulation of Stage L.,
was converted into land, giving rise, at Kessingland and Pakefield, to
the terrestrial surface on which the mammaliferous clay, with its
surface penetrated by roots, and the laminated bed with Unvos, already
mentioned, were formed, and which are overlain directly by the
gravel, c,and the Chalky Clay*. At points to the south-west of
Kessingland Cliff—viz. at Henham in the north of Sheet 49, and at
Halesworth (on the Blyth river) in the north-east of Sheet 50—
we meet with very clear evidence of a conversion of a part of the
Chillesford Clay into land at the close of Stage I.; for at these
places there occur pebble-beaches, from 25 to 30 feet. thick, bedded
up to foreshores or even low cliffs of this clay. The shingle of these
beaches is bedded at the angle of terrestrial repose, not, as in the
Red Crag, in successive beds of oblique stratification, where sand
and shells thrown up as banks have been planed off again and others
heaped over them, but in one continuous oblique slope throughout
the 25 or 30 feet, their section presenting in this respect that which
the Chesil Bank, or any other great shingle-beach, would do if cut
at right angles to its trend. West and north of this beached shingle
the pebbles of which it is formed spread out in seams interstratified
with sands that are red or orange-coloured at base, and become lighter
in colour upwards. ‘These, in many places, rest on the Chillesford
Clay, but in others have taken its place. Where they rest on it the
junction is marked by a strong line of erosion which indents the sur-
face of the clay ; but in some places in the valley of the Bure—that

* See Harmer, Joc. cit. The view taken by that gentleman and myself, that
this bed may have intervened between the Contorted Drift and the gravel c, is
untenable in view of the case as traced in this present memoir.

464 S. V. WOOD, JUN., ON THE NEWER

is to say, along the line by which the Crag river entered its estuary—
this division is, as I shall presently explain, obscure. These pebbly
sands I brought to the notice of geologists in 1866 * under the title
of the ‘‘ Bure-Valley beds,” from the circumstance that they yield
molluscan remains in that valley. They wereafew years after this
described by Professor Prestwich, in his memoir on the Red Crag ft,
and by him called “ the Westleton shingle.” In the south-east of
Sheet 66 also these pebbles are heaped up into banks for some miles
on the east of Loddon ; but the banks are not oblique-bedded, and
are therefore, I infer, altogether of submarine accumulation. Here
at Loddon, as also in fig. IX. and generally over Sheet 66, these
pebbly sands are overlain by the Contorted Drift, 63; but along the
coast-line stretching through Sheet 68 another formation, the Cromer
Till, 62, intervenes. Here, and thus overlain by 62, the sands
rest on the chalk or, where such are present, on the terrestrial
formations of the Crag already described. Where they rest on the
chalk, at Weybourne, they contain at their base Mollusca, of which
the bivalves have often their valves united, showing that they lived
there; and at Woman Hythe, two miles west of Cromer, they
contain in their upper part, near where they pass into 62, Mya
truncata, preserved with valves united, and in the position in
which the animal lived. They also yield Mollusca at Belaugh,
Rackheath, and other places in the north-east of Sheet 66, which
here, as at Weybourne, also show a fluvio-marine character. They
have been divided into two beds by Mr. Clement Reid, who alleges
that they are separated by a land and freshwater bed, extending, so
far as traces of clay with land and freshwater shells afford an in-
dication, along the base of the cliff. These traces are, in my opinion,
merely the result of the transport by the shore ice (formed in rivers
that discharged into this bay or estuary) of portions of the mud-flats
and banks of those rivers to which it froze during winter +. The
only foundation that I can find for such a view as that of Mr. Reid
is that the small boss of peaty clay with freshwater Mollusca which
shows itself for a few yards above the beach at Woman Hythe, and
which is overlain by these sands containing Mya truncata, has afew
feet of sand with T'ellina balthica and other marine shells between it
and the chalk. This mass of peaty clay, however, is of so limited an
extent and thickness as to be quite within the power of such ice as
forms in the St. Lawrence, and there transports huge rock boulders
along the gulf of that river, to carry ; and as I observed a mass
of similar peaty clay (though without shells) of equal dimensions
imbedded in the Till itself on the east of Cromer, and strips or sheets
of chalk of yet larger dimensions are interstratified in the Till just
over this mass of peaty clay, such may have been the origin of the
bed in question, so far as its position in these sands is concerned.
As these sands extend eastwards through Sheet 68, they become, in
places, charged with carbonaceous debris, derived, in my view, from
the spoil of the swamps and river-banks represented by this peaty

* Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxii. p. 546. + Ibid. vol. xxvii. p. 452.
{ See footnote’, p. 525, for similar evidences during Stages III. or V.

PLIOCENE PERIOD IN ENGLAND. 465

clay, swept by the severe conditions of climate now approaching
into the waters of the sea I am now tracing. In the extreme
east of Sheet 68 they thin out to very insignificant thickness before
disappearing under the beach-line ; and as we approach the mammali-
ferous and freshwater bed of Pakefield and Kessingland they dis-
appear, setting in again in the condition of beached pebbles and of
sands, interstratified and intermixed with pebbles for several miles
south of those places, whence southwards to the north-eastern
end of the line of fig. I., and over that line also, the pebbles are
absent. The Mollusca of these sands are given in the tabular list to
my father’s first Supplement to the ‘ Crag Mollusca’ in the volume of
the Paleeontographical] Society for 1873,in the column headed ‘‘ Lower
Glacial ;” and to these the researches of Mr. C. Reid have added a
few species more, most of which are given in the list accompanying
the second Supplement. From a familiarity with the character of
purely aqueous deposits, we have long recognized that the uncon-
formable stratification which results from false bedding is due to
current action; but our knowledge of the effect produced by the
extrusion of morainic material from a glacier which terminates
beneath the sea is as yet hypothetical ; nevertheless I believe that
the divisions of upper and lower Till separated by sands in this
formation of the Cromer coast, which have been made by Mr.
Reid, have their origin in the irregular and intermittent extru-
sion into the sandy and silty sea-bottom, at the commencement
of the stage we are now considering, of material from the land-
ice, which having been in existence, as already shown, in the upper
waters of the Crag river during Stage I., had by the northerly
subsidence of Norfolk which I have described, and by the augmenta-
tion of tle cold, not only reached the sea in England, but had entered
the limits of Norfolk and Suffolk. This material was, in some cases,
carried into and interstratified in these sands, and in others pushed
overthem. Instances of both methods appear in the coast-section of
North Norfolk, and in the (chalk) pit at Guist crossed by the line of
fig. VIII. On no better foundation that I can see have similar
divisions of one continuous glacial accumulation been made in other
districts and other countries, and a theory of a cycle of alternations
from warm to cold climates during the Glacial period evolved to
account for them.

Such, in my opinion, was the origin and mode of accumulation of
the pebbly sand and Till as one formation, the structure of which
has been greatly obscured by the churning-up which, in common
with the Contorted Drift that overlies it, this formation has under-
gone, as presently described. Towards the western extremity of
the coast-section in Sheet 68, viz. at Weybourne, this churning-up
has not taken place; and there the Till aud the Contorted Drift
cannot be distinguished, and appear to be one continuous accumu-
lation, of which the base is distinctly interstratified with the pebbly
sand. At the opposite extremity of the coast-section, a distance of
only 14 or 15 miles, this churning-up also ceases; but there the
Till, or what may be considered as representing it, is separated, in

466 S. V. WOOD, JUN., ON THE NEWER

the clearest and most marked manner, from the Contorted Drift (63);
for this drift, in the form of a strongly stratified silt with bands of
clay full of rolled chalk, rests altogether unconformably on a forma-
tion (the Till) consisting of dark sandy unstratified clay with worn
specimens of Tellina balthica and fragments of Cardiwm and
Cyprina, the surface of which clay is worn into hollows in which
sands are bedded, which, with the clay thus worn into hollows, have
alike been planed off level to receive the stratified silt of the Contorted
Drift. This marked break or unconformity continues for 2 or 3
miles until the lower bed disappears under the beach-line, while
from this condition of highly stratified silt, 63, gradually changes
horizontally south-eastwards along the cliff until it disappears
beneath the beach towards Eccles into that reddish-brown, un-
stratified, or obscurely stratified, brickearth which I have described
as having so general an extension over the pebbly sands in Sheet
66, and as making its appearance again above the beach-line
beneath the Middle Glacial and Chalky Clay in the north of
Sheet 67*.

Before, however, tracing the southerly extension of the Contorted
Drift, and of the pebbly sand and Till, I should point out that the
difficulty to which I have adverted in detecting a definite line of
division between this sand and the Chillesford Clay in some parts
of the Bure valley, while this line is so marked elsewhere, seems to
be just what we might expect to occur under the circumstances
detailed; for as the depression of the valley of the Crag river took
place, while elevation to the south-east occurred, and the sea made its
way into the depressed area, the river yet existing further north still
brought the micaceous mud, so that this at the first and until the new
conditions were established became interstratified with the sands
which continued to form within what remained of the former estuary,
and in the area newly occupied by the sea, Though seams of this
micaceous mud thus occur in the pebbly sands of this part, and
physically the sands of the latter part of Stage I. are here difficult

* This unconformity is shown in Nos. I. and IT. of the sections accompanying
the Introduction to the ‘Crag-Mollusca,’ Supplement. I would take this oppor-
tunity of correcting some of the sections given in that Introduction, viz.:—The
bed 8 of Section A and Section P represents both that marked ? and that
marked c in fig. I. of the present memoir. The bed 8, north of Thorpe in
Section B, and south of Westleton in Section C, is probably the sand 67.
The Red Crag shown as detached at the Sparrow’s Nest in Section P is probably
the Crag in si¢w rising, as described in Stage I., to high elevations. In Section R
the bed 10, where capping the lowest part of the cliff, is the Contorted Drift,
consisting of brickearth with patches of Chalky Clay in it, but where capping
the highest, consists of this and of a bed of shingly gravel beneath it. The very
small patch of 9 over which both these passed (and which I now regard as a
remnant of the Till, for it graduated into 8, while the brickearth 10 is uncon-
formable to 8) seems to have disappeared by the waste of the coast ; and 8’ 8!’
and 8'" are the sand 07, No 6 being either this sand as represented there or the
Crag. In Section S, though the small patch numbered 7 remains, I am told
that the larger one, which extended from the north of Easton to the south of
Covehithe Cliff, has disappeared by the rapid coast-waste that has gone on
since I drew the cliff in 1866. ‘The bed marked 8 in Sections XIX. and XX.,
and that marked ? in XVIL., is the sand representin g decalcified Orag.

PLIOCENE PERIOD IN ENGLAND. 467

- of separation from the sands of the present stage, yet paleontologi-
cally there is a very clear and satisfactory test for their distinction
in the fact, to which I first called attention 16 years ago, that
wherever the pebbly sands are fossiliferous they yield Telluna
balthica, and in abundance, while this shell is absolutely un-
known in any bed of StageI. ‘The researches of collectors during
this time have fully confirmed my statement, while the one or two
cases where this shell had been given in publications as from localities
in which beds of Stage I. only occur, or at least yield fossils, have
been investigated, and been proved to have arisen from clerical
errors. The introduction of this shell having taken place so
abruptly and in such profusion, it seems evidently to have been due
to the northerly depression which I have described opening a com-
munication with a part of the sea nearer the Baltic, where this
mollusk had lived during the Crag, but from which part some geo-
graphical cause had hindered its migration into the waters of the
Crag of Suffolk or Norfolk, or into those of the Crag of Belgium, in
the beds of which it has never been met with. In every marine
bed of the North-Norfolk cliff, from the chalk surface upwards,
however, this shell occurs, and it characterizes also all the forma-
tions posterior to these wherever they are fossiliferous.

In tracing the beds of the Stage I am describing southwards from
Hopton and Corton Cliff, which is the point furthest south at which
we find the Contorted Drift exposed in the coast-section with the
identical characters presented by it where lost by descent below the
beach-line in the south-east of Sheet 68, we come, after passing the
freshwater beds posterior to the Crag, overlain, in Kessingland and
Pakefield Cliffs, directly by the gravel c and Chalky Clay, to the
low cliff of Covehithe and the two low cliffs of Easton Bavent (all
in the north of Sheet 49). ‘These are all formed by the Chillesford
Clay in its greatest thickness, overlain by the red and orange-
coloured beds belonging to the lower part of the pebbly sand—the
uppermost sands of the Crag, which are white and full of shells,
coming up under the clay only in the central one of these three
cliffs. At the south end of the southernmost cliff of Eastern Bavent
the Chillesford Clay has been cut away, and its place taken by the
pebbly sands, so that from this point southwards to the point
where the north-east extremity of the line of fig. I. begins these
rest on the fluvio-marine Crag, and form the whole or, at any
rate, the upper part of the sands of Dunwich Cliff*. In the
south-west of Sheet 68 the beds of the Cromer Cliff, in the full thick-
ness possessed by them in that part of Norfolk, are cut through by
the valley of the Wensum, down which during emergence came the
Chalky Clay as in fig. VIII.; and in this part also we meet with
sections showing the unconformability between the Till and the
Contorted Drift. Fig. XVI. is taken from one of these, near
Yarrow House, Guist (13 mile south of the line of fig. VIII.), and

* See last note for the correction of the representation of this Cliff (as
Sect. R) given in the Introduction to the ‘Crag-Mollusca’ Supplement.

468 S. V. WOOD, JUN., ON THE NEWER

in it the Till, consisting of unstratified sandy clay full of small
worn flints, differing in colour and in the absence of shell frag-
ments, but in other respects similar to that at the base of Hasboro’
and Bacton Cliff, is unconformably overlain by highly stratified
chalky silt, just as it is in that cliff. The intervening hollows
filled with sand at Hasboro’ and Bacton, however, do not appear
here.

Sections at and near Snape, in fig. I., several miles south of
Dunwich, show clay or loam exactly similar to that thus capping
Dunwich Cliff, resting unconformably on remnants of the Till larger
than the scrap which has now* disappeared from Dunwich Cliff,
and which (as it did there) consists of stratified chalky clay. These
remnants occur along the edge of the low plateau forming the north
side of the Alde valley ; and pits in two of them are touched by the
line of fig. I., in one of which, at Aldringham Green, this stratified
clay was overlain by several feet of red, close-bedded gravel (c). ‘The
clay here was very sandy, and its stratification was all arched, as is
that of the Till about Trimmingham (on the coast in Sheet 68), and
it was similarly full of interstratified chalk. From the point where
the sands 6/ take the place of the Chillesford beds in Easton cliff,
they stretch southwards through the central part of Sheet 49 and
corresponding part of Sheet 50 until we encounter this clay again,
abutting, along with the uppermost part of the fluvio-marine and
marine developments of the Red Crag, against the islands of Coral-
line-Crag rock presently to be mentioned, and over which the
Chillesford sand and clay (but not the marine or fluvio-marine Crag)
were spread at the end of Stage 1. Where the Chillesford Clay
shows itself on the north of these islands, 7. ¢. at Aldboro’, the sands
67 rest on and indent it. Thus the heaths of Walberswick, Dun-
wich, and Westleton, which in the map to the Introduction to the
‘Crag-Mollusca’ Supplement are represented as occupied by the
Middle Glacial (c), consist almost entirely of the sand 67; and as
the chief part of these heaths are above the junction-line of the Middle
Glacial gravel (¢) with the Chalky Clay, and so fermed islands in map
No. 2, there is but little of this gravel over them.

Mr. W. H. Dalton, of the Geological Survey, who has mapped
this area, recognizes the distinction of this sandy and often stratified
chalky clay, which I have just referred to the Till from the Great
Chalky Clay of Stage III.; and thus we find the sea-bed of the earlier
part of the Stage 1 am now tracing, which is represented by the
sand 61, passing up, both in North Norfolk and in Kast Suffolk, into
the earliest bed in the formation of which the direct intrusion of
morainic material has played the predominant part, viz. that distin-
guished as 62; for both in places along the North-Norfolk Cliff and
inland, as at Guist chalk-pit, the material of the Till is distinctly
interstratified in the sand. In the Cromer Cliff at Trimmingham, at
Runton, and at Weybourne, the material of the Tull is interstra-
tified with the sands, so that the latter, as also in some instances
seams of pebbles, lie above as well as below it, and this interstrati-

.* See footnote, anzé, p. 466.

_ ee ae

PLIOCENE PERIOD IN ENGLAND. 469

fication is followed by the main mass of the Till reposing more
irregularly upon the uppermost sand layers or pebble bands.

The extent to which the sand 6/ covered the Red-Crag area, as
discussed in Stage I., is obscure; because the yellow stratified sand,
marked ? in fig. I., seems to pass down into the red loamy sand
which, from its occasionally containing indurated bands with casts
of shells, can be recognized as the Red Crag altered, and to some
considerable extent restratified also by the decalcifying agency of
rain-water. ‘This yellow sand at the great scarp at Wilford Bridge
(shown in fig. I.) overlies an irregular surface of the red loamy sand,
and occupies depressions in it, so that but for the bands of stratifica-
tion running through both sands in common they would appear as
distinct formations. As the decalcifying action has, however,
extensively produced apparent restratification by rearranging the
soluble ferruginous and argillaceous materials which by their colour
give rise to the bands of stratification without changing the position
of the insoluble residuum of sand grains, I think that these red and
yellow sands, thus apparently stratified as one, are nevertheless
distinct formations, and that the upper of them represents the
southerly extension of the sand 6/7 as shown in fig. I.; for the
abrupt cessation of the Chillesford beds at Chillesford and Butley,
and their overlay at the latter place and at Aldboro’ by this sand,
seems to me inexplicable otherwise.

This yellow sand is overlain by and, for aught that is disclosed to
the contrary, appears to pass up into the finely stratified brick-
earth marked 63 in fig. I., which is more than 50 feet thick, and
contains chalky silt, chalky grit, and thin bands and patches of
chalky clay similar, except in the smallness of the chalk lumps, to
that of Stage IL1., and which in this respect so resembles the Con-
torted Drift at Weybourne on the North-Norfolk coast. The rem-
nants of this brickearth which have escaped destruction from the
denuding action of the sea during the rise of England in Stage
III. are in the north-east of Sheet 48 considerable, and they
formed shoals and islands during the later part of that Stage as
shown in map No.2; for they extend beyond the line of fig. L.,
another island of this brickearth overlying the yellow sand at
Kirton and Trimley, 6 miles to the south-east of the line in that
figure. Nowhere, however, do we get any thing beyond wells such
as that at Kesgrave, which, after passing through 50 feet of the
brickearth (the actual excavations in it having stopped at 40), entered
the sand, to show the precise relation which it bears to the sand
beneath* ; but every thing points to its being a continuation of that
sand by change of sedimentary deposit. The submarine extrusion
of moraine to which the Till owes its origin does not appear to have
reached so far as this part of Suffolk ; but the clayey and chalky silt
which issued from the ice bottom was here thrown down in the form
of finely stratified brickearth, and in the place of the sand previously
accumulated there; while the material of the chalky moraine was

* At Hasketon it appears to contain and be underlain by gravel beds, as
does the Contorted Drift shown in fig. XV. and that capping Dunwich Cliff,

470 8.:V. WOOD, JUN., ON THE NEWER

occasionally rafted by field-ice and dropped so as to become inter-
stratified in it. The rise of the sea-bed at the commencement of
the gravel c and Chalky Clay caused much of this brickearth to be
washed away by currents, so that channels were eroded through
it, and in these the gravel ¢ accumulated, as the Cromer Cliff so
conspicuously exhibits, especially towards its eastern extremity.
Thus, though from its identity mainly with the Contorted Drift
which overlies the Till along the Cromer coast I have desig-
nated it all as 63, this brickearth in the western part of fig. I., pro-
bably in its lowest part, represents also the Tull itself, the break
occurring between these beds or between 63 and b 1, from Bacton
Cliff in Sheet 68 to the Alde, disappearing in this part of Suffolk,
while still further south all gives place to the gravel 0’, as presently
to be shown. Drift ice carrying portions of the moraine extruded
in shallow water or on the shore (as occurs at places in Greenland),
and dropping it, has doubtless been the means whereby the bands
of chalky clay just referred to have become interstratified in, and
patches of it irregularly scattered through the brickearth. This is
especially the case with this brickearth from Cromer to Weybourne,
where it is also largely made up of streaks of chalk silt. At Blax-
hall (in the south-east of Sheet 50, and 3 miles west of the line in
fig. I.) it contains marl masses similar to those in the Cromer Cliff.
It is clear to me that the ridge of Coralline-Crag rock which had
divided the fluvio-marine from the marine area of the Red Crag, and
been overflowed by the waters of the Chillesford Clay, became, from
the resistance which its hard mass offered to the denuding waters of
the sea again invading this region at the commencement of Stage
IT., an island in them, or more probably, as it is divided by the Alde,
two islands; and that the soft Chillesford beds which had been
spread over this ridge, as well as the uppermost (or Scrobicularia)
beds of the Red Crag which lay up against it or on its flanks, were,
save on this ridge and in its immediate vicinity, everywhere else
in the north-east of Sheet 48 and south-east of Sheet 50, swept
away; so that the sands 67 were here laid down on the lower
beds of both the marine and fluvio-marine portions of the Red
Crag and bedded around these islands. The remnant of these
soft strata thus preserved by contiguity to this rock, and forming
a promontory to the southern of these two islands at Chillesford, is
traversed by the line of fig. I. at that place, and that also which
formed a similar promontory to the other island is traversed by
this line at Thorpe by Aldboro*. A tract of the same beds at
Butley, half a mile wide by one and a quarter long, formed a third
island, divided from the section by the Butley Creek. Beyond this
south-westwards no trace of the Scrobicularia-Crag or of the
Chillesford beds has been left until we come to the beds capping the

* After the Plate had been photo-lithographed I found that by having con-
fused the locality of the section at Snape with that of one in d, to the north-
east of it, two miles of country had been omitted from the line of fig. I.- This
renders the line there tortuous.

PLIOCENE PERIOD IN ENGLAND. A471

Red Crag at Walton Naze and the section at Needham referred to in
Stage I.

It thus appears that during or after the accumulation of beds
67 and 62, but previous to or coincidently with the setting in of the
great submergence of England during which the brickearth 63
was formed, a disturbance of the Lower Glacial sea-bed took place,
which caused the denudation of b7 and 62 over the area between
Sheets 68 and 48.

The masses of marl imbedded in the churned-up mass of the Till
and Contorted Drift in the Cromer Cliff appear to me to have had
their origin and been thus introduced at the time when, from in-
creasing submergence, and particularly from the augmentation of
this in the westerly direction, the ice retreated from the position
which it occupied during the formation of the Till, to take a new
direction to the sea, in accordance with the altered inclination, as
detailed in the sequel. In consequence of this the ice which had
issued through the Humber to form the Till retreated to the top of
the chalk Wold, terminating in the sea where this Wold is lowest,
viz. in South Lincolnshire, and where a vast accumulation of recon-
structed chalk, so pure as, like these marl masses, to be burned for
lime (and which is shown as part of the Chalky Clay in map No. 1),
les up against the chalk a sztw in Sheets 83 and 84. This forms
a range of hills as high, or nearly so, as the Wold itself in that
part; and out of it the Bain-Steeping trough referred to in Stage
IV. has been excavated, this marl forming one side of that trough
and the chalk the other, and at the head of the trough forming a
plateau which is continuous with the Wold-top. Bergs breaking
from the ice thus terminating, carried masses of this accumulation
into the sea and over North Norfolk.

The masses of marl thus introduced into the Contorted Drift of
Norfolk are, in the north of that country, excavated both for agri-
cultural purposes and for lime-making; and their position in the
Cromer-Cliff section appears to me to show that for the most part
they were not introduced until near the termination of the bed 63,
and to have in some cases sunk or been forced through this bed. So
far as the pall of d does not conceal them, I have shown them in
fig. VIII., and have endeavoured there to convey some idea of the
manner in which, as seen in the cliff itself, they occur and are con-
nected with the contortions. They vary much in character, never
consisting of pure unaltered chalk, such as is imbedded and some-
times interstratified in strips of considerable thickness in the Till,
but present all gradations of glacially reconstructed material, from
shattered chalk, with disturbed flint and galls of clay, to removed
and transported Contorted Drift itself. They mostly consist of ma-
terial which is undistinguishable from that part of the Chalky Clay
which I have just described as abutting in thick mass against the
Lincolnshire Wold in Sheets 83 and 84. Sometimes in the inland
sections in the south-west of Sheet 68 they consist of finely stratified
chalk silt, passing from a white to a pale lavender colour, and
splitting up into lamine as fine-as paper. In some instances equally

472 S. V. WOOD, JUN., 08 PHi) NEWER

large masses of gravel have been intvociced into the brickearth,
giving rise to contortions in a simi/ar wsy to the masses of marl.
So far as these masses are found in North Norfolk, so far only,
whether in the cliff section or inland, do the great contortions
extend ; for beyond this area contortions are rare and of trifling
extent, and are due to other causes. The invrocuction of these masses
and the formation of the contortions (wich. as before observed, are
not confined to the upper part of the Lower Glacial formation called
par excellence the ‘‘ Contorted Drift,” durue the accumulation of
which they originated, but often extend (own ts the Lower or Blue

Till part, the sand (67) at the base of it being in some cases even
squeezed out) have evidently been the result of grounding bergs.,
These were of the kind called by Nordenskiold false bergs, which he
describes as large fragments that fall from the perpendicular face of
lofty ice which enters the sea on a shore of easy slope and in water
of moderate depth, as distinguished from true bergs, which are far
larger fragments of a glacier which enters the sea through a nar-
row, deep, and steep- bottomed fiord, and from which they are lifted
and floated off by the buoyancy of the water*. The ice at the
time of maximum submergence resting thus on the chalk Wold,
and terminating in the sea there in the former manner, the moraine
which it formed being chalk, with the slight intermixtures just
described, was extruded into water of no great depth, while deposits
ot a finely laminated character were thrown down from the copious
supplies of chalk silt borne out by the freshwater streams that issue
from beneath the sea-faces of glaciers. The same silt, carried
further, was in that part of Norfolk which extends past Cromer to
Weybourne extensively interstreaked and intermingled with the
brown mud forming the brickearth of the Contorted Drift, its quan-
tity increasing palpably in the direction of the Lincolnshire Wold.
A mass of ice breaking off from the vertical face of this glacier
being of so nearly the same specific gravity as water, and most of it
falling from a height, would enter the water with force sufficient to
carry it to the bottom, which was not deep, and also to force
its jagged surface into that bottom, whence rising it would lift
portions proportional to the size of the berg and to the force with
which it fell. Drifting towards Kast Norfolk, where the submer-
gence was least, these bergs passed to shallow water, so that they
grounded, churning up the soft bottom there; and as they melted
they left whatever they carried, which in most cases was part of the
bottom, which they scooped up as they fell from the glacier. Some-
times, however, where the bottom was gravel, they have, in floating
off again, carried away portions of this, and grounding in Norfolk
have forced this into the deep and soft bottom formed of 62 and 03,
and even removed and reintroduced portions of these beds them-
selves, so as to cause perplexing interruptions to the continuity of
the stratification in the coast-section. The disappearance of these
masses and contortions as these beds thin off east of Mundesley, in
the coast-section of Sheet 68, especially when regarded in connexion
* Geol. Mag. vol. ix, p. 363.

, = >

PLIOCENE PERIOD IN ENGLAND. 473

with the easterly diminution in the submergence described in the
sequel, shows clearly that in this direction the water became too
shallow for the bergs to pass further; but the water deepening, as
we shall see, southwards, some passed in that direction, so that the
marl masses are imbedded in 63 at Blaxhall, in the south-east of
Sheet 50; and were not the intervening space almost all concealed
by the pall of d, they would probably be found there also.

Brickearths anterior to the Chalky Clay are noticed in the Geo-
logical Survey Memoirs as occurring in the north-west of Sheet
64; and Mr. Harrison, of the Leicester Museum, informs me that
the beds of Stage III. are at Oadby, in the north of Sheet 63, under-
lain by a bed of brickearth ; but with the exception of a brickearth
with beds of gravel containing derived specimens of the Portlandian
Ostrea expansa at Stevenage (in Sheet 46), which I regard as 63,
no clear evidence of the Contorted-Drift brickearth is to be found
south of the Stour river, but in lieu of it beds of gravel range to
great elevations all over the south of England; and these I propose
now to trace.

Southwards from the point at which this Drift ceases we find
gravel extending from the bottom to the top of Danbury Hill, and
crowning it at an elevation of 367 feet, as is the case with the
Tiptree ridge (shown in fig. VII.), a few miles to the north of it,
and of which the elevation is less. The highest hills in the south
of Sheet 1 are formed of outliers of the Lower Bagshot, ranging at
elevations of from 300 to upwards of 400 feet; and on these there
is generally no gravel but that of pebble-beds (marked viii. in
fig. VI.), which are either of Bagshot or, more probably, of Diestian
age. Nevertheless these were evidently once covered with this
gravel; for on one of them, that of Warley, at the elevation of
370 feet, I found a patch of it a few feet thick, exposed in digging
the foundation of a house. It was composed of large subangular
flints, of smaller flints, of the Diestian pebbles (probably also of
Lower Tertiary pebbles), and pebbles of quartz, quartzite, and sand-
stone. Billericay Hill, in fig. VI., being identical in its position
relatively to the Chalky Clay with Warley Hill, and of nearly similar
height, I have indicated by an asterisk in thati figure the place on
Billericay Hill which would correspond to this on Warley.

On the line dividing Sheets 1 and 6 the gravel occurs on the
summit of Telegraph Hill, Swanscomb, at an elevation of about
400 feet *.

On Hampstead Hill top, near the Spaniards, at an elevation of
440 feet, a very small patch of this gravel remains, and is shown in
the Geological Survey Map of Sheet’7. In the north of Sheet 6, at
an elevation of 557 feet, gravel occurs on Well Hill, which is on

* The Ordnance records do not contain the elevation of this hill; but, from
a surface-mark of 325 feet to the south-west of it, its elevation cannot, I think,
be much under 400. I have to thank the Director of the Ordnance Sur rvey for
information as to the elevation of some of the places referred to in this memoir,

Q.J.G.8. No. 144. 2K

474 S. V. WOOD, JUN., ON THE NEWER

the northern slope from the chalk escarpment of the Weald; and,
according to the Geological Survey memoir, this caps the Lower
Tertiary outliers at Headley (in the east centre of Sheet 8), which
attain elevations of 618 and 627 feet.

Within the Wealden chalk escarpment, and resting on the Neo-
comian, there occurs another patch of this gravel on Bowling-green,
near Limpsfield. I owe my knowledge of this only to Mr. Topley,
of the Geological Survey, who mapped that district, and who in-
formed me that the gravel was made up chiefly of Lower Tertiary
pebbles and subangular flints, and that its elevation, he estimated,
was between 400 and 500 feet. It is shown in the Geological
Survey map, Sheet 6, and lies about 9 miles south-west of Well
Hill.

Proceeding westwards, along the northern escarpment of the
Weald, we find an extensive sheet of this gravel spread out in
North Hants. That portion of it which lies in the north-west
corner of Sheet 8 extends up to the edge of the Wealden excavation,
for one patch of it overlooks and commands that excavation, lying
at an elevation of about 600 feet at Caesar’s Camp, near Aldershot
(see figs. II. and III.). South-west from this, and stretching
as far as Meadsted in the south-east corner of Sheet 12, this sheet
of gravel spreads out at high elevations over the chalk which bounds
the Wealden excavation here and forms the parting between the
drainage to the Thames and that to the Southampton water. In
the railway-cuttings it is of very irregular thickness and full of
large subangular flints reaching the size of a bullock’s head. From
this point to the extensive sheet of gravel in South Hants the chalk
country, occupying for the most part lower elevations than those
reached by the gravel on either side of it, has been so denuded that
the cuttings of the railway which traverses it from Basingstoke, in
the N.E. of Sheet 12, to beyond Winchester in the north of Sheet 11,
are quite bare of gravel, though the tops of most of them are below
400 feet. On the cuttings of the railway that branches off from
Basingstoke to Salisbury, however, at about 400 feet, a few small
patches do occur, not far from the junction of the railways.

The South Hants, or New-Forest sheet, is delineated in the map
to Mr. Codrington’s paper, page 528, of vol. xxvi. of the Quarterly
Journal, and it occupies parts of the south-west corner of Sheet 11
and south-east corner of Sheet 15. Only small portions of this
gravel formation of South Hants, viz. those of the highest eleva-
tions, belong to the stage now under consideration; the rest has
(except so far as the lower layers of it may represent the gravel at
higher elevations) accumulated during those successive stages of
emergence which are described hereafter. Their relative positions
appear in fig. V. The highest elevation attained by any portion of
this gravel in South Hants appears to be Bramshaw Telegraph Hill,
in the east of Sheet 15, which Mr. Codrington gives as 419 feet.
Westward from this gravels occur at high elevations towards the
south-western extremity of England, patches of gravel, composed of

PLIOCENE PERIOD IN ENGLAND. 475

quartz pebble, remaining on downs, even near the Lizard, at eleva-
tions of 360 and 400 feet*.

Northwards from Hampshire the gravel of the great submergence
is extensively spread over the high grounds of Lower Tertiary and
Chalk in the north of Sheet 12 and south of Sheet 13, reaching
elevations of about 600 feet. North-east from this it ranges over
the Lower Tertiaries and chalk of the north-west part of Sheet 7
and south-east part of 46, gradually, however, falling to somewhat
lower elevations as it approaches the edge of the Chalky Clay in the
last-mentioned sheet. _

Beyond the chalk escarpment, running through Sheets 15, 14, 34,
13, and 46, and outside the limit of the Chalky Clay, the gravel
occurs over the Jurassic formatious up to elevations of 539 feet,
near Oxford (about the centre of the dividing line between Sheets
13 and 45), and to a greater height in the Cotteswold region, occu-
pying the east of Sheet 44. ‘The gravels of this region are described
by Mr. Hull as reaching elevations of 700 feett. Mr. Lucy, in a
paper on the gravels of the Severn, Avon, and Evenlode, and their
extension over the Cotteswold Hills, read before the Cotteswold Club
in 1869, and printed for private distribution, has confirmed this,
as has Prof. Phillips also, in his ‘Geology of the Thames Valley.’ In
this paper and another subsequently read before the Cotteswold Club,
Mr. Lucy describes the occurrence of flints in these gravels at ele-
vations exceeding 600 feet, and the gravels with quartz and quartzite
pebbles up to elevations of 750 feet ; but having found pebbles of
quartz and quartzite, which are so characteristic of these gravels, oc-
casionally at greater elevations still, he infers that the Cotteswolds
must have been entirely submerged. Of this, however, the evidence
does not appear to me reliable, so far as it has been made known.

Patches of gravel at great elevations containing the remains of
marine mollusea, like those in the Moel-Tryfaen bed, occur on the
western edge of the Pennine in Sheet 81, the highest of which ap-
pears to be that found by Prof. Prestwich near the Setter Dog Inn,
above Macclesfield, the elevation of which is stated to be between
1100 and 1200 feet+, while that so long known from Mr. Trimmer’s
discovery at Moel Tryfaen, near the Menai Straits, reaches the ele-
vation of 13850 feet. In describing Stage IV. I shall explain why it
now seems to me that the gravel of these great elevations belongs to
the present stage, and not, as I had long supposed, to the close of
the Glacial period §.

* Budge in Trans. Roy. Geol. Soc. Cornwall, vol. vi. pp. 1 & 91, and Tyack
in same, vol. ix., quoted by W. A. EH. Ussher in ‘The Posttertiary Geology of
Cornwall,’ printed for private circulation in 1879.

t Hull, in Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. x2. p. 477.

t Darbishire, in Geol. Mag. vol. ii. p. 296, They have also been found by
Mr. Close at 1000 and 1200 feet in the east of Ireland, near Dublin (Geol.
Mag. decade ii. vol. i. p. 194).

§ This cardinal error (which I appear to have shared with all other geolo-
gists who have given attention to the Glacial Drift) misled me into supposing
that the submergence of the Weald had accompanied the formation of the
eravel marked f in fig. VI. (Quart. Journ. Geol. Soe. vol. xxvii. p. 3); for, as

2x2

476 8. V. WOOD, JUN., ON THE NEWER

From the Cotteswold region and from Sheet 53 towards Lincoln-
shire gravel does not occur at such high elevations; for, in the first
place, land of such height does not exist in that direction, and in
the second the degrading action of the ice of the Chalky Clay has,
as far as this ice reached, either destroyed the beds of this stage or
its moraine has concealed them; but about the centre of the line
dividing Sheets 62 and 54, near to fig. XVII., and just beyond the
limit to which this ice appears to have extended, Mr. Crosskey *
describes a deep section at Frankley Hill of water-deposited sands
and sandy clays, with erratic blocks derived from Wales, at an ele-
vation of 650 feet. At West Haddon I found a small patch at a
considerable elevation on one of the shaded spaces representing
islands in Sheet 53 of map No. 2 (Pl. XXI.); but most of the
gravel in this direction is that described in Stage III., and distin- .
guished in the plate by the letter c, or that described in Stage V., and
shown under the letter e.

On the eastern slope of the Pennine, however, z.¢. in Sheets 82
and 87, we ought, prima facie, to meet with gravel patches nearly, if
not entirely, corresponding in elevation to those on the western
slope in Sheet 81; but we do not. This has been a subject of great
perplexity to geologists, and theories connected with currents have
been offered to account for the case. The level to which gravel rises
on the eastern slope of the southern extremity of the Pennine does
not appear to be above 350 feet ; and drift of all kinds is said to
be absent above that level on this slope as far north as the river
Aire, in Sheet 92; but north of that river to be present in abun-
dance up to the water-parting itself in Sheet 102, over which the
blocks of Shap granite have travelled from the western sloper.
This I shall discuss in relation to Stage V., merely observing for
the present that the formations of the stage now under considera-
tion appear to me to have been removed from this part of the
Eastern Pennine slope by the ice of the Chalky Clay described in:
Stage III., as they have also over the area at lower elevations
coming within the limit of the broken line shown on Map No. 1.

In the easterly direction towards France the gravel occurs at lower
elevations than in Sheet 6, the principal remnant of it in that direc-

it was clear to me that the Weald had been submerged, and its denudation been
completed principally by marine, and not by river-agency, there seemed no
other alternative than this, if the Chalky Clay had either been synchronous with,
or been followed by, the great submergence. The recognition, however, of the
fact that the submergence preceded that clay removed this misconception and
many others with it. The restoration map, No. II., which accompanies the
paper in the Quarterly Journal just referred to above, in which the submergence
of the Weald is shown, represents, so far as the part south of the North Downs is
concerned, very closely the condition at the maximum of submergence during
Stage II., but not that north of the Downs. The other restoration map to
that paper (No. III.) is, in view of the sequence of events traced in the present
memoir, inapplicable. ;

x “Report to the Brit. Assoc. of the Committee on Erratic Blocks,” Nature,
vol. xx. p. 440. |

+ Dakyns, Quart. Journ. Geol, Soc. vol. xxviii. p. 382,

PLIOCENE PERIOD IN ENGLAND. 477

tion, though probably not representing the height reached by the
submergence there, being the rather large patch on the summit of
Blean Hill, near Canterbury. Gravel also occurs on the chalk pla-
teau of Picardy up to elevations of 130 feet or thereabouts *, thus
showing the easterly fall of the line of submergence.

From France northwards, through Belgium, the shore of the
Glacial sea seems to be very clearly marked by the Campinian sand,
a formation of littoral and partly subaerial (or Dune) origin, which
in some places is underlain by beds of rolled shingle, and in others
passes down into the beds of a foreshoret. This formation, by its
structure, seems to represent the gradual recession of the sea as the
land rose, and so to coincide with the gravel c and e described in
this memoir.

From the more eastern part of Belgium the beds of rolled flints
shown in Dumont’s map, and also described by Belgian, Dutch, and
French geologists, as inferior to the Campinian, appear, so far as
they can be shown to be marine t, to indicate the shore of the same
sea in this direction; and there can be little or no doubt that the
extensive formation of sand and erratics covering parts of Holland
and North Germany, to which these geologists give the term Dilu-
vian, is an accumulation of the same sea asthat which I have traced
as spreading over England after the termination of the Red Crag,
and into which also the flood-waters of the Rhine escaped during
the Glacial summers which gave rise, as they flooded the land near
the mouth of this river, to the Limon Hesbayen.

Pebbles of quartz and quartzite are abundant in the gravel which
caps the contorted Drift on the Cromer Cliff §, as are also in some
places the corroded fragments of marine shells. In varying propor-
tions these pebbles occur in all the gravels which I have described
at high levels. They have been carried down successively in the
Weald as the emergence and denudation of that region proceeded,
and are found there in gravels || several hundred feet below the
elevation up to which the gravels that I have been tracing show the
Weald to have been submerged. In the eastern part of the area
over which I have described these gravels as occurring at high eleva-
tions the flints are in excess of the pebbles of quartz and quartzite,
but in the western these proportions are reversed. The principal
source from which these quartz and quartzite pebbles have come
seems to have been the Triassic conglomerate which ranges through
Sheets 62, 63, 71, 82, and thence northwards, and against which

* Barrois, in Proc. Geol. Assoc. for 1879, p. 31.

+ Vandenbroeck and Cogels, ‘Ann. Soc. Malacologique de Belge,’ vols. xii.
and xiv.

{ The Dutch and Belgian geologists are not altogether agreed to what ex-
tent these “ Cailloux roulés” are marine or not. Anyhow the depression traced
in the present stage carried the sea of the Campinian over a portion of them.

§ These gravels, though marked c in fig. VIII., because they originated at
the commencement of the emergence, and continued as a series during the
formation of the Chalky Clay, are no doubt partially coeval with the gravel of
the culmination of submergence, which is shown in the other figures as 2’.

|| Topley and Forster, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxi. p. 452.

478 S. V. WOOD, JUN., ON THE NEWER

the western edge of the ice, towards the last part, at least, of its re-
treat during the present stage, and throughout its advance during
Stage ITI., rested. Hence their great profusion on that side. In
the case of the gravels accumulated during the advance of the ice
and emergence of the land in Stage III., there is a more intimate
connexion as regards constituent material between them and the
morainic clay, these gravels, where they approach this clay, being
composed, in a most marked way, of the harder materials of which it
is made up, so that they are flinty in the Hastern, and oolitic in the
East Midland counties; while in Sheets 1 and 7 pebbles from the
beds numbered iv. and viii. in fig. VI. form a considerable pro-
portion of the whole material; and in Sheets 66, 67, and 48, the
rolled chalk so characteristic of the Morainic clay is, where the
gravel is overlain by this clay, associated in the upper part with
the flints and quartzites of the overlying morainic mass, in which
position also the sand of ¢ is, in Sheet 66, often largely made up of
chalk grains *.

Up to the time of the setting in of the general submergence of
England, that is to say during the formation of beds 6 7 and 6 2, the
only sea of which we find any indication is that of the Crag, ex-
tended northwards so as to reach the Humber; and consequently,
as the inclination of England, so far as it differed from what it now
is, was more easterly, the ice, which descended from the eastern
slope of the Pennine, pane at this sea, so that the earliest Glacial
accumulation, the Till 62 2, and the basement clay of Holderness
represent the morainic extrusion of this ice on the sands b/ of ils
bottom ; and if there be any other glacial accumulations of similar
age in England, they can only be of a purely terrestrial nature.

After the completion of the great submergence, however, this was
different, and the ice sought the sea in its changed position, travel-
ling to it under the entirely altered inclination of England which
had thus taken place, as we shall see in examining the phenomena
of the Chalky Clay.

To arrive at an idea of what this inclination was, we must com-
pare the evidences of the submergence in the different parts. Cromer-
Lighthouse hill, in fig. VIII., is one of the highest points in Norfolk
which is covered by marine gravel (for shell fragments occur in this
gravel capping the Contorted Drift in the Cromer Cliff), and its
height is 247 feet. The distance from this to Moel Tryfaen, where
the gravel with marine Mollusca les at the elevation of 1350 feet,
being 230 miles, and the difference in altitude 1103 feet, it would,
if the entire submergence were shown at Cromer, as it is at Moel
Tryfaen, give the westerly increment of depression as nearly 4:8
feet per mile; while the distance to Well Hill (where, from the
summit of the chalk downs not having been covered, we get the
limit of submergence at about 560 feet) being 120 miles, it

* At Bealings, in the north of Sheet 48, this presence of chalk in abun-
dance continues in the upper part of the gravel, though uncovered by the clay,
for a mile or so only beyond the limit reached by the aa the chalk disappear-
ing from the gravel beyond this distance.

PLIOCENE PERIOD IN ENGLAND. 479

would give a southerly increment, on the eastern side of England,
of 2-6 feet per mile. As, however, there was an unknown
depth of water over Cromer Hill, we must compare the elevation
of the gravel where it stands against contiguous unsubmerged
summits, as it does at Well Hill, on the flanks of the Chil-
tern and Marlborough hills, and on the eastern slope of - the
Cotteswolds, with its elevation at Moel Tryfaen. Owing to the
uniformity of the level along the north Downs, through Sheets 8 and
12, this increment from Well Hill comes out at a little more than
3°5 feet only; but from the Chiltern and Marlborough hills it is a
little over 4:4 feet; and if we take the limit (750 feet) above which
no actual beds of gravel occur on the Cotteswolds, as the hmit of
‘submergence in that part, it gives the same figure. A mean of these
figures gives very nearly 4 feet per mile for the westerly increment ;
and if we reckon at that rate of decrease eastwards from Moel Try-
faen to Cromer, it would show a submergence at the latter place of
430 feet; but this, from the evidences traced in stage V. of the
amount of the rise during the Chalky Clay, is, I think, more than
was the case. From those evidences, the depression at Cromer
would appear to have been little more than 300 feet, which would
allow upwards of 150 feet depth of water above the general sur-
face of the Contorted Drift, 7. ¢. the parts where this has not
been forced up by the contorting agency; and this would be
sufficient for such false bergs as I have supposed, from Nor-
denskiold’s description, those must have been which carried the marl
masses, to float and ground in. Probably, therefore, 4-5 feet per
mile is as near to the truth as we can get for the westerly incre-
ment. If we take 300 as the limit atCromer, and compare it with Well
Hill, which is distant from Cromer 120 miles, it gives the southerly
increment of depression as a listle under 2:2 feet per mile. On the
western side of England the increment of submergence, instead of
being from north to south, as it is in the east, is the reverse; and
the distance from Bramshaw, in fig V., to Macclestield being 160
miles, there is a northerly increment along this line of between 4 and
5 feet per mile ; and with this the position ot 6’ on the Cotteswolds
at 750 feet agrees. I shall collate these calculations with those
derived from the evidence afforded by the elevation of the junction-
line of the gravel ¢ with the Chalky Clay over itin Stage III., and of
the gravel ¢ over the Chalky Clay in Stage V.

Stage III. The Middle Glacial Sand and Gravel and the
Chalky Clay.

Fig. II. (Pl. X XJ.) is a reduction on nearly the true scale of that
at page 376 of vol. iv. of the Memoirs of the Geological Survey, and
exhibits the position of the gravel of North Hants described in Stage
II. relatively to the Wealden excavation ; and in order to show the
extension of the gravel northwards from the patch at Casar’s Camp in
this figure, I have added fig. III., constructed by myself, in which,
unavoidably, the vertical scale is considerably in excess of the
horizontal.

480 S, V. WOOD, JUN., ON THE NEWER

The ridge of chalk shown in these sections is a low part of that
rectilinear ridge which, running due east and west, is called, as it
rises to greater elevations, the Hogsback, and forms a portion of
the escarpment of the Weald.

Fig. IV., on the true scale, is reduced from a portion of one of
the sections given in the Geological Survey Memoir of the Isle of
Wight, and shows the position of the South-Hants gravel relatively
to the rectilinear chalk ridge which runs through that island and is
continued through the Isle of Purbeck. This ridge and that of the
Hogsback appear to me, along with Portsdown Hill, to be of distinct
origin from the general curvilinear escarpment and foldings of the
Chalk through England, which resulted from disturbances at an
earlier part of the Tertiary period, and to be due to the movements
which accompanied the recovery from the great submergence which
I am about to trace. The denudation which accompanied these
upthrusts of the chalk, both in North and South Hants, has, it
seems to me, removed much of: the Lower Tertiary which, covered
by 62, had previously extended with an easier slope over the
Chalk as the earlier Tertiary movements and denudation had left it.
In one or two places gravel rests on the upturned chalk; and this
seems to me to be a remnant of that which accumulated during the
rise which commenced with this disturbance and denudation.
In order to show the connexion of the isolated bed of gravel on
Headon Hill in this section with the rest of the South Hampshire
sheet, I have added another by myself (fig. V.), in which the ver-
tical scale is also unavoidably in excess *.

Under the influence of an elevatory movement in general over
England, the local convulsions attending which have thus left their
record, the sea-bottom over which the gravel of the great sub-
mergence had been spread began to rise. As it did so, the action
of the waves removed much (most, indeed) of the gravel, leaving it
only in patches of greater or less extent in spots that, from some
particular cause or other, were protected from this action, until by
their emergence they became entirely free from it. Over the rest
of the bottom this action not only removed the gravel, but denuded
the older beds also, so as to produce (or probably, over the formations
older than the Pliocene, in most cases only to deepen) the troughs,
valleys, or depressions which separate these remnants of the gravel
at highest elevations from each other. In these denuded spaces
gravel again accumulated during pauses in the movement of eleva-
tion, which was subjected to the same action in its turn as the
gravel before it had been. Where the slope is easy, however, there
may have been in some cases no denudation, and the gravel at
lower elevations may be that which covered the bottom from the
time of greatest submergence onwards till emergence, such as that
marked ¢ and ¢ in fig. V. Ifso, the gravel e in that figure would
represent ¢ and 0’ also.

* Thave availed myself of the map to Mr. Codrington’s paper in Quart.

Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxvi. p. 528, and the Geological Survey Sheet, in-con-
structing this section.

PLIOCENE PERIOD IN ENGLAND. 481

Over the region of formations older than the Pliocene the extent
to which this denudation has occurred is in most cases not to be
gauged, by reason that so much denudation had preceded this which
we are now considering ; but in Sheets 68, 67, 66, and parts of 48
and 50, or in those parts at least of them where the Chalky Clay in
great thickness has not masked the preceding formations, we can
perceive the way in which this denudation has acted upon the
formations accumulated during stages I.and II. It was in this way,
therefore, that, as the sea-bottom rose, the Contorted Drift became so
much denuded and separated into detached portions, such as those
shown in fig. I., the spaces or troughs between these detachments
giving rise to the Hast-Anglian valleys *,—valleys which, although
thus originating, were, as I shall show in the sequel, further modified
by glaciers from the land-ice of the Chalky Clay.

The spaces thus excavated in and through the Contorted Drift
have been to a great extent occupied with the gravel c, so that the
beds of Stage II. protrude in bosses through it.

The progress of this rise during the accumulation of the Chalky
Clay is shown by the position of that clay (d) relatively to the
gravel. of greatest submergence (0’), and other formations of
Stage II., in the accompanying figures and Map 17.

Fig. VI. shows this along the southern edge of that clay, fig. VII.
along the easternt, and fig. VIII. along the north-eastern—the
highest part of the gravel marked ¢ in this last figure being, as before
explained, partially coeval with that marked 62 in the other two
figures, as well as in figs. II., III., 1V., and V. The amount of
emergence which had taken place when the ice to which this Chalky
Clay was due decayed, I shall examine in the sequel; but from the
clay spreading up against the flanks of the islands, shown in
figs. VI. and VIII., some way above the sea-level of the time, the
amount of this rise is not indicated by the upper limit of the Chalky
Clay in these figures.

* See Harmer and myself in Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxxiil. p. 74.

t The delineation of the Chalky Clay in this map is, with the exception
of Sheet 7, from my own work and that of Mr. F. W. Harmer in Norfolk ;
save that in the east of Sheet 46, south-west of 70, and south-east of 71, I have
been favoured with more accurate delineation from Geological-Survey sources,
through Mr. Whitaker. Sheet 7 is from the Survey map, and is the only
sheet of it that I have seen in which the Glacial beds are given. In the north-
west of Sheet 66 some of the clay is concealed, or its place is taken by the
gravel e’; but as this gravel has resulted from the washin g-out of the clay, as
described in Stage IV., and it cannot be seen how far the clay may have been
thus removed, and both are so mixed up in alternate patches that, on the very
small scale of the map, they would be difficult of separation, the whole is shown
as the clay.

t In this figure VII. the bending of the shading representing the London
Clay was intended to show the folding of the older strata within this hill; but
from a section on the true scale furnished me by Mr. Dalton, of the Geological
Survey, under whose observation the late well-borings through to this hill have
come, the fold is much greater than I have here shown it, and so much so as
to bring beds III. and IV. above the datum line in the centre of this figure.
It is, in fact, exactly that fold which, in the Phil. Mag. for 1864, I showed,
hypothetically, should occur at each successive concentric arc of the series of
which this hill formed a part.

482 S. V. WOOD, JUN., ON THE NEWER

In Stage IT. I have shown that the great submergence extended
from East Norfolk in an increasing degree southwards, and with
still greater increase westwards ; and at the conclusion of the descrip-
tion of that stage I have attempted to arrive at the amount per mile
of this increment. Now the line of gravelly sea-bottom in the
respective regions at the time when the Chalky Clay was deposited
over it, outside the broken line in the map, is shown by the eleva-
tion at which the junction of that clay with the gravel c takes
place; and this will be found substantially to agree with the
increment of submergence traced in Stage II., so far as intervening
irregularities in this bottom do not interfere with the case, this
junction being illustrated by figs. X. to XIII.

Beginning with fig. XIII. at about 40 feet above Ordnance
datum, on the North-Suffolk coast in Sheet 67, this junction rises
to about 80 or 90 feet in the centre of Sheet 66 (see fig. [X.). From
Sheet 67, south-westwards to the north-east of Sheet 1, it rises to
100 feet in the north-west of Sheet 48, to about 170 in the north-
east of Sheet 1 (see Margaretting cutting in fig. VI.), and about
300 in the south-east of Sheet 7. ‘The westerly rise of this line is
greater, in accordance with the increment of submergence, in
that direction, which is traced in Stage IJ.; for from 100 in the
north-east of Sheet 48 it rises to between 260 and 300 in the
south-east corner of Sheet 46 (whence fig. XI. is taken), and
‘thence to about 380 in the north centre of Sheet 53, and if I am
right in my interpretation of Messrs. Crosskey and Woodward's
section (fig. XVII.), to 460 in Sheet 62. Irregularities in the
depth at which the sea-bottom, represented by this junction of
the gravel ¢ with the clay, lay below the sea-surface interfere
locally with the uniformity of this rise of the line; as,” for
instance, this junction at the north end of sect. VI. is at about
150 feet, and in the north of the Roding Channel further west, and
so round to the north-west side of the small island divided by it
from island 3 at very little more, whereas in the south-east of
sheet 7, at Finchley, it is from 280 to 300 feet *, which is a greater
difference than the westerly increment would cause. The height
of the gravel ¢ above ¢, in fig. XVII., shows that the bottom there
also was at one place about 80 feet below the sea-surface. The
north-east of Sheet. 46 also would seem originally to have been a
deep place if the gravel at Arlsey and Biggleswade be that marked
¢; but I think such is not the case, for I failed to find any section
showing it under d.

If we take the position of the clay d representing the moraine
as indicative of that of the icey, we can see that with the depres-

* From the delineation of the gravel in Sheet 7 of the Geological Survey
Map, d@ would appear to be underlain by ¢ all round Finchley; but 1 found the
Chalky Clay resting in places on the London Clay when the cuttings of the Hdge-
ware Railway were in progress. Most of the gravel also shown as ‘“‘pebble” is
the older part of c, being that called by Prof. Hughes, in vol. xxiv. of the
Journal, the “ gravel of the higher plain,’ which had to a great degree emerged
before the ice reached it.

t+ The view to which the earlier study of the subject led me was, that the
Chalky Clay represented moraine extruded under the sea, or left there as the

PLIOCENE PERIOD IN ENGLAND. A483

sion thus increasing southwards and westwards on the eastern, and
northwards and westwards on the western side of England, the ice
at the close of the Chalky Clay entered the sea, which at this time
covered the Thames and Severn systems, and was still sufficiently
deep to submerge some of the water-partings between the Thames
and Severn, and that also between the Severn and the Welland, in
the following way. It entered the sea over the Thames system by
the valleys of the Roding and Lea in Sheet 1, by that of the Colne
in Sheet 7, and over the water-parting, probably then emerged,
between the Ouse and Thames systems in Sheet 46, overwhelming,
as it did so, a small island represented by Stewkley and the country
a short distance around that village, and another represented by
Whaddon Chase ; while in Sheet 53 it entered the Severn system
by the valley of the Warwickshire Avon, which is a branch of the
Severn. The extent to which the water-partings had at this time
emerged I shall examine in Stage V.

Thus we find the partially emerged condition of England at the
close of the Chalky Clay; and it is easy to carry back from it our
ideas to that more submerged condition when the laying down of
this clay commenced, and when ice, which had been in existence
during the formation of the Lower Glacial beds 62 and 6 3 (and, as
shown in describing Stage I., even during the Crag, though it may
not have reached the sea), after retreating in consequence, even in
the east, partly of increasing submergence, but mainly from the
changing inclination of the land, to the higher slopes of the Wold,
began to advance.

The cause of that advance, so far as it did not take place in
the new direction from change of inclination only, seems to receive
its obvious explanation in the elevation of the land from the great
submergence of Stage II., which by gradually exposing a loftier and
more extensive area of the mountain region of the north of England
for the interception of the Atlantic vapour, caused an augmentation
of the ice in taking that new direction which was the consequence
of the changing inclination of England; and it was in this new
direction that the ice to which the Chalky Clay was due advanced.
Seeking the sea, the ice which descended the eastern slope of the
Pennine found, as it crept round the lower flank of the southern
extremity of that elevated region, this sea over the centre of
England, both nearer and in greater depth than in its old direction
of Norfolk and Suffolk, while parts of its former bed in Norfolk
emerged, as shown in map 2 and figs. VIII. and IX.

Sand and gravel (c) accumulated under the sea in the channels
formed by the ancient valleys in older formations, and those

ice receded by increasing submergence ; so that when by this it had retreated
from the Chalk Wold, the Purple Clay was extruded at the time of greatest
depression. This view necessarily became changed when I perceived that the
submergence preceded both these clays, and that they were accumulated during
emergence. The process which I had thus attributed to the formation of the
Chalky Clay applies to that of the Cromer Till and the Basement Clay of
Holderness.

484 S, V. WOOD, JUN., ON THE NEWER

produced from denudation of the beds of Stage II. by the sea as the
land rose, such as are seen in fig. I.; and as by emergence this
gravel reached the surface, it was in many parts destroyed by the
waves while still accumulating in the parts submerged ; but where
it was overspread by the moraine of the ice as this advanced upon
it, while still beneath the sea, in the way presently to be described,
it was more generally preserved, though afterwards to a certain
extent destroyed by the thickening or shrinking of the ice.

In places in Sheets 66, 67, 50, and 47, a band of molluscan
remains, more or less fragmentary and worn, occurs in this sand
and gravel immediately below its junction with the Chalky Clay,
as shown by # in fig. XIII. The species identified from this
band (principally from Hopton, the place whence that figure is
taken) are given in the column of the list in my father’s first
Supplement to the ‘Crag Mollusca,’ headed ‘ Middle Glacial.”
These remains present much the same aspect as those from the
newer part of the Red Crag; but there are some of which no trace
has been found in the Crag, such as Yellina balthica and Venus
fluctuosa, both of which occur in the Bridlington bed, and another,
unknown elsewhere, to which my father gave the name of Trophon
mediglacialis, all of which are not uncommon in this band. There
are others, such as Venus fasciata (which is unique in the Crag),
that occur in this band in great profusion ; and this is one of the
two species found in Sheet 47, the other being Astarte compressa,
also occurring in Sheet 67 in great profusion and in a more perfect
state than any other species than floaters, but which is also common
in the fluvio-marine Crag and in the sand 6 7. There are also other
very small and tender species not known from the Red Crag, but
which are Coralline-Crag shells, and have occurred in the Chilles-
ford bed and fluvio-marine Crag, and whose absence from the Red
may be attributed to the unfavourable conditions of that formation
for their preservation. In the “Introduction” above mentioned
Mr. Harmer and I gave our reasons, based on the character of the
species themselves, for regarding these remains in Sheet 67 as not
having been derived from the destruction of beds of Red or fluvio-
marine Crag age, or from the Chillesford bed; but at the same
time we pointed out that the remains had an origin which was dis-
tant from the place of their occurrence, and had, most of them, been
greatly worn during their transport to it by currents along the
bottom, the larger shells being for the most part fragmentary, but
the smaller species and fry of the larger being often preserved
entire, though worn, while with these were an abundance of the
valves of Balanus, quite unworn, and of the papyraceous valves
of Anomia ephippiwm in a perfect state, but which the least
wear would destroy. The presence of these we attributed to their
having been adherent to floatiug bodies, such as seaweed, and
carried, thus adherent, floating in the currents which moved the
sand with the shells and shell fragments over the bottom, to
subside as they became detached ; all of which I still believe to be
correct inferences.

PLIOCENE PERIOD IN ENGLAND. 485

Now, if we bear in mind that during Stage II. the submergence of
the region to the north and west of the Crag estuary, which had
been land during the accumulation of the Crag beds, took place, and
that the sea-bed thus formed lay directly in the new path which
the ice took in consequence of the change of inclination, viz.
along the west of the Wold and towards Sheet 67, in which these
remains for the most part occur, it is easy to see that such remains
are those of Mollusca which lived during Stage II., and during so
much of the present stage as elapsed previous to their removal; and
may not therefore be altogether synchronous with each other,
though all of Glacial age, being the remains accumulated on the
sea-bottom in some locality favourable for their existence during
this time, which the ice in its advance ploughed out and sent on their
travels. Thus it is that this shelly band, like the débris of the clay
itself, occurs only within some three or four feet of the junction of
the sand and gravel ¢ with the Chalky Clay. It is generally also
immediately beneath or associated with a vein of chalky gravel.

We now come to the question as to how the Chalky Clay,
assuming it, as I do, to be the moraine of the land-ice, was deposited
or accumulated over this sand and gravel.

Within the broken line shown on Map 1 (PI. XXI.), the clay,
as a rule, rests on the Mesozoic formations, without the intervention of
a bed of sand or gravel, though sporadic occurrences of such a bed
are to be found; but I have never met with any instance there
where this affords an example of the junction of the gravel or sand
with the clay of the kind shown in figs. X. to XIII. On the other
hand, the rare instances with which I have met present features
resembling the jagged termination of the clay in fig. XVIII., where
sand has been forced up into the clay. One striking instance of
this kind I found displayed at the base of Graffham-Wood cutting,
five miles W.S.W. of Huntingdon, in Sheet 52, when the railway
from Huntingdon to Thrapston was in progress of construction,
where, besides the surface of the sand being jagged into the clay, a
portion had been detached and imbedded in the clay. Over this
area also the Mesozoic floor on which the clay rests, where it con-
sists of rock, is frequently disturbed, grooved, or twisted. Where
the clay rests on the Chalk, that material is sometimes so altered as
to form a greasy water-holding marl, and often to graduate almost
into the chalkiest form of the clay itself. This greasy chalk prevails
near the Great Kastern Railway about Harling station, where the
Map is shown as uncovered by the clay, in the south-west corner
of Sheet 66. In other parts within the broken line the chalk is
disturbed, and the lines of flint dragged up and displaced to a great
depth, as in the case of a chalk-quarry at Litcham, described by me
in the * Quarterly Journal’ for 1866, p. 84*. This is immediately
west of that line in the N.W. of Sheet 66.

* In this paper I erroneously attributed the ice-action, thus dragging up the
chalk, to the Lower Glacial period. The bed of chalky loam which I there

showed as underlying the Chalky Clay may, perhaps, not do so, but be, as the
gravel shown there under the letter d is, a bed due to the ice melting.

486 S. V. WOOD, JUN., ON THE NEWER

Outside the broken line the formation is usually underlain by
the sand and gravel ¢ in those parts of its area which are shown
as sea in Map 2; except that towards the close of the formation,
in consequence of a change in the mode in which the ice acted,
which I shall describe in the sequel, the ice has, in the same way in
which it has done in the valley-bottoms through which at the close
of the formation it issued to the sea, destroyed the gravel and such
beds of Stage II. as there may have been there, and left its moraine
resting directly upon the older Tertiary and Mesozoic strata. The
way in which the clay sweeps down over the edges of successive
Pliocene beds through which these valleys have been cut, and on to
the older formation which constitutes the valley-bottom, I shall
more fully describe in the sequel.

The clay is thickest where not underlain by any Pliocene forma-
tion, that is to say where it has been heaped up on or against
some of those islands shown in Map 2, which were overwhelmed
or enveloped by the ice, as, for example, near the centre of the
division between Sheets 51 and 47, where the railway excavations
and well at Horseheath showed it to be 120 feet thick; in the
south-east of 52, where it has been banked up against the Neo-
comian sand-hill of Potton, and where the well at Longstow
railway-station traversed 160 feet of it. In the centre of the
same sheet also, over the islands lying between the Ouse and
the Nen, I heard of wells having been sunk through an equally deep
mass of it; and it les deep against the Wold in Sheet 83. Its
thickness where it overlies Pliocene formations, on the contrary,
seldom reaches 50 feet, and is more frequently under 20.

The contact or junction of the formation thus described with the
gravel c beneath it varies in character, and I have selected the cases
represented in figures X. to XIY. for its illustration.

In fig. X. the sand and gravel is not quite abruptly succeeded by
the clay, but passes into it by a few inches of material which is an
intermixture of both. In fig. X1., after the deposition of a small thick-
ness of the clay, the formation of the sand and gravel has been re-
sumed, and the clay thus become interstratified in the sand and
gravel. The process appears to have been tranquil and uninter-
rupted beyond the brief resumption of gravel deposit. Fig. XII.
shows similar features in these respects, but varying in the inter-
stratified band of the clay being thicker and in its slightly bending
down into the sand and gravel. The lower bed of the clay in this
section was much more chalky than the upper, which would show
that in the interval between the deposition of the first portion and the
next, and during which the intermediate band of ¢ was accu-
mulated, the character of the moraine reaching the spot had some-
what changed so far as regarded the proportion of chalk nit. The
band of c thus intervening here was loamy*.

There can, I think, be no question that these instances show that
by some means the moraine of which the clay is composed was in-

* T am not sure that the clay of this figure may not be the Till, and the sand
beneath 47 instead of c, but I think not.

— i ae

PLIOCENE PERIOD IN ENGLAND. 487

troduced tranquilly over a sea-bottom in which sand and gravel had
up to this time been accumulating ; and the question therefore arises
in what way this took place. In the Geol. Mag. for August 1872,
p. 364, Prof. Nordenskiold- gives illustrations of the various modes
in which the Greenland and Spitzbergen ice passes to the sea. In
fig. 6 of Acs illustrations he shows it in no great thickness, pre-
senting a lowand shelving face to the sea, and preceded by a mud-bank
sloping also to the sea and identical in shape with the mass marked
d in the figure (XVII.), which I have copied from Messrs. Crosskey
and Woodward’s notice of sections in the neighbourhood of Bir-
mingham, presently described. This mode Nordenskiold describes
as having given place in one instance, within the space of two
years, to the cutting-out mode of entry, which he shows by his
figure 5.

This advancing mud-bank appears to me to have been the method
by which the morainic material constituting the Chalky Clay was
laid so tranquilly on the gravel of the bottom of the sea over which
the ice was creeping, while it also overwhelmed the islands with
which that sea was studded; and that in this way a cushion was
formed for the ice, which protected the gravel from destruction by it ;
until by the great thickening of the ice nearer its source (7. e. within
the broken line of Map no. 1), it crushed out both the protecting
cushion and the gravel also, forcing it all onward as new moraine,
which it in some parts piled up against and upon the islands which
it had overwhelmed, and in others left on sctw; or until, from the
mode in which it issued to sea having changed to the cutting-out
one shown by Nordenskiold’s figure 5, the gravel and the moraine
at first laid over it were near those issues cut out by the ice to be
replaced by moraine accumulating in places beneath it. Where the
broken line crosses the north-west corner of Sheet 50 this process
is distinctly apparent ; for here, at Knattishall, d resting on ¢ pre-
sents the same condition of stiff heavy clay which is universal
outside this line; but immediately west of Knattishall it changes
abruptly, and resting on the chalk without any of ¢ under it, d pre-
sents, over the part where it extends for several miles to the west of
this village, the condition of a light-coloured gritty moraine, which
some of the pits show to include streaks and masses of this stiff
heavy dark-coloured usual form of the clay twisted up in it. Itis evi--
dent that all this moraine has been formed from the destruction of ¢
and of din the original form in which it was deposited over c, as well
as probably from the destruction of b3, with the addition of chalk
from the floor on which these rested. This general crushing-out
has given rise to the features within the broken line of Map 1, and
the cutting-out I shall describe as prevailing over the parts where
the ice at the close of the formation issued to the sea; for the change
from the mud-bank mode of entry into the sea to this cutting-out
mode seems to have occurred at one particular time over the eastern
area of the formation ; so that the clay with gravel under it, which
occupies most of that part of the area outside the broken line which
appears as sea in Map 2, has the gravel generally cut out of the valley-

488 * _§. V. WOOD, JUN., ON THE NEWER

bottoms, and is fringed at its outer edge with spaces in which
the gravel has been more extensively cut out—such, for instance,
as part of the valleys covered by the clay in fig. VI., which at
the northern extremity of the line of this figure have the gravel
under the clay, but which, as the ice advanced over island No. 3,
have had the gravel entirely ploughed out of them, so that d rests
directly upon the Eocene. Exactly the same thing is shown by the
channel represented by the valley of the Roding which separates
island No. 3 from the next island westward ; for at the northern end
of this channel, close to the dividing line between Sheets 1 and 47,
the gravel in full thickness (as in fig. VI.) underlies the clay, but
thence to the southernmost edge of the Chalky Clay the whole
gravel (except patches of crushed pebbles at the Theydons, at Staple-
ford Tawney, and at Willingdale) has been wholly ploughed out.
In the channel between this island again and the next west of it,
which was constituted by the valley of the Lower Lea, the same
cutting-out has occurred—the gravel underlying the clay in the
north of this chaunel (where it enters Sheets 47 and 48), but being
absent at the southern end, except high up against the edge of the
island in the east of Sheet 7, where (at Finchley) it had been covered
by moraine before the ice shrank in this cutting-out way into the
Lea valley, as I shall presently show it did in the case of all the
East-Anglian valleys.

Where the ice overwhelmed the islands the moraine was sometimes
forced into their surface, where this consisted of soft material.
Fig. XV., taken from an islet of emerged 63, shown in Map 2 (on
the south of the Waveney, and in the north centre of Sheet 50), is
an instance of this.

In fig. X. a [I have, on a larger scale, represented the transition
from the gravel to the clay where, from being at the present time
exposed by slips in the railway-cutting on the east side of Wester-
field station, it can be examined minutely.

In this case the upper portion of the sand and gravel c, perfectly
horizontal and undisturbed, and containing lumps of rolled chalk
derived from the moraine, is overspread by a horizontal band of
yellowish-white marl (d’) from 1 to 13 inch thick. Upon this band lies
one of sand similar to the sand of the sand and gravel c below, and
of about the same thickness as the marl band ; and upon this again
comes another band of marl d’ identical in character and thickness
with the first; and on that the amorphous morainic clay d rests.
This clay here, as it frequently does elsewhere, contains small pockets
of gravel, ¢’. :

These features appear to me to indicate the following process,
viz, :—-First, and while the moraine bank was at some distance from
the spot, rolled chalk-lumps were carried from it and imbedded in
the sand and gravel as this was accumulating. Then, asthe moraine
approached very near, chalky silt, produced from the attrition of
the chalk which makes up so large a proportion of the morainic
clay, was carried into the sea by the stream of fresh water which
arises from the thawing of the surface of the land-ice and of the

PLIOCENE PERIOD IN ENGLAND. 489

snow upon it during summer, and issues beneath that ice; and the
sediment from this produced the first or lowest marl band. Winter
intervening, this ceased, and for the time the deposit of sand was
resumed, giving rise to the thin band of that material which divides
the two thin bands of marl from each other. When from the summer
meltings the stream of silt poured out again, the upper marl band
was laid down ; and before this again ceased the moraine itself came
upon the spot by a process of slide, the material being, from the
water present in it, in the mobile condition of mud.

The commencement of the cutting-out process was (when I drew
it in 1864) visible at two points in the long section of the clay rest-
ing on ¢ given by the North-Suffolk Cliff, in Sheet 67, at Hopton,
the clay being in these spots pressed down into the subjacent sand
and gravel ¢, which near the junction was in consequence disturbed
and squeezed outwards, and the hollow produced by the pressing
down was filled with the gravel ¢ resting on the clay. In these
instances the process went no further; but where the Waveney
valley cuts through the low tableland, of which this North-Suffolk
Cliff forms the section, the clay passing through the gravel c plunges
sharply into that valley down to and under the alluvium, cutting out
that gravel in the same way that is shown in the case of the Black-
water valley by fig, VII.

Fig. XIV. represents the same thing, and is taken from the edge
of the Blyth valley at Bulchamp, the plunging clay lying like a wall
against the sand and gravel; and it was this which, in the earlier
days of my investigation, misled me into the idea that the formation
was faulted.

In fig. XI. the seam of d intercalated in c may so appear from
the section intersecting the point of the mud-bank as first laid down,
followed by a resumption of gravel accumulation before the bank
advanced again, or it may be due to the dropping of material dragged
from the adjacent mud-banks by floe-ice.

In the north-east of Sheet 45 and south-east of 53, the junction
was preceded by the introduction into the gravel of a large number
of rounded boulders reaching to the size of a horse’s head, just as in
Sheet 48 it was preceded by the introduction of rolled chalk. This
I found in a large section at Burcott Wood, near Towcester, in
Sheet 53. )

In the Proceedings of the Birmingham Natural-History Society
for 1870, a section at California, near Birmingham (in the south
centre of Sheet 62), is given with a detailed description by Messrs.
Crosskey and Woodward. ‘This, as it seems to me to show in a
striking manner both the mode in which the Chalky Clay came upon
the sea-bottom, and the way in which the allowance must be made
between sea-bottom and sea-top in tracing the level of the sea at the
close of that formation, as I do in Stage V., by the height of the
gravel over that clay in the parts where it then entered the sea, I
have copied for illustration here as fig. XVII., altering it only to
the extent of applying to the several beds the indicative letters
which correspond to those used in the other figures of this memoir,

Q.J.G.8. No. 144, 21

490 S. V. WOOD, JUN., ON THE NEWER

The bed marked 6 in it is described by Messrs. Crosskey and Wood-
ward as a ground moraine containing striated blocks, and was, I
infer, moraine formed on land prior to the retreat of the ice as the
sea invaded this region during the sinking of the land in Stage II.

The clay so marked d is not described by these gentlemen as con- —

taining chalk ; but I feel no doubt that it is the Chalky-Clay forma-
tion accumulated beyond the limit to which the chalk débris reached
in the moraine, for this débris diminishes greatly through Sheet 63.
They, however, say that it contains pockets of gravel and sand, the
former being small and water-worr ; and this is the case with the
Chalky Clay in many places, as, for instance, in that overlying ¢ in
fig. X., where they are shown by the letter ¢. It seems to me
that at this place the mud-bank entered the sea where this was at
first 80 feet deep, but eventually only 60. The sloping face of this
bank is that which is overlain by the gravel e, while the gravel ¢
represents the sea-bottom on to which it slid. As the morainic
material slid down this face each summer on to the gravel bottom,
it rolled up the gravel deposited thinly on its slope in the interval,
incorporating it in pockets in the clay.

In fig. XVI. (which is about 13 mile south of Guist in fig. VIII.),
a band of ¢, about a foot thick, runs through the Chalky Clay at an
inclination corresponding with the face of the mud-bank in Norden-
skidld’s figure, and with that in fig. XVII. A talus of the clay
over the lower end of it prevented my seeing how this band terminated
in the clay; but it seems to me to be simply the gravel formed on
the sloping face of the mud-bark during a short interval in which no
accession was made to it, and which, when accession took place, in-
stead of being rolled up, was covered by the mud. The absence of
gravel under the elay, which here rests on the Contorted Drift directly,
is thus not due to the moraine being laid down above water; for the
elevation of the section is below that at which on either side of the line
of fig. VIII. the junction of ¢ with d occurs, this junction, though
for the most part destroyed by the subsequent cutting-out action of
the ice along the valley, being still preserved on either side of the
line of that figure, viz. in Fakenham town in the one direction and
3 mile E.S.E. of fig. XVI. in the other.

When, by the retreat of the Chalky-Clay ice, the progress of this
bank in fig. XVII. ceased, the sea, instead of the little gravel it
deposited in winter being rolled up the next summer into pockets
as the mud moved again, deposited without interruption its gravel
(e) over the sloping face of the bank, now no longer recruited
with morainic material. This it did up to the height to which
the sea-surface rose, the bank forming its foreshore, no appreciable
cnange in the level having in the interval occurred. Such gravel,
therefore, though it overlies the clay d, necessarily inosculates
with that marked ¢, of which beyond the tail of the bank it was
the immediate and uninterrupted continuation. The gravel e is
described by Messrs. Crosskey and Woodward as more clayey than
c; and this, I infer, was in consequence of the wash of the waves

PLIOCENE PERIOD IN ENGLAND. 491

against the upper edge of the bank of d, where this bank, after
the ice had disappeared, was left as the foreshore.

According to Messrs. Crosskey and Woodward, the level of the
canal here, where the junction of ¢ with d occurs, is 460 feet
above Ordnance datum. This was the sea-bottom; but the level
of the sea-top is indicated by the gravel ¢, and this was as much
higher than the bottom as that gravel resting on d is above the place
where it rests on ¢ beyond the tail of the bank, which is about
10 fathoms.

It is evident that where, or when, moraine is beneath the glacier,
the ice cannot degrade. If degradation then takes place it must be
effected by the motion, not of the ice, but of the moraine itself’;
and we see an instance of this in fig. XX., where, during the
shrinkage of the ice into the Gipping valley, as shown in fig. Ta,
this moraine has ploughed out the sand ; but as we find large spaces
within the central limits of the Chalky-Clay formation uncovered, or
nearly so, by the moraine—such as those in Sheets 69, 64, 65, and
51— it is evident that it has been stripped from this part as the ice
advanced, to contribute to the material of the moraine which has
been accumulated nearer to the outer edge of the ice.

It is only on the assumption that the moraine, after its first de-
position, formed a protecting cushion to the subjacent rock, that I can
find an explanation of the character of the clay in Sheet 1; for the
clay here contains only the hard chalk of Yorkshire and Lincolnshire,
or of those layers near the base of that formation which crop out
in the west of Sheets 46 and 51. Now, unless the soft chalk of
Sheet 47 had been first covered by a cushion of moraine, and thus
protected from degradation, could the material from it have escaped
forming a part, and that, indeed, much the greater part, of the
chalk contained in the clay in Sheet 1? ‘The case is similar with
Sheets 47, 48, and 50.

It is in this way, then, only that the ice could, it seems to me,
have passed over those parts where newer Pliocene beds, antecedent
to the Chalky Clay, remain undestroyed ; for even in the valleys there
this destruction has occurred from the thickening of the ice, as I shall
show presently. Much of the ice, therefore, outside the broken line
seems to have had no great thickness.

Where this antecedent cushion of moraine has been cut through
by the ice, the floor of older formations is disturbed ; and where this
is hard it is sometimes grooved, and over this disturbed floor later
moraine has been brought. This feature is very conspicuous in the
bottoms of the Norfolk valleys, where they are not concealed by
eravel and alluvium ; but these more recent deposits have filled up
those valleys to so considerable an extent since the ice passed down
them as to conceal to a great degree the phenomena produced by the
Chalky-Clay ice at the period of its greatest extension.

In Map 2 (Pl. XXI.) those parts which rise well above the level of
the junction of the clay with the sand and gravel c beneath it, in their
immediate neighbourhood, are in shade, and so appear as islands

8 Up

492 S. V. WOOD, JUN., ON THE NEWER

around which this sand and gravel accumulated, as appears also from
figs. VI., VII., and IX. A comparison of this with Map 1 in
the field will show that this delineation is thus founded on actual
evidence from the broken line as far as the edge of the clay. Be-
_ yond this edge the delineation is based on the continuation of
the rise of the sea-bottom represented by this line of junction,
according to the increment of submergence traced in Stage IL,
which very fairly agrees with that of the line of this junction
as far as it extends, and with that of the line of the gravel over the
clay (¢) which I shall trace in Stage V. Within the broken line, over
the part where the junction has been for the most part destroyed,
this delineation is continued only in outline, and on the basis of the
decrease in the submergence eastwards towards Norfolk. The result
shows, in my view, a very close approximation to the geographical
conditions when the ice had reached the broken line. So far as the
land may have risen during the advance of the ice beyond it, and
before the shrinkage into the EKast-Anglian valleys took place, the
representation would not be exactly synchronous in all its parts; but
this part of the rise was, I think, too small to make any appreciable
difference in the representation. The small islands or islets in
Sheets 48, 49, 50, 66, and 67 represent protrusions through the
erayel c of the beds of Stage II. such as those in fig. I., and they are
probably far more numerous and extensive than shown in the map—
those shown being only such as, occurring beyond or at the edge of the
Chalky Clay, or exposed by breaks in the pall of that clay, can be thus
detected. Most probably the tablelands out of which the river-
valleys of these Sheets have been excavated are to a great degree
formed of similar islands covered up by the Chalky Clay, such as that
on the south bank of the Waveney, from the summit of which
fig. XV. is taken, and where the moraine which overwhelmed
it has been forced or wedged into the surface of 63. Where the
moraine did not so entirely cover them we see this to have been
the case with the Wensum valley, which in the centre of Sheet 66
is thus formed, the long peninsula to the large island numbered 1
in Map 2 constituting the northern, and a small but long island the
southern side of that valley near Norwich.

The representation thus given in Map No. 2 may be regarded as
that of the case when two thirds or rather more of the total rise,
which in Stage V. is traced as having taken place during the forma-
tion of the Chalky Clay, had been accomplished.

The condition of Central and South Greenland is, from Rink’s map,
evidently that of a number of islands overwhelmed by land-ice, the
channels between which form the fjords through which this ice
issues to the sea; and the cases of England and Greenland would be
identical, were it not that only the very narrow fringe of the archi-
pelago which skirts Davis Straits remains uncovered, whereas in
England the islands which remained uncovered were more extensive ;
and, owing to the more rocky character of Greeniand, many of the
channels there are much deeper than were any of those in England,

Se mee a

PLIOCENE PERIOD IN ENGLAND. 493

On the vegetation of this uncovered fringe the Greenland rein-
deer feed.

Compared with the condition of England at the period of greatest
submergence, this map would present great differences, for in
a representation of the state of things at that time every island thus
shown in Sheets 1, 2, 48, 49, 50, 66, 67, and 68 would disappear,
as well as some of the smaller islands in the other Sheets, while all
the rest would be reduced in size.

A comparison of this map with that numbered 1 will show to
what extent these islands were overwhelmed by this clay; but it is
singular that the western part of that one of these islands through
which the division-line of Sheets 51 and 52 runs, and which part
is formed of the yielding Neocomian sands of Potton and Sandy,
rising to no great height, should, though enveloped on all sides by
the ice, not have been overwhelmed by it, the clay (and possibly,
therefore, the ice also) not having covered it. This is the case also,
though to a less extent, with the island formed of the same sands
around Woburn, in Sheet 46.

The labour which my friend Mr. Harmer gave to the work of
mapping Sheets 66, 67, 68, and 69, and the care, skill, and minuteness
with which he accomplished this task, enable me to trace exactly
the course which the ice took after overwhelming the west of island
No. 1 and the islands to the south of it.

The long narrow peninsula which juts out south-eastwards is,
like all that part of this island which occupies Sheet 68, formed of
the beds of Stage II., capped by so much of ¢ as had emerged pre-
viously to the particular time of this description. Omitting d and
e, the beds forming the northern end of this peninsula were at this
time as shown in fig. VIII. At the southern end they were as
shown in fig. [X., and without much or any capping just there of
previously-emerged c. This peninsula was flanked on its southern
side by the narrow island of similar formation to which I have
already adverted as forming the south side of the Wensum valley,
near Norwich, and which also divides the valley of the Wensum from
that of the Yare. This island has probably a greater extension
north-westwards than is shown, or was one of a chain extending in
that direction now concealed by the almost Sean arly pall of the
Chalky Clay there.

Entering upon the Wensum fjord thus ean: the ice laid the
Chalky Clay over c; for Mr. Harmer and I found it in that position
low down in this valley in a temporary excavation in Fakenham
town, though in that part of the valley, and for some distance also
south of the part which is crossed by the line of fig. VIII., the
junction has been generally destroyed by the subsequent cutting-
out action of the ice. That part of island No. 1 which lies in
Sheet 66 was not (owing to reasons given in Stage V.) overwhelmed
by the ice, which only rose against its southern flank, where it laid its
moraine (d) in the way shown by fig. VIII. Passing thus south-
eastwards, it laid its moraine over c, which had been and still was
accumulating in the fjord represented by this valley, then partially

494 S. V. WOOD, JUN., ON THE NEWER

excavated by marine action out of the beds of Stage II., and also
over the south flank of island No. 1, some way above the sea-line,
which is represented by the junction of ¢ with d. This it did as far
as the south-eastern extremity of the peninsula, which juts out south-
eastwards nearly to Sheet 67, where, on the western side of this
peninsula, d for a wide space rests on c, but above the line of the
junction on 6 3, just as it does against the corresponding slope of the
main part of the island in fig. VIII. The eastern slope of this
peninsula, as well as the unshaded part beyond it (which represents
the valleys of the Bure and Ant), are free from d; and the ice did
not reach this part, save that where a very narrow neck to the
peninsula is shown the ice seems to have for a brief time overtopped
it, as minvte patches of the clay occur at the heads of valleys there
which are tributary to that of the Yare. Constrained thus by this
peninsula, it, so soon as it reached its south-eastern extremity, ex-
panded north-eastwards over the shallow sea there so as to reach
the north of Sheet 67, covering the sea-bottom formed of ¢ in this
Sheet, as well as the islets of 63 which were interspersed in it;

and thus the coast-section in this Sheet is merely that which, omit- -

ting the later beds, is presented by the coast-section in Sheet 68
from Bacton south-eastwards plus the moraine of Chalky Clay spread
over it.

Fig. [X. shows the way in which, after d had thus been laid upon
c in the fjord, the shrinking of the ice, presently to be explained,
destroyed, along the Wensum and Yare valley, this first result of the
ice-action, and brought about those features which this valley now
presents.

It should be borne in mind that the elevation of the line of junc-
tion of d with c along this valley and elsewhere falls eastwards in
accordance with the original decrease of submergence in that direc-
tion, and shows the inclination of the land to have been propor-
tionately different, even within Norfolk, to what it now is. To this
mainly, but possibly in some slight degree also to the rise of the
land during the process, is due the rise in the elevation of the junction
line from between 30 and 40 feet in Sheet 67, to 90 feet in the centre
of Sheet 66, and to a still higher elevation near the head of the
Wensum valley. |

Where the moraine entered the sea at the termination of the
Chalky Clay it is covered by gravel, as traced in Stage V., which was
the resumption in these places of that gravel-deposit which, beyond
the limit to which the ice reached, had been going on uninterruptedly
throughout its advance in the parts still submerged and not invaded
by the ice. This, of course, was only resumed up to the level to
which the progress of the emergence had brought the sea-line in the
different parts when the ice disappeared. In the case, however, of
the gravels of Norfolk and Suffolk which overlie the clay, they have,
as I shall attempt to show in tracing Stage IV., resulted from a dif-
ferent agency than the sea, that part of England having at this time
nearly all emerged. Prior to the formation of these gravels, how-
ever, the ice had shrunk from the position it occupied when thus

PLIOCENE PERIOD IN ENGLAND. A95

laying down the Chalky Clay over Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex, and Kast
Middlesex ; and, uncovering much of the moraine so laid down, had
cut through that part of it which had been deposited in the channels
and interspaces of denudation, and, deepening these, thus formed the
valleys of these counties, which it occupied to a depth, in the east
of Norfolk and North Suffolk, below their present bottoms. As the
valley of the Yare about Norwich affords the best evidence of this
action, I propose to trace it by evidence more particularly in that
part.

In the year 1866 my coadjutor in the task of working out the
Pliocene structure of Norfolk, Mr. F. W. Harmer, discovered’ that
clay, similar to that which covered the high grounds through which
this valley was cut, rested in the bottom of the valley on glaciated
chalk. Hence, to distinguish it from the general outspread of the
Chalky Clay over the higher ground, and from the Cromer Till, he
called it a “‘third Boulder-clay ;” and this was Commumicalied to
the Society*.

Soon after this the progress of the excavations for ae sewer-works
at Norwich brought to light the circumstance that morainic clay, of
the same physical character as that of the high ground, lay in asso-
ciation with sand beneath the gravel and alluvium, and much below
the level of the Yare river; and this Mr. Harmer and I communi-
cated to the Society +.

Shortly afterwards, in the formation of the branch railway to
Cromer, a cutting was made through the hill forming the northern
side of this valley, at Thorpe, near the well-known crag-pit of that
place, and also just above one of the two instances of this “ third
Boulder-clay ” to which Mr. Harmer had called attention; and so
much of this cutting as had not been sloped, I have represented in
fig. XVIII.

It is clear from this and from fig. [X. that, after d had been laid
in the way I have traced it upon ¢, in the fjord represented by the
first excavation of the Wensum-Yare valley out of 63 (and probably
b1 also), it was ploughed off by the action of ice moving along the
valley, and a confused mass of sand and brickearth resulting appa-
rently from the forcing upwards of the beds 61, 63, and ¢, to the
place where this part of the clay resting upon c had previously been,
and so in a jagged way into the ploughed-off edge of the clay. <A
very little way to the west of this section, and on the same slope of
the valley-side, was a pit, showing a deep section of the Contorted
Drift, much twisted about and forced into ¢; and inasmuch as the
Contorted Drift is everywhere near Norwich free both from the
marl-masses and from the contortions produced by their introduc-
tion which are so abundant in Sheet 68, it is pretty clear that the
disturbance of that drift which is shown by this pit-section was
due, not to this cause, but to the same passage of the ice down the

* Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxiii. p. 87.
+ Quart. Journ. Geol, Soc. vol. xxv. p. "446, I think now that this sand must
have been similar in position to that in fig. XX.

496 S. V. WOOD, JUN., ON THE NEWER

Yare valley which has produced the appearance of the beds exhi-
bited by fig. XVIII.

In the valley below both these excavations lies the “third
Boulder-clay ” (d), resting on chalk, which is glaciated and converted
into the greasy marl, already spoken of, and which is shown in
fig. IX. by the letters 1’. On the opposite side of the river, in the
lower part of the southern side of the valley, is the long-known
crag-pit of Whitlingham; and there the chalk, with the crag over-
lying it, is in a similar disturbed state, the lines of flint showing
that it has been forced upwards by lateral pressure.

In many places in this valley, and in the tributary valleys of the
Wensum and Tese, where the floor is chalk, evidences of the same
occupation of the valleys by ice after their first excavation are
afforded by the presence of morainic clays, generally resembling that
on the high grounds, but sometimes more chalky in character. These
mostly rest on glaciated chalk, similarly to that in fig. [X.; but in
some cases in the Wensum-valley bottom I have found this under-
lain by a gritty sandy accumulation, which I regard as moraine pro-
duced by the destruction of 62 or 68 and ¢.

The alluvium sheet in the valley of the Wensum and in that of
the Yare and its tributaries west of Bramerton, lying lower than
the floor of chalk on which the Pliocene formations repose, the evi-
dences which I have been describing of their former occupation by
ice are thus not altogether concealed there. In the valley of the
Waveney (in the N. of Sheet 50, S.E. of Sheet 66, and S.W. of
Sheet 67), however, this is otherwise, and the entire floor of that
valley is, with the exception of some prominences of chalk protruding
at Diss, concealed by the alluvium up to and above the base of the
Pliocene formations. We are thus deprived of the opportunity of
examining whether this valley was subjected to the same action as
were those of the Wensum and Yare. As, however, the Chalky Clay
at the very source of the Waveney, where it takes its rise at Lopham-
ford, plunges over the valley side and passes under the alluvium,
and, as I shall show, the next principal valley to the south of
the Waveney, that of the Gipping (near the centre of Sheets 50
and 48), has been subjected to the same kind of action as that of
the Wensum and Yare, there can scarcely be a doubt that the valley
of the Waveney has also.

This valley forms one continuous trough with that of the Little
Ouse river, which flows in the opposite direction to the Waveney,
and through the north-west of Sheet 50 into the Great Ouse in
Sheet 65; and both rivers take their rise in a marsh at Lophan,
where the valley, or trough, is as wide as it is much further
down, either in the east or west direction. The late Mr. J. W.
Flower always (but in ignorance, I believe, of the facts attending
the position of the Chalky Clay) insisted upon this feature being
irreconcilable with the theory of the valleys or, rather, the one
continuous trough having been excavated by the rivers that take
their rise in it at Lopham, and run thence in opposite directions;
and so, in my opinion, it is; but the position of the Chalky Clay

PLIOCENE PERIOD IN ENGLAND. 497

in this trough, applied to the phenomena disclosed by the Yare
valley, clears up, it seems to me, all difficulty, and proves that
the Hoxne paleolithic brickearth, so well known to geologists by
the description of Prof. Prestwich, is of the age of the Chalky
Clay itself, though of the latest part of it.

The sections of Mr. Prestwich* show clearly that this brick-
earth could not have accumulated while the Waveney valley was in
its present state. It must have been formed either before the valley
was excavated through the Chalky Clay or when, after having
been formed, it was filled up again. Mr. Prestwich (unaware, I
presume, of the position which I have described as occupied by
the Chalky Clay in the valley bottoms) adopted the first alternative ;
and he attributed the patches of gravel, which extend along the
upper edges or brows of this valley for several miles in this part,
to the deposit of the Waveney when it flowed over the Chalky
Clay at this high level, and before it had excavated its valley.
To this period and to this condition of things, as I understand
his memoir, he refers the Hoxne brickearth, which has been de-
nuded on one side by the formation of the valley of the Goldbrook,
a stream flowing into the Waveney hard by.

The lateral valley of the Goldbrook, thus on one side excavated
out of the paleolithic brickearth, must no doubt be, if not wholly,
at any rate partially, of posterior formation to this brickearth ; but
such is, I think, clearly not the case with the valley of the Waveney;
and the explanation which I offer of it, and which appears to me
quite sufficient, is that when the ice of the Chalky Clay, shrink-
ing into these valleys and creeping through them, ploughed-out
the long trough in which the Little Ouse and Waveney now run,
it filled this up, so that the drainage produced from the thawing
during summer of the land-surface (and which surface, the ice
having shrunk from it, had become covered with vegetation),
not being able to escape into the valley, formed a lagoon there—
a ‘‘Marjelen See” in fact; and that this drainage, collecting what
debris there was scattered. over the land-surface and swept by the
melting snows, carried it into the lagoon. In this way the imple-
ments of man and the remains of land and freshwater organisms
described by Mr. Prestwich were introduced into the brickearth.

The connexion of the thin envelope of sandy gravel, which Mr. Prest-
wich shows as wrapping the denuded surface of this brickearth, I
defer for consideration in Stage IV., its connexion being with the
melting of the ice in West Norfolk, and with the sand and gravel
resulting from this, which are described in reference to that stage.

All the East-Anglian valleys exhibit this plunging behaviour of
the clay—that of the Blackwater being illustrated by fig. VII., and
that of the Gipping by figs. I. and I.a. Both of these valleys pre-
senting this feature at the point where the laying down of the
Chalky Clay upon c by the precession of the mud bank became
arrested, they furnish important evidence of the change in the mode
of ice-action which occurred towards the close of the formation,

* Phil. Trans. 1860, p. 304.

498 S. V. WOOD, JUN., ON THE NEWER

and so continued until the ice disappeared. I have therefore given
some examples of the way in which we find the moraine in the
Gipping valley.

Fig. XX. (which is about a mile south of the line of Sect. I. A)
Seems to show very clearly the passage of the moraine down the
valley, and the ploughing out of the sand by it.

In fig. XIX. (which is three miles north of this in the same
valley, and is given to illustrate Stage IV.) the Chalky Clay, plunging
into the valley, as shown in fig. I.4, rests on the same thin bed of
dark-coated flints of Lower Eocene age over chalk which is present
in fig. XX. The figure is as the Section appeared when I copied it,
in the year 1864; but I am informed by Mr. W. Whitaker that the
Chalky Clay may now be s seen in one place to be forced wnder this
Eocene bed.

The thickening of the ice in the valleys and its shrinkage from
the position it occupied when, by pushing its mud-bank before it, the
moraine was laid over c, and the change from that mode of deposit
to the cutting-out method, is not confined to Kast Anglia, but is shown
generally along the outer edge of the formation ; as, for instance, on
the heights on the western side of the Lea valley at Finchley, in the
east of Sheet 7, the clay rests on ¢, as it does also on the opposite
side, in the extreme north-west corner of Sheet 1, and so eastward
through the channel bounding the small island in that part; but
from this position it plunges some way down the western side of the
Lea valley in Sheet 1, cutting out ¢ entirely. The same thing occurs
with the valley of the Welland, in the north-west corner of Sheet 52
and south-east of 63, d resting upon ¢ on the heights, as at Des-
borough Railway Cutting, but in the valley bottom at Harborough,
on the Lias. In the case of the Avon valley, in Sheet 53, it rests
on ¢ at the elevation of about 380 feet in the Kilsby tunnel, and
many surrounding sections on the plateau south of Rugby, mentioned
by Mr. Wilson; but in the valley-bottom at Rugby, 100 feet below
this, it rests on the Lias*.

It is not, however, merely where thus shrinking into valleys that this
change from deposition over gravel to the cutting it out occurred
towards the end of the formation ; for the same thing appears where
the ice advanced against the water-partings between the Ivel and
Ouzell in the east of Sheet 46, and the Ouse and Thames systems in
that sheet and in the east of 45; and which partings, though shown
open in Map 2, had at the close of the formation emerged.

Thus it seems to me that though Nordenskiold describes the change
from the mud-bank to that of the cutting-out mode to be continually
occurring in Greenland and Spitzbergen, this change took place in east
Suffolk and Norfolk at one particular stage, which was when about
80 feet out of the total rise of the land which occurred during the
formation of the Chalky Clay that I shall deduce in describing
Stage V. remained to be accomplished ; though nearer the ice source,
as, ¢.g., in Sheet 53, this did not occur until the close of the deposit,

* Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxvi. p. 200. Report of Rugby School Nat,
Hist. Society for 1873.

PLIOCENE PERIOD IN ENGLAND. 499

the gravel ¢ reaching everywhere there to as great an elevation as ¢
does. This change seems to me to have been produced in Kast Anglia,
which is the area most remote from the ice source, either by a
diminution in the supply, or by the greater increase in the distance
of the sea which emergence produced in the shallower area to that
which it produced in the deeper; so that where the ice reached the
sea furthest from its source, it did so by shrinking into the valleys
earlier than it did in the parts nearer.

The interglacial age claimed by Mr. Skertchley for the brickearth
near Mildenhall and Brandon, with paleolithic implements and mam-
malian remains, which occurs in the 8.E. corner of Sheet 65 and
the N.E. corner of Sheet 51, has not yet been admitted generally by
geologists.

This brickearth is underlain by the Chalky Clay with some rough
gravel between in places, and in some sections has this clay also over
it. Itseems to me that this brickearth was formed by the drainage
issuing westwards from the inosculating valleys of the Little Ouse
and Waveney and from the valley of the Lark, when, though the ice
was wasting and had withdrawn from those valleys, a large body of
it still remained where this had been throughout in greatest thick-
ness, 2. ¢. within the broken line of Map No. 1.

It is to be borne in mind that, according to the inclination of the
land at this time, the escape of this drainage was not, as now, either
to the North Sea or to the Wash, but south-westwards; and it is
reasonable to suppose that after the Kast-Anglian valleys had been
vacated by the ice, and this main mass of it still remained, though (so
to speak) in retreat, this retreat might be arrested and changed
into a slight advance by some temporary reinforcement from the
Pennine. Such a temporary advance bringing the ice against the
deposits of this drainage would carry Wee: moraine over
them.

Inasmuch as the arboreal and other organic remains described
by Mr. Prestwich as present in the Hoxne bed prove that at the
time of its accumulation-the stream which supplied the sediment for
it drained a surface that was occupied by arboreal vegetation, and sup-
ported great Mammalia, it seems to me that at this time the moraine
which had thus been uncovered by the shrinkage of the ice into the
valleys must have become clothed with such vegetation. This associa-
tion of arboreal vegetation with inland ice is not in accordance with
what obtains now in arctic latitudes ; but it may have been other-
wise in the comparatively low latitude of England during the Glacial
epoch. The observations, however, which I have to make on that
point, as well as on the coexistence or not of the great Mammalia
(most of which could not have existed without arboreal vegetation
to support them) with the land-ice in England, I defer to the second
part of this memoir.

500 S. V. WOOD, JUN., ON THE NEWER

Stage IV. The Gravel resulting from the Ice melting in part of the
area which had risen above the sea-level.

The events of which I propose to trace the evidence during this
stage, though gradual and far from cataclysmic, occupied but a short
time, geologically speaking. In Stage V. the fall of the line of marine
gravel (¢) over the Chalky Clay is traced from upwards of 500 feet in
Sheet 62 to its disappearance at Ordnance datum in Sheet 50, as
well as the amount of rise in the land which took place during the
formation of that clay, from both of which it results that the whole
of Norfolk and North Suffolk, with the exception of the parts at
lowest elevation in the west of these counties, had at the close of
that formation risen above the sea-level, and that the ice which
passed through the Norfolk valleys to the North Sea reached it
beyond the present coast of Norfolk.

There is, however, in Central Norfolk a large formation of gravel
occupying elevated areas over the Chalky Clay, and distributed in
alternate patches with it, which is, with slight exceptions, such as
that mentioned (in Stage III.) at Stewkley, peculiar to that county—
this clay, except such as falls below the line of the gravel ¢, being
everywhere else bare and bald.

The greatest mass of the ice lay within the broken line of Map No. 1,
up to which, as I have already described, it destroyed and recon-
structed all the earlier part of the moraine laid down over gravel ;
and we may therefore infer that when it had toa great extent shrunk
into the Norfolk and Suffolk valleys, an immense mass of it lay
high on Western Norfolk, and overlooked the Wensum valley from
the west.

In Greenland the melting of the snow on the surface of the land-
ice during summer causes torrents of water to pour through fissures
in this ice, which eventually issue beneath its termination into the
sea; but this water, from the surface-thawing of the ice in West
Norfolk, would pour from it into the Wensum valley, filling that
valley above the ice which occupied it, and flooding the surface of
the moraine which the shrinkage had laid bare.

It is to the currents of water thus poured from this mass of ice,
after the shrinkage began, that I attribute those extensive beds of
gravel which have been described by Mr. Harmer and myself under
the name of “ Cannon-shot,” the principal extension of which is
in the west of Sheet 66. Here, for the most part, they consist of
thick beds of flints rolled into the shape and dimensions of the now
obsolete cannon-shot of from 12 to 32 lbs. calibre, and even larger ;
and we attributed their origin to some local modification of the
Chalky Clay formation by powerful currents, for we sometimes found
imbedded in the gravels heaps of sand formed almost wholly of
chalk-grains. ;

Another feature of these gravels is, that above the confluence of
the Wensum with the Yare, near the centre of Sheet 66, they are
confined to the western slope of its valley, and to the plateau on

PLIOCENE PERIOD IN ENGLAND. 501

the west of it; but immediately to the east of this confluence three
great accumulations of gravel, containing (in the westernmost of
them at least) a considerable intermixture of the cannon-shot flints,
occur at Mousehold, Poringland, and Strumpshaw, apparently resting
at the two latter places on the Chalky Clay. The Mousehold and
Strumpshaw accumulations are on the plateau of the north side of
the Yare valley, the former extending to within a mile of the
northern end of fig. 1X.; and the Poringland one is on the southern
plateau, two miles from the southern end of fig. IX.

Under the conditions of westerly inclination, already described as
existing throughout the Chalky Clay, the part of the Wensum-Yare
valley which lies east of this confluence had a different fall from
that which it has now; for though the bottom of it has been found
at Yarmouth to be 170 feet below the marsh*, this at the time under
consideration, when all the county had a more westerly inclination,
stood proportionately higher eastwards; and the valley being filled
with ice up to, and probably somewhat above, the level at which
fig. XVIII, occurs, there would have resulted an expanse near this
confluence which, if filled with water above this ice, would have
been of considerable and lacustrine extent. North of this confluence,
however, the Wensum valley (especially where it crosses from
Sheet 68 to Sheet 66) would have much the same fall as at present.

It seems to me that the torrents of water which issued from the
edge of the ice that thus rested high within the broken line and over-
looked the Wensum valley, pouring into that valley above the ice
which occupied it, by their torrential character washed out much of
the Chalky Clay here, and rolled the great flints in it into the
cannon-shot form described. Hastwards and southwards from the
place of the ice in mass here, this gravel gradually loses the cannon-
shot character, becoming finer and the great spherical flints fewer.
The three large beds of this gravel—Mousehold, Poringland, and
Strumpshaw—appear to have accumulated in the expanse just de-
scribed while the Yare valley still remained filled with ice. East-
ward of this the gravel along the Yare valley edges becomes finer,
and is seen covering the Chalky Clay thinly on the cliff-top on either
side of Lowestoft, where this clay overlies the gravel ¢; and thickly
overlying it where this clay, cutting-out that gravel, lies in the
valley of the Waveney at Somerleyton brickfield and the railway-
cuttings at Mutford. The-finest material was carried further and
spreads widely over South-western Norfolk and North-west Suffolk,
while numerous patches of this gravel in its finer condition occur
along the edges of the Waveney valley. These latter Mr. Prestwich
identifies with the thin wrapper of gravelly sand which envelops the
denuded edges, and covers the whole surface of the paleolithic brick-
earth of Hoxne; and in that identification I agree. From Hoxne
westwards the same bed, increasing in thickness, and often becoming
a thick deposit of only sand, stretches northwards into inosculation
with the cannon-shot form of the deposit in the north-west of

* Prestwich in Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xvi. p. 449.

502 S. V. WOOD, JUN., ON THE NEWER

Sheet 66; while in the same thin form in which it wraps the Hoxne
brickearth it stretches westwards to Brandon and Mildenhall, where,
according to a section prepared by Mr. Skertchley which was sent
to me, it wraps the paleolithic brickearth and the Chalky Clay with
which that brickearth is overlain ; and in the north-east of-Sheet 51
and south-east of 65, and some way over the division-line into the
corresponding parts of 50 and 66, it in this thin form covers the
country, Chalky Clay and Chalk alike.

This, in my view, is the finer part of the spoil resulting from
the melting of the surface of the eastern edge of the great mass of
ice lying within the broken line after the shrinkage into the valleys
to the east of 1t had taken place, and the Hoxne lagoon had dis-
appeared. The volumes of water thus pouring over Norfolk being
unable to escape readily by reason of the ice still occupying the
valleys, the gravel which it produced by washing out the moraine,
and the large flints which by its torrential force it rolled inte the
cannon-shot form described, were thus left on the plateaux and brows
of the valleys, the large stones nearest the water source, and the
smaller stones and sand carried furthest; but as the ice gradually
wasted out of the valleys this spoil became deposited in their bottoms
and on their slopes, forming in this way the beds e’, shown in the
Wensum and Yare valley in figs. VIII. and IX. Hence the fact,
otherwise so difficult of explanation, that these gravels form a series
from the higher to the lower levels, and cannot be separated, albeit
that the valleys thus containing them had been wholly excavated
before their accumulation.

In its escape through the valleys, as the ice in wasting permitted
it, this water denuded the Hoxne brickearth, forming or enlarging
in so doing the lateral valley of the Goldbrook ; and as it sank away
it left the thin wrapper formed of gravelly sand which it carried over
the denuded surface of the brickearth. During all this it must be
remembered that the principal escape of the water was westward, in
accordance with the different inclination of the land at the time.

The sheets of gravel that eventually accumulated in the valleys
from this agency, and form, as I have said (if sections be selected
from different parts of the area at different levels), an unbroken series
with the beds on the plateaux, are so distributed that their relative
presence andabsence inclosely contiguous areas in the same valley are
explicable in my view on no other hypothesis satisfactorily, because,
since we find that the Norfolk valleys had been excavated to more
than their present depth before the termination of the Chalky Clay,
it is obvious that gravel in them which rises, as some of this in the
valley does, to 50 feet above the river at Norwich, cannot be due to
the deposit of the rivers in a former more voluminous condition.
That rivers during so much of the Glacial period as succeeded the ice-
melting which I have traced, did occupy these valleys in greater
volume than at present I fully concede; but in the east of Norfolk
and north-east of Suffolk their gravels must be below the surface of
the alluvium which now fills up these valleys, the sea-level in that
part of England having been at, and for some time after the close

PLIOCENE PERIOD IN ENGLAND. 503

of the Chalky Clay below its present line*. When the position of
the Chalky Clay in the Norfolk and Suffolk valleys had not been
detected, particularly the remarkable instance disclosed by the Nor-
wich Sewer-works, the theory of the gradual erosion of the valleys
by the action of a river from higher to lower levels seemed plausible,
and the deposition of the gravels in a series extending from a higher to
a lower level seemed primd facie a reasonable hypothesis, as, whether
true or not, it may still appear in areas outside the action of the
newer Pliocene land-ice ; but such an explanation seems to me quite
to fail before the evidences connected with the East-Anglian valleys,
which the researches of the past 10 or 15 years have disclosed, and
we must, I submit, seek other explanations. |

The flood-waters produced by the ice-melting, which I have
described so far as I have traced it, seem to me to supply this ex-
planation, were it not that there would, without some other, be as
much difficulty in supposing these valleys, if the escape were free,
filled with water from the ice melting up to this high level, as there
would from the snow-melting of an ordinary arctic or subarctic land
surface. Nothing, it seems to me, but an impediment to the free
escape of it could have kept the water at levels necessary for the de-
position of gravel in the otherwise inconsistent way in which we find
it there, and this impediment the unequal melting of the ice filling
the valleys seems to me to supply.

For instance, in the valley of the Yare, at Norwich, a little west
of the line of fig. [X., the valley-gravel rises to a height of about
50 feet above the river, and is seen in the railway-cuttings carried
through it, near the Norwich (Thorpe) station; but though at a
much lower level than this, the clay d in the valley-bottom in
fig. [X. shows no trace of gravel on it. Numerous instances of the
like kind occur in this valley and in others of this part of England ;
and at Tharston in the valley of the Tese, a tributary of the Yare,
a tumultuous accumulation of this gravel contains strips of the Chalky
Clay imbedded in it.

The similar infilling of the Waveney valley by alluvium to that
of the Yare, and up to greater height, as regards the floor of the
Pliocene formations, conceals, as I have said, the evidences of these
interglacial phenomena to a great extent there ; but the chief part,
if not all, of the gravel in the bottom of that valley appears to
me to belong to this glacier-ice-melting, and not to the river. It
forms an extensive sheet for some miles on both sides of Bungay,
rising only some 10 or 15 feet above the ailuvium ; and an extensive
sheet of it fills the valley of the Little Ouse, patches also occurring
on the higher slopes‘.

* During the depression of the east of England belowits present level, which
I shall, in the second part of this memoir, show took place during the forma-
tion of the Cyrena brickearth f”, river-gravel may, however, have formed in
these valleys, and be mixed up undistinguishably with e’ in their bottoms.

t So far as land or freshwater shells may occur in these gravels (which it
would seem, from a statement by Mr. Flower at p. 50 of the 23rd vol. of the
Quart, Journ., has not yet been the case) we must remember that the Hoxne

¥

504 8. V. WOOD, JUN., ON THE NEWER

In the valley of the Gipping the evidence is similar to that of the
Yare. ‘Thus there is no gravel over the Chalky Clay along the line
of fig. I. a or in fig. XX.; but in fig. XIX., which is distant only
13 mile from it and half a mile from the line of fig. I. a, a thick
bed of gravel lies against a low cliff of the Chalky Clay; and it is
not to any sinking of the land, but to the rise of the flood-water
from impediments offered to its escape by the ice in the valley, that
I attribute the position thus occupied by the gravel.

The gravel thus bedded up to the cliff in fig. XIX. has a great
development in this Gipping valley about Claydon, and thence north-
wards up the valley to Needham Market, a space of about 4 miles
in length, extending high up the sides of the valley; but above
Needham there is no such feature, what gravel there is being the
Middle Glacial (¢) cropping out from beneath the Chalky Clay by the
valley denudation; while from Claydon seawards such gravel as
there is in the valley lies at a much lower level, skirting the allu-
vium, and is part of that traced in Stage V. as indicating the posi-
tion of the sea at the close of the Chalky Clay.

From this it would appear as if by some glacier ice remaining in
the valley below Claydon, and blocking up the escape of the flood-
water, this water accumulated in the upper part of the valley be-
tween Claydon and Needham, and when standing at the level of the
top of the chalk in fig. XIX. wore away the clay cliff; after which,
by the persistence of the dam, the waters from the ice-melting rose
higher and bedded their gravel up to, and probably over, this cliff,
and so up the valley as far as this arrested water extended; and
upon the dam disappearing the water escaped too quickly to leave
any of this gravel over the valley below, in its rush probably rather
denuding than depositing. South of this valley we lose these fea-
tures, and in the valley of the Blackwater traversed by the line of
fig. VII. we seem to get evidence of the sea entering the valley as
the glacier ice dissolved, and depositing sand and gravel over the
moraine.

In this case the Chalky Clay cutting out the gravel ¢ and occupying
the bottom of the valley, passes up by very gradual change into a
sandy brickearth, at first blue and full of chalk, and much like the
clay itself for a foot or two, then becoming brown sandy brickearth
for a few feet, and then almost as gradually changing to gravel. A
section showing this at Appleford bridge (over the Blackwater, one
mile north of the line of fig. VII.) was given by Mr. Harmer and
myself in the 33rd vol. of the Journal, p. 111, and we were then
under the impression that the clay in it was a bed at the base of
the gravel c¢; but Mr. W. H. Dalton, of the Geological Survey,
found, from a series of well-borings, that the clay in question is the
Chalky Clay making the plunge which I have described as occurring

bed containing these shows that the surface of the uncovered moraine was
inhabited by them. Mr. Flower always, though without suggesting how, clung
to the opinion of the palzolithic gravels of the Little Ouse district having
been due to flood or cataclysmic action. See also last note, i

PLIOCENE PERIOD IN ENGLAND. 505

generally in the valleys, and that therefore the gravel oecupying
that valley pretty uniformly up to a level of about 100 feet above
Ordnance datum is not the gravel ¢ cropping out from beneath the
Chalky Clay, but gravel posterior to this clay.

The transition shown by this Appleford-bridge section from the
Chalky Clay to the gravel which rests upon it in the valley-bottom
seems, from the description of Mr. J. M. Wilson*, to be entirely
analogous to that which occurs in the railway-cuttings near Rugby,
in the valley of the Avou, where that gentleman describes this clay
(which there makes a similar plunge into the valley of the Avon,
cutting-out the gravel c) as changing imperceptibly into the quartzite
gravel, which I am about to describe in Stage V. as extending over
the western edge of the formation.

In the excavation of the trough, which is occupied partly by the
upper portion of the Bain river, and partly by the Steeping river
in Lincolnshire, however, we get what seems to me to be one of the
most conspicuous results of the ice melting. This deep and steep-
sided trough is formed on its north-east sides by the escarpment of
the Chalk wold, shown by the dotted line in Sheets 83 and 84, and
on the west by that massive deposit of the Chalky Clay rising to a
nearly equal height with the Wold, of which I have spoken m
connexion with the marl masses in Stage II. The petty streams
of the Bain and Steeping which occupy it could in no conceivable
conditions of climate have possessed the volume necessary to have
wrought its excavation, even if the general facts pointed in that di-
rection ; but we have seen, in the case of the Hast-Anglian valleys,
that rivers, so far from having had any thing to do with their exca-
vation, have only filled them up to their present alluvium level. The
excavation of this picturesque trough of the Bain and Steeping seems
to me to have resulted thus.

The sections referred to in the footnote + will show that the head
of this trough commences where the Chalky Clay is bedded up to and
buries the Wold escarpment. ‘This and the fact that the Wold forms
one side and the Chalky Clay the other side of the trough, indicate
that when the Chalky-Clay ice began to dissolve the clay lay
continuously up to the escarpment along the line of the trough. The
Wold itself is bare of the clay, the whole of the vast mass of the
chalk degraded from it by the ice having been swept over its
escarpment into the depressed area of Central Lincolnshire ; so that
what is nevertheless a part of the Chalky-Clay moraine consists of
reconstructed chalk, pure enough to be burnt for ime. So long as
the ice continued to move it kept up this supply of moraine
from the Wold, and no fissure was allowed to form between the
Wold escarpment face and the moraine thus swept over it; but
when, from the diminution or cessation of the movement of the ice,

® Report of the Rugby School Nat. Hist. Soc. for 1873, p. 10.

+ For the structure of these valleys, see sections of paper of Mr. Rome and
myself in Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxiv. p. 161 ; also plate of sections accom-
panying paper by myself in Geol. Mag. for January 1878.

Q.J.G.S. No. 144. 2M

506 8. V. WOOD, JUN., ON THE NEWER

this supply either diminished or ceased, the water arising from the
melting during summer found its way between this escarpment-
face and the moraine, and having once done this, it, by the ever-
increasing quantities pouring from the ice in its dissolution, soon
swept out the clay, and washing it into gravel, contributed to that
spoil of Lincolnshire, hard white chalk, which, together with the
red chalk of the same county, is found in the Cotteswold gravels,
presently to be described. Patches of the gravel resulting from
the spoil of the Bain-Steeping trough still remain in it, as at Hag-
worthingham (where they cap low hills which were formed out of
the Neocomian beds by this denudation), and they are of the cannon-
shot kind.

The narrow spaces in Map No. 1 (Pl. X XI.) uncovered with the
shading representing the Chalky Clay are the river-valleys of the
region, the rivers of which are delineated in Map 2. These the ice
in shrinking cut out. At the close of the Chalky Clay the sea lay
to the west of it, deepening in that direction towards the Atlantic,
and it lay in a shallower condition over a part of the German Ocean.
Judging from the elevation of the gravel line resting on the Chalky
Clay, the sea at this time still flowed up the Lea valley, end, but for
the intervention of a space of higher ground near Dunstable, would
have formed a strait between the sea in Sheet 1 and that in Sheet 46.

The water parting between the systems of the Ouse and Thames
in Sheet 46, and that between the Nen and Avon in Sheet 53,
appear at the close of the Chalky Clay to have just emerged ; but that
between the Welland and the Avon (which is part of the Severn
system), in the 8.E. of Sheet 63, was still beneath the sea-level of that
time; and it was through the Welland valley and over this parting
that material from the washing-out of the Bain-Steeping trough
evidently was carried into the sea over the Severn system, and
imbedded in the Cotteswold gravel in Sheet 44.

In the case of the valleys in Sheets 70 and 83, though all these,
except such as le in the extreme west of the sheets, now drain
to the Wash, yet at the time of the ice-retreat this was, owing
to the different inclination of the land, I consider, not the case;
and since, as we have seen, the moraine entered the sea over
the upper part of the Trent system by the valley of the Soar
in Sheet 63, so did the sea enter the rest of the Trent system
from the west as the ice vacated it, and the whole area of
that system became occupied by the sea, so that this covered the
Jurassic escarpments in the north of Sheet 86, but declined to lower
elevations in the direction of the Wash, the line of the gravel e there
falling nearly to the level of the existing sea-line. The principal,
perhaps the only one of these valleys which has been thus reversed
is that flat one of the Witham and its affluents, for it is along the
valley of the Langworth, one of the affluents of this river as well as
that of the Witham itself below its confluence with the Langworth,
that this gravel line descends from the summit of the escarpments in
the north of Sheet 83 towards the Wash.

In this direction, therefore, further part of the water from the ice

PLIOCENE PERIOD IN ENGLAND. 507.

melting probably escaped, passing out into the Trent basin instead
of into the Wash.

The valley of the Cam, occupying as it does the space bare of
the Chalky Clay that extends through the south-west and centre of
Sheet 51, has evidently been all of it excavated by the ice of this
clay ; and I am informed that phosphatic nodules from the gault of
this valley-bottom occur in the Chalky Clay overwhelming the
island lying east of it,in Map 2. I shall attempt in the second part
of this memoir to show that the valleys of all the rivers running
through the area of the Chalky Clay to the Wash were entirely ex-
cavated by the ice which I have been describing, the rivers them-
selves having had no share in the process beyond removing (after
or as the country acquired its present inclination) part of the
gravels that first accumulated in them.

Stage V. The Period of the Purple Clay of Yorkshire and of
the Gravel e.

Beyond those parts of Norfolk and Suffolk where the Cannon-shot
gravel and other spoil of the ice-water occur, the Chalky Clay pre-
sents that invariably bald surface of heavy land which forms the
principal wheat-growing area of England. Along the edges of the
valleys through it there occur small patches of gravel occasionally,
which rise to greater heights westwardly, until along the edges of
the formation nearest to the sea of the period we find it more gene-
rally overlain by gravel. The places where this occurs are those
where the ice at the close of the formation entered the sea. In the
north of Sheet 48, where the line of the sea-level of this period
begins to rise above that of the present day, we do not find this
gravel (¢) overlapping the Chalky Clay so as to rest upon it, but only
as forming a sheet immediately below the lowest or plunging part
of the clay, in the manner shown by figs. I. and I. 4, and here it
reaches the elevation of about 25 or 30 feet. As it extends due west-
wards, however, through Sheet 48 up the valley of the Stour, this
gravel covering continuously the wide valley-bottom gradually rises
in accordance with the westerly increment to an elevation of 60 feet
before reaching the boundary between this sheet and that numbered
47. Proceeding southward we find it continuous with c to the east
of the (Essex) Colne in the south of Sheet 48, while to the west of
that river it lies outside the flat-topped tablelands, covered with the
gravel c, to which the moraine did not reach. Separated from ¢ by a
denuded slope of London Clay, it lies between it and that part of the
gravel which is marked f in fig. VI., and which skirts the coast in
Sheet 2, and touches in Clacton and Holland cliffs, at a low elevation,
the south centre of Sheet 48 before disappearing in the North Sea.
As it sweeps into the estuary of the Blackwater it is shown at the
eastern extremity of fig. VII.; its elevation at Tolleshunt, which is
beyond the limit to which the moraine reached, corresponding with
that it reaches over the moraine at Braxted. Entering the valley of
the Blackwater this gravel there passes over the Chalky Clay where
this accumulated, after the change in the mode of deposition which I

, 2m 2

508 5. V. WOOD, JUN., ON THE NEWER

have described, from the mudbank to the cutting-out method, in the
bottom of that valley. Here, in the Blackwater issue of the ice to the
sea, it lies at a height of about 100 feet*. It enters the valley of the
Chelmer, the next river south of the Blackwater, and there passes
undistinguishably into the lower part of the gravel, which extends
up the northern and eastern slopes of Danbury hill to the summit ;
for the Chalky Clay not having reached those sides of this hill, the
formation of gravel there went on uninterruptedly, so that 0’, c, and ¢
are continuous, as, but for the interposition of the Chalky Clay, they
would be on the western slope of the ridge in fig. VII.

Along the northern slope of the Thames valley small patches of
gravel occur at various heights, representing that which, having
accumulated there while the Chalky Clay was forming, was mostly
washed away before it emerged. Of these one at Laindon Common
is traversed by the line of fig. VI.; and they also occur above the
edge of the Chalky Clay in valleys tributary to that of the Thames,
such as that of the Roding, in those places where having emerged,
and the ice not having reached so high or so far, this has not de-
stroyed them. None of these, however, pass over the Chalky Clay ;
but in the railway-cutting through the hill above Chipping Ongar, in
the fiord or channel represented by the Roding valley, a considerable
bed of gravel was exposed, resting on. the Chalky Clay that had been
deposited by the ice which ploughed’ ‘out that channel. This is the
lowest point to which the clay destends the side of the Thames
valley, or of any offset from it, such as that of the Roding, and its
elevation is nearly level with the 175-feet mark on Ongar station.
This is in the Roding issue to the sea.

Mr. Prestwich, in vol. i. of the ‘ Geologist,’ p. 241, describes the
Chalky Clay as both overlain and underlain by gravelin the railway-
cutting at Brickett Wood, near the centre of the north part of Sheet
7. The elevation of this cutting is about the same as Brickett- Wood
station, which is 256 feet. This is in the (Hertfordshire) Colne
issue to the sea.

In the west centre of Sheet 46 I found the Chalky Clay overlain
by from 3 to 5 feet of red gravel on the hilltop at Southend
Stewkley in a clean section. This point is on the summit of the
water-parting that here divides the drainage-system of the Ouse
from that of the Thames, and its elevation is 482 feet; but as it
forms a small island in Map 2 (Pl. XXI.), occupying the centre of
the opening represented by those portions of this parting which are
below or but little above the line of the junction of c with d in their
vicinity, and the gravel was very coarse and flinty, I do not regard
it as a part of that which I am now describing, but as having been
derived from the melting of the ice that had mounted this island,
and lay high above the sea, and as similar to that of Norfolk de-
scribed in Stage IV. (e’). The channels which here had, at the
stage of emergence shown in Map 2, connected the sea over the

* Freshwater shells have been found in some of this gravel near Braxted ; but,

of course, as the sea retreated by the further rise of the land, the fresh water
followed it.

PLIOCENE PERIOD IN ENGLAND. 509

Thames system with that over the Ouse system were on either side
of this island; and in one of these, at Winslow-station brick-field,
I found that the Chalky Clay (underlain by c) had over it a bed of
gravel full of quartzite pebbles. The Ordnance mark denoting 277
feet elevation is on the bridge near this brickfield ; but as Winslow
is at the head of the Ouse drainage-system, and the parting between
this system and that of the Thames, though open (by way of the Ray,
at least) at the time represented by Map 2, had, I think, emerged
by the close of the Chalky Clay, the gravel over the clay here, though
of the same age as ¢, does not occupy, as in the cases just men-
tioned and those about to be mentioned, the actual issues of the ice
of the Chalky Clay to the sea at the close of that formation.

Mr. Lloyd, in describing the Drift of the Avon valley, gave the
elevation of the quartzite gravel there in Sheet 53 as reaching
386 feet*. He does not, however, distinguish to which of the
gravels that he groups together as the Older Drift of this part this
elevation applies; but from the notices of its occurrence around
Rugby, given by Mr. Wilson in vol. xxvi. of the Journal (p. 192),
particularly at Cawston, Clifton, Shawell, and Newton, it would
appear that the gravel over the Chalky Clay in the north-east of
this sheet ranges nearly or quite to this height (the clay there
being also underlain by the gravel ¢), while at a lower elevation it
caps the clay plunging from this position into the valley of the Avon
and cutting out ¢; for it is described by him, in the report of the
Rugby School Natural-History Society for 1873, as there passing
imperceptibly downwards into the Chalky Clay, just as I found itin
similar position in the Blackwater valley crossed by the line of
fig. VII. This is in the Welland and Avon issue, the deepest and
broadest apparently of all the issues of the ice to the sea, except
perhaps that of the Trent.

Proceeding from this part directly towards Moel Tryfaen, we
get, at Birmingham, near the centre of the south of Sheet 62, the
section of Messrs. Crosskey and Woodward, which I have copied in
fig. XVII. Here the gravel e¢ appears to reach the elevation of 520
feet. This seems to be in the (reversed) Trent issue.

In all this, both in the direction southwards from Sheet 48
and westwards from Sheet 1, we find the increment of submer-
gence so far agreeing with that traced at the end of Stage II.
that, from the part where this gravel rises above Ordnance datum
in the north of Sheet 48 to the place of Section XVII. being 140
miles and the rise 520 feet, it gives a westerly increment of 3°7 as
against the 4°5 feet per mile in Stage II., while from the same point
to Ongar cutting, in Sheet 1, the distance being 70 miles and the

* Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxvi. p. 216. The gravel reaching this elevation
is that distinguished by Mr. Lloyd with the letter A. Mr. Lloyd’s bed B, where it
occurs in the Lias districts, is the Chalky Clay, and elsewhere it may be its
marine equivalent, as may alsobe his C. His D is the Middle Glacial (c). All
these he puts together asthe Older Drift; and his other, or Newer Drift, indi-
cated by succeeding letters, is that of stages subsequent to this portion of my
memoir.

516 s. V. WOOD, JUN., ON THE NEWER

rise 175 feet, it gives for the south-westerly increment 2°5 feet per
mile, or the same as that traced in Stage IJ. From this limit in
Sheet 62 the line of the gravel e falls in a corresponding way towards
the Wash. In Sheet 63 its elevation seems much the same as in 53,
and for it I rely on the observations of Mr. Harrison, of the Leicester
Museum, who has kindly done some field-work for me there, and
whose measurements of altitude have been by aneroid. Here also cis
much preserved beneath the Chalky Clay, ent through, nevertheless,
by the plunge of the clay into the valley of the Soar, in accordance
with this feature, as | have described it elsewhere. The highest
point at which he found gravel was Saddington, 464 feet. This,
however, may perhaps be the gravel ¢ emerged before the moraine
reached it and left uncovered by it, or it may be the gravel 0’, or
possibly, as it is on one of the islands in the south-east of the sheet,
eravel of the ice melting (e’); but at 376 feet, at Kibworth, was a
section of sand and gravel uncovered by the Chalky Clay, and con-
taining masses of that clay imbedded in it. In the various sections
which he found, only those at Oadby, in the east centre of Sheet 63,
at 320 feet, showed the Chalky Clay clearly overlain by sand or
eravel, which in one instance lay irregularly several feet deep on
the clay, while in another the clay passed up into a sandy bed full of
quartz pebbles and flints, which agrees with the description Mr.
Wilson gives of the passage upwards of the Chalky Clay into the
quartzite gravel near Rugby. In this district the gravel lies close
up to the water-parting between the Welland and Avon at Husbands
Bosworth, as well as to the partings between the tributaries of the
Soar, a part of the Trent system, and those of the Swift, a part of the
Severn system, and maintains much about the same elevation which
it does around Rugby.

Mr. Mackintosh mentions finding the Chalky Clay on the Triassic
escarpment near Gainsborough (in the north-west of Sheet 83)
passing up into quartzite gravely. This clay, I presume, is an ex-
tension of’ the patch shown by me in the south-west of Sheet 86 ;
and the gravel, like that crowning the Jurassic escarpments in that
sheet (but most of which rests on the Jurassic rocks directly), to be
the deposit of the sea entering the drainage-system of the Lower
Trent after its vacation by the ice.

_ North-east from 63, through Sheet 71, and as far as the west of
70 (in consequence of failure of health before I could work this area)
T have not been able to collect other evidence as to gravel covering
the Chalky Clay. In the centre of Sheet 83, however, Mr. Rome
and I found an extensive formation of gravel setting in at the
western edge of the westernmost of the two lines of small patches
of the Chalky Clay running northwards through that sheet and
spreading out extensively in the west of Sheet 86, where, as just
said, it crowns the Jurassic escarpment. This begins a little north
of Lincoln, in the valley of the Langworth, at an elevation of less
than 100 feet, whence it rises northwards. It seemed to pass

* See Note, p. 527. +t Quart. Journ, Geol. Soe. vol. xxxvii. p. 185.

PLIOCENE PERIOD IN ENGLAND. 511

over the Chalky Clay (for there is generally none under it in this
region*), but we found no section to show this distinctly except at
Langton, near Wragby ; but the greater part of its range is where
none of this clay has been left.

As this gravel extends north-westwards it rises gradually, so that in

Sheet 86 it crowns the escarpments at elevations exceeding 200 feet,
as deseribed by Mr. Rome and myself in the 24th vol. of the Journal,
having there been called by us “Denudation gravel,” under the
somewhat erroneous idea that it was connected with the denudation
of the Chalky Clay. From central Lincolnshire towards the Wash
the line of this gravel descends through the valley of the Witham
to very low elevations, so as to become undistinguishable from the
line of that surrounding the Wash, which is to be described in the
second part of this memoir.
» Within this circuit of gravel and above its line of elevation the
Chalky Clay everywhere, save where patches of gravel of the kind
described in Stage IV. occur, presents a naked surface, which could
not be the case if submergence in general had succeeded its deposi-
tion.

A comparison of the elevation of the line of gravel e with that of
the gravel 0’ should show the rise of England in the interval; but
in the neighbourhood of the Chalky Clay, 6’ caps only isolated hills,
the depth of water over which at the culmination of the submergence
we have nothing beyond the general increment of depth westwards and ~
southwards to show. Thus in fig. VII. ¢ is less than 200 feet below 2’,
but it is 260 feet below 0’ on Danbury hill, which forms a promontory
on the north side of island No. 3, and is only 7 miles to the south-
west of fig. VII. At Ongar, ¢ is scarcely 200 feet below the patch of 0’
which I found on Warley hill, while it is 265 below that on Hamp-
stead. If, however, we compare ¢ at Ongar with 0’ nearly 26 miles
due south of it, on Well Hill, against the unsubmerged summits of
the chalk downs close adjacent, such as those at Knockholt, and
allow for the southerly increment which I have estimated at the
end of Stage II.as a little over 2°5 feet per mile, it gives a difference of
a trifle over 300 feet. If we compare ¢ at Brickett Wood in the Colne
issue to the sea at 256 feet with 0’ on the skirts of the Chilterns at
600 feet or thereabout, and allow for the westerly increment, we get a
difference of about 250 feet; but I have not been able to ascertain
. with any precision the highest points reached by 3’ in that position,
and it may be more than 600 feet. Comparing e at 380 feet around
Rugby with the highest level at which gravel actually occurs on the
Cotteswolds, we get a difference of about 370 feet, but if the
westerly increment be taken into account, of 280 feet only.

The further west, however, that we institute the comparison the
more do we approach the conditions of an increment of northerly
depression, such as is deduced in Stage II. between South Hants

* At two or three places (Ranby, Market Stainton, and Brough-on-Bain) in
this neighbourhood there are patches of gravel which is either in or under the
. Chalky Clay or is part of the first spoil produced by the washing-out of the
Bain-Steeping trough ; but they are of very small extent indeed,

512 S..V. WOOD, JUN., ON THE NEWER

and Macclesfield, and lose that of the opposite direction, so that
the terms of comparison become obscure. Thus the westerly in-
crement of 4:5 added for the 30 miles distance, at which ¢ in
- fig. XVII. lies nearly due west of Rugby, would make the eleva-
tions ef ¢ at Rugby and Birmingham closely coincide, the elevation
of e in fig. XVII. (judging from that of the canal mentioned by
Messrs. Crosskey and Woodward) being about 520 feet. A compari-
son, however, of this latter with 0’ on the Cotteswolds at 750 feet,
without any allowance for southerly or westerly increment (the two
places lying nearly on the same meridian), would show a rise during
the Chalky Clay of only 230 feet ; but as the place of fig. XVII. and
the Cotteswolds are both in the line from Macclesfield to South
Hants, along which in Stage II. I have described the northerly
increment of 4°5 feet per mile as obtaining, and fig. XVII. is 25 miles
nearer to Macclesfield than the northern extremity of the Cottes-
wolds, an allowance at this rate would augment the 230 to 342.

On the whole we may, 1 think, take 300 feet as a very close
approximation to the true amount that England rose between
the culmination of the submergence and the time when the ice of
the Chalky Clay began to retreat and make room for the deposit of
e over its moraine in the part where it had issued to the sea; and
though we cannot suppose this rise to have been precisely uniform
over the whole of England, it is, I think, clear that no considerable
recovery from the preponderance of westerly depression had up to
this time occurred. This amount of emergence would have brought
central Norfolk to its present elevation, as deduced in Stages II.
and LY., East Norfolk being higher than this, but West Norfolk
lower.

The elevation of e around Rugby, extended with the increments
just discussed to the water-partings in question, would show
that at the close of the Chalky Clay the water-parting between the
Thames system by way of the Cherwell and that of the Severn by
way of the Itchen or the Leam (branches of the Avon in Sheet 53),
which lies at an elevation of about 450 feet, had emerged, and that
the parting by the way of the Evenlode and the Stour (tributaries of
the Thames and Avon) in Sheet 44, which lies at a very similar eleva-
tion, could have had but little water over it. Nevertheless the passage
over it, which I have to describe, of the red and hard white chalk
from the washing-out of the Steeping trough described in Stage IV.
(the red chalk at least, when im situ, being confined to Sheet 69 and
the sheets north of that) shows that there was water enough to float
ice of some sort; and the difference between the elevation of this
water-parting and the elevation up to which the submergence of the
Cotteswold during Stage II. clearly extended is just about 300 feet.
The parting (on the south of the Cotteswolds) between the Thames
and Severn systems in Sheet 34, by way of the Swillbrook and
Somersetshire Avon, and which rises to about 300 feet, remained open
until later; but the emergence of this is connected with the events
to which the concluding part of this memoir has reference.

The evidences afforded by the Cotteswold gravel in Sheet 44 are

i

PLIOCENE PERIOD IN ENGLAND. 513

important in their bearing upon the events which I have been
tracing. In the excavation of the tunnel at Mickleton, at the
northern extremity of the Cotteswolds, a bed of gravel was found
87 feet thick, which reposed on 15 feet of clay containing large
blocks of marlstone*. This bed of gravel was accumulated in a
strait which divided the small island formed by Ebrington Hill,
shown in Map 2 at the northern extremity of the large island
which the main Cotteswolds then constituted, and the elevation of
its top 1s 490 feet. It of course represents the entire gravel accu-
mulation from the time when during Stage II. Mickleton became
submerged, up nearly to the close of the Chalky Clay, a little before
which its top had emerged ; for from Mr. Gavey’s description, it does
not appear that this gravel contained the red chalk and hard white
chalk of Lincolnshire, though Mr. Lucy mentions (p. 47 of his
papert) that patches of gravel with white chalk and flints are
within the district where this bed occurs; and in one pit of which
he gives a section, at Little Woolford fields, at an elevation of
394 feet, and in which 17 feet of this gravel is exposed, he found
both the red and the hard white chalk imbedded in it, as well
as the large angular flints so characteristic of the Chalky Clay.
This is on the north of the water-parting between the Thames and
Severn systems by way of the Evenlode and Stour, and in the
valley of the latter. Near Chipping-Norton Railway Junction,
however, which, though at a somewhat lower level than this last,
is on the south of this parting and within the valley of the Even-
lodet, he also found this débris; and as it has not been noticed
within the Thames system further east, the inference is that
passing from the mouth of the Bain-Steeping trough, in Sheet
84, it was swept by field-ice through the valley of the Wel-
land and over the water-parting between this and the valley
of the Avon, and so into the sea over the Severn system.
Grinding along the coast of the islands shown in Sheet 53 of
Map 2, but which had then further emerged so that the channels
there shown as open between the systems of the Nen and Severn by
way of the Leam and of the Thames and Severn systems by way of
the Itchen and Cherwell had now closed, this ice was swept up the
valley of the Stour to the east of Ebrington Hill and of the now emerged
_ strait between that hill and the Cotteswolds, and so through one or
two narrow and shallow passages through the parting which were
still water-covered into the sea over the Thames system. The
closing of the parting between the Thames and Ouse systems in
Sheet 46, which I have described as having just preceded the end
of the Chalky Clay, is quite in accord with these inferences,

The gravel which oceurs abundantly within the drainage-system
of the Severn has yielded molluscan remains in many places, and
all of the same character; but with the exception of the band of
fragments and worn shells which I have referred to the ploughing-

* Gavey in Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. ix. p. 29. t Loe. cit. p. 475, ante.
{ The position of each of these occurrences is shown by the crosses in Sheet
44 of Map 2.

O14 8. V. WOOD, JUN., ON THE NEWER

out of a sea-bed which had been in existence throughout most of
Stage II., the gravel ¢ has not yielded these remains ; and as none
of the remains from the gravels of the Severn system have come
from them at elevations great enough (when we take into account
the rise of its level from the westerly increment of submergence) to
correspond with c, or even with the gravel (¢) over the Chalky Clay,
we may infer that they most probably, though not necessarily, belong
to the period embraced in the second part “of this memoir. Their
character does not assist in this determination, for they differ in no
essential way from the shells at Moel Tryfaen and other places of
extreme elevation, all of which are those of Mollusca living now in
the eastern part of the North Atlantic, and comprise none of those
species which so clearly show the Bridlington and Dimlington beds
to belong to the earlier part of Stage IT.

Another subject also requiring notice before I proceed to the
examination of the morainic formation of Stage V. is the absence
of drift on the eastern slope of the Pennine, south of the Aire, at
any altitude at all corresponding to that at which it occurs on the
western slope. This has been long known, and it forms the subject
of a special examination in the Geological-Survey memoir for
Sheets 81 E. and 71 8.E. Where the Pennine is breached by the
valley of the Derwent in Sheet 81, and of the Calder in Sheet 88,
drift extends up those valleys to increasing heights westward*,
though not (so far as it would appear from the Survey memoir) to
heights so great as that at which the highest Macclesfield patch
occurs on the west slope , and, as I have already said, some sfecial
set of the currents has been invoked for an explanation of the phe-
nomenon. On the other hand, near the line dividing Sheets 88 and
92, glacial drift is said to be present, and to rise to very great ele-
vations on the eastern slope, and so continue northwardst. It
is over this part, close to the division line of Sheets 97 and 102,
that the blocks of Shap granite have travelled from the western
slope of the Pennine and across the watershed. This transit has
occurred at elevations between 1400 and 1500 feet, if not, indeed,
somewhat higher; and what is very important to observe is that
this transit has not occurred by several routes which traverse the
watershed at lower elevations than this, down to one as low as
800 feet. These routes all lie in Sheets 93 and 97, and are given
in detail in my paper on the Boulder-clay of the North of England
in the 26th vol. of the Journal, p. 109. In that paper (labouring
under the error as to the time of the great submergence) I attri-
buted the passage of these blocks to the agency of floating ice at
the period of greatest submergence (a view which I no longer
entertain either as to agency or period), and suggested that the only
explanation of these blocks not having travelled by the lower routes,
that I could see, was that these routes were blocked by ice. In the
same paper I pointed out, as the fact is, that these blocks do not
occur in the Chalky Clay, but are confined to the Purple; and under

* Dakyns, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxvili. p. 382.
t Dakyns, Joc. cit. See also Curry in Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxxiii. p. 40,

;
|
:
2

PLIOCENE PERIOD IN ENGLAND. 515

the same error as to the time of the great submergence I attributed
the succession of that clay to the Chalky to its having been formed
by the extrusion of moraine from the same ice as that of the Chalky
Clay, under an increased submergence of the country, which had
caused this ice to recede from the Chalk Wold, and so put an end to
the Chalky Clay. This view of the cause of the succession, and of
its attendant conditions, I also, as the preceding pages show, do not
now entertain.

Very shortly after this paper, the late Prof. Harkness entered
very elaborately into the subject of the transit of the Shap blocks *,
contending for their transit by floating ice, when the Pennine stood
more than 1500 feet below its present level. On the other hand
there are geologists? who have entertained the opinion that this
transit was effected not by floating but by land ice, a view that, as
appears in the sequel, I have now seen reason to adopt. . All those
geologists who have studied the glacial phenomena of the North-
west of England appear to have thought that the great submergence
indicated by the Moel Tryfaen and Macclesfield shell-gravels followed
the glaciation of that part of England, and the formation of the
Lower Boulder-clay of Lancashire and Cumberland (with which, in
my view, the Purple Clay of Yorkshire is identical), and that with
this submergence the glacial conditions passed away, except so far as
the Upper Boulder-clay of that region indicated their renewal.
My own view also up to the time when, three years ago, I first tried
to grapple with the subject of this memoir by examining and col-
lating analytically all the evidence concerning the newer Pliocene
formations which I had, during many years’ work upon them in the
field, collected, was the same; and the principal thing which in-
fluenced me in this opinion was the character of the molluscan
fauna found in these formations. It was not so much the remains
found in the seam near the top ofc that influenced me (for, as already
explained, these, I think, have been ploughed out of a sea-bottom
which began to form during the earlier part of the long period of
Stage IT.), but those which occur at Bridlington, and more especially
those of the seam of sand in, but near the top of, the Basement
clay of Holderness at Dimlington, where its junction with the Purple
Clay which overlies it is displayed in the cliff.

This seam was detected by a party of geologists consisting of Sir
Charles Lyell, Mr. Leonard Lyell, Prof. T. M. Hughes, and Mr.
Rome ; and a description of it was sent to me by Sir Charles Lyell
with the molluscan remains which they extracted. These remains,
especially those of the Nucula, were, many of them, broken, though
freshly fractured and unworn ; but the written description sent me
with them was that they were taken from a seam of dark sand lite-
rally packed with perfect specimens of Nucula Cobboldic, which
seemed to be double; and this was certainly the condition of one of
the bivalves (Astarte compressa) which was sent to me.

The Bridlington bed has been long known, and was described by

_ * Quart. Journ, vol. xxvi, p. 517. ._- t_ Goodchild, id. vol. xxxi. p. 98.

516 S. V. WOOD, JUN., ON THE NEWER

Mr. Rome and myself*, and again in a vertical diagram by myselft,
as intercalated in the lower part of the Purple Clay, the Basement
Clay appearing to us to die out some miles south of Bridlington.
It is now, however, saidt that the latter extends to Bridlington,
and occupies the space there between the beach-line and the chalk
floor, a depth of between 30 and 40 feet; and that this long-known
shell-bed rests on ts surface and beneath the whole of the Purple
Clay, which just there must be in less thickness than at Dimlington.
From this it would appear that unless the clay at Bridlington has been
planed off, the shell-bed here and the one at Dimlington occupy pre-
cisely the same horizon in the newer Pliocene sequence of deposits,
Now the Bridlington shells unquestionably lived where they occur,
for they are in the most perfect preservation ; and though the sand
containing them has, in the specimens I possess, hardened to the
condition of rock, the bivalves have both valves adherent and are
quite unworn. ‘This fauna, while it presents certainly the most
arctic appearance of any known from England and perhaps from any
part of Britain, contains the peculiar and now extinct forms Vellina
obliqua and Nucula Cobboldie, the first a shell which, appearing
rarely in the Coralline Crag, and so rare in the Walton part of the
Red Crag as to be almost unique, becomes more common in this
crag between Walton and Butley, while at the latter place, and
also in the fluvio-marine crag, the Chillesford bed, and the sands
6 1, where these are fossiliferous, it swarms. The Nucula is quite
unknown in the Walton portion of the Red Crag, but it is abundant
in the Butley and fluvio-marine portions, and occurs in the sands 6 7,
Both species are not only extinct, but the nearest living analogues of
the Nucula are confined to the North Pacific Ocean. Besides these
there occurs at Bridlington a North-American species (Venus fluom
twosa) unknown from the Crag, or any other British bed, glacial or
otherwise, except that next mentioned. Of these three shells I have
found the remains somewhat common in the seam near the top of ¢
(shown by the letter # in fig. XIII.); but they are unknown from
any other glacial or post-glacial bed in Britain, with the exception of
the sand 6 7, which yields the two first-mentioned of them.

Now if the beds of Moel Tryfaen and Macclesfield which contain
none of these three species, nor any not still living either in British
seas or in those immediately north of Shetland, nor yet a fauna of
a character at all so arctic as that of Bridlington, but yet were
obviously accumulated when submergence was at its greatest, are
older than these of Bridlington and Dimlington, it is a very
anomalous circumstance. These three species are equally unknown
from the Hessle and Fen gravels of the eastern side of England,
which contain no species but such as now live in the sea surrounding
the British isles, or in that immediately north of the Shetlands,
and yield a molluscan fauna quite as different from that of Brid-
lington and Dimlington as that yielded by Moel Tryfaen, between
which and the fauna of the Hessle gravel there is no difference

* Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxiv. p. 149. + Ibid. vol. xxvi. p. 90,
{ Lamplugh, in Geol. Mag. for Nov. 1878, p.509, and for Sept. 1879, p. 393,

be

PLIOCENE PERIOD IN ENGLAND. O17

of any essential character beyond the fluvio-marine admixture in
the latter ; and this negatives any explanation of the difficulty by
supposing that the species in question were peculiar to the eastern
side of England.

It will, I trust, appear clear from the preceding pages of this
paper that the general submergence preceded the formation of the
Chalky Clay ; and had I space I could offer many reasons to show
that it preceded both the Purple Clay of Yorkshire and the Lower
Boulder-clay of the north-west containing shells ; and I think it must,
from what I have shown, be obvious to geologists that the Base-
ment Clay of Holderness was formed when the inclination of England
was in accordance with that which prevailed at the commencement
of Stage I1., and when the extinct Mollusca which are found in it
still survived from the time of the Crag in the continuation of the
sea of which, while still confined to the eastern side of England, the
Bridlington and Dimlington shells lived. Had the Purple Clay and
the Lower Clay of the north-west been followed by the submergence,
the gravels which then accumulated up to 1200 feet in Lancashire,
and 1350 in North Wales, would everywhere rest upon it; but in
the case of the Purple Clay there is no marine gravel at all over it,
save the Hessle, which is at very low elevations ; and in the case of
the clay of Lancashire, none, so far as I can learn, at levels above
that of Macclesfield Cemetery, which is given by Mr. Darbishire as
600 feet, and is less than that to which the gravel ¢ should, by the
westerly increment of submergence beyond the place of fig. XVIL.,
rise. As regards moraine accumulated in the north-west during
the sinking of the land in Stage II. I will speak further on.

As from the altering inclination of the land and increasing sub-
mergence in the westerly direction, the ice, of which the Basement
Clay of Holderness was the moraine, and which had furnished mo-
rainic material to the sand b/, and so gave origin to the Till of
Cromer (62), retreated through the Humber, the Basement Clay
became covered by the sea to a considerable depth, during which
the Bridlington bed was laid down uponit. The seam at Dimlington
was probably buried by a temporary advance of the ice and of its
moraine during this retreat, and molluscan remains of the same
period were preserved in the bed of the sea, which had now ex-
tended over Western Norfolk ; and as the ice began, with the rise of
the land, to advance in a different direction, in accordance with the
changed inclination, it ploughed off such of these deposits, corre-
sponding in age with the Dimlington and Bridlington beds, as lay
in its path, and their débris, carried away by currents, was imbedded
again in the gravel ¢ in the way described in Stage III.; and thus
it is that we get in the seam w in fig. XIII., the peculiar shell-of
Bridlington, Venus fluctuosa, and those other shells of that place
which, before the culmination of submergence, had become extinct,
such as Nucula Cobboldie and Tellina obliqua. These, together with
several other Crag species found in the seam x, though they had
disappeared from British seas when the submergence culminated,
were yet living there in the earlier portion of that very long interval

518 S. V. WOOD, JUN., ON THE NEWER

which is embraced by Stage II., during which this molluscan fauna
changed to that found at Moel Tryfaen.

The distribution of the Chalky Clay indicates that the ice to which
it was due came along the western side of the Wold only; for, after
crossing the Wash, it overwhelmed so much only of island No. 1 as
lay in the direction of this path. Had this ice descended the eastern
side of the Wold, it would, we may infer, have overwhelmed all that
part of island No. 1 which occupies Sheet 68 ; but this the ice has, so
far as it lay outside the track along the west of the Wold, avoided.
That such was the case is rendered more probable also by the fact
that all the chalk degraded from the Lincolnshire Wold has been swept
westwards into the depression of central Lincolnshire, while no trace
of the Chalky Clay appears on its eastern side. The escape of the
Basement Clay of Holderness from destruction by ice of the Purple
Clay, I attribute to this ice having, where the Basement-clay occurs,
terminated in the sea, and being thin there, so that the buoyancy
of the water prevented that destruction which the ice of the Chalky
Clay, where it eventually collected in very thick mass within the
broken line of Map No. 1, has caused.

As by thus dissociating the Basement Clay of Holderness from the

Chalky Clay we lose the test of superposition, it becomes necessary
to examine how far, or whether at all, this Purple Clay may be a se-
parate formation from the Chalky. Among the reasons for regarding
them as distinct are the following :—
_ (1) The Purple Clay at elevations below 100 feet contains, in its
lower part at least, lenticular beds of gravel and sand, the Chalky
Clay being destitute of any thing of the kind. This feature, how-
ever, I can only assert positively of that arm of the formation which
lies east of the Wold and Eastern Moorlands.

(2) The constitution of the two clays differs, the Purple Clay being
crowded with small subangular débris of various hard rocks (prin-
cipally from the Hastern Moorlands), while angular débris, other
than flint, is very rare in, and, indeed, in most parts quite absent
from, the Chalky Clay.

(3) The presence in the Purple Clay of the shap-blocks, which,
from a late communication*, appear to occur at the base as well as
in the upper part of it. These blocks seem to occur very nearly as
far as this clay extends, but no further, the southermost known
being one in the west centre of Sheet 87, which is mentioned in the
Geological-Survey memoir for that sheet. ‘They are wholly unknown
from the Chalky Clay and from the area occupied by it.

The position of the Purple Clay is as follows:—It first shows
itself above the sea-level in the small and low cliff of Cleethorpes
(in the south of Sheet 85); and the excavations for the Grimsby
Docks, close at hand, proved it to descend there to a depth of 102
feet below high-water mark, and to rest on the chalk direct, except
in places waere it had a few feet of chalky gravel beneath it.
Northwards from this it forms the continuous coast-section of South
Yorkshire (in Sheets 85 and 94), and there rests on the Basement

* Lamplugh, Geol. Mag. for Sept. 1879, p. 596.

PLIOCENE PERIOD IN ENGLAND. 519

Clay already referred to, wherever this rises above the beach. Its
elevation in this part does not exceed 100 feet. On the line dividing
Sheets 94 and 95, however, it suddenly rises with the chalk and
covers that point of the Wold which projects to form Flamborough
Head, and near this it envelops the crest of the escarpment at an
elevation of 400 feet. It is here confined to a narrow strip of land
skirting the coast, which varies from half a mile to three miles in
breadth*; but to the south, in Sheets 94 and 85, it spreads out over
the lower ground so as to reach Hull, in excavating the docks of
which town it was found to descend to 70 feet below the sea-surface,
and to rest at that depth on gravel, as in some places it did at
Grimsby; but between Hull and Hessle, a space of four miles, it
disappears, and as the chalk rises at the latter place, the Hessle sand
and clay (which overlay the Purple Clay in the dock-excavations) only
are present. Its western edge is mostly overlapped and concealed
by the Hessle Clay, resting against the eastern slope of the Wold.
From the narrow coast-strip which envelops the Wold escarpment
it extends continuously northwards along the coast, lying irregularly
on the slopes, and filling old valleys and hollows of the Jurassic
rocks, and so enters the valley of the Tees on the borders of Sheets
103 and 104, up which valley it extends, skirting the northern
slope of the eastern moorlands, and covering it up to elevations of
about 400 feet. Filling the Tees valley, it passes over the watershed
between that valley and the depression of central Yorkshire, which
is drained by the many rivers which converge to the Humber, and
which depression it occupies as far south as the low grounds skirting
the Humber in the north-east corner of Sheet 87, beneath which it
disappears, but shows itself again in the north-east of Sheet 82 ;
in the cuttings between Bawtry and Retford clay like it overlies sand
and gravel. Throughout Sheets 85, 86, and 94 itis purple in colour
towards its base, where it contains a moderate proportion of rolled
chalk, but is far more copiously charged with small angular and
subangular rock-fragments; and it gradually parts with the chalk
débris upwards, becoming, as it does so, more of a red colour; and
it does precisely the same thing in a horizontal direction as it rises
over the Wold along the coast-belt, the clay enveloping the Wold
and its scarp being similar to that which forms the uppermost portion
only of the clay in the lower grounds of Sheets 94 and 95. In the
buried ravines of the chalk intersected by the cliff about Flam-
borough Head it is underlain by clay of a blackish colour, which, again,
is underlain by (and sometimes interbedded with) beds of chalky
sand and of gravel, and by beds of rolled chalk only, all of which
seem to be of the age of the Holderness Basement Clay. At Dim-

* Mr. Rome and I mentioned the occurrence of some very small patches of
clay on the higher parts of the Wold near the dividing-line of Sheets 98 and 94,
and we referred them to the Purple Clay. One of these, at Huggate, was after-
wards, with the object of seeing if it contained shells, excavated under the
direction of Sir Charles Lyell. The clay was full of chalk, but no molluscan
remains occurred in it. Some small patches also occur on the Lincolnshire

Wold, and they all appear to me now to be remnants of moraine formed during
the accumulation of 62. -

520 S. V. WOOD, JUN. ON THE NEWER

lington and those other parts of the coast-section in Sheets 85 and
94 where its base rises above the beach, it is underlain by alternate
sheets of Purple Clay and of the blue Basement Clay, both containing
rolled chalk, but which in some places are separated by beds of dark
sand; and just below these is the position (as it was described to
me) of the Dimlington bed of shells. In the vale of the Tees, and
in that of Central Yorkshire, it seems often to be made up of recon-
structed Lias shale and clay, finely laminated in places.

The position which the Purple Clay thus occupies is not one which,
as a whole, is reconcilable with a marine deposit, though some of its
features, nevertheless, point in that direction. Being thus dissociated
from the Chalky Clay, but nevertheless overlying the Basement
Clay and the beds containing the Dimlington and Bridlington
Mollusca, we may regard it as either anterior to, synchronous with,
or posterior to the Chalky Clay.

If anterior, it would belong to the later part of Stage II., and

thus to the period of greatest submergenee, and be due to ice coming
from the north (for to ice coming in that direction this clay on the
east of the Wold is clearly due), after the ice of the Basement Clay
had retreated through the Humber. The absence of any marine
conditions in connexion with it above the level of, say 100 or 150
feet, however, and the absence of any gravel over it that could be
referred to this period, seem to render this supposition untenable—
the only gravel that overlies it along the Yorkshire coast-section,
except some mounds on the edge of the chalk-escarpment in the
south-east of Sheet 95 (and which appear to have been due to the
melting there of the Purple-Clay ice, as the cannon-shot gravels were
to that of the Chalky-Clay ice in West Norfolk) being the Hessle,
and gravel even later than that, and these gravels are confined to
levels below 100 feet.
_ If synchronous with the Chalky Clay, the part west of the Wold
should be continuous with that clay, though, the part lying east of
the Wold being due to an independent arm of ice, the absence of
this continuity has not the same significance. There seems, however,
to be a hiatus between this western part and the Chalky Clay, which
dwindles away northwards by a chain of small patches decreasing in
that direction, while nothing like a transitional character is assumed
by the clays as they approach each other. Moreover, while the
Chalky Clay all over that part of its range which is nearest to the
Purple rests on the Mesozoic formations directly, and in places has
the gravel ¢ over it up to the level which I have described as falling
towards the Wash, the Purple Clay appears to pass over that gravel
in the railway-cuttings between Retford and Bawtry, in Sheet 82.

I therefore think that, though the eastern arm of the Purple
Clay, which is that in which the Shap blocks abound, may be, and
probably is, though unconnected with it, at least partially coeval
with as well as later than the Chalky Clay, the western arm is
posterior to it, and represents moraine which, after the ice of the
latter had disappeared and allowed the sea to enter the area of the
Lower-Trent drainage-system up to the level to which the progress

PLIOCENE PERIOD IN ENGLAND. 52)

of the emergence in that part had by this time brought it, came
down between the Pennine and the western side of the Wold, as an
offset from that which, crossing Stainmoor, had previously issued
through the Tees valley and formed the eastern arm of the Purple
Clay. This western arm of the Purple-Clay moraine having been
brought by ice which terminated in the sea that entered the Lower-
Trent system as the ice of the Chalky Clay deserted this, it would
at its seaward extremity rest on or intermingle with the gravel e.
The eastern arm of the Purple-Clay ice terminated in the sea which
had covered the Basement Clay of Holderness from the time when,
in consequence of the changing inclination and increasing submer-
gence during Stage II., the land-ice had deserted this part to
issue seawards along the west of the Wold; but it did not, I think,
come into existence as a separate body of ice, and reach Holderness
until after the Chalky Clay had made some progress.

By the continued rise of the land during Stage III. the inter-
ception of the Atlantic vapours, in the form of snow, by the Pennine
and by the Westmoreland mountains increased, and with it the
volume of the land~ice. This, flowing from these mountains, at
length became more than could escape down the valleys of the Lune
and Eden, which were its only avenues between these mountains and
the Pennine, so that.it rose above the level of the Pennine water
parting at Stainmoor (in south-east of Sheet 102) and flowed over it,
bringing with it the Shap blocks from the western slope. The ice
which produced the Chalky Clay, originating wholly on the Pennine
and flowing southwards between the Pennine and the Wold,received
no erratics from the western slope, such as the Shap blocks,
which this altered flow in mounting the watershed brought with it ;
but flowing down the eastern slope of the Pennine as far as its
southern extremity, and extending in the north higher than the sub-
mergence had done (though descending to a lower level towards
Sheet 63), it destroyed the gravels which during Stage IT. had been
deposited on this side. The increase of the ice from the Westmore-
land mountains may alone have been the cause of this transit at
Stainmoor; but as the ice of the Hessle Clay, which I shall exa-
mine in the second part of this memoir (and which I now think is
as much the moraine of land-ice as is the Chalky Clay, and not, as I
at one time supposed, a formation due to coast-ice), took quite a
different direction from that which the ice of the Chalky Clay did, and
sought the sea nearly in the position it occupies at the present day,
in consequence of the present inclination of the land having then
been attained, it is possible that the transit may, in some degree,
have been due to this recovery having begun with the Purple Clay.

As the ice thus crossing the Pennine issued through the Tees
valley, it augmented the flow which had gone in that direction
during the earlier part of the Chalky Clay, so that this reached the
north-east of Lincolnshire, coming southwards with a westerly in-
clination, so ‘as to cause it to hug the eastern side of the Chalk
wold. In the east of Yorkshire, below the level I have men-
tioned, at any rate, there was at this time the sea, and here the
morainic material became modified by its submarine extrusion ; so

Q.J.G.8. No. 144. 2N

522 S. V. WOOD, JUN., ON THE NEWER

that, besides the presence of lenticular beds of gravel intercalated in
it, its character resembles that of the Lower Clay of Lancashire
in containing sheil-fragments, proving, in my opinion, that it accu-
mulated beneath the sea in such a way as to form its bottom, and
not, like the Chalky Clay, by the sliding into the sea of a mudbank
which preceded and was immediately followed by the ice. Coming
thus south, it passed over low ground forming the trough between
the Eastern Moorlands and the Wold, which it blocked up in the east
by a thick mass of the Purple Clay, so that the drainage flows from
the coast west round the north and west of the Wold into the
Humber. This trough, where not thus blocked up, forms the Vale
of Pickering, and the Purple Clay does not further enter it; conse-
quently it is generally overspread with the gravel that had formed
there under water during the later part of Stage II. and during so
much of Stage III. as elapsed before it was blocked up. Where the
Purple Clay crossed the eastern end of this trough, and has thus
blocked it up, the Filey cliffs show it very distinctly underlain by a
Basement Clay which is sharply separated from it, and which seems
to be coeval with the Basement Clay of Holderness formed early in
Stage IT. ; but whether this extends westwards through the Pickering
trough under the gravel, I do not know. Having crossed this part
while it was below the sea-level, and so not destroyed the Basement
Clay for the reasons I have assigned for the similar escape of the
Basement Clay of Holderness, it mounted the Wold scarp subaerially
for the narrow space in which this is covered by the clay (and be-
yond it to the eastward, where the sea is now), and, descending

again, covered the low ground of Holderness that was still submerged,
forming the sea-bottom with its moraine. It was the mountain mass
of the Eastern Moorlands which, so soon as the decay of the ice of the
Chalky Clay gave room for it, or, more strictly perhaps, while this
ice still subsisted in the north, parted the stream coming over Stain-
moor, and caused that branch to go off to which the clay between
the Pennine and the Yorkshire Wold, which ranges through Sheets
96, 93, and 87 into the north of 82, was due.

It seems at first glance paradoxical to suppose, as I do, that the
absence of these gravels on the Hastern Pennine slope in Sheets 82
and 86 should be due to the Chalky-Clay ice having passed along
there, while the presence of drift on the same slope to the north of
this should be due to the passing over that portion of the ice of the
Purple Clay ; but it must be remembered that, by being fed from
the western slope, this latter brought much débris to the eastern ;
whereas the former, having its source on the watershed only, could
only collect from the first slope it passed down, and carry this to
more distant parts; just as we see, by the great vacant space
which is shown in Map No. 1 to exist in the midst of the Chalky-
Clay formation in Sheets 51, 66, and adjoining thereto, as well as in
the Sheets north and north-west of 70 and 83, it has done even in the
lower grounds. As the beds succeeding the Purpie Clay in Holder-
ness are, as before observed, of fluvio-marine aspect, and at Hessle
are underlain by a ripple-marked pan, which is again underlain by
a breccia containing mammalian remains, it is clear that these beds

PLIOCENE PERIOD IN ENGLAND. 523

were preceded by a complete emergence of this part of England. It
is therefore probable that before the formation of the Purple Clay
ceased it became in Holderness altogether of terrestrialaccumulation™,
and that the upper portion of it possesses the chalkless character,
because the Wold to the north had, before the accumulation of this
later part, become covered with, and protected from degradation by,
a cushion of moraine which is itself chalkless by having come from
the area north of the Wold.

Although from the destruction, denudation, and disturbance which
it has undergone, and its consequent connexion with the case to be
presented in the second part of this memoir, I defer all description
of the gravel shown in figure VI. by the letter f to that part, yet it
appears to me that as the rise had proceeded to the extent of some
70 feet only from the disappearance of the Chalky-Clay ice when this
gravel began to emerge, and the phenomena connected with the
recovery from the westerly depression in the Thames valley do not
become conspicuous until after this, the gravel f is most probably
synchronous with this latest and chalkless part of the Purple Clay,
and so of Glacial age.

I have not attempted to show on Map 1 the Lower Boulder-clay
of the North-west. Lying west of the Pennine, that clay does not
appear to reach further south than Sheet 81, though it stretches
westwards from that sheet into North Wales. ‘This formation, as it
contains, like the Purple Clay, the shells and shell-fragments of
marine Mollusca mixed up with it, has, I consider, had its origin by
submarine extrusion, in a similar way ; but the species to which these
remains in the North-west belong are all of the Moel-Tryfaen
typet; and of the two extinct and one North-American species of
Bridlington not a trace has been detected. Seeing that at the
commencement of Stage II. the sea was confined to the east, and
that neither the centre nor the west of England had become sub-
merged, it is entirely consistent with the case which I have been
presenting that these should be absent; and the only question to
my mind besetting this part of the case is how far the clay of the
North-west, except any part of it which may be terrestrialt, is syn-
chronous with the Chalky or with the latest bed of Stage II., 6 3.

When we see how all the earlier formed Chalky Clay and all
beds of Stage II. which lay in the path of the ice have been
destroyed, and reconstructed as new moraine, and carried outward in

* I do not, however, regard the patches of mud with freshwater shells
described by Mr. Lamplugh in Geol. Mag. for September, 1879, as occurring
in the lower part of the Purple Clay at Bridlington as in any way connected
with land conditions where these occur. They are, in my opinion, of similar
origin to the patches in the pebbly sands of the Cromer Cliff on which Mr.
Reid has founded a division of those sands; that is to say, they are scraps of
freshwater deposits brought by ice from other localities, just as was the sheet
of peat which in Stage IL. I found interbedded in 6 2 at Cromer; and the way
which Mr. Lamplugh describes these as tilted, cut up into shreds, and
separated from each other by thick walls of Boulder-clay containing marine
shells, one of them being, he observes, ‘‘¢o ali intents and purposes a boulder
itself,” clearly shows this,

_t Kor list see Reade in Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxx. p. 27 ; Shone in vol.
xxxiy. p. 134. { As to which see p. 478 and bed 0 of fig. XVII. p. 490,

2n2

624 S. V. WOOD, JUN., ON THE NEWER

the direction of the sea at the time, we can hardly doubt that some-
thing similar must have taken place with any morainic clay which
formed on the west of the Pennine, unless the deeper-water. conditions
there prevailing checked the process. The Lower Clay there, being
apparently an uninterrupted formation, must also represent the Purple
Clay of Yorkshire, quite as much as it does the Chalky Clay. From the
circumstance of the sea of the period towards which the Chalky-Clay
moraine moved having lain over the centre and south of England,
this moraine now lies over the Eastern and North Midland counties ;
but it seems to me that the contemporaneous moraine of the North-
west, or most of it, must have been carried out so as now to lie in the
St. George’s Channel and that the Lower Clay of Cumberland, Lanca-
shire, and Cheshire with shells corresponds with that part of the Purple
Clay which lies in Sheets 87, 93, 96, and 99 rather than with the
Chalky Clay. So far as I have been able to gather the facts, this clay
does not underlie the gravel at highest elevations which contains
shells, such as the patch near the “ Setter Dog,” Macclesfield; and
it appears to me that these elevated patches are those which have
escaped destruction by the ice, from this during its advance not
having reached them. This, it seems to me, may have been due
to the trend of the southern extremity of the Pennine being easterly,
while the inclination of England was westerly, and on the western
side northerly also ; so that a westerly and north-westerly motion of
the ice giving rise to this clay prevailed, thus causing it, after
leaving its chief gathering-ground in the Westmoreland mountains,
to pass the southern extremity of the Pennine at levels below those
_ up to which the sea depositing the gravels of Stage II. had reached ;
for the position of the Chalky Clay skirting Charnwood Forest in
Sheet 63 shows that even on the east of the Pennine the ice as it got
southwards reached no great height. Wherever, then, the ice went
the gravels anterior to it not saved by the mud-bank were destroyed;
and hence such gravels as do occur in the north-west over the clay
are altogether later than those at extreme elevations, and separated in
age from them by the time involved in the accumulation of that clay.

The highest point to which I have met with notices of gravel con-
taining shells resting on this clay is at Macclesfield Cemetery, which is
stated to be 600 feet below the patch with shells at the Setter Dog Inn
mentioned in Stage II.* This is later than that(¢) which I have traced
as occurring over the Chalky Clay along the issue of that clay to the sea
for the following reasons, viz.:—The line of gravel e I have traced
as marking arise of about 300 feet, which had taken place between
the time when the gravels formed at the culmination of submergence
were deposited and that when the ice of the Chalky Clay began to
disappear ; but the difference in elevation between these two beds of
gravel at Macclesfield is much more than this. Since, however, the
Lower Clay of the north-west on which the least elevated of these
beds rests represents the Purple Clay also, during the formation of
the later portion of which I have just endeavoured to show Kast
Yorkshire completely emerged, this additional difference represents:
the further emergence during the time in which the Purple Clay

* Darbishire, in Geol. Mag. vol. ii. pp. 41 and 292.

PLIOCENE PERIOD IN ENGLAND. 525

accumulated. This accumulation having been put an end to only by
the passing away of the Glacial period (for with these clays do I
define the close of the Glacial period, referring the ice-extension of
the Hessle Clay to a brief return of extreme cold during the Post-
glacial), the sea deposited gravel over the clay which the ice had
deserted up to that level to which the emergence at this time had
reduced it. The cemetery sand and gravel is therefore synchronous
with the gravel f, which I have already described as synchronous
with the latest part of the Purple Clay rather than with ¢; and
where at lower elevations it is overlain by the Upper Clay of the
north-west, so as to become the Middle Sand, it is synchronous with
beds still later. From Cheshire, where the Lower Clay of the north-
west is thus overlain, to the edge of the Chalky Clay in Sheet 62
there is a large interval where sand and gravel only occur; and
here, from there having been no intrusion of moraine, the sand and
gravel series is uninterrupted, just as it is in the southern part of
fig. VI., in the eastern part of fig. VII., in the Surrey and Hamp-
shire areas illustrated by figs. III. & V., and in the Chiltern,
Marlborough, and Cotteswold districts.

As I shall describe in the second part of this memoir, marine con-
ditions prevailed uninterruptedly on the western side of the Pennine
until the Upper Clay of that region emerged ; for in this clay, at low
levels, marine shells occur, and no denudation of the Lower Clay
into the form of hill and valley therefore took place in the interim,
such as occurred between the Purple Clay and the Hessle beds in
Holderness ; in consequence of which the Middle Sand and Upper
Boulder-clay rest upon the Lower in such a way in the north-west
as make the two clays difficult of distinction there. This feature
has induced some geologists to insist that there is no distinction
between the Upper and Lower Clay of Lancashire, and that they and
the Middle Sands of that region are all one formation, as in the sense
I have mentioned of uninterrupted marine conditions being main-
tained they are. On the east side of the Pennine, in Holderness at
least, this 1s different, for the Hessle sand and gravel, which is the
equivalent of the middle sand of Lancashire, is, where fossiliferous
at ali, fluvio-marine, and rests at Hessle on a land-surface; and it
occupies along the coast-section valleys eroded in the Purple Clay,
which sometimes, as at Dimlington, are cut quite through this and
down into the Basement Clay beneath it, while the Hessle Clay, which
overlies this and is coeval with the Upper Clay of the north-west, has
yielded no trace of shells.

Thus, so far as I have been able to trace them, the whole train of
facts, perplexing as they have long been to me, now appear to me
harmonious. As regards the phenomena presented by Wales, I
know too little of them to say more than this, viz. that the gravels
at high elevations accumulated there during the culmination of
Stage IT., of which the patch at 1350 feet on Moel Tryfaen is a
remnant, appear to me to have been mostly destroyed by the ice

_which during the rise increased over Snowdon, as it did on the
Pennine and Westmoreland mountains; but Snowdon being an isolated
mountain mass and not flanked, as are the Westmoreland mountains,

526 S. V. WOOD, JUN., ON THE NEWER

by the continuous rampart of the Pennine, no such accumulation of
ice took place there as that which, meeting with resistance in its
escape down the valley of the Eden and the Lune, mounted the
Pennine watershed at Stainmoor. Hence the ice which resulted from
the snows which Snowdon intercepted, passing more freely down it
and through the valleys which furrow its sides, avoided some of those
shoulders of the mountain mass on which these gravels had accu-
mulated, such as Moel Tryfaen, and there, and there only, are they
preserved.

Throughout the long period which is embraced in this part of my
memoir, nothing presents itself which to my apprehension indicates
any oscillation of climate whatever. The increase of cold from the
commencement of the Red Crag to the advance of the ice into the
sea of that Crag extended as I have shown it at the outset of Stage
II., and before the change in inclination and consequent submerg-
ence of all England took place, appears to have been uninterrupted,
while its recession from that position was merely the consequence
of that change of inclination and great submergence. As to the
epoch when the maximum of cold was attained, this, for aught I
ean see to the contrary, may have been attained during the forma-
tion of the Cromer Till and remained unaltered up to the close of the
Chalky Clay, decreasing thence to the close of the Glacial period ;
and we must not confound the maximum of glaciation with the

maximum of cold. The shrinkage of the ice of the Chalky Clay
does at first sight seem to indicate the intercalation of a warmer
climate ; but on examination such an explanation seems unneces-
sary. It occurred to me that this shrinkage might have been due
to the transit of the ice over the Pennine watershed at Stainmoor,
which so far interfered with the ice of the Chalky Clay as to cause
this to diminish, and thus give rise to the phenomena which I have
described in that respect; but on reflection I do not see that this
could have been the case; and the shrinkage must, I think, have
been due to a different cause. As the shrinkage began in East
Anglia when some 80 feet of the total rise which took place during
the accumulation of the Chalky Clay remained to be accomplished, it
was probably due to the effect which emergence produced on this
shallowest part of the submerged area, by pushing the North Sea so
much further off; for where the sea was deeper, and so remained in
greater contiguity to the Pennine throughout the Chalky Clay, as was
the case in Sheets 53, 62, and 63, the shrinkage appears, from the
eoincidence in level between the gravels c and ¢, not to have occurred
until the close of the formation. The eventual retreat of the ice of the
Chalky Clay can therefore, I think, have been due only to a dimi-
nution in the supply from amelioration of climate; for which
reason the western arm of the ice of the Purple Clay (which was a
remnant of the ice of the Chalky Clay, reinforced by a branch from
that which, crossing Stainmoor and issuing through the Tees valley,
had given rise to the coast-belt of Purple Clay) reached no further
than the north of Sheet 82.

Whether vegetation adequate to the support of great Mammalia,
whose remains occur in the Hoxne brickearth and other deposits

PLIOCENE PERIOD IN ENGLAND. bya

accumulated towards the end of Stage III., sprang up on the
moraine as it became thus uncovered many will probably doubt.
In my view, however, this was the case; as it also is that the
Hippopotamus lived in Europe during the time of frozen rivers
and throughout the year, the habits of the existing African species
no more indicating the habits of the Kuropean newer Pliocene
species than the habits of the ice-bear indicate those of all those
other species of bear which are closely allied to it; but this,
however, together with the evidences of a brief though great
recurrence of cold during the period embraced within the second
portion of this memoir (which I still continue to regard as correctly
defined under the term “ Post-glacial”), and which recurrence
culminated during the accumulation of the gravel g, and of its syn-
chronous formations, the Hessle Clay, the Upper Clay of the North-
west, and the marine gravel of the Sussex low levels with blocks of
hypersthene rock, I shall examine in that portion.

Nore as to Map 2 1n Prats XXII.

From the difficulty in ascertaining elevations with sufficient exactness, I have
probably omitted some small islands in the south of Sheet 63. Of these one is
that of Saddington, mentioned at p. 510, which lies immediately north of the
island shown in the south-east of this sheet; while others may be formed by
the water-partings between the tributaries of the Soar, and those of the Swift
and Welland; but they are of minute dimensions, most of this sheet having,
from the westerly increment of submergence, been sea. The two small islands
in the south of Sheet 7 should have been omitted.’ In the south of Sheet 47 the
river-valleys were, at the stage of emergence shown by the map, fiords, divided
from each other by islands or peninsulas of Lower Tertiary and Chalk, inthe same
way that the river-valleys of Sheets 50 and 56 were probably fiords, divided from
each other by peninsulas or islands formed of the beds of series a and 0, nearly
all now concealed by the covering of d. In these fiords the gravel ¢ accumulated ;
but the peninsulas, in consequence of the smallness of the scale, have not been
prolonged to their proper extent. They had been submerged during Stage IL,
and some thin remains of gravel resting on London Clay corresponding to 0’, or
the higher part of ¢, occur on one of them to the south of Braintree, where a
small break in the pall of d exposes that clay. As the elevation of the parts
shown in outline in Sheets 62 and 64 includes the Chalky Clay, and this lies
thick there, they were probably shoals rather than islands when first covered by
the ice. The partially destroyed junction of ¢ with d at Graffham, mentioned
at p. 485, was on this outline. The continuation of this map south of the
Thames I have reserved for the second part of this memoir.

Discussion.

The Presrpent spoke of the great value of the labours of Mr.
Wood, carried on during so many years and with such indefatigable
energy.

Mr. Waurraxer stated that the paper was most interesting as con-
taining an epitome of Mr. Wood’s views. He thought too much
importance was attached to the Red Crag, which probably repre-
sented only a very insignificant period of time. He remarked on
the changes in the Hast-Anglian sections resulting from the wasting-
back of the coast. Some of the geological surveyors were inclined
to regard the Hoxne brick-earth as older than the Boulder-clay,
while others considered it younger than that formation. In the

528 ON THE NEWER PLIOCENE PERIOD IN ENGLAND.

neighbourhood of Brandon laminated clay is found under Boulder-
clay; but‘there is more than one laminated brick-earth in the
country. No man in England had worked at these beds more
steadily and industriously than Mr. Wood, and no one was more
ready to communicate his accumulated facts to other geologists.
His opinions on the beds in question were entitled to the highest
consideration.

Prof. Hueuns gave expression to the general feeling of sympathy
in the Society with Mr. Wood in his serious ill-health. He re-
garded the quartz-pebble gravel of the highest plateau of East
Anglia as older than any of the Boulder-clay of that area. He did
not agree with Mr. Wood that the cannon-shot gravel might be
formed by the débdcles from melting ice, nor did he think that
the Moel-Tryfaen beds are of the age assigned to them by the
author. He regarded the oscillations of level in Post-pliocene
times as being of a local character, and not of the widespread
kind suggested by Mr. Wood.

Prof. Srrney said that the views of ancient physical geology
enunciated by Mr. 8. Wood were of very great interest. He
especially referred to his views on the mode of excavation of valleys
by estuaries rather than by the existing rivers in those valleys.
He agreed with Prof. Hughes as to the correlation of the drifts on
the east and west of England. He did not think these facts, how-
ever, affected the truth of Mr. Searles Wood’s views. He supported
the view that the plateau-gravels are of marine origin.

Mr. De Rawor said that sands and gravels at Blackpool at low
elevations contain the same shells as those at high levels at Maccles-
field; and he regarded all the deposits as formed on a subsiding
area, the sands and gravels creeping up the hill-sides from the lowest
to the higher levels. The sands and gravels are more persistent at
different levels than are either the Upper or Lower Boulder-clay.
He could not regard the finely stratified Boulder-clay of Midland
and North-western England as being formed in any way by land-ice.
The valley of the Ribble cuts its way right through all the glacial
deposits, while valley-gravels lie upon all of them, alluvium and
peat lying at the bottom of the valley.

Mr. Cuar.eswortH spoke of the great readiness of the author to
assist those working in the same field. He quite agreed with him
in his views concerning the Red Crag.

Mr. Juxrs-BrowneE supported Mr. De Rance in the view that the
Chalky Boulder-clay was not formed by land-ice. He also thought
that the author was mistaken in supposing that there was any
evidence of erosion between the Lower and Mid Glacial in the
Cromer section. | |

Prof. Jupp expressed his sympathy with the author in the illness
which prevented his presence at the Meeting. He thought that
the existence of great transported blocks, like those of Ponton cutting
and the neighbourhood, could scarcely be accounted for by any land-
ice theory of the formation of the Chalky Boulder-clay.

The PrestpEnt also expressed regret at the absence of the author,
who had done such valuable work in a most difficult field of research,

Chillestor
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MAPS ANI) SECTIONS OF THE NEWER PLIOCENE DEPOSITS IN ENGLAND Quart Journ Geol Soc Vol. XXXVI PL XXI

= Map J. Fig 16 Law A Fig 1 Tine A
ete wnw : ESE WiyS Eby N sw WE Why S Ebyn. SW NESE NW Wy Noe
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ON THE OLD RED SANDSTONE OF THE NORTH OF IRELAND. 529

36. On the Od Rep Sanpstone of the Norru of [rEtanp*. By
JosepH Nozan, Hsq., M.R.L.A., of H.M. Geological Survey of
Ireland. (Read June 23, 1880.)

(Communicated by Professor Hull, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S.)

In the North of Ireland there are two distinct kinds of rock, classed
both on Griffith’s and Portlock’s Geological Maps as Old Red Sand-
stoney. The lower and larger member of this group occupies a con-
siderable area, having an extent of about thirty miles in length by
an average width of ten miles, from Lough Erne north-eastwards to
Pomeroy in Tyrone. It consists for the most part of dark red and
purple conglomerates, often coarse and massive, and of purple, and
sometimes, though rarely, greenish-grey, pebbly and fine-grained
sandstones, often micaceous and in some cases calcareous, with sandy
shales. The pebbles in the conglomerate, which vary from the
smallest size up to blocks over a foot in diameter, consist of purple
felstone, grits, schist, and quartzite. Of all these the felstone pebbles
are by far in greatest proportion, the rock being in some places
almost entirely composed of them; and their source is unquestion-
ably certain tracts of igneous rock which will be presently
described.

On the north and north-west these conglomerates, sandstones, &c.
are bounded by metamorphic rocks, from which they are separated
by a fault; but in the north-east, near Pomeroy, they rest uncon-
formably upon fossiliferous slates and grits of Lower Silurian age.
Though the discordance between these formations is not actually
seen in section, yet there can be no doubt of its existence, the
southern extension of the Lower Silurian rocks occupying a semi-
circular area, in which the strike is east and west, while the red
sandstones that margin it on the west, south, and east strike re-
spectively to the N.W., EH. and W., and N.E., thus proving their
deposition around what appears to have been a low-lying cape or
projecting point of the ancient Cambro-Silurian land.

Associated with these red sandstones and conglomerates are
several tracts of igneous rock, which appear to have been submarine
lavas, poured out at various periods during the formation of the con-
glomerate, the greater part of the pebbles in which, as before re-
marked, are evidently derived from them. They are basic felstones
of a purple colour and in general an earthy aspect, seldom exhibit-
ing any crystalline structure, but compact, with vesicles in many
places, and occasionally crystals of felspar and prisms of hornblende.
Thus it may be seen that the rock answers very closely to Cotta’s

* This paper is published with the permission of the Director-General of

the Geological Survey. vied
t It is right to mention that in a note on Griffith’s map it is stated that the

lower of these divisions “ may possibly belong to the Silurian system.”

Q.J.G.8. No. 144. 20

530 J. NOLAN ON THE OLD RED SANDSTONE

definition of Porphyrite—a name which, however objectionable, it
may be well to employ, as serving to identify this rock with others
that may occur under similar circumstances.

In some places the tops of these felstones are tuffoid, though no
well-marked beds or large deposits of such ejecta occur, this being
probably due to the subaqueous conditions under which the mass
was ejected, so that fragmentary accompaniments would be drifted
away by tides and currents, often forming deposits in other places,
as mentioned by Scrope in his work on Volcanos, p. 247.

Besides these basic felstones there are other varieties of igneous
rocks associated with the sandstones. These are generally
melaphyres, often extremely vesicular, the cavities being in time
filled with white and pink calcite, giving the rock a peculiar spotted
appearance, which few persons who have traversed the district east
of Omagh, where it is extensively used for road metal, can fail to
have noticed. The principal source of these is at Recarson, some
three miles east of Omagh. Here every change in texture and colour
is visible; at one part the rock is blue and compact, at another
vesicular, with calcite, while at the principal quarry it is mostly of
a purple colour, and crystalline with glistening facets of a rich
bronze-coloured mineral that seems to be augite. As its relations
to the surrounding rocks are obscure, it could not be determined
whether it was contemporaneous or intrusive; the vesicular condi-
tion of much of the rock might lead us to infer the former; yet if
so, it is strange that no fragments of it occur in the surrounding
sedimentary rocks, as is the case in those overlying the contempora-
neous felstones.

Besides these trappean rocks there are masses of granite asso-
ciated with the sandstones. These, as I have already shown else-
where*, are intrusive through the lowest beds of this series,
vitrifying the sandstones in contact and converting them into
quartzites. It was also shown that the intrusion took place prior
to the deposition of the upper red quartzose conglomerate (Lower
Carboniferous, so-called), as in some places the basal beds of that
formation are almost altogether composed of its débris, a circum-
stance which, taken in connexion with others presently to be men-
tioned, is a proof of the great length of time which must have
elapsed between these formations.

Red Quartzose Conglomerates and Sandstones (Lower Carboniferous
so-called).—These consist of conglomerates, distinguished by the pre-
valence of white and pink quartz pebbles in a reddish-brown base,
purple, reddish-brown, and grey sandstones generally micaceous,
and sandy shales, passing upwards into yellow and white pebbly
sandstones and grits. The basal beds are often very coarse, and in
many places so much resemble those of the lower system, that the
discrimination between them is often a matter of considerable diffi-
culty. Although in some sections these rocks rest with apparent

* See G.S. Memoir to accompany Sheet 34, anda paper “ On the Meta-
morphic and Intrusive Rocks of Tyrone,” Geol. Mag. vol. vi. no. 178.

OF THE NORTH OF IRELAND. 531

conformability upon those of the older series, yet in most places
they are distinctly, and often widely unconformable. I have endea-
voured to account for this discordance, in my description of the
district *, by the absence of a considerable thickness of rocks repre-
senting the Upper Old Red Sandstone, the lower series being con-
sidered to be Lower Old Red Sandstone, and the upper the basal
beds of the Carboniferous system. I was the more inclined to adopt
this view from the remarkable resemblance in so many points of the
lower series of conglomerates &c. to those classed as Lower Old
Red Sandstone in Scotland (a resemblance which Professor Ramsay
also mentions in the preface to the memoir just referred to), and
from the similarity of the quartzose conglomerate series to many
others in various parts of Ireland, which, though formerly considered
to be Old Red Sandstone, have for many years past been classed in
the Carboniferous system.

In Scotland, as mentioned in the very able monograph on the
Old Red Sandstone by Dr. Geikie, discordance exists, which Sir
R. Murchison accounted for by the absence of a group of rocks
representing a Middle Old Red Sandstone period, a view in which
Dr. Geikie does not concur +. :

Some time ago Mr. Kinahan drew attention to the similarity in
geological position of the lower conglomerates of Tyrone (Fintona
beds) to that very remarkable group of rocks in the south-west of
Ireland called the Dingle beds, which, resting conformably upon
Upper Silurian rocks, are overlain unconformably by conglomerates
and sandstones, which have always been regarded as the true Old
Red Sandstone. The sequence upwards from the Silurian rocks
could not be proved in Tyrone; but it became an important matter
to settle definitively if possible the position of the upper conglo-
merates. If these were found to be identical with those called ‘Old
Red Sandstone in the south of Ireland, Mr. Kinahan’s view must be
held to be correct in relegating what has been called the Lower Old
Red Sandstone of Tyrone to the horizon of the Dingle beds. During
a short tour which, owing to the kindness of Professor Hull, I was
permitted to take through the south of Ireland last summer, I had
opportunities of seeing many sections through the Old Red Sand-
stone of that district. At Waterford the basal beds of that forma-
tion were seen resting almost horizontally on vertical slates of
Lower Silurian age, forming avery striking feature in the cliffs
over the railway-station ; they are massive quartzose conglomerates
of a dark purple to reddish-brown colour, the contained pebbles
being almost exclusively of white and pink quartz and quartzite,
perfectly identical with the upper (the so-called Carboniferous) con-
glomerates of Tyrone. In the valley of the Blackwater at Lismore
the upper parts of the series were seen, and consist of massive grey
and purple sandstone, closely resembling certain beds in the “ Car-

* See G.S. Memoir just quoted.
+ Professor Hull believes that the absent beds are the Marine Devonians

(Lower and Middle).
202

532 J. NOLAN ON THE OLD RED SANDSTONE

boniferous Sandstone” tract west of Draperstown, Co. Derry; these
are succeeded by purple fine-grained and sometimes cleaved sand-
stones, the highest beds being greenish-grey and olive-coloured grits,
which are classed as the upper part of the Old Red Sandstone
(Kiltorcan beds), but for which I do not know any representatives
in the North of Ireland. Lastly, these are followed by a thin band
of Limestone shale and Lower Limestone, forming the massive
crags on which the castle of Lismore is romantically situated.

Similar observations were made at the Galtees, and the western
prolongation of that range called the Ballyhoura mountains. In a
section at the latter, some four miles north of Buttevant, Co. Cork,
the highest beds seen were reddish to light purple fine-grained sand-
stones and clay rocks, alternating with yellowish grit and shale,
which are regarded as the upper part of the Old Red Sandstone;
while the lower division consists of micaceous purple sandstones
and shales over coarse yellowish-white and reddish-brown pebbly
sandstones and quartzose conglomerates, of the same kind, though
not so massive, as those in the basal beds of the formation at Water-
ford. On the flanks of the Galtees near Kilbeheny similar facts
were observed, reddish-brown to purple sandstones and sandy shales
alternating with quartzose pebble-beds and conglomerates.

On the whole, therefore, I found the closest resemblance in litho-
logical character between these typical Old Red Sandstones of the
south of Ireland and those which in the north and other parts of
Treland have been called Carboniferous—a point which is well
worthy of observation, as formations perfectly identical thus come
to be placed on different geological horizons. Unfortunately no
fossils have been found which would serve for comparison, except in
the Upper Old Red Sandstone, where the remarkable freshwater
fauna and plant-remains of Kiltorcan occur, which have been so well
described by Mr. Baily. This formation, however, is, as before
remarked, not known in the North of Ireland.

Turning now to the sandstone district which it is particularly in-
tended to describe in this paper, we find in Tyrone, that the upper
or quartzose conglomerates (so-called Carboniferous sandstones) are
succeeded by the Carboniferous Limestone ; but as they are traced
further north into County Derry, a considerable thickness of sand-
stone and other beds come in between them and the limestone.
These intermediate rocks attain a great development at Dungiven
and about Draperstown. At the stream called the White Water,
in the latter locality, an excellent section is exposed. The under-
lying or “‘ Lower Carboniferous” series consists of the usual
quartzose conglomerates, coarse purple sandstones, and sandy
shales, also a remarkable rock mostly composed of reddish-brown
and purple grit pebbles, apparently derived from the Fintona series,
closely resembling some of the basal beds that overlie the latter
in the district south of Pomeroy, Co. Tyrone. Over these is the
series of sandstones referred to ; the lowest beds are yellowish-grey
and massive grits with pebbles, red to purplish sandstones, thin

OF THE NORTH OF IRELAND, 903

shales, and quartzose calcareous pebbly beds; higher up are hard
green grits and bluish shales, remarkable quartz pebble-beds highly
calcareous, dark shales full of remains of Modiola MacAdami*, and
thin arenaceous limestones, the surfaces of which are curiously
cut up with cross systems of joints, apparently due to rapid desicca-
tion. Higher up no rocks are met with for a quarter of a mile,
where what seem to be the same series reappear and continue to the
boundary of the metamorphic rocks, from which they are separated
by a fault. In the district to the east, however, there is sufficient
evidence that they underlie the Lower Limestone.

All these rocks are cut up by numerous small faults, which,
indeed, seem characteristic of this series, being also observed at
Altmover Glen, Dungiven, and wherever similar rocks are exposed.
Most of the sections in this neighbourhood have been described with
considerable minuteness by General Portlock, in his Geological
Report on Londonderry, &c.

In most localities there is a prevalence of soft yellow sandstone
and sandy shale with calcareous sandstones and impure limestones,
often magnesian, chiefly near the junction with the underlying con-
glomerates. Fossils, though rare, were found in several places, as at
the Hass, Dungiven, where there are plant-remains and also scales
of Holoptychius Portlocki, Ag., and at another locality one and a
half mile N.E. of this, where fragments of Calamites were found.
In Altmover Glen similar plants occur, with others which Portlock
doubtfully refers to Pecopteris; here also are shells which he
believes to be Producti. There is therefore no doubt that this
series of sandstones &c. should be classed with the Carboniferous
system; and I think the whole facts of the case show that they
should be considered the representatives in time of the Coom-
hola grits and Carboniferous slate of the south of Ireland, and the
Calciferous Sandstone of Scotland, which Jukes regarded as the
equivalent of these formations. The following table shows the
correlation of these rocks with those in the south of Ireland and in
Scotland :—

Nortu oF IRELAND. SoutH oF IRELAND. ScoTLAND.

5. Lower Limestone. Lower Limestone. Lower Limestone.
4. Yellow, white, red, =a
grey sandstone, often
calcareous, in some
places _pebbly, wa
thin bands of impure | Carboniferous slate and Calciferous Sandstone
limestone or dolomite Coomhola grits. series.

and dark shales with
Modiole &c. (White
Water and Dungiven |
beds. ) )

* Portlock also found the following fossils in these beds :—Posidonomya
complanata (locally abundant), Dithyrocaris Colet, D. orbicularis, Cephalaspis ?
(fragment of).

534 J. NOLAN ON THE OLD RED SANDSTONE

3. Not recognized. Upper Old Red Sand- \
stone (Kiltorcan
beds).

2. Coarse yellow sandstone
and fabiilo-hes, seta Old Red Sandstone of $ Upper Old Red Sand-
downwards into pink, the Galtees, Water- stone.
reddish-brown, and pur- + ford, &. “ Old Red
ple sandstones and con- Sandstone proper”

glomerates full of white (Jukes),
and pink quartz pebbles. ) )
UNCONFORMABILITY, UNCONFORMABILITY. UNCONFORMABILITY.

=

. Purple micaceous sand- \
stones and coarse con- |
glomerates, with felstone \ Dingle beds and Glen-) Lower Old Red Sand-
(porphyrite) pebbles and | gariff grits. \ stone.
contemporaneous volca-
nic rocks (Fintona beds). )

Should the Old Red Sandstone be considered a distinct formation
from the Carboniferous ?—As this latter formation appears to be
everywhere conformable to the former, we may be inclined to regard
the Old Red Sandstone rather as the base of the Carboniferous
system than as a separate and distinct one; yet the circumstances
under which they were formed must have been very different—the
one being a marine, the other a freshwater deposit. The great lakes
in which the Old Red Sandstone seems to have been formed pro-
bably gave place gradually to lagoons, and ultimately became
merged in the sea wherein the Carboniferous strata were subse-
quently accumulated. The direction of the depression seems to
have been northwards, for the greatest masses of Old Red Sandstone
occur in the south, principally in the counties of Cork and Water-
ford; they are also largely spread around the Silurian rocks com-
posing the hills that extend semicircularly from the vicinity of
Lough Derg to the Slieve-Bloom range. Little of it is seen on the
east, the older rocks there forming low ground; to the west and
north masses of considerable extent, though of far inferior area to
those in the south, appear to have fringed the ancient shores of the
metamorphic and Silurian rocks that make up the highlands in these
districts ; while in the central parts little occurs, except where,
through faults or subsequent folding and undulation of the strata,
portions reappear in the midst of the great limestone plain.

The persistence of a very remarkable lithological character is
also well worthy of observation, for in few places is the rock com-
posed of any local débris, but, on the contrary, is generally totally
different, being derived from some source apparently unknown—a
fact which, taken in connexion with the wide area over which it is
found, is suggestive of the original great extent of the deposit.
That this merely represents the area of the ancient lakes is by
no means probable, but rather the greater part-of the floor of the
Carboniferous sea.. As depression continued, limestones would be
formed in the deeper waters, while near the land sandstones,
shales, &c. would be deposited, in this way giving rise to the great

OF THE NORTH OF IRELAND. 535

thickness of those rocks which, in the south of Ireland particularly,
is interposed between the quartzose conglomerate and the limestone
proper. Such deposits, too, might be expected occasionally to
partake of the character of the basal conglomerates, and a rearranged
form of these rocks would often be the result, which explains the
occurrence of pebbly quartzose beds like those in the White Water
before referred to, and which are almost undistinguishable from the
Old Red Sandstone.

In conclusion, I think it would be very desirable to retain the
term Old Red Sandstone as applicable to those rocks included under
groups 2 and 3, comprising all those above the unconformability at
the top of the Fintona and Dingle beds up to the commencement of
strata in which marine forms reappear*. Undoubtedly these beds
form the base of the Carboniferous group; yet on account of their
very great difference, both lithologically and paleontologically, I
think it necessary that they should be distinguished from them, and
indicated by a different symbol and colour on geological maps. The
term Carboniferous Sandstone, often given to portions of this group,
has been productive of much misunderstanding and confusion, while
Old Red Sandstone, if strictly limited as proposed, would have a
fixed and definite application.

_ * Professor Hull holds similar views regarding this classification. See hig
- paper on the Carboniferous rocks, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., Nov. 1877, p. 616.

536 C. CALLAWAY ON A SECOND PRECAMBRIAN

37. On a Second PRECAMBRIAN GRovp in the Matvern Hints. By C.
Cattaway, Esq., D.Sc., M.A., F.G.S. (Read May 26, 1880.)

Trt Herefordshire Beacon, situated a little south of the middle of
the Malvern range, sends out towards the east and south-east
several buttresses or spurs; they occupy an area of about one mile
from north to south and half a mile from east to west. In the
summer of 1878 I visited the Malvern Hills to compare the rocks
with those of Shropshire, and I was sanguine, from Dr. Holl’s de-
scription of this district, that I should find in it some equivalents of
the younger Precambrian group of that county. In his valuable
and thoroughly scientific memoir on the Malvern Hills, published in
the Journal of this Society in 1865, Dr. Holl describes the area in
question as “‘ occupied by baked rocks * of the probable age of the
Hollybush Sandstone and Black Shales,” the alteration of the rocks
being supposed to be due to immense trap-dykes—a very natural
interpretation of the facts when we consider the vague ideas of petro-
logy and of metamorphism which prevailed 15 yearsago. On my first
visit I had the advantage of Dr. Holl’s guidance. I found that he
had advanced beyond his original position, and was quite prepared to
consider a new reading of the district. I saw ata glance that the
rocks were quite of a type with which I had been familiar in Lilles-
hall Hill, the extreme north-easterly summit of the Salop Precam-
brian chain. The prevailing variety is a very compact, flinty, horn-
stone f (note 1, p. 538) of a grey or reddish-grey colour, undistin-
guishable from the rock forming the craggy boss which crowns the
summit of Lilleshall Hill (mote 3). I have seen this rock in almost
every part of the Malvern mass, from near its junction with the
gneissic axis to where the spurs break down abruptly upon the Tri-
assic plain to the east. At the south-east end, overlooking Castle
Morton Common, is a greyish felspathic breccia. The contained
fragments are similar to the hornstone. Here and there the rock is
less compact, and closely resembles some of the indurated ash of
Lilleshall Hill. Dr. Holl refers to ‘‘ an unaltered sandstone” and to
some “ black and green shale,” both near Little Malvern ; but I have
been unable to detect these rocks, and they are obviously quite
subordinate to the hornstones. I could not satisfy myself as to the
strike of the beds; but I noticed the “ softer and less siliceous” band
which intervenes between the hornstone and the ridge, so that it
would appear as if the strike were parallel to the gneissic axis, and
therefore quite discordant to the strikes of the older series.

That the newer Precambrian rocks of Malvern are to be correlated
with the younger of the two Salopian groups, or with a part of it,
receives support from the similarity, I might almost say identity, of

* Dr. Holl gives a section showing the position of the “baked rocks,”
at p. 92.

+t Luse the term “hornstone” with hesitation. It seems to me that a new
term is wanted for these rocks. They hardly correspond to Halleflinta.

GEKOUP IN THE MALVERN HILLS. 537

the succession in the two areas. In Shropshire undoubted Malvern
gneiss and granitoid rock * lies at the base of the Wrekin volcanic
series (of which the Lilleshall beds are a part), and is separated
from it by a great interval, during which the lower group was
metamorphosed, uplifted, and denuded, the worn fragments forming
conglomerates in the younger series. At Malvern the newer group
lies against one flank of the gneissic axis, and is clearly separated
from it by a great interval of time, since it rests upon the edges of
the older beds. In Shropshire the felsitic group is immediately
overlain by a band of quartzitet which is absent at the Malverns.
Then follow alike in both districts the Hollybush Sandstone and the
Dictyonema-shales. During the Ordovician epoch (Lower Silurian
of the Survey) both areas were above water and deposits are
wanting. In the May-Hill Sandstone period, depression of both
the Malvern and Wrekin chains set in: first, shore-deposits (May-
Hill conglomerates) fringed the margin of the sinking islands; and
finally marine sediments (Wenlock and Ludlow) entirely covered in
the submerged land. In Devonian times reemergence took place,
the rising wedges of Precambrian rock in both districts pushed up and
sometimes thrust over the Silurian beds, and the old ridges once more
became dry land. Submergence, more or less complete, was again
resumed in the later part of the Carboniferous epoch, evidenced in
both areas by the comparative absence of the Carboniferous Limestone
and by the attenuation of the Coal-measures towards the higher
summits of the Precambrian land.

In both districts the chief dislocations were also contempora-
neous. I first call attention to the post-Triassic (probably post-
Cretaceous) dislocations which threw down newer Paleozoic and
Mesozoic strata against the Malvern axis on the east, and against
the Wrekin axis on the north-west, while, alike in both districts,
the same Cambrian and Silurian deposits were left flanking the
respective ridges on the opposite side. These post-Triassic faults.
acted along preexisting lines of dislocation, some of which were
formed in Precambrian times, and the movements were simultane-
ously renewed at intervals in both Shropshire and the Malverns.
In both areas the volcanic group is faulted against the gneiss, the
Longmyndt rocks against the Precambrian, the Hollybush Sand-
stone against the Precambrian, the Dictyonema-shales against the
Hollybush Sandstone, and the Silurian against the Precambrian.

Thus the succession of deposits, the history of the elevations and
depressions, the contemporaneity of the main dislocations, and the
close lithological resemblances between the respective groups, together
with the identity of the relations between the older groups and the
flanking formations whose contemporaneity is proved by fossils,
furnish us with reasonable evidence of the correlation of the Pre-
cambrian rocks of Shropshire with those of Malvern, and in parti-

* Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxxv. p. 652.

tT Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxxiv. p. 754.

{ Longmynd sandstones and grits are seen south of the Malvern axis at
Huntley, east of May Hill.

538 C. CALLAWAY ON A SECOND PRECAMBRIAN

cular of the Lilleshall series with the ‘baked rocks” of the Here-
fordshire Beacon.

I may state, though the fact is not of much value as evidence of
correlation, that the intrusive doleritic rocks which break up through
the Malvern felspathic series can be exactly matched in the Wrekin
and Caradoc chains. I refer especially to a dark green rock, with
amygdaloids of radiated * epidote, which is common at Caer Caradoc,
and to a coarser variety of a lighter colour which is abundant
further to the north-east.

Professor Bonney (note 2) identifies as possibly an intrusive
quartz-felsite a doubtful-looking rock associated with the Malvern
hornstone.

The relations of the two Precambrian formations at Malvern at
once suggested to me the sequence at St. David’s, and I shortly
afterwards hinted the correlation to the Chester Natural-History
Society. Great caution must, however, be used in comparing such
distant groups. I have long been disposed to consider the felspathic
series in Shropshire, or at least the Lilleshall group, as representing
the Pebidian. The lithological resemblances to the St.-David’s
rocks are very close, and the deposits in both areas are due to vol-
canic action. Ifthe Lilleshall series is: Pebidian, then the horn-
stones at the Herefordshire Beacon are Pebidian. It is also of
importance to notice that these “baked rocks” can hardly be
distinguished in hand-specimens from some of the St.-David’s rocks,
especially those which occur at Nun’s Well (note 4).

But the correlation of the central ridge at St. David’s (Dimetian
of Hicks) with the Malvern axial ridge is not so evident. The
Malvern series is almost exclusively gneissic, foliation is well
marked, and hornblende abounds. In the St.-David’s axis gneiss
is absent. Having searched the series from top to bottom, with the
assistance of Dr. Hicks’s sections, I have been unable to detect
schist of any kind, the “‘quartz-schists” originally described being
really quartzites and granitoid rocks. On the other side we may
set the fact that these granitoid rocks are very similar to the
“granite” so largely developed in Swinyard’s Hill, the Worcester-
shire Beacon, and the North Hill. In the present state of our
knowledge I cannot venture to express a more definite opinion.

Professor Bonney, F.R.S., has independently observed the Pebi-
dian rocks of Malvern, and he permits me to say that he agrees
with me in my general conclusion as to their age. The following
microscopic notes are kindly furnished by him :—

“(1) The prevailing type at the Herefordshire Beacon.—A rock
of sedimentary origin. A ground-mass of very finely granular aspect,
composed of earthy matter thickly interspersed with extremely
minute microliths, probably of felspar, through which are scattered
a few rather larger fragments of felspar, or quartz, or both; some
minute epidote is also present. The specimen belongs to a type

* This is probably the “actinolite” of Murchison (‘Siluria,’ 1867, p. 65,
note). Iam indebted to Mr. Allport for the identification.

GROUP IN THE MALVERN HILLS. 539

common among indurated rather flinty slates with little cleavage.
There are some smaller infiltration-veins of quartz (?).

“© (2) Kast of the Herefordshire Beacon.—Belongs to a group of
rocks about which it is difficult to be certain. The ground-mass is
minutely cryptocrystalline, with small grains of epidote in cracks
and irregular clusters, and with numerous scattered grains of quartz
and felspar; these are generally rather ragged at the edge and
irregular in form. Here and there patches of the ground-mass are
more coarsely crystalline. The rock in some respects resembles
certain ‘ porphyroids,’ examples of which occur at High Sharpley,
Charnwood Forest; but on the whole I think it rather more like a
true quartz-felsite, and very likely an intrusive rock.

(3) Lilleshall. Hill (quarry on S.W. side, on or near the
strike of the summit beds).—One of the indurated slate or Hille-
flinta group; consists apparently of minute granules and perhaps
microliths of felspar and fibres of a pale greenish chloritic mineral
(showing bright colours with crossing Nicols) with a somewhat
parallel arrangement ; opacite and ferrite are scattered here and there
about the slide. The structure is not unlike that of some of the
flinty slates of Charnwood.

“© (4) Nun’s Well, St. David’s.—One of the same group, but
perhaps a little more altered. The rocks seem to be full of excep-
tionally small microliths (some, however, may be fine fragments) of
quartz, felspar, and perhaps epidote.”

Discussion.

Dr. Hicks quite agreed with the author in his conclusions as to
the Pebidian age of the beds in question.

Mr. Krrrine said that he had been much struck with the resem-
blance between the Salopian and Malvernian rocks during recent
visits to those districts.

‘

540 W. H. TWELVETREES ON A NEW THERIODONT REPTILE.

38. On a new Tueriopont Repri~E (CLIORHIZODON ORENBURGESNIS,
Twelvetr.) from the Upper Permian Cuprirerovs SaNnDstones of

Karearinsk, near ORENBURG im SoUTH-HASTERN Russia. By W.
H. Twetverress, Esq., F.L.S., F.G.8. (Read April 14, 1880.)

Tue fossil to be described in this paper was found, in the summer of
1879, in the copper-mine of Roshdestvensk, about thirty miles N.
of the town of Orenberg. The mine forms one of several groups
known collectively as the mines of Kargalinsk. The steppe in
which it is situate is composed of Upper Permian beds of marl
and sandstones resting upon limestone containing Zechstein fossils.
Copper-mines in this steppe have been worked from time immemorial.
Organic remains are only found in the runs of copper-ore and
are everywhere absent from the bare sandstones. I have resided
several years in the neighbourhood and am acquainted only with
the following :—

Calamites Amblypterus, sp»
Lepidodendron. Platysomus, sp.
Leaves of Aroides crassispatha, Remains of Labyrinthodonts.
Kutorga. Remains of Saurians undetermined,
Conifer trunks and twigs. including Rhopalodon, Fischer,
Unio, sp., allied to U. wmbonatus, and Deuterosaurus, Kichwald.
Fischer.
Descruption.

The fragment under consideration is a portion of a reptilian jaw*,
apparently comprising parts of the maxillary and premaxillary
bones. When it first came into my possession it only presented to
view vertical sections of the roots of the canine and molars split
down longitudinally. Experimental chiselling disclosed the fine
canine crown (c), besides the crown of an incisor (2) and crowns
of two of the molars (m 5 & 6). The form and implantation of
the roots had already led me to the conclusion that the animal
belonged to the Theriodont order; and this inference was confirmed
by the appearance of the canine and incisor crowns.

Between the canine and incisor is a diastema or toothless interval
of 37 inch. The latter slants backwards and outwards. Its crown
is of a triangular form, and I am unable to detect any trace of ser-
ration; though it must be confessed that the anterior edge is not
quite in a state to admit of a positive assertion. The tooth is not
susceptible of further development from the matrix without risk of
injury to the canine.

* Kindly given to me by Mr. Thos. Rickard, who has for several years
studied the geology of the Kargalinsk strata and the conditions of the copper
in their rocks.

W. H. TWELVETREES ON A NEW THERIODONT REPTILE. 541

Portion of Upper Jaw (right side) of Cliorhizodon orenbur-
— gensis, Twelvetrees. Nat, size,

\ ‘| \
By SSA J
‘ ; ‘ i SELON
y HN i}
ZB Mi pe 24
<

7. Incisor. c. Canine. m 1-10. Molars.

Proceeding to the canine a fine recurved tooth is exhibited (c).
It is thickest at the base of the crown and somewhat compressed
laterally, though less so than the canines of any other Theriodonts
that I have seen. Its posterior edge bears no sign of serration or
erenulation. The interior is too mineralized to show reliably details
of structure. Its exterior is faintly marked longitudinally. The
root not being split quite in the median plane, the pulp-cavity is not
displayed; but the form of the socket and of the implanted fang is
instructively shown. The former is a cavity slightly narrowing
towards its closed termination, and the root follows the same shape.
The significance of such mode of implantation has been finely shown
by Prof. Owen in his description of fragmentary indications of a
huge kind of Theriodont reptile (Zvtanosuchus ferow, Ow.) from the
Cape of Good Hope*. The present fossil is a remarkably good illus-
tration of the views propounded in that memoir, and I am greatly
indebted to its illustrious author for the guidance thereby afforded
me. Not only the canine, but the molars too, which differ from the

* Quart. Journ, Geol. Soc. vol. xxxv. May 1879, pp. 189 ez seq.

542 W. H. TWELVETREES ON A NEW THERIODONT REPTILE.

incisor in form as well as position, are inserted in separate sockets,
which, together with the contained roots, taper to a more or less
blunt but closed extremity.

m 1 is the root immediately behind the canine, from which it is
not divided by any appreciable interspace. It is the longest molar
root preserved.

m 2 & 8 are smaller and more slender roots exhibiting the
elongated pulp-cavity, pointed extremity and closed sockets very
decisively. Much the same may be said of m 4.

m 5 is the first we come to showing its crown, which was trans-
versely broken in treating the fossil. Itis small, subconical and
directed backwards. Its anterior contour, which describes the greatest
convex curve, is sharply serrated. Its root rises perpendicularly
into a narrow socket, narrowing as it ascends.

m 6 is a larger molar, also exposing part of its crown, which seems
to be of the same general shape and to have the same serration as
that of m 5, but itis more swollen. Viewing the longitudinal outline
of its root, there appears to me to bea very slight constriction or
tendency to the formation of a cervix dividing the crown from the
fang. The termination of this fang and its closed socket is less
acuminate than in the preceding teeth. m7 is a root not essentially
different from m 6.

m 8 presents a complete longitudinal section of root and crown
from the apex of the crown to the base of the fang. It evidences
a backward slant of the crown and, as it seems to me, a barely per-
ceptible constriction at the base of the latter. It exemplifies the
closed socket quite as clearly as the other teeth; but the root gains
a little in width upwards. At the base the corners are rounded off,
and the base-line is punched up a little, so as to cause a slight undu-
lation in the basal outline; and this corresponds to a similar wave in
the basal outline of the pulp-cavity, which is large and conoidal, a
facsimile of the root itself. The cavity is produced as a linear
trace into the crown. m 9, partly preserved, resembles in form
m 7, and m-10 is only a fragment.

Incisor. Canine.
in. in,
xtraalveolan lengtla (Crow) <...2.c0c02- ceoaneesscvovees “38 13
From alveolar margin to end of fang (root) ............... su Il
Potalic..+. 2:4
Molars
aaa a ae ee
1 2 3 4, 5. Gul it 8 9 10
Tien iy 1 iy Ale ie '11: in, in in
rOWI 0 oe oak), Se I eee uctiesa Oh ee
Root... 76) e410 > -4)-46) 7 46ers ao ab “Bb
Motel. coe eshece aes “48 64

I have now passed in review the teeth seriatim. They point, inmy
opinion, to the location of the animal to which they belonged in the
Theriodont order. The excessive obliquity of the root of the canine

W. H. TWELVETREES ON A NEW THERIODONT REPTILE. 543

and the absence of the well-marked club-shaped outline characterizing
the crowns of teeth of Rhopalodon, Fischer, are the reasons which
have mainly influenced me in keeping it apart from that genus. In
Rhopalodon, too, I have noticed a greater smoothness and more finely
marked superficies of enamel. Venturing thus to distinguish it
generically, and necessarily specifically, I submit the name of Clio-
rluzodon orenburgensis, in allusion to its contracting roots terminating
in closed sockets, and to the government in Russia in which it was
found.

Discussion.

Prof. Rupert Jones referred to the finding of reptilian remains
in the dolomitic conglomerate of Bristol. It had been asserted that
continental beds with similar reptiles were Permian, while it was
now known that the former were Triassic; and he thought it
should not be too hastily assumed that these Russian beds were
Permian.

Prof. Boyp Dawxrns said that the great feature of the Secondary
rocks was the evolution of the Reptilia. The discovery, then, of so
highly organized a group as Theriodonts was rather a reason for
regarding these rocks as Secondary.

Prof. Srrtzy said he really did not know what a Theriodont was,
and did not believe that, as a division of the Reptilia, the Therio-
dontia had any existence. What the specimen on the table was he
could not say; and he did not think it was perfect enough for
description.

Mr. Huxxe thought the specimen too obscure for forming an
opinion at once. He concurred with Prof. Seeley’s remarks as
to the dubious value of the Theriodontia as a natural family of
reptiles. When the subject was some time since brought before the
Society by Prof. Owen, he had stated that even teeth of the Iguano-
don present characteristics supposed to be Theriodont.

The PrestpEnT said the teeth of these so-called Theriodonts were
very different from those of the Thecodontosaurus and Palcosaurus
of the Bristol conglomerate; but it was doubtful what was the true
age of these so-called Permians,

NS ee ee

544. F. 0. J. SPURRELL ON THE DISCOVERY OF

39. On the Discovery of the Puace where PAtmotitaic IMPLEMENTS
were made at CRAyFoRD. By F.C. J. Spurrent, F.G.S. (Read

June 23, 1880.)
[Puare XXIL]

In the large chalk-pit at Crayford, Kent, and in the adjoining
brick-pits I have noticed for some time flint flakes which I was
unable to convince myself belonged to the brick-earths in which
they were found, believing, from their shape, colour, and mineral
condition, that they had come from another stratum of the river-
deposits.

I, however, watched regularly, with great care, and during the
late winter found a few flakes which, from their appearance, I felt
belonged to the gently deposited brick-earths in which they lay ; but
they were solitary and rare, and it was not until the beginning of
March last that, on the removal of a part of the face of the cliff, I
came upon a dense layer of chips, specimens of which are exhibited,

Fig. 1.—Section of Cliff at Crayford,
(Scale = inch to 1 foot,)

OG RD mt RADON ITED on eA IS
b cae eee — Maem ate ps NO inte eat
TON, = Ae Vad a IOS Aaa
c y; 4 x L 2
= \ Ca
z

Brickrarths.

a. Layer of chips. 6. Vegetable soil. e. Chalk rubble,
d, Chalk. +-+ Bones of Rhinoceros.

The sands and clays constituting the brick-earths of Crayford, lie
under a low cliff of chalk and Thanet Sand, with a cap of gravel known
as Dartford-Heath gravel. ‘This ancient cliff (fig. 1) has in parts
been worn lower than others ; at one of these spots, where the wear-
ing has invaded the chalk itself, the brick-earths are exposed lying
against the chalk, which is much weathered and has the face covered
with chalk-rubble; at the base of this section is a step in the chalk
cliff, and a sort of foreshore seems to have been formed, consisting
here of hard sand, and there of small heaps of flint stones brought
down from the cliff above by aerial action. It is on one of these
small slopes of sand that the layer of flakes was found. The upper-
most edge of the area covered by them is about. thirty-six feet from

PALAEOLITHIC IMPLEMENTS AT CRAYFORD. 545

the present surface, the lowest nearly six feet lower. This area was
thickly covered with chips for the space of about ten feet north and
south, and, as far as I know at present, fifteen feet east and west,
or parallel to the cliff; but I expect that it will be found to extend
further. cal

The fragments of flint lay touching each other, in parts toa thick-
ness of several inches, and had fallen so lightly that in several places
there were minute cavities underneath the mass of larger and flatter
flakes.

A few small pieces of bone were found immediately beneath the
layer; but above could be seen fine specimens, and smaller ones in
abundance, mostly incrusted with sand, cemented by iron oxide to
the bones, and this occasionally included one or more flakes in the
mass (fig. 2). Chips are found connected together by the same means.

Fig. 2.—A Flint Flake which has been used at the side and butt end,
adherent, by rts upper surface, to a portion of the sandy matria
in which it was found imbedded. Natural size.

=

The flakes, when first taken from the sand, are in most cases quite
new and clean, always so on the lower side, very slightly discoloured
with dust or iron on the upper. Many are studded with small con-
eretions of white carbonate of lime.

Though the workman had abundance of material to work on, he
seems to have found the flints very obstinate, as may be seen from
the difficulty he had in procuring good heart pieces of flint and the
patient way he chipped away the outside. |

That he worked on the spot is evident. As I noticed before, the
flakes lie lightly on each other; they are perfectly free from the
slightest abrasion such as must have occurred had the edges rubbed
over each other by the action of water; they did not fall from the
cliff into the water, for occasionally long flakes broken in two have
been seen, which could not have occurred had water intervened ;

Q.J.G.8. No. 144. QP

546 F. C. J. SPURRELL ON THE DISCOVERY OF

and notably one large flake was found by me, the broken ends facing
each other as at the moment it fell and broke! A few small concre-
tions remain on the opposed faces to show that the fracture was
previous to the discovery and not due to an accident since.

Single flakes may be found above and below this layer, and it
would therefore appear that the manufacture at this place was of
long continuance.

Notwithstanding that many flakes were carried to ‘spoil ” whilst
I was absent, and the fall of some earth with the fear that more
may follow prevents my getting the whole of these remains, I have
been able to piece many of these flakes, and to demonstrate that
the object sought was the manufacture of haches, which has been
confirmed by my digging out, on the 23rd of April last, the broad
end of a flint hache, in the presence of Prof. Boyd Dawkins, whom
I had asked to visit the place; and later I recovered the rest of the
implement. ;

Some of the smaller chips leave no doubt that, besides these
coarser operations of blocking out, very fine work indeed was
attempted.

All the parent stones have been derived from those found at hand
and washed out of the cliff or fallen from it; not one had been
rolled or dug out of the chalk by the workman, and all were slightly
stained by iron before being used.

If I did not find the hammer, I found some such tool; but such
pebbles as were required for the purpose could easily be obtained of
various qualities from the Dartford Gravel above. Fints used for
striking were found, however.

The bones with which these traces of man are associated are those
of the brick-earth of Crayford in general, so completely described by
Prof. Boyd Dawkins ; but one specimen,which was found a few inches
over the flints, is worthy of notice, being part of the distal end of
the lower jaw of Khinoceros tichorhinus, with four milk-teeth and
the thin alveolar edges of the recently shed outer incisors uncrushed.
The rest of that row of teeth were afterwards found about 18 inches
off the first, the ends of the jaw having been rounded. From the
body of the jaw had been extracted one uncut tooth of the coming
series, which lay about a foot from the last; numerous splinters of
the large bones lay around, and suggested their having been broken
for food.

In the second section which I have prepared (fig. 3) is shown the
relation of this deposit to other deposits of the same river in the im-
mediate neighbourhood.

The oldest known to me is the widely spread tract of Dartford
Gravel (a), extending many miles on either side of the present river
Thames and bearing a definite relation on its northern as well as
its southern confines to the course of that river. It is to be found
resting with remarkable regularity on a level of about 98 feet above
the ordnance datum line, whatever stratum it may rest on, though
in pockets or pipes it occasionally descends lower. Its greatest
thickness is about 35 feet. It is irregularly stratified ; but as it

PALZOLITHIC IMPLEMENTS AT CRAYFORD. DAT

has been repeatedly noticed in
the Geological Society’s Jour-
nal, I shall not further de-

scribe it.

‘TOAVLD PLOFJAVGE *v

This gravel contains paleo- ileal
lithic implements. Some years ee
ago I found a hache* in situ eo
in it, on Dartford Heath, which |
is now in the British Museum ; 4
and this has been followed by =:
Mr. C. ©. S. Fooks (of The ~ =
Bowman’s Lodge, Dartford E =
Heath) obtaining, last year, 5 =
another from the same gravel, 7 =
not quite so deep, however, 5 S
and about 25 feet further * =
south. I have found a few =
flakes, all bearing a general o
resemblance to each other in = 5 42
mineral character; and it is © i & &
from this gravel that I believe &. gee =
some of the flakes that have ™ : nt
been found in the brick-earths 38
below have been derived. = o by

It appears that the river ™ a S
afterwards left this level and YF 423). ik es
descended not less than 180 & 23 Bo
feet (perhaps more than 200), 8 Ss 3
cutting adeepchannel,of which © He 2 Ha
the cliff in my first section Ea eet
(fig. 1) is a result. When at =e =
its lowest, the river must have * 43 et
been comparatively a small Q@ |\EH 8,
one. The river then began to 4% te
rise slowly until the water *~ /|Fes
attained, if it did not exceed, } =

its old supremacy.

It was during this rise that
the brick-earths were deposited,
some of which, containing ele-
phant remains, have been found
resting on chalk in the bed of l' |
the Thames in Erith Rands,
about forty feet below the Ler
datum line.

Then the water retreated
again, washing away much of

‘uInTANnTTy of
=

‘OTT T[ 0} soyour g o[vos TeyuoztI0F{) *p.vof.

paroz heap
asnoy, 1oueyy
‘8

¢

‘SONUE FUT ¥

_ * Figured in Mr. J. Evans’s ‘An-
cient Stone Implements,’ p. 532.

PAT eae

548 ON THE DISCOVERY OF PALMOLITHIC IMPLEMENTS AT CRAYFORD.

the upper layers of brick-earth, and giving much of the present form
and slope to the lower part of the valley. Atits close came down
rushes of gravel, chiefly from the highest bed, crushing into the
softer layer beneath, and making festoons and loops when seen in
section; this is known by the name of “trail,” and accumulated
lower down in large banks, on which rests the alluvium of the pre-
historic time.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXII.

Flint flakes found at Crayford, replaced in their relative positions around the
hache, which lies within, forming a restoration of the block of flint as picked up
on the neighbouring foreshore before being worked. Many of the constituent
flakes have been used. (The flake marked “J. lL.” was found by Sir John
Lubbock after the other fragments had been pieced together.)

Discussion.

Prof. Presrwicn observed that this case was analogous to those
of the Somme valley, where we had an upper- and a lower-level
gravel with flint implements. He remarked on the great interest
and novelty of the work of Mr. Spurrell.

Mr. Evans thought the discovery threw much light upon the
relations of the beds and the manufacture of the flints. He called
attention to the difference between the flakes from the brick-earths
and the implements from the upper gravel. Many of the flint flakes
were carefully wrought, and seemed to have been intended for flint
knives. The Crayford deposit resembles that of Menchecourt, in
which similar flakes and bones of ft. techorhinus had been found. |

Prof. Bonney called attention to the fact that the incrustations
and colour-stains passed over the cracks in the cases where the frag-
ments had been fitted together to make a block. This perplexed
him, and he could not help doubting whether the latter were not
fractures caused by natural action, and not by the hand of palzo-
lithic man. 7

Prof. Hueses saw difficulties in the way of accepting the evidence
without further explanations. The flakes were left together, while
the gravel and sand told of transporting currents. Moreover the
flakes were not in the same condition as the other remains said to
have been procured from the same formation; while the flints from
which the flakes were struck did seem to have belonged, when
whole, to that formation*.

Mr. CHARLESworTH mentioned a deposit at Hackney where im-
plements were being found with Cyrena fluminalis.

Mr. SrurRett replied that some stains had commenced before the
specimen was worked, while others were formed afterwards.

* [Note.—I am permitted to state in a note that since offering the above
criticism on the evidence laid before the Society, I have examined the locality
with Mr. Spurrell and have seen that the difficulties which occurred to me can
be explained away by reference to the peculiar conditions of deposit at the foot
of achalk cliff, and that, having dug out many specimens with my own hands, I
am convinced that the flakes are the work of man and that they do occur under
at least 37 feet of the Crayford sand and gravel with the remains of Rhinoceros
&c.—T. M‘K. H.]

“duit SOI, Ule7zUry SE OMONAUSE ; LUNITH GHYOLS cRal UN] Top P-loog oy

Tie WOO [Oh OOS Poe). her, Aen)

P. H, CARPENTER ON CRETACEOUS COMATULZ. 549

40. On some new Cretaczous ComatuLa. By P. Hersert CARPENTER,
M.A., Assistant Master at Eton College. (Read June 23, 1880.)

(Communicated by Prof. P. M. Duncan, M.B. Lond., F.R.S., V.P.G.S.) .
[Puate XXIII. |

In the following pages I have described some new Cretaceous Coma-
tule which have been placed at my disposal for this purpose since
the publication of my paper on British Secondary Comatule in the
February Number of this Journal (vol. xxxvi. pp. 36-55, pl. v.).

T woof the new species belong to the cabinet of the Rev. P. B. Brodie,
M.A., F.G.S., who courteously offered them to me for description.
The other three are in the Geological Collection of the British
Museum, and (as before) I am indebted to the kindness of Dr. Henry
Woodward, F.R.S., and of Mr. R. Etheridge, Junr., for the oppor-
tunity of examining them. To all of these gentlemen my best
thanks are due.

1. ANTEDON PERFORATA, n. sp. (Pl. XXIII. fig. 2.)

The centrodorsal is a thick pentagonal disk with steep sides and
a hollowed dorsal surface (fig. 2, 6). At the bottom of the hollow
is an irregular central opening,and on its sloping sides are five others,
radially disposed and separated by faint grooves. There are about
fifty deep cirrhus-sockets, arranged rather irregularly; those which
are best preserved show traces of striated margins and have small
articular ridges crossing them at or slightly above the middle, which
are pierced by the transversely oval openings of the cirrhus-canals
(fig. 2, c). The ventral surface (fig. 2, a) is marked by various pits
and hollows, but is tolerably flat on the whole, except that one of
the radial areas falls away very much toward the periphery. The
basal grooves are indistinct, with nearly parallel sides, which show
faint traces of plication here and there; and the central cavity is
irregularly five-rayed, with uneven margins and slight indications of
radial ribs on its walls like those of A. paradowa, thestrong interradial
ribs of which are absent in this specimen.

Diameter 114 mm. ; height 5 mm.

Locality. The (Upper) Chalk, Margate. Wetherell Collection,
British Museum.

Remarks. The somewhat worn specimen described above resem-
bles A. paradowa in general appearance, but lacks the keyhole-shaped
opening in the cirrhus-sockets characteristic of this species and of
A. rugosa (fig. 4). One socket, it is true, has a central somewhat
keyhole-shaped pit; but I believe this to be artificial, The rim
around the opening of the axial canal has been worn away, and the
opening thereby united with the deepest part of the dorsal ligament-
pit which lies just beneath it; while the two disconnected ends of
the articular ridge stand up on either side of the composite pit thus
produced, so that the socket has somewhat the appearance of those

550 P. H. CARPENTER ON CRETACEOUS COMATULA.

of A. paradowa or A. rugosa. On the other hand I have seen no
cirrhus-socket in either of these species which shows any trace of
an articular ridge surrounding a central opening. A considerable
proportion of each socket (fig. 4) is occupied by the large keyhole-
shaped pit. The opening of the axial canal was probably at the
bottom of this pit, while there are small lateral elevations causing
the constrictions of its sides that may be the disconnected ends of a
transverse articular ridge. But I have been unableto satisfy myself
that they are so, while it is unlikely that such an appearance would
be always artificial. In any case, the appearance of the sockets, as
we find them now, forms a good distinction between A. paradowa
and A. rugosa, on the one hand, and A. perforata with the remaining
Cretaceous Antedons on the other. The latter species also differs
trom the two former ones in having six large and distinct openings
at the dorsal pole, and not a simple five-rayed impression. The
presence of the radial ribs on the walls of the axial cavity gives it
an intermediate position between them; for while there are no
ribs at all in A. rugosa, there are both interradial and radial ones in
A. paradoxa, The radial ribs, the plaiting of the basal grooves,
the depth of the cirrhus-sockets, and the form of their articular
surfaces distinguish A. perforata from A. Lundgreni, to which we
will now pass on.

2. Antepon LunpeRENI, n. sp. (PI. XXIII. fig. 3.)

The centrodorsal is irregularly hemispherical, with a rounded
pentagonal outline, and is nearly covered by ten vertical rows of
cirrhus-sockets (fig. 3, 6, c). Hach row is separated from its neigh-
bours by more or less distinct ridges, and contains two or three
sockets which have striated margins and minute central perforations.
The precise shape of the articular surfaces is difficult to make out ;
it is most like that to be described immediately in A. striata (fig. 5).
Rather to one side of the apex is an irregular hole with constricted
sides. The ventral surface (fig. 3, a) is flat with indistinct basal
grooves, the sides of which show no traces of plication, which would
probably have been preserved had it existed, as the striation of the
cirrhus-sockets is visible. |

One of the grooves is occupied by asmall prismatic basal, the outer
end of which reaches the margin of the centrodorsal so as to appear
externally (fig. 3, ¢). From its narrow inner end diverge two small
bony bars. One of these, the right in the figure (3, a), is followed
by two others, but the rest of the margin of the axial opening is
rather irregular. Were it complete with all the basals im situ, it
would evidently be decagonal and closely resemble the corresponding
part in Goldfuss’s figure of A. paradoxa*. Just outside the margin of
the opening are five small, but double radial pits. Hach of these is
very shallow and more or less separated into two parts by a tangen-
tial division, just as represented in Goldfuss’s figure. The central
cavity is tolerably deep, without any ribs on its walls.

* Petrefacta Germania, Taf. li. fig. 1, b.

P, H. CARPENTER ON CRETACEOUS COMATUL. 551

Diameter 5 mm. ; height nearly 2°5 mm.

Locality. The (Upper) Chalk, Margate. Wetherell Collection,
British Museum.

Remarks. The form and regular arrangement of the cirrhus-sockets
and the want of plication of the basal grooves distinguish this species
from both A. paradoxa and A. rugosa. The specimen described is
of special interest from the proof which it furnishes of the correctness
of Lundgren’s explanation * of the so-called ‘ambulacra’ of A. para-
doxa as the grooves in which the basals are lodged. JI have much
pleasure therefore in naming the species after him.

3. ANTEDON sTRIATA, n. sp. (PI. XXIII. fig. 5.)

The centrodorsal is a roughly circular thick disk with steep sides
and a deepish hollow at the dorsal pole, on the sloping wall of which
is a faint trace of a stellate impression (fig. 5,c). It bears numerous
cirrhus-sockets in four or five irregularly alternating rows, probably
about forty in all, if the portion concealed by the matrix be allowed
for. They have a circular or oval shape, the largest reaching nearly
2mm. in diameter. Lach is a deepish hollow with a very distinctly
striated rim, and at or just above the middle a small opening, which
is usually somewhat elongated transversely and has slight elevations
around its ends (fig. 5, ¢). These are seen in the best-preserved
sockets to be the more prominent parts of a thick articular rim
which surrounds the opening of the cirrhus-canal (fig. 5, @).

The ventral surface is very flat and rather obscured by the matrix,
which occupies the stellate central cavity and conceals the inner ends
of the basal grooves. ‘These seem to have been pear-shaped, and
their sides show no indications of plaiting, which, had it existed,
would have been preserved like the stri of the cirrhus-sockets.

Diameter nearly 9 mm.; height 45 mm,

Locality. The (Upper) Chalk, Dover. British-Museum Collec-
tion.

Remarks, This species has a considerable superficial resemblance
to A. rugosa, but its centrodorsal is rather higher and bears more
cirrhi, the sockets of which are quite different from those of that type.
They are more like those of A. Lundgreni, but are arranged quite
differently and are far more distinctly striated. In A. pinta guum
of the Mediterranean the margins of the cirrhus-sockets are quite
plain; but the articular rim around the opening of the axial canal
has very much the same shape that it has in A. striata.

4, ANTEDON LATICIRRA, 0. sp. (Pl. XXIII. fig. 6.)
The centrodorsal is roughly hemispherical with a pentagonal
outline, and bears eight cirrhus-sockets in a single incomplete row

* «Om en Comaster och en Aptychus fran Kopinge,” Ofversigt af Kongl.
Vetenskaps-Akademiens Férhandlingar, 1874, p. 65.

552 P. H. CARPENTER ON CRETACEOUS COMATULZ.

(fig. 6, 6, c). The dorsal pole is smooth and slightly flattened. Most
of the sockets, are large and pear-shaped with the small end down-
wards, the largest being nearly 24 by 13 mm. An articular ridge
crosses the broadest part and widens out in the centre round the
transverse opening of the axial canal. The margins of the sockets
are coarsely striated.

The ventral surface has a shallow and irregular central cavity,
with traces of small radial extensions (fig. 6, a). The basal grooves
are well marked, with high parallel walls that stand up above the
level of the intervening radial areas, which are more or less irregu-
larly hollowed (fig. 6, c).

Diameter 4 mm. ; height about 33 mm.

Locality. The Chalk of Wylye, in Wiltshire. Both this and the
following species belong to the cabinet of the Rey. P. B. Brodie,
M.A., F.G.S., who has kindly placed them in my hands for descrip-
tion.

Remarks. The few but large cirrhus-sockets of this species and
its deeply cut basal grooves distinguish it very markedly from the
other fossil Comatule. The sockets of A. paradowa are sometimes
as long, but they have entirely different articular surfaces (fig. 4).

5. ANTEDON INCURVA, n. sp. (Pl. XXIII. fig. 1.)

The centrodorsal is hemispherical, with a pentagonal outline, and
is almost completely covered by about forty-five polygonal cirrhus-
sockets, arranged in five or six more or less irregularly alternating
rows. At the dorsal pole is a trace of a stellate impression (fig. 1, 6).
The margins of the sockets are striated, and the transversely oval
opening of the central canal seems to have had a rim with raised
ends as in A. striata (fig. 5, d).

The sides of the radial pentagon are rather curved inwards, so that
it does not quite cover the centrodorsal (fig. 1, a), while its angles
project slightly beyond the edge. The outer dorsal surfaces of the
radials are just visible, especially at the angles, where they are
turned upwards and separated by small rounded basals that project
slightly outwards, so as to be visible when the calyx is viewed from
either above or below (fig. 1, a, 6). -

The articular faces of the radials are high relatively to their
width and much curved from above downwards, as well as from side
to side (fig. 1,¢,d). Only one of them is at all free from the
matrix, It shows a considerable enlargement of the ventral rim of
the axial canal, from which a median ridge runs upwards to meet a
wide notch between the muscle-plates, while two others run up-
wards and outwards to separate the muscular fosse from those for
the interarticular ligaments. The form of the central funnel is
stellate, but somewhat irregular; for at three of the angles there is
no notch between the muscle-plates of two adjacent radials, while
at two others these notches are visible, owing to the tips of the plates
being somewhat everted. |

P, H. CARPENTER ON CRETACEOUS COMATULZ. 553

Diameter 45 mm.

Locality. The Upper Greensand, Blackdown! Collection of the
Rev. P. B. Brodie, M.A., F.G.S.

Remarks. This is a very singular type, as it presents a com-
bination of several characters which are more or less distinctive
of various other Cretaceous species and of some recent ones. In
its general facies this fossil resembles the corresponding part of
A, celtica and A. Eschrichti of the North-Atlantic basin. The latter
species is the more like it, having a hemispherical centrodorsal with
a pentagonal outline and very similar articular faces, including the
enlargement of the ventral rim of the axial canal. The two types
differ, however, in points of detail, such as the lateral curvature of
the articular faces of A. incurva, so that the radials do not com-
pletely cover the centrodorsal; and they show a small outer dorsal
surface, the flanks of which are upturned above the outer ends of
the basals. Both these characters are common to A. semiglobosa and
A, equimarginata. In the former species, however, the upper
ends of the apposed lateral edges of the radials stand out more
prominently than in A. incwrva; while the articular faces of
A, equmarginata have a very straight slope and lack the ventral
intermuscular notch which occurs in A. incurva, though the enlarge-
ment of the upper rim of the axial canal is common both to it and
to the recent A. Eschrichtit.

The lateral curvature of the articular faces occurs in a new Pacific
Antedon (otherwise very different), in A. lenticularis, A. italica, and
in the so-called Hertha mystica * from the Cretaceous series of the
island of Rigen. There is a further resemblance to this last species
in the projection of the angles of the radial pentagon beyond the
margin of the centrodorsal, so that they are visible when the calyx
is viewed from below (fig. 1, 6); but the ventral aspect of the
calyx is very different from that of Hertha, in which the articular
faces suddenly narrow very much near their ventral ends, while
Hagenow could discover no external basals, such as we find in
A. meurve.

The close grouping of the cirrhus-sockets on the centrodorsal of
this species, and the faint stellate impression at its dorsal pole, give
it a certain resemblance to A. rotunda; but its pentagonal shape is
sufficient to distinguish it, apart from other slight differences.

In the following table (p. 554) I have endeavoured to show
the occurrence of characters belonging to this species in other
Comatule.

* Von Hagenow, “ Monographie der Riigen’schen Kreide-Versteinerungen :
II. Abtheilung, Radiarien und Annulaten,” Neues Jahrb. f. Mineral. 1840,
p. 664.

P. H. CARPENTER ON CRETACEOUS COMATULA.

504

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P, H. CARPENTER ON CRETACEOUS COMATULZE. 555

I append a key to the various species of Antedon from the English
Chalk which have been described in this and in my preceding
paper.

Antedons from the English Chalk.

I. Cirrhus-sockets with a keyhole-shaped pit. ;
A. Centrodorsal cavity has ribbed walls ............ 1. A. paradoza.
B. Walls of centrodorsal cavity plain ............... 2. A, rugosa.
II. Cirrhus-sockets have an ovalarticular surface slightly
elevated at the ends.

C. Ten vertical rows of cirrhus-sockets ..............- 3. A. Lundgreni.
OD: Sockets numerous in alternating horizontal
OW Ss creas <ss recat saismal ono recumaseceeeeeiteaeeeeReete 4, A. striata.

ITI. Cirrhus-sockets have a transverse articular ridge.
HE, Sockets numerous in irregular rows. Six aper-

tumes at dorsal Pole) ({)..d 5:0 :teatnarscBh bs tert oeean 5. A. perforata.
F’, Few socketsin one incompleterow. Dorsal pole
MMMM EMT OF ACO nu so0c ausidvisnte sok calcd eeuacapas entre amine ee 6. A. laticirra.

In conclusion, I wish to say a few words on a morphological
subject which was alluded to in my previous paper (pp. 37, 38),
and has recently gained in interest from the writings of Messrs.
Wachsmuth and Springer.

In recent Comatule, as in Pentacrinus, the lowest portions of the
ccelom of the arms are lodged in the median ventral furrows of their
skeleton, which terminate in those of the rays. The latter are
continued down the inner faces of the first radials, where they are
more or less completely converted into canals that end blindly
against the upper surface of the centrodorsal. They are some-
times received into five radial pits, which are very deep in
certain fossil Comatule. This is the case in Ant. Retzii,in which
they remain outside and separate from the median cavity of the
centrodorsal that lodged the chambered organ, being shut off from
it by vertical partitions. In A. semiglobosa the central cavity is
united (perhaps by accident) with the five others round it and has
a stellate appearance, while there is a similar stellate pit on the
under surface of the centrodorsal. Stellate dorsal pits slightly
smaller in size occur in other fossil Comatule; these are far larger
than was necessary merely to transmit the vascular axis of the
larval stem, continued downwards from the chambered organ. One
is led to suspect, therefore, that they gave passage, not only to this
central axis, but also to five radial extensions of the body-cavity
around it, the radial pits of other Comatule being here represented
by real perforations through the substance of the centrodorsal.

The condition of Ant. perforata tends to support this view. On
its ventral surface (Pl. XXITI. fig. 2, a) the radial pits are more or less
confluent ‘with the central cavity, ‘but dorsally (fig. 2, 6) there are
six separate openings, a central one and five others around it cor-
responding to the radial extensions of the axial cavity above.

This question is of interest in reference to the hypothesis recently
put forward by Messrs. Wachsmuth and Springer *, “ that the

* “Revision of the Palzocrinoidea.—Part i.,” Proceed. Acad. Nat. Sci.
Philad. 1879, p. 15 (separate copy).

556 P. H. CARPENTER ON CRETACEOUS COMATULA.

column was in some cases, and perhaps more or less in the Palaxo-
erinoids generally, subservient to respiration.” According to these
authors, some of the Paleocrinoids had hydrospires like those of
the Blastoids; but there are a large number of forms in which no
trace of them has as yet been discovered. They suggest therefore
that the complex stem which many of the Paleocrinoids possess
“ was a means of communication between the water outside and the
internal organs of the body for some purpose,” probably respiratory.
In some groups, such as the Platycrinide, the stem is destitute of
any internal structure, but is simply pierced by a very small central
canal, which lodged the vascular axis. This canal is of very small
size in Pentacrinus; but it is sufficient to contain six vessels, a
central one and five peripheral ones, which in the nodal joints send
branches into the cirrhi. In the fossil Pentacrini the central canal
of the stem is very small, just as in the recent species. It is also
small in Hnerinus, and its upper end is enclosed by the circlet of
five under basals, each of which bears a slight pit on its ventral
surface. These pits, which are radial in position, are the dorsal ends
of the furrows that descend the sloping ventral faces of the radials.
At the margin of the calyx they are continuous with the more or
less distinct grooves along the ventral surface of the skeleton of the
rays and arms, just asin Comatula and Pentacrinus. The radial pits
of Encrinus are thus precisely homologous with those on the upper
surface of the centrodorsal in Comatula. If, instead of being pits,
they were perforations through the under basals, the lower surface
of the calyx would show five large apertures surrounding a central
one, instead of that central one only.

This condition, or a parallel one, is precisely what we do find in
some fossil Crinoids. In MNannocrinus and Myrtillocrinus* the
body is pentamerous, but the stem only tetramerous; and there
are five apertures on the under surface of the calyx. Judged by the
standard of Pentucrinus and Rhizocrinus, the central one is more than
large enough to have lodged the vascular axis ; while there are four
peripheral ones which lodged, I believe, downward prolongations of
the coelom. In one species of Hpactocrinus (HE. antiquus) the base
of the calyx has five separate apertures, while in another (Z. irregu-
laris) there is but one large cruciform opening taking up nearly the
whole of the top stem-joint. This looks as if the central aperture
had fused with the four peripheral ones. The same must have been
the case in Cupressocrinus, in which the under surface of the calyx
shows a four- or five-rayed perforation, while the stem-joints have
four or five separate openings around a large central one. This
is relatively far larger than that of a Pentacrinus-stem, and is
sometimes four- or five-lobed, as if corresponding to the four or five
peripheral vessels of the vascular axis. What, then, could have been
lodged in the peripheral canals of the stem but tubular exten-
sions of the body-cavity homologous with those which end on the
centrodorsal piece of most Comatule? In Ant. perforata, and

* See Quenstedt’s ‘ Petrefactenkunde Deutschlands,’ Bd. iv. “ Asteriden und
Encriniden,” tab. 108. .

P. H. CARPENTER ON CRETACEOUS COMATULZE, 557

possibly also in other species, they would seem to have extended
into the larval stem. Whether they remained open after the stem
was discarded, or whether their openings were closed up in the
interior of the centrodorsal, must of course remain uncertain.

It seems to me very probable that the large and subdivided
internal cavities of the stems-of Barycrinus and of the other genera
mentioned by Wachsmuth and Springer may have contained water
surrounding the central vascular axis, just as supposed above for
Cupressocrinus and for certain Comatule. But these authors further
suppose that ‘“ there was ample communication with the surrounding
water ” through the numerous branches at the base of the stem, all
of which are perforated. It is of course possible that the canals in
the rootlets of these large stems were not solely occupied by the
vessels, as is the case in the radicular cirrhi of Rhizocrinus; but it
seems to me far less likely that these canals opened at the ends of
the rootlets, concealed as these were below the surface of the ooze.
The water entering (?) the stem by these passages would hardly
have been very useful for respiratory purposes.

On the other hand it is not unlikely that the “large pores near
the base of the column, leading from without into the main cavity
directly through the walls,” may have served to admit water into
the stem and thence into the celom. The observations of Wachs-
muth and Springer that the complex perforated stems occur almost
exclusively in those forms which are destitute of hydrospires, or of
pores in the calyx, seem to point to this conclusion; but there is
another possible mode of communication between the ccelom and the
exterior, to which they do not refer.

All recent Crinoids known to us have very minute ciliated pores

scattered over the perisome of the disk and the bases of the arms and
leading into the celom. Miller * has pointed out the correspondence
of this system of pores with the hydrospires of the Cystids (e.g.
Caryocrinus), and further research may reveal their presence in those
Paleocrinoids in which no hydrospires have yet been discovered.
So far as I know, they have not been looked for in these forms in the
same positions that they occupy in recent Crinoids, these parts being
rarely well preserved. In the recent species the pores are scattered
about on the surface of the disk and arm-bases in the neighbourhood
of the ambulacral grooves. When the perisome is plated as in Pen-
tacrinus and many Comatulce the water-pores occur on some of the
anambulacral plates which are close to the side plates of the grooves.
In the Paleocrinoids, however, the surface of the body bearing the
grooves was not the external surface, as it was covered in by the
vault of mgid heavy plates. But there must have been a free ad-
mission of water beneath this vault by the so-called ambulacral
openings where the food-grooves of the arms extended over the disk
towards the subtegminal mouth. May not the areas of the body
between these grooves have been provided with ciliated pores leading
into the ccelom, like those of recent Crinoids ?

* “Ueber den Bau der Hchinodermen,” Abhandl. d. konigl, Akad. d.
Wissensch. zu Berlin, 1854, p. 64 (separate copy).

558 P, H, CARPENTER ON CRETACEOUS COMATUL.

In Pentacrinus and in the Comatulce the water-pores are numerous ;
but in Rhizocrinus there is only one in each interradius, and in
correspondence with them there are five open tubes depending from
the water-vascular ring into the coelom. These water-tubes, which
are more numerous in Pentacrinus and in the Comatule, serve to
admit water into the ambulacral system. Wachsmuth’s observations
render it probable that there were five in Actinocrinus as in Rhizo-
crinus*, May one not infer fromthis that there were five (or
more) water-pores on the disk, through which water was admitted
into the ceelom on its way to enter the ambulacral ring by the water-
tubes ?

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXIII.

Fig. 1. Antedon incurva, n.sp., from the Upper Greensand, Blackdown. Cen-
trodorsal and radial pentagon. a, from above ; 6, from beneath ;
c, from the side, interradial view ; d, from the side, radial view. x 6.

2. Antedon perforata, n. sp., from the Upper Chalk, Margate. Centro-
dorsal. a, ventral surface ; 6, dorsal surface. <2. ¢, cirrhus-socket,
enlarged.

3. Antedon Lundgreni, n. sp., from the Upper Chalk, Margate. Centro-
dorsal and single basal. a, ventral surface; 6, dorsal surface; e¢, from
the side. x4.

4, Cirrhus-sockets of Antedon rugosa.

5. Antedon striata, n. sp., from the Upper Chalk, Dover. Centrodorsal.
a, ventral surface; 6, dorsal surface; c, from the side. X3. d, cir-
rhus-socket, enlarged.

6. Antedon laticirra, n. sp., from the Chalk of Wiltshire. Centrodorsal.
a, ventral surface; 6, dorsal surface; c, from the side, interradial
view. x6. i

* “The Oral and Apical Systems of the Hcehinoderms,” Quart. Journ. Microse.
Science, vol. xix. pp. 185, 186.

Quart. Journ Geol. Soc Vol. XXXVI.P1XXIIL

Beryeau hth. Hanhart imp.

ChE TACH OMS COMear ine

BEN Pa

MARINE FOSSILS IN THE CALCIFEROUS SANDSTONE OF FIFE. 559

Al. On the Zones of Marine Fossits in the CatcrrEnous SANDSTONE
Serres of Fire. By Jas. W. Kirxsy, Esq. (Read June 23,
1880.)

(Communicated by Prof. T. Rupert Jones, F.R.S., F'.G.S.)

Tue presence of marine beds in the Calciferous Sandstones of the
east of Scotland has been noticed by various authors. ‘The officers
of the Geological Survey, for example, draw attention to their
occurrence in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh and in Kast Lothian,
in their memoirs of those districts*. The Rev. Thomas Brown
also gives an account of several beds containing marine fossils in his
paper on the Carboniferous strata of Fife; and, more recently,
Mr. R. Etheridge, jun., has published a paper, in the Journal of this
Society, on the Invertebrate fauna of the rocks of this series in the
vicinity of Edinburgh, which includes all the marine species known
to him from that district ¢ ‘.

As supplementary to these and other notices, I propose in this
paper to describe the marine beds that I have met with in an ex-
amination of the Calciferous Sandstones of the east of Fife. These
beds I shall notice in their descending order of position, together
with such details of the intermediate measures and fossils as may
assist in the attainment of a general idea of the paleontology of the
formation.

In the east of Fife these rocks form the coast-line from near St.
Monan’s, on by Fife Ness, to St. Andrew’s ; but the most complete
section is that exposed at their first outcrop, at a point east of the
first-named place to Anstruther, a distance of two miles or more.
The strata of this section dip to the west, usually at a high angle,
and the thickness exposed exceeds 3900 feet. Unfortunately at
this depth the dip is reversed, so that the junction of the basement
beds of the series with the underlying Old Red Sandstone is not
seen. To this extent the section is incomplete, and there is no other
on the Fife coast to show what is here wanting ; so that there
may possibly be marine strata of still earlier date in the Carboni-
ferous series of the east of Scotland than any to be noticed in this
paper.

Notwithstanding the great thickness of strata shown in this
section, the whole “of it is probably included in the ‘“ Cementstone
Group” of the Geological Survey. At least there is nothing seen
hike the lowest or ‘‘Cornstone Group” as described by Prof.
Geikie and his colleagues in the memoirs on the districts south of ‘the
Forth. The lowest strata exposed at Anstruther are pretty much
the same in character as the measures above, though perhaps rather

* Geology of the Neighbourhood of Edinburgh, 1861, pp. 18, 80, 146. Geo-
logy of Hast Lothian, 1866, pp. 28, 73.

t Trans. Royal Society of Hdinburgh, 1860, vol. xxii. pp. 398-400. See also
Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. 1859, vol. xv. p. 59,

¢ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. 1878, vol, xxxiv. p. 1.

560 J. W. KIRKBY ON MARINE FOSSILS IN THE

more argillaceous; and the thin impure limestones or “ cement-
stones” occur within fifty feet or so of the outcrop of the lowest

beds.
PITTENWEEM AND ANsTRUTHER Secrron (See fig. 2, p. 571).

The highest beds of the Calciferous Sandstones are seen to the
east of the Coal Farm, midway between St. Monan’s and Pitten-
weem, rising from beneath a thick, light-coloured, subcrystalline
limestone (apparently equivalent to the Gilmerton Limestone of
Mid Lothian and the Hurlet Limestone of the west of Scotland)
which is given as the base of the overlying series in the Fife maps
of the Geological Survey. In this bed are great quantities of
Lnthodendron gunceum and other corals, Orthis resupinata, Rhyn-
chonella pleurodon, Athyris Royssi, and other species characteristic
of the Carboniferous Limestone. In the shale immediately below
are numerous examples of Myacites sulcatus, Aviculopecten arenosus,
Myalina Vernemlh, Schizodus axinfrormis, and Lingula squami-
formis, which may be taken as belonging to the same zone of
fossils.

Then foliow nearly 100 feet of sandstone and sandy fireclay or
shale, containing traces of Lepidodendron and Stigmaria. These
form the highest strata of the Calciferous Sandstones, if we take
the thick limestone already mentioned as the base of the overlying
series, which is probably as good a conventional line of division as
could be chosen. We then reach about 4 feet of dark shale, with
two bands of limestone containing marine fossils. This is the
highest marine zone of the series, and from it have been obtained
the following species, all of which are common to the Carboniferous
Limestone :—

Fossils of Zone No. 1, 97 feet below the base of the Carboniferous

Inmestone.

Nautilus quadratus, Fleming. Produetus longispinus, Sow,
Loxonema rugifera, Phillips. semireticulatus, var concinnus,
Aviculopecten interstitialis, Phallzps. Sow.

depilis?, M‘Coy. punctatus, Martin.
Avicula, sp. aculeatus, Mart.
Pteronites persulcatus, M‘Coy. Terebratula hastata, Sowerby.
Arca Lacordairiana, De Koninck. Chonetes polita, VG Coy.
Cypricardia, sp. ' Spirifera trigonalis, Martin.
Edmondia rudis, M‘Coy. Athyris ambigua, Sow.
Nucula, sp. Fenestella plebeia, M/‘Coy.
Sanguinolites tricostatus, Portlock. Lithodendron junceum, lem.

Rhynchonella pleurodon, Phill.

200 feet of measures intervene before the next marine zone is
reached. These measures consist chiefly of sandstone in thick
beds, shale, and four thin coals and their fireclays. The only
fossils seen in them are the remains of Lepidodendron and Lepido-
phyllum. Then follows a two-feet bed of hard, grey, crinoidal lime-
stone. From it and the shale immediately associated with it there
have been obtained the following fossils :—

CALCIFEROUS SANDSTONE OF FIFE. 561

Fossils of Zone 2, at 290 feet.

Bellerophon decussatus, Flem.

Macrocheilus imbricatus, Sow.

Pleurotomaria, sp.
Orthis resupinata, Mart.

Productus semireticulatus, var. con-

cinnus, Sow.

Chonetes polita, M‘Coy.
Leperditia Okeni, Miinster.
Crinoidal remains.

Small Ganoid scales.

About 30 feet of shale and sandstone intervene, containing
Sphenopteris affinis, Stigmarian rootlets, and other obscure plant-
remains. Below which come 20 feet or more of grey shale with ribs
of calcareous ironstone, and near the base a two-feet bed of lime-
stone containing a numerous suite of marine fossils.

Fossils of Zone 3, at 320 feet.

Bellerophon decussatus, Vem.
Dentalium priscum, De Kon.

Euomphalus carbonarius, Sow.

eatillus, Mart.
Macrocheilus acutus, Sow.

Murchisonia striatula, De Kon.

quadricarinata, M‘Coy.
Naticopsis piicistria, Phzll.
Pleurotomaria Yvanii, Lév.
Avicula recta ?, M‘Coy.
Aviculopecten ornatus ?, zh.

sp.

Gomera: oblonga, M‘ Coy.
Edmondia rudis, M‘Coy.
Leda attenuata, FVem.
Myalina sublamellosa, Eth.

Pteronites persulcatus, M‘Coy.

Sanguinolites abdensis, Hh.

plicatus, Portlock.

sp.

Schizodus axiniformis, Phill,

Lingula mytiloides, Sow.

Productus semireticulatus, var. con-
cinnus, Sow.

Youngianus ?, Dav.

Fenestella, sp.

Crinoids.

Bairdia plebeia, Reuss.

Beyrichia radiata, J. & K.

Kirkbya permiana, Jones.

Leperditia Okeni, Miins¢.

, var.

Serpulites carbonarius, M‘Coy.

The most characteristic species is Sanguinolites abdensis, which is
found in great numbers. Productus semireticulatus is abundant in
and near the limestone; but Lamellibranchs are the prevailing
fossils. There are no corals.

Nearly 150 feet of alternating strata of shale with bands and
nodules of ironstone, sandstone, and fireclay intervene, among
which are three or four coaly beds with underclays containing
Stigmarian rootlets. The only other fossils noticed are Lepidoden-
dron sp., Calamites sp., and Sphenopteris affinis, as well as some
obscure seed-vessels. There then occur, in the middle of a thick
bed of shale containing the remains of plants near the top and below,
the following marine species :—

Fossils of Zone 4, at 500 feet®.

Aviculopecten, sp. | Productus cora, D’ Orbigny.

Lingula mytiloides, Sow.

From the last-named bed across the outcrop of nearly 1800 feet
of strata (exposed in front and to the west of Pittenweem), I

* Zones 1, 2, 3, & 4 are seen between tide-marks and in the low cliffs some
distance west of Pittenweem.

Q.J.G.8S. No. 144. 2a

562 J. W. KIRKBY ON MARINE FOSSILS IN THE

have not seen any deposits that can be described as marine from
their organic remains. ‘These strata consist of repeated alternations
of white, yellow, and purplish sandstones, and grey, purplish, and
black shales, fireclays, and occasionally marls, with ironstone in
bands and nodules. Several of the sandstones form beds from 30
to 100 feet thick ; and in one or two cases they become coarse and
gritty and full of quartz pebbles; they are also characterized by
false-bedding, and many of them are beautifully rippled.

Intercalated in this mass of strata are eighteen or more thin
coals, from 3 inches to a foot in thickness, each with its underclay
full of Stigmarian rootlets ; and at various horizons there are beds
of limestone, some of which are highly siliceous, and all more or
less impure.

The remains of plants are scattered pretty generally through the
argillaceous beds of these strata, though often in very imperfect
condition. Of the determinable forms, Lepidodendron and Spheno-
pteris affinis are by far the most common; a species of Calamites
occurs rarely ; and some of the shales overlying, the thin coals are
full of the flattened and coarsely furrowed trunks and short upright
stools of large trees. The scales and teeth of small Ganoid fishes
are found in various beds; the remains oi Rhizodus Hibberti and
other large fishes are of rarer occurrence. A few species of
Ostracoda are abundant at certain horizons, Leperditia Okeni, var.
scotoburdigalensis, being the most characteristic. The following
are the most notable fossiliferous zones in this section of strata :—

At 828 feet there is a two-feet bed of shale and blackband iron-
stone containing Anthracomya scotica, .Leperditia Okeni, var,
scotoburdigalensis, Carboma fabulina, C. Rankiniana, and Lepido-
dendron sp.

At 923 feet, in a grey shale with ironstone bands, immediately
overlying a curious pseudo-brecciated limestone, there are found the
following species :—Rhizodus Hibbert * Ctenacanthus sp., Leper-
ditia Okeni, var. scotoburdigalensis *, Lepidophyllum, Sphenopteris
afinis, and other plant-remains. The species with asterisks are
exceedingly abundant in this bed; the Leperditia is also equally
prevalent in a stratum of dark shale about ten feet below.

At rather over 2100 feet, behind the east: pier of Pittenweem
Harbour, there is a bed of dark calcareous shale full of the
remains of a curious, linear, polyzoiform plant, which is probably a
fucoid.

A little below, at 2120 feet, the scales of Rhizodus Hibberti again
occur in black shale, along with the remains of Rhadiichthys
brevis ?, Traquair, and Céenodus sp.

Then, at the depth of 2280 feet, one of the most important marine
zones of the series comes into section. This deposit, which the
Rev. Thomas Brown first described, consists of about 20 feet of dark
shale, with layers of ironstone nodules and two or more thin bands
of limestone. Directly beneath it is a twelve-inch seam of coal,
resting on a thin shale or fireclay full of Stigmarian rootlets; it is
well exposed in the cliffs and between tide-marks, a little to the

CALCIFEROUS SANDSTONE OF FIFE 563

east of Pittenweem Harbour, where it has yielded me the following

fossils :—

Fossils of Zone 5, at 2280 feet (the Encrinite-bed of Mr. non g

Nautilus quadratus, Fem.
Orthoceras attenuatum, Flem.
Bellerophon decussatus, Fem.
Uri, Elem.
Dentalium priscum, Goldfuss.
Loxonema scalaroidea, Phill., and
variety.
Macrocheilus acutus, Sow.
fusiformis, Sow.
Murchisonia striatula, De Kon.
sp.
Naticopsis, sp.
Pleurotomaria Yvanii, Lév.
Aviculopecten arenosus, Phill.
——— granosus, Phill.
fimbriatus, Phill.
Cypricardia, sp.
Leda attenuata, Fem.
Leptodomus costellatus, M‘Coy.
Nucula gibbosa, lem.
Schizodus unioniformis, Phil/.
-—— carbonarius?, Porti.
Venus ?, sp.

paper).

Athyris ambigua, Sow.

Discina nitida, Phill.

Productus semireticulatus, var. Mar-
tini, Sow.

Spiriferina cristata, Schlotheim.

Streptorhynchus crenistria, Phill.

Bairdia plebeia, Reuss.

—- Hisingeri, Miinst.

brevis, J. J K.

subelongata, J. § K.

Beyrichia subarcuata, Jones.

radiata, J. ¢ K.

Cythere, sp

Archzocidaris Urii, Fem.

Actinoerinus, Poteriocrinus, Platy-
erinus (fragmentary remains of the
calyx and stem of species belonging
to these three genera),

Spirorbis helicteres, Salzer.

Stenopora tumida, Phill.

Plants—large and small fragments of
stems, belonging to Lepidodendron
and Dadoxylon.

The Crinoidal remains are very abundant about and in the lime-

stones.

The most characteristic fossils among the Mollusca are the

species of Leda, Nucula, Discina, Productus, and Spiriferina, some of
which more especially mark certain horizons of the bed.

Most of the species are found in the shale close to the coal, as
well as higher up, though some of them are there rather dwarfed,
the Univalves and Crinoids more particularly. One of the most
common fossils in this position is the Productus, which occurs with
its long and slender spines attached to the shell, within an inch or
so of the coal.

A little to the east of the Rock and Spindle, near St. Andrews,
there is a shale with a band of crinoidal limestone, which I
take to be the same bed as this. In it are found the following
species :—Orthoceras attenuatum, Bellerophon Uru, B. decussatus,
Dentalium scoticum, Huomphalus acutus, Murchisoma striatula,
Aviculopecten granosus, A. sp., Edmondia rudis, Leda attenuata,
Schizodus aximformis, Lingula mytilordes, Productus semireticu-
latus, var. Martini, Spiriferina cristata, Rhynchonella plewrodon,
Fenestella tuberculocarinata, Stenopora twmida, and a few small
Ganoid scales. The crinoidal remains are smaller than at Pitten-
weem, but apparently belong to the same genera.

About 40 feet below the Encrinite-bed is a four-inch band of very
hard limestone, full of the shells of Myalina modioliformis. This
is the highest horizon at which I have observed this gregarious shell,
so characteristic of the lower portion of the Calciferous Sandstones,

2Q2

564 J. W. KIRKBY ON MARINE FOSSILS IN THE

Fossils of Zone 6, at 2320 feet.

Carbonaria subula?, J. & K.
Ganoid scales.
Plant-remains.

Naticopsis? sp.
Myalina modioliformis, Brown.
Oarbonia Rankiniana, J. g K.

Twenty feet or so further down is another impure limestone, about
six inches thick, in which a little univalve, Littorina scotoburdiga-
lensis, is the prevailing fossil *.

Fossils of Zone 7, at 2350 feet.

Leperditia Okeni, Miinst.
, var.

Littorina scotoburdigalensis, Hh.
bilineata, sp. nov.
Kirkbya spiralis, J. § K.

The strata associated with the marine zones Nos. 5, 6, and 7
contain the remains of plants, Entomostraca, and other fossils ; but
this part of the section is so illustrative of the way in which beds of
different structure and fossil contents alternate throughout the whole
series, that I give the following details of it :—

Section of Strata seen in the cliffs to the east of Pittenweem.

ft, in.

fer Red SanachoOmeewn ce... ccotese tas tet ees sone Renee eR ee 40 0
2. Grey Shale with sandstone bands above and ironstone
bands and nodules below. Fragmentary remains of
small Ganoid fishes, and Leperditia Okeni, var. scoto-

DUTAIQGICNSIS tic wt Peaceedeses tes cu toehe eek tadete reese ee ce ome 16 0
3. Black Shale with ironstone bands. Ganoid scales,
Lep. scotoburdigalensis, Beyrichia subarcwata, and

DCPUMODCNAT OM aan cn ctinriau ues ds «nia sje eee te de e tee eee ase 2 0
Aes OO einen sncaneee atmo de neatisecee nace ae higiig.s sentcemnceiea. eae eree 2 0
5. Grey Shale or Fireclay. Stigmarian roots and rootlets,

Wak Lal DG SUA RO RAS Waes oa oa nnd ase netida lAclbadoonantennasAes 1 6

6. Sandstone, flaggy, and with partings of shale above.

Stigmarian roots (large) and rootlets and fragments

OF larrpe Stems ssc kte aco cacqeeurneeaiaareraeions valerate eater ll O
7. Grey Shale, sandy above, with bands of ironstone

nodules, and two thin beds of crinoidal limestone.

Species of Orthoceras, Nautilus, Loxonema, Macrochei-

lus, Leda, Schizodus, Discina, Productus, Spiriferina,

Bairdia, Beyrichia, Actinocrinus, Poteriocrinus, Ar-

cheocidaris, Stenopora, plants, &e., as per list ......... 20 O
SF Coal Fierce eee aca dad tes sane aazin obec. sce teens ign 0)
9. Grey Shale. Stigmarian rootlets ...................00c00c0 0 6
10. Sandstone, Stigmarian rootlets ............sc1.0..seccese. 20 0
11: Grey ‘Shale and lagpyeds ia .4 is .. nsoteese eAieacdaasianes 5 0
12. Grey Shale with ironstone bands. Myalina, Spheno-
pteris affinis,and other obscure remains of plants...... 1p. 30
13. Black, carbonaceous Shale, laminated. Layers of
Myalina modioliformis and coprolites..................006 0 6

a eT tC
* Dr. Traquair drew my attention to this bed.
t These two coals have evidently been worked in former times, for both are

now represented by “waste” rather than coal; and one of the old shafts may
be seen in section, as exposed by a fall of the cliff,

CALCIFEROUS SANDSTONE OF FIFE. 565

14. Band of Ironstone and black shale. Leata Leidyi, Car-
bonia sp., and other Hntomostraca ...............000..00
15. Band of very hard, impure Limestone, full of
Myalina, along with species as per list of zone 6...
16. Black Shale, laminated. A few Myaline, fish-remains,
Lepidodendron, and Lepidostrobus
17. Grey Shale with ironstone nodules ................2-000+0-
18. Black, shivery, highly-carbonaceous viele seeieseteay nia
NO lOMSLONG if. ececaec sec ak bss Sec'ancts atta oe eias Meee eee
20. Light grey Fireclay, with ironstone nediales precast dts
21. Light grey, sandy shale, with a 3-inch band of calcareous
ironstone, full of a small bivalve, possibly a dwarfed
form of Plewrophorus elegans, and str ay examples of
Lnttorina scotoburdigalensis and. plant-remains
22. Grey Shale, with an ironstone band full of Leperditia
Okent, var. scotoburdigalensts .........0.cseeeeceeeenenenees
23. Hard grey Limestone. Littorina scotoburdigalensis,
L. bilineata, Kirkbya spiralis, Leperditia Okeni ......
24, Black, laminated Shale and blackband ironstone.
Ganoid scales, coprolites, and Lepidodendron.........
25. White Sandstone
26. Light grey Shale with ironstone bands
Dieu CRVECOATSC: COA... sete. oo: ienacseemeenandedeswarce ae ecsedne
Or MAT Kee CLE Jeet scstan cca ti cc.ete a ARs aac aida dere Hee as

—

Peers cesses eee eessesoce

OS Wo © CS

Pees esersesceesessaseeseseses® PP oooseseeneeseee

PeRwe © wo a
COCOD © CG SO

The above strata are seen just to the east of Pittenweem.
Beneath them are about 450 feet of measures with no marine beds.
In these measures there are more shale and fireclay than sandstone,
though the alternations of argillaceous with arenaceous strata are
numberless. Nearly all the shales are charged with ironstone bands
and nodules, and some of them are highly bituminous. Jen thin
coals occur in this part of the section, most of which rest on fireclay
with Stigmarian rootlets.

Plant-remains are very generally distributed throughout, though
the species are few as before. The remains of Stigmaria are
common, not only in the fireclays underlying the coals, but in other
beds. Lepidodendron and Lepidophyllum are found in many of the
strata, and Sphenopteris affinis and Cyclopteris flabellata are not rare
in a fragmentary state; the latter species has not been found much
above the line of 2250 feet. There are also the teeth and scales of
small Ganoids at various horizons, often associated with plants; and
the carapaces of Ostracod crustaceans are very plentiful in some of
the black shales and ironstones. Leperditea Okent, var. scotoburdi-
galensis, is the most prevalent; the other species are Beyrichia
subarcuata, Cythere superba, and Carbonia subula.

Below the above measures, and ata depth of over 2800 feet,
there comes into section a bed of shale, about ten feet thick, with
two bands of calcareous ironstone. This deposit contains the fol-
lowing marine species :—

566 J. W. KIRKBY ON MARINE FOSSILS IN THE

Fossils of Zone 8, at 2815 feet.

Orthoceras, sp. Myalina, sp.
Bellerophon Urii, Plem. Schizodus Salteri, Eth.
decussatus, lem. Fenestella tuberculo-carinata, Hth.

Macrocheilus acutus, Sow.

plebeia, M‘Coy.
Murchisonia striatula, De Kon.

Morrisii, ‘Coy.

elongata, Portlock. Archzeopora nexilis, De Kon.
Avicula, sp. Synocladia, sp. nov.
Aviculopecten, sp. nov. Alveolites septosa, Hlem.

sp. Stenopora tumida, Phill.
Cypricardia glabrata, M‘Coy. Crinoids.
Hdmondia rudis, M‘Coy. Leperditia Okeni, var.
Leptodomus costellatus, M‘Coy. Beyrichia, sp.

The Polyzoa and the Coral, Stenopora tumida, are by far the
most common fossils of this zone, some of the surfaces of both the
shale and the ironstone being covered with their remains. The
crinoidal fragments are also very abundant in the ironstones, where
most of the shells are also mainly found.

More than 200 feet of strata intervene. The sandstones of this
mass are yellow, purple, and grey in colour, finely rippled in places,
and often with thick shaly partings. The shales are charged with
ironstones chiefly in bands. ‘There are three coals resting on fire-
clays, none of them exceeding a few inches in thickness. Stigmarian
rootlets prevail in the vicinity of the thin coals, and Cyclopteris
flabellata is exceedingly common in some of the grey shales. Along
with this species are the remains of great numbers of what appear
to be fern-stems.

In a bed of tough black shale, at 2956 feet; there occur the scales
of Rhizodus Hibberti, with the shells of Sprrorbis attached, the
scales of smaller Ganoids, Carbonia Rankiniana, Carpolithes sp.,
Lepidophyllum, and Cyclopteris flabellata.

About 20 feet lower down there is about 30 inches of purple
shale containing Sphenopteris affims and S. dilatata abundantly
and in good preservation.

At over 3000 feet there is a grey limestone (weathering yellow )
with shaly partings, and about two feet thick, which I take to be a
marine deposit.

Fossils of Zone 9, at 3027 feet.

Littorina scotoburdigalensis, Hth. Spirorbis carbonarius, Murch.
Naticopsis ? sp. Teeth and scales of small Ganoids.
Leperditia Okeni, var. scotoburdiga- | Coprolites of Rhizodus (?).

lensis, Hb. Lepidostrobus, sp.

, var. elongata, J. f K.

The Littorine are very abundant on certain surfaces of this bed ;
and the action of the sea and the weather brings them out beautifully
in relief. Leperditia Okeni, var. scotoburdigalensis, is even more
abundant than the univalve, for much of the rock is formed of its
carapaces. This small group of species is not so decidedly marine in
its features as the last. I consider it marine, principally on account
of the prevalence of Littorina scotoburdigalensis, which in other

CALCIFEROUS SANDSTONE OF FIFE. yp he 567

localities occurs along with Myalina modioltformis, Schizodus Salteri,
Orthoceras, and other fossils.

Between the last-named limestone and the next marine bed the
measures are disturbed, and there are probably some strata wanting
in the section visible. Rather over 100 feet of measures are seen,
consisting of alternations of yellow and purple, irregularly bedded,
and ripple-marked sandstones, with grey shales and fireclays. Three
thin coals areincluded in this mass of strata. Cyclopteris flabellata
and Stigmarian roots and rootlets are the prevailing fossils. In the
roofs of one of the coals are the stools and flattened trunks of large
trees ; and in another are smaller stems coated with Spirorbis.

From beneath these disturbed strata there rises a thin bed of
limestone, one foot thick, containing a decidedly marine group of
species. The limestone is grey (weathering yellow) and very hard.
Beneath it, separated by 8 inches of black shale, containing plants
and the scales of small Ganoids, is 3 inches of coal resting on fireclay
with rootlets. .

Fossils of Zone 10, at 3130 feet.

Bellerophon decussatus, Fem. Avicula recta ?, M‘Coy.
Macrocheilus striatulus, sp. nov. Sanguinolites abdensis, Hh.
Murchisonia striatula, De Kon. Bairdia subelongata, J. & K.
Naticopsis ?, sp. Beyrichia crinita, J. & K.
Cypricardia, sp. —~ subarcuata, Jones.
Leda attenuata, Wem. Cythere superba, J. & K.
Myalina sublamellosa, Hh. Leperditia Okeni, Miinst.
Modiola divisa, M‘Coy. Remains of plants.

Sanguinolites abdensis is abundant in this bed, and one layer is
full of its broken shells. The curious fringed Beyrichia, B. crinita,
is also a common fossil, though not seen at any other horizon.

This limestone is seen a little to the west of Billow Ness. Four
miles further east, at the Pans, west of Crail, it reappears, with the
black shale, coal, and fireclay underlying it as before. The shale
contains the teeth of Diplodus and Ctenoptychius, besides the scales
of small Ganoids. And the limestone has yielded the following
species :—Orthoceras sp., Bellerophon decussatus, Macrocheilus stria-
tulus, Murchisoma striatula, M. quadricarinata, Leda attenuata,
Modiola dinsa, Myalina crassa?, Nucula sp., Sanguinolites abdensis,
Beyrichia sp., Leperditia Okeni, and Spirorbis sp.

About 100 feet of measures intervene. They consist of purple
and greyish sandstones alternating with grey and purple shales,
enclosing one 6-inch coal and a bed of limestone about 1 foot thick.
The only fossils found in the latter are Lepidodendron and some
other plants (obscure), the scales of small Ganoids, and coprolites.
In a grey shale about 5 feet above the limestone (3168 feet) there
are casts of a shell like Anthracosca along with Stigmarian rootlets ;
and in a bed of red shale below the limestone (3192 feet) there
occur stray and imperfect examples of a shell resembling Myalina,
associated with Spirorbis, the scales of small Ganoids, an Entomos-
tracan, and Sphenopteris affinis.

568 J. W. KIRKBY ON MARINE FOSSILS IN THE

Lower still, at 3230 feet, in a grey shale overlying another bed of
limestone, Myalina modiohiformis appears in great numbers. Along
with it, and in the limestone, are the following species :-—

Fossils of Zone 11, at 3230 feet (just to the east of the Target,

Billow Ness).
Myalina modioliformis, Brown. Leperditia Okeni, var. scotoburdi-
Beyrichia subarcuata, Jones. galensis, Hib.
Carbonia fabulina, J. & K. Lepidodendron and Lepidostrobus.

subula, J. §& K.
Rankiniana? or bairdioides ?, J.g-K.

50 feet of measures intervene, which mainly consist of purplish,
grey, and yellow false-bedded sandstone in a thick stratum. An
8-inch coal lies a few feet below the limestone.

Then at 3280 feet comes in a 2-feet bed of limestone, hard,
grey (weathering yellow), and shaly at the top, with a laminated
shale above, and a black shale, thin coal, and fireclay below. In
these deposits occur the following fossils :—

Fossils of Zone 12, at 3280 feet.
In the upper shale :—

Lingula squamiformis, Phill. Scales of small Ganoids.
Beyrichia subarcuata, Jones. Coprolites (Rhizodus).
Leperditia Okeni, var. scotoburdiga- Sphenopteris aflinis (rare).

lensis, Hizb.

In the limestone :—

Littorina scotoburdigalensis, Hh. Leperditia Okeni, var. scotoburdiga-
Dithyrocaris (tooth). lensis, Hid.
Beyrichia subarcuata, Jones. Okeni, var. attenuata, J. ¢ K.
Cythere ?, sp. Spirorbis, sp., attached to plants.

In the shale below :— .
Lingula squamiformis, Phell. Kirkbya spiralis, J, & K.
Myalina modioliformis, Brown. Leperditia Okeni, var. scotoburdiga-
Schizodus Salteri, th. lensis, Hd.
Beyrichia subarcuata, Jones. Scales of small Ganoids.

Fig. 1.—Section of strata at Zone 12.

a. Grey shale; 6. Tough dark shale with Lingula, &c.; c. Limestone; d. Band
of Schizodus in black shale; ¢. 3-inch seam of coal; jf. Fireclay with
Stigmarian rootlets ; g. Grey shale.

CALCIFEROUS SANDSTONE OF FIFE. 069

Fig. 1 shows the sequence of the beds forming this zone, which
is only one example of several of the immediate succession of
marine conditions after coal-growths.

The same series of beds with the same fossil contents is again
seen on the coast two miles or more to the east, near Caiplie.

Over 50 feet of purple and yellow sandstone and grey shale inter-
vene*, and then Myalina modioliformis is again found abundantly
in a thick bed of shale enclosing ironstone nodules above and three
or four bands of ironstone below.

Fossils of Zone 13, at 3338 feet.

Littorina scotoburdigalensis, Hth. | Nematoptychius Greenockii, Ag.
Myalina modiolifornis, Brown. | Coprolites (Rhizodus ?).
Beyrichia subarcuata, Jones. |
Leperditia Okeni, var. scotoburdiga-

lensis, Hib. |

Fifty feet of measures intervene, chiefly purple and yellowish
sandstone, forming the point known as Billow Ness. Immediately
below the sandstone there is a bed of red and grey shale with thin
layers of red ironstone, full of Myalina and Entomostraca.

Fossils of Zone 14, at 3400 feet f.
Littorina scotoburdigalensis, Hzh. Cythere superba, J. § K.
Myalina modioliformis, Brown. Coprolites (Rhizodus ?).
Pleurophorus elegans, sp. nov.

A bed of limestone lies below the shale. The only fossils found
in it are coprolites, scales of small Ganoids, Lep. scotoburdigalensis,
Lepidodendron, and Lepidophyllum.

Underlying these strata follow nearly 20 feet of fireclay and
shale with several bands of coarse coal, which are full of vegetable
remains, including the stools and flattened trunks of trees. Other
measures come in beneath, making a thickness of nearly 50 feet
before Myalina modioliformis is met with again, in a bed of grey
shale and ironstone bands.

Fossils of Zone 15, at 3450 feat.

Myalina modioliformis, Brown, Spirorbis, sp., attached to the

small and thin-shelled. Myalina.
Leperditia Okeni, var. scotoburdiga- Lepidophyllum, and fragments of
lensis, Hid. _ other plants.

Twenty feet of yellow and purple sandstone and shale, with a
coal about a foot thick, intervene. Many remains of Lepidodendron,
Calamites, and other plants are found near the top of the sandstone.
Beneath these beds there is a limestone, 6 inches thick, containing
Myalina sp., and under it a thin bed of marl with Stigmarian
rootlets.

Fossils of Zone 16, at 3475 feet t.

Myalina, sp.

* Since the reading of this paper a thin limestone has been exposed between
tide-marks, about 20 feet below the strata forming zone 12. The following
species occur in it:—Littorina scotoburdigalensis, Leperditia Okent, vars. extu-
berata and attenuata, Spirorbis carbonarius, Ganoid scales, and traces of plants.

t Zones 14, 15, and 16 are seen on the east side of Billow Ness.

570 J. W. KIRKBY ON MARINE FOSSILS IN THE

Between the last-named limestone and the next marine bed I
estimate a thickness of 120 feet of measures, most of which are so
much denuded as to be hidden from view by sand. At the west
end of Anstruther Wester there is a limestone 15 inches thick,
containing Myalina modioliformis. The limestone is grey (weather-
ing yellow), hard, and with shaly partings. In it and the under-
lying shale are the following species :—

Fossils of Zone 17, at 3600 feet.

Myalina modioliformis, Brown. Teeth, scales, and ‘bones of small
Carbonia subula, J. & K. Ganoids.
Spirorbis, sp. (large). Fragments of carbonized wood.

200 feet of measures intervene, including thick irregularly bedded
sandstones, white, reddish, and yellow in colour, and shales and fire-
clays with ironstone and sandstone bands. There are no coals,
though Stigmarian rootlets are plentiful enough in the fireclays.
At 3750 feet there is a limestone, but its only fossils are the scales
of small Ganoids, Coprolites, Leperditia Okent, var. scotoburdiga-
lensis, Beyrichia, Cyclopteris flabellata (large), Sphenopteris Ditty
fern-stems, and Carpolithes sulcata.

Then is reached the lowest limestone in which I have seen marine
fossils. This bed is about a foot thick, hard, and grey (weathering
red on the surface); it is seen near high-water mark at Anstruther
Wester, a little to the west of the Dreel Burn.

Fossils of Zone 18, at 3800 feet.

Orthoceras, sp. Beyrichia subarcuata, Jones.
Macrocheilus striatulus, sp. nov. Leperditia Okeni, var.
Myalina modioliformis, Brown. Spirorbis, sp.

Bairdia nitida, J. § K. |

About 130 feet of measures crop out below this limestone before the
dip is reversed. They consist of grey and yellow sandstones and
grey shales, with a thin band (6 inches) of limestone and a 4-inch
layer of coal. In them occur the scales and plates of small Ganoid
fishes, Beyrichia subarcuata, Leperditia Okeni, var. attenuata,
Carboma fabulina, C. Rankimana, Spirorbis attached to plants and
free, Sphenopteris affinis, and Stigmaria. The Beyrichia and a var.
of Lep. Okent are found in the lowest shales, just to the west of
Anstruther Harbour. :

The measures about Anstruther Harbour are the lowest Calciferous
Sandstones that I have seen on the Fife coast. From Anstruther to
Crail the dip is reversed, and the strata seen at Anstruther Wester,
and from there to the west of Bulow Ness, again appear, though not
so clearly and consecutively as before. Beyond Crail, and on to
Fife Ness, and then westward by Kingsbarns, Babbet Ness, Pitmilly
Burn, and Borehills, the strata continue roiling, apparently in a
portion of the series equivalent to that seen east and west of Billow
Ness. Nearer St. Andrews higher beds appear to come up ; for to
the east of the Rock and Spindle there is a thin crinoidal limestone
and associated shale, containing a similar suite of marine fossils
as that found in the Enerinite-bed at Pittenweem.

CALCIFEROUS SANDSTONE OF FIFE. 571

Fig. 2.—Diagrammatic Vertical Section of the Calerferous Sandstones
from the west of Pittenweem to Anstruther, showing the position
of the Zones of Marine Fossils. (Scale 666 feet to 1 inch.)

Base of Car- Characteristic Fossils.
boniferous } ree
Limestone... }
Zone vecnskssecee! —_____ |: Lithodendron, Productus, Edmondia, &c
Zone 2 -ccccaccocees —_________| Crinoids , Productus, Bellerophon
Zone 8 .........4-- —_______| Productus, Sanguinolites, Euomphalus,
Zone 4 wseerereree, Productus, Lingula, Aviculopecten.
1000...
2000...
Zone 5 .....0.00.-- Crinoids, Productus, Spiriferina, Leda, Macrocheilus
VRFIN® (9) acorenencos Myalina modioliformis.
AONE TI Scocebsceenc0 Inttorina scotoburdigalensis, Kirkbya spiralis.
Zone § .........4 Fenestella Stenopora, Edmondia, Crinoids
3000. : : ; ; oes ‘
LORO OS ee och Littorina scotoburdigalensis, Leperditia Okent (vars.)
Zone 10............ Bellerophon decussatus, Sanguinolites abdensis.
Zone 11............ Myalina modioliformis.
Zone 12............ Schizodus Salteri, Myalina modioliformis, Lingula.
Zone 18............ Myalina modioliformis, Littorina scotoburdigalensis.
Zone VA civics: Myalina modioliformis, Cythere superb a.
Zone 15 ..........4- Myalina modioliformis.
Zone 16.........++. Myalina sp.
Zone 17..........+. Myalina modioliformis, Spirorbis.
Zone 18 .......0+40. Macrocheilus? sp., Orthoceras, Myalina, Leperditia Okeni.

572 J. W. KIRKBY ON MARINE FOSSILS IN THE

It has been remarked by the Rev. Thomas Brown that the marine
beds of the lower part of the Calciferous Sandstones increase in
thickness and number as they are traced further east*. This is
very clearly shown in a section that is exposed between tide-marks
at Randerstone, south of Kingsbarns. ‘This section forms asynclinal,
most of the beds cropping out east and west of a central trough
which is nearly opposite to Randerstone farmhouse. The thickness
of strata exposed does not much exceed 400 feet; but it includes
twelve limestones, the majority of which contain marine fossils.
The prevalence of Schizodus Saltert and Myalina modioliforms
in several of the beds, as well as the contiguity of the limestones,
appears to indicate a position for these strata equivalent to the
measures between 3200 and 3600 feet of the Pittenweem and
Anstruther section. As this outcrop of strata is the most marine
bit of the lower portion of the Calciferous Sandstones that I have
met with in Fife; itis noticed in detail as the

RANDERSTONE SECTION.

In the highest limestone at Randerstone I have found only a
species of Spzrorbis. ‘This limestone is taken to be 3155 feet below
the base of the Carboniferous Limestone series, the figures being
arrived at by looking upon limestone No. 5 of this section as equiva-
lent to the band of Schizodus Salieri (Zone 12) of the Pittenween
and Anstruther series of strata.

Thirteen feet of strata intervene between this limestone and the
next beneath.

Limestone No. 2 (8170) is hard, grey, and two feet thick. From
it, and the shale and ironstone bands immediately above and below,
there have been obtained the following species :—

Myalina modioliformis, Brown. © Leperditia Okeni, var. scotoburdiga-
Carbonia subula, J. g K. lensis, Hibbert.
Coprolites of Rhizodus ?

A thick mass of sandstone intervenes.

Limestone No. 3 (3200 feet) is a shell-bed, fully four feet thick,
almost entirely composed of the shells of Myalina modwoliformis.
In this bed, as well as in the overlying shale, and in the thick shale
and ironstones below, the Myalme are large, though thicker-shelled
in the limestone and ironstones than in the shale. Spzrorbis
encrusts the shells in some places; and here and ‘there in the
limestone are drifted fragments of carbonized wood (Dadowylon)
showing structure‘.

Littorina scotoburdigalensis, Hzh, Spirorbis.
Myalina modioliformis, Brown. Fragments of wood (Dadoxylon). —
Carbonia subula, J. & K.

A thick bed of Myalina, probably the same as this, is seen to the
east of Kingsbarns Harbour; and to the east of the Rock and
Spindle, a limestone 5 feet thick, full of Myalina, with a seam of
coal below it (both altered by heat), is exposed between tide-marks,
as shown in the accompanying woodcut (fig. 3).

_ * Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinb. vol. xxii. p. 399.

+ The eastern outcrop of this bed is seen just below the sandstone reef to the
west of Old Haiks.

CALCLFEROUS SANDSTONE OF FIFE. 573

Fig. 3.—Section of Myalina-bed and coal, near the Rock and Spindle.

NN
Be: ie WANN

if ae : :
\ g Z

PAs, Wg

yee \ : ;

ec. 16 inches of coarse burnt coal; d. Fireclay with Stigmarian rootlets.
Limestone No. 3a is 10 feet or more below; it is 2 feet thick,
and rests upon a foot of good cherry coal. It contains the following
species :—

Ctenacanthus, sp. Leperditia Okeni, var. attenuata,J. f-K.
Eurynotus crenatus, Ag. (scales). , var. extuberata, J. f K.
Palatal teeth. —— ——-, var. scotoburdigalensis,°
Murchisonia, sp. Fiib.

Schizodus Salteri, Hth. Kirkbya spiralis, J. § K.

A thin Anthracomya-like shell. Plant-remains.

Another thick sandstone intervenes.
Limestone No. 4 (3343 feet) is about 11 imches thick, shaly at
the top, and rests on a thin seam of coal. Its fossils are :—

Myalina modioliformis, Brown. Leperditia Okeni, var. attenuata,
Kirkbya spiralis, J. ¢ K. J.g K.
Leperditia Okeni, var. scotoburdiga- | Spirorbis.

lensis, Hid. Fish-spine, Ctenacanthus ?

Lepidodendron, gp.

Shale, black in places and with plant-remains, and sandstone
intervene.

Limestone No. 5 (3380 feet) is grey, weathering yellow and red
on the surface, hard, subcrystalline, and 2 feet 9 inches thick,
inclusive of a centre band of shale. Its upper surface is thickly
strewed with the shells of Schizodus Salteri, along with rarer
specimens of Orthoceras cylindraceum?, Aviculopecten granosus, &c.
The following is a list of its fossils :—

Orthoceras cylindraceum ?, lem. Bairdia siliquoides, J. § K.
Littorina scotoburdigalensis, Hzh. Beyrichia subarcuata, Jones.
Loxonema scalaroidea, Phill. Pyare
Macrocheilus striatulus, sp. nov. Cythere Jonesiana, Kirkby.
Murchisonia quadricarinata, M‘ Coy. equalis, J. & K.
Naticopsis plicistria, Pall. Kirkbya spiralis, J. & K.
Aviculopecten granosus, Phzll. Leperditia Okeni, Miinst.
Myalina modioliformis, Brown. Spirorbis globosus, MM‘ Coy.

Nucula lineata, Phild. helicteres, Salter.

Sanguinolites abdensis, Hzh. sp.

subplicatus, sp. nov. Rhizodus Hibberti, Ag.
Schizodus Salteri, Hh. Lepidophyllum.
Lingula mytiloides, Sow. Wood in drifted fragments.

* This form differs somewhat from typical specimens of B. subarcuata in the
trilobate character of the valves, and, possibly, when thoroughly known, may
prove to be distinct from that species.

574 J. W. KIRKBY ON MARINE FOSSILS IN THE

Fig. 4 represents a section of this bed, explanatory (with the
details that follow) of the distribution of the above fossils.

Commencing at the base, the grey shale and sandstone band a
contains large Stigmarian roots and rootlets, Sphenopteris affins
and other plants, the scales and bones of small Ganoid fishes, teeth
of Diplodus, and carapace-valves of Leperditia Okem, var., and
Beyrichia subarcuata. This deposit evidently indicates an area on
which grew large trees, the roots of which only remain.

The lower leaf of limestone, 6, is a foot thick, and very siliceous
below. The inferior portion of it is full of fragments of stems and
carbonized wood, all apparently drifted, and many incrusted with
Spirorbis. A few specimens of Myalina modioliformis are seen here,
and occasionally large teeth of Rhizodus Hibberti.

In the upper portion of the same leaf of limestone the Myalina
becomes more numerous, and the fragments of wood less so than
below. |

The nine inches of dark grey shale, c, that separates the limestone
into two leaves contains many individuals of Leperditia Okeni, var.,
and Beyrichia subarcuata, var., with a few of Myalina modioliformis,
and the remains of Lepidophyllwm and other plants.

The lower half of the limestone, d, is filled with Myalina modioh-
forms. Along with it are found Nucula lineata, Lattorina scotobur-
digalensis, Leperditia Okeni, and Spirorbis. Many of the Myalhne
are in single valves, and still more of them are fragments, worn and
rounded, the thick umbonal bits being very common. The Spirorbes
are found both attached to the Myalna and free.

Higher, but not including the top portion, the Myalina is
associated with Schizodus Saltert and Sanguinolites sp., Lattorina
scotoburdigalensis, Macrocheilus striatulus, Leperditia Okeni, and
Spirorbis in abundance. The shells of the Sanguinolites form a thin
layer in this part of the bed. The other bivalves occur mainly as
single valves or as fragments, though not so much worn as im-
mediately below. Spirorbis incrusts all these shells, the interiors
of the Schizodus being often beautifully covered with it.

In the top two inches of the limestone there are none of the
Myalina, Schizodus Salteri taking its place as the prevailing species.
With it occur Orthoceras sp., Murchisoma quadricarmata, Naticopsis
plhiastria, Loxonema scalaroidea, Macrocheilus striatulus, Aviculo-
pecten granosus, Sanguinolites abdensis, S. subplicatus, Nucula lineata,
Lingula mytiloides, Cythere Jonesiana, C. equalis, Leperditia Okent,
L. Okeni, var., Beyrichia subarcuata, B. subarcuata, var., Kurkbya
spiralis, Sprrorbis globosus, S. helicteres. The valves of the lamel-
libranchs are mostly detached, but not much worn, the hinge-teeth
being sharp and well preserved in carefully extracted specimens.

The above details of the distribution of fossils in this bed show
changes from an area of tree-growths towards marine conditions
of increasing intensity. Other marine beds in the Calciferous
Sandstones show pretty much the same sort of progression; but in
many cases the advance towards marine conditions does not reach
further than the introduction of Myalina modioliformis.

CALCIFEROUS SANDSTONE OF FIFE. 05

At the outcrop of this bed the measures lie rather flat, so that a
considerable area of it is exposed between tide-marks*. Occasionally,
when the rock has been swept clean of weeds, its Schizodus-covered
surface affords a most interesting sight, though one suggestive
rather of a Permian state of things than of early Carboniferous—an
idea which is only strengthened on finding a species of Myalina
just as abundant in the body of the rock; for in the Magnesian
Limestone of the North of England the two most common fossils in
the upper beds, and those, in fact, which last appear, are Schizodus
dubius and Myalina Hausmanm.

Fig, 4.—Section of Limestone No. 5, Randerstone.

a. Shale and sandstone band with Stigmaria, Diplodus, and Ostracoda; 6. 1 foot
of siliceous limestone with drift wood, Rhizodus, and Myalina ; c. 9 inches
of shale with Ostracoda and Lepidophyllum; d. 1 foot of limestone full of
Myalina, Schizodus, Orthoceras, &e.

Forty feet of shale and sandstone intervene; the latter is false-
bedded and ripple-marked. In one place the shale is black and coaly,
with fireclay beneath full of rootlets. More Stagmarie are found in
these strata, along with Calamites sp., Cyclopteris flabellata, the
scales of small Ganoids, and Entomostraca.

Limestone No. 6 (8326 feet) is about two feet thick, hard, compact,
and grey in colour (also weathering grey). It is formed of three or
four leaves ; and it is chiefly on the weathered surfaces of these that
the following fossils have been found :—

Nautilus planotergatus ?, 1‘ Coy. Schizodus Salteri, Hh.

Orthoceras, sp. Sedgwickia gigantea, M‘Coy.
Loxonema scalaroidea, Phill. Lingula mytiloides, Sow.
Murchisonia quadricarinata, IM!‘ Coy. Stenopora tumida, Phiil.

Naticopsis, sp. Spirorbis helicteres, Salzer.
Aviculopecten granosus, Phiil. Leperditia Okeni, Miins?.

Leda, sp. Beyrichia subarcuata, Jones.

Myalina modioliformis, Brown. Ganoid scales resembling those of
Nucula lineata, Phzll. Megalichthys.

Sanguinolites abdensis, Hzh.

Murchisoma quadricarinata is the most characteristic fossil of
this limestone; it is found on the weathered surfaces beautifully
preserved, and occasionally in great numbers. Stenopora tumida
and Leperditia Okent are also very abundant. Schizodus Salteri
forms a thin layer of shells on top of the limestone. The shell
referred to Sedgwickia gigantea has only been found in this bed ;
some of the specimens exceed three inches in width. The bottom
leaf of the limestone is entirely composed of a Spirorbis, apparently
identical with S. helicteres.

* This bed shelves up to the point to the east of the road to Randerstone.

576 J. W. KIRKBY ON MARINE FOSSILS IN THE

More than thirty feet of shale and sandstone intervene, in which
fossils have not been observed.

Limestone No. 7 (38360 feet) is of irregular thickness; usually
about 15 inches. Its upper surface is covered with shells of
Myalina, some of which are large and more like M. crassa than the
common species (though less massive). ‘Though these shells are
the prevailing fossils of the bed, one of the most characteristic species
is a large thick-shelled Bellerophon, which comes very near to
B. costatus. Another species of frequent occurrence is Naticopsis
plicistria, little coteries of them often being found within the
apertures of the Bellerophons. hynchonella pleurodon is found
abundantly at one horizon of the bed. The last-named species, along
with Lingula mytiloides and L. squamiformis, are the only Brachio-
pods that have been met with so low in the Calciferous Sandstones.

Orthoceras, sp. Myalina crassa ?, Jem.
Bellerophon costatus, Sow. modioliformis, Brown.

decussatus, Vem. Nucula lineata, Phill.
Loxonema scalaroidea, Phil?. Schizodus Salteri, Hth.
Macrocheilus acutus, Sow. Rhynchonella pleurodon, Phill.
Murchisonia quadricarinata, M‘Coy. Diastopora megastoma, M‘Coy.

striatula, De Kon. Stenopora tumida, Phzil.
Naticopsis plicistria, Phill. Beyrichia subarcuata, Jones.
Aviculopecten granosus, Phill. Leperditia Okeni, Miimst.
Leda, sp.

Within the next twenty feet of shale there are three thin bands of
Myalina modioliformis. The only other fossils found in these bands
are the scales of small Ganoids, Leperditia Okent, var. scotoburdiga-
lensis, Spirorbis sp., and fragments of carbonized wood. <A few
feet lower there is an irregular bed of arenaceous ironstone, full of
carbonaceous matter and the fragmentary remains of fishes, chiefly
of Rhizodus Hibberti. Then follow more shales and thin sandstones,
with Sphenopteris affinis, Lepidophyllum, seed-vessels? and other
plant-remains, Spirorbis sp., and Ganoid scales.

No. 8 Limestone (8413 feet) is nineteen inches thick, hard, grey
in colour, and weathering red. Its characteristic fossils are Ostracoda,
13 species of which have been found in it. The other fossils are
most of them small, as though dwarfed :—

Orthoceras, sp. Bairdia subeylindrica ?, Miinst.
Littorina scotoburdigalensis, Hth. Cythere Jonesiana, Kirkby.
Macrocheilus striatulus, sp. nov. intermedia, Miinsz.
Murchisonia quadricarinata, M‘Coy. —— exqualis, J. § K.
Avicula recta?, M‘Coy. eypridiformis, J. & K.
Myalina modioliformis, Brown. Kirkbya plicata, J. & K.
Schizodus Salteri, Hzh. spiralis, J.g K.
Beyrichia subarcuata, Jones. Leperditia Okeni.
5 Walls | —, var. extuberata, J. & K.

Bairdia plebeia, Reuss. Archeocidaris, small spine of.

Hisingeri, Miinst. Spirorbis, sp.

siliquoides, Jones & Kirkby. — Teeth and scales of Ganoid fishes.

precisa, J. & K.

100 feet of measures intervene, chiefly sandstones. In the more
argillaceous beds are found Sphenoptercs affinis, Lepidodendron sp.,

CALCIFEROUS SANDSTONE OF FIFE. 577

seales and teeth of small Ganoid fishes, and Leperditia Okeni, var.
scotoburdigalensis. '

Limestone No. 9 (3514 feet) is a curious concretionary bed, about
nine inches thick, with a rough irregular under surface. It
weathers red and yellow, is hard, and is largely composed of con-
centric concretions of various sizes *. It contains myriads of
Leperditia Okeni, var., along with Spirorbis sp., small Ganoid scales,
fragments of wood, and Stigmarian roots and rootlets.

A few feet of sandstone and shale with Sphenopteris affinis
intervene.

Limestone No. 10 (8525 feet) is very hard and crystalline,
weathers red, and is of variable thickness, averaging about a foot.
In an inch of shale immediately above there occur a few examples of |
Myalina modioliformis, the teeth and scales of small Ganoids, Leper-
ditia Okent, var. attenuata, and Sphenopteris affinis. The limestone
itself is, in some places, full of the single valves and shell-débris of
Pleurophorus elegans, a bivalve which, though so abundant here, has
only been observed in two other localities. Along with the latter
species are numbers of Littorina scotoburdigalensis (well preserved,
and in some cases showing traces of transverse bands of colour)
and a variety of Leperditia Okent.

Pleurophorus elegans, sp. nov. Leperditia Okeni, var. attenuata,
Littorina scotoburdigalensis, Hh. J. § K.

Limestone No. 11 (8546 feet) crops out from beneath twenty feet
of marl, shale, and sandstone, without fossils. It is likewise an
irregular bed, in three or more leaves, with partings of shale. It
weathers red, and is about two feet thick. The only fossils found
in it are fish-remains, belonging to Rhizodus ornatus, Traquair, and
other species. ‘The plates and bones of the former fish are chiefly
in the partings of shale, from which they are to be picked up, de-
tached by the action of the sea.

In the marl beneath the limestone occur Spirorbis helicteres and a
species of Kirkbya.

Thirty feet of unfossiliferous strata are seen beneath the last lime-
stone, and then the crown of an anticline is reached, beyond which
the dip is reversed. A repetition of the beds described, however, is
not clearly seen, owing to the disturbance of the strata by faults.
Various shell-beds appear, full of Myalina, which probably repre-
sent some of those I have noticed; and beyond the faulted ground,
a little to the east of the caves under Randerstone Castle, where
the strata dip regularly to the east, there is a marine limestone
that requires description, though its exact position in relation to
the foregoing section is scarcely to be determined.

This limestone is about 15 inches in thickness, and is intercalated
between beds of sandstone. Itis grey in colour, hard, and has
shaly partings below. At its base, and forming part of the same
bed paleontologically, come 4 inches of very hard, yellow, cal-
careous sandstone, which is soldered on, as it were, to an 8-feet bed

* This rock reminds me of some of the botryoidal and globular forms of the
Upper Magnesian Limestone of Sunderland,

Q.J.G.S, No, 144. 2R

578 J. W. KIRKBY ON MARINE FOSSILS IN THE

of white, siliceous, false-bedded sandstone. This band of calcareous
sandstone contains numbers of specimens of an Orthoceras (10 inches
in length), along with others of Nautilus, Bellerophon, Macrochelus,
and other marine forms, mixed with the roots and rootlets of Stig-
maria. In the limestone, and particularly on its weathered surface-
planes, are strewed multitudes of various species of Murchisoma,
Macrocheilus, Loxonema, Trochus, and other univalves, as well as of
species of Lamellibranchs, along with occasional remains of Lepado-
dendron and much comminuted vegetable matter. The following is
a list of the species :—

Nautilus, sp. Modiola divisa, M‘Coy.
Orthoceras cylindraceum, Flem. Nucula lineata, Phell.
Bellerophon costatus, Sow. Sanguinolites abdensis, Hth.
Euomphalus neglectus, M‘Coy. Schizodus Salteri, Hth.
Lacuna antiqua, M*‘Coy. axiniformis, Phill.
Loxonema scalaroidea, Phill. Beyrichia subarcuata, Jones.
Macrocheilus fusiformis, Sow. Kirkbya plicata, Jones ¢ Kirkby.
acutus, Sow. Leperditia Okeni, Miinst.
—— imbricatus, Sow. Archeeocidaris, small spine.
striatulus, sp. nov. Spirorbis, sp.
Murchisonia quadricarinata, M/‘Coy. Cladochonus, sp.
angulata, Phill. Tooth. and scales of a small Ganoid
—~- striatula, De Kon. fish,
Naticopsis elliptica, Phill. Peecilodus obliquus, Ag.
Trochus serrilimba, Phill. Lepidodendron, sp.
sp. | Stigmarian roots and rootlets.
Cypricardia bicosta, sp. nov. | Plant-remains, obscure.

Lithodomus dactyloides, M‘Coy.

Twelve of the above species have not occurred elsewhere in the
Lower Carboniferous strata of Fife; and I do not know of a
deposit in the same series where Gasteropods are such characteristic
fossils.

Near to high-water mark the limestone runs out, or, rather, passes
into a grey shale with sandstone bands without fossils. Towards
low-water mark it continues, but its marine shells disappear, and
the only fossils found in it are Entomostraca (Leperditia Okeni,
var. attenuata, and Kirkbya) and traces of Ganoid fishes and plants.

Other marine beds appear at various points of the coast; but they
are nearly all recurrences of those already described, containing
the same species of fossils, and they never present so continued a
sequence as in either of the foregoing sections.

Perhaps the only other bed that need be noticed (and it may or
may not be marine) is a thin calcareous sandstone, at Kilrenny
Mill, east of Cellardyke, which is full of a bivalve shell, referred to
Anthracosia by Mr. Salter. Along with the Anthracosia are found
Littorina scotoburdigalensis, Lepidodendron sp., with the twigs
attached in some cases, and as drifted stems covered with Spirorbis
in others.

The same bed (apparently) again comes up at Kilminning, east of
Crail, with the Anthracosia in still greater profusion. Spirorbis is
here attached to the shells, both on the inside and outside of the
valves. Leperditia Okent, var. extuberata, also occurs,

CALCIFEROUS SANDSTONE OF FIFE. 579

The same Anthracosia is found sparingly in a shale at Billow
Ness, though its position (3168 feet) in the series at that place
appears to be considerably higher than at Kilrenny Mill.

OBSERVATIONS.

The thickness of strata in the two sections described, and the dis-
tance of the various marine beds from the base of the Carboniferous
Limestone, are obtained from a careful and detailed examination of
the rocks, bed by bed. Still it should be observed that the amount
of strata between the different marine zones must of course be taken
as close approximations only; for most of the beds, particularly
the sandstones, are subject to such rapid alterations of thickness
that no two sections taken twenty yards apart are ever exactly
alike.

In the group of marine beds at the top of the series that are seen
between St. Monans and Pittenweem, the species are all common to
the Carboniferous Limestone, with one exception, Sanguinolites
abdenis. The only difference which they present, when compared
with the fauna of the latter rock-group, consists of the comparative
abundance of Lamellibranchs, the scarcity of Brachiopods, and the
almost entire absence of corals, excepting the highest limestone
(zone 1).

In the Encrinite-bed (zone 5), which is the next marine zone,
though separated from those above by nearly 1800 feet of strata,
the species with scarcely an exception also all range up into the
overlying series. It was this fact that caused Mr. Brown to pro-
pose to group the measures from the Encrinite-bed upwards with
the Carboniferous Limestone.

Tt is not, in fact, until we reach the strata below zone 5 that much
difference is to be observed in the character of the marine fauna;
and even then, if we take the list of species merely, more than four
fifths of them are found to pass up into the Carboniferous Limestone.
But among the few species peculiar to the series are one or two that
occur so often and so abundantly as to mark these lower measures
with special paleontological features. These are the prevalence of -
the Lamellibranchs, Myalina modioliforms and Schizodus Salteri,
the former shell being more especially characteristic, as the preced-
ing portion of this paper will have made evident. Among other
species characteristic, though in a less degree, are Lvttorina scoto-
burdigalensis, Macrocheilus? striatulus, and an Orthoceras allied to
O. cylindraceum. As a negative character of some value, there
is the remarkable paucity of Brachiopods and Corals, which here is
more noticeable than in the strata above, the former class numbering
only three species (thynchonella pleurodon, Lingula mytiloides, and
L. squamiformis) and the latter two (Stenopora tumida and Alveo-
lites septosus). Altogether 83 species of marine fossils have occurred
to me below the Encrinite-bed. Of these, 15 are confined to the
Calciferous Sandstones*, as given in the following list :—

* Not including the species of Anthracosia, Anthracomya, and Carbonia, as
well as one or two others of doubtful habits. peers

R

580 J. W. KIRKBY ON MARINE FOSSILS IN THE

L ttorina scotoburdigalensis. Sanguinolites subplicatus.
bilineata. Schizodus Salteri*.

Macrocheilus ? striatulus. Bairdia nitida.

Cypricardia bicosta. precisa.

Myalina modioliformis, Cythere superba.
sublamellosa. —— cypridiformis.

Pleurophorus elegans. Kirkbya spiralis.

Sanguinolites abdensis.

The repeated occurrence of bituminous shales and thin limestones
full of the carapace-valves of Ostracoda is another paleontological
feature strongly characteristic of the Calciferous Sandstones. The
species thus occurring are not many in number; Leperditia Okem,
var. scotoburdigalensis, is the most common form; and following it
in abundance are L. Oken, var. attenuata, and Beyrichia subarcuata.
These Ostracods may or may not indicate a marine origin of the beds
in question. They are all found occasionally with Myalina modio-
liformis, and the Leperditice are usually of marine habits; and that
is about all that can be said on the matter.

Of equally dubious origin are the numerous beds containing the
scales of small Ganoid fishes and the remains of Spirorbis carbon-
arius, which often occur with the Ostracoda, or with plants, and
sometimes with Myalina and other marine fossils—though when
such forms as Orthoceras and Schizodus come in with the latter, this
Spirorbis gives place to another representative of the genus, identical
with, or allied to, S. globosus, M‘Coy, and the fish-remains are
usually absent.

Ti will have been observed that the groups or zones of fossils of
the preceding sections are not all equally marine. Thus zone 11 of
the Pittenweem and Anstruther section, which includes the remains
of Lepidodendron and Carbonia, together with Myalina modiohformas,
can scarcely be looked upon as of so marine a character as the group
above, zone 10, which contains among its species representatives of
the genera Bellerophon, Murchisonia, and Leda. ‘The fossils of zone
11 and other kindred groups have been looked upon as marking marine
horizons mainly on account of the presence of M. modioliformis ;
and this shell I consider to have been a marine species, because it
is repeatedly found associated with Schizodus Salteri and other un-
doubted inhabitants of salt water, and because the other species
of Myalina known to me appear from the associated fossils to have
been of marine habits. Thus—

Myalina sublamellosa, Kth., occurs in the thoroughly marine
groups of zones 3 and 10 of the Pittenweem and Anstruther
section.

Myalina crassa, Flem., another gregarious species, is found with

* This species is described from a patch of strata, isolated by volcanic ash,
near Ardross (Rey. T. Brown in Trans. Royal Soc. Hdin. xxii. p. 392), the exact
stratigraphical position of which is not very clear. In the Geological Survey
Map, sheet 41, these beds are coloured as Carboniferous Limestone, which may
possibly be correct ; but Schizodus Saltert is not known from any other Car-
boniferous-Limestone locality, and the general character of the strata is as much
like the highest portion of the Calciferous Sandstone, as exposed to the east of
St. Monans, as any part of the overlying series that I have seen.

CALCIFEROUS SANDSTONE OF FIFE. 581

the remains of Crinoids, Aviculopecten sp., Trochus biserratus, and
Naticopsis ellaptica in the Carboniferous Limestones of Cults, Fife.

Myalina Vernewili, M‘Coy, is associated with Schizodus aximifor-
mis, Myacites sulcatus, Sanguinolites sp., and Lingula squameformis
in shale at the base of the Carboniferous Limestone series, east of
St. Monans, Fife.

And the Permian species Myalina Hausmanni, Goldfuss (in which
is included M. squamosa and M. septifera of King), is found in
the shell-limestone of Durham and the Lower Limestone of York-
shire with the marine fossils characteristic of those rocks, though
in the highest beds of the Magnesian Limestone, where this species
becomes in a measure gregarious, its associates dwindle down, in
Durham, to Schizodus dubwus, Pleurophorus costatus, and Littorina
helicona, and in Yorkshire to S. dubwus only.

Moreover Lepidodendron and other vegetable remains are met
with in the Encrinite-bed at Pittenweem, and in the equally un-
questionably marine deposit to the east of the caves at Randerstone
Castle ; so that the presence of such remains with Myalina modto-
hformis scarcely indicates more than that the shell existed within
reach of vegetable drift.

Notwithstanding the repeated occurrence of marine beds in the
Calciferous Sandstones, the proportion which they contribute to
the aggregate thickness of the series is not great. The bulk of the
strata (where fossiliferous) contains the remains of plants and of
other fossils that cannot with any certainty be classed as marine.
The evidences of the prevalence of vegetable life are numerous ;
and first among these are the number of thin coals.

Altogether I have observed in the Pittenweem and Anstruther
section about fifty seams of coal, counting every thing from three
inches upwards, and there may be some that have escaped my
notice. Most of them are coarse in quality, and the thickest rarely
exceeds two feet, the majority being much less. But though not
thus of much commercial value, they are nearly all true coal-growths,
resting on fireclays charged with Stigmarie. These coals“are pretty
regularly distributed through all but the lowest 500 feet of strata.

Stigmarian roots and rootlets are met with in many fireclays,
shales, and shaly sandstones where there are no overlying coals or
traces left of the vegetation which these roots must have originally
supported, thus indicating many horizons of tree-growths that have
not resulted in the formation of coals.

Then all through the series the strata are more or less marked by
vegetable remains, often very fragmentary and all apparently drifted.
These remains chiefly belong to Lepidodendron and its de-
tached leaves and fruit, and to the ferns Sphenopteris affinis and
Cyclopteris flabellata. We have also seen that several of the marine
beds contain pieces of Lepidodendron and other wood, often incrusted
with Spirorbis, along with their more characteristic fossils.

So that from the coals themselves, from the beds with Stigmane,
from the plant-bearing strata generally, and from the drift wood in
the marine limestones there is evidence enough of the abundance of

582 J. W. KIRKBY ON MARINE FOSSILS IN THE

vegetation in and about the Fifeshire area during this early Car-
boniterous period, and of both the vegetation and the geographical
conditions being such as were suitable for the production of coal-
growths, though, for some reason, not for their development into
thick workable seams.

Though Stigmaria is so common in these Lower Carboniferous
rocks, I have not observed any remains of the evenly ribbed and
scarred stems of the: more typical forms of Sigillaria. The short,
upright stems, and prostrate, flattened trunks of trees that occur
abeve the coals, or in some of the sandstones and shales, are for the
most part coarsely and irregularly ridged and furrowed. Very
rarely they show the lozenge-shaped scars of Lepidodendron. But
possibly the others are only another form, or state of preservation, of
the same tree ; for the numerous remains of branches, small twigs,
and leaves of Lepidodendron found in these rocks indicate that the pre-
vailing tree or trees of the period must have belonged to that family.

Stigmarian roots or rootlets are repeatedly found in strata con-
taining marine fossils, or with groups of species such as the
remains of Ganoid fishes, Entomostraca, Spirorbis, and other organic
remains which could not have had terrestrial habits*. In such
cases the Stigmarice give the impression of being contemporaneous
with the other fossils, and thus to have existed beneath the surface
of water, though in some cases they may have passed down, by
process of growth, from a stratum or land surface above, after the
deposition of the bed in which they are found. The following are
some of the instances of this which I have observed :—

At Randerstone, in Limestone No. 9, it occurs abundantly with
the scales of small Ganoids, Leperditia Okeni, var. ewtuberata, and
Spirorbis sp.

At Fife Ness it occurs in shale (as rootlets), with the scales of
small Ganoids, coprolites, Myatina ? sp., Leperditea Oken, var.,
Spirorbis sp., and Sphenopteris affinis.

West of Pitmilly Burn it occurs in limestone, with the scales ‘f
Megalichthys? and other Ganoids, Littorina scotoburdigalensis,
Myalina modioliformis, Leperditia Okent, var., Beyrichia subarcuata,
and Lepidophyllum.

North of Kingsbarns Harbour it occurs. in limestone, with
Macrocheilus striatulus, Littorina scotoburdigalensis, Murchisona qua-
dricarinata, Myalina modiolifor mis, Bairdia siliquoides, B. precisa,
Karkbya spiralis, and Leperditea Oleni ; and it has already been
noticed as occurring in the lower part of the limestone east of Rander-
stone Castle, Aoatiod with Orthoceras and other marine fossils.

I may here mention another and kindred set of facts to be ob-
served in these rocks. In several cases the marine beds immediately
follow a seam of coal with fireclay full of Stigmaria beneath ; or U1.

i Gee occurs in much the same way in some of the parrot-coals of the
Coal-measures. In a coal of this sort at Pirnie Colliery, Fifeshire, its roots and
rootlets are found with the remains of Megalichthys Hibberti, Strepsodus
sauroides, Ctenacunthus sp., and other large fishes, and species of Anthracomyd,
Spirorbis, and Carbonia.

CALCIFEROUS SANDSTONE OF FIFE 583

they do not immediately follow, they are in close contiguity to
them.

This holds true with zones 5, 10, and 12 of the Pittenweem and
Anstruther section, and with the Limestones Nos. 3a and 4 of the
Randerstone series ; also with the limestone north of Kingsbarns
Harbour, already mentioned, as well as with a five-feet, Myalina-
bed near the Rock and Spindle. In some of these instances the
marine fossils (Crinoids, Producti, &c., in the case of zone 5) are

found close down to the coal; in others there is a thin bed of dark
_ shale, containing Ganoid scales and plants, between the coal and
the marine stratum.

All these facts apparently suggest that the marine conditions on
the one hand, and the conditions favourable to tree- or coal-growths
on the other, were not widely separated in this area, and that the
former followed the latter repeatedly as a matter of easy sequence.

In the determination of the species noticed in this paper I must
acknowledge the great assistance afforded me by my friend Mr. John
Young, of the Hunterian Museum, Glasgow ; and to Dr. Traquair
I am in some cases indebted for the identification of the fish-
remains.

Norers oN THE SPECIEs.

ORTHOCERAS CYLINDRACEUM, Flem., Annals Philosophy, vol. v. pl. 31.
iG Bie

The Orthoceras which occurs in several of the Randerstone beds
comes near to this species. It is eight or nine inches long, tapers
slowly, has numerous septa and a central siphuncle. It is never
very plentiful, except at the base of the limestone east of Rander-
stone Castle, and there scores of specimens (casts) may be seen
within a few square yards.

Navritus pLanotereatus ?, M‘Coy, Syn. Carb. Foss. Ireland, p. 18,
pl it. 2,

Specimens of more than one species of Mautilus are found at
Randerstone. They are all more or less crushed and not easy to
identify. Most of my examples belong to a form about four inches
in diameter, with compressed, quadrangular whorls, and which
appears to come near to the JV. planotergatus of M‘Coy.

Other specimens belong to a smaller form with convex whorls.

Some examples of the former are coated with an incrusting coral
and Spirorbis, and the shell is excavated by a boring-sponge or
annelid (?).

BELLEROPHON COsTATUS, SOW.

A large Bellerophon is found in limestone No. 7 at Randerstone.
It is thick-shelled, an inch and a half wide at the aperture, has a
strong, elevated keel, and rather coarse, somewhat irregular stric of
growth. Altogether it strongly resembles B. costatus as figured by
De Koninck*.

* Descr, Anim. Foss. pl. xxvii. f. 2.

584 J. W. KIRKBY ON MARINE FOSSILS IN THE

LITTORINA SCOTOBURDIGALENSIS, Etheridge, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.
Wolexxsive p. WS. "ple aie te 20, 270

This little univalve is exceedingly abundant in some of the beds
about Billow Ness and Pittenweem. What I take to be typical ex-
amples have rounded whorls, which, in good preservation, show dark,
transverse bands of colour.

LirToRINA? BILINEATA, sp. Nov.

I have several examples of another little univalve, found along
with the preceding species in the limestone of Zone 7, Pittenweem,
which appears to be distinct and undescribed.

It is about 4 of an inch high, with a depressed spire less than
half the height of the body-whorl. The body-whorl is flat-topped,
channelled at the suture, compressed at the sides, which slope out-
wards, and subangulate where the sides bend over towards the
suture ; two spiral impressed lines traverse the upper half of the
whorl, the lowermost near the centre of the whor] and the other
midway between it and the angulation. The aperture is subovate,
round below, with the outer lip angulate above. Some specimens
show a slight umbilicus, and most of them appear to be rather
thick-shelled.

The generic affinities of this shell (as well as of the preceding
species) are not very clear, and it is placed in Littorina with some
doubt.

Lacuna antreua ?, M‘Coy, Syn. Carb. Foss. Ireland, p. 32, pl... v.
f, 24.

One of the most common univalves of the limestone east of Rander-
stone Castle is a small shell that may possibly belong to Huomphalus,
though it agrees so closely with M‘Coy’s figures and descriptions of
his Lacuna antiqua, except in the form of its aperture, that I doubt-
fully refer it to that species. The shell is depressed and formed of
three whorls; the body-whorl is large, rounded, and 74 of an
inch wide ; the spire is small, the umbilicus large, and the aperture
is round and entire.

MacrocH4iLus ? sTRIATULUS, 0. sp.

This is a comparatively common shell in some of the Randerstone
beds, and it is found more sparingly in Zones 10 and 18 of the
Pittenweem and Anstruther section.

The largest specimens are 5%, of an inch long, and 4 or rather
more wide. The body-whorl is three fourths of the entire
length, wide and flat above, and contracted towards the base. The
spire is short and formed of four or five flattish whorls. The surface
is spirally threaded with fine and regular lines in well-preserved
specimens.

Professor De Koninck, who has kindly examined specimens of
this shell, remarks that it has some resemblance to Macrocheilus
canaliculatus, M‘Coy, and that it is doubtful whether it belongs to
Macrocheilus, an opinion with which I entirely agree.

rnd

CALCIFEROUS SANDSTONE OF FIFE. 585

TROCHUS SERRILIMBA, Phillips, Geol. Yorks. pl. xv. f. 30.

A small elongately trochiform shell occurs with the other uni-
valves in the limestone east of Randerstone Castle. It is one fifth
of an inch in length, and one eighth wide, with from six to seven
gradually increasing and strongly tuberculated whorls ; and it seems
to be identical with T'rochus serrilimba, Phillips, so far as can be
judged from the figure of that species in the ‘Geology of Yorkshire.’

Avicuta recta, M‘Coy, Syn. Carb. Foss. Ireland, p. 84, pl. xii.
f. 24.

Specimens of an Aviculoid shell having much the character of
this species occur in various beds. They are rather longer com-
pared with the width than M‘Coy’s figures, but they have the sur-
face ornamented with the same regular raised lines of growth as his
species.

CYPRICARDIA BICOSTA, Sp. Noy.

This shell has only occurred in the limestone to the east of
Randerstone Castle, where it is pretty common.

It is small, thick-shelled, subquadrate in outline, and has two ribs
or keels running from the umbo diagonally to the posterior portion
of the valve. It is 1 of an inch long and + of an inch wide.

MYALINA MODIOLIFoRMIS, Brown.

Avicula modioliformis, Brown, Fossil Conchology, pl. xvi. f. 19.

Myalina communis, Kirkby, MS.

I am not sure that the Myalina of the shell-beds of the east of
Fife is the same as the Water-of-Leith shell found at Woodhall, and
described by Capt. Brown as Avicula modioliformis; but I think
it possible that itis so, and adopt this specific name rather than risk
the creation of a synonym.

The Fifeshire shell, however, appears to be distinct from M. crassa,
with which Mr. Etheridge has identified the Woodhall species, for
the following reasons :—its relatively larger and more gibbous um-
bones; its more delicately striated cartilage-area ; its regular, wide-
apart, imbricating lines of growth; and its possession of an anterior
tooth and socket in each value.

It is also a smaller shell, rarely exceeding an inch and half in
diagonal length. It is always found best developed in the lime-
stone and calcareous ironstones ; and it is only in such specimens that
the peculiarities of its hingement are to be seen. In the shales it is
often very thin-shelled, with little or no cartilage-area, and might
easily be mistaken for a species of Anthracomya were it not for its
characteristic lines of growth.

At one or two localities a larger Myalina is found, and it appears
to come nearer M. crassa. The best examples of this form that I
have seen occur at the “‘ Pans” west of Crail, in a limestone that
represents another outcrop of Zone 10 of the Pittenweem and An-
struther section. It is nearly three inches in length, and has the
more terminal umbones and strong cartilage-stris of WM. crassa,

586 J. W. KIRKBY ON MARINE FOSSILS IN THE

though scarcely so thick-shelled as specimens of that species found
in the Carboniferous-Limestone series.

SANGUINOLITES ABDENSIS, Htheridge, Geol. Mag. 1877, vol. iv. p. 246,
ph xu: 1.9211.

This species is very abundant in Zones 3 and 10 of the Pitten-
weem and Anstruther section; it is also found in some of the
Randerstone beds and in a limestone near Craig Hartle. It varies
somewhat in length, some examples having the posterior side more
drawn out, with the diagonal ridge more pronounced and slightly
arcuate.

SANGUINOLITES SUBPLICATUS, Sp. NOV.

This species only occurs in Limestone No. 5 at Randerstone, where
the examples are usually more or less flattened by pressure. It is
very probably the shell termed Modiolain the east of Fife sheet
No. 41 of the Geological Survey Maps; but it has more the cha-
racter of Sanguinolites than of the latter genus, and it does not
seem far removed from S. plicatus as figured by Portlock*. It may
be described provisionally as follows :—

About two inches long and 55 wide; thin-shelled; with
nearly straight and parallel dorsal and ventral margins, the latter
with a slight sinus below and rather behind the umbo. ‘The
anterior side is short and rather pointed; the posterior is long and
obliquely truncate. The umbo is wide, and from it to the postero-
ventral angle runs a well-marked diagonal ridge. The surface is
marked by strong lines of growth, which occasionally almost take
the form of plications.

SEpewIcKIA cieanrEA, M‘Coy, Syn. Carb. Foss. Ireland, p. 62, pl. xi.
f. 40. .

I have several specimens of a large Schizodus-shaped shell from
Limestone No. 6, Randerstone, which evidently come very close to
the Sedgwickia gigantea, M‘Coy. The specimens, which are all
more or less crushed, are thin-shelled, from 3 to 31 inches long,
2 inches wide, and have the anterior side marked with the regular,
strong ridges, parallel with the margin, that are characteristic of
the genus, the remainder of the surface being comparatively smooth.

PLEUROPHORUS ELEGANS, Sp. ROY.

This shell is extremely abundant in Limestone No. 10 at Rander-
stone, associated with Littorina scotoburdigalensis. Prof. de Koninck
thinks it comes near Cypricardia cylindrica, M‘Coy, though he
agrees in referring it to Plewrophorus as a new species. It may be
described as follows :—

Elongate, less than half as wide as long, convex, and thick-shelled.
Both dorsal and ventral margins slightly convex. The anterior side
very short, narrow, and somewhat pointed; the posterior side
narrow towards the extremity and obliquely truncate. The umbos

* Geol. Londonderry, pl. xxxiv. f. 18.

CALCIFEROUS SANDSTONE OF FIFE. 587

are wide and incurved; a faint diagonal ridge runs from each
towards the postero-ventral angle, and behind them extends a
narrow inflected cartilage-area, while in front is a comparatively
wide lunette. The surface is marked by numerous strong lines of
growth. ‘The muscular impressions and pallial line are well shown
in casts, and a strong umbonal rib bounds the anterior adductor
behind. Length three quarters of an inch.

Last and Vertical Range of Species found in the Caleiferous Sandstone
of the Kast of Fife.

Range below the Carboniferous

Limestone.
To From | From From
500 ft, | 000 to | 2800 to | 3000 to
2300 ft. | 3000 ft. | 3800 ft.

Calamaites, SH) oe saci sievanetstacybenys ences es * * x *

Carpolithes sulcatus, Ldndley ......60..0.|.¢ ceeece | |: eunwes % *

Cyclopteris flabellata, Brongn. s.cccs..) cannes |) dacvan * %

WacdloxavlowishMas.:s.scagkavescowutanhytyacaly Naakens RGU er eee *

Lepidodendron, sp., with Lepidophyl-

lum and Lepidostrobus ............... * % * *

Sphenopteris affinis, Lindley ............ * * * *
Ghibestertialy A277 Ge Wane corse ciate dale sapunves sacs tal Marcaians *

SbtermaMiay eSaachuiot<eslte mbna sadn iebaaten see * * * *

JOC OI Oi cal ar ranren aanrn Aarne Rr a creas | OES

Alveolites! septosMs, FCM... ieccsehscaeel) | sence ull, disaese %

Lithodendron junceum, Flem. ......... %

Stenopora tumida, Phill. ........c0ccccec0e| seeees % * *

Aa MAKeMt1 Ss, BPD ss. satescsnitcoeal eas enue abe : *

Archeeocidaris Uril, Pei. .ch.cs006ceceed\) . aoaee *

Bird We titcnis<ewiatansticteloicsieds mapwicanllPuinsaes aul) aeamadad’ sll assteacaie *

NCHMOCIMUB SPs) ie. ceseevssndvaedesReseee sli peewee *

Plat ERIS GP: tuwectbiaes ontec- coc es see opheeeeen *

IPOLEPIOCHIMUSS SD. Psi ounse ennai ocala uumclence *

Serpulites carbonarius, M‘Coy ......... %

Spironbisvslobosus,, Mi Coy \,.c.:..uttemameestens al acewsaull pees *

= nelieteres; SQUCEF suis sable seeakions oa\hbeebans Gath PeWh clcee *

—— carbonarius, Murch. ...........000 * * * %

Bardia plebeta, Heuss ......-..c0ce--0 00 % LA ER *
brevis Jones fo Kor k0y |. .c.cs: esse) venvas %

— Hisingeri, Miinster..........cccec0ee| veeees in OR *
sulbelommatay J Gi AC. .c.ckensdevoner| lenoceee %

—— subcylindrica, Miins?............000.) seen sight ore %
PUGLISI oe Ea eawatenls on denahe cleats stale acetates eoily ( etdaeer il NE esata *
UMAR Ny? Ga! Cat ats sercis ert cislta nicaidie| | gagielewel CMI) Ube eee I= aay. *
SUOMI ES Se GS | ood Lewestivecvall’ tenis WIN eneecss b> Unies *

Beyrichia subarcuata, Jones .....-sec006| vereee pee td * *
SUM ANSC UREA AY VAI Meee sive iee vase JOU aah » Uaioe aaa” ma GRR orate haan *
Me Ae A Kesnpclscrascaiy anu vivee <ricinne (Unb ama Net *

CMMMMG AMO AG LO. Vcc caiensssauls nose paoeteee a allo Moki x ;

Car bomiartabulina, 97K. .o.c.c06 ee cneal) Vecenee % % *
yamine, of G7 IG) iis eoyee ae ssivn|n sweet * * *

ste T AMER VLOG) Stel g's «wis ro eorke WD puanseida eth ln neseade * *

aaa GAMEGMOLC ES ele GLK. cian soins die sesiesell ly ewes aceee MINOIBE nae Wied *

588 J. W. KIRKBY ON MARINE FOSSILS IN THE

List and Vertical Range of Species (continued).

Range below the Carboniferous
Limestone.

From From From
500 to | 2800 to | 3000 to

To
500 ft. | 9300 ft. | 3000 ft. | 3800 ft.

Gythere Jonesiana,) Kar hbgicnscs.4)0-4|0 nese seeccae le weeds
aa equals, J Ge conc caioincec cual Pea Mc aloo oa ete yee
== intermedia Mista cdcisacce- soci oel|y ater e'acis ae jessie eueceeee
SUper Dae) ited nn ata meen lait deacienee Anica Ranta %
CYPLIGITONMATS eG AG teeth coral |) eosin \l|!), sstesaeiei nl euneeeeys
Kirkbya permiana, JOnes..........0.0.000 x

Spirals Cel p Gune os sey: ea eta wal casi Ip aeeesane *
politcatiatle/ 6 fi KG OE Rs 5.2 nig eae ah cechiccin ip mcien fed) We ciraeee
Leperditia Okeni, Miinst.................. % * %
—, var. scotoburdigalensis,
ELAR DCP E VSR A Reno Ba Pipe Aieniea | ei otek x x
ppvar: elon@atas Ji GG Bical! podessoreuiie aacieeeias! Mewes
y War, abbonuata, eG) WG cea)| conan sian. alee Meese

, var: extiuberatay fi ck. coo. cance siemens oll enieeeees

p VEU OIUS AL el) hp am craey mre pneeiee as ely Up see *
Dithyrocaris, sp. (tooth). ..5...005 cseseteliatetea ml hese leek
Jbceney Pench 28S saessoscnoosenas-oseacen||) sobees 9 /f) pe. cc *
Archeopora nexilis, Ve Mon 5.4 .uc cle stoi) || Eee *
Ceriopora similis, F020 wean: donee evades sceaul beegerre aI SueRe ee
Distopora megastomia, L1°Cou Wi esecscs|s evess | lereeeeig IL eran
Fenestella tuberculocarinata, Hth.......| ...... * %
plebetal wou Wrerandacat eae: * x

% OK OK OK XK

K

*

kK

*K OK OK OK

——

*k

>

*K OK

IMG MISI COU | oe tecet sane Meoeseli eweeeenn, | AWNGe Eee *
Sym ela chiay pepo Meanie is sinthnc aio deide nee weslllius Pammmenupllltey asaqerne *
Athynisiamibigua, SO... 0. h..c2a0.aetenee- * *
Chonetes jpolita, M'Coy ess... sccctecs ee *
Wigeineamuticlay eeetll., ase stan ee coalbemeeeeee %
Lingula mytiloides, Sow..............0000
squamiformis, Phill. ..........0.00 Hy os ANY ute, clic, termes
Orthis resupinata, Martin ......... ..... *
Productus semireticulatus, var. con-
CUNTMUS apiece rich ewste sede cplaet Geseine *
Mavis Dobe Guia iba. ctbas Set heie'y nal heeetisiemeets *
—— cora, D’ Orbigny ........cccseeeeeeee *
VOMSISIAIIS, USO) ee dea ees ee *
—— punctatus, Mar?................. 0.8 *
aculleatims; Vand. oie. sy ceeeincns oo x
—— Youngianus, Dav............0.0.0000 *
Rhynchonella pleurodon, Phill. ......... *
*

*

*

*K

Spirifera trigonalis, Mart. ...............
Ovals, PU201 40 ees: seat eve Meno nee
Spiriferina cristata, Schlotheim .........] -..++ *
Streptorhynchus crenistria, Phill. ......) ..-... %
Terebratula hastata, Sow.................-
Avicuila weetair, .eCory #20: 2... sas -neeenee

CO i ee On ee ee ec ir ie ay

*

Ornatus, RHC tcc. cece yeaa eee
———deprlisit, Me COyh sone eses dnecoeePek

7K OK KK OK OK OK

CALCIFEROUS SANDSTONE OF FIFE.

Inst and Vertical Range of Species (continued).

Aviculopecten granosus, Phill............
—— arenosus, PAI. 0. ..0..cccccceseveeee!

Pee ecco rescore es eens satesess®Obeenrseses

HAMIL COBLAIS ID: fs Anlis/ae-acracinet papers rinse nels
Anthracomya scotica, Hth. ............005
Arca Lacordairiana, De Kon. ............
Cypricardia oblonga, M‘Coy ....... Luan
(SAH OVA i Nd 0 ee Oe SRE OP oer
ICOSGA ESPs NOV. Hic. see pes seeveinn ee
Hdmondia rudis, M‘Coy ...........+.20065
Medavattenuata, len. 60... .5.. seccsssssde-
Sea ear Se od ceasiclsete Sas c selcsissctdenie Guarantee ne datek
Leptodomus costellatus, A/‘Coy .........
Lithodomus dactyloides, M‘Coy .........
Miodiola divisa, M0 Coy «.6.c 60 ccconennsns
Myalina modioliformis, Brown .........
—— crassa, lem. .iccccccecccccceececcees
—— sublamellosa, Eth.......sc.00cecec-ee:
INieuila ib bose, 272770. 5. 08 scnransesese-
IBIIVEE eae 72) COU Ae ee eh Re
Pleurophorus elegans, sp. nov.........-.-
Pteronites persulcatus, M‘Coy .........
Sanguinolites tricostatus, Portlock......
Plicatus;, POR. <n sschceseass Sone qopensr
= FACLOMISIS WLOCIDE, les sheausa hee et cen n sues
—— subplicatus, sp. NOV...............+0.
Schizodus Salteri, Hth ...........sscceseees
—==— aximiformiis, PA. .osiicccosceenceas
—— carbonarius, Portl. ..........c..0000:
umionitormis, P20, .....20..-acaces
Sedgwickia gigantea, M‘Coy...............
CTINIS IBS IIt cs dlann cess eusienurace as ootteemeeeee
Dentalium priscum, Goldfuss............
scoticum, J. Young, MS. ....... on
Kuomphalus carbonarius, Sow, .........
aru MOLE Tc senwacuos suetae< scene
—— neglectus, M'Coy ..........2. eee
CUES SOW: nnd cease ds bese ainetiowotn aoe
Lacuna antiqua?, M‘Ooy.............0.08
Littorina scotoburdigalensis, Hzh. ......
pillinwe aia) Gp: WOV. wi leceenccsdcessenee
Loxonema rugifera, Phill. .............+.
Sealaroldea, PRIM 1..0..cvseucseee
Macrocheilus imbricatus, Sow. .........
POULIN SOM Mok ts. cee emcee sinceidceeeee
MASTROTMAIB) SOW: cscsccsvseeesectenees
PSEMALULUS, SP. WOV....ceserceelescncs
Murchisonia elongata, Portl. ............
quadricarinata, M‘Coy ............
Atria hilar, DEK. | ..acsscevexcoon Se

Range below the Carboniferous

To
500 ft.

eeccce
eeecce
wosces
eeecece

Beecee

eaccee
eeccee
ecccse
eeccce
eesece

eescee

eoeves
@eoceve
eeoecee

@eer0:

eeccee
eescce
eecces
eectes

eeccen
eeeses
@orseae

eercee

Limestone.
From From
500 to | 2300 to

2300 ft. | 8000 ft.

SUM Elia a ts

WET *
*
AS eee *%

SERA mh akties

sh *

*

Wie %

Beanie etc.

*

*

*

*

*

*

+
Ree "
~ Diane *

Pal ae

ay *
ei ae %
eh *
i X

3800 ft.

589

From
38000 to

*

* OK CK OK

aed

cD)

Murchisonia angulata, Phill. ..

90 MARINE FOSSILS IN THE CALCIFEROUS SANDSTONE OF FIFE,

List and Vertical Range of Species (continued),

——- sp. nov. ?

Naticopsis plicistria, Phill. .....
elliptica, Phill....... .......

Pleurotomaria Yvanii, Lév.....
Trochus serrilimba, Phill. .....
Bellerophon costatus, Sow......
Obey TUeTOM. Soaks Sree
decussatus, Flem. ........
Nautilus quadratus, lem. .....
planotergatus, M‘Coy.....
© en a AN OL) Re

Orthoceras attenuatum, Flem.

cylindraceum, Hlem. .....
Ctenacanthus, Sp...........:.0000
Ctenodus,'Sp.tes lancidaeeczcec haces
Ctenoptychius, sp. ........... re
Wrplodis; SOs ioe eesccerse sence
Kurynotus crenatus, Ag. ........
Megalichthys Hibberti?, Ag. ..

eecrcesneae

ee. ce ec eee

¢

eeccnccees

ee eccecsees

eeeccoeees

seeccocecee

Nematoptychus Greenockii, 4g. .........

Peecilodus obliquus, Ag. ........

Rhadinichthys brevis ?, Traquair ......

Rhizodus Hibberti, Ag. ........

Range below the Carboniferous

weneede

eeatoe

eonsae

eeccoe

eeoete

eeeres

Limestone.
From From From
500 to | 2300 to | 3000 to

2300 ft. | 3000 ft. | 3800 ft.

tee ene T ae eae *
Lasiasshode al ca REE OR *
vicldeiaeth Sily eae %
ciate AOR Ste a %

*
wsfelecscel) ah! Utes ae *
aise eRe %

* *

* *% *

*
WHA o||PAP ERSTE *
Juctediel Nites *

%
Les Rae Prete *

apace Ine eeys tes *

* .
Ce La ese) *
tick % *
bos * %
Rderse Teal) Moses *
Bk ued) MAE aan *
Bee LON See *

*

* * *

ON THE PREDEVONIAN ROCKS OF BOHEMIA. 591

42. On the PrepEvontan Rocxs of Bonrmta. By J. HE, Marg, Esq.,
B.A., F.G.8.* (Read June 9, 1880.)

ConTENTS.
Page
tlre Ment O CLM CLHON Ps. Jesik.a.cecssaeiee sate Gane oreeieelsemtoe cu inaatelecotie raise 591
AsWegeription on the: Stratay )..j..42:.cbanegesse ms Maceneente ne sor 592
3. The Associated Igneous Rocks ....2..2..-scsnaesaerber-bhk es thee -b 598
4. Comparison of the Strata with British Deposits ........... 600
Bye MOISES Ma sesaeorsie avots wess bis Ws. os wate aragle mele aomeRciNe serene meee onereTee 605
GS UMMA LP Ys i sls edieeiets sn een sic nia Saree corer ate a ele eulecteaeee eee ctemainee a 617

§ 1. Inrropvction.

On examining the geological map of the neighbourhood of Prague,
by Profs. Krejci and Helmhacker, it will be seen that the Predevonian
rocks are in many places covered by others of Cretaceous age. ‘he
country in which they are developed is in fact a plateau formed by
a Posteretaceous plain of marine denudation, in which the rivers
have consequently not had much time to erode valleys ; the sections
of the Predevonian rocks are therefore principally found along the
sides of narrow valleys, which mostly run at right angles to the
strike of the beds. This strike, as may be seen in the above-men-
tioned map, or that of M. Barrande, is in a prevailing E.N.E. and
W.S.W. direction, and a system of faults runs parallel with it and
was produced at the same time. By consulting Prof. Krejci’s ‘ Geology
of Bohemia’ (printed in the Czech tongue), the sharpness of some of
the folds may be seen (cf. figs. 173, 180, &.); in fact, although
the basin itself has a very simple structure, it contains some very
complicated foldings and repetitions in places. These may be well
seen in the neighbourhood of Beroun, and are shown on Krejéi’s
map. These, foldings, with the parallel faults, were produced in
Precarboniferous times, for Carboniferous rocks rest, nearly horizon-
tally, on the folded and faulted Cambrian, at Stradonice, near
Beroun.

Another series of faults, however, affects the Predevonian rocks
and also the Carboniferous, and is hence Postcarboniferous, and this
Series is approximately at right angles to the former. The folds
affect hard limestones and grits and soft shales alike; and as the
rocks have been released from strain by crumpling and faulting, the
phenomenon of cleavage is of somewhat rare occurrence. The Pre-
cambrian rocks are slightly cleaved, but I have seen no true cleavage
in any of the Cambrian or Silurian rocks. This is a fortunate cir-

* The author was sent out during the past year, by the University of Cam-
bridge, with a grant from the Wort’s fund (Grace 2, Feb. 6th, 1879), to examine
and report upon the Cambrian and Silurian rocks of Bohemia, with special
reference to the boundary between them. In the following paper the results
obtained are laid before the Society. Professor Sedgwick’s nomenclature is
adopted in this paper, and hence the term Silurian is limited to the beds con-
taining Barrande’s faunas H, F’, G, and H.

592 J. E. MARR ON THE PREDEVONIAN

cumstance, as tending to the better preservation of the exceptionally
rich fauna of the Bohemian basin.

T would here thank those geologists from whom I have received
very valuable assistance ; and, first, let me state the immense benefits
T have received from M. Barrande, by his works, by his many personal
kindnesses to me, and, lastly, by the wonderful example of perseve-
rance, which is the astonishment of any one who has even cursorily
examined a slight portion of his stupendons work, in the field. I
have also to thank Dr. Novak, of Prague, and Herr Dusl, of Beroun,
for much aid in the field and museum. My acknowledgments are
also due to Profs. Hughes and Bonney for much kind assistance.

§ 2. DEscRIPTION OF THE STRATA.

I. Precambrian Rocks.

On examining a geological map of Bohemia, it will be observed
that the well-known basin of M. Barrande lies with its axis in an
approximately E.N.E. and W.S.W. direction, and is bounded on
nearly all sides by a series of granites, gneisses, &c., referred to by
Murchison (‘Siluria,’ p. 372) as of Laurentian age. He remarks that
on them rest vast ‘‘ masses of conglomerates, grits, and crystalline
schists, B, A;” he further states that the latter are of Cambrian age.
It would have been impossible, in the short time I had at my disposal
for the examination of these gneissose rocks, to have detected any
order in them ; I therefore confine myself to a few notes on their

lithological character and general strike.

The gneissose series is well exposed in the neighbourhood of Bud-
weis. Proceeding in a south-westerly direction, from Budweis to the
village of Chlumicek, soon after leaving the Brown-Coal formation
a section is seen in gneiss, by the roadside south of Kalist; it dipped
north at a high angle, and was well foliated in places. Nearer Chlu-
micek the gneissose rock becomes interspersed with small garnets,
which seemed to have been produced owing to the contiguity of a
mass of intrusive eclogite. Hast of the village of Holobau, on the
road between Chlumicek and Krumau, a white foliated quartzose rock,
with many amber-coloured garnets, is seen, striking nearly E.and W.,
and containing a dyke of black eclogite. At the eastern extremity
of Krumau a crystalline limestone is seen by the roadside; it is
strongly foliated and contains silvery mica; it dips in a northerly
direction, and underneath it occurs a gneiss having the same dip.
_ Between the two there is a band of graphite, but whether as a vein
or as a bed I could not ascertain.

Lying between the gneisgose series and a mass of conglomerates
&e., which form étage B of M. Barrande, and unconformable to
the latter, which I hope to show are of the age of the Harlech
group of Britain, occur the beds forming étage A, Barrande. I was
unable to find any section showing the relations between this group
and the gneissose series; but that it belongs to a separate formation
seems clear from the following facts:—first, the two are totally
different in lithological characters ; secondly, whereas the earlier

ROCKS OF BOHEMIA. 593

group is highly metamorphosed, the later one has been subjected to
but slight metamorphism, and that only in places; thirdly, the
strike is entirely different in the two groups, the beds of étage A
having a N.E. and §8.W. strike; finally, this group contains
fragments of the preceding.

The relations of étage A to the group above may be seen in
many sections, but notably in the neighbourhood of Pribram, as
shown in the following diagrammatic section from Jinec (Ginetz) to
Milin (fig. 1, p. 594).

The beds of étage A have a strong lithological similarity
wherever exposed ; they consist of a series of green schists, grits,
ashes, and breccias, interstratified with variously coloured hornstones.
Massive beds of the latter occur in this series, in the neighbour-
hood of Prague, at Sarka, and on the other side of the Moldau, near
Bohnice, also in the neighbourhood of Beroun, at Hudlice.

Green ashy beds of this age with imperfect cleavage are seen
at Troya, Hudlice, Broum, Hlubos, &c.; but, so far as I have seen,
they are unaccompanied by any contemporaneous flows.

II. Cambrian Rocks (Sedgw.).

Etage B, Barr. This is excellently exposed along the banks of
the Littava, between Jinec and Pribram, as shown in fig. 1. Near

the village of Cenkau, the shales of étage C are underlain by coarse
erits composed of granitoid materials; beneath these are finer
green grits succeeded in descending order by a series of interstra-
tified compact red shales, yellow grits, and finely laminated green
shales: these seem to be repeated by foldings. On reaching a mill
by the river-bank, south of Hlubos, the base of this series is seen
resting, as before mentioned, with a very marked unconformity, on
the last-described series (fig. 1). The lowest beds of the upper
series consist of coarse conglomerates, the pebbles of which increase
in size on approaching the base, where many of them exceed two
feet in diameter. The larger ones consist chiefly of hornstones,
identical in character with those of étage A; of other pebbles there
are abundance of quartz, of a blackish schist, &e. The strike of
this group differs somewhat from that of the group below, and agrees
with that of the whole of the succeeding étages, viz. K.N.H. and
W.S.W.

As an excellent description of the lithological characters of the
fossiliferous groups composing the basin is given by M. Barrande
(cf. Déf. des Col. iv. p. 96 et seqq.), I shall merely give a short
outline of their nature.

Etage C contains the well-known primordial fauna, and is exposed
on the northern side of the basin in the neighbourhood of Skrey,
and on the southern at and near Jinec (Ginetz). It does not
extend all round the basin, but is overlapped by the upper beds.
At Skrey it consists of very fine greyish or blackish shales; at
Jinec of somewhat coarser and slightly gritty shales of an olive-
green colour, and often weathering into large concentric spheroids.

EKtage D is subdivided by M. Barrande into five “bandes,”

Q.J.G.8. No. 144. fi 258

. MARR ON THE PREDEVONIAN

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ROCKS OF BOHEMIA, 595

1-5; the whole is characterized by him as the “ étages de
quartzites ;” the lowest of the five bands is further subdivided
into a, B, and y.

Ddla rests with a slight unconformity on C, or on stili lower
formations. It consists of a conglomerate, with green, sandy
matrix and small quartz pebbles, where it rests upon C, on the
right bank of the Beroun, between Teyrov and Skrey. It is also
exposed to the east of Hudlice, where it rests on B, and consists of
interstratified green grits and conglomerates. At Krusna Hora,
where it has proved fossiliferous, it consists of quartzose grits with
ereen grains (fig. 2).

Ddif rests conformably upon a at Krusna Hora &c. (see
fig. 2). It consists of black, green, and red pisolitic ironstones,
containing, I was informed, a considerable quantity of phosphorus.
The pisolitic grains are frequently the colour of the matrix in which
they are imbedded; but very often they consist of alternating shells
of light and dark green, imbedded in a blackish or reddish matrix.

Ddly is of a much greater thickness than a and ( together.
It consists of exceedingly fine, slightly micaceous, black muddy
shales, with a somewhat flaky appearance, not usually very fossi-
liferous. At Vosek, to the 8.W. of the basin, where fossils are
abundant, they are found imbedded in ironstone nodules an inch
or two in diameter, which are by no means generally distributed
throughout this horizon.

Dd 2, the most arenaceous band of the “ étages de quartzites,”’
consists chiefly of white or light pink thickly bedded grits, with
occasional thin beds of sandy shale, and in some places, in the
neighbourhood of Beroun, there is a fairly thick series of pinkish
flagey grits, ripple-marked, and with fucoid markings and annelid-
tracks.

Dd3 consists of fine black muddy shales, with very minute
mica flakes; with these are interstratified occasional thin beds of
erit. The whole is of no great thickness.

Dd4. Gritty, ferruginous, and very micaceous shales, of a
predominating greyish colour, false-bedded, ripple-marked, and
with many fucoid marks and annelid-tracks. The series contains
a band of oolitic ironstones running parallel to the road between
Prague and Beroun, as shown in the map by Krejci and Helm-
hacker. In the neighbourhood of Vraz, to the N.E. of Beroun, some
calcareous beds occur, forming a strong feature.

The limestone is nodular and of a dark colour, with interstratified
shales, and very fossiliferous.

Dd5. A series of unctuous olive-green shales, interstratified,
especially towards the top, with gritty shales and grits. Prof.
Krej¢i divides this band into two (cf. his ‘Geology of Bohemia,’
p- 885): a lower shale division he terms “ Bridlice Kralodvorské,”’
from Kraliy Dvir, near Beroun; and an upper grit division,
‘¢ Kremence Kosovské,” from Mt. Kosovy, also near Beroun. In the
neighbourhood of Chodaun grey shales occur; near Prague, fine,
black, very fossiliferous shales are interstratified with the olive-

282

596 J. E, MARR ON THE PREDEVONIAN

green shales. In addition, this band and the last (Dd4) are
described as containing the ‘“ Colonies.”

III. Silurian Rocks.

The Silurian epoch includes M. Barrande’s étages E-H. Unlike
the Cambrians, the prevailing rocks of this series are limestones,
although shales occur here and there, and preponderate at the base
of the series. From the manner in which the limestones vary in
thickness, and thin out altogether in horizontal areas of no great
extent, and from the way in which they differ from one another in
lithological character, we should expect them to possess peculiar
faunas; and this is found to be the case.

Etage E is divided into two bands by M. Barrande, the upper
one calcareous, the lower one chiefly argillaceous.

Ee 1 is found with invariable characters at all parts of the
basin where exposed. Itis composed chiefly of shales, but becomes
calcareous towards the top, passing into Ke 2. It rests, as stated
by M. Barrande (Déf. des Col. iv. p. 109), unconformably upon
the beds of D; such unconformity is well seen on the N. side of
the Slivenec valley, about 300 yards W.N.W. of Gross Kuchel (see
fig. 3). Here the lowest bed of Hel consists of a calcareous
conglomerate with greenish pebbles, about four inches in thickness,
resting on the denuded edges of greenish shales, underlain by thick
yellow grits.

Fig. 3.—Section on the N. side of Slivenee Valley.
(Length about 15 yards.)

1. Olive-green shales. 4. Conglomeratic bed

2. Grits. Das 6-9 inches. Eel

3. Olive-green shales, 2 feet thick at 5. “ Wafer” grapto- P
W. end, 5 feet thick at H. end. litic shales.

Unfortunately, in most localities, the junction between D and E
is concealed, or, where exposed, is a faulted one; in the neigh-
bourhood of Beroun, however, it seems to be well exposed in two
valleys, viz. near Kraltiv Dvir and near Chodaun.

In each locality the grits of Dd5 are succeeded by similar
grits with unstratified black bands, which I would refer to the
base of E, and considered to have been derived by denudation from

ROCKS OF BOHEMIA. . 597

the uppermost grits of Dd5. Above these basement beds are
everywhere found the beds of Hel, capable of subdivision into
three horizons, characterized by differences of lithological character
and of their faunas, which are chiefly graptolitic. I shall treat of
the faunas when comparing the beds with their English equivalents.
The lowest of the three horizons consists of fine black mudstones,
divided by bedding and joints into small squarish prisms, and
sometimes into wafery shales. It contains also, in places, greenish
eritty beds an inch or two thick, as at Litohlavy. The middle
horizon also consists of black mudstones, of a more flaggy character
than the last, and containing calcareous nodules and bands, usually
black also; these are the Anthracolite spheroids of M. Barrande
(Deéf. des Col. iv. p. 26).

The uppermost horizon consists of sandy and ferruginous shales,
weathering brownish yellow, containing calcareous nodules, and
passing into thin-bedded limestones, which compose the summit of
Kel. Between el and e 2, in the valley of Tachlovice, is a band
of oolitic ironstone.

EKe2. A greyish crystalline limestone, crowded with fossils, and
of nearly unvarying character. At one locality, however, near
Lodenice, it contains a yellowish ferruginous and calcareous shale.
The fauna is exceedingly instructive, and shows how careful we
should be not to conclude two deposits to be of different age, from
their possessing different faunas at short distances apart. In the
quarries around Prague and at Karlstein, Trilobites are exceedingly
rare in this formation. At Lochkov, Cromus abounds, to the ex-
clusion of other generain any abundance. At Listice, Sphwrewochus
is very abundant, though rare elsewhere; other genera are rarer.
Near St. Johann, Calymene, Cheirurus, Stawrocephalus, Lichas,
and Acidaspis are all abundant. In all these localities the rock
containing these fossils presents the same lithological characters.
At Lodenice, where the rock is somewhat different, Arethusina
abounds, although rare elsewhere. Itis but fair to state that
the molluscan fauna does not vary to this extent.

Etage F. The two bands of this étage are of no great vertical
thickness, and are not often seen in contact with one another. At
present, a section is exposed in the quarries of Dvorec, near Prague,
in which f 2 is seen superposed upon fl. A light yellow siliceous
band occurs between E and F in the Tachlovice valley, where fl
appears to be absent.

Ffil consists of blackish crystalline, thin-bedded limestones,
with thin black shales. It is very black in the valley near Lochkov,
not so much so at Dvorec and in the Slivenec valley; it does not
seem to be of very wide extent.

Ff£2. A very white crystalline limestone, except where stained
pink by hematite. It is very well developed at Koneprus, and
is not found all over the basin. Fossils are very locally distributed,
even in the same sections. EF f2 contains some chert bands in
places, as in the Tachloyice valley.

Ktage G consists of two limestone bands, with an intermediate

598 J. E. MARR ON THE PREDEVONIAN

shale. The limestones are easily distinguished from any of those
before described by their compact texture and strongly noduiar
character.

Gel. <A dark grey, compact nodular limestone, mottled with
irregular black spots in places ; the nodules are three or four inches
in their longer dismeters, which are parallel to the bedding. Inter-
stratified black shale beds, a few inches thick, occur rarely. Chert
nodules are irregularly distributed in the limestone. At Hlubocep
a siliceous bed occurs at the top. Fossils are sparsely distributed.

Gg2. <A compact, unctuous, mottled shale of no great thick-
ness, with nodules and bands of grey limestone with black mark-
ings. The shale is usually of an olive-grey, leaden grey, green, or
reddish colour.

Gg 3 strongly resembles g 1 in lithological character, but is
usually of a lighter colour, often stained pink, otherwise weathering
to a buff-colour. The fauna, however, is very different, being cha-
racterized by the numerous genera of Cephalopoda which it contains.

Etage H consists of grits and shales: there is a total absence of
any calcareous rock. It is divided into three bands of no great
thickness.

Hh. Grey non-micaceous shales, ripple-marked, and crowded
with fucoid remains. It is well exposed at Hlubocep, Hostin, &c.

Hh 2 resembles H h 1 in lithological character, but contains
interstratified grit bands.

Hh 3 is lithologically similar to H h 1.

§ 3. Tan Assoctatep Ienzovus Rooxs.

The igneous rocks of the Predevonian basin of Bohemia are many
of them, at present, the subject of study of the eminent petrologist
Boricky. The following is a list of the principal ones which I
noticed :—Granite, Quartz Felsite, Mica-trap, Porphyrite, Diabase,
Diorite, Eclogite.

Gramite.—This rock seems to be confined to the older Pre-
cambrian series. I have examined it in the neighbourhood of
Mnichovice to the south of Prague. It is here very hornblendic.
Near Klokocna, north of Mnichovice, a porphyritic granite is seen,
with large white crystals of orthoclase.

To the south of Pribram, granite is seen in the neighbourhood of
Milin, along the boundary between the older and newer Pre-
cambrian snien. It, however, seems to be faulted against the
newer series, as this is not much altered near the boundary with
the granite. The granite is certainly Precambrian, for the base-
ment conglomerates of the Cambrian system are largely made up of
granitic materials.

Quartz Felsite occurs in dykes intruded in the Precambrian and
Cambrian rocks in many localities. The dykes appear to be of
normal character, and of no great interest.

Mica-trap. In the neighbourhood of Strasnice and Neu Strasnice,
a few miles east of Prague, several mica-trap dykes cut through the
shales of d5. The dykes in every way resemble those occurring in

ROCKS OF BOHEMIA. 599

the Lake district in rocks of about this age. Other localities for
mica-traps are recorded by Professor Bonney (Q.J.G.. vol. xxxy.
p. 165). Ina paper by Messrs. Gunn and Clough on the Silurian
beds of Teesdale (Q. J.G.S. vol. xxxiv. p. 30) it is stated that “no
mica-trap dykes are known in the Carboniferous beds of this district,
or of any other part of the north of England, while such dykes are
common in the Silurian districts of the Lake-country.” The
Bohemian mica-traps afford a remarkable additional case, which
can hardly be a mere coincidence.

Porphyrite. There appears to have been an overflow of porphyrite
lavas during the deposition of dl a&. Above the conglomerate
of d la near Skrey occurs a great series of porphyrites and asso-
ciated ashes and breccias, and asimilar series is seen above the beds
of d 1 6 near Hudlice (fig. 2), also with ashes, breccias, and agglo-
meratic beds. These porphyrites are usually of a dull claret-red,
with small plagioclase crystals, visible to the naked eye, and are
very frequently amygdaloidal.

Diabase occurs intrusive in soft shales of Precambrian, Cambrian,
and Silurian age, often running parallel to the bedding for some
distance. It is excellently exhibited in the neighbourhood of
Kuchelbad, especially opposite the inn of Vyskotilka, where it is
intrusive in the shales of Ee 1, which it frequently alters, both above
and below. ‘The diabase here exhibits beautiful spheroidal weather-
ing; and similar weathering is seen in a mass of diabase intrusive in
the shales of the colony at Hodkovicek. It often contains fragments
of the rocks into which it intrudes: at Butovice, where it is intrusive
in limestone bands near the summit of e 1, which are composed
largely of Otrhocerata, the diabase itself contains many fragments
of these Cephalopods, free from matrix, as discovered by M.
Barrande.

Diorite occurs as dykes intruded usually into the older rocks of
the basin. The dykes are generally fine-grained, have undergone
considerable alteration, and are of little interest.

Kelogite (serpentine of Hauer’s map). In describing the Pre-
cambrian rocks of the neighbourhood of Budweis, it was stated that
there was a mass of eruptive eclogite in the neighbourhood of
Chlumi’ek, which seemed to have converted the gneiss of the Pre-
cambrian series into a garnet rock. The gneiss seemed to me to
become more granatiferous as it approached the eclogite, until at last
all the black mineral (hornblende ?) disappeared, and a white matrix
containing amber-coloured garnets remained. On examining Hauer’s
map of Bohemia, it will be seen that the garnet rock which occurs
to the west of Budweis does not run in the direction of strike of the
Precambrian rocks, which is nearly E. and W., but surrounds
masses of intrusive eclogite (serpentine of map). On the same map,
also, it will be seen that other masses of garnet rock (as south of
the Danube, near Krems, and some miles to the west of Gmiind, &c.)
are invariably accompanied by masses of rocks mapped as ser-
pentine. Hence the connexion does not seem to be accidental, and
it appears probable that the metamorphic garnet rock is due to the

600 J. E. MARR ON THE PREDEVONIAN

intrusive eclogite. The eclogite itself, near Chlumicek, is of a dark
olive-green colour. Near the small village of Krems, south of
Chlumicek (not the Krems above mentioned), it is of a reddish hue ;
south of Slavis, to the east of Chlumiéek, it is of an amber-brown ;
whilst near Holobau it is black. In each locality it is very hard.
The last-mentioned place yields a very interesting section (fig. 4), in
which the eclogite is clearly seen to be intrusive. The section is to
the north of the road, just before it crosses a stream to the east of
the village of Holobau.

Fig. 4.—Section by Bridge east of Holoban. (Height about 10 feet.)

G. White quartzose foliated rock with amber-coloured garnets.
EK. Hard black eclogite. X X. Joint (and fault ?).

Near Srnin, between this place and Krumau, occurs another mass
of eclogite, probably connected with the former at no great distance
below the surface, and altogether similar to it. It is of a brown
colour*.

§ 4. CoMPARISON OF THE STRATA wWitH EnetisH Derpostts.

In Salter’s Catalogue of Cambrian and Silurian fossils of the Uni-
versity of Cambridge some of the Bohemian beds are correlated
with English deposits. A more detailed correlation is given by
Dr. Hicks (Geol. Mag. dec. i1. vol. i. table opposite p. 156;
cf. also Hicks, Q. J.G.S. vol. xxxi. p. 552). Professor Krejéi also,
in his work on the Geology of Bohemia (pp. 461 et seqq.), gives a com-
parison of the Cambrian and Silurian rocks of the two countries.
Sir R. I. Murchison (Siluria, p. 375), on the other hand, says, “ For
my own part, however, I have always thought that geologists should

* Professor Bonney has kindly examined a slide of this rock from Chiumiéek,
and given me the following note :—

“Your rock from Chlumicek has no claim whatever to be called a
serpentine. The chief mineral is omphacite, with perhaps, as is commonly
the case,some smaragdite. ‘The other prevailing mineral is a decomposition
product after garnet .... It has a peculiar fibrous structure and acts upon
polarized light, the fibres radiating irregularly from a centre outwards. I have
seen something like it in an alteration product of Cordierite .... That it is
after garnet is shown not only by its mode of occurrence, but also by one or
two bits of unaltered garnet remaining in the centre. There are a few brown
microliths, in part probably only stains. The rock therefore is an eclogite, with
most of the garnets replaced by a decomposition product. The great difference
in the condition of the two principal minerals is rather curious, though not
without parallel in the felspar and augite of some dolerites.”—T. G. B.

ROCKS OF BOHEMIA. 601

not endeavour to synchronize any one British subdivision with
an exact equivalent in distant foreign lands.” In the case of
Bohemia, however, we find so many similarities in both lithological
and paleontological characters, occurring consecutwely through a .
series of beds, that we cannot suppose them to be mere coincidences.
These similarities are most striking in the beds which yield evidence
of having been deposited in deep water.

I. Commencing with the Precambrian rocks, it is soon remarked
that the two unconformable series in Bohemia strongly resemble
those which have been named Dimetian and Pebidian by Dr. Hicks
in Britain. On referring back to the description of the lithological
characters of the lowest group in Bohemia, it will be seen to corre-
spond exactly with that given by Dr. Hicks of the St. David’s
Dimetians. There is no indication of any intermediate group, such
as that described in Britain as the Arvonian beds; but the green ash
and hornstone series of Bohemia, constituting étage A, Barr., and,
according to Professor Krejci, part of étage B also, is regarded by
that geologist in his work on the country as contemporaneous with
the Huronian rocks in America. It exactly resembles the Pebidian
series of Britain, except in the greater development of the horn-
stones. As the Dimetian and Pebidian series of St. David’s have
been correlated by American and Scandinavian geologists with
deposits in their own countries, it is not surprising to find similar
formations occupying the same horizons in Bohemia.

Il. The Precambrian rocks, as in Britain, are succeeded by a con-
glomerate series, not differing very much from the upper series of
the former in their direction of strike, but nevertheless exhibiting a
very marked unconformity. The resemblance between the Harlech
beds of St. David’s and the base of the Cambrian of Bohemia is
surprising ; not only do we meet with the basement conglomerate
with large pebbles, easily detached from the matrix, but the yellow
grits and the red shales are precisely similar to those beds at St.
David’s which have yielded fossils. 1t is too much to expect that
these Bohemian beds will be found even tolerably fossiliferous, after
the almost exhaustive researches of M. Barrande; but it is not
impossible that organisms may,yet be found, and the section by
the roadside near the village of Cenkau seems well worth a lengthy
search. |

The beds of étage C, or the primordial zone of Barrande, have by
many authors been compared to some part of the British series. Sir
©. Lyell (Students’ Elements, p. 487) correlates the Menevian beds
and Lingula Flags with this étage. Dr. Hicks (Geol. Mag. dec. 11.
vol. i. table) places the Menevian beds only on this horizon. The
Menevian fauna certainly bears a strong resemblance to the fauna of
C, e.g. the occurrence in both of the genera Paradowides, Cono-
coryphe, Arionellus, Agnostus, &c. I think, for reasons to be given
presently, that étage C does not represent the whole of the Lingula
Flags, if any portion of them. In lithological character its resem-
blance to the Menevian beds is very strong. They both seem to
have been deposited in deep sea ; one proof of this is given in Lyell’s

602 J. E. MARR ON THE PREDEVONIAN

‘Students’ Hlements’ (p. 485). Speaking of the Menevian beds, he
says (from information by Hicks, Q.J.G.S8. vol. xxviii. p. 174),
‘¢ Blind Trilobites are also found, as well as those which have the
largest eyes, such as. Mcrodiscus on the one hand and Anopolenus on
the other.” In a lecture on deep-sea fishes delivered at Cambridge
by Dr. Gunther, he remarked that these fishes had either very large
eyes or none at all, as ordinary eyes would be valueless at such a
depth. Sir Wyville Thomson also, in his Voyage of the ‘ Challenger’
(Atlantic, vol. 1. p. 131), points out the resemblance of the eyes of
the deep-sea Cystosoma Neptuni to those of dighna. We may
infer, therefore, that where we meet with a deposit containing Trilo-
bites with abnormally large and abnormally small eyes, but not
with those of ordinary size, they point to deep-sea conditions.
This inference is justified by finding that beds containing such Trilo-
bites have generally a fine-grained texture, and exhibit similar
lithological characters over large areas.

The lowest bed of étage D, viz. d 1 a, has been described as con-
glomeratic in some places, gritty in others. At Krusna Hora, where
it consists of grit, it has yielded abundance of Lingula Feistmantel,
the only fossil as yet known in it. I think this zone represents
part of the Lingula Flags of Britain, and is, like them, of a shallow-
water origin. Dr. Hicks, in above-cited table, correlates Lingula
Flags with conglomerates.

D d1 is not very fossiliferous. Besides some Lingule and Discine,
there are recorded from it Harpides Grimm, Amphion Lindauern,
Orthis desiderata, and Echinospherites ferrigena. The occurrence of
Harpides with Amphion seems to indicate an admixture of primor-
dial and later forms. This would agree very well with what we
find in the Tremadoc Slates. But the lithological character of the
beds is the most remarkable, for the pisolitic ironstones are abso-
lutely undistinguishable from those of the Tremadoc Slates of our
own area, and, like them, contain much phosphorus. Succeeded as
these ironstones are by beds (d 1 y) which have been recognized by
many authors as of Arenig age, we can hardly help correlating them
with the Tremadoc Slates.

Dd 1y has the peculiar flaky and very fine black shales so
characteristic of the more typical Arenig rocks of Britain. There
are indications of this being a deep-sea deposit, from the eyes of its
Trilobites. -Hglina is abundant, and, on the other hand, several
species of Agnostus occur. Even in the same genus, as pointed out
by Herr Dusl, the eyes differ largely, e.g. in [llenus, of which J.
Katzeri has aborted eyes, and I. advena very large ones. Being a
deep-water deposit, we find that the fauna strongly resembles that
of the British Arenig rocks, and still more strongly beds of that age
in France, so that there certainly seems to have been a continuous
sea at this period throughout Western Europe. The following
genera occur in the Arenig rocks of Britain as well as ind 1 y of
Bohemia — Afglina, Placoparia, Calymene, Trinucleus, Ribeirna,
Redonia, Bellerophon. The species of some of these genera strongly
resemble one another in the two countries, as pointed out by Mur-

ROCKS OF BOHEMIA. 603

chison (Siluria, p. 377), and Bellerophon bilobatus is common to the
two. Graptolites also occur in this band in Bohemia, although not
abundantly. Graptolithus avus, recorded by Krejci, seems to in-
clude fragments of more than one compound form ; the same author
also records a Didymograptus (D, Suessi). The Graptolites occur
in deep-water deposits at several horizons (e.g. Dd 3,d 5, Ke 1),
but are absent in beds formed in a shallower sea.

D d 2 was evidently deposited in shallow water, and cannot
therefore be strictly compared with any British deposit. The
fauna presents resemblances to that of the Lower Bala rocks of Britain.

D d3 is another deep-water deposit, resembling many of the
Bala shales of Britain. Many of the fossils of d ] y have returned
with the recurrence of deep-sea conditions. Some obscure Graptolites
at Vinice are apparently referable to Clmacograptus. The most
abundant Trilobite is Zriucleus ornatus (= 7’. concentricus).

Dd 4 seems to have been for the most part deposited in shallow
water. Its fauna is very similar to that of the Middle Bala. In it
occurs abundance of Calymene, Cheirurus, Phacops, Illenus,
Trinucleus (T'. ornatus=T. concentricus, abundant here also), and
various Cystideans. The limestone and calcareous shales described
as occurring at Vraz point to deeper water, and present a resem-
blance to the Bala limestone. They contain Chetrurus claviger,
Phacops (Dalmanmites) socials, var. prowva, Illenus Saltert, Orthis
elegantula and other species, Strophomena, Holopea, &c.

Dd 5 may partly represent Upper Bala beds. ‘This and Dd 4
being mostly shallow-water deposits, we cannot expect to find any
strong resemblance to English formations; d5 does, however,
contain one zone of fine black shales, very similar to some of the
English Bala shales, and apparently deposited in deep water. It
rarely contains Graptolites.

It. The Silurian rocks, as before stated, rest with a slight uncon-
formity upon the Cambrian series, and their basement beds are
sometimes of a gritty and conglomeratic nature. These basement —
beds have as yet yielded no fossils, sothat in Bohemia there is no
sign of a shallow-water May-Hill fauna. The beds of H, especially
of its lower division, are more strictly comparable with their British
equivalents than any other beds of the basin; for they contain a
series of graptolitic faunas which, as lately shown by Mr. Lapworth,
in his most instructive paper on the Moffat series (Q. J. G.S.
vol. xxxiv. p. 333 &c.), are exceedingly limited in a vertical
direction, but widely spread horizontally.

The band e 1 contains three graptolitic faunas. The beds con-
taining them have been already described, and their fossils will be
considered at length, asthe recognition of these three faunas is of
the utmost importance in considering M. Barrande’s theory of
colonies. The lowest of the three was described as consisting of
fine black prismatic mudstones with interstratified green bands, and
these are exactly similar to the beds of the Birkhill Shales of Britain.
The fauna presents a still more striking resemblance. I have found
in them the following species :— tn

604 J. E. MARR ON THE PREDEVONIAN

Monograptus cyphus, Lapw. Rastrites peregrinus, Barr.

——- Becki, Barr. Linnexi, Barr.

—— tenuis, Portl. Diplograptus folium, His.

—— proteus, Darr, tamariscus, Nich.
spinigerus, Nich. Climacograptus scalaris, As.
triangulatus, Harkn. Retiolites, sp.

-——— turriculatus, Barr.

All the above species are characteristic of the Birkhill Shales. No
other fossils than Graptolites have yet been found in strata proved to
belong to this zone.

And not only does this zone resemble the Birkhill Shales, but it
can, like them, be divided into a series of subzones characterized by
various species of Graptolites. In the limited time at my disposal I
was unable to define these subzones, especially as the whole of this
zone 18 never exposed in one continuous section ; but I made out
that the lowest subzone consisted of what I may describe as “‘ wafer
shales”—black shales so thin as to be broken into any shape
desired by the fingers, and crowded with Graptolites chiefly of
two species, viz. Rastrites peregrinus and Climacograptus scalaris,
which occur in thousands at this horizon, to the exclusion of any
great abundance of other species. This subzone is well seen in the
valley running up the side of Mount Kosov, near Kraltv Dyur
(Beroun), also in the Chodaun valley, between Zelkovice and
Libomysl, and in many other places. Another subzone is character-
ized by the abundance of Monograptus turriculatus; and this, as in
Britain, occurs high upin the series. It is seen between Kuchelbad
and Gross Kuchel, at Litohlavy Mill, and near Zelkovice.

The next overlying fauna occurs in much more flaggy shales,
with calcareous bands and concretions in places. Its graptolitic
fauna is that of the Brathay Flags of the Lake district, and a
similarity is observable in the lithological character of the two
deposits. This is specially marked at Branik, where the beds are
not so black as is usual in this zone in Bohemia. I have seen
the following Graptolites in this zone (all of which occur at
Vyskocilka, where the underlying zone is absent) :—

Monograptus priodon, Bronn. Cyrtograptus Murchisoni, Carr.
— vomerinus, Nich. Retiolites Geinitzianus, Barr.

All of these, except the Cyrtograptus, are abundant in many localities,
The negative evidence is as strong as the positive, for although the
two described faunas are not separated by any beds such as the
Tarannon Shales (Pale Shales) of Britain, they do not, so far as I have
Seen, possess a single species in common.

A band of limestone always occurs between this zone and the
overlying one. It contains abundance of Cardiola interrupta,
Orthoceras, &c., and is probably about the horizon of the Middle
Coldwell beds of the Lake District. .

The overlying graptolitic fauna occurs in sandy shales, very
similar to those of the Upper Coldwell beds of the English Lake
district. The Graptolites already enumerated as occurring in the

ROCKS OF BOHEMIA. . 605

underlying zones are altogether absent from this, and instead of
them the following species occur :—
Monograptus colonus, Barr. Monograptus Flemingii (?),
bohemicus, Barr. — testis, Barr.
—— Remeri, Barr.

Of these, the first is much the most abundant, and is found
wherever this division is met with. WV. testis is very rare and
local. The other three I have only seen in the calcareous bands
and nodules towards the top of this zone. These calcareous bands
also contain other fossils found in the Upper Coldwell beds of Britain,
e.g. Halysites catenularius, Ceratocaris, Cardiola mterrupta, many
species of Orthoceras, &c.

Ee 2has a much richer fauna than Eel. I think this also
may be correlated with the Upper Coldwell beds of the English
lakes. It contains, besides the fossils mentioned as occurring at
the top of E 1, a great abundance of Rhynchonella navicula, which
occurs in thousands at Novy Mlyn in the Hlubocep valley. This
formation presents a very strong resemblance, both lithologically
and palzontologically, to the Wenlock Limestone.

The beds of étages F and G are both correlated by Murchison
with the Ludlow rocks (Siluria, p. 380). I think that F 1, how-
ever, may be wholly or in part of Wenlock age. Ife2 is to be
referred to the Upper Coldwell beds of the Lake district, f 1 could
not be newer than the Coniston Grits, or lower part of the Bannis-
dale Slates, correlated by Mr. Aveline with the Wenlock rocks of
Wales. In any case, we cannot make any close lithological com-
parison of F and G with their British equivalents, for the lime-
stones vary much in thickness in the Bohemian basin itself, and must
be viewed as lenticular masses, rather than as deep-sea deposits ex-
tending laterally for a great distance. Ff 2 has some fossils of a
decided Ludlow aspect, such as its large Pentameri and its fishes ;
whilst Goniatites, which are common in G, occur in this étage also.

Etage G presents undoubted affinity to the Ludlow rocks in its
fauna; but that fauna is nevertheless a peculiar one, and each of the
three bands has its own species.

Etage H has been referred by some geologists to the Devonian
series; but M. Barrande has proved that itis Silurian. Its fauna
has aremarkable similarity to that of G g 2, and is one of the cases
so aptly described by M. Barrande as illustrating migrations, other
‘eases being those of d1,d3, and d5, andoff2andg3. Etage
H is probably to be correlated with the passage-beds of Britain ;
Professor Krejéi figures a Lepidodendron from this horizon, and it
also contains abundance of another plant, Iucoides hostinensis.
Those who maintain the Silurian nature of some of the Old Red
Sandstone rocks of the Welsh border would probably consider H to
be on the horizon of those beds.

§ 5, CoLonizs.
Sir R. I. Murchison (Siluria, p. 380) remarks that “it now ap-
pears certain ..... that his (M. Barrande’s) Second Fauna, the
representative of the Llandeilo and Caradoc of Britain, without any

606 J. E. MARR ON THE PREDEVONIAN

mixture of other remains, is superposed to a band containing animals
which belong to his Third Fauna, or Upper Silurian ;” and a few
lines further on, “‘ these alternations of life indisputably connect the
Lower and Upper Silurian rocks in one system, through an inter-
change of a considerable number of their respective fossils.” It is
needless to describe the theory of M. Barrande: this theory has
been attacked by various authors. In 1852 Lipold tried to account
for the phenomena in Bohemia by foldings, but afterwards aban-
doned this explanation. Prof. Krejci afterwards supposed them to
be due to faults; both he and Lipold, in letters inserted in M. Bar-
rande’s ‘ Défense des Colonies’ (ii. pp. 80, 82), declared that their
former ideas on the subject were not correct. In 1868, D’Archiac,
from a consideration of certain phenomena in the Carboniferous
rocks of Belgium, which had been accounted for by M. Barrande’s
theory, but aiterwards proved to be due to physical disturbances,
threw doubt on the theory as applied to the Bohemian phenomena.

The fauna occurring in the colonies of Bohemia was supposed to
have existed in the north of Europe ; but this view, as shown by Lin-
narsson (cf. abstract in Geol. Mag. dec. 11. vol. v. p. 282), can no longer
be held. In fact it has been shown by Lapworth, Linnarsson, &c.
that the Birkhill Shales and their Scandinavian equivalents, which
contain a corresponding fauna to that of the colonies, are not to be
referred, as was formerly supposed, to the Bala group, but are much
newer. Other fossils than Graptolites occurring in the colonies
have also been found in Britain, and a table of these is given by
Barrande (Défense des Col. iv. p. 181), in which he argues that they
all occur in equivalents of his Second Fauna in Britain, that is, in
the Upper Cambrian. In analyzing this list, we find the following
recorded as Bala:—Chewurus isignis, Beyr., C. bimucronatus,
Murch. ; these do occur at that horizon. Sphereawochus mirus ; all
the specimens from the Bala of Britain referred to this species,
which have been examined by Tornqvist, are referred by him to
Spherexochus angustifrons, Ang. (Giivers. af K. Vetenskaps-Akad.
Forhandl. 1879, No. 2, p. 70). Cardiola interrupta, from the Bala
of Coniston ; this was when Profs. Harkness and Nicholson consi-
dered the Coniston Flags to be Bala. Atrypa reticularis and Stro-
phomena euglypha are from the Llandovery Rocks. Hence the fauna
of the Colonies is by no means to be found in the Upper Cambrian
rocks of Northern Europe; on the contrary, it occurs at the base of
the Silurian, and therefore it cannot have migrated from the N.W.
In fact there is no locality known where this fauna is not charac-
teristic of the base of the Silurian. The same forms of Graptolites
occur in Sardinia, as figured by Meneghini; but their horizon is
unfortunately unknown.

Nobody now denies the occurrence of migrations, so ably treated
of by M. Barrande in the third part of his ‘ Défense des Colonies,’
in which species occur again in beds of the same great group later
than those in which they are first found, if the conditions be
favourable for their return, but usually mixed with other forms.
This, however, is very different from what is required by the theory

ROCKS OF BOHEMIA. 607

of Colonies, viz. the characteristic fauna of one great group (the
Silurian) existing in another locality im an earlier one (the Cam-
brian). We know of no such phenomena in any locality whatever,
or in any epoch. Why should these colonies occur only in Bohemia
(for the phenomena described as colonies in other countries have
been all proved to have a different origin)? and why do we not meet
with similar phenomena in other parts of the Palseozoic rocks, or in
the Mesozoic or Cainozoic epochs ?

In describing the characters of E e 1, and comparing this band
with its British equivalents, we found that it could, as in Britain,
be divided into three zones, characterized by particular Graptolites.
The lowest zone, characterized by the genera Duplograptus, Clumnaco-
graptus, and Rastrites, I shall speak of as the “ Diplograptus-zone ;”
the middle, characterized by Monograptus priodon, M. vomerinus,
and Retiolites Gewmitzianus, as the ‘ Priodon-zone ;” the upper, with
abundance of Monograptus colonus, as the ‘¢ Colonus-zone.” Now
not only are these different zones observable in e 1, but also in the
colonies ; and although they are not always all three present, still,
when more than one occurs in the same colony, they always occur
in the same stratigraphical order as that observable in e 1; whilst
if we take the whole series of colonies as bands occurring at different
horizons in d 5, no such order is observable. This is shown in the
following figure (fig. 5, p. 608). In this diagram, which contains only
colonies that I have examined, Colonie Haidinger and that at Hod-
kovicek (on the same horizon as Colonie Krejci) are on the 8. side
of the basin ; whilst Colonie D’Archiac and that on the road to
Vohrada are on the N. side. The relative positions are, however,
proved by a black band containing abundance of Trinucleus Gtold-
fussi, together with Phacops (Dalm.) solitaria, &c., which is very
constant in d 5 in this part of the basin, and occurs at some distance
above Colonie Krejci, assuming the theory of colonies to be true,
whilst it is in contact with Colonie D’Archiac. The colony at
Lahovska, which I have not seen, is stated by Barrande (Def. des
Col. iv. p. 58) to be situated apparently between Colonies Krejci and
Haidinger. It contains Monograptus colonus.

We can hardly conceive such a repetition of the different zones,
each in their proper order, in examining one colony, but in no order
at all taking the colonies as a whole, and yet the species never be-
coming intermixed. Further, the lowest zone of Eel was before
spoken of as being capable of division into subzones, characterized
by particular species of Graptolites. This is also the case with the
Diplograptus-zone in the colonies. Thus the lowest subzone in
two colonies which I have examined consists of the peculiar
‘‘ wafer” shales, crowded with Climacograptus and Rastrites pere-
grinus, already described as characteristic of the lowest subzone of
the Diplograptus-zone of the main massin H 1. Again, in the only
colony which has yielded Monograptus turriculatus this species was
found in a subzone of the Diplograptus-zone, very little below the

base of the Priodon-zone ; this, as before stated, is its position in
the main mass of e 1.

608 J. E. MARR ON THE PREDEVONIAN

Fig. 5.— Diagrammatic Vertical Section, showing the supposed
relations of the Colonies.

Colonus-zone.

Priodon-zone,

Diplograptus-zone,

DGG St eee a Te Mids 8 Sag —— Grits and shales,

Colony on road to Vohrada .. Priodon-zone.

| D7 (PS) earn ANS eee tac Ae ame 3 Grits and shales.

Black shales :
Trinucleus Goldfussi.

=—' Colonus-zone.

“Colonie d’Archiac”............

| Priodon-zone.

{ | Diplograptus-zone.
DD SG Buk i, Antes tennis paeloon nes Me 3 Grits and shales.

) if

| Colonus-zone.
Colony at Hodioviéel asia ;

| Priodon-zone.

Diplograptus-zone.
Gib) ssctusovetarsccrsaeeca rece ancieae Grits and shales.
“Colonie Haidinger” ............ Diplograptus-zone.
DD Oy sha sebece es enatiie ath ceeeneeee Grits and shales.

ROCKS OF BOHEMIA. 609

But there is still another difficulty connected with the Graptolites,
assuming the theory of Colonies to be true; when the normal beds
of d 5 are of such a character as to contain Graptolites, these are
of different species from any found in the colonies. In the black
shales with Trinucleus Goldfussi &c. occurs a species of Diplograptus
different from any occurring in the colonies or in the beds of e 1.
Again, at Kraliv Dvir, near Beroun, in beds fairly high in d 5,
and which must surely be above some of the colonies, Dicellograptus
anceps occurs. Why do these not occur in the colonies also ?

Although the shales of the colonies are not favourable for the
preservation of higher organisms, the limestone nodules are: one
would expect to find some of the characteristic Trilobites &c. of d 5
in these nodules, but nowhere is this the case. In Colonie Zippe,
however, occurring in the heart of Prague, M. Barrande records a
mixture of species of the second and third faunas occurring in the
same pleces of stone. The following list is given (Def. des Col. iv.
p. 115) :— |

Second Fauna.

Asaphus nobilis, Barr. Phacops (Dalm.) socialis, Barr.

Calymene incerta, Barr. Trinucleus Goldfussi, Barr.
Third Fauna.

Cheirurus insignis, Barr. Orthis nudus, Barr.

Arethusina Konineku, Barr. Atrypa reticularis, Linn.

Spherexochus mirus, Beyr. obovata, Sow.

Phacops Glockeri, Barr. _ Rhynchonella monaca, Barr.

Leptena euglypha, Dalm. —— daphne, Barr.

Hauer, Barr.
Spirifer togatus, Barr.

sp.

This colony, which is described as a mere lenticular fragment, is
not now exposed, and has not, asl am informed, been seen by M.
Barrande himself. I may remark that it is exactly in the line of
strike of the colony at Motol, and that the beds of d 4, in which
it occurs, are about the horizon of the calcareous beds of Vraz_
before described. May not the colony be a fault-breccia, consisting
of bits of limestone of d 4 and EH, bound together by a calcareous
cement ?

Another case of the coexistence of the two faunas at one horizon
is given by M. Barrande (Déf. des Col. iv. p. 38); I shall treat of
this when describing Colonie D’Archiac.

Besides the paleontological difficulties to be overcome in accepting
the theory of colonies, there are also stratigraphical ones. In ex-
amining Prof. Krejci’s map of the neighbourhood of Prague, it will
be seen that the band d 5, in the neighbourhood of Beroun, where
there are no colonies, is very much thinner than near Prague, where
there are many; and in examining the beds in the field this is found
to be chiefly due to the recurrence of great masses of grit in the
parts where the colonies occur ; whereas when they are absent the
beds of d 5 (whether or not they can be divided into an upper gritty
and a lower shale division, as proposed by Krejci) consist chiefly of
one series of shales and one of grits. But this is just the opposite

Q.J.G.8. No. 144. , 20

61

0°

N.N.W.

(About 3 miles.)

Fig. 6.—Section across Colony at Motol.

§.8.E.

J. E. MARR ON THE PREDEVONIAN

Ye Faults.

of what one would expect if the
colonies were portions of d5; for
the grits, being evidently depo-
sited in shallow water, should
be thickest where the shallow
water was most prevalent, and
not where deep water prevailed,

as shown by the lenticular

masses of fine mud &c. which
compose the colonies.

On physical grounds, also, it
is to be expected that the soft
beds of e 1 and d 5 would be
crushed and fractured when the
hard limestones of the beds
above (Ke 2, F,G) are folded and
faulted in a remarkable manner.

Having described these gene-
ral objections to the colonies, I
shall now proceed to give a de-
tailed account of those colonies
which I have examined: first,
those on the N.W. side of the
basin, viz. the colonies at Motol
and Beranka, Colonie Cotta, Co-
lonie D’Archiac, the colony on
the road to Vohrada and the
one at Tachlovice; secondly,

_ those on the 8.H. side, viz. the

colony at Branik, that at Hod-
koviéek, Colonie Krejeci, and
Colonie Haidinger.

1. Colonies of Motol and Be-
ranka.—The colony at Motol is
situated about four miles to the
west of Prague; it consists of
a considerable mass of black
shales and limestone nodules,
with apparently intrusive dia-
bases. Its actual junction
with the surrounding beds
is not seen. The section,
fig. 6, is taken across this
colony, and shows the manner
in which I would explain the
phenomena, It will be ob-
served that there is a repetition
of the older beds to the north
of the colony. This indicates
a great fault, which, as shown

ROCKS OF BOHEMIA. 611

on Krejci’s map, must run through the heart of Prague for many
miles in either direction, being continued past Beroun to the 8.W.
Moreover the beds of the colony dip N.N.W., ze. in exactly the
opposite direction to the dip of the neighbouring part of the basin.
This seems to point to a trough-fault, which is quite in accordance
with the nature of the ground around the colony.

I have seen no traces of the lowest or Diplograptus-zone in the
colony itself. The Priodon-zone is seen on both sides of the high-
road close to the village of Motol, near a conical hill surmounted
by a cross ; it consists of black shales, with limestone nodules and
bands, and contains the following Graptolites :—

Monograptus priodon, Bronn. Retiolites Geinitzianus, Barr.
-——— vomerinus, Nich.

The Colonus-zone is separated from the Priodon-zone (just as is
the case in undoubted beds of e 1 at Vyskocilka) by limestones.
The Colonus-zone yielded Monograptus colonus in abundance.
Other fossils than Graptolites occur in the limestones of the colony,
among which Dr. Novak has discovered Arethusina Konincki, pre-
served in the Museum at Prague. This is a well-known Trilobite
of E in Bohemia, and the genus is not, so far as I am aware, known
in any other country.

The colony at Beranka is a continuation of that at Motol, to the
W. of the latter, and contains the Priodon-zone.

It has been already mentioned that the fault which would bound
these colonies would also pass through the little lenticular mass in
Prague, named Colonie Zippe.

2. Colonie. Cotta.—This is to the 8.8.W. of Jinonice, between
Prague and Repora, and about two miles to the south of the last-
described colonies. It merely exhibits a mass of diabase rising
out of alluvial deposits, and including baked sandy shales with
Monograptus colonus in abundance. Itis on the line of strike of
the colony about to be described.

3. Colonie D’ Archiac.—Situated about two miles 8.W. of the
last described. There is no good rock-exposure betwixt the two
colonies. I was fortunate enough to examine that under consider-
ation, along with Dr. Novak, just after a section had been exposed
along a road-cutting, and this showed clearly the relations between
the “colony ” and the surrounding beds. In M. Barrande’s map of
this colony (appended to Déf. des Col. iv.) a mass of diabase is
shown crossing the road to Trebonice, between the colony and the
beds of d 5 to the S8.E. of it. This mass does not appear in the
road-section, and at this point a clear exposure is exhibited, as shown
in the following figure (fig. 7). In this section the beds between X
and Y were contorted in every possible manner. A calcareous band
containing Monograpius colonus &c. occurred, much folded, near
one corner of this mass, and above it were blackish sandy shales,
similar to those of the top of the colony. Below were black and
olive-green shales, with little nodular concretions, like those of d 5,
and containing fragments of fossils. The relations of the beds above

27 2

J. E. MARR ON THE PREDEVONIAN

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ROCKS OF BOHEMTA. 2 613

and below are shown in the larger section across the colony
itself (fig. 3). There is no alternative but to consider the mass
between X and Y as filling up the fissure of a fault; for the
black Trinucleus-shales, at their southern extremity, are succeeded
by the usual green shales and grits of d 5, of which there is no trace
here, and the idea of an unconformity is negatived by the smashed
nature of the rock.

This section would also account for the coexistence of the two
_ faunas at one horizon described by M. Barrande (Def. des Col. iv. p.38)
as occurring at the summit of this colony, and before alluded to. As
will be seen by the section, there are at least two other faults in
connexion with the colony, which are seen in clear exposures.

The paleontological evidence of this “‘ colony ” is as satisfactory
as the physical, the three zones of Graptolites being easily made out.
The lowest, or Diplograptus-zone, is bounded by faults on either side,
that between it and the shales of d5 being a perfectly clean-cut
fracture, whilst the one above, dividing it from the Priodon-zone, is
marked by a fissure filled with fault-rubble. The lowest subzone of
the Diplograptus-zone is alone to be seen in the roadside cutting.
It consists, as usual, of ‘‘ wafer shales” crowded with Climacograptus
scalaris and Rastrites peregrmus. It yielded to a short search :—

Rastrites peregrinus, Barr. Climacograptus scalaris, His.

Monograptus Becki, Barr. Diplograptus tamariscus, Wich.
Diplograptus folium, Hs.

The Priodon-zone 1s, as usual, a black flaggy shale, containing bands
and nodules of limestone. The included igneous rocks are well de-
scribed by M. Barrande in his ‘ Défense.’ The Graptolites obtained
were :—

Monograptus priodon, Bronn. Monograptus, sp.
vomerinus, Nich. Retiolites Geinitzianus, Barr.

The Colonus-zone is a sandy black shale, weathering yellowish,
and containing limestone bands and nodules. I obtained :—

Monograptus colonus, Barr.
—— bohemicus, Barr.

T also obtained Naticella tubrcna and Peltocaris? from a nodule in
this zone.

4. Colony on the road to Vohrada.—This lies between Colonie
D’Archiac and the main mass of e 1. Between it and the last de-
scribed lie the 7’rinucleus-shales, and green shales and grits of d5,
whilst between it and the main Silurian mass are green shales and
coarse green and yellow grits. It seems to consist of shales included
in diabase, and I was unable to find any fossils in it; but M. Bar-
rande (Déf. des Col. iv. p. 41) records Monograptus priodon, Bronn,
and Retiolites Geinitzeanus, Barr. No section is seen showing its
relations to the surrounding beds. |

5. Colony at Tachlovice.—The present colony occurs some miles
to the W.S.W. of Colonie D’Archiac, in the village of Tachlovice.
Its eastern extremity is not seen, owing to overlap of Cretaceous

614 J. E. MARR ON THE PREDEVONIAN

rocks and drift. It may possibly be an extension of Colonie D’Ar-
chiac. There is no exposure showing the junction of the beds of the
colony with those of d 5 to the 8. of it. To the N. green shales are
seen in conjunction with black Graptolitic shales, near some houses
to the N. of the church. These green shales, however, do not ap-
pear to belong to d 5, but to be interstratified with the Graptolitic
shales, as at Litohlavy. They contain poorly preserved Graptolites.
I was unable to procure any specimens from this colony sufficiently
perfect for identification.

To the 8. of the Silurian basin, passing from EK. to W., the first
colony met with is

6. Colony of Branik.—This is not now exposed, although the dia-
bases connected with it are well seen in the village of Branik, on
the E. side of the Moldau, two or three miles south of Prague. The
colony is surrounded by alluvial deposits. The only Graptolites
found by M. Barrande belong to the species Monograptus colonus,
Barr. ‘They occur in a sandy and calcareous shale.

7. Colony at Hodkovicek.—This occurs to the &.W. of that last
described and near the river Moldau. Diabases connecting the two
colonies can be traced, by their features, passing through the alluvial
deposit. ‘The figure (fig. 9) shows a section across this colony ; the
faults to the N.W. are seen in a small quarry. Only the upper
part of the lowest (Diplograptus) zone 1s exposed; it is in close
proximity to the base of the Priodon-zone. It consists of black mud-
- stones, breaking into prismatic fragments, and containing

Becki, Barr. turriculatus, Barr.

In the Priodon-zone are many masses of diabase. A large quarry
facing the river shows this zone ; it consists of black flaggy shales,
containing

_ Monograptus spinigerus, Nich. | Monograptus triangulatus, Harkn.

Monograptus priodon, Bronn. Retiolites Geinitzianus, Barr.
— vomerinus, Nich. - |

The Colonus-zone was seen, at the time of my visit, in a small
gravel-pit in the alluvial plain ; it consisted as usual of sandy shale,
weathering to a yellowish brown, and contained numerous speci-
mens of Monograptus colonus, Barr. No fault is seen, as the section
is covered by the alluvial soil; but the dotted fault, if existing,
would give sufficient explanation of the phenomena observed in
this locality. Unfortunately we cannot get any direct evidence of
its existence, for before the alluvial soil ends to the eastward, a
large N. and 8. fault (the Branik fault of Barrande) would cut
it off.

8. Colony Krejci.—This colony, which is seen in a cliff-section to
the south of the village of Gross Kuchel, is in the line of strike of
the colony at Hodkovicek, from which it is distant more than a
mile, the Moldau with its alluvial plain intervening.

T could not, during my short stay in Bohemia, form any certain
opinion of the explanation of this colony. ‘The section is described
by M. Barrande (Déf. des Col. iv. p. 60). His upper band of trap

615

ROCKS OF BOHEMIA.

bene
oeectd

aetoret
CCL

x
So SS eee —xaeee=eee ee hc
1 3 4

1. HBE|Grits and shales, D d 5. ~, Alluvial plain of Branik.
. Faults.
2. MW Dipiograptus-zone. xX X. Haults

3 pet Diabase. Ho, . :

Priodon-zone.

ag

LSS} Colonus-zone.

Fig. 10.—Section across “* Colonies Krejti” and “ Hadinger.” (Length about 1 mile.)

N.zp—s- <—egS.5.E, N.N.W.
Gross Kuchel,

Colonie Haidinger, Col, Krejci,

PF

=
~anrs

SA

1, Grits and green shales, 2. Black “ Trinucleus” shales. 3. Graptolitic shales of E 1 and “Colonies.”

616 J. E. MARR ON THE PREDEVONIAN

is only seen at the summit of the cliff, and does not occur at the
bottom. The junction between this part of the colony and the
beds of d5 is distinctly shown. The beds of the colony are here
nearly vertical ; those composing the main mass are blackish sandy
shales, weathering yellowish brown. At what M. Barrande con-
siders the top of the colony, there are nodules of limestone and
some bands of calcareous grit very much disturbed, and these are
not continuous, but abut in places against the beds of d5. This
might be due to an unconformity; but I considered it to be due
to a fault, which must have a very clear fracture. A fault, more-
over, would account for the disturbance of the beds, which an
unconformity does not. This fault would be continuous with that
supposed to let down the beds forming the colony at Hodkovitek ; it
is, however, here slightly reversed. ‘The limestone nodules yielded
the following Graptolites :—

Monograptus colonus, Barr. Monograptus Remeri, Barr.
bohemicus, Barr. Flemingii ?

These, along with Cardiola interrupta, Naticella tubicina, &c., indi-
cate distinctly the Colonus-zone. At the other end of the colony
is a fracture indicated by a small spring which trickles down a
mossy hollow in the side of the cliff and contains pieces of a fault
breccia. On the other side of this again are grits of d5 and also
some black shales, not very well exposed, and in which I found
no fossils, but which I believe belong to the Drplograptus-zone,
for M. Barrande records Diplograptus palmeus, Barr. (=foliwm,
His.), from this colony. It seems to me, then, that the colony was
produced in the same manner as that at Hodkovicek, of which it
is probably the continuation, but that after its formation the second
fracture occurred, cutting off some of the Colonus-zone, all of the
Priodon-zone, and most of the Diplograptus-zone, and giving the
first fault its slight reversal.

At the summit of the cliff-section exhibiting this and the next
colony is a tableland covered with corn-fields, so that the colonies
here cannot be traced along their strike to the 8. W.

9. Colonie Haidinger.—A mass occurring in the same river-cliff
with Colonie Krejci, and a few hundred yards to the 8.S.W. of the
latter. Its section is described by M. Barrande (Déf. des Col. iv. °
p. 59). It. consists entirely of the black “‘ wafer” shales charac-
teristic of the base of the Diplograptus-zone. I saw the outcrop of
a clean-cut fault between it and the beds of d 5, which are supposed
to surmount it. I consider this colony, then, to be the lowest
subzone of the Diplograptus-zone at the base of e 1 faulted down
against the beds of d 5. I give a section from the Silurian base of
the Slivenec valley, across colonies Krejci and Haidinger, showing
the view entertained as to the explanation of these colonies (fig. 10,
p- 615).

M. Barrande records only Graptolites from Colonie Haidinger (Déf.
des Col. iv. p. 60). By the kindness of Herr Dusl of Beroun, I have
been enabled to make a larger list of fossils, all of which, save one,
are in the magnificent collection of that geologist. Many of the

ROCKS OF BOHEMIA. 617

species have not hitherto been recorded from Bohemia; some of them
have been found by myself at the base of the main Silurian beds ;
and others would I feel sure be found if searched for. The list is
as follows :—

Monograptus spinigerus, Nich. Diplograptus Hughesii, Nich.

triangulatus, Harkn. — folium, Ais.

Becki, Barr. — cometa, Gein.

cyphus, Lapw. tamariscus, Nich.

tenuis, Port. ——- sinuatus, Wich.

proteus, Barr. Climacograptus scalaris, His.
Rastrites peregrinus, Barr. Discinocaris Browniana, H’oodw.

capillaris, Carr.

All these fossils, including the Discinocaris of which Herr Dusl
possesses three specimens, are characteristic of the Birkhill Shales of
Britain.

§ 6. Summary.

In very many of the Predevonian rocks of Bohemia we find
marked lithological resemblances to the corresponding horizons in
Britain.

The Precambrian series is divisible into two distinct groups,
similar to the Dimetian and Pebidian groups of Britain, and lying
unconformably to one another and to the overlying Cambrian rocks.

The beginning of the Cambrian period is marked, as in Britain, by
a coarse conglomerate, which is probably of later formation than that
of our own island, although it is probably homotaxeous with it.
Moreover, there are strong resemblances between the various bands
of the Bohemian and British Cambrian beds, especially marked in
the deeper water deposits. The paleontological similarities are in
many cases not so striking as the lithological.

In the Silurian period, the resemblances, both lithological and
paleontological, between Bohemia and Britain were less striking
than in the Cambrian. The limestones so abundant in the Bohemian
series seem to be lenticular masses having no wide extension; the
most regular limestone is that of EK 2, and this is about the horizon
of, and comparable with, the Wenlock Limestone. But although the
beds of this period as a whole are not so strictly comparable in the
- two countries as those of the Cambrian, we nevertheless find most
remarkable coincidences between the zones of the lowest band, 7. e.
the Graptolite-bearing shales.

The igneous rocks do not present many unusual features; but the
oceurrence of mica-traps in the Cambrian beds is very noteworthy,
limited as they are, so far as yet known, to Predevonian rocks.

Objection may be raised to my using Prof. Sedgwick’s nomencla-
ture for the rocks of a region which M. Barrande has so conclusively
shown to possess three well-marked faunas. But the foregoing
observations seem to show that the break between the upper and
middle faunas is much more marked than that between the middle
and lower. In the first place, the deposition of the Cambrian beds
does not seem to have begun over the whole area until the close of

618 J. E. MARR ON THE PREDEVONIAN

the Primordial era, the rocks containing the Primordial fauna, as
well as the underlying conglomeratic series, being only locally de-
veloped, whilst it is not until the overlying beds of d 1 a that any
thing like continuous deposition appears to have set in. Again, if I
am right in referring d 1 a & ( to the Lingula Flags and 'l'remadoe
Slates respectively, the unconformity between the Primordial zone
and second fauna of Bohemia does not occur at the same horizon as
that between the Primordial zone and overlying beds of Britain, for
the equivalents of d 1a & 5 are included in the Primordial beds of
Britain, or Cambrian of Sir C. Lyell, Dr. Hicks, and Mr. Lapworth.
The break between the second and third faunas of Bohemia, on the
other hand, occurs at the same horizon as in Britain, viz. between
the top of the Bala beds and the Graptolitic fauna of Birkhill age.
Lastly, the beds of dl a& 6 have as yet yielded by no means a
satisfactory fauna, so that we do not here get one fauna in beds
immediately succeeding another, as is the case with the beds at the
top of the second and base of the third faunas of M. Barrande.

But the connecting link between these two latter periods was
supposed to have been discovered in the colonies of M. Barrande. I
feel justified in saying that I have brought forward sufficient evi-
dence to warrant a reconsideration of the data on which the theory
of colonies was founded, and to give some grounds for the supposition
that they are only portions of the band e | faulted down among the
grits and shales at the summit of the Cambrian series.

DISCUSSION.

The Prusrpent said that Mr. Marr was the first person who had
attempted to correlate the Tremadoc, Arenig, and Bala beds of
Britain with those of Bohemia. It was very difficult to understand
the existence of these colonies. In Britain we have no recognized
colonies ; but repetition of species occurs in some of the Secondary
rocks. The lists of fossils contained in Mr. Marr’s paper were of great
value. .

Prof. T. M‘K. Hueuzs said that the difficulties under discussion
arose from not checking the paleontological by the stratigraphical evi-
dence, and thought that we had in Mr. Marr’s paper a most valuable
contribution by a very competent observer. In considering the
question he would inquire (1) What is the ordinary manner of
appearance of the various forms of life ? and (2) Have we experience
in any clear .case of that exceptional mode of occurrence described
by the distinguished author of ‘The Theory of the Colonies’? As to
(1), he thought that new genera and species came in gradually,
owing to changes in the conditions affecting life in adjoining areas,
and that, after a similar interval, whether measured by the thick-
ness of continuously deposited strata or by the thickness of missing
deposits in the case of an unconformity, we observe about the same
kind of difference in the general facies of the forms of life. As to
(2), the appearance of a group of fossils resembling the group in

ROCKS OF BOHEMIA. : 619

another part of the series in the same district with a different group
in the intermediate beds was, in his experience, very rare. The
only case at all like it that he knew was on the borders of York-
shire, where a group of fossils occurred in a band low down in the
Coniston Grit; and though the species were all found here and
there scattered through the series, the group was only seen again in
that area 7000 feet higher in the series. But this was quite a
different case from that of the colonies now put before them, and
he thought the recurrence three times of the three zones in the
same order a coincidence too remarkable to be received without the
clearest stratigraphical evidence.

Prof. Jupp said he had some years ago had the opportunity of
examining the district, and he thought the conclusion could not be
avoided that M. Barrande had been more successful in the paleon-
tological branch of his work than in the stratigraphical. In the
former he was quite unrivalled ; but in the field he appeared, during
recent years, to have trusted more to others than himself. It was
obvious on examination that the beds were much disturbed and
required much careful mapping.

Dr. Hicks expressed his high appreciation of the paper. He felt
quite convinced by the author’s reasoning. The author had not only
given him ali the beds he had at St. Davids of Cambrian and Silu-
rian age, but Pre-Cambrian also. He fully believed that the
colonies were only repetitions by folds and faults.

Rev. J. F. Buaxe said that in studying Silurian Cephalopoda the
colonies proved a great trouble because we did not find Lower
Silurian forms associated with Upper Silurian. The Cephalopoda in
the colonies, not found in the Lower Silurian, are more allied to the
‘English Upper Silurian.

Mr. Marr said that he was much gratified by the way in which
his paper had been received. A case which had been mentioned as
somewhat parallel in the Lake district was hardly so, as the sup-
posed Ludlow fossils were also Wenlock. M. Barrande, of late —
years, had had his attention diverted from the Graptolites, and so
had not been able to make use of Mr. Lapworth’s researches.

620 A. H. STOKES ON THE COAL FOUND

43, Faroe Istanps. Norss upon the Coat found in StpEROE. By
ArtHur H. Sroxrs, Esq., F.G.8., one of H.M. Inspectors of
Mines. (Read June 23, 1880.)

In the following paper I have the honour to lay before the Society
the result of a recent exploration of the coal-seams found in
Suderoe, one of the Farde Islands.

In the summer of 1873 (a few months before my connexion with
H.M. service commenced) I visited Siiderde for the purpose of re-
porting upon this coal-field. During my leave of absence from official
work this summer (1879) I again visited the island, and also two
other islands forming part of the group called Farde. The island to
which this paper specially refers is the most southern, and lies
in the parallels of latitude 61° 25’ and 61° 42’, occupying a geo-
graphical extent of about 20 miles by 5 miles.

Any paper bearing upon the extension of the area of coal-seams
within reach of countries using that fuel must possess peculiar in-
terest, and the details of some observations made in a recent visit
to Suderde may not be uninteresting to the Members of this
Society.

The position of the coal-fields will be best understood by reference
to the map (p. 621), the shaded part indicating the extent, or area,
under which coal is found.

Qualboe Mines.

The coal in this district is already being worked by the natives
of Suiderde by means of adits driven in the coal from the mountain-
side. There are six adits now used for getting coal; but for a
distance of about 900 yards numerous old adits can be traced, and
the place whence they were driven is clearly distinguishable, al-
though the entrances are completely closed by débris. The date at
which the coal was first worked could not be ascertained. It pro-
bably commenced soon after the first settlement of the inhabitants ;
but as peat is plentiful, and easily obtained, the coal is only
worked for a few of the inhabitants of the small village of Qvalboe,
none of the coal being worked for exportation, and the total quantity
wrought during the summer being only a few tons.

I visited these mines in 1873, and again in 1879 ; at both visits
I found men getting coal for the winter’s supply. The working-
places are very irregularly driven ; starting first from the mountain-
side with an adit of about 5 feet wide, they soon increase to 12 feet
wide, and at intervals “ thirl,” or make communication into the old
works. They do not proceed far under the mountain, but prefer to
commence in another place rather than drive a long distance from
the mouth of the adit. No one system of work is carried out, but the
places are driven at the pleasure of the men getting the coal. The
whole of the mining-operations are carried on in the most primitive
manner,

30 61”

us found shaded thus

Area under which i heath
Exccavations to prove Coal..........- °

IN SUDEROE, FAROE ISLANDS.

. \ \\
ROAR Le ©

AU ee?
in ye a Y
Qweaie QUALVIG

SUDEROE
FAROE ISLANDS.

SX

SS SD z
== 4 Ty I SE

Ss

iy, 4 HWS at \\
ii AUN yet Wh :
INVALB

ne

SD
sk Se WANT iy

AMIS
Hy
~~ 4 EVIG
om FamovenZZ, in py
S 34 — & \litig
Zz we 7S Z Nag WZ
SSN yes SSS Aw iz Za
ary Sse eae 7s i.
= RN 7
My wt
_ Lili, Sse
Gy yer 28 = past
Be Tye oy Z Hove Buct
= silt MZ yy
Famarasuam. Zail & KER4,
CopPER XS
FOUNDHERE ss ee
ES,
oO HG « i) YY
" SS
ZUM DQ
vs SWZ <

SCALE OF MILES.

q 2 4

Longitude |'7° West of Greenwich.

621

6130

622 A. H. STOKES ON THE COAL FOUND

The tool used by the men for getting the coal was a small iron
hack, which, from examination, appeared as if it was only sharpened
once a year to get the annual stock. The light used consisted of a
small wick of home-spun wool, fed with whale-oil, depending from one
side of a circular piece of tin similar to a common tea-saucer.

The coal is transported from these mines by both men and women,
who carry it upon their backs in small wooden boxes.

The roof of the mine is good. There are no indications of the roof
having ever weighted or broken above the coal; this is probably
due to the small area worked, and that directly the adit is entered
there are some hundreds of feet of trap rock covering the coal. No
timber or trees of any description are grown upon the island; hence
it would be difficult to obtain wood to support the roof, except by
importing pit-props.

There is very little water found in the mines, and the adits being
driven from the mountain-side, what water is found runs away and
falls into the valley below.

Of various sections taken in these mines the following two may
be regarded as representing the average thickness of the seam.

(1) Height 120 metres above sea-level.

metre
COA ni casa Satter bole Reldter ac irae 2 Neal Manne NOEs oo eras O37
Argullliceomsisialen aie. a cane teeeen mete eee eee 0-54
Coal aise hides Nie HAMS Seat is SaMlav a acetone Peas waded ae 0-15 \
AvoMageons Smalley cc seee cas sass eam ahet oe tae 0-15 | Now
CORN ier recente ceo ete sss seen cee eee sees sass 0-21} being
Aesillaceows stalemay a wi rskdess oes Meee cnn cece ames 0-15 | worked.
CO) age bE at aie alle sis evils ie ORR ate amie Nemes 0-41 )

(2) A section taken about north-east from the above, in another
adit or mine, was as follows :—
Height 113 metres above sea-level.

metre.
Coal and argillaceous shale (about 50 per cent. coal) 0:40
OA Hs cate sid tase aioe da moteiccltits esets sas eR eta treetoire reat ere ts foals 0:20
Areulllaceomsislialey. tesa: sacanate Heeler. dete sc el otdeianieise hen N
(Le = ari Pee te Alar ona Rae einer eae 0:20 7s
Apa ceOUsismale) Wass ain acti hoses oo ugeceeeree nee seis 0-14 ; eA
(Ge Neem: ee a ee Re ree 0-57 | sar

White clay (thickness not known).
Area of Coal-fields.

Previous to the year 1872 the above was about all that was known
with regard to these coal-seams ; but the Danish Government having
granted a concession of the coal found on this island, further explora-
tion was made; and when I visited it 1n 1879 I found that the full
area of the coal-seams had been proved by numerous openings made
all round the mountains under which the coal-seams rested. These
points are indicated by numbers and points on the map, and will be
referred to in describing each opening and its section.

No. 1. 20 metres above sea-level.—aAt this point a small adit has
been driven into the mountain-side for about 14 yards, and a thin
seam of coal has been worked by one of the inhabitants.

IN SUDEROE, FAROE ISLANDS. | 623

No. 2. 68 metres above sea-level.—tThis is a small opening made in
the 1ountain-side and exposes to view a seam of coal 0°34 metre
thick ; but the thickness of the coal-bearing strata is not proved.

No. 3. 120 metres above sea-level.—This is similar to No. 2. About
3 metres in depth of ground has been opened out, and 5 small seams
of coal, from 0:07 metre to 0°12 metre thick, found; probably the
thicker seams are either above or below.

No. 4. 212 metres above sea-level.—At this point a small heading,
or adit, has been driven in the coal-seam, with the following
section :—

: . metre
ON hs i cauhecthns aes pea teti piges aati Seg ere 0-37 ©
Argillaceous shale with small coal-seams......... 0-41
Wa) osc aes smtuisis Venue Menai Ceaiacaee c cones eae 0-21
Solit Glaiye ssa as ac it sta et Macatee: Goa cme 0:17

No. 5. 239 metres above sea-level—This is the almost perpen-
dicular side of the mountain next the Atlantic. A heading has been
driven in the coal-seams about 8 metres in length, and at the end of
this heading I took the following section :—

metre.
Coal (bright mandkcoall rer 2k cettncane. soe 0:30
PATE INCE OU SINC) Srrpasetclaisuieree ceraterne so ubieele aareidelsiate 0-62
Coals nis2's ooeeg hs rath oaetits aeseguadgeneaaeadie sees 0-19
Musillaceousisliale: cso suseuans: gs aasesteiys oemennes 0°20
Wa Be catia sheet Gilat ce geil dias bia aie a ened sane 0:34

At a vertical depth of 13 metres below this heading two seams of
coal were found of 0-44 metre and 0-15 metre thick respectively, with
0-60 m. of argillaceous shale between them. It is my opinion that
the section given above, represents the seams worked in the Qvalbée
mines, and that these lower seams probably lie under the coal now
being worked in the Qvalbdée valley.

No. 6. About 220 metres above sea-level—tThis is inaccessible, it
being a perpendicular cliff, and can only be reached by a rope from
the rocks above; but it can, incalm weather, be approached on foot
within 50 metres, and then is seen the full thickness of the coal-
bearing strata, which I judged to be about 15 metres, with hundreds
of metres of trap rock above, and a similar rock below to the sea-
level.

No. 7. 8 metres above sea-level T wo headings, or adits, have been
driven in the coal-bearing strata at this point ; but very little coal
being found, it was abandoned. There is, however, one curious phe-
nomenon noticed at this place, viz. a small seam of coal 0:04 metre
thick, and directly upon the top rests trap-rock without any other rock
intervening. In places the surface of the coal next the trap-rock
appears burnt, as if an igneous rock had, whilst hot, flowed over it.
I noticed this in more than one place, and found similar pieces near
No. 4 in 1878.

No. 8. 249 metres above sea-level.—This is on the southern side of
the Trangisvaag valley, and consists of a heading driven in the coal-
seam for about 30 metres, at the end of which a good section is
exposed to view. |

624 A. H. STOKES ON THE COAL FOUND

metre
Aroillaceous shale es jecneadeo sen deereuians Saves see 0-13
Coal occ apaennsnseanastnehcae ate aenet ns apepieeaech Sacer 0:07
Arpillaceous*shale se i ccucesehscccdscastie ss teaaee 0:39
Coal Jens i ee esate eee ouecee oceans tne 0°16
Argillaceous:sinale) cates toustes <n-couriesean-eemelas 0-42
Coal), wisnestesinad cada anmtta cutee Sayeed nema tae «Tek 0:23
Avoillaecous Sale Can wacr tcisnuwemdys. sce oer as 0-71
COdL mee ise scs cgcset ae seston ene meReRn eer ecee sancwsi ct 0:63
Avoillaceous shale) .....01saneeeeert he tee coches 0:21
Coates cgdev oda niacin cai tecataiee odes o PROT coblcton Eoeee 0-11
alyneall ENGOUIS) GITEN() Ge agoqnoc ond ssonnobosseonedboanb oat 0-20
Coal siecnee angen reoaaudcred te eaarsecaomctnsetaseaeert 0-20

It would be entering into too minute details to give all the sec-
tions taken; and therefore the author has indicated upon the map
the whole of the positions where the coal-bearing strata have been
discovered, and given a tabulated epitome of such sections as are
required to prove their continuity.

It is very clear, from the sections and heights of the various open-
ings made in the mountain-sides, that the whole of the seams of coal
are those included in the thickness of argillaceous shale which exists
between the trap or dolerite mountains, as previously named in
describing No. 6 section. At no other point could I find a place
where the total thickness of the coal-bearing strata could be mea-
sured.

The mountain-sides present to the eye a number of parallel layers
of trap, extending for miles in successive beds; the regularity of
these beds, and their horizontal position, running in unison, may be
traced from the mountain-top until they gradually descend to the
sea-level. They have one uniform dip and direction, stretching from
S.S.W. to N.N.E., and fall towards the N.E. at an angle of from
3 to 4 degrees.

The heights of the various openings made to expose the coal-seams
are given above sea-level, and were taken by means of an aneroid
barometer. The instrument was adjusted to sea-level before start-
ing in the morning, and again upon return in the evening, the time
of each observation correctly entered with the barometrical reading,
and alterations allowed for in the working-out of the observations
after each day’s journey.

It will be seen upon reference to the map that the coal-field is
divided into two districts, the Trangisvaag valley separating the
northern from the southern coal-field.

It is not only possible, but very probable, that this was at one
time one unbroken coal-field, and that the part forming the Trangis-
vaag valley was washed away after the coal-bearing strata had been
deposited. The coal on either side of the valley being so similar in
character, and its inclination agreeing in both dip and direction,
there can be but one opinion formed by those who have seen the
strata, viz. that it is one and the same formation.

The area of the coal-fields or, more properly speaking, coal-bearing
strata (because it is not yet definitely ascertained that a good work-
able seam or seams extend under the whole of the district, although

AT SUDEROE, FAROE ISLANDS. 625

it is very probable that such a seam or seams do exist) is about 5500
acres, viz. the northern district about 5000 acres, and the southern
about 500.

Coal has been found in isolated places in other parts of the island,
but in quantities so small as to require little notice as regards com-
mercial value.

Quality of Coal.

There are two sorts of coal found in the seams—one a bright hard
coal, breaking with a conchoidal fracture, very hard, and at times
presenting a woody structure; in outward appearance it is very
similar to cannel coal. The other coal is like ordinary English house-
coal, breaking in parallel lines of fracture, presenting a bedded struc-
ture and not so hard as the first named. The whole of the seams
may be termed coal of the Lignite quality ; and its commercial value
will be best understood by giving an analysis .of both kinds of coal.

Bedded coal. Bright pitchy coal.
1-71 68°20

Canons caskets |

Eiydrosen 2.422 e.5.. 4-49 5:02

ASD deste das aoinm saanies 25°70 7248

Oxygen and Nitrogen 18-10 24°30
100-00 ~ 100-00

The calorific value, taken by Thompson’s apparatus, gives the
amount of water converted into steam by 1 lb. of the coal as

follows =

Ib.
ped dedieoalec: Sct J. Sie Wa ce atids Cen ed 9°35
rghit pitelny Coal en. co .ussetecasessee sence steers 9-60

Population.

The population of the whole island is about 2000 persons. The
natives of Stiderde are by occupation fishermen, and the great quan- _
tity of peat which lies within a few yards of their dwellings is an
additional reason for their taking very little interest in the coal.

The population of the small villages near the coal-fields was as

follows in 1873 :—

IPCPATIPISV AAD: dediaandtdles civslscdoledete de nuads Uoete es wee 148
MEG UV AS, iehcoyescrace snicinieivoyeioioisainiceuayeisktire See am tte Nee SN: 83
WNFOCED GO: inc cee ate atenscane varecagn una saab aed eee: 101
OHM VUE 5 saihes dvds cnc taiibiarsesolon vel ae aes age nk eae clataes 88
O@WalOCs fiche ietledikien sue aan core scale crear ee 362

777

Working of the Coal.

Should the coal be worked in large quantities, either for the islands
or for exportation, it would be necessary to import nearly the whole
of the labour required; the Fardée men would be more troublesome
than useful.

The coal-seams lie so favourably for working that no shafts would
be required ; and the whole of the district I have explored could both

Q.J.G.8. No, 144, 20

626 ON THE COAL FOUND AT SUDEROE, FAROE ISLANDS,

be unwatered and worked by adits or drifts driven from the moun-
tain-side.

The result of my exploration has been the confirmation of the
reported existence of a large area of coal-bearing strata, the details
of which, I trust, will be not only interesting to the Fellows of this
Society, but be placed upon record for future reference when the
geology of these interesting islands may be studied by others far
more able to deal with the subject than the author of this paper.

Sections.

N o. 9. 265 metres above sea-level.

metre.
Argillaceous shale.

Gall “snstactcmancian toa toparcomevestmnacorsane 0°68
Arcillaceoussshale’ ¥..axc. ute... eeeseaeee 0:12 Thelen
Coe ete Baek Wo. alu 14 ty ae ere 0-13 + ne NNW.
Argillaceous shale with very small | 0-90

band siot Coal’. sci5-sceseo ate teen J |
Light-coloured argillaceous shale. id

No, 10. 325 metres above sea-level.

Argillaceous shale. \ A few yards from this
Coal and argillaceous shale in layers 0°22 | point are to be seen
|
r

Blue‘argillaceous shale.................. 0:23 | old coal - workings,
Coal Hie hk coal. cothce yok Bob wens ten 0:20 | stated to have been
Blue argillaceous shale ............... 0°51 , worked by Norwe-
COLE ROAG eae: menor Vn EES re aN Am 0-12) gians.

No. 11. 225 metres above sea-level.

metre.

Trap rock. One seam of coal 0°11 metre,
Nchistose WOck) 27.15 ..ne0dee cae eee ‘(05 | and another 0-07 metre of
Coal and argillaceous shite mixed 1:00) good bright coal.

At this point a heading or adit was driven many years ago by
the Norwegians for getting coal.

No. 12. 322 metres above sea-level.

metre.
Argillaceous shale.
Coal with a few thin bands of bis aides shale 0-86

MuiednG- Colour CuCl aya ceceknussamraslinaebincpieneemenneaott 0:05
Aor lll aCe OUs| sla] O iesssiorne any ncnoineiners aateineviiaimeiiatne ie oes 0:30
Oa ee epee secber ere encore telis eis origer is vice cttonearenees 0-32
White clay.

This is found nearly at the summit of one of the mountains, and
is only of very small area.

No. 13. This is very similar in extent to No. 12, being a small
area of coal-bearing strata at an almost inaccessible height up one of
the mountain-peaks,

ON THE CRANIAL CHARACTERS OF A TELEOSAUR. 627

44, Note on the Crantau Cuaracters of a large TELEosAUR from the
Wauirsy Lias preserved in the Woopwarpian Musrum of the
University of Camsrrper, indicating a new Species, TELEOSAURUS
EUCEPHALUS. By Professor H. G. Suetzy, F.R.S., F.G.S., &e.
(Read June 23, 1880.)

[Puars XXIV.]

Taz Woodwardian Museum of the University of Cambridge has.
long contained the cerebral region of the skull of a large Teleosaur
from the Lias of Whitby, whieh differs in important characters from
the Teleosaurs hitherto described, and adds some interesting points
to our knowledge of the cranial characters in this extinct suborder
of animals. Attention was briefly drawn to the specimen at p. 121
of my ‘ Index to the Fossil Remains of Reptilia &c. in the Wood-
wardian Museum, 1869. The skull has been transversely fractured
anteriorly, posterior to the suture between the parietal and frontal
bones, so that no part of the frontal region is preserved, and there-
fore no indication is given of the anterior expansion of the skull
beyond the long temporal fosse. The crest of the parietal bone
appears to have been more than usually wide and strong, but that,
too, is imperfectly preserved. The quadrate and squamosal bones
are broken away at the sides; the base of the occipital region is
fractured, and the pterygoid bones are absent ; but the very imper-
fections of the specimen led to its being sawn through in the median
line, so as to display a vertical section of the brain-case. Care has
been taken to make the section so as to throw light on the lateral
modifications of the brain-case; and I now venture to submit to
the Geological Society some account of the characters thus dis-
played. In existing Crocodiles the brain-case is relatively small,
owing to the shortness of the parietal region, and it is imperfectly
closed anteriorly ; here it is much longer and larger in proportion
and closed by bone in front. The thickness removed by cutting and
polishing the cerebral section makes the right half of the skull
about half or three quarters of a centimetre narrower than the left
half.

On the left side (Pl. XXIV. fig. 1) the extreme length of the frag-
ment, from the basioccipital articular surface to the anterior fracture,
is about 19 centimetres; the extreme depth of the specimen as pre-
served is about 12 or 13 centimetres; the brain-cavity is narrow and
about 14 centimetres long, but on this side appears to have extended
anteriorly a little beyond the extremity of the bone. The termination
of the brain-cavity is 2 centimetres deep, and 8 millimetres in trans-
verse width, as seen on the anterior fracture, where the outer margin
is convex. The cranial: cavity is long, and has its superior and
inferior walls slightly diverging as they extend backward. At a
distance of 14 centimetre posterior to the anterior fracture the

202

628 PROF. H. G. SEELEY ON THE CRANIAL CHARACTERS OF

depth increases to more than 3 centimetres, and the base and roof
of the brain continue nearly parallel to each other for between 6
and 7 centimetres. The cause of the sudden anterior decrease in
depth is that a large nerve 8 millimetres thick is given off at the
anterior end of the brain, in the median line; and this, according
to analogy, I regard as being the olfactory nerve (fig. 1, olf). At
the distance of about 64 centimetres backward a slight angular
bend occurs in the roof of the brain-case, so that it increases in |
height for the next 4 centimetres as it extends backward. This
part of the roof is straight; the anterior part is very gently arched.
Below the point where this angle occurs is the entrance to the
pituitary fossa (pf). The depth from the roof of the brain-case to its
base is 6 centimetres. The pituitary fossa extends backward under
a strong forwardly directed process of the sphenoid bone, and from
it a canal is prolonged forward, which becomes a little narrower
as it extends below the canal for the olfactory nerve, from which it
is separated by a thickness of a centimetre of bone. This nerve I
regard as the optic (fig. 1, op). The base of the brain-cavity from
the sphenoid to the superior extremity of the basioccipital, where
the spinal cord enters the skull, is gently concave in length. At
103 centimetres from the anterior end of the specimen a slight bony
process descends downward and forward from the roof of the brain-
case, as though to make a posterior termination to the cerebrum.
At this point the depth of the brain-case is about 43 centimetres ;
a narrow excavation appears behind this process, not more than a
centimetre wide, and rather compressed above, as though marking
the position of the optic lobe of the brain (0). Posterior to: this the
roof of the brain-case, which is convex in length, descends rapidly
to the foramen magnum (/'/), which is less than 2 centimetres high.
This constriction I take to indicate the relatively small size and de-
pressed shape of the cerebellum (O”). Posterior to the: brain-cavity
the superior concave neural surface of the basioccipital bone (Bo)
extends backward for 24 centimetres; so that, in its median line,
the brain-case is remarkable for the comparative parallelism of its
inferior and superior margins, disturbed mainly by the elevation
of the optic lobes and hinder part of, the cerebrum and by the
depression of the cerebellum. |

It will now be convenient to describe the chameier shown on.
the right side of the section, fig. 2: Notwithstanding the com-
parative thinness of the vertical layer which has been removed from
this side, the brain-case is only 11 centimetres long, showing that
the cerebrum must be compressed from side to side, so as to taper.
anteriorly at a rapid rate. The floor of the brain-case is concave in
length, but the concavity is divided into two principal portions—the
posterior one corresponding to the basisphenoid region, and the
anterior one, which is less regular, occupying the presphenoid
region. ‘The roof of the brain-case now has two bony processes
extending into it; first, the small one, already described, which has —
not greatly altered its shape, though it is perhaps a little nar-

A TELEOSAUR FROM THE WHITBY LIAS. 629

rower and directed further downward and is more anterior in
position. The portion of the brain or cerebral region anterior to
this ridge, which is thus shown to extend transversely and obliquely
forward and outward over the brain, is about 5 centimetres from
the superior termination of the brain in front, as seen in the section ;
and different from the condition in the middle line, this upper sur-
face of the cerebrum now appears in this lateral position to have
been slightly concave in length. Its depth at the somewhat abrupt
anterior termination is less than 2% centimetres; but the form of
the section shows that the cerebrum was here slightly wider at
the base than at its upper border. The depth of the cerebrum
increases posteriorly to 3 centimetres, so that its upper surface must
have been convex from side to side, since the depth decreases on
passing out laterally from the middle line. At the position where
the pineal gland should be, the cerebrum on this section has a depth
of 37 centimetres. Behind its small limiting transverse ridge, already
alluded to, is the deep excavation upward for the optic lobe (0). Its
height from the base of the brain-case is, however, now reduced to
4 centimetres ; its antero-posterior extent is less than 2 centimetres ;
it is margined posteriorly by a strong bony mass which separates it
from the cerebellum. ‘The cavity for the optic lobe is a little com-
pressed superiorly and directed backward; but since it rises high
above the cerebrum and occurs in the position where the brain-case
becomes widest, the optic lobes may be inferred to be more developed
laterally than in the median line, and probably extend outward
laterally as far as the cerebrum. The bony mass, which at first
sight resembles a tentorium, descends for more than 3 centimetres
from the roof of the brain-case, so as to leave a channel less than a
centimetre deep between this part of the brain-cavity and the floor
of the brain-case. Its antero-posterior measurement is about 14
centimetre, though its outline is irregular and it is rather com-
pressed inferiorly. As it does not extend transversely across the
brain it is clearly a mass bulging inward from the side of the brain-
case. Hxamined carefully it shows a long Y-shaped groove or canal
which is occupied by matrix. The bones lying respectively in front
of and behind the long stem of the Y are probably the prootic and
opisthotic of Professor Huxley, while the bone above would be the
epiotic. In some living Crocodiles these bones extend inward into
the brain-case, though never to this great degree; nor have I
observed any approximation to this character in the cranial cavities
of other Teleosaurians ; hence, as the surface of the bone is removed
and the margins of the groove are sharp, the diverging branches of
the Y (fig. 2, ?, ?') may be anterior and posterior semicircular canals.
The section of the cavity for the cerebellum is subquadrate, being
flat above and below, with the sides nearly parallel. It is 2 centi-
metres deep, and about 23 centimetres long. The cerebellum
obviously very narrow, though the transverse width of the foramen
magnum, which was transversely ovate, was about 3 centimetres.
From this description it will be manifest that the brain of this
Teleosaur differs remarkably from that of living Crocodiles in the

630 PROF. H. G. SEELEY ON THE CRANIAL CHARACTERS OF

compressed form of the optic lobes, in the cerebrum tapering ante-
riorly, and in the development of bony processes corresponding
to the divisions between the chief elements of the brain. The
existence of these processes may perhaps be taken as indicating
that the brain filled the cerebral cavity ; and therefore these animals
present no analogy to Chelonians, which have the brain sheathed
in cartilage. This condition of the cerebral region makes a marked
difference from Plesiosaurs on the one hand and existing Crocodilia
on the other, and supports the idea that the Trtzosavria constitute
a reptile type in which the obvious resemblances to the living
Crocodiles have been somewhat too emphatically insisted upon. It
is instructive to compare this section with that of a skull of Igua-
nodon figured by Mr. Hulke, where the posterior region, presumably
occupied by the cerebellum, is similarly depressed, and anterior to
this the brain rises into a convexity for the posterior part of the
cerebrum and optic lobes, only without any trace of a bony division
between these two regions, such as is seen in this Teleosaur; and
then the brain becomes depressed anteriorly much after the Teleo-
saurian pattern, only the cerebrum is relatively short in the Dino-
saur, and the brain has its chief extension posterior to the pituitary
fossa, which is the reverse of what obtains in the Teleosaurian.

The Gavial of Caen, named by Geoffroy Teleosaurus cadomensis, has
been well figured by Cuvier in the seventh plate of the ‘ Ossemens
Fossiles.’ His fig. 1 represents a longitudinal section of the skull,
which displays a side view of the cast of the cerebral cavity. The
total Jength of the cerebral cavity is 6 centimetres. The specimen
shows the cerebrum to consist of a posterior part with an ovate in-
flation and smooth lateral surface, which is 2 centimetres long; but
it contracts and becomes depressed anteriorly, and extends forward
for about another centimetre. This anterior portion of the brain,
something like the olfactory lobes of a mammal or fish, extends
under the frontal bone and in advance of its transverse expansions
which form the front border of the large temporal fossz. Posterior
to the cerebrum the optic lobes are well defined; they are less wide
than the cerebrum, with the sides flattened and depressed in the
middle. The cerebellum is rather narrower than the optic lobes, and
was evidently less high, with its lateral aspect more rounded. It is
thus seen that the anterior part of the brain only occupies about half
its length; and it is difficult to suppose that this length would be
greatly augmented were the section made in the middle line of the
skull. The optic lobes are far longer than in the Whitby fossil,
indicating, I think, a different genus. There are indications of a
bony ridge separating the optic lobes from the cerebellum, but no
evidence that it descended between these parts of the brain like
the otic bones in the specimen described.

It is impossible to state accurately the depth of bone which
covers the brain in the Whitby fossil, because, as already mentioned,
the median crest is partly broken away ; but, as preserved, the depth
at the posterior termination of the cerebrum is about 24 centimetres,
while the thickness of the bone at the anterior termination is about

A TELEOSAUR FROM THE WHITBY LIASe 631

18 millimetres. Over the posterior part of the brain the thiekness
of the bone was more than doubled. The section shows the basioc-
cipital to be large and strong, and very closely blended with the basi-
sphenoid. There is no separate suture indicating the presphenoid.
In the median line, and in the basisphenoid bone, below and some-
what behind the pituitary excavation, there is an inverted flask-
shaped cavity 18 millimetres wide, which terminates downward in a
tube nearly 1 centimetre wide, which is directed backward and im-
perfectly preserved, and appears almost to impinge upon the basi-
occipital bone. This tube (Hu) I regard as the Eustachian tube ;
and the ovate cavity with which it communicates (7'A) I regard as
being a portion of the tympanic air-cell, which would thus appear
to have no bony separation dividing the portions on the two sides
of the head. This tympanic air-cell on the right-hand section
has become more irregular in shape, and is larger, being about
2% centimetres deep and about a centimetre high, though a bony
process indents the posterior margin considerably. The fractured
condition of the external part of the right half of the brain-
cavity shows another section of the tympanic air-cell, still irregular
in form, but subquadrate and enlarging as it passes outward; while
the vertical fracture parallel to the median line of the skull, seen
on the outer part of the left side of the skull, shows this air-cavity,
which has a thin border formed in front by the prootic bone of
Huxley (alisphenoid bone of Owen), to be subovate, rather irregular
in outline, about 42 centimetres long and 32 centimetres deep,
with a sharp plate of bone penetrating inward from the middle of
its posterior side. Anterior to this cavity (which attains a develop-
ment altogether unparalleled among the living Crocodilia), the left-
hand side of the median section of the skull shows an ovate per-
foration 13 centimetre in advance of it. This cavity is 23 centi-
metres long and less than 1 deep; its border is somewhat irre-
gular, and I regard it as a section of the carotid canal (cc). It
lies just below and on one side of the position of the pituitary pit ;
and appears te be a canal which passes still further outward as it
extends forward. The basioccipital has much the same form as in
Plesiosaurs. The occipital condyle is rounded, 43 centimetres deep
and about 53 wide; it has a central depression, and is margined by
a sharp ridge where the external articular surface ends. This ridge
increases in sharpness as it descends; and there is a deep excavation
or constriction under its inferior border, so that from the neural canal
to the base in front of the ridge the depth is 33 centimetres; and
here the excavation is concave. The bone extends downward and a
little backward in the median line, on the side of which a nutritive
foramen enters the bone. The texture of the bone is dense pos-
teriorly towards the articular surface, and the cells are arranged
longitudinally; but in the anterior part of the bone the cells become
relatively very large. The length of the bone cannot be certainly
stated, but appears to be about 53 centimetres ; its anterior border
is convex from above downward. The basisphenoid (Bs) is densest

632 PROF. H. G. SEELEY ON THE CRANIAL CHARACTERS OF

in its middle part. The anterior median process has large longi-
tudinal cells; the posterior part has the cell-matter arranged ver-
tically. The distance from the basioccipital margin to the median
anterior process of the basisphenoid, where the excavation occurs
which descends into the bone, is less than 5 centimetres; and the
depth of this process, which is rounded in front, is 17 millimetres.
The roof-bones of the skull are marked by the large longitudinal
cells, except where the dense substance of the otic bones extends
inward, and where the cells are directed obliquely downward and
forward at the junction of the supraoccipital bone with the parietal.

The occipital aspect of the skull appears to have conformed to
the usual Teleosaurian pattern, but is too imperfectly preserved for
description. The exoccipital bones (Ho) entered into the upper and
outer parts of the occipital condyle, and are divided from the basi-
occipital, on the articular surface, by a deep suture, which, after
leaving that surface, becomes prolonged downward and outward after
the manner of existing Crocodiles. The occipital region appears to
have been nearly vertical. The exoccipital bones were laterally ex-
panded, much as in living Crocodiles, but more prolonged outward,
below the foramen magnum, descending to a level with the base of the
occipital condyle. About 17 centimetre from the foramen magnum
laterally is a round perforation for the vagus nerve( Va); and below
this, and further outward, 32 centimetres from the foramen magnum,
is a larger perforation like that in the Crocodile. The exoccipital is
fractured vertically at about 63 centimetres from the middle line
of the skull. I cannot say whether the opisthotic or paroccipital
is distinct; if so, it is very large and makes the hinder wall of
the great air-cell. The arrangement of the roof-bones of the skull
conforms entirely to the usual Teleosaurian pattern.

The skull becomes greatly expanded transversely at its hmder part
(fig. 4), chiefly owing to the excavation of the large tympanic air-
chamber which penetrates the bones; and anteriorly the skull is
constricted, so that its least measurement from side to side is about
63. centimetres at this distance from the anterior fracture. The
skull then widens out again, so that at the anterior fracture its
width must have been about 10 centimetres (fig. 4). Seen from the
side, a rounded median ridge (fig. 3), which becomes sharpened in
front and which is necessarily concave from front to back, divides
the lateral region of the brain-case into superior and inferior aspects.
The superior aspect slopes obliquely downward from the median longi-
tudinal crest. Its upper part throughout the length of the specimen
is occupied by the parietal bone (fig. 4, P). This is fully 4 centimetres
deep in front, becomes reduced to less than half that depth in the
middle (fig. 3, P), where the skull is most constricted from side to
side, and again widens somewhat as it runs backward, and curves
outward in a T-shape in the transverse line of the occipital crest.
Its outward extension is a thin plate, resting upon a large expanded
bone which forms the posterior half of the wall of the brain-case
below the parietal. This bone forms the upper part of the wall

A TELEOSAUR FROM THE WHITBY LIAS. 633

of the tympanic cavity, but no satisfactory suture can be distin-
guished between it and the exoccipital bone. It is in the position of
the prootic bone of the Crocodile, but is enormously developed so as
to present the most distinctive feature of the cranial region of a Teleo-
saur. This bone, which is imperfectly preserved at its outer and
posterior border, has a nearly vertical anterior suture less than 4
centimetres long, like that in living Crocodiles, a straight inferior
suture, and a curved superior outline, determined by the overlap of
the parietal bone. The bone is wider in front than behind: its
greatest depth is 4; centimetres; its greatest length, as preserved,
7z centimetres ; its surface is smooth and concave. Almost im-
mediately below the anterior suture of this bone, at a distance of
about a centimetre, and looking on to the under part of the skull, is
a large transversely ovate perforation with rounded borders, 2 centi-
metres in length, into which it does not enter. This is, 1 presume,
the outlet for the fifth nerve (fig.3, V). Itis placed just behind the
pituitary body. If this perforation is rightly determined, and the
nomenclature adopted by Professor Huxley is followed, the bone
which lies in front of this perforation is the alisphenoid; and if the
orbito-sphenoid has any separate existence, the condition of the spe-
cimen is such that it cannot be recognized. But if we were rather
to name the bone alisphenoid which unites with the basisphenoid,
following the nomenclature of Prof. Owen, then the orbito-sphenoid
would form the anterior wall of the brain-case. The bone posterior
to the nerve-outlets is certainly the quadrate, as in living Crocodiles.
In perfect Teleosaur skulls it meets the squamosal above and the ex-
occipital behind ; and it forms the anterior and inferior wall of the
tympanic cavity. The anterior wall of the brain-case or alisphenoid
(als) is imperfectly preserved anteriorly. It is a large oblong bone,
concave and irregular on the underside, where the pterygoid lapped
along its length, slightly concave in length above, and slightly con-
vex from above downward. It appears to be about 6 centimetres
deep, and the greater part of it lies above the longitudinal angular
ridge running along it already alluded to. Owing to the form of
the parietal it is much deeper behind than in front. The base of
the skull is too much worn for useful description.

So far as I can judge by comparison with the type specimens in
the British Museum, this species differs materially in the outer shape
of the brain-case from the Yeleosaurus Chapman. The Teleosawrus
brevior is too imperfectly preserved in this region for satisfactory
comparison. J am not acquainted with any species from the
Secondary rocks which closely resembles this species in the form of
the prootic bone, or of the tympanic region, or the general shape of
the brain-case. As its characters are likely to be of some interest,
it may be useful to name the species for the present Teleosawrus
eucephalus.

634 ON THE CRANIAL CHARACTERS OF A TELEOSAUR.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXIV.

Teleosaurus eucephalus.
Fig. 1. Left side of skull, nearly in median line.
2. Right side of skull, showing a section parallel to fig. 1.

These figures are of the natural size.

3. Lateral view of left side of same skull, greatly reduced.
4, Superior view, reduced.
5, Diagram of anterior end of fig. 1 (reversed).

In all the figures the lettering is the same :—So, supraoccipital ; Bo, basi-
occipital ; Bs, basisphenoid ; ps, presphenoid; Va, vagus nerve; FM, foramen
magnum; Ho, exoccipital; P, parietal; Hu, Eustachian tube; Z'A, tympanic
air-cell; V, outlet for fifth nerve; cc, carotid canal; als, alisphenoid; po, pro-
otic bone; Q, quadrate bone; C”, cerebellum; 0, optic lobes; C, cerebrum ;
olf, olfactory nerve; op, optic nerve; pf, pituitary fossa; ?, posterior semicir-
cular canal; ?’, anterior semicircular canal.

Discussron.

Mr. CuarteswortH mentioned that the Earl of Zetland had
presented another interesting specimen of a Saurian to the York
Museum, which was described by Prof. Phillips under the name of
Plestosawrus Zetlandicus ; but M. Deslongchamps regards it as so
peculiar in its characters as to entitle it to form the type of a new
genus.

The Prusrpent thought, with Mr. Charlesworth, that the specimen
in the York Museum does not belong to the genus Plesiosaurus.

#

TW Wu

Quart. Journ Geol.Soc Vol. XXXVI.P1 XXIV

7
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,
4

Mintern Bros map

A. S Foord del et lith

=
ie

S EUCEPHALU

TELEOSAUR

Quart -Journ.Geol.Soe Vi Ol. XXXVI Pl XXy

SS SSS SS SS Ss Se eae SS ae SSS See LSS eee

Wintern Bros amp.

|
|

ICHTHYOSAURUS ZETLANDICUS.

ve

AS Foord del et ith

ON THE SKULL OF AN ICHTHYOSAURUS. 635

45. On the Sxutt of an IcutHyosaurus from the Lias of WHITBY,
apparently indicating a new Species (1. Zeruanpicus, Seeley),
preserved in the Woopwarpian Musrum of the UNIVERSITY OF
Campriner. By Professor H. G. Szetzy, F.RB.S., F.G.8., &c.
(Read June 23, 1880.) .

[Puate XXV.|

Kart ZETLAND many years ago presented to the Woodwardian
Museum a superb skull of Jchthyosaurus, which pertains to a new
species, and from its value in exemplifying the osteology of the
skull is in many respects the finest specimen known.

The anterior part of the snout is lost, but what remains of the
head is 28 inches long. The snout has the aspect of having been at
least 6 inches longer. Where fractured in front the jaw is 3 inches
wide and 24 inches deep. Its greatest transverse width behind the
eyes and in front of the quadrate bones is 16} inches, so that it
would appear to have been somewhat more than twice as long as
wide. The occipital region unfortunately is badly preserved, and
the basioccipital bone is a little displaced downward and forward.
There is also some imperfection of the bones of the right orbit ; but
otherwise the skull is in excellent preservation. Being in a hard
limestone it has escaped compression and distortion, and the lime-
stone having been cleared with a chisel, the bones of the palate
as well as those of the upper surface of the skull are beautifully
displayed.

In transverse section behind, the outline is a trapezoid; the
upper outline of the skull, being flat and horizontal, is 10 inches
wide and parallel to the lower outline. The base, as already
mentioned, is 1637 inches wide. The oblique sides formed by the
bones behind the orbits are 73 inches from the base of the quad-
rato-jugal to the junction of the squamosal with the postfrontal.
From the middle of the orbit backward the lateral outline is convex,
and though the margin of the orbit is nearly straight the lateral
outline anterior to it is gently concave. The flattening of the skull
on its upper part covers a triangular space defined by rounded
angular ridges crossing the nasal bones, and converging forward to
disappear in their anterior third. These ridges, prolonged backward,
cross the postfrontal and become prolonged round the outer and
upper border of the temporal fosse. External to this space, which is
depressed and concave in the region of the nasal and frontal bones,
are the sloping sides of the skull, which converge upward, and in the
anterior part of the snout, formed by the premaxillary and nasal bones,
round together into a somewhat semicylindrical form. Posterior
to the orbit there is a convergence of the lateral areas towards the
occipital region. This broad flattened form of a skull with oblique
orbits looking upward and outward is so different from all European
species hitherto figured that I venture to describe it, although there

636 PROF. H. G. SEELEY ON THE SKULL OF

may be some difficulty hereafter in determining the vertebral column
with which it was originally associated. |

First it may be convenient to consider the upper surface of the
skull(Pl. XXV. fig.1). The temporal fosse (TF) are large, ovate, and
narrower behind than in front, and have their posterior ends directed
a little outward and backward. ‘Their length is about 62 inches, and
width about 32 inches. ‘Their inner border is formed by the parietal
bones, the posterior border and posterior half of the lateral border by
the squamosal bone, and anterior border and anterior half of the
lateral border by the postfrontal bones. But on the inner side of
the outer bar above the eye is a plate of bone lapping along the inner
sides of the squamosal and postfrontal. The state of the specimen
does not demonstrate conclusively whether it is to be referred to
the squamosal or other postorbital element or to a separate bone not
hitherto recorded in the Ichthyosaurian skull. This outer margin
of the temporal fossa is comparatively straight; the inner border is
much more curved. The outer bar, formed by the squamosal and
postfrontal bones, is thin, and on the whole suggests the same region
in the skull of Hatteria, though the squamosal bone extends further
forward on the outer side than in that living type. The extreme
width of the temporal fossee from one temporal bar to the other is
10 inches measured from the inner side, and about 11 inches
measured from the outer side.

The supraoccipital bone is absent from the skull; but since the
parietal terminates posteriorly in a suture in the shape of a broad
W with the median process less developed than the lateral wings,
which are prolonged outward and backward to meet the squamosal
bone, it is probable that it was fairly well developed, and gave to
the back of the skull a transversely concave, but more than usually
straight transverse outline. The parietal bones (p) are divided in the
middle line by a suture and are deeply grooved in the anterior part by
the fissure which terminates anteriorly in the parietal foramen (/’P),
though this foramen is not more than 14 inch wide, and the groove
is not more than 23 inches long, so that it is relatively much less
developed than in the Ichthyosaurs from the Lower Oolites. The
extreme length of the parietals is about 63 inches; but in front
of the foramen the bones divide, and receive the narrow frontal
bones (jf) between them for a length of about 21 inches. The an-
terior divergences terminate in sharp-pointed processes which are
about 1,/, inch apart. The parietal has its lateral surfaces, which
form the outer wall of the brain-case, smooth, concave in length, and
gently convex from above downward, so that the convex surfaces
form a slight median ridge above, except that the bone becomes a
little flattened laterally in front on each side of the parietal groove.
The least width of the bones in the middle of the brain-case is 24
inches. They widen posteriorly in a curve to 44 inches. They also
widen anteriorly and send similar anterior processes along the an-
terior border of the postfrontal, and there the transverse expansion
is somewhat greater. These anterior lateral outlines of the parietal
bones are separated from the anterior forked terminations by the

AN ICHTHYOSAURUS FROM THE LIAS OF WHITBY. 637

intervening inner part of the postfrontal bone (pt), which juts in
almost at a right angle. The anterior terminal processes referred
to divide the postfrontal bones entirely, or almost entirely, from the
frontals, and themselves unite with the nasal bone (n). The tem-
poral fosse (7'F) have not been sufficiently excavated to show the
depth of the parietals or their relations to the lower bones of the
brain-case. In front of the parietal are the frontal bones (f ),
rather narrower than usual, and having a length of 41+ inches.
They are less than ;% of an inch wide posteriorly, where they
are truncated by the parietal foramen. They are widest at the an-
terior termination of the parietal bones (p); and posterior to this
their converging lateral outlines, though somewhat irregular, are
gently concave. The anterior lateral outlines are less than twice as
long as the posterior part, are straight, and converge to a point, so as
to give the bones somewhat the outline of a spear-head. They are
each a little convex from side to side, and are divided by a median
suture, which is most impressed in front. The posterior parts of the
bones articulate exclusively with the parietals, the anterior part
exclusively with the nasal bones, which they gently separate pos-
teriorly.

The nasal bones (n) are, as usual, the great roof-bones of the fore
part of the head. Their anterior termination is not distinctly seen ;
for the upper surface has suffered an injury by which their extre-
mities have been removed. Measuring from the angle between the
parietal and postfrontal bones to the apparent anterior extremity,
beyond the visible termination of the nasals, the distance is about
17 inches. As already remarked, the nasals are angularly bent, so
that the upper portions form the roof of the skull, and outer oblique
parts form the upper border of the side of the skull in front of the
eye and above the nares. ‘The posterior half of the upper surface
is concave from side to side, having a width in the hinder region
of about 4 inches. ‘The outline of the nasal bones is necessarily a
long spear-shaped triangle, tapering in front and wide behind.
They form in the middle of their own external borders part of the
upper wall of the anterior nares, but are not indented by them;
they expand a little by descending on the lachrymal bones (7) to
form the upper margin of the posterior border of the narial cavities.
They then have a sinuous union, at first concave and then convex,
with the superior borders of the large lachrymal bones, and behind
these pass interior to the small prefrontal bones on to the post-
frontal. Each bone divides posteriorly into two forks: the inner
wedge-shaped pair have their sides converging to blunt points sepa-
rated by an interspace of 4,7, inches; they join the frontal, parietal,
and postfrontal bones. ‘These inner processes are divided from the
outer pair, which are directed outward and backward, though not
quite so far as the others, by a triangular forward wedge of the
postfrontal bone extending between them; and this outer process of
the nasal, which is only preserved on the left side, has its margins
nearly parallel, and terminates in three claw-like digitations. It
prolongs backward the line of the rounded angular ridge running
along the nasal bone. ‘These ridges are marked with a few longitu-

638 PROF H. G@. SEELEY ON THE SKULL OF

dinal parallel grooves, which, however, cross them at a slight angle,
being prolonged a little further forward, and down into the boat-
shaped depression in the head formed posteriorly by the nasal, frontal,
and postfrontal bones. Anterior to these rounded ridges the bones
are somewhat flattened above, but rounded from side to side. The
median suture dividing them is about 13 inches long. ‘The width
of the nasal bones measured transversely between the nares is 34
inches; the transverse width of the skull in the line of their
posterior borders is about 84 inches, while the transverse width of
the skull at their anterior termination is about 44 inches.

The premaailary bones (pm), as already remarked, are imperfect
anteriorly ; they are preserved for a length of over 11 inches, but
the part where they meet superiorly in the middle line, undivided
by the nasal bones, is only about 3 inches long. The sides are a
little flattened, but they round convexly above, and the median
suture is a little impressed, so that the limits of the bones are
distinctly marked by a groove, unlike the anterior portion of the
nasal bones. As the premaxillary bones extend backward they
narrow a little from being overlapped on the alveolar border by
the maxillary bones (m); their upper and under sutures are com-
paratively straight and subparallel. Each bone is forked at its
posterior termination by receiving in a notch the anterior part of the
long ovate anterior nasal aperture. It forms more than a third of
the wall of this cavity on the right side, and on the left side is pro-
- longed along nearly the whole upper margin, so as almost to exclude
the nasal bone from the anterior nares. The lateral surface of the pre-
maxillary is somewhat roughened with vascular perforations in its
hinder part. The only other bones which enter into the upper
surface of the skull are the postfrontal and squamosal, which may
be more conveniently described in noticing its lateral characters
fig. 2
The anterior nares (JV) vary a little in their distances from the
back of the head; measuring from the hinder border of the squa-
mosal bone to the posterior border of the nasal aperture, the distance
is about 143 inches. The length of the nostril is 44 inches, and its
depth in the posterior third 12 inch. Its distance from the end
of the snout, as preserved, is rather lessthan 9 inches. The posterior
border of the cavity is rounded and formed by the nasal bone above
and the lachrymal bone behind and below. The middle of the base,
which is straighter than the upper border, is formed by the max-.
illary bone; and anteriorly the nostril terminates, as ales indi-
cated, in the premaxillary in a sharp angular notch.

The macillary bone (m) is much longer on the left side of the head
than on the right side, though the alveolar border is better preserved
on the right side. Its length on the left side is about twelve
inches ; on the other side it is much less. JI am not sure from
the condition of the palate how many teeth it contains; but asitex-
tends forward almost to within 5 inches of the truncated end of the
snout, I have no doubt that it contained several, since the alveoli
extend along fully 84 inches of the palatal border as preserved,

AN ICHTHYOSAURUS FROM THE LIAS OF WHITBY. 639

The bone, as usual, is slender on the lateral alveolar border in front
and slender behind. It extends below the lachrymal bone, and
joins the malar at about the anterior border of the orbit; and thus
excludes the lachrymal bone from the base of the skull. The
lachrymal bones (1) extend between the orbits and nares; they are
broad hatehet-shaped bones. The inferior border is convex, and
the superior border sinuous. ‘The posterior border is concave, and
the bone has a spine-like prolongation extending along the anterior
part of the base of the orbit. Its least antero-posterior length
between the two lateral cavities into which it enters is 22 inches,
while its depth is 44 inches. It unites above with the nasal bone (7)
in front and the prefrontal bone (pf), and below with the malar bone
(ma) behind and the maxillary (m) in front. The surface of the
lachrymal bone below the nasal is somewhat impressed, as though
its surface might have lodged a gland; and its margin, which enters
into the orbit, is rounded, thickened, elevated, and continuous with
that of the prefrontal bone above and the malar bone behind. The
large size of the lachrymal bone and its great antero-posterior ex-
tent between the orbit and narine make one of the most distinctive —
characters of the species.

The orbit (O) is large and oval, much less vertical than usual, since
the transverse measurement between the base of the orbits behind
is somewhat less than 14 inches, while the measurement between
the superior borders in front is about 72 inches. Lines drawn
through the middle of the orbits horizontally would converge some
distance behind the anterior termination of the nasal bones. The
length of the orbit is 8 inches, its depth 67 inches. It forms
almost the entire height of the skull, which in this position, measured
vertically, is less than 7 inches. Its border is rounded from within
outward, and the outline of the cavity is regular. It is margined
superiorly by the prefrontal and postfrontal bones; the middle of
the base is formed of the malar bone, which is encroached upon
anteriorly by the lachrymal bone, which forms its anterior end, and
posteriorly the postorbital bone forms its posterior end.

The malar bone (ma) is a slender bar, rounded above, and some-
what flattened on the underside in front, but more compressed and
rounded behind. Itslengthis about 84inches. It is comparatively
straight, though slightly curved in length and convex on the outer
side. Its anterior end tapers, and underlaps the lachrymal bone.
Its posterior third receives the postorbital bone above (po), and its
posterior extremity is more compressed from below upward for
a length of an inch and a quarter, and is received between the post-
orbital and quadrato-jugal bones (¢/).

The postorbital bone (po) is somewhat broader than usual, and hence
has not quite so much of a crescent shape, its outline being more
that of a boot, the anterior concavity forming the orbital border.
The length of the base which rests on the malar is about 33 inches,
while the width of the bone in its upper part is less than half as ©
much. The base is comparatively straight, as is the posterior
border, which joins the quadrato-jugal bone (qj), and in its upper

640 PROF, H. G. SEELEY ON THE SKULL OF

part meets the supraquadrate (sq). The upper border of the post-
orbital unites by transverse slightly irregular suture with the post-
frontal bone.

The prefrontal bone (pf) is relatively small as compared with that
of some other species. It is an irregularly oblong bone, somewhat
compressed behind, with its orbital border necessarily concave, joining
the lachrymal in front by a nearly vertical, but slightly oblique suture.
It joins the nasal by a straight suture above in its front part, and
the postfrontal behind and above by an oblique irregular suture.
Its length is about 3 inches, and its depth in front, where greatest,
is about 2+ inches.

The posifrontal bone (pt) is broad transversely on the roof of the
skull, and becomes compressed from side to side in its posterior
part, which is bent backward at a considerable angle to form the
upper border of the orbit (fig. 1). The outline of this bone is concave
posteriorly where it enters into the temporal foss, as well as in-
feriorly where it enters into the orbit (fig.2). Its superior surface is
flattened and elevated in front of the temporal foss; but anterior to
this elevated transverse ridge, which becomes narrower as it extends
outward from the parietal bone, the bone is depressed anteriorly
towards its union with the inner part of the nasal. Its inner trun-
cated end is received between divergent processes of the parietal
bone; and owing to the middle of its anterior part being overlapped,
as already remarked, by a claw-lke posterior process from the nasal
bone, it is divided into two angular portions. The inner of these ex-
tends forward in a V shape into a corresponding notch in the nasal
bone; and the outer extends rather further forward in a more irre-
gular way between this claw-like process of the nasal and the com-
pressed posterior part of the prefrontal bone. The extreme length
of the bone appears to be about 8 inches; its extreme transverse
width is under 5 inches; but the outer part of the bone being bent
so as to descend at the back of the orbit, the measurement taken
in the two planes is greater. The extreme extension forward of
the bone from the interior margin of the temporal foss is less than
34 inches, and its anterior width is somewhat greater. Its posterior
end joins the squamosal bone at about the hinder third of the outer
margin of the temporal foss, while its inferior border rests upon
the postorbital bone in front and the supraquadrate bone behind.

The region of the skull which is posterior to the orbit and
below the temporal foss is flattened, comparatively smooth, and
obliquely inclined, so that it looks outward and upward. It is
convex in length, rounding towards the posterior end of the skull,
and is slightly concave from above downward. It is formed by the
squamosal and postfrontal bones above, below which are the post-
orbital and supraquadrate bones, with the triangular mass of the
quadrato-jugal forming the base and posterior prolongation of the
alveolar border, and dividing the lower parts of these bones from
' each other by extending upward between them.

The sguamosal bone (sqm) is a curved sickle-shaped element, which
joins th e outer posterior angle of the parietal bone somewhat low down

AN ICHTHYOSAURUS FROM THE LIAS OF WHITBY. 641

by a strong thickened mass, which is prolonged outward and a little
backward. It curves and becomes bent round in front and is directed
forward and greatly compressed from side to side, so as to form the
outer posterior border of the temporal foss, where it is 2 inches deep.
It is apparently prolonged forward under the postfrontal bone along
the length of the temporal foss, though, as already remarked, some
doubt may attach to the identification of the bony element which
extends behind and below the posterior branch of the post-
frontal bone. If it should not be formed by the squamosal it is
probably formed by the postorbital, extending upward and expand-
ing so as to bind together the other bones posterior to the orbit.

The swpraquadrate bone (sq) has also been called by Prof. Owen the
supratemporal and suprasquamosal. It, like the postorbital, is
unossified in the Crocodile, in which type the skin extends over the
same areas as are here covered by these bones. This supraquadrate
I so name because, extending between the squamosal bone above
and the quadrato-jugal bone below, it rests upon and hides the
quadrate bone in the lateral aspect of the skull. It is subtri-
angular in shape, having a vertical measurement of 32 inches, and
an antero-posterior measurement of about 44 inches. Its posterior
border is obscured by matrix; its superior border is comparatively
straight, while the oblique inferior border which abuts against the
quadrato-jugal is sinuous, the basal angle being broad. Finally,
there remains the quadrato-jugal bone (qj), which has the oblique
position of the other bones described and a somewhat triangular
outline. Laterally its base is convex from front to back and com-
paratively straight in length. It is, as indicated, wedged between
the supraquadrate and the postorbital bones, which indent its borders
somewhat concavely but irregularly. Its height is 54 inches and the
length of its base is over 4 inches. Behind and below the quadrato-
jugal, but entirely anterior in position to it, the articular end of the
massive quadrate bone (q) descends and receives a process from the
pterygoid bone on its inner side.

Palatal aspect of the Skull.—The hard limestone forming the
matrix of this specimen has been carefully chiselled away so as to
display the bones of the palate (fig. 3). These elements are beauti-
fully distinct in the posterior part of the skull, but anteriorly there
has been some little difficulty in making clear the relations of the
bones. It follows from the description given that the premaxillary
bones (pm) are prolonged outward and backward by the slender bar
of the maxillary (m), which is continued by the malar (ma) and
quadrato-jugal (q7) to the quadrate(q). This bar becomes somewhat
thinner posteriorly, but defines the lateral outlines of the back of the
head on its palatal aspect. ‘There are on the palate apparently three
pairs of vacuities :—first, a small anterior pair (V) lying below the
exterior nares and between the outer bones of the palate; secondly,
a posterior median pair (SP) divided by the presphenoid bone and
lying between the pterygoids ; and, thirdly, a pair of irregular lateral
spaces (PT'V) between the pterygoids and the malar arch, which
extend back to the quadrate bone and are prolonged forward for an

Q.J.G.8. No. 144. 2x

642 : PROF. H. G, SEELEY ON THE SKULL OF

uncertain distance, but apparently at least as far as the region of the
exterior nares. In the median line of the base of the skull are seen
the displaced basioccipital (60), the basisphenoid (6s), and presphenoid
(ps), the latter two being anchylosed together. The basioccipital
has a somewhat flattened hemispherical articular surface, rough with
concentric markings of attachment, and defined, as usual, by a mode-
rately deep vertical and inferior groove. It is about 3 inches wide.
Below and in front of this part of the bone is a smooth non-articular
surface, which is concave in the middle and, where widest, extends
the width of the bone to nearly 4 inches. Its length is rather over
3 inches, and, as is usually the case with Liassic Ichthyosaurs, it has
the anterior margin, where it abuts against the basisphenoid, convex
from side to side. The basisphenord bone (6s) is exposed but little.
It appears to have been about 24 inches long, with a strong elevated
ridge in the middle of the base, on each side of which the surface is
concave. This ridge is prolonged forward into the sword-shaped
presphenoid bone ( ps) with which it is anchylosed. On each side
of the presphenoid the anterior margin of the basisphenoid is deeply
concave; the posterior lateral portions of the basisphenoid are over-
lapped by wide inward expansions of the pterygoid bones. The
presphenord slightly tapers as it extends forward, is compressed from
side to side, preserves its inferior keel, and is at last received between
a pair of bones anterior and interior in position to the pterygoids.
It has a length anterior to the basisphenoid of about 8? inches.

External to these median bones there appear to be four pairs of
lateral bones. The largest of these are the pterygoid bones (p),
situate behind; the bones external to the pterygoids are two pairs—
a slender anterior pair, which I regard as the palatines (pn); and a
larger pair external to the palatines and extending partly along
them and the pterygoids, but well separated from the malar, which
I regard as the transverse bones (t); while interior to the pterygoids
and the palatines and abutting against the presphenoid is another
pair of slender bones which, from their position, I regard as the
vomers (Vv).

The arrangement of the bones in this genus is very different from
that in the genus in the Inferior Oolite of Caen, as shown by a skull
in the British Museum, unless the bones which here have every
appearance of separate existence, and which I regard as the vomers,
should be an accidental condition marking a generic difference.
Moreover the pterygoid in the Caen fossil, on the left side, consists
of two separate osseous elements. The pterygoid bones (p) have
their inner margins concave. ‘They do not appear to have met
posteriorly in the median line, though from the displacement of the
basioccipital this cannot be stated with absolute confidence. They
partly enclose the long pterygoid vacuities already alluded to, which
are divided by the presphenoid. These vacuities are margined in
front by the bones interior to the pterygoid which I have regarded
as vomerine. The pterygoids are deeply notched out on the pos-
terior aspect by a concave border, and in the external posterior
half have a concave outline, Between these two concavities is

AN ICHTHYOSAURUS FROM THE LIAS OF WHITBY, 643

‘a posterior compressed mass from which a process extends, at first
outward and then backward and somewhat downward, lapping
along the imner side of the quadrate bone. The external lateral
concavities narrow the width of the pterygoid bones, and where
they terminate anteriorly the bones widen again, but begin to con-
verge forward and inward, terminating in sharp peints. Their
surfaces are smooth, and slightly convex from side to side in
front. They descend a little downward as they extend outward, and
are moderately thick bones. The length from the process meeting the
quadrate to the anterior termination is about 13 inches on the
right side, but apparently rather more on the left side. The least
width from side to side between the external concave lateral
margins in the hinder part of the bone is about 54 inches. The
greatest width between the quadrate bones is nearly 10 inches. The
width at the angle where the lateral concavity terminates in front
is, across the bones and their interspace, less than 74 inches. The
least width of each bone in its posterior constriction is rather over
an inch and a quarter. Its width at the expansion in front of the
constriction is over two inches. ‘The distance from the posterior
quadrate process to the anterior termination of the lateral concavity
does not exceed 74 inches.

Lying within the pterygoid bones, and joming them by sutures
nearly parallel to each other, are two bones which are to be regarded as
vomers (v). They prolong the tapering outlines of the pterygoid bones
inward, forward, and upward into the palate. They are divided from
each other by the presphenoid bone. That on the left side extends
somewhat further back than the bone on the right side. The least
distance from the hindermost termination of the bone on the left side
to the occipital condyle is about 10 inches, but about 42 inches fur-
ther forward the condition of the specimen becomes a little obscure
owing to a fracture here: there appear to be on each side of the pre-
sphenoid two small palatal vacuities, that on the right side being the
larger and a little over an inch long. It is uncertain therefore
whether these bones terminate at this pomt. If so, they can only
be an anterior dismemberment of the pterygoids, and probably a
distinct generic character in this Ichthyosaurian type. But in front of
these perforations median palatal bones of corresponding width are
prolonged forward in continuation of them, and without any appear-
ance of break: and as I have found the vomerine bones lying on the
sides of the anterior termination of the presphenoid in some transverse
sections of small Ichthyosaurian skulls from the Lias, I am inclined
to believe that the parts posterior to the perforations, as well as the
long anterior bar or bars, are vomers. The vomers would appear to
reach forward, in front of the small perforations referred to, to the
extremity of the palate as preserved ; but the condition of the palate
does not demonstrate in this species whether the forward and narrow
prolongation consists of two distinct bones ; but on the polished end
of the broken snout the two bones are visible in front (fig. 4).

External to the pterygoid bones, and equally prolonging the
lateral contour, is another pair of slender bones which do not reach

: 2x2

644 - PROF. H. G, SEELEY ON THE SKULL OF

quite so far back as the vomer-like elements, though they are rather
more symmetrical. These bones I regard as palatine(pn). They form
the outer wall of the minute palatal narine-like perforations already
referred to, and the inner wall of a larger pair of palatal vacuities
which are placed immediately below the external nares and are
bounded externally by the transverse bones. These palatine bones
diverge posteriorly, and run as narrowgbars along the outer borders
of the vomerine bones. Their termination forward, from the con-
dition of the palate, is not quite clear, though they appear to extend
forward as far as the palate is preserved, and abut against the inner
alveolar margin ; but this is somewhat uncertain. The bones appear
to widen a little in front of the palato-transverse foramina, and their
least length is probably 12 inches. The width of the palate at the
posterior termination is nearly 43 inches. The vacuities which lie
between the palatine and transverse bones are chiefly notched out
in the lattter. They are relatively narrow, rounded posteriorly, wider
behind than in front, and have a length of a little over 3 inches.
The distance of the posterior border from the occipital condyle is
about half the length of the skull. The width of the palate over
these vacuities at their thin hinder borders is something over 4
inches. They converge towards each other anteriorly in conformity
with the tapering of the skull forward. The transverse bones (t) are
second in size to the pterygoids, and altogether larger than the
palatine bones or the vomers. Owing to the condition of the skull,
there is the same difficulty in fixing the anterior limit of these bones
as there was with those last mentioned ; but I am led, from the indi-
cations preserved, to conclude that both terminate forward at the
anterior third of the specimen. If so, the transverse bones diverge
backward in a long V-shape, and have a length of about 17 inches.
Throughout the whole of the anterior ends they rest against the
palatine bones, are prolonged as an outer border to the palatal
vacuities, and then widen inward so as again to run along the pala-
tines again till they terminate. They extend backward along the
outer diverging margin of the pterygoids, gradually contracting in
width and extending beyond the outer angle of the pterygoid into
the pterygo-malar vacuity for over an inch. The posterior part of
the bone has its external outline gently convex in length, and the
widest part of the bone is at the point where the palatine termi-
nates posteriorly, where it measures about 134 inch from side to side.
Its surface is smooth, convex from within outward, and it is placed
obliquely, so that its outer border descends almost to the level of the
malar and maxillary bones. There appears to be a long narrow
vacuity between the maxillary and malar bones and the transverse ;
but it is impossible to say how far this might be modified in cha-
racter if the specimen were entirely free from matrix, since the
transverse bones are obviously thick, and may extend under the orbit.
But for the slight posterior projecting processes of the transverse
bones the cavity between the emarginate border of the pterygoid
and the malar and quadrato-jugal, in which the lateral vacuities
terminate, would be subovoid. Where widest the transverse mea-
surement of each of these spaces is upwards of 4 inches,

AN ICHTHYOSAURUS FROM THE LIAS OF WHITBY. 645

There now only remain on the palate the articular ends of the
large quadrate bones (q). These extend below the level of the palate
and are subreniform, concave on the inner border where the ptery-
goid abuts, convex on the outer border, and narrower in front than
behind. The articular surfaces are arranged longitudinally, and
are more than twice as long as wide, convex in length as well as
from side to side. That on the left side is a good deal broken
away. The length of the articular surface is about 33 inches,
while its width did not exceed 14 inch.

I have already compared the skull of Ichthyosawrus with that of
other extinct and living animals, in a paper published by the Linnean
Society in February 1876 (Journal, vol. xii. p. 296), and only here
would draw attention to the view enunciated by Professor Owen in
the report of his lecture at the School of Mines in 1858 (Ann. Nat.
Hist. ser. 3, vol. 1. p. 395), that a truer conception of the affinities of
the Ichthyosaurus may be obtained by comparison with Labyrintho-
donts and other Triassic reptiles than with modern Lacertians and
Crocodilians, for the sake of showing that the Crocodilian characters
of the skull have been somewhat underestimated. In the memoir
referred to I merely stated facts and possible interpretations. Now
it seems to me that we are justified in going a step further, and by
comparison with the Teleosaurs may gain some better insight into
the relation of Ichthyosaurs with Crocodiles than would be furnished
merely by evidence from the existence of bony elements like the
supraquadrate bone only elsewhere found among Labyrinthodonts.
For in the Teleosaurian genera we see the palate in process of being
closed in the median line, though it is still open; and if the maxil-
lary bones of [chthyosaurus were supposed to develop larger palatine
plates, so as to close the palate in the median line, then the palatine
bones would come together as in the Crocodiles, and the pterygoid
bones would be overlapped by them in part according to the Cro-
codilian pattern. If the median vacuities in the Ichthyosaurian
skull were closed by the pterygoids meeting, then the vacuities
between the transverse and palatine bones would remain homolo-
gous with the large palatal vacuities of Crocodiles, and the cavity
behind the transverse bone in Crocodiles would correspond to the
similar cavity in Ichthyosaurus. The Ichthyosaurian palate there-
fore seems to me to represent the Crocodilian palate before it has
made any approximation to the median closing of the bones, which
is one of the characteristics of the existing order.

With regard to the upper surface of the skull, both poser
and supraquadrate bones are clearly unossified in the recent type;
but the vacuities exist in Crocodiles in which they should be de-
veloped. The most striking differences of the hinder part of the
skull in the two orders are chiefly matters of proportion, consequent
upon the reduced size of the orbits in Crocodiles and their consequent
loss of a more or less vertical position. But in fossil Crocodiles and
Teleosaurs the temporal fosse are relatively larger than in the living
form ; and in these animals we find a small prelachrymal vacuity
which occupies the position of the external nasal openings in Ich-

646 PROF. H. G. SEELEY ON THE SKULL OF

thyosaurus. But if the nasal bones had not been prolonged in front
of the nares, and the premaxillary bones had remained merely
bounding their anterior margin, the resemblance of plan between
the Crocodile and Ichthyosaur would have been more striking.
However, though the long prenarial snout of Jchthyosaurus consti-
tutes an excellent ordinal character, because it is constant, it does
not appear, from an anatomical point of view, to be of much import-
ance as a measure of an animal’s affinities, because it depends on the
development of the premaxillary at the expense of the maxillary
bone. Important as are the differences of detail, there is a closer
family relationship between Jchthyosaurus and living Crocodiles than
between Jchthyosaurus and any other existing order of reptiles ; and
this resemblance in the skull is also faintly indicated in the ver-
tebral column by the double-headed articulation for the ribs, which
is not met with among true reptiles, and is more important as a mark
of affinity than the development or absence of transverse processes
when taken in connexion with skull-characters.

The only species to which the fossil described makes a near
approach in proportionate width of the head is a large form from the
Lias of Whitby, which Professor Owen had distinguished under the
MS. name Ichthyosaurus crassuemanus, and which the Rev. J. F. Blake,
F.G.S., has briefly noticed in the ‘ Yorkshire Lias,’ p. 253. Mr. Blake
gives the head as 6 feet 3 inches long, and 3 feet wide behind, but
without further description. So far as I remember, the skull im that
specimen is greatly crushed, and its characters are obscured, so that a
detailed comparison cannot well be made; but the impression left
on my mind by studies made 16 years ago was to the effect that the
large animal at York was distinct from the smaller species now de-
scribed. I am acquainted with no other Ichthyosaur in which the
skull attains this broad, triangular form, -with-the orbits so far apart
from each other and so moderately inclined, and. with the nares so
far in front of the orbits and relatively so large. The bones pos-
terior to the orbit are also more than usually broad. The quadrate
bone too descends a good deal below its ordinary position. These
characters sufficiently distinguish the species described from all
others.

I would express my grateful thanks to Professor Hughes for his
kindness in allowing me to describe and figure this specimen.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXV.

Ichthyosaurus Zetlandicus.

Figs. 1-3 are rather less than one fourth natural size.
Fig. 4 is reduced one half.

Fig. 1. The skull viewed from above. The premaxillary bones are imperfect in
front.
2. The same skull seen from the side, showing the elevated head and large
orbit.
3. Palatal aspect of the same skull.

AN ICHTHYOSAURUS FROM THE LIAS OF, WHITBY. 647

Fig. 4. Outline of polished anterior end of the section of the jaws, showing
teeth in the premaxillary bones, and the vomerine bones shaded
occupying the median line of the palate.

Tn all the figures the lettering is the same :—

10%
FP.

po.

Temporal fossa.
Foramen parietale.
Orbit.

Anterior nares.

. Premaxillary bone.
. Maxillary bone.

. Nasal bone.

. Lachrymal bone.

Malar bone.
Prefrontal bone.
Frontal bone.

. Postfrontal bone.

. Parietal bone.

. Squamosal bone.

. Supraquadrate bone.
. Quadrato-jugal bone.

Postorbital bone.

Quadrate bone,

. Basioccipital bone.

. Basisphenoid bone.

. Presphenoid bone.

. Pterygoid bone.

. Palatine bone.

. Transverse. bone.

. Vomer.

. Sphenoido-pterygoid vacui-

PTV.

ties.
Vacuity between the trans-
verse and palatine bones.

V. Vacuity in the position

usually occupied by the
posterior nares.

x, Matrix.

648 h B. N. PEACH AND J, HORNE ON THE

46. The Guactation of the Orkney Istanps. By B.N. Pzacu, Esq.,
F.G.8., of the Geological Survey of Scotland, and Joun Horne,
Esq., F.G.8., of the Geological Survey of Scotland. (Read
June 23, 1880.)

[Puares XXVI. & XXVIL]

ConTEnTSs,
I. Introduction.
IT. Geological Structure.
III. Glaciation.
IV. Boulder-clay.
V. Moraines.
VI. Erratics.
VII. Conclusion.
(a) Orkney glaciated by Scotch ice.
(6) Explanation of the occurrence of marine shells in the
Boulder-clay.
(c) Absence of gravels and raised beaches in Orkney.

1. Iyrropuctrion.

In a former paper which we communicated to the Society on ‘‘ The
Glaciation of the Shetland Isles,” we endeavoured to show how: |.
evidence supplied by the striated surfaces, the roches moutonnées, and
the dispersal of the stones in the Boulder- clay points to the con-
clusion that Shetland had been glaciated by Scandinavian ice. It
was further argued that during the climax of glacial cold the Sean-
dinavian and Scotch ice-sheets coalesced on the floor of the North
Sea, and that the great outlet for the combined ice-sheets was
towards the north-west by the Pentland Firth and the Orkney
Islands.

In the course of the autumn of 1879 we visited nearly all the
Orkney Islands for the purpose of continuing our researches with
reference to the extension of the ice in the North Sea in the Glacial
period. In the paper now presented to the Society we purpose to
give a summary of the results of our observations. At the outset
. we may state that they furnish a remarkable confirmation of the
conclusions already arrived at regarding the westerly and north-
westerly movement of the ice. Moreover, the presence of stones in
the Boulder-clay, which must have been derived from the mainland
of Scotland, and the discovery of abundant remains of marine
shells in the same deposit, though in a fragmentary state, are of the
utmost importance in guiding us to a satisfactory solution of the
question.

No description of the glacial phenomena of Orkney has hitherto
been published *. Some references were made by Professer Geikie to

* Since this paper was written, our friend Mr. Amund Helland has sent us a
copy of his paper “ Ueber die Vergletscherung der Faroér Inseln,” which ap-
peared in the ‘ Zeitschrift der deutschen geologischen Gesellschaft,’ 1879. We
are glad to see that Mr. Helland has arrived at the same conclusions as our-

selves regarding the north-westerly movement of the ice in Orkney, from inde-
pendent observations made in the course of last year.

GLACIATION OF THE ORKNEY ISLANDS. 649

the existence of roches moutonnées with striated surfaces, Boulder-
clay, and valley moraines in the islands in an article which ap-
peared in ‘Nature’*. This article was written in reply to a letter
by Samuel Laing, Esq., M.P., in which he asserted that there is no
evidence that Orkney had participated in the general glaciation of
Britain f. So far from there being any lack of evidence regarding
the glaciation of these islands, we hope to show that they contain
abundant proofs of having undergone severe glacial conditions. Our
observations, however, completely confirm Mr. Laing’s statement
that there are no raised beaches in the islands indicating changes of
the relative levels of sea and land since glacial times.

II. GrotogicaL STRUCTURE.

The geological structure of the islands is comparatively simple.
From Stromness on the Mainland northwards to Inganess there is
an axis of ancient crystalline rocks on which the representatives of
the Old Red Sandstone rest unconformably. These crystalline rocks
consist of a fine-grained granite and a grey micaceous flaggy gneiss,
which occupy a strip of ground about four miles in length and
about a mile in breadth. They are prolonged southwards in the
island of Graemsa. With this exception the whole of the Orkney
Islands are occupied by Old Red Sandstone strata. In the island
of Hoy representatives of both the upper and lower divisions of this
formation are met with, and here they are separated by a marked
unconformity ; but in all the other islands the beds belong to the
lower division.

Throughout the islands there is a remarkable uniformity in the
character of the strata belonging to the lower division. They consist
mainly of hard blue and grey calcareous flagstones, which are so typi-
cally developed in Caithness. Fortunately, however, the highest beds
of the Orcadian flagstone series are totally different in character from
those just described, being composed of coarse siliceous red and
yellow sandstones and marls. The sandstones are full of false-
bedding, and frequently conglomeratic, containing pebbles of granite,
quartzite, gneiss, and other crystalline rocks.

The distribution of this arenaceous series has an important
bearing on the question of the ice movement. On referring to the
map accompanying this paper (Pl. XXVI.), it will be seen that it
forms a well-marked zone, running nearly north and south through
the centre of the group. The relations which these siliceous sand-
stones bear to the flagstones are best seen in Eda, where they cover
the greater part of the island, and where they form smooth flowing
hills upwards of 300 feet in height. The sandstones lie in a syncline,
the axis of which runs north and south, and on both sides of the island
they rest conformably on the flagstones. In the islands which lie
to the west and north-west of Eda, viz. Fara, Westra, Papa Westra,
Egilsha, and Rowsa, the strata consist wholly of blue and grey
flagstones, which are inclined at gentle angles. Though there are

* * Nature,’ vol. xvi. p. 414. t ‘ Nature,’ vol. xvi. p. 418.

650 B. N. PEACH AND J. HORNE ON THE

many minor undulations, yet on the whole there is a gradually
descending series towards the western headlands of Rowsa and
Westra.

In Stronsa and Sanda the arenaceous series and the underlying
flagstones are repeated by a series of faults, which are laid down on
the map.

The south-east corner of Shapinshay is occupied by these sand-
stones, where they are associated with a dark green slaggy diabase,
which forms part of an ancient lava-flow. They reappear on the
south shore of Shapinshay Sound, and cross the Mainland in a narrow
strip from Inganess Head to Scapa Bay. They are continued also
along the north-west shore of Scapa Flow as far as Orphir Kirk,
and they lkewise extend along the eastern shore to Howquoy
Head, near St. Mary’s. These sandstones and marls are brought
into conjunction with the flagstones of the Mainland by two great
faults, which we have traced on the ground; but in Cava, Fara,
Flota, South Ronaldshay, and Burra they graduate downwards into
the flagstones, and are regularly interbedded with them. As the
result of careful mapping of the coast-sections in the southern
islands, we have come to the conclusion that Scapa Flow occupies
the centre of a geological basin, towards which the strata are
inclined on almost every side, and round whose shores the highest
members of the Lower Old Red Sandstone in Orkney are to be
found. We have elsewhere stated our reasons for believing that
the Orcadian flagstones, with the conformable sandstones and marls,
are the equivalents of the higher subdivisions of the Caithness
series *,

It ought to be clearly borne in mind that to the north-west of the
great fault which extends from Houton Head eastwards by Scapa
to the bay east of Work Head, the Old Red strata consist wholly
of flagstones, save the conglomeratic beds, which repose unconform-
ably on the crystalline axis, north of Stromness.

The physical features as well as the geological structure of Hoy
are somewhat different from those which obtain in the other islands.
Instead of a low undulating tableland, terminating seawards in a
bluff cliff or sloping downwards to a sandy beach, which is the
dominant type of Orcadian scenery, the island of Hoy forms a pro-
minent tableland, trenched by a series of deep narrow valleys,
which are occasionally flanked by conical hills upwards of 1500 feet
high. These narrow valleys must have been admirably adapted for
nourishing a series of local glaciers towards the close of the Glacial
period, as is evident from the long moraines now strewn over the
hill-slopes.

The greater portion of the island is occupied by coarse false-
bedded sandstones, which are but the counterpart of the Upper Old
Red Sandstones at Dunnet Head, in Caithness. Near the base of
this division occur some contemporaneous volcanic rocks, which are
admirably exposed on the noble cliff in the north-west ot the island

* “The Old Red Sandstone of Orkney,” by B. N. Peach and J. Horne.
Trans. of the Phys. Soc. Edinb. vol. v. 1880.

GLACIATION OF THE ORKNEY ISLANDS. 651

and at the base of the Old Man of Hoy. The whole series rests
unconformably on the flagstones ; and in the south-west portion the
upper division is brought into conjunction with the lower by a
fault which extends from Melsetter to the coast-line opposite Risa
island *,

Jil. Guactation.

The glacial phenomena of Orkney completely establish the double
system of glaciation which we found to obtain in Shetland. There
is satisfactory evidence for maintaining that during the primary
glaciation the Orkney Islands must have been overridden by a mass
of ice which moved from the North Sea to the Atlantic; but
towards the close of the Glacial period, when the great mer de glace
had retreated from the Orcadian coast-line, local glaciers must have
lingered for a time in the valleys of Hoy and in some of the more
elevated parts of the Mainland.

Though these islands do not comprise any districts that might be
compared with North Mavine or the promontories of Lunnasting in
Shetland, which are dotted all over with finely preserved roches
moutonnées and rock-basins, nevertheless a careful search along the
cliff-tops reveals numerous instances of glaciated surfaces and ice-
markings. ‘The latter, however, are not so abundant as we found
to be the case in Shetland, which may be satisfactorily explained by
the rapid disintegration of the flagstoncs when long exposed to
atmospheric waste.

In the island of Westra the average direction of the strie in the
eastern part of the island is W. 20°-30° N. Close by Noltland
Castle, at the roadside, the trend is W. 20° N., on the north-west
face of Cleat hill N.W., and immediately to the east of the same
hill W. 30° N. At Rackwik, on the eastern shore, the ice-markings
vary from W. to W. 20° N., while in Tuquoy Bay they point
Ae OS.

A eareful examination of the striated surfaces on the hills west of
Pierowall proves that the ice must have been slightly deflected as
it impinged on the eastern slopes, the lower portion moving in the
direction of the northern coast-line, while the higher strata streamed
westwards over the hill-tops towards Nonp Head and Russitaing.
On the north-eastern face of the hill south of Ourness several
examples were noted pointing N. 30°-35° W., but in the gap be-
tween the hills the direction is W. 5° 8.

Perhaps one of the most interesting features connected with
the glaciation of Westra is the freshness of the ice-markings on
Nonp Head (240 feet) and along the cliff-tops to the south. A few
yards to the north and south of the highest point of this bold head-
land, finely preserved striz were observed on grey flags, where the
thin Boulder-clay had been recently removed by the action of the
sea, trending W. to W. 3° N. Above Ramna Gio the. direction

* The geological structure of Hoy was solved by Professor Geikie and
Mr. B. N. Peach in 1874. See “ The Old Red Sandstones of Western Europe,”

Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinb. vol. xxviii. p.411; also ‘“ The Old Man of Hoy,” Geol.
Mag. decade ii. vol. v. p. 49.

652 B. N. PEACH AND J. HORNE ON THE

varies from W. 10° N. to W.10° S.; at Russitaing, W. 20° 8.; near
the Red Hare, W. 10° 8.; near Inganess, W. 15°S. to W. 18° N.;
and again, in the bay south of Inganess, a well-marked instance
points W. 12° N.

In some parts of the island of Eda the proofs of glaciation are
marvellously fresh, more especially on the surfaces of the harder
sandstones. From the finely glaciated surfaces and numerous roches
moutonnées in the centre of the island north of Lonton it is
evident that the ice must have overtopped the hills in its north-
westward march. On the east slopes of the Stennie hill the direc-
tion of the strie is W. 20°-25° N., and not far to the south
W. 40°N.

Along the eastern coast, between Calf Sound and Lonton Bay, the
ice-markings point N. 20°-380° W., while between the Kirk of
Skail and the Veness promontory the average direction is W. 35°
40°'N. In one remarkable instance, on the shore about a mile to
the south of the Kirk of Skail, strie were observed on a highly
inclined rock-face trending north and south, while on the cliff-top
the direction is W. 35° N., the former being evidently due to local
deflection. Along the western coast the general direction of the
ice-movement is in perfect harmony with that just described. In
the neighbourhood of Warness, which forms the south-west pro-
montory of the island, the trend is W. 13° N., while to the west of
the Wart of Eda, on the cliff-tops, it varies from W. 28° N. to
W. 48° N.; and again, to the north of Seal Skerry, W.40°N. One
of the best examples to be met with in the island occurs in the bay
east of Fara’s Ness, where a small stream entersthesea. This burn
has cut down through a deposit of shelly Boulder-clay to the
polished pavement on which it rests; and along the stream-course
the firm lines produced by the ice-chisel may be seen to advantage
on the glaciated surfaces of the sandstones. The direction of these
instances is N. 27° W., but on the shore, close by the mouth of the
stream, the trend is W. 38° N.

Notwithstanding the widespread covering of blown sand which
envelops the greater portion of the island of Sanda, we succeeded
in finding abundant traces of the ice-movement. In the Burness-
peninsula striated surfaces are numerous along the coast-line, about
a dozen instances occurring between Hermaness Bay and the Holms
of Eyre, which, with one or two exceptions, point W. 10°-15° N.
To the west of Loch Roo the direction is W. 25° N.; and not far
from the Saville boulder, on the eastern shore of the peninsula, the:
trend is N.W.

On the shores of Kettletoft Bay the average direction is W. 10°N.;
inland from this bay towards the Free Church it varies from
W. 20°-40° N., while in Bacaskeal Bay it is N. 32° W. This
north-westerly movement is equally borne out by the evidence
obtained in the southern part of the island ; for in the bay west of
Hack Ness the ice-markings point N. 30° W., and on the western
shore between Spur Ness and Stranquoy N. 8°-17° W.

The island of Stronsa likewise supplies conclusive evidence

GLACIATION OF THE ORKNEY ISLANDS. 653

regarding the direction of the ice-movement; for in Odin Bay,
where an important section of Boulder-clay occurs, which we shall
describe presently, the striz point W. 15°-35° N.; between Kirk-
buster and Finga the trend is W. 10°-40° N., at Burgh Head
W.40° N., and north of Holland W. 40° N. On the western coast-
line, on the shores of Rousholm Bay, the direction varies from
W. 41° N. to N. 40° W.; and on the shores of Linga Sound it is
W. 40° N. I¢ is of the utmost importance to note the perfect
agreement in the trend of the ice-markings in different parts of this
island, because it indicates a persistent movement in one determinate
direction.

A careful examination of the striated surfaces on Shapinshay
confirms in a remarkable manner the evidence regarding the ice-
flow during the primary glaciation in the northern islands. Along
the west coast, between Galtness and Stromberryness, the direction
varies from W. to N.W., while on the shores of Veantro Bay, which
indents the northern part of the island, the markings point N.W.
and N. 35°-40° W. Further along the eastern coast-line, between
Gioness and the school-house, the direction is W. 30° N., and the
same trend is observable southwards towards the church; near
Foot striae were noted pointing N. 30° W., and close to Haco’ 3 Ness
N. 20° W.

It is impossible, within the limits of this paper, to describe the
various instances we met with in the Mainland, and we will there-
fore merely indicate the general trend in different parts of the
island. On the glaciated surfaces of granite and gneiss north of
Stromness numerous examples occur trending W. 15°-20° N. and
W.12°S. Immediately behind the town the direction varies from
W. 8°-40° N., while on the moorland between Yesnabae and the
Loch of Stennis, as well as at the Ring of Brogar, the same varia-
tion 1S observable from W. 12° N. to N.W.

On the hill-slopes overlooking Gorsness and the island of Came
the average direction of several examples is N. 25°-30° W., and
along the coast-line from Irland Bay to Houton Head the trend
varies from W. 12°-42° N. One instance occurs in Irland Bay
pointing W. 32°8., which probably belongs to the later glaciation.

In Kirkwall Bay, a short distance to the east of the pier,
beautifully striated flagstones may be seen where Boulder-clay has
been recently removed by the action of the sea, the strie running
N. 6° W. and N.N.W.; and so also on the surfaces of the flagstones
in the Scapa Quarry the direction is N. 8° W. Along the shore
from Scapa to Howquoy Head the average direction of several
examples is N. 30°-35° W., and near St. Mary’s the trend varies
from N.W. to N. 25° W.

In the southern islands striz are not so abundantly found, owing
to the readiness with which the soft yellow sandstones and marls
crumble away when long exposed to the denuding agencies. In
South Ronaldshay several examples occur, the general direction of
which is W. 20°N. These may be seen on the cliff-tops near
Stow Head and Halero Head by removing the coating of Boulder-

654 B. N. PEACH AND J. HORNE ON THE

clay. Even on the cliffs of the island of Hoy, overlooking the
Atlantic, striated surfaces have been observed by Professor Geikie
at a height of 600 or 700 feet above the sea-level.

The evidence now adduced regarding the ice-movement proves
beyond all doubt that the islands have been glaciated in one deter-
minate direction, independently of their physical features. A glance
at the striz map accompanying this paper (Pl. XX VII.) shows the
remarkable uniformity of the ice-flow in the different islands. Here
and there, where local causes interfered with the general movement,
slight deflections are met with; but, on the whole, the prevalent
direction varies from W.N.W. to N.N.W. A careful examination
of the numerous striated surfaces convinced us that the ice-sheet
must have crossed the islands from the North Sea to the Atlantic.
Indeed no one who reflects for a moment on the physical features
of the islands could reasonably attribute the striations to a local
radiation of the ice. If we except Hoy, these scattered islands
contain no mass of elevated ground which is capable of giving rise
to a local ice-sheet. So far from this being the case, we shall have
occasion to refer to the absence of any indications of the existence
of local glaciers in most of the islands towards the close of the
Glacial period, a phenomenon which is doubtless due to this very
cause. On the contrary, when we view the persistent north-
westerly trend of the striations in connexion with the physical
features, when we consider that the glaciated surfaces along the
cliff-tops, as well as the roches moutonnées on the hill-slopes, prove
that the islands must have been overflowed by the ice, we cannot
resist the conclusion that the ice-movement during the primary
glaciation originated beyond the limits of Orkney.

Fortunately the dispersal of the stones in the Boulder-clay amply
confirms the foregoing conclusions regarding the north-westerly
movement of the ice, while the presence of Scotch rocks in the same
deposit enables us to demonstrate that the ice-sheet which crossed
this group of islands must have radiated from the mainland of
Scotland.

LY. BovunpER-cLay.

This deposit is not spread over the general surface of the low
undulating tablelands in the form ot a more or less continuous
covering. It oceurs mainly round the bays, where it frequently
attains a considerable depth, while the inland districts are covered
with a thin clayey soil, due to the decomposition of the underlying
flagstones. We shall have occasion to describe one or two sections
of Boulder-clay which may be traced continuously along the shore
for half a milo, and which are quite undistinguishable from the
Lower Boulder-clay of Scotland. Occasionally thin patches of this
deposit are to be found on the cliff-tops, containing well-striated
stones and foreign rocks, clearly indicating that the islands must
have been overflowed by the ice.

In the island of Westra the Boulder-clay is sparingly distributed,
but some excellent sections are to be met with round the bays in

GLACIATION OF THE ORKNEY ISLANDS. 655

the southern districts. At Rackwik, near Stangar Head, it consists
of a tough tenacious gritty clay, which is chiefly made up of red
sandstone fragments, about 80 per cent. of the larger blocks being
composed of sandstones which are foreign to the island. Some of
these blocks, which are finely smoothed and striated, measure six
feet across. ‘he deposit rests on the grey flagstones, and some
small subangular fragments derived from the underlying rocks are
likewise included ; but the great majority of the stones consist of
sandstones which we identified as belonging to the island of Kda.
Crossing the peninsula to the shores of Tuquoy Bay, similar sections
are presented, resting on grey flagstones, the included blocks being
composed of the underlying rocks, red sandstones, quartzites, and
chalk-fiints. It is important to note that the red sandstone blocks
do not form such a large percentage at this locality, but that they
gradually diminish in number as we recede towards the north-west.
On the slopes of Cleat hill fragments of granite, quartzite, diorite,
and dolerite are associated with the flagstones in this deposit ; while
still further north, near the church, blocks of red and white honey-
combed sandstone and small pink granite stones were observed in
the Boulder-clay in addition to the local rocks.

Along the west coast hardly any Boulder-clay is to be met with ;
but some thin patches are to be seen on the cliffs at Nonp Head,
containing well-striated stones derived from the flagstones of the
island. Occasional smooth blocks of Red Sandstone occur in the
hollows amongst the débris of the underlying rocks, which are, in
all likelihood, the relics of the once existing Boulder-clay.

Now it is evident, on a moment’s consideration, that the gradual
decrease in number of the red sandstones in the Boulder-clay, as
we traverse the island from the south-eastern headlands towards
the west coast, indicates that the ice-flow must have been towards
the Atlantic; and when we consider that these sandstones nowhere
occur im situ in Westra, and that they could only have been
derived from the adjacent islands of Eda and Sanda, we are forced
to conclude that the ice-movement must have been altogether inde-
pendent of the islands.

Along the east coast of Eda the Boulder-clay is not so abundant as
in some of the more sheltered bays on the opposite side of the island,
which is satisfactorily accounted for by supposing that the rocky
slopes facing Eda Sound were exposed to the full sweep of the mer
de glace. Here and there, however, patches do occur, as on the
north shore of Lonton Bay, where the deposit contains smoothed
and striated chalk-stones, along with blocks of red and white sand-
stones and grey flagstones. Its most noteworthy feature is the
presence of worn fragments of marine shells, which are scattered
irregularly through the stony clay. Similar sections occur in the
bay of Calf Sound near the pier, and also along the west coast near
the Wart of Eda, where shell-fragments were likewise observed.

_ Perhaps the finest section of this deposit in Eda occurs along the
banks of a small stream which flows into the bay about a mile east
of Fara’s Ness on the west coast. ‘he stream has cut down through

656. B. N. PEACH AND J, HORNE ON THE

the stony clay to the finely grooved pavement of sandstone, so that
the glacialist can examine thoroughly the nature of the deposit.
It consists of tough red clay, packed with smooth and striated
stones scattered irregularly through the section. There is no
trace of stratification in the deposit, as it retains the same tumul-
tuous character throughout. The stones are beautifully striated
along the major axis, and are mainly composed of the underlying
red and yellow sandstones, varying in size from an inch to several
feet across. In addition to these we noted smooth chalk-stones,
chalk-flints, and subangular blocks of the grey flagstones. The
most interesting feature, however, is the occurrence of small worn
fragments of marine shells which are scattered indiscriminately
through the deposit; they are smoothed and striated precisely in
the same way as the stones in the Boulder-clay, as if they had
been subjected to the same abrasion.

Shelly Boulder-clay was also observed on the west coast of Sanda,
between Spur Ness and Stranquoy; and sections of the same de-
posit are to be found in Bacaskeal Bay. In the Burness peninsula,
near the Holms of Eyre, the shore is bounded by low cliffs of purple
shales and flags, with a coating of Boulder-clay, which is just suffi-
cient to cover the surface of the rocks. It is chiefly composed of
fragments of the underlying rocks, but likewise contains fragments
of sandstone, granite blocks, and smoothed stones of gneiss and
schist, all of which, except the sandstone, are foreign to the island.

In Stronsa several important sections were met with both on the
east and west sides of the island. On the shores of Linga Sound,
not far from the narrow isthmus of Aith, a section of shelly Boulder-
clay occurs resting on grey sandstone, the deposit being upwards of
25 feet thick, and comprising chalk, chalk-flints, and white quartz,
in addition to the blocks derived from the flags and sandstones of
the island. Further, on the north-east corner of Rousholm Bay a
thin coating of this deposit rests on the flagstones, which are bent
over to the north-west in the direction of the ice-flow.

- One of the best exposures of Boulder-clay in Orkney occurs on
the eastern shores of Odin Bay, in Stronsa, where it forms a con-
tinuous cliff for nearly half a mile. At intervals the section is
obscured by a grassy covering, but every succeediug storm washes
anew the face of the cliff, and exposes a fresh surface for examina-
tion. The deposit, which varies from 20 to 30 feet in depth, con-
sists of a tough gritty clay of a reddish colour, full of well-smoothed
and striated stones, which are mostly of small size: There are
few large boulders to be seen, the largest rarely exceeding a foot in
diameter. There is not the slightest trace of stratification from one
end of the section to the other, as the stones are disposed irregularly
through the clayey matrix. By far the greater number of the
included blocks have been derived from the flagstones and the sand-
stones which occur in the neighbourhood ; but the following rocks
are likewise represented :—granite, pink porphyritic felstone, gneiss,
schist, quartzite, white quartz, dark limestone, with abundant plant-
remains, which is probably of Calciferous-Sandstone age, oolitic.

GLACIATION OF THE ORKNEY ISLANDS. 657

limestone, oolitic calcareous breccia, fossil wood (probably oolitic),
chalk, and chalk-flints, all of which are foreign to the island. When
we come to collate the evidence regarding the primary glaciation,
we shall discuss the probable localities from which these blocks
were derived. At present it is sufficient to state that the evidence
is clearly in favour of their having been carried from the mainland
of Scotland.

Equally important is the presence of numerous fragments of
marine shells throughout the deposit. Though we examined the
section with the utmost care, we did not succeed in dislodging a
complete shell; indeed so worn are the fragments that it was with
the utmost difficulty that we obtained specimens sufficiently well
preserved for determination. Nearly all the fragments are smoothed
and striated, like the stones in the Boulder-clay ; and there can be
little doubt that these characteristics are due to the very same cause
in both cases. Amongst the broken shells we detected fragments
of Cyprina islandica, Mytilus, and Mya truncata; but a careful
search, after severe storms, by some local collector would certainly
increase this list considerably.

In the island of Shapinshay shelly Boulder-clay occurs at various
localities on the east coast, as at Kirkton, where it contains finely
striated chalk-stones. The best sections, however, occur along the
western shore, and especially in the bay south of Galtness, where it
forms a bluff cliff washed by high tides. This cliff furnishes valuable
evidence regarding the ice-carry, inasmuch as we noted amongst the
included stones blocks of the slaggy diabase which occurs in situ in
the south-east corner of the island, along with striated fragments
of the sandstones which are associated with the volcanic rocks. In
this section smooth blocks of chalk and oolitic limestone, with
numerous fragments of marine shells, were also observed.

If we traverse the Mainland from Scapa and Kirkwall westwards,
by the Loch of Stennis, to the crystalline axis north of Stromness,
similar conclusive evidence regarding the north-westerly movement
of the ice is obtained from the Boulder-clay. On referring to the
map of Orkney, it will be seen that the narrow zone of red and
yellow sandstones which crosses the Mainland from Inganess to
Scapa extends south-westwards along the shore as far as Orphir
Kirk. Now, in the shelly Boulder-clay in Kirkwall Bay, to the east
of the pier, striated blocks of red sandstone are commingled with the
flagstones in the clayey matrix. The latter are by far the most
numerous, and are likewise beautifully scratched along the major
axis; but the sandstone blocks constitute a fair percentage of the
included stones. From the lithological character of these blocks,
we had no hesitation in concluding that they had been derived from
the sandstones to the east of Kirkwall.

Again, in the sections occurring on the coast between Houton
Head and Irland Bay, the observer cannot fail to note the gradual
increase in the number of the sandstone blocks in this deposit as he
approaches Houton Head, a phenomenon which is quite intelligible
when he remembers that the striations along the shore point W.

Q.J.G.8. No. 144. 2¥

658 | B, N. PEACH AND J. HORNE ON THE

12°-42° N., the latter being the prevalent direction. Indeed at
Houton Head the ice-markings are nearly parallel with the coast-
line, so that the sandstone blocks could not possibly have come from
Hoy. Blocks of the same rock are strewn on the hill-slopes above
Gorsness, to the north-east of Maes Howe. It is a significant fact
that not a single block of the granite or gneiss which occurs in situ
to the north of Stromness and in the island of Graemsa is to be
found in the Boulder-clay between Irland Bay and Houton Head,
or anywhere to the east of the axis of crystalline rocks; but as
soon as the western limit of these rocks is crossed, numerous blocks
of granite and gneiss are strewn on the slopes and along the cliff-
tops between Brak Ness and Inganess. Had the ice-movement
been from the north-west, the phenomena would have been precisely
the opposite of those we have described.

In the southern islands this deposit is not abundant; but in
South Ronaldshay, on the shores of Water Sound, east of St. Mar-
garet’s Hope, we observed patches of it containing blocks of sand-
stone, flags, and chalk, with comminuted shells. In this instance
the shells, when being dislodged, crumble readily to a white
powder.

Our friend Mr. R. Etheridge, Jun., who kindly examined the |
shell-fragments we obtained in the Boulder-clay sections in Orkney,
informs us that, on account of the fragmentary character of the
material, it is impossible to determine many of the specimens. He
- has, however, named the following :—

Cyprina islandica. | Mya truncata.
Astarte (hinge). Mytilus (fragment).
Saxicava arctica. |

Mr. H. B. Brady, F.R.S., has also kindly determined the follow-

ing species of Foraminifera from the same deposit :—

Miliolina seminulum, Lnné. Truncatulina lobatula, Walker.
Lagena sulcata, W. & J. Polystomella striato-punctata, F’. & M. ‘

V. MorRatrnes.

One conspicuous feature connected with the Glacial phenomena of
Orkney is the remarkable absence of any traces of local glaciers
except in Hoy and the Mainland. When we consider the abundance
of moraine heaps in all the more important islands of the Shetland
group, this difference seems all the more striking; but when we
remember the marked contrast between the physical features of the
two groups of islands, the difficulty at once disappears. As we have
already indicated, the only mass of elevated ground which would
be capable of nourishing a series of local glaciers, after the great mer
de glace had melted back from the Orcadian coast-line, occurs in Hoy.
Hence we find that in the valleys which drain the group of conical
hills in the north of that island moraines occur in abundance and
also of great size. Professor Geikie has already described several
examples which also came under our notice *. In the valley to the

* ‘Nature,’ vol. xvi. p. 415.

GLACIATION OF THE ORKNEY ISLANDS. 659

east of Hoy hill a moraine mound, nearly half a mile long and
from fifty to sixty feet high, runs across the mouth of the glen.
It would seem that the later glacier which filled the valley did not
succeed in scooping out the moraine profonde belonging to the
primary glaciation, as the moraine matter rests on stiff sandy
Boulder-clay. Further, in the hollow below Coulax hill several
concentric heaps were observed which extend across the valley,
indicating pauses in the retreat of the glacier.

In the Mainland also the moory ground between Finstown and
Maes Howe is dotted all over with conical moraine heaps, evidently
deposited by the glaciers which moved off the northern slopes of the
Orphir hills. On the east side of the range of hills that runs
north from Finstown several parallel moraine ridges may be ob-
served not far from Ellibister. Again, in the peninsular tract to
the south-east of Kirkwall, a splendid series occurs in a valley
situated about three miles north of Graemshall. Atthe point where
the highroad from Roseness joins that from St. Mary’s to Kirkwall,
the concentric arrangement of the moraine heaps is admirably
displayed.

VI. Erratics.

Boulders do not occur very plentifully in Orkney; but we felt
convinced, from an examination of those we met with, that they
must have been mainly distributed during the primary glaciation.
In Westra blocks of granite and quartzite are found on the slopes
of Cleat hill; and rounded stones and boulders of red sand-
stone from Eda occur in the southern district as well as along the
western shores.

In the north of Sanda, at Saville, a remarkable boulder of gneiss
is met with, which has been described by previous observers. It
measures 64 xX 6 x 24 feet above ground, but its base is buried
underneath the surface. Professor Heddle, who has made a minute
examination of this boulder, states that it does not appear to be a
British rock. He gives the following description of it in a recent
number of the ‘ Mineralogical Journal ’* :—“ It consists in greatest
amount of white finely striated oligoclase, the crystals of which are
penetrated by fine filaments of actinolite, glassy quartz in much
smaller amount, dark green finely foliated lustrous hornblende in
well-marked crystals, very little of a pale-green mica, a minute
amount of a pale-brown mineral, which may, but does not ap-
pear to be sphene, and a speck or two apparently of thorite. The
mass also contains a single crystal of pale-green apatite four or five
inches in length by over an inch in width, and this apatite con-
tains imbedded cryptolite.” }

He states that the only Scotch rock resembling the Sayville
boulder which he is aware of is to be found in Sutherlandshire ; but
it has orthoclase as its felspar, and does not contain apatite. Should
this boulder really prove to be of Scandinavian origin, its presence

* Mineralog. Journal, yol. i. p. 174.

660 B. N. PEACH AND J. HORNE ON THE

has an important bearing on the questiom of the extension of the
ice in the North Sea. Some smaller blocks of gneissose rocks occur
in the neighbourhood. A few boulders of conglomeratic sandstones
occur in Eda, which may be purely local.

On the Mainland blocks of white and reddish-grey sandstone are
strewn on the hill-slopes north of Finstown and on the moory
ground south of Maes Howe, which have been derived from the
north-west shore of Scapa Flow; and so also along the west coast,
between Brak Ness and Inganess, north of Hoy Sound, boulders of
granite and gneiss are met with on the flagstone area to the west of
the axis of crystalline rocks.

VIL. Conciusio0n.

The evidence now adduced regarding the glacial phenomena of
Orkney is of the utmost importance in solving the question of the
extension of the ice in the North Sea. We have already referred
to the remarkable uniformity in the trend of the ice-markings
throughout the islands, which, with certain exceptions, vary from
W.N.W. to N.N.W. From the manner in which these striations
maintain their persistent north-west trend, irrespective of the
physical features of the country, ib is evident that the agent which
produced them must have acted independently of the islands.

Nay, more, the dispersal of the stones in the Boulder-clay leaves
no room for doubt that the ice-sheet must have crossed the islands
from the North Sea to the Atlantic. It is no doubt true that the
lithological varieties of the Orcadian rocks are not so numerous as
in Shetland, and hence the corroborative evidence of the north-
westerly movement is not so abundant. Still in those cases where
the geological structure of the ground permitted us to test with
certainty the direction of the ice-carry, we were driven to the con-
clusion that the ice-flow must have been towards the Atlantic. In
Westra the Boulder-clay sections contain striated blocks of red and
‘white sandstone, which have been derived from Eda, and it is
particularly observable that they diminish in number as we
move towards the north-west. In Shapinshay blocks of the slaggy
diabase from the south-east corner of the island occur in the Boulder-
clay near Galtness; and so also in the Mainland, the red and
white sandstones which cross the centre of the island are repre-
sented in the moraine profonde on the shore between Houton Head
and the Loch of Stennis. Yet, again, to the west of the axis of
crystalline rocks at Stromness, smoothed blocks of gneiss and
granite are found in considerable abundance.

Fortunately, however, we have additional evidence een enables
us to demonstrate, not only that the ice-movement must have been
from the North Sea towards the Atlantic, but, what is of still
greater moment, that the ice which glaciated Orkney must have
come from Scotland. In the numerous sections of Boulder-clay
described in this paper we have had occasion to refer to the occur-
rence of smoothed and striated stones of dark-grey limestones full
of plant-remains, oolitic limestone, calcareous breccia, chalk, chalk-

GLACIATION OF THE ORKNEY ISLANDS. 661

flints, fossil wood, pink granite, porphyritic felstone, &c., all of
which are foreign to the islands.

According to the opinion of Mr. Carruthers, F.R.S., the blocks of
dark-grey limestone with plant-remains in all probability belong
to the Calciferous Sandstone series. He has identified a well-marked
specimen of Lepidostrobus in one of the blocks, though it is not
distinct enough to be named specifically. Lithologically the boulders
resemble some of the thin limestone bands in the Cementstone series
of Central Scotland; and the nearest locality to Orkney where these
rocks occur zn situ is in the county, of Fife. With reference to the
Secondary rocks, Professor Judd, F.R.S., states that, besides the
ehalk and chalk-flints, he detected amongst our collection some
specimens which resemble some of the Secondary rocks of Scotland.
Two specimens of the calcareous breccia from the Boulder-clay in
Odin Bay “very closely resemble parts of the Upper Oolites of
Sutherland,” and two other blocks are probably from the same
locality. Moreover, he adds that the specimens of oolitic limestone
very possibly come from some part of the Secondary series in
Seotland.

In addition to these, we observed, in the Odin-Bay section,
large blocks of a remarkable rock which seems to be petrified wood.
It has a curious fibrous structure and is very calcareous; indeed
under the microscope it appears to be mainly made up of crystals
of calcite, though occasionally there are portions where the struc-
ture is still retained. Blocks of the same rock, however, occur in
the Caithness Boulder-clay, which show traces of organic structure
under the microscope. On dissolving a small piece of the rock a
large residue of coaly matter was obtained, which ignited with a
strong flame. It would appear that this rock is largely burnt for
lime in Sutherlandshire, where it is washed out of the Oolitic
shales.

In all probability most of the blocks of granite, felstone,
gneiss, quartzite, and schist which occur throughout Orkney, save
those in the Stromness district, have been derived from the north-
east of Scotland, though they possess no special characteristics
which might enable us to identify them with any particular
locality.

Now it ought to be borne in mind that chalk, chalk-flints, and
various rocks of Jurassic age are found in the Boulder-clay of
Caithness, and also in the same deposit in the low grounds of Banff-
shire and Aberdeenshire, where it possesses the same physical cha-
racters as in Orkney, and likewise contains fragments of shells. It
seems perfectly reasonable to conclude, therefore, that the Boulder-
clay in these widely separated localities must be ascribed to a
common cause, or, in other words, to the action of land-ice. Indeed
no one who attentively examines the sections in Orkney would
ascribe them to the action of icebergs or coast-ice. We have already
discussed the objections to the marine origin of the Shetland till,
and the very same arguments apply with equal force to the. present
case,

662 B. N. PEACH AND J. HORNE ON THE

__ Moreover, on referring to the chart showing the probable path of the
ice in the North Sea, which accompanies this paper (Pl. XXVIT.), it
will be seen that it is impossible to escape this conclusion. The ice,
which radiated from the north-east of Scotland, not only filled the

basin of the Moray Firth, but likewise spread over the low grounds of

Banffshire and Aberdeenshire. The researches of previous investi-
gators point to this conclusion; and quite recently, during the pro-
secution of the Geological Survey of the south side of the Moray
Firth, additional facts have transpired which tend to confirm it.
Further, in the neighbourhood of Dunbeath, on the Caithness coast,
the strie gradually swing round till they run parallel with the
shore, eventually bending inland till they point towards the north-
west, in harmony with the trend of the ice-markings in Orkney.
Clearly, then, the ice must have been deflected so as to override the
low grounds of Caithness, as pointed out long ago by Dr. Croll.
Similarly in Forfarshire and Kincardineshire, the ice which moved
off the south-east slopes of the Grampians, on reaching the coast-
line, was bent round in a N.N.E. direction, as indicated on the
chart. <A glance at the chart will also show how the land-ice was
deflected along the south-east coast of Scotland, as described by our
colleague Dr. James Geikie, F.R.S. Now these marked deflections
undoubtedly point to some opposing force which was capable of
overcoming the seaward motion of the Scotch ice-sheet. Had it
been allowed to follow its natural pathway then the phenomena
would have been widely different.

The results of our investigations in Shetland prove that the Scan-
- dinavian mer de glace not only invaded the North Sea, but likewise
overlapped that group of islands in its march to the Atlantic. The
presence of this mass in the bed of the German Ocean furnishes a
satisfactory explanation of the phenomena above referred to ; for the
two ice-sheets must have coalesced on the sea-floor, and the com-
bined ice-field would naturally take the path of least resistance.
In other words, one portion would flow north-westwards by the
Orkney Islands, while the southern portion would flow in the direc-
tion of the English coast, as laid down on the chart. In all pro-
bability the dividing line would be somewhere opposite the basin of
the Forth.
_ We can quite well understand therefore how the Scotch ice-sheet,
as it crept outwards along the bed of the Moray Firth towards the
North Sea, must have pushed along the marine shells and silt which
it encountered on the sea-floor. ‘These would be commingled with
the moraine profonde which had gathered underneath the ice-sheet ;
and the shells would ultimately be smoothed and striated precisely.
like the stones in the bottom moraine. Hence the occurrence of Scotch
rocks together with shell-fragments in the Orkney Boulder-clay is.
what we would naturally expect; and in the light of the foregoing
reasoning all difficulty as to the explanation of the phenomena dis-
appears. It is not necessary for us to assign the precise localities
from which the various foreign rocks have been derived ; it is suffix
cient for our present purpose if we show, as has been done, that:

——

GLACIATION OF THE ORKNEY ISLANDS. 663

they may have come from the basin of the Moray Firth or the
eastern counties of Scotland lying to the north of the basin of the
Forth. The presence of blocks of limestone of Calciferous-Sandstone
age in the Odin-Bay section in Stronsa seems to indicate that a
portion of the ice which crossed Fife was deflected to the north;
and even if the Saville boulder should prove to be of Scandinavian
origin, its position in the north of the group is quite in keeping with
the path which would be followed by the Scandinavian ice.

It is a significant fact that nowhere in the Shetland Boulder-clay
did we find a vestige of the Secondary rocks of Scotland; and
though the evidence is merely negative, it nevertheless confirms
the foregoing conclusions. We are inclined to believe also that the
absence of marine shells in the same deposit, which we noted in
our previous paper, may probably indicate that a portion of the
present sea-floor round Shetland formed dry land during the climax
of glacial cold. We see, therefore, how the glacial phenomena of
Orkney furnish a striking confirmation of the views advocated by
Dr. Croll more than ten years ago.

Though we visited nearly all the islands of the group and tra-
versed the greater part of the coast-line, we found no trace of gravel
kames or raised beaches indicating recent changes in the relative
level of sea and land.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

Prater XXVI.
Glacial Chart of the Orkneys.

PuaTtE XXVII.
Chart showing the probable path of the ice in the North Sea.

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GENERAL INDEX

THE QUARTERLY JOURNAL

AND

PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

[The fossils referred to are described ; and those of which the names are printed
in italics are also figured. |

Aberdeen granite, inclusions in, 10.

Actinometra abnormis, 53.

Loveni, 51.

Miilleri, 54.

Adwalton, coal-measures at, 56.

Agglomerates of Charnwood Forest,
fragments in, 347.

Alaria Beaugrandi, 229.

Ammonites pectinatus, 228.

pseudogigas, 228.

triplicatus, 228.

Analyses of granite and inclusions
from Gready, 8; from Peterhead,
13; from Ardshiels quarry, Bal-
lachulish, 15; from Newry, 17;
of Atlantic ooze, 83; of Gravesend
chalk, 83; of grey chalk from
Folkestone, 84; of white chalk
from Shoreham, 84; of a new mi-
neral from Invernesshire, 111;
of rock from Sharpley, 342; of
Siideroe coal, 625.

Anglesey, Mr. C. Callaway on the
gneissic and granitoid rocks of,
Proc. 2.

, Prof. Hughes on the geology of,

vi

ol

Annelid jaws, Mr. G. J. Hinde on,
from the Ludlow and Wenlock
formations of the West of England,
368.

-Anniversary Address of the President,
Proc. 33-92. See also Sorby, H.C.,
E

sq.

Annual Report for 1879, Proc. 7.

Anomodont Reptile, Prof. Owen on
Q.J.G.8. No. 144.

an, from the Trias of Graaf Reinet,
S. Africa, 414.

Anstruther and Pittenweem section
in the Calciferous-Sandstone series,
560.

Anstruther Wester, 570.

_ Antedon equimarginata, 49.

incurva, 5d2.

laticirra, 551.

—— Lundgreni, 550.

paradoxa, 46.

perforata, 549.

prisca, 54.

rotunda, 52.

rugosa, 49.

striata, 551.

Antlers, development of, in the deer,
390.

Arabellites anglicus, 375.

cornutus, 374.

extensus, 374.

obtusus, 375.

similis, 376.

spicatus, 374.

—— ——,, var. contractus, 375.

sulcatus, 375.

Ardshiels quarry, inclusions in granite
from, 14; analysis of, 15.

Arenig beds of the Dee valley, 278.

Argillornis longipennis, Prot. Owen on
the skull of, 23.

Arroquhar, quartz-sand in mica-schist
of, Proc. 86,

Astarte polymorpha, 281.

Semanni, 232.

rugosa, 231.

227

666

Atlantic ooze, analysis of, 83.
Avicula recta, 585.

Bala-beds of the Dee valley, lower,
278; middle, 279; upper, 280.

Ballachulish, inclusions in granite
from Wedemels quarry at, 14;
analysis of, 15.

Bardon-hill quarry, 346.

Belgium, Devonian rocks of, 267.

, section of Devonian, Old Red
Sandstone, and Carboniferous for-
mations in, 274.

Bellerophon costatus, 583.

Ben Slioch, section of Hebridean
gneiss from near base of, 97.

Beranka, colony of, 610.

Bessbrook, granite of, 18.

Billow Ness, 567, 568, 569.

Birnam, concretion in sate from,

ei Proc. 8a.

Black-Hills granite-quarries, 13, 14.

Blake, Rev. J. F., on the Portland
rocks of England, 189.

Blencowe, Rev. G., on certain geolo-
gical facts witnessed in Natal and
the border countries during nineteen
years’ residence, 426,

‘Bohemia, Mr. J. H. Marr on the
Predevonian rocks of, 591.

Bonney, Rev. T. G., on the vicinity of
the upper part. of Loch Maree,
93.

,and Rev. EH. Hill on the Pre-
carboniferous rocks of Charnwood
Forest, 337.

Bose, P. N., Esq., on fossil Carnivora
from the Sivalik hills in the col-
lection of the British Museum,
119.

Boulder-clay of the Orkneys, 654.

, Upper, of Cheshire and South
Shropshire, 178; of the lower
course of the Severn, 180.

Boulogne and Kimmeridge, compa-
rative sections at, 197.

Boulonnais, Devonian rocks of, 268.

Bowdon, section through, 291.

Branik, colony of, 614.

Brent Tor, sections through and near,
289, 290, 291, 292, 293.

volcano, Mr. F. Rutley on
the structure of, 285.

British Museum, Mr. P. N. Bose on
the collection of fossil Carnivora
from the Sivalik hills in the, 119.

British Upper-Silurian Fenestellide,
Mr. G. W. Shrubsole on_ the,
241.

Brockenhurst series, fossils of the,
1538.

GENERAL INDEX.

Brod, section through, 594.

Bruntcliffe, cannel coal at, 58.

Buchan Ness, granite of, 14.

Buckinghamshire, Portland, rocks of,
215.

Buxburn, granite from Sclattie quarry
near, 11.

Caiplie, 569.

Calcareous series of oe Maree,
100.

Calciferous-Sandstone series, Mr. J.
W. Kirkby on the zones of marine
fossils in the, of Fife, 559.

Callaway, C., Esq., on the gneissic
and eranitoid rocks of Anglesey
and tle Malvern hills, Proc. 2.

, on a second Precambrian
group in the Malvern hills, 536.

Cambrian beds, Mr. J. H. Marr on the,

_ of the Dee valley and Os the Lake- .
district, 277.

rocks of Bohemia, 592; com-
pared with those SE Buta
601.

Cameron, J. M., Esq., and Jolly, W.,
Esq., on a new mineral occurring
in the rocks of Invernesshire,
109.

Canis curvipalatus, 134.

sp., 135.

Cannel coal, Mr. J. W. Davis on fish-
remains in the, of the West Riding
of Yorkshire, 56.

Carboniferous.and Old Red Sandstone
of the south of Ireland and North
Devon, 257.

conglomerate, gold in, in Nova

Scotia, 313.

formations, sections of, in Ire-
land, N. Devon, Herefordshire, and
Belgium, 274.

Cardium? caleareum, 232.

-Carlinghow, cannel coal at, 57.

Carnivora, Mr. P. N. Bose on fossil,
from the Sivalik hills, 119.

—--, list of fossil, from the Sivaliks,
120.

Carpenter, P. H., Esq., on some Co-
matule from British Pecan
rocks, 36.

, on some new Cretaceous Co.
matule, 549.

Ceramopora megastoma, 359,

Cerithium bifurcatum, 229.

Aiudlestoni, 229.

Cerrigydrudion, section in the neigh-
bourhood of the rectory, 280.

Chalk of Gravesend, analysis of, 83.

of Shoreham, analysis of, 84,

-Chalky clay, 479.

GENERAL INDEX.

Charnwood Forest, Rev. H. Hill and
Prof. Bonney on the Precarboni-
ferous rocks of, 337.

, diagrammatic section,
showing the probable relation of
the beds in the northern part of,
341.

Cheesewring quarries near Liskeard,
granite of, 8.

Chelonian reptile, Prot, H.-G: Seeley
on Psephophorus polygonus, a new
type of, 406.

Cheshire, Upper Boulder-clay of, 178 ;
drift-deposits of, 185.

Churlhanger, section through, 290.

Clay, chalky, 479.

Cliorhizodon orenburgensis, Mr. W.
H.Twelvetrees on, a new Theriodont
reptile from the Upper Permian
cupriferous sandstone of Kargalinsk,
near Orenburg, 540.

Coal-measures, Mr. J. W. Davis on
the fish-remains in the cannel coal
in the Middle, of the West Riding
of Yorkshire, 56.

Cobbold, E. 8., Esq., on the strata ex-
posed in layin g outtheOxford sewage-
farm at Sandford-on-Thames, 314.

Colonies, 605 ; of Motoland Beranka,
610; Cotta, 611; D’Archiac, 611 ;
on the road to Vohrada, 613, at
Tachlovice, 6138; of Branik, 614;

at Hodkovicek, 614; Krejci, 614;

Haidinger, 616.

, vertical section, showing the
supposed relations of the, 608.

Comatule, general remarks on struc-
ture and classification of, 36.

, Mr. P. H. Carpenter on some,
from the British Secondary rocks,
36.

—, Mr. P. H. Carpenter on some
new Cretaceous, 549.

, morphology of, 555.

Combe, section though, 289.

Compsacanthus major, 62.

--— triangularis, 62.

Concretion in slate from Birnam, Proc.
80.

Concretionary patches, Mr. J. A.
Phillips on, contained in granite, J.

Corbula saltans, 230.

Correlation of drift-deposits of Eng-

. land, Mr. Mackintosh on, 178.

Coventry, drift-deposits round, 183.

Crag, red and fluvio-marine, 457.

Crail, 567, 570..

Crayford, Mr. F. C. J. Spurrell on the
discovery of the place where Palzo-
lithic implements were made at,
544.

667

Crayford, sections of gravels &c. at,
544, 547.

Cretaceous Comatule, Mr. P. H. Car-
penter on some new, 549.

flints, Dr. Wallich on, 68.

Cumnor Hurst. Mr. J. W. Hulke on
Iguanodon Prestwichii from the
Kimmeridge clay of, near Oxford,
433.

, Prof. J. Prestwich on the
occurrence of a new species of Igua-
nodon at, 430.

, section at, 430.
Cypricardia bicosta, 585.

costifera, 231.

Cyprina elongata, 232.

implicata, 232.

—— swindonensis, 232.

D’Archiac, Colonie, sections across,
at Repora, 612.

Dartmoor, Mr. F. Rutley on the
ccleetoce voleanic rocks of, 285.

Daubrée, Prof. A., award of the Wol-
laston Medal to, Proc. 28.

Davidson, Thomas, Esq., Address to
the Geological Society of France as

Delegate from the Geological
Society, Proc. 95.
Davies, T., Esq., award of the Wol-

laston Donation fund to, Proc.
Bl.

Davis, J. W., Esq., on the fish-remains
found in the cannel coal in the
Middle Coal-measures of the West
Riding of Yorkshire, with the de-
scriptions of some new species, 56.

—— on the genus Pleuracanthus, in-
cluding the genera Orthacanthus,
Diplodus, and Xenacanthus, 321.

Dawkins, W. Boyd, Esq., on the clas-
sification of the Tertiary period by
means of the mammalia, 379.

Dee valley, Mr. J. EK. Marr on the
Cambrian and Silurian beds of the,
Dieleeies

Deer, development of antlers in, 395.

Denbighshire grits and flags of the
Dee valley, 283.

Devizes, Portland rocks near, 203.

Devon, North, Prof. Hull on the geo-
logical relations of the rocks of, to
those of the south of Ireland, 255.

Devonian, &c., sections of, in Ireland,
N. Devon, Herefordshire, and Bel-
gium, 274.

beds, Middle and Lower, 262;
absence of, in Ireland, 264.

Devonshire, Devonian and Curbonife-
rous rocks of, 259.

, north, section of Devonian, Old

668 GENERAL INDEX.

Red Sandstone, and Carboniferous
formations in, 274.

Diabase of Bohemia, 599.

Diastoporide, Mr. G. R. Vine on the
family, 836.

Dibry Mill, section from Krusna Hora
to, 594

Diorite of Bohemia, 599.

Diplodus, Mr. J. W. Davis on, 321.

Drift-deposits, correlation of the, of
the north-west of England with
those of the Midland and Hastern
counties, 178.

Dyce quarry, inclusions in granite
from, 12.

East-Midland counties, drift-deposits
of the, 182.

Kclogite of Bohemia, 599.

England, Mr. 8. V. Wood, jun., on
the Newer Pliocene period in, 457.

, Rey. J. F. Blake on the Port-
land rocks of, 189.

English granites, enclosures in, 5.

Eocene Mammalia, 382.

Erratics of the Orkneys, 659.

Etheridge, R., award of the Murchison
Medal and Fund to, Proce. 29.

Eucamerotus, Mr. J. W. Hulke on Hs
vertebree of, ol.

Eunicites chiromorphus, ov.

churtonensis, 371.

coronatus, 371.

eurtus, 370.

— major, 370.

unguiculus, 871.

——- yarians, 371.

Europe, Western, table of the Oligo-
cene strata of, 167.

Evans, Dr. J., award of the Lyell
Medal to, Proc. 30.

Faroe Islands, Mr. A. H. Stokes on the
coal found at Siiderée, 620.

Fault, section across, at south end of
“Colonie d’Archiac,” Repora, 612.

Felis sp., 127.

Felspar crystal with inclusions from
High Sharpley, 343.

Fenestella antiqua, 244.

—— intermedia, 250.

——§ lineata, 249.

—— Milleri, 246.

patula, 247.

—— prisca, 244.

regularis, 247.

reteporata, 249.

reticulata, 245,

rigidula, 248.

Fenestellidz, Mr. G. W. Shrubsole on
the British Upper Silurian, 241.

Fife, Mr. J. W. Kirkby on the zones
of marine fossils in the Calciferous
sandstone series of, 559.

Fish-remains, Mr. J. W. Davis on
the, in the cannel coal of the West
Riding of Yorkshire, 56.

Flint flake from Crayford, 546.

Flints, Dr. Wallich on Cretaceous,
68.

Fluvio-marine crag, 457.

Foggen Tor, inclusions in granite of,
8

Folkestone grey chalk, analysis of, 84.

Foreland grits, 265.

Forest-bed, Norfolk, Mr. E. T. Newton
on the occurrence of the Glutton in
the, Proc. 99

Fossils of the Brockenhurst series,
153; of the Hempstead series, 157 ;
marine, of the brackish-water bands
of Headon hill and Hordwell cliffs,
159; freshwater and _ terrestrial
molluscan, of the Isle of Wight Oli-
gocene, 161; of the Trigonia-beds
near Swindon, 209; of the Portland
sand, Swindon, 212; of the creamy
limestones of Buckinghamshire,
216; of the rubbly beds of Buck-
inghamshire, 218; of the Portland
series of England, 225; of Moel
Tryfan, 353; marine, of the calci-
‘ferous sandstone series of Fife,
560; table of, 587.

, Marine, zones of, in the ealei-
ferous-sandstone series of Fife, 559.

France, Address of Mr. Thomas
Davidson to the Geological Society
of, Proc. 95.

Geology of the Orkney Islands, 649.
Glacial beds, lower, of England, 463.
sand and gravel, middle, 479.
Glaciation of the Orkney Islands,
Messrs. Peach and Horne on the,648.

, effects of, on the gold-leads of
Nova Scotia, 312.

Glen Docherty, section of mica-schist
from the upper part. of, 104.

Glen Laggan, syenite of, 93; sketch
map of part of, 95.

, section of micaceous schist

from the newer series, 102.

sections in, 96.

Glen Nevis, inclusion in granite from,
15.

Glutton, Mr. HE. T. Newton on the oc-
currence of the, in the Norfolk
forest-bed, Proc. 99.

Gneiss, Hebridean, section of, from
near base of Ben Slioch, 97. |

, newer, of Loch Maree, 100;

GENERAL INDEX.

sections of the micaceous schist
of the, 102, 104.

Gneissic and granitoid rocks of Angle-
sey and the Malvern hills, Dr. C.
Callaway on the, Proc. 2.

Gold in carboniferous conglomerate in
Nova Scotia, 313.

Gold-leads of Nova Scotia, Mr. H. S.
Poole on the, 307.

Goragh Wood, inclusions in granite
from, 18.

Gorgonia assimilis, 247.

Graaf Reinet, Prof. Owen on an Ano-
modont reptile from the Trias of,
414,

Granite, Mr. J. A. Phillips on concre-

‘tionary patches and fragments of
other rocks contained in, 1.

of Bohemia, 598.

Granitoid and gneissic rocks of An-
glesey and the Malvern hills, Dr. C.
Callaway on the, Proc. 2.

Graptolitic mudstones of the Dee
valley, 281.

Gravesend chalk, analysis of, 83.

Gready, enclosures in granite of, 7 ;
analysis of, 8.

Grey chalk of Folkestone, analysis of,
84.

Gross Kuchel, section through, 615.

Gulo luscus, Proc. 99.

Guunislake, granite of, 8.

Haidinger, Colonie, section across,615.

Hampshire basin, Prof. Judd on the
Oligocene strata of the, 137.

, comparative vertical sec-
tions of the Oligocene strata of the
170.

Hardwick, section through, 290.

Headon-hill cliff, marine fossils of the
brackish-water bands of, 159.

Hebridean gneiss from near base of
Ben Slioch, section of, 97.

Hempstead series, fossils of the, 157.

Herefordshire, section of Devonian,
Old Red Sandstone, and Carbonite-
rous formations in, 274.

Beacon, rock from, 588, 539.

Hicks, Henry, Esq., on the Precam-
brian rocks of the North-western
and Central Highlands of Scotland,
Proc. 101.

High Sharpley, analysis of rock from,
342; broken quartz-crystal with
inclusions &c. from, 343; felspar
erystal with inclusions from, 343.

Hill, Rev. E., and Prof. T. G. Bonney
on the Precarboniferous rocks of
Charnwood Forest, 337.

Hinde, G. J., Esq., on annelid jaws

669

from the Wenlock and Ludlow for-
mations of the west of England, 368.

Historic Mammalia, 402.

Hlubos, section through, 594.

Hodkovicek, colony at, 614; section,
615.

Holobau, section by bridge east of, 600.

Hordwell cliff, marine fossils of the
brackish-water bands of, 159.

Horne, J., Hsq., and B. N. Peach,
Esq., on the glaciation of the
Orkney Islands, 648.

Hudlice, section through, 594.

Hughes, T. M‘Kenny, Esq., on the
geology of Anglesey, 237.

Hulke, J. W., Esq., on the vertebree
of Ornithopsis=Hucamerotus, 31.

, on Lguanodon Prestwichti from
the Kimmeridge Clay of Cumnor
Hurst, near Oxford, 433.

Hull, Prof. H., on the geological re-
lations of the rocks in the south of
Ireland to those of North Devon,
&e., 255.

Hyena felina, 130.

—— sivalensis, 128.

Ichthyosaurus Zetlandicus, Prof.
Seeley on, a new species from the
Lias of Whitby, 655.

Igneous rocks of Loch Maree, 105;
of the Predevonian basin of Bo-
hemia, 598.

Iguanodon, Prof. J. Prestwich on the
occurrence of a new species of, at
Cumnor Hurst, near Oxford, 430.

Iguanodon Prestwichtit, Mr. J. W.
Hulke on, 433.

Implements, palzolithic, manufactory
of, at Crayford, 544.

Inclusions in granites, different kinds
of, 19

Invernesshire, Messrs. Jolly and
Cameron on a new mineral occur-
ring in, 109.

Ireland, Mr. J. Nolan on the Old
Red Sandstone of the north of,
529.

, Old Red Sandstone of, 257;
absence of Middle and Lower
Devonian in, 264.

-—, Prof. Hull on the geological
relations- of the rocks of, to those
of North Devon, 255.

, South, sections of Devonian,
Old Red Sandstone, and Carbo-
niferous formations in, 274.

Trish granites, inclusions in, 15.

Isle of Wight, comparative vertical
sections of the Oligocene strata in
the, 170.

670

Jeffreys, J. Gwyn, Hsq., on the oc-
currence of marine shells of existing
species at different heights above
the present level of the sea, 351.

Jinec, section from, to Milin, 594.

J olly, W., Esq., and Cameron, J. M.,
Esq., on a new mneiral occurring

_ in the rocks of Invernesshire, 901.

Judd, Prof., on the Oligocene strata
of the Hampshire basin, 137.

Kargalinsk, near Orenburg, in South-
eastern Russia, Mr. W. H. Twelve-

_ trees on a new Theriodont reptile
from the Upper Permian cupri-

_ ferous sandstones of, 540.

Keighley, section in Marley sand-pit

_ hear, 186.

Kemnay, inclusions in granite from,

Kenilworth, drift-deposits round,

qSak

Kilworthy, section through, 290.

Kimmeridge, Portland rocks of, 193.

and Boulogne, comparative

sections at, 197...

Clay, Prof. J. Prestwich on the
occurrence of a new species of Igua-

_nodon in the, at Cumnor Hurst,
near Oxford, 480.

, Mr. J. W. Hulke on
Iguanodon Prestwichiti from the, of
Cumnor Hurst, 433.

Kineton; Prof. Seeley on an Ornitho-
saurian from the Stonesfield slate of,
27.

Kingsbarns harbour, 570.

Kintore, inclusions in granite from
Kemnay, near, 12.

Kirkby, J. W., Esq., on the zones of
marine fossils in the Calciferous
Sandstone series of Fife, 559.

Krejéi, Colonie, section across, 615.

Krusna Hora, section from Dibry
Mill to, 594.

Lacuna antiqua, 584.

Lake-district, Mr. J. H. Marr on the
Cambrian and Silurian beds of the,
277.

Lamorna, enclosures in granite of, 5.

Leamington, drift-deposits round,
183; section at Lillington near,

183.

Leda sp., 233.

Leicestershire, drift-deposits of, 184.

Lias of Whitby, Prof. Seeley on Teleo-
sawrus eucephalus, a new species

* from the, 627; Prof. Seeley on

_ Ichthyosaurus Zetlandicus, a new
species from the, 635.

GENERAL INDEX.

Lilleshall hill, rock from, 539.

Lillington, near Leamington, section
at, 183.

Lima bifureata, 234.

Liskeard, slate from, 73; granite of
Cheesewring quarries near, 8.

Littlemore, sections in railway-cutting

- near, 3815, 317.

Littonary Down, section from, to
Tavistock, 290.

Littorina bilineata, 584.

scotoburdigalensis, 584.

Llanberis, slate from, 73.

Loch Maree, Rev. T. G. Bonney on
the vicinity of the upper part af,
93.

Loch Goyle, mica-schist of, Proc. 89.

Lower glacial beds of England, 463.

Lower Chillaton, section through,

. 290.

Ludlow formation, Mr. G. J. Hinde
on annelid jaws from the, 368.

Lumbriconereites basalis, 376.

Lutra palzeindica, 133.

Luxulyan, enclosures in granite of

. Gready, near, 7.

Lyell Geological Fund, award of
the, to Prof. F. Quenstedt, Proc. 31.

Medal, award of the, to John

Evans, Esq., Proc. 30.

Macherodus paleindicus, 125.

Mackintosh, D., Esq., on the corre-
lation of the drift-deposits of the
North-west of Hugland with those of
the Midland and Hastern eps
L783.

Macrocheilus striatulus, 584.

Mallet, R., Hsq., on the probable tem-
perature of the primordial ocean
of our globe, 112.

Malvern Hills, Mr. C. Callaway on
the gneissic and granitoid rocks of
the, Proc. 2.

, Mr. C. Callaway on a

second Precambrian group in the,

536.
, dispersion of angular
et from the, 180.
Malvernian series, Proc. 2.
Mammalia, iHiocene: of Britain and

France, 382 ; Miocene, 385; Lower
Miocene, of France, 386; Mid-
Miocene, of France, 387; Upper

Miocene, 039 ; Lower Pliocene, of
France, 391; “Upper Pliocene, of
France and Italy, 392 ; Pleistocene,
395; early Pleistocene, of Britain,
395; Mid-Pleistocene, of Britain,
397; late Pleistocene, of Britain,
393; Prehistoric, of Britain and

& . GENERAL INDEX.

Ireland, 400; Historic, of the
British Isles, 402.

Mammalia from Quaternary beds at
Reading, 300. .

, Mr. W. Boyd Dawkins on the
classification of the Tertiary period
by means of the, 379.

Mammalian remains in Quaternary

-* sands at Reading, Mr. Poulton, on,
296.

Map of part of Glen Laggan, 95; of
Siideroe, 621. .

Marine shells, Mr. J. Gwyn Jeffreys
on the occurrence of, above the eo
sent level of the sea, 351.

Marley sand-pits, near Keighley, sec-
tion in, 186.

Marr, J. E., Esq., on the Cambrian
and Silurian beds of the Dee valley,
as compared with those of the Lake
district, 277.

, on the Predevonian rocks of
Bohemia, 591.

Mary Tavy, section through, 290.

May-hill group inthe Dee valley,281.

“Meather, section through, 290.

Metamorphic rocks, Proc. 81.

Mica-schist, section of, from the
upper part of Glen Docherty, 104.

Mica-trap of Bohemia, 598.

Microscopes, purchase of, Proc. 94.

Middle Glacial sand and gravel, 479,

Milin, section from Jinec to, 594.

Milton Abbot, section through, 289.

Mineral, Messrs. Jolly and Cameron
on a new, occurring in Inverness-
shire, 109.

Mining-operations in the gold-leads of
Nova Scotia, 309.

‘Miocene Mammalia, 385.

Moel Tryfan, fossils of, 353.

Mollusca, freshwater and terrestrial,
of the Isle of Wight, 161.

Monkstone, section through, 290.

Moor quarry, inclusions in granite
from, 18.

Moraines of the Orkneys, 658.

Motol, colony of, 610; section across
colony at, 610.

Mourne granite, inclusions in, 18.

-Mudstones, graptolitic, of the Dee
valley, 281.

Murchison Medal and Fund, award of
the, to Robert Etheridge, Eisq., Proc.

“TAGs

Myalina modioliformis, 585.

Myoconcha portlandica, 231.

Natal, Rev. G. Blencowe on geolo-
5, gical facts witnessed in, 426,
Natica ceres, 229,

671

Natica incisa, 229.

Nautilus planotergatus, 583.

Nereidavus antiquus, 377.

New Forest, vertical section of Oligo-
cene strata in the, 170.

Newer gneiss of Loch Maree, 100.
Pliocene period in England,
Mr. S.-V. Wood, jun., on the, “ABT,
Newry, inclusions in granite from, 16;

analyses of, 17.

Newton, H. T., Esq., on the occur-
rence of the Glutton in the forest=
bed of Norfolk, Proc. gg.

Nolan, Joseph, Esq., on the Old Red
Sandstone of the North of Ireland,
529.

Norfolk, Mr. E. T. Newton on the
occurrence of the Glutton in the
forest-bed of, Proc. 99.

North Devon, geological relations of
the rocks of, to those of the south
of Ireland, Prof. Hull on, 255.

Nova Scotia, Mr. H. 8. Poole on the

gold-leads of, 307.
Nuneaton, drift-deposits round, 183.
Nun’s Well, St. Davids, rock from, 539.

Ocean, primordial, Mr. R. Mallet on
the temperature of the, 112.

(Enonites aspersus, 378.

cuneatus, 372.

, var. humilis, 372.

—— inequalis, 373.

insignificans, 373.

—— naviformis, 372.

preacutus, 373.

regularis, 37.2.

tubulatus, 373.

Old Red Sandstone and Carboniferous
of the South of Ireland and ie
Devon, 257.

——, &c., sections of, in

Ireland, N. Devon, Herefordshire,

and Belgium, 274.

of the North of
Ireland, Mr. J. Nolan on the, 529.

Oligocene strata, Prof. Judd on the,
ot Hampshire, 137.

of Western Europe, table

of the, 167.

of the Hampshire basin,
foe al vertical sections of the,
170

Ooze, Atlantic, mines of, 83.

Orenburg, Mr. W. H. Twelvetrees on
a new Theriodont reptile from the
Upper Permian cupriferous sand-
stones of Kargalinsk, near, 540,

Orkney Islands, Messrs. Peach and
Horne on the glaciation of the, 648.

-——,, geological structure of the,

——_-

672

649; Boulder-clay of, 654; mo-
raines of, 658; erratics of, 659.

Ornithopsis, Mr. J. W. Hulke on the
vertebre of, 31.

Orthacanthus, Mr. J. W. Davis on,
321.

Orthoceras cylindraceum, 583.

Ostracacanthus dilatatus, 64.

Oxford, Mr. J.W. Hulke on Jgwanodon
Prestwichit from the Kimmeridge
Clay of Cumnor Hurst, near, 433.

, Prof. J. Prestwich on the oc-

currence of a new species of Igu-

anodon in the Kimmeridge Clay at

Cumnor Hurst, near, 430.

sewage-farm, Mr. EH. S. Cobbold
on the strata exposed in laying out
the, 314.

Oxfordshire, Portland rocks of, 213.

Owen, Prof., on the skull of Argil-
lornis longipennis, 23.

,on parts of the skeleton of an

Anomodont reptile (Platypodosau-

rus robustus) from the Trias of Graaf

Reinet, S. Africa, 414.

Paleolithic implements, manufactory

_ of, at Crayford, 544.

Peach, B. N., Esq., and J. Horne, Esq.,
on the glaciation of the Orkney
Islands, 648.

Pecten Morini, 234.

Peldar-Tor district, 341.

Penryn, enclosures in granite of, 7.

Permian cupriferous sandstones, up-
per, Mr. W. H. Twelvetrees on a
new Theriodont reptile from the,
of Kargalinsk, near Orenburg, 540.

Peterhead, inclusions in granite from,
13.

Phillips, J. A., Esq., on concretionary
patches and fragments of other rocks
contained in granite, 1.

Pittenweem and Anstruther section
in the calciferous saudstone series,
560.

, sections of calciferous sand-
stone strata, near, 568, 571.

Platypodosaurus robustus, Prof. Owen
on, from the Trias of Graaf Reinet,

_ §. Africa, 414.

Pleistocene and Pliocene periods,
magnitude of the break between
the, 396.

Mammalia, 395.

Pleuracanthus, Mr. J.W. Davis on,321.

alatus, 329.

alternidentatus, 328.

— cylindricus, 331.

denticulatus, 334.

erectus, 326.

GENERAL INDEX, PS

Pleuracanthus levissimus, 825.

—— planus, 329.

—— pulchellus, 327.

robustus, 330.

— tenuis, 327.

Wardi, 334.

Pleurophorus elegans, 586.

Plicatula echinoides, 238.

Pliocene and Pleistocene periods,
magnitude of the break between
the, 396.

Mammalia, 391.

period, newer, in England, Mr.
8. V. Wood, jun., on the, 457.

Poole, H.S8., Esq., on the gold-leads
of Nova Scotia, 307.

Porphyrite of Bohemia, 599.

Portland, Isle of, Portland rocks of,

190.
rocks, Rev. J. F. Blake on
the, of England, 189.
Portlethon, mica-schists of, Proc. go.
Poulton, E. B., Esq., on mammalian
remains and tree-trunks in Quater-
_ nary sands at Reading, 296.
Precambrian group, Mr. C. Callaway
on a second, in the Malvern Hills,

536.
rocks of the North-western

and Central Highlands ot Scotland,

Dr. Hicks on the, Proc. 101.

of Bohemia, 592; compared
with those of Britain, 601.

Precarboniferous rocks, Rev. E. Hill
and Prof. Bonney on the, of Charn-
wood Forest, 337.

Predevonian rocks of Bohemia, Mr.
J. E. Marr on the, 591.

Prehistoric Mammalia, 400.

Prestwich, Prof. J., on the occurrence
of a new species of Iguanodon in a
brick-pit of the Kimmeridge Clay
at Cumnor Hurst, three miles
W.S.W. of Oxford, 480.

Pribram, section through, 594.

Primordial ocean, Mr. R. Mallet on
the temperature of the, 112.

Protospongia, Mr. J. W. Sollas on the
genus, 862.

Protospongia fenestrata, 363.

Psephophorus polygonus, Prof. H. G.
Seeley on, 406.

Pumice, fragments of, filled with a
green mineral, Proc. 80.

Purbeck and Portland rocks at Swin-
don, sections of, 205.

Purple-clay of Yorkshire, 507.

Pycnodus pagoda, 228.

Quartz, deposition of, on sand-grains,
Proc. 62.

GENERAL INDEX.

Quartz-crystal, with inclusions &e.,
from High Sharpley, 323.
Quartz-felsite of Bohemia, 598.
Quartzite of Loch Maree, 99.
Quaternary sands, Mr. EH. B. Poulton
on mammalian remains and tree-
trunks in, at Reading, 296.
Quenstedt, Prof. F., award of the
Lyell Geological Fund to, Proc. 31.
Quether, section through, 290.
Qvalboe mines, Siideroé, 620.

Ram’s Down, section across, 289.

Randerstone section in the calciferous
sandstone series, 572.

, section near, 575.

Ratchet-hill district, 341.

Reading, Mr. 8. B. Poulton on mam-
malian remains and tree-trunks at,
296.

, sections of Tertiary and Quater-
nary deposits near, 297, 303, 305.

Red crag, 457.

Repora, sections across
d’Archiac ” at, 612.

Reptile, Anomodont, Prof. Owen on
an, from the Trias of Graaf Reinet,
S. Africa, 414.

, chelonian, Prof. H. G. Seeley

on Psephophorus polygonus, a new

type of, 406.

, Mr. W. H. Twelvetrees on a

new Theriodont, from the Upper

*¢ Colonie

Permian cupriferous sandstones
of Kargalinsk, near Orenburg,
540.

Retepora infundibulum, 246.

Rhamphocephalus Prestwichi, from the
Stonesfield slate of Kineton, Prof.
Seeley on, 27.

Rhynchonella portlandica, 234.

Rissoa acuticarina, 230.

Rock and Spindle, near St. Andrews,
fossils from limestone near, 563;
section of Myalina-bed and coal
near, 573.

Rock-fragments contained in granite,
Mr. J. Phillips on, 1.

Rocks, Portland, Rev. J. F. Blake on
the, of England, 189.

, Precarboniterous, Rev. E. Hill
and Prof. Bonney on the, of Charn-
wood Forest, 337.

Rubislaw quarry, inclusion in granite
from, 11.

Rutlandshire, drift-deposits of, 184.

Rutley, F., Esq., on the schistose vol-
eanic rocks occurring on the west
of Dartmoor, with some notes on
the structure of the Brent-Tor vol-
cano, 285.

Q.J.G.8S. No. 144.

673

St. Alban’s Head, Portland rocks of,
193.

St. Austell, enclosures in granite of, 7.

St. Davids, rock from Nun’s well, 539.

Sandford-on-Thames, Mr. E. 8. Cob-
bold on the strata exposed in laying
out the Oxford sewage-farm at,314.

, sections in and near sewage-farm
at, 315, 317.

Sand-grains, deposition of quartz on,
Proce. 62.

Sanguinolites abdensis, 586.

subplicatus, 586.

Schist, micaceous, section of, from the
newer series, Glen Laggan, 102.

Schistose rocks, Mr. F. Rutley on the,
of Dartmoor, 285.

Sclattie quarry, near Buxburn, en-
closures in granite from, 11.

Scotch granites, inclusions in, 10.

Scotland, Devonian beds of, 270.

, Dr. Hicks on the Precambrian
rocks of the North-western and Cen-
tral Highlands of, Proc. rot.

Secondary rocks, Mr. P. H. Carpenter
on some Comatule from the British,
36.

Sections in Glen Laggan, 96; vertical,
of the Oligocene strata of the Hamp-
shire basin, 170; near the Shrews-
bury Welsh Bridge, 179; at Lil-
lington, near Leamington, 183; in
Marley sand-pit, near Keighley,
186 ; at Kimmeridge and Boulogne,
197; of Purbeck and Portland
rocks at Swindon, 205; of Devo-
nian, Old Red Sandstone, and Car-
boniferous formations in Ireland,
N. Devon, Herefordsbire, and Bel-
gium, 274; in the neighbourhood
of the rectory, Cerrigydrudion,
280; across Ram’s Down, 289;
from Littonary Down to Tavistock,
290; touching the southern edge of

- Brent Tor, 290; east of Brent Tor,
291; nearly N. and S. through
Brent Tor, 292; of Brent Tor re-
stored, 292; illustrating the possible
relation of the Brent-Tor volcanic
series with that of Saltash, 293;
illustrating the manner in which
part of the Brent-Tor volcano has
been faulted, 293; in north face of
pit near Reading, 297; probable, of
junction between Tertiary beds and
Quaternary reconstructed beds, near
Reading, 803; of south bank of
river-valley near Reading, 305; of
railway-cutting near Littlemore,
Oxford, 315; along road through
Sandford, 315; on sewage-farm,

OA

674

Sandford, 315; along lane to farm,
315; vertical, in railway-cutting
near Littlemore, and on the sewage-
farm, Sandford, 317 ; diagrammatic,
showing the probable relation of
the beds in the northern part of
Charnwood Korest, 341 ; at Cumnor
Hurst, 430; of cliff at Crayford,
544; from the Thames to the
Manor House, Crayford, 547; of
‘calciferous sandstone strata on the
coast of Fife, 568, 571, 573, 575;
from Jinec to Milin, 594; from
Krusna Hora to Dibry Mill, 594;
on the north side of Slivenee valley,
596; by bridge east of Holobau,
600; diagrammatic vertical, showing
the supposed relations of the colo-
nies, 608 ; across the colony at Motol,
610; across fault at ,south end of
Colonie d’Archiac,” Repora,, 612 ;
across ‘Colonie d’Archiac,” Repora,
612; across “Colonie de Hodkovicek,”
615; across “Colonies Krejti” and
“ Haidinger,” 615.

Sedgwickia gigantea, 586.

Seeley, Prof. H. G., on Rhampho-
cephalus Prestwichi, Seeley, an Or-

‘nithosaurian from the Stonesfield
slate of Kineton, 27.

, on Psephophorus polygonus, a

new type of Chelonian reptile allied

to the leathery turtle, 406.

, on the cranial characters of a

large Teleosaur from the Whitby

_Lias, preserved in the Woodwardian

Museum of the University of Cam-
bridge, indicating a new species,
Teleosaurus eucephalus, 627.

, on the skull of an Ichthyosaurus
from the Lias of Whitby, apparently
indicating a new species (lchthyo-
saurus Zetlandicus), preserved in the
Woodwardian Museum of the Uni-
versity of Cambridge, 635.

Severn, Upper Boulder-clay on the,
180.

Sewage-farm, Oxford, Mr. E. S. Cob-
bold on the strata exposed in laying
out the, 314.

Shap, slate from, 73.

granite, inclusions in, 8.

Sharpley, analysis of rock from, 342.

Shells, marine, Dr. J. Gwyn Jeffreys
on the occurrence of, above the pre-
sent level of the sea, 351.

Shoreham, analysis of chalk from, 84.

Shrewsbury Welsh bridge, section near
the, 179.

Shrubsole, G. W., Esq., on the British

_Upper-Silurian Fenestellide, 241.

GENERAL INDEX,

Silurian beds, Mv. J... Marr on the,
of the Dee valley and of the Lake
district, 277.

rocks of Bohemia, 595; com-
pared with those of Britain, 693.

Sivalik hills, Mr. P. N. Bose on fossil
carnivora of, 119.

Slate, from Liskeard, Proc. 73; from
Shap, 73; from Llanberis, 73.

Slates of Charnwood Forest, 348.

Slivenec valley, section on the north
side of, 596.

Sollas, W. J., Esq., on the structure
and affinities of the genus Proto-
spongia, 362.

Sorby, Henry Clifton, Esq. (President),
Address on handing the Wollaston
Gold Medal to H. Bauerman, Hsq.,
for transmission to Prof. A. Dau-
brée, Proc. 28 ; Address on presenting
the Murchison Medal and Fund to
Robert Etheridge, Hsq., 29; Address
on presenting the Lyell Medal to
John Hvans, Hsq., 30; Address on
presenting the Wollaston Donation
Fund to Thomas Davies, Esq., 31 ;
Address on handing the balance of
the Lyell Geological Fund to Prof.
Seeley for transmission to Prof. F.
Quenstedt, 31; Anniversary Address,
February 20, 1880; Obitwary Notices
of Deceased Fellows: —Prof. James
Nicol, 33; Sir W. C. Trevelyan,
Bart., 36; Mr. John Waterhouse,
37; Prof. David Page, 39; Prof. .
C. B. von Cotta, 40; Prof. F. L. P.
Gervais, 43; and Prof. J. F. Brandt,
44. Address on the Structure and
Origin of non-calcareous stratified
rocks, 46.

South Africa, Prof. Owen on an Ano-
modont reptile from the Trias of,
414.

Sowerbya longior, 231.

Spicules of Protospongia fenestrata,
365.

Spurrell, F.C. J., Esq., on the dis-
covery of the place where Palzxo-
lithic implements were made at
Crayford, 544.

Staurocephalites serrula, 376.

Stirling-hill granite-quarries, 13.

Stokes, A. H., Hsq., on the coal found
jn Suderoe, Farde Islands, 620.

Stonesfield slate of Kineton, Prof,
Seeley on Rhamphocephalus Prest-

_wichi, an Ornithosaurian from the,
27.

Siiderde, Mr. A. H. Stokes on the coal
found at, 620.

Swindon, Portland rocks of, 203; sec-

GENERAL INDEX.

tions of Purbeck and Portland rocks
at, 205.
Syenite of Glen Laggan, 93.

Tachlovice, colony at, 613.

Tarannon shales of the Dee valley,
282.

Tavistock, section from Littonary
Down to, 290.

Teleosaurus eucephalus, Prof. Seeley
on, a new species from the Whitby
Lias, 627.

Temperature, Mr. R. Mallet on the, of
the primordial ocean, 112.

Tertiary period, Mr. W. Boyd Daw-
kins on the classification of the, by
means of the Mammalia, 379.

Theriodont reptile, Mr. W. H. Twelve-
trees on a new, from the Upper
Permian cupriferous sandstones of
Kargalinsk, near Orenburg, 540.

Thracia tenera, 230.

Tingley, cannel coal of, 57; fishes
from, 59.

Torridon sandstone of Loch Maree,
98.

Tree-trunks in Quaternary sands at
Reading, Mr. E. B. Poulton on, 296.

Triassic pebbles, redistribution of,
182.

Trigonia swindonensis, 233.

Trochus serrilimba, 585.

Turbo apertus, 230.

Foucardi, 230.

Twelvetrees, W. H., Esq., on a new
Theriodont reptile (Clorhizodon
orenburgensis) from the Upper Per-
mian cupriferous sandstones of Kar-
galinsk, near Orenburg, in South-
eastern Russia, 540.

Twowell, section through, 289.

Unicardiwm circulare, 232.
Upway, Portland rocks of, 198.

Vertebra of Ornithopsis= Hucamerotus,
Mr. Hulke on, 31.

675

Vine, G. R., Esq., on the family Dias-
toporids, 356.

Viverra Bakerii, 131.

Vohrada, colony on the road to, 613.

Volcanic rocks, Mr. F. Rutley on the,
of Dartmoor, 288.

Wales, Devonian rocks in, 268.

Wallich, Dr., on the physical history
of the Cretaceous flints, 68.

Wardour, Portland rocks of the vale
of, 199.

Wenlock formaticn, Mr. G. J. Hinde
on annelid jaws from the, 368.

West Ardsley, cannel coal at, 58.

of England, Mr. G. J. Hinde on

annelid jaws of the Wenlock and

Ludlow formations of the, 368.

Langstone, section through, 291.

Riding of Yorkshire, Mr. J. W.
Davis on the fish-remains in the
cannel coal of the, 56.

Whitby, Lias of, Prof. Seeley on Teleo-
saurus eucephalus, a new species from
the, 627; Prof. Seeley on Ichthyo-
saurus Zetlandicus, a new species
from the, 635.

Wicca Pool, Zennor, enclosures in
granites at, 6.

Wollaston Donation Fund, award of
the,to Thomas Davies, Hsq.,Proc. 31.

Medal, award of the, to Prof.
A. Daubrée, Proc. 28.

Wood, S. V., Esq., jun., on the Newer
Pliocene period in England, 457.
Woodwardian Museum, Prof. Seeley
on the cranial characters of a large
Teleosaur preserved in the, 627;
Prof. Seeley on the skull of an Ich-

thyosaur preserved in the, 635.

Yorkshire, Mr. J. W. Davis on the
fish-remains in the cannel coal of
the West Riding of, 56.

Zennor, enclosures in granites at
Wicca Pool, 6.

END OF VOL. XXXYI.

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PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON.
SESSION 1879-80.

November 5, 1879.
Hewry Crirton Sorsy, Esq., LL.D., F.R.S., President, in the Chair.

Henry Bruce Armstrong, Esq., 25 Saville Row, was elected a
Fellow of the Society.

The List of Donations to the Library was read.

The following communications were read :—

1. “On the probable Temperature of the Primordial Ocean of our
Globe.” By Robert Mallet, Esq., F.R.S., F.G.S.

2. ‘©On the Fish-remains found in the Cannel Coal in the Middle
Coal-measures of the West Riding of Yorkshire, with the Description
of some new Species.” By James W. Davis, Esq., F.G.S., &c.

3. “On the Skull of Argillornis longipennis, Owen.” By Prof.
R. Owen, C.B., F.R.S., F.G.S., &e.

November 19, 1879.
Henry Crrrron Sorsy, Esq., LL.D., F.R.S., President, in the Chair.

Edmund Knowles Binns, Esq., 216 Heavygate Road, Sheffield ;
and John Dawson, Esq., 11 Somerset Place, Bath, were elected
Fellows of the Society.

The List of Donations to the Library was read.

The following communications were read :—

1. “Supplementary Note on the Vertebre of Ornithopsis, Seeley
(=Eucamerotus, Hulke).” By J. W. Hulke, Esq., F.R.S., F.G.S.
VOL. XXXVI. ab

2 PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

2. “On the Concretionary Patches and Fragments of other Rocks
sometimes contained in Granite.” By J. Arthur Phillips, Esq.,
F.GS.

3. “Certain Geological Facts witnessed in Natal and the Border
Countries during nineteen years’ residence.” By the Rey. George
Blencowe. Communicated by the Rev. H. Griffith, F.G.S.

December 3, 1879.
Henry Crirton Sorsy, Esq.,LL.D., F.R.S., President, in the Chair.

Syed Ali, Esq., B.A., Hyderabad, Deccan, India; Wynne Edwin
Baxter, Esq., 208 High Street, Lewes, Sussex; Arthur Robert
Boyle, Esq., Enginéers’ Office, Lime-Street Station, Liverpool ;
Rey. John Lowry Carrick, M.A., Spring Hill, Southampton; Prof.
Edward Waller Claypole, Antioch College, Yellow Springs, Ohio,
U.8.A.; Rev. T. Dowen, Newlands Terrace, Bootle, Liverpool ;
Rowland Gascoyne, Esq., Mexborough, near Rotherham, Yorkshire ;
George M. Henty, Esq., Georsetown, Colorado, U.S. A.; John Mar-
shall, Esq., F.R.A.S., ‘Albion Place, Leeds ; Tesiah Martin, Esq.,
Three-Kings College, Auckland, New Zealand ; Charles Maxted, Esq.,
Providence Cottage, Well Road, Hampstead, NW. ; Edward Provis,
Esq., M.A., Worcester Street, Bromsgrove ; Thomas William Rumble,
Esq., The Cottage, East Hill, Wandsworth, 8.W.; Rev. John Reuben
Taft, St. George’s, Wolverhampton; Octavius Albert Shrubsole, Ksq.,
Reading; Samuel Richard Smyth, Esq., 3 Blenheim Terrace, Old
Trafford, Manchester ; and William Neish Walter, Esq., Hillpark
Terrace, Newport, Fife, were elected Fellows of the Society.

The List of Donations to the Library was read.

The following communications were read :—

1. “The Gneissic and Granitoid Rocks of Anglesey and the
Malvern Hills.” By C. Callaway, M.A., D.Sc., F.G.8.; with an
Appendix on the Microscopic Structure of some of the "Rocks, by
Prof. T. G. Bonney, M.A., F.R.S., Sec. G.S.

[ Abstract *. ]

The author described the results of his investigations into the
stratigraphy and petrology of the above districts, which have led
him to the following conclusions:—(1) The granitoid (Dimetian)
rocks of Anglesey pass down into an anticlinal of dark gneiss (above)
and grey gneiss (below). (2) Associated with the granitoid series
are bands of felsite, hilleflintas, and felspathic breccias. (3) The
succession of gneissic and granitoid rocks in Anglesey resembles. so
closely the metamorphic series of Malvern as to justify the correla-
tion of the two groups. (3) The Pre-Cambrian rocks of Anglesey

* This paper has been withdrawn.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY. 3

and the Malverns, from the highest known member down to the
base of the gneiss, may be thus classified :—A. Pebidian (to be de-
scribed hereafter); B. Malvernian—(a) Dimetian, with associated
quartz-felsites and halleflintas (Arvonian), passing down into (6)
Lewisian.

Discussion.

Dr. Hicxs stated that he had always considered the hornblendic
series as part of the Dimetian series, and had so marked it in his
map, 80 that he did not think this paper touched his work. He had
thought that Dr. Callaway was going to place most of the schist of
Anglesey below the above series, but that he did not find stated in
the paper. He had for a long time believed that the Malvern series
could be correlated with some of the Anglesey rocks. He had long
since examined that series. He described some sections exhibited
in the Malvern hills, and expressed his disagreement with the
author’s views.

Mr. Ruriey asked whether granitoidite was an arkose or not.

Prof. Duncan asked what the last speaker would call the rock.
He said that Dr. Holl might claim priority in the character of the
Malvern rocks. He asked whether felspar similar to that found in
the Malvern rocks had been found in Anglesey. He thought it was
difficult to distinguish rocks by their mineralogical characters.

Mr. Rutiey, in answer to Dr. Duncan, stated that he had not
examined the rock, but that the description would lead him to
regard it as arkose.

Prof. Bonney explained the sense in which he had suggested the
term granitoidite, and said that he could not agree with Dr. Hicks
in his reading of the Malvern hills.

Prof. Huenes asked whether Dr. Callaway had made out the
relation of the schists near Craig yr allor, indicated on his ground
plan, to those shown in his section, in which schists were repre-
sented as faulted against the rocks of the central axis.

The PrestpEnT, in calling on Dr. Callaway to reply, stated that
he thought great caution was needed in identifying rocks far apart
by their mineral character.

Dr. Carzaway said he did not attach so much value to minera-
logical character as to succession, He had avoided some of the
larger questions because he wished to proceed with caution, and so
mentioned first those which he was most sure about. He main-
tained that the gneiss rocks which he had described were quite
distinct from the Dimetian, were of greater antiquity, and were
developed in the Menai anticlinal as well as in the central “axis.”
He had fully accorded priority to Dr. Holl in the character of the ~
Malvern series. Prof. Hughes had missed his chief point, that at
Craig yr allor the schists were not faulted against the granitoid
rock, but passed up into it.

2 “ Petrological Notes on the Neighbourhood of Loch Maree.”
By Prof. T. G. Bonney, M.A., F.R.S., Sec. G.S.

4 PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

3. “On some undescribed Comatule from the British Secondary’

Rocks.” By P. Herbert Carpenter, M.A., Assistant Master at Eton
College. |

—=

December 17, 1879.
Henry Crirton Sorsy, Esq., LL.D., F.R.S., President, in the Chair..

James Booth, Esq., The Grange, Ovenden, Halifax; P. N. Bose,
Esq., B.Sc., 35 Colville Square, W.; Edgar 8. Cobbold, Esq., Chase-
wood Lodge, Ross, Herefordshire; D. M. Ford Gaskin, Esq., Town
Hall, St. Helens, Lancashire; John Farran Penrose, Esq., Park-
henver, Redruth, Cornwall; Stephen Seal, Esq., Coxbench House,
Darfield, near Barnsley ; Thomas Tate, Ksq., Rushton Villas, Thorn-
bury, Bradford, Yorkshire; and Richard Taylor, Esq., Marske-by-
the-Sea, were elected Fellows of the Society.

The List of Donations to the Library was read.

The following communications were read :—

1. “A Contribution to the Physical History of the Cretaceous
Flints.” By Surgeon-Major G. C. Wallich, M.D. Communicated
by the President.

2. ‘ Undescribed Fossil Carnivora from the Sivalik Hills, in the
Collection of the British Museum.” By P. N. Bose, Esq., B.Sc.
Communicated by Prof. J. W. Judd, F.R.S., Sec.G.S.

January 7, 1880.
Henry Crrrton Sorsy, Esq., LL.D., F.R.S., President, in the Chair.

Edward Bagnall Poulton, Esq., Jesus College, Oxford, was elected
a Fellow; and Prof. A. KE. Nordenskiold, Stockholm, and Prof. F.
Zirkel, Leipzig, Foreign Members of the Society.

The List of Donations to the Library was read.
The following communications were read :—

1. “On the Portland Rocks of England.” By the Rey. J. F.
Blake, M.A., F.G.S.

2. “On the Correlation of the Drift-deposits of the N.W. of
England with those of the Midland and Hastern Counties.” By
D. Mackintosh, Esq., F.G.S.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY. 5

January 21, 1880.
Henry Crirton Sorsy, Esq., LL.D., F.R.S., President, in the Chair.

Robert Bell, Esq., 20 Burghley Road, Highgate Road, N., was
elected a Fellow of the Society.

The List of Donations to the Library was read.

The President announced that an application had been made to
the Council by the President of the Philological Society for assistance
in perfecting an English Dictionary, in which it is proposed to
show the history of the various words. With regard to geological
and mineralogical terms he was especially anxious to obtain assist-
ance in ascertaining their earliest employment. Fellows of the
Society who were willing to cooperate in this work could commu-
nicate with the President of the Philological Society (Dr. Murray,
Mill Hill, Middlesex, N.W.).

The following communications were read :—

1. “On the Genus Pleuracanthus, Agass., including the Genera
Orthacanthus, Agass. & Goldt., Diplodus, Agass., and Xenacanthus,
Beyr.” By J. W. Davis, Esq., F.G.S8.

2. ‘On the Schistose Volcanic Rocks occurring on the west of
Dartmoor, with some Notes on the Structure of the Brent-Tor
Volcano.” By Frank Rutley, Esq., F.G.S.

3. “On Mammalian Remains and Tree-trunks in Quaternary
Sands at Reading.” By E. B. Poulton, Esq., F.G.S.

The following specimens were exhibited :—

Microscopic sections and a specimen of Schalstein from Nassau,
exhibited by John Arthur Phillips, Hsq., F.G.S.

Artificially formed Siliceous Stalactites and Concretions, exhibited
by HE. A. Pankhurst, Esq.

Cape Diamonds and specimens of Mr. Mactear’s artificial crystals,
exhibited by Prof. Tennant, F.G.S.

A specimen from Brent Hill, exhibited by W. G. Thorpe, Esq.,

Specimens in illustration of their respective papers, exhibited by
Messrs. J. W. Davis, F. Rutley, and E. B. Poulton.

February 4, 1880.
Henry Crirton Sorpy, Esq., LL.D., F.R.S., President, in the Chair.

Francis Bond, Esq., M.A., Snowdon House, John Street, Hamp-
VOL. XXXVI. b

6 PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

stead, N.W.; Charles Herbert Cobbold, Esq., San Valentino, Abruzzo
Citeriore, Italy ; Frank Crisp, Esq., LL.B., B.Sc., F.L.S8.,5 Lansdowne
Road, Notting Hill, W.; William Henry Dover, Esq., Myrtle Grove,
Keswick ; Mirza Mehdy Khan, Chudder Ghaut, Hyderabad, Deccan,
India ; John Notman, Esq., Parliament Buildings, Toronto, Ontario ;
and John Evelyn Williams, Esq., C.E., Boston, Lincolnshire, were
elected Fellows of the Society.

The List of Donations to the Library was read.

A series of Geyserites were presented to the Museum by Dr. F. V.
Hayden, F.M.G.S. ; and casts of the Three-toed Footprints from the
Triassic Conglomerate of South Wales were presented by W. J. Sollas,
Ksq., F.G.S.

The President announced that, according to a circular, copies of
which had been sent to the Society, certain old students of Freiberg
were endeavouring to collect the means for erecting a monument
in Freiberg to the memory of the late Prof. Bernhard von Cotta,
and, further, of establishing a Fund for the assistance of needy
students at the Mining Academy of that place.

The following communication was read :—

“On the Oligocene Strata of the Hampshire Basin.” By Prof.
John W. Judd, F.R.S., Sec.G.S.

ANNUAL REPORT. 4

ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING,
February 20, 1880.

Henry Currton Sorsy, Esq., LL.D., F.R.S., President, in the Chair.

Report oF tHE Covuncit For 1879.

In presenting their Report for the year 1879, the Council of the
Geological Society regret that, probably owing mainly to the con-
tinuance of that commercial depression to which they adverted in
their last Report, they have to announce to the Fellows that the
Society has not regained that material prosperity which it enjoyed
during several preceding years.

The number of new Fellows elected during the year is the same
as in 1878, namely 55, of whom, however, only 40 paid their fees
before the end of the year, making, with 5 previously elected Fellows
who paid their fees in 1879, a total accession during the year of only
45 Fellows. On the other hand we have the loss by death of 29,
and by resignation of 15 Fellows, whilst 3 Fellows were removed
from the list for non-payment of contributions, making a total loss
of 47 Fellows. Thus, on the year, there is an actual decrease of
2 Fellows. But as, of the 29 Fellows deceased, 6 were compounders,
and 14 non- -contributing Fellows, the number of contributing ove
is increased by 5, being now 744.

The total number of Fellows and Foreign Members and Gores
spondents was 1416 at the end of the year 1878, and 1415 at the
end of the year 1879.

During the year 1879 intelligence was received of the death of
5 Foreign Members; and 3 of the vacancies thus caused, with the 2
existing at the end of 1878, were filled up in the course of the year,
leaving at its close 2 vacancies in the list of Foreign Members. The
5 vacancies thus produced in the list of Foreign Correspondents, and
that existing at the close of 1878, were all filled up during the year.

The continuance, and indeed partial aggravation of the unfavour-
able conditions referred to in the last Report of the Council, mani-
fested in the numerical statements already given, shows itself very
clearly in its effect on the financial position of the Society. The total
Receipts for the year 1879 (exclusive of Mr. Ellis’s legacy of £1000)
were only £2466 ds. 1d., but still £45 6s. 5d. more than the esti-
mated Income for the year. The total Expenditure, on the other
hand, was £2527 2s. 8d., or £28 15s. 2d. below the estimate for the

b2

8 PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

year, although still showing an excess of Expenditure over Income
of £60 17s. 7d. The estimated excess at the last Annual Meeting
was £134 18s. 4d.

The Council have to announce the completion of Vol. XXXY. of
the Quarterly Journal and the commencement of Vol. XXXVI.

The Council have further to announce that the Catalogue of the
Library is completed, and is now in the Printers’ hands. It is esti-
mated to make a volume of over 500 pages, and will be issued to
the Fellows at the price of five shillings. The Council hope that
the usefulness of this volume as a guide to the contents of the
Library, will lead to its being very generally purchased by the
Fellows, so that the cost of its production may speedily be repaid. ©
To meet the immediate expense of printing, &c., the Council pro-
pose to sell out the necessary amount of the Stock belonging to the
Society ; the sum thus employed to be replaced by the investment
of the amounts realized by the sale of the Catalogue.

The Council have awarded the Wollaston Medal to Professor A.
Daubrée, of Paris, a Foreign Member of the Society, in recognition
of his long and arduous work in Geology, and especially on the for-
mation of minerals and the metamorphism of rocks.

The Murchison Medal and the proceeds of the Murchison Dona-
tion Fund have been awarded to Robert Etheridge, Esq., F.R.S.,
F.G.S., in recognition of his distinguished services to Paleontology,
especially in the preparation of his most valuable Catalogue of
British Fossils, and to assist him in the completion of that work.

The Lyell Medal, with the sum of Twenty Guineas from the pro-
ceeds of the Fund, has been awarded to John Evans, Ksq., LL.D.,
F.R.S., F.G.S., in recognition of his distinguished services to Geo-
logical ‘Science, “especially i in the department of Post-tertiary Geology.

‘The balance of the proceeds of the ‘Wollaston Donation Fund has
been awarded to Thomas Davies, Esq., F.G.S., as a testimony of the
value of his researches in Mineralogy and Lithology, and to assist
him in the further examination of the Microscopic structure of
Rocks.

The balance of the proceeds of the Lyell Donation Fund has been
awarded to Professor Quenstedt, of Tubingen, a Foreign Member of
the Society, in recognition of his distinguished services to Minera-
logy and Geology, and to assist him in the publication of his great
work ‘ Die Petrefactenkunde Deutschlands.’ |

In pursuance of the resolution announced in the final paragraph
of their last Annual Report, the Council have procured from Mr.
Swift an excellent binocular Microscope for the use of the Fellows
of the Society, the cost of which (£33 10s.) has been paid out of the
proceeds of the Barlow-Jameson Fund. ‘The instrument is such as
to be available for any kind of microscopic work ; but it has been
furnished with appliances which fit it specially for petrographical
purposes.

ANNUAL REPORT. 9

Report oF THE LIBRARY AND Musnum ComMMItTTEE.
Labrary.

Since the last Anniversary Meeting a great number of valuable
additions have been made to the Library, both by donation and by
purchase.

As Donations the Library has received 110 volumes of separately
published works and 278 Pamphlets and separate impressions of
Memoirs ; also about 90 volumes and 75 detached parts of the pub-
lications of various Societies, and 15 volumes of independent Peri-
odicals presented by their respective Editors, besides 10 volumes of
Newspapers of different kinds. This will constitute a total addition
to the Society’s Library, by donation, of about 237 volumes and 278
Pamphlets.

A considerable number of Maps, Plans, and Sections have been
added to the Society’s collection by presentation from various Geo-
logical Surveys, from the Ordnance Survey of Great Britain, and from
the French Dépéot de la Marine. These amount in all to 160 sheets.

The Books and Maps just referred to have been received from
136 personal Donors, the Editors or Publishers of 15 Periodicals,
and 130 Societies, Surveys, or other Public Bodies, making in all
281 Donors.

By Purchase, on the recommendation of the Standing Library
Committee, the Library has received the addition of 47 volumes of
Books, and of 55 parts (making about 8 volumes) of Periodicals,
besides 46 parts of works published serially, the commencements of
which were obtained in previous years. Two Sheets of the Geolo-
gical Survey Map of France have been received during the year.

The cost of Books and Periodicals during the year 1879 was
£63 13s. 3d., and of Binding £62 16s. 1d. The sum of £11 1s.
was also expended for Cards for the preparation of the Catalogue,
and for a Library Loan-book, making in all £157 10s. 4d.

The Books in the Society’s Library are in good condition; and a
considerable number of old serial and other works, of which the
binding had been damaged by long use, have been rebound or re-
paired. The Library continues to be much used by the Fellows of
the Society.

As great inconvenience has been experienced from there being
no definite time appointed for the necessary annual cleaning of the
Library and the books contained in it, the Library Committee re-
commend that the Library be closed annually for this purpose during
the first fortnight of the month of September, that being the time
when the Society’s rooms are least visited by the Fellows.

Io PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY,

Museum.

The Collections in the Museum remain in the same condition as
at the date of the last Report of the Committee.

Very few additions to the Museum have to be recorded. They
include :—-A series of Rock-specimens from the Lower Cambrian
Rocks of Shropshire, presented by C. Callaway, Hsq., D.Sc., F.G.S.,
in illustration of his paper on those rocks; a block of Coal from the
New Douglas Mine, Nanaimo, Vancouver Island, presented by the
Vancouver Coal-mining and Land Company; and a collection of
Geyserites (Sinters) from the Colorado Hot Springs, presented by Dr.
F, V. Hayden, F.M.G.8.

W. J. Sollas, Hsq., M.A., F.G.S., also presented a series of Casts
of the three-toed footprints in the Triassic Conglomerate of South
Wales, described by him in a paper read before the Society.

ANNUAL REPORT, II

CoMPARATIVE STATEMENT oF THE NUMBER OF THE SOCIETY AT THE
CLOSE OF THE YEARS 1878 anp 1879.

Dec. 31; 1878. Dec. 31, 1879.
Compounders sy: iwssise 4 <a SIM alice avater gis 313
Contributing Fellows...... FS ON eee et 744
Non-contributing Fellows. . QE Oe iN eae 277
1336 1334
Honorary Members ...... See 3
Foreign Members ........ io ee oe 38
Foreign Correspondents .... BO Lamberts 40
1416 1415

General Statement explanatory of the Alterations in the Number of
Fellows, Honorary Members, &c. at the close of the years 1878 and
1879.

Number of Compounders, Contributing and Non- 1386
contributing Fellows, December 31, 1878 ....
Add Fellows elected during former year and paid) __ 5
TOE LPS ARN es ane ee | lee 4 ae ee ere) eee }
Add Fellows elected and paid in 1879 ........ 40
1381
Deduct Compounders deceased .............. 6
Contributing Fellows deceased ........ 9
Non-contributing Fellows deceased .... 14
Contributing Fellows resigned ........ 15
Contributing Fellows removed ........ 3
— 47
1334
Number of Honorary Members, Foreign
Members, and Foreign conan 80
Weeember ol. VSGewis says che oes oe
Deduct Foreign Members deceased ........ 5
Foreign Correspondents elected 5
Foreign Members .......... } |
— 10
| 70
Add Foreign Members elected .......... 5
Foreign Correspondents elected ...... 6
— 11
‘ — 81

12 PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

DEcEASED FELLOWS.

Compounders (6).
J. Harper, Esq. J. Pulleine, Esq.
T. Longman, Esq. Sir R. R. Vyvyan, Bart.
G. F. Playne, Esq. S. L. Waring, Esq.

Resident and other Contributing Fellows (9).

J. 8. Crossley, Esq. C. Judd, Esq.

C. Falconer, Esq. T. Sopwith, Esq.
Capt. H. A. Gun. W. R. Williams, Esq.
R. W. Hall, Esq. Sir G. Wingate.

8. Higgs, Esq.

Non-contributing Fellows (14).

S. Benson, Esq. W. Harrison, Esq.
G. Crane, Esq. J. W. Kirshaw, Esq.
J. 8S. Dawes, Esq. Prof. J. Nicol.
F, Finch, Esq. D. Page, Esq.
I. Fletcher, Esq. G. Robbins, Esq.
W.S. Gibson, Esq. Sir W. C. Trevelyan, Bart.
J. Gurdon, Esq. Sir G. Wingate.
Foreign Members (5).
Dr. J. F. Brandt. Prof. Paul Gervais.

Prof. B. von Cotta. Prof. A. Sismonda.
Prof, B. Gastaldi. |

Fellows Resigned (15).

J. A. Beaumont, Esq. G. A. Mosse, Esq.

A. Brogden, Ksq. C. O. Groom Napier, Esq.
F. Derry, Esq. J. N, Shoolbred, Esq.

O. R. Fabian, Esq. Capt. H. Thurburn.

Dr. J. 8. Holden. Rey. A. Underhill.

H. Lainson, Esq. Rey. B. Waugh.

A. Macdonald, Esq. H. Wilson, Esq.

Lieut.-Col. W. H. Mackesy.

Fellows Removed (3).

J. 8. Leigh, Esq. W. Salter, Esq.
J.J. Lundy, Esq.

ANNUAL REPORT. 13

The following Personages were elected from the List of Foreign Cor-
respondents to fill the vacancies in the List of Foreign Members
during the year 1879.

Professor Bernhard von Cotta of Freiberg.

Dr. F. V. Hayden of Washington.

Major-General F. von Kokscharow of St. Petersburg,
M. Jules Marcou of Salins.

Dr. J. J. S. Steenstrup of Copenhagen.

The following Personages were elected Foreagn Correspondents during
the year 1879.

Professor P. J. van Beneden of Louvain.

M. Edouard Dupont of Brussels.

Professor Guglielmo Guiscardi of Naples.
Professor Franz Ritter von Kobell of Munich.
Professor Gerhard vom Rath of Bonn.

Dr. Emile Sauvage of Paris.

After the Reports had been read, it was resolved :—

That they be received and entered on the Minutes of the Meeting,
and that such parts of them as the Council shall think fit be printed
and distributed among the Fellows.

It was afterwards resolved :—

That the thanks of the Society be given to H. C. Sorby, Esq.,
retiring from the office of President,

That the thanks of the Society be given to Prof. P. M. Duncan
and Prof. J. Prestwich, retiring from the office of Vice-President.

That the thanks of the Society be given to H. Bauerman, Esq.,
Prof. P. M. Duncan, R. W. Mylne, Esq., Admiral Spratt, and Rey.
T. Wiltshire, retiring from the Council. |

After the Balloting-glasses had been duly closed, and the lists
examined by the Scrutineers, the following gentlemen were declared
to have been duly elected as the Officers and Council for the ensuing
year :—

14 PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY,

OFFICERS,

PRESIDENT,
R. Etheridge, Hsq., F.R.S.

VICE-PRESIDENTS.

Sir P. de M. Grey-Egerton, Bart., M.P., F.R.S.
J. Evans, D.C.L., LL.D., F.B.S.

J. W. Hulke, Hsq., F.R.S.

Prof. A. C. Ramsay, LL.D., F.R.S.

SECRETARIES.

Prof. T. G. Bonney, M.A., F.R.S.
Prof. J. W. Judd, F.R.S.

FOREIGN SECRETARY.
W. W. Smyth, Esq., M.A., F.R.S.

TREASURER. |
J. Gwyn Jeffreys, LL.D., F.B.S.

COUNCIL.
Rey. J. F. Blake, M.A. J. W. Hulke, Esq., F.R.S.
Prof. T. G. Bonney, M.A., F.R.S. |J. Gwyn Jeffreys, LL.D., F.B.S.
W. Carruthers, Esq., F.R.S. Prof. T. Rupert Jones, F.R.S.
Sir P. de M. Grey-Egerton, Bart., | Prof. J. W. Judd, F.R.S.
M.P., F.R.S. Prof. N. 8. Maskelyne, M.A.,
R. Etheridge, Esq., F.R.S. F.R.S. :

J. Evans, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S. |J. Morris, Esq., M.A.
Lieut.-Colonel H. H. Godwin- |J. A. Phillips, Esq.

Austen. Prof. J. Prestwich, M.A., F.R.S.
J. C. Hawkshaw, Esq., M.A. Prof. A. C. Ramsay, LL.D., F.RS.
H. Hicks, M.D. Prof. H. G. Seeley, F.R.S.

W. H. Hudleston, Esq., M.A. W. W. Smyth, Esq., M.A., F.R.S.
Prof. T. M°Kenny Hughes, M.A. |H. C. Sorby, LL.D., F.R.S.

ANNUAL REPORT,

LIST OF
THE FOREIGN MEMBERS

OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON, in 1879,

Date of
Election.

1827. Dr. H. von Dechen, Bonn.

1829, Dr. Ami Boué, Vienna. °

1844, William Burton Rogers, Ksq., Boston, U. S.
1848. James Hall, Esq., Albany, State of New York.
1850. Professor Bernhard Studer, Berne.

1851. Professor James D. Dana, New Haven, Connecticut.
1851. Professor Angelo Sismonda, Twin. (Deceased.)
1853. Count Alexander von Keyserling, Raykill, Russia.
1853. Professor L.G. de Koninck, Liége.

1854, M. Joachim Barrande, Prague.

1856. Professor Robert Bunsen, For. Mem. R.S., Heidelberg.
1857. Professor H. R. Goeppert, Breslau.

1857. Professor H. B. Geinitz, Dresden.

1857. Dr. Hermann Abich, Vienna.

1859. Professor A. Delesse, Paris.

1859, Dr. Ferdinand Roemer, Breslau.

1860. Dr. H. Milne-Edwards, For. Mem. R.S., Paris.
1862. Professor Pierre Merian, Basle.

1864, M. Jules Desnoyers, Paris.

1866. Dr. Joseph Leidy, Philadelphia.

1867, Professor A. Daubrée, Paris.

1870. Professor Oswald Heer, Zurich.

1871. Dr. S. Nilsson, Lund.

1871. Dr. Henri Nyst, Brussels.

1871. Dr. Franz Ritter von Hauer, Vienna.

1874, Professor Alphonse Favre, Geneva.

1874. Professor B. Gastaldi, Turin. ( Deceased.)

1874. Professor E. Hébert, Paris.

1874, Professor Edouard Desor, Neuchédtel.

1874. Professor Albert Gaudry, Paris.

1875. Professor Paul Gervais, Paris. (Deceased.) .
1875. Professor Fridolin Sandberger, Wiirzburg.

1875. Professor Theodor Kjerulf, Christiania.

1875, Professor F. August Quenstedt, Ttibingen,

1876. Professor EK. Beyrich, Berlin.

1877. Dr. J. F. Brandt, St. Petersburg. (Deceased.)
1877. Dr. Carl Wilhelm Giimbel, Munich.

1877. Dr. Eduard Suess, Vienna.

1879. Professor Bernhard von Cotta, Freiberg. (Deceased.)
1879. Dr. F. V. Hayden, Washington.

1879. Major-General N. von Kokscharow, St. Petersburg.
1879. M. Jules Marcou, Salis.

1879. Dr. J. J. S. Steenstrup, For. Mem. R.S., Copenhagen.

16 PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

LIST OF

THE FOREIGN CORRESPONDENTS

OF THE GEOLOGICAL sites ay OF LONDON, 1n 1879,

Date of
Election.

1863. Dr. G. F. Jager, Stuttgart.

1863. M.S. Lovén, Stockholm.

1863. Count A. G. Marschall, Vienna.

1863. Professor G. Meneghini, Pisa.

1863. Signor Giuseppe Ponzi, Rome.

1863. Signor Quintino Sella, Rome.

1863. Dr. F. Senft, Hisenach.

1864. M. J. Bosquen Maestricht.

1864, Dr. Charles Martins, Montpellier.

1866. Professor J. P. Lesley, Philadelphia.

1866, Professor Victor Raulin, Bordeaux.

1866. Baron Achille de Zigno, Padua.

1869. Professor A. E. Nordenskidld, Stockholm.
1869. Professor F. Zirkel, Lespzig.

1870. Professor Joseph Szabé, Pesth.

1870. Professor Otto Torell, Lund.

1871. Professor G. Dewalque, Lvége.

1871. M. Henri Coquand, Marseilles.

1871. Professor Giovanni Capellini, Bologna.
1872. Herr Dionys Stur, Vienna.

1872. Professor J. D. Whitney, Cambridge, U. S.
1874, Professor Igino Cocchi, Florence.

1874, M. Gustave H. Cotteau, Auzerre.

1874. Professor W. P. Schimper, Strasburg.
1874. Professor G. Seguenza, Messina.

1874. Dr. J. S. Newberry, New York.

1874. Dr. T. C. Winkler, Haarlem.

1875. Professor Gustav Tschermak, Vienna.
1876. Professor Jules Gosselet, Lille.

1876. Professor Ludwig Ritimeyer, Basle.

1877. Professor George J. Brush, New Haven.
1877. Professor. A. L. O. Des Cloizeaux, For.Mem.R.8., Paris.
1877. Professor E. Renevier, Lausanne.

1877. Count Gaston de Saporta, Aix-en-Provence.
1879. Professor Pierre J. van Beneden, For.Mem.R.S., Louvain.
1879. M. Edouard Dupont, Brussels.

1879. Professor Guglielmo Guiscardi, Naples.
1879. Professor Franz Ritter von Kobell, Munich.
1879. Professor Gerhard vom Rath, bop.

1879. Dr. Emile Sauvage, Paris,

ANNUAL REPORT.

17

AWARDS OF THE WOLLASTON MEDAL

UNDER THE CONDITIONS OF THE ‘‘ DONATION FUND Hs

ESTABLISHED BY

WILLIAM HYDE WOLLASTON, M_D., E.BS., F.G.S., &e.

“To promote researches concerning the mineral structure of the earth,
and to enable the Council of the Geological Society to reward those
individuals of any country by whom such researches may hereafter he
made,”—“ such individual not being a Member of the Council.”

1831.
1835.
1836,

1837,

1838.
1839,
1840.
1841.
1842,

18458,

1844.
1845.
1846.
1847.
1848.
1849.
1850.
» 1851.
1852.

1853.

1854,
1855.
1856,

Mr. William Smith.
Dr. G. A. Mantell.
M. L. Agassiz.
ee T. P. Cautley.

Dr. H. Falconer.
Professor R. Owen.
Professor C. G. Ehrenberg.
Professor A. H. Dumont.
M. Adolphe T. Brongniart.
Baron L. von Buch.

M. Elie de Beaumont.

M. P. A. Dufrénoy.

Professor John Phillips.
Mr. William Lonsdale.

Dr. Ami Boué.

The Rey. Dr. W. Buckland.
Mr. William Hopkins.

Dr. W. H. Fitton.

M. le Vicomte A. d’Archiac.

M. E. de Verneuil.
Sir Richard Griffith.
Sir H. T. De la Beche.
Sir W. EH. Logan.

The Rev. W. D. Conybeare.

Professor Joseph Prestwich.

The Rey. Prof. A. Sedgwick.

1857.
1858.

1859,
1860,
1861.
1862.

1863.
1864.
1865,
1866.
1867.
1868.
1869.
1870.
1871.
1872.
1873.
1874.
1875.
1876.
1877.
1878.
1879.
1880.

M. Joachim Barrande.

Herr Hermann von Meyer.
Mr. James Hall.

Mr. Charles Darwin.

Mr. Searles V. Wood.

Professor Dr. H. G. Bronn.

Mr. R. A. C. Godwin-
Austen.

Professor Gustav Bischof.

Sir R. I. Murchison.

Mr. Thomas Davidson,

Sir Charles Lyell.

Mr. G. Poulett Scrope.
Professor Carl F. Naumann,
Dr. H. C. Sorby.

Professor G. P. Deshayes,
Professor A. C. Ramsay.
Professor J. D. Dana.

Sir P. de M. Grey-Egerton.
Professor Oswald Heer.
Professor L. G. de Koninck.
Professor T. H. Huxley.
Mr, Robert Mallet.

Dr. Thomas Wright.
Professor Bernhard Studer,
Professor Auguste Daubrée.

a ttt eA Le tts saan

18 PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

AWARDS
OF THE

BALANCE OF THE PROCEEDS OF THE WOLLASTON
“ DONATION-FUND.”

1831. Mr. William Smith. 1857. Mr. 8. P. Woodward.

1833. Mr, William Lonsdale. 1858. Mr. James Hall.

1834, M. Louis Agassiz. 1859. Mr. Charles Peach.

1835. Dr. G. A. Mantell. ide T. Rupert Jones.
1836. Professor G. P. Deshayes. 1860. |e. W. K. Parker.

1838. Professor Richard Owen. 1861. Professor A. Daubrée.
1839. Professor G. C. Ehrenberg. | 1862. Professor Oswald Heer.
1840, Mr. J. De Carle Sowerby. 1863. Professor Ferdinand Senft.
1841. Professor Edward Forbes. 1864. Professor G. P. Deshayes.

1842. Professor John Morris. 1865. Mr. J. W. Salter.
1843. Professor John Morris. 1866. Dr. Henry Woodward.
1844. Mr. William Lonsdale. 1867. Mr. W. H. Baily.
1845, Mr. Geddes Bain. 1868. M. J. Bosquet.
1846, Mr. William Lonsdale. 1869. Mr. W. Carruthers.
1847. M. Alcide d’Orbigny. 1870, M. Marie Rouault.
1848 sci ree EN Fossils. | 1871. Mr. R. Etheridge.

" {M. Alcide d’Orbigny. 1872. Mr. James Croll.
1849, Mr. William Lonsdale. 1873.. Professor J. W. Judd,
1850. Professor John Morris. 1874. Dr, Henri Nyst.
1851. M. Joachim Barrande. 1875. Mr. L. C. Miall.
1852. Professor John Morris. 1876. Professor Giuseppe Seguenza.
1853. Professor L. G. de Koninck. | 1877. Mr. R. Etheridge, Jun.
1854, Mr. 8. P. Woodward. 1878. Mr. W. J. Sollas.

1855. Drs. G. and F. Sandberger. | 1879. Mr. 8. Allport.
1856. Professor G. P. Deshayes. 1880. Mr. Thomas Davies.

AWARDS OF THE MURCHISON MEDAL
AND OF THE
PROCEEDS OF “THE MURCHISON GEOLOGICAL FUND,”
ESTABLISHED UNDER THE WILL OF THE LATE
SIR RODERICK IMPEY MURCHISON, Barr., F.R.8., F.G,S8.

‘‘'T'o be applied in every consecutive year in such manner as the Council
of the Society may deem most useful in advancing geological science,

ANNUAL REPORT. 19

whether by granting sums of money to travellers in pursuit of know-
ledge, to authors of memoirs, or to persons actually employed in any
inquiries bearing upon the science of geology, or in rewarding any
such travellers, authors, or other persons, and the Medal to be given
to some person to whom such Council shall grant any sum of money
or recompense in respect of geological science.”

1873, Mr. William Davies. Medal. | 1876. Mr. James Croll.

1873, Professor Oswald Heer. 1877. Rev. W. B. Clarke. Medal.
1874. Dr. J. J. Bigsby. Medal. 1877. Rev. J. F. Blake.

1874. Mr. Alfred Bell. 1878. Dr. H. B. Geinitz. Medal.
1874, Mr. Ralph Tate. 1878. Mr. C. Lapworth.

1875. Mr. W. J. Henwood. Medal. | 1879. Professor F. M‘Coy. Medal.
1875. Prof. H. G. Seeley. 1879, Mr. J. W. Kirkby.

1876, Mr. A.R.C. Selwyn. Medal. | 1880. Mr. R. Etheridge. Medal.

AWARDS OF THE LYELL MEDAL
AND OF THE
PROCEEDS OF THE “LYELL GEOLOGICAL FUND,”

ESTABLISHED UNDER THE WILL AND CODICIL OF THE LATE
SIR CHARLES LYELL, Barr., F.B.S., F.G.8.

The Medal “to be given annually” (or from time to time) “as a mark of
honorary distinction as an expression on the part of the governing
body of the Society that the Medallist has deserved well of the
Science,”—“ not less than one third of the annual interest [of the
fund] to accompany the Medal, the remaining interest to be given in
one or more portions at the discretion of the Council for the encou-
ragement of Geology or of any of the allied sciences by which they
shall consider Geology to have been most materially advanced.”

1876. Professor John Morris. ; 1879. Professor Edmond Hébert.

Medal. Medal,
1877. Dr. James Hector. Medal. | 1879. Professor H. A. Nicholson.
1877. Mr. W. Pengelly. 1879. Dr. Henry Woodward.
1878. Mr. G. Busk. Medal. 1880. Mr. John Evans. Medal,

1878. Dr. W. Waagen. 1880. Professor F, Quenstedt,

20 PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

AWARDS OF THE BIGSBY MEDAL,
FOUNDED BY

Dr. J. J. BIGSBY, F.RBS., F.G.8.

To be awarded biennially “as an acknowledgment of eminent services
in any department of Geology, irrespective of the receiver’s country ;
but he must not be older than 45 years at his last birthday, thus
probably not too old for further work, and not too young to have done
much.”

1877. Professor O. C. Marsh. | 1879, Professor E. D, Cope.

2.

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VOL, XXXVI,

22 PROCEEDINGS OF THE GHOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

EisTIMATES for

INCOME EXPECTED.
£. 8. ad.’ eee
Due for Subscriptions for Quarterly Journal...... 3 5 4

Due for Arrears of Annual Contributions ......... 194 8 O

Due for Arrears of Admission-fees........... mddpnan ey ey a)
285 17 4
Estimated Ordinary Income for 1880 :—
Annual Contributions from Resident Fellows, and Non-
residents of 1859 to 1861 ......... Listibcle biocierternaaietee écosne LSOS) O70
Admission-fees......... sislecinihsters somerset suapremeatenl ss sesecwess, 202 pO mmO
Compositions esc. assce-oesees ssaletbialetrelavettalaeteventatet duuie nsieisia oon 241 NON To
Annual Contributions in advance ...... aaeleeiate a édgcccseesce, | OURO MG
Dividends on Consols and Reduced 3 per Cents ............0+ Peel MOP
Advertisements in Quarterly Journal ............00 sadeosos ac6 7 10°70
Sale of Stock for Library Catalogue ............ soauacns bagosac 220 0 O
Sale of Transactions, Library-catalogues, Orme-
rod’s Index, and Hochstetter’s New Zealand... 5 O O
Sale of Quarterly Journal, including Longman’s
TSO G Sciquan can sbcadeddacoddnonoccoacdcecosnansntes «- 210 O O
Sale of Geological Map, including Stanford’s
ACCOMMEN) Geicinslosielvciosiciesea sine lls pleines miclulatataletalc ataietetalarstaye ele Ip, 06
—— 230 0 O

Balanee deainst the Society...:scccsccccsecereene’ (99 UO

£2895 3 10.

J. GWYN JEFFREYS, Treas.
4 Feb, 1880.

FINANCIAL REPORT.

the Year 1880.

EXPENDITURE ESTIMATED.

23

er ade aes seid
General Expenditure :
Waxes ‘and Insurance... ... 00-0 e0ee reer See 20 oO
Furniture ...... IO ODOUR IED PONT HSE S Micidloit c 15 0 0
PLOWESE HE AUS) | /syaihe) ve oe ni ous soe. te heleinievene eanenee 40 0 0
LNB bid Jetaia cis eeineto miami nmicnees icin. cn 30 0 0
Ess Tapia ce 8168, os 'acs in ds oth avon anchor) sy ousuenars 30 0 0
Miscellaneous House-expenses .......-000. 125 0 0
DAMIEN Us,acniei er sle'o'oioin ahi-Vvadoio) Svarloteimielelabarewere) cs 25 0 0
WVSCellan EOS RFIMbII 2 2c \ia)cleialelolele > eevee iele 60 0 0
Tea for Meetings SHABIn sos DOLD NaCOoe Boe ne la Man) '
376 5 10
Salaries and Wages:
Assistant Secretary (five quarters) .......... 437 10 0
WET Kasia rinse dn Cela clare tie feline ein Sie meiais 140 0 0
Assistants in Library and Museum .......... 165 0 0
FUOUSE SCENGANUL 5 cis!d 6 cee) slele ot a’a santo cre lB detoy oy 105 0 0
ENG USC Mn Ale. sree estate ceieusee Meer ais! aisy-tol e susbeitelan Saiays 40 0 0
Occasionaly Attendants) |e). cree aie's «a \clc oslo else 8 0 0
PNG OMMGAING): aes 20s) ida eel trolls) ichleleile ouays/ el) vle)ials 88 6
| — 903 18 0
MOWAT awaisaiieicceeimacicd tele aiek weaamode seas wsieaes wie sloisaisSieislaotvin od Sielniakteist 140 0 6
APSE MUMN i eraiicie alaiciciee! sclcte sini « efe’joiera hiatrititotelacisinietaleloielirisiale ohetals(ew-atefeolataln Lak Om 0)
Miscellaneous Expenditure, including postages .....+.ssssses. 60 0 0
Miaeramsat Meetings: 3.2. 2.scrclemmemeeadeanapie snsciamcchie sian sestean O50). O
ibrar Catalogtie + seis... eeiaaeuslondaise nck dainasenetemaane sic) tts tine (220570, O
Publications : »
Quarterly Journal (£1000) and postage
BO) coeiainesee vnateamnen amaese rate ees 1080 0 O
PNSENACES cawcinesissanico tae ei oaien a ebeacere os 160), 70 10
- 1180 C Gg
£2895 3 10

24 PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

Income and Expenditure during the

RECEIPTS.
£ s. .d. “ee
Balance at Bankers’, 1 January 1879 .... 67 6 10

Balance in Clerk’s hands, 1 January 1879. 9 6 6.

— 76 13 4
Compositions!) 4. cect cee eee a eee eee etn 241 10 O
Arrears of Admission-fees .../....:... $8! 10 0
Admission-fees; 1879). cease Cee 252) O50
— 283 20 0
Arrears of Annual Contributions... isaese eee 12h,006" “6
Annual Contributions for 1879, viz. :—
Resident Fellows ......61262 2 0
Non-Resident Fellows... 254 10
——_ [257 oun
Annual’ Contripations imadvances....- 2c eee ee 12° 02970
Journal-Subseriptions in advamce............-..---. | OvGuee
Dividends on Consols') 220. ees 207 1 10
is Reduced 3 per Cents....... 320 8 10
—— 237 10 8
Taylor & Francis: Advertisements in Journal, Vol.34.. 5 19 O
Bequest by the late Sydney Ellis, Esq. ............1000 O O
Publications :
Sale of Journal, Vols. 1-34 ......-0..000- 140 0 9
iE Wal Bo cu cs eae 118s 3.8
Naleof Transactions... cour + vile ls ree tele acs 2 1K 79
Sale of Geological Map ..........-eeece0e 12 7 10
Sale of Ormerod’s Index ..........cseeeees 2. 6 yee
Sale of Hochstetter’s New Zealand ........ 0 4 0
275 14.7
*Due from Messrs. Longman, in addition to the above,
On Journals pViOlaooaeces oriole crsbe sitycicle ee.e%es) «15 6017 8
Due from Stanford on account of Geological Map.. 3 11 10
£64 9 6
£3542 18 5

We have compared the Books and
Accounts presented to us with this
statement, and we find them to agree.

(Signed) JOHN EVANS,

W. H. HU DLESTON, | Auditors.

31 Jan. 1880.

FINANCIAL REPORT. 25

Year ending 31 December, 1879.

EXPENDITURE.

General Expenditure : nas £ 5. d
PLEUIC Stren ot sfenwha ered) 'si.sie' fata c/iateeiere Bern witch ee LY)
BAN E-UMSUMANICE | «210 0% w/o «/o e\cjeieelle abeleiate select. 2p) Oa0
SET WG UGE aie = (clsj'njo: oie mu) sie «\0:)¢, oF nycp'e/ollerenonal eraniees 4 6 0
HOUSE-TEPalTS - 0c eee ce een se oe ane - 24°53 9
HE Wel amiay ay shepais) oteviofchele, cue oterisieiints! ae) «te fetmetenaets 42 17 9
ILS GING SSioie Goce Heinen Ceo coo Sod 26 3 6
Miscellaneous House-expenses........-.-- 124 18 7
SALOMON Yipstovates/clsia) ells d she s/o 4 oeyenelonarenarercicliele 24 16 10
Miscellaneous Printing.........0-.-..0+5 56 0 3
earat WCET ES 9 cle om eine oye wim) clole eee es 21 0 O

——-_ 354 14 2
Salaries and Wages:

Assistant Secretary (three quarters) ...... 262 10 0
CONTIN ere en ager ss egetia elias fore) siete chet wie] shelekecenaie) ies 140 0 O
Library and Museum Assistants .......... 165 0 0
RIOURD SUGWANG! Gage poodnnos opoeue Uomo ce 105 0 0
EVOUSE MO ANG wes «sic a beral oven ole Meavcl clei a ora exaleleleh 40 0 0
Occasional Attendants .............-+--- 8 0 O
ING COUMEAMESH: 115i elke slore so) oes «\ el aisso'eiouel'6 Ceeiols aug en O
— 727-17 ..0
MATE ark ye he o elke esha stele AY oh sttesa vepauarrore Setena nye He enesai 1387 10 4
Miscellaneous Expenses, including postages ........ 601219
Diagrams at Meetings . ee Le rare eee aay of aia 0
Investment in £1036 ob ‘bd. Hedneed 3 per Cents. ..1000 0 O

Publications :

Geological Map ...... ieissmeie aber shal Wesel ercueVene 0 8 0
Journal: VOUS. V=BAge a deverebete sere atel ac pticrcte ale 1249) 5
a WOM GBe s ocrereborabalatovuia erelaiatelsuutanerurets 1131 19
ADSiTACES. 5 <\c30,< o's Re aul era ees ace peat 97510) 30
———-1242 61

Balance in Bankers’ hands, 31 Dec. 1879. 14 4 1
Balance in Clerk’s hands, 31 Dec. 1879 .. ae 3.8
—— 1515 9

£3542 18 5

PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

26

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28 PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

AWARD OF THE WoLLASToN Mepat.

The Reports of the Council and of the Committees having been
read, the President, Henry Crirron Sorsy, Esq., LL.D., F.R.S.,
presented the Wollaston Gold Medal to Mr. H. Baverman for
transmission to Prof. A. Davsrézn, F.M.G.S., and addressed him as
follows :—

Mr. BavrrMan,—

The Council has awarded the Wollaston Medal to Professor A.
Davsrée, of Paris, in recognition of his long and arduous work
in geology, and especially for his researches on the formation of
minerals and on the metamorphism of rocks. We must all regret
that his pressing duties as President of the French Academy pre-
vent his being amongst us to-day, which otherwise, he informs us,
would have given him much pleasure. You will kindly transmit
the Medal to him, and assure him how highly we value his nu-
merous contributions to physical geology. Possibly no one of our
members more highly appreciates his labours than I do myself, since
they have been so intimately connected with my own researches,
though carried on in many cases in a very different manner. I
would more especially allude to the great value of the experiments
in which he was able to produce several very important minerals
by the action of water at a high temperature; his researches on the
formation of well-known Zeolites in the old Roman brick-work at
Plombiéres; and numerous other applications of the experimental
method to the solution of other important questions connected with
various branches of physical geology. These have culminated in his
recent and most valuable work on experimental geology—a work
which ought to be the means, as, I trust, it will be, of introducing
and still further extending the experimental method of inquiry into
all branches of our science.

Mr. Baverman, in reply, said that the regrets expressed by the
President at the absence of the Wollaston Medallist would be
shared by every one in the room. M. Daubrée had hoped to be
present, and it was only within the last few days that he found ©
that official duties connected with the Presidency of the Academy
of Sciences prevented his being absent from Paris at this time.
He held in his hand a letter in which M. Daubrée desired to testify
his gratitude to the Society not only for the honour done to him on
this occasion, but also for the previous award of the Wollaston Fund
in 1861, and more particularly for the kindly interest expressed by
our Presidents the late Sir Roderick Murchison and Mr. Leonard
Horner in the course of experimental researches then recently com-
menced, which had been a powerful encouragement to him in fol-
lowing out that particular line of work; and he was the more
anxious to record this as these distinguished leaders of our science.
were no longer with us.

Set

ANNIVERSARY MEETING——-MURCHISON MEDAL AND FUND. 29

AWARD oF THE Murcuison MEDAL AND Funp.

The Presrprent next handed the Murchison Medal and the pro-
ceeds of the Murchison Donation Fund to Mr. R. Eruzripes, F.R.S.,
F.G.S., and addressed him as follows :—

Mr, Erarripen,—

In this room and before this assembly it is hardly necessary for
me, in presenting you with the Murchison Medal, to enter into any
explanations of the reasons which have induced the Council to
award it to you. Your published writings, the greater part of
which have appeared in our ‘ Quarterly Journal,’ and must be well
known and highly appreciated by most of us here present, would
alone suffice to justify the Council in their award. But when we
take into consideration your long-continued paleontological work in
connexion with the Museum of the Geological Survey, the results of
which have silently exerted so great an influence upon the progress
of geology in this country, your constant help to others in their in-
vestigations, and your labours es a teacher in connexion with the
School of Mines, which must kave brought forth much good fruit,
I think every one will acknowledge that you are fully entitled to
all the honours which the Geological Society can confer upon you.
I must refer especially to the valuable Catalogue of British Fossils
upon which you have so long been engaged, to assist you in the
completion of which the Council have joined to the award of the
Murchison Medal the whole proceeds of the Fund for the present
year.

Mr. Eraeripe®, in reply, said :—
Mr. PResripENT,—

This is the second time the Council of the Geological Society
_ has conferred upon me the honour of being one of its recipients.
In 1871 I was presented with the balance of the Wollaston Fund ;
and to-day I receive, at your hands, evidence of the marked distinc-
tion and approbation of the Society in being selected to receive both
the Murchison Medal and Fund. Iam indeed gratified at being
its present recipient. Sir Roderick Murchison was for fifteen years
my esteemed chief and valued friend; I therefore attach especial
value to this mark of your approbation of any labour that I have
done in the cause of that science for which the Medal was founded.
To me no labour in the field of natural science is too great to be
devoted to carrying out those duties I have to perform; and the
reward bestowed upon me to-day I hope still to merit and repay,
through work yet to be done for our Society, and by aiding others
to spread abroad the truths of nature as taught through geological
and paleontological research.

VOL. XXXVI. d

30 PROCEEDINGS OF THE GHOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

AWARD oF THE LyELL MEDAL.

The PresrpEnt then presented the Lyell Medal to Mr. Joun Evans,
D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.8., and addressed him as follows :—

Dr. Evans,—

The Council has awarded to you the Lyell Medal and the sum of
twenty guineas from the proceeds of the fund, in recognition of your
distinguished services to geological science, especially in the depart-
ment of post-tertiary geology. J can well remember the time when
there appeared to be an almost impassable gulf between anti-
quarians and geologists; but you and your fellow workers have so
completely bridged over that gulf, that we now can scarcely say
where archeology ends and geology begins, nor whether to rank
and value you most as an antiquary or a geologist. Your long-
continued labours and valuable writings on flint implements have
equally advanced both the sciences to which I have alluded, and
thrown great light on that most interesting problem—the antiquity
of man. As another claim on our highest regard, I would refer to
the great services you have rendered to this Society in every possible
way that could advance its interests and that of our science. We
feel assured that the founder of this Medal would have heartily ap-
proved of the award, since your researches have been so intimately
connected with those subjects which in his later years attracted so
much of his attention.

Dr. Evans in reply, said :—

Mr. PrestpEnt,—

It is with much gratification that I receive this award at your
hands, for I regard it not only as a kindly mark of appreciation on
the part of yourself and the Council, but also as a memorial of my
old and valued friend and master Sir Charles Lyell. This Medal
has, indeed, a peculiar interest to me in connexion with him; for it
was while I was one of your Secretaries that he did me the honour
of consulting me as to the foundation of this fund; and, sub-
sequently, it was as your President that I had the satisfaction of
handing the first Lyell Medal and the first proceeds of the Fund to
no less distinguished a geologist and paleontologist than Prof.
Morris. Jam highly flattered to find myself associated with him
and other eminent geologists in the list of the recipients of this
Medal, and only wish that I was equally deserving of the honour.
What little I may have done, either directly or indirectly, to pro-
mote the advance of geological knowledge, has been mainly the
result of my now somewhat long connexion with this Society, and
the many valuable and, I hope, enduring friendships with its Fellows
that I have thus been enabled to make. This connexion is one
upon which I iook back with unalloyed satisfaction, and of which
this Medal will always preserve the record.

ANNIVERSARY MEETING——-WOLLASTON AND LYELL FUNDS, SF

AWARD OF THE WOLLASTON DoNATION-FUND.

The Presrpent next presented the balance of the proceeds of the
Wollaston Donation Fund to Mr. THomas Davins, F.G.S., and ad-
dressed him as follows :—

Mr. Davirs,—

The Council of this Society has awarded to you the balance of the
proceeds of the Wollaston Fund, as a testimony of the value of your
researches in mineralogy and lithology, and to assist you in the
further examination of the microscopic structure of rocks. I need
hardly say how much this subject claims my own sympathy, and we
feel assured that it would also have secured that of the founder of
the fund. J am astonished at the rapid growth of this branch of
inquiry since, some thirty years ago, 1 with my own hands prepared
the first thin sections of rocks for geological purposes. Very much,
however, remains to be learned; and we hope that the award of the
Council will enable you to still further extend your inquiries.
Valuable as have been the results which you have made public, we
all feel that in many cases you have still further advanced our
science by the generous assistance which you have afforded to others.
As a slight token of our regard, we beg you will accept the usual
balance of the Wollaston Fund, which I now present to you.

Mr. Davrss replied :—

Mr. PRresipEnt,—

Iam deeply sensible of the honour conferred upon me by the
Council in making me this award, and I beg to tender them my
sincere thanks. |

That branch of the science of mineralogy which embraces the
habits, associations, and modes of occurrence of mineral species has
long been of special interest to me. The gratification derived from
having been enabled to apply the knowledge I have gained in assist-
ing others to elucidate the structure and probable origin of some of
the older rocks, is now greatly enhanced by this recognition. I
regard it also as an incentive to the continuance of this work, which
now occupies so many scientific minds both at home and abroad.

ee ee

AWARD oF THE Lyatt Grotogicat Funp.

In handing to Prof. Szrrey, F.R.S., F.G.8., the balance of the
proceeds of the Lyell Fund, for transmission to Prof. F. Qumnsrepr,
F.M.G.8., the PresmpENT said :—

Professor SEELEY,—
It is with much pleasure that I hand to you the balance of the
proceeds of the Lyell Donation Fund for transmission to Professor

32 PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

Quenstedt, of Tiibingen, to whom it has been awarded by the
Council of the Society. Professor Quenstedt’s labours in various
departments of geology, extending over a period of more than five
and forty years; his published writings, commencing with memoirs
on mineralogical subjects in the year 1835, followed very shortly by
others dealing with paleontological matters, culminating in his
admirable Manuals of Palzontology and Mineralogy, published
respectively in 1852 and 1854, and of which several later editions
have appeared,—in his great work ‘ Der Jura,’ on the Jurassic rocks
of Southern Germany,—and in his magnificent ‘ Petrefactenkunde
Deutschlands,’ commenced in 1846, and still in progress; his
renown as a successful teacher of geology and mineralogy; and his
services to science by the establishment of the fine Museum over
which he so worthily presides at Tubingen, have already been
recognized by this Society in his election as a Foreign Corre-
spondent in 1863, and as a Foreign Member in 1875. It is with
the purpose of showing their continued appreciation of these labours,
and especially to aid the distinguished Professor in the completion
of his last-mentioned great work, that the Council have decided to
award to him the balance of the Lyell Donation Fund; and in
placing it in your hands I have to beg that you will request his
acceptance of it in the spirit in which it is offered.

Professor SEELEY, in reply, said,—

Mr. PresmpENt,—

IT am sure that Professor Quenstedt will gratefully appreciate the
terms in which you have expressed, on behalf of the Geological
Society, admiration for his great efforts to advance geological science.
Upwards of seventy years of age, he is labouring with the energy
of mature powers; but with unaffected modesty expresses to me
astonishment that his work, which is still unfinished, should have
been thought worthy of this award. The fact that the Fund is
associated with the name of the great master Sir Charles Lyell
gives it for him an additional value; for so far back as 1857 Sir
Charles sent to Prof. Quenstedt his own clinometer, and in many
Ways in after years gave evidence of sympathy with the investi-
gations of the distinguished teacher of Tubingen. JI may say that
in these days of division of labour one thinks with wonder of the
variety of Prof. Quenstedt’s work, signalized as it has been by
success in every department. The perfection of his work may,
perhaps, be summed up in the one word ‘ thoroughness,” for it
begins with an almost unrivalled development of the treasures in
his wonderful museum, and culminates in the rare courtesy and
singleness of heart with which he communicates to others the
treasures thus stored in his mind. I am sure he will gratefully
accept this award in the spirit in which it is offered, and for the
further advancement of science.

ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS OF THE PRESIDENT. 36

THE ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS OF THE PRESIDENT,
Henry Crirtron Sorsy, Esq., LL.D., F.R.S.

In accordance with the usual practice, I have to preface my
address with some brief obituary notices of a few of those Fellows
and Foreign Members whose loss has been announced to the Society
in the course of the past year *.

Jamus Nicon, F.R.S.E., F.G.8., &., Professor of Natural History
in the University of Aberdeen, was born in 1810, in the Manse of
Traquair, near Inverleithen, Peeblesshire. His father, the Rev.
James Nicol, the Minister of the parish, and widely known for his
poetical writings, was a man of refined tastes, and enjoyed the friend-
ship of the more prominent men in science and literature in his day,
from Sir David Brewster to Wordsworth. On the death of his
father in 1819, young Nicol removed with the family to the neigh-
bouring village of Inverleithen. Here his early education was com-
pleted, partly in the parish school, partly in private, under the fos-
tering care and guidance of the Rev. Mr. Pate, the Minister of the
parish. The daily rambles of the young scholar amid the bold and
picturesque scenery of his native district, led him early to study its
geology, which at that time was wholly unknown. The absence of
fossils and of intelligible sections among these old rocks, as contrasted
with their great interest from the mineralogical and petrographical
points of view, had their natural effect in directing his attention
most especially to the mineralogical aspect of geology. The early
bias thus originated was probably fixed for life by his subsequent
attendance at the classes of Professor Jameson. He entered the
University of Edinburgh in 1825; and after passing the Arts course,
he attended the Divinity Hall. After completing his studies in
Edinburgh, he crossed over to Germany and studied at the Univer-
sities of Berlin and Bonn, where he worked with the most famous
mineralogists of his day. His studies, however, were not exclusively
confined to natural science. Heseems to have had a rare faculty for
the acquisition of knowledge; and his acquaintance with the subject
he studied was always exact and profound. |

On the completion of his University studies, he returned to his
native valley of the Tweed, and devoted himself to the unravelling
of the more obscure problems of its geology. In 1841 he obtained
the prize awarded by the Highland Society for an essay on the Geo-
logy of Peeblesshire, and subsequently a second for his essay on the
Geology of the neighbouring county of Roxburghshire. In the first
of these publications the presence of fossils in the lower Paleozoic
rocks of the Inverleithen district was made known for the first time
to the scientific world.

* In the preparation of these notices I have to acknowledge with thanks
assistance received from Mr. H. Bauerman, Mr. C. Lapworth, Prof. Seeley,
Dr. H. Woodward, and the Assistant Secretary.

VOL. XXXVI, é

34 PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

The next few years were apparently spent by him in extended geo-
logical journeys throughout Scotland, more especially in its southern
portions. The fruits of these investigations, as supplementary to
those of his more immediate predecessors in this field, were given to
the world in a work entitled ‘A Guide to the Geology of Scotland.’
This little book, which was very carefully illustrated by plates and
a small map of Scotland, was a valuable production in its day, and
bears upon every page the marks of the untiring energy and in-
dustry of its young author, and of his extended acquaintance with
the geognosy of his native land.

In 1847 we find him appointed Assistant Secretary to the Geo-
logical Society of London. Here he edited the ‘ Quarterly Journal’
of the Society, and gained the friendship of many of that illustrious
group of British geologists which then assembled at its Meetings.
In this congenial atmosphere Nicol’s mineralogical studies were
prosecuted with increased ardour; and in 1849 he published his
well-known text-book of mineralogy, which even at the present
day holds no mean place among our books of reference.

First among his geological friends stood Sir R. Murchison ; and
through his influence, with that of Sir H. De la Beche and Sir Charles
Lyell, Nicol was appointed in 1849 to the post of Professor of Geo-
logy in Queen’s College, Cork. In 1853 he relinquished the post
for the more lucrative position of Professor of Natural History in
the University of Aberdeen. This he retained till his death, which
took place in 1879.

In spite of his predilection for mineralogy, it is beyond question
that Nicol will be remembered among us here less for his mine-
ralogical works than for his numerous and valuable memoirs upon
the stratigraphy of Scotland. His papers upon the Geology of the
Southern Uplands of Scotland are of especialinterest and value. In
1848 he published in our Journal an elaborate memoir “On the
Rocks of the Valley of the Tweed” (Quart. Journ. G. S. iv. p.
195), demonstrating their fossiliferous character, and giving the first
general view of the entire succession among the transition-rocks of
South Scotland, and applying to them for the first time the title of
Silurian. This was succeeded in 1849 by a memoir “ On the Silurian
Rocks of the 8.H. of Scotland” (Q. J. G. 8. vol. vi. p. 53), in which
for the first time Graptolites were figured from these ancient deposits.
in 1850 he accompanied his friend Sir R. Murchison in a tour
through the Southern Uplands, and aided him in his detailed investi-
gation of the geology of the fossiliferous Girvan area. In 1852 he
communicated a complete résumé of the results of his extended re-
searches into the geological structure of the Southern Uplands, illus-
trating it by the first complete transverse section through the Silu-
rian rocks from the Pentlands to the Cheviots. A reduced copy of
this section has illustrated allthe subsequent editions of Murchison’s
‘Siluria,’ and stands substantially unmodified in the official publica-
tions on South-Scottish geology.

On his translation to the University of Aberdeen in 1853, Nicol
transferred the sphere of his geological investigations to the meta-

ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS OF THE PRESIDENT. 35

morphic rocks of the Highlands, which he had as early as 1844
been the first to suggest were probably of the same geological age as
those of the Southern Uplands. In 1855, in his paper ‘‘ On the Sec-
tions of Metamorphic and Devonian Rocks of the Eastern Extremity
of the Grampians” (Quart. Journ. vol. xi. p. 544), he proved the
existence of a grand fault between the metamorphic rocks and the
Old Red Sandstone of Kincardine and Forfar. The same year he
visited the well-known Torridon and Durness area in the north-west
Highlands in company with Sir R. Murchison, in order to verify
Mr. Peach’s discovery of fossils in the metamorphic limestone of
that region. On his return he communicated an independent
memoir to the Geological Society (Quart. Journ. vol. xiii. p. 17),
in which he claims to have published for the first time what is
now the generally accepted order of succession, viz.:—(a) Lower
Gneiss ; (b) Conglomerate and Red Sandstone; (c) Quartzite ; (d)
Limestone, overlain by (¢) an Upper Gneiss. Arguing mainly
from the petrographical character of these rocks, he threw out
the suggestion that the Torridon Sandstone might be of Devo-
nian age, and that the overlying limestone and gneiss might be
of the age of the Lower Carboniferous. After Mr. Salter’s demon-
stration that the fossils of the Durness Limestone were not Carboni-
ferous, but belonging to the deepest zone of Murchison’s Silurian,
Nicol again visited the north-west Highlands. In a memoir giving
the chief results of this expedition (Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. xvii.
p- 85) he retracted his former admission of an Upper Gneiss,
superior to the Durness Limestone; and claimed to have proved that
the line of demarcation between the Durness series and the eastern
gneiss of Central Sutherlandshire is actually a line of fault, the Tor-
ridon and Durness strata always overlying or abutting against, but
never dipping under, the eastern gneiss. ‘These new opinions led to
a keen controversy between himself and his old friend Sir R. Mur-
chison; but after the publication of two additional memoirs on the
subject in 1862 and 1863, in which he defended his view that the
central gneiss of the Highlands is of the same general geological age
as the Lewisian gneiss of the Outer Hebrides, and that the only
metamorphic strata that can safely be called Silurian are the less-
altered rocks upon the outer borders of the Highlands, he ceased to
contribute papers to our Society upon the subject. A little work on
the Geology and Scenery of the North of Scotland contains his last
published words upon the controversy. He never ceased to wander,
however, year after year, among these Highland rocks in search of
fresh evidence in support of his view. ‘Though he never published
the results of these later investigations, he remained fully convinced
of the correctness of his own view upon this question till the day of
his death. His opinions upon the Highland succession were shared
by a very few geologists in his day; but there is every probability
that the whole question will soon be reopened by those who believe
that an opinion held so long and so tenaciously by such a modest and
patient investigator as Nicol is certain to haye been founded upon
solid grounds,
e2

26 PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY,

In addition to the papers already noticed, Nicol contributed me-
moirs to this Society upon the New Red Sandstone of the N.W. of
Scotland (Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. xiv. p. 167.), and upon the
‘ Parallel Roads of Glen Roy,” which he contended were essentially
marine in their origin.

In literary and scientific labour Nicol was indefatigable. The
works we have referred to form but a small fraction of his multifa-
rious publications. His Geological Map of Scotland, published n
1858, was in every respect the best in its day. In addition to the
‘Manual of Mineralogy,’ he published a smaller work, the ‘ Elements,’
upon the same subject, which is now in its second edition; and it
still forms the article ‘‘ Mineralogy ” in the ‘ Encyclopedia Britan-
nica,’ to which, as to many of the leading Magazines, he was a volu-
minous and valued contributor. ¢

His sturdy frame and indomitable strength of will bore him un-
harmed through countless geological journeys that would have over-
tasked the majority of men. His genial companionable nature gained
him the hearty love of his students and the undying affection of his
many friends. Ever of singleness and purity of purpose, he dis-
dained to swerve from what he felt to be the proper path, either in
the interest of authority or expediency ; but for those whom he could
aid by his friendship or example, his patience was inexhaustible and
his generosity unbounded.

Sir WALTER CALVERLEY TREVELYAN, Bart., M.A., F.S.A., F.R.S.E.,
F.G.8., &c., of Nettlecombe, Somerset, and Wallington, Newcastle-
on-Tyne, Northumberland, was the sixth Baronet of this line*, and
bornin 1797. He was educated at Harrow, and early displayed a love
for Natural-history pursuits, especially Botany, his chosen school-
fellow being the late Mr. Fox Talbot (afterwards the chief discoverer
of photography). From Harrow Sir Walter went to University
College, Oxford, where he eagerly attended the lectures of the
Botanical and Geclogical Professors; and after taking his M.A.
degree, he proceeded, in 1820, to Edinburgh to pursue further his
scientific studies.

In 1817 he was elected a Fellow of this Society, and in 1827 he
read his first paper :—

(1) “On a Whin-dyke in Coenen Colliery near Blithe, Northum-
berland” (Trans. Geol. Soc. 1829, vol. 11. pp. 405, 406 ; ‘Proc. Geol.
Soc. 1834, vol. i. p. 23).

His subsequent communications to this Society were as follows :—

(2) “ Indications of recent Elevations in the Islands of Guernsey
and Jersey, and on the Coast of Jutland, and on some Tertiary Beds
near Porto d’Anzio” (Proc. Geol. Soc. vol. ii. 1838, pp. 577, 578).

(3) ‘*On Fractured Boulders found at Auchmithie near Arbroath”
(Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. 1845, pp. 147, 148).

(4) “On Scratched Surfaces of Rock near Mount Parnassus” (Proce.
Geol. Soc. 1846, vol. iv. p. 203).

* ‘Trevelyan of Nettlecombe, Somerset. Creation 1661.

ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS OF THE PRESIDENT. 20

In 1821 he visited the Faroe Islands, and resided there for some time,
making numerous observations on their vegetation and temperature.
Seventeen out of the twenty-two islands were inhabited at that date.
(See his published account in ‘ Jameson’s Edinburgh New Philo-
sophical Journal,’ for 1835, vol. xviii., printed in 4to for private
circulation in 1837).

Between 1835 and 1846 he travelled much in the south of
Europe, and made observations on the Tertiary Geology of the
Ttalian Peninsula, and upon the tides in the Mediterranean. -

He succeeded to the title on the 23rd May, 1846, together with
the fine landed estates belonging to his family in Northumberland,
Somersetshire, Devonshire, and Cornwall; and during the thirty-three
years in which he held the title and property, he made very ex-
tensive improvements, thus permanently increasing the value of his
inheritance. He made the farmhouses and cottages on his estates
models of what such dwellings should be. Healso did much towards
improving the breed of shorthorn cattle, of which Sir Walter possessed
an extensive herd.

He was not only an accomplished botanist and geologist, but he
was also an excellent authority on antiquarian and topographical
subjects, and liberally supported all projects for the increase and
development of knowledge. .

Of the three interesting volumes of ‘ Trevelyan Papers ’ published
by the Camden Society, the last was edited by Sir Walter in con-
junction with his cousin Sir Charles Trevelyan, Bart. (who succeeds
to the family estates).

For a long period he maintained an extensive correspondence with
a wide circle of literary and scientific men, both at home and abroad,
and was an ardent collector of both scientific books and specimens.

Sir Walter Trevelyan’s Museum at Wallington contained a good
series of British and Itaban fossils, valuable collections of minerals
and recent shells, a good series of Ethnological specimens, together
with a general Natural-History collection of objects, most of which
he had himself obtained during his travels. :

To the British Museum, the Museum of Practical Geology, the
South-Kensington Museum, the Museums of Oxford, Kew, Edinburgh,
Newcastle-upon-Tyne, the Royal Geographical Society, the Society
of Antiquaries, London and Scotland, and many other societies and
institutions Sir Walter Trevelyan was a munificent benefactor.

He took the most lively interest in the improvement and ad-
vancement of the New Museum of the University of Oxford, towards
the cost of which he also liberally contributed.

He died at Wallington, Northumberland, on March 23, 1879, in

his eighty-second year.

Joun Warernousr, F.R.S., E.B.AS., F.G.S., &., was born at
Halifax, Yorkshire, on the 8rd of August, 1806. His father, John
Waterhouse, of Well Head, was the representative of a family which
for 400 years had been intimately connected with the prosperity of
the town and neighbourhood.

38 PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

Very early in life he evinced a decided taste for scientific studies ;
and the training which he received at school only served to increase
this preference, and enabled him to obtain a sufficient knowledge of
mathematical science, which he turned to good account in after years
in the various branches of physical research to which he gave atten=
tion. A certain weakness of constitution which prevented him in
his youth from great physical exertion, only seemed to stimulate his
mental activity ; and when, in search of change of climate with a view
to invigorate his health, he undertook a voyage round the world,
the training which he had received and the bent of his mind enabled
him to record his observations in a journal which is a storehouse of
scientific facts and notices, and which, had his modesty not shrunk
from having it printed, would have proved the record of a ‘‘Scientifie
Expedition” when such journeys were far less numerous than at
present, and attended by far greater inconveniences. During this
voyage, his love of nature and the wide range of his scientific tastes
acquired an increased stimulus; and when he returned home his
experience in observation and his knowledge of natural phenomena
in different parts of the world enabled him to enter with renewed
pleasure into the less active study of the physico-mathematical
sciences.

He established an astronomical and meteorological observatory,
and in connexion with the latter published a few years ago a com-
plete work on the Meteorology of Halifax; which will continue to
be a model for all such local observations.

Practical botany also engaged his attention ; and his gardens were
distinguished throughout the neighbourhood for the rich variety otf
their contents, especially in rare plants and exotics, of which he

was justly proud. |

His favourite studies were astronomy, geology, electricity, and
light ; and in connexion with the latter he was identified with the
early progress of photography, and with the discovery by the Rev.
J. B. Reade, F.R.S., of the method of taking portraits first upon
leather, and afterwards upon paper, instead of silver plates or glass,
and also with the chemical means of giving permanence to such
images.

He was specially interested in the progress of microscopy, and
was himself both a skilful observer and an adept at those manipu-
lations which are necessary in the preparation of objects for exa-
mination. He was also extremely fond of music, and was a skilful
performer on the violoncello. Indeed he seemed able to turn his
hands to any pursuit ; and such was the aptitude which he possessed
for grasping the general principles upon which any practical opera-
tion depended, that he speedily was enabled to do with proficiency
work which required, under ordinary circumstances, years of patient
labour and practice.

As might be expected, he was also identified with those movements
which had for their object the spread of scientific knowledge, and,
in connexion with the local Literary and Philosophical Society (of

ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS OF THE PRESIDENT. 39

which he was one of the founders and for many years President),
lectured on more than one occasion on various scientific subjects, as
as well as enriched the Museum with many choice objects of natural
history collected during his travels.

He was also connected with the Mechanics’ Institute during its
early years, and was active as a magistrate, being for many years
Chairman of the County Bench at Halifax, anda Deputy Lieutenant
for the West Riding.

In later years a stroke of paralysis, which compelled his retire-
ment into private life, only made him appreciate more his beautiful
eardens, until a severer form of his malady prevented all mental
pursuits, and finally terminated his life on the 18th of February,
1879, in the 72nd year of his age.

He was a Fellow of the Royal Society, of the Royal Astronomical
Society, of the Royal Microscopical Society, of the Geological Society,
and several others; and although a certain timidity of disposition
prevented him from making original discoveries, few men were bet-
ter acquainted with the whole range of scientific inquiry; and his
kind and generous disposition, as well as the means at his command,
enabled him to liberally assist many who were pursuing the difficult
path of original investigation.

Davip Paes, LL.D., one of the most voluminous writers of
our day of popular and educational books on geology, was born
on the 24th August, 1814, at Lochgelly, in Fifeshire, where his
father carried on business as a stonemason, builder, and contractor.
Te received his education at the parochial school; but at the early
age of fourteen he was sent to the University of St. Andrews, where
+t was intended that he should study for the ministry of the Church
of Scotland. Among the students at St. Andrews at the same time
were the brothers Harry and John Goodsir and Dr. Lyon Playfair.
In the ordinary subjects of instruction David Page made considerable
progress, and, indeed, his proficiency was rewarded by several
college prizes and honours; but the special bent of his mind was so
decidedly towards the study of the natural sciences, especially
ecology, that, after taking the opinion of his friends, he decided to
devote himself to a scientific and literary career. So early as 1834 .
(the year in which he left St. Andrews) he published an essay on
the Geology of Fife and Kinross; but for some years afterwards
his labours were probably confined to lectures and anonymous
writings, as, with the exception of a volume of poems (published in
1838), we do not find his name attached to any works until after
his connexion with Messrs. Chambers had commenced. This was in
1843, when David Page was engaged to act as confidential literary
and business adviser to those enterprising publishers ; and during
his connexion with them, which lasted till 1851, his influence was
felt in the production of those scientific text-books and other articles
issued by the firm, which undoubtedly produced a considerable diffu-
sion of scientific knowledge. His earliest work published after he

40 PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY,

had entered the service of Messrs. Chambers, appeared in 1844,
under the title of ‘ Rudiments of Geology ;’ and from that time till
the close of his life it was succeeded by an uninterrupted flow of
new books and new editions treating of geology and the collateral
sciences from various points of view.

Professor Page became a Fellow of this Society in 1853. He was
also a Fellow or Member of various Geological and other learned
Societies, and in 1863 was President of the newly reestablished
Geological Society of Edinburgh. In 1867 the University of St.
Andrews conferred upon him the honorary degree of Doctor of
Laws. Finally, in July 1871, he was appointed Professor of Geology
and Mineralogy in Durham University College of Physical Science,
a position which he retained to the time of his death, which took
place at Newcastle on the 9th March 1879.

Besides the numerous educational and popular works already
alluded to, Professor Page read several papers, chiefly relating to
Scottish Geology, at the Meetings of the British Association and
before the Physical Society of Edinburgh and the Edinburgh and
Glasgow Geological Societies. He never contributed to our ‘ Pro-
ecedings.’

Prof. Page’s great merit was that of being one of the earliest,
and throughout his life one of the most successful, popularizers of
ceological ideas. In the preparation of text-books, and handbooks
for more or less advanced students, and of lighter articles for those
who can hardly yet be called students, and in the delivery of
popular lectures, he was incessantly active, notwithstanding long-
continued ill health; and in these ways, as also by the zealous
discharge of his duties in the College of Physical Science at New-
castle, he no doubt contributed greatly to the general diffusion of
geological knowledge. In private also his geniality of character
and enthusiasm gave him considerable influence over the minds of
those with whom he was brought into contact.

CarL Bernyarp von Cotta was born at Zillbach, near Eisenach,
in Thiringen, on the 24th of October, 1808, and studied first at
the Mining Academy of Freiberg, where he matriculated in 1827-31,
and subsequently at the University of Heidelberg, taking the degree
of Doctor of Philosophy. From 1839 to 1842 he formed part of the
teaching staff and was Secretary of the Academy for Forestry and
Agricultural Science at Tharand, near Dresden, of which his father
was the founder and first Director. This association led him at first
to the study of vegetable paleontology—his earliest work, that on.
Dendrolites (or fossilized tree-stems), which appeared in 1832,
being founded upon the large collection of fossil plants in his
father’s possession at Tharand; but the greater attractions pre-
sented by the strata in the immediate neighbourhood and in the
adjacent Elbe valley led him to devote himself to field-geology,
which thenceforward became a principal work of his life.

The first place among his numerous published works must un-
doubtedly be given to his geological maps. The idea of a general

ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS OF THE PRESIDENT. 41

Geological Map of Saxony was entertained as early as 1780; and
during Werner’s lifetime a commencement was made by dividing
the country into 90 districts, which were allotted for examination
among the different mining-oflicials and other competent observers.
In 1830 the revision and reduction of these preliminary observations
was confided to C. F. Naumann, then Professor of Geology «at
Freiberg, with a view to their Bueno: upon the large military
map of Saxony on the scale of -5p5 55 (rather more than half an
inch to a mile); and in a short time Cotta became associated with
him in the work. Owing to the great cost, however, only the
more interesting portions, containing the kingdom of Saxony proper,
were published, between 1886 and 1844. These form twelve sheets
in a connected block, the numeration, however, being that of the larger
military map. ‘The last of these was published in 1843; but some
of the sheets have been revised and issued at later dates. In
addition to a short pamphlet, a detailed description was drawn up
for each sheet; but only five of these appear to have been published :
the first two were written by Naumann, the third by Naumann and
Cotta, and the remainder by Cotta alone.

Subsequently the Survey was extended to the Thuringian
country, the map (forming four sheets on the same scale) being pub-
lished by Cotta alone in 1845-1847. These maps may be considered
as the first exact and systematic national surveys made on the con-
tinent of Europe; and they are remarkable for the large amount of
exact detail given, on what is now regarded as a comparatively
small scale—seventy different colours and signs being employed in
their construction. The improvement of geological cartography
was to the last a favourite subject with this author; and by one of
his latest official acts, urging upon the Government the necessity
of larger and more detailed maps, he was a powerful ae aner in
the initiation of the new survey on the scale of 55} 7, uniform
with that of Prussia, which is now being carried out under the
direction of Dr. Credner.

In 1842, on the translation of Naumann to the University of
Leipzig, Cotta succeeded him as Professor of Geology at Freiberg,
adding to his geological lectures in the following year a course on
Paleontology, and in 1851 another on the special phenomena of
mineral deposits (Erzlagerstiittenlehre), which three subjects he
taught continuously until his retirement in 1874. From his frank
and genial manner he was always a great favourite with his
students, his classes being well attended: but he was even more
successful as a demonstrator in the field; and his excursions were
always extremely popular, even with those students who were not
immediately connected with his classes.

In addition to works descriptive of geological maps, Cotta was a very
industrious writer of text-books, biographical memoirs, and popular
works on geology, the total number of his memoirs and other publica-
tions amounting to about eighty. Among the first the more important
are his ‘Gesteinslehre’ and ‘ Lehre yon den Erzlagerstitten ’—the
former a treatise on rocks, which appeared in 1855, a second edition

42 PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

in 1862, and an English translation by Mr. P. H. Lawrence, with
additions by the author, in 1866. This is interesting as being the
- last systematic work on the subject that appeared before the
general application of microscopic mineralogy to the study of rocks.
The treatise on mineral deposits was issued as a text-book for his
Freiberg class in 1854, the author having commenced, in 1847, a
miscellany under the title of ‘Gangstudien’ (Lode studies), con-
taining monographs on mineral veins in different countries, con-
tributed by himself and others, which was continued at irregular
intervals up to a fourth volume in 1862. In 1859 the text-book
was reprinted in an extended form in two volumes; and in 1861 it
was rearranged under the title of the ‘ Mineral Deposits of Europe.’
An English translation, under the title of ‘A Treatise on Ore
Deposits,’ by Mr. F. Prime, was published in America in 1870.

Subsequently to 1845 mineral veins formed a chief object of
his study, his attention being principally devoted to the mining-
districts of the Eastern Alps, Hungary, the Banat, and the Buko-
Wwina, special memoirs upon which were published from time to
time. In 1868, on the invitation of the Emperor of Russia, he
made a summer trip to the Altai, the result of his obpemManione
being published in a large octavo volume i in 1871.

Cotta’s popular and general geological works have attaihed a
circulation in Germany comparable with those of Sir Charles Lyell
in this country. The more important among these are:—1. ‘ Geo-
logical Letters upon Humboldt’s Kosmos,’ 1848, with a third edition
in 1855; 2. ‘Geological Pictures, a collection of articles originally
contributed to the Illustrirte Zeitung of Leipzig, of which six
editions appeared between 1852 and 1876, and a Russian trans-
lation in 1859; and 3. ‘ Modern Geology ’ (Geologie der Gegenwart),
in which he sought to establish the principle of development applied
by Darwin to the origin of species as the general law of terrestrial
development, published in 1866, and, in a fourth edition, in 1874,
besides translations into Magyar and Russian. The same idea
of continuous development as a factor in geology appears in an
earlier work, ‘ Deutschlands Boden,’ in which the influence of soil
and geological structure upon the population of Germany is treated
at length. This appeared in 1854, and, in a second edition, in
1858.

In 1857-58 he revised and supplied a preface to a translation of
the 5th edition of Sir Charles Lyell’s ‘ Geology.’

His latest work was a commencement of a general history of
Geology; the first volume (under the title of ‘ Geologisches Reperto-
rium’), containing the titles of the principal works on Geology pub-
lished between 1546 and 1876, appeared in 1877.

He was elected a Foreign Correspondent of this Society in 1867,
and a Foreign Member only last year. After his retirement he re-
sided at Freiberg until his death on September 15, 1879.

Among the Foreign Members of which our Society has to deplore
the loss, one of the most distinguished is

ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS OF THE PRESIDENT. 43

Francois Lovis Pavt Gervats, whose numerous and valuable
writings must be familiar to all students of paleontology. He was
born in Paris on the 24th September, 1816; and as early as the year
1835 he became assistant to De Blainville (who occupied the Chair
of Comparative Anatomy at the Paris Museum), and remained asso-
ciated with that great naturalist until 1845, when he was appointed
Professor of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy to the Faculty of
Sciences of Montpellier. In 1865 Gervais was appointed Professor
at the Faculty of Sciences of Paris, and in 1868 Professor of Com-
parative Anatomy at the Museum, a position which he held until
his death on the 10th February, 1879. He was a Doctor of Sciences
and of Medicine, a correspondent of the Institute of France (since
1861), and a corresponding member of many Societies. He was one
of the earliest Foreign Correspondents of this Society (1863), and
was elected a Foreign Member in 1875.

During his early association with De Blainville, Gervais assisted
him in the preparation of his great work, the ‘ Ostéographie ;’ but
the bent of his mind at this time appears to have been towards the
study of those groups of animals included by Linneus in his order
“‘ Insecta Aptera,”’ and especially of the Myriopoda, upon which he
began to write as early as the year 1835. He was, in consequence,
selected to complete and supplement the great work on the Aptera
(Spiders, Scorpions, Myriopoda, and true apterous Insects) com-
menced by Baron Walckenaer in the ‘ Suites 4 Buffon,’ of which he
wrote the third and fourth volumes, published in 1844 and 1847.

In numerous memoirs published in various periodicals, and in
the natural-history appendices to voyages, Professor Gervais treated
of animals belonging to nearly all the principal groups, and he also
published ‘ Hléments de Zoologie’ in 1866 (of which a second
edition appeared in 1871), and, in conjunction with Van Beneden,
a ‘Zoologie Médicale’? in 1859. During the whole of this period,
however, his attention was being more and more directed towards
the vertebrata, recent and fossil, especially the Mammalia ; and it
is mainly upon his researches on the latter that his fame as a
paleontologist will rest. In 1854 and 1855 he produced his
‘Histoire Naturelle des Mammiféres, in two large 8vo volumes,
giving an excellent semipopular description of the structure and
habits of the recent Mammalia, with references to all the fossil
forms of which any thing definite was at that time known. In his
‘ Zoologie et Paléontologie Frangaises,’ published in two 4to volumes
between 1848 and 1852, and of which a second edition appeared
in 1859, the Mammalia occupy by far the largest share of the
space; and this is also the case with the ‘ Zoologie et Paléonto-
logie générales,’ although in both these books fossil birds and
reptiles receive more or less of the author’s attention. In the
last-mentioned work we find important researches upon the fossil
mammals of South America, to which Professor Gervais had already
devoted a special memoir, under the title of ‘ Recherches sur les
Mammiféres fossiles de Amérique méridionale,’ published in 1855.
By these great works, and numerous smaller memoirs published in

44 PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY. &

various periodicals and read before learned Societies, Prof. Gervais
has contributed most importantly to the advancement of our know-
ledge of the Tertiary Mammalia.

One of the memoirs in the ‘ Zoologie et Paléontologie générales,’
is devoted to the discussion of the antiquity of man, and of the
changes which have taken place in the Huropean fauna since the
close of the Tertiary period—subjects which attracted much of the
author’s attention during the last twenty years of his life.

JoHsann Frreprich Branpt was born May 25, 1802, at Jiiter-
bogh, in the Prussian province of Brandenburg, and died at the
Baths of Merrekiill, on the Gulf of Finland, 15th July, 1879. He
was carefully educated by his parents at Juiterbogh, where his
father was a successful surgeon; and here he derived from his
uncle Hensius the love of botany which engrossed much of his at-
tention for twenty years. From the Gymnasium of Jiterbogh he
passed to the Lyceum of Wittenberg, studying classics, and in 1821
entered the University of Berlin. In his first vacation he visited
the Harz with his fellow-student Ratzeburg, and, having won the
medical prize for an essay on Respiration, was enabled next year to
travel through the Riesengebirge. Subsequently he made many
journeys with Goppert, who remained his friend throughout life.
Lichtenstein’s lectures in Berlin stimulated him to active zoological
work, and led him to visit museums of anatomy. He at this time
-acted as amanuensis to Rudolphi. In 1825 he published a ‘ Flora
Berolinensis.. His examinations were passed with distinction in
1826; and he became M.D., surgeon, and accoucheur. His inaugural
thesis was entitled ‘ Observationes Anatomicee de Mammalium quo-
rundam vocis instrumento.’ The year following he became assistant
to Heine, and for nine months was engaged in the Zoological Mu-
seum. In conjunction with Ratzeburg he began in 1827 to issue
the first volume of their ‘ Medical Zoology,’ which occupied the next
two years; and he also wrote many articles for the ‘ Encyklopi-
dische Lexikon.’ In 1829 he issued the first part of the Plants of
the Prussian Pharmacopceia, as well as the German Poisonous Plants,
and contributed to the ‘ Medical Encyclopedia.’ Important works
were completed in 1830, and he began monographs of the Myriopods
and Oniscide, as well as a monograph of the Mammals founded upon
Biirde’s ‘ Abbildungen merkwiirdiger Siugethiere.’

In 1831 he left Berlin with the title of Professor Extraordinary,
and, through the influence of Humboldt and Rudolphi, went to the
Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg, first as assistant in and sub-
sequently as director of the Zoological Museum. Here honours came
thick upon him. He was elected an ordinary member of the
Academy, became an Imperial Russian Councillor, received the title
of Excellency, was invested with many distinguished orders, was
elected into the Imp. Acad. Leop. Carol. and many of the academies
and scientific societies of Europe. At the time of his Doctor’s
Jubilee in January 1876, his published scientific writings numbered
300. Of these 176 are zoological, 24 relate to comparative ana-

ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS OF THE PRESIDENT. 45

tomy, 35 are paleontological, 11 are upon geographical zoology,
and the remainder relate to archeological zoology, botany, and
miscellaneous subjects. Brandt also published, in Helmersen and
Schrenck’s ‘Contributions to a Knowledge of the Russian Empire and
adjacent Lands of Asia,’ a valuable and learned memoir on the pro-
gress of zoology in Russia between 1831 and 1879. He made great
scientific journeys in Russia, first to Nicolajew in search of the
mammoth, and afterward to the Caucasus to carry on his studies of
its fish. He also visited and studied in the museums of Germany,
Switzerland, Upper Italy, France, Belgium, Holland, and England.

Before going to St. Petersburg he married, and had a family of
three daughters and four sons. The second son, Alexander, who
has inherited his father’s zoological and paleontological tendencies,
is Conservator of the Zoological Museum in the University of St.
Petersburg.

Brandt’s paleontological writings relate to the fossil Mammalia.
The most important of these is entitled ‘ Untersuchungen uber die
fossilen und subfossilen Cetaceen Huropa’s, which gives a complete
account of all the European Cetacea which were known down to
1873, and includes descriptions of species of Cetotherwwm, Pachya-
canthus, Cetotheriopsis, Cetotheriomorphus, Delphinapterus, Hetero-
delphis, Schizodelphis, Champsodelphis, Squalodon, Zeuglodon, and
other remarkable types. Other important memoirs relate to Hlas-
mothervun, Dimotherium, Rhytina, and the Mammoth. Another
important monograph is devoted to the characters of the Sirenia and
their relations to various other orders ; and many and important con-
tributions were made by him to the knowledge of the osteology and
structure of various other groups of mammals.

All Brandt’s work is profound. His learning not only covers a
wide field, but is brought to bear on difficult questions with singu-
lar concentration and ability. He has illuminated all that he has
laboured upon. And as a paleontologist he will ever hold the
highest rank, from the circumstance that his paleontological labours
were merely the outcome of natural-history labours unusually ex-
haustive and lucid, and that these studies, which occupied the
maturer years of his life, were treated in no isolated way, but with
a full appreciation of their important bearing upon the higher phi-
losophical questions which are the chiefest ends of scientific work.

46 PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

On tre STRUCTURE AND ORIGIN OF NON-CALCAREOUS
STRATIFIED Rocks.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

PiTRROMICHLON ..1.,57 udarcgncee reese page 46 posited on the surface of the
Oricin ot maierial cavers nincep esc 47 RAINS oii pci oie ot te cee age 62
Quartz-sand eee cromcorateaee acer 47 | Internal structure of the grains... 64
Sand derived from other minerals. 49 | Mud and Clay .............c.eeeseeees 66
Mechanical wearing of material... 50 | Lamination of Shales, &e. ......... 67
Chemical decomposition of mate- Slate rocks in general ............09 68
rer em en Se ara 50 | Slate rocks of North Wales......... 70
Minate calcareous granules......... 51 | Development of Slaty Cleavage ... 72
Pseudomorphs after felspars ...... 51 | Slates of the English Lake-district 74
Identification of some minerals ... 52 | Cleavage in the Green Slates ...... 76
Mica in deposited rocks ............ 53 | Slates in different districts ......... 76
Augite, Hornblende, and Olivine in General changes after deposition... 77
Oe POsted: LOCKS cg ccnnecsasiory ens ae D8 | Metamorphic rocks .....:je-a:escaee 81
Volcanic glass and ashes in depo- Artificial Metamorphism ............ 81
sibed mOels pps a85. dete bel de. esbonty 54 | Loeal-contact Metamorphism...... 81.
Microscopical examination of Development of Mica-schist ...... 82
Sands and Clayay:.,2.c-/b--erinee 55 | Fine-grained Schists .............4- 84
Identification of the Minerals in Folation in slightly altered Slates 84
PSO 0 Ream stk akg ane MR DO | Structure of Schists -.....-... sere 85
Identification of fragments of rocks Presence of the original Sand and
aja ISON. | Fsblewe -esasegsevaads -uggeee 56 Mead in Sehishs iiy...0. Gee 85
Biiintzsaad 5 icp aesepeeebeen-gaaterety 56 | Original source of the material of
General characters of Sands ...... 57 some Schists ....«ineperresy+ceonaeee 87
External form of the grains ...... 57 | Stratification-foliation .............. 83
Variously worn Sands............... 58 | Cleavage-foliation...............:.c0+ 89
Kraetated @rains (,,.....0esscevees 61 | Schists not mechanically deposited
Corroded Sands’ "ie. 1.sApaecee yee 61 AS BUCH: (.25). stipid bane we ecco 91
Sand with quartz chemically de- Conchasionss:..si, saat happen 92
Introduction.

In my address at our last Anniversary Meeting, 1 gave a general
outline of what appeared to me to be the most important facts
connected with the structure and origin of limestone. Havin
treated the question mainly from a new point of view, I did little
else than describe my own observations. On the present occasion
I propose to treat mainly on the structure and origin of non-
calcareous stratified rocks, and to consider only those questions
connected with igneous rocks which bear very directly on the
subject before me. Some branches of this inquiry have already
attracted much attention ; but it would extend this address too
much to discuss what has been writen on one detached portion or
another. It will, I think, be better to give a summary of what
appear to me to be the more important facts, as viewed from a
general, and yet somewhat special, point of view. In doing this L
must necessarily allude to many facts and conclusions which can
have no claim to novelty, except in having been arrived at by more
or less new methods, or in being discussed in a new connexion, or as
bearing on more general questions.

ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS OF THE PRESIDENT. 47

Origin of Material.

Though the material of any more or less modern non-calcareous
stratified deposit may have been derived from some analogous rock
of earlier date, yet we must, I think, trace back the greater part to
the mechanical breaking-up or chemical decomposition of igneous
or metamorphic rocks, since in them by far the greater bulk of
new crystalline material is formed. I therefore purpose now to
consider the character of the sand and mud thus derived from
different classes of rock.

The minerals of truly igneous rocks have been formed at an
elevated temperature, and free from the continued solvent action
of water. Though some are very stable, and do not undergo any
material change when exposed to water at the ordinary temperature,
yet many are altogether in a state of unstable equilibrium when
exposed continuously to conditions so extremely different from those
under which they were formed. Some of the constituents are dis-
solved out; and the rest group themselves in accordance with the
new affinities, which vary according to special circumstances. Even
in the case of those plutonic or metamorphic rocks which have
been formed more or less under the influence of water, the tempe-
rature was apparently so elevated that the mutual affinities of the
constituents were unlike those brought into play by exposure to
- the continued action of cold water, especially if it is charged with
carbonic acid. When igneous or metamorphic rocks are weathered
and broken up, we thus obtain sand and fine mud composed not
only of the original materials, but also of products of chemical
change. I shall therefore now consider some of the more im-
portant constituents of stratified deposits derived from certain
typical rocks.

Quartz Sand.

The quartz of granitic rocks sometimes shows more or less 1m-
perfect crystalline planes, but is more commonly dovetailed in
amongst the other minerals in a very intricate manner. The result
is that in the rock itself the separate grains have often a most
irregular and complex form, but yet on the whole are not much
drawn out or flattened in any special direction. When the felspar
is decomposed, and the rock broken up, some of the occasional
special inequalities in the length, breadth, and thickness of the
grains of quartz are reduced by cross fractures; and the resulting
fragments are usually not more than, at all events, twice as long
in any one direction as in any other, and have a very irregular im-
perfectly angular or imperfectly rounded outline. The quartz in
quartzose felsites is often of much more truly crystalline form,
the planes being sometimes very perfect; but very often there is a
remarkable rounding of the angles, which might easily lead any one
to think that they were waterworn. ven the grains of quartz
derived from granite sometimes-show this character to a less ex-
tent, but the rounding is usually accompanied by small surface-

48 PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

ridges, which clearly show that their rounded form was not due to
mechanical wearing. In the specimens of decomposed granite
which I have examined in greatest detail, the larger grains of
quartz have a somewhat opaque surface, as if corroded, and the
angles are rounded. This rounding is relatively much greater in
the case of the smaller grains, which is the reverse of what is met
with in worn sand. On the whole the facts seem to mdicate that
the quartz has been more or less corroded and dissolved by the
action of the alkaline silicates set free by the decomposition of the
felspar. The contrast between its corroded surface and the glassy
fractures of broken quartz is very great.

The internal structure of the detached grains can be easily
studied when they are mounted in Canada balsam, since its index
of refraction is so nearly the same as that of quartz. High powers
can easily be used, if we employ lenses of small angle of aperture
having their focal point as remote as possible from the front lens.
The shape of the grains, however, is better seen when they are in
water under thin glass, since they can then be made to turn round
so as to exhibit their form in more directions than one.

The quartz of thin-foliated gneiss and mica-schist differs from
that of granite in having a far less simple optic structure, and
in being often more or less flattened in the plane of foliation.
Instead of the larger portions of quartz being made up of a few
comparatively large crystals, they are frequently composed of very
many, closely dovetailed together, as if formed in situ. Though
the outline of these separate crystals is sometimes shown by more
or less faint lines of impurity, they are often in such close con-
tact that they cannot be separately distinguished without using
polarized light. Such quartz, when broken up, would usually give
rise, either to comparatively fine sand, or to larger grains showing
a more or less compound structure. Besides this, in very thin-
foliated rocks containing much mica, a large part of the quartz
occurs as plates, flattened between the parailel flakes of mica; and
when sucha rock is broken up, we obtain flattened grains of quartz,
with tolerably smooth surfaces, thus differing materially from the
more irregular grains with rougher surfaces derived from granite.

Passing now to the internal microscopical structure of the indi-
vidual grains, I must say that less can be learned from the fluid-
cavities than might have been expected. ‘Their number in the
Scotch schists is, indeed, far less than in the Cornish granites, but
not sensibly less than in some of the granite associated with them.
T do not remember to have ever seen any cubic crystals of alka-
line chlorides in the fluid-cavities in the quartz of any granite or
schist from Scotland; but they occur abundantly in some Cornish
eranites. Hence, clearly enough, the evidence derived from fluid-
cavities is of very limited value, except in particular cases. Far
more characteristic evidence is furnished by the glassy and stony
enclosures, when they are present. The quartz-crystals cf some
rhyolites contain small imperfectly rhombic or six-sided enclosures
of coloured obsidian-like glass, with accompanying bubbles, even

ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS OF THE PRESIDENT. 49

when the basis of the rock is no longer glassy. In quartz felsites,
like some of the Cornish elvans, we see larger enclosures of a
similar form; but, instead of being glass, they are devitrified and
composed of fine-grained crystalline material, like the basis of the
rock. No such stony enclosures occur in very typical granites ;
but we do meet with afew in those somewhat approaching felsites
in general character. In the quartz of granites proper we see
enclosed crystals of other minerals; and these may be very
numerous and sufficiently characteristic of particular districts.
Thus, for example, small prisms of schorl so abound in the quartz
of Cornish granites, and fine needles of rutile in those of Scotland,
that sands derived from them would certainly show very charac-
teristic differences. I have been unable to detect any thing that
would serve to distinguish the quartz of thick-foliated schists from
that of true granite. In the case of thin-foliated schists 1t does,
indeed, often enclose plates of mica, chiefly lying in the plane of
foliation; and if broken up, very characteristic fragments would
be formed, which might be called grains of mica-schist.

The quartz of veins sometimes differs so little from that of
granite that I do not see how they could be distinguished. That
from large massive veins could not fall to pieces to form sand, but
would yield pebbles and small chips or granules ; so that we can
scarcely look upon it as an important source of sand of medium
quality, which is what I propose to consider more particularly.
Some of that derived from thick-foliated schists, and especially
from gneiss, would not differ materially from that derived from
certain varieties of granite; and it would also be impossible
to say whether some had been derived from an abnormal granite,
or from the mixed products of a granite and a felsite. Though
we may thus expect to meet with many grains of quartz-sand
presenting no distinctive peculiarities, yet some grains may still
teach us their whole history, and throw much light on the true
nature of the associated material. :

Sand derwed from other Minerals.

The felspars, augite, hornblende, schorl, and mica met with in
different classes of rocks do not differ sufficiently in external form
or internal structure to enable us to form any very satisfactory
opinion as to their origin, except in a few particular cases. Thus,
for exainple, the presence, or complete absence, of well-marked
portions of enclosed glass would indicate that any fragment under
examination was, or was not, derived from an igneous rock which
solidified from a state of true igneous fusion. This does not
necessarily prove that it was or was not a subaerial volcanic rock.
The presence of cavities of more or less perfectly spherical form
containing gas or vapour inside crystalline stony minerals, and the
absence of fluid-cavities, is, on the whole, the most satisfactory
evidence of their having been derived from a rock erupted under
little pressure, or as a true ash. On the contrary, the presence of

VOL. XXXVI.

590 PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

fluid-cavities, with or without included cubes of alkaline chlorides,
would show that the mineral had been formed under considerable
pressure, and might thus point out very clearly the origin of the
fragment,

Mechanical Wearing of Material.

So far, I have considered the original form of the fragments,
irrespective of subsequent mechanical wearing.. In the case of
fine sand the friction on the bottom must be very slight, since the
weight of the particles is so small, and even a moderately agitated
current of water would raise them from the bottom and carry
them along almost without friction. When, however, the grains
are larger, there is necessarily more friction—and still more so in
the case of subaerial blown sand, simce the pressure on the
surface over which it is driven would be fully twice as great. The
material thus worn off from separate grains, or from pebbles of
quartzite or other hard rocks, would often be in such small par-
ticles that even its true mineral nature could scarcely be determined,
much less the particular kind of rock from which it had been
originally derived ; and it would be difficult, if not impossible, to
distinguish by the microscope particles thus produced by the
mechanical wearing of stable minerals from those due to the
chemical decomposition of those which are unstable.

Chemical Decomposition of Materials.

The change of felspar into kaolin is so well known that I need
describe only the microscopical characters of the resulting mate-
rial. When only partially decomposed, felspar becomes more or
less opaque, owing to the formation of minute granules, but
retains more or less of the original definite optic orientation.
When completely decomposed, it is changed into a mass of minute
eranules having no more definite crystalline orientation than those
in a small grain of hardened mud ; and though these granules may
cohere sufficiently to keep together, or may be cemented by other
substances, yet in many cases they readily separate more or less
completely. I have very carefully studied them, since they play
such an important part in many stratified rocks. ‘Their shape is
very irregular; but they are not specially elongated or compressed
in any particular direction, so that they cannot be called either
irregular prisms or plates. Their diameter varies somewhat, but
on an average may be said to be about ppp of an inch. Their
doubly refracting power must be somewhere about double that of
quartz or unchanged felspar, so that grains 5,455 of an inch in
diameter usually give with polarized light the pale blue-white of
the first order; but those of 55595 or less in diameter are too
small to give rise to any visible effects of depolarization.

Much of what I have just said will apply equally well to other
minerals that can be changed into ‘granules more or less closely
corresponding to true kaolin, and also to the fine-grained felspathic

ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS OF THE PRESIDENT. 51

base of felsites. Ido not see how small fragments of felsite
could be certainly distinguished from those derived from crystalline
felspar, if the former did not reveal a more complex structure, or
the latter retain some trace of crystalline form or internal optical
structure.

Minute Calcareous Granules.

Whilst treating of the character of the minute granules derived
from decomposed minerals, or from the complete wearing down of
hard quartzose rocks, it will be well to point out how easily we
may distinguish from them the calcareous granules derived from
decomposed shells or comminuted limestones. Owing to the intense
double refraction of calcite, calcareous granules give by depolariza-
tion tints of a much higher order than those given by the others.
Thus, on an average, grains of 55 of an inch diameter give
all the series of colours up to the reds and greens; and even those
of i000 give well-marked tints, commonly the yellow of the
first order, but varying up to the red of the first order, according
to the manner in which they lie. Moreover, in examining clays
deposited in some parts of our country since the Cretaceous period,
we may often recognize the coccoliths of the Chalk, not only by
their very definite form, but also by the characteristic black cross
which each gives with polarized light.

Pseudomorphs after Felspars.

As is well known, felspars occur altered to various pseudomorphs,
the more important of which, in connexion with my subject, are
mainly composed of chlorite, talc, or analogous minerals, which
occur as plate-like ‘crystals, having a very distinct laminar struc-
ture, to which the negative axis of depolarization is perpendicular.
When these pseudomorphs are seen as thin sections, the laminar
erystals cut transversely are much more distinct than those cut
nearly in the plane of their cleavage; and it sometimes requires
much attention to distinguish between a mass of such lamine and
small prisms scattered about in a different kind of material. Thus,
for example, when altered to chlorite or some green variety of tale,
the transverse sections are but little coloured, and appear like fibres
surrounded by a green uncrystalline base ; but further examination
shows that they are very dichroic, and that the green and appa-
rently shapeless material is really only lamin lying in the plane
of the section, so that the line of vision is nearly in the line of the
optic axis. They therefore show the green colour with ordinary
light, and no colours due to depolarization when the polarizer and
analyzer are used.

Some portions of what appears to have been felspar have, to a
certain extent, been changed into small more or less flattened
fibrous crystals, which in many characters approach asbestos,
though it is doubtful if they really are that mineral. At all events
this seems to be the most probable source of the small fibrous crys-

52 PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

tals often associated with kaolin, but differing from it not only in
form, but also in having a much more powerful depolarizing action.
They are well seen in the pipeclay of Kingsteignton, and occur in
greater or less numbers in most fine-grained clays.

Identification of some Minerals.

In distinguishing from one another different kinds of small
laminar or prismatic crystals, I have found it most valuable, and,
indeed, indispensable, to make use of the quartz wedge inserted
into the eye-piece like a micrometer described by me in a paper
read before the Royal Microscopical Society*. Minute portions
of minerals which appear identical, when examined with a simple
polarizing microscope, may often be distinguished by it with great
ease. Thus, for example, if we have a more or less transverse
section of a laminar mineral like mica, and rotate it in polarized
light, at two different azimuths at right angles to one another it
does not depolarize. These directions may be very conveniently
called the ‘axes of depolarization.” They are not exactly the
axes of elasticity, but are the direction along which these axes
intersect the section in the line of vision. Arranging the section
on the stage of the microscope so that one of these axes is at an
angle of 45° to the plane of polarization, we, of course, see to the
greatest advantage the colours due to depolarization. Pushing
the quartz wedge into the eyepiece, with the axis also at 45° to the
plane of polarization, the tints given by the object under examina-
tion are raised if its positive axis be parallel to it, but lowered
when it is the negative axis which is parallel. In this latter
case, when the part of the wedge which gives the same tint as the
section is over it, the object appears black. If the depolarization
is extremely feeble, it is difficult to see this, because the object
must be observed so close to the extreme thin edge of the plate.
It is then much better to notice whether the object lowers the blue
of the second order to the red-orange of the first order, or raises
the latter to the former. In the case of mica cut more or less
transversely we can thus easily see that the negative axis of depo-
larization is invariably at right angles to the laminz, whereas in
some other analogous minerals this axis is positive. In the case of
some prismatic or fibrous minerals, like hornblende, the positive axis
appears to be somewhat variably inclined to the line of the fibres.
This is because the true axis of elasticity is not parallel to the
axis of the prism, and thus the result depends partly on the
manner in which the crystal happens to be turned on its axis in
the plane of the section. This alone is a very important fact; but
we should also observe whether, when the axis of depolarization is
parallel to the fibre, it is negative or positive. Unlike hornblende or
transverse sections of mica, small prismatic felspar microliths
have their negative axis more or less nearly in the line of their
length. The angle at which it is inclined differs in different kinds

* Monthly Microscop. Journ. 1877, vol. xviii. p. 209.

ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS OF THE PRESIDENT. 53

of felspar, and sometimes also with the direction in which each
simple or twin crystal is cut. It will thus be seen that the quartz
wedge furnishes us with a most valuable means for distinguishing
very minute crystals. It is also very useful in enabling us more
easily and accurately to compare the doubly refracting power of
different minerals, as shown by the order of the tints given by
contiguous sections of the same thickness, observing the average
result, so as not to be led into error by the varying inclination
of the axes to the plane, of the section.

Mica in deposited Rocks.

Though the larger crystals of mica in granite or schists may be
somewhat altered by weathering, the microscopical and optical
characters are not sufficiently changed to need special descrip-
tion. Unless it be in special cases, when much oxide of iron is
present, there seems to be no other general tendency to fall to pieces
than by breaking up along the cleavage into thin flat plates. Except
when forming part of a boulder or pebble, mica could not be much
worn down by friction, since its shape would cause it to be so
readily lifted from the bottom by a current. There is, however, a
most important source of very fine-grained micaceous mud, which
I was not able to recognize until very recently for lack of adequate
optical apparatus. I have long known that sonie quartz felsites
might almost be called extremely fine-grained granites, and contain
many small flakes of mica, plainly visible with a pocket-lens ; but
it was not until I had found that the quartz wedge in the eyepiece
enables us to distinguish transverse sections of very minute flakes
of mica from felspar microliths that I was able to prove that,
though the fine-grained base of some felsites 1s mainly felspathic,
yet that of others contains a very considerable amount of mica.
This occurs in the form of minute flakes, varying in size down to
about sj, of an inch in diameter, and 55-5) of an inch in
thickness. Such flakes are of course far too small to produce any
very marked difference in the natural appearance of the rock. The
decomposition of such a felsite would yield a very fine-grained
mud, composed not merely of kaolin, but also of mica, or at least
of some mineral having very similar mechanical and optical cha-
racters.

Augite, Hornblende, and Clivine in deposited Rocks.

Much of what I have said respecting the internal structure of fel-
spar will apply equally well to augite, hornblende, and olivine. Little
could be learned about the origin of any particular fragment unless
it contained well-marked glass enclosures or bubbles of gas, which
would point to a true volcanic origin. Not much reliance could be
placed on the mere absence of bubbles, yet their complete absence
would make it more probable that the material was derived from a
solid volcanic rock and was not a true ash.

If decomposed by weathering near the surface, augite and horn-

54 PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

blende are to a large extent removed, and little remains but peroxide
of iron and any minute included crystals of insoluble minerals.
The space originally occupied by the removed material may be left
comparatively empty, or be filled with calcite or other minerals com-
monly introduced into minute fissures or cavities. Augite, horn-
blende, and olivine, however, are often changed in a very different
manner, and give rise to pseudomorphs of various kinds, probably
when the change was effected at a higher temperature, or, at all
events, less under the influence of the atmosphere. By far the most
important of these pseudomorphs are of a green colour, but differ
much in the mechanical and optical structure of the material.

It would be tedious and occupy far too much time to consider
separately all the other minerals which, in a broken-up or decomposed
condition, to a less extent serve to give rise to the material of stra-
tified rocks ; those I have selected will, I trust, serve to illustrate
what appear to be the principal phenomena attending the forma-
tion of different kinds of sand, mud, and clay. It is, however,
very essential that we should consider the glassy base of volcanic
rocks. ;

Volcanic Glass and Ashes in deposited Rocks.

The general structure of obsidian, pitchstone, tachylite, and
similar rocks has been described by so many authors that I need
say little about it. Their general base is a true glass, having no
depolarizing action on polarized light. This property, of course,
serves at once to distinguish it from fragments of very many of
the more common minerals, but not from isotropic minerals like
garnet. However, in many cases the presence of bubbles, or of a
fluidal or vesicular structure, shows very clearly that the substance
under examination is a true volcanic glass. In addition to this
internal structure, the fragments have often a very characteristic
form. The melted glass may have been blown into spray, and
given rise to fibres and irregular spherical bulbs, as in the case of
Pélé’s hair ; or it may have been blown out by the internal evolution
of gas or steam into a more or less perfect pumice. The form and
structure of this latter are so characteristic that there is little chance
of confounding minute fragments of it with any thing else.

Speaking generally, we may say that particles of pumice are made
up of cells with more or less curved walls of glass which occa-
sionally are not more than 79-599 of an inch in thickness. When
broken very small, the particles may show no entire cells, but merely
‘curious irregular compound plates, due to the meeting of several
cells, or simply more or less curved lamin derived from cell-walls.
There is a gradual passage from such vesicular glassy material to
solid crystalline lavas; and only an occasional fragment in a mass
of ash may be decidedly vesicular or contain true glass. In only a
few cases, like that of Pélé’s haw, could we be certain that the
ultimate particles had been formed by a true volcanic process. In
some cases it would be impossible to distinguish between a volcanic
rock reduced to fragments during an eruption, so as to give rise to

ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS OF THE PRESIDENT. 55

a true ash, and the same rock broken up after consolidation by non-
volcanic action. Still, on the whole, I think we may look upon the

vesicular structure of the constituent materials or base as charac-.

teristic of ash, and the more rounded and worn shape of the frao~
ments as characteristic of what, for distinction, we may call volcanic
sand,

Microscopical Examination of Sands and Clays.

Having considered the origin of the material in as much detail
as seems desirable, | now proceed to describe the methods which I
have found best in studying particular examples of sands and clays.
On the whole, the most useful power is a }, since that enables

us to see nearly all the detail; but for examining the mere shape’

of grains of sand and the coarser structure of rocks, a 74, or even a
2 is more convenient. It is only occasionally that so high a power
as + is needed, and that chiefly to determine the true characters of
very minute cavities. On the whole, there can be no doubt that
far more may be learned from thin microscopical sections than from
loose material ; but yet very much may be learned even in this
latter case, and in fact more respecting certain particulars. The
general form of the particles is best observed by viewing the sand
or mud in water under thin glass. Their outline is then much
better seen than when they are mounted in Canada balsam; and
by slightly moving the cover-glass, they turn round so as to show
their entire shape, or slip along the surface of the supporting glass
in such a manner as to prove that they are thin flat plates. The
internal structure and optical characters of the constituent par-
ticles, however, are far better shown when the deposit is mounted
in Canada balsam. I have found it best to first spread out the
material on the glass in dilute gum and water. This, on drying,
leaves the grains sufficiently fixed on the glass to prevent their
moving either during the mounting in balsam or when the slide
is afterwards kept in a vertical position. Although when thus
mounted it is impossible to make the grains turn round, yet much
may be learned respecting their shape by observing the tints which
they give with polarized light. Thus, for example, a more or less
spherical grain of quartz sand about ;1, of an inch in diameter
gives, on an average, tints rising from the faint white-blue of the
first order at the edges up to the well-marked colours of the second
and third orders in the centre, whereas a grain of that diameter, if
it were thin and flat, would give over a large part of its surface
* nearly uniform tints of a lower order.

Identification of the Minerals in Sand.

Occasionally it might require some care to distinguish between
flat plates of quartz and flakes of mica; but by careful exa-
mination with an adequate power the more truly laminar structure
and parallel faces of mica enable an observer to distinguish it from
quartz or any other common constituent of sands or clays. There
is usually no serious difficulty in identifying the grains of the

56 PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

other constituent minerals by their form or optical characters. Quartz
can generally be distinguished from the triclinic felspars by the
compound twin striation of the latter, and from orthoclase by the
difference in general shape. Quartz, having no cleavage, breaks
into grains of most irregular form, whereas orthoclase, having
well-pronounced cleavage, very often occurs in flat pieces showing
more or less of straight parallel edges; it also very often differs
in being more or less opaque from partial decomposition. How-
ever, when very transparent and the cleavage indistinct, as it is
sometimes in the glassy felspar of volcanic rocks, it requires much
care to distinguish it from quartz, since the form of the fragments
and their action on polarized light are very similar. When
neither fluid-cavities nor other enclosures are present to indicate
which of the two minerals is under examination, the only distinc-
tion that I have been able to discover depends on the slightly less
refractive power of glassy felspar, which causes the outline of the
fragments to be more distinct when mounted in hard Canada
balsam than that of quartz grains, which have almost exactly the
same refractive power as hard balsam. It would, however, scarcely
be in place on the present occasion to describe in detail all the
characters which enable an observer to identify every constituent
mineral, though it was, as I think, desirable to describe some of
the more important, in order that a better opinion might be formed
_ respecting the amount of confidence that should be placed in my
general results.

Identification of Fragments of Rocks in Sand.

The difficulty of determining the true nature of each particular
grain is greatly increased when we have to deal with fragments of
rocks. This of course differs as much from studying the structure
of a known rock, as the determination: of the true nature of any
single unknown bone differs from the study of the entire skeleton
of some well-known animal ; and in like manner it is necessary to
pay attention to matters of detail which otherwise might be over-
looked. ‘The grains also may be, and often are, too small to show
such characters as would suffice to identify the rock on a larger
scale ; and separate fragments may differ as much as though they
were different rocks, and yet may have been closely associated in
the same rock. It is also sometimes difficult to distinguish between
such very different objects as grains of partially decomposed felspar,
decomposed felsite, or slates formed from similar material, especi- ”
ally when we can examine only loose fragments and not a thin
section. Still, notwithstanding all these difficulties, to which we
should be fully alive, by one means or other very much may be .
learned, even though in many cases the conclusions may be open to
a certain amount of doubt in some particulars.

Flint Sand.
At one time I fully expected to find that the sand associated with

ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS OF THE PRESIDENT. 57

flint-gravel was itself mainly flint; but I found that, in some
cases at all events, it is chiefly of the normal kind. When polar-
ized light is used, there is no difficulty in distinguishing between
flint and quartz grains. The latter have a simple optic structure,
and, when rotated, look alternately wholly dark or bright ; whereas
flint has a very compound crystalline structure, and at all azimuths
shows almost the same characteristic speckled granular appearance.
Jasper has a very similar structure; and quartz containing many
minute crystalline granules might present a very similar appearance
in those few cases in which the principal axis of the crystal hap-
pened to lie in the line of vision. Though sometimes met with in
well-rounded grains, flint often occurs as thin flat chips, no doubt
on account of its peculiar kind of fracture.

General Characters of Sands.

I have already said enough respecting the general characters of
the more important constituents of sands. It now remains for me
. to consider the external form and internal structure of the sepa-
rate grains. In these respects different sands may differ very
strikingly.

External Form o yf the Grains.

The true character of the surface is best seen by examining with
transmitted light the loose material unmounted, using a condenser,
so as to prevent too great a shadow round the edges of the grains.
In observing their form we must not compare the quartz of one
specimen with the felspar of another, nor the larger grains of one
with the smaller of another. All our comparisons must be made
between grains of quartz of nearly the same medium size in a clean
condition. For this reason the sand should be well washed in
water, using a small stiff brush to thoroughly detach adherent mud.
When dry, the coarsest particles should be separated by one sieve,
and the finest by another, so as to obtain for comparison sand of
tolerably uniform size. The coarser sieve which I employ allows
grains of about 4, of an inch in diameter to pass through ; and the
smaller keeps back all greater than ,4,, so that the average size of
the grains used for comparison is about +1, of an inch. The im-
portance of comparing grains of nearly the same size is at once
apparent when we examine the different portions thus separated.
The coarsest are sometimes nearly ali much rounded when the
finest are nearly all very angular, no doubt because the friction of
‘such small particles on the bottom is so very trifling. It is the
grains of medium size which are the most suitable for observation in
comparing different specimens. .

Having thus prepared a good sample of medium quality, care
must be taken to mix it thoroughly, and to spread a small por-
tion evenly, but somewhat closely, dry, on a glass plate, kept
horizontal, in such a manner as to prevent the rounded grains
separating from the flat and angular, which they do so readily

58 PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

that great errors might otherwise result. By proceeding in this
manner, and by examining a considerable number of specimens
of various geological periods and from various localities, I have

found that quartz sands, although to the naked eye appearing very
' similar, may be divided into five types, which, though character-
istically distinct, gradually pass one into the other. They are as
follows :—

1. Normal, angular, fresh-formed sand, as derived almost di-
rectly from granitic or schistose rocks.

2. Well-worn sand in rounded grains, the original angles being
pee lost, and the surface looking like fine ground glass.

Sand mechanically broken into sharp angular chips, showing a
alae fracture.

4, Sand having the grains chemically corroded, so as to produce a
peculiar texture of the , surface, differing from that of worn erains or
crystals.

5. Sand in ee the grains have a perfect crystalline outline, in
some cases undoubtedly due to the deposition of quartz over rounded
or angular nuclei of ordinary non-crystalline sand.

On the whole, then, we may say that these different types are due
to different kinds of mechanical or chemical changes, affecting grains
originally derived from crystalline rocks.

Now I do not know what others may have thought or done, but
must confess that until very recently I had no idea that the differ- —
ences between different specimens of sand were so great. Iam
very sorry that in years gone by I did not collect a sufficient num-
ber of specimens to enable me to decide several interesting ques-
tions, and think myself fortunate in having collected what I have
without foreseeing their ultimate value for the purpose now in
hand.

Varwusly worn Sands.

In the first place it is most important to distinguish between
the age of the grains and the age of a deposit. A very ancient
sand bed may be made up of grains which are practically new and
unworn, whilst, on the contrary, the grains of a modern sea-beach
may be of vast antiquity, may have passed through the greatest
vicissitudes, may have successively formed a part of several dif-
ferent geological formations, and may be greatly altered and worn.
Unfortunately I am not acquainted with sufficient facts to prove
how One it would require to thoroughly wear down and round a
grain ;}, of aninch im diameter. It is evidently a very different
thing from the wearing down of a pebble, and may require a longer
period of wear than we might suspect, if we did not bear in mind
that, when buoyed up by water, the friction of such small particles
on the bottom must always be small. The followi ing considerations
will serve to make this more clear. The friction on the bottom
must vary directly as the weight, and therefore.as the cube of the
diameter; but the surface from which the material must be worn
yaries as the square of the diameter. Hence, even making no

ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS OF THE PRESIDENT. 59

allowance for the extra buoying-up of very minute particles by a
current of water, depending on surface-cohesion, the effect of
wearing on the form of the grains must vary directly as their dia-
meter or thereabouts. If so, a grain ;4, of an inch in diameter
would be worn ten times as much as one ;4, of an inch in dia-
meter, and at least a hundred times as much as one ;,5 of an
inch in diameter. Perhaps, then, we may conclude that a grain
=; of an inch in diameter would be worn as much or more in
drifting a mile, as one zz, of an inch in being drifted 100 miles.
On the same principle a pebble 1 inch in diameter would be worn
relatively more by being drifted only a few hundred yards. As far
as I am able to judge, these conclusions agree well enough with
the general facts ; but yet better evidence of the actual time and
distance required to wear grains round is still much to be desired.
In the absence of positive proof, I will describe certain facts which
seem to throw light on this question.

The wearing down and rounding of the original angular grains
is, of course, a gradual process ; and we meet with every connecting
link between the two extremes, even in the same specimen. ‘This
may be due to a mixture of grains much worn by backward and
forward action with those more directly drifted from their source.
It is therefore difficult to decide what is the true proportion of
angular and rounded grains in each particular case. Still this may
be done by counting the total number, and also the number of
those that are well worn, in several fields of the microscope, so as
to obtain a good average. This ratio, of course, represents the
relative total wearing, whether due to actual transport or local
backward and forward movement; but in average conditions this
might so vary directly with the amount of transport as to make it
indicate approximately the relative distance of the source of supply.

Sand washed from the Boulder-clay at Scarborough—tThis is
almost entirely fresh and angular, showing few or no rounded
grains. Hence, though the material may have travelled far, 1t was
not worn, which fully agrees with the glacial origin of Boulder-
clay. Some of the sand-beds of drift-age do, however, contain
many well-worn grains, probably owing to continued local wear
and tear.

Sand from the modern beach at Scarborough.—This must have
been subjected to the action of the waves for a considerable time ;
and yet it is little, if at all, more worn than that in the Boulder-
clay, from which probably it was in great measure derived. Until
I had examined the well-worn sands of the south-east of England,
the angularity of the Scarborough sand led me to believe that it
was characteristic of all such fine-grained deposits. _

Sand of the rwer-terraces at Dunkeld.—This is just as if mainly
derived from schists. It is almost wholly angular, thus proving
that the grains are very little worn by drifting down a river.

Sand of the Millstone Grit and Lower Coal-measures of Sowth
Yorkshire.—This is as sharp and angular as if derived almost di-
rectly from decomposed granite, the slight corrosion being no more

60 PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

than normal. I have long ago shown that this material was drifted
from the north-east, and was mainly derived from granitic rocks
probably lying in that direction, but now no longer visible. They
must, however, I think, have been at a considerable distance; and
yet we see that the grains were very little, if at all, worn in being
drifted so far along the bottom, even if we altogether disregard
the effects of local agitation.

Taking, then, all the above facts into consideration, it appears to
me sufficiently proved that a great amount of drifting and mecha-
nical action must be required to wear down angular fragments of
quartz into rounded grains =j5 inch in diameter, which I have
taken as the standard for comparison. I now proceed to consider
what appears to me a good illustration of how this wearing-down
may be explained when it does occur.

Green Sand of the South of England.—I have examined specimens
taken in various places from Devonshire to Kent; and the facts
seem as though they would be of much interest if confirmed by
more complete examination. In the Haldon-Hill district the
grains are mainly angular, only 1, being well worn. Passing to
the Isle of Wight this rate increases to +; and in Sussex and Kent
it further increases to + and 4. I must say that I feel much
tempted to explain these facts by supposing that on the flanks of
Dartmoor we are near to the granitic rocks from which the sand
was derived, and that mm being drifted from it further and further
eastward, the grains were more and more worn. This does, indeed,
seem so very probable, that perhaps we may provisionally adopt
some such explanation of the facts.

Hastings Sand, §e.—This conclusion is strengthened by the
character of the other sands of the S.H. of England. The Hastings
Sand at Hastings, and the Thanet Sand from Crossness are about
* worn, and that of the modern Thames, near Richmond, about 4
worn, which is in striking contrast with the perfect angularity of
the sand of the Tay, and clearly mdicates the great antiquity of the
erains and the great distance to which, at one time or other, they
have been drifted from their original source in crystalline rocks.

New Red Sandstone.—I have examined a number of specimens
from various places, extending from Scotland right down to Devon-
shire; and what struck me most was the comparatively uniform
extent of the wearing. My estimates of the relative number of
well-worn grains varied from + to 4. The only important differ-
ence is in a specimen from Leamington, which is so far corroded
that the angular grains appear more numerous.

We can thus draw no very certain conclusion as to the source of
the material, unless indeed it be that we as it were cross the
line of drifting transversely in passing from north to south. The
modern sand of the dunes at Southport is no more worn than that
of the beach ; and both are very much like the New Red Sandstone,
from which probably they have been mainly derived.

Lower New Red, §c.—I have already referred to the extreme
angularity of the grains in the Lower Coal-measures of South

ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS OF THE PRESIDENT. 61

Yorkshire. In the Upper Coal-measures, and in the Lower New
Red, the wearing is greater, and approaches that of the New Red.

As an example of extreme wearing, I would refer to the blown
sand of the Heyptian desert, in which almost all the grains are
rounded, evidently on account of the material having been drifted
about by the wind for a long period. .

I very much regret that I have not been able to treat this ques-
tion of the wearing of sand in a more satisfactory manner, but yet
hope that what I have said may, at all events, serve to prove that
we may thus learn whether sand is of recent and comparatively
local origin, or very ancient and transported far from its original
source by drifting along the bottom.

Fractured Grains.

‘We now come to another kind of mechanical change, viz. not
wearing, but fracture. That this does occur is clearly shown by
the occurrence of well-worn rounded grains which have been
broken across, and by the occasionally large number of true
splinters and chips. Still, on the whole, the amount of change
due to fracture does not appear to be great, and it is only ina
few instances that it becomes an important feature of grains ;45
of an inch in diameter. The most striking example I have seen is
a speciinen from the Greensand near Aylesford, which appears to
indicate some unusually violent local action.

Oorroded Sands.

As I have already said, the quartz grains in decomposed granite
appear as if corroded. Many specimens of sand also show what
is probably only this original corrosion; but sometimes it appears
to have taken place after the grains had been worn and deposited.
In typical examples the surface has a peculiar texture, differing
from that due to mechanical wearing or to crystallization. Iam by
no means sure that occasionally corrosion has not taken place in
one part and deposition of quartz in another, even in the case of
individual grains. The extent of the corrosion, however, is usually
very small, and the irregular solution of >;4y part of an inch from

the surface would explain all the appearances. That well-rounded
grains in porous sandstones may retain perfectly all the original
characters, though water could, and probably has, largely passed
through the rock, is clearly proved by some specimens of the New
Red. Considering that we could easily detect the irregular re-
moval of ;>4,5 of an inch, the solubility of quartz in water must
therefore be so small that it may well be said to be insoluble.
Perhaps, when corrosion has occurred, it 1s evidence of the former
presence of water rendered alkaline by the decomposition of asso-
ciated felspar.

The best examples of corrosion that I have seen are from the
sand below the Magnesian Limestone at Conisbrough, from

62 PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

the New Red at Leamington, and from the Wealden at Mark
Cross.

Sand with Quartz chemically deposited on the surface of the grains.

Many authors have already described what they have called
crystalhzed sand; but I think they have often mistaken its true
nature. In some cases, if not in all, the grains are not quartz
simply deposited in a crystalline form, but are sand of perfectly
normal character, on the outer surface of which a greater or less
amount of quartz has been deposited in crystalline continuity with
that of the original nuclei. The phenomena are like what hap-
pens when an irregular fragment of a soluble crystal is placed in
a concentrated solution of the same salt slowly evaporating. The
first stage of the process is the restoration of the broken angles ;
and then deposition goes on over the whole exposed surface, in
perfect optical and crystalline continuity, so as to change a broken
fragment into a definite crystal. We observe precisely the same
facts in the case of the sands now under consideration.

Good examples of the early stage of the process are seen in the
Old Red of Cockburnspath. The original grains are composed of
quartz containing cavities and granules, whereas that deposited on
the surface is quite clear, and the line of junction often perfectly
distinct. Deposition, to any marked extent, has taken place only
over afew; and in almost every case merely the pyramidal ends
of the crystals have been reproduced, as shown by fig. 1.

Fig. 1.—Sand-grain with slight Fig. 2.—Sand-grain with much
deposition of Quartz. Quartz deposited on the surface.

The more complete development of a crystalline form, by depo-

sition over the whole surface, is well seen in the sand of the
Vosges, described by M. Daubrée, to whom I am indebted for a
specimen. The nuclei of original waterworn sand are composed
of quartz containing many cavities and granules ; the outer surface
is rough and discoloured; and over the whole very limpid quartz
has been deposited; so that the contrast is very marked. None
has been deposited on the surface of the felspar grains; and when
a grain is composed partly of quartz and partly of felspar, the de-
posit has taken place only on the quartz, as in the case shown by

~

ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS OF THE PRESIDENT. 6 3

fig. 2, which exhibits all the above-named facts somewhat unusually
well. ‘The original nucleus and the deposited quartz are always
in crystalline continuity ; so that, when rotated in polarized light,
both turn dark and light simultaneously.

The contrast between the original nuclei and the subsequently
deposited quartz is also very well seen in the case of a specimen of
the New Red Sandstone from Penrith, kindly given to me by
Prof. Morris, smce the nuclei are stained red whilst the deposited
quartz 1s colourless, as may be seen at once by examining the sand
in benzol. We thus also learn that the reddening of the grains
took place before the deposition of the quartz.

As will be readily understood, if the original nucleus were com-
posed of perfectly limpid quartz, it would be impossible to distin-
guish between it and the subsequent deposit. Possibly this is why
I can detect no nuclei in the crystallized oolitic sand at Scar-
borough, and thus there is no positive evidence that the whole
was not deposited chemically.

The source of the quartz thus chemically deposited on the

erains of sand is by no means clear. In some cases it may be
derived from the decomposition of associated felspar; but much
decomposed felspar may be present without any such deposition.
Possibly some of the more striking examples are due to the special
local action of heated water, as shown by M. Daubrée in the case
of the Vosges sand.

I have met with crystallized sand in deposits of various ages,
from the Oolites down to the Old Red. Most of the specimens
were very friable, and the grains but little coherent. In some
cases, as in the Oolitic sand at Scarborough, this is apparently due
to the removal of what were perhaps grains of shell-sand; but
still there is sufficiently good evidence that quartz has been de-
posited em situ. In some other specimens, like the New Red of
Penrith, a number of grains may often be seen cohering more
strongly than the rest; and these show clearly that the cavities
originally existing between the grains have been more or less com-
pletely filled with quartz. Moreover, on carefully examining the
less-coherent grains by surface-illumination, we can see, not only
the planes and angles due to unimpeded crystallization, but also
more or less deep impressions, due to the interference of contiguous
grains, thus proving conclusively that the deposition of crystalline
quartz took place after the nuclei were deposited as a bed of normal
sand. The very imperfect consolidation sometimes met with is,
perhaps, not so very surprising when we reflect on the very small
coherence of many large quartz crystals which are yet in close
juxtaposition. However, it does seem probable that this crystal-
lization of quartz sometimes contributes very materially to the
cohesion of the grains in hard and compact quartzites. In such
examples as the Gannister of the South Yorkshire coal-field we can
see, in a thin section, that the grains fit alongside one another in a
_ very striking manner, and it is only by extreme care that good
proof can be obtained of the actual deposition of quartz between

64 PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCLETY,

them. However, in the case of a highly consolidated sandstone
from Trinidad the proof of tne deposition of quartz is as complete
as possible: the outline of the original] grains of sand is perfectly
distinct ; and the cavities between them are filled with clear quartz
in crystalline continuity with the contiguous grains; so that the
whole is a mass of interfering crystals, each having a sand-grain
as a nucleus. The rock has thus been converted into a hard
quartzite, almost like a true quartz rock, but differs from such
quartz rocks as those of the Scotch Highlands in containing no
mica crystallized in situ. All my specimens of these quartz rocks
are really highly quartzose mica-schists ; and, so far, I have failed
in my endeavours to trace the connexion between them and true
sandstones, though possibly this could easily be done in some
districts which I have not examined.

We can thus trace the history of quartz-sand from its origin in
crystalline rocks through different mechanical and chemical changes,
all of which may be paralleled with what has occurred in the case
of the calcareous sand derived from organic bodies. As shown in
my address last year, we have in them a falling to pieces by decay,
a mechanical breaking up and wearing down, as well as corrosion
and the subsequent deposition of calcite; but of course many
of the facts are very different, on account of the totally different
chemical properties of carbonate of lime and quartz.

Internal Structure of the Grains.

Having now considered the external form of the grains, it
remains to consider their internal structure in a few special ex-
amples.

Millstone Grit of the neighbourhood of Sheffield—The grains of
quartz are, on the whole, extremely angular, and, as a general rule,
show little trace of wearing; so that portions of decomposed felspar
still frequently fill irregularities on the surface, and greatly inter-
fere with our view of the internal structure. A few fragments of
undecomposed felspar also occur; but the greater number have
been decomposed, and the kaolin squeezed in between the grains
of quartz. Occasionally we meet with what may be called grains
of granite. On the whole, by far the greater part of the material
is as if derived from decomposed granite; but a few grains are as
if derived from schists. The occasional occurrence of pebbles of a
somewhat coarse-grained granite, alone with many composed
entirely of quartz or felspar, strongly confirms the conclusion thus
arrived at from the study of the grains of sand. ‘The internal
structure of the quartz indicates that the granite was of a type
differing from many others ; but one of the most striking characters
is that there are many very minute fluid-cavities, with most un-
usually minute bubbles, moving about with extreme apparent rapi-
dity. Some grains contain flakes of mica; schorl is rare, if not
absent; but hair-like crystals of rutile are common.

Blown Sand of the Egyptian Desert—This is an admirably ex-

ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS OF THE PRESIDENT. 6 5

treme example of blown sand, differing in a remarkable manner
from the Millstone Grit. The grains seldom show any sharp
angles, and are usually so much worn that the original external
surface must have been almost wholly removed. A few are worn
down to nearly perfect spheres. Some are flat, as though derived
from schists; but by far the greater part are as if derived from
granite and felsite, or from some rock of intermediate character.
Fluid-cavities are not common ; but when they occur they are some-
what large for granite. A few enclosed particles of felsite paste
may be seen, and also, in some cases, flakes of mica or crystals of
schorl. Occasionally we see grains of jasper. On the whole it
appears as though this sand had been derived from rocks of varying
type.

Modern Sand of the Thames.—Flint-sand plays an important
part in the modern deposits of the Thames. By counting a large
number of grains seen under the microscope, I found that between
Richmond and Brentford the proportion of flint to the entire
amount of siliceous sand is about 42 per cent., but decreases as we
pass down the river, until near Gravesend it is reduced to less
than 3 per cent. I have no doubt that a large part of this is
derived from the flint-gravel used to make or repair the roads,
since the drift from them contains 10 or 20 per cent., and occa-
sionally more. In the old deposits of the Thames valley, like the
sand of Hyde Park or the Thanet Sand, the amount of flint is only
1 per cent.; and thus in such a district we might form some idea
as to the relative age of different more or less modern deposits. I
may also here allude to the occasional large amount of coke dust
and rounded or angular grains of coal in very modern sand beds
or mud banks formed in the neighbourhood of a large popu-
lation.

Terrace-sand in the valley of the Tay at Dunkeld.—This is a good
example of sand derived from schists. The most striking feature
is that the fragments of quartz are, on the whole, much flattened,
and contain very few fluid-cavities. These are associated with
many flakes of green and colourless mica, and with fragments of
hornblende, as well as a few of garnet and other minerals. Amongst
the coarser grains are many of true mica-schist not broken up into
its separate constituents.

Trias Sand at Paignton.—This contains many rounded frag-
ments of what appears to have been a hard slate rock, distinguished
from grains of partially decomposed felspar by the presence of the
usual minute hair-like crystals of black oxide of iron lying in the
plane of cleavage. The associated quartz grains are a little, but
not much, worn, and indicate that they were derived from both
granites and schists.

These few examples must be looked upon merely as illustrations
of what may be learned by studying the grains in detail; and
further and more striking examples will be described when treat-
ing of slate-rocks and schists.

VOL. XXXVI. 9g

66 PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

Mud and Clay.

I do not see how it would be possible to ascertain the true
nature of the rock which gave rise to the kaolin or other minute
granules met with in mud or clay, unless it were by observing
their connexion with other associated materials. As far as the in-
dividual particles are concerned, we can do little more than distin-
guish between more or less irregular granules, minute flakes of
mica, and needle-like prisms. In many cases it would be difficult or
impossible, even to decide to what mineral species such minute
granules belong ; and in using the term mica, it must be under-
stood that I do not mean any one particular mineral, but rather
any of those minerals which have the same laminar structure as
mica, and an axis of elasticity perpendicular to the lamine, along
which the double refraction is negative. Still, notwithstanding
these difficulties, a good deal may be learned in one way or other.

The most striking differences between different specimens of
mud and clay depend on a greater or less variation in the amount
of mica, calcareous granules, and sand mixed with the unidenti-
fiable granules; but these differences do not necessarily enable us
to trace the material to its true source. Larger grains of com-
pound rocks, either in the clay itself or im closely associated beds,
may, however, furnish good evidence of the true origin of the
material, if proper allowance be made for the hardness of the
various rocks or minerals. It is very important to do this, since
the larger compound fragments may represent only the very hardest
rocks, and the great mass of the fine-grained mud may have been
derived from associated soft rocks which have been completely
disintegrated.

It would extend this address to an unreasonable length to describe
in detail the structure of our various groups of stratified rocks ;
and before any general, conclusions could be formed it would be
necessary to examine a very extensive series of specimens. Still
the method I now describe does seem to lead to some valuable
results, even though I have been able to apply it to only a limited
extent. j

In the more modern strata, down to the Devonians, the sandy
beds of which are mainly composed of quartz grains derived chiefly
from granite when coarse, and from schists when fine, the asso-
ciated clays and shales very commonly contain scattered grains of
similar sand, but are chiefly composed of minute granules of de-
composed felspar, flakes of mica, and the other minute particles
already mentioned. Compared with the deposits of the deep
oceans, many of our more modern fine-grained mud deposits are
characterized not only by the absence of minute calcareous or-
ganisms, but also by the comparative absence of pumice and other
true volcanic products. I hesitate to affirm that pumice is com-
pletely absent. It certainly does occur abundantly in some of the
Carboniferous strata of Scotland, which are associated with erupted
rocks; and, judging from its remarkably wide distribution in the

ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS OF THE PRESIDENT. 67

modern oceanic deposits brought back by the ‘Challenger,’ I am
quite prepared to meet with it occasionally in many of our strati-
fied rocks, which I have not yet adequately examined to decide
this special point.

Deposits mainly composed of inert substances like quartz, mica,
and kaolin can undergo little further change. The complete
decomposition of the felspar, however, may not occur until after
the material has been deposited; and its further decomposition
may give rise to quartz or opal; and the decomposition of the
hornblende and analogous minerals may also give rise to silicates
of iron and other products, formed in situ. The amount of such
changes does not appear to have been very considerable in the
case of most of our more recent English rocks; but still I think
we must attribute to it some well-marked characters, and a more
or less considerable share in cementing the grains together to form
a hardened rock. It is more especially in the case of volcanic
ashes that we should expect to find this sort of action at a maxi-
mum, since they are often to such a large extent composed of
unstable minerals, ready to undergo great changes when sur-
rounded by wet mud.

Lamination of Shales, gc.

I am sure that most geologists must have been struck with the
great similarity between the laminar fracture of many shales and
the cleavage of imperfect slates. It is, in fact, a sort of cleavage
in the plane of stratification. I do not refer to thin beds of
different mineral character in the plane of deposition, but to the
more irregular lamination of thick-bedded shales.

In order to throw light on this question I made a careful ex-
periment with some fine-grained mud from 2600 fathoms in the
South Pacific, collected by the ‘Challenger.’ Such fine-grained
muds have a very peculiar property, which must play an important
part in their origin and structure. When suspended in water the
erains of sand which they contain do not separate and subside
quickly, and leave the fine mud suspended fora long time; but the
coarser and the finest particles rapidly coalesce into compound
eranules, which subside at a more uniform and intermediate rate,
soon leaving the water clear. This property readily explains why
such fine-grained mud so often contains grains of sand. By
gentle agitation the coalescence may be to some extent prevented.
Now, having mixed some of this Pacific mud with water, and
having kept it until no further subsidence occurred in several
weeks, 1 determined the amounts of water and solid matter in the
stiff pasty deposit, and found that the actual bulk of the solid
matter was only 11 per cent. of the whole, and that the spec. grav.
of this solid matter was 2°65. As far as I can judge, the volume
of the solid matter in shales containing no infiltrated matter may
be considered to be at least 75 per cent. ; and hence the squeezing-
out of the water from material like the simply deposited Pacitic

g 2

68 PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

mud to form such a shale, would reduce the thickness to at least
one sixth. Such a change would be quite adequate to develop a
fissile structure nearly in the plane of bedding, which, however,
could not be so perfect as the cleavage in the best slates, on
account of the ultimate particles bemg chiefly granules and not
lamine.

Slate Rocks in general.

In studying cleaved slate rocks it is sometimes most important
to prepare and examine sections cut in several different directions.
I strongly suspect that the neglect to do this is the reason why
some statements made by other writers on this subject differ
materially from my own. If the cleavage be well developed, it is
best to select specimens in which it is at right angles to the plane
of stratification, since then there is less fear of confounding
together the original and the superinduced structures. In any
case the angle of their intersection should be known. It is
desirable to prepare sections at right angles to the cleavage, both
in the line of its dip and in that of its strike, since in many cases
there is as much difference in the structure in these two directions
as between a slate with very perfect cleavage and one with a much
less perfect. It is, however, still more important to prepare also
sections in the plane of cleavage, since the general appearance of
-a section thus cut may be so very different to that from one at right
angles to the cleavage, that any one might easily mistake it for a
section of a totally different rock. |

When, nearly thirty years ago, I commenced the study of the
microscopical structure of slates, especially in connexion with their
cleavage, I was struck with the remarkable difference between the
constitution of many so-called clay-slates and modern deposits of
true clay. J found that in some slates the relative amount of
very fine granular material analogous to kaolin was very small,
whilst that of mica, or some closely allied laminar mineral, was
very large. This does not occur in plates of considerable size, like
the mica in many stratified rocks, but mainly in the form of flakes
so minute that in the best Welsh slates their average size may
be taken at 549 of an inch broad, and z,45 of an inch thick,
whilst many are considerably less ; separately they are altogether
invisible to the naked eye, and at most only serve to give a silky
lustre to the rock when they lie chiefly in the plane of the
fracture. ,

Since it is a point of much importance, it appears to me desirable ©
to state clearly’ what is the evidence in favour of these conclusions.
The structure is best seen in black slates, like some near Llan-
beris, since the immense number of red grains in purple slates
interferes with accurate observations. When a section of this
black slate, cut at right angles to the cleavage in the line of the
dip, is examined with a power of about 250 linear, we can clearly
see that the great bulk of the rock is made up of what look like
transparent fibres, which, so far as the mere appearance of this

ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS OF THE PRESIDENT. 69

one section is concerned, might be either needles, like hornblende,
or transverse sections of lamin, like flakes of mica. The greater
part of these lie nearly in the plane of cleavage; but some are
inclined to it at a more or less considerable angle. Amongst
these flakes or fibres occur objects which look lke extremely fine

black hairs, their thickness being often less than spo00 OF an
inch, which, however, so far as this appearance is concerned, might
be transverse sections of thin plates. A section cut in the line of
strike differs only in showing that the needles or lamine lie less
completely in the plane of cleavage. Of course, if the objects
which appear to be fibres were really needles, like those of horn-
blende, we should also see them of similar form in a section cut
in the plane of cleavage, and they would depolarize light as
strongly as before; whereas, if they were lamine of mica, they
would show no well-marked outline, because the flakes would lie
one over the other, and they would scarcely depolarize, because the
light would pass through them in the direction along which there
ig little or no double refraction. Now, when we examine a section
of the above-named black slate so cut, we do see, as before, the
small black hairs, which therefore must really be needles ; but at
the same time we clearly see that the colourless main constituent
of the rock must be in the form of flat plates, as truly laminar as
mica, since no more of apparently needle-shaped form are visible
than correspond to the transverse sections of those lamin which
are inclined at a more or less considerable angle to the plane of
cleavage. The difference in the appearance is, in fact, analogous
to that seen in sections of mica-schist cut at right angles and
parallel to the foliation. The result of this structure is that a
well-cleaved slate of this type depolarizes like a uniaxial crystal
having the principal axis perpendicular to the cleavage.

It is quite possible that some much more modern deposits in
other parts of the world may have the same structure as these
slates; but I have not met with any in our own country more re-
cent than the Devonian. It is, however, not merely a question of
age, since some of the strata of our Silurian and older rocks have a
constitution similar to that of modern clays. Whatever may be
the true nature of this colourless laminar mineral, its optical cha-
racters closely correspond to those of mica, and it has afar stronger
depolarizing-power than chlorite. Iam inclined to believe that
the black hair-like crystals are magnetite. or a long time I
thought it probable that the micaceous mineral had been formed on
situ by an alteration of partially decomposed felspar, so that the
rock might be looked upon as analogous to the pseudomorphs of
chlorite or tale already described. Such a crystallization of mica
has most unquestionably occurred in some of those fine-grained
slaty-looking rocks which are a connecting-link between slates and
schists ; but the resulting structure is very different from what I
look upon as typical of true slates. When thus formed i situ,
the crystals of mica are not stratified, but lie at all possible azi-
muths, and, moreover, have collected about special centres ; so that

790 PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

the structure is very far from uniform, and more analogous to that
of a concretionary than to that of a bedded rock. On the contrary,
in typical slates there is an almost complete uniformity in a hori-
zontal direction along each thin bed, though each may differ much
vertically from its neighbours in the relative amount of the different
constituents, even when the layers are as thin as paper. The whole
structure is, in fact, just such as would result from the depo-
sition of material sorted by gentle currents, and subsequently com-
pressed vertically by the pressure of overlying strata, or laterally by
that which gave rise to slaty cleavage. Atthe same time it appears
to me equally certain that laminar minerals of the chlorite or tale
groups have been formed since the deposition of the rock, and crys-
tallized im situ, without materially altering the general structure.
Some thin bands, and perhaps even thicker beds, are indeed exclu-
sively composed of these more recently formed minerals; but the
development 7m situ of hydrous silicates is a very different thing from
the crystallization of the mica. or these reasons I am disposed to
think it far more probable that the principal, typical, micaceous
constituent of the slates now under consideration was derived from
the disintegration of an older rock, and that the difference between
what we may call kaolinitie and micaceous clay-slates depended on
the constitution of the rocks which furnished the material. Fels-
pathic felsites and coarse-grained granites, even when very mica-
ceous, could yield only kaolinitic clays; whereas the fine-grained
micaceous felsites already mentioned could yield, and, as I think,
have yielded, the material of the micaceous clay-slates. In them
the mica exists in such small particles that it has not been sepa-
rated from the kaolin, whereas in the case of granites the plates of
mica, being comparatively very large, chiefly remained associated
with the quartz, and gave rise to micaceous sandstones. Perhaps
some minor difficulties may remain; but this supposition will ex-
explain the principal facts in a very satisfactory manner. As an
excellent illustration of this subject, I will describe some of the
slate rocks of North Wales.

Slate Rocks of North Wales.

Jn order to learn the source of the material of the fine-grained
beds, it is obviously best to study such a coarse-grained deposit as
that met with in a small quarry at Felin Cochwillin, Bethesda, near
Bangor. In this rock the constituent fragments vary from 4, to
zy of an inch in diameter. I presume that most geologists would
call it an ash bed; but at the same time I think that no simple
examination of the rock in its natural state would suffice to decide
whether it was a true ash or formed of the detritus of igneous
rocks. Careful microscopical examination does, however, show that
it was in all probability a true felsitic ash, since the grains are not
as though formed by the mere breaking up of a solid rock consoli-
dated under pressure. Some of the fragments are an imperfect
pumice; and the crystals of felspar and the fragments of the felsitic

ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS OF THE PRESIDENT. 71

base often contain as perfect empty, more or less spherical, bubbles
as bad artificial glass. The quartz grains also appear to have been
derived from a quartz-felsite, since they not only have the charac-
teristic crystalline shape and internal structure of such quartz, but
occasionally are attached to or enclose portions of the felsitic base.
The structure of this base varies considerably in different fraoments,
but corresponds closely with that of the various massive felsites found
in the district. Sometimes these are simply felspathic, but usually
contain a large amount of a micaceous mineral, easily recognized by
its shape and optical characters. The amount of granules and
needles of magnetite or ilmenite varies much, even in different parts
of the same fragment. Occasionally we see black grains of basalt,
and sometimes fragments of what may have been augite altered into
a deep-green laminar mineral, which we may call chlorite, quite un-
like the mica in the felsites. Judging from analogy, the associated
augite or olivine was probably the source of the more considerable
amount of the same green chloritic mineral which fills the cavities
in the imperfect pumice and the interspaces between the constituent
fragments of the whole rock. It has also to a slight extent pene-
trated into the felsitic fragments, and appears to have partially re-
placed the felspar; so that some fragments may be looked upon as
imperfect pseudomorphs. A few grains may have been derived
from an older slate; but yet, on the whole, I think we ought to
regard the rock as a consolidated quartzose felsitic ash.

If the micaceous basis of this ash were worn down in the crater
into dust, or more completely decomposed by weathering, and the
material afterwards sorted by gentle currents of water, it would
yield a deposit corresponding in all essential particulars with the
fine-grained slates of Penrhyn and Llanberis, allowance, of course,
being made for subsequent chemical and mechanical changes. Thus,
for example, several different laminar chloritic or talcose minerals
have crystallized out, not, as in the coarse-grained rock, only in the
cavities, but have pushed aside and displaced the surrounding ma-
terial. Vast numbers of small red crystals of specular iron or very
minute black needles of some other less-oxidized iron mineral have
been formed im situ; whilst occasionally calcite and quartz have
been deposited in crystals of some size or disseminated through
the rock, so as to greatly increase its solidity. The structure has
also been much altered by the pressure which gave rise to cleavage.

Other beds in the same group of rocks differ very widely from
those just described, and contain little mica and much material
analogous to kaolin, as though either derived from the decom-
position of ash or rocks contaming much less mica and more
felspar than that which yielded the material of the Penrhyn and
Llanberis slates, or separated from the more micaceous material by
currents.

It is perhaps scarcely needful to say that when I speak of the
material having originated from any particular kind of rock, I mean
that it did so in the first instance. It by no means follows that it
was so derived directly, and was not previously deposited and again

72 PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

broken up, before being finally accumulated in the rocks in which
we now find it.

Development of Slaty Cleavage.

Whilst now treating on the structure of the fine-grained slates,
it will be well to consider some facts connected with cleavage
which until quite recently have been a great puzzle to me. As
I pointed out in various papers published many years ago, the
structure of well-cleaved slates, like those of Penrhyn, may be
easily explained by supposing that the ultimate particles of mica —
were originally inclined in a nearly uniform manner in all direc-
tions, and were subsequently rearranged by lateral pressure, so as
to lie more or less completely in the plane along which the rock
yielded as a plastic substance. There is so much independent
proof of pressure having acted in the direction and to the extent
necessary to explain all the various phenomena, and the mechani-
cal theory of cleavage is now so generally accepted, that it may
perhaps be thought superfluous to support it by further facts.
There was, however, always this difficulty, that I had never found
any uncleaved slate-rock having now the exact structure which I
assumed that the cleaved rocks had originally ; and in endeavouring
to gradually trace back the structure of slates having a very perfect
cleavage to those haying none, I did not find, as I anticipated, a
eradual passage, but such an apparent break of continuity as to
lead me to conclude that there are two distinct types of cleavage—
one due to the arrangement of the ultimate atoms when the rock
yielded as a plastic substance, and the other due to very close joints
when it yielded by fractures like a partially rigid substance. More
careful and detailed examination of other specimens, however, has
convinced me that, though in some cases my original explanation of
very perfect cleavage may be true, yet very often the two kinds of
structure are only different stages of one process. Thus, for ex-
ample, some of the undisturbed parts of a very imperfectly cleaved
slate from Liskeard show very clearly that the original structure
was merely fine lamination in the plane of deposition, nearly all the
minute flakes of mica lying in the plane of stratification. These
beds are of such extreme thinness that occasionally they are only
zobs of am inch in thickness. In some parts they have been
squeezed by lateral compression into contortions similar to those
often seen on a large scale, only so small that they are invisible to
the naked eye. When magnified about 100 linear, the general
appearance is as shown by fig. 3.

It is obvious, however, that such a rock could yield in this manner
only to a very moderate extent without the contortions breaking
and the detached portions moving one over the other, so as to give
rise to a system of approximately parallel planes of discontinuity,
or close joints, as shown by fig. 4, which also is magnified about
100 linear. These are similar to those which may be seen so well
in the mica-schist on the shore of Loch Lomond, not far south of

ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS OF THE PRESIDENT. 73

Tarbet; only they are on a scale about 15 as large, and therefore
the rock appears to have an imperfect cleavage throughout rather
than a jointed structure. Here, then, we have an imperfect clea-
vage due to the lateral yielding of a rock composed. of material not
truly plastic in its ultimate constitution.

Fig. 3.—Slate, Inskeard, with Fig. 4.—Slate, Liskeard, with
minute contortrons. planes of discontimmty.

Fig. 5.—Slate, Shap, disturbed Fig. 6.—Slate, Llanberis, with
by pressure. well-developed cleavage.

Pas <f ATA

The peculiar laminated structure of this Liskeard slate appears to
have favoured the production of this close-jointed structure, and
the joints are still further marked by the subsequent introduction
of black oxide of iron; but in some cases, as in the pencil-slate of
Shap, the flakes of mica which constitute nearly the whole of the
rock have been thrown out of their original position in a similar
manner to the contorted material of the Liskeard slate, often with-
out the formation of definite contortions or joints, as shown some-
what diagramatically by fig. 5, magnified about 200 linear.

We thus arrive at a structure in which the flakes in each minute
broken portion do lie in the plane of stratification, but this plane
is so contorted and broken up, that, as seen in a section cut at
right angles to both bedding and cleavage, they are nearly equally
inclined at all azimuths. The amount of the lateral yielding of
the mass necessary to give rise to this structure is apparently
small compared with that which has certainly occurred in the case
of many well-cleaved slates ; but it clearly shows how the particles
may soon become so arranged that the further yielding of the rock
would totally efface all evidence of the first stages of the process,
and. cause the constituent laminz to become approximately parallel
to one plane, as shown, somewhat diagramatically, by fig. 6, magni-
fied about 200 linear.

74 PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

I have thought it very desirable to call attention to these facts,
since I think the explanation I have given removes a very serious
difficulty in completely explaining the mechanical origin of slaty
cleavage in rocks which have yielded to pressure as imperfectly
plastic substances.

Slates of the English Lake-district.

It would be difficult to find a better illustration of the influence
of the mineral constitution of the original materia] on the final
nature of more or less altered stratified rocks than is furnished to
us by comparing the green slates of Cumberland and Westmore-
land with those from Wales already described. It is, I suppose,
agreed on by all of us that they were to a great extent derived
from volcanic ashes ; but no mere examination of the rocks in their
_ natural state would lead any one to imagine that the microscopical
proof of their true volcanic nature was so perfect. At the same
time this method of study proves equally well that often such
great changes have subsequently occurred that very little of the
original material can now be seen, and the character of the altered
deposit closely approaches that of a rock solidified from fusion.

It would be interesting to ascertain the distribution in time and
space of the scarcely altered and greatly changed rocks; but, un-
fortunately I can indicate this only in a very incomplete and
_ perhaps incorrect manner. The general appearance, even of the
two extremes, is not so different as to attract attention at once;
and it was only by careful microscopical investigation that I
became aware of the existence of any considerable alteration.
Those of my sections which show the least change are all from
Langdale and Rydal. At Ambleside, Troutbeck, and Smethwaite
Bridge there is more alteration ; whilst at Keswick and Rosthwaite
it is much greater, and sometimes so very great that all direct
evidence of the original nature of the rock has been obliterated.

1. Rocks little altered—My best specimens of comparatively
unaltered material are from Langdale; and I would especially de-
scribe one of somewhat coarse grains, containing fragments varying
up to 54, inch in diameter. ‘This, to a great extent, is composed of
what may be called very vesicular lava or imperfect pumice, the
basis of which varies from perfect glass to a completely devitrified
felsite, and often shows a, perfect fluidal structure. This glassy
material is transparent and of pale green colour, and still remains
so when partially devitrified by the formation here and there of
material which depolarizes light, but yet shows no definite crystals.
The next stage is the formation of small dark grains of magnetite
or ilmenite, and well-developed felspar microliths; and the final
stage of devitrification consists in the passage of the remaining
glass into granular matter, so as to give rise to a sort of felsite.
Scattered through the glassy or stony basis are larger crystals of
felspar; and the deposit contains many detached more or less
broken crystals of the same, which often enclose portions of the

ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS OF THE PRESIDENT. 75

green glass. On the whole it would be impossible to meet with a
better illustration of an ash due to a more or less glassy felspathic
lava. Quartz appears to be absent from this particular specimen,
except as filling up a few cavities; and unless it be in the form of
minute needles, met with here and there in the glassy basis, augite
does not occur. To this circumstance may be attributed the very
small amount of green material subsequently formed in the rock.
In some other specimens grains of quartz do occur; and it is in-
teresting to find that the cavities sometimes contain no liquid,
which probably has been driven off by heat, in the same manner as
from grains of sand in the stratified deposits in contact with the
erupted rocks of Salisbury Crags, described further on. In other
localities the ash must have contained a much more perfect pumice,
and in others a considerable amount of augite, subsequently altered
into a green fibrous mineral, which also entirely or partially fills
what were originally cavities in the rock. Sometimes, even in the
same microscopical section we can trace a gradual passage from
ash composed of particles large enough to be easily recognized, to
what appears to have been an extremely fine-grained volcanic dust,
associated with fragments of true pumice. At Ambleside some
comparatively large fragments of pumice occur, with their cavities
filled with calcite, in an otherwise fine-grained slate, in the same
manner as they so often occur in fine-grained oceanic mud. This,
of course, is easily explained, since their unusual buoyancy would
enable them to float where denser fragments could not be drifted.

2. Rocks more or less considerably altered.—Passing from cases
where the original nature of the material is sufficiently well shown,
we come by degrees to others in which it has been more or less
changed since deposition, until we arrive at cases in which it is
difficult or impossible to decide from the structure alone whether
the rock was erupted and subsequently changed by water, or was
an ash of similar material afterwards changed by water and heat.
There appears to be no doubt that certain minerals have been
formed zn situ, such as epidote and the various green substances
described further on, and also no doubt that the augite, much of
the felspar, and the garnets were original constituents of the ash ;
but it is sometimes difficult or impossible to say whether the
felspar microliths were or were not formed in situ. On the whole
it is most probable that those met with in some specimens were
deposited as ash, whilst those in others were due to subsequent
alteration.

The first stage in the alteration was probably the filling-up of
cavities and the spaces between the particles with calcite, quartz,
and hydrous silicates, so as to consolidate the rock. This change
may, I think, be referred to the decomposition of the augite and
other unstable materials of volcanic ash, and might not require any
materially elevated temperature. The formation of felspar and
epidote was doubtless greatly favoured by the very imperfectly ©
decomposed condition of the original material, but probably re-
quired a more elevated temperature.

7 6 PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

Cleavage, in the Green Slates.

In studying the green slates, to try and learn the nature of the
original material, it is very desirable to examine specimens which
have little or no cleavage. When the rock has been greatly com-
pressed, and a perfect cleavage developed, the structure of the
constituent fragments has been so much changed that it is almost
impossible to say what they originally were. Thus, for example,
the brecciated slates of Rosthwaite suffice to establish beyond all
doubt the mechanical origin of the cleavage ; but the fragments are
so compressed in the plane of cleavage that it is impossible to be
sure whether the greater part were felsite or an older slate. There
does, however, appear to be sufficient evidence to prove that they
contain not only fragments derived directly from volcanic ash, but
also others which, if originally of similar nature, must have been
stratified, consolidated, altered, and broken up again, perhaps
during volcanic outbursts, and not necessarily portions of rocks of
much higher antiguity than the main mass of the slates.

Slates in Different districts.

Having now, as I think, proved that we must not seek for true
representatives of some of our slate rocks amongst more modern
_ British deposits, it will be well to consider the general character of
some of our older rocks. Judging from what I have been able to
ascertain from those districts which I have more completely ex-
amined, little reliance ought to be placed on conclusions drawn
from a very limited number of specimens; for considerable varia-
tion may depend on local sorting; and what I am now able to
state respecting some other districts must be looked upon as
provisional, and possibly only partially true. I have had consi-
derable difficulty in reconciling my own observations with those of
some who have treated on this subject. Possibly this may be due
to actual differences in the slates of different districts, but may
also be due to a difference in the methods of observation, leading
us to a difference of opinion respecting the true shape and nature
of the constituent particles. Some of my conclusions may be
wrong, since occasionally it is extremely difficult to ascertain
what is the truth. I now give solely the results derived from my
own examination of specimens collected and prepared by myself.

I may here point out that the general optical character of a fine-
grained slate consisting mainly of mica, differs very greatly from
that of a more normal deposit. When a section cut at right
angles to the cleavage is rotated in polarized light, it becomes, over
nearly the whole surface, very bright and much darker at different
azimuths, like a doubly refracting crystal, whereas there is little
or no such change in the case of true clay slates of the normal
granular type, containing much kaolin and very little mica.

The only specimen of slate from the Loch-Awe district that I
have examined is of perfectly normal type, but is so much altered
that it is really a fine-grained schist.

ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS OF THE PRESIDENT. Ti

The slate of Birnam closely corresponds with that of Penrhyn,
and is mainly an abnormal fine-grained micaceous deposit.

Some of the rocks in the district of Moffat are of the usual
granular type; but others are highly micaceous, and in one speci-
men I have found a little pumice and what appear to have been
fragments of glassy fibres like the so-called ‘“ Pélé’s hair.” This
glassy material constitutes, however, only 3 or 4 per cent. of the
volume of the rock.

Passing to the English Lake-district, the slate of Portinscale is of
the normal granular type; but rocks of very similar age not far
from the granite on Skiddaw Forest are, as is well known, greatly
altered. The original material is almost wholly changed into
crystalline minerals developed i situ, amongst which hornblende
and chiastolite are the most characteristic.

Near Windermere the slates above the Coniston Limestone are
also of the normal granular type ; but possibly there are considerable
local variations, since the pencil-slate of Shap is almost wholly
micaceous.

As already mentioned, the slate-rocks in North Wales similarly
vary very greatly in different beds and localities ; and, as far as I
have been able to ascertain, the same remark will apply to those of
Devon and Cornwall.

We may thus, I think, consider it proved that the original
mineral composition of our older stratified rocks varied greatly,
though much remains to be learned respecting the horizontal and
vertical distribution of the different types. Even when they really
differ much in constitution, the general appearance of the finer-
grained varieties is not strikingly different ; and the presence or
absence of cleavage still further obscures the difference. An ob-
server might thus easily overlook variations which might be of very
great importance in connexion with metamorphism. It appears to
me that the development or absence of certain minerals in meta-
morphic rocks depended. as much on the original nature of the
material as on any mere difference of the temperature to which
the rocks have been exposed ; so that lower-lying rocks might very
well be less altered than those above them, even though probably
at one time exposed to a higher temperature, invading them from
below.

General Changes after Deposition.

The development of such minerals as pyrites in stratified rocks
is so well understood that I need not occupy time in saying any
thing about it, and will confine my remarks to what may be called
stony minerals. :

If a stratified rock consisted of material which was thoroughly
decomposed by weathering into stable products, it is clear that,
when further exposed to water and carbonic acid, no considerable
change could occur at the normal temperature, though it might be
consolidated by the introduction of soluble minerals. On the con-
trary, if the constituents of the deposit were in a state of unstable

78 PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

equilibrium, like those in fresh volcanic ashes, it is equally clear
_that great subsequent changes might be expected. Thus, for ex-
ample, in a section of consolidated peperino from Vesuvius, I find
that the fragments of augite have been altered into a new substance,
and the cavities in the ash more or less completely filled with a
fibrous mineral with feeble double refraction and having the
negative axis of depolarization in the line of the fibres. My belief
is that this is some hydrous silicate—perhaps a zeolite; but at all
events its formation has thoroughly hardened the whole deposit,
and given rise to a greater change in the structure than is met
with in many rocks of remote geological epochs.

An almost colourless crystalline mineral has also been developed
in some of the mud from 2230 fathoms in the South Pacific. It is
insoluble in strong hot acids until after it has been boiled in
caustic potash, and is probably a silicate. It occurs in small
crystals, which have been deposited in radiate groups on the surface
of many of the sand-grains. The mud also contains many frag-
ments of an apparently basic lava, more or less completely altered
into a sort of palagonite ; and probably the crystalline mineral was
a product of this change.

Some specimens of our gault, when washed, yield analogous
radiating groups of a transparent mineral insoluble in acids.

Another silicate very commonly found in stratified rocks is
glauconite. According to Ehrenberg it occurs inside the cells of
Foraminifera in some recent deposits ; 1t 1s at all events well seen
in many of our older rocks. I have studied it more particularly
in the harder bands of the Barton Clay, in the firestone of Ventnor,
in the Kentish Rag, in the Greensands, in Lias, and in some other
rocks. It is often found filling the cells of Foraminifera, the
central hollow and minute tubes in the joints of Pentacrinus,
the open spaces of corals, holes bored into shells, open spaces
left amongst crystals of calcite when aragonite shells became
erystalline, and what were probably minute borings present in
the deposit at the time of its formation ; in fact, it may be said
to fill up cavities of all kinds. In some few cases it appears as if
it had crystallized out independent of any cavity ; but often there
is no positive evidence of how it was formed.

As far as I have been able to ascertain, glauconite consists of
more or less irregular and imperfect scales, having the negative
axis perpendicular to their surface. ' Usually these scales are ex-
tremely minute, and are arranged in no definite order; but occa-
sionally they are larger, sometimes arranged in a radiate, and some-
times in-a concentric manner. It is very curious to see in the
sections of some rocks how the grains of glauconite have been
crushed by pressure, though the fragments still remain scattered
about in close proximity. |

Since glauconite is known to occur as a product of the alteration
of augite and hornblende, and since in the cavities of some altered
dolerites I have found a green substance having exactly the same
characters as the glauconite of the Greensand, it would be a very

ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS OF THE PRESIDENT. 719

simple explanation to suppose that it had been formed out of the
augitic or hornblendic constituents of the deposit. J am by no
means certain that some of the grains are not really pseudomorphs ;
but at the same time the amount of glauconite in some beds of the
Greensand is far too great to allow us to suppose that it was to
any considerable extent formed directly, im stu, from augitic or
hornblendic sands. In some cases I am inclined to think that the
grains were formed elsewhere, and drifted as sand into their pre-
sent position. On washing different specimens of Greensand I
was also much struck with the manner in which the glauconite
seemed, as it were, to replace yellow ferruginous mud, as if it had
been to some extent formed out of it. On the whole, then, we
have evidence of considerable variation in the conditions ; but yet
all the facts agree in showing that glauconite was formed by con-
cretionary aggregation at the time of deposition, or very shortly
afterwards, from material closely related to decomposed augite,
hornblende, or olivine.

There is far better evidence of the direct formation from augite of
green minerals more or less closely allied to glauconite, in the green
slates of the English lake-district. J may here say that, according
to my own observations, the augite and olivine of our older volcanic
rocks occur altered into at least three different kinds of green
material. One of these corresponds closely, if not absolutely, with
glauconite, and is composed of laminz ; another is composed of
fibres ; and the third is either amorphous or belongs to the regular
system, unlike the others, not depolarizing. All these three sub-
stances also occur in what must have been cavities in the rock, into
which no doubt they have been introduced by the agency of water.
The fragments of augite in the Cumberland green slates have been
changed, and the cavities filled, in the same manner. On the whole,
the fibrous substance is the most abundant, and is characterized by
having its positive axis of depolarization not strictly parallel to the
line of the fibres, as though the mineral might be some variety of
asbestos. It fills the cells of fragments of pumice, and also larger
cavities, formed, like those in peperino, by the evolution of gas
amongst the unconsolidated mud, or by contraction during con-
solidation. Since the identification of the true nature of frag-
ments of pumice is a matter of much interest, I give fig. 7 (p. 80)
as an illustration of their general character, which represents one
magnified about 100 linear. It must have been just like those so
common in deep-ocean mud. The original walls of the cells are
about zo5p Of an inch thick, and are now partially, if not wholly,
devitrified ; and the empty cells are filled with the green substance
already named, just as the cells of Foraminifera in more recent
rocks are filled with glauconite.

Though there are several quite distinct kinds of these green
minerals, which possibly differ in composition, yet they form a
very definite group; all occur under similar circumstances, and
often intimately associated. On comparing different specimens of
slate we can see that those in which their amount is greatest are,

80 PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

as a rule, those which originally contained the most augite or
olivine in the ash, as shown by the pseudomorphs.

Fig. 7.— Fragment of pumice Fig. 8.—Small concretion in the Slate
jilled with a green mineral. of Birnam.

I have endeavoured to find out the true relations of all the dif-
ferent green or analogous colourless minerals so often developed
in slates since their deposition; but though it is quite easy to
distinguish several, and to recognize each well enough in other
specimens, I must say I feel much hesitation in identifying them
with known minerals. We should not, however, be far wrong if
we regarded the whole group as evidence of the same general
physical conditions, and the production of each particular kind as
evidence of some difference in the chemical composition of the
material. This appears to me well established by what may be
seen in some of the fine-grained slates. Thus, for example, in the
slate of Birnam, near Dunkeld, small elongated concretions have
been formed along the planes of cleavage, as shown (magn. 150
linear) by fig. 8. These are composed of alternations of two
very distinct laminar minerals. One is colourless, with a de-
polarizing power several times greater than that of quartz, the
negative axis being perpendicular to the lamine; whilst the other
is deep green, very dichroic, has a very weak depolarizing power,
and gives with polarized light a remarkable copper-colour, not cor-
responding with any interference tint. In the slate of Penrhyn we
meet with similar but shorter concretions, composed of a mixture
of the above-named colourless mineral (which may be tale) with
one that is green and dichroic, with a depolarizing power much
weaker than that of quartz, having the positive axis perpendicular
to the laminz, and further differing from the analogous mineral in
the Birnam slates in giving perfectly normal though low inter-
ference tints. According to Dana, similar mixtures are met with
in larger crystals of minerals belonging to the same general group
as those now under consideration. I presume that we shall all
agree that the production of such minerals indicates the more or
less prolonged action of water. I do not see any need to assume a
high temperature; but I must say that it appears to me that their
production is evidence of the preexistence of material corresponding
to more or less decomposed augite, hornblende, or olivine; and I
think that the presence or absence of such products depended more
upon the original nature of the material than upon any thing else.

ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS OF THE PRESIDENT. 8I

Metamorphic Rocks.

The above-named facts naturally lead me to the question of me-
tamorphism. “If we had to deal with such extremes as shale and
schists, we could not hesitate as to the use of the term metamorphic ;
but, as so often happens, one extreme condition passes so gradually
into another that it is difficult or impossible to draw a boundary
line. J must say that I feel quite unable to offer such a definition
of metamorphism as would agree with the microscopical structure
of the rocks, and satisfy the requirements of field-geologists. If
its original constituents have been entirely recrystallized into new
minerals, especially into quartz and anhydrous silicates, it seems
quite reasonable to call a rock metamorphic ; but such a definition
would include many rocks which are usually called slates, simply
because no such complete recrystallization can be detected by the
naked eye. On the contrary, many schists, which are always called
metamorphic, do, as I believe, sometimes contain material which
has been little, if at all, changed ; so that the prevalent definition of
metamorphism seems to depend more on general external appear-
ance than on internal structure. However, instead of occupying
time in discussing names, it will be far better to consider a few
points which appear to deserve special attention. The entire ques-
tion of metamorphism is far too wide to be dealt with on such an
occasion as the present.

Artifical Metamorphism.

I much regret that I am unable to refer to more than one
illustration of metamorphism produced artificially. This is a spe-
cimen of slate kept long at a high temperature by our late, lamented
friend David Forbes. Unfortunately I do not know the exact
nature of the rock before it was changed; but it is quite clear that
the heat has actually fused some portions and converted them into
what may be called slag, without having so far melted the whole
as to obliterate the original stratification. In the fused portion
needle-shaped crystals have been developed, which have the general
characters of the pyroxene found in some artificial slags, as well as
others which correspond with felspar. Jt is therefore quite unlike
any true natural metamorphic schist, but still is of interest as
showing what characters are due to crystallization wm situ; and the
newly-formed minerals closely correspond with those found in some
rocks metamorphosed naturally. The main difference seems to be
that the natural rocks were not actually fused like a slag, and,
being under great pressure, a certain amount of liquid water was
present, which greatly facilitated the transference of the consti-
tuents from one part of the rock to another, and the development
of certain minerals like quartz, mica, hornblende, and calcite.

Local Contact Metamorphism.
As an illustration of a few special facts, I select the sandstone
and shale of Carboniferous age in contact with the igneous rock of
VOL. XXXVI. h

82 PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

Salisbury Crags. One point of interest is, that although the grains
of sand contain many cavities which no doubt, as usual, originally
contained water, they have all lost it, as though itehad been ex-
pelled by the heat of the igneous rock, in the same manner as it is
easily expelled from unaltered quartz by a high artificial tempera-
ture. Independent of this, the quartz sand is very little, if at all,
changed. Not so, however, the calcareous shale, which has, to a
great extent, been altered into a mass of small, nearly colourless,
prismatic crystals having the form and optical characters of tre-
molite, or of the pyroxene met with in some slags. This often
occurs in small nests along with calcite and quartz, all crystal-
lized in situ. The whole rock, however, is of such fine grain,
that to the naked eye it appears to be only hardened. Though
the general structure is very different-from that of hornblende-
schists, this rock is of considerable interest in connexion with them,
and also as affording good evidence of exposure to a somewhat
elevated temperature.

Development of Mica-schist.

I have taken much pains in studying the gradual formation of
mica-schist from unaltered slates. Apparently the various steps
in the change are not always exactly the same; but, as far as I
have been able to learn from the material at my disposal, the order
of change was somewhat as illustrated by the following examples :—

1. A slate close to an igneous rock near Liskeard is composed
of thin beds of the usual granular kaolin type, with but little mica,
alternating with others of the mica-slate type, containing but little
granular matter. Now, in the midst of these materials, evidently
deposited as such, there have been formed detached scattered con-
cretions, about =4+, of an inch in diameter, composed of mica and
quartz crystallized in situ, in grains which are on an average some-
where about 5,4, of an inch in diameter. These little concretions
are, in fact, the very germs of mica-schist, if I may be allowed to
use such an expression. An obliquely transverse vein contains
larger crystals of mica and quartz, thus clearly proving the transfer
of such material from one part to another.

2. The black chiastolite slate of Ivy Bridge shows some valuable
facts. The concretions are larger than those just described, and
consist more exclusively of mica. ‘They show only obscure traces
of the stratification passing through them; but it is very distinct
in the surrounding material, which has not crystallized wm situ.
The segregation of mica is well shown, not only by a some-
what transverse vein, but also by the alteration of the chiastolite.
The altered crystals have a sharp outline, and, with ordinary light,
are colourless and transparent from the central cross of impuri-
ties up to the extreme edge; but when examined by polarized light
they are seen to be pseudomorphs. The outside, for some depth
inwards, has been changed into mica, often with its lamine perpen-
dicular to the surface; and the centre no longer has the strong

ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS OF THE PRESIDENT. 83

depolarizing power of unaltered chiastolite, but has been changed
into an isotropic substance not yet identified. We thus see very
clearly that the rock must have been exposed to such conditions
that mica, as such, or its constituents could wander about from
one point to another and collect round special centres.

3, Slate near Granite at Wicca Pool.—This furnished me with a
most instructive series of specimens. In one the mica and quartz
have segregated in the manner just described; only, in' place of
being detached, the concretions have grown so much that they
have often coalesced and thrown the residual material into irregular
darker patches, where it has to a considerable extent crystallized
into a dirty-greenish-brown isotropic mineral, which I have not
been able to identify, unless, imdeed, it be garnet, which is
doubtful.

From such a specimen we gradually pass to cases where this
mineral has been thrown off and collected, not so much into irregular
patches as into small thin lenticular masses lying, roughly speak-
ing, in the plane of stratification, so as to produce a true foliation.
Here and there are also lenticular masses of quartz, crystallized on
situ, In grains varying up to ;1, of an inch in diameter. Ina
third specimen this kind of foliation is still more perfectly deve-
loped, and the isotropic mineral is, to a considerable extent, repre-
sented, if not actually replaced, by mica of darker colour than that
in the rest of the rock; and, in fact, here and there it almost dis-
appears. In a fourth specimen the isotropic mineral appears to
be absent, and the rock is composed of quartz and of very dark
and colourless mica, all crystallized in situ. In some parts of the
thin section the material was apparently uniformly stratified in
well-marked thin beds, and there are no transverse cleavage-joints.
Here the crystals of mica lie, to a great extent, more or less par-
allel to the plane of stratification. That they were not deposited
in that position as mud, however, is well shown by the structure
of other parts of the section, where the rock had given way to
lateral pressure by the formation of close, irregular, roughly par-
allel joints, in the manner described when treating on cleavage.
Here the crystals of dark mica lie along the joints, in the same
manner as they occur in the detached transverse cracks in speci-
mens of altered slate from Liskeard and Ivybridge; so that we
have a good illustration of one particular type of cleavage-foliation,
more highly developed in some of the coarser-grained mica-schists
described further on.

Another type of imperfect cleavage-foliation is when the crystal-
lization is modified by the presence of a true, well-developed,
‘structural cleavage. The slate of Birnam, already described, is an
illustration of this; for in it we see that lenticular portions of the
green laminar mineral have been formed in the plane of cleavage ;
and in the thin beds which contain much of this mineral we have
a perfect, true cleavage-foliation, in which the lamine lie in the
plane of cleavage. A similar but finer-grained structure occurs in
a few of the green slates of Westmoreland.

84 PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

Fine-grained Schists.

It will thus be seen that in the rocks just described we have a
eradual and perfect passage from an almost normal slate to what
is practically a true mica-schist, with stratification-foliation or
cleavage-foliation. The only essential difference between the more
altered specimens and the most typical mica-schists is that the
crystals are less, being, on an average, only 4, as large. There
are, however, many beds amongst the Highland schists which are
of very little coarser grain than these altered slates. As far as I
can see, we have a real and perfect passage from slate to schist ;
and the more altered varieties from Wicca Pool do not differ from
the most typical schists im any more essential particulars than —
pebbles differ from boulders.

Rocks which are thus practically fine-grained schists differ so
little from true unaltered slate in general appearance, that probably
they have often been mistaken for slates. At all events, I know
that I must have many times made this mistake myself, which has
prevented me from being able to say any thing very definite re-
specting the horizontal distribution of the altered and unaltered
rocks. I regret that [ cannot decide whether it is in all cases
merely a local change, or sometimes very general over a consider-
able district.

Foliation in slightly altered Slates.

On the whole, then, these connecting-links between slates and
schists clearly show that foliation is essentially different from either
stratification or cleavage. In my opinion they prove that it is the
result of the varying segregation of different minerals, controlled
by various previously existing structures. It will be well to con-
sider some questions more fully when discussing the structure of
true schists ; but I think it would be impossible to give a better
illustration of my meaning than the case of some concretionary
limestones. In these the facts seem to show very clearly that the
material was originally deposited in a pretty uniform condition ;
but the carbonate of lime has collected m more or less lenticular
masses, or filled transverse fissures to form veins, and left a great
part of the non-calcareous deposit as a laminated shale wrapping
irregularly round the concretions. On the whole such a rock may
be truly stratified; but the details are not true stratification. So,
in the case of these altered slates, the existing structure is due to
irregular segregation, controlled by the previously existing struc-
ture, whether it was stratification, close joints, or true cleavage. We
might very well draw the same conclusion from the study of true
schists ; but then it would be, to a considerable extent, more a
matter of inference than of proof, whereas in the rocks now under
consideration both true stratification, close joints, true cleavage,
and true foliation are present to such an extent that their mutual
relations are easily seen. ‘

ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS OF THE PRESIDENT, 8 5

Structure of Schists.

It thus appears that we may trace, step by step, the change from
stratified deposits of a more or less normal type to rocks in which
nearly the whole of the material has recrystallized in situ, to form
truly metamorphic schists ; but, at the same time, it does not neces-
sarily follow that all schists which have crystallized in situ were
originally composed of sand and clay. I therefore now propose to
examine what evidence still remains of their truly detrital origin,
and of their probable constitution before crystallization took place.
I scarcely need say that no class of microscopical rock-preparations
are more difficult to make than sections of some mica-schists, cut
at right angles to the foliation. By slow and careful erinding, and
by repeatedly covering the surface with Canada balsam and heating
until it became hard, so that it might penetrate between the plates
of mica and bind all together, I have, however, succeeded in pre-
paring faultless sections of the most intractable specimens, which
can be examined with as high magnifying powers as are necessary
for their efficient study.

Presence of the Original Sand and Mud in Schists.

In my paper on mica-schist, published many years ago in our
Journal (vol. xix. p. 401), I described what I looked upon as the
original grains of sand still visible in the altered rock. I have
lately reexamined my microscopical sections with improved appa-
ratus, and am now more convinced than ever that I was correct.
The best way of studying this question is to use a 2 inch object-
glass with an attached, parabolic, side reflector, in such a manner
that the object may be seen at will, either by surface-illumination
or by transmitted polarized light. When quartz from various
sources is thus examined, some appears quite transparent and
colourless by transmitted light, and almost black by surface-illu-
mination, whilst some is more or less opaque by transmitted light,
and milk-white by surface-illumination. A good deal is interme-
diate between these extremes, or shows a mottled mixture of both.
The whiteness is either of a granular character (when due to fluid-
cavities or large granules), or uniform and homogeneous (when the
foreign particles are too small to be separately visible). Some spe-
cimens are further characterized by the presence of many included
hair-like crystals.

The quartz of many specimens of schist appears almost holly
dark by surface-illumination; but here and there, in certain speci-
mens from Dunkeld and Arroquhar, are milk-white grains, perfectly
unlike the surrounding quartz, having a well-defined, rounded,
waterworn, or more angular outline, just like the genuine and
undoubted grains of sand in more recent, unaltered, stratified rocks.
They further differ from the quartz of the schist itself in having a
simple optical structure, each being a part of a single crystal, like
most grains of sand; whereas the small aggregations of quartz
crystallized im situ have a complex structure, and are made up of

86 PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY,

many small interfering crystals. Occasionally some of the sur-
rounding clear quartz is in crystalline continuity with these grains ;
but usually it has crystallized independently, probably because the
erains were originally completely surrounded by deposit, and not
by the empty spaces which existed in the case of the consolidated
sandstones with deposited quartz, already described. As an illus-
tration of one of these grains, I give fig. 9, magnified 30 linear.
In other cases the quartz of the grain is clearer, and the contrast
less, and in others so slight that it is impossible to be quite sure
whether they were originally grains of sand, or only detached parts
of the quartz which has crystallized im situ. It is, however, almost
certain that many such grains must be present, since quartz in
general is much more transparent than those grains which are
well marked in the manner described. ‘The great difficulty of re-
cognizing clear grains must be borne in mind, since the apparent
absence of sand from some specimens of schist may be due to this
cause.

Fig. 9.— Grain of Quartz-sand m the Mica-schist of Arroquhar.

Along with the grains of quartz just described occur some of
what appear to have been felspar, much decomposed before the
deposit was altered into schist; and there are also some grains
very much as if they had been derived from a felsite. In some
respects these various felspathic grains are more distinct than those
of quartz, because they are granular and quite unlike the sur-
rounding rock. Possibly this is why they are sometimes seen in
specimens of schist in which no grains of quartz can be recognized ;
but still the evidence is not so reliable as in the case of milk-white
quartz, since one cannot but feel that it is always possible, even
when it is not probable, that they are portions of altered felspar
which crystallized in situ when the rock was metamorphosed. In
any case, taking all the facts into consideration, the proof of the
original presence of true grains of sand in some thoroughly crystal-
line and typical mica-schists is as perfect as in the case of slates.
Leaving doubtful cases out of consideration, about + of all my
sections of schist afford good evidence of the presence of such
grains ; and I find that also + of my sections of slates show similar
grains; so that their absence from # of my specimens of schists is
no valid objection to their having been originally of as true detrital

ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS OF THE PRESIDENT, 87

origin as slates, since these specimens are probably due to the
alteration of slates which contained no sand.

The evidence of the original fine-grained material is occasionally
tolerably satisfactory, but often equivocal. We must always be on
our guard not to mistake a portion of decomposed or altered fel-
spar for the original fine-grained base of a slate, and can place no
reliance on observations made with specimens of gneiss. J would
base my arguments wholly on what may be seen in true mica~-
schist, in which there is no good evidence of the former presence
of crystalline felspar, either in broken fragments or as crystals
formed im situ. All the sections examined were prepared by my-
self, and no polishing material used; so that I am quite sure that
none of the appearances is due to any thing of that kind sticking
to the objects. The best examples I hare seen are from Skateraw
and Muchals, on the sea-coast between Aberdeen and Stonehaven.
In them I have not been able to find any independent proof of the
former presence of felspar, or of any other mineral likely to yield
fine-grained pseudomorphs. The patches which I take to be por-
tions of the slightly-altered original rock show no trace of crystal-
line form, and have no well-defined outline, but, on the contrary,
pass gradually into the surrounding schist. They have also a de-
cided general structure parallel to the well-marked stratification of
the rock, which would not be at all probable if they were not really
portions of material mechanically deposited. They are as fine-
grained as any slate, and correspond closely with certain light-
coloured slightly altered rocks met with in the mountains of North
Wales, not far south of Aber. On the whole, taking every thing
into consideration, the facts seem to indicate strongly that the
patches are not pseudomorphs, but those portions of an original
fine-grained rock which have not recrystallized into large crystals
of mica and quartz. This supposition, of course, agrees so well
with the evidence derived from the quartz-sand, that perhaps we
may adopt it provisionally, even though we might feel bound to
admit that, without independent evidence, the facts are insufficient
to justify such an important conclusion. A large proportion of my
sections of mica-schist furnish more or less distinct evidence of the
like kind, which, however, in most cases, may be said rather to
agree with the supposition that they were originally fine-grained
strata than to really prove it. As a general rule, all that can be
confidently asserted is, that the great bulk of the rock is composed
of minerals which have so crystallized in situ that the original struc-
ture has been almost or altogether obliterated.

Original Source of the Material of some Schists.

As shown above, there is sufficiently good proof that the schists
of the central Highlands of Scotland were originally slates; and it
would obviously be interesting to know the nature of the rocks
from which their material was derived. ‘There are, however, some
serious difficulties to contend with in deciding this question. The

88 PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

number of well-marked quartzose grains is not great; and the fel-
spathic grains are certainly somewhat altered; and it is difficult, if
not impossible, to say how much they are changed, and to be sure
that some of the grains which look like felsite are not partially
decomposed felspar altered into a felsite-looking substance. More-
over, since it is only those quartz grains which have a somewhat
unusual structure that can now be recognized with perfect confi-
dence, they necessarily make it appear as if the original rock were
of more unusual character than it really was. I have done my
best to form a satisfactory conclusion; and allowance must be
made for the unavoidable difficulties.

The most striking peculiarity of the grains of quartz is that they
often contain:many minute hair-like crystals, which possibly are
rutile, and also many minute granules and fluid-cavities, sometimes
with included crystals of alkaline chlorides. In my collection I
have no section of a granite or felsite which shows these cha-
racters combined. There are many of the hair-like crystals in the
quartz of the granite of Aberdeen ; but it is on the whole far more
transparent, and shows the milk-white appearance in far less
degree, than the quartz-sand of the schists, and also contains com-
paratively few fluid-cavities or granules. As far as the fluid-cavi-
ties are concerned, the quartz of the grains is far more like that of
the Cornish granites; but this latter contains few if any of the
hair-like crystals, and many of the much stouter crystals of schorl.
I have also been able to detect in the grains in the schists a few
well-marked enclosures of what looks like a fine-grained felsitic
base, as though they had been derived from a quartz felsite; but
yet they are not sufficiently numerous to imdicate exclusively an
extreme type of felsite. On the whole, taking into consideration
the character of both the felspathic and quartzose grains, the most
satisfactory conclusion appears to be that the material was, to a
considerable extent derived from a granite of a type very unlike
those of Cornwall, but in some respects analogous to that of Aber-
deen, though differing from it in being more like a quartz felsite.
Perhaps, then, speaking generally, we may say that it was mainly
derived from a felsite of medium character, or partly from a more
perfect granite, and partly from a felsite of more extreme type.
This conclusion, of course, applies only to the particular district
now under consideration. The source of the material, in the case
of other districts, could, I think, be ascertained in a similar manner,
at all events within certain limits.

Stratification-foliation.

In those schists which have stratification-foliation, the large
flat crystals of mica lie in the plane of the beds of different mineral
nature; but still the structure differs essentially from true strati-
fication. Sometimes the parallelism is of only a very general cha-
racter, and horizontal segregation has taken place to a large ex-
tent, in the manner explained when describing the specimens of

ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS OF THE PRESIDENT. 89

slate from Wicca Pool altered into fine-grained schist. However,
as in some of the specimens from Wicca Pool, there has sometimes
been little or no horizontal segregation, and the bands of different
mineral composition are continuous, like small deposited beds; but
frequently some of these are so exclusively quartzose, and others
so exclusively micaceous, that I think the original differences due
to stratification must have been greatly increased by vertical segre-
gation. Even when this kind of evidence is wanting, the mutual
arrangement of the constituent crystals clearly shows that their
present outline is due to growth in situ. A portion of a spe-
cimen, from Loch Goyle, magnified 60 linear, shown by fig. 10,

Fig. 10.— Mica-schist of Loch Goyle, with stratification-foliation.

will serve to illustrate some of the more important facts. At the
bottom we have a layer containing much mica, and in the centre
one composed more exclusively of quartz. In this layer lie large
and smaller plates of mica, enclosed in a number of interfering
crystals of quartz, which have obviously crystallized in situ round
them and about them. Similarly, when we examine the micaceous
layer, we may see that the crystals of mica also mutually interfere
and enclose quartz, so that the proof of crystallization in situ is
equally good.

Cleavage-folration.

It is, however, in the case of cleavage-foliation that the proof of
recrystallization is the most complete; and since the great impor-
tance of this structure appears to be often overlooked, it will be
well to consider it somewhat in detail.

By far the best district that I have seen for studying this kind
of foliation is that lying along the sea-coast between Aberdeen
and Stonehaven, especially at Portlethon, Muchals, and Skateraw.
At Muchals I obtained specimens which are remarkably instructive,
because they show in the same thin section both stratification-
foliation and cleavage-foliation. First of all, we may see bands of
different mineral character showing stratification as clearly as any
slate, but necessarily modified by a variable amount of horizontal
and vertical segregation. Roughly parallel to these thin beds lie

VOL, XXXVI. . a

pele) PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

many laminar crystals of pale green mica, crumpled up and con-
torted by lateral pressure, like the thin beds in the slate of Lis-
keard, shown in fig. 4. As in that slate, many planes of discon-
tinuity have been formed by fracture; and along these larger and
more colourless crystals of mica have grown, with their faces and
cleavage parallel to the walls, just as in some of the slightly altered
slates previously described. Passing to another specimen, the
mica, thus formed along the planes of cleavage-discontinuity, in-
creases in amount until, in some parts, it altogether preponderates
over the contorted lamin which are roughly parallel to the bedding,
and we see a foliation due to large plates of mica lying in a plane
corresponding to true slaty cleavage, inclined at a high angle to the
stratification. In other specimens the large irregular crystals of
both light- and dark-coloured mica lie almost wholly in the plane
of cleavage, but yet here and there are a few which have obeyed
the influence of the stratification. Im a splendid specimen from
Portlethon the cleavage-foliation is very perfectly developed, and
is not only parallel to the axis planes of the larger contortions, but
has all the other characteristic relations of true slaty cleavage. As
an illustration of this kind of foliation I subjoin fig. 11, which re-
presents (magnified 30 linear) a part of a thin band of mica-schist,
where the foliation and bedding are at right angles to one another.
As in the stratification-foliation, shown by fig. 10, the study of the
detail shows very clearly that dark- and light-coloured mica and
quartz have all crystallized in situ; but it is unnecessary to base
the argument on the minute detailed arrangement of the crystals,
since no one would suppose that plates of mica could be mechani-
cally deposited sticking upright, and still remain almost parallel
after the rock had been contorted.

Fig. 11.—Mica-schist of Portlethon, with cleavage-foliation.

ens aie as PA .
< > ay Shs ase }
ZK aw Cae i >

Ne 2 a \ hh. t

eee
of ree \ \\

Though I have never seen this kind of foliation better developed
than in the localities named above, I have also met with it in some

ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS OF THE PRESIDENT, gti

of the schists near Inverary and in Anglesey. The intermediate
kind, in which the stratification-foliation has been bent into small
contortions, and only a little mica has crystallized along the planes
of discontinuity, is met with more frequently. The differences in
the character of the foliation in the different specimens now de-
scribed appear to have depended on whether or not the rock became
completely solid and crystalline before it was compressed, or was
compressed before it became solid and crystalline. The intermediate
varieties were probably formed when there was a partial metamor-
phism before compression, and further crystallization afterwards.

Schists not mechanically deposited as such.

I have most carefully examined my various sections of schists,
in order to ascertain whether their structure would in any way
countenance the supposition that the constituent minerals were
originally formed as a loose crystalline deposit from the sea, and
not formed wm siéu by the alteration of a more normal deposit. If
such had been the case, we might very well expect to find the
cavities between the quartz-grains filled up with quartz, since the
associated veins clearly show that it has been largely introduced |
into the rock since deposition. ‘There is, however, often little or
no evidence of any such extensive introduction of mica; so that I
doubt if we ought to look upon it as at all probable that mica
could have been so deposited chemically as to fill in the spaces
between them and complete crystals mechanically deposited, and
not leave some well-marked evidence of such a double origin.
However, on most carefully studying the character and arrange-
ment of the mica in schists, I saw that the crystals, which are
often of considerable size, are fitted and dovetailed together in the
most complicated but yet most accurate manner, just as if they
had crystallized in situ. The individual crystals are well defined,
because they are highly dichroic; and by using a polarizer alone
they show very marked differences in tint, due to their different
orientation, and nothing to indicate a second growth. I can
scarcely believe that any one would contend that the mica of those
schists which possess cleavage-foliation had been deposited mechani-
cally. If sucha view could be maintained, it would be in the case
of stratification-foliation ; but even then the manner in which the
crystals interfere with one another is just as it is in schists with
cleavage-foliation, or even in granite itself. The crystals of horn-
blende and other minerals also interfere in the same manner.

Taking, then, all the facts into consideration, there appears to be
very complete proof that the principal constituent minerals of the
schists, from the districts examined, were not deposited mechani-
cally, but were formed or recrystallized in situ.. In some cases
there is satisfactory evidence to show that previous to the crystal-
lization the rock was analogous to normal slates; and even when
there is no such positive evidence, there is nothing against this
supposition, but much in its favour. As far as my observations

Q2 PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

go, they thus most completely bear out the prevalent theory of the
true metamorphic origin of schists; but, at the same time, the spe-
cimens which I have examined have been too exclusively derived
from particular districts to warrant my extending this conclusion
to all rocks of similar general charactcr in other localities, or of
earlier epoch than those of the central Highlands of Scotland.
A much more extended inquiry would be necessary. But I am fully
convinced that the true nature of all such rocks could be learned
by the further application of the methods now described.

Conclusion.

It will thus be seen that my aim has been to trace the origin
of the material of stratified rocks, and afterwards to study the
various mechanical and chemical changes to which it has been sub-
jected, and thus to show the connexion between modern mud and
our oldest schistose rocks. In some cases there has been a com-
plete cycle, the material having been derived from crystalline rocks,
then deposited mechanically, and finally reconverted into crys-
talline rocks. In thus dealing with such a wide subject, as a whole,
I have been led to treat some questions in a manner which may
appear rather unusual, but, as I believe, not on that account less
correctly. I cannot but feel how much of the detail still remains
unknown; and probably when known it will be found necessary
to modify some of my general conclusions. We often meet with
two or more structures, each clearly enough due to different causes,
and many of such an intermediate character that it is extremely
difficult to form a just estimate of the relative influence of the
various causes which have probably conspired to produce the
result. This and other unavoidable difficulties necessarily make
such a first attempt somewhat imperfect; yet I trust that what
I have said may, at all events, serve in some measure to point
out what may be done, and to lead others to investigate the subject
more completely. Considering the very wide range of subjects
which I have been compelled to examine from a more or less
novel point of view, it is satisfactory to find that in most cases
the new facts tend only to remove doubts, and seldom, if ever,
do more than slightly modify the conclusions arrived at by geolo-
gists from the consideration of totally different and independent
evidence.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY. 93

February 25, 1880.
Rozert Erurriper, Esq., F.R.S., President, in the Chair,

Joseph H. Cowham, Esq., Westminster Training College, 8.W. ;
William Alexander Forbes, Esq., B.A., 14 Ashley Place, S.W.; M.
H. Gray, Esq., Kuching, Sarawak, Borneo; and Charles Thomas
Whitmell, Esq. BNA ‘BSc. (Lond.), F.C. S., 51 Havelock Street,
Sheffield, were elected Fellows of the Society. |

The List of Donations to the Library was read.

The President announced that a communication had been received
from the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, stating that the
Academy proprosed to colette its 100th Anniversary on May 26,
1880, on which occasion the Academy hoped that one or more
Delegates from the Geological Society of London might be present.

The following communications were read :—
1. ‘*On the Geology of Anglesey.” By Prof. T. MKenny Hughes,
M.A., F.GS.

2. “Notes on the Strata exposed in laying out the Oxford
Sewage-Farm at Sandford-on-Thames.” By E. 8. Cobbold, Esq.,
.G. S. Assoc.M.Inst.C.K.

3. “A Review and Description of the various pieces of British
Upper-Silurian Fenestellide.” By G. W. Shrubsole, Esq., F.G.5.
The following specimens were exhibited :—

Quartz and quartz ornaments from Japan, and Agates, exhibited
by Prof. James Tennant, F.G.S.; and Specimens exhibited by
Prof. T. M‘Kenny Hughes and G. W. Shrubsole, Esq., in illustration
of their papers.

~

March 10, 1880.
Rozsrert Ernrrimen, Esq., F.R.S., President, in the Chair.

John Ward, Esq., Lenoxvale, Belfast, was elected a Fellow ; and
Prof. F. von Hochstetter, of Vienna, and Prof. A. Renard, of
Brussels, Foreign Correspondents of the Society.

The List of Donations to the Library was read.
The following communication was read :—

1. “On the Geological Relations of the Rocks of the South of
Ireland to those of North Devon and other British and Continental
Districts.” By Professor Edward Hull, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S.,
Director of the Geological Survey of Ireland.

VOL. XXXVI. k

04 PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

March 24, 1880.
Rosert Erueripes, Hsq., F.R.S., President, in the Chair.

H. T. Burls, Esq., Paramaribo, Dutch Guiana; John Allen

M‘Donald, Esg., M.inst.C.E., Holly Place, Hampstead,
‘and Rev. Meee HKdward ica hues) B.A.,

N.W.;
183 Amhurst Road

Hackney, N., were elected Fellows of the Society.
The List of Donations to the Library was read.

The following communication was read :—

1. “The Newer Pliocene Period in England.—Part I. Com-

prising the Red and Fluvio-marine Crag and Glacial Formations.”

By Searles V. Wood, Esq., Jun., F.G.S.

April 14, 1880.
Rosert Erauriven, Hsq., F.R.S., President, in the Chair.

Colville Brown, Esq., 5 Hilldrop Road, Tufnell Park, N.; John N.
Dufty, Esq., Tuxford, Notts; and George Benjamin Nichols, Hsq.,
C.E., Handsworth, Staffordshire, were elected Fellows of the Society.

The List cf Donations to the Library was read.

The President announced that a subscription, which had been
started some time since by the Assistant Secretary, had enabled
him to purchase four small Microscopes for use, when necessary, at
the Evening Meetings of the Society. These were exhibited on the
table, and were now presented to the Society in the names of the

Subscribers, to wovm the thanks of the Society were due.

The following is a list of the Subscribers :—

H. Beuerman, Hsq.

Prof. T. G. Bonney, F.R.S.

K. Crane, Esq.

Prof. P. Martin Duncan, F.R.S.

Sir P. de M. Grey-Hgerton, Bart.,

FR.

R, Etheridge, Ksq., F.R.S., Pres.

Gas:
John Evans, Esq., F.R.S.
William Francis, Esq.
J. Starkie Gardner, Esq.
Henry Hicks, Esq.
Sok Hudleston, Tsq.
Prof. T. M‘Kenny Hughes.

J. W. Hulke, Esq.

H. Hull, Esq., F.R.S.

J. Gwyn Jeffreys, Esq. ‘5 SO ae

Prof. J. W. Judd, F.R.S.

J. Murie, Esq

S. R. Pattison, Esq.

J. A. Phillips, Esq.

Prof. J. Prestwich, F.R.S.

WH. G. H. Price, Ksq. 7

Prof. A. C. Ramsay, F.R.S.

Warmgton W. Smyth, Lsq.,
E.R.S.

H. C. Sorby, Esq., F.R.S.

J. F, Walker, Esq.

The President further announced that, in accordance with an

PROCEEDINGS OF THH GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY, 95,

invitation received from the Geological Society of France, Mr.
Thomas Davidson, F.R.8., was deputed by the Council to represent
the Society at the celebration of the Fiftieth Anniversary of the
foundation of the French Society. Mr. Davidson reports that he
was received with great distinction ; and the Council have received
an intimation from M. de Lapparent, President of the Geological
Society of France, that the Society had been exceedingly gratified
by the sympathy manifested in the delegation of Mr. Davidson.

Mr. Davipson spoke as follows as Delegate from the Geological
Society of London to the Geologieal Society of France, at the cele-
bration of their Fiftieth Anniversary, on the Ist of April, 1880 :—

Mownsinur LE Prisipent nr cuprs Conrrerys,—C’est pour mol un
bien grand honneur et plaisir de me trouver aujourd’hui parmi vous.

Depuis quarante-une années je fais partie de votre société, et re-
présente actuellement un du petit nombre qui reste de ceux qui
composaient la Société Géologique de France en 1839, C'est aussi
& la France et 4 mon vénéré maitre et ami Constant Prévost que je
dois mes premicres impressions en géologie et en paléontologie.

Paris est par excellence la capitale qui offre le plus de facilités et
de ressources & ceux qui désirent acquérir une éducation scientifique.
Ses cours publics et gratuits a la Sorbonne, au Jardin des Plantes,
4 Ecole des Mines, &c. ont puissamment contribué 4 l’avancement
de la science, et ont été le berceau de tant d’hommes qui se sont
distingués depuis le commencement de ce siecle. Paris est aussi le
grand centre de culture intellectuelle et du progres, et de toutes parts
on y puise des idées et des faits qui tendent a amplifier et a perfec-
tionner les connaissances humaines.

Messieurs, je suis venu expressément de Londres, a la demande du
Président, dit Conseil, et des 1415 personnes qui composent la Société
Géologique de Londres, afin de les représenter 4 votre cinquanti¢me
anniversaire, et pour vous témoigner la profonde sympathie et l’esprit
de fraternité le plus sincére qu’éprouve la Société Géologique de
Londres envers vous. Ils me prient de vous assurer qu ils apprécient
au plus haut dégré la part si importante que la Sociceté Géologique
de France a prise au mouvement scientifique des cinquante derniéres
années, et qui a jeté une si vive lumicre sur tout ce qui concerne les
sciences géologiques et palcéontologiques.

Il me semble opportun en ce moment de vous rappeler que tout
récemment la société anglaise a adjugé & un de vos membres, notre
savant confrére M. A. Daubrée, la médaille de Wollaston pour ses
admirables travaux. Oui, Messicurs, la science n’a qu’une seule patrie,
le monde entier; et nous n’avons tous qu'un seul but, ’avancement
dela science et le désir d’approcher le plus prés possible de la vérité.
Nos discussions, nos divergences d’opinions sont nécessaires et
logiques, car d’une question bien débattue la vérité surgit le plus
souvent.

La Société Géologique de Londres, depuis. sa fondation en 1807,
a comme vous prosperé et dote le monde de nombreux travaux, et
méme quelques-uns de ses anciens membres, tel que le Dr. Bigsby,

96 PROCERDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

qui fit partie do la Société Géologique en 1823, continuent actuelle-
ment & publier des travaux importants. La Société Géologique de
Londres fait des voeux les plus ardents pour que vous continuiez a
prospérer, car quoique nous ayons obtenu de bien beaux résultats,
nous savons tous qu il reste infiniment plus 4 découvrir, & généraliser,
et 4 perfectionner avant que nous ayons résolu dune manicre
satisfaisante les nombreux problemes qui font partie du domaine
eéologique.

La paléontologie, fondée par Papas Cuvier, et formant partie
intéerante de la géologie sédimentaire, demande une étude continue
et scrieuse, car le géologue y a constamment recours, et il est de
toute nécessité que Tidentification des especes qui caractérisent les
terrains et les horizons géologiques soit précise. Je ne puis suf-
fisamment supplier les paléontologistes de tous les pays qui décrivent
des espéces nouvelles d’en donner en méme temps des figures. Le
manque de figures cause souvent le plus grand embarras, et jette
une incertitudeet méme une confusion déplorable dans la synonymie
et la nomenclature. Les admirables travaux paléontologiques exé-
cutés en France sont appréciés par le monde entier, et je me plais en
cette occasion de rendre: hommage & Alcide d’Orbigny, Deshayes,
De Verneuil, Barrande et tant d’autres qui ont rendu de si éminents
services a la paléontologie francaise.

Messieurs, quoique je sois déléoud tout spécialement par la Société
Géologique afin de la représenter en cette mémorable occasion, toutes
nos principales socictés géologiques, zoologiques, et Vhistoire natu-
relle ont bien voulu me charger de les représenter, et de vous
témoigner le profond intérét qu’elles éprouvent pour la prospérité de
votre Société, ainsi que pour le succés de vos travaux. Ls vous féli-
citent done bien sincerement d’avoir atteint un demi siécle d’exist-
ence, et vous envoient leur meilleurs souhaits pour le temps 4 venir.

Messieurs, Vesprit le plus cordial de fraternité existe en Angleterre
enyers la nation et le peuple francais; nos efforts communs doivent
étre dirigés 4 nouer étroitement ces sentiments, et & n’avoir d’autre
rivalité que celle qui concerne l’avancement de la civilisation et des
connaissances humaines.

Je suis chargé par les Présidents et Conseils des Soci¢tés suivantes
de vous féliciter en leur nom :—

La Société Royale de Londres. (Notre Académie des Sciences.)
Président M. W. Spottiswoode, F.R.S. Fondée en 1660.
540 Membres.

La Société Linnéenne de Londres. Président M. le Prof. G. J.
Allman, F.R.S. Fondée en 1788. 600 Membres.

La Société Zoologique de Londres. Président M. W. H. Flower,
F.R.S. Fondée en 1826. 38300 Membres.

Société Paléontoloique de Londres. Président M. le Prof,
R. Owen, C. B., F.R.S. Fondée en 1847. 500 Membres.

L’ Association Géologique de Londres. Président M. le Prof. T.
- Rupert Jones, F.R.S. Fondée cn 1858. 400 Membres.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY. 97

La Société Royale @iidimbourg. Président Lord Moncrieff, Vice-
Président Sir Wyville Thomson, F.R.S. Fondée en 1783. 400
Membres.

La Société Géologique @dimbourg. Président M.D. Milne- Home.
Fondée en 1834, 230 Membres.

La Société Géologique de Glasgow. Président Sir William Thom-
son, F.R.S. Fondée en 1858. 300 Membres.

L’ Académie Royale ?Irlande. Président Sir Robert Kane. Fondée
sous le Régne de George III. 450 Membres.

La Société Royale Géologique d’Irlande. Président M. G. W.
Kinahan, M.R.I.A. Fondée en 1833. 180 Membres.

M. le Prot. Ramsay, Directeur Général du Survey Géologique de
la Grande Brétagne et du Muséum de Géologie Pratique (Ecole
des Mines) me charge de le représenter aupres de vous, et de
vous assurer de Pintérét profond et sincére qu'il prend a la pros-
périté de la Socicte Géologique de France.

Il ne reste plus qu’une partie du nord de l’Angleterre, de I’ Ecosse,
et de l'Irlande 4 compléter (comme vous pouvez vous en assurer par
les cartes quil me prie de vous présenter) pour avoir terminé une
des cartes géologiques les plus détaillées et les plus importantes qui
aient été publices.

Messeiurs,les sciences géologiques et paléontologiques sont éminem-
ment cultivées en Angleterre, ainsi que dans nos Colonies, ct la plus
part des villes anglaises ont leur sociétés géologiques ou de Vhistoire
naturelle avec des musées souvent du plus grand intérét. Plus de
16,000 espéces anglaises ont été cataloguées et classés par terrains
eb par horizons géologiques par M. Etheridge, Président de la
Société Géologique de Londres. Cet ouvrage important est en ce
moment sous presse, et paraitra sous les auspices de Université
d’Oxford.

La Société Paléontologique de Londres est de méme trés prospére.
Elle a depuis 1847 publié 35 volumes contenant environ dix mille
pages et 1380 planches, et qui ont cotité a la Société prés de 25,000
livres sterling. Les immenses avantages a la science présentés par
une pareille socicté ne peuvent étre exagérés, tous les fonds obtenus
par une souscription annuelle trés modérée étant employée 4 solder
les frais d’impression et de la confection des planches.

La Suisse en 1874 a créé une Socicté Paléontologique sur le
modéle de celle de Londres, qui a évidemment prospéré, car chaque
année son volume a grossi. Je suis persuadé, et nombre de mes com-
patriotes partagent ‘la méme idée, que si l’on établissait 4 Paris
une semblable société, les resultats seraient des plus précieux et
faciliteraicnt la publication de nombreuses monographies que les
societés géologiques ou autres ne peuvent entreprendre.

L’Association Géologique de Londres a aussi rendu de trés grands
services 4la science. Fondeée il y a vingt-une années par un ae
de jeunes gens qui désiraient apprendre la géologie économiquement
par Vaide mutuel, et par la discussion entre eux des questions géo-

98 PROCHEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

logiques dans les localités mémes, et avec de véritables coupes sous
les yeux, cette société. a formé d’excellents géologues, et bon
nombre de leur travaux ferait honneur a des géologues de plus de
prétention.

La géologie des nos jours n’est pas celle de 1830. On west plus
content de diviser les terrains en quelques grandes formations ou
systémes. On a établi et on cherche a éablir de nombreuses sous-
divisions ou horizons géologiques caractérisés par la présence de
certaines. espéeces d’ammonites ou autres formes spéciales. Ce sys-
téme a obligé les géologues a’étudier en grand détail chaque couche
avec une scrupuleuse attention; seulement 11 faut se garder de
vouloir arbitrairement empécher telle ou telle espéce de fran-
chir les limites de son soi-disant horizon. En Angleterre, comme
en France, on attache la plus grande importance a ces sous- divisions,
et je saisis cette occasion de remercier au nom de mes compatriotes
MM. Hébert, Barrois et autres d’avoir bien voulu franchir le
détroit afin de comparer leurs horizons avec ceux de ]’Angleterre.
Leurs travaux et leurs vues ont été trés appréciés et adoptés, et nous
serlons bien reconnaissant que ces études comparatives soient con-
tinues, car tout ce qui concerne la géologie de la France a pour nous
le plus vif intérét, et il doit en étre de méme relativement 4 lAngle-
terre pour les géologues francais. Cet échange d’observations et
didées tend éminemment au progrés de la science.

Messieurs, je n’ai pas le désir d’occuper plus de votre temps. Ma
tiche, bien agréable, étant accomplie, j’ai Vhonneur au nom de mes
compatriotes scientifiques de vous féliciter en cette mémorable oc-
casion.

The following communications were read :—

“On a new Theriodont Reptile (Clhiorhizodon orenburgensis,
Twelvtr.) from the Upper Permian Sandstone of Kargalinsk, near
Orenburg, in South-eastern Russia.” By W. H. Twelvetrees, Ksq.,
SG AEG.

2. “The Classification of the Tertiary Period by means of the
Mammalia.” By Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S.,
Professor of Geology in Owens College.

A specimen was exhibited in illustration of Mr, Twelvetrees’s
paper on Cliorhizodon orenburgensis.

April 28, 1880.
Rosrrt Erunriper, Hsq., F.R.S., President, in the Chair.

Rev. James Oliver Bevan, M.A., Russell House, Walmley, Bir-
mingham; Arnold Hague, Hsq., Washington, ce S.; Augustus
Constable Maybury, Hsq., M.R.C.S., 23 Charlotte Street, Bedford
Square, W.C.; Henry Peter Meaden, Esq., Hallgarth Street, Dur-

PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY. 99

ham; William Peregrine Propert, Esq., M.A., LL.D., The Cross
House, St. Davids, Pembrokeshire, and 1 Hare Court Temple, E.C. ;
and Francis Randell, Esq., Corsham, Wilts, were elected Fellows otf
the Society.

The List of Donations to the Library was read.
The following communications were read :—

1. “Description of Parts of the Skeleton of an Anomodont
Reptile (Platypodosaurus robustus, Ow.) from the Trias of Graaff
Reinet, South Africa.” By Prof. Owen, C.B., F.R.S., F.G.S.

2. “ Note on the Occurrence of a new Species of Iguanodon in
the Kimmeridge Clay at Cumnor Hurst, three miles west of Oxford.”
By Prof. J. Prestwich, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S.

3. On Iguanodon Prestwichit, a new Species from the Kimme-
ridge Clay.” By J. W. Hulke, Esq., F.RB.S., F.G8.
Specimens were exhibited by Prof. Prestwich in illustration of his

and Mr. Hulke’s papers.

etree eater ee a

May 12, 1880.
Rozert Eraeripver, Esq., F.R.S8., President, in the Chair.

Rev. Samuel Gasking, 10 Cheetham Hill Road, Stalybridge ;
Thomas John George, Hsq., Keyston, near Thrapston ; and Cuthbert
Chapman Guibbes, Hsq., M.D., Surbiton Hill, Kingston-on-Thames,
were elected Fellows of the Society.

- The List of Donations to the Library was read.
The following communications were read :—

1. “On the Structure and Affinities of the Genus Protospongia,
Salter.” By W.J. Sollas, Esq., M.A., F.G.S.

2. “ Notes on Psephophorus polygonus, von Meyer, a new Type of
Chelonian Reptile allied to the Leathery Turtles. ar Dyrbrot, do.
Seeley, F.R.S., F.G.S,

3. “ On the Occurrence of the Glutton (Gulo luscus, Linn.) in the
Forest-bed of Norfolk.” By EK. T. Newton, Hsq., F. G. S.

[ Abstract *.]

Remains of the Glutton have hitherto been obtained only from
cave-deposits. The author has lately received from Mr. R. Fitch,
of Norwich, a portion of the lower jaw of this animal obtained
from the Forest-bed of Mundesley, Norfolk. The specimen consists
of about 2 inches of the left ramus, bearing the first true molar and
the hinder half of the foyrth premolar in place. The jaw is smaller

* This paper has been withdrawn by the author,

LOO PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

than in average specimens of the recent Glutton, but presents all
. the characters of the species as described in detail by the author.

Discussion.

The Prrstpenr remarked on the interest of the particular spe-
cimen, the exact horizon of the occurrence of which had been so
accurately fixed. |

Mr. Guyw stated that he had frequently found gnawed bones of
yarious mammals in the forest-bed, and he laid such a gnawed spe-
cimen of a deer’s bone before the Society. He also remarked upon
the complication of the series of strata known as the “ Forest-bed
series.”

4, “A Review of the Family Diastoporide, for the purpose of
Classification.” By George Robert Vine, Esq. Communicated by
Prof. Duncan, F.R.S., F.G.S.

5. « On Annelid. Jaws from the Wenlock and Ludlow Formations
of the West of England.” By G. J. Hinde, Hsq., F.G.S.

The following specimens were exhibited : —

Gold in quartz from Nova Scotia, and “ Cats-eyes”’ from Ceylon
and South Africa, exhibited by Prof. J. Tennant, F.G.S.

A cast of the jaw of Gulo luscus, exhibited by Mr. Newton, and
specimens of Annelid Jaws, exhibited by Mr. Hinde, in illustration of
their papers.

A new form of Microscope, adapted for petrological research, was
exhibited by Mr. Watson, of Pall Mall.

May 26, 1880.
Rozserr Erurriper, Esq., F.R.S., President, in the Chair.

Prof. Frederick Guthrie, F.R.S., Science Schools, South Ken-
sington, S.W.; Rudolf Heensler, Esq., Ph.D., Western College, Har-
rogate; James Hulme, Esq., Bury Hall, Welverley, Worcestershire ;
William Jolly, Esq., F.R.S.E., Inverness; Charles Myhill, Esq.,
Curzon School House, May Fair, W.; and Alfred George Savile,
Esq., B.A., Grosvenor School, Nottingham, were elected Fellows of
the Society. .

The List of Donations to the Library was read.

The following communications were read :—

1. “The Pre-Carboniferous Rocks of Charnwood Forest.”—Part
TIT. Conclusion. By the Rev. H. Hill, M.A., F.G.8., and Profi
T. G. Bonney, M.A., F.R.S., E.G.S.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY. IOI

. 2. “On the Geological Age of Central and West Cornwall.” By -

J. H. Collins, Esq., F.G.S.

3. “On a Second Precambrian Group in the Malvern Hills.” By
C. Callaway, Esq., D.Sc., F.G.S.

Microscopic sections and rock-specimens were exhibited by Prof.
Bonney and Dr. Callaway, in illustration of their papers.

A microscopic section of Italian Hocene “ Diaspro,” containing an

abundance of Radiolaria, was exhibited by A. W. Waters, Hsq.,

June 9, 1880.

Rozert Erueripver, Esq., F.R.S., President, in the Chair.

John Burn Anstis Du Sautoy, Esq., C.E., 18 Blenheim Road,
Bedford Park, Chiswick, W., and Rev. John Cowley Fowler, B.A.,
North Stainley Vicarage, Ripon, were elected Fellows; Prof. G.
Dewalque, Liége, a Foreign Member, and Prof. Leo Lesquereux,
Columbus, U.S., a Foreign Correspondent of the Society.

The names of the following Fellows in arrear to the Society were
read out by the President for the first time, in accordance with
Section VI. B, Article 6, of the Bye-laws:—H. G. Dyke, Esq.,
H. H. Gunn, Esq., Jonathan Harrison, Ksq., J. T. Johnson, Esq.,
W. J. Lancaster, Hsq., and L. T. Lewis, Esq.

The List of Donations to the Library was read.
The following communications were read :—
1. “On the Occurrence of Marine Shells of existing Species

at different Heights above the present Level of the Sea.” By J.
Gwyn Jeffreys, LL.D., F.R.S., Treas. G.S.

2. “On the Pre-Devonian Rocks of Bohemia.” By J. E. Marr,

Ksq., B.A., F.G.8.

3. “On the Pre-Cambrian Rocks of the North-western and’

Central Highlands of Scotland.” By Henry Hicks, Esq., M.D.,

[ Abstract *.].
The author, after examination, considers the rocks of the fol-
lowing districts to be wholly or in part Pre-Cambrian :-—

(1) Glen Finnan and Loch Shiel to Caledonian Canal.—In the
former district the rocks are gneiss, generally massive, with horn-

* This paper has been withdrawn by the author.
VOL. XXXVI.

102 PROCEEDINGS OF THE GHOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

blende schists, as at Ben Fin to the north. In Glen Finnilee is a.
series which the author regards as newer, and probably Pebidian.
At Fassfern are quartz rocks which the author identifies with those
beneath the limestone in Glen Laggan, near Loch Maree, and pro-
bably of Silurian age. At Bannavie is a granite which the author
considers to be Pre-Cambrian. — |

(2) Fort Wilham and Glen Nevis——In this district chloritic
schists and gneiss occur, which the author regards as Pebidian.
These are overlain towards the south by Silurian rocks.

(3) Ballachulish, Glen Coe, and Black Mouwnt.—Chloritic schists
and quartzites occur here, followed along Loch Leven unconformably
by Silurian rocks. On the east of the Ardsheal peninsula there is
granite which theauthor believes to be Pre-Cambrian. Going eastward
from Ballachulish are black slates, probably of Silurian age. In Glen-
coe are granite-banded felsite, gneiss, and breccias, resembling as a
whole the rocks of the Welsh Arvonian group. Between the Black
Mount and Loch Sullich are traces of a great Pre-Cambrian axis,
bringing up the gneissic series; this is traceable also towards Glen
Spean and Loch Laggan to the N.E. Silurian quartzites are also:
found along broken lines, resting on the gneiss rocks.

(4) Tyndrum to Callander.—South and east of the former are
eneisses and silvery mica-schists. Crystalline limestones and ser-
pentines are associated near Loch Tay, resembling those in the
Pebidian series of North Wales.

The author states that the Silurian (and Cambrian) rocks flank
the Pre-Cambrian in lines from N.E. to 8.W., Thus here, as else-
where, subsequent denudation has removed enormous masses of the
more recent rocks, only here and there leaving patches of these in
folds along depressions in the old Pre-Cambrian floor.

Discussron.

- Professor Jupp said that the time was too short, and there was a
difficulty in finding a common ground for discussion. Dr. Hicks
seemed to think that the age of rocks could be fixed by their
mineral characters. As tothe age of these altered rocks, he thought
most geolagists held their views in suspense ; he, however, thought
Dr. Hicks’s section offered as great difficulties as any other. Where,
for example, were the fossils, if these Silurian beds were not altered,
as asserted by Dr. Hicks? He thought the Callander limestones
much altered.

Prof. Hueues thought that the specimens exhibited by Dr. Hicks
proved that he had at any rate one group of gneissic rocks, and
another group of rocks hardly at all altered; and if the unaltered
rocks rested on the metamorphic series in the manner described by
Dr. Hicks, he must accept Dr. Hicks’s reading of the district as:
regards those two divisions. In reply to Prof. Judd, he maintained
that Dr. Hicks’s section was quite clear and natural, whether its:
general accuracy would be confirmed by subsequent observers or
not.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY. 103

- Mr. Huptzston said the question was really one of evidence,
and, till the section had been examined by several persons, it was
difficult to come to a conclusion. In Prof. Harkness’s section the
limestones were in anticlinals, in Dr. Hicks’s they were synclinals.
How was it that these Pre-Cambrians had a N.E. strike? From
their mineralogical character the rocks of the moor of Rannoch
could not in fairness be correlated with the Pebidian.

_ The Presipent said that the subject was a difficult one to mace a
stand clearly. Dr. Hicks, no doubt, had much experience in
these older rocks. The Scotch surveyors, with most careful work,
had not yet been able to come to a definite conclusion on many
points, and the country had not been all surveyed and mapped.

Dr. Hicxs said that the Callander rocks, said to be altered by
Prof. Judd, were not altered. Mr. Hudleston had forgotten that
he had already pointed out that the Pre-Cambrian groups had dif-
ferent strikes. The limestones belonging to the unaltered series
were easily distinguishable from those belonging to the metamorphic
rocks, though hitherto they had been confounded with one another.
The unaltered rocks oecurred in broken synclinal folds in each of
the areas examined, and very frequently contained fragments from
the immediately underlying metamorphic rocks.

The following specimens were exhibited :-—
A specimen of Argonauta, exhibited by HE. Charlesworth, Esq.,
F.G.S.

Rocks and fossils exhibited by Dr. Hicks and Mr. Marr in
illustration of their papers.

June 23, 1880.
Rozert Erurriper, Esq., F.R.S., President, in the Chair.

Edwin Muir, Esq., M.Inst.C.H., 10 Wellington Street, Higher
Broughton, Manchester; Benjamin Sykes, Esq., C.E., Winckley
Square, Preston; and John Thorburn, Esq., Ditton, near Widnes, .
were elected Fellows of the Society.

The names of the following Fellows in arrear to the Society were
read out by the President for the second time, in accordance with
Section VI. B, Article 6, of the Bye-laws:—E. G. Dyke, Esq.,
H. H. Gunn, Esq., Jonathan Harrison, Esq., J. T. Johnson, Esq...
W. J. Lancaster, Esq., and L. T. Lewis, Esq.

The List of Donations to the Library was read.
The following communications were read :—

1. “On the Skull of an Ichthyosaurus from the Lias of Whitby,
apparently indicating a new Species (J. zetlandicus, Seeley), pre-
served in the Woodwardian Museum of the University of Cam-

bridge.” By Prof. H. G. Seeley, F.R.S., F.G.S.

Io4 PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

2. “Note on the Cranial Characters of a large Teleosaur from
the Whitby Lias, preserved in the Woodwardian Museum of the
University of Cambridge.” By Prof. H. G. Seeley, F.R.S., F.G.S.

3. “On the Discovery of the place where Paleolithic Imple-
ments were made at Crayford.” By F.C. J. Spurrell, Esq., F.G.S.

4, “ The Geology of Central Wales.” By Walter Keeping, Esq.,
M.A., F.G.S. With an Appendix by C. Lapworth, Esq., F.G.S., on
a new Species of Cladophora.

5. “On new Erian (Devonian) Plants.” By J. W. Dawson,
LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S.

6. “On the Terminations of some Ammonites from the Inferior
Oolite of Dorset and Somerset.” By James Buckman, I'sq., F.G.S.,
F.L.S.

7. “Faroe Islands. Notes upon the Coal found at Siiderde.”
By Arthur H. Stokes, Esq., F.G.S.

8. “On some new Cretaceous Comatule.” By P. Herbert
Carpenter, Esq., M.A. Communicated by Prof. P. Martin Duncan,
M.B., F.R.S., F.G.S.

9. “On the Old Red Sandstone of the North of Ireland.” By
F. Nolan, Esq., M.R.I.A. Communicated by Prof. Hull, LL.D.,
E.RS., F. Gi 8.

10. “A Review of the Family Vincularide, Recent and Fossil, for
the purpose of Classification.” By G. R. Vine, Esq. Communi-
cated by Prof. P. M. Duncan, M.B., F.R.S., F.G.S.

11. “On the Zones of Marine Fossils in the Calciferous Sandstone
Series of Fife.’ By James W. Kirkby, Esq. Communicated by
Prof. T. Rupert Jones, F.R.S., F.G-S.

12. “The Glaciation of the Orkney Islands.” By B. N. Peach.
Esq., F.G.S., and John Horne, Hsq., F.G.S.

The following specimens were exhibited :—

Specimen of brain-case of T'eleosawrus eucephalus from the Lias of
Whitby, exhibited by Prof. T. M‘K. Hughes; M.A., F.G.S.

A subangular boulder from the Cambridge Greensand, showing
ice-scratches, and a stone hatchet from Horningsea near Cambridge,
exhibited by W. Keeping, Esq., M.A., F.G.8.

Specimens were also exhibited by Messrs. Buckman, Spurrell,
Keeping, and Horne, in illustration of their papers.

ADDITIONS

TO THE

LIBRARY AND MUSEUM OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY.
Session 1879-80.

I. ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY.
1. PERIODICALS AND PUBLICATIONS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES.

Presented by the respective Societies and Editors, if not otherwise
stated.

Academy, The. Nos. 885-399. 1879.

Nos. 400-424. 1880.
G. F. Rodwell. Vesuvius, 124.

Adelaide. Philosophical Society. Transactions and Proceedings for
1877-78. 1878.

G. Scoular. On the Origin of Mineral Veins, with special reference to
the Barossa District, 75.—W.T. Bednall. Australian Trigonias and their
distribution, 77.—J. E. Tenison-Woods, On some fossil Corals from
Aldinga, 104.—R. Tate. Notes on the Correlation of the Coral-bearing
Strata of South Australia, with a list of fossil Corals occurring in the
Colony, 120.

Albany. New-York State Library. 58th to 61st Annual Reports
of the Trustees (1875-78). 1876-79.

——. New-York State Museum of Natural History, 27th to 31st
Annual Reports of the Regents of the University of the State
of New York (1874-78). 1875-79.

American Journal of Science and Arts. Ser. 3. Vol. xviii. Nos. 103-
103.) 1879,

J.L. Campbell, Silurian Formation in Central Virginia, 16.—J. Le
Conte. Extinct Volcanoes about Lake Mono, and their relation to the
Glacial Drift, 35.—G. J. Brush and E. 8. Dana. Mineral Locality in
Fairfield County, Conn., 45.—J.M. Stillman. Bernardinite, anew Mineral
Resin, 57.—O. C. Marsh. Notice of a New Jurassic Mammal, 60.—
J.D. Dana. On the Hudson-River Age of the Taconic Schists, 61.—
W. Upham. Terminal Moraines of the North-American Ice Sheet, 81.—
E. W. Hilgard. The Loess of the Mississippi Valley and the Avolian
Hypothesis, 106.—J. L. Campbell. Geology of Virginia: Continuation
of Section across the Appalachian Chain, 119.—J. J. Stevenson. Notes
on the Laramie Group of Southern Colorado and Northern New Mexico,
east from the Spanish Ranges, 129.—J. D. Dana. On some Points in
Lithology, 134.—E. B. Andrews. Discovery of a new Group of Carboni-
ferous Rocks in South-eastern Ohio, 187.—H. Orton. Note on the Lower
Waverley Strata of Ohio, 188.—K. Mobius. Principal J. W. Dawson’s
Criticism of my Memoir on the Structure of Hozoon canadense compared.

VOL. XXXVI. m

106 ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY.

with that of Foraminifera, 177.—C. U. Shepard. Estherville, Emmet
County, Iowa, Meteorite of May 10th, 1879, 186.—W. Upham. Ter-
minal Moraines of the North-American Ice Sheet, 197.—O. C. Marsh.
Additional Remains of Jurassic Mammals, 215.—T. N. Dale, jun. The
Fault at Rondout, 298.—S. L. Penfield. Chemical Composition of
Amblygonite, 295.—W. J. M‘Gee. Superposition of Glacial Drift upon
Residuary Clays, 301.—O. C. Marsh. History and Methods of Paleon-
tological Discovery, 828.—C. A. Ashburner. The Kane Geyser Well,
394.—O. C. Marsh. New Jurassic Mammals, 396.—G. C. Broadhead.
Origin of the Loess, 427.—J. L. Campbell. Geology of Virginia, 435.—
J.J. Stevenson. Geology of Galistes Creek, New Mexico, 471.—A. W.
Vogdes. Geology of Catoosa Co., Georgia, 475.—O. C. Marsh. New
Jurassic Reptiles, 501.

American Journal of Science and Arts. Ser. 3. Vol. xix. Nos. 109-
114. 1880.

J.D. Dana. G. K. Gilbert's Report on the Geology of the Henry
Mountains, 17.—R. P. Whitfield. New Forms of Fossil Crustaceans
from the Upper Devonian Rocks of Ohio, 33.—W. B. Dwight. Explora-
tions in the Wappinger Valley Limestone of Dutchess County, N.Y.;
Calciferous as well as Trenton Fossils in the Wappinger Limestone at
Rochdale, and a Trenton Locality at Newburgh, N.Y., 50.—O. C. Marsh.
New Characters of Mosasauroid Reptiles, 83.—W. O. Crosby. Pinite in
Eastern Massachusetts; its Origin and Geological Relations, 116.—S. F.
Peckham and C. W. Hall. Lintonite and other forms of Thomsonite,
122.—W. J. Comstock. Analyses of some American Tantalates, 131.—
O. ©. Marsh. The Limbs of Sauranodon, 169.—J. Le Conte. The Old
River-beds of California, 176.—J. D. Dana. Note on the Age of the
Green Mountains, 191—W. J. Comstock. The Chemical Composition
of the Uraninite from Branchville, Conn., 220.—S. W. Ford. Western
Limits of the Taconic System, 225.—O. C. Marsh. Principal Characters
of American Jurassic Dinosaurs, 253.—T. Sterry Hunt. . History of some
Pre-Cambrian Rocks in America and Europe, 268.—C. G. Rockwood, jun.
Notices of Recent American Earthquakes, 295.—S. L. Penfield. Chemical
Composition of Childrenite, 315.—G. J. Brush and E. 8. Dana. Note on
the Relation between Childrenite and Eosphorite, 316.—G. K. Gilbert.
Outlet of Lake Bonneville, 341.—T. Sterry Hunt. Chemical and Geo-
logical Relations of the Atmosphere, 349.—A. Geikie. Archean Rocks
of Wahsatch Mts., 863.—S. L. Penfield. Apatites containing Manganese,
367.—W.H. Hidden. Cleberne County Meteorite, 370.—T. Sterry Hunt.
Recent Formation of Quartz and Silicification in California, 871.—C. U.
Shepard. Ivanpah, California, Meteoric Iron, 381.—J. Lawrence Smith.
Daubrée’s ‘ Experimental Geology,’ 886.—O. D. Allen and W.J. Comstock.
Bastnasite and Tysonite from Colorado, 880.—O. C. Marsh. The Sternum
in Dinosaurian Reptiles, 895.—A. Guyot. Physical Structure and Hyp-
sometry of the Catskill Mountain Region, 429.—W. B. Dwight. Recent
Explorations of the Wappinger Valley Limestone of Dutchess County,
N.Y., 451.—J. L. Smith. Emmet County Meteorite, that fell near
Estherville, Emmet County, Iowa, 459.—R. P. Whitfield. Occurrence
of true Lingula in the Trenton Limestones, 472. :

Analyst, The. Nos. 40-45. 1879.

Nos. 46-51. 1880. |

Annals and Magazine of Natural History. Ser. 5, Vol. iv. Nos.
19-24. 1879. Purchased.

T. Rupert Jones. Notes on the Paleozoic Bivalved Entomostraca :
No. XII. Some Carboniferous Species belonging to the Genus Carbonia,

ADDITION S TO THE LIBRARY. 107

Jones, 28.—R. Owen. On the ‘Occurrence in North America of rare
Extinct Vertebrates found fragmentarily in England, No. 2., 53.—K. A,
Zittel. Studies on Fossil Sponges: V. Calcispongiz, 61, 120.—P. M.
Duncan. On some Spheroidal Lithistid Spongida from the Upper Silu-
rian Formation of New Brunswick, 84.—H. J. Carter. On the Mode of
Growth of Stromatopora, including the Commensalism of Cawnopora, 101.
—O. C. Marsh. Notice of a new Jurassic Mammal, 167.—T. Rupert
Jones. Notes on the Palzeozoic Bivalved Entomostraca: No. XIII.
Entomis serratostriata and others of the so-called ‘ Cypridinen” of the
Devonian Schists of Germany, 182.—H. A. Nicholson and R. Etheridge,
jun. Descriptions of Paleeozoic Corals from Northern Queensland, with
Observations on the Genus Stenopora, 216, 265.—H. J. Carter. On the
Structure of Stromatopora, 253.—J. F. Blake. On the Homologies of the
Cephalopoda, 303.—C. Lapworth. On the Geological Distribution of the
Rhabdophora, 333, 423.—G. Nevill. Description of a new Species of
Acme and Varieties from the Conglomerate Beds of Menton, 341.—
H. J. Carter. Note on the so-called “ Farringdon (Coral-Rag) Sponges”
(Calcispongie, Zittel), 431.

Annals and Magazine of Natural History. Ser. 5. Vol. v. Nos, 25-
30. 1880. Purchased.

©. Lapworth. On the Geological Distribution of the Rhabdophora,
45, 273, 358.—C. Lapworth. On new British Graptolites, 149.—R. Owen,
On the Occurrence in North America of rare Extinct Vertebrates found
fragmentarily in England, No. 3,177.—T. Stock. On a Spine (Lophacan-
thus Taylort, mihi, nov. gen. et spec.) from the Coal-measures of North-
umberland, 217.—E. D. Cope. The Cave-Bear of California, 260.—
J. W. Davis. On the Teleostean Affinities of the Genus Pleuracanthus,
349.—A. 8. Packard. Fossil Crawfish from the Tertiaries of Wyoming,
435.—R. Etheridge, jun. Notes on the Gasteropoda contained in the
Gilbertson Collection, British Museum, and figured in Phillips’s ‘ Geology
of Yorkshire,’ 473.

Art-Union of London. Report of the Council for the year 1879.

Atheneum (Journal). Nos. 2696-2722. 1879.
R. Lanciani. The Eruption of Mount Etna, 825.

——. Nos. 2723-2747. . 1880.
A. R. Lockhart. Volcanic Eruption in the Island of Dominica, 219,

=== Parts ole-ol4. 1679.
=. Parts 625-629. 1880.

‘Barnsley. Midland Institute of Mining, Civil, and Mechanical
Engineers. Transactions. Vol. vi. Part 46. 1879.

‘ . Vol. vii. Parts 47-49. 1879-80.

C. J. Kell. Ona Displacement or Wash-out of the Barnsley Bed of
Coal, at Thrybergh Hall Colliery, 17.—R. Miller. On the South York-
shire and Midland Coal-fields, with reference to the Barnsley Bed in the
Barnsley and Nottinghamshire Districts, 44.

Bedford. Bedfordshire Natural-History Society and Field Club.
Abstract of Proceedings and Transactions for the year 1875—
76. 1877. Presented by W. Whitaker, Esq., F.G.S.
J. Wyatt. On the Geology of Sandy, 42.—W. B. Graham. On the
Geology of Sharnbrook, 45.—C. E. Prior. Cornish Notes—Botanical
m 2

—— —

108 ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY.

and Geological, 62.—J. Wyatt. On Land and Freshwater Shells found
in Bedford Gravels, 76.—W. Hillhouse. The Surface Geology and
Physical Geography of Bedfordshire, with especial reference to a Botanical
division of the County, 88.

Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club. Proceedings. Ser. 2. Vol. i.
Part 4 (1876-77). 1878.

W. Gault. Observations on the Geology of the Black Mountain, with
special reference to the Cretaceous Rocks, 251.—W. Swanston. On the
Silurian Rocks of the County Down, Appendix IV., 107.—C. Lapworth.
On the Graptolites of County Down, Appendix IV., 125.

: . —. ——. Parts 5 and 6 (1877-78 and 1878-
UD) ksh

Rev. Canon Macllwaine. Water as an Agent of Denudation, 312.—
W. Swanston. On the supposed Pliocene fossiliferous Clays near the
Shore of Lough Neagh, 348.—W. Gault. On the Mode of Occurrence and
probable Origin of Hullite and other siliceous Minerals found in the vol-
canic neck of Carnmoney and elsewhere in the County of Antrim, 353.
—W. Gray. Notes on the Occurrence of Bauxite in Antrim, 359.

Berlin. Deutsche geologische Gesellschaft. Zeitschrift. Band xxxi.

Heft 1-4. 1879.

G. Berendt. Gletschertheorie oder Drifttheorie in Norddeutschland? 1.
—H. Credner. Ueber Gletscherschliffe auf Porphyrkuppen bei Leipzig
und tiber geritzte einheimische Geschiebe, 21.—H. Hck. Bemerkungen
zu den Mittheilungen des Herrn G. Pohlig “Ueber Aspedura, ein meso-
zoisches Ophiuridengenus” und iiber die Lagerstatte der Ophiuren im
Muschelkalk, 35.—E. Kayser. Zur Frage nach dem Alter der hercy-
nischen Fauna, 54.—A. Helland. Ueber die Glacial-Bildungen der
nordeuropaischen Hbene, 63.—C. Rammelsberg. Ueber die Zusammen-
setzung des Kjerulfins, 107.—E. Weiss. Bemerkungen zur Fructification
von Neggerathia, 111.—A. Penck. Die Geschiebeformation Nord-
deutschlands, 117.—C. Struckmann. Ueber den Serpulit (Purbeckkalk)
von Volksen am Deister, uber die Beziehungen der Purbeckschichten zum
oberen Jura und zum Wealden und tuber die oberen Grenzen der Jura-
formation, 227.—Max Bauer. « Die Krystallform des Cyanits, 244.—
H. Eck. Ueber einige Triasversteinerungen, 254.—R. Richter. Aus
dem thtiringischen Diluvium, 282.—E. Kayser. Ueber einige neue Ver-
steinerungen aus dem Kalk der Eifel, 301.—D. Brauns. -Die Bryozoen
des mittleren Jura der Gegend von Metz, 508.—F. Notling. Ueber das
Vorkommen von Riesenkesseln im Muschelkalk, 339.—Rothpletz. Ueber
mechanische Gesteinsumwandlungen bei Hainichen in Sachsen, 355.—
J. Roth. Der Ausbruch des Aetna am 26. Mai 1879, 398.—O. Meyer.
Hiniges tiber die mineralogische Natur des Dolomits, 445.—Grumbrecht.
Bemerkungen uber Einschnitte der Hisenbahn zwischen Goslar und
Vienenburg in der oberen Kreide, 453.—A. von Lasaulx. Die Salinellen
von Paterno am Etna und ihre neueste Eruption, 457.—K. Martin.
Phosphoritische Kalke von der westindischen Insel Bonaire, 473.—T.
Dahll. Ueber Norwegium, ein neues Schwermetall, 480.—O. Lang. Ein
Beitrag zur Kenntniss norwegischer Gabbro’s, 484.—A. Penck. Ueber
Palagonit- und Basalttuffe, 504.—Trautschold. Ueber Eluvium, 578.—
C’. Schliiter. Neue und weniger gekannte Kreide- und Tertiir-Krebse
des nordlichen Deutschlands, 586.—F. Romer. Notiz tiber ein Vorkom-
men von oberdevonischen Goniatiten-Kalk in Devonshire, 659.—H.
Wockener. Ueber das Vorkommen von Spongien im Hilssandstein, 663.
—C. Schiiter. Coelotrichium Dechent, ein Foraminifere aus dem Mit-
teldevon, ¢38.—C, Rammelsberg. Ueber die chemishe Zusammensetzung

ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY. 10g

der Glimmer, 676.—G. Berendt. Cyprinenthon von Lenzen und Tolkemit
in der Gegend von Elbing, 692.—L. Meyn. Das Porphorit-Lager von
Curacao, 697.—A. Halfar. Ueber die Vergletscherung der Farder sowie
der Shetland- und Orkney Inseln, 716.—H. Loretz. Untersuchungen tuber
pal und Dolomit, 756.—O. Lang. Ueber einen Pendel-Seismograph,
775.

Berlin. Deutsche geologische Gesellschaft. Zeitschrift. Register
za dem XXI. bis XXX. Bande (1869-1878). 1879.

——. Gesellschaft naturforschender Freunde. Sitzungsberichte,
S79, 1879:

Dames. Ueber den Annulus von Lituites convolvens aus dem Untersilur
von Reval, 1—Dames. Vorlegung eines Backzahnes des rechten Unter-
liefers von Elephas antiquus, Falconer, aus dem Diluvium von Rixdorf, 27.
—H. Dewitz. Ueber die Wohnkammer regularer Orthoceratiten, 32.—
v. Martens. Vorzeigung von Landschnecken aus dem chinesischen Loss,
73.—v. Martens. Ueber mehrerlei auslandische Conchylien, 99.—H.
Dewitz. Ueber das Verwachsungsband der Vaginaten, 143.

Konigliche geologische Landesanstalt und Bergakademie.
Nachtrag zum Katalog der Bibliothek (1875-79). 8vo. 1880.

—. Koniglich preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften. Mo-
natsbericht. Mai—Dec. 1879.

C. Rammelsberg. Ueber die Fortschritte in der Kenntniss der che-
mischen Natur der Meteoriten, 372.—J. G. Galle und A. von Lasaulx.
Bericht iber dem Meteorsteinfall bei Gnadenfrei am 17. Mai 1879, 750.—
Rammelsberg. Ueber die chemische Zusammensetzung der Glimmer, 833.

Monatsbericht. Januar—Feb. 1880. 1880.

. Zeitschrift fir die gesammten Naturwissenschaften. (Giebel.)
3. Folge. Band iv. 1879.

EH. R. Riess. Ueber die Entstehung des Serpentins, 1.—O. Liidecke.
Ueber Reinit, K. v. Fritsch, ein neues wolframsaures Hisenoxydul, 82.
—P. Kaiser. Ulmoxylon. Ein Beitrag zur Kenntniss fossiler Laubhélzer,
89.—O. Liidecke. Neue Erwerbungen des hiesigen mjneralogischen In-
stituts, und ei neues Mineral aus Thiringen, 108.—O. Liidecke. Ueber
die jungen Hruptivgesteine Sud-Thiringens, 266.—O. Liidecke. Krys-
tallographische Beobachtungen, 600.—A. Sauer. Ueber Conglomerate
in der Glimmerschieferformation des saichsischen Erzgebirges, 706.—H.
O. Lang. Zur Kenntniss der Alaunschiefer-Scholle von Bakkelaget bei
Christiania, 777. |

Bern. Schweizer Alpenclub. Jahrbuch. Band xiii. (1878), an
Beilagen. Purchased. .
A. Heim. Erlauterung zu den Abbildungen Dussistock Brigelser-
horner und Todi vom Sandalppass, 569.—A. Heim. Gipfelsteine, 573.

: : Band xiv. (1879), and Beilagen. Purchased.
E. v. Fellenberg. Geologische Wanderungen im Aare- und Rhone-
gebiet, 242.—A. Heim. Ueber die Erosion im Gebiete der Reuss, 372.

Birmingham. Midland Naturalist. Vol. i. Nos. 9-12. 1878,
Presented by W. Whitaker, Esq., F.G.S.

W. J. Harrison. Scheme for the Examination of the Glacial Deposits
of the Midland Counties of England, 242.—H. W. Crosskey. Note on
some fossiliferous Clay at Wolverhampton, 298.—F. F. Grensted. A
Piece of Chalk, 324.—H. W. Crosskey. On the microscopical Examina-
tion of Clay, 328.

Ilo ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY.

Birmingham. Midland Naturalist. Vol. 11. Nos. 15-22. 1879.
Presented by W. Whitaker, Esq., F.GS.
W. J. Harrison. Rambles with a hammer, 117.—S. Allport and W.
J. Harrison. On the Rocks of Brazil Wood, Charnwood Forest, 243.

——. ——. Vol. iii, No. 25. 1879. Presented by W.
Whitaker, Esq., P.GS.
E. Wilson. The Age of the Penine Chain, 1.

No. 27. 1880. Presented by W. Whitaker,

Esq., F.G.S.
Birmingham Philosophical Society. Proceedings. Vol.i. No. 2
(1877-78). Presented by W. Whitaker, Esq., F.G.S.

Bordeaux. Société Linnéenne. Actes. Vol. xxxii. (Série 4, tome ii.)
Livr. 1-6. 1878.

E. Benoist. Note sur les couches 4 Echinolampas hemisphericus, 95.—
Dulignon-Deseranges. Matériaux concernant la question de l’affaissement
du littoral girondin, 102.—Balguerie. _Faluns de Pessac (propriété
Eschnauer), viiii—E. Benoist, Faluns de Pessac (propriété Grangeneuve),
ix.—K. Benoist. Sur le genre Mesostoma, xvii.—H. Benoist. Sur le
Pholas dimidiata et le P. Brandert, xviii.—. Benoist. Etude des tran-
chées du chemin de fer du Médoc de Saint-listéphe 4 Pauillac, xxvi,
—KE. H. Brochon. Considérations sur le substratum du calcaire de Saint-
Estéphe, xxviii—E. Benoist. Sur les calcaires molasses exploités 4 Mar-
tignas, xlviiH. Benoist. Etude des terrains d’Uzeste aux carriéres
d’Illon, lv.—Granger. Observations sur des roches provenant du canal a
Cette, 1x.—E. Benoist. Observations sur les Tubicolés et nouvelle diagnose
du Clavagella Brochoni, \xxiiii—H. Benoist. L’étage tortonien dans la
Gironde, lxxxvy.—E. Benoist. Résultats géologiques de l’excursion 4
Budos, xciii.

; . ——. Vol. xxxili, (Série 4, tome iii.). Livr. 1-6
(1879). 1879-80. |

HK. Delfortrie. Les dunes littorales du golfe de Gascogne, l’époque,
les causes et le mode de leur formation, 5. 7

Se

5 ; Vol. xxxiil. Procés-verbaux de Vannée
US Sio:

Dulignon-Desgranges. Observations sur le mémoire de M. Delfortrie,
relatif aux dunes littorales, xxiii—E. Benoist. Note sur les observations
géologiques faites dans l’excursion trimestrielle: de Cubzac, xxx.—E.
Benoist. Note sur les observations géologiques faites dans l’excursion
trimestrielle de Braune, liiii—H. Benoit et Degrange-Touzin. Note sur
les résultats géologiques de l’excursion de Bourg, xcii.—E. Benoist. Obser-
vations sur les espéces de Aingicula rencontrées dans les faluns du Sud-
Ouest (étage miocéne), cxix.

Boston. American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Proceedings.
New Series. Vol. vi. 1879.

Boston Society of Natural History. Memoirs. Vol. iii. Part 1.
Nos. 1 & 2. 1878 and 1979. ,
S. H. Scudder. The Early Types of Insects, 13.

——.. Proceedings: Vol. xix. Parts3&4. 1878.

M. E. Wadsworth. On the Granite of North Jay, Maine, 237.—M. E.
Wadsworth. Fusibility of the Amorphous Varieties of Quartz, 238.—S.
H. Scudder. An Insect Wing of extreme Simplicity from the Coal

ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY. Iit

Formation, 248.—M. E. Wadsworth. On the so-called Tremolite of
Newbury, Mass., 251.—T. Sterry Hunt. Geology of the Hozoic Rocks of
North America, 275.—S. H. Scudder. Rachura,a new Genus of fossil
Crustacea, 296.—S. H. Scudder. A Carboniferous Termes from Illinois,
300.—W. H. Niles. Zones of different Physical Features upon Mountain
Slopes, 8324.—W. H. Niles. Relative Agency of Glaciers and Subglacial
Streams in the Erosion of Valleys, 330.

Boston Society of Natural History. Proceedings. Vol. xx. Part 1.
1879.

R. Rathbun. Devonian Brachiopoda of the Province of Para, Brazil,
14.—R. Rathbun. Notes on the Coral Reefs of the Island of Itaparica,
Bahia, and of Parahyba do Norte, 39.—W. O. Crosby. Physical Geography
and Geology of the Island of Trinidad, 44.

Bristol Museum and Library. Report of Proceedings at the Ninth
Annual Meeting held 19th February 1880. 1880.

Bristol Naturalists’ Society. Proceedings. N.S. Vol.i. Part 3.
1876. Presented by W. Whitaker, Hsq., F.GS.

W. W. Stoddart. .The Geology of the Bristol Coalfield, 313.—E. B.
Tawney. On Professor Renevier’s Geological Nomenclature, 351.—E.
B. Tawney. On the Age of the Cannington Park Limestone, 380.—J. G.
Grenfell. Notes on Carboniferous Encrinites from Clifton and Lancashire,
476.

——,. ——. ——. WVol.ii. Parts 1-3. 1877-79. Presented
by W. Whitaker, Esq., F.GS.

W. W. Stoddart. Geology of the Bristol Coalfield, 39, 48, 279.—E.
Wethered. The Mammoth Cave of Kentucky, 56.—W. W. Stoddart.
Notes on the Metals found near Bristol, 68.—W. W. Stoddart. A deep
Section in Old Market Street, 77.—E. B. Tawney. On the Older Rocks
at St. Davids, 109.—W. W. Stoddart. Remarkable fossil Deposits near
Bristol: fossil Bones of the Water Vole (Arvicola amphibia), 142.—Ih.
B. Tawney. Onthe supposed Inferior Oolite at Branch Huish, Radstock,
175,—E. B. Tawney. On an Excavation at the Bristol Water Works
Pumping Station, Clifton, 179.—EH. Wethered. Formation of Coal, 192.
—W. J. Sollas. The Silurian District of Rhymney and Pen-y-lan,
Cardiff, 339.

British Association for the Advancement of Science. Report of the
Forty-ninth Meeting, held at Sheffield in August 1879. 1879.
Everett. Twelfth Report of the Committee appointed for the purpose
of investigating the Rate of Increase of Underground Temperature down-
wards in various Localities of Dry Land and under Water, 40.—Sixth
Report ofa Committee, consisting of A.S. Herschel, G. A. Lebour,and J.T.
Dunn, on Experiments to determine the Thermal Conductivities of certain
Rocks, showing especially the Geological Aspects of the Investigation,
58.—H. W. Crosskey. Seventh Report of the Committee appointed for
the purpose of recording the position, height above the sea, lithological
characters, size, and origin of the Erratic Blocks of England, Wales, and
Ireland, reporting other matters of interest connected with the same, and
taking measures for their preservation, 135.—W. Pengelly. Fifteenth
Report of the Committee appointed for the purpose of exploring Kent’s
Cavern, Devonshire, 140.—C. EH. De Rance. Fifth Report of the Com-
mittee appointed for investigating the Circulation of the Underground
Waters in the Jurassic, New Red Sandstone, and Permian Formations of
England, and the Quantity and Character of the Waters supplied to various
Towns and Districts from these Formations, 155.—W.H. Baily. Report of

Ii2 ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY,

the Committee appointed for the purpose of collecting and reporting on the
Tertiary (Miocene) Flora, &c., of the Basalt of the North of Ireland, 162.
Knowles. Report of the Committee appointed for the purpose of con-
ducting Excavations at Portstewart and elsewhere in the North of Ive-
land, 171.—R. A. C. Godwin-Austen. On some further Evidence as to
the Range of the Paleozoic Rocks beneath the South-east of England,
227.—W. J. Macadam. On the Chemical Composition of a Nodule of
Ozokerite found at Kinghorn-ness, 8309.—W. Thomson. Notes on a
Sample of Fuller’s Karth, found in a Fullonica recently excavated at Pom-
peii, 321.—P. M. Duncan. Address to Section C, Geology, 326.—P. H.
Carpenter. On the Nomenclature of the Plates of the Crinoidal Calyx,
333.—V. Ball. On the Coal-fields and Coal-production of India, 334,—J.
F, Blake. On Geological Episodes, 335.—F. M. Burton. On the Keuper
Beds between Retford and Gainsborough, 336.—F. M. Burton. On a
Northerly Extension of the Rhetic Beds at Gainsborough, 336.—W. Boyd
Dawkins. On the Bone Caves of Derbyshire, 337.—R. J. Ussher and A.
Leith Adams. Discovery of a Bone Cave near Cappagh, Co. Waterford, 338.
—C. Ricketts. Onsomeremarkable Pebbles in the Boulder-clay of Cheshire
and Lancashire, 339.—A. Renard andT. Murray. On the Volcanic Products
of the Deep Sea of the Central Pacific, with reference to the ‘ Challenger’
Expedition, 340.—C. Moore. On Ammonites and Aptychi, 341.—J. W.
Davis. On Ostracacanthus dilatatus, gen. et spec. nov., 343.—H, Wilson.
The Age of the Penine Chain, 543.—Phené. On the Deposit of Car-
bonate of Lime at Hierapolis, in Anatolia, and the Efflorescence of the
Limestone at Les Baux, in Provence, 344.—J. D. Everett. On some
Broad Features of Underground Temperature, 345.—W. C. Williamson.
On the Botanical Affinities of the Carboniferous Sigillarie, 346.—J. H.
Collins. The Geological Age of the Rocks of West Cornwall, 347.—J.
Perry. The Surface Rocks of Syria (suggested by the Quarries at Baalbek),
~ 848.—G. Blencowe. On certain Geological Facts observed in Natal and
the Border Countries during Nineteen Years’ Residence, 349.—G. R. Vine.
On Carboniferous Polyzoa and Paleocoryne, 350.—H. Hicks. On the
Classification of the British Pre-Cambrian Rocks, 351.—G. A. Lebour.
On ‘Culm’ and ‘ Kulm,’ 352.—S. B. Skertchley. Evidence of the Exist-
ence of Paleolithic Man during the Glacial Period in Hast Anglia, 379.—
EK. B. Tylor. Address to Section D, Dept. Anthropology, 381.—W. J.
Knowles. On Flint Implements from the Valley of the Bann, 389.—V.
Ball. On the Forms and Geographical Distribution of Ancient Stone Im-
plements in India, 394.—J.W. Davis. On the Discovery of certain Pockets
of Chipped Flints beneath the Peat on the Yorkshire Moors, near Halifax,
395.—W. Boyd Dawkins. On the Geological Evidence as to the An-
tiquity of Man, 399.

British Association for the Advancement of Science. Reports of the
32nd and 3rd Meetings (1862 and 1863). 1863, 1864.
Purchased.

Brussels. Musée Royal d'Histoire Naturelle. Annales. Tome iv.
1880. (Text 4to; Atlas obl. 4to.)
P. J. Van Beneden. Description des ossements fossiles des environs
d’Anvers, Partie 2: Cetacés, genres Balenula, Balena et Balenotus.

: . Tome vy. 1880. (Text and Atlas 4to.)
L. G. de Koninck. Faune du calcaire carbonifére de la Belgique,
Partie 2: genres Gyroceras, Cyrtoceras, Gomphoceras, Orthoceras, Sub-
clymema et Gomatites.

Budapest. Literarische Berichte aus Ungarn. Bandii. 1878.
A. V. Kerpely. Das Montanwesen in Ungarn, 226.

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Budapest. Literarische Berichte aus Ungarn. Bandi. 1879.

J. Szabd. Urvolgyit, ein neues Mineral, 510.—Max von Hantken.
Die Mittheilungen der Herren Edm. Hebert und Munier Chalmas iiber
die ungarischen alttertiaren Bildungen, 687.

Magyar Tudomdnyos Akadémia. LErtekezések a Mathe-
matikai Tudominyok Kérébol. Kotet vi. Szdm 3-9. 1878.

Kotet vii. Szitm 1-5. 1879.

—. ——. Ertekezések a Természettudomanyok Korébol. Katet
viii. Szdm 8-15. 1877-78.
J. S. Krenner. Magyarhoni Angleisitek, No.8.—A. Koch. Asvany-
és kozettani kozlemények Erdélybol, No. 10. :

. Kotetix. Szam 1-19. 1879.

ie Koch. Aditroi syenittomzs kozettani és hegyszerkezeti viszonyairol,
No. 2.—J. Szabé. Urvolgyit egy uj rez-asvany, No. 9.—M. Hantken.
Hébert és Munier Chalmas kozleményei a magyarorszdgi 6 harmadkori
képzodmenyekrol, No. 12.—J. Szabo. Fouqué munkaja Santorin vul-
kani szigetrol, No. 18.

Evkonyvel. Kotet xvi. Nos.8&4. 1878 & 1879.

we

_,

: a ae . Termeszettdomanyi Kozlemenyek.
Kotet xiv. (1876-77). 1877.
K. Nendtyich. A Paradi fae 33.

Kotet xv. (1877-78). 1878.

A. Koch. Az Aranyi hegy (Hunyadm.) kozete és asvanyai és ezek
kozt ket uj far, 23.—O. Ludman. Kivonat a Vihorlet Trachythegy-
séenek topographikus leirasabol, 407.—J. Szabo. Adatok a moraviczai
asvanyok jegyzékenek kiegeszitésehez, 413.—J. Bernath. A magyaror-
gzaei asvanyvizek lelhelyei, 427.

——, _-—,

Buenos Ayres. Sociedad Cientifica Argentina. Anales. Tomo viii.
Entrega 1 & 2. 1879.
D, L. Brackebusch. Las especies minerales de la Republica Argen-
tina, 5, 81.—D. E. Aguirre. La geologia de la Sierra Baya, 34.

Calcutta. Asiatic Society of Bengal. Journal. N.S. Vol. xlviii.
Part 1. Nos. 1-4. 1879.

. N.S. Vol. xlviii. Part 2. Nos. 1-3. 1879.

Record of the Occurrence of Earthquakes in Assam during 1878, 48,—
R. C. onus Notes on the Formation of the Country passed through
by the 2nd Column Tal Chotiali Field Force during its march from Kala
Abdullah Khan in the Khojak Pass to Lugari Barkhn, spring of 1879,
103,

————,

—_-—,

Proceedings. 1879, Nos. 4-11. 1879.

R. C. Temple. Notes on the Formation of the Country passed through
by the 2nd Column, Tal Chotiali Field Force, during the march from
Kala Abdullah Khan in the Khojak Pass to Lugari Bar Khan, Spring of
1879, 176.

——. 1880, No.1. 1880.

Giuatieies U.S. Museum of Comparative Zoology. Annual Re-
ports, 1861-78. 1863-78.

—. Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College. An-
nual Report of the Curator for 1878-79. 1879.

I14 ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY.

Cambridge, U.S. Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard Col-
lege. Bulletin. Vol.i. 1863-69.
A. Hyatt. The fossil Cephalopods of the Museum of Comparative
Zoology, 71.

eS ee Vol Noss 22am =e

5 : . Vol. in. Nos. 1, 3-16. 1871—76.

A. Hyatt. Fossil Cephalopods of the Museum of Comparative Zoology :
Embryology, 59.—O. A. Derby. Notice of the Paleozoic Fossils, with
notes by A. Agassiz, 279.—A. Agassiz and L. F. de Pourtalés. Recent
Corals from Tilibiche, Peru, 287.

Volsivn 1s 73:

: : Ld Clonee ace
E. R. Benton. The Richmond Boulder Trains, 17.—M. E. Wadsworth.
On the Classification of Rocks, 275.
Vol. vi. Nos. 1-7. 1879-80.
——. Memoirs. Vol.i. 1864-66.
Vol. u. 1871-76.
Vol. ii. 1872-74.

Agassiz. Revision of the Hchini, 1.

: Vol. iv. 1874-76.
A, Allen. The American Bisons, living and extinct, No. X., 1.

Voliv. 1877.

5 . ——. Vol. vi. No.1, Part1, & No.2. 1878 & 1879.

J. D. Whitney. The Auriferous Gravels of the Sierra Nevada of
California, No. 1. pt. 1.—L. Lesquereux. Report on the Fossil Plants of
the Auriferous Gravel Deposits of the Sierra Nevada, No. ii.

Cassel. Paleontographica. Band xxvi. Lieferungen 1-3. 1879.
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H. Ludwig. Plestochys Menke: (mys Menkei, Fr. Ad. Romer), ein
Beitrag zur Kenntniss der Schildkroten der Wealdenformation, 1—W.
~Branco. Beitrag zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der fossilen Cephalo-
poden, 15.—D. Kramberger. Beitrage zur Kenntniss der fossilen Fische
der Karpathen, 51.

: Band xxvi. Lief. 4-6. 1880. Purchased.

EH. Stohr. Die Radiolarienfauna der Tripoli von Grotte, Provinz
Girgenti in Sicilien, 69.—Hosius und von der Marck. Die Flora der
westfalischen Kreideformation, 125.

Supplementband iii. Lief. 38. Heft 4. 1879.

— eee

|

=| >| | |

re

7

Purchased.
O. Feistmantel. Palaeozoische und mesozoische Flora des Ostlichen.
Australien, 133.

Chemical News. Vol. xxxix. No. 1022. 1879.
Vol. xl. Nos. 1023-1048. 1879.

Norwegium, a newly discovered Metal, 25.—W. Thomson. Notes on
a Sample of Fuller’s Harth found ina Fullonica recently excavated at
Pompeii, 138.—W. Ivison Macadam. On the chemical Composition of a
Nodule of Ozokerite found at Kinghorn-ness, 148.—P. Cleve. On Scan-
dium, 159.—J. R. Santos. Analysis of Volcanic Ash from a recent
Eruption of Cotopaxi, 186.—F. P. Venable. Chemical Composition of

ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY. 115

“ Livingstoneite” from Huitzuco, Guerrero, Mexico, 186.—-E. C. Smith.
Analysis of Magnetite exhibiting unusual Crystalline Distortion, from
Henry Co., Virginia, 187.—S. L. Penfield. On the chemical Composition
of Amblygonite, 208.—F. A. Genth. Hxamination of the North Caro-
lina Uranium Minerals, 210.

Chemical News. Vol. xli. Nos. 1049-1073. 1880.

J. B. Hannay. On the Artificial Formation of the Diamond, 106.—C.
Rammelsberg. On Vesbium and Norwegium, 116.—H. G. Love. Edible
Earth from Japan, 187.—W. Wallace. On the Condition in which sulphur
exists in coal, 201.—W. J. Comstock. Analyses of some American Tan-
talates, 244,

Chemical Society. Journal. Nos. 200-205. 1879.
G. Attwood. Ona Gold Nugget from South America, 427.

. Nos. 206-211, 1880.

Cincinnati Society of Natural History. Journal. Vol. i. No. 1.
1880.
S. A. Miller. North American Mesozoic and Cenozoic Geology and
Paleontology, 9. |
Clausthal. Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein Maja. Mittheilungen.
Neue Folge. Heft 1. 1879. Purchased.
A. Schmeisser. Die geognostischen Verhiltnisse des Habichtswaldes
bei Cassel, 1.

Coal and Iron Trades Gazette. Vol. vi. No. 246. 1879,

. Vol. vii. Nos. 247-273. 1879.
Coal in the Eastern Counties, 928. —

Vol. viii. Nos. 274-297. 1880.
J. Pechar. Coal in the Chinese Empire, 251, 271.—The Cheadle
Coalfield, 312.

Colliery Guardian. Vol. xxxvii. N 0. 965. 1879.

Vol. xxxviil. Nos. 966-991. 1879.

The Mineralogical Resources of New Zealand, 23.—Frémy. The For-
mation of Coal, 52.—British Association, Section C. Geology, 332, 372.
—W. Molyneux. The Forest of Wyre Coalfield, 773.—A. Mitchell.
Geology of the Dalkeith Coalfield, 851.—The Coalfields of Treland, 865,

Vol. xxxix. Nos. 992-1016. 1880.

T. Rupert Jones. Coal, 145,179, 219.—The Kawakawa Coal Mine, 299.
—J.R. M. Robertson. Oil and Oil Wells of Burmah, 328.—J. P. Kimball.
Atmospheric Oxidation or Weathering of Coal, 331, 368.—The Supply and
Production of Coal, 407, 441, 487, 567, €07, 687, 847.—R. Gascoyne. A
Boring for Coal at South Scarle, Lincolnshire, 529.—Boring at Probst
Jesar, near Lubtheen, for Salt, 529.—Coalfields of Colorado, 537.—Man-
eanesiferous Iron at Rahier, 572.—The Cheadle Coalfield, 611.—W.
Wallace. On the Condition in which Sulphur exists in Coal, 651.

Copenhagen. Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab. Natur-.
videnskabelige og Mathematiske Afhandlinger. Rekke 5.
Band xi. Nos.5 & 6. 1880.

: : : Band xii. No. 4. 1879.

J. Reinhardt. Beskrivelse af hovedskallen af et Kampedovendyr,

Grypotherium Darwimi, fra La Plata-Landenes plejstocene dannelser,

oO :

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Copenhagen. Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab. Oversigt.
1879, Nos. 2&3. 1879.

1880, No. 1. 1880,

Cracow. Akademija umiejetnosci. Sprawozdanie Komisyi Fizy-
jograficznej. Tome xii. 1878.

St. Zarecznego. O srednich warstwach kredowych w krakowskim
okregu, 176 (Ozesé IL), —S. Olszewski. Kroétki rys wycieczki geolo-
giczné} w W. Ksiestwie Krakowskiém, 247.—S. Olszewski. Spis
mineraléw znanych z W. Ksiestwa Krakowakiego, 286.

Tome xiii. 1879.

K. Trochanowski. Chemiczny ilosciowy rozbidr wody mineralné}
wyssowskiéj, 67.—K. Trochanowski. Rozbior ilosciowy chemiczny wod
studziennych i rzecznych miasta Tarnowa dokonany i opisany, 85.—
J. Trejdosiewick. Opis badan geologicznych dokenanych w Krolestwie
Polskiém wroku 1878 oraz spostrzezen we wsiach zbrzy i Kleezanowie,
113.—G. Ossowski. O labradorytach na Woxyniu, 224,—F. Bieniasz.
Fosforyty galicyjskie, 235.—A. Alth. Sprawozdanie z badan geolo-
gicznych przediewietych w r. 1878 w Tatrach galicyjskich, 243.

Darmstadt. Verein fir Erdkunde und verwandte Wissenschaften.
Notizblatt. Folge 3. Heft 18. Nos. 205-216, 1879.
O. Bottger. Alter der Binnenconchylien der untersten Schichten des
Beckens von Bordeaux, 193.
Dijon. Académie des Sciences, Arts et Belles-Lettres. Mémoires.
Série 3. Tome v. (1878-79). 1879.
J. Martin. Description du groupe Bathonien dans la Cote-d’Or, 1.

Dorpat. Naturforscher-Gesellschaft. Archiv fiir die Naturkunde
Liy-, Ehst- und Kurlands. Ser. 1. Band viii. Lief. 4. 1879.
C. Grewingk. Erlauterungen zur zweiten Ausgabe der geoonostischen
Karte Liv-, Hst- und Kurlands, 343.
——. Ser. 1. Band vii. Lief. 3. 1879.

Sitzungsberichte. Band v. Heft 1 (1878). 1879.

C. Grewingk. Ueber die neve geognostische Karte der Ostseepro-
vinzen, 78.

—_—
e

Band v. Heft 2 (1879). 1880.

C. Grewinek. Reste des Wildschweines, 184.—Klinge. LErratischer
Block bei Sotaga, 224.—Grewingk. Verkieselung und Quarzbildung in
obersilurischen Schichten der Balticum, 86.

Dresden. Academize Czsaree Leopoldino-Caroline Germanice
Nature Curiosorum. Nova Acta. Tomus xxxvil. 1875.
G. Compter. Hin Beitrag zur fossilen Keuperflora, No. 3.

. Tomus xxxviii. 1876.
H. Engelhardt. Tertiirpflanzen aus dem Leitmeritzer Mittelgebirge.
Ein Beitrag zur Kenntniss der fossilen Pflanzen Bohmens, 341 (No. 4).

: 3 Tomiusaxxxix. 1877.
H. Engelhardt. Ueber die fossilen Pflanzen des Stsswassersandsteins

von Tschernowitz. Ein neuer Beitrag zur Kenntniss der fossilen Pflanzen
Bohmens, 357 (No. 7).

_,

; : Tomus xl. 1878.
C. Ochsenius. Beitraige zur Erklarung der Bildung von Steinsalzlagern
und ihrer Mutterlaugensalze, 121 (No. 4).—C. Winkler. Die Unter-

ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY. 117

suchung des EHisenmeteorits von Rittersgriin, 331 (No. 8).—E. Geinitz.
Das Erdbeben von Iquique am 9. Mai 1877 und die durch dasselbe verur-
sachte Erdbebenfluth im grossen Ocean, 383 (No. 9).

Dresden. Naturwissenschaftliche Gesellschaft Isis. Sitzungsberichte
1878, Juli bis December. Nos. 7-12. 1879.

Ida v. Boxberg. Ueber eine Erderschiitterung zu Nolhac, 135.—
Deichmiiller. Ueber das Tertiarbecken von Bilin, 136.—C. Konig. Ueber
J. H. Schmick: Sonne und Mond als Bildner der Erdschale, 188.—E.
Geinitz. Proterobas von Ebersbach und Kottmarsdorf in der Oberlau-
sitz, 188.—E. Geinitz. Die verkieselten Holzer aus dem Diluvium von
Kamenz in Sachsen, 192.

: Sitzungsberichte 1879, Januar bis Juni. 1879. .

Geinitz. Ueber einen Ausflug nach Lugan und die wissenschaftlichen
Ergebnisse desselben, 7; Ueber die neuesten Untersuchungen tiber die
Fructification der Neggerathia foliosa, Stb., 11.—Geinitz und Deich-
miller. Ueber Blattina dresdenensis, Gein. und Deichmiuller, 12.

é Sitzungsberichte 1879, Juli bis December. 1880.

Konig. Ueber die Verschiebung der Festlande, 113.—H. B. Geinitz.
Ueber die neuesten Fortschritte der geologischen Forschungen in Nord-
amerika, 115.—H. Engelhardt. Ueber die Cyprisschiefer Nordbohmens
und ihre pflanzlichen Kinschlisse, 181.

Dublin. Royal Geological Society of Ireland. Journal. N.S. Vol. v.
Part 2. 1879)

E. Hull. Note on a new Geological Map of Ireland, 104.—G. H.
Kinahan. The Old Red Sandstone (so called) of Ireland in its relations
to the Underlying and Overlying Strata, 106.—V. Ball. On Stilbite
from Veins in Metamorphic (Gneiss) Rocks in Western Bengal, 114.—
E. Reynolds and V. Ball. On an Artificial Mineral produced in the
Manufacture of Basic Bricks at Blaenavon, Monmouthshire, 116.—G. H.
Kinahan. Cambro-Silurian Rocks of the Southern and the Western
Parts of Ireland, 118.—-E. Hull. On the Occurrence of Crystals of Salt
(Chloride of Sodium) in Chert from the Carboniferous Limestone, 122.—
Haughton. Geological Notes on the Structure of Middle and North
Devonshire, made during a walking tour in Devonshire in the summer of
1878, 126.—W. Frazer. On Hy Brasil, a Traditional Island off the West
Coast of Ireland, plotted in a MS. Map written by Le Sieur Tassin, Geo-
grapher Royal to Louis XIII., 128.—M. H. Close. Anniversary Address,
132.—P. H. Argall. Noteson the Ancient and Recent Mining Operations
in the East Avoca District, 150.—G. H. Kinahan. Dingle Beds and
Glengariff Grits, 165.—R. J. Ussher and A. Leith Adams. Notes on the
Discovery in Ireland of a Bone-Cave containing Remains of the Irish Elk
associated with Traces of Man, 170.

. RoyallIrish Academy. Proceedings. Ser. 2. Vol. i. No. 13.

1879.

G. H. Kinahan. Sea-beaches, especially those of Wexford and Wick-
low, 191.—R. 8. Ball. Speculations on the Source of Meteorites, 227.

: : Vol. iii. No. 3. 1879.
J. P. O’Reilly. On a Cylindrical Mass of Basalt existing at Contham
Head, Moon Bay, coast of Antrim, 2387.

; . Transactions. Vol. xxvi. Nos. 18-21. 1879.
J.P.O’Reilly. On the Correlation of Lines of Direction on the Earth’s
Surface, 611.

1 a, NIE KOKI NOL Sr eo Oe

118 ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY.

Dublin. Royal Society. Journal. Vol. vii. No. 45. 1878.

. ——. Scientific Proceedings. N.S. Vol. i. 1877—78,

E. Hull. On the Origin and Geological Age of “The Scalpe” on the
borders of Wicklow and Dublin, 11.—R. J. Moss. On Quartz with a
pearly lustre, 49.—R. J. Moss. On the Chemical Composition of the
Coal discovered by the late Arctic Expedition, 61—E. T. Hardman.
On the Barytes Mines near Bantry, 121.—Feil and Frémy. On the
Artificial Production of Minerals and Precious Stones, 127.—Maxwell
Close. On the Physical Geology of the neighbourhood of Dublin, 133.—
W. 4H. Bailey. On the Paleontology of the county of Dublin, 162.—
S. Haughton. On the Mineralogy of the counties of Dublin and Wicklow,
183.

: : 29 N82, Vol-a. Parts 1-4. lege=eu

Maxwell Close. Anniversary Address to the Royal Geological Society
of Ireland, 5.—A. von Lasaulx. On the Tridymite-Quartz-Trachyte of
Tardree Mountain and on the Olivine-Gabbro of Carlingford Mountains,
25.—H. W. Feilden. Some Remarks on Interglacial Epochs in reference
to Fauna and Flora existing at the present day in the Northern Hemi-
‘sphere between the parallels of 81° and 85° N., 42.—_A. Leith Adams.
On the Recent and Extinct Irish Mammals, 45.—W. Williams. On an
Attempt to elucidate the History of the Cervus megaceros, commonly called
the Irish Elk, 105.—V. Ball. On Stilbite from Veins in Metamorphic
(Gneiss) Rocks in Western Bengal, 121.—J. Emerson Reynolds and VY.
Ball. On an Artificial Mineral produced in the Manufacture of Basic
Bricks at Blaenavon, Monmouthshire, 123.—E. Hull. On the Occur-
rence of Crystals of Salt (Chloride of Sodium) in Chert from the Carbo~ ©
niferous Limestone, 129.—E. Hull. Note on a new Geological Map of
Treland, 133.—G. H. Kinahan. The Old Red Sandstone (so called) of
Ireland in its Relations to the Underlying and Overlying Strata, 185.,—
G. H. Kinahan. Cambro-Silurian and Silurian Rocks of the Southern
and the Western Parts of Ireland, 143.—S. Haughton. Geological Notes
on the Structure of Middle and North Devonshire, made during a
walking tour in Devonshire in the summer of 1878, 151.—W. Frazer.
On Hy Brasil, a Traditional Island off the West Coast of Ireland, plotted
in a MS. Map written by Sieur Tassin, Geographer Royal to Louis
XIII., 173.—M. H. Close. Anniversary Address to the Royal Geological
Society of Ireland, 191.—P. H. Argall. Notes on the Ancient and Recent
Mining Operations in East Avoca district, 211.—G.H. Kinahan. Dingle
and Glengariff Grits, 226—R. J. Ussher and A. Leith Adams. Notes
on the Discovery in Iveland of a Bone-cave containing remains of the
Irish Elk apparently coexistent with Man, 234.—J. P. O’Reilly. On the
Occurrence of Microcline Feldspar in the Dalkey Granites, 246.—G. H.
Kinahan. Arklow Beach and Rivers, 250.—T. M. Reade. A Problem
for Irish Geologists in Post-Glacial Geology, 255.

Scientific Transactiens. N.S. Vol. i. Nos. 1-9.

1877-79.
E. Hull. On the Nature and Origin of the Beds of Chert in the Upper
Carboniferous Limestone of Ireland, 71.—E. T. Hardman. On the
Chemical Composition of Chert and the Chemistry of the Process by
which it is formed, 85.
Nowe Ol. i. » Nos deale7 9:

Eastbourne Natural-History Society. Papers, 1877-78. Presen-
ted by W. Whitaker, Esq., F.G.S.
O. Ward. On the Fossil Fishes of the District (December 14), .

ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY. 1 Re)

Eastbourne Natural-History Society. Papers, 1878-79. Presented
by W. Whitaker, Hsq., F.G.S.
F.C. 8. Roper. On Coal, and the Evidence it affords of Geological
Time (January 17).—A. Ramsay. The Ocean of the Cretaceous Period
(May 16).

Easton. American Institute of Mining Engineers. Transactions.
__. Vol. vii. (1878-79). 1879. Presented by W. Whitaker, Esq:,
JURE se

R. N. Clark. The Humboldt-Pocahontas Vein, Rosita, Colorado, 21.
—J. HE. Church. The Heat of the Comstock Mines, 45.—W. P. Blake.
Note on Zircons in Unaka Magnetite, 76.—R. W. Raymond. The Jenks
Corundum Mine, Macon County, N. C., 83.—H. 8. Drinker. The Butler
Mine Fire Cut-off, 159.—E. B. Coxe. Note upon a peculiar variety of
Anthracite, 213.—T. Sterry Hunt. The Coal and Iron of the Hocking
Valley, Ohio, 313.—C. A. Ashburner. The Bradford Oil District of
Pennsylvania, 316.—J. F. Blandy. The Lake Superior Copper Rocks in
Pennsylvania, 331.—C. W. Kempton. Sketches of the New Mining
District at Sullivan, Maine, 349.—F. Prime, jun. A Catalogue of Official
Reports upon Geological Surveys of the United States and Territories, and
of British North America, 459.

Edinburgh. Geological Society. Transactions. Vol. ii. Part 2.
1879.

R. Richardson’s Obituary Notice of Dr. James Bryce, 141.—C. W.
Peach. Notes on the Fossil Plants found in the Old Red Sandstone of
Shetland, Orkney, Caithness, Sutherland, and Forfarshire, 148.—W. L.
Lindsay. Museum Specimens of native Scottish Gold, 153—F. Smith.
On the Phenomena and geological Teaching of the recent great Flood
in the Devon Valley, 169.—D. Milne-Home’s Address as President of the
Society, and Obituary Notice of Sir Richard J. Griffith, Bart., 181.—A.
Somervail. Observations on the Higher Summits of the Pentland Hills,
191.—J. Wilson. On the Importance of Paleontological Evidence in
Geological Studies, 200.—T. D. Wallace. On the Structural Geology of
Strathnairn, 204.—R. Richardson. Obituary Notice of Dr. Page, 220.—
J. Henderson. On the Structure and Arrangement of the Rocks of
Arthur’s Seat, 222.—R. Richardson. Obituary Notice of Professor Nicol,
945.—A. Somervail. Observations on Roches moutonnées and other
Points of geological Interest in the Valley of the Urr, Kirkcudbrightshire,
247.—R. Richardson. On the Connection between Geology, Meteorology,
and Agriculture, as illustrated by the leading Agricultural Districts of
Scotland, 251.—A. Taylor. Notes-on the Petrology of Arthur’s Seat,
264.—W. J. Macadam. On the Chemical Composition of a Nodule of
Ozokerite found at Kinghornness, 272.

Royal Society. Proceedings. Vol.x. No.103. 1878-79.

Heddle. Chapters on the Mineralogy of Scotland, 64, 76.—A. Geikie.
On the Carboniferous Volcanic Rocks in the Basin of the Firth of Forth,
their Structure in the Field and under the Microscope, 65, 232.—D.
Milne-Home. Fifth Report of the Boulder Committee, 113.—W. Jolly.
Notes on the Transportation of Rocks found on the South Shores of the
Moray Firth, 178.—A. Somervail. Observations on Boulders and Drift
on the Pentland Hills, 186.—J. Henderson. Notes on Drift and Glacial
Phenomena on the Pentland Hills, 187.—References by Dr. Charles
Maclaren and Prof. Geikie to Striz and Boulders on the Pentlands, 189.
—D, Milne-Home. Remarks on the Boulder Report, 192,—D. Milne-
Home. Notice of Striated Rocks in East Lothian and in some adjoining
Counties, 256,

I20 ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY.

Edinburgh. Royal Society. Transactions. Vol. xxviii. Part 3.
1877-78.

: : J) Wolo xine sParh le moc (on

Heddle. Chapters on the Mineralogy of Scotland, 47, 55.—R. H.
Traquair. On the Structure and Affinities of the Platysomide, 343.—
A. Geikie. On the Carboniferous Volcanic Rocks of the Basin of the
i of Forth, their Structure in the Field and under the Microscope,
437.

Kkaterinbourg. Société Ouralienne d’Amateurs des Sciences
Naturelles. Bulletin. Tomeiv. 1878.

; : . Vome y.davr. 1 & 2.) 1879.

V.M. Malakhoff. Indicateur des lieux de provenance des minéraux
connus jusquici dans les monts Ourals, 1—N. Brousnitsyne. La
Pyschma en aval du village de Inokraia jusqu’a la ville de Kamyschloff,
11.—A. I. Drezdoff. Les eaux minérales de Kourii et d’Alapaevsk, 25.

Exeter. Teign Naturalist’s Field-Club. Report of the Proceedings
for the years 1878, 1879. 1879, 1880. Presented by G. W.
Ormerod, EHsq., F.GS.

Falmouth. Royal Cornwall Polytechnic Society. Forty-sixth
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——. Société de Physique et d'Histoire Naturelle. Mémoires.
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Geological Magazine. Dec. II. Vol. vi. Nos. 7-12. 1879.

H. A. Nicholson and R. Etheridge, jun. On Three Species of Clado-
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Pleistocene Geology of Cornwall, 307.—J. W. Davis. Source of the
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A Cruise among the Volcanos of the Kurile Islands, 337.—G. H. Kinahan.
Dingle and Glengariff Grits, 348.—W. J. M‘Gee. The Surface Geology
of a Part of the Mississippi Valley, 353.—T. G. Bonney. Notes on some
Ligurian and Tuscan Serpentines, 362.—H. Woodward. Notes on a
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man Taylor. On the Cudgegone Diamond Field, New South Wales, 444.
—J. P. Lesley. Origin of Pipe Ore, 459.—S. Allport. On the Rocks of
Brazil Wood, Charnwood Forest, 481.—O. Feistmantel. Notes on the
fossil Flora of Kast Australia and Tasmania, 485.—H. Woodward. Fur-
ther Notes on Sumatran Fossils, 492.—E. Wilson. The Age of the
Pennine Chain, 500.—F. T. 8. Houghton. Notes on an Olivine Gabbro
from Cornwall, 504.—J. Milne. Further Notes upon the Forms of Vol-
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J. W. Davis. New fossil Fish Spine, Ctenacanthus minor, 531.—K.
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bourhood of Nottingham, 532,.—H. Woodward. Further Notes on
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Geological Magazine. Dec. II. Vol. vu. Nos. 1-6. 1880.

J. Clifton Ward. Notes on the Geology of the Isle of Man, 1._—E.
Hill. Eccentricity and Glacial Epochs, 10.—W. Davies. On some fossil
Bird-remains from the Siwalik Hills, India, in the British Museum, 18.—
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. logy of the Yorkshire Oolites, 241.—A. J. Jukes Brown, The Subdivi-
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Vol. vi. Nos. 7-12. 1879. Purchased.
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VOL. XXXVI. n

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the Chalk of Yorkshire, 165.—Reply by the Rev. J. F. Blake, 170.—
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—. » ——.. Vol.iv. Part1l. 1871.

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the Section on the Crofthead and Kilmarnock Railway in Cowden Glen,
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Beds of Scotland, 32.—R. Craig. On the Boulders found in Cuttings on
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gald Bell. On the Aspects of Clydesdale during the Glacial Period, 63.

‘ Vol. vi. Part 1. 1879.

R. Craig. On the Fossils of the Upper Series of the Lower Carboni-
ferous Limestones in the Beith and Dalry Districts of North Ayrshire, 1.
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A new Scottish Mineral (Bowlingite), 63.—W. Lauder Lindsay. Austra-
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. ——. Tome xv. livr.1 & 2. 1880.

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——. Minutes of Proceedings. Vol. lvii. (Session 1878-79).
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Vol. lviii. (Session 1878-79). Part 4. 1879.
-——. Vol. lix. (Session 1879-80). Part 1. 1880.

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James Blake. Sonorous Sand, 28.—H. G. Hanks. Divisibility of
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——. ——. Vol.u. No. 3. 1878.
Odling. The new Metal “Gallium,” 165.

——. ——. Vol.ii. No.6. 1878.

. Vol. i. Nos. 2-4. 1879.
The Great Spirit Springs of Kansas, 124—B. F Mudge. The new
n2

a

———— ,

124 ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY.

Sink Hole in Meade Co., Kansas, 152.—E. L. Berthoud. Prof. Marsh on
the fossil Polydactyle Ancestors of the Horse, and recent examples, 153.
—B. F. Mudge. Another View of the Antiquity of Man, 222.—
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Kasan. Imperial University. Wssseria (Proceedings and Scien-
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——

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Ei. Renevier. Notices géologiques et paléontologiques sur les Alpes
vaudoises, 895.—P. de la Harpe. Nummulites des Alpes frangaises,
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de Saillon, 599.—Hans Schardt. Notice géologique sur la mollasse
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Leeds. Philosophical and Literary Society. The Annual Report
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~—. Yorkshire Geological and Polytechnic Society. Proceedings.
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A. R. Kell. Ona Section at the Barrow Collieries, Worsbro’, 111.—
W. Cash and T. Hick. On fossil Fungi from the Lower Coal-measures
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J. R. Dakyns. Glacial Beds at Bridlington, 128.—E. M. Cole. On the
Origin and Formation of the Wold Dales, 128.—J. W. Davis. On the
Source of the Erratic Boulders in the Valley of the River Calder, York-
shire, 141.—H. F. Parsons. The Trias of the Southern Part of the Vale
of York, 154.8. Seal. Some Account of the fossil Plants found at the
Darfield Quarries, near Barnsley, 162.—G. W. Lamplugh. On the Divi-
sions of the Glacial Beds in Filey Bay, 167.—T. Tate. The Source of
the River Aire, 177.—T. Tate. Note on an Intermittent Spring at Malham,
186.—A. Lupton. Note on the Midland Coal-field, 187.—J. W. Davis.
Ostracacanthus dilatatus (gen. et spec. nov.), a fossil Fish from the
Coal-measures South of Halifax, Yorkshire, 191.

Leicester. Literary and Philosophical Society. Report of the
Counal, 2379." 1879:

——. Town Museum. Seventh Report of the Museum Committee
of the Town Council, 1879. 1879.

Leipzig. Naturforschende Gesellschaft. Sitzungsberichte. Jahr-
gang vy. 1878.

Credner. Ueber den geologischen Bau der Gegend von Ehrenfrieders-
dorf und Geyer im Erzgebirge, 23.—C. Hennig. Beitrage zur Geologie
von der Nordseeinsel Borkum nebst Bemerkungen tber deren Flcra und
Fauna, 26.

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Leipzig. Zeitschrift fiir Krystallographie und Mineralogie. (Groth.)
Band iu. Hefte5 &6. 1879. Purchased. —

A. Bertin. Ueber die idiocyclophanischen Krystalle, 449.—W. C.
Brogger. Untersuchungen norwegischer Mineralien, ii., 471.—W. C.
Brogger. Atakamit von Chili, 488.—W. C. Brogger. Zwei Hiit-
tenerzeugnisse, 494.—G. Tschermak und L. Sipocz. Die Clintonit-
gruppe, 496.—A. Arzruni. Ueber den Coquimbit, 516.—H. Laspeyres.
Mineralogische Bemerkungen, 523.—G. J. Brush und E. 8. Dana. Ueber
eine neue merkwiirdige Mineralfundstiitte in Fairfield Co., Connecticut,
und Beschreibung der dort vorkommenden neuen Mineralien, 577.—H.
Baumhauer. Ueber kiinstliche Kalkspath-Zwillinge nach —2 R, 588.

(——.) Band iv. Hefte 1-4, 1879-80. Pur-

chased.

A. Schrauf. Ueber Phosphorkupfererze, 1.—C. Délter. Ueber die che-
mische Zusammensetzung des Arfvedsonits und verwandter Mineralien,
34,—K. Haushofer. Ueber die mikroskopischen Formen einiger bei der
Analyse vorkommender Verbindungen, 42.—G. J. Brush und EH. 8. Dana.
Ueber eine neue merkwiirdize Mineralfundstitte in Fairfield Co., Con-
necticut, und Beschreibung der dort vorkommenden neuen Mineralien,
69.—V. von Zepharovich. Ueber Dolomit-Pisolith und die sogenannte
“ doppeltkornige ” Structur, 118.—V. von Zepharovich. Krystallformen
des Jodsilber, 119.—A. von Lasaulx. Mineralogische Notizen, 162.—
H. Laspeyres. Mineralogische Bemerkungen, VI., 244.—A. Knop. Ueber ©
kiinstliche Erzeugung hohler Pseudomorphosen, 257.—A. Schrauf. Ueber
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vo2.—H. Fischer. Mikroskopisch-mineralogische Miscellen, 362.

Liége. Société Géologique de Belgique. Annales. Tome y.
(1877-78). 1878.

G. Dewalque. A propos de la carte géologique du grand-duché de
Luxembourg, par MM. Wies et Siegen, lvii—G. Dewalque. Note surun
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nouveau gisement fossilifére a Fépin, lx.—G. Dewalque. Les résultats
dun sondage opéré a Londres, Ixvy.—A. Firket. Note sur un nouveau gite
de fossiles crétacés 4 Hollogne-aux-Pierres, lxxviii—Reuleaux. Analyse
dargilites herviennes, lxxx.—A. Firket. Sur la position stratigraphique
du grés houiller de la station d’Andenne, lxxxi.—G. Dewalque. Calamines
du Laurium, lxxxili—A. Firket. Sur une variété de quartz pulvérulent,
xe.—De la Vallée Poussin. Sur la diorite du champ de St.-Véron 4
Lembecq et la présence de la tétraédrite dans les fissures de cette roche,
xcvill.—De la Vallée Poussin. Annonce de la présence de nodules et
rognons calcaréo-schisteux dans les schistes rouges de Pepinster, xcix.—
G. Dewalque. Observations sur le gite fossilifére signalé par M. Jannel, c.
—G. Dewalque. Observations sur un puits artésien foré a Londres, ci.—-
F. L. Cornet. Sur la rencontre d’ossements d’Iguanodon dans un acci-
dent du terrain houiller de Bernissart, cv.—G. Dewalque. Note sur le
sondage de Furnes, cvilii—G. Dewalque. Cornets caleaires de l’ampélite,
cix.—G. Hoch. Manganése oxydé d’Andenne, cx.—A. Firket. Struc-
ture de quelques échantillons de houille et de schiste houiller, exii,
—A. Firket. Un second gite d’eurite 4 Spa, cxiii—LE. Vanden Broeck.
Sur les formations tertiaires d’Anvers, cxvil.—A. Firket. Découverte de
la Millerite (Haarkies) au charbonnage du Hasard 4 Micheroux, cxx.—
A. Firket. Sur la position stratigraphique du poudingue houiller d’Amay,
exxi.— Malaise. Sur des Lingula trouvées 4 Lierneux, dans le cambrien
de l’Ardenne, exxxvii.—A. Rutot, E. Vanden Broeck, et E. Delvaux.
Session extraordinaire de 1878, Excursion géologique dans le Limbourg,

126 ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY.

exli—A. Dumont. Réponse 4 Ja note de M. P. J. J. Bogaert sur les
couches de charbon découvertes dans le Limbourg Neéerlandais, 3.—
P. J.J. Bogaert. Réponse 4 la note précédente de M. A. Dumont sur les
couches de charbon du Limbourg Néerlandais, 7.—F. L. Cornet et A.
Briart. Sur la craie brune phosphatée de Ciply, 11.—J. Faly. Etude sur
le terrain carbonifére, la faille du midi depuis les environs de Binche
jusqu’a la Sambre, 23,—A. Firket. Notice sur le gite ferro-manganésifére
de Moet-fontaine (Rahier), 33.—A. Firket. Sur la position stratigraphi-
que du poudingue houiller dans la partie ouest de la province de Liége, 42.
—HE. Delvaux. Note sur quelques ossements fossiles recueillis aux
environs d’Overlaer, prés de Tirlemont, et observations sur les formations
quaternaires de la contrée, 48.— G. Vincent et A. Rutot. Note sur
Vabsence du systéme Diestien aux environs de Bruxelles et sur des ob-
servations nouvelles relatives au systéme Laekénien, 56.—G. Vincent
et A. Rutot. Note sur le relevé des sondages entrepris par M. van
Ertborn dans le Brabant, 66.—P. van Ertborn. Relevé des sondages
éxécutés dans le Brabant, 77.—J. Faly. Etudes sur le terrain carbonifére,
le poudingue houiller, 100.

Liége. Société Royale des Sciences. Mémoires. Sér. 2. Tome vii,
my lO hee

L. G. De Koninck. Recherches sur les fossiles paléozoiques de la
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Tome viii. 1878.

Lille. Société Géologique du Nord. Annales, Tome vi.(1878—79),
1879.

Gosselet. Sur les stations de l’age de la pierre aux environs de Saint-
Quentin, 1—Gosselet. Le calcaire de Givet, 2.—Verconstre. Sondage 4
Bourbourg, 34.—Gosselet. De la terminaison orientale de le grande faille,
35.—Chellonneix et Ortlieb. Traces des silex 4 Nummulites et de la
couche a Cyrena Morrisu, aux environs de Béthune, 47.—Ortlieb et
Chellonneix. Note sur les affleurements tertiaires et quaternaires visibles
sur le parcours de la voie ferrée en construction entre Tourcoing et
Menin, 51.—Gosselet. Découverte d’ossements d’Iguanodon a Ber-
nissart, 61.—Gosselet. La roche 4 Fépin, 66.—J. Ladriére. Etude sur
les limons des environs de Bavay, 74.—C. Barrois. Lettre d’Amérique, 87.
—V. Lemoine. Recherches sur les oiseaux fossiles des terrains tertiaires
des environs de Reims, 94.—C. Barrois. Remarques sur le travail de
M. Prestwich, intitulé “On the Section of Messrs. Meux and Co.’s
Artesian Well in the Tottenham-court Road,” &c. &. (Q. J. G.S. 1878,
p- 902), 96.—De Mercey. Lettre 4 M. Ch. Barrois, 102.—Godin.
Sondage a Guise, 104.—Gosselet. Les résultats donnés par ce sondage,
105,—A. Six. L’Hozoon, 108.—Excursion de la Geologists’ Association
de Londres dans le Boulonnais, 113.—Gosselet. Description géolo-
gique du canton de Maubeuge, 129.—A. Rutot et EH. Vanden Broeck.
Quelques mots sur le quaternaire, 215.—C. Barrois. Discours prési-
dentiel, 228.—Ortlieb. Compte-rendu des travaux de la Société, 245.
—Gosselet. Compte-rendu de Vexcursion 4 Souchez, et exposé de la
géologie des environs de Lens, 255.—Desailly. Note sur les résultats
de quelques sondages exécutés au sud de la concession de Liévin,
265.—C. Barrois. Le marbre griotte des Pyrénées, 270.—J. Ladriére.
Etude sur les limons des environs de Bavai, 300.—J. Ortlieb. Réponse a
la note de MM. Rutot et Vanden Broeck ‘‘ Quelques mots sur le quater-
naire,” 306.—Gosselet. L’argile a silex de Vervins, 517.—C. Barrois. Sur
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a silex, 8340.—C. Barrois. Sur le terrain crétacé du bassin d’Oviedo

—_—— —-——,,

ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY. 124

(Espagne), 379.—Chellonneix. Note sur le limon des environs de Lens,
381.—Chellonneix. Note sur les deux limons, 382.—Gosselet. Nou-
veaux documents pour ]’étude du Famennien; tranchées de chemin de
fer entre Féron et Semeries.—Gosselet. Schistes de Sains, 389.—A. Six.
Compte-rendu de excursion du 14 au 19 avril 1879 dans les terrains
secondaires de l’Aisne et des Ardennes, 400.—A. Billet. Compte-rendu
de V’excursion géologique du 27 avril 1879 aux environs de Tournai,
427,—A. Six. Compte-rendu de Vexcursion des 11 et 12 mai 1879 a
Bruxelles et 4 Anvers, 431.—Legay. Compte-rendu de l’excursion aux
Cales-Séches, Anvers, 437.—C. Maurice. Excursion du 25 mai 1879
dans les terrains crétacés des environs de Mons, 438.—C. Barrois. Sur
quelques espéces nouvelles ou peu connues du terrain crétacé du nord
de la France, 449.—J. Gosselet. Notice nécrologique sur Jean-Baptiste-
Julien d’Omalius d’Halloy, 457.

L’Ingénieur Universel. The Universal Engineer. Vol. iv. Nos. 2-
25. 1880.

Linnean Society. Journal. Zoology. Vol. xiv. No. 80. 1879.

: , i* Vol. xv. Noval 1880"
A.C. Haddon. On the Extinct Land-Tortoises of Mauritius and Ro-
driguez, 58.

Botany. Vol. xvii. Nos. 102-105. 1879-80.

——. Transactions. 2nd Ser. Botany. Vol. i. Parts 6 & 7.
1879-80.

—. ——. ——. Zoology. Vol. i. Part 8. 1879.
ae Be ee.

Liverpool Geological Society. Proceedings. Session 19th (1877-78).
Vol. iii. Part 4. 1878. |

T. M. Reade. On the Geological Significance of the ‘ Challenger’ Dis-
coveries, 331.—W.Semmons. Notes on Chrysocolla, 342.—W. Semmons.
Notes on the Mineralogical Structure of some Cornish Granites, 350.—
C. H. Beasley. On the Microscopic Structure of the Carboniferous
‘Limestone, with reference to its mode of Deposition, 359.—T. M. Reade.
Some further Notes on the Submarine Forest at the Alt Mouth, 362.—
G. H. Morton. Section of Drift-beds observed in sinking for water at
‘Aughton, near Ormskirk, 370.—G. H. Morton. The Carboniferous Lime-
stone and Millstone Grit of North Wales, Llangollen, 371.

——. ——. Session 20th (1878-79). Vol.iv. Part 1. 1879.

W. Semmons.: On some Pseudomorphs of Chrysocolla after Ataca-
mite, 7.—C. Ricketts. On some remarkable Pebbles in the Boulder
Clay, 10.—A. Morgan. A Review of Dr. F. V. Hayden’s Geological and
Topographical Atlas of Colorado, with a Sketch of the Geology of North-
western America, 18.—A.Strahan. On some Glacial Strize on the North
Wales Coast, 44.—F. P. Marratt. Recent and Fossil Massa, 47.—D.
Mackintosh. On the Inter-Glacial Age of the Cave-Mammalia, 59.—
J.C. Brown. Analysis of Rock from the 1300 feet deep Bore-hole at
Bootle, 63.—T. M. Reade. Notes on the Scenery and Geology of Ireland,
64.

Liverpool. Historic Society of Lancashire and Cheshire. Transac-
tions. 3rd Ser.. Vol. vii. (1878-1879). 1879. > |

128 ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY.

Liverpool Naturalists’ Field Club. Proceedings, 1878-1879. 1879.
Presented by W. Whitaker, Esq., F.GS.

London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine. Series 5.

Vol. viii. Nos. 46-52, 1879. Presented by Dr. Francs, F.L.S.,

J. Perry and W. E. Ayrton. On a neglected Principle that may be

employed in Harthquake Measurements, 30.—J. Perry and W. EH. Ayrton.
On Structures in an Karthquake Country, 209.

Series 5. Vol.ix. Nos. 58-58. 1880.
W. Flight. Examination of two new Amalgams and a Specimen of

Native Gold, 146.—L. Fletcher. Crystallographic Notes, 180.—R. H.
Koch and Fr. Klocke. On the Motion of Glaciers, 274.

London Iron-Trades Exchange. Vol. xxiv. No. 1046. 1879.

Vol. xxv. Nos. 1047-1063, 1065-1072. 1879.
British Association. Section C, Geology, 265.

Voll xvi Nos 073-1087.) 180,

Formation. of Coal, 40.—T. Rupert Jones. Coal, 186, 167.—Russian
and English Coal, 384.

Lyons. Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle. Archives. Tome ii. 1879.
Purchased.

A. Locard. Description de la faune de la mollasse marine et d’eau douce

du Lyonnais et du Dauphiné, 1.—Lortet et KE. Chantre. Recherches sur

les Mastodontes et les faunes mammalogiques qui les accompagnent, 285.

Manchester. Geological Society. Transactions. Vol. vi. No. 9.
1867. |

———_

: : sie VOds enki 0)3

J. Aitken. On Preductus langollensis from the Eglwseg Rocks, Llan-
gollen, North Wales, 9.—J. Aitken. President’s Address, 11.—J. Eccles.
On Two Dykes recently found in North Lancashire, 26.—E. Hollies. On
a Specimen of the Homalonotus delphinocephalus, found at Dudley, 28.—
W. Boyd Dawkins. The Denbighshire Caves, 31.—J. Eccles. On some
Starfishes from the Rhenish Devonian Strata, 51.—Spencer. Millstone-
grit Rocks, 55.—J. Knowles. Observations on the Temperature at the
Pendleton Colliery, 72.—J.M. Fletcher. Observations on some Specimens
of Silver Ore from the State of Nevada, United States, 83.—J. Eccles.
On some Specimens showing the Identity of Productus humerosus, Sow.,
with Productus sublevis, De Kon., (No. 3) 1.—J. Currie. Observations
relative to the throw of the Pennine Fault, 2.—Excursion to Dove-Holes,
16.—J. Aitken. On the Pholas Boring Controversy, 31.

: : Woltecg sale

J. Aitken. President’s Address, 8.—J. Eccles. On some Seciions of
Permian Strata near Kirkby Stephen, 30.—D. Jones. The Spirorbis
Limestone in the Forest of Wyre Coalfield, 37.—J. Aitken. On Faults
in Drift at Stockport, Cheshire, 46.—J. Eccles. On the Relation of the
Sedimentary and Crystalline Rocks in the Chain of Mont Blanc, 70.—
J. Currie. Some Views on the Formation and Distribution of the Super-
ficial Accumulation over a northern Portion of the Pennine Chain, 88.—
W. Boyd Dawkins. On the Formation of the Caves around Ineleborough,
106.—J. Kerr. On Traces of Glacial Phenomena in the Upper Valley of
the River Irwell, in Rossendale, 116.—J. KE. Taylor. The Relation in

——_—__—_

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their Mode of Occurrence of the Paleolithic to the Neolithic Types of
Flint Implements, 126,

Manchester. Geological Society. Transactions. Vol. xi. 1872.
J. Knowles. President’s Address, 11.—G. C. Greenwell. On Anthra~-
cite, 20.—T. Livesey. On the Origin of Faults, 33—W. Boyd Dawkins.
On the Climate that prevailed during the Pleistocene Age, 47.—W. H.
Johnson. Notes on a Tour in the Lipari Islands in 1871, 538.—J. Aitken.
On the Traces of Glacial Action on Rock-surfaces at Clitheroe, 63.—
W. Boyd Dawkins. On the proposed Boring in the Weald of Sussex, 69,

—. . ——. Vol. xii. 1873.

J. Plant. On Neolithic Stone Implements from Venezuela, 17; Ex-.
cursion up the Valley of the Irwell, 26.—J. Aitken. Notes on an Ossi-
ferous Cavern recently discovered in the Carboniferous Limestone of
Staffordshire, 28.—J. Plant. On Human and Animal Remains in Caves
in North Lancashire, 34.—J. Aitken. On Slickensides on Millstone-grit
from Todmorden, 43.

——, ——. ——. Vol. xiv. Part 27. 1877.
J. F, Evans. On the Mines of the Parys Mountain, Anglesey, 357.

: Vol. xv. Parts 6-13. 1878-80.

J. Atherton. Notes on a recent Boring in Openshaw, near Manchester,
with Remarks on the Manchester Coalfield and the District to the East
of it, 137.—C. Livesay. Section of Strata at Bradford Colliery, 161.—
G. H. Kinahan. Diagram of the Irish Palzeozoic Rocks, showing a nearly
continuous sequence from the Coal-measures to the Cambrian, 176.—
J. Aitken. On the Occurrence of a Bed of Iron Pyrites in the Millstone
Grit in the Walsden Valley, near to the remains of an ancient bloomary,
185.—J. Crofton. Notes on the Geology of the Shap District, 234.—
R. Pennington. Upon the Arrangement of a Geological Museum, 247,—
J. Aitken. On the Discovery of an ancient Iron-mine in Cliviger, and
some further Remarks on the Remains of old bloomaries in the Neigh-
bourhood of Todmorden, 261.—J. M. Mello. Notes on the more recent
Discoveries in the Cresswell Caves, 290.

— —

Melbourne. Royal Society of Victoria. Transactions and Proceed-

mes, Vol. xv. 1879:
J. Cosmo Newbery. Formation of Hyalite by the Action of Ammonia,

_ 49,

Milan. Reale Istituto Lombardo di Scienze e Lettere. Rendiconti.
Serr. Vole xin 187s.

S. C. Taramelli Torquato. Del granito nella formazione serpentinosa
dell’ Appennino pavese, 63.—A. Verri. Sulla cronologia dei vulcani tir-
reni, e sulla idrografia della Val di Chiana anteriormente al periodo plio-
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di Trieste e sulla valle del fiume Recca, stabilite in oceasione di un pro-
getto di derivazione di questo fiume in citta, mediante una galleria di
14 chilometri, 289.—W. Korner. Analisi dell’ acqua minerale di Bace-
dasco nel Piacentino, 544.

—— -——, Memorie. Vol. xiv. Fasc. 2.. 1879.

——. Societa Italiana diScienze Naturali. Atti, Vol. xix. Fase. 4.
NSW Fe

|, =O, xx. Fasc. 3 & 4, 1879.

130 ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY.

Milan. Societa Italiana di Scienze Naturali. Atti. Vol. xxi.
Fase. 3 & 4. 1879.

P. Polli'e P. Lucchetti. Nuova analisi chimica dell’ acqua minerale
detta di S. Pancrazio in Trescore Balneario, provincia di Bergamo, 344.
—T. Taramelli. Appunti geologici sulla provincia di Belluno, 519.—
©. Marinoni. Contribuzioni alla geologia del Friuli, 647.—C. F. Parona.
Il pliocene dell’ Ollrepo pavese, 662.—N. Pini. Contribuzione alla fauna
fossile postpliocenica della Lombardia, 774.—N. Borghi. Sulla scoperta
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perta di una fauna e di una flora miocenica a facies tropicale in Monte
827.—L. Maggi. Catologo delle rocce della Valcuvia, 858.

Mineralogical Society. Journal. Vol. ii. No. 12*. 1879.
Heddle. Map of Shetland and brief Description.

Vol. ui. Nos. 13-16. 1879-80.

T. M. Hall. Contributions towards a History of British Meteorites, 1.
—M. F. Heddle. Geognosy and Mineralogy of Scotland, 18.—M. F.
Heddle. Preliminary Notice of supposed new Scottish Minerals, 57.—
T. Aitken. Note on the Modes of Occurrence and Localities of Abria-.
chanite, 69.—M. F. Heddle. On Haughtonite, a: new Mica, 72.—J. C.
Ward. On some Gold Occurrences, 85.—J. H. Collins. Additional Note
on Penwithite, 89.—J. H. Collins. Note on Christophite from St.
Aones, 91.—J. H. Collins. The History of a remarkable Gem, the
“ Maxwell-Stuart ” Topaz, 93,—J. Milne. List of Japanese Minerals,
with Notes on Species which are believed to be new, 96.—J. H. Jellett.
Measurements of Angles of Basaltic Columns in the Giant’s Causeway,
‘County of Antrim, made in 1877, 101.—H. C. Sorby. On the Cause of
the Production of different Secondary Forms of Crystals, 111.—A. E,
Arnold. Note on a Crystallized Slag isomorphous with Olivine, 114.—
T. Davies. Preliminary Note on Old “Rhyolites from Bouley Bay, Jersey,
118.—J. H. Collins. Note on the Minerals of the Island of Cyprus, 120.
—T. A. Readwin. Notes on some Minerals of the Mawddach Valley,
122.—M. F. Heddle. The Geognosy and Mineralogy of Scotland (the
Orkney Islands), 147, 220.—John Milne. Experiments on the Elasticity
of Crystals, 178.—C. 0. Trechman. On a probable Dimorphous Form of
Tin, and on some Crystals found associated with it, 186.—M. F. Heddle.
‘Note on Abriachanite, 195.—Marshall Hall and Heddle. On Ser-
pentinous Minerals from the Saas Thal and from Scotland, 252.—8. G.
Perceval. On the Occurrence of Celestine in New Red Marl near Sid-
‘mouth, 255. —

—

Minneapolis. Minnesota Academy of Natural Sciences. Bulletin,
for 1877, pp. 825-352. 1878.
_ N. H. Winchell. The Cretaceous in Minnesota, 347.

Montreal. Canadian Naturalist. N.S. Vol. ix. No.5. 1880.

. JT. S. Hunt. The History of some Pre-Cambrian Rocks in America
and Europe, 257.—J. T. Donald. The Helderberg Rocks of St. Helen’s
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and Titaniferous Tron Ore, 305,

Montrose. Natural-History and ieee Society. Report of
the Directors, January 1880. 1880.
H. Mitchell. - The Fossils of Forfarshire, 7.

ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY. I31

Moscow. Société Impériale des Naturalistes. Bulletin. Tome liii.
No. 4 de 1878. 1879.
H. Trautschold. Ueber den Jura von Isjum, 249.—A. T. Middendorff.
Ueber Salmiak-Gewinnung im Serafschan-gebiete, 265.

Tome liv. Nos. 1 et 2 de 1879. 1879.
H. Trautschold. Reiseberichte, 134. :

——. ome liv. No. 3 de 1879. 1879.
©. Milachévitch. Etudes Paléontologiques, Sur les couches & Ammo-
nites macrocephalus en Russie, 1.—H. Trautschold. Sur Vinvariabilité
du niveau des mers, 129.—H. Trautschold. Die geologischen Forschungen
in den Vereinigten Staaten von Nordamerika, 156. —
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H. Trautschold. Die Kalkbriiche von Myjatschkowa, eine monographie
des oberen Bergkalks, 1.
Munich. Ké6niglich-bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften. Ab-
handlungen. Band xiii. Abth. 2. 1879.
K. A. Zittel. Studien ther fossile Spongien, Abth. 3. Monactinel-
lidae, Tetractinellidae und Calcispongiae, I.
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Classe. 1879, Hefte 1-3. 1879.
Gumbel. Geoonostische Mittheilungen aus den Alpen, 33.

Nancy. Societé des Sciences. Bulletin. Série2. Tome iv. Fasc. 8.
1878.
D. A. Godron. Histoire des premiéres découvertes faites aux environs
de Toul et de Nancy de produits de l'industrie primitive de Vhomme, 47.
—Bleicher. Jssai sur les temps préhistoriques en Alsace, 56.

Nature. Vol. xx. Nos. 504-522. 1879.

G. F. Rodwell. The recent Eruption of Etna, 199.—J. W. Dawson.
The Genesis and Migration of Plants, 257.—Mobius on the Lozoon
Question, 272, 297.—W. B. Carpenter and Dawson. The Lozoon cana-

—_———,

dense, 328. ai, Sibree, jun. Observations on the Physical Geography and.

Geology of Madagascar, 368.—W. C. Williamson. On Sphenopha yllum,
Asterophyllites, and Calamites,375.— V olcanic Phenomena and Harthquakes
during 1878, 378.—P. M. Duncan. Opening Address, Section C, Geology,
British Association, 448.—British Association, Section Cc Geology, 469,
486; Section D, Department of Anthropology, 489. —0O. C. Marsh:
History and Methods of Paleontological Discovery, 494, 515.—R. R. Noel.
Bernhard von Cotta, 505.—G. F. Rodwell. Notes from Iceland, 582.—
R. A. C. Godwin-Austen. Paleozoic Rocks in South-east of England,
547.—W. Boyd Dawkins. The Antiquity of Man, 570.—Nordenskjold’s
Arctic wine! 606, 631.

———, Vol. xxi. Nos. 523-548, and Extra Number. 1879-80.
The Swedish North-east Passage Expedition, 37, 57.—A. Geikie. On
the Geology of the Far West, 67; Yale College and American Paleon
tology, 101.—The New Wealden Dinosaur, 155.—J.S8. Gardner. On the
Eocene Flora of Bournemouth, 181.—R. Abbay. —Note on a Consolidated
Beach in Ceylon, 184. —Geolosy of Greece, 192.—A. Geikie. Geological
Survey of the United States, 197, 612.—G. F. Rodwell. The History of
Vesuvius during the year 1879, 351.—H. A. A. Nicholls. The Volcanic
Eruption in Dominica, 372.—G. F. Rodwell. The Lipari Islands, 400.
—H.C. Sorby. The Structure and Origin of Stratified Rocks, 431.—
J. W. Judd. The Classification of the English Tertiaries, 448,—Pre-

cod

132 ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY.

historic Antiquities of the Austrian Empire, 457.—F’. Fuchs. On the
Asiatic Alliances of the Fauna of the ‘‘Congerian” Deposits of South-
eastern Hurope, 528.—W. King and T. H. Rowney. On the Origin of
the Mineral, Structural, and Chemical Characters of Ophites and related
Rocks, 529.—A. Gautier. The St. Gothard Tunnel, 581.—The Haster
Excursion of the Geologists’ Association to the Hampshire Coast, 590,—
Rey. James Clifton Ward, F.G.S., 614.

Nature. Vol. xxii. Nos. 549-555. 1880.

W. Jolly. The Parallel Roads of Lochaber, the Problem and its
various Solutions, 68.—A. Geikie. Rock-weathering as illustrated in
Churchyards, 104.—A Lacustrine Volcano, 129,

Neuchatel. Société des Sciences Naturelles. Bulletin. Tome xi.
Cahier 3. 1879. .

M. de Tribolet. Note sur l’origine des variétés filiforme et capillaire
de argent natif, 380.—M. de Tribolet. Note sur un glissement de terrain
qui s’est produit le 29 mars, 4 10 heures du soir, au Crét-Taconnet,
454.—M. de Tribolet. Note sur la présence d’une source minérale a
Valangen, 459.—Jaccard. Observations sur les roches utilisées par la
fabrique de ciment de St. Sulpice et sur les terres a briques du Jura, 486,
—M. de Tribolet. Note sur le cénomanien de Gibraltar (Neuchatel) et
de Cressier, avec un apercu sur la distribution de ce terrain dans le Jura,
500.—Desor. Les anciens glaciers des Alpes maritimes, 519.—Desor.
Effondrement curieux dans la colline glaciaire du Gibet, 525.—M. de
Tribolet. Sur Vorigine des fausses marmites de géants des bords du lac de
Neuchatel, 529.—M. de Tribolet. Notes géologiques et paléontologiques
sur le Jura neuchatelois, 531.

Neweastle-upon-Tyne. North-of-England Institute of Mining and
Mechanical Engineers. Transactions. Vol. xxviii. (1878-79).
lower

G. A. Lebour. Brief Notes on some of the Sections of the Carboni-
ferous Limestone Series of Northumberland, published in the first part of
the ‘‘ Account of Borings and Sinkings,” 3.—A. R. Sawyer. On Mining

at Saarbricken, with an Account of the Structure of the Coal-field, 9.—

J. D. Kendall. On the Hematite Deposits of West Cumberland, 107.

New Haven. Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences. Trans-
actions. Vol. vy. Part l. 1880;

New York. Lyceum of Natural History. Annals. Vol. xi. Nos.
9-12. 1876-77.
I. C. Russel. Notes on the Ancient Glaciers of New Zealand, 251.—
S. T. Barrett. Notes on the Lower Helderberg Rocks of Port Jervis,
N.Y., with Description of a New Pteropod, 290.

——. Academy of Sciences. Annals. Vol. i. Nos. 1-8. 1877-78.

H. C. Bolton. Application of Organic Acids to the Examination of
Minerals, 1.—S. T. Barrett. Descriptions of new Species of Fossils
from the Upper Silurian Rocks of Port Jervis, N.Y., with Notes on the
Occurrence of the Coralline Limestone at that Locality, 121.—J. 8. New-
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Newberry. Descriptions of new Paleozoic Fishes, 188.—I. C. Russell.
The Physical History of the Trias of New Jersey and the Connecticut
Valley, 220. :

Norwich Geological Society. Proceedings. Vol.i. Parts 3 and 4.
1879-80.
J Reeve. List of Fossils from the Norwich Crag at Bramerton, 69.—

ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY. 133

C. W. Beavan. Boring at Sutton Bridge Dock, Lincolnshire, 73.—W.
Marshall. Ona Prehistoric Canoe from the Peat near Lynn, 74.—S. B. J.
Skertchly. Interglacial Periods as Tests of Theories of Climate, 74.—
W. M. Crowfoot. On the Well-sections at Beccles, 76.—E. T. Dowson.
Note on the Crag at Dunwich, 80.—W. M. Crowfoot and E. T. Dowson.
List of Fossils from the Crag at Dunwich, 81.—F. Sutton. On Norfolk
Potable Waters, 83.—H. B. Woodward. Address of the President, 94.

Offenbach a. M. Offenbacher Verein fiir Naturkunde. 17. und 18.
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O. Bottger. Abbildungen seltener oder wenig bekannter Limneen des
Mainzer Beckens, (Mittheilungen) 13.

Paleontographical Society. Monographs. Vol. xxxiv. 1880. (2
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J. S. Gardner and C. von Ettingshausen. A Monograph of the
British Eocene Flora, Part 2.—T. Wright. Monograph of the British
Fossil Echinodermata of the Oolitic Formations, Vol. u., Part 3.—T.
Davidson. A Monograph of the British Fossil Brachiopoda, Vol. iv.
Part 3.—T. Wright. Monograph on the Lias Ammonites of the British
Islands, Part 3.—R. Owen. Monograph on the Fossil Reptilia of the
London Clay, Vol. 11. Part 1.

Palermo. Societa di Scienze Naturali ed Economiche. Bullettino.
Now 1879)

Paris. Annalesdes Mines. Série 7. Tome xv. 2° et 3° livr. de
Sons LSi7e.

Baills. Note sur les mines de fer de Bilbao, 209.—E. Mallard. Revue
des principaux travaux publiés sur la minéralogie pendant les années 1877
et 1878, 238.—Statistique de l'industrie minérale de la France, Production
des combustibles minéraux, des fontes, des fers, des tdles et des aciers
pendant année 1878, 384.—Revaux. Htude comparative des travaux
exécutés aux tunnels du Mont Cenis et du Saint-Gothard, 890.— Bulletin
des travaux de chimie exécutés par les ingénieurs des mines dans les
laboratoires départementaux d’Angers, de Caen, de Carcassonne, de
Clermont-Ferrand, de Marseille, de Méziéres, de Rodez, de Troyes, et de
Vic-Dessos, 476.—J. Szabo. Sur une nouvelle méthode pour distinguer
entre eux les divers feldspaths, Bulletin, 628.—J. Szabo. Le puits artésien
de Budapesth, Bulletin, 635.

‘ ; Tome xvi. 4¢°-6° livr. de 1879. 1879.

Wickersheimer. Note sur un gite de phosphate de chaux situé prés
de Cette, 283.—A. Carnot. Tableaux des essais de combustibles minéraux
faites au bureau d’essai de l’Ecole des Mines, 423.—H. Voisin. Mémoire
sur les sources minérales de Vichy et des environs, 488.

: . ——. Tome xvii. Ie lvr. de 1880.
Petiton. Note sur la mine de mercure du Siele (Toscane), 35.—

Delesse et de Lapparent. Extraits de géologie pour les années 1877 et
1878, 59.

——. Annales des Sciences Géologiques. Tome x. Nos. 1-4.
1879. Purchased.

C. Barrois. Mémoire sur le terrain crétacé du bassin d’Oviédo (Ks-

paene), No. 1.—G. Cotteau. Notice sur les Hchinides urgoniens, No. 2.—

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134 ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY.

Paris. Annales des Sciences Naturelles. Série 6. Zoologie et Pa-
léontologie. Tome vill. Nos. 4-6. 1879. Purchased.
H. E. Sauvage. Prodrome des plésiosauriens et des élasmosauriens
des formations jurassiques supérieures de Boulogne-sur-Mer, No. 18.

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1879. 1879. Presented by the Dépét de la Marine.

——. Association francaise pour ?Avancement desSciences. Compte-
rendu de la 6°Session (Le Havre, 1877). 1878. Purchased.

P. Broca. Les races fossiles de ’ Europe occidentale, 10.—Lennier.
La géologie normande, L’embouchure de la Seine, 38.—G. Cotteau.
L’exposition géologique et paléontologique du Havre, 66.—H. HE. Des-
lonechamps. . Le Jura normand, 458.—Lennier. Carte géologique de
Normandie, Géologie normande, 458.—L. Rolland-Banés. Des moyens
de développer et d’accroitre la richesse minérale de la France, 459.—H.
Meurdra. Etude sur la régime des sources du Havre, 467.—G. Cotteau.
Considérations générales sur les Cidarzs du terrain jurassique de Nor-
mandie, 479.—Moriére. Le lias dans le département de l’Orne, son
étendue, ses fossiles, 482.—G. de Tromelin. Etude des terrains paléo-
zoiques de la Basse-Normandie, particuliérement dans les départements
de ’Orne et du Calvados, 495.—A. Pomel. Géologie de la province de
Gabés et du littoral oriental de la Tunisie, 501.—Des Cloizeaux. Sur
Vexistence et sur les caractéres optiques, cristallographiques et chimiques
du microcline, nouvelle espéce de feldspath triclinique a base de potasse,
508.—Brylinski et Lionnet. Les phosphates de chaux natif, leurs gise-
ments, leur origine, 516.—Grand’Hury. Mémoire sur la formation de la
houille, 517.—H. Varambaux. Géologie du canton d’Ku, 526.—Potier.
Le tunnel du Pas-de-Calais au point de vue géologique, 530,—C. Barrois.
Note sur le terrain dévonien de la province de Léon (Espagne), 536.—E.,
Jannettaz. Relations entre les axes d’elasticité, ceux de propagation
pour la chaleur, et les directions principales de cohésion, 540.—Julien et
de Saporta. Sur l’existence du terrain permien dans le département de
l’Allier, 546.—Letellier. Notice sur le Museé d’Histoire naturelle de la
ville d’Alencon, 547.—Pellat. Comparaison des niveaux kimmeridgien
et portlandiens au Havre et dans le Bourbonnais, 551.—J. M. Mello.
Les cavernes quaternaires de Creswell, Angleterre, 702.—C. Grad.
Notice sur Vhomme préhistorique en Alsace, 713.—Ollier de Marichard.
L’homme 4 l’époque du Grand Ours des cavernes, 750.

Association francaise pour VAvancement des Sciences.
Compte-rendu de la 7° Session (Paris, 1878). 1879. Pur-
chased.

Willm. Sur la composition des eaux de Challes et de Royot, 377.—
S. de Luca. Recherches chimiques sur les produits de la solfatare de
Pouzzoles, 386.—Mme. Clémence Royer. La chaleur centrale du globe
déduite du principe de la corrélation des forces, 466.—A. Daubrée. Expé-
riences relatives 4 la chaleur qui a pu se développer par les actions méca-
niques dans les roches, et particuliérement dans les argiles, 5381.—L.
Besnou. Examen d’un nouveau minerai de mercure sublimé corrosif
natif, 5338.—Comte de Limur. Notes sur quelques substances minérales
ou gisements dans les Hautes-Pyrénées, 536.—Rey Lescure. Phosphates
de chaux du Quercy; Dislocations et plissements dans les terrains du
sud-ouest, 539.—A. Daubrée. Sur Vorigine du phosphore dans ses dif-
férents gisements, et en particulier dans ceux du Quercy.—A. F. Nogués.
Carte géologique du département des Pyrénées-Orientales, 547.—Des
Cloizeaux. Note sur les dépdts de quartz résinite dans la vallée de
Saint-Nectaire, 552.—Douyville. Sur les relations des sables de l’Orléa-

ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY, 135

nais, des sables de la Sologne et des faluns de la Touraine, 557.—A.
Favre. Sur une défense d’éléphant trouvée prés de Genéve, 563.—
Renault. Structure comparée des tiges de Lépidodendrons et Sigillaires,
563.—Moriére. Sur les empreintes offertes par les grés siluriens dans le
département de l’Orne et connues vulgairement sous le nom de “pas de
boeuf,” 570.—Comte de Saporta. Types de végétaux paléozoiques nou-
veaux et peu connus, 576.—M. Grand’Eury. TFeuilles et chatons des
Calamodendrées, 578.—F. Molon. Rapports synchroniques des flores
tertiaires francaises avec celles des Préalpes vénitiennes, 580.—Danton.
Sur le métamorphisme des roches, 584.—A. Helland. Observations sur
les glaciers du nord du Groenland et sur la formation des icebergs, 588.
—G. H. Cotteau. Notice sur les Hchinides de l’étage sénonien du dépar-
tement de l’Yonne et leur répartition dans les différentes.zones, 592.—
A. Gaudry. Des services que l’étude de Vévolution peut rendre pour la
détermination des terrains, 597.—D. J. Vilanova. y Piera. Les kaolins
de la province de Toléde; Le granit de Vile d’Elbe, 597.—G. de Tro-
melin. Présentation du Supplémeut au Catalogue des fossiles siluriens de
VAnjou et de la Bretagne méridionale, 600.—B. de Chancourtois. Sur
les alignements géologiques, 600.—G. de Tromelin. Les terrains paléo-
zoiques de Vouest de la France, €05.—F. Fontannes. Classification du
terrain tertiaire supérieur du bassin du Rhone, 605.—J. Capellini. Les
couches & Congéries dans les environs d’Ancéne, 606.--Tournouér. Sur
quelques coquilles marines recueillies par divers explorateurs dans la ré-
gion des Chotts sahariens, 608.—E. Riviére. Grotte de Grimaldi en Italie,
622.—A. Jaccard. Note sur la carte géologique du Jura (partie centrale
et septentrionale) exposée dans la section Suisse, au Champ de Mars, 639.
—E. Cartailhac. Quartzites du type de Saint-Acheul 4 Toulouse, 832.
—C. Ribeiro. Quelques mots sur lage de la pierre en Portugal, 595.

Paris. Dépdt de la Marine. Annuaire des Marées des cétes de
France pour lan 1880. 1879.

——,. Journal de Conchyliologie. Sér. 3. Tome xix. Nos. 2-4. .
1879. Purchased.

R. Tournouér. Description de quelques nouvelles espéces de coquilles
fossiles des terrains tertiaires de l’Espagne et du Portugal, 168.—J. De-
pontaillier. Diagnose d’une nouvelle espéce de Nassa des argiles bleues
de Biot, prés Antibes, 177.—P. Fischer. Subdivisions des Ammonites,
217.Cossmann. Description de deux espéces nouvelles du tongrien
des environs d’Etampes, 346.

, 1 ——. Womexx. Nos.1 &2. 1880. Purchased.
D. Gehlert. Les Brachiopodes siluriens de la Bohéme d’aprés les tra-
vaux de M. Barrande, 86.—R. Tournouer. Conchyliorum fluviatilium
fossilium, in stratis tertiariis superioribus Rumanie collectorum nove
species, 96.—L. Morlet. Supplément a la Monographie du genre Ringi-
cula, Deshayes, 150.—G. Vasseur. Diagnoses Molluscorum fossilium
novorum, 182.—E. Munier-Chalmas. Diagnosis generis novi Mollus-
corum Cephalopodorum fossilis, 188.

Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle. Nouvelles Archives. Sér. 2.
Tome ii. Fase. 1&2. 1879.
B. Renault. Structure comparée de quelques tiges de la flore carbo-
nifére, 213.

Rapports annuels, 1878. 1879.

——. Revue Scientifique de la France et de ’Etranger. Série 2.
Tome xvi. No. 52. 1879.

136 ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY.

Paris. Revue Scientifique de la France ef de l’Ktranger. Série 2.
Tome xvii. Nos. 1-26. 1879. ,

Zeillers. L’éruption de l’Etna, 35.—A. d’Assier. Périodicité des
époques elaciaires, leur influence perturbatrice sur l’évolution de l’huma-
nité, 77.—A. Gaudry. Les enchainements du monde animal (les mam-
miféres tertiaires), 129.—René Bréon. L’éruption de I’Etna, 150.—G. de
Saporta. Un fossile contesté, 187.—La géologie expérimentale d’aprés
M. Daubrée, 212.—C. Vogt. L’ Archeopteryx macroura, un intermédiaire
entre les oiseaux et les reptiles, 241.—H. Hermite. La géologie des iles
Baléares, 259.—B. Renault. Structure comparée de quelques tiges de la
flore Carbonifére, 8309.—G. de Saporta. Le monde des plantes avant
V’apparition de Vhomme, 339.—Le volcan de Santorin, d’aprés M. Fouqué,
396.
. . ——. Tome xviii. Nos. 27-51. 1880.

La géologie expérimentale d’aprés M. Daubrée, 777.—J. Thoulet.
Essai sur la minéralogie d’Homére, 1012.—G. de Mortillet, Les précur-
seurs de ’homme et les singes fossiles, 1135.

. Société Géologique de France. Bulletin. Série 3. Tome y.
pp. 863-898 (1876-77). 1879.

Fontannes. Sur l’age de la mollasse de Sainte-Juste (Dréme), 863.
Tome vi. Nos. 6-8. 1879.

Daubrée. Mesure prise par ]’Académie des Sciences pour la conserva-
tion des blocs erratiques situés sur le territoire francais, 326.—Coquand.
Observations sur la note de M. Peron sur les calcaires 4 Echinides de Ren-
nes-les-Bains, 326.—Coquand. Sur les terrains tertiaires et trachytiques
de la vallée de l’Arta (Turquie d’Europe), 337.—-Coquand. Notice géolo-
gique sur les environs de Panderma (Asie-Mineure), 347.—Daubrée.
Expériences tendant a imiter les diverses formes de ployements, de con-
tournements et de fractures que présentent les terrains stratifiés, 357.—
P. Choffat. Sur le callovien et l’oxfordien dans le Jura, 358.—F. Cu-
vier. Note sur la stratigraphie de l’extrémité sud du Jura et des mon-
tagnes qui lui font suite en Savoie, aux environs du Fort-l’Ecluse, 364,—
Blandet. Chronologie des excentricités, 371.—Papier. Sur le gisement
précis de l’ Aippopotamus hipponensis, 389.—Daubrée. , Traits de ressem-
blance entre les incrustations zéolithiques et siliceuses formées par les
sources thermales a l’époque actuelle et celles qu’on observe dans les
roches amygdaloides et autres roches voleaniques décomposées, 391.—
Jannettaz. Sur des argiles et des minerais de fer de la Guyane francaise,
92.—Tardy. Lssai sur lage des silex taillés de Saint-Acheul et sur la
classification de l’époque quaternaire, 401.—Tardy. Essai sur les oscilla-
tions des époques miocéne, pliocéne, et quaternaire, 416.—Potier. Sur
la composition de quelques roches éruptives des environs de Fréjus, 430.
—Tournouér. Allocution présidentielle, 451.—P. Fischer. Notice sur
la vie et les travaux d’Alcide dOrbigny, 484.—J. Gosselet. Notice
nécrologique sur Jean-Baptiste-Julien d’Omalius d’Halloy, 453.—Fon-
tannes. Les terrains néogénes du plateau de Cucuron (Vaucluse), Ca-
denet, Cabriéres-d’Aigues, 469.—Fontannes. Description de quelques
espéces et variétés nouvelles des terrains néogénes du plateau de Cucuron,
513.—C. Barrois. Sur le terrain cretacé dela province d’Oviedo (Hspagne),
530.—H. Hermite. Etude préliminaire du terrain silurien des environs
d’Angers (Maine-et-Loire), 581.—H. Hermite. Sur la présence du
silurien supérieur 4 la Meignanne prés d’Angers, 544.—Lory. Sur J’uni-
formité de constitution et de structure de divers massifs primitifs des
Alpes, 546.—A. Daubrée. Expériences relatives a la chaleur développée
dans les roches par les actions mécaniques, particuliérement dans les

—

ADDITIONS 10 THE LIBRARY. 137

argiles, conséquences pour certains phénoménes géologiques, notam-
ment pour le métamorphisme, 550.—Parran. Sur les dolomies juras-
siques des Cévennes, 564.—Cornet. Découverte d’ossements dans un
puits naturel du bassin houiller de Mons, 565.—H. Douvillé. Note sur
le bathonien des environs de Toul et de Neufchateau, 568.

Paris. Société Géologique de France. Bulletin. Série 3. Tome vii.
Nos.3 & 4. 1879.

G. de Saporta. Le monde des plantes avant Vapparition de homme,
99.—H. Jannettaz. Note sur une Ammonite transformée en argent natif,
99.—Tournouer. Notes paléontologiques sur quelques-uns des terrains
tertiaires observés dans la Réunion extraordinaire de la Société 4 Fréjus
et a Nice, 103.—M. Neumayr. Remarques sur la classification du juras-
Sique supérieur, 104.—A. Locard. Sur les argiles lacustres quaternaires
de la vallée du Rhone, 108.—A. Daubrée. Application de la méthode
expérimentale a l’étude des déformations et des cassures terrestres, 108.
—A. Daubrée. Application de la méthode expérimentale a l'étude des
caractéres de divers ordres que présente le relief du sol, 141.—A. Dau-
brée. Expériences sur l’action et la réaction exercées sur un sphéroide
qui se contracte, par une enveloppe adhérente et non contractile, 152.—
Leymerie. Description géognostique du versant méridional de la Mon-
tagne-Noire dans l’Aude, 157.—J. de Morgan. Note sur les terrains
erétacés de la vallée de la Bresle, 197.—_J. Lambert. Note sur la craie
du département de l’Yonne, 202.—H. Hermite. Note sur la position
qu’occupent a l’ile Majorque les Terebratula diphya et T. jamtor, 207.—
H. Vanden Broeck. Quaternaire et diluvium rouge, 209.—P. Fischer.
Note paléontologique sur la mollasse de Cucuron (Vaucluse), 218.—
Tournouer. Sur les rapports de la mollasse de Cucuron avec les mol-
lasses de l Anjou et de l’Armagnac, 229, 544.—Tournouér. Sur la mol-
lasse miocéne de Forcalquier (Basses-Alpes), étude paléontologique, 237.
—G. Cotteau. Note sur les Cidaridées jurassiques de la France, 246.—
Terquem. Observations sur les Foraminiféres du terrain tertiaire pari-
sien, 249.—H. Douvillé. Note sur quelques genres de Brachiopodes
(Terebratulidee et Waldheimiidze), 251.

—. ; . ——. Tome viii. No.1. 1880.

P. Brocchi. Sur un Crustacé fossile recueilli dans les schistes d’Autun,
5.—A. de Lapparent. Note sur la Pegmatite de Luchon, 11.—Lory.
Note sur les grahulites des environs de Guérande et les terrains stratifiés
dela pointe de Piriac (Loire-Inférieure), 14.—A. de Lapparent. Note
sur un gisement de Trilobites découvert par M. Maurice Gourdon aux
environs de Luchon, 17.—N. de Mercey. Composition .des sables de
Bracheux et mode d'origine de l’argile plastique, premier produit d’une
émanation terminée par le dépdot du calcaire de Mortemer, d’aprés des
coupes du chemin de fer de Compiégne (Oise) & Roye (Somme), 19.—H.
Arnaud. Lignites de Saint-Cyprien (Dordogne), 82.—P. Fischer. Sur’
des fossiles de Licata (Sicile), 33.—A. de Lapparent. Note sur l’argile
a silex, 35.—A. Toucas. Du terrain crétacé des Corbiéres, et compa-
raison du terrain crétacé supérieur des Corbiéres avec celui des autres
bassins de la France et de Allemagne, 39.

—___—

Penzance, Royal Geological Society of Cornwall. Transactions.
Wolexe ) Part 2. 1630,
A. P. Vivian. Presidential Address, li—C. Le Neve Foster. Notes
on the Van Mine, 33.—J. H. Collins. Onthe Geological Structure of the
northern Part of the Meneage Peninsula, 45.—W. A. E. Ussher. On
the Recent Geology of the Cornish Coast near Padstow, 58.
VOL. XXXVI. 0

138 ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY.

Pest. K6nigliche ungarische geologische Anstalt. Mittheilungen
aus dem Jahrbuche. Bandi. Hefte 1&2. 1872.

M. v. Hantken. Die geologischen Verhiltnisse des Graner Braunkoh-
lengebietes, 1.—K. Hofmann. Die geologischen Verhaltnisse des Ofen-
Kovacsier Gebirges, 149.—A. Koch. Die geologische Beschreibung des
Sz.-Andra-Vissegrader und des Pileser Gebirges, 237.

——, ——. ——. Bandii. Heft 1. 1872.
O. Heer. Ueber die Braunkohlenflora des Zsily-Thales, in Sieben-
birgen, 1.

: . ——. Bandi. Hefte1,3,&4. 1874-1875.

J. Bockh. Die geologischen Verhaltnisse des stidlichen Theiles des
Bakony, 2. Theil, 1.—M. von Hantken. Neue Daten zur geologischen und
palaontologischen Kenntniss des stidlichen Bakony, 389.—K. Hofmann,
Die Basaltgesteine des stidlichen Bakony, 1.

_——. Band iv. Hefte 1-3. 1875-76.
M. von Hantken. Die Fauna der Clavulina-Szaboi-Schichten, 1. Theil,
Foraminiferen, 1.—S. Roth. Die eruptiven Gesteine des Fazekasboda-
Moragyer Gebirgszunges, 1.—J. Bockh. Brachydiastematherium transil-

vanicum Bkh. et Maty, ein neues Pachydermen-Genus aus den eocinen
Schichten Siebenburgens, 125.

——. : Band y. Hefte 1&2. 1876.

O. Heer. Ueber permische Pflanzen von Funfkirchen in Ungarn, 1.—
F. Herbich. Das Széklerland mit Beriicksichtigung der angrenzenden
Landestheile, geologisch und palaontologisch beschrieben, 19.

——, ——. ——. Bandvi. Heft 1. 1876.
_ J. Bockh. Bemerkungen zu der “Neue Daten zur geologischen und
palaontologischen Kenntniss des stidlichen Bakony ” betitelten Arbeit, 5.

——. Magyar kiralyi foldtani intezet Evkonyve. Koteti. 1871.

M. Hantken. Az esztergomi barnaszénteriilet foldtani viszonyai, 3.
A. Koch. A Szt.-Endre-Vissegradi és a Pilis hegység foldtani leirasa,
141.—K. Hofmann. A buda-kovacsi hegység foldtani viszonyai, 199.—
F. Herbich. Eszakkeleti Erdélyfoldtani, 275.—H. Pavay. Kolozsvar
kornyékének foldtani viszonyat, 327.

: Kotet ii. Fizet 1&2. 1872. ‘
O. Heer. Az erdelyben fekvo zsily-volgyi barnakoszén-viranyrél, 1.—
J. Bockh. A Bakony déli részének foldtani viszonyai, 1. Resz, 31.

. ——. Kotetii. Fiizet 1,2, &4. 1874-75.

J. Bockh. A Bakony déli részének foldtani viszonyai, 2. Resz, 1.—E.
Pavay. A budai marga asatag Tuskonczei, 165 (also in German and
French).—M. Hantken. Uj adatok a déli Bakony fold- es oslénytani
ismeretéhez, 1.

——. ——. Kotetiv. Fizet 1-3. 1875-76.

M. Hantken. A Clavulina-szaboi retegek faunaja, 1. Resz, Foramini-
ferak, 1—J. Bockh. Brachydiastematherium transilvanicum Bkh. et
Maty, egy uj Pachyderma nem Erdélyeocen retegeibol, 1.—S. Roth.
Fazekasboda-Moragyi Hegylane (Baranyamegya) eruptiv kozetei, 1.

Philadelphia. Academy of Natural Sciences. Proceedings, 1879.
1879-80.

J. Leidy. Fossil Remains of a Caribou, 32.—V. W. Lyon. Descrip-
tions of three new Species of Calceolide from the Upper Silurian Rocks

—_—S

ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY. 139

of Kentucky, 43.—E. D. Cope. On the Genera of Felide and Canidae,
168.—E. Goldsmith. On Amber containing fossil Insects, 207.—A.
Heilprin. On some new Eocene Fossils from the Claiborne marine For-
mation of Alabama, 211.—A. Heilprin. A Comparison of the Hocene
Mollusca of the South-eastern United States and Western Europe in
relation to the Determination of identical Forms, 217.

Philadelphia. American Philosophical Society. Proceedings. Vol.
xvi. Nos. 102 & 103. 1879.

©. A. Ashburner. Oil-well Records in M‘Kean and Elk Counties,
Pennsylvania, 9.—E. D. Cope. On some of the Characters of the Miocene
Fauna of Oregon, 63.—F’. Prime, jun. The Glacial Moraine of North-
ampton Co., Pa., 84.—P. Frazer, jun. On the Physical and Chemical
Characteristics of a Trap, 96.—J. P. Lesley. On the Dolomite Limestones
at Harrisburg, 114.—O. A. Derby. The Geology of the Lower Amazons,
155.—F. Patt. Character of some Sullivan-County Coals, 186.—H.
Phillips, jun. On the Harthqnake at Aix-la-Chapelle, August 20, 1878,
216.—L. Lesquereux. On Cordaites bearing Fruit, 222.—O. A. Derby.
On the Diamantiferous Region of Parana, Brazil, 251.

Photographie Society of Great Britam. Journal. N.S. Vol. iv.
Nos. 1-7. 1879-80.

Physical Society. Proceedings. Vol. iii. Parts 2&3. 1879-80.

Pisa. Societa toscana di Scienze Naturali. Atti. Vol.iv. Fasc, 1.
1879.

C. J. Forsyth Major. Materiali per servire ad una storia degli Stam-
becchi, 1—A. Manzoni e G. Mazzetti. Le spugne fossili di Montese, 57,
—C.de Stefani. Le acque termali di Pieve Fosciana, 72.—R. Lawley.
Resti fossili della Selache trovati a Ricava, 104.—C. J. Forsyth Major.
Alcune parole sullo Spherodus cinctus di Lawley, 110.—G. Meneghini.
Descrizione dei nuovi Cefalopodi titonici di Monte Primo e di Sanvicino,
131.—A. D’Achiardi. Nuova specie di Zrochocyathus nella calcaria
titonica di Monte Primo presso Camerino nell’ Appennino centrale, 139.

‘ Processi verbali. Vol. i. Pp. lxxix-cxxx. 1879.
A. d’Achiardi e Funaro. Su di alcune particolarita di certi feldispati
della Calabria e loro analisi chimica, xciv.—G. Grattarola. Studi cristal-
lografici, ottici e chimici sopra alcuni minerali, xevii—C. J. Forsyth
Major. Cervi pliocenici del Val d’Arno superiore,c.—C. de Stefani.
Sull’ origine dei diaspri, ci. G. Meneghini. Fossili titoniani di Lom-
bardia, civ.—S. de Bosniaski. Cennisopral’ordinamento cronologico degli
strati terziarii superiori nei monti livornesi, Nuovi pesci fossili della
formazione gessosa, cxili—R. Lawley. Nuovi denti fossili di Notidanus
reperiti ad Orciano Pisano, cxxi.—C. de Stefani. Origine delle paludi
postplioceniche ed attuali della Toscana e dell’ Umbria, cxxvii.

; Vol. 11. Pp. 1-64. 1879-80.

J). Pantanelli. Nuova miniera di antimonio nella provincia di Siena, 4.
Sui travertini della provincia di Siena, 4.—G. Grattarola. Orizite e
Pseudonatrolite, due nuove specie del sottordine delle Zeolite, 7.—F,
Sansoni. Le zeolite del granito di San Piero in Campo (Elba), 9.—G.
Meneghini. Fossili oolitici di Monte Pastello nella prov. di Verona, 11.
—C.de Stefani. Sulla formazione delle vallate nei terreni pliocenici della
Toscana e dell’ Umbria, 21.—D. Pantanelli. Fossili dei diaspri, 27.—L.
Acconci. Di una caverna fossilifera scoperta a Cucigliana,e di alcuni
resti fossili appartenenti ai generi Hyena e Felis, 30.—C. de Stefani.
Sui terreni eocenici dei monti livornesi e della Castellina, 32.—M. Cana-
02

I40 ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY.,.

vari. Sulla presenza del trias nell’ Appennino centrale, 33.—A. Manzoni.
Echinodermi fossili pliocenici, 88.—L. Acconci. Continuazione dello
studio dei resti fossili rinvenuti nella caverna di Cucigliana. Ordine dei
carnivori: famiglia dei Canidi, 41.—C. de Stefani. La panchina recente
tra Livorno e Civitavecchia ed il suo sollevamento attuale, 42.—D. Pan-
tanelli. Osservazione sopra una comunicazione del sig. Fuchs, 43.—L.
Busatti. Lignite di Magliano, 44.—M. Canavari. Sulla pretesa dolomia
a Gastrochene (?) nell’ Appennino centrale del signor Giovanni Battista
Villa, 46.—A. d’Achiardi. Sul gabbro rosso e rocce diasprine che vi si
comettono, 57.—D. Pantanelli. Radiolarie dei diaspri, 58.—D. Panta-
nelli. Gli strati litorali terrestri e salmastri del pliocene inferiore in
Toscana, 58.—D. Pantanelli e De Stefani. Radiolarie di Santa Barbera
in Calabria, 59.—M. Canavari. Studi microscopici sui calcari e sulle
marne di alcuni lembi di lias superior dell’ Italia media e settentrionale,

60.—L. Acconci. Cenni geologici sulla caverna fossilifera di Cucigliana,
61.

Plymouth. Devonshire Association. Report and Transactions.
i Vol wxitartey 9)

T.M. Hall. History of the Classification and Nomenclature of the North
Devon Rocks, 180.—T. M. Hall. On the Geology of the Ilfracombe
Coast-line, 276.—A. R. Hunt. On a Block of Granite from the Saleombe
Fishing Grounds, 311.—W. Pengelly. The Metamorphosis of the Rocks
extending from Hope Cove to Start Bay, South Devon, 319.—T. M. Hall.
Nates on some Errors relating to North Devon, 352.—P. O. Hutchinson.
Fossil Plant, 388.—W. A. E. Ussher. On the Deposits of Petrockstow,
in Devon, 422.—T. M. Hall. Note on the Occurrence of Granite Boulders
near Barnstaple, and of a Vein of Granitoid Rock at Portledge, 429.—W.
Downes. The Limestones of Westleigh and Holcombe Rogus, 433.—
W. Pengelly.—Notes on Recent N otices of the Geology and Palponnaes
of Devonshire, 525.

Plymouth Institution. Annual Report and Transactions. Vol. vii.
Party) lei g:

‘Briggs, Extinct Giant Birds of the Southern Hemisphere, 50.—R. N.
Worth. The Bone Caves of the Plymouth District, 87.

Popular Science Review. N.S. Vol. ii. Nos. 11 &12. 1879.
Purchased. :

R. Etheridge. The Position of the Silurian, Devonian, and Carboni-
ferous Rocks in the London Area, 279.—F. W. Rudler. On Jade and
kindred Stones, 337.—J. Martin. The Geysers, Hot Springs, and Ter-
races of New Zealand, 366.

. Vol.iv. Nos. 138 & 14. 1880. Purchased.

C. Onlant Notes on the Argentine Republic, 1.—H.G.Seeley. The
Dinosauria, 44.—J.W. Judd. The Classification of the Tertiary Deposits,
122.

one Maresseanien Club. Journal. Nos. 40 & 41. 1879.
——. Nos. 42 & 43. 1880.

Ray Society. A Monograph of the Free and Semiparasitic Copepoda
of the British Islands. By G. 8S. Brady. Vol. ii. 8vo.
1880.

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_ 0. A. Derby. Contribugoes para a geologia da regiaéo do Baixo Ama-
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Rome. Reale Accademia dei Lincei. Atti. Serie 3. Memorie.
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770.—A. Cossa. Sul serpentino di Verrayes in Valle d’Aosta, 933.—
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: : : : Volsin,) 1879:

G. Moro. Le foci del Tevere, 3.—A. Cossa. Sulla diffusione del
cerio, del lantano e del didimio, 17.—E. Bechi. Su la composizione
delle rocce della miniera di Montecatini, 63.—G. Capellini. Gli strati a
Congerie e le marne compatte mioceniche dei dintorni di Ancona, 139.—
C. Tommasi-Crudeli. Della distribuzione delle acque nel sottosuolo dell’
Agro romano e della sua influenza nella produzione della malaria, 183.—
G. Capellini. Balenottera fossile delle Columbaie presso Volterra, 205.—
D. Lovisato. Sulle chiuzigiti della Calabria, 221.—D. Pantanelli. Sugli
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309.—D. Lovisato. Nuovi oggetti litici della Calabria, 329.—M. Baretti.
Studi geologici sulle Alpi graje settentrionali, 407,

: : ; i Wolaivanenhsi7o)

P. di Tucci. Saggio di studi geologici sui peperini del Lazio, 357.

: : : Transunti. Vol. iii. Fase.7. 1879.
Striiver e Scacchi. Relazione sulla Memoria di P. di Tucci, “I
peperini del Lazio,” 206.—A.Cossa. Sul feldispato corindonifero del Biel-
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Ministro di Agricoltura, Industria e Commercio sopra l’eruzione dell’ Etna
avvennta il 26 maggio e giorni seguenti, 257.

‘ : ; : . Vol. iv. Fase. 1-6. 1879-80.
L. Cresti e B. Lotti. Studi sopraisoffioni boraciferi della Toscana, 33.
—G. 8. G. Flamini. Sugli scavi eseguiti nella caverna di Frasassi, 35.
—F, Giordano. Sul bacino siluriano del sud-ovest della Sardegna, 37,—

142 ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY.

M. Canavari. Sulla presenza del trias nell’ Appennino centrale, 37.—
Ruggiero Panebianco. Sui monti del comune di Narni, 42.—A. Cossa.
Sulla eufotide dell’ isola d’Elba, 43.—A. Cossa. Sulla composizione
chimica dei sei campioni di serpentino della Toscana, 73.--A. de Zigno.
Sopra un cranio di coccodrillo scoperto nei terreni eocenici del Veronese,
73.—R. Meli. Sui dintorni di Civitavecchia, note geologiche, 89.—P. Sil-
vestri. Sopra un pulviscolo meteorico, contenente abbondante quantita di
ferro metallico, piovuto a Catania la notte dal 29 al 30 marzo 1880, 163.

Rome. KR. Comitato Geologico. Bollettino. Vol.ix. 1878. |

P. Zezi. Cenni intorno ai lavori del Comitato geologico nel 1877, 3.
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10.—C. de Stefani. Sulle serpentine e sui graniti eocenici superiori dell’
Alta Garfagnana, 19.—B. Lotti. Una sezione geologica attraverso il
Monte di Murlo presso Siena, a proposito dell’ epoca delle serpentine dell’
Italia centrale, 39.—G. Ponzi. I monti della Tolfa ela regione circostante,
34,—A. Corsi. Di alcune prehniti della Toscana, 54.—B. Lotti. I] gia-
cimento antimonifero della selva presso Pari, le putizze e le sorgenti sul-
furee di Petriolo e il giacimento ramifero del Santo, 83M. Vacek.
Sulla geologia dei Sette Comuni nel Veneto, 90.—A. Bittner. Sulla
geologia dei Tredici Comuni al nord di Verona, 95.—A. Bittner. Il terreno
terziario di Marostica nel Veneto, 101.—A. de Zigno. Sui sirenoidi fossili
dell’ Italia, 105.—T. Fuchs. Intorno alla posizione degli strati di Pikermi,
110.—S. Ciofale. Poche parole sui terreni dei dintorni di Termini-Ime-
rese, 114.—A. Issel. Zeolite ed aragonite raccolte nei filoni cupriferi
della Liguria, 116.—D. Lovisato. Cenni geognostici e geologici sulla
Calabria settentrionale, 155, 347, 468.—A. Ferretti. Sopra i vuleani di
fango e le argille scagliose del Modenese, 174.—E. Hébert e Munier-
Chalmas. Nuove ricerche sui terreni terziarii del Vicentino, 187.—
P. Zezi. Le nuove specie minerali studiate e descritte nell’ anno 1877,
196.—A. Issel. tame nativo epigenico sopra un dente di squalo e frus-
toli di piante convertite in limonite, 226.—B. Lotti. Il Monte Amiata,
251, 363.—M. Canavari. Le grotte di Sant’ Eustachio presso Sanseverino-
Marche, appunti geologici sull’ Appennino centrale, 261.—C. de Giorgi.
Appunti geologici sulle miniere di Monte Sferuccio nell’ Aquilano, 272.—
S. Ciofalo. Alcune osservazioni sul miocene di Ciminna, 281.—H. Re-
nevier. Sulla struttura geologica del gruppo del Sempione, 286.—
D. Pantanelli. LBibliografia geologica e paleontologica della pro-
vincia di Siena, 300.—D. Pantanelli e B. Lotti. Sui marmi della Mon-
tagnola Senese, 384.—C. de Stefani. Sull’ epoca degli strati di Pikermi,
396.—C. Dolter. Il vulcano di Monte Ferru in Sardegna, 406.—Blan-
chard. Sulle miniere di stagno di Campiglia, 480.—Pio Mantovani.
Aleune osservazioni sui terreni terziari dei dintorni de Reggio, Calabria,
443.—M. Canavari. Cenni geologici sul Camerinese e particolarmente
su di un lembo titonico nel Monte Sanvicino, 488.—E. Stohr. Sulla po-
sizione geologica del tufo e del tripoli nella zona solfifera di Sicilia, 497,
—C. Schwager. Note su alcuni foraminiferi nuovi del tufo di Stretto
presso Girgenti, 519.—L’Esposizione Universale ed ii Congresso geologico
internazionale del 1878 in Parigi, 541.

Royal Agricultural Society of England. Journal. Second Series.
Vol. xv. Part 2. No. 30. 1879.

——. ——, ——. Vol. xvi. Part 1, No. 31._ 1880.
Royal Astronomical Society. Memoirs. Vol. xli. 1879.
——, ——. Vol. xliv. (1878-79). 1879.

ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY. 143

Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Journal. New
Series. Vol. xi. Part 3. 1879.

«) Wola.» Partsidinga2ee S80;

Royal College of Surgeons of England. Catalogue of the Specimens
illustrating the Osteology and Dentition of Vertebrate Animals,
recent and extinct, contained in the Museum.—Part I. Man:
Homo sapiens, Linn. By W. H. Flower. 8vo. 1879.

Reyal Geographical Society. J ournal. Vol. xlviii. 1878.

W. J. Gill. Travels in Western China and on the Kastern Borders of
Tibet, 57.—J. A. Skertchly. A Visit to the Gold-fields of Wassaw, West
Africa, 274.

Proceedings. Vol. i. Nos, 7-12. 1879.

A, Geikie. Geographical Evolution, 422.—J. Thomson. Notes on
the Geology of Usambara, 558.—J. Sibree, jun. History and Present
Condition of our Geographical Knowledge of Madagascar, 646.

: Vol. ii. Nos. 1-6. 1880.

Recent Volcanic Eruption at the Grand Souffriére, in the Island of
Dominica, 363.

Royal Institution of Great Britain. Proceedings. Vol.ix. Part 2.
Nowe; 1879.

Royal Microscopical Society. Journal. Vol. ii. Nos.5-7a. 1879.
Vol. iii. Nos. 1-3. 1880.

Royal Society. Catalogue of Scientific Papers, 1864-73. Vol. viii.
Ato. London, 1879.

——. Philosophical Transactions. Vol. clxvui. 1879.

N.S. Maskelyne. Petrology of the Collections from Rodriguez, 296.
—H. H. Slater. Observations on the Bone-Caves of Rodriguez, 420.—
A. Giinther and E. Newton. The Extinct Birds of Rodriguez, 423.—
E. Newton and J. W. Clark. On the Osteology of the Solitaire (Pezo-
phaps solitaria, Gmel.), 438.—A. Giinther. The Extinct Reptiles of
Rodriguez, 452.

. Vol. clxix. Part 2. 1879.
W. C. Williamson. On the Ossetian on of the Fossil Plants of the
Coal-measures, Part [X., 319.

: Vol. He Rant F879.
G. H. Darwin. On the Bodily Tides of Viscous and Semielastic
Spheroids, and on the Ocean Tides upon a Yielding Nucleus, 1.

=) Voltchkx, Barhi2. 13850.
J. Prestwich. On the Origin of the Parallel Roads of Lochaber, id
their Bearing on other Phenomena of the Glacial Period, 663.

Proceedings. Vol. xxix. Nos. 196-199. 1879.

J. Prestwich. On the Origin of the Parallel Roads of Lochaber, and
their Bearing on other Phenomena of the Glacial Period, 6.—W. Kine
and T. H. Rowney. On the Origin of the Mineral, Structural, and Che-
mical Characters of Ophites and related Rocks, 214,—C. von Hitings-
hausen. Report on Phyto-Paleeontological Investigations on the F ossil
Flora of Sheppey, 388.

: Vol. xxx. Nos. 200-204. 1880.
C. von Ettingshausen. Report on Phyto-Palzontological Investi-

I44 ADDITIONS 10 THE LIBRARY.

gations of the Fossil Flora of Alum Bay, 228.—R. Owen. Description
of some Remains of the Gigantic Land-Lizard (Megalama prisca, Ow.)
from Australia, Part II., 304,—A. Hart Everett, John Evans, and G.
Busk. Report on the Exploration of the Caves of Borneo, 310.

Rugby-School Natural-History Society. Report for the year 1879.
1880.
T. B. Oldham. On the Annelids found in the Lias near Rugby, 10.
—T. B. Oldham. The Middle Lias as exposed near Crick, 23.

St. Petersburg. Académie Imperiale des Sciences. Bulletin.
Tome xxiii. No.1. 1877.
J. Mouchketof. Les volceans de l’Asie centrale, 70.

: . ——. Tome xxv. Nos.4&5. 1879.

J. Schmalhausen. Beitrage zur Jura-Flora Russlands, 345.—G. v.
Helmersen. Beitrag zur Kenntniss der geologischen und physikogeo-
graphischen Verhaltnisse der Aralo-Kaspischen Niederung, 513.

1 Nomemexi. SNe wn mloous

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J. F. Brandt. Tentamen synopseos Rhinocerotidum viventium et fos-
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ee Pome x xe, NiO. .), ceeye

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EH. Favre. Fossiles des couches tithoniques des Alpes friliguieeenes
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Die Steinkohlenformation und deren Flora an der Ostseite des Todi.

Society of Arts. Journal. Vol. xxvii. Nos. 1388-1408. 1879.

F. Toplis. Suggestions for dividing England and Wales into Watershed
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SE aust Penning. Ditto, 742.—D. "'T. Ansted. Ditto, 761.—E. Hull.
On the Underground Water-Supply of Villages, Hamlets, and County
Parishes of the Central and Eastern Counties of England, 824, —Joseph
Lucas. Watershed Lines, Subterranean Water-ridges, 829.

Vol. xxviii. Nos. 1409-1439. 1879-80.

Society of Biblical Archeology. Proceedings. Vol. i. (1878-79).
1879.

—

Vol. vi. Part 2. 1879.

Stuttgart. Neues Jahrbuch fiir Mineralogie, Geologie und Palion-
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Val. von Moler. Ueber die bathrologische Stellung des jungeren
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die Sierra de Monchique, 270.—F. Klocke. Ueber die optische Structur
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Swansea. South-Wales Institute of Engineers. Proceedings.
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Sydney. Linnean Society of New South Wales. Proceedings.
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s Vol. iv. Parts 1-3.° 1879. :

J. HE. Tenison-Woods. On some Tertiary Fossils, 1.—J. E. Tenison-
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Royal Society of New South Wales. Journal. Vol. Pils
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Toulouse. Société d’Histoire Naturelle. “Bulletin. 1879, fasc. 1.

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Trinity College, London. Calendar for 1879-80. 1879.
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Turin. Osservatorio della Regia Université. Bollettino. Anno xiii.
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——. Reale Accademia delle Scienze. Atti. Vol. xiv. Disp. 4-7.
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Memorie. Serie 2. Tomo xxxi. 1879.
University College. Calendar (Session 1879-80). 1879.

Victoria Institute. Journal of the Transactions. Vol. xiii. Nos.
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———,) Vol, Xivai NO. de: esd.

———

146 ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY.

Vienna. Berg- und hiittenmiannisches Jahrbuch der k.-k. Berg-
akademien zu Leoben und Prbram und der kéniglich un-
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1879,

R. Helmhacker. Kurze Uebersicht der geologischen Verhaltnisse
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Band xxviii. Heft 1. 1880.

-_—. Kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschaften. Anzeiger. 1879,
Nos. 15-24. 1879.
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——. ——. 1880, Nos. 1-10. 1880.

us ‘Neumayr und Frank Calvert. Die jungen Ablagerungen am
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Denkschriften. Mathematisch-naturwissenschaft-
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Fr. v. Hochstetter. Ueber einen neuen geologischen Aufschluss im
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Sitzungsberichte. Abth. 1. Band Ixxvi. Heft 5.

1878.
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oe, ee, Band dasa, ettegl = 5n manemen

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—. Kaiserlich-kénigliche geologische Reichsanstalt. Abhand-
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——. Band xii. Heft 1. 1879.
R. Hérnes “und M. Auinger. Die Gasteropoden der Meeresabla-

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gerungen der ersten und zweiten miocinen Mediterranstufe in der dster-
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Vienna. Kaiserlich-konigliche geologische Reichsantalt. Jahrbuch.
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C. M. Paul. Neue Studien in der Sandsteinzone der Karpathen, 189,

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—. : Band xxx, Nomis 1330:
Th. Andrée. Die Umgebungen von Majdan Kuéaina in Serbien, 1.—
E. Reyer. Vier Ausfliige in die Eruptivmassen bei Christiania, 27.—E.
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Ueber rhatische Brachiopoden, 149.

: Verhandlungen. 1879, Nos. 9-16. 1879.

M. Neumayr. Mastodon arvernensis aus den Paludinen-Schichten
Westslavoniens, 176.—V. v. Zepharovich. Miemit von Zepce in Bosnien
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das Murmelthier aus den diluvialen Lehmlagern von Prag, 183.—
T. Fuchs. Anthracotherium aus dem Basalttuff des Saazer Kreises,
185.—T. Fuchs. Weiche Conchyliengehause im Alt-Ausseer See, 186.—M.
V.Lipold. Das Alter der Idrianer Quecksilbererzlagerstatte, 186.—E. von
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Schichtenreihen am sudéstlichen Rande des Rakonitzer Beckens, 194.—
R. Hornes. Conus lochstettert, 200.—E. Reyer. Tektonik der
Granitergtisse von Neudeck und Carlsbad, 201.—O. Lenz. Die Jura~-
schichten von Bukowina, 201.—H. Fugger. Gasausstromungen in dem
Torfmoor von Leopoldskron, 202.—F. Bassani. Ueber einige fossile Fische
von Comen, 204.—C. M. Paul. Aus den Umgebungen von Dobojund
Maelaj, 205.—F. v. Hauer. Hin neues Vorkommen von Colestin im
Banate, 215.—G. Stache. Ueber die Verbreitung silurischer Schichten
in den Ostalpen, 216.—S. Roth. Hine eigenthtimliche Varietat des
Dobschauer Griinsteins, 223.—K. Feistmantel. Ueber Cyclocladia major
Lindl. et Hutt., 226.—G. Laube. Die Sammlung von Silur-Verstei-
nerungen des Herrn M. Dusl in Beraun, 230.—A. Pereira. Die Aetna-
Eruption, 231.—E. Tietze. Aus dem Gebiete zwischen der Bosna und
Drina, 232,—C, vy. John. Ueber einige Eruptivgesteine aus Bosnien,

148 ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY.

239.—J. Sieber. Hin Beitrag zur Kenntniss der Flora der Diatomaceen-
schiefer von Kutschlin bei Bilin, 341.—R. Scharizer. Notizen wtber
einige dsterreichische Mineralvorkommnisse, 243.—A. M. Petz. Quartir-
Formation in Thracien, 248.—F. v. Hauer. Melaphyr vom Hallstatter
Salzberge, 252.—K. v. Mojsisovics. Reise-Skizzen aus Bosnien, 254.—
A. Bittner. Route Sarajevo-Mostar, 257.—E. Tietze. Route Vares-
Zwornik, 260.—C. M. Paul. Ammonitenfiinde im Karpathen-Sandsteine,
261.—J. Niedzwiedzki. Miocan am Sutdwestrande des galizisch-podo-
lischen Plateaus, 263.—H. Bucking. Ueber das Tertiar am Ostfusse des
Vogelsberges, 268.—T. Fuchs. Beitrage zur Kenntniss der pliocinen
Saugethierfauna Ungarns, 269.—T. Fuchs. Beitrage zur Flyschfrage, 271.
—R. Raffelt. Geologisches auf der Ausstellung in Teplitz, 273.—F. Toula.
Kleine Beitrage zur Kenntniss des Randgebirges der Wienerbucht, 275,—
O. Lenz. Reiseberichte aus Ostgalizien, 280.—E. v. Mojsisovics. Reise-
Skizzen aus Bosnien, 282.—KE. Tietze. Aus dem d6stlichen Bosnien, 283.
—A. Bittner. Aus der Herzegowina, 287.—Bernhard v. Cotta, 295.—
H. Engelhardt. Flora des Thones von Preschen, 296.—T. Fuchs. Ueber
die lebenden Analoga der jungtertiaren Paludinenschichten und der
Melanopsismergel Stidosteuropas, 297.—G. Stache. Die Umrandung des
Adamellostockes und die Entwicklung der Permformation zwischen Val
Buona Giudicaria und Val Camonica, 300.—A. Bittner. Reisebericht
aus der Herzegowina, 310.—J. Kusta. Der Brandschiefer von Velhota,
320.—E. von Dunikowski. Das Gebiet des Strypaflusses in Galizien,
321.—Engelhardt. Ueber Cyprisschieferpflanzen Nordbohmens, 321.—
E. Reyer. Ueber die Eruptivgebilde und das Relief der Gegend von
Christiania, 323.—C. M. Paul. Ueber die Lagerungsverhaltnisse von
~ Wieliczka, 323.—L. Szajnocha., Die Brachiopodenfauna der Oolithe von
Balin bei Krakau, 324.—J. Kusta. Die Farbe des Rothliegenden in den
verschiedenen Formationen bei Rakonitz und Laun, 335; Verkieseltes
Holz in der Wittingauer Tertiarebene, 337; Die aiteren Anschwem-
mungen von Broum, 338.—R. Lepsius. Ueber Dr. Stache’s Reisebericht,
betreffend die Umrandung des Adamello-Stockes, 339.—G. Stache. Er-
widerung auf die voranstehende Kritik meines Reiseberichtes tiber die
Umrandung des Adamello-Stockes, 344—F. v. Hauer. Vorlage des
ersten im Druck vollendeten Blattes der geologischen und Gruben-
Revierkarte yon Teplitz-Dux-Bilia, 351.—T. Fuchs. Ueber die prasu-
mirte Unvollstandigkeit der palaontologischen Ueberlieferung, 355.—H.
Tietze. Die Mineralreichthimer Persiens, 357.

Vienna. Kaiserlich-kénigliche geologische Reichsanstalt. Ver-
| handlungen. 1880, Nos. 1-9. 1880.

Jahresbericht des Directors Hofrath Fr. Ritter v. Hauer, 1.—M. vy.
Hantken. Arbeiten der k. ungarischen geologischen Anstalt im Jahre
1879, 12.—R. Hornes. Die Unvollstandigheit der palaontologischen
Ueberlieferung, 17.—C. v. Hauer. Krystallogenetische Beobachtungen,
20.—E. v. Mojsisovics. WVorlage der geologischen Uebersichtskarte von
Bosnien-Hercegovina, 23.—R. Hornes. Das Auftreten der Gattungen
Oliva, Ancillaria, Cyprea, Ovula, Erato und Eratopsis in der ersten und
zweiten Mediterranstufe, 33.—G. Zechenter. Der der Bergstadt Kremnitz
drohende Hausereinsturz, 37.—M. White. Kiinstliche zufallig erzeugte
Minerale, 38.—T. Fuchs. Ueber einige Grunderscheinungen in der geo-
logischen Entwickelung der organischen Welt, 39.—A. Brezina. Kiinst-
liche Kalkspathzwillinge, 45.—R. Hornes. Das geologische Alter der
Eruptivgesteine von Gleichenberg, 49.—J. Stoklasa. Chemische Studien ~
tiber die Kreideformation in Bohmen, 53.—M. Vacek. Ueber die Sand-
steinzone der Karpathen, 58.—T. Fuchs. Ueber die sogenannten Muta-
tionen und Zonen in ihrem Verhaltnisse zur Entwickelung der organischen

ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY. 149

Welt, 61.—Fr. von Hauer. Nickelgymnit von Pregratten, 66.—V. Uhlig.
Ueber die Juraablagerungen in der Umgebung von Briinn, 67.—F. Teller.
Ueber einen neuen Fund von Cervus alces in den Alpen, 69.—E. Doll.
Zum Vorkommen des Diamants im Itakolumite Brasiliens und in den
Kopien Afrikas, 78.—M. Neumayr. Paladontologie und Descendenzlehre,
83.—G. Wundt. Ueber Kugelconcretionen aus dem Kreidegestein bei
Vils, 88.—M. Neumayr. Tertiar aus Bosnien, 90.—F. Teller. Ueber die
Aufnahmen im Gebiete zwischen Etsch und Hisack, 91.—E. Hussak.
Die tertiaren Eruptivgesteine der Umgegend von Schemnitz, 98.—F.
Standfest. Zur Geologie des Ennsthales, 107.—G. C. Laube. Notiz tiber
das Vorkommen von Cervus megaceros im Torfmoore “Soos”’ bei Fran-
zeusbad, 113.—H. Engelhardt. Ueber Pflanzen aus dem tertiairen Sand-
stein von Waltsch in Bohmen, 118.—V. Hilber. Geologische Aufnahmen
im ostgalizischen Tieflande, 114—A. Renard. Ueber die in grossen
Tiefen des stillen Oceans von der Challenger-Expedition aufgesammelten
Sedimente, 116.—R. Hornes. Das Auftreten der Gattungen Marginellu,
Rinyicula, Voluta, Mitra und Columbella in den Ablagerungen der ersten
und zweiten miocainen Mediterranstufe der osterr.-ungar. Monarchie, 121.
—G. Stache. Die geologischen Verhaltnisse der Gebirgsabschnitte im
Nordwesten und Sidosten des unteren Ultenthales in Tirol, 127.—J. V.
Melion. Der neue Andersdorfer Sauerbrunnen, 187.—G. Stache. Ueber
die Trinkwasserfrage von Pola in Istrien, 140.—H. v. Foullon. Ueber
Minerale fiihrende Kalke aus dem Val Albiole in Sudtirol, 146.—-C. Clar.
Notiz iiber das Eruptionsgebiet von Gleichenberg, 152.

Vienna. Mineralogische und petrographische Mittheilungen. Neue
Folge. Band iu. Hefte 3-6. 1879-80. Purchased.

C. Dolter. Ueber die Constitution der Pyroxengruppe, 193.—R. Helm-
hacker. Einige Mineralien aus der Gruppe der Thone, 229.—E. Ludwig
und J. Mauthner. Chemische Untersuchung der Karlsbader Thermen,
269.—J. Szabo. Urvoleyit, Kupferkalkhydrosulphat, ein neues Mineral
von Herrengrund (Ungarn), 311.—H. Hofer. Die hohlen Gerolle und
Geschiebeindriicke des Sattnitz-Conglomerates bei Klagenfurt, 825.—K.
Hidegh. Chemische Analyse ungarischer Fahlerze, 350.—J. Rumf.
Ueber den Krystallbau des Apophyllits, 369.—F. Becke. Ueber die
Zwillingsbildungen und die optischen EKigenschaften des Chabasit, 391.
—-V. Hansel. Mikroskopische Untersuchung der Vesuvlava vom Jahre
1878, 419.—F. Becke. Hin neuer Polarisations-Apparat von E. Schneider
in Wien, 430.—H. von Foullon. Ueber Eruptivgesteine von Recoaro,
449,—F. E. Geinitz. Zur Systematik der Pseudomorphosen, 489.—G.
Tschermak. Zur Theorie der Zwillingskrystalle, 499.

——. Zoologisch-botanische Gesellschaft. Verhandlungen, 1879.
Band xxix, 41880; :

Washington. Smithsonian Institution. Annual Report for the
Mae yest L8/75.0 Uns.

——, ——. Miscellaneous Collections. Vol. xiii. 1878.
Vol. xiv. 1878.
Vol. xv. 1878.

Watford Natural-History Society and Hertfordshire Field-Club.
Transactions. Vol. ii. Parts 5-7. 1879-80.

J. Logan Lobley. The Study of Geology, 171.—J. Hopkinson. On the

Recent Discovery of Silurian Rocks in Hertfordshire, and their Relation

to the Water-bearing Strata of the London Basin, 241.

—_——_— ——_—_—=
e

150 ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY.

Wellington, N. Z. New-Zealand Institute. Transactions and Pro-
ceedings. Vol. xi. (1878). 1879.

J. von Haast. On the Geological Structure of Banks Peninsula, being
an Address, 495.—J. A. Pond. Notes on a Salt-spring near Hokianga,
512.—S. Percy Smith. Notes of a Traditional Change in the Coast-line
at Manukau Heads, 514.—J. G. Maxwell. On some of the Causes which
operate in Shingle-bearing Rivers in the Determination of their Courses
and in the Formation of Plains, 524.—S. H. Cox. Some Notes on the
D’Urville-Island Copper-mjne, 525.—J. Hector. On the Fossil Flora of
New Zealand, 536.—J. Hector. On the Fossil Brachiopoda of New
Zealand, 537.

Wellington College Natural-Science Society. Ninth Annual Report
(1878). 1879. Presented by W. Whitaker, Esq., F.GS.
T. Rupert Jones. Limestones and other Calcareous Rocks, 20.—R.
Elrington. List of Fossils, 69.
West-London Scientific Association and Field-Club. Annual Report
for 1878-79. 1879.

Winchester and Hampshire Scientific and Literary Society. Journal
of Proceedings. Vol. ii. Part 2. 1879. Presented by W.
Whitaker, Esq., F.GS.

York. Natural-History Journal. Vol. ui. Nos.8&9. 1878. Pre-
sented by W. Wiataker, Esq., F.G.S.

-——. ——-. Vol. iii. Nos. 1,8, & 9. 1879. Presented by W.
Whataker, Esq., GS.

Zoological Society. Catalogue of the Library. 8vo. London, 1880.

List of the Vertebrated Animals now or lately living in the
Gardens. First Supplement, containing Additions received in

1879.
——. Proceedings. 1879, Parts 2-4. 1879-80.

——. . 1880; Part 1.” 1880:

F. J. Bell. On Paleolampas, a new Genus of the Echinoidea, 43.—
G. Neyill. On the Land-Shells, extinct and living, of the Neighbourhood
of Menton (Alpes-Maritimes), with Descriptions of a new Genus and of
several new Species, 94.

Transactions. Vol. x. Part 13. 1879.

, Dy Viola xin) Parte eso:

R. Owen. Description of a Portion of Mandible and Teeth of a large
extinct Kangaroo (Palorchestes crassus, Ow.) from ancient fluviatile Drift,
Queensland, 7.

2. Booxs.
Names of Donors in Itahes.

Achiardi, A. d’. Sulla calcite della Punta alle Mele fra 8. Tlario
eS. Piero nell’ isola d’Elba. 8vo. Pisa.

Adams, A. L. Notes of a Naturalist in the Nile Valley and Malta.
Svo. Edinburgh, 1870. Purchased.

ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY. 151

Alabama. Geological Survey. Report of Progress for 1876. By
K. A. Smith. 8vo. Montgomery, Alabama, 1876. Presented
by W. Whitaker, Esq., GS.

Algiers. Instructions nautiques sur les cdtes de LAlgérie par
Mouchez. 8vo. Paris, 1879. Presented by the Dépot des Cartes
et Plans de la Murine.

America, Central. Instructions nautiques sur les cétes ouest du
Centre-Amérique et du Mexique par A. Pailhés. 8vo. Paris, 1879.
Presented by the Dépot des Cartes et Plans de la Marine.

Anderson, R. Lightning Conductors, their History, Nature, and
_ Mode of Application. 8yvo. London, 1879.
Anon. Vestiges of the Natural History of the Creation. 11th

edition. 8vo. London, 1860. Presented by W. Whitaker, Esq.,

Bayer, A. Ueber die chemische Synthese. 4to. Munich, 1878.

Presented by the K.-6. Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Miinchen.

Ball, V. On Stilbite from Veins in Metamorphic (Gneiss) Rocks in
Western Bengal. 8vo. Dublin, 1878.

Barrande, J. Brachiopodes. Etudes locales. Extraits du Systéme
silurien du Centre de la Bohéme. Vol. V. 8vo. Prague, 1879.

Systéme Silurien du Centre de la Bohéme. 1° Partie:
Recherches Paléontologiques. Vol. V. Classe des Mollusques.
Ordre des Brachiopodes. Text let Pl.la‘71. 4to. Prague,
1879.

Pl. 72-153. 4to. Prague, 1879.

Barrows, C. y Geological Sketch of the Boulonnais. 8yvo. London,
1879.

——. Discours présidentiel 4 la séance extraordinaire du 22 juin
1879 4 Lens. 8vo. Lille, 1879.

—. Le marbre griotte des Pyrénées. 8vo. Lille, 1879.

Mémoire sur le terrain erétacé du bassin W’Oviddo, Es-
_ pagne; et Appendice paléontologique, Description des Echinides
par G. Cotteau. 8vo. Paris, 1879.

. Sur l’étendue du systeme tertiaire inférieur dans les Ardennes
et sur les argiles 4 silex. 8vo. Lille, 1879.

Belgium. Commission de la Carte Géologique. Notice explicative
servant de complément 4 la carte géologique des environs de
* Lennick-St.-Quentin, parG. Velge. S8vo. Brussels, 1880.

——. Commission de la Carte Géologique de la Belgique. Texte
explicatif du levé géologique des planchettes d’Hoboken et de
Contich, par Baron O. Van Ertborn avec la collaboration de
M.P. Cogels. 8vo. Brussels, 1880.

Binney, E. W. Notes on a Bore through Triassic and Permian
_ Strata, lately made at Openshaw. 8vo. Manchester, 1880.

SZ ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY.
Binney, E. W. Notes on some Fossils from the Iron Mines of Furness.
8vo. Manchester, 1879.

Blanford, H. F. The Rudiments of Physical Geography for the |
use of Indian Schools. ‘7th edition. S8vo. London, 1878. Pur-
chased. |

Blum, J. R. Die Pseudomorphosen des Mineralreichs. 8vo. Stutt-
gart, 1843. Purchased.

——. Erster Nachtrag. 8vo. Stuttgart, 1847. Purchased.
——. -——. Dritter Nachtrag. 8vo. Erlangen, 1868. Purchased.

——. Vierter Nachtrag. 8vo. Heidelberg, 1879. Pur-
chased.

Borre, A. P. de. - Note sur le Breyeria borinensis. 8vo. Brussels.
1879.

Boulay, ? Abbé. | Recherches de Paléontologie végétale sur le terrain
‘houiller des Vosges. 8vo. Colmar,1879. Purchased.

Bourjot, A. A. Géogénie du double massif du Sahel d’Alger et des
promontoires qui limitent ses rivages. 8vo. Algiers, 1879.

Boyd, P. Nelson. Coal Mines Inspection, its History and Results.
8vo. London, 1879.

Buchanan, J. Manual of the Indigenous Grasses of New Zealand!
' 8vo. Wellington, N. Z., 1880. Presented by the Colonial Museum
and Geological-Survey Department.

Burat, Amedée. Voyages sur les cotes de eee 8vo. Paris,
1880. Purchased.

Canada. Geological Survey. Report of Progress for 1877-78. Text
and Atlas. 8vo. Montreal, 1879.

Capellini, G. Balenottera fossile delle Colombaie presso Volterra.
Ato. Rome, 1879.

. Breccia pea della caverna di Santa Teresa nel lato ori-
* entale del golfo di Spezia. 4to. Bologna, 1879.

. Gli strati a Congerie e le marne compatte mioceniche dei
dintorni di Ancona. 4to. Rome, 1879.

Cape-Verd Islands. Instructions nautiques sur les iles ‘ae Cap
Vert, par C. P. de Kerhallet et A. le Gras. “8yo. Paris, 1879.
Presented by the Dépéot des Cartes et Plans de la Marine.

Carpenter, W. B. Land and Sea considered in relation to Geo-
logical Time. 8vo. London, 1880.

Cassell’s Natural History. Edited by P. M. Dune Vol. IIT.
Ato. London, 1879. Presented by Messrs. Cassell, Petter, and
Galpin.

Cochinchina. Annuaire des Marées de la Basee fochinehanes et du
Tong-kin pour l’an 1880. 24mo. Paris, 1879. Presented by
the Dépot des Cartes et Plans de la Marine.

ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY. 153

Coquand, H. Notice géologique sur les environs de Panderma,
Asie-Mineure. 8vo. Paris, 1878.

——, Observations sur la Note de M. Péron sur les caleaires 4
Echinides de Rennes-les-Bains. 8vo. Paris, 1878.

——. Sur les terrains tertiaires et trachytiques de la vallée de-
VArta, Turquie d'Europe. 8vo. Paris, 1878.

Cossa, Alfonso. Sulla determinazione delle formole mineralogiche
di alcuni carbonati romboedrici misti. 4to. Turin, 1869. Pre-
_ sented by John Ball, Esq. :

Sulla diorite quarzifera porfiroide di Cossato nel Biellese.
Ato. Rome, 1876. Presented by John Ball, Esq.

Sulla predazzite periclasifera del Monte Somma. 4to. Rome,
1876. Presented by John Ball, Esq.

Sulla Molibdenide del Biellese. Ato. Rome, 1877. Pros
sented by John Ball, Hsq.

Sul serpentino di Verrayes in Valle dell’ Aosta. Ato. Rome,
1878. Presented by John Ball, Esq.

——, Sulla diabase peridotifera di Mosso nel Biellese. 4to. Rome,
1878. Presented by John Ball, Esq.

Ricerche chimiche su minerali e roccie dell’ isola di Vulcano.
Ato. Rome, 1878. Presented by John Ball, Esq.

——. §ui cristalli microscopici di rutilo contenuti in una eclogite
di Val Tournanche. 8vo. Turin, 1879. Presented by John
- Ball, Esq.

Sulla diffusione del cerio, del lantano e del didimio. 4to.
Rome, 1879. Presented by John Ball, Esq.

, Sulla eufotide dell’ isola d’Elba. 4to. Rome, 1880. Pre--
sented by John Ball, Esq.

——. Sulla composizione di aleuni serpentini della Toscana. . 4to.
Rome, 1880. Presented by John Ball, Esq.

Cotteau, G. Description des Echinides du calcaire grossier de Mons.:
Ato. Paris, 1878.

—, Notice sur les Echinides de l’étage sénonien du département

de l’Yonne et leur, répartition dans les différentes zones. 8vo.

Paris, 1878.

Considérations sur les Echinides de feraee cénomanien de
- PAlgérie. Ato. Paris, 1879.

——. Les sciences anthropologiques a Reposition Universelle de
1878. 8vo. Auxerre, 1879. |

. Note sur les Cidaridées jurassiques de la France. 8vo.
Paris, 1879.

. Sur les. Salénidées du terrain jurassique de la France. 4to.-
Paris, 1879.
VOL, XXXVI. Pp

154 ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY.

Cotteau, G. Echinodermes réguliers. (Paléontologie Francaise.)
Terrain Jurassique. Livr. 42,43. S8vo. Paris, 1879 and 1880.

Cotteau, Péron, et Gauthier. Echinides fossiles de Algérie. Fasc. 5.
Etage Cénomanien. 8yo. Paris, 1879.
Fasc. 6. Etage Turonien. 8yo. Paris,

1880. Purchased.

Cotter, J. C. B. Fosseis das bacias terciarias marinas do Tejo, do
Lado e do Algarve. 8vo. Lisbon, 1879.

Croll, James. My. Hill on the Cause of the Glacial Epoch. 8vo.
London, 1880.

Daubrée, A. Etudes synthétiques de Géologie expérimentale.
Partie 2. Application de la méthode expérimentale a l’étude de
divers phénomeénes cosmologiques. 8vo. Paris, 1879.

Séance publique annuelle des cing Académies de I’Institut

' de France. Discours présidentiel. 4to. Paris, 1879.

Davidson, T. Sur les Brachiopodes tertiaires de Belgique. (Tra-
duit de anglais par 7. Lefevre.) 8vo. Brussels, 1874.

——. Qvwest-ce qu'un Brachiopode? (Traduit de Vanglais par
T. Lefevre.) 8vo. Brussels, 1875. |

Davies, D.C. A Treatise on Metalliferous Minerals and Mining.
8vo. London, 1878. Presented by W.S. Dallas, Esq., PLS.

Dawkins, W. Boyd. arly Man in Britain and his Place in the
Tertiary Period. 8vo. London, 1880. .

Dawson, J. W. Mébius on Hozoon canadense. S8yvo. New Haven,
1879.

——. The Quebec Group of Sir William Logan. 8vo. Montreal,
1879.

——. Fossil Men and their modern Representatives. 8vo. London,
1880.

: The Story of the Earth and Man. 6tk edition. 8vyo.
London, 1880.

Note on recent Controversies respecting Hozoon Canadense.
8vo. Montreal.

Decken, C. C. von der. Reisen in Ost-Afrika. Band III. Wis-
senschaftliche Ergebnisse. 3. Abtheilung: Geologie &. 8yo.
Leipzig, 1879. Purchased.

Delesse, A. Explosion d’acide carbonique dans une mine de houille.
4to. Paris, 1879.

Dewalque, G. Notice explicative sur la carte géologique de la Bel-
gique et des provinces voisines. 8vo. Liége, 1879.

Revue des fossiles landéniens décrits par de Ryckholt. 8vo.
Liége, 1879.

——. .Sur le prolongement de la faille Eifélienne. 8yo, Liége,
1879.

ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY. 155 .

Doyle, P. Tin Mining in Larut. 8yvo. London, 1879.

Petroleum: its History, Origin, and Use, with reference to

its advantages and perils as an illuminator. 8vo. Brisbane,
1880.

——. Indian Coal and Coal-statistics (newspaper slips).

Duncan, P. M. Address to the Geological Section of the British
Association, Sheffield, August 21, 1879. 8vo. London, 1879.

——. Scientific Results of the Second Yarkand Mission, based
upon the collections and notes of the late Ferdinand Stoliczka.
Syringospheride. 4to. Calcutta, 1879.

A Monograph of the Fossil Corals and Alcyonaria of Sind
- collected by the Geological Survey of India. 4to. London, 1880.

—-. On a Part of the Life-cycle of Clathrocystis eruginosa
(Kitzing’s species). 8vo. London, 1880.

Dunn, f. J. Report on Camdeboo and Nieuwveldt Coal. 4to.
Cape Town, 1879.

Earnshaw, 8. Etherspheres a Vera Causa in Natural Philosophy ;
with special Application to the Theory of Heat. 8vo. London,
1879. Presented by Dr. H. C. Sorby, F.BRS., F.GS.

Edwards, M. A Guide to Modelling in Clay and Wax. 8vo. Lon-
don, 1879.

Emmons, 8. F. The Volcanoes of the United States Pacific Coast.
8vo. New York, 1877. Presented by W. Whitaker, Esq., F.GS.

England and Wales. Geological Survey. Memoir. The Geology of
the Burnley Coal-field and of the country around Cllitheroe,
Blackburn, Preston, Chorley, Haslingden, and ‘Todmorden
(Quarter sheets 88 N.W., 89 N.E., 89 N.W., and 92 8.W.). By E.
Hull, J. R. Dakyns, R. H. Tiddeman, J. C. Ward, W. Gunn, and
C. E. De Rance. Table of fossils by R. Etheridge. 8vo. London,

_ 1875.

aig Ha) eae The Geology of the Weald. By W. Topley.
Bean London, 1875.

Y The Geology of Rutland and Parts of

Lincoln, Leicester, Northampton, Huntingdon, and Cambridge
(Sheet 64); with an introductory essay on the classification and
correlation of the Jurassic Rocks of the Midland District of
England. By J. W.Judd. ‘Table of fossils by R. Etheridge.
Svo. London, 1875.

On the Manufacture of Gun-flints, the
Methods of Excavating for Flint, the Age of Paleolithic Man,
and the Connexion between Neolithic Art and the Gun-fint
Trade. By 8. B. J. Skertchly. 8vo. London, 1879.

; The Eruptive Rocks of Brent Tor and its
Neighhourhood, included in Sheet 25 of the l-inch map; with
some introductory remarks on the application of the microscope
to petrological research. By F. Rutley. 8vo. London, 1878.

p2

156 ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY.

England and Wales. Geological Survey. Memoir. Guide to the
Geology of London and the Peek By W. Whitaker.
Third edition. Syo. London, 1880.

Figures and Descriptions illustrative of
British Organic Remains. Decade XI. Trilobites. By J. W.
- Salter. Aes, London, 1864.

———-, —_—,

Monograph IV. The Chimeroid Fishes of the
British Cretaceous Rocks. By KH. T. Newton. 4to. London,
- 1878.

— Memoirs illustrating sheets :—

Sheet 44. The geology of the country around Cheltenham.
By E. Hull. 8vo. London, 1857.

Sheet 45. The geology of the country round Banbury, Wood-
stock, Bicester, and Buckingham. By A. H. Green. Lists

of fossils by R. Etheridge. 8vo. London, 1864.

Sheet 48 S8.E. The geology of the Eastern end of Essex
(Walton-Naze and Harwich). By W. Whitaker. 8vo. Lon-
don, 1877.

Sheet 48 S.W. The geology of the neighbourhood of Col-
chester. By W.H. Dalton. 8vo. London, 1880.

Sheet 53 S.E. The geology of part of Northamptonshire. By
W. F. Aveline and R. Trench. Lists of fossils by R.
Etheridge. S8vo. London, 1860.

Sheet 80 N.W. ‘The geology of the country around Prescot,
Lancashire. By KE. Hull. 2nd edition. 8vo. London,
1865.

Sheet 81 N.W. & SW. The geology of the country around
Stockport, Macclesfield, Congleton, and Leek. By E. Hull
and A. H. Green. 8vo. London, 1866.

Sheet 82 N.E. The geology of parts of Nottinghamshire,
Yorkshire, and Derbyshire. By W.T. Aveline. 2nd edition.
8vo. London, 1880. .

Sheet 828.E. The geology of parts of Nottinghamshire and
Derbyshire. By W.T. Aveling. 2nd edition. 8vo. Lon-
don, 1879.

Sheet 91 8.W. The geology of the country around Blackpool,
Poulton, and Fleetwood. By C. EH. De Rance. 8vo. London,
1875.

Sheet 92 S.E. The geology of the country between Bradford
and Skipton. By J. R. Dakyns, ©. Fox-Strangways, R.
Russel, and W. H. Dalton. 8vo. London, 1879.

Sheet 95 S.W. & 958.E. The geology of the Oolitic and Cre-
taceous rocks south of Scarborough. By C. Fox-Strangways.
8vo. London, 1880.

Sheet 101 S.E. The geology of the northern part of the
English Lake District. By J. Clifton Ward. With an ap-
pendix on new species of fossils pie R. Etheridge. 8vo.
London, 1876.

*
ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY. ‘157

English Channel. . Annuaire des courants de marée de la Manche
pour l’an 1880, par Gaussin. 8vo. Paris, 1880. Presented by
the Dépot des Cartes et Plans dela Marine.

Etheridge R. Palaeozoic Rocks under London. (Newspaper cutting,
‘Times,’ 1877.) Presented by W. Whitaker, Esq., F.GS.

Favre, Alphonse. Description géologique du canton de Genéve.
2 vols. 8vo. Geneva, 1880.

Fuvre, E. Revue géologique Suisse pour année 1879. 8vo. Ge-
neva, 1880.

Finlands Geologiska Undersokning. Beskrifning till Kartbladet
No. 1, af K. Ad. Moberg. 8vo. - Helsingfors, 1879.

Firket, A. Carte géologique de la Belgique et des provinces voisines,
a l’échelle de =pyyp5, par G. Dewalque. 8vo. Liége, 1879.

Fleming, Sandford. Report and documents in reference to the
Canadian Pacific Railway. 8vo. Ottawa, 1880.

Fontannes, F. Etudes stratigraphiques et paléontologiques pour
servir a Vhistoire de la periode tertiaire dans le bassin du Rhone.
IV. Les terrains néogénes du pee de earn: —8yvo. Ge-
neva, 1878. Purchased.

: V. Description de quelques espéces nouvelles ou peu
connues. 8vo. Lyon, 1879. Purchased.

Forschepiepe, W. - Fiihrer durch die rheinisch-westfilische Berg-
werks-Industrie. 8vo. Oberhausen, 1880. Purchased.

Foster, C. Le Neve. Summaries of the Statistics for the twelve Dis-
tricts under the Coal-mines-regulation Act, for the year 1878, and
Report on the Inspection of Metalliferous Mines in Cornwall,
Devonshire, Dorsetshire, and Part of Somersetshire, for the sae
ended 31st December, 187 8. Ato. London, 1879.

France, Carte géologique detaillée de la France. Notice explica-
tive, Feuilles 1, 18,19. Purchased.

Depot des Cartes et Plans de la Marine. Recherches hydro-
graphiques sur le régime des cotes. Cahier 9. Reconnaissance de
Vembouchure de la Gironde.en 1874, par L. Manen, KE. Larousse,
E. Caspari et Hanusse. 4to; Atlas, oblong 4to. Paris, 1878.

Fritsch, A. Fauna der Gaskohle und der Kalksteine der Permfor-
mation Bohmens. Band I. Heft 1. Fol. Prag, 1879.

Fritsch, K. von. Beitrag zur Geognosie des Balkan. 4to. Halle,
1879. |

Ueber neuere Beobachtungen in den Apenninen. 8yo.
Berlin, 1879.

Gardner, J. S. On the Gault “ Aporrhaide.” 8vo. London, 1875.
On Cretaceous “ Aporrhaide.” S8vo. London, 1875
——. On Cretaceous Gasteropoda. 8vo. London, 1876.

——. Notes on Cretaceous Gasteropoda. 8vo, London, 1877.

158 ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY.
Gardner, J. 8. On the Lower Bagshot Beds of the Hampshire
Basin. 8vo. London, 1877.

On British Cretaceous Patellides and other Families of Pa-
telloid Gastropoda. 8vo. London, 1877.

On Ettingshausen’s Theory of Development of Vegetation
on the Earth. 8vo. London, 1877.

On the Cretaceous Dentaliide. 8yo. London, 1878.
——. Correlation of the Tertiary Series. 8vo. London, 1879.

Description and Correlation of the Bournemouth Beds.
Part I. Upper Marine Series. 8vo. London, 1879.

On the British EHocenes and their Deposition. 8vo. London,
1879.

Cretaceous Gasteropoda. 8vo. London, 1880.

Gaudry, A. Matériaux pour histoire des temps Meine hie
Fascicule 2. 4to. Paris, 1880.

Geimitz, H. B. Johann Friedrich Brandt. 4to. ? Dresden, 1880.

Geological Record for 1877. 8vo. London, 1880. Four copies,
Purchased.

Gervais, Henri, et Florentino-Ameghino. Les Mammiféres fossiles
de Amérique du Sud. 8ve. Paris, 1880. Purchased. .

Good, J. B. A Vocabulary and Outlines of Grammar of the Nitla-
kapamuk, or Tompson Tongue (the Indian language spoken be-
tween Yale, Lillooet, Cache Creek, and Nicola Lake), together
with a Phonetic Chinook Dictionary, adapted for use in the Pro-
vince of British Columbia. 8vo. Victoria, B. C., 1880.

Goss, H. Three Papers on Fossil Insects, and the British and
Foreign Formations in which Insect Remains have been detected.
No. 2. The Insect Fauna of the Secondary or Mesozoic Period.
8vo. London, 1879.

; No. 3. The Insect Fauna of the Primary or Paleo.
zoic Period. 8vo. London, 1880.

The Geological Antiquity of Insects. Twelve papers on
Fossil Entomology. 8vo. London, 1880.

Greenland. Meddelelser om Grénland, udgivne af Commissionen
for Ledelsen af de geologiske og seoptaphiske undersdgelser i
Gronland. 8vo. Copenhagen, 1879. Purchased.

Grewingk, C. Erlauterungen zur zweiten Ausgabe: der geognostis-
chen Karte Liy-, Est- und Kurlands. 8vo. Dorpat, 1872.

Groddeck, A. von. Die Lehre von den Lagerstiitten der Erze. 8vo:
Leipzig, 1879. Purchased.

Grover, J. W. Conversations with little Geologists on the Six Days

of Creation, illustrated with a Geological Chart. 4to. London,
1878. Presented by W. Whitaker, Esq., F.G.S.

ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY. 159

Guiscardi, G. (Leucilitic rock of the Lake of Averno.) 8vo.
Naples, 1879.

Gumbel, C. W. Geognostische Beschreibung des Fichtelgebirges
mit dem Frankenwalde und dem westlichen Vorlande. 8vo;
and Atlas, fol. Gotha, 1879. Presented by the Konigl.-bayer.
Oberbergamt.

Giimbel, C. W. Ueber das Eruptionsmaterial des Schlammvulkans
von Paterno am Aetna und Schlammvulkane im Allgemeinen.
8vo. Munich, 1879.

——. Vulkanische Asche des Aetna von 1879. 8vo. Stuttgart,
HS70:

Geognostische Mittheilungen aus den Alpen. VI. Ein
geognostischer Streifzug durch die Bergamasker Alpen. 8vo.
Munich, 1880.

—. Ueber die mit einer Fliissigkeit erfillten Chalcedonmandeln
(Enhydros) von Uruguay. 8vo. Munich, 1880.

Haast, J. von. Geology of the Provinces of Canterbury and West-
land, New Zealand. 8vo. Christchurch, 1879.

Hiackel, Ernst. Le Régne des Protistes. Apereu sur la morpho-
logie des étres vivants les plus inferieurs, suivi de la Classification
des Protistes. (Traduit par Jules Loury.) 8vo. Paris, 1879.
Purchased.

Hahn, O. Die Urzelle, nebst dem Beweis dass Granit, Gneiss, Ser-
pentin, Talk, gewisse Sandsteine, auch Basalt, endlich Meteor-
stein und Meteoreisen aus Pflanzen bestehen. 8vo. Tibingen,
1879. |

Hall, Townshend M. Contributions towards a History of British
Meteorites. 8vo. London, 1879.

Harrison, W. A. A Manual of Physiography. 12mo. London,
1879.

Hasse, C. Das natiirliche System der Elasmobranchier, auf Grund-
lage des Baues und der Entwicklung ihrer Wirbelsaule. 4to.
Jena, 1879. Purchased.

Haughton, S. Six Lectures on Physical ae ae Dublin,
1880.

Haviland, A. Geology in relation to Sanitary Science. 8y0.
London, 1879. |

Hayden, F. V. The Great West: its Attractions and Resources
Containing a popular description of the marvellous scenery, phy-
sical geography, fossils, and glaciers of the wonderful region ; and
the recent explorations in the Yellowstone Park, “the wonder-
land of America.” 8vo. Philadelphia, 1880. :

160 ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY.

Hébert, EH. es mers anciennes et leurs rivages dans le bassin. de
Paris, ou classification des terrains par les oscillations du sol.
Partie 1. Terrain Jurassique. 8vo. Paris, 1857.

Observations sur le terrain quaternaire. 8vo. Paris,
Ike

——. Sur la base du Grés bigarré. 8vo. Paris, 1877.
——. Remarques sur quelques fossiles de la craie du nord de

PEurope, 4 loccasion du mémoire de M. Péron sur la faune des
calcaires 4 Echinides de Rennes-les-Bains. 8vo. Paris, 1878.

Heer, O. Ueber die Aufgaben der Phyto-Paliontologie. 8vo.
plone % |

Henry, James. Aeneidea, or Critical, Exegetical, and Acathenenl Re-
marks on the Aeneis. Vol. II. (continued). 8vo. Dublin, 1879.
Presented by the Trustees appointed by the will of the Author,

Henry, Joseph. Sketch of the Life and Contributions to Science of.
8vo. 1879. Presented by the Smithsonian Institution. ;

Mill, H. Yccentricity and Glacial Epochs. 8vo. London, 1880.

Hincks, Thomas. A History of the British Marine Polyzoa. 2 vols.
8vo. London, 1880. Purchased.

Hitchcock, C. H. The Geology of New Hampshire. Vol. III. 4to.
Concord, 1878.

Atlas accompanying the Report on the Geology of New
Hampshire. Fol. New York, 1878.

Hopkinson, J. Reports of the Field Meetings of the Watford
Natural-History Society in 1875-79. 8vo. “Hertford, 1876-80.

——. On the recent Discovery of Silurian Rocks in Hertfordshire
and their Relation to the Water-bearing ae of the London
Basin. 8yo. Hertford, 1880.

Hudleston, W. H. On the Controversy respecting the Gneiss Rocks
of the North-west Highlands.. 8vo. London, 1879.

Hunter, R. The Encyclopedic Dictionary. Vol. I. A-Bas. 4to-
London, 1880.

India. Geological Survey. Memoirs. Vol. xiv. 1878.
——, ——. Vol. xy. Part 1.- 1878.
i Vol. saa, {Park tars 79)
——. ——. ——. Vol. xvii. Part 1. 1879.

_, ——_, Paleontologia Indica. Ber. 2. The fossil Flora
of the Upper Gondwanas. Vol. i. No. 4. Outliers on the Madras
Coast, by O. Feistmantel. 1879.

* . Ser. 4. Indian ‘paler, venete
Violo a Pt. 3. Fossil Reptilia and Batrachia, by R. Lydekker.
"1879:

ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY, r61

India. Geological Survey. Memoirs. Ser. 9. The fossil Flora of
the Lower Gondwanas. I. The Flora of the Talchir-Karharbari
Beds, by O. Feistmantel. 1879.

—_—— : Ser. 13. Salt-Range Fossils, by W. Waagen.
L. Productus-Limestone Fossils. i. Pisces—Cephalopoda. 1879.

: Ser. 14, Tertiary and Upper Cretaceous
Fauna of ‘Western India. Vol. i. 1. Sind fossil: Corals and Al+
cyonaria, by P. M. Duncan. 1880.

. -Records. Vol. xii. Parts 2-4. 1879.
Vol. xin. Parts 1 & 2.-:1880:

Indian Ocean. Renseignements nautiques sur quelques iles éparses
de Vocéan indien sud, Prince Edouard, Crozet, Kerguelen, Mac-
Donald, Rodriguez, hiermloe. La Reunion, Saint Paul et’ Am-
sterdam, les Seychelles, Madagascar et Mayotte. 8vo. © Paris,
1879. Presented by the Dépot des Cartes et Plans de la Marine.

Indiana. Geological Survey. 8th, 9th, and 10th Annual Reports,
1876-78, by EH. T. Cox. 8vo. Indianapolis, 1879. ,

Jack, R. L. Report on the Geology and Mineral Resources of the
District between Charters Towers Goldfield and the Coast. 4to.

. Brisbane, 1879. Presented by the Secretary of State for the
Colonies. 7 SAA | 4 div age!

Report to. the Honourable the Minister of Mines on the
Bowen River Coalfield. 4to. Brisbane, 1879. Presented by the
Secretary of State for the Colones.

Jameson, R. An Outline of the Mineralogy of the Shetland Islands,
and of the Island of Arran. 8vo. Edmburgh, 1798. Purchased.

Japan. Geological Survey. Reports of Progress for 1878 and
1879, by B.S. Lyman. 8vo. Tokei, 1879. Presented by K. 8.
Otori, Esq. |

Jervis, G. ° I combustibili minerali d’Italia. S8vo. Turin, 1879.

Jones, T. Rupert. Description of the Species of the Ostracodous
Genus Bairdia, M‘Coy, from the Carboniferous Strata of Great
Britain. 8yvo. London, 1879.

Notes on the Silurian Ostracoda which have been met with
in the Girvan Area. 8vo. 1879.

—. Notice of E. J. Dunn’s Report on the Stormberg Coalfield.
8vo. London, 1879.

——. Notice of E. J. Dunn’s Report on the Camdeboo and Nieuw-
veldt Coal, Cape of Good Hope. 8vo. London, 1879.

- Notes on the Paleozoic Bivalved Entomostraca. No. 13.
Entomis serratostriata and others of the so-called ‘ Cypridinen ”
of the Devonian Schists of Germany. 8vo. London, 1879.

——. On the Nature and Origin of Peat Bogs. 8vo. London,

* 1880. |

162 ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY.
Jones, 7. R. On the Practical Advantages of Geological Knowledge.
8vo. London, 1880.

and J. W. Kirkby. Notes on the Paleozoic Bivalved Ento-
mostraca. No. 12. Some Carboniferous Species belonging to the
Genus Carbonia, Jones. 8vo. London, 1879.

Judd, John W. On the Strata which form the Base of the Lincoln-
shire Wolds. 8vo. London, 1867.

——, On the Speeton Clay. 8vo. London, 1868.
——. On the Use of the Term Neocomian. 8vo. London, 1870.
——. On the Punfield Formation. 8vo. London, 1871.

——. On the Anomalous Mode of Growth of certain fossil Oysters.
8vo. London, 1871.

——. The Secondary Rocks of Scotland. First Paper. With a
Note on some Brachiopoda by T. Davidson. 8vo. London, 1873.

Second Paper. On the Ancient Volcanoes of the
Highlands, and the Relations of their Products te the Mesozoic
Strata. 8yo. London, 1874.

On the Structure and Age of Arthur’s Seat, Edinburgh.
8vo. London, 1875.

Contributions to the Study of Volcanos. 8vo. London,
1875 & 1876.
——. Inaugural Lecture, 12th Feb. 8vo. London.

. The Secondary Rocks of Scotland. Third Paper. The
Strata of the Western Coast and Islands. S8vo. London, 1878.

——, On the Oligocene Strata of the Hampshire Basin. 8vo.
London, 1880.

——. The Classification of the Tertiary Deposits. 8vo. London,
1880.

Julien, A. A. On the Fissure-inclusions in the Fibrolitic Gneiss of
New Rochelle, N. Y. 8vo. —-—, 1879

. On Spodumene and its Alterations from the Granite Veins
of Hampshire Co., Mass. 8vo. New York, 1879.

Kimball, J. P. I. Relations of Sulphur in Coal and Coke. II. Oxi-
dation or Weathering of Coal. 8vo. Easton, 1879.

Kjerulf, T. Die Geologie des siidlichen und mittleren Norwegen.
(Translated by A. Gurlt.) 8vo. Bonn, 1880.

. Udsigt over det sydlige Norges geologi. Text, 4to; Atlas,
obl. 4to. Christiania, 1879.

Kobell, Franz v. Tafeln zur Bestimmung der Mineralien mittelst
einfacher chemischer Versuche auf trockenem und nassem Wege.
8vo. Munich, 1878.

ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY. 163

Krause, Ernst. Erasmus Darwin, with a preliminary notice by
Charles Darwin. 8vo. London, 1879. Presented by W. S.
Dallas, Esq., PLS.

Kunize, O. Fur das salzfreie Urmeer. 8vo. Leipzig ?, 1879.

Zur Hozoon-Frage. to. LSAGe

——. Ueber Verwandtschaft von Algen mit Phanerogamen. 8vo.

Plies

Lang, H. O. Erratische Gesteine aus dem Herzogthum Bremen.
Svo. Gottingen, 1879. Purchased.

Lee, J. H. Rough Catalogue of a Geological Collection at Villa Syra-
cusa, Torquay. 8vo. Torquay, 1880.

Lefevre, T. Une anomalie observée chez le Pecten corneus, Sow..
8vo. Brussels, 1873.

—. Note sur le gisement des fruits et des bois. 8vo. Liége,
1875

Note sur la présence de l’ergeron fossilifére dans les environs
de Bruxelles. 8vo. Brussels, 1875.

——. Excursions malacologiques 4 Valenciennes, Soissons et Paris,
septembre 1876. 8vo. Brussels, 1877.

. Rapport sur la description de la Rostellaria robusta de M.

Rutot. 8vo. Brussels, 1876.

Sur la disposition d’un travail préparatoire 3 la rédaction

des listes paléontologiques. 8vo. Brussels, 1876.

Rapport sur le travail de M. Vincent, intitulé: Description

de la faune de l’étage landénien inferieur de la Belgique. 8vo.

Brussels, 1877.

Les grandes Ovules des terrains éocenes. Description de

VYOvule des environs de Bruxelle, Ovula (Strombus) gigantea,

Minst., sp. 4to. Brussels, 1878.

. Note succincte sur les Rostellaria ampla de Véocéne et de

Poligocéne. 8vo. Brussels, 1878.

—et G. Vincent. Note sur la faune lackénienne supérieure des

environs de Bruxelles. 8vo. Brussels, 1872.

et A. Watelet. Description de deux Solens nouveaux. 4to.
Brussels, 1877.

Lenz, O. Geological Notes on Western Africa. 8vo. London,
1879. Presented by Prof. T. Rupert Jones, LAS., F.GS.

Lindsey, C. An Investigation of the unsettled Boundaries of Ontario.
8vo. Toronto, 187 a Presented by John Notman, Esq.

Ininnarsson, G. Om forsteningarne i de svenska lagren med Peltura
och Spheerophthalmus, 8vo. Stockholm, 1880.

Loreiz, H. Untersuchungen tiber Kalk und Dolomit. II. Einige
Kalksteine und Dolomite der Zechstein-Formation. 8vo. Berlin,
1879.

164 ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY.
Lnidecke, O. Ueber die jungen Eruptivgesteine Sid-Thiiringens.
—8vo.

MacPherson, J. Descripcion de algunas rocas que se encuentran en
la Serrania de Ronda. 8vo. Madrid, 1879.

Major, C. J. Forsyth. Alcune osservazioni sui Cavalli nics
8vo. Florence, 1879.

Aleune parole sullo Spherodus cinctus (di Lawley) del ae
cene volterrano. 8vo. Pisa, 1879?

Malaise, C. Description de gites fossiliféres dévoniens et d’affleure-
ments du terrain crétacé. 4to. Brussels, 1879. Presented °y the
Commission de la Carte Géologique de la Belgique.

Mallet, F. R. On Corundum from the Khasi Hills. 8vo. Caloutta,
1879.

. On Mysorin and Atacamite from the Nellore District. 8vo.
Calcutta, 1879. -

Marsh, O. C. History and Methods of Paleontological Disconerys
8vo. New Haven, 1879.

. Notice of New Jurassic Mammals. 8vo. New Haven,
1879. : :

——. Notice of New Jurassic Reptiles. 8vo. New Haven, 1879.

——. New Characters of Mosasauroid Reptiles. 8vo. New Haven,
1880. hae

Principal Characters of American Jurassic Dinosaurs. 8vo.
New Haven, 1880.

Martins, C. Topographie géologique des environs d’Aigues-Mortes.
8vo. Paris, 1875. Presented by W. Whitaker, Hsq., PGS.

Medlicott, H. B., and W. T. Blanford. A Manual of the Geology
of India. 2 vols.and map. 8vo. Calcutta, 1879.

Meldola, R. -An Inaugural Address delivered to the Epping Forest
and County of Essex Naturalists’ Field Club, February 28th,
1880. 8vo. Buckhurst Hill, 1880.

Meneghini, G., e A. d’Achiardi. Nuovi fossili titonici di Monte
Primo e di Sanvicino nell’ Apennino centrale. 8vo. Pisa, 1879.

Mills, D. A Report on the Boundaries of the Province of Ontario.
Svo. Toronto, 1873. Presented by John Notman, Esq.

Mojsisovics von Mojswér, E. Ammonites of the Mediterranean and
Juvavian Trias. 8vo. London, 1879. Presented by Prof. T.
‘ Rupert Jones, FLRS., F.GS. .

Mojsisovies von Mojswar, E. Zur Geologie der Karsterscheinungen.
Svo. Vienna, 1880.

Monier, #. Reproduction de quelques substances minérales par la
diffusion de liquides superposés de densité différente et pouvant
donner entre eux un précipité insoluble. 8vo. Saint Denis, 1880.

ADDITIONS 10 THE LIBRARY. 165

Mourlon, M. Géologie de la Belgique. Tome I. 8vo. Brussels,
1880. Purchased.

Museum of Practical Geology. Catalogue of the Cambrian and Silu-
rian Fossils. 8vo. London, 1878.

Catalogue of the Cretaceous Fossils. 8vo. London, 1878.

Catalogue of the Tertiary and Post Tertiary Fossils. 8vo.
London, 1878.

Nash, H. A Lecture on Pre-Adamite London. 8vo. London,
si. .

Newmayr, M. Zur Kenntniss der Fauna des untersten Lias in den
Nordalpen. 4to. Vienna, 1879.

Nevill, W. Catalogue of Meteorites, being the Collection of William
N evill, F.R.S., Godalming, Surrey. 8vo. 1872. Presented by
W. Whitaker, "Esq., EGS.

Descriptive Catalogue of Minerals, being the Collection of
William Nevill, F.G.S8., Godalming, Surrey, 1872. 4to. London,
1872. Presented by W. Whitaker, Hsq., F.GS.

Newberry, J. S. The Geological Survey of the Fortieth Parallel.
~ 8vo. New York, 1879.

The Origin and Classification of Ore Deposits. 8vo. New
~ York, 1880.

Newfoundland. Geological Survey. Report of Progress for the Year
1878. 8vo. St. John’s, 1879.

New Jersey. Geological Survey. Annual Report of the State Geo-

logist (G@. H. Cook) for the a 1879. 8vo. eee, N. J.,
1879.

Newton, E. T. The Chimeeroid Fishes of the British Cretaceous
Rocks. Ato. London, 1878.

New Zealand. Colonial Museum and Geological Survey. Thirteenth
Annual Report on the Colonial Museum and Laboratory, together
with a List of Donations and Deposits during 1877-78. 8vo.
Wellington, 1878.

Fourteenth Annual Report on the Colonial Museum
a Laboratory, together with a List of Donations and Deposits
during 1878-79. 8vo. Wellington, 1879.

Geological Survey. Reports of Geological Bxpienseens
_ during 1878-79, with maps and sections. 8vo. Wellington, 1879.

Nicholson, H. A. Reports upon the Paleontology of the Province of

_ Ontario. 8vo. Toronto, 1874, 1875. Presented by John Notman,
Lisq. |

Nicholson, Henry Alleyne. A Manual of Paleontology. 2 vols. S8vo.

Edinburgh, 1879. 2nd edition. Presented by the Author as w
non-curculating copy.

———

166 ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY.

Nicholson, H. A. On the Structure and Affinities of the “ Tabulate
Corals” of the Paleozoic Period. 8vo. Edinburgh, 1879.

and R. Etheridge, Jun. A Monograph of the Silurian Fossils
of the Girvan District in Ayrshire, with special Reference to those
contained in the “Gray Collection.” Fasciculus 2 (Trilobita,
Phyllopoda, Cirripedia, and Ostracoda). 8vo. Edinburgh, 1879.

Notling, F. Ueber das Vorkommen von Riesenkesseln im Muschel-
kalk von Riidersdorf. 8vo. Berlin, 1879.

Nova Scotia. Department of Mines. Report for the Year 1879.
8vo. Halifax, N.8., 1880.

Ohio. Geological Survey. Report. Vol. ii. Geology and Paleon-

tology. Part 1. Geology. 8vo. Columbus, 1878. Presented by
Dr. J. S. Newberry, F.C.GS. 7

Omboni, G. Il gabinetto di mineralogia e geologia della R. Uni-
versita di Padova. 8vo. Padua, 1880.

Ontario. North Western Ontario, its Boundaries, Resources, and

Communications. 8vo. Toronto, 1879. Presented by John Not-
man, Esq.

Statutes, Documents, and Papers bearing on the Discussion
respecting the Northern and Western Boundaries of the Province
of Ontario. 8vo. Toronto, 1878. Presented by John Notman,
Esq.

Statutes of the Province of Ontario passed in the Session
held in the Forty-first year of the reign of Her Majesty Queen

Victoria. 8vo. Toronto, 1878. Presented by John Notman,
Esq.

——,

Forty-second year. 8vo. Toronto, 1879. Presented
by John Notman, Esq.

——. The revised Statutes of Ontario. 2 vols. S8vo. Toronto,
1877. Presented by John Notman, Esq.

Ooster, W. A., und C. von Fischer-Ooster. Protozoé Helvetica.
Mittheilungen aus dem Berner Museum der Naturgeschichte tiber
merkwiirdige Thier- und Pflanzenreste der schweizerischen Vor-
welt. 4to. Basel, 1870. Purchased.

DA A G. W. The Teign Naturalists’ ‘Club. 8vo. Exeter,
1879.

Pacific Ocean, South. Océan Pacifique Sud. (Notice, no. 3) Les iles

Salomon. 8vo. Paris, 1879. Presented by the Dépot des Cartes
et clans de la Marine.

: (Notice 4) Nouvelles Hebrides, iles Banks et
archipel de Santa-Cruz. 8vo. Paris, 1879.

ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY. 167

Pacific Ocean, South. Océan Pacifique Sud. (Notice 5) Wes
Wallis. 8vo. Paris, 1879.

Paléontologie francaise. 1° Série. Animaux invertébrés. Terrain
_ Crétacé. Livraison 28. ‘Tome 8. Zoophytes. 8vo. Paris, 1879.
Purchased.

——. 1Série. Animaux Invertébrés. Terrain Jurassique. Livr.
42, Echinodermes réguliers, par G. Cotteau. 8vo. Paris, 1879.
Purchased.

1 Série. Animaux Invertébrés. Terrain Jurassique. Livr.
43. Echinodermes réguliers par G.Cotteau. 8vo. Paris, 1880.
Purchased.

Parliamentary Report. Return relating to Urban Water Supply.
Ato. London, 1879. Purchased.

Pascoe, F.P. Zoological Classification. 2nd edition. 8yvo. London,
1880. Presented by W. S. Dallas, F.LAS., as a non-circulating
book.

Patagonia. Detroit de Magellan et canaux latéraux. Cap Horn
et Terre de Feu. Instruction par Paul Cave. 8vo. Paris,
1879. Presented by the Dépét des Cartes et Plans de la Marine.

Peacock, R. A. Physical and historical Evidences of vast Sinkings
of Land on the North and West Coasts of France and South-western
Coasts of England, within the Historical Period. 8yo. London,
1868, with MS. notes.

. On Steam as the Motive Power in Earthquakes and Voleanoes,
and on Cavities in the Earth’s Crust. 8vo. Jersey, 1866, with
MS. notes. (This and the above in one volume.)

Penning, W. H. A Text-book of Field Geology ; with a Section on
Paleontology by A. J. Jukes-Browne. 2nd edition. 8vo. London,
1879.

. Engineering Geology. 8vo. London, 1880.

Pennsylvania. Second Geological Survey. Report of Progress in
the Fayette and Westmoreland District of the Bituminous Coal-
fields of Western Pennsylvania. Parts 1 and 2. By J. J. Stevenson.
8vo. Harrisburg, 1877 and 1878.

Petrino, O. Die Entstehung der Gebirge erklirt nach ihren dyna-
mischen Ursachen. 8vo. Vienna, 1879.

Philippine Islands. Renseignements sur les iles de Manille 4 Ilo-ilo,

4 Zebu et a Samboangon. Supplément No. VI. & l’Instruction
447, 8vo. Paris, 1879. Presented by the Dépot des Cartes et
Plans de la Marine. |

Ponzi, G. Le acque del bacino di Roma. 8yo. Roma, 1879.

Postlethwaite, J. Mines and Mining in the Lake District. S8vo.
Leeds, 1877. Presented by Lieut.-Ool. J. R. Campbell, F.GS,

168: ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY.

Prestwich, J. On the Origin of the Parallel Roads of Lochaber, and
their Bearing on other Phenomena of the Glacial Period. 4to.
London, 1879.

Preussen und die thuringische Staaten Geologische Specialkarte.
Abhandlungen. Band iii. Heft 1. Text, 8vo; Males. Ato. Berlin,

- 1879. Presented by the Prussian Ministry of Manufactures,
Trade, and Arts.

. Erliuterungen. Gradabtheilung 44. Nos. 18, 24 &

30. 8vo. Berlin, 1879-80. Presented by the Prussian Ministry

_ of Manufactures, Trade, and Arts.

: 5 Gradabtheilung 57. Nos. 51, 52, 57 & 58.
_ 8vo. Berlin, 1879. Presented by the Prussian Ministry of Ma-
eae Trades and Arts.

. Gradabtheilung 71. Nos.3.&4. 8vo. Berlin,
1379. Presented by the Prussian ee of Manufactures,
Trade, and Arts.

Princeton Scientific Expedition, 1877. No. 2. Topographic, Hyp-
sometric, and Meteorologic Report, by W. Libbey, Jr., and W. W.

McDonald. 8vo. New York, 1879. Presented by the E. M.
Museum of Geology and Archeology of Princeton College.

Queensland. Coal between Dalby and Roma, by A. C. Gregory.
Ato. Brisbane, 1879. Presented by the Colonial Government.

Geological Features of the South-eastern Districts of the
Colony of Queensland, by A. C. Gregory. 4to. Brisbane, 1879.
Presented by the Colonial Government.

Geological Survey of Northern Queensland. Second Hepor
on the Progress of the Search for Coal in the Cook District, by R
'L. Jack. 4to. Brisbane, 1879. Se by the Colonial Go-

' vernment.

Report to the Honourable the Minister for Mines on the
Normanby and Marengo Goldfields, by R. L. Jack. 4to. Bris—
bane, 1879. Presented by the Colonial Government. —

Report on the Geology and Mineral Resources of the District
- between Charters Towers Goldfields and the Coast, by R. L. Jack.
4to. Brisbane, 1879. Presented by the Colonial Government.

Quenstedt, F. A. Petrefactenkunde Deutschlands. Band vi. Heft 3..
(Korallen Heft 8). Text, 8vo; Atlas, 4to. Leipzig,1879. Pur-

chased.’

. Abth. 1. Band vi. Heft 4 (Korallen Heft 9).
Text, 8vo; Atlas, 4to. Leipzig, 1879. . Purchased.
Reade, T. M. Chemical Denudation in Relation to Geological Time.
8vo. London, 1879. :
Notes on the Scenery and Geology of Ireland. 8vo. Liver-
pool, 1879. aie ate

ADDITIONS 10 THE LIBRARY. : 169

Reeve, L. Conchologia Iconica. Monographs. Vol. v. Cassedaria,
Cassis, Dolium, Eburna, Eglisia and Mesaha, Oniscia, Turritella ;
vol. vi. Hemipecten, Voluta; vol. vill. Hinnites; vol. x. Capsa,
Capsella, Psammotella, Sanguinolaria; vol. xi. Anomia, Crenatula,
Orepidula, Malleus, Meta, Pedum, Placunanomia, Trochita, Um-
brella, Vulsella ; and vol. xii. Melanopsis, Melatoma, Myochama,
Pirena, Thrace. Purchased.

Renevier, H. Notices géologiques et palcontologiques sur les Alpes
vaudoises. S8vo. Lausanne, 1879.

Résumé du mémoire de M. le professeur Torg. Taramelli
Sulla formazione serpentinosa dell’ Appennino pavese. 8vo.
Geneva, 1879.

Revertégat, J. Notice Météorologique sur les mers comprises entre
la Chine et le Japon. 4to. Paris, 1879. Presented by the Dépdt
des Cartes et Plans de la Marine.

Reynés P. Monographie des Ammonites. Text, 8vo; Atlas, 4to.
Paris, 1867. Purchased.

Reynolds, J. H., and V. Ball. On an Artificial Mineral produced in
the Manufacture of basic Bricks at Blaenavon, Monmouthshire.
8vo. Dublin, 1878.

Rivicre, Emile. Paléoethnologie. De Vantiquité de ’homme dans
les Alpes-Maritimes. Livr. 1-6. 4to. Paris, 1878-79. Pur-
chased.

Romer, Ff. Notiz tiber ein Vorkommen von oberdevonischem Goni-
atiten-Kalk in Devonshire. S8vo. Berlin, 1879.

Rémer, F. Lethea geognostica. Theil 1. Lethxa paleozoica.
Textband Lief. 1. 8vo. Stuttgart, 1880. Purchased.

Rogers, C. The Serpent’s Track. A Narrative of Twenty-two Years
Persecution. 8vo. London, 1880.

Roth, Justus. Allgemeine und chemische Geologie. Bandi. 8vo.
Berlin, 1879. Purchased.

Rowe, T. P., and C. le Neve Foster. Observations on Balleswidden
Mine. 8vo. Plymouth, 1878.

Ruskin, J. Deucalion. Part 6. S8vo. Orpington, 1879:

Sandberger, fF. Ueber Ablagerungen der Glacialzeit und ihre Fauna~
bei Wurzburg. 8vo. besten 1879.

Saxony. Geologische Landesuntersuchung. Geologische caceaieane
des Konigreichs Sachsen. Erlauterungen. Blatt 44, Colditz ;
Blatt 45, Leisnig; Blatt 46, Dobeln; Blatt 62, Waldheim : :
Blatt 76, Penig; Blatt 114, Burkhardtsdorf; Blatt 128, Marien-
berg; Blatt 188, Elterlein. Svo. Leipzig, 1879.

Schmalhausen, Johannes. Beitrige zur Jura-Flora Russlands. 8vo.
St. Petersburg, 1879.

Schwarze, G. Die fossilen Thierreste yom Unkelstein in Rhein-
preussen. Svo. Bonn, 1879.
VOL. XXXVI. q

170 ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY.

Scudder, 8. H. Catalogue of Scientific Serials of all Countries, in-
cluding the Transactions of learned Societies in the Natural, Phy-
sical, and Mathematical Sciences, 1638-1876. 8vo. Cambridge,
1879. Presented by W. H. Dalton, Esq., F.GN.

Scudder, S. H. Insects from the Tertiary Beds of the Nicola and
Similkameen Rivers, British Columbia. 8vo. Montreal, 1879.

Paleozoic Cockroaches: A complete Revision of the Species
of both Worlds, with an Hssay towards their Classification. 4to.
Boston, 1879.

The Writings of. Compiled and edited by G. Dimmock.
8vo. ‘Cambridge, Mass., 1879.

Geography of North America. Svo,. New Vous
Seeley, H.G. On the Dinosauria. 8vo. London, 1879.

Sheffield. Guide to the Town and District, specially prepared for

Members and Associates attending the Sheffield Meeting of the
British Association, by A. H. Green, J. M. Mello, J. D. Leader,
G. R. Vine, F. Brittain, E. Birks, and J. Taylor. S8vo. Sheffield,
1879. Presented by Dr. H. C. Sorby, FES., F.GS.

Smith, F. Description of new Species of Hymenoptera in the Col-
lection of the British Museum. S8vo. lLondon,1879. Presented
by the Trustees of the British Museum.

Smyth, W. W. Lecture on Mineralogy, delivered at the South-Ken-
sington Museum, 7th May, 1860. S8vo. London, 1873. Pre-
sented by W. A. HK. Ussher, Hsq., F.GNS.

Sorby, H. C. Address delivered at the Anniversary Meeting of the
Geological Society of London, on the 20th of February 1880.
8vo. London, 1880.

South Australia. Register of the Rainfall kept in Grote-street, Ade-
laide, by Sir George Strickland Kingston, from January 1, 1839,
to December 16, 1879, both inclusive. 4to. Adelaide, 1879.
Presented by the Colonial Government.

Spain. Comision del mapa geolégico. Boletin. Tomo vi. Cuaderno 1.
1879.

Comision del mapa geoldgico de Hspana. Boletin. Tomo yi.
Cuaderno 2. 8vo. Madrid, 1879.

Memorias. Descripcion fisica y geologica de la pro-'
vinecia de Avila, por Felipe Martin Donayre. 8vo. Madrid, 1879.

Spratt, T. A Suggestion for the Improvement of the Entrance to
the Mersey. S8vo. London, 1880.

Stefani, C. de, e Dante Pantanelli. Molluschi pliocenici dei dintorni
di Siena. S8vo.- Siena, 1878. .

Stevenson, J.J. On the Surface-Geology of South-west Pennsylvania
and adjoining Portions of Maryland and West pcan. y 8vo. New
Haven, 1878. ;

ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY. 170

Stevenson, J. J. The Upper Devonian Rocks of South-west Penn-
sylvania. S8vo. New Haven, 1878.%

Stow, G. W. Coal and Iron in South Africa. Svo. London, 1879.

Struckmann, OC. Sowerbya Duke: in hannover’schen Pteroceras-
Schichten. 8vo. Stuttgart, 1379.

Vorlaufige Nachricht tiber das Vorkommen grosser vogelihn-
licher Thierfahrten (Ornithoidichnites) 1m Hastingssandstein von
Bad Rehburg bei Hannover. 8vo. Stuttgart, 1880.

Sullivan, W. K., and J. P. O’Reilly. Notes on the Geology and
Mineralogy of the Spanish Provinces of Santander and Madrid.
8vo. London, 1863. Purchased.

Sweden. Sveriges Geologiska Undersokimng. Athandlingar och
uppsatser. Ser. C, No. 26. On the Causes of the Glacial Pheno-
mena in the North-eastern Portion of North America. By Otto
Torell. 8vo. Stockholm, 1878.

‘ : : , No. 28. De paleozoiska bildningarna
vid Humlenis 1 Smaland, af G. Linnarsson. 8vo. Stockholm,
1878.

: , , No. 29. Om floran Skanes kolforande
bildningar. LI. Floran vid Hoéganis och Helsingborg, af A. G.
_ Nathorst. 4to. Stockholm, 1878.

——. , No. 81. Takttagelser Ofyer de grap-
folitforande skiffrarne 1 Skane, af G. Tenor eee 8vo. Stockholm,

1879.

‘ , No. 32. Praktiskt geologiska under-
sékningar inom Herjedalen och Jemtland, ut érda sommaren 187 6,
aE A. Blomberg och A. Lindstrom. 8vo. Stockholm, 1879.

; , No. 33. Om floran i Skanes - kolfo-
rande bildningar. “I, Floran vid ie af A. G. Nathorst. Ato.
omsiely 1879.

——

———
e

No: 54, Praktiskt geologiska iakt-
tagelser under resor pa Gotland 1876- 1878, af A. Lindstrom, 8yvo.
Stockholm, 1879.

_—_—_—, -_————,.

5 , No. 35. Om faunan i kalken med
Ceuvainiphe easulans (Coronatuskalken), af G. Linnarsson. 8vo.
Stockholm, 1879.

——, ——, No. 63. Beskrifning till kartbladet
Brehren, vi FE. Erdman. 8vo. Stockholm, 1878.

, No. 64. Beskrifning till kartbladet
) Gottnvik, ‘af A. G. Nathorst. Svo.. Stockholm, 1878.
ee, NOs Ue cy OG, beskiinina cll

Texetbladén: Landsort och Raloearen, af A. G. Nathorst. .8vo.
Stockholm, 1878.

oe

172 ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY.

Sweden. Sveriges Geologiska Undersokning. Beskrifningar. Ser.
Aa, No. 67. Beskrifning till kartbladet Herrevadskloster, af A.
Lindstrom. 8vo. Stockholm, 1878.

—,, —_—_., : , Nos. 68, 69, 71,72; Ser. Ab, Nos, 4&@
5. 8yo. Stockholm, 1879.

——. ——. Underdanig berittelse om en pa nadig ‘bofallning & ar
1875 foretagen undersokning af malmfyndigheter inom Gellivare
och Jukkasjiirvi Socknar af Norrbottens lin jemte bilagor och
utdrag ur Ofriga hithorande handlingar. 4to. Stockholm, 1377,

——. ——. Halle-och Hunnebergs trapp, af E. Svedmark. 8vo.
Stockholm, 1878.
——. ——. Om faunan i lagren med Puradowides olandicus, uf

G. Linnarsson. S8vo. Stockholm, 1877.

Switzerland. Commissione G'eologica. Materiali per la carta geo-
logica della Svizzera. Vol. xvii. Il canton Ticino meridionale ed
i paesi finitimi per Torquato Taramelli. 4to. Bern, 1880.

Tate, R. Anniversary Address delivered at the Annual Meeting of
the Adelaide Philosophical Society on Tuesday, October 8, 1878.
Svo. Adelaide, 1878.

Notes on the Correlation of the Coral-bearing Strata of South
Australia, with a List of fossil Corals occurring in the Colony.
8vo. Adelaide, 1878.

——, The Recent Marginellide of South Australia and the Fossil
Marginellide of Australasia. 8vo. Adelaide, 1878.

United States. Comptroller of the Currency. Annual Report to the
Second Session of the Forty-sixth Congress of the United States.
8vo. Washington, 1879.

——. Comptroller of the Currency. Annual Report to the Third
-. Session of the Forty-fifth Congress. 8vo. Washington, 1878.
Presented by the Smithsonian Institution.

——. Geographical and Geological Survey of the Rocky Mountain
Region (J. W. Powell in charge). Report on the Geology of the
Henry Mountains. By G. K. Gilbert. 4to. Washington, 1877.
Presented by the Department of the Interior.

United States. Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories.
Eleventh Annual Report, for the year 1877. 8vo. Washington,
1878. Presented by Dr. F. V. Hayden, F.M.GS.

Bulletin. Vol. iv. No.2. 1878. Presented by the
Secretary for the Interior.

' Vol. v. Nos. 1-8. 8vo. Washington, 1879,
Presented by Dr. FY. Hayden, F.M.G.S.

——. Catalogue of Publications. 3rd edition. Svo. Wash-
ington, 1879. Pr esented by Dr. F, V. Hayden, F.M.GS.

ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY. 173

United States. Geological Exploration of the Fortieth Parallel.
Report. Vol. i. Systematic Geology, by Clarence King. Ato.
Washington, 1878.

Report upon United States Geographical Surveys West of
' the One hundredth Meridian. (Lieut. G. M. Wheeler.) Vol..iv.
Part 2, Paleontology, by E. D. Cope. 4to. Washington, 1877.

University College, London. Catalogue of Books in the General
Library. Vol, i.(A—C)and Yol. 11. (D-N). 8vo. London, 1879.

———. Catalogue of Books in the General Library and in the South
Library. Vol. iii., with Appendix. 8vo. London, 1879.

Ussher, W. A. HE. The Post-tertiary Geology of Cornwall. 8va,
Hertford, 1879.

Uzielli, G. Conclusioni di una memoria sulle argille scagliose dell’
Appennino. 8vo. Rome, 1879. .

Vélam, C. Mission de Vile Saint-Paul. Recherches géologiques
faites 4 Aden, 4 la Réunion, aux iles Saint-Paul et Amsterdam,
aux Seychelles. Svo. Paris, 1879. |

Victoria. Geological Survey. Prodromus of the Paleontology of
Victoria; or Figures and Descriptions of Victorian Organic Re-
mains. Decadeiy. By F. M‘Coy. 8vo. Melbourne, 1876.

—. ——. ——. Decade vi. By F. M‘Coy. Svo. Melbourne
1879.

Victoria. Mineral Statistics for the Year 1878. 4to. Melbourne,
1879. Presented by the Minister of Mines.

——. Patents and Patentees. Vol. x. Indexes for the year 1875,
by Richard Gibbs. Ato. Melbourne, 1879.

. Report of the Chief Inspector of Mines to the Honourable
the Minister of Mines for the year 1878. 8vo. Melbourne, 1879.

Reports of the Mining Surveyors and Registrars. Quarter
ended 3lst December 1878. 4to. Melbourne, 1879. Presented
by the Minister of Mines. |

——. -——. Quarter ended 31st March 187 9, Ato. Melbourne,
1879. Presented by the Minister of Mines.

: Reports of the Mining Surveyors and Registrars. Quarter
_ ended 30th June 1879. 4to, Melbourne, 1879. Presented by
the Minster of Mines.

, Quarter ended 30th September 1879. 4to. Mel-
bourne, 1879. Presented by the Minister of Mines.

——. ——. Quarter ended 3lst December 1879. Melbourne,
1880, Presented by the Minister of Mines. .

174 ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY.

Vom Rath, G. Naturwissenschaftliche Studien. Erinnerungen an
— die Pariser Weltausstellung 1878 dient étrangéres). 8yo.
Vhonnils 70,

——. Ueber das Gold. 8vo. Berlin, 1879.
-——. Vortrige und Mittheilungen. 8vo. Bonn, 1879.
oven anuele s00 in

Vyse, G. W. Report on the Irrigation and Inundation of the Nile:
8vo. London, 1878,

Waagen, W. On the Geographical Distribution of fossil Organisms
in India. 8vo. Calcutta, 1878.

——. Ueber die geographische Vertheilung der fossilen Organismen
in Indien. 4to. Vienna, 1878. .

—-—. Salt-Range Fossils. I. Productus-Limestone Fossils. to.
Calcutta, 187 9.

Wallich, G. C. A Contribution to the Phy sieat History of the Cre-
taceous Flints. 8vo.. London, 1880.

——, The Threshold of Evolution. 8vo. . London, 1880.

Weyprecht, K. Die Metamorphosen des Polareises. 8vo. Vienna,
1879. Purchased.

Whitehead, C. Report upon the Market-Garden and Market-garden-
Farm Competition, 1879. 8vo. London, 1880.

Wiener, C. Pérou et Bolivie. 8vo. Paris, 1880. Purchased.

Winkler, T. C. Considérations géologiques sur Vorigine du zand-
| dilavium, du sable campinien et des cumies maritimes des Pays-
Bas. oo Haarlem, 1878.

——. Description dune espece nouvelle de Pachycormus, 8 yo.
Haarlem, 1878. |

——. Description de quelques restes de poissons fossiles des ter-
' rains triasiques des environs de Wurzbourg. Svo. Haarlem, 1880.

——. Mémoire sur les poissons fossiles des lignites de pices
Svo. Haarlem, 1880.

Note sur quelques dents de poissons fossiles de Voligocene
inférieur et moyen du Limbourg. Svo. Haarlem, 1880.

Wolf, Theodor. Hin Besuch der Galdpagos-Inseln. S8vo, Heidel-
berg, 1879. : they

Wolf, Theodor. Kin Besuch der Galdpagos- ee ao Heidel-
berg, 1879. Purchased.

Woodward, H. Description of a Collection of Fossil Shells, Corals,
&e. &e., from Sumatra. S8vo. London, 1879.

Woodward, H.B. A Memoir of Samuel Woodward. 8vo. Norwich,
11379.

ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY. 175

Wiirtenberger, Leopold. Studien tiber die Stammesgeschichte der
Ammoniten. Hin geologischer Beweis fiir die Darwin’sche Theorie.
Syo. Leipzig, 1880. Purchased.

Wynne, A.B. Further Notes on the Upper Punjab. 8vo. Calcutta,
1879. Presented by the Earl of Enmskillen, F.LAS., FGA.

A Geological Reconnoissance from the Indus at Kushalgarh
to the Kurram at Thal on the Affghan Frontier. 8vo. Calcutta,
1879. Presented by the Earl of Enniskillen, F.BRS., F.GS,

Zigno, A. de. Annotazioni paleontologiche. Sulla Lithiotis proble-
matica di Gimbel. Ato. Venice, 1879.

Sopra un cranio di coccodrillo scoperto nel terreno eoceno
del Veronese. 4to. Rome, 1880.

. Nuove osservazioni sull’ Halttheriwm veronense, Z. Ato.
Venice, 1889.

Zittel, Karl A. Handbuch der Palecontologie (Unter Mitwirkung von
W.P. Schimper). Band I. Lief. 3 and Band II. Lief. 1. 8vo.
- Munich, 1879. Purchased.

| 3. Mars &e.
The names of Donors in Italics.

Belgium. Commission de la Carte géologique de la Belgique. Feuille
15, planchettes Nos. 7 & 8, Hoboken et Contich; and one sheet
of Sections.

——. Feuille 31, planchette No. 5, Lennick-St.-Quentin.

De la Beche, H. T. Geological Map of the Environs of Lyme Regis.
Pesented by W. A. HE. Ussher, Esq., £.GN.

Delesse, A. Carte agronomique du département de Seine-et-Marne.
Two sheets. Scale

is 000°

Dewalque, G. Carte géologique de la Belgique et des provinces
voisines & l’échelle de =. 1879.

England and Wales, Geological Survey of. Maps (scale 1 inch=
1 mile). Presented by the Director-General.

London and its Environs (in one sheet).

London and its Environs (Drift).

1 N.W., N.E., 8.W., 8.H.; 7; 48 S.E. (Drift). :

IPN WN S.W., Dates 25.93 19% 807 40 Ne Suk’:
48 SE. ; 52 N.W.*; 45 NoW* ; 52 N.E., SE: 53 N.E*,
SW. S.E*; 61 N.E.; ae iil = S.E.*; 82N.W.*, NES;
7. NW... NE, 8.W., 88 N.W., NE, BW, SH.
89 N.E., N oWie 90 NS me See N Wea 5 VCs 3 928.W., Se
93 N.W., S.W.; 98 N.E., S.W., S.E.; 97 S.E. ; 105 N.W..
N.E., S.W., S.H.; 109 S$. E. ; 101 S.E.

* New ae

176 ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY.

Favre, A, Carte géologique du canton de Genéve. 4 sheets. Scale
fe LOS.

25,000
Finlands geologiska undersokning. Kartbladet No.1. 1879.
France. Carte géologique detaillée de la France. Feuilles Nos. 1
18, 19.\ 1878. . Purchased.

Grewingk, C. Geognostische Karte der Ostseeprovinzen Liv-, Est-
und Kurland (1878). 1879. In two sheets, scale Presented

by the Darpater Naturforscher Gesellschaft.
Grewingk, C. A second copy.
Ireland. Geological Survey. One-inch Maps. Presented by the

ND Ae SER
21, 28, 29, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 47, 48, 49, 50, a 52,
53, 54, 59, 60 ts 90, 103, 104, 106, 107, 108, 109, 113, 116.

Ordnance-Survey Alege Presented by the First Commissioner of
Works.
One-inch General Maps.
England and Wales. New Series. Quarter sheets 287, 304,
320, 321.
Ireland. Hills. Quarter sheets 106, 195, 196.
Scotland. Hills. Quarter sheets 85, 86.
Six-inch County Maps.
Argyll (Isle of Mull), 96.
yy (isle of Rum), 61.66, 67.
sown Wiodsles), 00, 69, 70.

—"S
Denbigh, 3, 13, 16, 17, 18, 19, 25, 30 and 304, 31, 32, 33,

Us Chae
oy and 37°.
Prema tl aetna ——
Denbigh and Flint, 12 and 14, 16 and 20, 18, 17 and 21,

eer ee ———— > eee
19 and 28, 20 and 29, 21 and 35, 22 and 36, 24 and 40,
A
Inverness (Isle OE Kigg), 71-73.
(Isle of Skye), 7, 19, 25, 26, 31, 36, 44.
Middlesex, re Le Ihc, Be 28}

Sussex, 2 avg an 3, 4,10, 12, 14-17, 21, 23-26, 35, 35,

GET
837-39, 50-58, 60, 68-65, 67, 69, 72-74, 75 and 76,
77-79.
Sutherland, 77, 86, 87, 96, 102, 104, 111, 112, 113.
Westmeath, 25, 32.
Indexes.
Aberdeen and Banff.
Sutherland.
Surrey.
Nairn.
Elgin.
Hants.

ah 000°

ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY. 177

Paris. Dépdt des Cartes et Plans de la Marine. Seventy-eight charts
and plans of various coasts and ports.

Plate of three-toed footprints in the Trias (dolomitic conglomerate),
Newton Nottage, near Porthcawl, Glam. Presented by T. H.
Thomas, Esq.

Preussen und die thtringische Staaten. Geologische Specialkarte.
Gradabtheilung 44, Nos. 18, 24, & 30. Gradabtheilung 57, Nos. 51,
52, 57, 58; und Gradabtheilung 71, Nos.3 & 4. 1879. Pre-
sented by the Prussian Minster of Manufactures &c.

Saxony. Geologische Landesuntersuchung. Geologische Specialkarte
des Konigreichs Sachsen. Blatt 44, Colditz; Blatt 45, Leisnig ;
Blatt 46, Dobein ; Blatt 62, Waldheim; Blatt 76, Penig; Blatt
114, Burkhardtsdorf ; Blatt 128, Marienberg ; Blatt 138, Elterlein.
1879.

Scotland. Geological Survey. One-inch Maps. Presented by the
Director-General.
1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 9, 13, 14, 15, 22, 23, 24, 31, 40.

Situation und Profile der ftir die Mineral Salts Production and
Moorlands Reclamation Company Limited, London, von der Con-
tinental Diamond Rock-boring Company, Limited, London, durch
die Bohrlocher I. bis incl. VII. nachgewiesenen Kalisalzablagerung
bei Aschersleben. Leipzig, 1879 (one sheet). Presented by W.
Whitaker, Esq., F.GS.

Smith, R. Tabular View of the Order of Deposition and Chrono-
logical Succession of the principal European Groups of Stratified
Rocks, constructed in accordance with the views of Lyell, Mur-

chison, Buckland, and other eminent geologists. Presented by
W. Whitaker, Esq., F.GS.

Sweden. Carte géologique générale des districts métallurgiques de
la Suede moyenne. Nos. 1 & 2 (par A. HE. Tornebohm). 1879.
Presented by the “ Jernkontoret” (le Comptour des forges).

——. Sveriges geologiska Undersokning. Kartblad 63-67, 68, 69,

71, 72, scale x03 2nd Ser. b, Nos. 4 & 5, scale 500,000"

Switzerland. Carte géologique de la Suisse. Feuille xii. 1875.
Presented by the Commission.

II. ADDITIONS TO THE MUSEUM.

Casts of three-toed foot-prints from the Triassic conglomerate of
South Wales. Presenied by W. J. Sollas, Esq., F.GS.
Geyserites from Colorado. Presented by Dr. F. V. Hayden, F.M.G.S.

A specimen of rock from the top of the Asnai Heights, Cabul, col-
lected and presented by Lieut. F. Spratt, RE,

VOL. XXXVI. r

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£ eh

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: SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION LIBRARIES
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