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QUARTERLY JOURNAL <->
OF
MICROSCOPIGAL SCIENCE.
EDWIN LANKESTER, M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S.,
AND
GEORGE BUSK, F.R.C.S.E., F.R.S., F.LS.
VOLUME III.
With Illustrations on Wood and Stone.
LONDON:
SAMUEL HIGHLEY, 32, FLEET STRERT.
1855,
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INDEX TO JOURNAL.
VOLUME III.
A.
Achromatic condenser, J. D. Sollitt on
a new, 87.
Ayres, Dr. P. B., microchemical re-
searches on the digestion of starch
and amylaceous foods, 247.
Allman, G. J., on Aphanizomenon
Flos-aque and a species of Peri-
dinea, 21.
4 on the. occurrence
among the Infusoria of peculiar
organs resembling thread-cells, 177.
Amphiprora vitrea B? 40.
Amphitetras favosa, 93.
5 Wilkesii, 93.
Amphora angularis, 39.
a3) ~ Aretis,:39.
a incurva, 39.
Anacharis Alsinastrum, on the cireu-
lation of the sap, by F. H. Wenham,
277.
Angular aperture of object-glasses,
F. d’Alquen on a paper by Dr. Grif-
fiths on the, 43.
Aperture of object-glasses, J. D. Sol-
litt on the, 85. In reply to Mr.
Wenham and Dr. Robinson, 239.
3 oe F.H.Wen-
ham on, in reply to Mr. Sollitt,
160.
53 e on the, 302.
Aperture of objectives, on the mea-
surement of the, by J. R. Robinson,
D.D., 163.
Aphanizomenon Flos-aque, G. J. All-
man on, 21.
Arcyria, threads of, 20.
Artificial light, prevention of the
glare from, Ferguson Branson,
M.D., on the, 173.
Arts, Society of, Prizes offered by
the, for cheap microscopes, 234, 306.
VOL, III.
Atlantic, microscopic examination of
deep soundings from the, by J. W.
Bailey, 89.
Aulacodiscus Oreyanus, 93.
B.
Bacterium termo, Cohn on, 206.
Bailey, J. W., and Prof. W. Harvey,
description of new species of Dia-
tomacee, 93.
33 microscopic examina-
tion of deep soundings from the
Atlantic, 89.
3 on some new localities
for fossil Diatomacee, 91.
Bennett, J. H., on the structure of
the Torbane Hill mineral and of
various kinds of coal, 185.
Bleakley, E., M.D., on Powell and
Lealand’s new condenser, 92.
Blood-cells, action of urea on, 289.
Branson, F., M.D., on the prevention
of glare from artificial light, 173.
i on the circulation
of sap, 274.
Bridgman, W. K., on another ‘ finder’
for the microscope, 237.
Busch, Dr. W., on Noctiluca miliaris,
199.
C.
Calex Mosquito, C. Johnston, M.D.,
on the auditory apparatus of, 97.
Campanularia geniculata, on the male
reproductive organs of, by Dr. Max.
8. Schultze, 59.
Campylodiscus clypeus, R. Wigham
on, 243.
3 Kiitzingii, 93.
Carpenter, W. B., review of principles
of comparative physiology, 215.
A
326
Cellulose in animals, by R. Virchow,
284,
Chytridium, Cohn on, 207.
Cilia in the Diatomacee, J. Hogg on,
235.
,, on the surface of Conferve, Dr.
G. H. Kingsley on, 245.
Circulation of the sap in the leaf-cells
of the Anacharis Alsinastrum, by
F. H. Wenham, 277.
Closterium Lunula, 8. G. Osborne on
the economy of, 54.
» structure of, F.G. Wright,
M.D., on the, 171.
Cocconeis costata, 39.
» parmula, 93.
os rhombifera, 94.
» sulcata, 94,
“5 speciosa, 59.
transversalis, 39.
Cohn, Dr. F., researches on the de-
velopment of microscopic Alge and
Fungi, 202.
Colouration of the China Sea, Camille
Dareste on the, 66.
Condenser, new. Powell and Lea-
land’s, Dr. Bleakley on, 92.
Conferve, cilia on the surface of, 243.
Conversaziones, Microscopical, 303.
Cornea, compound of insects, 9.
Currey, Frederick, on the reproduc-
tive aera of Fungi, 263.
on the spiral threads
of the genus Trichea, 15.
Cutaneous follicles of the toad, on the
structure of, by George Rainey,
257.
Cymbella truncata, 38.
D.
Dareste, Camille, on the colouration
of the China Sea, 66.
Deep soundings from. the Atlantic,
microscopic examination of, by J.
W. Bailey, 89.
Delicate test-objects, definition of,
E. L. on the, 233.
Diascope, a new optical instrument,
description of, 1.
Diatomacez, cilia in the, J. Hogg on,
235.
Diatomaceous deposits in the mud of
Milford Haven, description of, and
mode of procuring, by Fitzmaurice
Okeden, 26.
i earths and clays, mode
of washing, F, Okeden on a, 158
Eh exuvize contained in a
post tertiary lacustrine sand from
Glenshira, 30,
INDEX TO JOURNAL.
Diatomacez fossil, new localities for,
J. W. Bailey on some, 91.
on washing and concen-
trating of, Dr. H. Munro on the, 241.
new species of, deserip-
tion ‘of, by Prof. W. Harvey and J.
Wi. Bailey, 93.
Diatomacee, on the determination of
species in, the Rey. W. Smith on
the, 130.
R on species of, 307.
Discopora ciliata, 256.
D’Alquen, F., on Griffiths’ paper on
the angular aperture of object-
glasses, 43.
E.
| Enamel and dentine of the teeth,
T. H. Huxley on, in reply to E.
Lent, 127.
Enlargement and multiplication of
the images of objects when viewed
through small apertures, J: Gorham
on the, 1.
Ercolani and Vella on the develop-
ment and life of the Nematoidea,
73.
Eunotia falr, 38.
Eupodiscus? Ralfsii, B, 39.
F.
‘Finder’ for the microscope, on an
improved, by F. Okeden, ©.E.,
166.
», for the microscope, W. K.
Bridgman on another, 237.
Finders, 314.
Flies’ feet, on, 312.
Freshwater marls and limestones,
microscopical structure of, H.
Sorbey on the, 95.
Fungi, the reproductive organs of, by
F, Currey, 263.
G.
Geological Society, proceedings of, 95.
Glaisher, J., on snow-crystals, 179.
Glare from artificial light, on the
prevention of, 173.
Glenshira deposit, Diatomaceous exu-
vie in, 30, qs
Gonium pectorale, Cohn on, 212.
Gorham, J., on the magnifying power
of short spaces, }.
Gregory, W., on diatomaceous exuviee
contained in a post tertiary lacus-
trine sand, from Glenshira, 30,
Griffith, Dr. J. W., on the angular
aperture of object-glasses, 43,
INDEX TO JOURNAL.
H.
Hepworth, John, memoranda by, 312.
Histology, Quekett’s lectures on, re-
view of, 75.
Hodgson, W., on an easy method of
wiping thin glass covers, 243.
Hogg, Jabez, on cilia in the Diato-
maces, 235.
Hunt, G., description of a curious
effect of moisture on the markings
of Pleurosigma, 174.
5 on the markings of the
Pleurosigma, 232.
Huxley, T. H., on Noctiluca miliaris,
49,
~ on the enamel and
dentine of the teeth, 127.
Hyalosira punctata, 94.
Ie
Illumination, new mode of, by Dr. T.
G. Wright, 236.
= of microscopic objects,
F. H, Wenham on the, in reply to
Mr. Rainey, 87.
Impressions, metallic, of microscopic
objects, mode of obtaining, F. H.
Wenham on a, 244.
Infusory animalcules, physiological
studies respecting the, by Paul
Laurent, 156.
Tnfusoria, on the occurrence among
the, of peculiar organs resembling
thread-cells, by G. J. Allman, 177.
Insects, feet and wings of, J. Tyrrell
on the, 230.
a a by J. Hep-
worth, 312.
Isthmia minima, 94.
J.
Johnston, C., M.D., on the auditory
apparatus of calex mosquito, 97.
Jungermannia, elaters of, action of
sulphurie acid upon, 19.
K.
Keber, F., on the porosity of bodies, |
152.
Kingsley, Dr, G. H., on cilia on the
surface of Conferve, 243.
Kolliker, on the motions of spermatic |
filaments, 293, 296.
3 on the action of urea on |
-blood-cells, 289.
» on lymph corpuscles, 291.
327
L.
Lagena Williamsoni, 94.
Laurent, Paul, physiological studies
respecting the infusory animalcules,
156,
Lent, Ed., on the enamel and dentine
of the teeth, 127.
Lepralia scutulata, 255.
Leydig, Dr. F., on the structure and
systematic position of the Rotifera,
136.
Lloyd, W. A., on artificial sea-water
in marine aquaria, 315,
Lymph corpuscles, KGlliker on, 291.
M.
Magnetic stage, description of a, by
J.B. Spencer, 174.
Magnifying power of short spaces, J.
Gorham on the, 1.
Marine aquaria, on the employment
of artificial sea-water, 315.
Membranipora Sophia, 255.
Memoranda, by John Hepworth, 312.
Menipea arctica, 254.
Microchemical researches on the di-
gestion of starch and amylaceous
foods, by Dr. P. B. Ayres, 247.
Microseope, Dr. H. Schacht on, trans-
iated by F. Currey, review of, 219.
Microscopes, cheap, proceedings of
the Society of Arts with respect to,
234, 306.
Microscopic Alge and Fungi, re-
searches on the development of, by
Dr. F. Cohn, 202.
Microscopical Society, proceedings of,
176, 247, 317.
Moleschott, on the motions of Sperma-
tozoids, 294.
Monas prodigiosa, 206.
Moreland, Mr., on starch, 319.
Munro, Dr. H., on the washing and
concentrating of Diatomacez, 241.
Muscular fibre, on, 318.
N.
Navicula erassa, 41.
He gastroides, 40,
35 maxima, 41.
a rhombica, 40.
43 birostrata, 40,
Nematoidea, on the development and
life of the, 73.
Noetiluca miliaris, Dr. W. Busch on,
199,
m * T. H. Huxley on,
49.
5 sy Dr. Woodham
Webb, on, 102.
328
O.
Okeden, F., on an improved ‘ finder’
for the microscope, 166.
,, on diatomaceous deposits
mud of Milford Haven, 26.
ef », on a mode of washing
diatomaceous earths and clays, 158.
4 ”
in the
Osborne, S. G., on the economy of
Closterium Lunula, 54.
P:
Pathological Anatomy, Manual of, by
C. H. Jones, M.D., and E. H.
Sieveking, M.D., review of, 155.
Pedicellaria of Echinus miliaris, figure
of, 83.
ag of Sputangus purpureous,
figure of, 84.
Peridinea, new species of, G. J. All-
man on a, 21.
Physiology, comparative, principles
of, W. B. Carpenter, 215.
Pinnularia apiculata, 41.
- Gastrum, 41.
Pleurosigma, curious effect of moisture
on the markings of, 174.
a markings of the, G. Hunt
on the, 282.
Polythalamia (Foraminifera), M. S.
Schultze on the organization and
classification of the, 143.
Porosity of bodies, microscopic re-
searches on the, by F. Keber, 152.
Post-tertiary lacustrine sand con-
taining diatomaceous exuvie, W.
Gregory on, 30.
Powell and Lealand’s new condenser,
R. Bleakley, M.D., on, 92.
Pulmonary Consumption, Dr. Theo-
philus Thompson’s Lettsomian lec-
tures on, review of, 227.
Q.
Quekett’s, J., Lectures of Histology,
review of, 75.
R.
Rainey, George, on the cutaneous
follicles of the toad, 257.
Redfern, P., M.D., on the Torbane
Hill mineral and on other varieties
of coal, 106,
Reproductive organs, on the, of cer-
tain Fungi, by Frederick Currey,
263.
INDEX TO JOURNAL.
| Robinson, J. R., D.D., on the mea-
| surement of the aperture of objec-
tives, 163.
Rotifera, on the structure and sys-
tematic position of the, Leydig on,
136.
Royal Society, proceedings of, 247.
Ss
Salicornaria borealis, 254.
Savory, Mr., on muscular fibre, 318.
Sea-water artificial, on the employ-
ment of, in marine aquaria, 315.
Sertularia imbricata, 256.
Schacht, Dr. H., on the microscope,
219.
Schultze, Dr. Max. $., on the male
reproductive organs of Campanu-
laria geniculata, 59.
s on the or-
ganization and classification of the
Polythalamia (Foraminifera), 143,
Smith, the Rey. W., on the determi-
nation of species in the Diatomacee,
130.
Snow-erystals, J. Glaisher on, 179.
Sollitt, J. D., on a new achromatic
condenser, 87. .
of on the aperture of
object-glasses, 85.
Sorbey, H. C., on the microscopical
structure of freshwater marls and
limestones, 95.
Species of Diatomacez, on, 307.
Spencer, J. B., description of a mag-
netic stage, 173.
Spermatic filaments, action of alkalies
on, 293, 296.
Spermatozoids, motion of, 294.
Spiral threads of the genus Trichia,
Fred. Currey on the, 15.
Starch, Dr. P. B. Ayres, on the diges-
tion of, 247.
», the presence of in the blood,
S. J. Stratford on, 168.
» Mr. Moreland on, 319.
Stratford, S. J., on the presence of
starch in the blood, 168.
Surirella fastuosa, B, 40.
Synedra undulans, 41,
vertebra, 41.
”
fi
Thin glass covers, on an easy method
of wiping, by W. Hodgson, 243.
Thread-cells, on the occurrence of
peculiar organs resembling the,
among the Infusoria, 177.
INDEX TO JOURNAL.
Toad, cutaneous follicles
George Rainey, 257.
Torbane-Hill mineral, and on other
varieties of coal, P. Redfern, M.D.
on the, 106.
of, by
structure of,
&e., J. H. "Bennett on the, 188.
Triceratium concavum, 94.
os gibbosum, 94.
55 orientale, 94.
i Wilkesti, 94.
Trichia, British species of, 21.
ss on the spiral threads of, 15.
Trichia-threads, corrections of mis-
prints in Mr, Currey’s paper on,
176.
%9 mode of preparing, |
21,
Tryblionella constricta, 40.
Tyrrell, J., on the feet and wings of
insects, 230,
Tubulipora ventricosa, 256.
U.
Urea, action of, on blood-cells, 289.
We
Vibrionia, Cohn on the nature of, 206.
Virchow, R., on cellulose in animals,
284.
|
329
iW’.
Ward’s, Mr., conversaziones, 303.
Webb, Woodham, M.D., on Noctiluca
meliaris, 102,
Wenham, F. H., on a method of ob-
taining metallic impressions of mi-
croscopic objects, 244.
6 on the illumination
of microscopic objects, in reply to
Mr. Rainey, 87.
” on the circulation of
the sap in Anucharis Alsinastrum,
277.
reply to Mr. Sollitt
on the aperture of object-glasses,
160.
on tests mounted in
balsam, 302.
Wigham, R., on Campylodiscus ely-
peus, 243.
Wright, Dr. T. G., on a new mode of
illumination, 236.
» F.G.,M.D., on the structure
of Closterium,.171.
Z.
ZLoophytology, 253, 321.
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QUARTERLY JOURNAL
OF
MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE.
ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS.
On the ENLARGEMENT and Muttipuication of the Imaces of
Oxssects, when viewed by the Light admitted through small
Apertures ; and on the DiascorE, a new Optical Instrument.
By Joun Goruay, M.R.C.S.L., &e.
(Continued from Vol. II., page 234.)
Ir has been before noticed that less attention has been
bestowed upon the investigation of objects that lie near at
hand, within an inch or two, we will suppose, of the eye, than
upon objects which are placed at a considerable distance from
it, that, for example, of as many furlongs. I have also endea-
voured to show that small circular perforations made in a
card, and rendered semi-transparent, constituted in themselves
objects well adapted to illustrate the magnifying power of short
spaces, by presenting a rapid and palpable enlargement of
the visual angle to the eye ; and, lastly, a series of phenomena
has been described, which resulted from viewing small figures
held close to the eye in front of such apertures, and rendered
visible by the light admitted through them.
The whole subject arranges itself therefore under two dis-
tinct divisions, which comprise :—1. An examination of the
images formed by viewing objects held in front of small aper-
tures; and 2, An examination of those images which result
from placing the objects behind the apertures.
1. Of images formed when the eye and the object are both
on the same side, that is, in front of the apertures.
We have already seen that when bodies not exceeding the
diameter of the pupillary opening of the eye are held in close
proximity to the visual organ, and are then examined by the
light admitted through small inlets about the fortieth of an
inch in diameter, their images become maynified, multiplied,
and inverted ; and further, that they are illuminated with light
VOL, IIT. B
2 GORHAM, ON THE
of an intensity varying with the number of apertures employed
to render them visible.
This light, be it observed, is always simply transmitted ;
never being "reflected nor refracted by the intervention oe
glass, or a any other substance having catoptric or dioptric
effects. The apparatus required in en experiments there-
fore is essentially very simple and uncomplicated, consisting
indeed of a mere short tube open at one end, and having a
plane, perforated with small holes to admit the light, at the
other; while the object to be examined is applied at the open
end, and held as close to the eye as possible. Hence a pill-
box and a narrow slip of glass constitute all that is really
necessary to explain the laws which are in operation, and to
give an idea of the phenomena which are involved in their
successful application.
From the remarks made in a previous section, it is obvious
that these phenomena are owing to the size, and to the
intervals of the apertures themselves, and to their distance with
respect to the eye. Thus their size should be the one-fortieth
of an inch,—their intervals the one-tenth of an inch,—and their
distance from the eye from one to two inches. If these con-
ditions are not fulfilled, the images become either undefined
or dimly illuminated ; but when they are strictly observed, the
combinations, which an instrument constructed upon such prin-
ciples is capable of presenting to the eye, are very beautiful.
But a mere tube of pasteboard, however well it might
answer for a first experiment, is inefficient, for it is difficult
to retain the slip of glass in its proper position between the
tube and the eye. It was essential therefore to construct a
small instrument of some more solid
and durable material, such as wood
or ivory, with which experiments
might be conveniently performed.
This instrument consists of a tube,
T, one or two inches long, and about
one inch thick, expanding at the end
to which the eye is applied into a
circular lip, L, which is about one
inch and a half in diameter, while
that of the round opening in its centre
is about half an inch. This end is
provided with a slit sufficiently large
to permit a thin narrow slip of glass,
about an inch broad, to slide easily
through it, as shown in the figure.
The other end has a circular rim, R,
MAGNIFYING POWER OF SHORT SPACES. 3
which revolves in the groove, G, and to this rim is attached
a second rim, 7, which is provided with a female screw, and
this secures any circular plane of apertures, p, we may choose
to insert, at the same time that it admits of its revolution.
A series of objects, either painted or mounted on glass slides,
can thus be examined at one end by the light admitted through
perforated planes at the other. As such an optical contrivance
is a mere conductor of the light directly from the apertures to
the eye, while at the same time it excludes all the extraneous
rays, it may not inaptly and for convenience’ sake be denomi-
nated a diascope: a term derived from the two Greek words,
dia, through, and oxovew, I view. And when it is used for
the purpose of multiplying images, it may be called the mu-
tiplying diascope.
The circular planes containing the apertures are made of
thick pasteboard, perforated with a needle at intervals of the
one-tenth ef an inch as before stated; and the openings may
be- arranged in a variety of combinations, as shown in the
patterns from one to six, page 220, of the last paper.
Here let us notice that the round form of the images, de-
picted on the retina when examining small apertures in this
way, is determined by the shape of the pupillary opening of
the eye rather than by that of the apertures themselves.
Hence it is always circular whether these be round, triangular,
square, or altogether irregular in-outline. This can easily be
proved by perforating cards with triangular or square needles.
The openings thus made when brought very near to the eye
always appear circular. A little reflection will show that this
is a necessary result, inasmuch as the outermost rays of the
rapidly-diverging cones are intercepted by the zrzs, while the
more internal rays pass on through the pupil, thus receiving
their circular form.
Hence if the pupil be widely expanded the discs will be
large, and vice versd, but nevertheless always perfectly round.
Let us now take a circular plane, presenting a combination
of perforations arranged as to colour and relative position as
in the outline, No. 4, page 225, of the last paper; and let
us notice what kinds of images are presented to the eye when
small bodies are examined by the light transmitted through
them.
Holding the instrument to the eye with a view to examine
the apertures, we observe that the smallest particle of dust, or
film of mucus, happening to exist on the surface of the
transparent cornea, is immediately detected; and although
such bodies have no definite shape, they are to be recognised
interfering with the transparency of the discs, and forming an
B 2
4 GORHAM, ON THE
opaque spot or streak which occupies exactly the same posi-
tion in each. Similar results are obtained if a small dot, no
bigger than a pin’s head, be made on a slip of glass with
Indian ink, and introduced into the eye-piece of the diascope.
The dot now appears multiplied, and as many images of it are
seen as there are apertures by which it is made visible.
In like manner if a small semicircle be painted on glass, its
images will be multiplied, but each image wil] be seen in-
verted, and will appear as a black body on an illuminated and
coloured ground.
And if a small triangle, or any other figure of definite
shape, be cut from a piece of black paper, and if the opening
thus made be examined in the same way, a number of illumi-
nated and coloured triangles will be seen on a black ground.
It is when transparent figures are made according to this last
method that really beautiful combinations may be produced. _
But here, in order to insure success, it is necessary that the
transparent openings should never exceed in size the pupillary
aperture of the eye, fig. 16. Hence they should always be
made within the limits of a circle, the 0°18 of an inch in
diameter, fig. 15; this being the mean of the greatest and least
Fig. 15. Fig. 16.
o ©
expansion of the pupil. If such transparent figures are made
greater than this, the margin of the pupil will obstruct some
of the external rays, and the outline of the image will thus be
lost or badly defined. If, on the other hand, they are less, the
quantity of light admitted into the eye will be too small, and
the images but feebly illuminated.
Such openings used as objects are to be considered as little
else than artificial pupils, modifying the shape and contracting
the size of every cone of light which is admitted into the eye
from small apertures.
When one of these transparent openings is held close to the
eye, and examined with common diffused light, it becomes
altogether invisible ; but, when it is viewed by the aid of a
pencil of light from a small inlet, its outline is well defined
and much magnified ; and the disc of the inlet, which would
otherwise be circular, is replaced by the pattern we may
choose to give to the transparency.
_ And if the pupil of the eye itself, obliterated, as it often
is, from disease, have a small portion excised from it, as in
MAGNIFYING POWER OF SHORT SPACES. 5
the operation for artificial pupil, the newly-formed opening
will appear inverted and multiplied in the same way; and
each image, instead of being circular as it is in the healthy
eye, will be seen to resemble the figure of the new and dis-
torted pupil.
But in order to demonstrate the images which this instru-
ment is capable of presenting to the eye in the most satisfac-
tory manner ; instead of cutting holes in pieces of black paper,
a series of figures having a transparent body and a black out-
line may be painted on glass with Indian ink. For this
purpose round patches of ink, about the size of a fourpenny
piece, should be laid on the centre of each glass slip with a
camel’s-hair pencil ; and, when dry, transparent figures of the
required shape and dimensions can easily be made by erasing
a portion of the ink with a finely-pointed and slightly-moist-
ened wooden style.
The forms of such transparencies will suggest themselves
to the ingenuity of the reader, but a few are subjoined by way
of example (figs. 18 to 33).
Fig. 18. 19. 20. 2A 22. 23. 24, 25.
Fig. 26. 27. 28. 29, 30. 31. 32. 353.
Fig. 18. Regular hexagon. | Fig. 28. Two semicircles.
», 19. Hexagonal star. ,, 29. Triangle and semicircle.
» 20. Rhomb of 60° | ,, 30. Curved and straight lines
», 21. Curved triangle. intersecting at 60°.
Soe LILLO, | ,, ol. Three lines intersecting at
» 23. Trefoil. | :
>, 24. Circle. | 4, 382. Two curved lines inter-
s, 25. Concentric circles. secting at 60°.
» 26. Triradiate star of 120°, | 5, 33. Two angles of 60° inter-
», 27. Straight lines intersecting | secting.
at 60°, |
Such forms arrange themselves into two groups; those, for
instance, which are entire in themselves, and which constitute
elegant designs by their multiplication and the shifting of
their relative position (figs. 18 to 25), and those again which
are imperfect figures, but which produce entire compositions
of great beauty by their combination (figs. 26 to 33).
6 GORHAM, ON THE
As the apertures are arranged in lines which cross each
other at angles of 60 and 120°, the outlines of the transparent
figures should bear the same angular relation. Thus the
modifications of the equilateral triangle, the rhomb of 60° and
120’, and the regular hexagon, a few of which are given in the
above examples, are well suited for the purpose.
When a transparent hexagonal star (fig. 19), slid into the
eye-piece of the instrument and brought close to the eye, is
examined by the light admitted through a combination of
apertures, that, for instance, marked No. 4, at the 225th
page, placed at the other end, the images of a number
of stars are apparent. ‘These stars are seen to change their
relative position with every movement, however slight, of the
revolving plane. Sometimes they are observed to touch each
other hy one ray, at others by two, while in intermediate
positions the rays alternate.. The patterns which are thus
formed are as variable as the parts into which a circle can be
divided. They are shown in two of their phases of revolu-
tion in the 4th and 5th figures of Plate VIII., Vol. IL.
The concentric circles, fig. 25, thus multiplied display
themselves with good effect. Their appearance is represented
in the 6th figure of Plate VIII., which is produced by using
the arrangement of apertures marked No. 5, page 225.
But the combinations effected by the mutual coalescence of
the images of the imperfect figures into one entire composite
form are the most curious. Thus if the three-rayed star,
fig. 26, be examined, its images will be seen either to alter-
nate (fig. 9, Plate I., Vol. IIL.), or to resolve into one hexa-
gonal reticulation with a dot in the centre of each mesh, as
shown in fig. 10, Plate I., Vol. III. And the images of the
figure, composed of the straight and curved lines, fig. 30, unite
into many fresh devices; two of which are copied in the
figures 7 and 8, Plate I.
But it is needless to multiply examples, as those which have
been already given will doubtless have sufficed to explain the
construction of the instrument, and one of the purposes at
least to which it may be legitimately applied.
Hitherto we have confined our attention chiefly to the mui-
tiplication of the images of artificial objects prepared expressly
for the purpose, and viewed by the aid of the light admitted
through small apertures.
We are now to consider how the images of natural objects
are magnified by the same means.
Here let us notice, in limine, that we are not about to insti-
tute a comparison between two optical instruments, the eye
and the achromatic microscope, which although they are con-
MAGNIFYING POWER OF SHORT SPACES. (
structed on the same principles are yet totally different as to
their uses. The healthy visual organ, itself a perfect instru-
ment, “ converses with its objects” at almost all distances,
and assists the other senses in becoming acquainted with the
form, position, and magnitude of material substances. The
microscope, on the other hand, all but a perfect instrument,
enables us to see clearly and to examine certain objects,
which from their small size and without its aid would be
indistinct, if not altogether invisible. It is restricted to the
small size and the short distance of its objects, and from its
very construction it has magnifying powers which the eye
neither possesses nor requires, If the eye were endowed
with these, therefore, to the exclusion of its self-adjusting
properties, whereby it discerns common objects in the ordinary
way at great and small distances, it would be rendered com-
paratively useless as a visual organ.
Hence it were folly to attempt to invest this organ with
functions, the possession of which would subject its owner to
the greatest inconvenience. An exemplification of this position
occurs to me in the case of short-sighted persons.
When therefore we find ourselves enabled by a carefully-
devised experiment to detect, with the naked eye, certain
configurations upon or within an object which, we may sup-
pose, has never before yielded an image at all excepting
through the medium of a lens, we are not to imagine that we
are thereby infringing on the domains of the microscope,
which being constructed for this very purpose would present
us, perhaps, with an image ten thousand times as large and
distinct. But putting this instrument altogether out of con-
sideration, and throwing aside all extraneous assistance, we
are the rather to consider how the eye, which has certain
limits to distinct vision for short distances, can yet adjust
itself for spaces still smaller, and in so doing become con-
verted into a kind of natural magnifying glass.
We have now therefore to turn our attention to certain
microscopic objects, which are to be examined and resolved
without a lens of any description; and we are stimulated to
an inyestigation of this kind by recollecting what has been
already attained with respect to the magnitude of the images
of small apertures themselves, when placed under circum-
stances the most favourable for their inspection. Amongst
these we cannot fail to have noticed at least two conditions
necessary to be fulfilled in such investigations, viz.—First,
that the object be held very near to the eye; and secondly,
that every ray of light, excepting what is required to illumi-
nate the object, be carefully excluded. The first insures an
8 GORHAM, ON THE
enlarged image, whilst the second prevents a too great con-
traction of the pupillary opening. Hence the necessity for
examining objects through small darkened tubes, and hence,
too, the necessity for closing the eye which is not engaged in
exploring.
Again, we must not overlook the fact, that in using a small
aperture for the purpose of examining any transparent sub-
stance there are two methods which may be employed. By
the one, the object is viewed through the aperture; by the other,
the aperture is viewed through the object. The former has been
almost always adopted by the curious, the latter scarcely ever.
It is capable, however, as these papers show, of eliciting so
many phenomena peculiar to itself, that Iam surprised it has
not been frequently used, and the results carefully investigated.
Each of these plans throws a different picture on the retina
of the eye, and of this the transparent animal membrane chosen
for the following experiments will afford, when examined in
both ways, abundant exemplification.
For the purpose of presenting very small objects, mounted
on microscopic slides in the usual way, before the eye at
small distances behind a minute aperture, and to exclude the
surrounding rays of light, I took an upright box of pasteboard
about one inch and a half deep, and one inch and a quarter in
diameter, and having cut a couple of slits through one of its
sides sufficiently large to admit of a slip of glass an inch
broad sliding to and fro, I made two small apertures opposite
to each other, the first the one-thirtieth of an inch, and the
second the one-fourth of an inch in diameter ; and these were
so disposed, that when the glass slip with a small object
Fig. 34.
mounted on its centre was introduced through the slits, the
two apertures and the object were all in one straight line ;
while the slide was about a quarter of an inch behind the
smaller opening, see fig, 34.
MAGNIFYING POWER OF SHORT SPACES. 9
With this simple apparatus [ could examine very small
transparent objects at pleasure, either by the light of the sun
or of a taper. Whilst, however, it has been thought better to
notice the dimensions of the apertures,. &c., for the conveni-
ence of others who might wish to repeat the experiments, it
must not, by any means, be supposed that they are the best
adapted to insure success, or that better could not be devised.
Having been engaged in the preparation of a series of dis-
sections of the compound cornea of the eye in insects, I naturally
subjected one of these beautiful objects to the first experiment
in my lens-less microscope. Here, however, for the informa-
tion of those who may not be conversant with these objects, or
the peculiarities of their structure, it may be remarked that
the roundish, prominent, transparent elevations observed,
generally one on each side of an insect’s head, constitute the
membrane in question. This membrane forms at once the
defence and the covering to the delicate parts in the interior
of the eye, as well as the transparent medium by which the
light is admitted into this tiny organ. It is analogous, more-
over, to the transparent cornea of the eye in the higher classes
of animals in being transparent, composed of several firmly-
adhering layers, and forming the outermost of all the coverings
of the eye. But it is altogether dissimilar in this respect,
that it is found to consist of an immense number of facets or
little pieces lying, side by side, like fine mosaic; and which
from being of a regular hexagonal shape, and arranged in
perfect order, present when examined under the microscope
an appearance like a honeycomb, Hence it has received the
name of compound cornea.
The eye of the large insect, called the dragon-fly, is recom-
mended for a first trial in dissection, because it is not only
very large but exceedingly beautiful. The compound cornea
is at once separated from the rest of the eye with a pair of
finely-pointed scissors, and the dark thick pigment which fills
the inside is then washed away by soaking in a tumbler of
cold water for an hour or two, and then using a camel’s-hair
pencil. To procure it in a perfectly clean and transparent
state, however, it is better to wash and rewash it after macera-
tion for two days in frequently-changed cold water. Then,
while still moist, let small circular pieces be excised with a
small punch, and pressed immediately between two slips of
glass. In a few days they will have become dry and flat, and
may then be mounted in what is called the dry way, as if for
the microscope.
I wish it was in my powe’ to convey to my readers an idea
of the great beauty of one oi these specimens ; to say nothing
10 GORHAM, ON THE
of the wonderful arrangement whereby upwards of twelve
thousand planes, each a perfect hexagon, are packed in a bit
of membrane scarcely so large as half the little finger nail.
“J have often,” says the celebrated Leeuwenhoek, *“‘ made re-
peated dissections of the eyes of various kinds of insects,
merely on account of the pleasure the contemplating them
afforded me.”* But few, however, seem inclined to investi-
gate these subjects for themselves, trusting rather to that
second-hand kind of knowledge derivable from books. This
distaste for exploring the works of nature may possibly, in
some instances, commence with the limited resources of the
pocket ; the very preparation of a microscopic object in-
volving the necessity for a costly instrument wherewith to
investigate it. If, however, I shall succeed in pointing out
certain beauties peculiar to the compound cornea in the eye
of the insect, which may be discovered with the naked eye,
and without a microscope, this membrane will haye become
invested with a new interest, and thus others may be stimu-
lated to a like inquiry. But to return. Having inserted a
slide containing a circular section of the eye of the dragon-fly
in the box prepared for the purpose, I proceeded to examine
it. Recalling to mind, however, that each of the hexagonal
facets is barely the six-hundredth of an inch across, and that
many hundreds of such facets are contained in the smallest
section, it was much to anticipate that such a structure should
be resolved by a process so simple; and when on viewing the
membrane, by looking at it through the small aperture, while
a lighted candle was held nearly close to the larger one, it
presented a semi-opaque and altogether homogeneous appear-
ance, I had almost concluded that my efforts were frustrated.
To overcome the difficulty was reserved, however, for a future
trial. Now if, instead of a candle, a small wax taper be used,
and if this be held at the distance of from five to nine feet,
rather than close to the large aperture, a beautiful sight pre-
sents itself. Instead of the flame of one taper, there are
exhibited the miniature images of the flames of many tapers ;
and these are not only very definite in their outline so as to
be immediately identified, but they are arranged at regular
intervals. But, what is still more curious, each image, except
the central one, is seen to be composed of the colours of the
prismatic spectrum,—violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow,
orange, and red; of which the extreme tints are so disposed
that the blue portion in each image is always nearest to the
central or colourless flame, and the red the most remote from
it. Hence the blue and the red tints alternate in concentric
* Leeuwenhoek, vol. ii. p. 841.
MAGNIFYING POWER OF SHORT SPACES. 11
circles. When the images which are most distinct, for those
near the margin look fainter, assume in the aggregate the form
of the hexagonal star, which they not unfrequently do, the
appearance is striking and uncommon, see fig. 11, Plate I.
The simplicity of the process by which such a spectacle is
produced, together with the novelty of the sight itself, did
not tend, of course, to diminish the sense of its gorgeousness ;
and I was delighted to find a natural multiplying glass in
a tissue, which had already contributed so much to my ad-
miration and wonder when examined under a compound
microscope.
On viewing the sun in the same way, each small and per-
fectly circular image presented the rainbow tints in the same
order, as in fig. 12, Plate I., and the multiplied images of the
pale moon were scarcely less beautiful. _
I may remark, in passing, that the taper flame and the
image of the moon were seen through a specimen mounted in
Canada balsam ; but the rays of the sun were less distressing
to the eye when examined through a specimen mounted in
the dry way.
Thus, although I had not, in this experiment at least, suc-
ceeded in rendering visible a magnified image of each hexagon
in outline, which indeed was the object of my research, I had,
in effect, resolved the reticulated structure of the membrane;
for in this way only could the peculiarities of a multiplying
medium have presented themselves. The interval between
each image served, moreover, to indicate the apparent enlarge-
ment of each facet, and thus to give a notion of the magnify-
ing power of short spaces.
Still bearing in mind the comparatively enormous magni-
tude imparted to images on bringing the objects which pro-
duce them very near to the eye, and recollecting that the image
of a mere needle-puncture seen at half an inch is magnified
no less than a million times, it was difficult to renounce the
idea of the practicability of defining the hexagonal lattice-
work of an insect’s eye with the naked eye, and without the
assistance of a material lens.
In the former attempt the membrane seemed too opaque to
disclose its minute internal configuration, a specimen was
therefore now mounted in balsam to increase its transparency.
This, however, did not succeed; on the contrary, it had
become so indistinct that its structure could now be scarcely
made out even with a microscope. In order to define the
hexagons it was evidently necessary to colour the membrane.
A few specimens were macerated, therefore, for four days in a
decoction of logwood, and then carefully dried and mounted
12 GORHAM, ON THE
in balsam. In this way they were rendered sufficiently
diaphanous to transmit a strong light from the sun without
injuring the eye, and their reticulations were not obscured
Having prepared the object, it was necessary to decide upon
the distance from the eye best suited for examining it; and
as the nearest position would insure the largest image, this
was accordingly adopted. The mode of illumination also
required consideration, in order that the light should be of
such intensity as to make the object visible without dazzling
or injuring the eye. The quantity of light received by any
object is often measured with an instrument invented for the
purpose, called a photometer ; but a box with small apertures
pierced through the bottom might be shown to constitute a
good and efficient substitute for such an instrument. For it
is to be inferred from the remarks contained in the sixth para-
graph, that when a small object is examined by the aid of the
pencils of light admitted through such apertures, it is illumi-
nated by the sum of their intensities. Hence the quantity of
light thrown upon the object will be regulated by the number
of the apertures, being very nearly proportional to them: that
is to say, the intensity from two apertures will be nearly twice
as great as that from one.
By varying the number of apertures, therefore, we can regu-
late the illumination of the object with the greatest nicety.
It follows that there is no better way, perhaps, of exploring
minute objects with the naked eye, than by holding them,
mounted on a slide of glass, as near to the eye as possible, and
examining them by looking at them from the inside of a smail
box through apertures made in the bottom, and which are
covered with tracing-paper, by the aid of a strong light.
And this is effected by using the little instrument, to which
I have ventured to give the name of diascope.
Thus all the conditions were fulfilled; for, 1, the object
was rendered sufficiently transparent to transmit the rays of
light freely, and sufficiently opaque to prevent the solar rays
dazzling the eye ; 2, it was coloured to make all its parts visible ;
3, it was brought sufficiently near to the eye to be enormously
magnified ; and 4, all extraneous rays of light, those which
were not immediately concerned in the illumination of the
object, were shut out. It remains to be noticed that the ex-
periment was crowned with success; for, on examining the
membrane by the direct rays of the noonday sun, the whole
of its area appeared reticulated, and several well-defined
hexagons were seen in its centre. While, as a red tint had been
communicated to the specimen, its reticulations were most
easily discerned in the red discs, inasmuch as the tints of all
MAGNIFYING POWER OF SHORT SPACES. 13
substances are most brilliant when viewed in light of their
own colour,
By way of recapitulation, I shall beg to sum up with the
following remarks :—
1. When small bodies are brought very near to the eye,
their images are magnified, just as images of larger objects
when seen at a distance are diminished, and by the same law.
2. The apparent magnitude of objects depends on their
visual angle.
3. The visual angle, for short distances, may be well illus-
trated by employing a small circular disc of light.
A minute circular disc of light is procured by perforating
a card with a needle, through which the light is then permitted
to pass.
5. A sewing-needle, of the size marked No. 6, produces an
aperture about the one-fortieth of an inch in diameter.
6. In order to examine the light which is transmitted
through such an aperture, all extraneous rays should be ex-
cluded ; hence the plane in which the opening is made should
be placed at the end of a tube.
7. The pencil of light admitted through an opening of this
kind, held within an inch or so of the eye, consists of rapidly-
diverging rays falling upon the cornea. Some of these are
entirely lost, others are intercepted by the iris, while the re-
mainder pass on through the pupil, which communicates to
the image formed on the retina its circular form.
8. Whether the small aperture itself be round or triangular,
square or irregular, in form, provided its area do not much
exceed that of a circle the one-fortieth of an inch in diameter,
its image is always circular.
9. When more than one aperture is used, and these of
different tints, secondary colours result from the overlapping
and blending of the images of the primary.
10. If the three primary colours, yellow, red, and blue are
used, their images, which overlap in pairs, produce orange,
violet, and green light; and when the images of all three
blend white light is the result.
11. When a small transparent object is held close to the
eye it is altogether invisible.
12. But its outline is immediately determined by the light
transmitted through one of the small inlets above described,
and it is then seen to be not only magnified but inverted.
13. The image becomes much more distinct when more
than one aperture is used, for the intensity of light by which
it is illuminated is thereby increased, being almost in a direct
ratio with the number of the openings which are employed.
14 GORHAM, ON THE
14. The pencils of light which are used for this purpose
not only illuminate the object, but intersect in their passage
through it, producing as many images as there are apertures.
15. Hence, when a small object is examined by the liwht
admitted through small apertures, it will appear magnified,
inverted, multiplied, and illuminated with variable degrees of
intensity. : ’ :
16. The apparent magnitude of an object varies with the
distance of the source of light by which it is rendered visible ;
when this recedes, the pencil of light has less divergence, and
the object appears smaller; when, on the other hand, it ap-
proaches the eye, the visual cone has a rapid expansion, and
the object still held in the same position appears magnified,
17. All these effects are demonstrable by using artificially-
prepared transparent figures, the dimensions of each of which
do not exceed the diameter of the pupillary opening of the
eye.
18. It is probable that the minute structure of many natural
transparent objects may be recognised in the same way. The
hexagonal facets in the eye of the dragon-fly certainly can.
19. These phenomena are, for obvious reasons, but imper-
fectly discriminated by short-sighted persons.
20. And, finally, it should be noticed that the investigations
resulting in the phenomena described in these papers were
commenced, and have been conducted throughout, for the
specific purpose of testing the power of the naked eye in con-
centrating the rapidly-diverging rays of light, proceeding from
bodies when held at very short distances from it unaided by a
lens ; and from these inquiries it would appear, amongst other
results, that the magnifying power of the eye is limited by the
magnitude of the visual angle on the one hand, and by the
intensity of light on the other. Ifthe visual angle be too large,
the rays are not sufficiently refracted by the humours of the
eye to converge to a focus, and form an image on the retina ;
and if too small, the image is reduced to a mere point. The
exact amount of divergence of the rays, therefore, for any
individual eye lies somewhere between these two extremes.
Again, however nicely adjusted the visual angle may be to
the refractive powers of the eye, if the light be too strong the
pupil becomes so contracted that only the innermost rays are
admitted ; while, if it be of small intensity, the object is so
dimly illuminated as to be scarcely visible. If, then, whilst
a small object is held very near to the eye, so as to insure
a rapid divergence of the rays proceeding from it, the pupil
can be dilated by the small quantity of light which is used,
and to which like a photometer it immediately responds, so as
ee
MAGNIFYING POWER OF SHORT SPACES. 15
to admit as large an angle as the lenses of the eye are capable
of refracting, at the same time that the object is rendered
distinctly visible, then, under such circumstances, we have
arrived at the utmost limit to the available magnifying power
of the eye. These conditions are fulfilled in the diascope ;
which may be defined to be an instrument which enables us to
develop the microscopic power of the eye by retaining an object
close in front of it at one end, while it is examined by the light
admitted through small apertures at the other.*
With such a simple optical instrument, altogether destitute
of glass, a series of images may be presented which have never
before been seen with the naked eye; and by its use we are
led to a legitimate conclusion, capable of direct proof, that
when a transparent figure is held very near to the eye for the
purpose of magnifying it, if an image is seen at all, its size
will bear an inverse ratio to the intensity of light by which it
is made visible.
In my next communication, which will embody the second
part of the subject, I shall beg permission to describe and de-
lineate another set of forms distinct from those which have
been noticed in this, and which are produced by substituting
straight or circular very narrow apertures of light for the per-
forations. With such apertures, figures are seen as in perspec-
tive, lines appear expanded into planes, and these are multi-
plied into solids, which, from being of an ethereal brightness,
bear a resemblance to models of regular geometric solids of
pure glass.
On the Sprrat Tureaps of the Genus Tricuta. By Freperick
Currey, Esq., M.A.
Ir anything were wanting to show the extent of the field of
research, which is open not only to the student but even to the
more advanced inquirer in botanical microscopy, it would be
sufficient to direct attention to some of the many points in
vegetable anatomy upon which the opinions of observers not
only differ from one another, but are so utterly and diameiri-
cally at variance, that if the one side be right the other must
be altogether wrong. Commencing upon the threshold of
vegetable life, opinions are still divided as to the structure of
the primary membrane of the walls of young cells, Mulder
and Hasting contending that the young cell-membrane is
_ pierced like a sieve, whilst Von Mohl asserts that it is com-
* This instrument may be procured at Mr. Highley’s Scientific Library,
32, Fleet-street, London.
16 CURREY, ON THE SPIRAL THREADS
pletely imperforate. Again, the question of the mode of
growth of the thickening layers (that is, whether they are de-
posited upon the outer or inner side of the primary membrane),
although considered by some botanists to be quite decided,
has lately been discussed at some length in a new work by
Dr. Schacht,* which shows that the subject is not yet ex-
hausted. The apparently fibrous structure of many /iber-cells,
the nature of the milk-vessels, the connexion between spiral
and reticulated vessels, the structure of the chlorophyll gra-
nules and starch, are all matters upon which our present
knowledge must be considered imperfect. A long list might
be placed before the reader of questions respecting vegetable
structure, upon which the opinions advanced upon the one
side are flatly contradicted on the other. Without multiplying
instances, | may mention the question of the origin of the
embryo in phenogamous plants as one peculiarly illustrative
of the point to which I have alluded upon this question.
This question, which although physiological in its import, can
only be decided by anatomical investigation, embraces two
parties whose views are hopelessly irreconcileable ; yet each
side is equally positive. Each party asserts that they have
actually seen that which they describe, which it is hardly
necessary to remark is just as impossible as that a thing
should be both black and white. Schleiden alleges that he
has set the matter at rest by his investigations, and established
an incontrovertible theory; Von Mohl states that Amici has
destroyed Schleiden’s theory at one blow, and that the matter
is quite settled in its principal features the other way.
The spiral threads, which it is the object of this paper to
discuss, hold a conspicuous place amongst disputed vegetable
structures, so far at least as relates to the variety of the
opinions entertained respecting them. The genus Trichia
constitutes a tribe of minute fungi, growing principally, in fact
almost exclusively, upon rotten wood, and generally of a
yellowish or tawny colour. They belong to the order of the
Gasteromycetes, in which the spores, which are often inter-
mixed with hairs or threads, are developed in the interior of
a case, termed a peridium or sporangium. ‘They form part of
the sub-tribe Myxogasteres, in which the plants first appear in
the form of a slimy mucilaginous stratum, out of which at a
later period the spore-cases are developed. The different
species of Trichia grow in various ways; in T. pyriformis
the peridia, are joined together in a fasciculate manner, in 7.
clavata they are scattered at small distances from-one another,
* Beitrage zur Anatomie und Physiologie der Gewachse, by Dr. H.
Schacht. Berlin, 1854,
OF THE GENUS TRICHIA. . 17
in T. chrysosperma the peridia, although quite distinct, are
so densely aggregated as to cover completely the spot upon
which they are spread, in T. serpula the peridia are flexuous,
creeping, and irregular in shape. When the fungus is mature
the peridium bursts, and the spores in its interior are dis-
charged. It is generally supposed that one purpose for which
the threads are designed is to assist in scattering the spores,
for their elasticity is very great. Ifa specimen of Trichia be
examined immediately after the bursting of the peridium, the
threads are seen protruding through the fissure and apparently
struggling for egress; when viewed through the microscope
at this period with a low power, they have a slow waving
sort of motion, not unlike that of the threads of the Oscilla-
torie ; if the whole of the mass of threads be extracted with
a needle it appears like a small fragment of yellow wool.
When a minute portion of this yellow flocculent mass is ex-
amined moist, under the microscope, with a power of about
200 dimnoters, it is seen to consist of narrow delicate fibres
having fine spiral markings covering the whole of the walls.
A reference to fig. 1, Plate II., which shows a fibre of Trichia
chrysosperma, will give a general idea of this spiral appear-
ance ; and it is with regard to the nature of these threads, and
the cause of their spiral appearance, that so much difference of
opinion exists. Corda claims to have discovered these threads,
which he calls spiral-fibrous-cells (spiral-fiber-zellen) ; but they
were observed about the same time by Mr. Berkeley, and in
fact could not fail to have been noticed by any person hap-
pening to examine a fragment of the woolly mass with a
moderately good microscope.*
Corda, in a letter addressed to Baron Humboldt, and which
was published at Prague in 1837, enters at some length into the
nature of these spinal-fibrous cells, and considers them to be
analogous to the elaters of the Jungermannie. After ad-
mitting that weighty objections might be raised against the
comparing of them with the spiral cells found in the walls of
the capsules of the Jungermannie, and in the sporangia of
the Equisetacez, or with those in the leaves of Sphagnum, he
comes to the conclusion that no unprejudiced person can deny
the following facts with regard to their structure :—
1. That they consist of a simple or stratified cellular mem-
brane. )
2. That this membrane encloses one or more spiral fibres.
3. That the spiral fibre is of a rigid fibrous structure.
He then traces the spiral form through the cells of
* The structure seems to have been /irst noticed by Hedwig, Obs. Pot.
Fasc., i. p. 14; and next by Kunze, Myc. Heft I1., p. 94.
VOL, II. )
18 CURREY, ON THE SPIRAL THREADS
Nepenthes and the vessels of the Conifer up to the perfect
spiral vessel, and afterwards the degeneration of the perfect
spiral vessel into the ‘“worm-shaped bodies” (wurmf6ninge
kérpen) in the tub-rs of the Orchidex and in other plants,
concluding with an expression of opinion that these spiral
fibrous-cells must be considered as imperfectly developed
forms of the spiral vessel.*
Soon after the publication of Corda’s observations, Mr.
Berkeley noticed the threads in question in the Annals of
Natural History, and stated that so far as he had investigated
them they differed in no respect from the spiral vessels of the
higher plants.
The next observer was Schleiden, whose opinion was en-
tirely opposed to the fibrous theory of Corda and Berkeley.
He (Schleiden) says that he has reason to believe that no
spiral fibre exists, but that the threads are flat band-like cells
spirally twisted, thus attributing the spiral appearance to the
existence of a twist in the cell-wall. Dr. Schacht in his ad-
mirable work, “* Die Pflanzenzelle,”’ subscribes to Schleiden’s
opinion, and states that he was long ago convinced that no
spiral band exists, but that the appearance by which Corda
was deceived arises from the torsion of flat thread-like cells.
According to Schacht, Dr. Klotzsch found that in an early
stage of the threads no spiral appearance was visible.
Mr. Henfrey in a late communication to the Linnean Society
has given the result of his own observations, and expresses a
very confident opinion as to the existence of a spiral fibre; so
much so that, having the greatest faith in the observing powers
of Schleiden and Schacht, he is driven to doubt the goodness
of their instruments.
A careful examination of the threads of several species of
Trichia has led me to a conclusion different from those of the
observers above referred to; and I will proceed to state the
objections which appear to me to exist against the theories of
Corda, Berkeley, and Henfrey on the one side, and of Schacht
and Schleiden on the other. There is no substantial difference
between the views of Corda and Berkeley, who agree in the
main point of the existence of a spiral fibre. In the first
place the non-existence of spiral vessels in other genera of
fungi | (Batarrea perhaps excepted) affords some prima fucie
ground for supposing that the organisms in question do not
* Corda’s expression is, ‘* Yrstarrte Trawmbild,” meaning literally, “ a
vision become rigid.”
t Bonorden, in his ‘ Handbuch der Allgemeinen Mycologie,’ states,
that a spiral fibre exists in Arcyria punicea; but this, I apprehend, is a
mistake.
OF THE GENUS TRICHIA. 19
contain fibres. It does not seem probable that spiral vessels,
which have always been considered a type of advanced organi-
zation, should be altogether wanting in the vast tribe of the
Hymenomycetes, that they should disappear at the close of the
series of the higher Cryptogamia to come to light again in the
lower scale of the Gasteromycetes: this argument of course is
by no means conclusive, but in a question where so much
difference of opinion exists it is deserving of consideration,
and cannot safely be altogether rejected. Again the shape of
the T’richia-threads exhibits a great departure from the ordi-
nary form of spiral vessels ; Schacht, in the work to which I
have alluded, asserts that spiral vessels are seldom branched,
and mentions two instances as cases of unusual occurrence, in
which branched spiral vessels have been observed : the accu-
racy of this statement has been questioned, and it has been
alleged that spiral vessels are frequently branched, especially
in endogenous plants ; but whichever view be correct, I appre-
hend that a branched spiral vessel must be considered abnormal
in form, and consequently when we find, as was long since
noticed by Corda, that the Trichia-threads are very frequently
branched, and sometimes to an extent almost amounting to
reticulation, this fact must be admitted to weigh something in
the scale against the probability of the existence of fibres.
Another objection arises from the rapidity with which the
Trichia are matured. It is well known that the Myzogasteres,
as well as some other of the Gasteromycetes, grow with
astonishing rapidity. Batarrea gaudichaudi, a South Ame-
rican species, attains its full size in a few hours ; the develope-
ment of Phallus impudicus is familiar to every person who
has directed any attention to the subject of fungoid growth,
and the genus Trichia forms no exception to this rule. Now
if spiral fibres exist, they must be admitted to be formed in
the same manner as all other spiral fibres are supposed to be
produced, viz., by gradual and successive deposits of thick-
ening matter upon the internal wall of the cells; and if this be
so, it is difficult to see how, in the short period allotted for the
completion of the growth of the fungus, the fibres can find
time to perfect themselves.
A further objection arises from the impossibility of de-
taching the apparent spiral from the wall of the cell; I assume
that this has never been effected, because if it had been the
question would be concluded. I have tried the action of
many reagents upon these threads, but have never succeeded
in obtaining a free fibre. Now if the elaters of a Junger-
mannia, with which more than with anything else the Zrichia-
threads have been compared, be treated with sulphuric acid,
c 2
20 CURREY, ON THE SPIRAL THREADS
the cell-membrane is dissolved and the spiral fibre left free ;
I have tried the effect with the Trichia-threads, and have
found them either to resist the action of the acid altogether, or,
if the acid operated, that the threads became uniformly
charred, but presenting nothing to lead to the conclusion of
the existence of a spiral fibre. Moreover, if iodine and sul-
phuric acid be employed, the effect produced upon the cell-
wall and upon the supposed spiral fibre is the same.
Another objection to the fibre theory appears to me to arise
from the unevenness or rather waviness of outline which exists
in almost all the threads which I have examined, and which is
not usual in spiral vessels in general ; and also from the fact
that the end of the supposed fibre is never to be seen pro-
truding from the cell, which might be expected when the
threads are ruptured as they frequently are.
The theory of Schleiden and Schacht that the spiral ap-
pearance is caused by the twisting of flat band-like cells is
very difficult to be maintained, and I cannot help thimking
that they have formed their opinions from an examination
only of such simple threads as are represented in figs. 1 and 4.
It might be possible for the spiral appearance in such cells to
be produced by a twist, but I cannot conceive how the “ Dre-
hung um sich selbst,” as Schacht expresses it, of the cells can
be calied in aid to explain the spiral appearance in such a
thread as that of 7’. serpula, shown in fig. 8; the thing seems
to be mechanically impossible.
If the above theories be incorrect, it may be asked, in what
other manner is it possible to account for the spiral appear-
ance? Now it seems to me that it may be accounted for by
supposing the existence of an accurate elevation in the wall of
the cell, following a spiral direction from one end of the
threads to the other This supposition would, I think, accord
well with the optical appearances, and it would account exactly
for the undulations of outline to which I have before referred,
I have in my possession a thread of Trichia chrysosperma, in
which the spiral appearance is so manifestly caused by an
elevation of this nature — in which it is so clear that no internal
spiral fibre exists—that I do not think there could be a doubt
in the mind of any person carefully examining it with a power
of 500 diameters, that the cause of the spiral appearance is
not a spiral fibre. I have also a species of Arcyria, in which
the threads are (as in the other Arcyria) echinilate or denti-
culate, and the teeth appear to take a spiral direction round
the threads ; these teeth are mostly at a short distance apart; —
but at a spot where the teeth are so close as to have become
confluent, the appearance produced is almost precisely the
OF THE GENUS TRICHIA. ps |
same as the appearance in the Trichia-threads. [| have scen
on one occasion the membrane of a thread of J. pyriformis
unrolled spirally in the manner represented in fig. 10, Plate
Il. ; this circumstance is somewhat curious, as membrane does
not ordinarily unrol in that manner, although it has been
observed by Professor Quekett to take place in the hairs of
the fruit of Cycas reroluta.* I do not know that this fact has
any very strong bearing upon the question of structures; but
if, as would seem to be the case from its greater transparency,
the elevated position of the cell-wall is thinner than the rest,
it is easy to imagine that a rupture of the wall would be likely
to take a spiral direction.
The following is a list of the Trichia hitherto recorded as
British, viz., Trichia pyriformis, serotina, fallax, clavata, tur-
binata, chrysosperma, varia, Serpula, Neesiana,~ and Ayresit ;
and to these must be added Trichia nigripes, which I met with
last autumn in the neighbourhood of Eltham in Kent.
With regard to the preparation of the Trichia-threads for
the microscope, there are many methods which may be used.
Owing perhaps to the dense crowding of the hairs, the getting
rid of air-bubbles is the principal difficulty. Alcohol is the
easiest medium to employ, and [ have reason to think that the
colour of the threads is not affected by it, which is the only
thing which might be feared. Deane’s gelatine is a very good
preservative, and may be used without difficulty if the threads
are previously left to soak for some hours in chloride of cal-
cium ; and castor oil answers admirably well, although when
this is used there is sometimes a little difficulty in fixing the
thin glass cover. In conclusion, I would venture to express a
hope that some of the readers of the Microscopical Journal
may be induced to direct their attention to the investigation of
these disputed threads ; irrespective of the interesting question
of structure, the beauty of the objects will fully compensate
them for the trouble of examination.
Observations on APHANIZOMENON F'Los-aqua&, and a species of
Peripinea. By G. J. Attman, M.D., Professor of Botany
_ in the University of Dublin.
Tue substance of the following communication has already
appeared in the Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy ;
* See Lectures on Histology, p. 100.
+ Fries has expressed an opinion that Trichia Neesiana is identical with
T. rubiformis ; Bonorden, however, asserts, that in 7. rubiformis there
is no spiral appearance. If this be so, they cannot be identical ; for 7.
Neesiana shows the spiral marking more beautifully than any which |
have examined.
22 DR. ALLMAN, ON
but haying made some additional observations, I have thought
them of sufficient interest for publication in the Microscopical
Journal. The first part of the paper consists of the results
of some observations made on Aphanizomenon Flos-aque.
This minute alga has appeared in great abundance in the
large pond of the Zoological Gardens, Dublin. The best
account we possess of the plant is in an excellent paper on
the Nostochinee, by Mr. Ralfs;* but as the specimens from
which Mr. Ralfs’s description was drawn up were not in a
recent state, some important points of structure have neces-
sarily escaped him.
A. Flos-aque shows itself in the form of little fusiform
fasciculi, of a pea-green colour (Plate III., fig. 1), which are
most frequently seen united to one another in larger bundles,
fig. 2, This union of the primary fasciculi into secondary
ones is not permanent, and under certain circumstances very
imperfectly understood ; but, in some cases, depending perhaps
on meteorological conditions, the secondary fasciculi become
broken up into primary ones, or, at least, into less compli-
cated bundles, and the plant, which had previously lain upon
the surface of the pond in an extensive stratum, becomes nearly
uniformly diffused through the water. a). es rhombus.
33 £8 bes Cab) = quinque-oculus, Kutz.
» punctulata. Podosira maculata.
“i convexa. Melosira sulcata.
55 elliptica. Ss Borreri.
» palpebralis. Dictyocha speculum.
I have also two fine specimens of what I thought to be a
new Navicula; but on referring them to Mr. Smith, he in-
formed me that it had been already observed by Mr. Hennedy,
and it has bgen named WV. Hennedii by Mr. Smith. It was in
this deposit that found the first specimen of the T'riceratium
which has been described and named by Mr. Roper as 7.
armatum. ?
The prevailing form, however, is the Navicula Jennerti,
which is extremely abundant. The specimens of Coscino-
discus are also magnificent and abundant.
Of the Triceratia, T. favus, and T. comptum (?) are very
abundant. 7". alternans occurs but sparingly.
The beautiful valve of Actinocyclus sedenarius, described
by Mr. Roper in his paper on the Thames mud, occurs but
sparingly; all the other forms in the foregoing list are
tolerably abundant, and occur also in the 380 and 40 feet
deposits.
T. favus occurs also pretty frequently at both these depths,
while in the 30-feet deposit I found a most curious and in-
teresting form, of which I have sent specimens. Mr. Smith
informs me it is the Cerataulus turgidus of Ehrenberg, and
will be the Biddulphia turgida of Mr. Smith’s second volume.
[ am not aware that it has been hitherto figured or described
by any one as a British species.
But it is not always necessary to resort to the boring
apparatus to obtain material for investigating these deep
THE MUD OF MILFORD HAVEN. 29
deposits. Wherever excavations for building or other pur-
poses are going on near the banks of a tidal river, there will
be found an ample field for the industrious observer.
At Swansea, for instance, where some docks are now being
constructed, I have obtained some rich samples of Diatoma-
ceous clays,
The strata through which these excavations are being made
occur in the following order :-—
Feet,
Gravel and sand ; + 10
D Clay 5
Peat 1
Sandy clay 4
D Clay 2
Peat 1
Clay 2
Total 25
The lowest bed of this clay, at 25 feet depth, is literally
“swarming” with Epithemia musculus and Surtrella striatula :
other marine forms are abundant; while the fact of two beds
of peat lying above it shows its extreme antiquity. The
other two beds of clay above it, marked D D, are also rich in
Diatomaceous remains. I have not yet had time to examine
these deposits thoroughly, so as to make lists of the forms
occurring in them; but a comparative examination of the
three beds would be highly interesting, and I hope to be able
to prepare one for the next number of this Journal.
Again, from a brick-yard near Carmarthen, which is now
upwards of a hundred yards from the present banks of the
river (the Towy), and at a depth of about five feet below the
surface of the ground, [ have obtained a sample of the old
tidal deposit which now forms the brick-earth, and which is
full of the most magnificent specimens of T'riceratium favus
and Coscinodiscus that I have ever seen; while the beautiful
Actinocyclus sedenarius, with its sixteen septa, is of common
occurrence.
From the foundations of a bridge we are now building
over the Cleddan near this town (Haverfordwest), I have also
obtained a rich sample of clay at a depth of about 10 feet,
and at about 20 feet distance from the present bank of the
river. In this sample the fresh-water forms occur more fre-
quently than in the other deposits. This might be expected,
as the tidal influence does not extend very far above this
point.
1 could enumerate many other instances which have come
under my notice, but it would be only a repetition of the
30 ON A POST-TERTIARY LACUSTRINE SAND,
above facts: indeed, I have rarely tried a sample from any
of these clays, either near a fresh or brackish stream, in which
a careful washing would not eliminate abundance of Diatoma-
ceous remains. Of course, some will be richer than others,
but I have found them in all. Let it not be thought that too
enthusiastic a view has been taken of the subject. I have
sent a set of slides illustrative of all the above-mentioned
deposits to the Editors of this Journal, and I think they will
bear me out in the assertion that neither their richness nor
their interest has been overstated.*
From these facts it appears that not the surface merely,
but the whole mass of these tidal deposits, is penetrated by
these minute and wondrous organisms; while from the fact
of their being found at Neyland at a depth of 40 feet below
the present surface, and close upon the rock which forms the
original bed of this estuary, the mind is irresistibly led to the
conclusion that they have existed there from the time when
the waters first rolled over the spot, when silence and soli-
tude reigned supreme where now resounds the ‘ busy hum”
of the hundreds who are employed in bringing one of the
great arteries of commerce and civilization to its ocean home.
In making out the list of the forms in the Neyland
deposits, I have carefully abstained from inserting the names
of any but those which [ could identify with certainty, either
from Mr. Smith’s work or from information furnished to me
by Mr. Roper, to whose kind assistance I am deeply indebted
during the time I have been studying the subject. Being but
a beginner in the study, [ thought this the best plan to adopt;
but I am sure, from what I have observed, that were these
deposits well examined by other and more experienced inves-
tigators than myself, the list might be far more extended, and
many new forms brought to light. Still, if I shall have been
the means of drawing attention to the subject of these deep
deposits, or of extending in any way, however small, the
boundaries of this interesting field of research, I shall feel
amply recompensed for any trouble I have taken in this
matter,
On a Post-Tertiary Lacusrrine SAnp, containing Diatoma-
crous Exuvia, from Glenshira, near Inverary. By Wit-
LiAM Grecory, M.D., F.R.S.E., Professor of Chemistry.
Tis remarkable deposit was sent to me in February last by
the Duke of Argyll, who had found it in the valley of Glen-
* The slides sent us by Mr. Okeden are uncommonly rich in the various
forms of Diatomacee.— Eps,
CONTAINING DIATOMACEOUS EXUVLE. 31
shira, the waters of which flow into Loch Fine, well known
as asea-loch, at its upper part. The sand occurs above a mile
from the mouth of the valley, lying under a considerable
depth of good alluvial soil. It is nearly black, with shining
particles of mica, and very dense. It consists chiefly of the
detritus of the surrounding mountains, formed of micaceous
schist, and contains therefore much quartz and mica. There
is also a considerable proportion of an iron ore, and of a dark
matter of vegetable origin, and apparently somewhat of a
peaty character. To the last-named ingredients the dark
colour of the sand is due.
On placing a little of it under the microscope, I noticed one
or two Diatomaceous forms, such as a Navicula didyma, a
Cocconeis scutellum, and a Synedra radians. But the propor-
tion of these was so small that without some purification
nothing could be done. A fter various trials, I found the fol-
lowing plan to yield tolerably satisfactory results.
The mass was first warmed, and when the violence of the
action had passed, boiled, with the most concentrated nitro-
muriatic acid. This not only dissolved the iron ore, but
completely removed the dark organic matter, and left a sand
of a pale-yellowish colour, in which the Diatomes were more
easily seen.
The next step was to remove, by subsidence in water and
decantation, the greater part of the quartz and all but the
finest and lightest scales of mica, which, having much the
same density as the shells, could not be got rid of. Any
attempt to push the process farther caused a loss of shells.
The residue thus obtained was now found to be rich in Dia-
tomes ; and when mounted in Canada balsam, the mica became
so transparent as not materially to interfere with the exami-
nation of the shells. The entire residue did not exceed 1-20th
of the original sand, and the Diatomes formed only from 1-5th
to 1-drd of the residue, so that they could not have amounted
to much more than 1 or 2 per cent. of the mass.
It will be seen from this, that the Glenshira deposit is of
an entirely different character from those earths in which
Diatomes have usually been found in the fossil state, such as
the Raasay or Mull deposits, which consist entirely of Diato-
maceous shells. On the other hand, it presents all the cha-
racters of a lacustrine or estuarial deposit or mud, such as the
Thames mud, or similar deposits now forming in estuaries or
lakes. Of course the predominant mineral ingredients are
such as are yielded by the adjacent rocks, and the Diatomes
have merely been deposited in small proportion along with
these. We shall see that there is a very remarkable analogy,
32 ON A POST-TERTIARY LACUSTRINE SAND,
as far as concerns the Diatomes present, between this sand
and the Thames mud recently described by Mr. Roper in the
second volume of the ** Journal.”’
The first glance at the Glenshira sand under the micro-
scope leads to the observation, that, like the Thames mud, it
contains both marine and fresh-water forms. In this respect
it resembles the deposit or mud of all estuaries. From its
position, however, there is every reason to conclude that it
was formed in its present locality, when that part of the valley
was occupied by a fresh-water lake, which is now confined to
the lower part of the valley, but has evidently extended much
higher in former periods. The question of course naturally
occurs, whence came the abundant marine forms? But this
is easily explained, if we attend to what is going on in the
present small fresh-water lake. The level of this lake is pre-
cisely that of half tide, so that at high water the sea flows
into it, while at ebb tide the water of the lake runs into the —
sea.
This remarkable state of matters produces a mixture, in the
lake, of fresh-water and marine forms, both animal and vege-
table. The Duke of Argyll mentions, that nets, thrown for
salmon in the lake, have been drawn up full of herring ; that
other marine animals occur in it, and that marine alge are
also found, dwarfed by the influence of the fresh water.
Having been supplied with some of the deposit or mud now
forming in the lake, I examined it, and found it very closely
to resemble the sand from the higher level, save that the pro-
portion of organic matter was considerably greater. But, like
the older sand, it contains both marine and fresh-water
Diatomes, and these belong in many instances to the same
species. I have noticed some difference in the relative pro-
portions of species, and I shall take an opportunity of care-
fully studying the recent deposit or mud of the lake; but in
the mean time I can state, that in all essential characters the
recent deposit agrees with the fossil one.
From these facts it may be inferred that the lacustrine sand
of Glenshira, which I refer to the post-tertiary period, on
the authority of the Duke of Argyll and of Mr. Smith of
Jordanhill, both of whom are familiar with the localities, was
formed in the lake when that lake occupied the part of the
valley where the sand occurs, and that the relative levels of
lake and sea were then the same as now. This seems to be
the simplest mode of accounting for the abundance both of
fresh-water and of marine forms, Had the sand been depo-
sited in sea water, it could not have been, as it is, extremely
rich in fresh-water species, and there is no reason to suppose
CONTAINING DIATOMACEOUS EXUVIE. 33
it to have been formed in an estuary, like the Thames mud,
when we see a similar deposit in course of formation at the
present hour in the fresh-water lake, not much more than a
mile from the spot.
But if this be admitted, then it must also follow that, since
the relative levels of sea and lake were the same then as now,
and since the sand occurs at a considerably higher level than
that of the present lake,—it must, I think, follow, that the sea
has fallen, or the land has risen, since the period when the
sand was deposited. This is a conclusion at which geologists
have arrived in many instances, from other phenomena, such
as raised beaches, as, for example, in the Clyde, with which
Loch Fine communicates. It is interesting to find the study
of the Diatomaceous forms, occurring so scantily in this de-
posit, assisting to throw light on one of the questiones vexate
of geology.
I have said that the Diatomes are but scantily diffused in
the Glenshira sand; and this is true, since they do not much
exceed 1 per cent. of the mass. But when we examine the
purified or cleaned residue, in which they are, as it were,
concentrated, we are struck at once with the very large
number of species present.
In thif respect the Glenshira sand far surpasses every de-
posit hitherto described, even that of Mull, in which I have
found 150 species, and the Thames mud, in which Mr. Roper
detected 104 species.
In the Mull deposit all the species, with a very few excep-
tions, and these so rare as to be evidently accidental, derived
from the proximity of the sea, and possibly carried by the
winds, belong to fresh water. But in the Thames mud and
in the Glenshira sand, as already stated, both classes of forms
occur abundantly. It is this which accounts for the large
number of species. Up to the present time I have recog-
nised in the latter not less than 240 species, and I am quite
satisfied that a good many remain to be identified. Judging
from what has been done already, I cannot doubt that the
umber of species will, before long, amount to at least 250.
In consequence of the circumstances under which it has
been formed, this deposit does not contain any one or more
greatly predominant form, as is generally observed to be the
ase in deposits formed where the Diatomes grew and died.
s they have all been transported by water, they constitute,
hen the quartz, mica, and other matters which separate them
re removed, a mixture of a very remarkable kind, in which
large number of forms are tolerably abundant, and a still
arger number are pretty frequent, while none are so pre-
VOL. IIT. D
34 POST-TERTIARY LACUSTRINE SAND
dominant as we find them in recent gatherings, and a good
many are so scarce, that we have often to search long before
finding additional specimens, although with patience we
generally succeed in doing so.
The peculiar constitution we have described renders a com-
plete study of this deposit a work of much time and labour.
I soon found that it was only by pursuing the minute and
systematic mode of search which I have described in my
account of the Mull deposit, that I could hope to determine
the species present in this one. I have found it, however,
advantageous, in consequence of the large number and relative
scarcity of new forms in the Glenshira sand, to adopt the plan
of marking any striking forms, or such as require to be ex-
amined, or are to be figured, when first observed. I find the
best way of marking is, after fixing on the form, to put on
the 2-3rd objective, and under that power to place one spot of —
ink just above, but not on, the form. This is much more
rapidly and easily done than drawing a circle round it, and
it interferes much less with the remaining forms. A note is
kept of all the spots made on each slide, arranging them in a
certain order, according as they follow in the regular course
of sweeping the slides. By this means any marked form is
instantly recovered ; and I have been able to place in the
hands of Mr. West, in the course of one forenoon, a number
of new and striking forms so great, that without some such
method I could not have pointed them out, from their com-
parative scarcity, under a much longer time.
It may be here mentioned, that, in studying a mixture like
the present, no examination, short of a thorough and minute
search, would suffice. Without this we should infallibly miss
a large proportion of the most interesting forms. To give
some idea of the necessity of this, I may state that I have
found it necessary to explore, minutely and repeatedly, 60
well-filled slides of this deposit, and that I have not yet ex-
hausted it, as even now I hardly ever search one of these
slides without observing something new or interesting pre-
viously overlooked.
This is no doubt very laborious, but without labour nothing
can be well done, and in the present case the results have been
highly satisfactory. Ihave recognised upwards of 200 known
species, while a number remain that for the present I cannot
exactly name, for want of good figures; and besides this, I
have distinguished about 25, probably more, new and un-
described forms, most of which are very interesting. Such is
a general account of the results obtained ; and after these pre-
liminary remarks I shall now proceed to the details. I shall
CONTAINING DIATOMACEOUS EXUVL®. 35
first give the list of known species, under the two heads of
marine and fresh-water forms, as Mr. Roper has done in the
case of the Thames mud; and I shall then briefly describe the
new species, which will also be figured. But as circumstances
have rendered it impossible for me to have more than one
plate in the present number of the ‘ Journal,’ I am compelled
to reserve one-half of the figures till the next number. ©
It is proper to explain that I shall have to mention several
new forms, as occurring in this deposit, which | do not figure,
although no figures have as yet appeared of them. The reason
is, that these forms have been recently observed by others,
prior to me, and it is to be presumed that the first observers
will take an early opportunity of describing and figuring
them. [I propose to figure all such forms as are now, for the
first time, distinguished by myself, and also some striking
varieties of known species, in which the Glenshira deposit is
uncommonly rich. Without further preamble, let us now
proceed to the list of known forms.
1. Marine Species,
including such as occur in both sea water and brackish water,
as well as th/se which seem to belong to brackish water more
especially :—
1. Epithemia Musculus. 22. Amphipleura sigmoidea.
2. Amphora affinis. 23. Navicula Liber.
3 a tenera. | 24, 2 Smithii.*
4 costata. | 25. x Jenneri.
5. Cocconeis Scutellum. | 26. pS convexa.
6. As Grevillii. | 27. oh elegans.
7. Coscinodiscus radiatus. | 28. J palpebralis.
8 re excentricus. 29. - punctulata.
9. Eupodiscus crassus. | 30. ~ pusilla.
10 fs Ralfsii. | 31. = Didyma.
11. Campylodiscus parvulus. 32. % nitida.f
12. Surirella fastuosa. 33. B granulata, Bréb.t
13. = constricta. 34. Pinnularia directa.
14, Tryblionella punctata. 35 - Cyprinus.
£5. te acuminata. 36 - peregrina.
16. Nitzschia Sigma. 37. Stauroneis puichella.
a7. - angularis. 38. oa salina.
18. s birostrata. 39. Pleurosigma formosum.
19. Amphiprora alata. 40. ae angulatum.
20. - constricta. 41. a Balticum.
21. ip vitrea. 42, < strigosum.
* N. elliptica, W.Sm. M. de Brébisson has given this name, on account
of the term ‘elliptica’ having been long applied to another species by
continental writers.
+ This is a beautiful new species, to be figured in vol. ii. of Mr.
Smith’s ‘ Synopsis.’
t Also a very fine new form. Prof. Arnott finds it in the Clyde.
yp 2
36
43.
44.
45.
46.
POST-TERTIARY LACUSTRINE SAND
Pleurosigma rigidum.
Synedra superba.
=3 acicularis.
Gomphonema marinum.
56.
57.
58.
59.
Biddulphia aurita.
Melosira Borreri.
i sulcata.
Orthosira nummuloides.
47. Achnanthes longipes. 60. Podosira hormoides.
48. *3 brevipes. 61. $3 maculata.
49. +3 subsessilis, 62. Bacillaria paradoxa.
50. Rhabdonema arcuatum. 63. Dictyocha Speculum.
51. minutum, 64. a3 gracilis.
52. YZygoceros Surirella.* 65. 3 Fibula.
53. Grammatophora marina. 66. a trifenestra.
54. serpentina, 67. Schizonema Crux.
55.
Amphitetras antediluvianum.
Total, 67 marine species.
Il. Fresh-water Species,
including such as occur in both fresh and brackish water :—
1. Epithemia Hyndmanni. 34. Cyclotella operculata.
2. _ turgida, 35. rotula.
3. S gibba. 36. Campylodiscus costatus.
4, # Argus. 31. bicostatus.f
5. ee Zebra. 38. Surirella minuta.
6. m Westermann. 39.. ,, ° pinata:
ie 5 rupestris. 40. 4; ovata.
8. 3 Sorex. 41. és Brightwellii.
9. Pe proboscidea. 42, 5 Crumena.t
10. 5 alpestris. 43. Tryblionella marginata,
it, 7 longicornis. 44, Cymatopleura Solea.
Wee constricta. 45. Nitzschia sigmoidea.
13. Cymbella Ehrenbergii. 46. 5 minutissima.
14, 6 Helvetica. 47, # acicularis.
15. » Scotica. 48, = linearis.
16. 4 maculata. 49. a amphioxys.
aie 3 affinis, 50. vivax.
13. cuspidata. 51. Amphipleura pellucida.
tg. Eunotia Arcus. 52. Navicula rhomboides.
20. monodon. 53. i ovalis.
21. * diodon. 54, . minutula.
22. » triodon. 55. i firma.
23. * tetraodon. 56. s affinis.
24, » bigibba. 57. A amphisbeena.
25. ss Camelus. 58. a crassinervia.
26. J incisa. 59. rr lanceolata.
27. depressa. 60. We gibberula.
28. Amphora ovalis. 61. Bs angustata.
29, is minutissima. 62. Semen.
30. Cocconeis Pediculus. 63. Pinnularia major.
31. » Placentula. 64, 35 viridis.
82. é Thwaitesii. 65. 95 lata.
33. Coscinodiscus minor. 66. acuta.
* Figured by Mr, Roper in No. VII. of the ‘ Journal.’
t Figured by Mr. Roper, loc. cit.
{ A new fresh-water species, first distinguished, I believe, by Professor —
Walker Arnett.
CONTAINING DIATOMACEOUS EXUVL#. 37
67. Pinnularia radiosa. 105. Gomphonema dichotomum.
68. jn oblonga. 106. Pe Fusticulus.t
69. - divergens. | 107. = insigne.f
70. * gibba. | 108. Meridion circulare.
GA: 3 gracilis. 109. A constrictum.
72. * viridula. 110. Achnanthes exilis.
73. fin mesolepta. 111. Achnanthidium lanceolatum.
74, a stauroneiformis. 112. 4 coarctatum,
75. ‘6 latestriata.* Bréb.
76. 7 undulata.* | 113 Himantidium majus.
(xe ”» tenuis.* | 114. 7 Arcus.
78. es parva.* ails a pectinale.
fee a exigua.* 116. re gracile,
80. Stauroneis Pheenicenteron. eT. 5 bidens.
81. > gracilis. 118. Fragillaria capucina.
82, 3 anceps. HOE - virescens.
83. x dilatata. 120, Odontidium mesodon.
84, Ee punctata. 121. om mutabile.
85. rectangularis.* 122. - Tabellaria.
86. Pleurosigma attenuatum, 123. a Harrisoni.§
87. Synedra Ulna. 124. Denticula tenuis.
88. m radians. 125. sinuata.
89. 2 pulchella. 126. Tabellaria fenestrata.
90. ” obtusa. 197. a flocculosa,
91. se biceps. 128. ss ventricosa.
92. Pp lunaris. 129, Diatoma vulgare.
93. acicularis. 130. cf elongatum.
94, Cocconema lanceolatum. 131. Melosira varians.
95. “a Cistula. 132. Orthosira arenaria.
96. a cymbiforme. 133. %5 nivalis.
Mie = gibbum. 134. Mastogloia elliptica.
98. Gomphonema geminatum. 135. Dansei.
99. i acuminatum. 136. Colletonema neglectum,
100, - coronatum. 137. e vulgare.
101. 3 curvatum. 138. Ss subflexile.
102. constrictum. 139. Encyonema prostratum.
103, as capitatum. 140. a ceespitosum.
104, - tenellum.
Total, 140 fresh-water species, which, added to 67 marine
forms, gives a grand total of 207 species, known as British.
To these must be added a few which have now, for the first
time, occurred in this country, though known on the Continent.
Such are—
r. 208. Navicula nodosa,|| Kiitzine.
209. Pinnularia pachycephala,4] Rabenhorst.
210. ‘ (Navicula) Gastrum,** Ehr.
* These six species are figured in my account of the Mull deposit.
{ This species has lately been distinguished by Mr. Smith.
{ A new species, which I shall describe and figure in the next number
of the ‘Journal,’ along with several other recent forms, which I have
observed during the past year.
§ A beautiful form, lately detected by Mr. Harrison.
|| To be figured in the next number of the ‘ Journal.’
4 Occurs also in the Mull deposit, and will be figured in next number.
** This form is figured in the present paper. See fig. 20.
38 POST-TERTIARY LACUSTRINE SAND
We have thus in the Glenshira sand 210 known and de-
scribed species, with the exception of one or two recently
observed and likely to be soon figured. But I feel quite
assured that there are a good many more, belonging to this
category, which I am unable clearly to identify, from the
want of good figures, especially in those genera to be figured
in vol. ii. of Mr. Smith’s Synopsis. In particular, there
appear to be several discoid forms of the genera Melosira and
Orthosira, &c., which will be found to be of known species.
Let us now turn to those forms which appear to be un-
described, of which the proportion is unusually great in this
deposit. It has been already mentioned that only about one-
half of these forms can be figured on the accompanying plate,
and that the remainder will be given in the next number of
the ‘Journal.’ It will probably be best to describe the forms
here figured as they occur on the plate, in which the order of
the Synopsis is followed. It must be borne in mind that some
of the figures represent varieties of known forms, and that the
two first belong to the two new forms observed by me in the
Lillhaggsj6n and Liineberg deposits, and described in last
number of the ‘ Journal.’
Fig. 1, Plate IV., shows two forms of Hunotia Falx, W.
G. This very remarkable form needs no farther descrip-
tion beyond what will be found in the ‘Transactions of the
Microscopical Society,’ vol. i, p. 105. It has not yet oc-
curred as a British form. It occurs with fresh-water species.
Fig. 2 represents an example of MNitzschia Sigmatella,
W.G., also observed in the two deposits just named. But
it occurs, as I have formerly stated, in the Mull deposit also ;
and since describing it I have found it, not only in the sand
of Glenshira, but also in a recent gathering from Elchies, in
Banffshire. It is therefore a British species, and, from the
Banffshire locality, belongs to fresh water. (211.)
Fig. 3. Cymbella truncata, W.G. This pretty and well-
marked species occurs in the Mull deposit, but sparingly. It
is frequent in the Glenshira sand, and cannot, I think, be
referred to any of the species of Cymbella or Cocconema,
figured by Mr, Smith. Of course it is impossible, in a fossil -
deposit, to ascertain whether it be really a Cymbella, that is,
free, or a Cocconema, tliat is attached by a stipes. It is pos-
sible and even probable, that this species has been noted on
the Continent, but I have not been able to see any figure with
which it can be safely identified. It is very uniform in its
characters, always exhibiting the truncate or square ends from
which I have named it. It is sometimes a good deal longer
than the figure here given, which may be taken as typical.
CONTAINING DIATOMACEOUS EXUVLE. 39
It is a fresh-water form, and [ have found it in many recent
gatherings. (212.)
Fig. 4. Amphora Arcus, W.G. This fine form has not
occurred in its entire state, but is frequent in the detached
condition. The halves have precisely the form of a strung
bow, often very elegantly curved. The striz are coarse and
moniliform. I have no certain means of ascertaining its
habitat, but I suspect it to be marine. (213.)
Fig. 5. Amphora incurva, W G. This is also a very pretty
form, most probably marine, and occurring detached, like the
last. The strize are very much finer than in A. Arcus. (214.)
Fig. 6. Amphora angularis, W.G. This is a striking form,
and unlike the two preceding it occurs now and then com-
plete, when it exhibits short square apices. It has a slight
constriction in the middle. Habitat unknown. (215.)
Fig. 7. Cocconeis transversalis, W.G. This neat little form
is distinguished from the other species of the genus by having
Bel Watisverse:strize.. Its forin is a pure oval. Habitat not
known. (216.)
Fig. 8. Cocconeis speciosa, W.G. This form is nearly allied
to C. Sentellum, but is usually smaller, and has somewhat of
an anguiar form. The chief distinction lies in the striz, which
are much less numerous than in C. Scutellum, not exceeding
12 in ‘001”, and they are formed of much fewer and much
larger granules. Like C. Scutellum it occurs both with and
apparently without a margin; and it might be taken for a
variety of that species, but for the number and peculiar
character of the striez. I have closely searched several slides
of marine origin, full of Cocconeis Scutellum of every degree
of development, but I have not found in them one example of
C. speciosa. 1 therefore regard it as a distinct species. (217.)
Fig. 9. Cocconeis distans, W.G. This very beautiful form
is at once characterised by the equal size of the dots or gra-
nules, and their great distance from each other, so that it almost
loses the aspect of striation. The form is purely oval. (218.)
Fig. 10. Cocconeis costata, W.G. This is a fourth new
species of the genus, and is at once characterised by its very
strong and entire coste, which seem to be double lines or
bands, expanding a little externally. It is a perfectly well-
marked species. ‘The habitat of this, as well as of the two
preceding forms, is unknown, but they are probably of marine
origin. (219.)
Fig. 11. Eupodiscus, qu? Ralfsii 6. ‘This disc, which is
not unfrequent, has a finely-radiate surface, the radii composed
of small puncta, as in E. Ralfsiz. But there is no trace of the
peculiar blank spaces among the rays, which, so far as I know,
40 POST-TERTIARY LACUSTRINE SAND
appear to be characteristic of 2. Ralfsiz. This latter species
occurs with the usual characters ; and I am inclined to regard
the form, fig. 11, as distinct, but do not venture to give it as
a species without further investigation. It is, in all proba-
bility, a marine form.
Fig. 12. Surirella fastuosa B. This species is finely deve-
loped, insomuch that it might almost be taken for a distinct
species. I am disposed, however, to regard it only as a finely-
developed S. fastuosa, as figured by Smith, and probably more
truly typical than the form he has figured. It agrees well,
except in being larger, with Kiitzing’s figure. It is known to
be a marine species.
Fig. 13. Tryblionella constricta, W.G. This pretty little
form is very frequent in the deposit. Its form is that of
Cymatopleura apiculata, but it is very much smaller, and has
all the characters of Tryblionella. Strie transverse, fine, but
distinct. I am informed by Mr. West, that he long ago met
with it in gatherings from Poole Bay. It is a marine form.
(220.)
Fig. 14. Amphiprora vitrea, 8? This fine form is frequent
in the deposit. The peculiar arrangement of the median line,
with its double curvature, at once strikes the eye. Indeed, on
comparing it with the figure of A. vitrea, in the ‘ Synopsis,’ it
might be supposed to be a distinct species. But in the mean
time, and until further examination, | zyefer it to the species
named. It is a marine species.
Fig. 15. Navicula birostrata, W.G. This is a well-marked
species. Form elliptical, with contracted, slightly produced,
somewhat truncate apices, Striz fine, somewhat inclined. It.
appears to vary a good deal in size. Habitat unknown. (221.)
Fig. 16. Navicula rhombica, W.G. This beautiful form
is frequent in the deposit. Its form is rhombic, varymg from
short and rather broad, with obtuse apices, to long and narrow,
with acute apices. Striz very fine, transverse, quite distinct,
even in balsam, which at once distinguishes it from JV. rhom-
boides. The median line and central nodule are also quite
different ; and, in consequence, it differs totally in aspect from
NV. rhomboides, which is also present in the deposit, and with
which it cannot be confounded, Habitat not known. (222.)
Fig. 17. MNavicula gastroides, W. G. This form, when
small, has some resemblance to NV. pusilla; but is of much
stouter habit, and has a brown colour, even in balsam. Besides
this, it occurs much larger, being then more elliptical, while
the smaller individuals are often almost orbicular. Strize
radiate and inclined, The median line and central nodule are
very strongly developed, and the short apices appear as the
CONTAINING DIATOMACEOUS EXUVLA. 4]
truncate extremities of the broad median line. Its habitat is
not certainly known, (223.
Fig. 18. Navicula crassa, W.G. This is a fine and well-
marked species. Form elliptical, with a very slight inflexion
before the obtuse apices, It varies considerably in size; has
a very stout habit, and a brown colour in balsam. There is
a large round spot in the centre, within which the two halves
of the median line terminate in small round knobs, but do not
meet. Striz transverse, very fine, but distinct, not quite
reaching the central line. It is frequent in the deposit, and is
probably a marine form. (224.)
Fig. 19. Navicula maxima, W. G. This is a fine large
form, much less frequent than any of the preceding. Form
linear, elliptical, broad, with obtuse extremities. Strie fine,
transverse, reaching the central line. There seems to be a
variety which is longer and narrower. Habitat unknown.
(225.)
_Fig. 20. Pinnularia (Navicula) Gastrum, Ebr. This little
form is new to Britain, having been found by Ehrenberg in
Mexican and North American gatherings. It is short, broadly
lanceolate, with obtuse extremities slightly constricted. Striz
distinct, strongly radiate. The habitat is not given in Kiitz-
ging, but it is probably marine. (226.)
Fig. 21. Pinnularia apiculata, W. G. This is another
well-marked little species, which is not rare in the deposit.
Form linear, narrow, contracted to small truncate apices.
Striz distant, transverse, hardly reaching the median line.
Habitat unknown. (227.)
Fig 22. Synedra Vertebra, W. G. This form, which is
very frequent in the deposit, belongs to the same division as
S. pulchella and §. acicularis. It differs, however, from both
these forms, which also occur in the deposit, and can thus
be compared with it, in the remarkable relative width of the
central portion, which has a somewhat curved outline, and
the equally remarkable way in which it suddenly contracts to
the very slender terminal portions. In the largest specimens,
these are very long. Its form resembles that of certain ver-
tebree, and it has been named so as to recal this resemblance.
Nodule strongly developed. Striz very fine. The habitat of
this species is unknown, (228.
Fig. 23. Synedra undulans, W.G, This is, perhaps, the
most remarkable of all the forms in the Glenshira sand, It
is exceedingly elongated, and so slender that a_ perfect
specimen has not yet occurred to me, It consists of a middle
portion rather wider than the rest, tapering both ways to a
very small width, From this point it extends on both sides,
42 POST-TERTIARY LACUSTRINE SAND
for a long way, of uniform width, and terminates in small
oval expansions. The narrow part has strong moniliform
striae, which, in the central and terminal expansions, are
resolved, except just at the margin, into a general granulation.
The margin is undulated, except for a short distance from
each apex. It will be seen by one of the figures, which is
not so long as some are, that the narrow part, on one side,
without any part of the central long expansion, is frequently
so long as to extend the whole way across the field, with a
power of 400, that is, probably, 1-50th to 1-40th of an inch.
This would make the length of the entire form to be probably
from the 1-20th to the 1-15th of an inch, or more. This, with
its extreme tenuity, accounts for its not occurring entire in a
deposit carried by water, where it must have been constantly
agitated. I have been informed by Mr. West, that a similar
form, possibly of the same species, although shorter, occurs in
a gathering from Port Natal, in the hands of Mr. Shadbolt.
This curious Synedra is, therefore, a marine form, and I
anticipate that it will be found recent on our own ccasts.
(229.)
Having now briefly described the new forms in the Glen-
shira sand, so far as they are here figured, I am compelled to
postpone the remainder to the next number of the Journal,
in which another plate will be required for them, as very
nearly as many reinain to be described as we have now been
enabled to figure. In the meantime, besides the Eunotia
Falzx, which is not yet a British form, we have described 18
new forms, all from this one deposit, and one new to Britain.
‘These, added to the list of known forms, make up the
number of 229 species now recorded as occurring in the
Glenshira sand, besides those to be hereafter noticed and
figured.
It may be noticed here, that I intend to publish, as soon as
the necessary figures can be prepared, a description of a very
remarkable series of forms, occurring both in the Glenshira
sand, and in various fresh-water gatherings, in which, indeed, I
first observed them. They agree perfectly in general aspect,
and the peculiar characters of the markings; but differ to a
very surprising degree in form or outline. These may possibly
constitute several species, and would certainly be considered
as such by some authorities. But, both on account of their
resemblance, or rather identity, in markings, and from the
occurrence of intermediate or transition forms, by which the
different types appear, in many cases at least, to pass into
one another, there is some ground for regarding them as be-
longing to one species. Without deciding this question, I
CONTAINING DIATOMACEOUS EXUVIE. 43
have, for the convenience of description, grouped them under
the name of Navicula varians, and I feel assured that the study
of these forms will throw much light on the question, to which
I have already directed attention, of the true value of form as
a specific character.
I cannot conclude, for the present, without expressing the
very great obligations | am under to Mr. Tuffen West, not
only for the great care and accuracy with which he has drawn
and engraved the figures, but also for the valuable assistance
I have derived from his extensive and exact knowledge of
the British Diatomacee in this long and laborious investiga-
tion. It is, indeed, fortunate for British microscopists that
they have an artist who is not more distinguished for the
beauty of his drawings than for his knowledge of the micro-
scope, and his intimate acquaintance with the objects to be
represented.
N.B.—Since the preceding pages were printed, I have
observed a fragment of Synedra undulans in a slide from
Poole Bay, sent to me by the Rev. W. Smith. I have no
doubt that the gathering, if searched, will yield entire speci-
mens. I am also informed by M. de Brébesson that he has
seen the same form in marine gatherings from Brest, but
supposed it to be S. gigantea, Lobarzewsky, from which species,
however, he now finds it to be quite distinct.
I may take this opportunity of mentioning that the follow-
ing species must be added to the list of known forms in the
Glensbira sand, as I have noticed them quite recently.
230. Trybleonella angusta. 233. Gomphonema cristatum.
231. 93 Scutellum. | 234, Mastogloia apiculata. Sm.
232. Amphiprora elegans, Bleakley. }
No. 232 is a splendid marine form, observed last spring
by Mr. Bleakley, near Harwich. No. 234 is a very fine
marine species, which occurs in great abundance along with
232 at Poole Bay. I have understood that Mr. Smith has
named it as above, but that it may possibly be referable to
another species.—W. G.
A few Remarks on a Paper, read before the Royal Society by
Dr. J. W. Grirriru, on the ANcuLAR APERTURE of OpseEctT-
Guasses. By Dr. F. pv’ Atquen.
In the last number of the ‘ Microscopical Journal’ an abstract
of the above paper was given, and, if you think the subject of
sufficient interest to your readers, I should feel obliged if the
following observations could appear in your next number, in
refutation of the only novel point in Dr. Griffith’s paper.
44 DR. F. DALQUEN ON
Mr. Wenham states, in one of his valuable papers, that the
markings on test objects become visible by a contrast of light ;
and the attention of the reader will at once be brought to the
point upon which the whole question hinges, when I add that
the gist of Dr. Griffith’s paper is an attempt to show how this
contrast of light is produced, and why the markings can only
be seen under an object-glass of large angular aperture, and
not with one which is deficient in this respect, however great
its magnifying power may be. In answering these proposi-
tions the Doctor states, in substance :—The markings, those
on a valve of a Gyrosigma, for instance, being in reality de-
pressions, the light, on passing through them, suffers greater
refraction from the perpendicular than the set of rays corre-
sponding to the undepressed, thicker, and therefore more
highly refractive portion of the valve, and we have thus two
sets of rays of different degrees of obliquity—the former of
which, as the most oblique, is tilted out of the field of the
microscope, whilst the second set is admitted, if the angular
aperture of the object-glass is sufficiently large; and thus is
the contrast of light produced which renders the markings
visible. If the aperture of the object-glass is deficient, no
contrast is produced, and the markings remain invisible ; but
the explanation of this point is the author's difficulty, and it
is not easy to single out in precise language his meaning. At
all events, the ‘‘ rem invisam verba sequuntur” we cannot apply
to this part of his explanation, which, in so acute an observer
as Dr. Griffith generally is, can only be accounted for by his
labouring under the difficulty of having te reconcile facts to a
preconceived speculative theory of his own.
It is self-evident, if the tilting out of one set of rays were the
cause of the markings becoming visible, that this must equally,
and even more readily, take place under an object-glass of
small aperture, because not only the rays tilted out from the
object-glass with large aperture, but even those admitted by
it, as far as they exceed the angular aperture of an object-
glass with deficient aperture, are naturally excluded, or tilted
out with regard to the latter; in fact, no rays could by any
possibility become excluded from an object-glass, with large
aperture, which were not co ipso also tilted out from an object-
glass with deficient aperture: it is therefore clear, as expe-
rience tells us, that certain markings cannot be seen with such
a glass under any circumstances, that the contrast of light is
not produced in the manner stated, nor can the tilting out of
certain rays, if it takes place at all, be the cause of rendering
the markings visible, ‘This objection loses, also, nothing of its
force when “the author states, that the angular aperture must
THE ANGULAR APERTURE OF OBJECT-GLASSES. 45
be greater as the markings are more delicate, because it would
require greater obliquity of the light to exclude one set, and
the other would be too oblique to enter the object-glass, unless
it be of corresponding large aperture. Now I do not see the
cogency of this, because, in this sentence, if he had said, that
the obliquity of light required must be greater if the aperture
was large, I readily could understand him, though the inverse
would be equally clear, viz., that the obliquity of the light
required for the exclusion of one set of rays would be less, if
the aperture were small; but why the obliquity must be
greater as the markings are more delicate I cannot understand,
nor has the author given us any reason for it, but assumes it
as a natural consequence, as implied by the word “ because.”
If there was a law in optics, that, by greater obliquity of
light, the ratio of con- or di-vergence between two rays was in-
creased, I readily could admit the pertinence of the above
remark ; but that would be saying that the refractive index of
any medium varied with the angle of incidence, while we
know that the sinuses of the angles of incidence and refraction
stand, with regard to the same medium, always in a constant
proportion. The greatest obliquity of light is therefore sepa-
rate, the two sets of rays not more than they are under ordi-
nary illumination. Further, if the second set is likewise too
oblique to enter the object-glass, if not of corresponding large
aperture, it would follow, that, under an object-glass of defi-
cient aperture, both sets of rays, those corresponding to the
depressed (the first), as well as those corresponding to the
undepressed portion of the valve (the second set), are excluded,
and thus nothing at all of the object could be seen, which is
simply absurd. In disregard of the simple and plain fact that
the efficacy of the greater over the lesser aperture depends
upon the admission and not upon the exclusion of certain rays,
the author goes on to say: “The most difficult point has been
to explain how it is that an object-glass of large aperture will
render markings evident which were not visible under an
object-glass of smaller aperture.” I freely admit that, as I
have shown, if we adopt the author’s theory, the explanation
is not only difficult but impossible. Nor does this difficulty
vanish, as he states it does, when we recollect that the addi-
tional rays admitted by the larger aperture are more oblique ;
because, how can the admission of ‘additional rays prove the
tilting out of others, which is the point at issue? Observe:
hence one set of rays will be refracted from the field (pray,
why ?), whilst the other will enter. In my opinion, there is
no sequitur, which that very convenient little word ‘ hence”
seems to imply, but the same gratuitous assumption as we have
46 DR. F. D'ALQUEN ON
already noticed before. Moreover, it must not have appeared
quite conclusive to the author himself, because he continues :
“ Or to simplify this most important point, the object may be
regarded as illuminated by two sets of rays, one correspond-
ing to those admitted by the object-glass of the smaller aper-
ture, the other set, to these plus those admitted by the excess
of angular aperture of the second over the first.” Now we
may not only regard with the author the object as thus illu-
minated, but we know that such is actually the case, and that
the efficacy of the larger aperture over the lesser depends
simply on the admission of additional rays which were too
oblique to enter the latter; but simple as this is, we must ask
again, how can the admission of additional rays, here assumed,
prove the tilting out of others? Mark the answer: the first
set not being sufficiently oblique to allow a portion of them
being refracted beyond the angular aperture of the first object-
glass, while the second set are so. Now every one will admit
that this illustration proves nothing, because the rays admitted
by the first object-glass are as oblique with regard to its
angular aperture, and the practicability of becoming tilted out
as the rays entering the second to its corresponding larger
aperture.
Another objection which is, & prior?, as palpable as those I
have already noticed is this: if the markings are rendered.
visible, by the tilting out of certain rays, it would follow,
as the fewer rays will be tilted out the greater the aperture,
that the markings, instead of becoming more distinct, must have
their distinctness impaired in the same proportion as the
angular aperture is increased ; yet experience tells us that the
reverse is the case. If we further assume that the illumina-
tion remains the same, the more we increase the angular aper-
ture, the more it would become impossible to realize the
alleged conditions for rendering the markings visible; and
with every degree added to the aperture, the markings ought
to get fainter, which is contrary to the fact. Lastly, from the
excessive minuteness of the depressions, it appears to me
highly improbable that the difference thereby occasioned in
the thickness or substance of the valve should be the cause of
giving a different refractive index to different portions of the
valve; and I feel more inclined, with other observers, to attri-
bute the modification which the light undergoes, on passing
through it, to peculiarities in the structure of the markings
themselves. However, let us proceed from assertions and
counter assertions to practical experiment, the ultima ratio
in an inductive science,
By means of a small pipe of an injecting syringe, with an
THE ANGULAR APERTURE OF OBJECT-GLASSES. 47
opening of 1:30” diameter, fixed to a small glass tube in an
adaptor, in the place of the achromatic condenser, I illumi-
nated the prepared valve of a Pleurosigma Balticum, mounted
dry, by as direct and straight a light as could be done; and
under an object-glass (+), whose aperture I had reduced to 50°,
both sets of stria were visible. I next increased the aperture,
by substituting a larger stop, to 65°, and the markings became
much more distinct. A similar result was obtained by suc-
cessively increasing the aperture to 75°, and, lastly, to 90°,
when the distinctness of the markings was most strikingly
increased, and the whole object more brightly illuminated.
It cannot be doubted that a similar result would have been
obtained, had I been able still to increase the aperture of the
object-glass ; and if the author's theory was correct, in doing
so, the light being straight, the markings ought to have be-
come fainter and fainter, and disappeared entirely at last, as,
with every degree added to the aperture, fewer rays could
become refracted out of the field of the microscope.
This experiment proves further, the light being direct and
straight, that the obliquity of the emerging rays must be due
to the peculiar structure of the markings, and does not arise
from a difference of density, as assumed by the author; and
further, that the visibility of the markings depends upon
aperture and not upon illumination, though the latter may
serve to increase their distinctness, while, without the former,
any kind of illumination would remain ineffective.
A similar experiment, previously made, having made it
probable that the set of rays corresponding to the depressions
did not pass through them at all, but was completely inter-
cepted, and either refracted or reflected into the substance of
the valve towards the margin of the depressions, thus leaving
the latter themselves dark, it was desirable to devise another
experiment, on such a scale as would admit of a practical
proof regarding the phenomena concerned. For this purpose,
I put a thin layer of Canada Balsam, nearly deprived of its
turpentine, so that it hardens as quickly as it cools, on an
ordinary glass slide, and, with the delicate bristles of a seed
of an Erodine, I made a number of minute markings respect-
ing depressions while the balsam was yet soft, but not so soft
as to stick.* It being admitted that the markings on the
gyrosigma, for instance, consist of depressions in the siliceous
substance of the valve, and Canada Balsam having almost
the same refractive index as silica, agreeably to Mr. Wenham’s
* Tf the balsam is already too hard, it cracks, the surface of the depres-
sions, becomes uneven, and forms new sources of refraction, which is also
the case if the markings penetrate down to the glass.
48 ON THE ANGULAR APERTURE OF OBJECT-GLASSES.
experience, I had thus, as nearly as I could, imitated, on a
large scale, the valve of a Gyrosigma. On examination of the
slide thus prepared under the microscope, I found it covered
with dark spots or dots, surrounded by a very lumi-
© nous margin or ring. This may even be seen if the
slide is laid on white paper and closely examined ;
each indentation produced in the layer of balsam
will instantaneously be followed by a shadow or dark spot on
the paper, with its halo.
Now, if the markings had, in this instance, been as close
and near to each other as is the case in the valve of a Gyro-
sigma, for instance, this experiment would have lost a great
deal of its interest, because, in that case, the luminous rings
would have become confluent, if I may borrow this expression,
and invisible, by being lost in, and forming the general illu-
mination of the undotted portion of the layer; but, as seen
now, each opaque spet has it own halo, which is of course
produced by the interception of the rays corresponding to the
depressions, which, instead of passing through them, emerge
at their margins, thus forming a luminous ring, leaving the
depressions themselves dark, Now, be it well observed, this
is the identical set of rays which, according to Dr. Griffith’s
theory, is refracted out of the field altogether; and it is evi-
dent, if that had been the case in this instance, the luminous
rings would not have been formed at all. But in order fur-
ther to prove that no rays are tilted out of the field proceeding
from the depressions, I drew out before the blowpipe a small
glass tube in a very fine hair-like filament, and this delicate
condensor I held directly over the opaque depressions, with-
out, however, receiving any evidence of rays issuing there-
from, while the portion above the halo was likewise brilliantly
illuminated. This is, I think, the most direct way of
disproving Dr. Griffith’s hypothesis. If the phenomena
witnessed in this instance are the same as occur in the exa-
mination of the valve of a gyrosigma, the manner in which
the markings are displayed and rendered more or less dis-
tinct, accordingly as the aperture of the object-glass is large
or small, finds an easy and natural explanation in the differ-
ence of the aperture itself, and its ordinary operation. The
luminous rings are formed mainly of oblique rays proceeding
from the lowest point of the depressions upwards and round
them ; the greater the aperture, the more oblique rays enter,
and the greater the contrast, and vice versa. If we depress
the object-glass gradually, we can trace the rays down to the
point from which they proceed—the dark spot gradually dis-
appears, and is at last replaced by a very brilliant point, from
ON THE STRUCTURE OF NOCTILUCA MILIARIS. 49
which the rays seem to radiate in all directions ; if we depress
still further, this luminous spot also disappears, and we see
nothing but the uniformly-illuminated layer of balsam. If
the aperture of the object-glass is small, the luminous rings
are either not seen at all, or fainter, in proportion to the
extent of the aperture; and, on depressing the object-ylass,
the opaque spots disappear at once, and we cannot trace the
rays of the ring down to the lowest point. For the sake of
greater accuracy, I made these observations with the same
object-glass, the aperture of which gradually diminished by
stops. It is also necessary that, during the different trials, we
should always have the same focus; this cannot be done by
looking at the opaque depressions, but by bringing any other
fine mark or scratch on the surface of the layer always first to
its exact focus. Candlelight is preferable to daylight. I did
not use a condensor, but the ordinary plane-reflecting mirror,
being anxious to study the phenomena under their most simple
conditions. At certain inclinations of the mirror, the dots
become much elongated, so that one can easily ptlexstaad
how rows of dots, if close together, produce the appearance of
lines. I have thus not only proved that the theory advanced
by Dr. Griffith is untenable, and contrary to fact, but also
shown, or made it at least probable, how the contrast of light
is produced which renders the marking visible.
On the Structure of Noctituca mitiaris. By Tuomas H.
Huxtey, F.RS.
Amone the many striking and beautiful appearances pre-
sented by the Ocean, there is none, perhaps, which has
more attracted the attention both of the naturalist and of the
casual observer, than the silvery, sparkling, phosphorescent
light, which may often be seen on dark nights, illuminating
the track of every boat and defining the contours of the
waves as they break upon the shore.
After long serving as a fertile subject of doubt and dis-
cussion, it is now well known that this luminosity proceeds
from many sources; in the main, from living invertebrate
animals— Protozoa, Polypes, Medusz, Annelids, Crustaceans,
&e. Among these again, the chief and most important part
is played, as was first shown. j in the middle of the last century
by M. Rigaut, and again in 1810 by M. Suriray,* by a sin-
gular and “anomalous creature of very simple organization, the
Noctiluca miliaris.
* See Quatrefages, l.c. I regret that I have not access at this moment
to M. Suriray’s paper.
VOL. UT, E
50 ON THE STRUCTURE OF NOCTILUCA MILIARIS.
According to M. Suriray the Noctiluca is a spherical gela-
tinous mass, provided with a long filiform tentacle or ap- —
pendage, presenting a mouth, an cesophagus, one or many
stomachs and ramified ovaries, and thus possessing a certain
complexity of organization. De Blainville confirmed Suri-
ray’s account, and placed Noctiluca, without doubt most erro-
neously, among the Diphyda. On the other hand, Van Beneden
Verhaeghe and Doyére, denying the relation of Noctiluea
with the Acalepha—and conceiving its organization to be
of a much more elementary character—relegated it to the
Rhizopoda,
To this doctrme M. de Quatrefages also attaches the
weight of his authority in his valuable essay ‘ Observations sur
les Noctiluques, published in the Annales des Sciences Nat.
for 1850. M. de Quatrefages does not admit the existence
of any true mouth or intestinal canal, and considers that the
so-called stomachs are nothing but ‘vacuoles’ similar to those
observed in the Rhizopoda and Infusoria.
In a short memoir published in Wiegmann’s Archiv. for
1852, however, that excellent and most accurate observer,
M. Krohn, carried the subject a stage further, and showed —
that the organization of Noctiluca is more complex than has
been supposed. Krohn carefully describes and figures the
mouth of Noctiluca and the long vibratile cilium, which he
was the first to observe, proceeding from it. Krohn draws
particular attention to the oval body first described by
Verhaeghe, which he considers to be the homologue of
the ‘nucleus’ of the infusoria; and describes the ejection
of faecal matters. Arranging the Noctiluca among the
Protozoa, Krohn points out some interesting structural
analogies with Actinophrys and Paramecium.
I will now proceed to detail the results of my own ob-
servations,
Noctiluca miliaris (Plate V. figs. 1, 2) may be best de-
scribed as a gelatinous transparent body, about 1-60th* of an
inch in diameter, and having very nearly the form of a peach ;
that is to say, one surface is a little excavated and a groove
or depression runs from one side of the excavation half way to
the other pole (échancrure, Quatrefages. Frauenbnseniihnliche —
Einbucht, Krohn). Where the stalk of the peach might be,
a filiform tentacle, equal in length to about the diameter of
the body, depends from it, and exhibits slow wavy motions
when the creature is in full activity. JI have even seen a
* The extremes of size are given by Krohn as 1-7 —1 millimetre
= 1-170 — 1-25 inch about.
ON THE STRUCTURE OF NOCTILUCA MILIARIS. Bil
Noctiluca appear to push repeatedly against obstacles, with
this tentacle.
The body is composed of a structureless and somewhat
dense external membrane, which is continued on to the
tentacle. DGeneath this is a layer of granules or rather a
gelatinous membrane, through whose sabsenice minute gra-
nules are scattered without any very definite arrangement.
From hence arises a network of very delicate Hbrilsy whose
meshes are not more than 1-3000th of an inch in diameter
(fig. 6), and these gradually pass internally,—the reticulation
becoming more and more open—into coarser fibres, which
take a convergent direction towards the stomach and “nucleus.
All these fibres and fibrils are covered with minute granules,
which are usually larger towards the centre.
Quatrefages states that these granules may be seen to glide
from the centre to the circumference, and vice versa, propelled
by the contractions or expansions of the transparent matrix
in which they are imbedded; that new fibrous processes
(expansions) arise on the central mass and unite, dividing and
subdividing, with the neighbouring ones—and that if the
creature be irritated, the fibres and fibrils become detached
from the investing membrane, and are drawn in towards the
mouth “like threads of a very viscid liquid, which retract °
slowly after being broken.”
All these appearances may be very readily seen; but I am
strongly inclined to believe that the greater part of them are
abnormal states, and that in their natural and perfectly un-
altered condition, the fibres and fibrils are perfectly quiescent,
and present nothing to be compared with the protean move-
ments of the Amebe. In their perfectly fresh and unchanged
state, in fact, the fibrous network is by no means so obvious
as it usually appears, and in such specimens I have been
unable to convince myself that the granules undergo any
change of place—certainly there is no protrusion and retrac-
tion of processes to be compared with that which takes place
in the Rhizopoda.*
The oral aperture has been satisfactorily described by
Krohn. Supposing the animal to lie upon its oral face (the
attitude it commonly assumes), with its tentacle forwards—
the oral aperture appears as a sort of half oval, with a nearly
straight edge anteriorly, and a deeply-curved outline pos-
teriorly (fig. 4).
* Krohn states, that he could hardly ever cause the Noctiluce to con-
tract by mechanical or chemical irritation; but that he once saw one
which repeatedly contracted before falling into the permanently wrinkled
and collapsed condition, into which they so readily pass.
E 2
52 ON THE STRUCTURE OF NOCTILUCA MILIARIS.
The anterior edge is not quite straight, but is formed by
two ridges, apparently of a harder substance than the
remainder of the outer membrane, which run up on the two
sides of the fissure, and unite, forming a very obtuse angle,
open anteriorly, in the base of the tentacle.
The latter is a subcylindrical filament of 1-1800th inch
diameter, more or less flattened, sometimes quite flat at its
free end, which is rounded at the apex. It is a little broader
at its base than elsewhere, and consists of an external struc-
tureless membrane continuous with the general investment,
and of an internal substance, which is so marked by transverse
granular lines, as very closely to resemble a primitive
fibril of striped muscle. I agree with Krohn that the
striation is not in the external membrane, as Quatrefages
states.
From the bottom of the oral cavity a very delicate filament
(fig. 3), which exhibits a rapid undulating motion, is occa-
sionally protruded, and then suddenly withdrawn. Krohn,
who first discovered this singular organ, considers that it plays
an important part in sweeping nutritive matters into the oral
cavity, and there can be little doubt that such is the case. I
would warn future observers not to be easily discouraged in
their search for this organ. I had sought for it im at least
fifty individuals without success; and nothing but the firm
confidence in M. Krobn’s accuracy, with which frequent
working over his ground has inspired me, led me to per-
severe until I had discovered it. Among the great numbers
of Noctiluce which I examined, however, I did not observe
half a dozen which presented a good view of the cilium.
Under these circumstances, I do not comprehend how it is
that M. Krohn should have overlooked a very remarkable
structure which requires no such sharpness of vision as that
to which I have just alluded. I refer to an S-shaped ridge
arising close to the right extremity of the anterior oral margin
above described, and passing down on the right side of the
oral aperture to form its lateral and posterior boundary. ;
This ridge is horny-looking, and is considerably produced
in its middle portion into a tricuspid prominence (fig. 4 d),
for which | know of no better name thana ‘tooth.’ This tooth
is about 1-700Uth in, high ; its middle cusp is stronger than
the other two, and bifid, while the posterior has a slight
pointed heel. I have never observed any movement in this
tooth-like body.
Behind it the oral aperture narrows to inclose what may be
termed a post-oral space, and then widens again; the eleva-
tions bordering this post-oral space are continuous with those
ON THE STRUCTURE OF NOCTILUCA MILIARIS. 53
which form the sides of the triangular groove or fissure, which
has been above described as running up on one side of the
body (figs. 1,2). In the midst of this flattened post-oral space
there is a small funnel-shaped depression, which I am strongly
inclined to believe is an anal aperture (fig. 3 f).
The oral aperture leads into the granular mass of the ali-
mentary cavity, from which the fibres and fibrils radiate.
Quatrefages says :—
** At one part of the groove of which we have spoken, and near the
point of insertion of the appendage, there is always a little mass of
different substances, sand, &c., which can only be detached with great
difficulty. When this has been done these foreign bodies are seen to have
simply adhered to a semi-transparent, granular substance, which projects
like a hernia, so to say, from a little orifice (mouth of authors) by which
the membranes are perforated. This external substance is continuous
with a much larger internal mass of the same nature, whose dimensions
and form vary in each individual.
** However carefully I have sought for a digestive canal of any kind, I
have never been able to discover anything of the sort; but I have very
frequently seen more or less considerable vacuoles in.the midst of this
substance. It is these most probably which have been regarded as
stomachs by MM. de Blainville and Suriray.”
I have never seen this projecting mass nor any foreign
bodies in the position indicated by Quatrefages, in perfectly
fresh specimens. In those which had undergone alteration,
on the other hand, such an appearance was frequent, but it
invariably appeared to me to result from a partial extrusion
of the contents of the stomach.
The appearance of ‘ vacuoles,’ on the other hand, is almost
invariable in fresh specimens; but I cannot think that these
clear spaces, which are defined by a well-marked membra-
nous wall, have any analogy with the shifting ‘ vacuoles’ of
the Infusoria and Rhizopods. It appeared to me, on the other
hand, that the oral cavity led directly in a definite stomach,
whose walls are capable of very great local dilatation, such
dilatations, connected by very narrow pedicles with the central
cavity, then having all the appearance of independent vacuoles
(fig. 8e). The accumulation of granules around the central
mass greatly contributes to this appearance. Like Krohn,
I frequently noticed large Diatomacee and other foreign
matters in these gastric pouches.
Not only does all I have observed lead me to believe that
Noctiluca has a definite alimentary cavity, but I am, as I
have said above, inclined to think that this cavity has an
excretory aperture distinct from the mouth. The funnel-shaped
depression in the post-oral area, in fact, always appeared,
when I could obtain a favourable view, to be connected with
a special process of the stomach. On one occasion I observed
54 ON THE STRUCTURE OF NOCTILUCA MILIARIS.
the sides of this process to be surrounded by fusiform trans-
versely-striated fibres or folds, I could not determine which.
Krohn states that he repeatedly saw the egesta voided ‘ in
the neighbourhood of the groove of the body,’ but he could
not determine at what exact point, and he inclines to think it
must have taken place through the mouth.
I am equally unable to bring forward direct evidence on
this point, and my belief in the existence of a distinct anus is
founded simply on the structural appearances.
In front of and above the gastric cavity is the nucleus (ce),
described by Verhaeghe and Krohn, This is a strongly re-
fracting, oval body of about 1-460th inch in length, which,
by the action of acetic acid, assumes the appearance of a
hollow vesicle. The anterior radiating fibres pass from it;
the posterior from the alimentary canal.
Quatrefages and Krohn consider that a process of fissiparous
multiplication takes place in Noctiluca; both of these ob-
servers having found double individuals, though very rarely.
According to the latter writer, division of the body is pre-
ceded by that of the nueleus. I have not had the good fortune
to meet with any of these forms, and the only indication of a
possible reproductive apparatus which I have seen consisted
of a number of granular, vesicular bodies (fig. 5 h), of about
1-2000th inch in diameter, scattered over the surface of the
anterior and inferior part of the body.
Such is what repeated examination leads me to believe is
the structure of Noctiluca; but if the preceding account be
correct it is obvious that the animal is no Rhizopod, but must
be promoted from the lowest ranks of the Protozoa to the
highest.
The existence of a dental armature and of a distinct anal
aperture, are structural peculiarities which greatly imerease
the affinity to such forms as Colpoda and Paramecium, indi-
cated by Krohn. octi/uca might be regarded as a gigantic
Infusorium with the grooved body of Colpoda, the long pro-
cess of Trachelius, and the dental armature of Nassula united
in one animal.
On the other hand, the general absence of cilia over the
body, and the wide differences in detail, would require the con-
stitution of at least a distinct family for this singular creature.
Economy of Crosterium Lunura. By the Hon, and Rey.
S. G. Osporne, Communicated by Janez Hoae, Esq.
Tue division of labour-principle holds as good amongst
microscopists as amongst any other workers in the fields of
ON THE ECONOMY OF CLOSTERIUM LUNULA. D5
knowledge. I have devoted now for some months, and’ on an
average several hours almost daily, to the study of some of the
Desmidiee, especially the Clostertum Lunula. With increased
objective powers and the use of improved methods of illumi-
nation, I have arrived at results which may, I think, interest
many of your readers.
As to the Closterium Lunula, 1 have ascertained that the
best view of its circulation and the cilia which gives it its
impulse, is obtained by the use of full sunlight transmitted
through the combination of coloured glass, proposed by
Mr. Rainey, and adapted to an achromatic condenser. I have
used a 1-6th objective of Ross’s, his 1-4th with the Rainey
moderator as illuminator. In diagram A, I have given a
rough sketch of a specimen of the C. Lunula; with the
above arrangement of the microscope, using also a deep eye-
piece, I have again and again seen the cilia in full action along
the edge of the membrane which encloses the endochrome ;
I have seen them also, but not so distinctly, along the inside
of the edges of the frond itself. Their action is precisely, to
my eye, the same as that in the branchiz of the mussel.
There is the same wavy motion, and as the water dries up
between the glasses in which the specimen is enclosed, the
circulation gets fainter at the edges, and the cilia are seen
with more distinctness.
In the diagram, I have drawn a line at 4 to a small oval
mark; these exist at intervals, and more or less in number
over the surface of the endochrome itself, beneath the mem-
brane which invests it. They seem to be attached by a small
pedicle, are usually seen in motion on the spot to which they
are thus fastened ; from time to time they break away, and are
carried by the circulation of the fluid, which works all over
the endochrome, to the chambers at the extremities, there
they join the crowd of similar bodies, each in action within
those chambers, when the specimen is a healthy one.
The circulation, when made out over the centre of the
frond, for instance at a, is in appearance of a wholly different
nature from that seen at the edges. In the latter, the matter
circulated is in globules, passing each other, in distinct lines,
in opposite directions; in the circulation as seen at a, the
streams are broad, tortuous, of far greater body, and passing
with much less rapidity. To see the centre circulation, I
have used a Gillett illuminator and the 1-6th power, so working
the fine adjustment as to bring the centre of the frond into
focus; then almost losing it by raising the objective; after
this, with great care working the milled head till I just
56 ON THE ECONOMY OF CLOSTERIUM LUNULA.
make out the dark body of the endochrome ; a hair’s-breadth
more adjustment gives me this circulation with the utmost
distinctness if it is a good specimen. It will be clearly seen,
by the same means, at all the points where I have put spaces,
and from them, may be traced, with care, down to both
extremities.
The endochrome itself is evidently so constructed as to
admit of contraction and expansion in every direction; at
times the edges are in semi-lunar curves, leaving interrupted
clear spaces visible between the green matter and the investing
membrane; at other times, I have seen the endochrome with
a straight margin, but so contracted as to leave a well-defined
transparent space, along its whole edge, between itself and
the exterior of its sac. It is interesting, in this case, to
keep changing the focus, that at one moment we may see the
globular circulation between the outer and inner case, and
again the mere sluggish movement between the inner case and
the endochrome.
I have now not the slightest doubt but that the loose bodies
in the chambers at each extremity of the frond are brought,
as I have described above, from the exterior of the endo-
chrome, by the external current; what they are I do not
profess to say; they are as the rule diamond-shaped, when
at rest.
In B, I have given an enlarged sketch of one extremity of
a (. Lunula. The arrows within the chamber pointing to 3,
denote the direction of a very strong current of fluid T can
detect, and occasionally trace most distinctly; it is acted
upon by cilia at the edges of the chamber, but its chief force
appears to me to come from some impulse given from the
very centre of the endochrome. I have seen the fluid here
acting in positive jets, that is with an almost arterial
action; this it is, which, according to the strength with which
it is acting at the time, propels the loose floating bodies at
a greater or less distance from the end of the endochrome;
the fluid thus impelled from a centre, and kept in activity
by the lateral cilia, causes strong eddies, which give the
twisting motion we see to the said free bodies. The line
—a,in this diagram, denotes the outline of the membrane
which encloses the endochrome; on both sides of this I can
detect cilia. The circulation exterior to it passes and repasses
it in opposite directions, in three or four distinct courses of
globules; these, when they arrive at — c, seem to encounter
the fluid jetted through an aperture at the apex of the
chamber; this disperses them so that they appear to be
ON THE ECONOMY OF CLOSTERIUM LUNULA. 57
driven, for the most part, back again on the precise course
by which they had arrived; some, however, do enter the
chamber: occasionally, but very rarely, I have seen one of the
loose bodies escape from within, and get into this outer
current, in which it is carried about, until it becomes adherent
to the side of the frond. I am now quite satisfied that in the
case of the specimen diagram C (p. 235, Vol. II.), to which I
referred in your last number, the pressure of the glass in which
the specimen was enclosed had forced the endochrome so far
up into the chamber, that the jetting action of the fluid, nomi-
nally acting within the frond, was thus made to play exterior
to it.
With regard to the propagation of the C. Lunula, I have
never seen anything like conjugation, but | have repeatedly
seen what I shall now describe—increase by self-division.
Let me request your readers to observe the diagram D,
but for the moment to suppose the two halves of the frond,
represented as separate, to just overlap each other; I have
watched for hours the process of complete division; one-half
has remained passive, the other has had a motion from side
to side, as if moving on an axis at the point of juncture; the
separation has become more and more ardent, the motion
more active, until at last with a jerk one segment leaves the
other, and they are then under view as I have drawn them.
It will be seen, that in each segment the endochrome has
already a waist ; but there is only one chamber, which is the
one belonging to one of the extremities of the original entire
frond. The globular circulation for some hours previous to
subdivision, and for some few hours afterwards, runs quite
round the obtuse end of the endochrome — a, by almost
imperceptible degrees; from the end of the endochrome,
symptoms of an elongation of the membranous sac appear,
giving a semilunar sort of chamber; this, as the endochrome
elongates, becomes more defined, till it has the form and
defined outline of the chamber at the perfect extremity.
The obtuse end — 6 of the frond is at the same time elon-
gating and contracting; these processes go on; in about five
hours from the division of the one segment from the other,
the appearance of each half is that of a nearly perfect specimen,
the chamber at the new end is complete, the globular circula-
tion exterior to it becomes affected by the circulation from within
the said chamber ; and, in a few hours more, some of the free
bodies descend, become exposed to, and tossed about in the
eddies of the chamber, and the frond, under a 1-6th power,
shows itself in all its full beautiful construction. E is a
58 ON THE ECONOMY OF CLOSTERIUM LUNULA.
diagram of one end of a C. didymotocum, in which I saw the
same process.
I have now given you, in as plain a manner as I can, the
result of my further observations ; I invite other lovers of the
science to test their truth; I shall be most glad of any
corrections their greater experience and better skill may
afford ; at any reasonable notice I will send to any of your
readers, a stock of specimens. The best I obtain are from
Branksea Island—Poole Harbour: the best specimens to
examine are those with the lightest green endochrome, and
in which the furrows are most marked. I am so engaged
I will not at this time put forth my theories in connection
with this Desmidium, for I could only do so in a hasty
and crude manner. I can with truth say, that I am more
than ever convinced that the microscope has not yet shown
me any object so beautiful, so wonderful, and which has so
amply repaid all the trouble I have bestowed upon it.
I would only now add an invitation to brethren of the lens
to try their skill, and the power of their instruments on
Euastrum Didelta ; they will, if I am not mistaken, find in it
wonders, which, when developed, may rival my pet C. Lunula.
( 59)
TRANSLATIONS, &c.
On the Male reproductive Organs of CAMPANULARIA GENICULATA
4 Laomedea geniculata, Lam), By Dr. Max 8. Scuut7ze, of
Greifswald. (From Miiller’s Archiv. fur Anat. und Physiol.
1850.)
THE propagation of Campanularia geniculata, described by
Lovén in 1837,* differs essentially from the mode of increase
observed by V. Beneden in several species of the same genus.
In the former species ciliated embryos are produced within
axillary capsules, from vesicles presenting all the parts of an
ovum, and after a distinct process of segmentation. These
embryos, after they have quitted the tunic by which they are
surrounded, and which resembles an incompletely developed
polype, swim about free for some time, and precisely resemble
the embryos of Medusa aurita; they then affix themselves,
and grow into a polype resembling the parent animal. In
the Campanularie, however, described by Van Beneden, me-
dusoid creatures with tentacles, digestive and sensitive organs,
are produced, also in axillary capsules; and which after
quitting the capsule swim about free in the water and behave
exactly like Meduse. These were regarded by Van Beneden
as the embryos. He considers that they are produced from
ova, and supposes that they subsequently affix themselves, and
after the obliteration and metamorphosis of some of their
organs become Campanularie. Other observers on the con-
trary, particularly Nordmann and Dujardin, regard these
medusiform products of the Campanularie as the developed
forms of those polypes, believing that in the Meduse arising
in the asexual way, sexual organs are afterwards developed.
The Campanularie consequently would have to be regarded
as corresponding to the Strobila form of Medusa aurita.
Although the decisive proof of Van Beneden’s view is still
wanting, inasmuch as he has not demonstrated the egg-nature
of the germ of the medusiform animalcules, as well as the
impregnation by semen necessary, in this case, for their
development, and as he, as well as Lovén, did not discover
male seminiferous organs in his Campanularia, still it cannot
* An observation of Kolliker’s should here be noticed, He saw in
Pennaria Cavolinit capsules with spermatozoids (formation of spermatic
filaments in vesicles). It is unfortunate that these capsules and their con-
tents should not have been more minutely described ; nor has the. im-
portance of the observation been generally recognized.
60 ON THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE
be denied that a correspondence in the mode of propagation
of the Campanularie, described by Lovén and Van Beneden,
is more readily perceived in an explanation of it according to
the views of the latter, than when it is explained according to
those of Dujardin, I have not, unfortunately, had an oppor-
tunity of observing Campanularie with medusiform offspring,
and consequently must at present refrain from expressing any
judgment in favour of one view or the other. But it appears
to me that everything depends upon the determination of the
~ fact, whether the medusiform animals are also produced by
sexual propagation like the ciliated embryos of C. geniculata.
If true egg-germs, with the usual transitionary forms into
embryos, are found in the axillary capsules of Van Beneden’s
Campanularie (as stated by that author), and in other capsules,
spermatozoids, in the way I am about to describe as obtain-
ing in Campanularia geniculata, no farther doubt, perhaps,
could be entertained with respect to the embryonic nature of
the medusiform offspring ; and their development into sexual,
self-propagative Meduse would, according to all known
analogies, have to be regarded as impossible ; but if, on the
contrary, it is found that the Meduse@ arise in an asexual way
in the capsules, and that analogous spermatic capsules do not
occur at all, we should in that case expect to witness the
development of sexual parts only in the Meduse, and con-
sequently should have to regard the Campanularie merely as
developmental forms of Acalephe. In Campanularia geniculata,
then, the polypoid envelopes of the ova and embryos, as weli
as the spermatic globules presently to be more particularly
described, should necessarily be regarded as analogous to the —
Meduse, although they never become free, nor exhibit any
kind of movement whatever beyond a slight motion of the
tentacles, and are wholly incapable of receiving nutriment.
In the genus Campanularia, therefore, we have true polypes,
whose representatives are Campanularia geniculata and others,
which might be regarded only as developmental conditions of
an Acalepha, exactly as is the case with the species of Coryne,
many of which, as tor instance C. squamata, develop ova and
spermatic capsules, which never separate from the polypes,
but after being emptied of their contents become detached ;
whilst in others, as in Coryne aculeata, these capsules are
detached before hp complete development of the ova or of
the semen, and swim about under the form of Meduse, in
which the sexual organs are not developed till afterwards.
Let us now return to our observations. The male organs of
the Campanularie, containing the spermatic fluid, have not
ORGANS OF CAMPANULARIA GENICULATA. 61
hitherto been recognized. Neither Lovén nor Van Beneden
in their numerous researches on the Campanulari@ have seen
them, any more than the older observers. But in Steenstrup’s
eo
* Researches on the Hermaphroditismus,’* [ find a short
notice with respect to them. He says, “ In the genera Tubu-
larie, Eudendrium, and Campanularie, I have always found
the ‘nurse’-polypes to present only one sex ; and in Camnanu-
laria geniculata, semen was never formed except in precisely
those individuals which were developed under the same con-
ditions as the true females which furnish the ova.’
Krohnj and Kollikert have given some notices with respect
to male organs in other Sertularina. The former observed
spermatic capsules, corresponding to the ovicells in position
and figure, although growing upon separate stems, in Pennaria
Cavolini, Eudendrium racemosum, and Plumularia cristata ;
and the latter also in Sertularia abietina. Precise descriptions
and figures of these organs, however, are wanting ; and with
regard to the development of the spermatozoids, Kolliker
merely mentions that they appear to be produced from elon-
gating vesicles, and figures them accordingly as they exist in
Sertularia abietina.
As I have had abundant opportunity of observing Campanu-
laria geniculata, 1 directed my attention at once to the re-
productive organs and the propagative function, and was
fortunate enough, in the autumn of 1849, to detect the male
reproductive organs so long sought for in vain; and the accu-
rate description and representation of which I consider to be the
more justified, since the development of the spermatozoids
also affords wholly peculiar and hitherto unknown relations.
The microscopic examination of the axillary capsules, almost
always found upon the polypidoms of Campanularia, besides
the ovi-capsules so well figured by Lovén, will occasionally
disclose the existence of capsules, containing, not ova but dis-
tinct round globular bodies, of about the same size as the ova,
though filled with a homogeneous granular substance, which
when more minutely examined, after the rupture of the cap-
sules, proves to be constituted of spermatozoids in very various
stages of development.
These male capsules, as | shall term them in contradistinction
to the female capsules containing ova, are indistinguishable
from the latter by the naked eye either in size, form, or posi-
tion. Like those they always spring from the angle, where a
polype branches off from the main stem. Their length when
* German translation by Hornschuch, pp. 66, 67.
+ Miiller’s Archiv., 18438, p. 174.
t~ Neuen Schweizerischen Denkschriften. Band viii.
62 ON THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE
full-grown is from one-third to one-half a line, their shape is
that of an elongated vase with somewhat sinuous walls, the
sinuosities corresponding to the globules contained in the
interior.
Their peduncle commences with the same peculiar annular —
formation as is found in all Campanularie at the origin of |
each bud. :
The separate spherical bodies by which this capsule is —
filled, to the naked eye appear of a whitish-yellow colour;
they are larger and more opaque towards the wider, upper
end of the capsule, and smaller and more transparent towards
the peduncle. Each of them is surrounded by a thin mem-
brane, and the whole together by a common transparent
envelope. Into each globular mass is continued a process of
the common nutritive substance entering the capsule (intes-
tinal tube of Lovén), which is continued uninterruptedly
throughout the whole polypidom ; this process extends beyond
the semidiameter of the globular body, and there terminates
ina cecal extremity. This nutritive substance of the con-
tents of the capsule, having thus furnished a supply to each
globule, expands beneath the horny cover of the capsule over —
its entire extremity, exactly as it is figured by Loyvén in the
female capsules. Within this nutritive substance may be
perceived a lively motion of granules probably produced by
vibratile cilia.
If one of these capsules, containing six or seven globules,
be ruptured by compression under the covering glass, whilst
in the microscope, the globules are seen to escape sometimes
at the upper end, after rupture of the lid sometimes at the
lower, if the capsule has been previously cut off from its
peduncle, at the same time being emptied of their contents,
so that it is easy now to recognize all the parts of them.
The uppermost globules contain fully-formed spermatozoids
usually in active motion, with a minute round head scarcely
0-0001’” in size, and a long, excessively delicate, appendage,
distinctly perceptible only under very strong illumination,
which vibrates actively backwards and forwards.
The motion of the spermatozoids cannot be perceived in
the unopened globule, on account of the vast multitude
assembled together—it is apparent only after the contents
have been diluted with water.
The globules situated lower down in the capsule contain
no perfectly-developed spermatozoids, but present them in
various stages of development in the following order, pro-
ceeding from below to above.
The lowermost, smallest globules contain densely-crowded,
ORGANS OF CAMPANULARIA GENICULATA. 63
pale, nucleated, round cells, exactly like the spermatic germ-
cells of other animals. In the globules placed higher up
these cells are seen with a paler, almost inapparent nucleus,
the outline of the cell has lost its uniform rotundity, and
begins to elongate on one side into a short process. As the
development proceeds, the nucleus disappears altogether, the
cell is somewhat smaller and the process longer, and fine as a
hair, exhibiting a very peculiar slow movement, not unlike
that of the motile cilium of a Euglena, in consequence of
which the entire cell acquires a quivering motion sometimes
amounting to an inconsiderable change of place. This mo-
tion, however, is quite different from and slower than that
of a mature spermatozoid. The cell is thrown from side to
side, frequently appearing as if it was supported upon the
process.
Other forms of development are commonly associated with
the above in the same globule. Every cell has this flexible
process, by the movement of which they are thrown from side
to side; but besides this they have also a greater or less
number of rigid, motionless, less delicate processes, varying in
number from 1 to 5, and appearing to arise in succession, and
by which these forms are rendered like the stellate cells of
Kolliker, and which are a common stage of development of
the spermatozoids in the Crustacea. But the latter have no
motile appendage, and are always quite motionless.
I am not aware of any observation of movements at such an
early stage of development of spermatozoids.
With respect to the successive formation of the individual
processes, | have not been able to observe anything certain ;
but it appears to me probable that the motile process after a
time becomes immotile, and that a new motile process com-
monly makes its appearance at the opposite point, which
again passes into the motionless state, and so on.
It is only rarely that cells occurred without a motile process.
The greatest number of rigid processes on a single cell, that
fell under my observation, was four.
A necessary precaution to be taken, in order that the motion
of the delicate process should be observed, is the avoiding too
strong and too long-continued pressure upon the capsule with
the view of rupturing it. The best way of proceeding is to
provide that, besides the capsule, there should be a somewhat
more resistant object—a portion of vegetable tissue or of the
polypidom itself—and then, whilst looking through the micro-
scope, to make gradual pressure upon the covering glass until
the capsule is ruptured. If the pressure is now omitted, the
_ glass usually rises again a little, affording the requisite space
_ beneath it.
64 ON THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE
In what way the mature spermatozoids are produced from
the above-described motile, stellate cells, I have found it im-
possible to observe. Notwithstanding that I have examined
capsules of all sizes, I have never noticed any transition forms.
The next highest globules always contained spermatozoids,
differing from those in a state of complete maturity only in
their having a somewhat larger body. In their movements
they were precisely alike.
Whether a stellate cell divide into several spermatozoids or
not, must be left undecided. In the Crustacea, we are also
unacquainted with the metamorphoses of the stellate cells, not
knowing even whether in any case they become motile sper-
matozoids. Dromia Rumphii, according to Kélliker, is the
only Crustacean in which, together says stellate Re bodies
resembling filamentary spermatozoids are also found; but
these were immotile.
The further change which takes place in the spermatic
capsule for the evacuation of its contents is precisely like that
which occurs in the female capsule for the development and
expulsion of the embryds. When the spermatic capsule con-
tains mature spermatozoids in the uppermost globules, the
highest of those bodies breaks through the membrane by
which the capsule is closed, and the envelope of the globule,
which in the mean while had increased somewhat in thick-
ness, represents a rounded sacculus placed upon a peduncle,
and the surface of which opposite to the peduncle is furnished
with a bundle of tentacular appendages. The peduncle en- |
closes a continuation of the general nutritive substance, which
at this time projects only for a very short distance into the
spermatozoid-globule. The tentacles exhibit a slight degree
of motility, inasmuch as they are capable of a slow extension
and contraction ; but they have no urticating organs, and are
certainly wholly incompetent for the prehension of nutriment,
Nor at first do they serve for the occlusion of an opening
which is not formed till some time afterwards, when the yery
thin membrane in which the spermatozoids are still specially
enclosed is ruptured. No movement of the entire envelope
is ever observable.
Between the inner surface of this envelope and the mass of
spermatozoids there is a space filled with active spermatozoids,
when the membrane by which they are immediately enclosed
is ruptured or bursts spontaneously. But the spermatozoids
do not at once escape externally, as would necessarily be the
case had an opening previously existed at the place where the
tentacles are situated; and it is not until the outer enyelope
is also ruptured by stronger pressure that the spermatic ele-
ments are dispersed in the water.
al
pi
ORGANS OF CAMPANULARIA GENICULATA. 65
When the spermatozoids have been evacuated in the natural
way, the polype-like envelope contracts and ultimately dis-
appears altogether, the next highest of the remaining globules
in the meanwhile escaping in succession. Capsules occur
with four or five polypoid envelopes attached externally, some
of which, however, are always close upon disappearing.
Of the vessels, which Lovén has figured in the precisely
similar egg-tunics seated upon the ovi-capsules, but which I
have never been able to perceive in these tunics, no indica-
tions exist in the spermatic envelopes just described.
The male and female capsules are always placed upon
different polypidoms, so that the semen has frequently a con-
siderable distance to traverse in order to reach the ova to be
impregnated. It may thence be concluded, that in sea-water
the spermatozoids do not speedily lose their motility and
capability of impregnation. I was still able to perceive the
movements of the spermatozoids an hour after their liberation.
That an impregnation by the semen is indispensably requi-
site for the development of the ova, I have frequently satisfied
myself, since it was only the ovi-capsules which had been
associated with male polypidoms in a glass of water, that
afforded embryos ; whilst in those which had been kept apart,
the ova, after entering the polypoid tunics from the ovicell,
were always dissolved. The process of segmentation com-
menced in them, but soon remained stationary, and never
reached the formation of an embryo. This fruitless process
of segmentation taking place without impregnation was also
noticed and figured by Lovén, but erroneously explained. He
regarded it as a spontaneous division of an embryo for the
purpose of multiplication, and believed that each separate cell
would become an embryo.
Lister’s drawing and description (Phil. Trans. 1834, Pl. X.
Fig. 64, p. 376), cited by Lovén on this point, and regarded
by him as indicating the same thing as this futile division of
the embryo, admit, as it appears to me, of a totally different
explanation. ‘The figure indisputably shows that Lister had
seen the male capsules and the escape of the spermatozoids ;
but he had no notion of the meaning of what he thus ob-
served,
With regard, lastly, to the polypoid envelope of the sper-
matic globules, it corresponds in all respects with the analo-
gous tunic of the ova and embryos.
If the latter is to be regarded as the analogue of the free
medusiform offspring of other Campanulari@ so also is the
former—the tunic of the spermatozoids. I have already said
that the decision of this question cannot be expected without
VOL. IIT. F
66 ON THE COLORATION OF THE CHINA SEA.
new and precise investigations of the Campanularie having a
medusoid offspring, and therefore shall here avoid all useless
discussion of it.
Memoir on the Cotoration of the Cuina Sea. By M. Camitie
DarestEe. (From the Ann. des Sciences Naturelles, IV. Ser.
Tome i. p. 81.)
We learn from the observations of M. Ehrenberg, and more
recently from those of MM. E. Dupont and Montagne, that
the waters of the Red Sea are, at certain epochs, coloured red
by the development, in prodigious quantities, of microscopical
Alge belonging to a species described by the former of these
observers under the name of Trichodesmium erythreum.
These observations, which afford the best explanation of the
term Red Sea, attributed by some ancient geographers to the
aspect of the mountains bordering its shores when illuminated
by the rays of the sun, and by others, since the celebrated Juan
de Castro, to the transparency of its waters, which allows the
coral reefs to be visible in their clear depths, have a still
greater interest for naturalists; they are one of the most re-
markable proofs of the immense development that microsco-
pical organisms can attain, and of their importance in the
physical history of the globe.
There is no such thing as an exceptional fact in science.
The determination of a new fact, however strange it may at
first appear to us, ought always to lead to the knowledge of
other facts of the same nature which can be grouped round
the preceding one, as different effects arising from a single
cause.
Moreover, since these observations have been made, it
has been thought that a great number of the accidental
colorations of sea-water, so often described by navigators,
might be thus explained. It might equally be expected that
similar phenomena would be more frequently observed and
described, from the moment that naturalists showed a scien-
tific interest in them.
I owe to the kindness of M. Mollien, late Consul-general
of France at Havanna, and one of the Frenchmen who have
penetrated furthest into the interior of Africa, the opportunity
of studying a new fact of this kind, which from the conditions
under which it presented itself may one day open up an
interesting geographical question.
M. Mollien observed last year that the China Sea was
coloured yellow and red over a large extent, and that this
coloration was not continuous but in patches separated by
a
ON THE COLORATION OF THE CHINA SEA. 67
transparent spaces. The red colour predominates in the true
China Sea ( Nan- Hai), which washes the shores of the south
part of China, to the south of the island of Formosa ; whilst
the yellow colour predominates to the north of the island, and
in the sea specially called the Yellow Sea (Hoang- Hai). The
cause of this phenomenon is unknown. The English who
trade in these latitudes attribute it to the spawn of fish—a
popular explanation frequently given for all kinds of marine
phenomena, and which had already been applied particularly
to the coloration of the Red Sea.
M. Mollien collected a certain quantity of this coloured
water, and, on his return to France, he kindly intrusted it to
me for microscopical examination. He sent me at the same
time the following note of the conditions under which the
water had been obtained :-~“ The sea-water was drawn up,
the 14th September last, in 10° N. lat. and 106° E. long.
This water was not yellow, as in the canal of Formosa,
but red.”
The quantity of the water I examined was very small ; it
had deposited a sort of mud of a brown colour which I placed
under the microscope. I recognised that this deposit was not
formed, as one might at first have supposed, of earthy parti-
cles, but that it consisted entirely of an agglomeration of
minute Algz, almost microscopical and more or less decom-
posed. -
These plants presented the appearance of little bundles,
which cannot be better described than as resembling packets
of cigars, and which resulted from the juxtaposition of a cer-
tain number of slender filaments, much longer than broad, of
the same diameter throughout, and terminated by rounded
extremities. These filaments were probably united by a
mucous substance; but the state of these little plants did not
allow me to ascertain this point. They were divided by a
great number of transverse partitions into a series of cylin-
drical cells, the transverse diameter of which was nearly
twice the longitudinal. These cells were slightly constricted
in the middle, a sort of indication of their ulterior division.
The membrane of the cells was colourless, but the colour
might have disappeared in consequence of the incipient de-
composition which the plants had undergone. In their interior
a certain number of very fine granulations might be observed,
which were slightly tinged with yellow. For the rest, the
little plants were for the most part much changed: a great
number of filaments were scattered in the fluid as well as a
great many isolated cells resulting from the disintegration of
other filaments. The study that | made of these little plants,
F 2
68 ON THE COLORATION OF THE CHINA SEA.
imperfect as it necessarily was, owing to my having only
fragments more or less altered at my command, has not left
a doubt as to their genuine nature. I found in them directly
all the characters assigned to the genus T'richodesmium by
MM. Ehrenberg and Montagne. The determination of the
species was more difficult. These plants resembled greatly
Trichodesmium erythreum; but I should not have been able
to assure myself on this point, had not M. Montagne, whose
authority on these subjects is so great, and who had kindly
observed my Alge under the microscope, changed my pre-
sumption into certainty.
From this fact, [ could no longer doubt that the remarkable
phenomenon of the microscopical vegetation in the Red Sea
is also presented in the China Sea; and that true minute Algz
are the cause of the strange coloration which certain parts of
that sea exhibit.
I wished to know if this fact had been already observed,
and after many fruitless researches, I at last met with a very
curious observation, which made me presume that these little
plants had been already noticed, although the observers had
mistaken their nature, and especially their origin. As this
observation is very interesting in many respects, I shall ven-
ture to give it with some details. It is the chemical and
microscopical examination of some sand which fell from a
cloud at Shanghai, made by Mr. Piddington, Curator of the
Museum of Economic Geology of India. It is published in
the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal (1846).
This sand had been collected by Mr. Bellott, surgeon to.
H. M.S. “ Wolf,” and was transmitted by him to Dr. Mac-
gowan, physician to the hospital at Ningpo, who in his turn
forwarded it to the Asiatic Society of Bengal.
Mr. Bellott’s letter is as follows :—
“ H, M.S. * Wolf,’ Shanghai, March 16, 1846.
‘“¢ My DEaR Sir,
** | senv for the account of a shower of fine sand which fell here
yesterday, the 15th. The wind was N.N.E., No. 1, rather fresh ; then
N.E., No. 2; then E.N.E., No. 3; and at last N. E.; and calm at sun-
set. A fog was observed, which was regarded as an ordinary fog; but the
officers who were walking on the shore, remarked that their shoes and
their trousers were covered with dust. I observed it myself in the after-
noon. At 8 o’clock in the evening the dust was visible on the guns, the
upper works, and other polished surfaces on the deck. I gathered as much
of it as I could. In placing the dust upon the finger and raising it in the
direction of the sun’s rays, which on account of this phenomenon had only
half their usual brightness, the particles which composed it were bril-
liant: although impalpable when held between the fingers and thumb,
the dust caused a gritty sensation between the teeth. The dust passed
over the vessel in light clouds, when the wind freshened; it was some-
Ne ee
ON THE COLORATION OF THE CHINA SEA. 69
thing like the fumes of tobacco, but without any bluish tint. About
2p.M. I walked for two hours in the country: the whole atmosphere
appeared laden with a light cloud of dust, tinged of a brownish colour ;
that was its aspect during the whole day. 'l'he setting sun had a diameter
apparently less than in the winter evenings, and was of a sickly pale hue.
At 10 o’clock p.m. I spread out two large papers to catch the sand: they
remained spread out until past midnight ; but although the sand fell and
remained upon the guns none fell upon the paper. Was this the result of
an electrical attraction or not? J cannot say. The stars in the Great
Bear, although the firmament was without clouds, were visible only with
difficulty at the zenith. The moon, three days past the full, was partially
obscured, and threw a very feeble shadow upon my hand. At midnight
the moon and the stars resumed their ordinary appearance, and at half-past
one the quarter-master reported that the fog had ceased. The barometer
fell from 30° to 29°88°. The sand set the teeth on edge when one breathed
it. The whole surface of this district is an alluvial clay, without flints or
sand; the nearest sand, which is coarse and shelly, is 12 miles off. It
is said that the merchant ship ‘ Denia’ encountered this shower of sand
at 30°5 miles from the land, in the direction of Leon-Tcheou, and that
there was a kind of pounce-like dust upon the waves. As I have not seen
her log I cannot certify this fact.
“ Yours, &c.,
“ J. BELLOTT.”
” Dr. Macgowan, in forwarding this letter from Ningpo to
the Secretary of the Asiatic Society, adds the following detail
to the narrative of Mr. Bellott : --
*T learn from Dr. Robertson, of the steamer ‘ Nemesis,’ of the East
India Company’s service, stationed in this port, that on the day in ques-
tion (15th March), he as well as several other officers had observed similar
phenomena to those described by Dr. Bellott; the vegetation was covered
with sand and also many of the ships, and the atmosphere was clouded.
The wind was N. HE. I was then absent at Chusan, where I did not per-
ceive either sand or dust.”
Besides the fact remarked by Mr. Piddington, it appears
from Mr, Bellott’s letter, and also from that of Dr. Macgowan,
that the cloud of dust extended the same day from Ningpo, at
the 30° of N. lat. to Shanghai, at the 313° in round num-
bers, which gives an extent of 90 miles; that it was accom-
panied by light winds from the N. N. E. and from the E. N. E.
during seventeen hours, from 8 o’clock in the morning until
an hour after midnight; that reckoning that the cloud tra-
velled at the rate of 24 miles an hour (and that is the
lowest rate that can be taken), the length of the cloud must
be from 17 x 214, that is to say 42 miles; and thus, in
allowing for the little difference of longitude between Ningpo
and Shanghai, situated very near to one another, one to the
N. W. and the other to the S. E., there remains an extent of
3,825 square miles for the cloud.
Mr. Piddington reports that having only had a grain and a
half of sand in his possession he could not study it com-
70 ON THE COLORATION OF THE CHINA SEA.
pletely. “It is,” he says, “ an olive-green powder, the grains
of which adhere to one another like the substances which remain
on a filter, and mixed with filaments resembling hairs, of two
kinds, some black, others white and thicker. Under the
microscope, it is evidently a mass of very short filaments or
fibres, transparent, white, black, and brown, with some spi-
cules, reddish, sharp, and with grains of quartzose, transparent
sand, adherent between them.”
With some chemical tests the author recognised in this
dust the existence of an alkaline salt of silex, and he obtained
a small quantity of ammonia by its combustion. He came to
the conclusion that it was formed of animal matter with very
fine fibres, impregnated with an alkaline salt, probably car-
bonate of soda, and containing some grains of quartz. After-
wards observing this sand with a more powerful microscope,
he recognised that these fibres were vegetable structures, and
that they were Conferve.
What could be the origin of this dust? Dr. Macgowan
thought that it might be formed from volcanic ashes, and that
it proceeded from the volcanoes of Japan. But the vegetable
nature of this substance is manifestly opposed to this notion.
Mr. Piddington also to account for the presence of microsco-
pical plants in the sand even offers the following supposition.
This sand and the Conferve which it contains proceed from
the interior of the continent, from the marshes and lakes
which are so numerous in certain parts of China, from whence
they are transported through the air by whirlwinds. It is
true that, during all the duration of the phenomenon, the
wind blew from the north-east. But this difficulty disappears
when the existence of upper currents of the atmosphere is
remembered, which blow in the intertropical regions in an
opposite direction to the trade winds, that is to say, from west
to east, and in the case in question from the land towards the
sea.
I do not know what the physicists will think of this theory ;
but it is evident that the meteorological phenomenon ob-
served by Mr. Bellott can be very easily explained by the
observations which form the subject of the present memoir.
If the Conferve, or, to speak more exactly, if the Alga of the
genus Trichodesmium exist in such great abundance in the
China Sea, it can readily be understood how these plants
might be carried by the winds, and sustained in the air for a
certain time under the form of clouds, and how they would
fall during a wind from the north-east, without the existence
of opposite directions of atmospheric currents being necessary ;
it is obyious also that these filaments might be impregnated
ON THE COLORATION OF THE CHINA SEA. 71
with sea-salt, so frequently drawn up, as is well known, by
the evaporation of sea-water, and thus present the reaction of
soda, without it being necessary to seek for the carbonate of
soda in the deserts of Tartary, or the lakes in the interior of
China, as Mr. Piddington suggests. If, further, the extreme
frequency of fogs in the China Sea, and their density, be
remembered, which caused the author of the history of Lord
Macartney’s embassy at the end of the last century to relate
that in the Yellow Sea it was difficult to see from one end of
the ship to the other, it is to be presumed that the phe-
nomenon observed and described by Mr. Bellott is not unfre-
quent, and that there will very probably be opportunities of
studying it anew and in a more complete manner.
It appears to me then, if not entirely demonstrated, at least
very probable, that the Trichodesmium, which colours the
waters of the China Sea to the south of the canal of Formosa,
colours those also to the north of the same canal, and that this
phenomenon is produced on a large scale. But it is pos-
sible that this phenomenon extends further still, and that it
occupies in the sea a region limited to the south by the 15°
of latitude, and to the north by the 38°, or in other words an
extent of nearly 25°. It is quite natural to suppose that the
name of Hoang-Hai ( Yellow Sea), which the Chinese give to
the sea that washes the northern shores of China and the
western shore of the peninsula of Corea, is attributable to the
existence of similar phenomena. All geographers attribute
the colour of this sea to the existence of a yellow mud carried
into its waters by the Yellow River (Hoang-He). Sir G.
Staunton, who has given us the account of Lord Macartney’s
embassy, relates that, during the voyage of the English
squadron through this sea, the vessels, although they had 6
fathoms water, carried away such a large quantity of mud that
they left a trace of yellow brown in their wake for nearly half
a mile. Now, that is precisely the appearance of the muddy
deposit which was formed in the glass where I kept the water,
the study of which forms the subject of these remarks.
All authors who have written on the geography of China,
speak of the shallowness of the Yellow Sea, and of its shoals,
formed in part of sand, and in part of the mud of which we
are speaking, the deposition of which appears to be con-
stantly going on. They cite, as an example of its rapid in-
crease, the little island of Tsung-Ming, situated at the mouth
of the Yang-tse-Kiang. This island is not marked upon the
map of China, preserved at Venice, which was drawn from
the rough draught of the celebrated traveller Marco Polo ;
whilst the island of Chusan, situated in its neighbourhood, is
72 ON THE COLORATION OF THE CHINA SEA.
to be found in it. It appears, then, probable that the island
of Tsung-Ming, formed entirely of deposits of mud and sand,
is of recent origin, and that it only existed as a shoal at the
period when Marco Polo wrote the curious recital of his voy-
ages. If, as might be thought, the mud of the Yellow Sea
were almost entirely formed by the decomposition of our
microscopical Alga, we should have a new instance of geolo-
gical formations due to microscopical organisms, the know-
ledge of which forms one of the most curious discoveries of
our times, and one of those which will contribute the most to
immortalize the name of M. Ehrenberg.
These are only conjectures, but they appear to me to possess
a certain degree of probability. I hope that our increasing
relations with China will give us before long the opportunity
of clearing up all these questions.
One more question presents itself: one of the largest rivers
in China and in the world, the Yellow River, or Hoany-Ho,
which empties its waters into the Yellow Sea, and the over-
flowing of which has played such an important part in the
bistory of China, since the earliest periods up to the present
day, is itself of a yellow colour.
I have looked, in works treating on the geography of China,
for some remarks on this coloration. The only important
ones are to be met with in the following extract from the
Geography of Asia, by Carl Ritter :—
“¢ The evident meaning of the word Hoang-Ho is that of Yellow River.
It is found already 200 years a.c.; for in the Chow King, this river is
called Uoang (yellow), emblem of the earth ; and Hoang-Ti, the God (T%)
upon the earth ; or, in other words, the Sovereign Master, one of the titles
of the emperor of China, as Lieutenant of the God of Heaven, Shang-Ti.
In the upper part of its course, as far as the place where it leaves the wall
of China, above Lautscheon, in the Kanson, the river has, like all alpine
currents, perfectly transparent waters. When it washes the country of
Ordos, it becomes muddy, of a thick yellow colour like the Tiber or the
Maine: it is from that, that it takes its Chinese name Hoang, yellow
or yellow-saffron (the missionaries call it Saffron River), as well as its
Mongolian name AKuramoran (from kara, dark, thick), under which it is
described by Marco Polo. It sometimes happens, under extraordinary
circumstances, that the water in the middle region of its course changes
its nature. It is reported in the Annals, that in the year 1295, after a
violent earthquake, the waters of the Hoang-Ho, which even at Lautcheon,
usually begin to be thick, became during three days perfectly clear and
transparent over an extent of 3007i, which was considered a happy
prestige, and caused many congratulations to be sent to the court. But
six months afterwards there was a great famine which cost the lives of
many people.”
However incomplete these documents are, they indicate the
existence of a natural phenomenon. But what is the cause of
it? Ought we to trace in it the record of microscopical yege-
ON THE LIFE AND GROWTH OF NEMATOIDS. 13
tation ? does there exist, as all geographers pretend, a relation
between the coloration of the river and the sea? [I can only
place these questions before other naturalists who may have
the opportunity of exploring these interesting districts.
Nouvelles Observations sur le developpement et la vie de Nema-
toides. Par MM. Ercorantr et Louis Vetta. (From the
Comptes Rendus, July 3, 1854.)
1. Tue embryos of the ovaviparous Nematoid worms do not
attain a complete development (that is to say are not furnished
with reproductive organs) in the locality in which they are
deposited by their mother, however favourable the conditions
for their development may appear. The ovaof the oviparous
Nematoid worms, as well as the embryos of the ovaviparous,
must quit the situation in which they have been deposited, and
live in a state of liberty during a certain period, for their com-
pletion on re-entering the bodies of animals. —
2. The ova of certain of the Nematoidea remain stationary
in the intestinal mucus of the animals in which they were
deposited by the parent; the phases of the development of
these ova removed from the mucus ensue with great rapidity
immediately they are placed in water.
3. The development of the ova of Strongylus auricularis
(Zeder) has been obtained with tolerable facility in from two
to five days, notwithstanding the complete state of putrefaction
into which the bodies of the parent worms had fallen, and
which had been collected at the same time.
4, The embryos thus produced have lived for twenty days
in the water, but without growing or developing -any repro-
ductive organs.
5. Analogous Nematoid embryos are often presented in the
little puddles of water in places where fowls are kept, and the
excrements of domestic animals are collected.
6. Certain Infusoria, referred by Ehrenberg and other natu-
ralists to the genera Vibrio and Anguillula, are nothing but
nematoid worms in the embryonic condition ; some, in fact,
belonging without doubt to the genus Oxyuris.
Such, adds the Reporter (Prince Bonaparte), are the conclu-
sions of an important memoir which the authors are hastening
to communicate to the Academy of Sciences. Naturalists, he
observes, will be struck by the analogy between the embryos
above adverted to, and other embryos commonly found in
' stagnant waters, and which have been regarded as perfect
animals. But how many of the putative genera of Infusoria,
' he asks, should be eliminated from science? Should the
74 ON THE LIFE AND GROWTH OF NEMATOIDS.
whole class of Infusoria disappear or be split up into several ?
Such is the vast field opened to the meditations of Zoologists.
In the same number of the Comptes Rendus, M. de Quatre-
fages gives extracts of letters from M. V. Beneden, commu-
nicating the new and most important results at which he had
arrived in prosecuting his researches on the Cenuri.
M. Kuchenmeister had a dog which had been fed upon the
Cenuri of a sheep at the beginning of March, and which
passed the tenioid ‘‘ Proglottis,’ developed in its intestines
from the Cenurus.
The dog was killed on the 24th May, and M. Kuchenmeister
sent some of the Trenie of the Cenurus to Louvain, Copen-
hagen, and to Giessen. They arrived at Louvain on the 27th,
contained in the white of egg, and were kept alive for eight
days, the white of egg being renewed daily.
On the same day (27th) at 9 a.m. two lambs, about two
months old, took each of them half a Proglottis ; im the after-
noon each took a whole Proglottis, and on the 3rd June one of
the lambs swallowed another whole Proglottis.
On the 13th June, the first symptoms of ‘ staggers’ showed
themselves, and on the 15th one of the lambs was killed.
The head was burning hot, the eyes red; the legs bent under
the body, the animal ran with its head against the railing, and
turned round and round in one direction.
The surface of the hemispheres of the brain above and
below presented very irregular grooves, of which there were
about adozen. At the end of these tubes were found as many
Cenurt, almost all lodged in the cortical substance of the brain.
Some were removed with the membranes. These Cenuri were
constituted of a simple vesicle of a milky white colour filled
with fluid. At that stage they presented no heads (Scolez).
They represented the hexacanth embryonic form (Proscolez),
a little more developed than it is when it quits the ovum.
Yellowish-white corpuscles were subsequently found in the
muscles and especially in the diaphragm, and which could be
distinguished very well by the naked eye among the red
muscular films; and which, as stated by M. Kuchenmeister,
are nothing more than errant individuals, and incapable of
further development.
M. Eschricht gives a similar account of his experiments
with the Proglottides sent to Copenhagen, and some interest-
ing observations on the mode of development of the Scolex
form from the simple vesicle above noticed.
From Giessen, also, Leuckiirt reports results of his experi-
ments with the same Proglottides, in all respects identical
with the above.
REVIEWS.
Lectures on Hisronoey, delivered at the Royal College of Surgeons of
England in the Session 1851-52. By Joun Quexert, Professor of
Histology. Vol. II. Bailliere. London.
In pursuance of the plan laid down in his first volume,
Professor Quekett has in this work presented us with another
instalment of the histology of organic beings. The subject
here taken up is the structure of the skeleton of plants and
invertebrate animals. Although we hope Mr. Quekettt may
be encouraged to proceed with the publication of his lectures,
we think he has very judiciously selected his present subject
as supplying a want of the physiologist and the microscopic
inquirer. The fact is, at the present day, there is little to be
added to our knowledge of the histology of the human body,
and what we really want to complete our knowledge of the
structure of organized beings, is more extended researches
upon the lower animals. Our knowledge of vegetable struc-
ture, also, is much more extensive than it is of the lower
animals. ‘To all inquirers, then, in the field of comparative
histology, this volume of Mr. Quekett’s lectures will be found
very acceptable. We cannot commend Mr. Quekett’s volume
as a comprehensive treatise upon all that is known with
regard to the hard parts of plants and invertebrate animals ;
but, like that which renders all his other writings valuable,
it bears the impress of original observation, and in all cases
the reader may rely upon the accuracy of the author. Mr.
Quekett nowhere commits himself to physiological inferences
or speculations, leaving those who follow him to form their
own opinions with regard to the functions and relations of
the parts he describes.
We shall now endeavour to give our readers an idea of the
general contents of this volume, and are enabled, through the
kindness of the publisher, to present specimens of the illus-
trations with which the work abounds. The first lecture is
devoted to some general remarks on the nature of the skeleton,
and to the skeleton of plants and sponges. The propriety of
the application of the term skeleton to any part of a plant
may, perhaps, be doubted. It is very certain that we have
no organ, or set of organs, in plants, whose homologues we
can point out in the vegetable kingdom. Every tissue in the
76 QUEKETT’S LECTURES ON HISTOLOGY.
plant, in its time, becomes hard, and to no definite combina-
tion of cells can we apply the term skeleton. Nevertheless,
the deposition of inorganic matters in the interior of the cells
of plants, in a manner resembling the process of ossification in
the animal kingdom, is a fact of great interest. Here, as in so
many other instances of vegetable structure, we see the com-
mencement of the processes which have great significance
when carried on in the animal kingdom. The following —
observations on the siliceous deposits in the cells of plants —
will illustrate this remark.
“Tn plants, as I have before stated,* inorganic salts occur in a crystal-
line form, under the name of raphides; these, however abundant, may be
regarded as accidental deposits, since it has been shown that they ean be
produced by artificial means. For the benefit of those who may not have
been present on former occasions, I will give a few examples of the dermal
siliceous skeleton of plants.
“The first specimen is a portion of the Hquisetum hyemale, fig. 2, which
has been boiled for a long time in nitric acid, and not only exhibits the
cells of the cuticle, with their serrated edges, but also longitudinal rows of
oval bodies, which are the stomata. Another good example is a portion of
the husk of the Wheat, fig. 3, in which, in addition to the cells of the
Fig. 2. Fig. 3.
CN
A i Vie
an
MCLG Ma
ana
(Pre
wt
nisi
ay
marc
ie SSS
se SS av ss 3
: Nene Ws = -
ee) . St ;
Si ae Se: 8 |
(Ss) SS. SSS
: > 4 s sa hg 7 <4
A portion of the cuticle of Equi- A portion of the husk of a grain
setum hyemale, after long boiling of Wheat.
in nitric acid.
cuticle, the spiral vessels, recognized by the coiled-up fibre, also have a
skeleton of silica. In the husk of the ice the peculiar cells of the cuticle
are seen, with bundles of woody fibre and vessels below them. The
specimen is composed entirely of silica, and there may be noticed in one
spot, where the cuticle has been torn, a series of elongated fusiform bodies,
with serrated edges, fig. 4, which are all that remain of the woody fibres,
proving that in this plant the silica is not confined to the cuticle. All
the fibres, however, are not thus serrated ; some, as represented at b, may
be seen in bundles, which are both longer and thinner than the first
mentioned, with perfectly smooth edges.
“On the upper surface of the leaf of a plant common in our gardens—
the Deutzia scabra—there are numerous stellate hairs, which much
resemble Star-fishes in miniature, fig. 5; these are covered with little
* Histological Lectures, Vol. I., p. 42.5
QUEKETT’S LECTURES ON HISTOLOGY. Vet
tubercles, each star being attached to the cuticle by its centre. If the
cuticle be removed, and boiled in nitric acid, the stellate hairs may be as
Fig. 4.
b
. » 6
: \ | c
Hi | IS
e's }
(Ss
ae IC, i
tl sic te
Pests tc .
i tls |
\! ai = |
ht Jhe |
i} HS ft \
| Sie |e
|} OBS Ip
Hl MS he
i} 2 ie is
| ~3 i i f oe a,
ie Hi fi Re
ha i 1 : 7 © =) AP
Pil AES PS
Mi | il OS il 4
i | DP IN co
Hel yb nise
) i | ai
Siliceous cuticle from
the under surface of the
leaf of Deutzia scabra.
UT’ YAN Yt
SENT UN
SULLA AAMAS
eS
7
v
Portions of woody fibres from
the husk of the Rice.
plainly seen as in the natural condition of the leaf; the crenated lines
found in all parts of the object representing the cell-walls of the cuticle.
This specimen will serve to show, which it does in a striking manner,
that silica is not confined to the cells of the cuticle, but is equally
abundant in the hairs and spines developed upon it.”
The most definite forms assumed by the hard parts of
plants, are undoubtedly those found in the Diatomacee ; but
as these have been so copiously illustrated in our pages, we
may now pass them over. The Corallines are examples of
plants having hard parts, closely resembling those to which
we do not deny the name of skeleton in animals. Professor
Quekett treats of these in his tenth lecture, with the hard parts
of Zoophytes.
“As the Lithophytes occur in the greatest abundance upon coral reefs,
where it would appear that the water is highly charged with carbonate of
lime, and, as in former times, they were considered to be Zoophytes, I
have thought proper to speak of their minute structure at this time, in
order that you may have an opportunity of comparing it with that of the
stony axis of the Corallidw, and I must therefore beg of you to bear in
mind that the comparison is of the greatest interest ; for in both instances
we have a great abundance of calcareous material which has been sepa-
rated from the water by a vital process, that in the one case being effected
by a vegetable, the other by an animal basis requiring the presence of
78 QUEKETT’S LECTURES ON HISTOLOGY.
digestive sacs, or polypes, to maintain its integrity. If a vertical section
be made of any Coralline, such for example as the C. officinalis, fig. 85, a,
we shall find that, on examination with the lowest powers, it will exhibit
two kinds of structure, both of which are essentially cellular—that on the
exterior being composed of small cells of hexagonal figure, whilst in the
interior they are more elongated, and generally of a brownish colour ; this
is especially the case if a section should include a joint. In the fresh
state the contents of the cells can be easily made out, and the central ones
are not unfrequently full of greenish granules like Chlorophylle. The
lime is not in the interior of the cells, but appears to be on the outside of
the cell-walls, which are rendered opaque and thick in consequence. A
portion of the vertical section, as seen under a power of 200 diameters, is
represented at c: the dark parts on the outside of the cells there shown are
the calcareous material ; the cells in the centre, as before noticed, are of
an elongated figure, having little or no lime about them ; these also are
exhibited at c, but the loose cells on the right side of the lower part of the
figure, formed part of the articulation, and are entirely destitute of lime.
A transverse section of one of the joints of the same Coralline, as shown at
b, is wholly made up of cells, those on the margin being rather larger
than the central ones; both have an abundance of lime around them, as
represented under a power of 200 diameters at d. The cells seen upon the
upper portion of this figure having been deprived of their lime, are in
consequence rendered very apparent. All the Corallines exhibit nearly
the same structure, the outer portions being composed of cells of hexagonal
figure, and the central of elongated ones; the former are always coated
with lime, whilst the latter are only partially so, and it is by the absence
of the lime from these cells, at particular points, that the articulations are
formed.
Fig. 85.
BT) IA %
f (Oa fy ;
ne
‘i
Ut)
,
A
Hitt
a, a vertical section of a joint of Corallina officinalis magnified 50 diameters. 6, a transverse
section of the same. ¢, a portion of the vertical section magnified 200 diameters. d, a portion
of the transverse section magnified 200 diameters,
{
:
{
QUEKETT’S LECTURES ON HISTOLOGY. 79
* A very striking specimen for exhibiting the structure of the articula-
tions is Corallina incrassata ; a vertical section of this plant is represented
by a in fig. 86. The joints, as there shown, are composed of elongated
cells, and from having no lime about them, are soft and flexible, and
even of a green colour. A magnified portion of one of the joints is shown
at B, and a transverse section at c, both are made up of cells, of which the
central ones are much elongated. That the calcareous investment of the
Lithophytes is not a mere precipitation from the water, as happens with
many of the Characee, is, I think, very evident ; for I have never yet seen
any specimen of Coralline in which the part forming the articulation was
coated over, nor has any section shown that the calcareous matter is ever
present except as a coating to the cell-walls or the spaces between them.
In the Nullipores, which have no joints, the cellular structure is of the
same nature throughout; there are no elongated cells in the centre, as in
the Corallines, consequently it would appear that the articulation is the
result of a vital action in some of these cells, whereby they are deprived
of the power of selecting a calcareous coating from the surrounding water,
their energies being entirely devoted to the function of growth.”
The lectures devoted to the Sponges contain a large number
of illustrations of the peculiar forms assumed by the siliceous,
calcareous, and cartilaginous matters of which their hard
parts are composed. As illustrative of some of the forms
assumed by spicula in sponge, we extract the following :—
*‘Other spicula are very peculiar, consisting of a central portion, or
shaft, the extremities of which are furnished with two or three branches,
each of these again subdividing into two or three still smaller branches.
These spicula interlace with each other, and produce a sort of coarse net-
work ; they are generally found in small sponges, attached to masses of
coral ; two specimens of the largest kind are shown at g g, in fig. 14. In
Fig. 86.
|
A, a vertical section of Corallina incrassata, showing the joints. 3B, a portion of one of the
rw joints. c, a transverse section of the same, both magnified 130 diameters.
80 QUEKETT’S LECTURES ON HISTOLOGY.
the same sponge were others of smaller size, and with fewer branches, as
represented by d, e, and f: to such spicula the term branched may be well
applied. Another sponge contains spicula of the form I have termed
tuberculated ; they are of large size, and covered with rows of flattened
tubercles, as shown at c, in fig. 14. The sponges to which they naturally
Fig, 14.
a, bi-curvate spiculum; 6, curved spiculum; c, tuberculated spiculum ; d, e, f. g g, branched
spicula ; h, bi-curvate anchorate spicula; 7, stellate spicula; k, 1, m, multi-radiate spicula.
belong I have never seen, but all nity specimens were obtained from the
root of an Aleyonium, Alcyonium favosum, from Sumatra, and were mixed
with grains of sand and spicula of various kinds, from other sponges. A
similar species, from a different part of the world, in the possession of a
friend, when boiled in nitric acid yielded spicula of precisely the same
kind; so much so, that when a specimen was shown me, I pronounced
from whence it came.
‘‘The siliceous remains of a small sponge, attached to the root of a
Gorgonia, Isis ochracea, I found extremely rich in peculiar forms of
spicula. The most striking was of a reticular figure, covered with minute
spines, as shown at A, in fig. 15. It forcibly reminded me of the siliceous
skeleton of the Dictyochalix pumiceus, before alluded to, and probably
may be a portion of a siliceous sponge. Other spicula occur in the same
specimen, the most remarkable of these are in the form of scales, as shown
at B, Cc, E; they may be known by their flattened figure, and by having
black dots in the centre. The edges of some of these spicula are smooth,
but in most cases they are serrated. Another very singular form of
spiculum is also found in the same sponge: it is of small size, and pin-
shaped at one extremity, and at the other is rounded, but in the centre of
the rotundity there is a short conical spine; two of these spicula are
shown at pp. Spicula of the shape termed cwrved are occasionally me
with in certain small sponges; one of these, of peculiar figure, is repre-
sented at b, in fig. 14. In another sponge from the South Seas, bi-curvate
spicula, of the shape shown at a, are very common. Mr. Shadbolt, how-
ever, has detected some still more curious spicula than these last; they
QUEKETT’S LECTURES ON HISTOLOGY. 81
are twice curved, like that shown at a, but each extremity is expanded, so
as to resemble the fluke of an anchor; to such form, the term bi-cwrvate
A, portion of the skeleton of a siliceous sponge. B,C, E, flattened spicula. pp, pin-shaped
Spicula. F, tri-radiate spicula in Grantia compressa. H, granules of sand imbedded in homy
fibre of Dysidea,
anchorate has been given ; two of these spicula are represented at h. The
sponge in which they occurred, like that of the preceding, was of small
size, and brought from the South Seas.”
From the skeletons of Sponges we pass to those of Diato-
macez, Desmidiez, Foraminifera, and Nummulites. The fol-
lowing observations on the structure of Oolitic rocks are not
perhaps generally known.
“‘ Before I leave this part of my subject, I must say a few words on the
Oolites, which were formerly supposed to consist of the remains of
organized beings of a globular figure, like the roe or eggs of fishes, but
which are usually nothing more than grains of sand, each surrounded by a
globular deposit of carbonate of lime and cemented together so as to form
masses of limestone rock. The Oolites make up no inconsiderable part of
the strata of this island; according to Ure,* they form a zone 30 miles
broad in England, and are divided by geologists into the upper, middle,
and lower Oolites. They furnish a most valuable material for archi-
tectural purposes; and are exceedingly rich in fossil remains, especially
those of reptiles and corals.
«The egg-like particles vary considerably in size, being in some cases
Imost invisible to the naked eye, whilst in others they are nearly as
large as peas; this last form of Oolite has received the name of Pisolite,
iffering, however, from the true Oolites only in the relative size of the
lobular concretions. Bath stone, Portland stone, and the slate of Stones-
eld, near Oxford, are all examples of Oolite. In fig. 52, a, is represented
portion of that form of Oolite termed Pisolite of its natural size; the
* Dict. of Arts and Manufactures, Art. Oolite.
VOL, III. G
j~.
82 QUEKETT’S LECTURES ON HISTOLOGY.
granules are }th of an inch in diameter, one of them, shown in section at
c, is magnified 12 diameters, and the concentric laminz of which it is
composed are well displayed.
“In Germany there is an Oolite in which the granules are nearly as
large as they are in the Pisolite, but the concentric laminated arrange-
ment, as shown at D, and the presence of a central nucleus, are more
strongly marked; the rock supporting the Britannia bridge is a firm
Oolite, in which the granules are remarkably small, those represented by
B being magnified 40 diameters. ‘The specimens just described are all
very compact, the granules being firmly cemented together by the cal-
careous material forming the matrix: it sometimes happens, however, in
oolitic districts, that the granules are separated from the matrix, and the
soil will be seen to be in a great measure made up of them. This is
especially the case in the neighbourhood of Bath; the soil of High Barrow
Hill, I found to be so rich in oolitic granules, that when turned up by the
plough, it appeared as if thickly sown with minute yellow seeds.”
Fig. 52.
A, Portion of oolite termed Roe-stone or Pisolite. 3B, Granules from Britannia rock, magnified
40 diameters. c, Granule of Pisolite magnified 12 diameters. pv, Granule of Oolite from
Germany, magnified 20 diameters.
After the examination of the Nummulites, &c., we come to
the great group of Zoophytes. These occupy several lectures,
and contain many valuable observations. The structure of
the skeleton of the Echinodermata is then gone into very
carefully. From this part of the work we extract the following
passage on the very curious bodies called Pedicellarieae :—
“We now come to other organs found upon the external surface of }
some of the Echinodermata, and these are the curious bodies termed
Pedicellavie. They were first described by Muller the Danish naturalist, })
and have been since investigated by Sars, a Norwegian clergyman.
Muller believed them to be parasites, whilst Dr. Sharpey and others
regard them as parts of the animal, which they undoubtedly are. Onj™
most Echini there are three kinds of Pedicellariz ; being considered asf
distinct animals, they have been termed Pedicellaria tridens, Pedicellaria
triphylla, and Pedicellaria globifera, according to their form; but what-
ever this may be, each consists of a solid part, or skeleton, and a soft
QUEKETT’S LECTURES ON HISTOLOGY. 83
transparent flesh. The skeleton, as shown in fig. 140, is composed of
three calcareous jaws, having a sharp recurved tooth at the apex and an
internal serrated edge, while the tissue surrounding the jaws is strength-
ened by minute bicurvate spicula; it is seated on a cylindrical stalk
placed in the centre of the fleshy stem.
* All these parts, when highly magnified, present the characteristic
structure of the shell of the animal; the soft tissue, on the contrary, is
transparent, contractile, and, like that of the cirrhi, is capable of con-
siderable elongation and flexion. While the Echinus is living, the
Pedicellaria are always in active movement from side to side, the jaws
are continually opening and shutting, and if a small body be placed within
them, it is held with tolerable force. They are attached to the soft fleshy
covering of the shell by a dilated base, and are not confined to any par-
ticular part of the shell, but many may be seen on the thin membrane
closing the oral aperture. The part which I have called the stalk is
somewhat dilated at each extremity ; its structure resembles that of a .
small spine, and it is stated by Sars that each stalk, like a spine, is
articulated to a minute tubercle; but of the truth of this I have never yet
been able to satisfy myself, as in all cases after their removal the soft
stem has been found to completely invest the whole of the calcareous
matter.
“If the Pedicellariz be removed from the Echinus, they will continue
in active movement for some time, and if one of them be touched with a
needle or pin, those in the neighbourhood will all bend towards the one
that has been irritated. In the Asteriade the Pedicellarie are of a
different form to those in the Echini—in the Asterias rubens, for example,
in which they are very abundant, as shown at a@ a, in fig. 109, the
calcareous jaws are like the two valves of a
mussel, as represented at b, in fig. 140, two of Fig. 140.
the edges being serrated, whilst the other two, Vg eS
which are not closely approximated, have a i NV
semicircular notch, leaving an opening between
them when in apposition, and the stem is short
and flexible, but not provided with a calcareous
axis as in the Echinide. When magnified
130 diameters, as shown at c, the characteristic
reticulated structure is exhibited. Mounted
specimens, taken from the outer surface of the
shell of Hchinus miliaris, as represented at a,
in fig. 140, show very distinctly the three jaws
and the axis or stalk, but being in a state of
contraction, the soft parts appear very short
and puckered up, so that a species of neck is
formed between the jaws and the axis; this,
however, is not the case in living specimens.
All the parts composing the skeleton of the
Pedicellariz exhibit the characteristic reticu- ‘ ; :
lated structure of the Echinodermata. ‘The atone eo Fa —
jaws are thin, flattened below, sharp above, the Pedicellariw of Asteria
and bent nearly at right angles, so as to form a Lai a eco Bs ae
tooth; the axis is about 4th of an inch in 439 diameters, =
length and dilated at both extremities, and in
shape and structure is very like the spine of an Echinus. On either side
of the jaws may be seen a row of small bicurvate spicula, somewhat
resembling those in the disc of the cirrhi of the Echinide, but differing
from them, as represented at d, in Plate XIV., fig. 19, of the first volume
qa 2
= ——
Qero Sea
Ge ESS 3 —
oe
os
38
0,9.
ABS
>
Zan |
i:
are
84 QUEKETT’S LECTURES ON HISTOLOGY.
of the ‘ Histological Catalogue,’ in having more than one hooked process
extending outwards from the point where the curved portion commences.
Under a power of 40 diameters, as shown at a, in fig. 109, numerous
Fig. 141.
Pedicellariz are distinctly visible on the
upper dermal surface of Asterias rubens, even
after having been dried ; but as the soft fleshy
stalk is very short and has no calcareous
axis, little can be seen except the jaws.
Pedicellarie also exist in the Spatangi, but
they are not so evident as in the Echini; the
principal varieties found in S. purpureus,
according to Forbes, are represented in
fig. 141.
“The Pedicellarie then, without doubt,
belong to the animal on which they are
found ; they are not parasites, but it is diffi-
cult to determine their true office; they are
probably useful in keeping the shell free from all intruders of a parasitic
nature, and may be supposed to perform an analogous function to that of
the so-called ‘ Bird’s-head processes’ of the Bryozoa.”
Pedicellarie of Spatangus
purpureus.
The Mollusca and Articulata are treated of after the
Echinodermata, The shells of the principal families of the
Mollusca are examined in detail, and many new points in
their structure described and illustrated. The Articulata are
not treated so much in detail. In these concluding lectures
we had marked some passages which we should have liked
to have transferred to our pages. We have, however, given
sufficient for our readers to form an estimate of the work,
which we are sure will be of such a kind as to lead them
to feel that it is one of great value to the microscopical
student. The illustrations are very copious, and every one
will be able to form an opinion of their excellence from those
we have given above.
Cea)
NOTES AND CORRESPONDENCE.
On the Aperture of Object-glasses.— It appears to me that your
correspondents on the subject of the aperture of object-glasses
for microscopes, and the methods of measuring the same,
have left the simple means of ascertaining the angle of aper-
ture, and taken up with such complex methods, that they
have been led into very considerable errors; and hence the
erroneous results, in my opinion, of Professor Robinson and
Mr. Wenham, particularly with regard to objects mounted in
balsam. My method of measuring the angle of aperture is,
to use the object-glass of the microscope as the objective of a
diminishing telescope, making use of a single lens of an inch
and a half focus for the eye-piece of the telescope, and then
fixing this little telescope on a divided circle with the focus
of the objective over the centre of the circle, or else by placing
two candles so that each of them may be at the extreme edge
of the field of view of the telescope. In the first case, the
angle of aperture is accurately measured by the circle, when
the image of the flame of a distant lamp or candle is made to
traverse the field of view of the telescope ; in the second case,
lines drawn from the objective to the two candles form the
angle of aperture, which may be easily measured by a com-
mon protractor. Now, by taking either of those methods,
and measuring the angle of aperture with nothing intervening,
with a slider containing an object mounted dry, or one with
an object mounted in balsam ; the results were (as they ought
to be from the laws of light) in all cases exactly the same.
Had Professor Robinson’s and Mr. Wenham’s results, with
regard to balsam-mounted objects, been correct, the two
candles placed at the extreme edge of the field of view, in a
lens of 150° of aperture, would have required to have been
brought more than four times as near together,* when the
slider with the balsam-mounted object was interposed, as
when it was not; but the candles did not require moving, but
remained at the edge of the field, whether the slider was
there or absent. Again, two sliders were taken of exactly the
same thickness, the one containing objects mounted dry, the
other objects mounted in balsam ; one of these being placed
on the stage of the microscope, was illuminated with such
* The proportion of the tangents of 75° and 40°, or half the angle of
aperture.
86 MEMORANDA.
extreme oblique light, that only one-half of the field of view
of the microscope was illuminated; the line of demarcation
between the illuminated part of the field and the black-ground
part, passing directly through the centre of the field, and this
division of the field remained constant when no slider was on
the stage, when the one with the objects mounted dry was
placed there, and when the one with the balsam-mounted
objects was used. Had the angle of aperture been at all
altered or lessened, by the interposition of the sliders, it must
instantly have become visible by the change of illumination
in the field of view of the microscope.
When I first read the account of the results obtained by
Professor Robinson and Mr. Wenham, it struck me forcibly
that they must have committed some great error; for, in
experiments with the fine linear objects, I had never been
able to see the markings on the NW. rhomboides with an angle
of less than 120°, when it was mounted dry : now, if it cannot
be seen with less than 120° when mounted dry, it would be
impossible with any angle to see the markings on it when
mounted in balsam; as an angle of 150° (according to the
results given in your Journal) would be reduced to less than
80° when employed to examine an object in balsam; but in
opposition to this, I always consider that with my 1-12th of
150° of aperture, I can see the markings on NV. rhomboides
better in those specimens which I have in balsam, than in
those which are mounted dry; and Mr. Wenham himself
stated to me that he had never seen the markings on JN.
rhomboides so well as he saw them on one of my dry speci-
mens, and yet at least they are equally as distinct on those
which I have in balsam. I should advise both Professor
Robinson and Mr. Wenham to go over their experiments
once more, and I think they will be able to determine how
they have fallen into error.—J. D. Sotiirr, Grammar-School,
Full.
Hllumination of DWlicroscopic Objects.—]| beg permission to}
insert in the next number of the ‘ Quarterly Journal of Micro-|)
scopical Science’ a short comment on Mr. Rainey’s remarks on)
my paper on microscopic illumination. I have no desire te! |
raise a controversy that must in the end be perfectly useless. |
but as Mr. Rainey misquotes my sentences, and implies tha’ |
Iam “ dogmatical,” a few words in reply may perhaps b4 |
allowed, with the understanding that I feel all due deferenc«
and respect for Mr. Rainey’s long experience as a micro}
scopical observer. ’
In the first place, where can be the “ ambiguity and com} »
MEMORANDA. 87
plexity” of my assertion, that light cannot be totally reflected
either externally or internally from refracting bodies with
parallel sides, when this is a well-known and simple optical
fact, yet Mr. Rainey again states that the total reflection he
alludes to “is supposed to be from one surface only, namely,
from that on which the rays are incident ?”
I have stated that the undulatory theory of light has very
little or nothing to do with the illumination of microscopic
objects. Mr. Rainey has cleverly turned these four short
words, and assumed that I, with great presumption, have
ventured to deny the undulatory theory being a correct one,
and then proceeds to argue and defend the case as if I had
really done so. My meaning (which will be easily under-
stood by referring to my paper) was simply this—When we
view a house, a tree, or a distant landscape, I think that it
will be admitted that there is no occasion to refer to the un-
dulatory theory to account for their visibility. The same
reasoning may also be applied to objects of minute size, as the
point of a needle, fibres of a piece of textile fabric. All these
conditions are still in existence when a magnifying lens is
used, which in effect merely serves to shorten the focus of the
eye. I cannot see the utility of attempting to endow minute
objects with exclusive properties when under the microscope ;
their illumination and visibility are simply a question of quality
and direction of light, the same as in all ordinary cases.
Mr, Rainey will, I trust, pardon me for stating that I have
not “ invented any new theories” to explain the action of my
parabolic condenser, for, to use his own words, “ these facts
allow of an easy and obvious explanation upon long-esta-
blished principles.” The whole of this implied theory rests
upon my making use of the term “ radiated light.” If Mr.
Rainey will distinctly contradict the fact, that an illuminated
atom does in reality radiate light in all directions, I shall be
better able to answer the question.
I must remonstrate against Mr. Rainey’s assertion that I
myself “ evince great dissatisfaction with the term radiated
light.” This refers to a note at the end of my paper, stating
that I had adopted the term because it was descriptive and
convenient, though perhaps not philosophically correct. Mr.
Rainey’s application of this remark only serves to show me
that this isan admission that I ought not to have made.—F. H.
WENHAM.
New Achromatic Condenser.— Having invented a new kind of
achromatic condenser of general utility, for all kinds of illu-
mination, and finding it much superior to anything of the
88 MEMORANDA.
kind I have yet seen, I feel desirous that others should avail
themselves of the advantages attendant on its application to
the microscope.
This condenser consists of two achromatic lenses, one of
four and the other of two inches focus. The four-inch lens
has an aperture of an inch and a quarter, the two-inch lens
an aperture of three-quarters of an inch; they are placed at
one inch and three quarters asunder, and the compound focus
is an inch beyond the smaller lens, This condenser is placed
below the stage of the microscope, but contrived to revolve in
the arc of a circle, so as to vary its position from perfectly
direct light, to the greatest obliquity of position that may be
required for illuminating the most delicate linen objects. Its
distance from the stage when used with the higher powers
being such, that in every position a perfectly well-defined
image, either of the flame of the lamp, or the bars of the
distant window, is depicted on the slider holding the object.
The two achromatic object-glasses, which form the condenser,
require to be accurately made, and when so formed the light
from it is most intense and of the purest kind, at the same
time producing a degree of definition superior to that of any
other method of illumination that I have seen: in addition to
this, the illumination is equally perfect for the most oblique
light; so much so, that when the axis of the condenser is
inclined to the axis of the microscope, for the most extreme
angle required with lenses of 150° of aperture, there does not
appear any diminution either of light or definition.
For microscopes furnished with this condenser no concave
mirror would be required ; and for illumination with the low
powers it is only necessary to slide the condenser further from
the object, so as to illuminate it by a broader part of the pencil
of light.
The light may be either admitted directly through the con-
denser, or reflected through it by means of a plain mirror.
By the use of this condenser I have resolved many of the
delicate test-objects with a 1-4th of an inch lens of 95° of
aperture, that would be found under ordinary illuminations
very difficult to resolve with a 1-8th object-glass and 130° of
aperture.
The two lenses used in this condenser are constructed on
the same principle as all achromatic combinations for the
microscope, their plain sides being turned towards the object,
and the wider lens of course placed next the light. A good
workman will easily contrive an elegant method of fixing the
condenser to the microscope, and it may be adapted so that
the axis of the condenser may be brought to the required angle
MEMORANDA. 89
with the axis of the microscope, by rack-and-pinion movement,
as well as varied in its distance from the stage by the same kind
of motion. It may be further observed that when the angle,
which the axis of the condenser makes with the axis of the
microscope, is greater than half the angle of aperture of the
object-glass, the black-ground illumination is produced in the
most perfect manner. Provided this condenser be attached
to the stage of the microscope by a circular arc divided into
degrees, the angle of aperture of the object-glass under all
conditions can be accurately ascertained, tor the limit of aper-
ture will be when the illuminated field is just passing into
the black-ground illumination.—J. D. Sottirr, Grammar-
School, Hull.
Microscopical Examination of Deep Soundings from the Atlantic
Ocean.—The soundings examined were as follows :—
1980 fathoms, Latitude 42° 04’ North, Longitude 29° 00’ West, July 25, 1853.
p60", Peas ay’, ., 2 FAP EP SG Sn
BAGO 155 »> 49° 56’ 30” sty 13° 30' 45” Aung.22 ,,
1900... Bie SAGO BaF ke 09° 08' ,, No date.
2000 ,, ee ee se i 22° 33’ ,, ee
As these soundings are believed to be the deepest ever
submitted to microscopic examination, and were obtained at
localities far remote from those previously noticed, they were
studied very carefully, and the following are the facts ascer-
tained :—
1. None of these soundings contain a particle of gravel,
sand, or other recognizable unorganized mineral matter.
2. They all agree in being almost entirely made up of the
calcareous shells of minute, or microscopic Foraminifere
(Polythalamia, Ehr.), among which the species of Globigerina
greatly predominate in all the specimens, while Orbulina uni-
versa, D’Orb., is in immense numbers in some of the sound-
ings, and particularly abundant in that from 1,800 fathoms.
3. They all contain a few specimens of non-parasitic or
pelagic Diatoms, among which Coscinodiscus lineatus, C. ex-
centricus, and C. radiatus of Ehrenberg, are much the most
abundant.
4, They all contain a few siliceous skeletons of Polycis-
tine, among which are several species of Haliomma, Litho-
campe, &c.
5. They all contain spicules of sponges, and a few speci-
mens of Dictyocha fibula, Ebr.
6. The above-mentioned organic bodies constitute almost
the entire mass of soundings, being mingled only with a fine
calcareous mud derived from the disintegration of the shells.
90 MEMORANDA.
7. These soundings contain no species of Foraminifera
belonging to the group of Agathistegues (Plicatilia, Ehr.), a
group which appears to be confined to shallow waters, and
which in the fossil state first appears in the tertiary, where it
abounds.
8. These soundings agree with the deep soundings off the
coast of the United States, in the presence and predominance
of species of the genus Globigerina, and in the presence of the
cosmopolite species of the Orbulina universa, D’Orb., but
they contain no traces of the Marginulina Bacheit, B., Textilaria
Atlantica, B., and other species characteristic of the soundings
of the western Atlantic.
9. Examined by chromatic polarized light, the foramini-
ferous shells in these soundings showed beautiful coloured
crosses in their cells, and the mud accompanying them also
became coloured, showing that it is not an amorphous che-
mical precipitate. It in fact can be traced, through fragments
of various sizes, to the perfect shells of the Foraminifere.
10. In the vast amount of pelagic Foraminifera, and in the
entire absence of sand, these soundings strikingly resemble
the chalk of England, as well as the calcareous marls of the
Upper Missouri, and this would seem to indicate that these
also were deep-sea deposits. The cretaceous deposits of
New Jersey present no resemblance to these soundings, and
are doubtless littoral, as stated by Prof. H. D. Rogers (Proc.
Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist. 1853, p. 297).*
11. The examination of a sounding, 175 fathoms in depth,
made in latitude 42° 43’ 30” N., longitude 50° 05’ 45’. W.
(near Bank of Newfoundland), by Lieut. Berryman, gave
results singularly different from those above stated. It proved
to be made up of quartzose sand, with a few particles of horn-
blende, and not a trace of any organic form could be detected
in it. This exceptional result is important, as it proves that
the distribution of the organic forms depends on something
else beside the depth of the water.
12. Connecting the results above mentioned with those fur-
nished by the soundings made in the western portions of the
Atlantic, it appears that, with the one exception above men-
tioned, the bottom of the North Atlantic Ocean, as far as
examined, from the depth of about 60 fathoms, to that of more
than two miles (2,000 fathoms), is literally nothing but a mass
of miscroscopic shells.
13. The examination of a large number of specimens of
ocean water taken at different depths by Lieut. Berryman, at
situations in close proximity to the places where the sound-
* American Journal of Science and Arts.
MEMORANDA, 91
ings were made, shows that even in the summer months, when
animal life is most abundant, neither the surface water, nor
that of any depth collected, contained a trace of any hard-
shelled animalcules. The animals present, some of which are
eyen now alive in the bottles, are all of a soft, perishable
nature, leaving on their decay only a light flocculent matter,
while the Foraminifere and Diatoms would have left their
hard shells if they had been present.
As the species whose shells now compose the bottom of the
Atlantic Ocean have not been found living in the surface
waters, nor in shallow water along the shore, the question
arises, Do they live on the bottom at the immense depths
where they are found, or are they borne by submarine currents
from their real habitat? Has the Gulf-stream any connection
by means of its temperature or its current. with their distribu-
tion? The determination of these and other important ques-
tions connected with this subject requires many additional
observations to be made. It is hoped that the results already
obtained will induce scientific commanders and travellers to
spare no pains in collecting deep-sea soundings. If such
materials are sent either to Lieut. Maury, U. 8. Observatory,
or to myself at West Point, N. Y., they will be thankfully
received and carefully studied.—J. W. Battey.
On some new Localities of Fossil Diatomacex.—Some interesting
specimens of fossil Diatomacez from California and Oregon
having come into my possession, I am induced to publish the
following brief notices of them, in hopes to direct the atten-
tion of travellers in those regions to those remarkable deposits,
and thus acquire more information concerning their position
and extent.
1. The first specimen of fossil Diatomacez from California,
I found among specimens of minerals collected two or three
years ago in California by Washington Chilton, Esq., of New
York. It was from Suisun Bay, 25 to 30 miles above St.
Francisco, where Mr. Chilton says a large bed of similar ma-
terial exists. It consists of a light white clay-like substance
made up entirely of fossil marine Diatoms, many species of
which are identical with species occurring fossil in the tertiary
diatomaceous deposits of Virginia and Maryland, while a
number of the species found in these latter deposits do not
occur in the California beds.
2. Ina box of minerals, collected in Oregon and California
by Lieut. Robert Williamson, of the U. 8. Topographical
Engineers, I found four specimens of fossil diatomaceous
earth, evidently from different localities, although unfortu-
92 MEMORANDA.
nately the precise locality is mentioned for but two of the spe- |
cimens. I will designate them as specimens A, B, C, and D.
Specimen A.—This is a very light white substance, made |
up of the siliceous shells of /luviatile Diatoms. The predo- |
minant species are a small Gallionella and a Discoplea, mingled —
with a few species of Epithemia, Cocconema, Gomphonema, —
and Spongiolites. This specimen was without a label, but is
believed to be the specimen referred to in the following
extract from a letter received from Lieut. Williamson :—“ You
will find some of the light white clay from Pit River, which
I spoke of to you.” This is, I believe, the same substance
which has given rise to the newspaper accounts of cliffs in
California composed of carbonate of magnesia.
Specimen B.—This is a light white chalky mass, whose
locality is not given. It consists of fluviatile species, among
which various species of Biblarium are quite abundant. The
species of this genus have been found living in Siberia, and
fossil in Oregon. Lieut. Williamson’s specimen resembles
the Oregon mass found by the U.S. Exploring Expedition
under Captain Wilkes, but presents a different group of forms
and therefore must be from a different locality. A
Specimen C._—This is also a chalk-like mass, whose precise
locality is not marked. It is composed chiefly of a minute
species of Gallionella, mingled with sieve-like discs, which at
first would be referred to the marine genus Coscinodiscus ; but
the entire absence of all other marine forms, and the presence
of several decidedly fluviatile species, make me believe that
the deposit is a fresh-water one, and careful examination of
these discs show that they are more nearly allied to the fresh-
water genus Stephanodiscus than to the marine Coscinodiscus.
Specimen D.—\s an ash-coloured earth, marked as from
near the Boiling Spring, Pit River. It is chiefly remarkable
for containing a great number of Phytolitharia, or remains of
the siliceous portions of plants, mingled however with nu-
merous minute fluviatile Diatoms.
It is hoped that travellers in California and Oregon will
keep a look-out for specimens of light white clay-like sub-
stances, and carefully marking the locality at the time of collec-
tion, send them to me for microscopic examination. Even a
minute portion sent by mail will be very acceptable,—
J. W. Battey.— American Journal of Sciences.
Powell and Lealand’s New Condenser.—In the last October
number of the ‘ Microscopical Journal,’ I observed a notice
of Powell and Lealand’s new condenser, by Dr. Inman of
Liverpool, in which he mentions his having demonstrated the
MEMORANDA. 93
markings on the Ceratoneis fasciolata (Pleurosigma fasciola),
by means of using a 1-8th-inch object-glass, which power
I presume he considered necessary for that purpose. I have
now the pleasure of stating that with the same kind of con-
denser, but with one of Powell’s recently-made 1-4th-inch
objectives, I have brought out the markings of this species in
the most satisfactory manner; also with the same power the
markings, rather difficult of detection, of the Pleurosigma
delicatulum, intermedium, nubicula and Aistuarii, and of Nitz-
schia sigmoidea, using, however, in place of the achromater,
Shadbolt’s Annular Condenser, with the light direct from the
Jamp—a method of illumination which seems to be especially
adapted to the demonstration of delicate test objects. The
same result has been obtained, but I think in a more perfect
manner, by means of the prism furnished by Powell and Lea-
land, which should be so adjusted for this purpose as to give
the object illuminated on a perfectly black field.
The above facts may be interesting to some of your readers,
should you deem them worthy of insertion in the next number
of your Journal.—E. Bieaxtey, M.D., Norwich.
New Species of Diatomacex.— The species of Diatomaceze
here described as new, together with others, were detected
either as parasites upon Alge, or entangled in mud adhering
to shells, Alga, &c., brought home by the Exploring Expe-
dition under the command of Capt. Wilkes, U.S.N.
1. Amphitetras favosa, Harvey et Bailey. Loricis tabulari-
bus; lateribus vix concayis, primario; secundario quadran-
gulo, angulis fere rectis vix productis, superfice cellulis magnis
hexagonis tessellata. Hab. Mindanao.
2. Amphitetras Wilkesii, H. et B.; loricis prismatico-tabu-
laribus, lateribus concavis, primario longitudinaliter striato-
punctato medio transversim zonato; secundario quadrangulo,
angulis productis rotundatis, superficie cellulis minutis in
lineas simplices furcatasque dispositis notata, prominentiis
jugalibus punctulatis. Hab. Puget’s Sound.
3. Aulacodiscus Oreganus, H. et B.; lorica prominentiis
redecim intramarginalibus instructa, a quibus tot radii fere
ad umbonem procurrent ; superficie preter umbonem glaberri-
mum, minute punctata iridescente. Hab. Puget’s Sound.
4. Campylodiscus Kiitzingti, H. et B.; sellaformis, late
| marginata, sulcis subquinquaginta transversis continuis curvatis
impressa. Hab. Mindanao.
5. Cocconeis parmula, H. et B.; late elliptica, linea media
longitudinali notata, utroque latere costis (vel sulcis) trans-
94 MEMORANDA.
versis magnis 10-12 irregularibus impressa; superficie trans-
versim striato-granulata. Hab. Tahiti.
6. Cocconeis rhombifera, H. et B.; late elliptica vel sub-
orbicularis, lined media oblique-longitudinali sigmoidea
areolam glabratam percurrente que apice et basi attenuata
est, et versus umbonem in rhombi formam ampliata; super-
ficie decussatim et transversim punctata. Hab. Puget’s Sound.
7. Cocconeis sulcata, H. et B.; late elliptica vel suborbicu-
laris, transversim sulcata, sulcis 30-40 arcuatis. Hab. Puget’s
Sound.
8. Hyalosira punctata, H. et B.; loricis magnis in catenas
longas co-ordinatis rectangulis subquadratis transversim inter-
rupté vittatis ; vittis medio lorice alternantibus granulatis,
alternis serie punctarum insignium ornatis. Hab. Tahiti.
9. Isthmia minima, H. et B.; zona transversali subtilissime
decussatim punctata, lateribus (secundariis) cellulis magnis
granulata. Hab. Rio Janeiro and Sooloo Sea,
10. Triceratium concavum, H. et B.; loricé lateribus valde
concavis angulis rotundatis, superficie triquetra cellulis minutis
in lineas radiantes simplices furcatasque co-ordinatis notata ;
prominentiis jugalibus punctulatis. Hab. Tahiti.
11. Triceratium gibbosum, H. et. B.; parvum, fere inflato-.
globosum, lateribus valde convexis, angulis prominentibus,
superficie ut in T. concavum notata. Hab. Tahiti.
12. Triceratium orientale, H. et B.; magnum; lateribus
convexis angulis productis obtusis, superficie triquetra cellulis
magnis hexagonis favosa. Hab. Mindanao.
13. Triceratium Wilhesii, H. et B.; lorica lateribus con-
vexiusculis angulis rotundatis, superficie ut in TJ. concavum
notata. Hab. Puget’s Sound.
APPENDIX.
14. Lagena Williamsoni, H. et B.; testa biceliulosa, cellulis
diversis, inferiore ellipsoidea longitudinaliter costata in isth-
mum infundibuliformem attenuata, et ad cellulam superiorem
glabram semi-lageneformem (vel inverse infundibuliformem)
ferruminata ; collo breviasculo recto, ore subampliato. Hab.
Mindanao,—Professor W. H. Harvey and Professor J. W.
BatLey, in Proceedings of Academy of Nat. Sciences, Phil.
Oct., 1853.
( 95)
PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.
GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY.
On the Microscopical Structure of Freshwater Marls and Lime-
stones. By H. Currron Sorsey, F.G.S.
Tue author first described the general conclusions he had arrived at
with respect to the condition of the mineral portion of calcareous
organisms, which he considered is first deposited in the form of
crystalline granules of variable size, that afterwards undergo more or
less of erystalline coalescence. In some cases this scarcely occurs at
all; but in others it does to a very considerable extent during the life
of the organism, and this produces a great difference in the character
of the particles into which it is resolved by decay. The falling to
powder that then takes place is the result of the oxidization and
removal of the organic portion, and, if no crystalline coalescence
had occurred, the shell or other body might be resolved into the very
minute, ultimate, crystalline granules ; whereas, if much coalescence
had taken place, it would break up into much larger ones, showing
in many instances its minute organic structure.
The particular forms of the particles into which the Limnzans
and Paludinz, found so plentifully in many fresh-water marls, are
resolved by decay, were then described and shown to present’such
definite characters as to render it easy to distinguish them with cer-
tainty from most others at all likely to occur in them. Soft, loose
marls can of course be investigated by mixing the particles in water ;
| but thin sections of harder limestones must be prepared, and the facts
which may be learned from them are in many respects very superior ;
and from them the relative proportion of the various constituents
may be determined with great accuracy, by carefully drawing their
outline on strong even paper with a camera lucida, and afterwards
cutting out the several portions and weighing them. This method
the author terms ‘ physical analysis.”” To fully describe all the
necessary particulars would occupy too much space for this abstract ;
but, by attending to them, very great accuracy may be attained, and
the true physical constitution of the specimen stated in a manner
quite different from what could be ascertained by chemical analysis,
which, for the purpose of these inquiries, is often greatly inferior,
though often most valuable in addition.
Proceeding to the application of these methods of research to
particular cases, some white marly deposits found in some of
the filled-up lakes of Holderness were described, and shown to be
composed of such particles as result from the decay of Bithinia
tentaculata, mixed with a small but variable proportion of such as
are derived from decayed Limnezans. In confirmation of this it
may be stated, that though no entire shells are found in them, yet
96 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.
numerous opercula of the Bithinia occur, which therefore appear to
have been less prone to decay than the shells themselves. Other
similar marls of post-tertiary age were also described, and shown to
have resulted from the decay of similar shells in variable proportion.
The soft marly portions of the Isle of Wight tertiary fresh-water
limestone were stated to be of precisely the same nature as the above,
being composed of such particles as result from the decay of Lim-
neeans, in which term are included Limneus and Planorbis. The
examination of thin sections of the harder varieties of the same
limestone also shows that they were derived from the same source,
mixed with a variable, sometimes very large proportion of fragments
of Chare ; but they have undergone more or less of crystalline
consolidation. As examples of them, two physical analyses may be
given of specimens from Binsted, which will also serve to show the
character of such analyses.
1. A hard, marly-looking specimen, with numerous cavities due
to the removal of the shelly matter of more or less entire Limnzans:
Empty cavities : : . : . | ea
Fragments of Limnzans . ° : - ,laae
Fragments of Chara ; ; Svea
Fine grains of decayed Limnzans and Chara 57°0
Peroxide of iron - . ° . : “aL
100°0
2. A hard, even-grained specimen, with no entire or large frag-
ments of shells visible to the naked eye:
Grains of Limnezan shell showing structure 5° 5 18°0
Ditto not showing ditto .. a jj Lee
Crystallized fine granules of shell, &e. : 5559 |
Quartz sand : ‘ 13°5
Very fine sand and decomposed felspar : 12-1 |
Peroxide of iron, chiefly in the substance ,
of shell fragments ; : ; : ms)
100 ‘0
In the above-described marls and limestones are found several
curious bodies, but in no great proportion ; and, on the whole, they
may be said to be derived from the decay of the fresh-water shells
found in them, and not from the deposition of chalky mud, which
has a totally different character, though the calcareous matter in the
water, from which the shells procured it, may have been derived
from the contiguous chalk. It is worthy of remark, that in these
marls no Diatomacee are found, though they abound in the clays
associated with some of them; but the examination of tufaceous
travertins has furnished the author with evidence which proves that
contact for a long period with carbonate of lime decomposes end
destroys their siliceous coverings, and therefore they could hardly
be expected to occur in such deposits as those under consideration.
ee Cn a ee Se eS | SS eee
ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS.
Aupitory Apparatus of the Cutex Mosquito. By Curis-
TOPHER Jounston, M.D. Baltimore, United States.
Iris more than presumable that creatures endowed with the
faculty of producing and voluntarily modifying distinct sounds,
should also possess organs for the apprehension and ap-
preciation either of rhythmic or irregular sonorous vibrations.
The insect tribes are precisely in this category ; the apparatus
by which is produced their song, their hum, or their chirp, is
extremely varied, and the sounds which emanate from it offer
a great diversity, even in the larger individuals, or, in other
words, so far as our own auditory organs permit our sense to
follow the rising scale. ‘That these sounds are in some way
perceived by insects themselves we have abundant evidence
in the Cricket (Gryllus), the Grasshopper (Cicada), and espe-
cially in the Bee, which responds to another individual in a
particular note.* Some insects are supposed to be silent;
while the smaller varieties, from the exceeding minuteness
of their parts, give rise to vibrations so rapid as to be in-
appreciable by our ears.
It will readily be admitted that if there be a limit for acute
sounds, corresponding with the smallest number of vibrations
capable of producing an auditory impression, there must also
be a limit to the development of an acoustic apparatus; and
“we cannot,” as Duges remarks, ‘‘ conceive of a true mcro-
scopic ear.” In the Protozoa, therefore, and possibly in the
most diminutive insects, we may abandon the idea of a cen-
tralization of the faculty of perceiving vibrations, and feel
assured that the sense of touch, generally distributed, stands
in the stead of a “sensorial speciality.”
From analogy, pursued downwards, we might expect to
discover the localization of the ‘sensorial speciality,” when
it exists, in the head of insects, or else from analogy, pursued
upwards, might we sometimes look for its seat elsewhere. In
fact we find numerous descriptions of an auditory apparatus
situated in the head of certain species, and in parts connected
with the thorax of other species; but many of the observers
have failed to convince others than themselves; and other
writers have assigned, in some instances, a different function
to the organs spoken of as being concerned in audition.
* Dugeés. Physiol, Comp.
VOL. IIL. H
98 DR. JOHNSTON, ON THE AUDITORY APPARATUS
Treviranus* describes the “organ, probably of hearing” of
the Blatta orientalis, as consisting of an oval opening, situated
immediately behind the insertion of the antenne, and covered
with a convex white pellicle, and supposes it possible that the
club-like antenna of the diurnal Lepidoptera contains an
auditory apparatus.
Ramdohrt presumes that the vesicles placed at the root of
the mazille, in bees, have a similar function.
Straus-Durckheim locates the seat of hearing in the foliated
antenne of the May-bug.
Carus‘ considers it possible “that the membrane, which, in
the Locusta viridissima, unites the antenna with the head, and
offers a tolerably extended surface, is a sort of membrana
tympani, or membrane of a kind of fenestra vestibularis, which
the movements of the antenn@ may relax or render tense.”
De Blainville,§ finding certain apertures like stigmata in
the posterior part of the head of Grasshoppers, supposes that
they lead into a cavity which appears to him an auditory ap-
paratus; and Carus admits the probability of this presumption,
‘as deriving support from the evidence of analogous facts in
the higher classes.” But Duges found the “apertures” to be
simply “depressions ;” and he denies positively the existence
of communicating trachee and vesicles, and also of an acces-
sory nervous expansion.
L. W. Clarke|| describes at the base of the antenne of
Carabus nemoralis, an auditory apparatus composed of an
auricle, an internal and external auditory canal, a tympanum,
and a Jabyrinth.{
Newport** believes that the antenne serve as well for touch |
as hearing.
Sieboldt{ opposes the opinion of Treviranus concerning the
two white convex plates existing at the base of the antenne
of Blatta orientalis, and declares them to be simply rudi-
mentary accessory eyes. The same author gives an account
of an auditory apparatus belonging to the Acridide, consisting
of a tympanum, and a membranous labyrinth supplied with
an auditory nerve proceeding from the third thoracic ganglion,
The Locustide and Achetide have similar organs situated
. Cited in Traité Elem, d’Anat. comp. C.G. Carus. Paris, 1835.
§ Ayeem- t Idem., loc. cit.
i Mant. comp. des Animaux artic. Paris, 1828.
, &\ sazine of Nat. Hist. 1838.
44 But dp sf none of which, according to Siebold, is there the least trace.—
Hm aad e1
tt ‘ Tansa tgctions of Entom. Society, II. *
] ee ' Manuel d’Anatomie comparée. Artic. par M. C. Th. v.
- Pari
‘, 1850,
OF THE CULEX MOSQUITO. 99
in their anterior legs immediately below the coxo-tibial arti-
culation. These organs are composed of a fossa on each
side, or of two, more or less capacious, cavities (auditory
capsules) with orifices opening forwards ; and each having on
the inner side an elongated oval tympanum; and the two
tympana are in close contact with a dilatation of the large
tracheal tube of the leg, whose upper extremity is in con-
nexion with an acoustic nerve which derives its origin from
the first thoracic ganglion. A neighbouring portion of the
tracheal system he supposes to serve the purpose of a Eus-
tachian tube.
And finally, J. Miiller, as quoted by Carus,* regards as
organs of hearing “two depressions or pits, in Gryllus
hieroglyphicus, situated, one on each side, of the metathoraz,
on the dorsal aspect, above the attachment of the last pair of
legs upon and closed by a delicate membrane, behind which
there exists a vesicle, filled with liquid, which receives a nerve
from the third thoracic ganglion.”
While bearing in mind the difference between feeling a
noise and perceiving a sonorous vibration, we may safely assume
with Carus—for a very great number of insects, at least—that
whenever true auditory organs are developed in them, their
seat is to be found in the neighbourhood of the antenne.
That these parts themselves are, in some instances, concerned
in collecting and transmitting sonorous vibrations, we hold as
established by the observations we have made particularly
upon Culex mosquito; while, we believe, as Newport has as-
serted in general terms, that they serve also as tactile organs.
The male mosquito differs considerably, as is well known, from
the female; his body being smaller and of a darker colour, and
is head furnished with antenne and palpi in a state of greater
evelopment. (Plate VI.. fig. 1.) Notwithstanding the fitness
f his organs for predatory purposes he is timid, seldom enter-
ing dwellings or annoying man, but restricts himself to damp
nd foul places, especially sinks and privies. The female, on
he other hand, gives greater extension to her flight, and, attack-
ng our race, is the occasion of no inconsiderable disturbance
nd vexation during the summer and autumn months.
The head of the male mosquito, about 0°67 mm. wide, is
rovided with lunate eyes, between which in front superiorly
re found two pyriform capsules nearly touching each other,
nd having implanted into them the very remarkable antennae.
The capsule, measuring about 0-21 mm., is composed of a
orny substance, and is attached posteriorly by its pedicle,
hile anteriorly it rests upon a horny ring, united with its
eT LOC. Ctl.
nz
100 DR. JOHNSTON, ON THE AUDITORY APPARATUS
fellow by a transverse fenestrated band, and to which it is
joined by a thin elastic membrane. Externally it has a rounded
form, but internally it resembles a certain sort of lamp shade
with a constriction near its middle; and between this inner
cup and outer globe there exists a space, except at the bottom
or proximal end, where both are united.
The antenne@ are of nearly equal length in the male and the
female.
In the male the antenna is about 1:75 mm. in length, and
consists of fourteen joints, twelve short and nearly equal, and
two long and equal, terminal ones, the latter measuring
(together) 0-70 mm. Each of the shorter joints has a fene-
strated skeleton with an external investment, and terminates
simply posteriorly, but is encircled anteriorly with about forty
papille, upon which are implanted long and stiff hairs, the
proximal sets being about 0°79 mm. and the distal ones
0:70 mm. in length; and it is beset with minute bristles in
front of each whorl.
The two last joints have each a whorl of about twenty short
hairs near the base.
In the female the joints are nearly equal, number but thirteen,
and have each a whorl of about a dozen small hairs around
the base. Here, as well as in the male, the parts of the an-
tenne enjoy a limited motion upon each other, except the
basal joint, which, being fixed, moves with the capsule upon
which it is implanted, :
The space between the inner and outer walls of the capsule,
which we term confidently the auditory capsule, is filled with
a fluid of moderate consistency, opalescent, and containing |
minute spherical corpuscles, and which probably bears the
same relation to the nerve as does the lymph in the scale of
the cochlea of higher animals. The nerve ztself, of the antenna,
proceeds from the first or cerebral ganglion, advances towards
the pedicle of the capsule in company with the large trachea
which sends its ramifications throughout the entire apparatus,
and, penetrating the pedicle, its filaments divide into two
portions. The central threads continue forwards into the
antenna and are lost there; the peripheral ones, on the con-
trary, radiate outwards in every direction, enter the capsular
space, and are lodged for more than half their length in sulci |
wrought in the inner wall or cup of the capsule.
In the female the disposition of parts is obseryed to be
nearly the same, excepting that the capsule is smaller, and that
the last distal antennal joint is rudimental,
The proboscis does not differ materially in the two sexes ;
but the palpi, although consisting in both instances of the
oe was TS.
i ~e . -— See ac ae
a *< >
OF THE CULEX MOSQUITO. 101
same number of pieces, are very unlike. In the female they
are extremely short, but in the male attain the length of
2°73 mm.; while the proboscis measures but 2°16 mm.
They are curved upwards at the extremity.
If an organ of hearing, similar to that described by Trevir-
anus as belonging to the Blatta orientalis, exist in the head
of the Mosquito, the tympanum must be of exquisitely minute
proportions, because the head, which has a diameter of only
0-67 mm., is almost entirely occupied by the corneal plaques,
the capsules, and the attachments of the neck and of the
buccal apparatus. The membrana tympani must therefore
be so small as to preclude the idea of its being put in vibra-
tion by any sounds other than those infinitely more acute
than are produced by the insect itself, and the use of such an
organ for the purposes of inter-communication must be highly
problematical. But no trace of such a disposition is to be
found in the head, nor very certainly, also, in the body; and
we are obliged to look for some organ which may answer the
requirements of an effective auditory apparatus.
The position of the capsules strikes us as extremely favour-
able for the performance of the function which we assign to
them; besides which there present themselves in the same
light the anatomical arrangement of the capsules, the disposi-
tion and lodgment of the nerves, the fitness of the expanded
whorls for receiving, and of the jointed antenne fixed by the
immovable basal joint for transmitting vibrations created by
sonorous modulations. The intra-capsular fluid is impressed
by the shock, the expanded nerve appreciates the effect of the
sound, and the animal may judge of the intensity, or distance,
of the source of sound, by the quantity of the impression: of
the pitch, or quality, by the consonance of particular whorls
of the stiff hairs, according to their lengths; and of the direc-
tion in which the modulations travel, by the manner in which
they strike upon the antenne, or may be made to meet either
antenna, in consequence of an opposite movement of that part.
That the male should be endowed with superior acuteness
of the sense of hearing appears from the fact, that he must
seek the female for sexual union either in the dim twilight,
or in the dark night, when nothing save her sharp humming
noise can serve him as a guide. The necessity for an equal
perfection of hearing does not exist in the female; and,
accordingly, we find that the organs of the one attain to a
development which the others never reach. In these views
we believe ourselves to be borne out by direct experiment,
in connexion with which we may allude to the greater diffi-
culty of catching the male Mosquito.
102 DR. WEBE, ON THE NOCTILUCA MILIARIS.
In the course of our observations we have arrived at the
conclusion, that the antenne serve, to a considerable oyen
as organs of touch in the female; for the palpi are extremely
short, while the antennze are very movable, and nearly equal
the proboscis in length. In the male, however, the length and
perfect development of the palpi would lead us to look for the
seat of the tactile sense elsewhere; and, in fact, we find the
two apical antennal joints to be long, movable, and com-
paratively free from hairs; and the relative motion of the
remaining joints very much more limited.
On the Nocrituca Miniaris. By Woopvuam Wess, M.D.,
Lowestoft.
Mr. Huxtey’s interesting paper in the last number of the
Journal on the structure on the Noctiluca miliaris, led me to
review a few notes | had by me upon the subject, and to
follow up certain points of inquiry which he indicated,
Unfortunately, Iam not able to complete the history of
this anomalous creature, though it has been under continuous
examination since last July. It may, however, be worth
while to record the few steps made in advance of the existing
accounts, in order to save other observers some labour, and to
serve as a sequel to Mr. Huxley's more elaborate communi-
cation.
The extraordinary prevalence of this creature during the
present season seems to have excited general attention, and it
was stated by Mr. By erly, of Liv erpool, at the last meeting of
the British Association, that in consequence of their numbers
the waters acquired a rose colour. This was not the case on
the eastern coast, though the unusually brilliant iridescence
of the water has been the subject of remark. From the month
of July to the beginning of December, there has been no
difficulty in obtaining an uninterrupted supply of specimens,
and during that period the water has shown incessant alter-
nations of "luminosity and darkness, These conditions, there-
fore, depend not merely upon the presence or absence of the
animal, but on some peculiar conditions of its organs, or the
inedia acting upon them.
As a caution to those who may undertake the further exa-
mination, | may state that the buoyancy of the Doctzluca is
such as to bring it to the surface of tranquil water without
any apparent eflort ; and that the best way to effect its capture
is, not as is most frequen done, to use the muslin net, by
which means the greater finwibar of the creatures are lost or
ae a oo
| — lt — oe ——— ee
DR. WEBB, ON THE NOCTILUCA MILIARIS, 103
destroyed, but to skim the top, and especially those parts
near the sides of the vessel in which the water has been
standing. If removed in this way and kept by themselves in
a test-tube, they may be preserved for two or three weeks
without a fresh supply of water. Even at the end of that
time, if they die, it does not appear to be from having reached
the aie term of their existence, but as the Seals of some
accidental cause ; they will not, however, bear carriage to any
great distance in closed vessels.
The following paragraphs refer to various matters, accord-
ing to the order in which they occur in Mr. Huxley’s paper.
The groove or depression on the body is divided into two
portions by a fold of the external membrane stretching across
between the protuberant and rounded masses which form its
boundaries. It ends posteriorly in an acute angle, outlined
by the bifurcation of a more superficial marking or channel.
The stein of this forked structure is of a rigid horny nature,
and is connected at the point of division with a reduplication
of the internal membrane, or a prolongation of the central
visceral mass. I have not been able at any time to detect an
aperture at this spot, but there is some reason to believe there
may be one. When the ruptured integument collapses, this
straight spine may still be seen retaining its rigidity, and is
the centre about which the folds arrange themselves.
The investing membrane distinctly consists of two layers.
The external one is minutely reticulated, and has somewhat
the appearance of pavement epithelium ona small scale. The
interspaces contain granular matter. With this exception it
is perfectly sraooth, and I can find no trace of cilia. Illumi-
nated by a parabolic condenser, the whole surface is seen
studded with brilliant glittering points, apparently at the
junction of the reticulations of the internal fibres with the
integument. I have never been able to develope luminosity
under the microscope.
The internal layer is at all points in union with the whole
system of reticulations spreading from the central organs.
This was made manifest by the action of indigo. None of
the colouring matter entered the body, but death ensued in
about an hour’s time. Irregular jerking movements took
place, the oral aperture and parts about it became distorted,
though the motions of the cz/ium and tentacle still continued.
The internal fibrous reticulations gradually contracted, drawing
the “ vacuoles” together, and with them the inner membrane:
This was detached without rupture, but after a time fell into
folds, which so included the other structures as to have the
look of a wrinkled tube with a series of pouches ending in a
104 DR. WEBB, ON THE NOCTILUCA MILIARIS.
arger membranous sac. The external layer distended by
degrees till it suddenly burst. I should mention that a new
supply of water had been given before most of these changes
happened. I have also been successful in separating the two
layers mechanically, by means of pressure slowly and steadily
applied to the animal under the screw compressor. The whole
internal network of fibrous tissue, with the manner in which
it invests the so-called “ vacuoles,” is most beautifully demon-
strated by the effect of iodine. The creature dies suddenly
without collapsing. The progress of the fluid can be traced
along the fibres into the minutest meshes ; and there remains
for a long time a transparent ball, traversed in every direction
by the brown fibres, beaded with the vacuoles and granules,
and having every reticulation on the surface sharply defined.
Iam inclined to regard the tentacle as tubular, with an
orifice on the inner side at its base. At any rate, I have seen
the colour, when iodine has been used, proceed slowly towards
the distal extremity ; and under the influence of indigo poi-
soning, the granular matter of which the striation consists,
has been disarranged, scattered up and down the interior of
the organ, and in the end has aggregated together in small
globules without much impairing the power of motion. I
recognize no trace of striation in the external membrane ; and
when seen in the normal condition by transmitted light, there
is always a clear substance surrounding the dark centre. This
gives the i impression of being made up of a series of discs or
rings. The tentacle is extremely brittle, and breaks with a short
fracture. I have never perceived any tendency to restoration
of the lost part, nor any independent movement in the de-
tached fragment. The stump continues active, and readily
comes off at the base. The point is a little flattened. When
the animal is killed in such a manner that this organ has free
play, it always shows a disposition to coil up spirally. The
cilium may be found in every instance in which it is looked
for with a quarter-inch glass,* or even with the half-inch, pro-
vided the creature is left at perfect liberty, and is nade to
move, if not in the right position. It often remains at rest
for some time, and then from above looks like a small bright
spot at the base of the “tooth;” or it may occasionally be
seen extended over the S-shaped ridge, or even the base of
the tentacle. 1 have many times detected it in motion from
behind through the intervening substance of the body; and
have noticed it vibrating vigorously long after rupture of the
integument and partial discharge of the contents. A Chara
* T use a quarter-inch glass of Pillischer’s, or a 1-5th of Smith and
Beck’s make.
DR. WEBB, ON THE NOCTILUCA MILIARIS. 105
trough or shallow concave cell is most convenient for obser-
vations on this part, as the animal swims close to the under
surface of the thin glass, and may be made to turn in any
direction.
The ridge and tooth can scarcely be overlooked. This
ridge is of fibrous structure, and may sometimes be observed
in regular contractile action. Corresponding with these con-
tractions, I have witnessed a to-and-fro motion of the tooth,
as though working on an axis, in a direction towards the base
of the tentacle. A good illustration of this performance is
given by bending the fore and middle fingers and flexing
them on the palm of the hand. The tooth when seen in profile
has the appearance of a conical papilla (Plate VI., fig. 6),
or with a slight change in the point of view, of a hooked
process terminating in a sharp nib (figs. 8, 9). It readily
yields to pressure, and I have seen it become shrivelled up
from the use of astringents, before motion ceased in the cilium
and tentacle.
The “vacuoles” are alimentary sacs. When empty, they
are usually contracted and grouped near the membranous tube
which leads from the oral aperture, a few only being scattered
among the internal reticulations. Their situation is constantly
changing, sometimes with a steady advance, at others by jerks ;
while the fibrous meshes with which they are connected
undergo a relative alteration in shape. Gentle pressure will
occasionally expel them through the oral or anal aperture ;
but I have seen them spontaneously ejected without rupture,
and float away from the body. In one instance where this
occurred, and where the contents consisted of granular matter,
fragments of Diatomacee, and particles of sand, the sac re-
mained entire for some time. When it burst, the membrane
doubled up, the contents escaped, and the bits of silica were
characteristically shown with the polariscope. I have never
known these gastric pouches, or alimentary substances to be
voided by any other outlet than those connected with the
central depression.
The position of the second aperture, or anus, communica-
ting with the gastric pouch, appears to me to be at the pos-
| terior end of this depression, on the side opposite to the
| tooth, and somewhat further back (fig. 7).
The mode of reproduction is at present far from being
satisfactorily made out. I have never met with a double in-
dividual, but on one occasion witnessed the process of division,
without, however, noting any proof of its connection with
that of fissiparous multiplication. Contractions of the in-
tegument took place in such a way as to cut off a globular
106 DR. REDFERN, ON THE TORBANEHILL
mass from the body, about one-fourth of the whole. The two
portions afterwards retained their form with a puckered mark
at the point of separation. The nucleus was not involved in
this operation, which occupied about two hours.
It is also a matter of every-day observation, that when the
body has been torn and nearly all the contents have been lost,
the animal continues to live in a deformed state, if the nucleus
and central parts are left together. They acquire a new in-
vestment, or a portion of the original integument gathers up
round them, while the ragged shreds are cast off.
When several of these creatures have been kept for some
time in still water, it is not unusual to find two of them in
apposition; but I have never discovered any indications of
conjunction, and look upon the condition as one of mere
adhesion. It may, however, have given rise to the mention
of double individuals, as the adhesion is tolerably firm, It
may easily be broken up without injury to either animal.
The nucleus may be demonstrated as a nucleated vesicle,
sometimes solitary, more frequently with several similar, but
smaller nucleated vesicles grouped around it. By careful
manipulation it may be removed from the other structures.
As it floats about, the true form is displayed. Seen in one
position, you have a view of a round vesicle with a smaller
vesicle attached to it by a sort of hour-glass contraction; in
another, of a round vesicle with a central spot, a nucleated
cell. :
I have found the nucleus enclosed in a second membranous
envelope, with a granular yelk-like fluid, which could be seen
pouring out when the membrane gave way (fig. 10).
Beyond this point f have not been able to trace the nucleus.
a
On the Narure of the Torspaneuitt and other Varieties of}
Coat. By Peter Redfern, M.D., Lond., Lecturer on An-
atomy and Physiology, and on Histology, in the University
of Aberdeen,
(Read at the Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement fj,
of Science at Liverpool, 1854.)
paper, under the name of coal, are such as, known commonly as
coal, consist of compressed and chemically altered vegetable
matter, associated with more or less of earthy substances, ana
capable of being used as fuel.
Though I shall confine myself chiefly to the structural cha-
racters which coals present, I shall refer briefly to their chiei}
AND OTHER VARIETIES OF COAL. 107
eological and chemical relations ; for it is my firm conviction,
hat if the geological, chemical, and microscopical characters
f such substances do not mutually illustrate and confirm
ach other, the truth has not been arrived at.
It is my chief object to bring forward a number of facts,
hich I have arrived at after a prolonged investigation, and
o detail the method which I have followed in such a way as
enable every reader to repeat my observations, and either
o confirm or disprove them.
I have taken the greatest care to obtain authentic speci-
nens, if possible, far different sources, and I have examined
one of the perfect authenticity of which I had not the most
vertain evidence. I have carefully examined complete sec-
tons of the beds of coal of most importance in the inquiry.
have broken up these masses, and examined the beds with
he naked eye from top to bottom. In the case of the Tor-
banehill coal I have made thin sections horizontally, and in
wo directions vertically, at distances of a few inches through
he thickness of the bed, to determine the structure of the
hole; and I have likewise examined the coals when reduced
o powder and coke. I have examined upwards of 200 sec-
ions, and other microscopical preparations of different coals,
fof which 180 were prepared by my own hand from speci-
fmens, the perfect authenticity of which I! can easily prove.
n the whole examination I have endeavoured to make out
very fact as it presented itself, and to adopt no explanation
fot consistent with the whole, and with the evidence derived
}irom every means of observation. Yet I have no wish that
nything which I may advance should be taken for granted.
aim prepared to prove every statement of facts by the pre-
arations on which my observations were made.
The Torbanehill coal, which has recently excited so much
ttention, owing to the well-known jury trial, Gillespie v.
ussel, is found in the coal-measures of the lands of Tor-
anehill, in the parish of Bathgate, county Linlithgow. It
forms a bed, varying in thickness from 1 foot 4 inches to
foot 11 inches, becoming darker in colour, coarser in tex-
ilture, and less valuable as a gas coal, at Bathvale, on the west
f the lands of Boghead; and very much coarser, and less
aluable still, at Barbachlaw, about half a mile to the north-
est of Boghead, where the seam is worked by the Monk-
land’s ion Company,
The position of the bed does not differ from that of a bed
f coal. It has a thin layer of cement-stone immediately
bove it, varying in thickness from half an inch to two inches,
108 DR. REDFERN, ON THE TORBANEHILL
atin s Witahs +
Above that is a bed of shale, varying in thickness up to
four feet. Immediately below the bed is a stratum of —
fire-clay, with occasional ironstone-balls, about two inches
thick, and very full of the impressions of plants. Under that
isa layer of good bright-looking coal of six inches in thick-
ness. Occasionally a thin layer of common coal runs through
the cannel, and is variable in thickness. It appears, there-
fore, that the bed is in a similar geological position to that of
other cannel coals.
In working the coal, it is got in rhomboidal blocks, ex-—
tending through the whole thickness of the seam, and mea-—
suring from six to sixteen inches in breadth, and from five to
fifteen in depth (back). The fracture perpendicular to the
plane of stratification is conchoidal, that parallel to the same
plane is slaty. The colour is of a light brown, and the streak
yellow and dull in the upper part of the seam; in the lower
part the colour is, in many specimens, as dark and lustrous as
that of many other cannels, and the streak varies in a like
proportion.
When viewed chemically (I now quote from the evidence
of Dr. George Wilson, one of the pursuer’s witnesses at the
late jury trial), ‘There is no ingredient in common coal that
is not at all present in the Torbane mineral. There is no}
ingredient in Torbane mineral that is entirely absent from all
known coals.”
But there are some chemical peculiarities. The quantity
of earthy matter is large, 18 per cent. ; but many well-known
coals contain a still larger quantity. The fixed carbon is.
small in quantity, but analyses of other coals have shown less ;
and the total carbon is quite equal to that in other cannel
coals—654 per cent. (Hoffman and Stenhouse). The hydro-
gen is in very large quantity (74 to 9 per cent.), but even in
this particular the Methill coal approaches very closely ; for.
Professor Anderson found 7:54 per cent. in it.
The following tables, copied from a paper by my esteemed
friend Dr. Fyfe, published by the Royal Scottish Society of]
Arts, will be found of great value in comparing the Torbane-|
hill with other coals. To the whole of that paper I may refer}
as a statement of a mass of facts, unquestionably proving that}}!
the 'Torbanehill mineral is similar in every chemical relation}!
to other coals. th
On this table Dr, Fyfe remarks: “That the proportion off
volatile matter of the coals varies from about 37 to nearly 67 of
per cent. ; of course the coke varies from about 33 to 63. Thejf
proportion of fixed carbon and of ash in the coke also varies ;
AND OTHER VARIETIES OF COAL. 109
he former being from about 18 to 52, the ash from 3:6 to
ao.
ABLE of the Proportions of Volatile Matter, of Coke, of Fixed Carbon,
and of Ash, in 100 parts of different Coals, and in the Torbane Mineral.
Pe ll In ea of @hika: | In puckeae of
Specific | d |
c. cannel, Gravity. es, kao
h. household. Raeatils Coke. |Carbon.| Ash. Carbon.| Ash.
atter. | |
1
Wigan, Ince Hall. c. | 1255 | 37°6 | 62°4 | 56°0 | 6°4 | 89-7 | 10°3
o a e.| .. | 37°7 | 62°3 | 50°5 | 11°8 | 81-0 | 19-0
Torbane household . ate 38°3 | 61°7 | 52°5 9°2 | 85°0 | 15:0
Manneil..-..,. .« ce.| .. | 44°4] 55°6 | 44°4 | 11°2 | 80-0 | 20-0
Donibristle fee esl 1237 | 46°5 |) 53° 5. ).4929 4°3 | 92:0 8:0
Capledrae (2nd) . c. | 1310 | 47°2 | 52°8 | 24-3 | 28°5 | 46-0 | 54:0
Knightswood . . ec. : 47°5 | 52°5 | 48°5 | 4°0 | 92-4] 7°6
Balbardie ye . 43°6 | 56°4 | 29°8 | 26°6 | 52°8 | 47°2
Lochgellie pee 5. C, a 50°4 | 49°6 | 36°2 | 13°4 | 73°0 | 27°0
Disco Island - h. | 1884 | 50°6 | 49°4 | 39°6 9°8.| 80°0 | 20°0
*Monkland. . . ce. - 54°2 | 45°8 | 39°5 6°3 | 86°2 | 13°8
Lesmahago Cah ae 724.) 42°6 | 39° |) 3:6) 915 185
a Boe Ce fess | 58°S.| Al 7") 35°3.| 6-4. | 84°6 | 1594
LGN bet es RT On ae 59 0 | 41°0 | 18*5 | 22-5 | 45°0 | 55-0
Capledrae (Ist) . c¢. | 1238 | 59°1 | 40°9 | 33°2 | 7°7 | 18°8 | 81:2
Wemyss ee CRE | iris 66°6 | 33°4 | 21°9 | 11°5 | 65°5 | 34°5
SROCHANGIN cece) 3 C. . 6629 i-3o20 st Lb Gull U7 b i Aye peo
s Ah bis c. ° 68-1 | 31°9 | 14°5 | 17°4 | 45°4 | 54°6
rs a e. 2 68°4 | 31°6 8°6 23°0 |) 27°2)))' 7258
:s ~ ey (CS s 69°0 |} 31°0 9°3 |. 21°7 | 30°0 | '70°0
-* 2 €. * 69°8) | 30°22 | I3<1 | Tel | 43°83 | 5627
Z > eae 69°8 | 30°2 | 6:6 | 23-2 | 29°8 | 70:2
os Ant ie oo 70°1 DOE kG rc 12°8 | 56°0 | 44°0
» average. «| 1199 | 68-8 | 31°2 | 11-9 | 18-3 | 38°4 | 61°6
Treein Torbane. . Hd 68-8 | 81°2 | 10°8 | 26°4 | 34°6 | 65°4
“
matophora, are made still more distinct by
placing stop 1 as marked in the portion A of the diagram.
~
h
234 MEMORANDA.
Cheap Microscopes he President of the Microscopical
Society in his late address drew attention to the general im-
pression, that in order to make good observations it was
necessary to have a high-priced microscope. He denied this,
and stated his conviction that all the arrangements necessary
for accurate investigation might be obtained at a very much
lower price, than is given for the very perfect and beautiful
apparatus of our first makers. The drawback on purchasing
cheap microscopes is the want of knowledge of the properties
of good glasses on the part of begimers. As the use of the
microscope is now becoming a matter of educational import-
ance, and as in order that it may be used by all, it must be sold
at a price to be attained by all and at the same time a good
instrument insured, the Society of Arts has offered two prizes
for the best microscopes at stated prices. We have much
pleasure in drawing attention to the followmg announcement
of this Society. ‘The Council has determined to offer special
prizes—
1. For a School Microscope, to be sold to the public at a
price not exceeding 10s, 6d.—Prize— The Society's Medal.
To be a simple microscope, furnished with powers as low
as those of a pocket-magnifier, for the purpose of observing
flowers, insects, &c., without dissection. The lenses should
range from two inches to 1-8th of an inch; the focal adjust-
ment to be by rack-work, extending sufficiently above the
stage to allow a thick object to be brought under the lowest
power. It should be furnished with plyers, a concave mirror,
and an illuminating lens, also a live box, or, instead of it, two
or three glass cells of different depths, a few slips of common
glass, and a few pieces of thin glass for covers.
Makers are requested to state at what additional price
they will undertake to supply a doublet of 1-16th or 1-20th
of an inch, applicable to any instrument as above described.
2. For a Teacher's or Student’s Microscope, to be sold to
the public at a price not exceeding 3/. 3s.—Prize— The
Society's Medal.
To be a compound Achromatic Microscope, with two eye-
pieces and two object-glasses, one magnifying 120 diameters
with the lower eye-piece, the other magnifying 25 diameters
with the lower eye-piece. It should be furnished with a dia-
phragm, having various-sized openings, mirror, side illumi-
nator, live box, forceps stage and case.
In the event of the medal being awarded, the Council is
prepared to take 100 of the smaller and 50 of the larger micro-
scopes, at the trade discount.
MEMORANDA. 235
The instruments for which the medals shall have been
awarded will be retained by the Society as standards ; and the
successful competitors must enter into a guarantee to supply
their microscopes at the foregoing prices, and of equal quality
with those retained, and to change them if not found satis-
factory.
The Council, in all cases, expressly reserves the power of
withholding the premium or medal altogether, should the
essays and articles sent in competition not be considered
worthy of reward.
The essays and articles intended for competition must be
delivered, addressed to the Secretary, at the Society’s house,
free of expense, on or before the 1st of May, 1855.
Cilia in Diatomacex.— During my examinations, near the end
of the last summer, of the ciliary motion in the Desmidiea, I
frequently noticed in many of the more commonly met with
forms of the Diatomacee a similar arrangement of cilia. I
have attentively watched Diatomacee moving slowly and
steadily across the field of the microscope, when upon meet-
ing with any obstacle to their progress they have changed
their course, or pushed the obstruction aside, as if conscious
of an impediment. I have repeatedly satisfied myself that
their motive power is derived from cilia, arranged around
openings at either end ; insome
around central openings, which
with those cilia at the ends act
as paddles or propellers. This
arrangement is indicated merely
in the very rough sketch I made
at the time, as I then antici-
pated other opportunities for
the purpose of rendering them
more perfect. Before I had
made out the cilia, I thought it very remarkable to see these
little bodies moving along, and steering their course by a
power which they were evidently able to call into action and
restrain at will, I was therefore agreeably surprised to find
this motive power due to cilia. The position assigned to the
cilia, it will be observed, differs much from the ciliary pro-
cesses found in the Desmidiew, and which is only, I believe,
a physical force acting independently of any controlling power ;
on the contrary, with the Diatomacee their cilia appear to
act in obedience to some will, for intervals of rest and motion
are most clearly to be distinguished ; and this knowledge
would naturally induce a doubt, or cause one to inquire once
236 MEMORANDA.
more, whether the Diatomaceew are properly classed in the
vegetable kingdom ?
I would take this opportunity of impressing upon the atten-
tion of those microscopists, who wish to examine for them-
selves the ciliary movements of the lower forms of life, the
necessity of using only very shallow cells for the purpose, say
of from 1-50th to 1-100th of an inch deep, and glass covers of
from 1-150th to 1-250th of an inch thick. The objective
must be 1-4th or 1-8th, with a good eye-piece; the objects
themselves should be carefully illuminated, by using for the
purpose a parabolic reflector, or a Gillett’s condenses and the
examination be conducted during very bright weather or in
sunlight.—J. Hoee.
New Mode of Eiemination—Your obliging insertion in the
last number of the ‘Microscopical Journal,’ of my note on
‘ Closterium,* tempts me to send you another Memorandum,
in the hope! it may be found worthy of a similar corner in
your next.
Those who, like myself, do not happen to possess either a
Wenham’s or Shadbolt’s parabolic condenser, will find the
following plan an efficient substitute, perhaps even superior
to those instruments for defining certain structures.
With a steady clear lamp- light throw a strong background
illumination, according to the method of ¢heRev. Mia Reade,
rendered more intense by using a bull’s-eye lens placed near,
and with its convexity toward the light, and a smaller con-
densing lens (on a separate stand), focusing the bright light
on the object beneath the stage, and at an angle beyond the
range of the angular aperture of the objective. Then let the
rays which ae passed through the slide be received above
the stage, on either a side- reflector or a Lieberkuhn, placed
so as to reflect them on the object from the side opposite
to the light. A brilliant illumination on a dark or black
ground is thus produced, which displays many objects with
extreme distinctness and beauty, and, as in all background
illumination, with the great advantage of preserving their
natural form and colour.
Among those best adapted for illustration by this method,
are the coloured spicule of Gorgonia; recent and fossil
Foraminifera; vpartially-transparent injected preparations ;
palate of Myliobates; hair of Indian Bat ; scales of Lepisma,
of Amathusia Horsfeldii, and of many other butterflies and
* Allow me to correct a mistake of your printer, in inserting the last
paragraph but two at page 172, which was not intended for the press, but
to account for the erasure of some experiments narrated in the original MS.
MEMORANDA. ; 237
moths, all of which may be beautifully seen under an ordinary
l-inch lens. With a 3-inch of moderate aperture (57°), and
Lieberkuhn, the markings on several Diatomacex, as WN.
formosa, elongata, Hippocampus, Baltica, and Stauroneis
Phenicenteron are splendidly shown in distinct ridges ; and
by using the draw-tube, a clear definition may be obtained
of P. angulatum. I have, even with the same lens, exhibited
palpable indications of the lines on an (American) Amician
test, P. gracilis—T. G. Wricut, M.D., Wakefield.
Another Finder.— The best description of “ Finder” for the
microscopist appears still to be an open question.
It has been made abundantly evident that a strong pre-
dilection exists in favour of the ring, or circle around the
object, although the methods of effecting it have hitherto
been most uncertain in their results, as well as both difficult
to accomplish, and disfiguring in appearance to the slide
when required for the cabinet. To produce this ring by
** machinery” had occupied my attention long before Mr.
Tyrrell’s description of a “ Finder” appeared in your third
number, but, on reading that, a new idea was suggested by
the rectangular scale. The result has been the cross lines
near the edge of the slide, as shown in the accompanying
diagram ; but as it was soon made apparent that, in addition to
these, some definite indication of the precise spot was
absolutely necessary, the original idea was fallen back upon,
and has been put into practice with the most perfect success,
The annexed sketch is the full size of the original, attached
to a “ quarter” of Ross.
A, a brass cap, fitting upon the end
of the object-glass, which it entirely “Sx
covers up and protects from injury.
The upper end is thin and slit so as to
move round easily without shaking.
B, a stem soldered to the side of the ©
cap, with the upper end having two
projecting sides to steady the ends of
C, e, and f, which are firmly screwed to
it.
C, an elastic arm of hammered brass,
which carries at its lower end, D, a
lever of thin brass plate, having a frag-
ment of diamond inserted in its thinner
end, and directly under the centre of
the cap A.
e and f are two springs, pressing upon the shorter end of
238 MEMORANDA.
the lever D, the longer one, f, has a hole, to allow the screw,
h, to pass without touching it.
g, a screw, holding the two springs and the elastic arm to
the arm of the cap.
h, a milled screw, to adjust the elastic arm C, so as to
bring the diamond point away from the centre, according to
the size of the ring required.
I have one attached to a half-inch, but the quarter is by
far the most useful, as this is the power I generally employ
in searching any new material.
Before commencing the examination of a slide, the latter
should be firmly fixed to the stage, by bringing the slip te
press tightly on its edge. Having now found any particular
specimen and brought it into the centre of the field, and
having been careful to adjust the mirror in a line with the
tube, if not using a condenser, the body of the instrument
may be run up and the cap A slipped on to the end of the
object-glass, with the upright arm, B, either directly in front,
or behind, in a line with the stem. The whole may then be
moved down again till the scratching-point touches the surface
of the cover, which can easily be seen by the movement of
the lever when looking at it horizontally, and applying the
finger to the side of the screw fA, the cap may be turned
round on its centre, making a neatly-turned circular scratch
on the cover, with the object perfectly central. By working
the slide upwards or downwards, and making a straight line
at the side, either up to the edge itself, or crossing a longer
line parallel with the edge, and produced by using the other
movement of the stage, any particular circle may always be
found at once, and may also be registered on the end of the
slide. After the circle has been completed, the vertical
motion of the stage will produce a line with a loop at the end,
which is, perhaps, the most ready guide to the object sought
for.
After a number of trials and various alterations, the present
arrangement is the simplest and most effective | have been
able to devise; but being only an amateur workman, it does
not contain so many “ perfections,” perhaps, as any of our
celebrated opticians may be able to add to it should it become
an article of ‘* manufacture ;’ as, for instance, a wheel and
pinion to give the circular motion, and again, by a graduated
scale on the lever D, the size of the circle, which ranges up
to an eighth of an inch, might be determined beforehand with
the greatest nicety. Slides thus marked are by no means
conspicuous, and require to be seen by reflected light to
detect the rings. ‘[heir appearance may be judged of by the
MEMORANDA. 239
accompanying duplicates, one of which being mounted dry,
that is, with the cover merely supported by its edge, will
show the delicac y and little risk there is in cracking the thin
glass. In examining a slide, it will, of course, be necessary
a focus for the upper Eakaee of the cover first, until the
circle be found, when, on lowering the object-glass, the
specimen will be seen in the field, if the light in both cases
has been central—W. K. Brineman, Norwich.
On the Aperture of Objcct-glasses.— Having read over the re-
marks in your last number on the Aperture of Object-glasses,
by my friend Mr. Wenham and Dr. Robinson, I should wish
to offer a few remarks ; not that I shall attempt to take up the
valuable pages of your Journal by discussing the matter in
the two papers, but I should wish to call attention to a par-
ticular fact connected with a well-conducted experiment
named in my last communication, and which neither Mr.
Wenham nor Dr. Robinson have noticed. For if it be a fact
in one case that the angle of aperture of an object-glass be re-
duced when brought to bear on an object mounted in balsam,
it must be so zn every case. ‘The experiment which I refer to
is one which I have again tried with great caution, and with
the same result.
Let aa bea pencil of light falling upon the under-surface
of the anterior lens of a set of wide aperture, say 152°, and
let the central ray of the pencil a a make an angle of about
75° with the axis of the lens )); take two sliders, the one con-
taining an object mounted dry, and the other an object mounted
in balsam, and let them be so selected that the object in both
sliders may be exactly in focus when placed under the ob-
jective, without having occasion to move the adjusting screw.
Now, when the pencil of light makes an angle so great as
sheave stated, a part of the field of view will not be perfectly
illuminated ; place the slide with the dry object under the
objective, and it will be found that the fieid is still partly
illuminated as before; then remove this slide and place the
one below containing the object mounted in balsam, the field
is still invariably illuminated in the same manner, there being
no difference in the illumination, however the rays may have
240 MEMORANDA.
been refracted before they reach the objective, either by the
glass in the first slide or by the glass and balsam combined in
the second: it being thus proved that however the rays may
have been refracted by the different media, and however we may
reason from theory upon those refractions, the actual working
aperture of the objective remains, under all conditions, exactly
the same; for if it were reduced by any of those refractions,
not one single ray of the pencil aa could ever reach the eye of
the observer at the upper part of the microscope. Indeed, I
have tried this experiment with a set of lenses of 1-12th of an
inch focus and 152° of aperture, and on removing those from
the instrument, and placing on it another set of the same
power, but of 148° of aperture, the field was unilluminated ,
and the effect of the black ground immediately produced, at
once pointing out that if by any refraction the aperture of the
lens had been reduced only 2° on each side of the perpen-
dicular, the effect of each refraction would have been imme-
diately seen. With respect to the markings on the Diato-
macez, and the manner in which they are effected by balsam,
I think Dr. Robinson has forgotten that none of those minute
and beautiful forms are without some portion of colour; and
although balsam makes objects more transparent, and con-
sequently appears to rob them of a part of their colour, it still
leaves sufficient even in the smaller forms of the Diatomacez
to render both them and their markings perfectly visible.
Who would ever contend that the markings on the larger
Pinnularia are not much better seen in balsam than when the
object is mounted dry? and, as I stated in my last communi-
cation, I have two slides of the WV. rhomboides (Amician test),
the one mounted dry and the other in balsam, and I can at all
times see the delicate markings on this object quite as well,
or even better, on the specimens in balsam than on those
which are mounted dry. To an uneducated eye the markings
on the dry objects may appear more striking, on account of
their stronger colour; but to a well- educated eye the superior
sharpness and exquisite beauty of those objects when balsam-
mounted is such as it would be vain to look for when they are
in their natural state. Again, I think it rather an unfair way
of testing the visibility of the markings, either in or out of
balsam, by the use of high eye-pieces; for at the same time
that you reduce the light by the eye-piece, you destroy the
effect of the difference of colour, and therefore, of course, when
this difference is small, as it is in balsam-mounted Diato-
mace, you might as well blot out the object altogether, To
see objects well. when they are so very transparent, you want
all the light you can obtain, as the greater the light the
MEMORANDA. 241
greater will be any dissimilarity in colour of the various parts ;
but if you destroy the intensity of the light, by using a high
power eye-piece, you might as well try to see it with the low
power, and a telescopic sun-shade over it. I have a five-feet
achromatic telescope which will show the fifth star in the
trapezium of Orion very well with a power of 100; but with
higher powers you cannot see the small star, because the
telescope has not sufficient light to show the difference in the
colour of the faint star and the nebula by which it is sur-
rounded. This equally applies to microscopic vision, par-
ticularly where the object is very transparent, and the difference
in colour between the object and the balsam comparatively
small.
With regard to the diminished aperture, as. made apparent
by the methods employed by Mr. Wenham and Dr. Robinson,
when applied to balsam-mounted objects, I think it is very
easy to account for the conclusions they have been led to;
for every one conversant with optical instruments knows
that the larger the aperture in proportion to the focus, the
greater will be the aberration of the rays passing through or
from the edge of such aperture, as, in a telescope of large
aperture, one angular inch in the centre will give as much
light as eight or ten angular inches taken in the form of a
ring round the extreme edge of the glass ; no wonder then, that
in the objective of a microscope, where the diameter of the
aperture is seven and a half times that of the focus (which it
is when the aperture is 152°), the aberrations from near the
edges of the glass should be so great as to cause the rays not
to be visible after having passed through balsam.
I recollect that the last time [ had the pleasure of seeing
Mr. Wenham he told me he had made a 1-8th, the aperture
of which was somewhere between 170° and 180°, but on
account of the weakness of the rays at the edges, arising from
aberration, he would not undertake to say within 4° or 5° what
the exact aperture really was.
With these observations I shall conclude my remarks, being
fully persuaded that when objects are mounted in balsam that
medium has no effect in reducing the aperture of the objective,
and that no external cause, except a fluid or other medium
in actual contact with the objective, can, consistently with
the known laws of optics, produce such an effect.—J. D.
Sotuitr, Huil.
On Washing and Concentrating Diatomacez.— Having read in
your last Journal the excellent paper by Mr. Okeden ‘On a
mode of Washing and Concentrating Diatomaceous Earths,”
VOL, ITI. R
242 MEMORANDA.
and having lately used a similar process with some success, by
allowing the Diatoms to fall through a given length of water,
I beg to forward you the method I have adopted.
I first boil the deposit in strong hydrochloric acid for five
or ten minutes, then allow it to subside, pour off all the
acid, and by a few washings get as much of it away as pos-
sible. Then treat the deposit in the same way with strong
nitric acid, washing the deposit by repeated washings to get
rid of the remaining acid. When this is done, I then separate
the Diatoms according to their different gravities by allowing
them to pass through a column of water in the following
manner :—
I take a long glass tube about four feet long and half an
inch in bore. At the bottom of this tube is fixed a stop-cock
to enable me to let eut any of the Diatoms during any stage
of the process. Having nearly filled this tube with distilled
water, [ pour in my deposit washed free from the acids. I
watch the deposit as it falls slowly and gradually down the
tube, and with a Codington lens can easily detect the larger
Diatoms as they are precipitated. In about a quarter of an
hour, many of the larger forms will have descended to the
bottom of the tube. By turning the tap at the bottom of the
tube, I let out a drop of the mixture on a slide, and examine
it with a low power (3-inch) ; and if it be tolerably clear, and
the Diatoms of one character, I then let off five or six inches
of the mixture into a test-tube, and set it aside for re-
examination after the Diatoms have subsided. In a quarter
of an hour more, I again let off into another test-tube six
or eight inches more of the mixture, and place it aside to
settle. In half an hour more I let off into another test-tube
six or eight inches of the mixture, which will contain the finer
Diatoms by themselves, generally free from all mud and
sand. I then pass each of these washings again through
the long tube of distilled water; and by examining the
mixture during the process of its subsidence, I am enabled
to let out the heavier particles of sand or mud, and to obtain
pretty clean all those Diatoms which are alike in size, or at all
events in specific gravity. Some Diatoms take a longer time
than others in settling to the bottom of the tube, and separat-
ing themselves from extraneous matter, such as the Witzschia
closterium, &c. ; but, by a little patience, and an extra washing
through the tube, these difficulties may, in a great measure,
be overcome. By this method, I have found the Pleurosigmata,
Pinnularia, Surirelle, and Synedre, very well separated, those
of a like character being found together, I have been
stimulated to send you these few remarks on the washing of
MEMORANDA. 243
Diatomacez, on account of the great difficulty I have hitherto
experienced in procuring slides free from mud, sand, and
other extraneous matters——H. Munro, M.D., M.R.C.S., &c.,
Hull.
Campylodiscus clypeus.— On September 6, I found in brackish
water, near Yarmouth, what I took to be Campylodiscus bicos-
tatus, specimens of which so named I distributed amongst
several members of the British Association, at the Liverpool
meeting. I now find it should have been named C. elypeus,
and which I understand is new to Britain—R. WiceuHam,
Norwich.
Cilia on the surface of Conferve.— A] though I am aware that
the existence of cilia on the Oscillatorie has been inferred
from the motion of particles of matter in the water in their
neighbourhood, [ am not certain whether any observer has
distinctly seen them. It may be of interest to some of your
readers to know that by using a dark stop with the achro-
matic condenser, the whole surface of a large species of
Oscillatoria (found in brackish water) may be seen covered
with cilia moving in a circular sweeping wave round the
axis of the organism: this motion is particularly distinct
and beautiful at the sutures of the segments, where the
cilia may be seen en profile, and seem to form a distinct
fringe. At the “smaller end,” which one occasionally finds
on the longer pieces, the motion is very lively, as well as that
peculiar “ vermicular” waving which is so characteristic of the.
species. The ciliary movements are only to be made out
clearly (in the specimens which I have examined) whilst they
are in a state of progression, which inclines me to suppose that
that motion at least is produced by their agency.
The object-glass used was a 1-4th, of Mr. Pillischer’s make,
with a large angle of aperture, and the shallow eye-piece.—
G. H. Kinestry, M.D., Glossop Hall, Derbyshire.
On an easy method of wiping Thin Glass Covers. As many of
the readers of the ‘ Microscopical Journal,’ like myself, may
have found great difficulty in wiping the thin glass covers for
microscopic objects, by the ordinary method of holding them
between the thumb and finger, without occupying considerable
time and frequently breaking them; mayI venture to suggest
that the following method, which I have adopted for some time,
will, I think, be found a much easier, and at the same time
a much safer way of effecting the above object?
After having washed the covers, I take two or three out of
R 2
244 MEMORANDA.
the liquid and lay them on a piece of calico spread out on a
table or other flat surface. I then remove most of the liquid
from one of the pieces by rubbing it on the extended calico.
Having removed most of the moisture in this way, I place the
cover on a piece of buff about 10 inches long and 2 inches
wide, fastened on a flat piece of wood of the same size, and
by means of an old cambric handkerchief or bit of leather
twisted round my fore-finger | rub it towards the other end,
turning it in its course, when it will generally be found to be
quite clean and fit to be put away ready for use at any time.
With a little practice this method will be found to be a
very easy one, and attended with very little risk of breakage.
—Wiutuam Honeson, 62, York Street, Lambeth.
Metallic impressions of Wicroscopic Objects.— The transparency
of some microscopic objects frequently renders it a matter of
difficulty to determine satisfactorily the details of their surface
structure, or whether indicated lines, dots, or markings, are
really dependent upon exterior configuration. Many of these
objects, from their translucency, refract and reflect light, in
such various directions, that their superficial formation becomes
almost a matter of conjecture; neither is this doubt always
to be resolved by viewing them as opaque objects, for in this
case also, the same transparency prevents them from intercept-
ing and dispersing a sufficiency of light, to render the question
a conclusive one.
The siliceous valves of the Diatomacee are a class of
objects peculiarly possessed of the above characteristics. It
has long been a point of dispute, whether the markings
which nearly all these objects display are invariably caused
by projections on their surfaces, or by the mechanism of
their internal structure. I have long been of the former
opinion. A careful study of the coarser varieties will
distinctly prove that the markings are raised ribs or promi-
nences on the surfaces; in some instances occupying one
side of the scale only, as seen in the Campylodiscus spiralis,
and others. ‘Though the microscope proves this fact satis-
factorily in the large species, it fails to do so in the most
difficult specimens, chiefly on account of the above-named
deceptive appearances, arising from the irregular refraction
and reflection of light.
It occurred to me that it might be possible to obtain a
perfect cast or impression of the structure, and by viewing
this as an opaque object, the errors of refraction would be
avoided, and a discovery might be the reward of the experi-
ment. JI have succeeded in effecting this, by means of the
MEMORANDA. 245
electrotype process, which, for many reasons, is to be pre-
ferred, as it does not distort the object, and is so minutely
faithful, that even the mere trace of organic matter left by a
slight finger-mark is perfectly copied. The method that I
have adopted is this—procure a small plate of metal highly
polished (a piece of daguerreotype plate answers extremely
well), and after gently heating it, rub a piece of bees’-wax
over the surface ; while this is still melted, wipe it nearly all
off again with a piece of rag, so as to allow a very thin film
to remain. When the plate is cold, arrange the Diatomacee
or other objects, previously moistened, upon the waxed
surface, heat the plate again to at least 212°, in order to
cement the objects on to it. The wax serves a twofold
purpose—first its interposition prevents the possibility of a
chemical union of the metallic deposit with the plate; and
secondly, the object is securely held thereto by its agency.
The objects are now ready to receive a coating of copper.
If the battery is in good working order, three or four hours
will give a film sufficiently strong to bear removal ; when this
is stripped off, if the process has been properly managed, the
objects will be seen embedded in its surface. Whether they
are siliceous or organic they may be entirely dissolved out,
by boiling the cast in a test-tube, with a strong solution of
caustic potash, and afterwards washing with distilled water ;
the copper film may then be mounted in Canada balsam.
By these means I have obtained distinct impressions of the
markings of some of the more difficult Diatomacee, such as WN.
Balticum, P. Hippocampus, &c.,leaving no doubt of their promi-
nent nature. Care must be taken not to leave too much wax on
the plate, or either a clean deposit will not be obtained, or the
objects will be obscured by it. On the other hand, if too little
is left, the copper will insinuate itself underneath the structure,
and raise it from its place. Upon one occasion,| dried a section
of wood on to a metal plate by heating it. In this state it
appeared to be firmly adherent by its own resinous exudation.
On placing it in connection with the battery over night, in
the morning I found the bare section on the outside of the
metallic deposit, upon which it had left a slight, though by
no means a good impression. Even when a thin film of a
non-conducting substance intervenes, the tendency of the
deposit is to get as near as possible to the conducting plate,
and in its endeavours to do so, it will fill every cavity and
pore, however minute.
There is another method of obtaining metallic casts of minute
objects that gives some curious results, and is, therefore, worthy
of mention: it is done by stamping, or the same process in
246 MEMORANDA.
miniature as that by which the plates of Auers’ “ nature-
printing ” are formed. Take some perfectly clean and bright
tinfoil, three or four times doubled, and lay it upon a smooth
block of metal. On the upper surface of the foil place the
object; hold upon this a short steel punch with a highly-
polished face, and strike it a smart blow with a hammer. In
this way fish-scales, feathers, and sections, may be fairly
impressed in the tin. For delineation of surface this process
is not much to be depended upon; for if contiguous parts of
the object are hard and soft, or more or less elastic, it will
develop markings where they do not really exist. As an
example, when a mouse hair was copied by the electrotype,
it was shown to be nearly smooth, but when stamped into the
foil, all its characteristic pigment-cells were displayed im the
metal in a very beautiful manner. It has often been thought
that these cells are real external cavities ; which appearance is,
doubtless, a deception of refraction. The last operation also
displays some singular peculiarities in other animal hairs. I
think that it would be an improvement to make use of a
fly-press instead of the hammer and punch.—F. H. Wennam.
Note on Dr. Griffiths’ Paper on Angular Aperture.— We have
received a communication from Dr. D’Alquen, containing
“ Further Remarks on Dr. J. W. Griffiths’ Paper, on the
Angular Aperture of Object-glasses, &c.,° in which that
gentleman complains in very strong terms of the way in
which his objections are noticed by Dr. Griffiths in the
Micrographic Dictionary, Art. Diatomacez, p. 203. And in
support of his own views, he states that they had elicited
the spontaneous approval of one of the best authorities on the
subject, who had written to him to the following effect :—
“ T have, however, to congratulate you upon the plain and
matter-of-fact method by which you refuted Dr. Griffiths’
visionary theory, and which I think he will find it difficult to
answer, even if he should feel so inclined.”— Epitors.
ERRATA.
Page 110, line 35, for solid, read sold.
» 119, ,, 36, for Plate IX. read Plate VII.
», 124, ,, 22, for soniferous, read coniferous.
( 247.)
PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.
Microscoricau Society. December 27th, 1854.
Dr. Carpenter, President, in the Chair.
A paper was read by the President, on the Development of the
Embryo of Purpura lapillus (Transactions, vol. iii., p. 16).
J. Shuter, Esq., was balloted for, and elected a Fellow.
January 24th, 1855.
N. B. Ward, Esq., in the Chair.
A paper was read from Mrs. Herbert Thomas, on Cosmarum
margriatiferum, and other Desmidez.
Dr. Herapath, of Bristol, and J. E. Smith, Esq., were balloted
for, and duly elected.
February 28th, 1855. Anniversary Meeting.
Dr. Carpenter in the Chair.
The Report of the Council was read. The President delivered
an address.
- F.C. Hills, Esq., Charles L. Leaf, Esq., Dr. F. Degrave, and
R. C. Griffiths, Esq., were balloted for and elected.
The ballot for officers resulted in the re-election of Dr. Carpenter,
President ; N. B. Ward, Esq., Treasurer; and J. Quekett, Esq.,
Secretary.
The following gentlemen were added to the Council:—J. N.
Furze, Esq., H. Perigal, Esq., Jun., Rev. J. B. Reade, and J. B.
Simonds, Esq.
Roya Society.
‘ Micro-chemical Researches on the Digestion of Starch and Amy-
laceous Foods.” By Puirre Burnarp Ayres, M.D., Lond.
Communicated by Joun Bisuor, Esq., F.R.S. Received Janu-
ary 11, 1855.
Arter some general historical remarks on the methods hitherto
employed in the investigation of the complicated phenomena of the
process of digestion, the comparatively small results obtained by
chemical analysis of the contents of the stomach, intestinal canal, and
of the evacuations, by Tiedemann and Gmelin, Berzelius, and others,
the author proceeded to demonstrate the necessity of a minute ex-
amination of the contents of the alimentary canal by the microscope,
and such chemical tests as we possess for the determination of the
changes of such articles of food as exhibit definite structure.
In order that we may ultimately arrive at a complete exposition
of the phenomena of digestion, he is of opinion that it will be neces-
sary to examine,—first, the structure of particular kinds of food,
then the changes produced in them by cooking, and lastly to trace
the changes they undergo at short intervals, through the alimentary
canal from the stomach to the rectum. ‘The results of a series of
248 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.
researches of this character on the changes in starch, and starch-
containing foods, are presented in this memoir.
The method adopted for the examination of the changes in starch
and starch-foods was as follows:—an animal was kept fasting
twenty-four hours, and afterwards confined to a diet consisting of
the starch or amylaceous food, with water, for five or six days, until
the debris of all other kinds of food previously taken were cleared
from the alimentary canal. At a determinate time, after a meal,
the animal was killed, the abdomen laid open as quickly as possible,
and ligatures placed at short intervals on the intestinal canal, from
the pyrolus to the rectum. ‘The contents of the stomach and each
portion of the intestinal canal included between the ligatures was
then carefully examined. This mode of examination sufficed to
determine the changes which occur in the food during normal diges-
tion ; but other questions as to the particular secretion or secretions
by which the changes observed were effected.
The fluids poured into the alimentary canal are five in number,—
the saliva, gastric juice, bile, pancreatic juice, and finally, the intes-
tinal mucus.
The influence of the saliva is easily determined, by chewing the
particular food subjected to experiment, and keeping the mixture at
about 98° Fahr. The combined action of the saliva and gastric
juice is seen in the contents of the stomach. ‘To determine the
action of the bile, the common bile-duct was tied, and to ascertain
the action of the intestinal mucus, it was necessary to ligature the
bile and pancreatic ducts. If the digestion of the substance is not
effected in the stomach, it is evident that it cannot be attributed to
the saliva or gastric juice; if the digestion is still effected in the
intestinal canal after ligature of the bile-duct, it cannot be attributed
to the action of the saliva, gastric juice or bile; if it still go on
after ligature of the bile and pancreatic ducts, the digestive power
must of necessity be referred to the action of the intestinal mucus,
provided no change has previously taken place in the stomach ; but
if the food passes unchanged after cutting off the supply of bile and
pancreatic juice, but proceeds after ligature of the bile-duct alone,
the act of digestion must be referred to the pancreatic juice.
The author first briefly describes the structure of the starches and
starch-containing vegetables employed in his experiments; then the
changes produced by cooking, and finally enters on a minute deserip-
tion of the changes observed in the experiments he performed on
normal digestion, and after cutting off the supply of bile and pan-
creati¢ juice.
The correct appreciation of the structure of the starch-granule is
of considerable importance in relation to these investigations, and
the author believes that he has been able to afford a satisfactory
solution of this vexed question. ‘The changes observed during the
digestion of starch favour the original opinion of Leuwenhoeck, that
the starch-granule consists essentially of an investing membrane or
cell-wall, enclosing an amorphous matter, the true starch, which
strikes an intense blue colour with iodine ; and these changes also
support the opinion of Professor Quekett, that the concentric circles
PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 249
seen on the starch-granules of many plants are simple foldings of
the investing membrane, leaving it still doubtful, however, whether
these concentric circles are not in the starches of some plants com-
posed of linear series of dotted elevations or depressions of the in-
vesting membrane.
By these experiments it was determined that the concentric circles
remain after the whole of the starch matter, colourable by iodine,
was removed, and that even then the characteristic cross and colours
were still seen when the granules were viewed by polarized light,
although more feebly than before; this result being probably due
to the lessened power of refracting light, after the removal of the
starch matter.
After describing the structure of the wheat-grain and flour, the
changes occurring in the wheat-starch during the manufacture of
bread are given in detail ; but the most interesting of the changes
produced by cooking are those seen in the boiled or roasted potato
and in the boiled pea.
In each of these the act of cooking effects two purposes :—it
causes great enlargement and physical change of the starch-granules,
and dissolves the intimate adhesion of the starch-cells, which after-
wards appear as ovid or globular. slightly adherent bodies distended
by the swollen starch granules, the outlines of which are indicated
by more or less irregular gyrate lines, produced by the mutual com-
pression of the starch-granules within an inelastic cell-membrane.
The starch-granules of the pea possess a much thicker investing
membrane than those of the potato, which causes their outlines to
remain much more distinct after the removal of the true starch sub-
stance during the process of digestion. The other structures seen
in the pea are carefully described; the most curious among them
being the cells composing the external layer of the testa, which
bear so strong a resemblance to columnar epithelium of the intes-
tine, that they might be mistaken for the latter by an inattentive
observer.
The substances submitted to experiment were,—1, boiled wheat-
starch; 2, wheaten bread; 3, uncooked tous les mois; 4, boiled
tous les mois ; 5, boiled potato ; 6, uncooked peas ; 7, boiled peas ;
8, boiled peas after ligature of the bile-duct; 9, boiled potatoes
after ligature of the bile and pancreatic ducts. Several subsidiary
experiments were made to determine the action of the intestinal
mucus, the saliva, and the substance of the pancreas, on starch.
The conclusions at which the author arrives from the experiments
are,—
1. That the starch-granule is composed of two parts, chemically
and histologically distinect,—-a cell-membrane and homogeneous
contents. ‘lhe markings seen on many varieties of starch are re-
ferred to folds or markings of the investing membrane.
2. No perceptible change occurs in the starch, whether raw or
cooked, during its sojourn in the stomach of quadrupeds or the
ventriculus succenturiatus and gizzard of birds; all the granules
preserve their perfect reaction with iodine and their pristine ap-
pearance.
250 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.
3. The conversion of boiled starch into dextrine and glucose is
chiefly effected in the first few inches of the small intestine, but it
continues to take place in a less degree throughout the entire intes-
tinal canal.
4. In the digestion of boiled wheat or other starch, or of wheaten
bread, the bulk of the mass rapidly diminishes in its passage through
the small and large intestines, so that it ultimately yields only a
small quantity of fecal matter. After being deprived of their con-
tents, the membranes of the granules shrink and shrivel up into a
minute granular matter, which constitutes the chief bulk of the
fecal evacuations after an exclusive diet of starch food.
5. The digestion of raw starch food (peas) in the pigeon or other
granivorous birds goes on much more slowly, and progresses pretty
equally throughout the entire intestinal canal. The starch-granules,
whether free or included in cells, become intersected by radiating or
irregular lines or fissures, more or less opaque or granular; they
also gradually lose their characteristic reaction with iodine; and
this important change, commencing at the surface, progresses
towards the centre, until the whole of the starch matter is removed,
leaving the starch-membranes often apparently whole, retaining
their characteristic markings. ‘The fissured and granular condition
of the starch-granules is not due to their trituration in the gizzard,
but to the action of the intestinal fluids, since it was often seen in
granules enclosed in and protected by perfect starch-cells. In the
digestion of raw starch food, a considerable quantity always escapes
change, for many starch-cells and granules in the feces periealy
retain the characteristic reaction with iodine.
6. As the starch remains unchanged in the stomach, its conver-
sion into glucose cannot be attributed to the saliva or gastric juice,
unless we suppose these fluids to remain inactive in the stomach,
and suddenly to regain their activity in the first part of the small
intestine. ‘The author found that the saliva was capable of effecting
the conversion of starch into glucose, but that the mixture of saliva
and gastric juice in the stomach did not possess that property even
after being rendered alkaline by carbonate of soda. It is probable
that the converting power of the saliva, as it flows from the mouth,
depends not on the true saliva, but on the buccal mucus; for Ma-
gendie found that saliva taken from the parotid duct was wholly in-
active, while the mixed saliva from the mouth effected the conversion
with great facility. Unless, then, the sublingual and submaxilliary
glands secrete a different fluid from the parotids, it is evident that the
activity of the saliva must be attributed to the buccal mucus.
7. The difference between the digestion of boiled and raw starch
in dogs is seen in the experiments on the digestion of boiled wheat-
starch, boiled tous les mois, and bread. In all these, some starch- —
granules escape the action of heat and water, and remain in nearly
their pristine condition. These uncooked starch-granules undergo
slow and imperfect changes, being fissured, broken, and more or less
altered, but, in general, retaining their characteristic reaction with
iodine.
8. The conversion of starch into glucose is not effected by the
PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 951
bile, since after ligature of the common bile-duct, the changes occur
to as great an extent as when the bile passes freely into the intes-
tinal canal.
9. It is not due to the pancreatic juice, inasmuch as after ligature
of the bile and pancreatic ducts in the same animal, the digestion of
starch is still effected.
10. The only remaining secretion is the intestinal mucus, which
is especially abundant at the upper part of the intestinal canal; and
a further proof is afforded of the activity of the intestinal mucus
taken from the upper part of the duodenum above the entrance of
the pancreatic duct after ligature of this duct and the common bile-
duct, by its capability of converting a large quantity of fresh-boiled
starch into glucose out of the body.
11. In the cooking of starch-containing vegetables, such as pota-
toes and peas, the adhesion of the starch-cells is dissolved or weak-
ened so as to render them easily separable and amenable to the
action of the intestinal fluids. At the same time the starch-granules
undergo a large increase in bulk, distend the cells, and by their
mutual compression, their outlines present the appearance of gyrate
lines beneath the cell-wall. The cells seldom burst so as to emit
their contents, or present any appreciable opening through which
the intestinal fluids can directly penetrate. The author cannot
positively affirm so much of the starch-membranes, because these
are so extremely delicate that fissures might be invisible, but he
believes that in a great number the membranes remain entire.
12. If this be the case, the conversion of starch matter into
glucose must be effected by the permeation or endosmose of the
intestinal fluids through the invisible pores of two membranes, in
the digestion of the pea, the potato, and other similar foods, and the
glucose must escape through the same membranes by exosmose.
13. Before the conversion of starch into glucose, the amylaceous
matter contained in the starch is more dense than the intestinal
mucus in immediate contact with the cells, and an inward current
or endosmose is established; but after that conversion the syrupy
fluid is less dense than the mucus, and then an outward current or
exosmose occurs, by which the glucose escapes from the cells into
the intestine and is absorbed. If this be the case, as the details of
the experiments tend strongly to prove, a new and important fune-
tion is assigned to the intestinal mucus.
14, In normal digestion, chyme escapes very slowly from the
stomach into the duodenum, in small quantities, as it is detached
from the alimentary mass by the muscular movements of the stomach,
and this gradual propulsion often occupies several hours after a meal.
This slow propulsion is evidently intended to expose the commi-
nuted food fully to the action of the intestinal juices, and produce
an intimate mixture with them. ‘The comparatively empty condi-
tion of the upper part of the small intestine, even during active
digestion, is thus fully explained,
15. If the food be too finely divided or incapable of a second
solidification in the stomach, it passes too rapidly into the first part
of the small intestine, is insufficiently mixed with the intestinal
252 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.
fluids, and a considerable part escapes digestion. On the other
hand, if it enters the small intestine in masses incapable of reduction
by the muscular action of the parts or solution in the fluid, it tra-
verses the intestinal canal unchanged, except at the surface, which
is then alone exposed to the action of the intestinal fluids. ~
16. It is not necessary for the conversion of starch into glucose
that the fluids in the duodenum or other parts of the intestinal
canal should be alkaline, or even neutral, for in several of the expe-
riments the contents of every part of the alimentary canal had an
acid reaction.
17. The greater part of the intestinal mucus is not exeremen-
titious, for little, if any, mucus is perceptible in the faeces in normal
digestion, except at their surface, whereas the greater proportion of
the contents of the small intestine consists of mucus. A consider-
able quantity of mucus is seen in the caecum, but it rapidly dimi-
nishes in the colon, and is scarcely detectible in the faeces, except
that on the surface, which is probably derived from the mucous
membrane of the rectum. The author raises the question, whether
one of the chief functions of the czecum is not to effect the conver-
sion of the intestinal mucus into some other substance capable of
re-entering the blood, and performing some ulterior purpose in the
animal economy.
18. In normal digestion, the separation of the epithelium of the
mucous membrane of the intestine is the exception instead of the rule,
as stated by some physiologists. The author questions the theory of
the detachment of the epithelium of the villi in each act of absorp-
tion, on the grounds that the presence of detached epithelium was
unfrequent in the whole course of his experiments; that epithelium
is readily detached by manipulation; that the continual reproduc-
tion of such a vast amount of cell-tissue must necessarily be accom-
panied by a vast expenditure of vital force ; and finally, that it is
not necessary, because fluids readily penetrate epithelial membranes.
19 The passage of a given food through the whole length of the
intestinal canal may occupy a comparatively short time, especially
when the animal is fasting. In one experiment, where a pigeon
refused food until the feeces contained no visible debris of previous
food, starch-granules were detected in the feeces within two hours
after a meal, and this although the intestine of this animal is ex-
tremely narrow, and about a yard in length.
20. A remarkable circumstance in the digestion of starch or
starch foods is the constant presence of myriads of vibriones in the
lower part of the intestinal canal. They are generally first observed
in the lower part of the small intestine, as minute brilliant points,
just visible with a power of 600 diameters, in active move-
ment. They increase in numbers towards the cecum, in which a
large number of fully-developed vibriones are constantly seen.
These minute organisms increase in size and length in the colon
and rectum, and their fissiparous mode of propagation, first described
by the author in the ‘ Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science,’
may be distinctly traced by examining the contents of these por-
tions of the intestine.
( 253 )
ZOOPHYTOLOGY.
Unoper the above not very scientific term, it is our intention
to devote in each number of the Journal one, two, or more
plates, as occasion may require, illustrative of new forms
belonging to the various classes of animals included under the
vague though popularly well understood term of Zoophytes ;
or, more particularly, of those among them which from their
size are necessarily subjects of microscopic research. These
are principally the Hydrozoa or Anthozoa hydroida of Dr.
Johnston. The Asteroid and Helianthoid divisions, scarcely
requiring the microscope for their determination, are not in-
cluded in our design.
In this department of the Journal we shall give—1. Figures
and descriptions of new or hitherto undescribed species from
any part of the world, as they may come under our observa-
tion or be furnished to us by others. We should therefore be
obliged to those who take an interest in this branch of Zoology
to aid us by the communication of such observations, with
respect to new forms, as they may be desirous of presenting
to the world. 2. Observations on the anatomy and physiology,
&c., of the creatures comprised in the scope of our design,
illustrated or not. And 3. Notices of new species or original
observations published elsewhere.
As one very important, if not the most important, object of
this undertaking is to assist in the arriving ultimately at some
correct notions with respect to the geographical distribution of
these creatures—a problem apparently of the most curious
kind; it is highly desirable that any localities should be
assigned only upon good authority, and, if possible, accom-
panied with particulars as to the depth, bottom, and nature of
the surface upon which the polypidom or polyzoary grows.
Specimens for the purpose of representation, or drawings, will
be duly preserved and returned.
In the present number we commence with an enumeration
of Zoophytes of the two classes of animals above mentioned,
collected in the Arctic seas. The majority were brought
home by Dr. Sutherland, surgeon to H. M.S. Sophia ; others
by Sir E. Belcher, in what may perhaps be the last of Arctic
voyages ; and for two specimens we are indebted to our friend,
Mr. C. Peach, whose well-known accuracy is a suflicient
guarantee for the correctness of the habitat.
Even in this limited though interesting collection, it will
be seen that several new and remarkable forms are contained,
254 ZOOPHYTOLOGY.
and that other wide-spread species, though extending through ©
the torrid, despise the utmost rigours of the Arctic zone.
The arrangement of the Polyzoa, which it is purposed here
to adopt, is that according to which the marine Polyzoa are —
disposed in the catalogue of those in the British Museum, ~
drawn up by Mr. Busk; the names of already-known species —
are those there employed, where also figures of every species, —
and the synonymy will be found.
Class. POLYZOA.
Order I. P. INFUNDIBULATA.
Sub-order 1. CHEILOSTOMATA.
§ 1. Articulata.
§§ 2. Bi-multiserialaria.
1. Fam. SALIcORNARIADS.
1. Gen. Salicornaria, Cuv.
1. S. borealis, n. sp. PI. L., fig. 1, 2, 3.
Front of cell elongated, slightly contracted below, arched above ; surface
and raised margin smooth ; avicularium on the front of the cell near the
bottom ; mandible triangular, acute, pointing downwards.
Hab. West Greenland, 73° 20' N. 57° 20' W., 6 to 10 fms. Dr. Suther-
land.
A very distinct and well-marked form. The polyzoary, which is com-
posed of club-shaped internodes, varying greatly in size, is irregularly
dichotomous, and from one to two inches in height. :
Fam. CELLULARIADZE.
2. Gen. Menipea, Lamx.
1. M. arctica, n. sp. Pl. 1., fig. 4, 5, 6.
Cells 3—9 in each internode, rhomboidal; aperture oval, contracted
below ; a marginal spine on each superiorly ; central cell at a bifurcation
mucronate at the summit. Ovicell smooth.
Hab. W. Greenland, 73° 20’ N. 57° 20’ W., 6 to 20 fms. Assistance
Bay, 74° 50' N. 94° 16’ W., 15 fms. Dr. Sutherland.
This species, which at first sight much resembles a Cellularia, differs —
from all its congeners with which I am acquainted in the absence of any
avicularium on the anterior aspect of the cells. ‘The lateral avicularium
is also frequently absent, and fragments thus unfurnished could only be
distinguished from the genus Cellularia by the rhomboidal form of the
back of the cells, and the absence of the perforations which exist on the
back of the cells in all species properly belonging to that genus.
Gen. 3. Scrupocellaria.
1. S. serupea? B. M. Cat., p. 24. Pl. XXI., fig. 1, 2.
Hab. Arctic sea, Sir E, Belcher.
The determination of this form having been made from only a very
minute specimen, growing on the inside of a valve of Terebratula psittacea,
is not absolutely certain, but I have little doubt of its correctness.
§ 2. Inarticulata seu continua.
§§ 1. Uniserialaria. -
Gen. 4. Hippothoa, Lamx. ee
1. H. divaricata, Lamx. B.M. Cat., p. 30. Pl. XVIIL, fig. 3, 4.
Hab. Arctic sea, On valve of Jerebratula psittacea. Sir E. Belcher,
ZOOPHYTOLOGY. 255
Fam. MEMBRANIPORIDE.
Gen. 5. Membranipora, Johnst.
1. M. Sophie, n. sp. PI. I., fig. 7.
An avicularium on either side, on the margin of the aperture. Two mar-
ginal spines on either side below the avicularia.
Hab. Assistance Bay (ut supra). On fucus. Dr. Sutherland.
The species to which the present form most nearly approaches are—
M. Flemingii, B. M. Cat., p. 58.
M. lineata, Linn.
M. fallax, Fleming.
From the first of these it is distinguished by the position of the avicu-
laria and the number and situation of the marginal spines. From the
second by the small number of the spines, and the position of the avicu-
laria. From the third, about whose distinctness Dr. Johnston, as I think
erroneously, appears to have doubts, by the number and situation of the
avicularia, and the number and situation of the marginal spines. Of the
three it most nearly approaches M. Flemingii, but I entertain no doubt of
its distinctness.
2. M. Flemingii. B. M. Cat., p.58. Pl. LXI., fig.2; Pl. LXXXIV.,
fig. 4, 5,6; Pl. CIV., fig. 2, 3,4
Hab. Arctic sea. Sir E. Belcher.
Gen. 6. Lepralia, Johnst.
1. L. hyalina, Linn. B.M.Cat., p.84. Pl. LXXXIL, fig. 1, 2, 3;
PO XCYV., 1g. 6,4, 0 3 Pi, Ch, die, 1 2e
Hab. Assistance Bay and W. Greenland (ut supra). On fucus. 6 to
20 fms.
This species, which is liable to numerous varieties, ranges from the
Arctic almost to the Antarctic seas, and abounds in all intermediate lati-
tudes. Its longitudinal range appears to be nearly equally extensive. It
occurs, for instance, in the Falkland Islands, Darwin ; Cape of Good
Hope, Harvey ; California, Dr. Sinclair ; and is common in the seas of
Europe.
2. L. scutulata,n. sp. Pl. II., fig. 1, 2.
Cells ovate; a scutiform or ovate space on the front, bounded by a
raised line, within which the surface is punctate. Mouth rounded above,
lower lip straight; a projecting rostrum below the mouth, sometimes
absent. Ovicell :
Hab. W. Greenland (wt supra). On fucus. Dr. Sutherland.
A very peculiar and distinct form. It is remarkable by the circumstance
that the cells gradually diminish in size from the centre to the periphery
of the patch formed by the polyzoary.
Fam. EscHarip2.
Gen. 7. Eschara, Ray.
1. E. cervicornis, Ellis and Soland. B.M. Cat. Pl. CIX., fig. 7;
Pl. CXIX., fig. 1.
Hab. Arctic sea. Sir E. Belcher.
The fragments collected, which are of some size, indicate that this
species flourishes in full vigour in the Arctic ocean.
2. #. ? n. sp.?
Hab. Arctic sea, Sir E. Belcher.
This form, the determination of which has not been made as yet with
sufficient certainty, appears to be new. The polyzoary is composed of
256 ZOOPHYTOLOGY.
slender cylindrical branches. Its description and representation are
reserved for a future occasion.
Sub-order II. CycLostomaTa.
Fam. TUBULIPORIDZE.
1. Gen. Tubulipora, Lamk.
1. T. ventricosa,n. sp. Pl. IL., fig. 3, 4.
Polyzoarium sub-erect or recumbent attached by a contracted stem,
which rapidly expands above into a hollow calcareous vesicle, from which
the tubes project irregularly and of various lengths.
Hab. W. Greenland (ut supra). On fucus. Dr. Sutherland.
Some of the simple forms of 7. serpens, or flabellaris, might on occasion
perhaps be confounded with the present species ; but it nevertheless, from
comparison of several specimens, appears to me to be quite distinct.
The polyzoary, which, though recumbent, is usually wholly unattached
above, is about 1-8th of an inch in length. It arises by a contracted por-
tion or stem, which is usually more or less curved or contorted ; and
speedily expands into a wide ventricose dilatation, in which the upper
tubes are immersed for a considerable part of their length. The tubes
project irregularly from all parts of the exposed aspect of the polyzoary,
and are themselves smooth or faintly ringed with lines of growth, whilst
the surface of the vesicular dilatation, which doubtless corresponds with
an ovicell, is finely punctate. When perfect the orifice of the tubes
exhibits a tooth-like projection on one or two sides.
2. Gen. Discopora, Fleming. Pl. U1, fig. 1.
1. D. ciliata, n. sp.
Orifice of tubes furnished with numerous slender spines.
Hab. Assistance Bay and W. Greenland. On fucus. Dr. Sutherland.
The figure of this minute species will be given in a subsequent plate.
It bears a remote resemblance to Discopora hispida (Tubulipora hispida,
Johnst.), but differs in the numerous slender spines with which the orifice
of the tubes is furnished.
Class. HYDROZOA.,
Fam, SERTULARIADZ. -
Gen. 1. Sertularia, Linn.
1. S. polyzonias? Pi. II, fig. 5, 6.
Hab. Greenland. Peach.
From the small specimen thus characterized, and which is unfurnished
with the ovicell, it would appear that this cosmopolite species extends
even into the Arctic circle. It seems to abound in all parts of the world.
2. P. imbricata, n.sp. Pl. IL, fig. 7, 8.
Cells sub-opposite, very close, napeolates wide and deeply immersed
below ; contracted and free for a short distance above ; margin of mouth
slightly raised on each side. Polypidom simply pinnate ; ; pinne sometimes
forked, long and drooping. Ovicell ?
Hab. Greenland. Peach.
I am unable to reconcile this form with any other, and therefore venture
to give it the above designation.
~
( 257.) .
ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS.
On the Structure of the Cutaneous Fotticies of the Toap,
with some ExpERIMENTs and OBsERVATIONS upon the NaTURE
and alleged Venomous Prorertiss of their SECRETION. By
GeorcE Rarney, M.R.CS., Lecturer on Anatomy, &c. &c.,
St. Thomas’s Hospital.
From time immemorial a venomous quality has been attributed
to one or other of the secretions of the toad. Scarcely any one
who has spent much time in the provinces of. this, and other
countries, has failed to hear of instances of supposed poisoning
by this reptile: these accounts, however, have always been so
vague and imperfectly attested, as to obtain credit only among
the uninformed and superstitious classes of the people, so that
by enligitened persons the belief in the venomous powers of
the Toad has been regarded only as a vulgar prejudice. Such
were the doubts and opinions entertained upon this subject
as late as 1851, when they were said to be set at rest, and the
poisonous nature of the cutaneous secretion of the toad de-
monstrated by two French philosophers, MM. Gratiolet and
S. Cloez, who, by inoculating various animals with the secre-
tion in question, produced, according to the account given of
these experiments, most decided results, and, in some in-
stances, almost immediate death.
The experiments performed by these gentlemen were de-
scribed in many of the periodicals of this country. The
following are recorded in the ‘ Zoologist’ for November 1852 :
*‘The first experiment was prosecuted on a little African
tortoise, which was inoculated with some of the toad-poison in
one of the hinder feet ; paralysis of the limb supervened, and
still existed at the expiration of eight months, thus demon-
strating the possibility of local poisoning by the agent. In
order to demonstrate whether the poisonous material spoiled
by keeping, these two gentlemen procured about twenty-nine
grains of the poison on the 25th of April, 1851, and having
placed it aside until the 16th of March, 1852, they inoculated
a goldfinch with a little of this material; the bird almost
immediately died. Subsequently the investigators sueceeded
in eliminating the poisonous principle from the inert matters
with which it is associated in the skin-pustules, and they
found that when thus purified, its effects are greatly more
intense than before.” Although the only way to investigate
VOL, III. s
258 RAINEY, ON THE STRUCTURE OF THE
this subject so as to lead to the decision of this long-contro-
verted question, is to. repeat the experiments of these investi-
gators under, as nearly as possible, the same circumstances as
those under which they were performed, and note carefully
the results, still there are some objections to the conclusions
to which they seem to haye arrived, which deserve to be
noticed. With respect to the first experiment, as an isolated
example, it, in my opinion, proves nothing positive, nor can
it have any weight, unless a similar effect can be produced
upon the same species of animal whenever the secretion is
applied in sufficient quantities. The alleged facts of this
secretion being, as it were, only a diluted kind of venom, and
containing a poison separable by chemical reagents, seem at
variance with the nature of organic animal venoms generally,
such as that of the Viper, the Bee, &c., which, in their natural
state, are sufficiently concentrated to produce the most unequi-
vocal effects as animal poisons. Besides, organic poisons. of
this kind are most probably so easily decomposed, that the
chemical means employed to isolate their poisonous principle,
could scarcely fail to destroy its specific properties. But
before describing the experiments which I have performed
with the secretion of the toad’s skin, with a view to test the
accuracy ef the above statements, [ will give an account of
the structure of the follicles by which it is secreted, this
being the especial object of this communication, as I am not
aware that these organs have ever been described. ‘These
bodies (Plate XI, figs. 1 and 2) exist in the form of vascular
sacks, of various sizes, but largest about the sides of the head
and back; they are situated in the very substance of the skin
of this reptile ; the vessels supplying them are altogether
distinct from the capillary network on the surface of the skin,
and have an especial arrangement and form of distribution by
which their presence can be recognized. These follicles,
though sufficiently characteristic, are difficult of demonstra-
tion, in consequence of being seen with perfect distinctness
only in the skin of the Toad when injected with colouring
matter and dried, and afterwards rendered transparent by im-
mersion in turpentine or Canada balsam. This difficulty
proceeds from the opacity of the portion of skin situated
behind the follicle, preventing, whilst it is wet, the deep part
of the follicle from being seen, whilst the cutaneous capillary
network conceals the part of it nearest the surface. They are
of a globular form when distended, but somewhat flask-shaped
when empty (fig. 2). They range from 1-50th to 1-16th of
an inch in diameter. About the centre of the cutaneous sur-
face of each follicle there is an opening by which its eavity
CUTANEOUS FOLLICLES OF THE TOAD. 259
communicates with the skin: this opening is small, compared
with the size of the follicle, in the collapsed state of which it is
partially closed, in consequence of the approximation of the
folds of the internal membrane. This membrane, especially
in the larger follicles, is seen in a horizontal section to be
folded upon itself in a direction perpendicular to the surface of
the skin (figs. 3 and 4), so as to present a number of imperfect
septa projecting from the circumference of the follicle towards
the centre, with lateral depressions, or saculi, between them.
The whole of the internal surface of this membrane is lined
with epithelium, consisting of delicate, lozenge-shaped, very
flat cells (fig. 5), connected together by their edges, but pre-
senting each a very sharp and well-defined margin, and one
large nucleus. The nucleus contains minute granules, which,
as the cells degenerate into a state of decay, can be seen to in-
crease in size and distinctness, and ultimately to become broken
up into the minute oily-looking granules (fig. 1), of which the
secretion of the follicles is chiefly made up. The vessels of
these follicles consist of capillaries of a larger size than those
forming the plexus on the surface of the skin, and with much
smaller areole; they do not follow accurately the folds of
membrane projecting into the cavity of the follicles, but
simply pass over, and on the outer side of these folds, so as to
encircle the entire sack with a single layer of capillaries. The
afferent and efferent blood-vessels of this plexus are connected
with its deep surface, which, being generally only two in
number, an artery and a vein, and give to the follicles, when
minutely injected, very much the appearance of a Malpighian
body highly magnified.
These follicles are entirely surrounded with the white fibrous
tissue of which the skin is composed, excepting where they
open on the surface. These fibres are disposed in two
planes, one parallel with the surface, the other perpendicular
to it; the former are by far the most numerous, and constitute
the chief thickness of the skin; the latter are comparatively
few, and only partially distributed, being collected into bands
placed at nearly equal distances apart, which, extending through
the entire thickness of the skin, from its deep to its superficial
surface, draw, as it were, the fibres of the first set in these
situations more firmly together; and thus producing a closer
approximation of the fibres, and a corresponding diminution
in the thickness of the skin at these parts, they cause the
horizontal cellular fibres to take an undulating course.
Between the part of the true skin just described, and its
epidermic surface, and immediately beneath the cutaneous
capillaries, there is a layer of earthy matter, varying in thick-
s 2
260 RAINEY, ON THE STRUCTURE OF THE
ness in different parts of the animal, but present, I believe, in
all.. This part of the dermis is composed of irregularly-
shaped masses of a semitransparent and highlv-refractive
material (fig. 4), looking like broken fragments of crystal or
glass, lodged in cellular depressions of the true skin. Where
the secreting follicles are situated, this earthy matter is placed
superficial to them, so that their openings have to penetrate a
layer of earthy substance, in order to reach the surface of the
dermis. This part of the skin, when acted upon by acids, under
the microscope is seen to effervesce briskly, and after all the
earthy material is dissolved out, a membranous or animal
basis is left. Probably this part of the skin in the Toad is
analogous to the scaly covering of the Chelonian reptiles.
According to Dr. Davy’s analysis of the skin of the toad, it
contains phosphate and carbonate of lime, and carbonate of
magnesia. No organs like those which I have described as
the cutaneous follicles of the Toad, exist in the integument of
the Frog or Water-newt. In these reptiles the skin is much
more simple, and all the vessels supplying it go into the com-
mon superficial plexus of the dermis. I have not examined
the skins of those lizards whose habits resemble those of the
toad, for the purpose of determining whether the same kind
of follicles exist also in them. .
With respect to the chemical and physical properties of the
secretion of the Toad’s skin, Dr. Davy observes, in a paper
contained in the ‘ Philosophical Transactions,’ for 1826, that
the greater part of it is soluble both in alcohol and in water ;
that the substance obtained by evaporation, both of the
aqueous and alcoholic solution, is slightly yellow, and has a
faint and peculiar smell; that when heated it readily melts,
and burns with a bright flame, but without emitting an am-
moniacal odour; also that the secretion is slightly bitter,
and very acrid, acting on the tongue like the extract of
aconite, and even occasioning a smarting sensation when
applied to the skin of the hand, which lasted for two or three
hours ; that it does not affect the colour of litmus, or tur-
meric paper. This secretion, though possessed of these
decidedly acrid properties, even in a much greater degree than
the poison of the most venomous snakes, was not found by
Dr. Davy to produce any injurious effects when applied to a
wound ona Chicken, made with a lancet dipped in it; and.
hence it seems to be endowed merely with irritating qualities,
and not to possess the venomous properties attributed to it by
the French investigators. .
The experiments which I have performed upon living ani-
mals with this secretion, have in no instance agreed in their
CUTANEOUS FOLLICLES OF THE TOAD. 261
results with those recorded by Gratiolet and Cloez. I ap-
plied some of the fresh secretion to a recent wound on the ear
of a Kitten, but it produced no sensible effect. I also inocu-
lated Toads both with their own secretion, and that taken
from other toads, but it did not affect them. White mice
were inoculated with it in various ways, but they sustained no
apparent injury. In order to secure the perfect contact of the
secretion with the wounded surface, I immersed a piece of
thread in the fresh fluid of a follicle, and passed it through
the skin of a Mouse in the manner of a seton, where it re-
mained for several days, but without producing any perceptible
harm to the little animal, It is remarkable that such differ-
ent results should be obtained from the same description of
experiments, and it is very difficult to reconcile these dis-
crepancies. It is true that the single example which Dr.
Davy has recorded, and those which I have mentioned, are
on the negative side of the question, and therefore cannot be
looked ujjon as so conclusive as those on the positive side.
However, I think these experiments are sufficient to throw
considerable doubt upon the accuracy of the conclusions of the
French investigators, and to bring the question into the same
state of uncertainty that it was before their observations were
published, where it must remain until these authors shall be
able so to conduct their experiments, as at all times to pro-
duce the effects they have described, or, in case of failure, to
give a satisfactory explanation of its cause. There is one
consideration which, as mere circumstantial evidence, may be
mentioned in opposition to the view of the intensely-venomous
power of the secretion of the Toad’s skin, and that is its gene-
ral diffusion over a large part of the body, whilst in all those
animals which are decidedly provided with a specific venom,
and not a mere irritant, the frightful apparatus which produces
and applies it, is well known to occupy only a very confined
locality.
From what has been stated it appears, then, that though the
specific character of the secretion in question, as a venom, is
very questionable, yet that it certainly does possess an i1TI-
tating quality, as was apparent from its action when applied
to the skin, and more especially to the tongue; hence Dr.
Davy thinks that’ its principal use is to defend the reptile
against the attacks of carnivorous animals. The extremely
dense structure of its dermis, approaching in its composition
to that of bone, is, I think, somewhat in favour of this opi-
nion, as affording also, more or less, a means of protection
and defence. Dr. Davy also considers that, as the secretion
contains an inflammable substance, it may serve to carry off a
262 CUTANEOUS FOLLICLES OF THE TOAD.
portion of carbon from the blood, and thus be auxiliary to the
function of the lungs. In support of this idea the same
author observes that each of the pulmonary arteries of the
Toad divides into two branches, one.of which goes to the lungs,
the other to the cutis, ramifying most abundantly where the
largest follicles are situated, and where there is a large venous
plexus, seeming to indicate that the subcutaneous distribution
of the second branch of the pulmonary artery may further aid
the office of the lungs by bringing the blood to the surface to
be acted upon by the air. However, it seems to me that if
these follicles aid at all the lungs, it can only be by elimi-
nating carbon set free in other organs of the body, and then
conveyed into the blood, from whence they afterwards ex-
crete it; as the deep position of their capillaries, and the
secretion with which they are always more or less thickly
covered, will make them imaccessible to the atmospheric
air, and therefore, in this respect, render them altogether
different from the cutaneous capillaries which are placed su-
perficial to the earthy layer of the dermis, and in which the
blood is perhaps acted upon, as above intimated. But I
cannot help thinking otherwise than that these follicles have
something to do with the absorption, and more especially
with the retention, of the fluid which, in this class of reptiles,
is taken into the system by the skin. In the Frogs there is a
superficial plexus of capillaries the same as in the Toads, by
which the absorption of the fluid in contact with the surface,
can take place equally in either case; but in the former ani-
mal there are no cutaneous organs which could in any manner
aid in the retention of that fluid, so that this reptile requires
more frequently than the toad a fresh application of moisture
to its surface; and besides, if the Frog be exposed to the
absorbent power of dry mould, as the Toad frequently is, the
greater part of the fluid contained in its vessels will imme-
diately pass off through the skin into the dry earth in conse-
quence of its greater capillary attraction, and the animal will
very soon die from a kind of inanition, This fact I have
verified by placing fine dry sand in contact with the skin of
Frogs, which so rapidly absorbs their moisture that they die
in a few minutes. ‘The contents, also, of the follicles of the
toad, mixing with the dust and other extraneous substances
constantly in contact with its skin, especially as this secretion
is of a very glutinous nature, and has a tendency to coagulate
when wetted, may possibly form a coating on its external sur-
face, and thus tend to diminish evaporation ; and in this way
it may assist in retaining the fluids absorbed into the body,
and in preventing its desiccation, and thus furnish another
REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF FUNGI. 263
means of adapting this animal to the physical and physio-
logical states and conditions under which it is constrained to
live, and to perform its part in the accomplishment of that one
universal and wise purpose for which this much-despised rep-
tile, in conjunction with all other living beings, was designed
and created.
On the Repropuctive Oreans of certain Funai. By Frepe-
RIcK Currey, Esq., M.A.
Tue existence of sexual organs in the lower orders of plants
is a question which of late years has attracted much attention
amongst botanists, and it is one upon which the powers of the
microscope have been brought to bear with the happiest
results.
The investigation has already been carried sufficiently far
to show that many of the plants hitherto ranked in the Order
of the Cryptogamia can with difficulty be denied the right of
being considered phanerogamic ; and there seems good reason
to hope that before many years have elapsed, the term crypto-
gamic will have ceased to be applicable to any portion of the
vegetable world.
It is hardly too much to assert that sexuality is already
established in the Fucacee and Characee amongst the Thal-
logens, and in the Liverworts, Scale-mosses, Urn-mosses,
Club-mosses, Horse-tails, and Ferns amongst the Acrogens,
although there are not wanting botanists of eminence who
either deny the fact, or, at least, admit it only with the doubts
of an imperfect faith.
In Lichens, M. Tulasne has demonstrated the existence of
certain organs to which he has given the name of syermogonia.
These spermogonia are the small black specks seen on the
shields of Lichens, and are small conceptacles, or cases, con-
taining a prodigious quantity of minute spore-like processes,
to which the name of spermatia has been given. The sper-
matia are very minute linear bodies, sometimes curved and en-
dowed with molecular movement. They are produced either
upon the apices of the cellules which form the walls of the sper-
mogonium, or sometimes laterally from moniliform filaments
or other processes which line the cavity of the spermogonium.
The functions of the spermatia are as yet unascertained,
although from their universal presence, and the circumstance
of their appearance prior to the perfect, or the casporous
fructification, it is suspected that they may eventually prove
to be the male organs of that class of plants.
264 CURREY, ON THE REPRODUCTIVE
Thére are many Fungi in which bodies analogous to the
spermogonia and spermatia of Lichens are found to exist, and
as far as present observation has extended, these bodies are
found to precede the formation of the perfect spores. The
genus 2cidium is very favourable for an examination of these
organs. The spermogonia occur in spring upon these parts
of the plants upon which perfect 4£cidia are afterwards
found ; they are in the form of minute punctiform specks,
covering the pale or red spots upon which the £cidia are at
a later period produced. A microscopical examination of
these specks shows them to be globular bodies, open at the
top, having their walls composed of densely-mterwoven
threads originating from the mycelium, and containing in
their interior other threads converging towards the centre of
the spermogonium, and bearing spermatia at their apices.
The spermatia are produced in great abundance, and form a
granular mass, filling the hollow of the spermogonium. The
upper threads of the walls (namely, those which are situated
next to the apicular opening of the spermogonium) are some-
what more upright than the others, and are directed towards
the epidermis of the surface of the leaf; and by the growth
of these upper threads and the increase of the granular mass
of spermatia, the spermogonium increases in size, raises, and
eventually breaks through the epidermis, the outermost
threads forming a small red funnel-shaped tuft, through
which the spermatia eventually escape, and are dispersed
around the spermogonium. After the ripening of the sper-
mogonia, the perithecia of the true Acidia are formed on the
same mycelium, and the spermogonia then decay.
Spermogonia, such as those just described, are not confined
to the genus Aicidium ; they are common to other genera in
the tribe of the Uredineew, occurring in Ceoma, Restelia,
Peridermium, Phragmidium, Triphragmium, and Puccinia.
In Cystopus, Melampsora, Coleosporium, and Uromyces, they
have not as yet been ascertained to exist. Nor are spermo-
gonia peculiar to the tribe of the Uredinee ; they occur with
certain, but not essential differences of structure, in many
other Fungi. It Las been shown by the observations of Fries, -
Tulasne, and other mycologists, that several sorts of Fungi,
long supposed to form distinct genera, are, in fact, only early
states of other well-known plants: thus the genera Septoria,
Cytispora, Nemaspora, Hendersonia, and others, are now con-
sidered to be the spermogonia of species of Spheria ; Melas-
mia is supposed to be the spermatiferous state of Rhytisma ;
Leptostroma probably of Hysterium, Phacidium, ete... .
In a paper published in the ‘ Annales des Sciences’ for
ORGANS OF CERTAIN FUNGI. 265
1853, M. Tulasne has given a description of a considerable
number of Fungi belonging to the order of the Discomycetes,
in which he has observed spermatia; and he states that he
has also discovered them in several of the Pyrenomycetes.
The details of his observations on the latter tribe have not, as
far as | am aware, been yet made public, although referred to
in a paper in the 15th volume of the 3rd series of the
‘Annales des Sciences.’
I have already stated that the functions of the spermatia of
Lichens are not yet ascertained ; and as in the vast family of
the Fungi there are as yet comparatively few species in
which these organs have been certainly observed, it is
obyious that we are not yet in a position to hazard an
opinion as to the office which they fulfil in the latter tribe.
All mycologists will, | am sure, agree with M. Tulasne, who
has remarked that the present aim of observers should be to
ascertain whether spermatia exist in a sufficient number of
species to consider them constant or common to all. The
subject of their action, supposing them to be male organs,
might be afterwards considered.
Whilst the observer is occupied in sa wedi betta the nature
of the spermatia, he will naturally and necessarily be led into
an inquiry into the nature of two kinds of reproductive organs
distinct from the spermatia, and which are called stylospores
and conidia. 1
It has been found that in some ascigerous Fungi, that is,
Fungi in which the normal fructification consists of spores
contained in asci or thecwe, there are produced other naked
spores which are borne upon pedicels of greater or less
length, and it is these naked spores to which the name of
stylospores has been given. The cellules or pedicels upon
which the stylospores are borne, are analogous to the basidia
of the Agaricini: they are sometimes enclosed in a concep-
tacle, or case, which is called a Pycnidium.
Size and complexity of structure generally distinguish the
stylospores from the spermatia; but there is no very definite
line of demarcation, so far as regards structure, between sper-
matia and small simple stylospores.
The term conidia was applied by Fries to all reproductive
bodies not being normal spores.
Tulasne restricts it to Gemme@ properly so called, that is to
say, reproductive cellules growing directly from the my-
celium.
I will now proceed to state the result of some observations
with which I have lately been occupied, bearing upou tle
matters above alluded to.
266 CURREY, ON THE REPRODUCTIVE
1. Spheria herbarum Pers——This very common but beau-
tiful Spheria is to be found abundantly in spring in the form
of small black specks upon the dead stems of herbaceous
plants. About the beginning of March in the present year,
I observed that the dead stems of some plants of Senecio
Jacobea were covered with a Fungus, the perithecia of which
formed minute black spots so small as not to be visible with-
out close inspection. In Plate XIL., fig. 1, one of these peri-
thecia is represented with its mycelium magnified 110 dia-
meters, aud fig. 2 represents a transverse section of a similar
perithecium, the interior being filled with small spore-like
bodies proceeding from the somewhat-pointed cells which
lined the cavity of the perithecium. According to the prin-
ciples of classification hitherto adopted, the plants would
have belonged to the genus Spheropsis ; but being desirous of
ascertaining whether it might not in fact be only an early
state of some other Fungus, I placed some pieces of the dead
stems upon damp Sphagnum moss, and covered them with a
bell-glass. In about a fortnight I found the under surface of
the stems (7. e., that part of them which had lain in contact
with the damp moss) covered with a crop of small black
Spherie. ‘There was, therefore, some reason for supposing
that the Spheropsis was only a predecessor of the Spherie ;
but as there were three, if not four, different species* of the
latter, it would have been impossible to determine to which of
them the Spheropsis belonged, had it not been for the form of
the mycelium. In examining the Spheropsis, 1 had particu-
larly observed its mycelium, which was unusually large com-
pared with the size of the perithecium, and had moreover the
peculiar knotty appearance shown in figs. 1 and 2. Upon
comparing this mycelium with that of Spheria herbarum, the
two appeared identical; and as the same mycelium was not
to be seen in connection with the other Spheria, it seems
fair to conclude that the supposed Sph@ropsis was the sper-
mogonium of Spheria herbarum. The question then arises
whether the spermogonium in this case be a distinct organ on
the same mycelium, or whether the same perithecium pro-
duces in the first instance the spermatia, and subsequently
the perfect fructification, that is, asci containing sporidia, In
the icidia, as we have seen, the spermogonia are quite
* The species appeared to be the following :—Spheria eomata, capil-
lata, herbarum, and complanata. I doubt if the two former are distinet ;
I found the sporidia precisely alike, and the only difference was in the
colour of the hairs on the perithecia, which were black, or nearly so, in
S. comata, and greenish in S. capillata. The difference in the colour of
the hairs would hardly justify a separation of the species.
ORGANS OF CERTAIN FUNGI. 267
distinct from the true A‘cidineous perithecia; but there are
some discomycetous Fungi, for instance, Peziza benesuada,
Cenangium Frangule, and Dermatea carpinea, in which the
spermatia and the perfect fructification occur in the same
part of the plant. From what will be stated hereafter, with
regard to Spheria complanata, it would seem that in the latter
plant the same perithecium produces spermatia and asci suc-
cessively ; and if it be allowable to assume a law for the genus
from what occurs in one species, it would follow that the
spermogonium in Spheria herbarum is not distinct from the
true perithecium.
It will be proper here to mention certain other reproductive
bodies which I have observed in Spheria herbarum ; they
are somewhat irregular in colour, shape, and size, and grow
directly from the mycelium. In colour they differ much
amongst one another, varying from a dull brown to the bright
yellow of the normal sporidia. In fig. 3 several of these bodies
are represented ; some of the larger of them strongly resemble
the spores of a Stemphylium or Sporidesmium, and others again
are hardly distinguishable from the regular sporidia of Sphe-
ria herbarum. These bodies come under M. Tulasne’s defini-
tion of conidia, being gemmz or buds proceeding directly
from the mycelium.
Those represented in fig. 3 occurred in company with full-
grown, ripe perithecia ; but their growth commences at a very
early period, and contemporaneously, or nearly so, with the
appearance of certain other bodies, which may also, perhaps,
have to be ranked amongst the varieties of fruit of Spheria
herbarum; these last-mentioned bodies are globular vesicles,
which proceed from the end of short branches of the myce-
lium in its earliest stage.
The sporidia of Spheria herbarum appear to have a great
facility of germination, throwing out filaments from several
different partitions of the sporidia, On the 2nd of May in the
present year, I had placed a section of a perithecium upon a
slide under a piece of thin glass, for examination in the usual
way, and the fruit being particularly fine, I put the slide upon
damp moss under a bell-glass, with the view of keeping the
object moist until a drawing could be made. The weather
was very unfavourable for germination, for the long-prevalent
east wind was on that day more than ordinarily harsh and
cutting, and Fahrenheit’s thermometer fell at night to 26° ;
moreover the room in which the slide was kept had a northern
aspect, no fire, and the character of being at all times cold.
Notwithstanding these circumstances I found, upon examining
the slide the next morning (May 3), that the ‘sporidia had ger-
268 CURREY, ON THE REPRODUCTIVE
minated in the greatest abundance; and not only had the free
sporidia—those which had escaped from their asci—thus.
sprouted, but those which were still enclosed had also sent
forth their germ-filaments, which had penetrated the mem-
brane of the asci in all directions.
In fig. 4, I have represented one of the asci in which nearly
all the sporidia have begun to grow, and other asci in the
neighbourhood were even more densely covered with filaments
than the one shown in fig. 4. On the following morning
(May 4) the germ-filaments had reached a considerable length,
and had become branched and indistinctly septate in several
places (see figs. 5 and 6), as indeed was the case on the pre-
vious day with some of the more advanced shoots. At one
point the germ-filament had protruded short branches at right
angles to the main filament on either side (see fig. 5), and at
the end of each of these short branches was seated one of the
globular vesicles above mentioned. The nature of these
vesicles is uncertain; but it is not improbable they may be
homologous to what have hitherto been called the spores of
Tubercularia vulgaris, this latter plant being now considered
to be nothing more than the mycelium of a Spheria (S. cinna-
barina), and the so-called spores to be, in fact, only conidia
of that Spheria. I haveas yet only seen these globular vesicles
in the two instances shown in fig. 5, but I have observed other
branches of the mycelium which became rounded at the apex,
and in which a nucleus was formed. After the formation of
the nucleus a fresh germ was thrown out (see fig. 7). Some-
thing similar to this has been observed by M. Tulasne in the
Uredinee, in which the germ-filament has become inflated,
and then thrown out a fresh shoot.*
In fig. 8 is represented a cellular body, which was attached
to the mycelium by a delicate stalk, the stalk itself being
attached to the side of the body. ‘There seems no reason to
doubt that this body, differing as it does from some of those
shown in fig. 3, only in being of a much paler colour, repre-
sentsa young state of one of those organisms. | first observed
it about nine days after the commencement of germination, at
which time also the germ-filaments had in places begun to
form a network by a kind of conjugation, which had “taken
place between the germ-filaments proceeding from different
sporidia.
It follows from what has been said, that if we consider the
spermatia as reproductive bodies, in the proper sense of the
word, as it is applied to seeds or spores, 7. e., as fruit, then
Spheria herbarum has four distinct sets of reproductive organs.
* See vol. ii. of the ‘ Annales des Sciences’ for 1854.
ORGANS OF CERTAIN FUNGI. 269
If, on the other hand, the function of the spermatia is not re-
p -oductive but sexual, or impregnative, we still have three dis-
tinct forms of fruit, viz., the sporidia contained in the asci
(see fig. 9),* and the |.two,iforms. of; conidia (figs. 3 and 5),
which grow directly from the mycelium.
2. Spheria? complanata, Tode.t This Spheria is as -com-
mon as the preceding one, growing abundantly in spring upon
the dead stems of umbelliferous plants. The spermogonia, or
rather spermatiferous perithecia, are shaped like a dome, with
a pointed conical ostiolum. They are distinguishable from
the ascigerous perithecia by their full, rounded appearance,
the latter being depressed or collapsed, affaissé, as the French
say.
It would hardly be possible in this case to prove directly
that the spermogonia and perithecia proceed from the same
mycelium. In the Acidia, which grow upon the soft parts
of plants, it is possible by maceration and careful dissection
to obtain ocular demonstration of the occurrence of the sper-
mogonia and perithecia upon the same mycelium; but this
cannot be effected with the hard, dead stems of Umbellifers,
and the proof of the connexion between the spermogonia and
perithecia must therefore be sought for in other evidence.
Now I found both in the spermatiferous and. ascigerous
perithecia some peculiar-shaped organisms, the nature of
which I am at a loss to conjecture. These bodies consist of a
stem, crowned by three cellular, sometimes septate, prolonga-
inne, with a seta on either side, One of them is represented
at fig. 11, which will give a better idea of them than any
written description. But irrespective of these curious pro-
cesses which, occurring as they do in both the spermatiferous
and ascigerous perithecia, seem to point to a connexion
between the latter, I found in one instance the spermatia
and asci, contained in the same perithecium, a direct proof that
* The asci and sporidia of Spheeria herbarum vary much in size. In
fig. 9 are represented two extremes. In the one the ascus is short and
broad, and the sporidia fill the whole of it. In the other the ascus is
much. elongated, and the sporidia, which are smaller, are collected at the
upper end ‘of the ascus. I find the latter form the most frequent.
¢ Iam doubtful whether I have named this Spheria rightly. I find
two plants, in which the perithecia are precisely alike, both answering the
description of Spheria complanata, but the sporidia are widely different.
In fig. 10 I have represented an ascus, with sporidia, of the plant to which
the above observations relate. The asci of the other Spheeriu are narrower,
and the sporidia are curved, acuminate at each end, triseptate, with a
swelling at the second joint. The description of the sporidia of S. compla-
nata, given in the Annals of Natural History under S. modesta, does not
accord with that in the English Flora, where the sporidia are said to be
oblong-elliptic.
270 CURREY, ON THE REPRODUCTIVE
both of these latter bodies are the produce of the same con-
ceptacle or case. Can it be that the cellular processes above
mentioned (such of them at least as are not septate) are young
asci, to be fertilized by the action of the spermatia? This
is a mere speculation, but it is not an impossibility.
The spermatia of S. complanata are elliptical, about 1-4300th
of an inch long, with an indistinct sporidiolum at each end.
3. Spheria sinopica; Fries, Elenchus Fungorum, vol. it,
p- 81. This Spheria, one of the Cespitose, grows in tufts
upon a stroma which is not always perceptible, and which
Fries considers to be identical with Tubercularia sarmentorum.
If this be so, the spores of this latter fungus must be looked
upon as the conidia of the Spheria, in the same manner as
the spores of Tubercularia vulgaris are considered to be the
conidia of Spheria cinnabarina. The sporidia of Spheria
sinopica are elliptical, uniseptate, and slightly constricted at
the septum. They frequently have a sporidiolum in each
partition. Besides these normal sporidia, I have found in
many plants of S. sinopica an immense mass of minute
bodies, which I do not hesitate to consider as spermatia.
These bodies are excessively minute, elliptical or sub-cylin-
drical, many of them not exceeding 1-6500th of an inch in
length, and endowed with molecular motion. In most of the
plants which I examined, these spermatia occurred in conjunc-
tion with the regular sporidia, but some specimens contained
spermatia alone. In these latter specimens the perithecia were
rather of a pyriform shape, not depressed as is the case with
the perfect perithecia of S. sinopica. This fact is precisely
analogous to what occurs in S. complanata, where the per-
fect perithecia are, as we have seen, flattened or collapsed,
whilst the spermogonia are swollen and shaped like a dome.
The spermatia of S. s¢nopica appear to be born upon fine,
simple, densely-crowded filaments, which line the cavity of
the spermatiferous perithecia. This Spheria, it will be seen,
affords another instance, in which it is clear that what might
be called the spermogonium is, in fact, the true thecasporous
perithecium of which the spermatia are the primary produce,
and the asci and sporidia a subsequent fructification, whether
produced or not by the fertilizing influence of the spermatia
time will probably show.*
* In the ‘ Annals of Natural History’ for June, 1854, Messrs. Berkeley
and Broome have described, as a new species, a Spheria to which they
have given the name of Spheria (Nectria) inawrata. It is stated to have
been found near Bath by Mr. Broome, and at Shooter’s Hill by myself ;
but there has been some mistake. ‘The Spheeria on holly which 1 found
at Shooter’s Hill, and of which I sent specimens to Mr. Berkeley, is
certainly Spheeria sinopica ; at least the plants which I retained have not
ORGANS OF CERTAIN FUNGI. 271
4. Spheria Cryptosporii, n. s.—This species has not, as far
as I am aware, been hitherto described, and may be thus
characterized.
Obtectz; Peritheciis sparsis vel aggregatis globosis aut
sub-globosis, collo elongato corticem perforantibus; nucleo
albido ; ascis late obovatis, sporidiis simplicibus linearibus,
utriusque obtusis plus minus arcuatis circiter ‘00036 uncize
longis.
I believe this Spheria to be the perfect state of Cryp-
tosporium vulgare, on the evidence of the following facts. In
April of this year I placed in damp moss some twigs of alder
upon which Cryptosporium vulgare was growing; in about a
month afterwards the long black ostiola of the above Spheria
had protruded themselves through the bark. Upon examining
the fructification under the microscope, the resemblance of
the sporidia of the Spheria to some of the naked spores of
Cryptosporium vulgare (viz. those which were least strongly
curved) was so striking that a possible connexion between the
Spheria and the Cryptosporium naturally suggested itself.
Some of the perithecia, which were in a young state, con-
tained an immense quantity of oily matter, and small granules
in a state of active motion, some densely interwoven threads
attached to the walls, and a very few sporidia resembling those
of Cryptosporium vulgare, and which had probably formed the
terminal joints of the threads just mentioned.
In another of these young perithecia I observed the terminal
joint of two of the threads, which had assumed the shape
shown in fig. 12 (4, c). One of them contained a moniliform
row of oil globules, and was evidently the earliest state of
other young asci, fig. 12 (a), which occurred in the same
perithecium. Jn the more advanced plants the perithecia con-
tained perfect asci, which, with one of the escaped sporidia,
are shown at fig. 13 (a, 6). Even when the asci within the
perithecia were still young, or at least not fully ripe, the
ostiola were surrounded with a milky substance ejected from
the perithecia, which consisted principally of free sporidia,
the dimorphous ascigerous fructification, they have no tails to the sporidia,
and differ in no respect from Spheria sinopica. From the description of
Spheria inaurata it seems to be identical in its external characteristics
with Spheria sinopica, but the fructification of the former is very peculiar,
It consists of two sets of asci differing in form, and containing different
sporidia; the larger asci are clavate, and contain small curved sporidia
not exceeding *00015th of an inch; the smaller, cylindrical asci, contain
eight elliptic uniseptate sporidia -0005—-0006th of an inch long, fur-
nished with a tail at either end in the form of a delicate hyaline appendage.
The two sorts of asci are figured in the ‘ Gardeners’ Chronicle’ of the 22nd
July, 1854, where a full description of the plant will be found,
272 CURREY, ON THE REPRODUCTIVE
with an occasional ascus intermixed. Again, upon taking a
section of one of the plants of Cryptosportum vulgare which
occurred upon the same twig, I found a very few asci, iden-
tical with those of the Spheria, intermixed with the naked
spores of the Cryptosporium.
One of these asci, which is in a very early stage, is shown,
fig. 13(c). The membrane was of extreme tenuity, and in
the middle was a linear mass of granular protoplasm, partly
divided in a longitudinal direction by a dark line, which,
however, did not traverse the whole length of the granular
matter. Another of the asci, fig. 13 (d), contained a much
larger quantity of granular matter, still apparently in one
mass, but deeply marked and furrowed. There can be no
doubt that in the two asci just mentioned the sporidia were in
process of formation, and that the lines and furrows pointed
to the directions in which the granular mass was eventually to
become separated, so as to form the eight perfect sporidia.
The above observations would be conclusive as to the iden-
tity of the Spheria and the Crytosporium, were it not for the
possibility that the sporidia, forming the milky mass around
the ostiola, might have been contained in asci which had been
dissolved within the perithecium, although from the young
state of the included asci this is not probable ; and in the case
of the section of the Cryptosporium, inasmuch as I did not
see the asci in situ, it is possible that the few which occurred
might have been adhering to the scalpel or brush used in a
previous examination, although I have no reason for supposing
that such was the case.
I think it will be admitted that the above facts afford strong
evidence to show that Cryptosporium vulgare and Spheria
Cryptosporii are states of one and the same plant. It is difficult
to suppose that the former is the young state of the latter; it
would rather seem that the same conceptacle has the faculty
of producing both naked spores and asci, and that it depends
upon circumstances, possibly atmospheric, whether the one or
the other be produced. It seems to me not improbable that
the spores of the Cryptosporium may in some instances be
converted into the asci of the Spheria. I have seen what
seemed to be a common spore of the Cryptosporium, but which
had a very delicate hyaline investment, and the bodies shown
in fig. 13 (c) and (d) may be only more advanced steps in the
process of conversion. Some objection might be raised to this
view on account of the shape of the Cryptosporium spores, most
of which are strongly curved and acuminate at either end, but
on the other hand the spores vary greatly in size and shape,
and some occur plentifully, which are quite undistinguishable *
ORGANS OF CERTAIN FUNGI. 273
from: the sporidia of the Spheria, see fig. 13 (6, f); the
former of which represents a sporidium of the Spheria, the
latter a spore of the Cryptosporium.*
Cryptosporium vulgare is a plant not unfrequently found
upon beech and alder twigs, and I much hope that some
reader of this paper will repeat the above observations, which
may be done without difficulty or trouble. The simplest plan
for keeping the bed of moss in a proper state is to fill a com-
mon flowerpot about one-third full of crocks for drainage,
and to fill the rest of the pot with damp (not wet) sphagnum
moss ; the moss should be kept damp by occasionally putting
water into the pan in which the pot stands, and not by pouring
it over the top of the moss; the pot should be kept covered
with a bell-glass. Many a fungus may be grown in this
manner which would not have a chance of coming to maturity
in such cold dry weather as we have had this spring. By a
similar process I ripened two large plants of Reticularia
maxima, which were brought to me in the early stage, of a
cream-coloured mucilage.t
I think it worth while to mention as a somewhat singular
circumstance, that on the same alder twigs upon which S.
Cryptosporii was produced, there occurred another Spheria,
the perithecium of which was so amalgamated as it were with
the perithecium, or stratum proliferum, of the Cryptosporium,
as to be hardly, if at all, distinguishable from it. The spo-
ridia of this latter Spheria were quite different from those
of S. Cryptosporii, being broadly elliptic and indistinctly
triseptate, I think occasionally quadri-septate. One of the
asci of this Spheria is represented at fig. 14.
There are several other fungi which have afforded me
materials for interesting observations, bearing upon the ques-
tions to which this paper relates. It would, however, take too
much time and space to discuss them now, but they may I
hope form the subject of a future communication.
* TJ had found Spheria Cryptosporii on one previous occasion in the
course of last autumn. It was then unaccompanied by the Cryptosporium.
Iam unable to determine the wood upon which it occurred, having only
one small fraczment.
+ These plants of Reticularia iaxima took nearly three days to come
to perfection. The length of time was probably much greater than it
would have been in their natural state. eticularia atra passes through
all its phases in about eight or ten hours.
VOL, IIT. J ty
274 BRANSON, ON CILIARY ACTION.
On Crrtary Action as the cause of the Crrcutation in the
Cetts of Puants.. By Fereuson Branson, M.D., Sheffield.
Tue cause of the circulation of the granules of chlorophyll
in the cells of certain plants has hitherto been involved in
mystery. I have spent many hours in examining the cireula-
tion in the cells of the Anacharis alsinastrum, the new water-
weed ; and in October, 1854, I first observed a distinct ciliary
wave at the edge of the outermost cells. Repeated examina-
tions have satisfied me that the rotatory movements depend
upon cilia attached to the inner surface of the cell-wall. The
cilia are extremely minute, and require the highest powers of
the microscope, combined with very “ happy” illumination,
to display their waving motion. The ciliary wave can only
be seen under very good daylight, or by means of the best
artificial illumination. In the Anacharis the cells best cal-
culated to display the ciliary wave are those at the edge of
the leaflet; for here a single layer of cells exists, and no
deception can occur from the movements in the cells beneath.
A leaflet should be selected in which the granules are just
beginning to move, or rather have not got into rapid motion ;
the ciliary movement is then less active, and, consequently,
can be more readily seen. The microscope must be very
accurately adjusted in order to define the wave, and even
then the observer’s patience may be severely tried before he
is rewarded with a sight so interesting and remarkable, A
cell in which a large number of granules are circulating
should not be selected for observation; the greater the number
of granules the more will the view be obstructed and confused.
I have used an eighth of an inch object-glass, by Powell and
Lealand, aided by their improved achromatic condenser, and
a No. 2 eye-piece. A power less than this will not define
the ciliary wave. The diaphragms used are numbered 4 and
5 on the condenser, A diaphragm with a central stop—ab-
solutely necessary for resolving the more difficult Nayicula—
will not display the cilia. I am the more minute on this
point, for without great attention to the manipulation the
wave will not be seen. The cilia are extremely minute, pro-
bably not much larger than the dots on some of the Nayicula,
and much more difficult to illuminate satisfactorily. It may
be said that cilia so minute could not draw to the side of the
cell, and then impel around it the large granules of chloro-
phyll which float within it, Let any one place a small
portion of cork or paper in the centre of a large basin of
water, and when the water is perfectly at rest gently agitate
it in one direction at the side of the basin, and the cork
BRANSON, ON CILIARY ACTION. 275
or paper will yery soon be drawn to the edge. Now the
cork in this case bears about the same proportion to the basin
of water which the granule of chlorophyll does to the cell in
which it floats. In the latter case, however, instead of 2
single gentle wave at one point of the edge of the basin, we
haye a wave surrounding the whole cell, formed by innu-
merable very minute cilia; and this multiplication of minute
forces produces a current of considerable velocity. Of course
the current once established becomes quicker and quicker,
and is helped onward by its own impetus. This exactly
explains the appearance presented on the first starting—so to
speak—of the circulation in a cell: a granule of chlorophyll
is slowly drawn to the edge of the cell, and then slowly moves
round it ; another granule follows, until all are at length
drawn to the edge, and pass round ; the motion then becomes
quicker and quicker, until it reaches the limit of its speed.
But the ciliary motion is occasionally irregular—slower in
some parts of the line, or perhaps interrupted altogether ;
and the consequence is, that the granules accumulate at the
weak, or interrupted point, until the re-established ciliary
wave again urges them forward. Any one accustomed to
watch the circulation in plants must have frequently observed
that the granules of chlorophyll become crowded together, and
then slowly and singly again move onward. Ciliary action
satisfactorily explains this movement. In the cells of the
Anacharis the cilia are arranged in lines around the cell ;
occasionally, however, the granules of chlorophyll, instead
of passing round the cell, tum off at an abrupt angle, and
cross it; when this is the case a bright line may be observed
on the cell wall, and along this bright line the granules pass.
This line may be distinctly seen on the cell-wall before the
granules are in motion, and, if accurately examined, will even
then give an indication of a minute current passing along its
course. This bright line is doubtless the base of a line of
cilia, but the ciliary wave cannot, under these circumstances,
be seen, for the cilia are not in profile. The Anacharis is
better adapted to display the ciliary wave than the Valisneria.
In the latter it is difficult to slice off a single layer of cells,
whilst in the former Nature has prepared a single layer most
suitably arranged for observation. ‘The currents seen in the
hairs of certain plants differ somewhat from those in which
the granules of chlorophyll circulate ; they are more minute,
irregular, and weaker. Even whilst observing a hair of the
Groundsel currents start into view, which a moment before
were not in existence, and as rapidly pass away—others follow
a more definite course, and sometimes the whole hair appears
ae
276 BRANSON, ON CILIARY ACTION.
covered with a complete network of currents. I have ex-
amined many varieties of the hairs of plants, and few have
been the specimens in which—in some of the hairs at least—
indications of currents could not be detected ; so frequently,
indeed, have I found these currents, as to lead to the inference
that all the hairs of plants are furnished with an apparatus
adapted to the production of currents. Now this apparatus
is most probably identical with that which gives rise to the
circulation in the Anacharis, viz., minute cilia. I say most
probably, for the extreme minuteness of the currents render
the demonstration of cilia in many cases very difficult. In
one of the hairs from the leaf of a scarlet Pelargonium a
waving current was very evident. In the hairs of the common
Primrose a ciliary wave was detected at the edge of the cells ;
the waving current was particularly well seen in this instance,
as no granules were floating in the cell, which, when carried
along in the current, interfere much with the view of ciliary
action. The whole internal surface of the cells of some hairs
is probably lined with a minute waving pile. At least this
will account for the varied and irregular direction of the
currents. In one cell, in the hair of a Polyanthus, I watched
a flocculent line, or wave, passing diagonally along the whole
of the cell ; the current at the same time setting in the direc-
tion of the length of the wave. This is difficult to explain
without a diagram.
scabs
ee
A, arrow indicating the course of the wave across the cell. B, arrow
indicating the direction of the current along which floating granules
were carried.
Currents are well seen, not only in the hairs, but also in
the cuticle of the leaf of the London Pride ; although the
ciliary wave is not well seen in this plant, in consequence of
the great number of minute granules which float in the cells.
The currents seen in the leaf-cells of the London Pride, and
also in the leaf-cells of the Primrose, are precisely similar to
those seen in their respective hairs; they are equally minute,
irregular, and weak. Although the current is very distinetly
seen, the motive force is not sufficiently powerful to move
any granules of chlorophyll which may happen to be in the
cell ; occasionally, however, a granule of chlorophyll may be
seen slowly moved by the current, just as the granules are
ie
WENHAM, ON THE CIRCULATION OF THE SAP, ETC. 277
moyed in the Anacharis, showing that the force is the same
in both cases. Ina hair of the Primrose I watched an octo-
hedral crystal of oxalate of lime carried by the current several
times from end to end of the cell. By the term ciliary wave
it is not intended to imply that individual cilia can be seen.
All that can be shown is a waving motion, such as would
undoubtedly be attributed to ciliary action if seen in an
animal structure. I will not at present attempt to offer any
suggestion as to the use of these currents, though they must
play an important part in the vegetable cell. Observations
made with microscopes of high power and of recent construc-
tion are as yet too limited. Other observers will doubtless
be led to investigate the subject, and the accumulation of
additional facts may lead to a solution of this difficult pro-
blem.
OssERVATIONS on the CrrcuLtation of the Sap in the Lear
Cetts of Anacuaris Atstnastrum. By F.H. Wennam.
TuereE is no known plant in which the sap-rotation has been
discovered that displays the phenomena of the circulation
more distinctly, or in such variety of detail, as the newly
imported water-weed, Anacharis Alsinastrum. Having ob-
served some peculiar features in this, which I have not dis-
covered in the circulating sap of any other plant, I venture to
announce them. I must, however, premise that I have not
made a special study of this department of vegetable physio-
logy, and may therefore be excused from drawing any con-
clusions, or for showing a defective acquaintance with techni-
calities ;—I have simply to relate what I have seen.
Those who are not already familiar with the plant may
readily recognise it by its peculiar characteristics :—Its form
of growth is in long slender stems, which bear a series of
three narrow leaves, of a pale-green colour, at intervals of
Fig. |.
_ about a quarter of an inch asunder; these, when full grown,
seldom exceed a length of three-eighths of an inch (see fig. 1).
278 WENHAM, ON THE CIRCULATION OF THE SAP
The thickness of the leaf is composed of two layers of cells,
irregular both in form and position, as shown in fig. 2. The
Fig. 2.
margin of the leaf consists of a single layer of cells of great
transparency ; it is in these that the remarkable phenomena
accompanying the circulatory movement are best seen. To
observe this satisfactorily a good eighth is necessary, haying
an aperture of from 120° to 130°; if it extend beyond this
the object will be less perfectly shown, on account of the
close approximation of the front lens, and the difficulty of
adjusting for thickness of cover. For illumination I prefer
the achromatic condenser with a series of stops, and for con-
taining the object, a compressor having thin glass both over
and under the object. The best leaves for examination are
those which have slightly changed colour from age; the
young and vigorous specimens oftentimes displaying the cir-
culation but very feebly.
Upon first seeing the object under these conditions, it
appeared to me that there was something very remarkable in
the structure of the immediate surface of the walls of those
cells in which rotation could be seen: I immediately removed
the microscope into direct sunlight. As thus illuminated the
whole interior of the cell appeared to be lined with cilia, each
developed in a most distinct manner, and altogether exhibiting
the wavy undulating appearance usually caused by ciliary
motion. The movement of the green chlorophyll granules
also tended to favour this deception ; for by the action of the
supposed cilia they were occasionally collected together in a
mass at one end of the cell, and the particular manner in which
the preceding ones were again disentangled, one by one, at
the point of least resistance, seemed to be due to the mecha-
nical or sweeping power of the cilia.
If the existence of cilia in plants of this description could
be established, it would no doubt serve to explain many
obscure points in vegetable physiology ; but subsequent ob-
servation has shown me that the appearance of these in the -
IN THE LEAF-CELLS OF ANACHARIS ALSINASTRUM. 279
Anacharis was a deception, caused by oblique sunlight, which
though favourable for discovering the existence of minute
markings is entirely unsuited for the purposes of truthful
investigation. The mobile investment round the margin of
the cells has a well-defined boundary: in an instance where
the progressive circulation was very rapid I measured the
thickness of the layer, and found it not more than 1-25,000th
of an inch (in general it is rather more than this, or about
1-20,000th). Now if this should represent the extreme length
of each ciliary filament, in order to possess the requisite
elasticity and tenuity, the proportion of length to diameter
should be at least ten to one; this would at once place the
thickness of the filament beyond the limits of microscopic
vision, and clearly proves that if a series of cilia really existed
of these dimensions it would be impossible to see them. By
examining detached portions of the cell-walls with the largest
apertures and most careful illumination, I cannot discover any
rugose indications in its apparently uniform outline.
I have made numerous examinations of this marvellous and
beautiful object, under different circumstances and conditions,
and will now describe the facts 1 have observed relating to
its structure and vital functions. The thickness of the di-
vision between the cells is about 1-14,000th of an inch. In
certain stages of disease, or decay, this sometimes becomes
equally divided, showing that each cell has its own inde-
pendent membrane. No particular structure can be dis-
covered in the cell-wall: all the cells are filled with a thin
fluid, and contain a number of chlorophyll granules, varying
from three or four to upwards of fifty. The granules very
much resemble those of the Valisneria, but are rather larger.
Their dimensions are from 1-3000th to 1-5000th of an inch.
They are somewhat irregular in shape, some being of an oval
form, and others a nearly circular, flattened disc. Each
spherule has a granulated appearance, arising from six or
eight separate nuclei; they are rendered more apparent by
a solution of ammonia, which also changes the green colour of
the granule to a yellowish tinge.
The chlorophyll granules are entirely dissolved by dilute
sulphuric acid, Treated with tincture of iodine they are
changed to a brown colour, with a nucleus of a darker shade,
and the apparent development of an external membranous
envelope.
When the rotation is active the greater number of the gra-
nules travel round the margin of the cells. A few remain
fixed in the centre, chiefly consisting of those whose form
approaches to that of a round flattened disc,
280 | WENHAM, ON THE CIRCULATION OF THE SAP
The deportment of the granules during their passage has
already been described in the Microscopical Journal for Oct.
1853, page 54, by Mr. Lawson, to whom we are indebted for
the discovery of the sap-rotation in this interesting object.
When the rotation is moderately active, the speed of the
granules is about 1-40th of an inch per minute; a motion
apparently small until magnified to 800 linear, when each
granule is seen to travel round its containing cell, with suf-
ficient rapidity, several times during one minute.
The rotation in one cell does not exert any influence upon
the direction of the granules travelling in the immediately
adjoining one. The motion is sometimes the same way, but
quite as often in the contrary direction.
The question now is, what is the agent that gives motion
to these otherwise inactive granules? I have before remarked
that the whole interior of each cell is lined with an investing
Jayer in rapid motion, of a thickness varying from 1-20,000th
to 1-25,000th of an inch. This stratum I have ascertained to
be entirely composed of a multitude of active corpuscules,
differing in size from 1-60,000th to 1-90,000th of an inch.
Tam not quite positive about their exact dimensions, for, on
account of their gelatinous nature, they do not possess a very
definite outline, and are, in consequence, somewhat difficult
of measurement. They are not, however, in general, much
larger than I have stated.
If one of the leaves of the Anacharis be placed on a piece
of thin glass, with a very small quantity of water, and then
torn into minute fragments with two needle-points, and
finally covered with another piece of thin glass, on viewing the
fluid with an eighth object-glass, it will be seen that it is
entirely filled with these active corpuscules, exhibiting -that
vigorous isochronal motion characteristic of molecular ac-
tion.
A weak solution of ammonia rather increases the activity
of these bodies, but dilute alcohol and acids immediately
destroy the movement.
These. combined corpuscules are essentially the principle
of the vital movement in the plant, and also the vehicle that
causes the rotation of the chlorophyll granules, which are of
themselves perfectly passive, and move only in obedience to
the direction and control of the corpuscular current; neither
is the presence of the granules at all necessary for the excita-
tion of the active principle of circulation, for I have repeatedly
seen cells containing not a single granule, in which the cireu-
lating layer was in a rapid state of progressive motion—in
fact, the presence of numerous granules rather tends to retard |
IN THE LEAF-CELLS OF ANACHARIS ALSINASTRUM. 281
the cell current than otherwise. When a stoppage occurs,
the corpuscules of the circulating layer become piled against
the back of the last granule; in some instances almost to
overflowing ; but the disentanglement is generally effected by
the tractive influence of the moving investment releasing the
preceding granules in succession.
The chlorophyll granules do not appear to possess any
affinity for the active investment; they seem to be attached to
it only by simple adhesion. When a granule has been
impelled against an obstacle, it is sometimes thrown out from
the cell-wall, and, during the first instant of its rise, I have
seen it draw up a column, or thread, of the glutinous corpus-
cules. If the granule becomes quite detached, it will remain
stationary in its position, close to the investment, till it is
forced again into the line of march by the contact or motion
of succeeding ones.
The investment of active corpuscules is strongly attracted
by the cell-wall, and the progressive activity of the one
appears to be dependent upon the vital condition of the other.
if the continuity of a portion of the surface of the cell-wall is
impaired, the active layer will not travel over the part thus
differing in substance. Fig. 3 represents one of the hollow
spines, or hairs, at the margin
of the leaf; in these the granules
are sometimes seen in active mo-
tion. When they arrive near the
apex, where the cell-wall is in-
durated, shown by a brown dis-
coloration, indicating a loss of
vitality, they are invariably car-
ried across the circulating layer,
taking a short cut over, as at 0
in the figure. A few stray gra-
nules are sometimes thrown into
the dark-coloured hollow end of
the hair, but these are motionless.
Although there is undoubtedly
a principle of attraction existing
between the active investment
and the cell-wall, yet I am led
to conclude that there is nothing
peculiar in the structure of the
surface of the latter to determine
the direction of rotation of the
travelling current. When a plant of the Anacharis has
been kept in a cold, dark place for one or two days, usually
Fig. 3.
282 WENHAM, ON THE CIRCULATION OF THE SAP
not a symptom of circulation can be discovered: if a leaf
suitable for examination be now viewed under an eighth,
selecting the more transparent single thickness of cells at
the margin of the leaf, it will sometimes be found that the
layer of active corpuscules has collected, or run together,
on the cell-wall into one, or sometimes two heaps or mounds,
being in a torpid and quiescent state. After having care-
fully adjusted the object-glass, if the achromatic condenser be
focussed on one of these heaps, a bright sky being used’ for
the source of illumination, the slight degree of heat thus ob-
tained is sufficient to call into existence the dormant vitality
of the active corpuscules. At first, a few atoms on the
summit of the mound appear to be loosened, exhibiting their
peculiar tremulous motion; next, a few will start off and take
the lead, generally across the cell, the movement of vibration
being apparently converted into one of direct progression ;
immediately, a single file of particles will follow in rapid
succession, in a wavering direction from side to side, much
resembling a torrent of bubbles arising from a spherule, or
small shot, at the bottom of a glass vessel of water, at the
commencement of ebullition. Sometimes another line of
particles will start off in a different quarter, and, as the heap
of corpuscules becomes more fluid and melts down, a very
singular commotion takes place ; currents are seen traversing
the cell all ways, without apparent rule or order, and two are
sometimes seen travelling on the same side of the cell-wall in
opposite directions: at last, the united numbers and strength of
one current will gain the mastery, and determine the ultimate
direction of rotation, which will then go on steadily for hours,
the chlorophyll granules being duly arranged, and performing
their traverse in proper form.
So far as I have ascertained, heat seems to be the best
excitant of the circulatory movement. It is slightly accelerated
by the transmission of an electric current; but this effect may
also be due to the creation of a rise of temperature. The leaf
of the Anacharis is very sensitive to the application of
external reagents ; weak alcohol, ammonia, or acids, instantly
destroy the motion of the sap-current.
There is yet another collection of bodies found in all the
various forms of cell composing the leaf of the Anacharis ;*
they are oblong spicular-looking particles, of a light-brown
colour, having an average length of 1-11,000th of an inch;
they mostly congregate together in the most vacant part of
the cell, either at the centre or one end, and exhibit that brisk
* Seen also in the Valisneria.
IN THE LEAF-CELLS OF ANACHARIS ALSINASTRUM. 283
vibratory motion peculiar to molecular action. This also
occurs when there is no symptom of rotation in the cells which
they occupy, and in instances where the rest of the cell con-
tents appears to be dead. They are quite independent of the
active investment, and are oftentimes so numerous as to be
tangled together in a mass, forming a kind of nucleus, which
is occasionally kept in rotation by the movement of the
chorophyll granules. Some cells are free from them, but
frequently it is difficult to find one in which they do not exist ;
they are not “parasitic,” but form one of the constituents of
the growth of the plant.
I have now recorded my observations on this remarkable
plant; though I am still of opinion, from the variety of the
phenomena displayed, that a careful series of examinations
will bring fresh facts to light, and that the Anacharis
(although denounced as a “‘ pest”) may possibly prove to be
one of the keys for unravelling some of the mysteries of
primary vegetable organization. I have entered upon the
inquiry without learning what has been done by others in
this department of microscopical investigation, and therefore
refrain from expressing opinions or from drawing any con-
clusions from the result. I only offer it as a query, with
respect to the elementary principle of the circulation of the
sap in plants. May not their growth and vitality depend
upon what is known as ‘molecular action?” I make the
remark, because I have observed that the sap of many dif-
ferent vegetable species exhibits this peculiar motion; and I
would further inquire, whether the czliary movement dis-
covered in several organisms, decidedly belonging to the
vegetable kingdom, may not also be a modification of mole-
cular action, and governed by the same exciting power?
For it appears to me that there are many points of analogy ;
and it is difficult to imagine that a single cilium, of perhaps
unicellular structure, and so minute as to be almost beyond
the limits of microscopic vision, should derive its vibrations
from an internal mechanism. Experiment tends to prove
that the acting stimulus of motion exists externally,
I have finally to remark that this is one of those com-
paratively-few subjects which requires the use of large
apertures, and the highest powers for its investigation (I
have found a twelfth extremely serviceable), combined with
considerable care in the illumination ; for many of the pheno-
mena are on so minute a scale as to be classed among very
difficult tests.
( 284 )
TRANSLATIONS.
On the CELLULOSE (in Animals) QuEstion. By R. Vircnow.
Archiv. f. pathol. Anatomie, ii. Physiologie, &c., vol. viii.,
H. 1, p. 140.
Sick my former communications respecting the substance
met with in the human body resembling vegetable cellulose,
I have taken much pains to ascertain more precisely its
nature. In now recurring to the subject, it is not that I have
been altogether successful in the inquiry, but rather because I
perceive that it is becoming more and more involved in con-
fusion. There are some even who, whether from superficiality
or for other reasons, appear to regard what I have said,—as I
believe with sufficient distinctness—as unsaid, and have
busied themselves in associating with the amyloid bodies
described by me, bodies of all kinds, only morphologically
analogous with them. The reaction of iodine and sulphuric
acid having once been established, nothing can be described as a
corpus amylaceum which does not exhibit this reaction. At
most can such bodies be termed corpora amylacea spuria.
To this class of false amyloid bodies, which have been
explained as true, belong—
1. The brain-sand, noticed by Cohn (Bericht, tiber das
Allerheiligen-Hospital zu Breslau, 1854, p. 14). Except
that Busk (Quart. Jour. Mic. Sc., 1854, January, No, 6), im
one instance, under particular circumstances, found in the
corpus striatum calcareous bodies, whose external soft layer
assumed a peculiar reddish-yellow colour under iodine alone,
which induced him to compare it with the immature cellulose
of many plants, as of Hydrodictyon.
2. Various gelatinous granules, which have of late been fre-
quently comprehended under the ambiguous name of “ colloid
granules.” Many of these are decidedly of an albuminous
nature, as I have said before (vol. vi., p. 580). It is possible
that the bodies described by Gunsberg (Zeitsch. f. Klin.
Med., v., p. 297) from a colloid tumour of the abdomen
belong to this class, although the description is not suffi-
ciently clear ; and in a cerebral tumour occurring at the same
time, arenaceous corpuscles are described as of an amyloid
nature.
3. The concentric epidermis globules (globes épidermiques),
which are met with most abundantly in cancroid tumours, :
VIRCHOW, ON THE CELLULOSE QUESTION. 285
and which Gunsberg places with the corpora amylacea. To
this category also belong, as I first stated (Arch., vol. iil,
_ p. 222), the concentric bodies of the thymus-gland, of which
Funke (Wagner’s Physiol., 4th ed., 1854, p. 127), supposes
that they are identical with the corpora amylacea of the
brain. I have expressly stated (vol. vi., p. 138), that they
do not exhibit the peculiar reaction with iodine and sulphuric
acid, The same may be said of the so-termed colloid bodies
of the hypophysis cerebri.
4. The so-termed Hassallian corpuscles in coagulated
blood, but which should properly be named after Gulliver,
since they had previously been described and figured by him
in his translation of Gerber.
5. The medullary matter described by me (vol. vi., p. 562),
and identified by Henle with the Hassallian corpuscles, not-
withstanding that its analogy with the nerve-medulla had not
escaped his notice, and which is placed by Meckel under his
*‘lardaceous substance’ (Speckstoff), although it is a normal
constituent of most tissues. I had already stated that this
substance does not exhibit the peculiar reaction with iodine
and sulphuric acid, that it is soluble in hot alcohol, in ether,
and other substances, in which the corpora amylacea are in-
soluble, and also that it resists concentrated acids and
alkalies, which at once destroy the corpora amylacea. In
short, this medullary matter (Markstoff) has nothing in com-
mon with the corpora amylacea.
6. -Leucin-granules, which are so readily separated par-
ticularly in extract of milk, and which have also been de-
scribed by Meckel as a kind of fat, and placed under the
lardaceous substances. These bodies also, do not exhibit the
reaction with iodine and sulphuric acid.
Among all animal substances there is but one, so far as
our present knowledge extends, which can be brought into
question, and this is cholesterin. The great difference
which exists between cholesterin and the corpora amylacea,
I have already (vol. vi., p. 420) pointed out in a cursory
manner. It will be sufficient, here, to remark that the cellu-
lose-like or amyloid substance, whenever it is met with, exhibits
changes under iodine alone without any addition; thus the
corpora amylacea of the nerve substance exhibit a bluish,
and those of the spleen, liver, and kidney, a yellowish-red
colour. Were this not the case, it would have been quite
inconceivable how Donders and Busk should ever have
thought of such a thing, as at once to declare them to be of
the nature of starch. No sort of cholesterin upon the simple
application of iodine presents any change of the kind, and
286 VIRCHOW, ON THE CELLULOSE QUESTION.
still less is it witnessed in situations where cholesterin in the
combined state exists abundantly; as, for instance, in the
nerves and in the spleen, of which I have shown that when it
has not undergone the amyloid change, still it contains a very
large amount of cholesterin (vol. vi., pp. 425, 565). On the
other hand I would again remark, that sulphurie acid by itself
changes cholesterin-crystals into brown or brownish-red drops
(vol. vi., p. 420, vid.; also Wiirzb. Verh., B. i, p. 314),
whilst the corpora amylacea are destroyed without any change
of cclour.
Busk, in his researches, besides iodine with sulphuric acid,
also employed Schultze’s reagent,—chloride of zinc and iodine,
—and obtained also by its means the blue reaction. I can
confirm this as regards the brain, as well as with respect to
the waxy degeneration of the spleen, liver, and kidney. This
reagent even is to be preferred, from its greater convenience
of application, to the iodo-sulphuric acid, only it must be very
carefully prepared. At first [ had hoped that it would afford
a new test by which to distinguish cholesterin, but it was soon
apparent that it also induced the most beautiful blue colour
with that substance, although very slowly. At the same time
I perceive, with much astonishment, that in England many
conceive that the amylaceous nature of the bodies is proved
by this reaction. This is altogether erroneous, for it is pre-
cisely this which is to be regarded as especially characteristic
of cellulose.
In the impossibility of completely isolating the substance
in question, | have repeatedly sought to produce its charac-
teristic decompositions. My endeavour to change it into
sugar, by means of sulphuric acid failed (vol. vi., p. 426), I
then experimented with saliva, and of course with saliva
which was proved to be capable of readily decomposing vege-
table starch. But these experiments also afforded no satis-
factory result, either with normal saliva or with the secretion
of a person under mercurial salivation, which possessed very
energetic decomposing properties. Another series of experi-
ments appeared to afford more favourable results; but I was
unable to arrive at any definite conclusion, owing to the cir-
cumstance that, latterly, fresh materials were wanting. In any
case the question remains in this state, viz.:—that of all
known substances none appears to be so closely allied to these
bodies as are starch and cellulose.
In respect to the situation in which the degeneration may
be demonstrated with certainty, they are as follows :—
1. The nervous system. Besides the situation before noticed
may be mentioned the ligamentum spirale cochlee (Wurzb. Ver-
VIRCHOW, ON THE CELLULOSE QUESTION. 287
hand., Bd. V., p. 18), and numerous points in the atrophied
substance of the brain and spinal cord. I have myself re-
peatedly found them in astonishing quantity in the gelatinous
and cellular softening of the brain, and particularly of the spinal
cord. Busk found them, in one case, throughout nearly the
whole brain. Willigk (Prager Vierteljahrsch. 1854, Bd. IV.,
p- 93) discovered them in cicatriform spots in the brain; and
Rokitansky (Sitz. Ber. der Wiener Akad, 1854, Mai. Bd.
XIIL., p. 122), in various parts in a state of atrophy, particu-
larly in the brain. Like Busk I have also seen them in the
choroid plexus, although I am not quite sure whether they
may not have been accidentally introduced.
2. The spleen. In this organ the change exists both in the
cells of the follicles and of the pulp. The arteries, as has
been stated before by Meckel, exhibit the degeneration in
their thickened walls throughout all the coats, and, in par-
ticular, there is no doubt that the annular fibrous coat also par-
ticipates in it. Sanders (Monthly Journal, 1854, Nov., p. 468)
rightly remarks that the trabecule likewise are changed ;
I have seen them thickened and rendered blue throughout by
the action of reagents. If the deposit is not quite pure, the
colour is more of a violet tint, or perhaps of green or greenish
blue.
3. The liver. In the true waxy degeneration it is chiefly
the hepatic cells which undergo the change, although it some-
times happens that the interstitial connective tissue as well is
implicated in it.
4. The kidneys. In these organs the amyloid condition is
of the most frequent occurrence. The change commencing
most usually in the Malpighian coils and in the afferent arteries,
which are enormously thickened and have their walls infiltrated
throughout. Next to these the connective tissue, surrounding
the papillary tubuli uriniferi, is chiefly affected; far more
rarely the portions seated higher up.
Further investigations will show whether a simple infiltra-
tion exists in these cases, or a direct degeneration. ‘The case
related by Stratford (Quarterly Journal Mic. Sci., 1854,
p- 168) of an epileptic patient, in whom corpora amylacea are
said to have existed in the blood, is not so certain that the
matter can be regarded as decided by it. Im any case, in
most organs we have to do with an indubitable change in the
structural elements; and should my original view be farther
confirmed, this change might briefly be described as a ligni-
fication of them.
It is of especial interest to, consider the finer varieties of
this substance in connexion with the corresponding vegetable
288 VIRCHOW, ON THE CELLULOSE QUESTION. ©
matters. The corpora umylacea of the nervous centres, both
morphologically and chemically, approach the nearest to the
amylox-granules of plants. They have the same concentrically-
striated structure, the comparatively strongly-reflecting sur--
face, the bluish colour, upon the simple application of iodme,
and lastly, their swelling in hot, and their ultimate solution,
although with chemical change, in boiling water. _ Busk even”
says, what Donders and myself have been unable to perceive, °
that some of the smaller corpora amylacea exhibit, in polarized:
light, a sharply-defined dark cross, the lines: forming which
decussate in the centre of the granule at an angle of 45°,
though it must be allowed that most of them exhibit only a
single dark line. The same observer also believes that in
one case he perceived minute particles of the amyloid sub-
stance enclosed in cells, whose cavity they only partly oc-
cupied.
Widely different from the above is the amyloid degeneration
of the vessels, of the connective tissue, and of the cells in the’
spleen, liver and kidney. In these situations I have never
obtained a blue, nor even a bluish colour, by the addition of
iodine alone ; on the contrary, the peculiar yellowish-red is
exhibited, which has from the first surprised me (vol. vi.,
p- 269), and which Meckel has since described as * iodine-
red,” and proposed as a characteristic of his lardaceous sub=
stance. But at the same time care must be taken with respect to
this, since, especially all parts containing blood, oftenassumea ©
very similar appearance. At present it appears to me that
we are in no case justified in admitting the existence of
an amyloid substance, where a violet-blue or bluish-green
colour is not produced upon the subsequent addition of sul-.
phuric acid or of chloride of zinc. But in all such cases it is
advisable by the simple addition of concentrated sulphuric
acid, to satisfy oneself that similar colours are not produced
by that reagent, as may very well be the case, especially in a
series of animal colouring matters.
Whether the yellowish-red, or iodine-red appearance of the
parts indicate any specific substance, is still to be shown.
Busk seems inclined to compare with it a kind of immature
cellulose, such as is said to occur in the lower plants. In any
case, however, the deposition of the substance presents a close
resemblance to true lignification—the formation of cellulose
in plants. But in the vegetable kingdom, as is well known,
the most numerous combinations of cellulose with nitrogenous
substances are met with, so that, as Mulder in particular has»
shown, on the addition of iodine with sulphuric acid all sorts
of impure colours are presented, constituted of a mixture of —
ON A SOLUTION OF UREA UPON THE BLOUD-CELLS. 289
blue and red, or of brown and yellow. A similar play of
colour may be witnessed particularly in the spleen, and espe-
cially in the amyloid procured from the pulp and from the
follicles, whilst nowhere do the blue and bluish-red colours at
once appear so distinctly as in the Malpighian coils and the
afferent arteries of the renal parenchyma. It appears, there-
fore, scarcely to admit of a doubt, that sometimes sooner, some-
times later, the albuminous substance of the tissue disappears
and is replaced by the amyloid.
In those cases, in which the substance differs still more
widely from starch, and more close approaches cellulose, the
organs affected exhibit the peculiarly pale, transparent, reddish
or yellowish, or even brownish aspect, together with the cha-
racteristic, as it were, cedematous consistence, which, as I
conceive (vol. vi., p. 426), should be described as “ waxy,”
and not as lardaceous. I see with pleasure that the same
idea, independently of me, has been adopted in Edinburgh,
and the process been at once described as “ waxy degeneration”
(Monthly Journal, 1854, February and March). In the
majority of cases the indurated organs are at the same time
enlarged, so that no doubt can be entertained that new matter
must have been taken up.
The coexistence of amyloid disease in the liver, spleen,
and kidneys, which has been so often observed, though not
so frequently as many believe, of course leads to the suppo-
sition of the existence of a common cause—of a constitutional
disturbance. A humoral pathologist would naturally suppose
a corresponding crasis. But a more cautious observer would
be satisfied with saying, as I have done in my former com-
munication on the subject of the ‘“‘ waxy spleen,” that the
common factor is a cachectic condition, whose more special
nature remains to be elucidated.
On the Action of a ConcenTRATED Sotution of UREA upon
the Bioop-Cetis. By A. Kouuiker. (Zeitsch. f. Wiss.
Zool., vol. vii., p. 183.)
In the prosecution of a series of researches, respecting the
influence of various reagents upon the spermatic filaments,
I have almost always employed the blood-cells as a test of
the degree of concentration of the fluids experimented with.
I was thus led to observe, in the Frog, a remarkable change
produced in the blood-cells by a concentrated solution of
urea (30 per cent.). The blood-cells gradually acquired an
irregular, jagged outline, and were rapidly transformed into the
WoL, Tit. u
290 ON A SOLUTION OF UREA UPON THE BLOOD-CELLS.
most beautiful stellate cells, usually having 8—6 tolerably
long and somewhat clavate processes, so as to be brought to
resemble very closely the irregularly-stellate pigment-cells. of
the lamina fusca of the sclerotic.. This elegant form, however,
was not long retained ; for the processes now began speedily
to become melted down, sometimes disappearing by a gradual
process of fusion commencing at the border of the cell, and
occasionally in detaching larger. or smaller droplets, which
immediately became pale and disappeared, Thus, at last,
the nuclear part of the cell only remained as a minute, round,
dark-red, brilliant globule, which, ultimately, also lost its
colour and disappeared up to the nucleus without leaying a
trace,
In order to ascertain the causes of these extraordinary
changes in the blood-cells, | began now to try the effect of
weaker solutions of urea. These experiments showed, that
solutions containing 15 per cent. produced the same changes
as those above described, and this was the case also, though
more slowly, with solutions containing 12 per cent., or haying a
specific gravity of about 1-043. In solutions of 1-026 sp. gr.,
the cells remained almost without. change, whilst in others still
more diluted, down to a sp. gr. of 1:004, they were ren-
dered spherical and pale, with distinctly-visible nuclei, just.as
they appear upon the first addition of water. These pheno-
mena, as well as the considerations which are opposed to the
assumption of a chemical influence being exercised by an
indifferent substance, such as urea, upon the blood-corpuscles,
induced me to try the effect of other concentrated solutions
upon the blood-cells of the Frog, whence it appeared that in
solutions containing 30 per cent. of ‘sugar of milk,” nume-
rous blood-cells were rendered so pale, that nothing remained
visible except the nuclei. The same thing takes place. i in all
the cells in a concentrated solution of glycerin, except, that in
this instance, many of the nuclei exhibit a very delicate border
due to the cell membrane. _ A similar effect follows the ap-
plication of mucilage of quince seeds. But in none of these
solutions did the blood-cells assume the stellate form, nor
exhibit the extraordinary fusion, and breaking up into sphe-
rical drops, which is manifested in solutions of. urea; upon
which, however, the less stress, perhaps, should be placed,
since human blood-cells, in a solution of urea containing 30 per
cent. simply diminish in size, become rounded and lose their
colour, without previously exhibiting any other phenomenon.
Of salts | have hitherto only tried solutions of common salt
and of acetate of soda (Na O A). When concentrated solu-
tions of these salts are mixed with frog’s blood, and the
ON LYMPH-CORPUSCLES IN THE LYMPHATIC VESSELS. 291
mixture is left to itself for a few minutes, most of the cor-
puscles lose their colour entirely, scarcely anything remaining
visible except the nuclei. If the changes are followed more
closely, the corpuscles will be seen at first to become wrinkled,
in which condition also many remain for a long time; but this
is succeeded by a stage, in which they become smaller and
rounded, and perhaps also throw out a few rounded protru-
sions, until at last they are rendered quite pale. On the
prolonged action of common salt, the corpuscles may often be
seen surrounded with a complete cloud of liberated particles
of hematin, and it would even seem that the cells frequently
disappear altogether under the energetic influence of the con-
centrated solution.
From the above it is allowable to regard the whole pheno-
menon as one of a physical nature, and to assume that, as
dilute solutions remove the colour of the blood-corpuscles by
endosmosis, so do concentrated solutions produce the same
effect by causing an excessive exosmotic current from the
blood-cells into the surrounding fluid. The very energetic
action of urea, may perhaps be explained by the high value
of the endosmotic equivalent of that substance, with respect
to which I hope at some future time to be able to communi-
cate more precise observations,
Notice respecting the Occurrence of Lympu-Corpusctes in the
commencements of the Lympuatic VessEts. By A. KOLLIKER.
(Zeitsch, f., Wiss. Zool., vol. vii., p. 182.)
THE recent researches of Virchow on the one hand, and of
Briicke, Donders, and myself on the other, have shown that
the lymphatic glands are the principal seat of origin of the
cellzeform elements of the chyle. The further question arises,
as to whether lymph-cells are formed in other situations
besides those organs, and particularly, whether the inde-
pendent formation of such cells, in the commencement of the
Jacteals, which has recently been almost universally assumed,
be really deducible from well-ascertained facts. ‘This question
is of the greater interest, that the formation of lymph-cells in
the commencement of lymphatics has hitherto been regarded
as one of the most certain instances of the formation of cells
around isolated nuclez contained in a fluid, whilst the more
recent results of histological inquiries have tended more and
more to limit the occurrence of a free cell-formation inde-
pendent of pre-existing cells. Consideration of the foregoing
facts, would certainly, at first sight, appear to render the
u 2
292 ON LYMPH-CORPUSCLES IN THE LYMPHATIC VESSELS.
question now in discussion superfluous, inasmuch as’ ‘it has
long been proved that the lacteals of the small intestine, even
at their commencement between the intestine and the mesen-
teric glands, contain lymph-corpuscles ; but here the possi-
bility arises, that the cells may be derived from the Peyerian
and solitary follicles, whose connexion with the lacteals is
asserted by Briicke, and which on this account have been
regarded as a kind of lymphatic glands. In this state of
things, it is above all necessary to investigate the conditions
under which, and. the situations_in which, the lymphatics
contain cellzform elements previously to their reaching the
lymphatic glands, and where not; an investigation which,
when carried out sufficiently, is more difficult than it appears
at first sight. Although I have had neither opportunity nor
leisure of instituting detailed researches on this subject, still
I am in a condition to communicate some facts, which may
serve as an introduction to further inquiries.
In a large Dog, which had been copiously fed a few hours
before death, and in which all the lymphatics of the abdo-
minal organs were distended, H. Miiller and TI found, in all
the lacteals proceeding from "the Peyerian glands, (which in
such cases are always enlarged,) in every preparation, a con-
siderable amount of colourless cells. The chyle from the
other vessels of the small intestine, however, also contained
cells, but these were in general less abundant, though in one
case likewise the number was not inconsiderable. In the
same way also the lymphatics arising from the large intestine
contained a certain number of cells in the pale-coloured
lymph. On the other hand, we were unable to discover a
trace of celleform elements in the lymph taken from the
much-distended vessels of the liver.
Upon the supposition, therefore, that the solitary follicles
of the small and large intestine communicate with lymphatic
vessels, these facts would appear to correspond with the
hypothesis, that the lymphatic glands and the analogous
follicles of the intestines are the only sites of formation of
the lymph-cells.
On the other hand, again, I invariably found in the large
lymphatics of the spermatic cord of the Bull, close to the
epididymis, in several very carefully-examined cases, a certain,
though it is true but small, number of cells, which were in-
distinguishable from lymph-corpuscles,
Further investigation, for which I would recommend the
lymphatic vessels on the extérior of the gastric mucous mem-
brane of the Pig, and those of the uterus and liver in the
large mammalia, will show in what cases lymph-cells exist
INFLUENCE OF ALKALIES ON SPERMATIC FILAMENTS. 293
in lymphatics, which haye no connexion of any kind with
glandular organs. Should it thus appear, of which I can
scarcely doubt, that the occurrence of these corpuscles, ob-
served by me in the lymphatics of the testis, is a frequent
event, the origin of these lymph-cells will have to be traced
further, and above all, it will be requisite to consider whether,
perhaps, the epithelial cells of the smaller lymphatics may
mot participate in this cell-formation more than we have
hitherto been inclined to believe.
On the InrwueNce of Caustic ALKaLies upon the Mortons. of
the Spermatic Firaments. By A. Korumer, . (Siebold
and Kollik. Zeitsch. f. w. Zool., vol, vii., p. 181, March 26,
1855.)
SETrinG out with the well-known observation of Virchow
(Virch. Archiv., vol. vi. p. 1383, 1853; Quart. Journ. Mic.
Sci., vol. ii., p. 108), with respect to the action of caustic
‘potass and soda on the cilia, I have in the last winter inyes-
tigated their action upon the spermatic filaments. To my
agreeable surprise a perfect correspondence was exhibited
between these two motile bodies, except that I noticed an
influence from ammonia upon the spermatic filaments, which
-had.not been observed by Virchow in the cilia. In order to
observe the action of caustic alkalies upon the spermatic
filaments, the best mode of proceeding is to allow them to
; become perfectly quiescent in a dilute solution of sugar or of
albumen, and afterwards to introduce the caustic in small
_quantity beneath the covering glass. It will then be seen
wherever the potass or soda reaches that the mass is again
_ put into the most lively motion, fully as active as that of
. the perfectly-fresh spermatozoids; but after a short time
.(4—1—2 minutes) a total quiescence takes place, from which
_ the spermatic filaments cannot in any way be again roused.
» This phenomenon is best. witnessed on the application of a
solution containing from 1 to 5 parts in 100 of caustic soda
_or potass. In stronger solutions it undoubtedly takes place,
. but in this case the movement is soon over, nor does it occur
mm all the filaments, many of which, and especially those which
_ first. come into contact with the stream, exhibit, instead of
active vibratile and locomotive movements, only a few rota-
_ tions on the axis, and then become quiescent in the extended
_-posture. Concentrated solutions of caustic alkalies, contain-
ing from 10 to 50 in 100, also produce the phenomena of
_-revivification in a mass of quiescent spermatic filaments, and
294 ON THE RESTORATION OF THE MOTIONS OF
in a well-marked manner, but in this case care is still more
requisite than with more dilute solutions. fw jud
The above phenomenon is witnessed not only in the Mam-
malia in which I first observed it, but also in the Amphibia,
except that in the latter (Frog) far more dilute solutions of
caustic alkalies are required to produce it, the spermatic fila-
ments of these animals being much more readily destroyed
than those of the Mammalia. As respects the Birds and
Fishes, my observations in these classes are not concluded, ~
Whea the action of caustic alkalies upon the spermatic
filaments is observed farther, it is obvious that they are
powerful excitants, not only in concentrated solutions, but
that they also exert an influence in dilute solutions also. Ifa
solution of sugar, which does not affect the movements of the
spermatic filaments, be mixed with a small quantity of caustic
potass, so as to make a solution containing 1-1000 to 1-5000
of the alkali, it will be seen that a fluid of this kind not
only maintains the motions of the filaments for hours together,
but that it renders them even more lively than inthe pure
syrup itself, so that it would seem as if very weak alkaline
fluids of a certain strength are the most favourable to the
movement of the spermatic filaments.
On the RESTORATION of the Motions of the SPERMATOZOIDS
of the Mamata. By MM. Mo.escuorr and J. C.
RiccHETII. (Comptes rendus, No. 13, Mars 26, 1855.)
THE author’s researches were made on the spermatozoids of
the Bull, taken in each experiment from the epididymis.
These spermatozoids have a lynx-shaped head, the depression
in which is small and situated towards the inferior third, and
a very long tail, furnished with a minute appendicular
nodosity, which is soluble in the alkalies, and is usually
placed in the middle of the filament, though in some indiyi-
duals it is situated nearer to the head.
When the testes have been procured from an animal recently
killed, the vitreous humour, diluted with three parts of water
and filtered, is very appropriate for the observation of the
movements of the spermatozoids; but this fluid is no longer
sufficient when the testes have been kept for one or several
days. In order, then, to revive the spermatozoids, we are
acquainted with nothing which succeeds better than solutions
of common carbonate or phosphate of soda, containing 5-100th
of the salt. By this means, even after the lapse of two days,
all the characteristic movements of the spermatozoids may ~
‘
7
3
.
4
: |
THE SPERMATOZOIDS OF THE MAMMALIA, 295
be excited. » At first, only a few exhibit trembling vibrations,
but which are soon communicated to others, and in two or
three minutes the whole are in motion as actively as in the
recent secretion. We have several times succeeded in _re-
animating these motions of the spermatozoids, in the secretion
which had been retained in the epididymis three or four days
after the death of the animal, at a temperature varying from
5° to 20° Cent. If, instead of solutions of the above strength,
more concentrated ones are employed, the action is commonly
slower, weaker, and, above all, less general ;. nevertheless we
haye occasionally seen. movements produced quite as rapid,
and also quite as general. by means of a solution, containing
1-10th of the salt ; a solution containing 1-i00th of the salt is
usually imert. .
Chloride of sodium, is less efficient than the phosphate or
the carbonate of soda, inasmuch as its action is only. very
feeble beyond 48 hours after the death of the animal. . But
it is extremely remarkable, that a solution containing .not
more than 1-100th of common. salt produces the greatest
effect, whilst solutions containing 5, 10, and 26:4 per cent,
have none at all, and even solutions of 3 to 4 per cent..are far
less active than those with 1 per cent...The latter surpasses
in efficiency the solution of sulphate of soda, which, like the
carbonate and phosphate, ought to be of the strength of
5-100th. Solutions containing 1 to 10 parts of the sulphate
in 100 have a feeble action, and the concentrated solution
produces none at all. Ordinarily the solution of sulphate of
soda, containing 5 parts in 100, is less certain in its effects
and: less active and durable than the carbonate, phosphate, and
chloride, particularly if the secretion is not recent,
As for the salts of potass, we have compared the carbonate
ina solution containing 5 in 100, and the chloride in one con-
taining 1.in 100... Their action is less constant, slower, less
lively and less general than that of the salts of soda,
What has been said of the semen of the Bull does not apply
to that of the Frog (Rana esculenta). . According to our obsery-
ations, common salt retards the movements of the spermato-
zoid.of the latter animal; the phosphate and the carbonate
cause them to cease altogether. ‘he spermatozoid of the Frog
coil up in-solutions of the same salts, and at the same degree
of concentration, as revive those of the Bull with the greatest
energy. » This difference recalls a fact observed by M. Moles-
chott, that the blood-corpuscles of birds (Fowls, Pigeons) are
less corrugated under the action of saline solutions than are
those of the Mammalia and of the Frog.
296 ON THE VITALITY AND DEVELOPMENT OF
Y of soy mon
On the Veadinees and Devevopment of the ‘Sree Fiva-
MENTs. By A. Kotter. (From the Verhand. d. bt
med. Gesellsch. in Wiirzb. Bd. V1., 1855.)
REFERRING to a former communication (vide p. 293), con-
taining the observation, that. caustic alkalies are powerful
tixeitants of the spermatic filaments, the author believes that
he has now arrived at certain results, of which the present
paper. gives a preliminary account, the more detailed
exposition of his inquiries being reserved for a. future
oceasion.
The results which he has obtained, with respect to the
motile phenomena of the spermatic filaments, are embraced
in the following propositions, which haye reference to the
Mammalia. ,
1. In pure semen, taken from the epidermis and vas deferens, motile
spermatic filaments exist in very great abundance.
2. In water and aqueous solutions of all innocuous, indifferent substances
and salts, the motion of the filaments ceases, and they form loops.
3. These filaments, thus furnished with loops, are not dead, as has
hitherto been generally believed; for, on the contrary, they revive com-
pletely upon the subsequent addition of concentrated solutions of innocuous,
indifferent substances (sugar, albumen, urea), and of salts.
4, In all animal fluids, when considerably concentrated, or highly
saline, which are not too acid nor too alkaline, nor too viscid, ‘the motions
of the spermatic filaments are unimpaired ; this is the case, for instance,
in blood, lymph, alkaline or neutral urine, alkaline milk, thin mucus,
thick bile, the vitreous humour,—but not in saliva, acid, or strongly-
ammioniacal urine, acid milk or mucus, the gastric juice, thin bile, and
thick mucus. ‘When the proper degree of concentration of the latter fluids
is successfully attained, and their ‘Teaction is rendered neutral, ‘they are
innocuous.
5. In all solutions of indifferent organic substances moderately concen
trated the filaments move with perfect facility—thus in all kinds of syrup,
in albumen, urea, glycerin, salicin, amygdalin. More concentrated so.
tions of these substances cause the motion to cease, but it is restored upon
their subsequent dilution with water. Too dilute solutions act in the
same way as water (vide 2 and 3).
6. Certain solutions, as they are termed, of indifferent organic substances
act like water, however much they may be concentrated, such as solutions
of gum arabic, vegetable mucus (gum tragacanth, mucilagé of quince-
seeds), and of dextrin. Concentrated solutions of other substances, in
this case.also,. restore the motions,
7. Many organic substances cause the motions of the filaments to AY an
owing to their chemical action upon them, such as alcohol, creosote
tannin, tad ether; others owing to their mechanical effects, as ‘Tost oils.
Narcotics, in certain degrees of concentration, are not injurious. (ofl}
8. Metallic salts are injurious, even in extremely dilute solutions ; such,
for instance, as a solution containing yo}s5 of corrosive sublimate.
9. Most of the alkaline and ear thy salts are innocuous in certain de, rees
of concentration, which in some is greater and in some less ; so little
hurtful, in fact, are they, that the filaments may be kept alive in them for
' “THE SPERMATIC FILAMENTS. 297
from one to four hours. Among these may be enumerated solutions of—
common) ‘salt; chloride of potassium; sal ammoniac; nitrate of soda ;
nitrate of potass, containing 1 part to 100: moreover, solutions containing
from 5 to 10 parts in 100 of phosphate of soda; sulphate of soda ; sulphate
of magnesia ; chloride of barium. As regards some of these salts, the fact
had been, previously noticed by older writers, and more recently by
Quatrefages, Newport, and Ankermann. Solutions unduly diluted have
the same effect as water, and cause the formation of loops, but the filaments
are revived upon the addition of a concentrated solution of the same salts
and of indifferent substances (sugar, urea, &c.). Stronger saline solutions
than are required, also interfere with the motions; but, in this case like-
wise, the filaments are capable of revival upon the addition of water.
These salts can scarcely be regarded properly as revivifiers, as was asserted
not long since by Moleschott and Ricchetti (vide p. 294), for filaments
which have become quiescent in indifferent substances, as sugar, for
instance, are not revivified again by them; and their action is widely
different from that of the real excitants—the caustic alkalies. It cannot
be denied that their influence is very favourable, and that (but perhaps
owing only to their rapid diffusion in the water) they produce motion in a
seminal mass more rapidly than other less diffusible substances, such as
sugar and albumen; on which account the above-named authors ascribe
revivifying properties to them —a fact which, before them, had been made
known, as regards common salt, by Quatrefages, and by Newport, for
carbonate of soda and potass ; which latter salts, moreover, in my experi-
ments, caused the motion to cease in 10! or 15', almost like the caustie
alkalies.
10. Acids, even in very small quantity, are injurious; such as hydro-
chlorie acid, in the proportion of 45. .
- 11. Caustic alkalies (soda, potass, and ammonia, not lime and barytes),
in all degrees of concentration, from 4 to § are special excitants of the
spermatic filaments. Whether the latter have become quiescent spon-
taneously, as in old semen, or have ceased to move in indifferent solutions,
the above substances recall the most active movements which are not dis-
tinguishable from the vital. But these motions cease after two or three
minutes, and from this quiescence the filaments cannot be roused by any
means. When mixed with indifferent substances in small proportions
(from ys to 4;), as, for instance, in syrup, the caustic alkalies afford
a means by which the motions of the spermatic filaments may be main-
tained for a long time.
12. Semen dried in indifferent substances, and in saline solutions, may,
in certain cases, have its motion restored by dilution with the same fluid,
or with water.
So much, as regards the Mammalia, with which, so far as
the author has had an opportunity of observing, the Birds
correspond in all essential particulars. In the Amphibia,
as, for instance, in the Frog, a difference was so far observable
that the spermatic filaments, owing to their chemical consti-
tution, required less concentrated solutions, in order to exhibit
their natural motion On this account water and aqueous
solutions have very slightly-deleterious effects on them; and
greater dilution is requisite in the saline solutions, in order
o exhibit the movements, than in the Mammalia. That is
io say, one-half per cent. solutions of common salt ; chloride
298 ON THE VITALITY AND DEVELOPMENT OF
of potassium; chloride of ammonium; nitrate of potass; nitrate
of soda; carbonate of soda; and solutions containing. z}5th of
phosphate of soda; sulphate of soda ; sulphate of magnesia 5.
muriate of lime; muriate of barytes, &c. All the other con-.
ditions are alike: thus, in particular, the revivification from
concentrated saline solutions, except that the alkalies act as
excitants only in very weak solutions, and are destructive in
stronger.
The spermatic filaments of Fish, in their behaviour towards
water, correspond more with those of the Amphibia, but they
are by no means so long-lived. They are distinguished also from
those of the Amphibia, and of all other vertebrate animals,
by the greater delicacy of their structure, and by the difficulty
which exists in the finding of media favourable to their motion,
In general the same degree of concentration in the solutions
should be employed with them as with the spermatic filaments
of the Frog, except that it seems there are but few substances,
such as phosphate of soda in the proportion of 1 per cent.,
and of sulphate of magnesia of the same strength, which are
altogether favourable to them ; but in these media I have seen
them in active motion for from six to twelve hours ; and such
solutions are perhaps adapted for the prolonged maintenance
in an active state of the seminal fluid of Fish. The revivifi-
cation after the action of water and of too concentrated solutions
takes place in them in the same way as in the spermatic filaments
of the Mammalia. The caustic alkalies also act upon them as
excitants, though only in dilute solutions of 4} to + per cent.
for in stronger the filaments are immediately destroyed.
When these facts are carefully considered, it is obvious
that it is impossible, with Ankermann, to regard the motions
of the spermatic filaments as the effect simply of endosmosis.
I consider that they are induced by molecular changes in
the interior of the filaments, which, though unknown, may
at present be compared with those in the muscular fibres,
and still more aptly to the ciliary organs of the Infusoria,
and to cilia in general, Should any one be inclined to the
opinion, that the revivification of filaments which have been
treated with water, by the application of concentrated solu-
tions, as of sugar, salts, albumen, &c., as well as the restoration
of motion by means of water, after treatment with too concen-
trated saline solutions, are circumstances in favour of Anker-
mann’s views, I would remark, that the Infusoria and cilia
also behave in the same way towards saline and other solutions.
The Opaline—minute Infusoria from the rectum of the
Frog, and the cilia of the Frog’s tongue—move in a solution of
common salt of | per cent., and of phosphate of soda of the
THE SPERMATIC FILAMENTS. 299
strength of from 5 to 10 per cent. In a solution of salt of
5 per cent., and of sugar of from 10 to 15 per cent., they
shrink up and become quiescent, though reviving upon the
addition of water: I have even succeeded in reviving the
Opaline, after they had been treated with a solution of
commion salt, in the proportion of 5th.
With respect to the development of the spermatic filaments,
I will here say only this much, that, from my latest observa-
tions, they are not developed in the nuclei of the spermatic
cells and cysts, but owt of them. These nuclei, which occur
either singly in small cells, or in numbers together, free in
larger ceils and cysts, become elongated, and push out from
one end a filamentary process, whilst the principal mass con-
stitutes the body of the filament. The spermatic filaments
are at first coiled up in the cells and cysts, and are afterwards
liberated by the perforation of these receptacles, in doing
which they frequently carry with them portions of the walls,
forming the appendages and hood-like cauls which have been
already pointed out by other observers.
(300) "
{+ on Faw forny 2
NOTES AND CORRESPONDEN CE. to Sie
hy ae
Reply to some Remarks by F. H. Wenham, —In an article. by
F. H. Wenham, Esq., of London, published in the ‘Quar-
terly Journal of "Microscopical Science’ for July, 1854, I haye
noticed the following paragraph :—
** These experiments [made by Mr. Wenham] will readily
account for the difficulty of discovering the markings or struc-
ture of a severe test when mounted in balsam; for as thus
seen it may be inferred that no aperture exceeding 85° can
be made to bear upon it, and this is even supposing that the
largest aperture object-glass that has ever been constructed is
ianseds 1 Such being the case I am somewhat. puzzled at an
announcement ‘that appears to contradict) this. fact, coming
from one that» mustbe considered. as authority in these
matters. I refer to Professor Bailey, who, in a letter addressed
to Matthew’ Marshall, -Esq., dated’ January, 20,.1852,. first
speaks of an American object-glass of very large aperture
(1723°), and its performance on the most difficult tests known,
and then proceeds to say, ‘In all these cases. (and. in fact
whenever I allude to a test-object) I-mean. the balsam-mounted
specimens. The dry shells 1 never use as tests.) This asser-
tion seems to me to be extraordinary, and very like ‘saying
that an aperture of 85° or 90°. will do everything that-is re-
quired. I have invariably found that when very difficult tests
are mounted in balsam [ cannot. discover the markings, and
certainly the reasons herein. given will account for it. /It.is
to be hoped that the American opticians have discoyered
some new and peculiar principle in object-glasses, that wall
render a smaller amount of aperture serviceable ; but howeyer
this may be, I think that Professor Bailey’s statement requires
some explanation.” —Journ. Mic. Science, July, 1854, p. 219.
It is apparent from the above that Mr. Wenham. has con-
vinced himself, both by “reasons” and experiment, that_I
ought not to have seen the markings on delicate test-objects
when mounted in balsam; and that ashe invariably found
that he could not discover these markings, therefore some
new and peculiar principle in object-glasses must haye been
discovered to account for the success of American opticians.
In answer to this I would state that both in print, as well as
in private letters, I stand fully committed to the statement
that I can resolve the most difficult tests. known even. when
mounted in balsam, In 1849-1 stated in this Journal, vol. vii.,
p- 268, that ‘the resolution of these tests mounted pk 'y is, so
MEMORANDA. 301
much easier than when in balsam, that objects thus mounted
are of little value im testing the powers of lenses, although
they may answer well when the end is to make out the real
structure of the object itself.” In fact I have up to this time
met with no object which, when mounted dry presents. suffi-
cient difficulty to rank as a severe test-object, while there are
many which when balsam-mounted become very satisfac-
tory.
It is certainly no duty of mine to explain why Mr. Wenham
has failed in his attempts to resolve the balsam-mounted spe-
cimens, particularly as the resolution of such tests is a matter
of every-day amusement with microscopists in this country,
and I believe Mr. Wenham does injustice to the microscopists
‘and microseopes of London, in representing the English
glasses as incapable of doing as much. That the English
lenses are capable of performing well on balsam-mounted
objects of considerable difficulty I know by my own trials, some
‘of which are referred to in the following paragraph from a
paper recently published in the ‘Smithsonian Contributions
to Knowledge,’ vol. vii., p. 14 :—“ I would here state that in
the spring of 1853, I resolved the Greenport Grammatophora
[balsam-mounted] unmistakably by a 1-4th of an inch objec-
tive made by Spencer, and subsequently by a 1-4th recently
made by Powell of London for Dr. Varnarsdale of New
“York.”
* As Mr. Wenham does not mention the names of the test-
‘objects employed by him, I cannot say that they may not: be
‘more difficult than any known to me; yet I feel no hesitation
“in challenging him to produce an object resolvable when dry,
“which I cannot resolve when balsam-mounted. I will also
state that I at present know of no test-object more. difficult
than a supposed variety of Grammatophora stricta, Ehr., from
“Halifax, N.S. This is as much more difficult than the Pro-
‘vidence’ Grammatophora, as the latter is more. difficult than
‘the Greenport ‘specimens. Asa supply of the last two
‘varieties has been in London for two years they are probably
“known to Mr. Wenham, and may have been subjected) to
“experiments by him. That the balsam-mounted specimens
“of all these objects can be satisfactorily resolved is well
“known to American observers ; and the following statement
given by Judge A. S. Johnson, in vol. xiii., p. 32. of this
“Journal, is fully confirmatory of my own experience. Speak-
“ing of a new object-glass of 1744°, made in July, 1851, by
‘Spencer, the following remarks are made :-—
“The light failing us as evening was approaching, we did
hot try in this way either the Amici test or the Providence
302 MEMORANDA.
Grammatophora, but in the evening we saw both these
objects [balsam-mounted ] satisfactorily resolved into dots by
unreflected oblique light from one wick of a common bed-
chamber lamp, burning oil, a homely but very effective
method of illumination for abjsctives of large apertures.”
It appears then that the resolution of balsam-mounted spe-
cimens of difficult test-objects can be accomplished, in spite
of Mr. Wenham’s arguments and experience to the contrary.
The error in his arguments will be sufficiently obvious ‘to any
one who will trace the course of a divergent pencil of rays
out of the balsam instead of into it, as im Mr. Wenham’s
experiments, and it will then be seen that large angles of
aperture are as useful for balsam-mounted specimens as for
others. I leave the defence of large angles of aperture to the
professed optician, being well satisfied that, notwithstanding
the extraordinary attempts made by certain writers in Eng-
land to underrate the value of the improvements made in this
direction, no one who has once employed a properly-corrected
object-class of large aperture will ever be satisfied with one
of a different inetracian —Proressor J. BarLey, in Ame-
rican Journal of Science and Arts.
Aperture of Object-Glasses im relation to Objects in Canada
In continuation of this subject 1 have to bring for-
ward a few experiments recently made, for the purpose of
viewing objects with the full aperture of the object-glass,
when mounted in Canada balsam.
The fact that balsam does diminish the angle of aperture
of the microscopic object-glass when in action for Viewing a
structure, mounted in the substance of that or any other
refractive medium, has already been sufficiently demonstrated,
both theoretically and practically, in the papers of Professor
Robinson and myself; and I consider that no further proofs
are requisite for establishing the truth of a position, which a
few simple experiments can be made to convey the most
direct conviction to unassisted eyesight, and which is so
strictly based upon the very first laws of incidence and
refraction, . 4
306 MEMORANDA.
variety of specimens of the fructification of Ferns and Mosses.
The same class of objects were exhibited by Mr. Loddiges. _
Mr. Bowerbank exhibited a series of the anchor-like processes
from the Holothuriade and Polyps. Mr. Varley exhibited
Chara, Valisneria, and living Animalcules. The Rev. J. Reade
exhibited a series of crystalline bodies ; whilst Mr. Woodward.
threw a new light on every object by his beautiful polarising
apparatus. Plants, pictures, and objects of general interest
crowded the tables; but these were rather the adornments
than the substantial entertainment of the evening. Were we
to give an account of all that was worth seeing, it would take
up too large an amount of our space. We have felt ourselves
justified in giving these soirées this notice, both on account
of the respect we feel for the Master of the Apothecaries’
Society, at whose suggestion these interesting soirées were
arranged, and for the intrinsic benefit which must arise from
presenting to the mind at one time so large a number of the
facts which have been discovered by the aid of the micro-
scope. We are glad to be able to add that the friends of
Mr. Ward are raising a subscription for the purpose of pre-
senting his portrait to the Linnean Society, to be placed
amongst the collection of portraits of distinguished naturalists
in the meeting-room of that Society.—E. L.
Cheap Microscopes.—We announced in our last number that
the Society of Arts had offered two prizes for cheap micro-
scopes. From the following extract from the Report of the
Committee of that Society it will be seen that it has succeeded
in obtaining this desirable object :—
“The important position which the Microscope now holds,
not only in relation to pure but to applied science, and its
great value in assisting to form those habits of observation
which it is the object of all sound education to impart, in-
duced the Council to believe that the promoting the pro-
duction of a good instrument at a price which should render
it more readily accessible to the many, was an object worthy
of the Society; and, accordingly, under the advice and with
the assistance of a Committee, composed of Mr. Busk, F.R.S. ;
Dr. Carpenter, F.R.S.; Mr. Jackson; Dr. Lankester, F.R.S. ;
Mr. Quekett ; and Mr. W. W. Saunders, F.R.S., the follow-
ing prizes were offered :—
For a School Microscope, to be sold to the public at a price not exceeding
10s. 6d.—The Society’s Medal.
For a Teacher’s or Student’s Microscope, to be sold to the public at a
price not exceeding 3/. 3s.—The Society’s Medal.
The Council undertook to purchase 100 of the smaller, and
MEMORANDA. 307
50 of the larger instruments for which the medals should be
awarded,
“The members will be glad to learn that for these prizes
there have been numerous competitors. After most careful
examination of all the instruments by the Committee, they
unanimously reported to the Council that the instruments
sent in by Messrs. Field and Co., of Birmingham, fulfilled
all the conditions required, and the Council have, therefore,
awarded to that firm the medals offered, on Messrs. Field and
Co. entering into the necessary undertakings to comply with
the requirements of the Prize List. ‘The Council congratulate
the members on this result. Those members who are desirous
of securing any of these instruments, which will shortly be
supplied to the Society by Messrs. Field, at a discount of
10 per cent., should at once send in their names to the
Secretary.”—Excerpt Annual Report of the Council of the
Society of Arts to the Members, presented at the Gencral Meet-
ing, June 13, 1855.
On “Species” of Diatomacez.—In your Journal for J anuary
Professor Smith has made some valuable observations on what
is a species among Diatomacee, in which he enforces the
necessity of studying these beings in the recent state before
one can decide on what ought to be reckoned distinct. This
is the more necessary as it appears to me that neither size of
the frustules or distance of the strie are sufficient to distin-
guish species, unless we allow to each a very considerable
range of variation.
What are called “species” in Diatomacez may be viewed
under a twofold aspect :—1st. A species as it exists in nature,
requiring a study of every state from the sporangium to the
sporangium-bearing individual: 2nd, As serves the purposes
of the microscopist, who gives names to every difference of
form or size he observes that is not already figured. To the
latter class may be referred. most of Ehrenberg’s, Kiitzing’s,
and Gregory’s species ; and it would be preferable to indicate
them by 1, 2, 3, &c., to giving names to each, until Smith or
some other naturalist can ascertain to what genuine species
such forms may be referred. It is a natural species alone
which is worthy of the attention of scientific men.
A diatom increases in two different ways—by sporangia,
and by self-division. The length of time before a diatom
produces sporangia probably varies considerably in different
genera, and even in different species, but seems rarely, if ever,
to be less than three or four months. On the other hand the
power of self-division, although supposed by some to belong
x2
b)
308 MEMORANDA.
only to the mature, frustule, seems really, to. exist Pi ; very
early age, as soon indeed as a frustule is formed. iy:
sporangium. Between. the young state and the fully formed
or sporangial one there must thus be a considerable difference
in size; and, as the number of frustules (the produce of one
sporangium ‘by self-division) increase in a geometrical pro- .
gression, we may always expect to find many more of the larger
than we ‘did a short time previously of the smaller size, in the ©
same pool. All the frustules from the same sporangium
exhibit probably nearly the same size at the same age; but in ~
the same locality other sporangia may have been deposited, so
that we find the same species of different ages or sizes mixed
together. The minimum and the maximum state is therefore
one of the points that require to be decided on by naturalists
before we can form a definite idea of any one species,
The striz on the valves of a species requires also. to be
studied; and here the question arises, is the distance between
the ae or their number in -001 inch, constant? or does
the distance vary with the size of the valve, the number on
the entire valve being constant, when the frustules are all the
produce of the same sporangium ? Solong as this remains un-
determined by actual observation, it is of no use counting the
number of stria in a given space, or of talking of any species
being a test for object-lenses._ Mr. Sollitt, of Hull, im giying
the number of striz of Pleurosigma quadratum and ‘angulatum
(Microscopical Journal, II., p. 62, when by P. angulatum he
meant P. guadratum, and by Re strigosum is meant P. angu-
latum of Smith), points out a considerable difference between
the distance of the striz in small and large specimens, and
that they are more distant in the latter; as however he does
not give the exact length of the frustules, nor say that the
valves were found in the same gathering, or if obtained from
the same locality at some weeks’ distance of time, no positive
conclusions can be drawn from his measurements. So far as
my own observations. go, the number of stria in the entire
valve is tolerably constant, whether small or large, when ob-
tained at the same season and from the same locality 5, and
consequently the actual number in ‘001 in, is of less, conse-
quence than generally supposed, unless we multiply. that
number by the length of the valve, Smith’s 2 and y of Pleu-
rosigma Balticum seem, to have nearly the same total number
of striae, as in his a3 but the first is about half the size of y,
and the other about one-third; so the stria in these ought to
be from two to three times closer than in a, and this agrees
well with observation; these two, then, cannot, be consi¢ ered
in the light of warieties of a, but merely a younger state of the
MEMORANDA. 309
same diatom. Other instances might be mentioned in which
the total number of striz is more constant than the number in
“O01 i in. It is obvious that if the number in ‘001 in. be constant
vat all ages, we must allow that in passing from the youngest
state to maturity the valves have the power of adding new
stria as they grow larger, but whether these additions are at
‘the extremities or at the centre no one has taken the trouble
to investigate. It may be alleged that the new valves formed
by the process of self-division acquire more numerous strize
‘than before ; but while it is generally conceded that one of
‘the old valves remain in each frustule, this explanation’ can
scarcely be admitted, unless we are prepared also to allow
that there may be a great dissimilarity in the strie bétween
the two valves of the same frustules. If the total number of
~ striz in the valves remain constant, we must suppose the striz
to separate slightly as this valve enlarges ; and this supposi-
tion appears to me more in accordance with observations
‘hitherto recorded, although, no doubt, such observations have
“not been made direttly:i in reference to this point.
’ If the number of striz on the entire valve be found more
constant than the number in a given space (and here some
_allowance must be made for the produce of different sporangia
not being identically the same either in size at the same age,
or in the precise number of striz to each valve), we may often
“have a criterion whereby to decide whether a frustule be the
“peg state of a species or a distinct species or variety. 1
ave alluded to the 6 and y of P. Balticum not being
_entitled to rank as varieties, any more than a lamb is a distinct
bar iety of a sheep; but, on the otler hand, if we examine
“'Nitzschia dubia of Smith, we shall find not only that his
“js much smaller than the a, Hi that while the stria of a are
“difficult to be resolved by a } those in # are readily made’ out,
_ being more distant. The Sia state here has more distant
F strize than. the large one, and although sometimes mixed in the
‘same gathering cannot possibly be ‘the young of the other; it
“may form a peculiar var lety, but my observations tend» to
ba dy it the rank of a species, if indeed it do not belong to a
different genus,
Sufficient attention has not yet been paid to the sporangial
Biba of the diatoms; from the observations recorded by
hwaites, Smith, and thers: different genera seem to follow
‘different laws on the subject. In Navicula this state appears
to be always accompanied by a great dilation of the frustule,
and the formation of a strong bine or band between the inedinn
z ne and the margin; sometimes the new line is nearly straight
q
,
“h
3
4
"Di |
and parallel to the median line except near ‘the nodule, with
310 MEMORANDA.
which it seems connected ; sometimes it is curved ; but whether
both structures occur in the same species, or are indicative of
different species, no eyidence has hitherto been adduced.
Smith’s figures 152a*, 154a, and 274a, may be taken as
examples of the one, and 152a, 158a, and particularly 153a
and 154a*, of the other. ‘The striz appear, however, to pre-
serve nearly the same inclination to the new or intermediate
lines which they did in the non-sporangial state to the median
line; and hence the direction of the striew is not sufficient of
itself to distinguish species, however good a character it may
afford, unless regard be had to the peculiar state of the frustule.
Perhaps I may be allowed here to remark that from the
days of Linneus it has been a maxim, although specimens be
distributed or figures given with names, such names are held
to be unpublished unless clear and precise specific and generic
characters be given along with them; and that he who gives
such characters is not bound, except through courtesy, to
adopt or refer to the names attached to new figures. The
reason is obvious; specimens or figures only exhibit one form
of the species, and afford no information as to its limits, and
consequently the same author may, from ignorance of the laws
on which species are to be founded, give representations of
several forms of the same species; such names, if all the
forms were specifically distinct, may be good, but bad when
they are to be united ; the describer or naturalist must, there-
fore, not be hampered by the errors of the artist or microsco-
pist who preceded him. In Ehrenberg’s Mikrogeologia, the
most unphilosophical work ever published on Diatomacez,
not one species, although supposed new, is characterized; and
unless one has samples of the same deposit he has depicted,
it is quite impossible to guess with any degree of certainty
what he intends, unless in some very rare instances. His
Biblarium glans is readily seen, no doubt, to be the well-
known Tetracyclus lacustris, of which Ehrenberg appears
ignorant, and his Synedra ? hemicyclus to be Eunotia fala of
Gregory, but few others can be so readily made out. In this
respect Kiitzing’s works have an advantage over Ehrenberg’s ;
but in many cases Kiitzing merely derives his specific cha-
racter from Ebrenberg’s figures and not from the diatom
itself, thus adding to the confusion. In the same way in your
Journal are several papers by Dr. Gregory, accompanied with
figures, but as no specific characters are assigned the figures
lose their value, as no one is bound to adopt the names there
given,
In characterizing species a great mistake has crept in of —
late years not only as to diatoms, but as to flowering plants ;
MEMORANDA. 3Il
a species is defined, and then we get £, y, 6, &c., noticed as
varieties, each with characters at variance with the character
of the species. A genus must be characterized so as to
include every species referred to it; and in the same way a
species must have a character that will include all its varieties,
or at least not exclude any one of them. No one has a right
to say which variety is the type of a species, when all may
have arisen from the same original seed; the primitive form
may be 8, or «, or X, of that we are totally ignorant. All we
can do is to arrange the varieties according to some arbitrary
rule, and to define each, a as well as 0, or 7; the peculiar
character of a cannot be incorporated with the diagnosis of
the species without doing violence to the other varieties, and
in fact separating them as distinct species, although the author
has not had the courage to do so, from indeed feeling con-
vinced they are not so.
Although I consider the distance between the strie to
depend considerably on the age and size of the frustule, I
wish it to be distinctly understood that as yet we have not
sufficient information whether the number of striz may not
also vary slightly in the same way. It is possible that both
variations take place; but until the law connecting them be
ascertained, all attempts to derive specific characters from the
strie are futile, if not injurious, to the science, unless we
allow a very considerable range, so great indeed as to destroy
the utility of such characters. If, as some microscopists
think, the strie are the walls, and dots the angles formed by
the walls of minute compressed cellules, the surface of the
valve of a diatom ought to be compared with the cuticle of a
flowering-plant, which consists of cellular tissue so highly
compressed that the upper and lower walls touch each other,
leaving the lateral ones in the form of reticulating veins, these
vein-like reticulations having a certain thickness as well as
height: in viewing these by direct light, we see only the
breadth of each line, while obliquely, or by oblique light,
causing an oblique shadow or picture to enter the object-glass,
we see also its height, and therefore a greater surface of the
reticulating lines reaching the eye by oblique than by direct
light, we see these lines more distinctly. If the strie of
diatoms be formed in that way, we might easily understand
that the ease of making them out does not depend on the
distance from each other so much as on the breadth of the
lines or dots in connexion with their elevation ; and therefore,
although the actual distance of such be the same, we may
resolve some frustules of the same species more easily than
others. Diatomacez are thus not so good tests for the micro-
312 MEMORANDA.
scope as supposed, unless the same slide be seed by all
observers,—A. ites! etd
On a New Locality of Microscopic Test-objects.— In a Smith-
sonian memoir published in February, 1854,* I have described
and figured a species of Hyalodiscus from Halifax, Nova
Scotia, which appeared to me to be admirably fitted for a
test-object, inasmuch as its circular form, with radiant and
curved lines of great tenuity proceeding in all directions,
renders it unnecessary ever to change the position of the
shell when in the field of view in order to secure the best
possible direction of the light. Whatever its position, on
account of the perfect symmetry of its form and markings,”
some portion must always be in the best possible position with:
reference to the oblique light used for its examination. Unfor='
tunately, the Halifax specimens of this beautiful object’
appear to be quite rare, 1 am therefore happy to announce’
the discovery upon various Alge from Monterey, California,
of an inexhaustible supply of a species of Hyalodiscus closely
allied to the Halifax species, and answering equally well as a
test-object. I find it so convenient as a test-object when’
balsam-mounted that I am sure it will find favour with lovers@
of the microscope.—Prorgrssor J. Baruxry, in American
Journal of Science and Arts. ( DIGOW
A
»
Memoranda on Flies’ Feet. —In the Journal, Vol. ill., p- 230,.
Mr. Tyrrell, of Newcourt, remarks, “ In. confirmation of.
Mr. Hepworth and other naturalists, that the use of the,
cushions beset with hairs terminating in glands secreting a
glutinous substance, is to attach the foot to the surface upon _
which the insect Walks by means of such secretion, and not.
by suction, I would suggest that the hooks on the feet of flies.
are intended not to attach the Fly to anything, but to be used -
as fulcra, or props, which it can push against when it wishes.
toUétach the cushions. Without the hook- -shaped props, the .
Fly, when once stuck fast, must remain so.’ .
Mr. Tyrrell alludes to a paper in the previous Volume on,
the * Fly’s Foot,’ in which I state that this fluid is not essential _
for that purpose (of attaching the foot), and I speak of the . ;
tubules as suckers. My observations have led me to the fol-
lowing conclusions: yiz,; that the termination of each hair or.
tubule is a sucker, and thé secretion is only to. increase its.
* ‘Notes on Ne sw nee and Localities of Microscopical Organist
by J. W. Bailey, in ‘ Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge,’ Vol. Yat
p. 14. |
MEMORANDA. 313
power, on the same principle as that on which the boy wets
his leather to attach it to a stone; that the fluid is not of a
glutinous nature, as it evaporates very rapidly, and I lave not
been able to detect anything on the glass afterwards, when
the foot. has been perfectly clean: that each sucker is under
the influence of the will, and has either muscular fibres or
other elastic tissue, which answers the same purpose (vide
Professor A. Ecker’s paper, Journal, Vol. ii., page 111). If
the secretion were glutinous, and the foot were to be attached
for some time (twenty or thirty minutes, as I have often seen
it) to the same spot, it would get so firmly fixed, that if forei-
bly raised by the leverage of the hooks, these exceedingly
delicate structures would be destroyed. The Dytiscus, when
under water, is able to hold himself so firmly on glass, as to
require the weight of many pounds to overcome the power
with which he is attached ; whereas when the glass is dry,
there is no difficulty, [I have seena Fly (under the microscope
feet upwards) make one foot the centre of motion, and move
the body so far round it, as to cause the leg to form a consi-
derable angle (15 to 25 degrees). I conceive that, to overcome
the adhesion, if produced by a glutinous secretion, which is
sufficient to fix the foot under these circumstances, it would
require such an amount of power by means of leverage, as
would readily tear through the delicate ends of the tubules.
At other times, I have seen the insect so far loosen its hold, as
to allow the flap (cushion) to drag along the glass, and refix it
firmly, without lifting it off the glass. The round portion of
the flap of the blow- -fly is about the 1-100th of an inch in
diameter, which contains upwards of 6,000 suckers ; the trian-
gular part, extending for attachment up to the leg, will be about
a quarter more of that area: the flaps of one foot, then, will
have 15,000 or 16,000 points of attachment. Diagrams). Nos.
land 2, are fApEHee illustrations of the same principle. No,
1294 ati, from the pad of the foot of a small Curculio beetle ;
they expand into the form of a trumpet, and where the expan-
sion Commences they appear corrugated, and the corrugation
is continued to their extremities ; the expanded parts are ex-
tremely attenuated, so much so, as to require a high power
and oblique light to make pont out. These insects (not
being aquatic) also secrete a fluid for the same purpose as the
Fly: and I can imagine that if, after the ends have been at-
tached and moistened, these folds could be put upon the stretch,
thereby lengthening ‘the tubes, and consequently having a
tendency to “produce a vacuuin, they would form an extallent
apparatus for attachment.
No, 2 is the pad of a variety of Cymbex lutea, which las
314 MEMORANDA.
hairs similar to those of the flap of the Fly; the wing of this —
insect possesses hooklets.
No. 1.—Hairs of Curculio Beetle. a, a, a, shaft of hair; —
b, b,b, expanded ends. 400 diameters.
No. 2.—Leg of Cymbex lutea. a, b, c, d, cushions at each
joint. 24 diameters. ;
No. 3.—Enlarged view of c, showing hairs on the under —
surface. 110 diameters. ,
Joun Hepwortn, Croft’s Bank, May 31, 1855.
On Finders.—Contributors to these Notes have suggested —
many successful contrivances for indicating the exact position
of an object in a slide, but they all involve an amount of —
complex arrangement which is inconvenient in their practical —
application under a moderately-high power. A small, narrow —
ring, painted round the object on the surface of the thin glass —
cover with Prussian blue water-colour, will at last prove the
most serviceable, because it can at once be seen, when in the.
field, without altering the focus, and more readily than a ring
r
ee ee
MEMORANDA, 315
marked by a diamond, to which the focus must be first
directed. A little practice will soon lead to dexterity in
estimating the position of the object when the slide is on the
stage, and in making a touch or a line of colour thereon as a
guide for the position of the ring ; the work can be examined
under the microscope, and corrected and finished in any
convenient position. A red ring painted outside the blue
will render it more conspicuous, and assist observation when
under the microscope ; the colour should be used rather thick,
and the whole should have a slight protecting coat of gold size
or varnish. As objects are mounted for other purposes than
to furnish neatly the drawers of a cabinet, the facility in
using slides thus permanently marked will outweigh the
objections to the unsightly appearance.—J. H.
Memoranda on the Emplsyment of Artificial Sea-Water in Marine
Aquaria. —Early in the summer of last year I commenced some
experiments on artificial sea-water, made according to the
formula proposed by Mr. B.. Hi: Caste ; the ingredients in
the proper proportions having been procured fond Mr. Wm.
Bolton, 146, Holborn Bars, Roache In it I have successfully
maintained alive the following marine productions :—
ANIMALS. _ Mollusca.
Zoophytes. 26, Cynthia momus.
1. Clava multicornis. 27. Pecten opercularis.
2. Hydractinia echinata. 28. Doris pilosa.
8. Actinia Mesembryanthemum. 29. ,, tuberculata.
4 5» crassicornis, 30. Eolis coronata.
5 » bellis. 31. Nucula cristata.
6 »» parasitica. 32. Lamellaria perspicua.
7 » Dianthus. 33. Nerita
8 » anguicoma. 34. Littorina littorea.
9 » clavata. 35. Rissoa ?
10 Aurora. 36. Trochus zizyphinus.
11. Anthea cereus. 37. Purpura lapillus.
12, Caryophyllia Smithii. 38. Chiton fascicularis and C.
13. Sertularia polyzonias. leevis.
14 ie filicula. : |
15 Ae pumila. Cirrhipedes.
16. Flustra membranacea. ¢
17. Bowerbankia imbricata. oi Panis bean
18. Vesicularia spinosa.
Annelides. VEGETATION.
19. Serpula contortuplicata. |
20. ,, triquetra. 41. Ulva latissima.
21. Sabella r | 42, Enteromorpha compressa.
22. Terebella conchilega. | 43. Cladopora
23. Spio vulgaris. 44. Phyllophora rubens.
24. Nereis ? _ 45, Bryopsis plumosa.
25. Pontobdella muricata.
316 MEMORANDA.
The only accommodation provided for the whole of the
above is a series of -glass jars and vases placed on shelves in
the windows of an ordinary London dwelling-room, the largest
glass not exceeding three gallons capacity. It is not pre-
tended, however, that those animals, which are notoriously
short-lived in confinement (such for instance as Nos. 27 to 32)
even under the most advantageous circumstances of space, had
their existence more prolonged with me: I would merely state
that I have met with no more difficulties with the artificial than
with the actual sea-water, under the same conditions. Nosi 1,
(this is now in the gravid state represented in Johnston's
Zoophytes, Plate 1), 2 and 16, made their appearance, spon-
taneously as it were, on some empty shells and other debris
placed in the water six months before, and which had not been
changed during the whole of that period. Nos. 3, and 5 to 10,
are yery hardy with me, but No. 4 is in general precarious.
Nos, 13, 14, 15 lived in a quart jar for three months, at the
end of which time I disposed of them, after they had added
hundreds of new cells to the polypidoms. Nos. 19, 20, 21
added considerably to their tubes, the new portion being im-
dicated in No. 20 by its superior whiteness, and the rate of
increase being about a third of an inch in six months. On
the 1st of May, I counted ten young of this species, the parents
haying been in my possession since September 4. Colonies of
No. 23 are very vigorous and active, but I find that they have
a period of rest ae! soon after midnight to about 4 or 5 P.M.
Many of the Actinie mentioned in the above list are the
same individuals which I had at the commencement of my
experiments, and most of them have brought forth young
abundantly. ‘The development of Nos. 16 (this especially),
17, 18 have afforded me many weeks of most interesting’ ob-
servation. In Nos. 39 and 40, I have noticed that frequently
the cirrhi have began to play as quickly as ever, even after a
period of inaction so long that I have supposed the animals to
be dead,
In the vegetation, I find that No, 42 is the most effective in
eee p ab Ce ot oxygen. No, 41 stands next. No. 44 is apt
to decay if not placed in a shaded spot, but it is always inte-
resting from the quantity of parasitic animals usually found
upon it.
I trust that these desultory observations, hastily thrown to-
gether, but scrupulously containing nothing that I have not
personally witnessed in my own collection, will have the effect —
of increasing the domestication of the interesting productions
of our shores. —WritiAm Atrrep Lioyp, 164, St. John Street ;
Road, Islington, London, June 6, 1855.
k
“a
ac can
PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.
Roya. Socrery.
Mr, Savory, ‘‘ On the Development of Muscular Fibre in Mam-
malia.”
Tue author's observations were made chiefly upon feetal pigs; but
they have been confirmed by repeated examinations of the embryos
of many other animals, and of the human feetus.
If a portion of tissue immediately beneath the surface from the
dorsal region of a foetal pig, from one to two inches in length, be
examined | microscopically, there will be seen, besides blood- cor-
puscles in various stages of development, nucleated cells and free
nuclei or cytoblasts scattered through a clear and structureless
blastema in great abundance. These cytoblasts vary in shape and
size; the smaller ones, which are by far the most numerous, being
generally round, and the larger ones more or less oval. Their out-
line is distinct and well defined, and one or two nucleoli may be
seen in their interior as small, bright, highly-refracting spots... The
rest of their substance is either uniformly nebulous. or. faintly
granular,
The first stage in the development of striated muscular fibre con-
sists in the ageregation and adhesion of the eytoblasts, and their
investment by ‘blastema ‘so as to form elongated masses. In these
clusters the nuclei have, at first, no regular arrangement. Almost,
if not quite as soon as the cytoblasts are thus aggregated, they
‘become invested by the blastema, and this substance at the same
‘time appears to be much condensed, so that many of the nuclei
become obscured.
These nuclei, thus aggregated and invested, next assume a much
more regular position. They fall into a single row with remarkable
uniformity, and the surrounding substance at the same time grows
clear and more transparent, and is arranged in the form of two
bands bordering the fibre and bounding the extremities of the nuclei,
so that now they become distinctly visible. ‘They are oval, and
form a single row in the centre of the fibre, closely packed together
side by side, their long axes lying transversely, and their extremities
bounded on either side by a thin, clear, pellucid border of apparently
homogeneous substance.
It is to be observed how closely the muscular fibres of mammalia
-at this period of their development resemble their permanent form
‘im many insects.
_. The fibres next increase in length and the nuclei separate. Small
intervals appear between them. The spaces rapidly widen, until at
be last the nuclei lie at a very considerable distance apart. At the
same time the fibre strikingly decreases in diameter; for as the
nuclei separate, the lateral bands fall in and ultimately coalesce.
318 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.
This lengthening of the fibre and consequent separation of the
nuclei is due to an increase of material, and not to a stretching of
the fibre.
Soon after the nuclei have separated some of them begin to
decay. ‘They increase in size ; their outline becomes indistinct; a
bright border appears immediately within their margin; their con-
tents become decidedly granular; their outline is broken and inter-
rupted; and presently an irregular cluster of granules is all that
remains, and these soon disappear.
Tt sometimes happens that the nuclei perish while in contact,
before the fibre elongates ; but the subsequent changes are the same.
The striz generally first become visible at this period, imme-
diately within the margin of the fibre.
The fibre is subsequently increased in size, and its development
is continued by means of the surrounding cytoblasts. These attach
themselves to its exterior, and then become invested by a layer of
the surrounding blastema. ‘Thus, as it were, nodes are formed at
intervals on the surface of the fibre. These invested nuclei are at
first readily detached, but they soon become intimately connected
and indefinitely blended with the exterior of the fibre. All its cha-
racters are soon acquired; the nuclei at the same time gradually
sink into its substance, and an ill-defined elevation, which soon dis-
appears, is all that remains,
Lastly, the substance of the fibre’ becomes contracted and con-
densed. The diameter of a fibre towards, or at the close of intra-
uterine life, is considerably less than at a much earlier period.
At the period of birth muscular fibres vary much in size.
The several stages in the development of muscular fibre, above
mentioned, do not succeed each other as a simple consecutive series ;
on the contrary, two, or more, are generally progressing at the same
time. Nor does each commence at the same period in all cases.
Sroxe Newincron NaturaAu Hisrory AnD SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY.
April 24, 1855.
A PAPER was read by Mr. Richard Moreland, jun., ‘On the pro-
bable Structure of the Starch Granule.’ *
After pointing out the extensive occurrence of starch in the
vegetable kingdom, and its importance in an economical point of
view, and adverting to its chemical properties, the author proceeds to
discuss the structure of the grain itself. He illustrates his views
on this point by reference to the form of starch termed ‘ tous les
mois arrowroot,’ the large grains of which are particularly fitted for —
observation.
Noticing the views of Leuwenhoek, Rastail, Fritzsche, Schleiden,
* This paper, accompanied with elaborate figures, has been forwarded
to us for insertion; its length, however, renders this impossible, and we
have been compelled to content ourselves with the above abstract of Mr.’
Moreland’s views.—EKditors of Quarterly J ournal of Microscopical Science.
PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 319
Martin, &c., Mr. Moreland declares himself in favour of those who
conceive with Schleiden and others, that the starch granule is con-
stituted of successive layers or lamin, inserted one within the other,
and whose edges are represented by the concentric markings seen
on the surface of the grain. He advocates, in fact, the view pro-
pounded in a late number of the ‘ Quarterly Journal of Micro-
scopical Science,’ by Professor Allman.
The principal additional argument relied upon by Mr. Moreland
in support of this opinion, appears to be derived from the use of
polarized light in the examination of the grain, whilst undergoing
solution in sulphuric acid. Observing that the crop of polarization
continues to be well defined after the dissolution, or, as he terms it,
the disintegration of what he regards as the outer layers by the action
of the acid, he conceives that this circumstance is sufficient to indi-
— eate that the grain is constituted of a succession of such lamine of
like consistence throughout.
He alse notices the effect of chloride of zine upon the starch
grain, which, he says, “ instead of disintegrating the vesicle, causes
it to expand ‘slowly i in the form of a thin membrane.”
The paper concludes in nearly the following words :-—
“ That all starch granules, which exhibit elliptical or striated
markings, and are also capable of polarizing light, are composed of
a series of vesicles (hollow ellipsoids), any deviation from this form
being produced by circumstances attending their formation. These
vesicles are thicker at that extremity of the granule from which
they receive their sustenance [addition to their substance], conse-
quently the nucleus is situated at the opposite extremity. The gra-
uules are attached to the cell-wall by that extremity which is
farthest from the nucleus; the thickness of the vesicles being indi-
eated by the distances between the markings. They are, moreover,
enclosed one within the other, and it may be proved [the author
conceives] by sound reason and observation that these vesicles are
deposited and formed upon the exterior surface of the one previously
existing, and that each vesicle, upon its final development, is a hard,
colourless, transparent, homogeneous substance, all being chemically
and physically identical, save that a portion of any foreign substance
may be deposited with any of the vesicles,” &c.
( 32059 7
ZOOPHYTOLOGY.
Class. POLYZOA.
Order I. P. INFUNDIBULATA.
Sub-order 1. CHEILOSTOMATA.
§ 1. Articulata.
§§ 2. Bi-multiserialaria.
Fam. SALICORNARIADA, Busk.
Gen. Onchopora, n. sp., Busk ("Oykos).
Cells ventricose, coalescent ; not bordered by a raised margin. Ovicells”
inconspicuous.
1. O. hirsuta, n. sp.? Busk. Pl, IU.
A long jointed corneous tube arising on each side on the front and upper |
part of the cell ; a raised median pore, below the mouth, which is produced —
and subtubular.
? Cellaria hirsuta, Lamx. Hist. des Polyp. cor., p. 126. Pl, IL,
fig. 4, a, B.
Hab. New Zealand. Dr. Lyall.
The outward aspect of this species so closely resembles that of C. hir-
suta, Lamx., that, notwithstanding the apparent differences in the minuter |
details, so far as they can be ascertained from the imperfect figure above
cited, Tam strongly inclined to regard them as most probably identical. —
The polyzoary forms small tufts, constituted of short truncated internodes, —
united by a single large corneous tube, and having a hairy aspect from _
the curious, jointed corneous tubes springing from reach side of the cell
The little median pore sometimes appears like a very minute avicularium,
but it is by no means clear that it is an organ of that kind. The corneous |
tubes are clearly not vibracula; and as the perfect ones are closed at the
end, and free, they do not seem to be of the nature of radical tubes, such |
as exist, for instance, in Cauda arachnoidea.
2. O. tubulosa, n.s., Busk. Pl. IV., fig. 1.
Mouth of cell—very much produced, tubular ; a median pore in front
of the cell.
Hab. Agean Sea. E. Forbes. *
The much-produced tubular prolongation of the mouth in this species,
at the end of which there is no indication of a moveable lip, might at first _
sight lead to the supposition that this form belongs to the second sub-
order of the Polyzoa; but further examination, and especially where th
tubular portion may be partially broken off, will detect the lip, at the
bottom of the tube, in the usual situation. The absence of the corneo
tubes at once suffices to distinguish this from the preceding species, from
which it also differs very widely in external aspect. The polyzoary is no
constituted, as in that case, of short internodes, arising from each other in |
a dichotomous arrangement, but is formed of cylindrical branches some=—
times an inch or more in length, from which others arise at irregula
distances, and nearly at right angles, to that from which they spring, ane
to which they are articulated, not by a single, wide corneous tube, but b
a bundle of smaller tubes, in’ number corresponding to the initial cells ¢
the new branch. It may be supposed to bear some resemblance to th
Cellaria cereoides of Ellis and Solander (PI. V., fig. b, A, B, C, D, E)F
ZOOPHYTOLOGY. ea
and perhaps may represent a variety of the same species, which is also
stated to come from the Mediterranean.
3. O. mutica, n, sp., Busk. Pl. IV., figs. 2, 3.
Mouth plain ; crescentric above, with a straight inferior margin.
Hab. Philippine Islands? or Australia ?
A minute form, sufficiently distinguished from its congeners by the
above character. The polyzoary is constituted of short internodes, con-
nected by a flexible horny tube. The only specimen I have is very small,
and it is constituted of short internodes, composed of 8 or 10 cells. Its
habitat is doubtful, but I believe it to be one or other of those above
assigned. It is growing on a fragment of coral.
Some apology is requisite for the proposal of a new generic
term, to a form which has probably been long known under
another name ; but in the present case it appeared justifiable,
from the consideration that the term Cellaria, which is the
only one that could have been taken, has been understood in
so many senses; and that the species at different times in-
eluded under it have been so frequently subdivided into other
groups, as to render its continued use likely to produce much
confusion.
_The species having articulated polyzoaries composed of
eylindrical internodes, in which the cells are disposed around
an imaginary axis, were originally confounded by Pallas under
his genus Cellularia, and by Solander under that of Cellaria,
with many others, not possessing that peculiar characteristic.
The term Cellaria, however, was subsequently restricted by
Lamouroux to those polyzoaries, which had_ cylindrical
branches, or rather in which the cells were disposed around
a central axis ; but as this restricted sense of the term has not
been adopted by many subsequent writers, nor especially by
Lamarck, and as it has long since ceased to be applied to the
genus Salicornaria, it seems as well perhaps to dispense with
it altogether.
_ Other forms again have been confounded under the same
term Cellaria by several writers, among whom may be noticed
Reuss, in his account of the fossil polyzoa of the Vienna
tertiaries, who includes under it Vincularia, Defrance ( Glau-
conoma, Goldfuss). Whilst Hagenow, on the other hand
(Die Bryoz d. Maastrich, Kneidebildung), adopts Vineuluria
‘and ignores Cellaria. In Vincularia, proper, however, the
‘polyzoary is continuous throughout, and not subdivided into
internodes by flexible joints; so that there appears to be no
reason whatever for associating the two.
The following fossil forms might be referred to the genus
~ Onchopora ; and it would appear that no species belonging to
it occur in formations anterior to the tertiary, unless the
VOL, Ill, Y—Z
322 ZOOPHYTOLOGY.
Ceriopora oculata, Goldf. (Petref. Germ., Pl. LXIV., fig. 14,
p. 217), from the transition limestone, may be included
in it.
Cellaria duplicata, Reuss, |. c., p. 62, T. vil, fig. 84.
», labrosa, Reuss, l. c., p. 68, T. vii., fig. 35.
» Michelini, Reuss, |. c., p. 61, T. viii., figs. 1 and 2.
(Vinculuria fragilis? Defrance), also in the Paris basin
(Michelin, p. 46).
», coronata, Reuss, l. c., p. 62, T. viii., fig. 3.
» scrobiculata, Reuss, 1. c., p. 63, T. viil., fig. 4.
» Schreibersi, Reuss, |. c., p. 68, T. viii., fig. 8.
» Hauer, Reuss, l. c., p. 63, T. viii., fig. 9.
.. stenosticha, Reuss, |. c., p. 64, T. viii., fig. 10.
YY ae Pps
We have here also given the figures of a species of Eschara, j
which would seem to correspond very closely with the Mille-
pora cervicornis of Ellis and Solander, or with the Eschara
cervicornis of Lamarck (An. s. Vert., 2nd ed., t. ii., p. 267),
though not to that described by M. Edwards (Sur les Eschares,
p- 15, Pl. I. and Pl. II., fig. 1), under the same name, from
which it is undoubtedly different, as it is also from the —
E. cervicornis in the British Museum Catalogue. Neither —
does it correspond with the E. gracilis of Milne-Edwards. |
From the former it differs widely in the shape of the mouth, —
and in its tubular projection, and from the latter in the
absence of the median pore, and of punctation of the surface
of the cells.
But as I have not been able to refer to Marsigli’s figure
' (Hist. de la Mer., tab. xxxii., fig. 152), with which Ellis and
Solander’s Millepora cervicornis is said exactly to agree, I find
it impossible at present to come toa definite conclusion in —
the matter.
Provisionally, it would seem right to regard the present
form as the true Millepora (Eschara) cervicornis of Ellis and
Solander, and it might be thus characterized :—
E. cervicornis, Solander. PI. IV., figs. 4, 5, 6.
BE. ramosa, ramis subcylindraceis per angustis ; osculis prominalis tubu-
losis ; labio inferiori, medid denticulato.
Hab. Aigean Sea. E. Forbes.
The polyzoary is composed of slender, cylindrical branches,
in the older and thicker parts of which the cells become
deeply immersed, and the mouth appears like a raised nipple,
but within it may always be perceived the median denticle on
the lower lip.
JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE.
PLATE I.
Illustrates Mr. Gorham’s Paper.
DESCRIPTION OF PLATE II.
Illustrating Mr. Currey’s Paper.
Fig.
1.—A thread of Trichia chrysosperma.
2.—The end of a similar thread acted upon by sulphuric acid. The
spiral appearance has vanished for a short space from the end.
8.—The end of a similar thread which had been soaked in oil of lemons.
The tip appears to have become flaccid, and the spiral marking
has partially disappeared.
4.—A thread of Trichia nigripes. ;
5.—A portion of a thread of Trichia Neesiana, acted upon by Schulz’s
solution.
6,—The tip of the same.
7 and 8.—Portions of threads of Trichia serpula.
9.—Portion of a thread of Trichia pyriformis.
10.—The membrane of Trichia pyriformis, unrolling spirally.
All the figures are highly magnified.
DESCRIPTION OF PLATE III.
In illustration of Dr. Allman’s Paper.
Figs. 1—8. Aphanizomenon Flos-aque.
a —Fascicles of filaments, natural size. ;
2,.—Three primary fascicles united into a larger bundle, magnified.
3.—The fascicles have broken up into their « component filaments, which
have rearranged themselves into parallel wavy curves, slightly
magnified.
4,—A filament with two sporangia.
a, a, ordinary cells.
b, b, sporangia.
5.—A filament with a heterocyst.
a, a, ordinary ceils.
b, b, heterocyst.
6,—Filament with a heterocyst after the application of a solution of
iodine.
a, ordinary cells.
b, heterocyst.
7.—A sporangium after the application of a solution of iodine.
8.—Portion of a filament in which several ordinary cells seem to” res: in
process of coalescence, in order to form a sporangium.
Figs. 9—17. Peridinea uberrima.
9.—P. uberrima in the act of swimming, viewed from the side of the
vertical furrow. The ocelliform spot and nucleus are visible
through the walls.
10.—The same viewed from the opposite side.
11.—The animalcule after having passed from a motile to a quiescent
state.
12.—The animalcule with the external vesicle ruptured, and the contents
escaping.
a, a, oil-globules.
b, nucleus.
c, c, brown granules.
13.—The nucleus isolated.
14.—The animalcule undergoing transverse division.
15.—The same after the application of a solution of iodine.
16.—Outline of nucleus, with commencement of transverse division.
17.—Transverse division nearly completed.
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DESCRIPTION OF PLATE IV.
Illustrating Prof. Gregory’s Paper on the Glenshira Sand.
Br Hunotia Falx, n. sp.
(Found in the deposits of Liineberg and Lillhaggsjon. See Vol. II.,
p- 104, of this Journal.)
2,.—Nitzschia Sigmatella, n. sp.
(Found as above, but also in the Mull deposit, and, with all the
following figures, in the Glenshira sand.)
3.—Cymbella truncata, n. sp.
4.—Amphora Arcus, 0. sp.
5.— _ incurva, 0D. sp.
6.— » angularis, n. sp.
7.—Cocconeis transversalis, n. sp.
8.— 9 -«- Speciosa, N. sp.
9.— - distans, 0. sp.
10.— 53 costata, D. sp.
11.—Eupodiscus Ralfsit? var.
12.—Surirella fastuosa, var.
13.—Tryblionella constricta, n. sp.
14.—Amphiproa Vitrea, var. ?
15.—Navicula birostrata, n. sp.
16.— » _ Thombica, a. sp-
17.— » gastroides, D. sp.
18.— » erassd, D. Sp.
19.— » maxima, D. sp.
20.—Pinnularia Gastrum, Ehr.
21.— : apiculata. 0. sp.
22. Synedra Vertebra, n. sp.
3.— , wndulans, n. sp.
DESCRIPTION OF PLATE V.
Illustrating Mr. Huxley’s Paper on Noctiluca.
Fig.
1.—Noctiluca miliaris, from above.
2.— The animal viewed from behind, showing the groove.
3.—A_ latero-inferior view, displaying the oral aperture, the cilium, the
tooth, a gastric pouch, and the anal (?) aperture.
4,—The oral aperture on a larger scale.
5,—Antero-superior view, showing the nucleus, the fibres and fibrils, the
tooth and the reproductive “(?) granules.
6.—The superficial network of granules and fibrils.
a, Tentacle. b, groove. c, nucleus. d, tooth. e, gastric pouches.
f, anal aperture. g, radiating fibres and fibrils. 4, repro-
ductive (?) granules.
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JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE.
DESCRIPTION OF PLATE VI.,
Illustrating Dr. Johnston’s Paper on the Mosquito.
Fig.
i ead of male mosquito, magnified 20 diameters.
2.—Orbital rings supporting the capsules.
3.—Auditory capsule (sectional view),
4.—Two joints of antenna.
5.—Diagram of auditory (?) and antennar nerve.
DESCRIPTION OF PLATE VI.,
Illustrating Dr. Webb’s Paper.
Fig.
§.—Is a side view of the Noctiluca miliaris. The conical appearance of
the tooth is seen in this position.
7.—A front view of the same parts. - a, the outer surface of ‘ the tooth ;”
b, the oral aperture ; c, position of the supposed anal aperture.
8.—View in profile of the central depression.
9.—Sectional view of the central depression and tooth, from behind.
10.—The nucleus enveloped in a membrane with yelk-like matter.
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EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES
Illustrating Dr. Redfern’s Paper.
_ The drawings from which the Plates were executed were made by the
camera lucida, under a power of 140 linear diameters. Scales having
reference to the different figures are appended to each Plate. The whole
of the figures in Plates VII. VIII. and the first four in Plate IX. are
represented in the lithographs as magnified 180 diameters. Figs. 5 and 6
of Plate IX. are only enlarged 50 diameters, and have a separate scale
below them.
PLATE VII.
Fig.
1.—Horizontal section of Torbanehill coal, 2 inches from the top of the
seam, showing a three-lobed yellow patch with its radiate lines,
and a mass of substance in which the yellow matter is imperfectly
marked out into rounded or angular spaces by darker bands.
2.—Vertical section at the same part, showing irregularly elongated
yellow and reddish patches, bounded by dark lines, running in
the direction of the lamine of bedding; also a crystal, which
polarises light very powerfully.
3.—Horizontal section of the same block of coal 16 inches from the top,
showing irregularly rounded yellow bodies with dark outlines ;
much smaller polygonal spaces of more uniform size ; and a sec-
tion of a rounded vegetable capsule like a spore.
4.—Vertical section at the same part as the last, showing the yellow
bodies elongated in the direction of the lamine of bedding, with
their dark-brown boundaries projecting at the free edge, like
pieces of membrane or fibre.
5.—Horizontal section, and 6, vertical section, of Wemyss coal, showing
yellow bodies with radiate lines, similar to those in the Torbane-
hill coal, and like them rounded on horizontal sections and
elongated on vertical ones. -
PLATE VIII.
1 and 2.—Horizontal and vertical sections of Methill coal.
3 and 4.—Horizontal and vertical sections of Capledrae coal, showing, as
well as the sections of Methill coal, similar yellow bodies to those
in the Torbanehill coal, rounded on horizontal sections, and
elongated in the direction of the lamine of bedding on vertical
sections.
5.—Shows spherical or polygonal membranous capsules, tubercular or
pilose on the surface (spores ?), found in great numbers on all thin
horizontal sections of 'Torbanehill coal.
6.—Similar bodies seen on vertical sections of the same coal,
PLATE IX.
TORBANEHILL COAL.
1.—Scalariform tissue abundant in the Stigmarie.
2.—Horizontal section, showing the action of heat on the upper edge of
the section.
3.—Vertical section, showing the relation which exists between dense
masses of vegetable tissue and the general structure of the coal.
4,—Horizontal section, showing what appear to be bands of fibre with a
reticulate arrangement.
5.—Vertical section passing through what appears to be a membranous
capsule, tubercular or hairy on the external surface, and smooth —
within.
by
6.—Horizontal section, showing another view of a similar body to the
last.
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JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE X.
Figures illustrating Dr. Busch on Noctiluca.
Fig.
1.—Noctiluca punctata, Busch (miliaris, E. and G.). a, border turned
in at the Ailus; 6, sharp bordered rod; ce, brown body (nucleus,
Quatref.) ; d, proboscis ; f, brown corpuscles seen in the interior.
2 and 3.—Germs of Noctilucce found in empty sacculé.
4,—Farther development of the germ. c, brown body (nweleus); d, pro-
boscis.
5 and 6.—Young Noctiluce. b, rod; c, brown body (nucleus); d, pro-
boscis.
7.—Monstrous Noctiluca.
8.—The granular body from the interior of the Noctiluca (fig. 1f) highly
magnified.
9.—Luminous discs found among the Noctiluce.
10.—The minute bodies seated on the upper border of these discs.
Figures illustrating Dr. Allman’s Paper.
11.—Bursaria leucas, Ehr., magnified about 90 diameters.
a. Nucleus.
b. Contractile space.
e. Digestive vacuole filled with food.
d. Mouth.
12.—Ideal Section of Bursaria leucas.
a. Nucleus.
e. Dermal layer containing trichocysts, and covered with cilia.
Jf. Green globules forming a distinct stratum beneath the
dermal layer.
g. Granular colourless contents.
13.—A portion of the outline of the animal after the application of acetic
acid. ‘The trichocysts have become changed into long acicular
bodies, some of which radiate from the surface, to which they
still partially adhere, while others are scattered over the stage of
the microscope.
14,—A greatly enlarged view of the margin, to show the position of the
trichocysts.
f. Green globules.
g. Granular contents.
h. Trichocysts.
4. Cilia.
15.—Isolated trichocysts in a quiescent state.
16.—First stage of evolution—the trichocysts have become transformed
into spherules.
17.—Second stage of evolution—the spherules are replaced by a spiral
filament, which rapidly unrolls.
18.—Final stage of evolution—the completely unrolled filament lies as a
transparent spiculum in the field of the microscope.
k. Spicula with a filiform appendage at one extremity.
l. Spicula without the filiform appendage.
JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE.
ZOOPHY TOLOGY.
Description of Figures.
PLATE I.
Fig.
1.—Salicornaria borealis (natural size.)
2.—The same, magnified about 40 diam.
3.—The same, magnified abont 80 diam.
4,.— Menipea arctica, magnified about 40 diam.
5.—Front view of acell, with avicularium, magnified 80 diam.
§.—Back view of part of a branch, magnified about 80 diam.
7.—Membranipora Sophie, magnified 80 diam.
PLATE II.
1.—Lepralia scutulata, magnitied 40 diam.
2.—The same, magnified 80 diam.
3.—Tubulipora ventricosa, magnified 40 diam.
4. Extremities of two tubes magnified about 80 diam.
5.—Sertularia polyzonias ? (natural size.)
6.—The same, magnified about 40 diam.
7.—Sertularia imbricata (natural size.)
8.—The same, magnified about 40 diam.
9.—The same, magnified about 80 diam.
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( 324 )
ZOOPHYTOLOGY.
DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES.
Puate III.
Fig.
1,—Portion of polyzoary of Onchopora hirsuta in the younger condition.
2.—Ditto, older.
3, 4, 5.—Disposition of the cells at an articulation.
6.—Natural size,
Puate IV.
1.—Portion of polyzoary of Onchopora tubulosa.
— 1(@).—Natural size.
2, 3.—O. mutica.
3 (a).—Natural size.
4.—Eschara cervicornis? in the younger part of the polyzoary.
5.—An older portion,
6.—One still older, in which the cells are quite immersed.
7.—Natural size.
( 325 )
JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE.
DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XI.
Illustrating Mr. Rainey’s paper on the Structure of the
Cutaneous Follicles of the Toad.
.—Skin of toad injected, showing cutaneous capillaries.
.—Opposite side of the same piece of skin, showing one of the cutaneous
follicles.
.—A vertical section of the skin, showing some follicles cut perpendi-
cular to the surface.
a. One cut at its middle, where it communicates with the
surface.
b. b. Follicles cut on one side of their centre.
c. A layer of earthy matter lying over the follicle, between it
and the surface.
These three are magnified 20 diameters.
.—Horizontal section of a follicle, showing the folds of internal mem-
brane.
a. The layer of capillaries.
b. Internal membrane. *
c. Epithelium covering the follicles of the internal membrane.
Magnified 50 diameters.
.—A. Deep portion of the epidermis, showing the form of the epidermic
scales, and the clear, homogeneous nuclei.
B. Epithelium of a cutaneous follicle, showing the character of the
epithelic cells and the granular nuclei, with some of the
granular contents of the follicle.
Magnified 300 diameters.
DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XII. ail
Illustrating Mr. Currey’s paper on the reprints ee
Fungi.
Mig.
1.—A perithecium of the spheropsoid form of Spheria herbarum
its mycelium, attached to a fragment of the cuticle of a dead s
of Senecio Jacobeea, magnified about 110 diameters,
2,—Transverse section (magnified 110 diameters) of a similar perithecium,
showing the spermatia in its interior. The knotty mycelium i
still attached. 45
3.—Reproductive gemma, or conidia, which grow directly from thi }
mycelium of Spheria herbarum, magnified 220 diameters.
4.—An ascus and sporidia of Spheria herbarum. The sporidia h hat
germinated in the interior of the ascus, and have broken thro ng
the membrane. Magnified 220 diameters.
5 and 6.—Germinating sporidia of Spheria herbarum. In fig. 5 are seem)
globular vesicles at the extremity of short lateral branches.
nified 220 diameters.
7.—Fragment of a germ-filament of a sporidium of Spheria herbarum,
At the extremity of a short lateral branch a nucleus has been)
formed, and a fresh germ-filament thrown out.
8.—A germinating sporidium of Spheria herbarwm, showing the for m
tion of a lateral bud sitailer to those shown i in fig. ae Magnifi
220 diameters. :
9.—Asci and sporidia of Spheria herbarum, magnified 220 diahistord
10.—Ascus and sporidia of Spheria (complanata ?), magnified 220 dis
meters.
11.—One out of a number of similar bodies found in the interior of th
perithecia of Spheria complanata, magnified 220 diameters.
12.—Young states of asci of Spheria Cryptosporii, magnified 220 diameter
13.—(a), perfect asci, with sporidia of Spheria Oryptosporit. (b), a spo
ridium from one of the asci. (c), a very young ascus. (qd), al
ascus rather more advanced. (e), the most common form of spot
of Cryptosporium vulgare. (f), another form of spore of th
same plant. All magnified 220 diameters.
14.—Asci and sporidia of Spheria found growing with Cryptospord
vulgare, magnified 220 diameters.
|
‘Ford i West. Imp
JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE.
PLATES XIII. ann XIV.
Figures illustrating Mr. J. Glaisher’s Paper on Snow
Crystals.
Figs. 14 and 19 are not referred to in the paper: on these Mr, Glaisher
adds the following notes :—
Fie. 14.—On February 8th, the mean reading of the barometer at the
height of 82 feet above the sea was 29°730 inches: the highest reading of
the thermometer during the day was 32°, the lowest was 273°, and the
mean temperature for the whole day was 80°, being 8° below the average
of the same day. The temperature of the dew point was 29°. Snow was
falling the whole of the day, with scarcely any intermission.
Fie. 19.—On February 17th, the mean reading of the barometer at the
height of 82 feet was 29°880 inches: the highest reading of the ther-
mometer during the day was 334°, the lowest was 22°, and the mean for
the whole day was 253°, being 133° below the average for the day. The
mean temperature of the dew point was 193°. The sky was overcast till
noon, and snow was falling occasionally.
Journ., Pl. XIII.
70,
Ss
|
Micro. Journ., Pl. XIV.
“)
fad SS
TRANSACTIONS
OF THE
ICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY
LONDON.
NEW SERIES.
VOLUME IL.
LONDON:
SAMUEL HIGHLEY, 32, FLEET STREET.
1855.
J
LONDON! PRINTED BY W, CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET.
INDEX TO TRANSACTIONS.
VOLUME
| iy (be
A.
Address of President of Microscopical
Society, 37.
C.
Carpenter, W. B., F.R.S.. F.G.S., on
the development of the embryo of
Purpura lapillus, 17.
a Address at Annual Meeting
of Microscopical Society, 37.
Chemical and visual foci of object-
glasses, by F. H. Wenham, 1.
Coincidence of the chemical and
visual foci of the object-glasses, by
F. H. Wenham, 1.
Cosmarium margaritiferum, on, by
Mrs. Herbert Thomas, 33.
D.
Development of the embryo of Pur-
pura lapillus, by W. B. Carpenter,
M.D., F.RBS., F.G.S., 17.
Diatomaceous forms, remarkable
group of, by W. Gregory, M.D.,
F.R.S.E., 10.
Discovery of parasitic borings in
fossil fish-scales, by C. B. Rose,
EuGaS:, 7:
E.
Embryo of Purpura lapillus, develop-
ment of, by W. B. Carpenter, M.D.,
Phd, F.G.S., 17.
F.
Farrants, Mr,, on Peters’ machine, 55.
Furze, Mr., on polarised light, 63.
G.
Gregory, W., M.D., F.R.S.E., on a
remarkable group of diatomaceous
forms, with remarks on shape of
outline as a specific character in the
Diatomacee, 10.
i
Illumination of objects, 63.
L.
Light, Polarised, illumination of ob-
jects by, Mr. Furze, on, 63.
M.
Machine for microscopic writing, 55.
Microscopie objects, photographs of,
1
Microscopical Society, address of pre-
sident of, 37; annual report of
Transactions of, 65.
1?
| Parasitic borings in fossil fish-scales,
discovery of, by C. B. Rose, F.G.S.,
can
Peters, Mr., machine for microscopic
writing, Mr. Farrants on, 55.
Photographs of microscopic objects,
by F. H. Wenham, |.
R.
Remarkable group of diatomaceous
forms, by W. Gregory, M.D.,
F.R.S.E., 10.
Remarks on shape of outline as a
specific eharacter of Diatomacea,
by W. Gregory, M.D., F.R.S.E.,
10,
Rose, C. B., F.G.S., &¢e., on the dis-
covery of parasitic borings in fossil
fish-seales, 7.
Ae
Thomas, Mrs. Herbert, on Cosmarium
margaritiferum, 33.
Ww.
Wenham, F, H., on obtaining photo-
graphic objects, and the coincidence
of the chemical and visual foci of
the object-glass, 1.
4 .
ig
“ 7 OL ,
"1 arp Gee ieee
+ Shi tele eee “4
TRANSACTIONS
OF THE
OF
LONDON.
Some Remarks on obtaining Puorocrapus of Microscopic
Oxssects, and on the Coincipence of the Cuemicat and
Visuat Focr of the Opsect Giasses. By F. H. Wennam.
(Read November 22nd, 1854.)
3
Z
t
_In this communication it is not my intention to give a detailed
description of the well-known methods of obtaining micro-
photographs, which have already been explained in the papers
of Messrs. Delves, Shadbolt, and others, but merely to point
| out a remedy for some of the difficulties that have hitherto
been connected with the process.
__ The main points in this paper were read at the last meeting
of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, at
Liverpool, but I have thought it proper to bring them forward
again, as I believe that the principal number of those who
have entered into the practice of this department of photo-
| graphy are members of the Microscopical Society.
_ As it is now upwards of two years since the announcement
was first made, and from the few specimens that have been
‘produced since that period (many of which are in the hands
of our Society), it may fairly be assumed that the practice of
icroscopic photography has not become by any means uni-
ersal, and, in fact, there are some amongst us who doubt
whether the art can ever be usefully applied, or prove a sub-
“stitute for the camera lucida. I should regret to see this
application of the microscope abandoned, while it is still
under the march of improvement, and while science can
furnish us with new facts to facilitate the process. The con-
clusion that I have arrived at, derived from my own practice,
ds, that it is in general both easy with respect to manipulation,
Tapid in production, and faithful in delineation, and I have a
avourable opinion of its utility. There are some exceptional
cases, which I shall notice. How far the specimens that I
herewith present to the Society will bear me out in this assur-
me VOL. III. b
ean
aif
TRANSACTIONS
OF THE
-MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY
OF
LON DON.
Some Remarks on obtaining Puorocrarus of Microscopic
Ossects, and on the CoincipENCE of the CuEmicaL and
Visuat Foct of the Ossect Guasses. By F. H. Wenuam.
(Read November 22nd, 1854.)
In this communication it is not my intention to give a detailed
description of the well-known methods of obtaiming micro-
photographs, which have already been explained in the papers
of Messrs. Delves, Shadbolt, and others, but merely to point
out a remedy for some of the difficulties that have hitherto
been connected with the process.
The main points in this paper were read at the last meeting
of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, at
Liverpool, but I have thought it proper to bring them forward
again, as I believe that the principal number of those who
have entered into the practice of this department of photo-
graphy are members of the Microscopical Society.
As it is now upwards of two years since the announcement
was first made, and from the few specimens that have been
produced since that period (many of which are in the hands
of our Society), it may fairly be assumed that the practice of
Microscopic photography has not become by any means uni-
versal, and, in fact, there are some amongst us who doubt
whether the art can ever be usefully applied, or prove a sub-
Stitute for the camera lucida. I should regret to see this
application of the microscope abandoned, while it is still
under the march of improvement, and while science can
furnish us with new facts to facilitate the process. The con-
clusion that I have arrived at, derived from my own practice,
is, that it is in general both easy with respect to manipulation,
rapid in production, and faithful in delineation, and I have a
favourable opinion of its utility. ‘There are some exceptional
cases, which I shall notice. How far the specimens that I
herewith present to the Society will bear me out in this assur-
_ VOL. III. b
*
2 Wenuam, on Microscopie Photography.
ance, others will probably be better able to judge than myeell
I have not worked at it with sufficient diligence to make a
choice selection, but have taken them as they came. I should
judge that the whole of them, to the number of twenty-two
had occupied about six hours of sunlight, of course including
some failures.
If the photographs are intended for illustration, it is re
quisite that they should each be included in a given space
The position of the sensitive surface must in consequence be
made to vary, more or less, for every different object, accord:
ing to its size. A range of from five to ten feet is oftentimes
required. A box of this length is both inconvenient and
cumbrous, and it is a matter of some difficulty to get access
the furthest end for the purpose of focussing the object accu
rately. For these and other reasons, I have altogether aban
doned the use of the microscope camera, and given the
preference to the method herein described.
In the first place, it may be proper to offer a few remarks
on the subject of the illuminating source, as I haye tried man
experiments with the view of obtaining an artificial light sui
able for photographic purposes. A light may appear strongly
luminous, and yet possess but a feeble degree of photographi¢
intensity ; and I have not yet succeeded in producing a satisfa
tory result from either gas, oil, or camphine lamps. Burning
phosphorus will give a more rapid impression, but its use is
both inconvenient t and expensive. Fine zinc turnings, burnt in
atmospheric air, equal or surpass this; a ball of about three
quarters of an inch in diameter will last a sufficient time
give a distinct impression. As it is of no consequence whethe
the light is intermittent or not, I have produced an image
from a succession of electric sparks, arising from the spon
taneous discharge of a small Leyden jar, containing about thirty
inches of coated surface, the discharging knobs being place
in the axis of the lenses for condensing the light upon the
object. The electric spark contains a large proportion of th
actinic rays ; I found that about one hundred discharges pre
duced a good impression, The electric light between charea
points I have not yet tried. In a few instances I have use
the hydro-oxygen, or lime light, but I consider that it does
not possess that degree of actinic intensity which its brillian
and appearance would seem to indicate. :
It has been proved that the two latter may be successfully
applied for obtaining photographic impressions, but they ar
both troublesome and too much out of the way of the miex
scopist to be generally useful.
I have merely mentioned these experiments with the vie
Wennam, on Microscopic Photography. 3
f recording them for the guidance of other experimentalists,
for I have a strong belief that such an investigation may end
2a useful result. There can be no doubt that it is a desi-
‘deratum to discover a composition for a photographic fusée, so
to term it, that will burn for a sufficient period of time, and
with the requisite actinic intensity for obtaining, not only
microscopic impressions, but also nocturnal, or underground
photographs. I trust, therefore, that this subject may be taken
m hand by some one more practically conversant with the
details of pyrotechnic chemistry than myself.
There is no light that has hitherto been found that will give
results at all equal to those to be obtained by the use of sun-
ight. The method that I have adopted for applying it, is simply
fo use the ordinary table microscope as a solar one. ‘A room is
‘selected, to the window of which sunlight must have free
access ; this is closed by a shutter, having an aperture at the
lower end nt about three inches in diameter ; below this is
when the microscope body is in a iste aeel position, its axis
may coincide with the centre of the aperture in the shutter.
stened around a hole in the shutter; in this case the mirror
may be mounted entirely in a wooden frame.
With this arrangement the course of proceeding is as fol-
lows: having clamped and adjusted the object on the stage
f the microscope, place it horizontally against the aperture
in the shutter, remove the eye-piece, and throw sunlight
hrough the object by means of the solar reflector ; lay a black
cloth around the microscope so as to stop out all extraneous
Hlight; then, by properly focussing, a distinct image may be
obtained upon a paper screen held at various distances.
_ The stand for supporting the collodion plate consists of a
vertical piece of board with a heavy base; the excited plate
is held on to this by means of two undercut fillets at right-
angles to each other. The stand may be set at various dis-
tances along the horizontal bench, which also serves as a
support for the microscope.
_ Phe operation of taking the photograph is, first to adjust the
mirror for light, and then to focus the image on a card placed
a the plane of the collodion surface ; next remove the card and
y it against the body of the microscope, so as to stop off all
ht; then drop the sensitive plate into its place, snatch the
rd away, and quickly replace it again, so as to let the i image
the object fall upon the plate: a fraction of a second is
tentimes sufficient. I prefer a rather slow collodion, and if
q b2
q Wennam, on Microscopie Photography.
the weather is warm develop with a half-grain solution o
pyrogallic acid.
For the lowest powers, it is oftentimes not necessary to us
any arrangement for condensing the sunlight upon the object.
the simple reflection from the plane mirror being sufficient
but the half-inch object-glass, and upwards, requires a bull’s
eye lens of about three inches in diameter. If the objects ar
small and delicate, such as the Diatomacee, the achromati
condenser must be used in combination. I should mentio
that a piece of yellow glass must be let into the uppe
portion of the shutter, transmitting enough light to manipu
late by.
Having briefly described the method of operating, I wi
state what I consider to be its peculiar advantages. Th
object is focussed with great facility and certainty. We ar
in some cases, enabled to obtain an impression of an obje
mounted so as to be out of a flat plane ; in some instances, bj
the convenience afforded for inclining the sensitive plate
every angle relative to the optic axis, and in others by focu
sing two or more separate times. For example, suppose th
object to be a Fly’s foot, one of the pads of which lies in
lower plane, and is consequently out of focus; while the i
pression of the first half is being taken, the next which is o
of focus can be stopped off with a card; the second focus i
then taken, and the first impressed portion of the object o
scured: thus by a diversified series of paper stops, we m
approximately represent the entire form of an object, t
whole of which cannot be seen, except by a series of three
four focal adjustments.
A very great number of microscopic preparations are
organized as to be composed of parts which require differe
periods of exposure to produce a perfect impression; so
parts will be barely defined, while others are utterly solaris
and lost from over exposure. ‘The method that I have e
plained affords especial facilities for stopping off the m
tender portions,
As it is requisite for the purpose of ensuring quick a
accurate focussing, together with the most distinct impressio
that the actinic and visual foci of the objective should be coi
cident, I give the result of my investigations on this poi
For the highest powers the difference is sometimes so small
to render the correction a matter of trifling importance; b
with the 4 inch, 1 inch and 14 inch, the distance is ve
considerable ; in fact, the more perfect the object-glass
microscopic purposes, the less is it suited for a photograp
lens. The object-glasses are invariably what is technical
Wenuam, on Microscopie Photography. 5
ermed *‘ over corrected ;” for the point of convergence of the
shemical rays near the most refrangible or blue end of the
pectrum, lies beyond the visual focus. I have an objective
sorrected specially for these rays, and though perfect for pho-
fographic purposes, yet on account of its being non-achromatic,
it is unsuited for microscopic investigation.
_ The simplest and cheapest way of producing the required
legree of ‘‘ under correction,” is to screw a biconvex lens into
he place of the back stop of the object-glass, acting as part
its optical combination For Smith and Beck’s 14 inch, I
5 inches, which also serves for the 4-10th inch ; these bring
‘back the actinic to the exact position of the visual focus,
any material extent, and the increase of distinctness in the
shotographs obtained by means of the application of this
additional lens is most striking.
It must not be supposed that the focal lengths that I have
here given of the correcting lenses will in all instances serve
for the objectives above named, for the correction will probably
require a lens of a different focus for every different object-
/glass; it is, perhaps, best to be provided with several of them,
s their cost is but trifling. Those that I have made use of
have been selected from ordinary spectacle lenses, most care-
i fully centered and turned down to the required size.
Some remarks have been published on the possibility of
btaining stereoscopic pictures of microscopic objects by
eans of the “binocular microscope,” but the ordinary in-
rument will answer every purpose without any optical
dition whatever, for it has been shown* that if the object
self be viewed alternately with the right and left half of the
bject-glass without any altering of its position, the difference
form of the resulting images assimilates to the effect of a
different angle of vision; and if two photographs of the object
btained by the separate halves of the object-glass be placed
n the stereoscope, they will give an appearance of solidity
© the object. The only addition that is required to produce
this effect is to fix a sliding stop close behind the objective,
aving straight edges that will cut off either the right or left
land sides ; a photographic impression being taken at the two
‘tremes. If the object-glass be one of considerable aperture,
put one-third only of the diameter may be cut off, which
ll be sufficient to give the difference of form required for the
eoscopic image.
* ‘Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science,’ for July, 1853.
6 Wenuam, on Microscopic Photography.
It is most remarkable how an impression of the finest details
of an object, or the markings on even the most difficult tests,
may be obtained by means of the photographic microscope,
and so definitely that I have used it for proving their struc-
ture.*
The application of photography to the delineation of
microscopic objects is somewhat limited, not by any diffi-
culties or defects in the process, but by occasional peculiarities
of colour, or transparency in the objects themselves. Many
insect, animal, and vegetable structures, though sufficiently
transparent to the eye, are absolutely opaque to the actinic
rays. I possess a specimen of a parasitic insect of a dark red
tinge, and in which a splendid internal tracheal system can
be discerned. I have tried every means of obtaining a pho-
tographic representation of this, but without success. With
all periods of exposure the object appears as a mere blank
space, or like a hole cut in a sheet of paper. Until further
discoveries have removed these difficulties, the application
of microphotography must be to some extent restricted, as
many objects are for this reason excluded. All structures
dependent upon outline or opacity, such as sections of bone
and wood, vegetable fibres, &c., may be delineated with ease
and certainty. 4
In conclusion, [ will enumerate the peculiar advantages of
my method: first, the use of the ordinary microscope as a
solar one, a dark room serving as a substitute for a camera;
the additional apparatus required will cost but a few shillings,
Second, the method of obtaining the combination of the che-
mical and visual foci, which I have found to be of great
practical utility ; third, the mode of obscuring for a time the
parts of the object either easily solarised and lost, or out 0
focus. I have not advanced these as mere speculations, but
have submitted them successfully to the test of repeated trial.
{ may also remark that when sunlight is to be obtained, I
have found the practice of microscopic photography to be one
of particular certainty, for unlike other branches, the con-
ditions of light are so favourable and definite, that an impres-
sion may always be obtained ; and though the present state of
the science in this department is admitted to be imperfect,
yet there can be no question that it is still progressive,
* Within the last few days I have succeeded in obtaining a photo
graphic impression of the P. angulatum, magnified about jifteen thousa ‘
diameters, showing the configuration of the markings perfectly black and
distinct in a far greater degree than we can ever hope to see them through
the compound microscope ; and it is my opinion, that if ever the structure
of these difficult tests is to be proved it will be by the aid of photograph
V.
=|
Rose, on Parasitic Borings in Fossil Fish-scales. 7
‘and in my proposals for removing some of the defects of pre-
‘vious methods, I yenture to hope that the results may here-
after show that I have contributed my mite towards the
advancement of the art.
On the Discovery of Parasitic Bortnes in Fossit Fisu-
4 scaLEs. By C.B. Ross, F.G\S., &c.
(Read June 28th, 1854.)
‘Tue subject of the communication which I bring before the
Microscopical Society, through the favour of my friend Pro-
fessor Quekett, is the discovery of parasitical borings within
‘the delicate structure of fossil fish-scales.
The history of my detection of these workings is as follows :
—In the winter of 1851, when examining fossil fish-scales
from the chalk strata of this neighbourhood, it struck me—
as many of them were thin and translucent, particularly those
of cycloid fishes—that they might make interesting micro-
scopic objects; and I sent up to Norman, in the City Road—
a well-known preparer of specimens for the microscope—a
small piece of chalk with scales adhering to it, requesting him
to put a few upon glasses for me. In consequence of their
thinness and brittle texture, he succeeded in affixing a por-
tion of two scales only. Upon examining them, I observed
that one of them exhibited elegant arborizations, extending
over a large portion of the scale; in the other scale no such
branching figures were visible; nothing, indeed, was seen
but a yellowish, translucent substance, traversed by equidis-
tant lines, evidently the lines of growth; similar lines were
also seen traversing the portion of scale containing the beau.
tiful arborizations. (See Plate L., fig. 1.)
__ Tat first thought the ramifications were on the surface of
e scale, and imagined they might be minute coralloid bodies ;
wt upon applying to them a power of 1-8th, | became satis-
ed that they were tubes of some kind within the texture of
e scale; and by varying the focus, and passing in review
different parts of the scale, I ascertained that they were situ-
ated between its lamine, Still, I could not conceive their
origin ; for | was convinced they had nothing to do with the
Natural structure of the scale, from there being nothing of the
d to be seen in the other scale, and both of them cycloid
cales (Osmeroides ?).
| _ Not very long after meeting with this interesting specimen,
Iwas so fortunate as to receive from Mr. Wetherell, of High-
gate, a paper, published in the ‘ Annals of Natural History,’
‘by Mr. Morris, of Kensington, entitled “ Palaontological
*
¥
—
8 Ross, on Parasitic Borinys in Fossil Fish-scales.
Notes,” in which he described, under the name of Talpina,
branching bodies, or rather the casts of branching tubes, met
with in the Belemnite from the upper chalk, adding also ex-
cellent lithographed figures of them. On the perusal of this
paper, and inspection of the illustrations, I was instantly
satisfied that the ramifying tubes I had found in the fish-
scales were of the same nature as those met with in Belem-
nites,* although the former are so much more delicate than
the latter.
The illustrations accompanying this communication will
afford you a better idea of the course and configuration of
these borings than any description which I can give; still, I
may say, that they proceed between the delicate lamine o
the scale in a graceful curve to their extremities, branching
off on either side, and terminating in a symmetrically-formed
dilatation or cell, and they do not frequently inoscolate. The
beginnings of the tubes are occasionally confluent, as seen in
fiz. 1a, at ¢; in other instances they commence solitarily, and
the parasite, having formed a few lateral branches, has appa-
rently terminated its labours abruptly. It seems, also, that it
has sometimes passed from one lamina into another; thus
taking a transverse direction, or one perpendicular to the
lamine, which is made manifest by the microscope, now and
then detecting a transverse section of a bore. Fig. la ex-
hibits a detached fragment of the original specimen; viz.,
the one in which the borings were first discovered ; upon it
the lines of growth are well marked.
The discovery of the above interesting fact led me to the
examination of fossil scales from other fishes, and the next I
selected were the scales of Prionolepis angustus, a ganoid fish,
from the lower chalk. I was not long in meeting with the
depredations of its parasite; but, you will observe, on ex-
amining fig. 3, that its operations are of a very different
character to those in the osmeroid scale exhibited in fig. 13
for, in this instance, the tubes proceed in a slightly wavy
form, with the lateral branches passing off at a consider-
able angle, and occasionally at right angles; they extend also
to a greater Jength than those in the first specimen ; still, there
cannot be a doubt of their having a similar origin. ;
Proceeding with my researches, I took another scale from
the lower chalk, of a thicker substance, therefore, possibly
from a placoid fish, but being a very imperfect specimen I
cannot say which it is, ganoid or placoid ; it is, at least, from
a different genus to Prionolepis. Here, again, I met with
* It is singular that no traces of them have been observed in the
Belemnites of the Jurassic series.—Von Hayenow,
Rose, on Parasitic Borings in Fossil Fish-scales. 9
borings, and so greatly resembling those in the last-examined
scale (fig. 3), I must, therefore, consider its parasite but a
variety of the one which infested that scale. This specimen
is represented by fig. 4; the decussating lines shown are
probably markings peculiar to that kind of scale.
Pursuing this interesting inquiry, I next took a scale found
in the shale of the Kimmeridge clay, and in it I met with
another form of the parasitic workings; for, in the first
place, they are of a larger calibre, and their form is more
decidedly dichotomous. See fig. 5. The figures given from
this scale clearly show that the parasite inhabited layers
deeper than the external one; indeed, this circumstance was
manifest in some of my first specimens. With the view
of determining whether similar depredations are committed
upon the scales of living fishes, I have carefully examined
numerous scales of several different marine and fresh-water
fishes ; and I have not met with a vestige of borings of any
kind in a single instance.
To what form of organism, vegetable or animal, are we to
attribute these remarkable operations? We are, I am aware,
fully cognizant of the invasion of recent corals, shells, and
bones, by boring sponges (Clionz) and Conferve.* But those
intruders, although comparatively small, have their workings
in most cases visible to the unassisted eye; whereas, in the
instances which I have brought before you, most of them
require a magnifying power of 1-4th to enable us to trace
their course with any degree of distinctness. In my first
specimen (fig. 1, Plate I.), the borings of which I took great
ins to measure, I estimated their calibre at about one
2-1000th to 4-1000th of an inch.
I learn from Mr. Morris’s paper, before referred to, that
M. von Hagenow has, under the name of Talpina, “arranged
certain problematical branching bodies, which traverse the
spathose guard of the Belemnite, and whose position in the
animal kingdom has not been defined, whether as belonging
to the Annelides or to the boring-sponges.”” From the mi-
nuteness of the agent effecting the borings within the fish-
seales, 1 am more disposed to attribute them to the operations
of infusorial parasites, rather than to the growth of sponges or
conferve ; particularly when I consider that the ocean de-
positing the calcareous mud must have been the habitat of
. of Infusoria of infinitesimal calibre.+
__ * See Professor Quekett’s Lectures on the Histology of Animals, vol. ii.
pp. wey 153, &.
at Since reading the above paper, I have found abundance of borings in
a scale from the mud of the river Oran, in Algeria.—C. B. R
*
‘vl
%
10 Grecory, on a remarkable Group. {
On a RemarKkastE Group of Diatomaceous’ Forms, with
Remarks on SHAPE or OUTLINE as a SPECIFIC CHARACTER
in the Diatomacex. By Writram Grecory, M.D.,
F.R.S.E., Professor of Chemistry.
(Read October 28th, 1854.)
Axout a year ago I first noticed, in a gathering from Dud-
dingston Loch, a Navicula of nearly an oval form, with broad,
obtuse apices, which differed from all the Navicule known to
me. The striation was peculiar and strongly marked, the
striae being about 16 in -001”, highly inclined everywhere,
except just about the middle, where the inclined striz seemed
to decussate, leaving, of course, a triangular space on each
side of the centre, while in these triangular spaces the striz
were parallel and transverse. This arrangement, as we shall
see, occurs in several species of Navicula and Pinnularia.
The form here alluded to was referred to different species,
and even to different genera, by different friends whom I con-
sulted; some regarding it as a form of Navicula semen, while
others supposed it to be related to Pinnularia gracilis, or to
P. radiosa. But its aspect was totally distinct from that of
the species named, which, moreover, all have from 24 to 26
strie in *O01”.
Meantime other forms occurred, with the same number
and arrangement of the striz, and with the same peculiar
aspect, but of different outline. Some were nearly rhombi
short, and rather broad; some were longer, also nearly rhom-
bic, but with a contraction and subsequent expansion at the
apices, thus becoming more or less subcapitate. Others were
nearly linear, with obtuse ends; others linear and subcapitate,
Some were found with nearly straight sides, and acuminate,
ending in small apiculi; while others had curved sides, con-
tracted to narrow and produced ends. In some cases these’
produced ends terminated in round knobs; in others in acute
points. Some again had straight sides, with contracted end;
terminating in round heads,
In the whole of the forms now mentioned, I observed the
same characters, the same number and arrangement of the
striz, and the same aspect. On examination it appeared that
the stria were really moniliform, though not obviously so to
the eye, having rather a smooth soft aspect than any appear
ance of eranulation. é
During the whole year new forms, agreeing with thos‘
already mentioned in every point but that of outline, w
from time to time observed. In another Duddingston Lo
gathering, | found in abundance a very fine one, accompani
by others, such as those represented in figs. 1, 18, 28, Pl. I
of Diatomaceous Forms. ll
- Ina gathering from the vicinity of Oban I found several ;
‘one very near the original oval form, but with flattened apices,
and a slight tendency to constriction just within them. These
last, which closely resemble Pinnularia oblonga, shortened,
and rather broader in proportion, are frequent in a Norfolk
gathering sent me by Mr. Bleakley, in which occur also
several others.
_ The Oban gathering contains also various other forms of
this group, one of which has precisely the form and size of
Pinnularia acuta, and as that species occurs along with it, the
‘two forms are easily compared and distinguished. Here also
ccur forms appreaching nearly to that of Pinnularia pere-
grina, although in a purely fresh-water gathering.
In another similar gathering from a bog in Ayrshire, there
is abundance of a form not to be distinguished from P. pere-
grina, along with others of the outline of P. acuta, P. radiosa,
ss
I now began to suspect that these forms might all belong to
one species, for on close inspection I found a very large num-
ber of intermediate or transition forms. I, therefore, named
the supposed type Navicula varians, and continued to search
for its modifications.
In the Glenshira sand, although not very abundant, it ex-
hibits all the forms as yet enumerated, but chiefly those which
have an outline allied to that of Pinnularia gracilis, but twice
or thrice as large, and to that of P. peregrina. These forms
and several others I have since found abundantly in the recent
mud or sand deposited by the Dhu Loch, near the mouth of
the Glenshira, the lake which when at a higher level in the
valley, deposited the Glenshira sand described in the last
number of this Journal.
_ Having received from the Rev. Professor Smith, in Sep-
tember, a slide, of fresh-water origin, in which Navicula
warians, of the type of Pinnularia peregrina, was very abun-
dant, | begged Mr. Smith to examine the form, which he
found, as in all the other types of WN. vartans which he had
‘Seen, to have moniliform striz. He then extended the inquiry
to the typical Pinnularia peregrina, and found that it also had,
at all events in many instances, moniliform striz. From this,
‘I concluded, that in all probability Pinnularia peregrina was
at all times only a type of NW. varians. 1 believe Mr. Smith
intends to change the generic name of P. peregrina to Navicula.
It seems to me in the highest degree probable, that Pinnu-
laria oblonga is nothing else than another type of NV. varians.
For the form (fig. 1) does not differ from P. oblonga, except
in length, every other detail being identical in the two forms ;
zo
12 Grecory, on a remarkable Group
and although I cannot say that I have seen the moniliform
character of the strie either in fig. 1, or in P. oblonga, I believe
that this has been seen in the former. If so, any one who
compares the two forms which occur together, both in the
Oban gathering, and in Mr. Bleakley’s gathering from Norfolk,
will see that the latter can hardly fail to exhibit the same
character. I have not myself been able as yet to attempt the
resolution of these striz with any refinement of appliances,
and therefore I must leave this point for future examination.
I have still to notice one more type, which I first observed
in a gathering from Lochleven, where it is very scarce, but
which is frequent in a second and distinct gathering of Mr.
Bleakley’s from Norfolk. It is rather small, and either of a
short and very broad oval form, or absolutely discoid, but has
all the characters of the group. It is seen in fig. 17. At first
I supposed it to be distinct, but I have since been led to
suspect that it is only a form of the group I have described,
This, however, is by no means certain. On the one hand,
it seems to be certainly a Navicula, although in this point of
view its orbicular form is very remarkable. It also varies to
ovals of different proportions, and it has exactly the striation
of the first observed form of WV. varians (fig. 25), to which,
indeed, in shape, the oval varieties approach very closely.
On the other hand its variations are, so far as I have yet seen,
confined within rather narrow limits ; and its form is so striking,
that I had named it at one time Navicula orbicularis. Since
the preceding sentences were written, | have been informed
that this species was some time since named by Mr. Smith
Navicula scutelloides. So far as 1 know, it has only occurred
as yet in the two localities I have mentioned ; namely, Norfolk
and Lochleven. '
We have now mentioned most of the observed types of NW.
varians, so far, at least, as they present the characteristic stria-
tion and aspect; and although all the forms I have named
may not be found to belong to it, yet it appears that there
exists a large group, characterised by a very peculiar aspect
and striation, the number of stria varying only from about 14
in ‘001” in the larger to 18 in -001” in the smaller forms}
the usual number being 16.
This group seems to include several which have been con-
sidered as distinct species, such as Pinnularia (Navicula)
peregrina, and other forms, referred to Mavicula semen,
rhyncocephala, Pinnularia gracilis, P. radiosa, &c., althoug
in these three species the normal striation is 26 in *O01’
But there are even more of the forms of this group which ar
undescribed, such as the round and oval forms ; that whic
of Diatomaceous Forms. 13
resembles a shortened P. oblonga; that which occurs in Dud-
dingston Loch; the subcapitate forms; the capitate forms
with straight sides; that having the form of P. acuta; and
various others.
If these two classes of forms, the known and the unde-
scribed, really constitute one group, we find in that group
nearly every shape which is seen in the genera Navicula and
Pinnularia ; and also transition forms, connecting together the
various types.
The question naturally arises: Can all these varied forms
belong to one species? Now, at one time, certainly, each
marked type of form would have been regarded as a distinct
species. But the more extended observations of recent times
have proved that form, shape, or outline, is not nearly so
permanent a character as had been imagined. In a paper on the
Mull Deposit (¢ Journal,’ January 1854,) I pointed out, and
illustrated by some figures, the remarkable tendency to variety
of form in three species, namely, Eunotia bigibba, Kiitz:
Pinnularia divergens, W. Smith, and Himantidium bidens.
I alluded also to the same tendency in Eunotia triodon ; and I
again returned to the same point in this last species, ina
short paper in the ‘ Journal’ for July, 1854. Other examples
are not wanting ; and the more the Diatomacez are studied,
the more do we perceive that, in many species at least, the
shape or outline is subject to endless variations. It certainly
appears at present as if, inmany species, the form were constant :
but we must be cautious in affirming this, for in two species
which I adduced as examples of constancy in outline, namely,
Navicula rhomboides, and N. serians, we have now good reason
to believe that important variations of shape occur. Just as
NV. peregrina seems to belong to the group of WN. varians,
‘so it appears that NV. Crassinervia will prove to belong to N.
rhomboides ; and that a form, apparently yet more widely
differing from the latter, namely, that which I have lately
described* under the name of J. interrupta, which is linear,
harrow and obtuse, may be found to be another modification
of WN. rhomboides. The Revd. Professor Smith has also very
recently detected a modification of JV. sertans, most remarkably
different in shape from the usual type.
It will probably be found necessary, looking to the
uniformity of markings and aspect in the forms here described,
and to the existence of such numbers of transition forms con-
necting the various types of outline, to form a species,
WNavicula varians, including these forms as sub-species ; or
_ * In a paper read to the Microscopical Society, 25th of October last,
Which will appear in the next Number of the ‘ Journal.’
14 Grecory, on a remarkable Group
else to form a subgenus, characterised by its markings,
that is, by its structure, including, as species, the chief types
of outline to be found in the group. Some system of sub-
division must be employed, in order to avoid confusion. I
dare not venture, in the present imperfectly investigated con-
dition of these forms, to prepare a permanent nomenclature
for them. I content myself with directing attention to the
subject, merely using the name NV. varians as a convenient
symbol for the group. I entertain no doubt that other
analogous groups will be detected by careful examination.
It is quite plain that in such groups form, shape, or outline
cannot be regarded as a trustworthy specific character,
although it is probable that many species exist in which the
form, being constant, may be safely used in this way.
It is an important question how far other characters, such
as the number of the striae, or their arrangement, or the
general aspect, may be depended on as specific characters,
In this case, as in that of form, there seem to be many
examples in which the characters are constant. But yet other
cases occur where the tendency to vary seems to extend to
these characters also. Thus, I have more than once pointed
out that Pinnularia divergens, W. Smith, which, as it occurs
in the Premnay peat, has, according to W. Smith, 11 striz in
001”, occurs abundantly in the Mull deposit, and in many
recent gatherings, with every detail, and especially the very
peculiar arrangement of the striz, which have three centres of
divergence, precisely as figured in the Synopsis, while the
number of strie is from 24 to 26 in :001". I have now
repeatedly met with both varieties, and although the number
of striae seems never to fall so low as stated by Mr. Smith, yet
there is a very marked difference.
It would be out of place here to enter minutely on this
question, which, however, is well worthy of attention. It will
probably be found that in certain cases none of the characters
above alluded to are constant ; while in many they appear to
have a great degree of uniformity. :
But it is strictly within the scope of this paper to notice a
group allied to that of WV. varians, and differing from it chiefly
in the number of striz. :
I have already stated that some of the forms now figured
had been referred to such species as JV. semen, N. rhyncocepha
P. gracilis, and P. radiosa, in all of which the normal numb
of strie is from 24 to 26 in ‘001." r)
Now, I find, occurring generally with those forms which I
refer to the group of WV. varians, others, having, like them, all
or most of the varied shapes I have alluded to, and yet —_
of Diatomaceous Forms. 15
a? finer striz; in fact, agreeing in this respect with the
ur species just named. To this group belong the form
figured in my paper on the Mull deposit as Pinnularia exigua ;
jthat figured in the same paper as a doubtful form of P.
radiosa, or between that species and P. peregrina, and a
onsiderable number of other forms, which not only have the
striz inclined and otherwise arranged exactly as in WN. varians,
fbut pass into one another by intermediate forms. Their
aspect is quite distinct from that of NV. varians, because the
stria, being much finer, cease to be conspicuous, as they are so
| remarkably i in NV. varians. To this group belongs also a form
I lately described * as WN. latiuscula, and I am inclined to
Bbelieve that the group includes N. semen, N. rhyncocephala,
P. gracilis, P. radiosa, and others, just as I suspect that the
oup of WN. varians includes N. peregrina and P. (qy N 2)
oblonga. In favour of this supposition, I may mention that a
friend informs me that the strie of P. gracilis have been
found by him to be moniliform, although the fact may not yet
be thoroughly established. This, it will be observed, corres-
ponds to Mr. Smith’s observation on the striz of P. peregrina.
tis well known that the striz in P. gracilis are somewhat
obscure, and that in this, as well as in number, they differ from
hose of N. varians. But we can now see how it was that
several of the forms of NV. varians were referred to P. gracilis.
fhe latter, with its normal striation, appears to belong to
ithe second group which I have mentioned, and which,
or convenience, may be called N. mutabilis.
It will be observed that if, in the case of NV. varians, the
two characters of variableness of outline and variableness in
the number of striz should be found united, N. varians and
. mutabilis would then constitute but one group, divided, in
the first instance, into those with 16 strie in -001” or WN.
arians, and those with 26 strie in ‘001,” or N. mutabilis,
whether these divisions be regarded as species, or as subgenera.
_I have only farther to add, at present, that both these
groups are widely distributed and often abundant, whether in
the shape of the known species, such as P. peregrina, P.
gracilis, &c., or in that of the types now first pointed out, J
have named those gatherings or deposits in which they occur
most abundantly ; ; but there are few mixed fresh-water gather-
ings in which some of them do not occur. I have it,
ortunately, i in my power to supply observers with some of the
most interesting gatherings, and I shall be happy to forward
small portions of these, or slides, where the material is very
scanty, to such microscopists as may wish to examine them,
as * In the paper already alluded to in a preceding necte.
DESCRIPTION OF PLATE I.
in Fossil Fish-scales.
Fig.
1.—Borings in a cycloid scale (Osmeroides?), from the lower chalk oi
West Norfolk.
la magnified 35 diameters. At c, in this figure, is shown the
confluence of two tubes at their commencement. 143, a por-
tion more highly magnified. :
2.—Borings in another scale, magnified 135 diameters.
3.—Borings in a svale of Prionolepis angustus, from the lower cha
magnified 135 diameters.
4,—A variety of the last, from another scale, perhaps placoid, obtained
from the lower chalk. bs
5.—Borings in fragments of a Fish-scale, from shales of Kimmeridge
clay. 7
a,a. The specimen from which these are taken has lost the
external lamina, therefore the borings lie between the twe
lamine, or in an inferior one.
b,b. This specimen has the external lamina on it.
c. The external lamina is in this figure situated at d.
cay (2) Mocs Le. Doe CANT. LlL
Ford & West, Imp
a
vd
mle 2
On the DevEtormeENT of the Empryo of Purpura Lapittus.
~ By Writram B. Carrenter, M.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Presi-
dent of the Microscopical Society of London, &c. &e.
(Read December 29th, 1854.)
Nortwirustanpine the large amount of attention which has
been given by Microscopists, during the last twenty years, to
the development of the ova of Gasteropod Mollusks, and the
completeness with which, in particular cases, its successive
stages have been observed, much still remains to be learned
respecting it. And this is more especially the case with re-
gard to the Pectinibranchiate order, which includes not only a
very large proportion of the entire class, but also comprehends
those forms which, by general consent, would be regarded as
its types. For nearly all the most complete series of observa-
itions yet made, have had for their subjects either Nudibran-
chiate or Pulmonated Mollusks; the ova of the former pre-
senting peculiar facilities for examination, in virtue of their
extreme transparency, and the rapidity with which they undergo
some of their most important changes, so that these can be
watched while in actual progress ;* and those of the latter
aaving attracted the attention of that large class of naturalists,
who, not having the opportunity of sojourning at the coast,
re glad to avail themselves of the opportunities afforded by
he universal diffusion of Helices, Lymnai, &c., for the prose-
‘cution of this kind of research.+
* On the embryonic development of Nudibranchiate and Tectibranchiate
Fasteropods, see especially the admirable memoir of Vogt, on o8> I dordw a3 lo 1sdte VSS nsdt
erpprmar arena sd ot ak ehrowretls i
josrdo oct tasla edi obam sved I bering tart @
bai sii tp oved bas foitsviaedy &
-wod jsodiiw »wom es sm dsone doulw oniiityne
idk: ¥itt mou emotesionos werh of nah soy
weak i sgbolwond sigooeoisim toshsami Yara
JosTiesni svoiqae
te bots ef .Iéél yieusdeT of 1i wae tert I ge
s yd bsiquoco esw stins> dt aisd. doso af
slidw ,esiunerg enivom oiiw ‘balla (heneosiead
jon bib aslunsrg od TD) .esbie anol od? is stewe
ovo iisdt ot tg 6 ind .tusiq ofl dguords otaluc
abiosb ton bline 1 Wives 10 ped 8 Bares Bow |
re
set sid in Ble ¢ Sslodw + i 1990 oniniiswe 91 &
eft unrgnitd »ooot to noilsisils of sub sed
eved yen 4 To ; iduke otar itas Simmorg siom elk
daslq ad} jo diworg vise di nt snnotohtib ontoa
-s1109 bewode 0 bas @ .agi nt betaseotqsT emomt
@ .gft I .gh otal gnigolevob 8 2A 259
enonad) yor doidw ai totsw ordi hovreeonq «int
gnignsdo ylisuntiaos yd bre ; tasbands ude
aisiie9 lo aoitoslloss7 ym mor litaed ain
-09 ted3 Anidd | .os9e ylienownn0 sone ovad i
esw I tod :tomome odt anianh 6 alg ‘srodai 9
sibinee(™ sdt to “nigneioge ont dtie bosminupa
gariqe tied! deol 2taslq odPto yaem ,boonsvbe *
soustaogaGs ot einsesiqer OF ‘on 2 mopar po,
Anuide dover Yusy 2aw soar eran 19001 ‘ont exodfe ti
svitos ni }) allem gosTg silt lo oltil s (lao ¢
videdorg soeqes embiies oe Tig z10m beainees 2100
9 .gf al mac’ noone nworlt idgil ed? to 1"
( 33)
Observations on Cosmarium MarGaRITIFERUM and other Ders-
mMiDE®. By Mrs. Hersert THomas, Bristol. Communi-
cated by Dr, CarrPEntEr.
(Read January 24th, 1855.)
In the month of February, 1851, while watching, for the first
time, in the Zygnema, the curious phenomenon of conjugation,
my attention was attracted by a beautiful object passing with
a slow, unsteady motion over the field of the microscope; at
the same time I observed that in its interior small granules
were moving with extreme rapidity, resembling a swarm of
bees more than any other object to which I can compare it.
This plant I afterwards knew to be Cosmarium margaritife-
rum. From that period I have made this plant the object of
my constant observation, and have at the time recorded by
delineation anything which struck me as new, without, how-
ever, endeavouring to draw conclusions from my observations,
which, from my imperfect microscopic knowledge, I knew
might too often prove incorrect.
The plant, as I first saw it in February 1851, is figured at
Plate V., fig. 3. In each half, the centre was occupied by a
vesicle (as it appeared) filled with moving granules, while
smaller vesicles were at the four sides. The granules did not
appear to circulate through the plant, but kept to their own
place, which was either a bag or cavity, | could not decide
which. In fig. 1, subsequently drawn, 1 have recorded that
the granules were swarming over the whole plant. This may
possibly have been due to alteration of focus, bringing the
larger granules more prominently into sight; or it may have
arisen from some difference in the early growth of the plant,
as the specimens represented in figs. 8 and 9 showed corre-
sponding differences, fig. 8 developing into fig. 1, fig. 9
into fig. 3.
I now carefully preserved the water in which my Cosma-
rium was tolerably abundant; and by continually changing
it, kept the plants healthy. From my recollection of certain
bodies which I have since occasionally seen, I think that con-
jugation may have taken place during the summer; but I was
Not then acquainted with the sporangia of the Desmidie.
As the summer advanced, many of the plants lost their spring
beauty and active motion; fig. 10 represents the appearance
of some ; in others the inner membrane was very much shrunk,
containing only a little of the green matter, or if in active
life, the colours assumed more of an autumn aspect, probably
from the colour of the light thrown upon them. In fig. 6
d
VOL. III.
34 Observations on Cosmarium Margaritiferum.
the contents of the inner bag had so much distended them- —
selves, that the bead-like margin of the outer case was lost,.* —
In this figure I have represented as accurately as possible, 3
the appearance presented on November 12th. On this plant :
I noted—“ The motion very active, and the plant apparently
in a healthy condition, The outer membrane quite plain, —
but certainly the same plant as the others. When fresh
water was introduced, around the object, the outer membrane —
remained immoyeable, while the imner was pushed into a
globe. The granules escaped one night, and the plant. as-
sumed much the appearance of fig. 10.” In the followmg
spring I figured fig. 5, which appeared to me early develop-
ment of the masses of swarming granules; and fig. 2,
which, in the same month (February 1852), was the most
usual appearance and colour, becoming darker and fuller-as
the spring advanced. In the summer of 1851, 1 applied
iodine to fig. 3, when the granules ran with extreme rapidity
into four balls, as represented in fig. 7; I also tried to find
out their nature by pressing them out of the plant. In thisT
was unsuccessful, as the contents mingled rapidly with the
other vegetable forms in the water. 1 satisfied myself, how
ever, that they escaped at the centre of the plant, from ‘ohicll
part the contents escape to form the sporangia, as I afterwards
discovered. As I frequently found plants resembling fig. 4
I .concluded that when the plant was mature the granules
escaped of themselves. dt:
In September 1851, 1 had the pleasure of observing ano~
ther change in these ‘beautiful plants. At one-o’clock
two hemispheres of a plant separated, as figured in fig. 1
the transparent hemispheres protruded between the origi
halves, containing only colourless granules, At six,o’cl
the.four parts were nearly equal in size, and the green ge
evenly divided, though faint in colour. At eleven n
morning, the whole had assumed a healthy, vigorous ap
ance, as at fig. 12. Soon after, a restless motion was visible ;
and at twelve o’clock the plants were freeing themselves from
an enclosing membrane (13), which had first appeared in
fig. 11. At one o’clock the plants had escaped, and. mowes
freely off into the surrounding water, leaving their old enye-
lopes, which, in the following spring (1852), when my plan
were very healthy and active, J found in great numbers im
water. 1 suppose that the time taken on this occasion (twer
* This observation is an important one, if it be quite sure that the
specimen observed was C. margaritiferum : it may be questioned, how:
ever, whether it was not a specimen of ©, Ralfsii, which ‘Had! foun m
way amidst the others:—W. B. CO, olf
Observations on Cosmarium Margaritiferum. 35
_ feur hours) might be about an average time required for sub-
division; but the period required for the ripening of the
moving granules, I cannot in the least calculate. I took a
plant in apparently full maturity, and watched it for a fort-
night; but I could trace no change in its appearance, nor did
the granules weary in their motion, either in sunlight or in
shade, in daytime or at night; for in the dead of night, when
hours of darkness might have brought on them the “ sleep of
plants,’ I suddenly threw upon them a strong light, and
found them in their usual activity of motion, while the same
light only gradually and partially roused a ‘ wheeler” from
his slumbers. I have figured four monstrosities in subdi-
vision, which I observed in the spring of 1852 (figs. 15, 16,
17, 18). I was much inclined in 1851 to suppose, from the
figure fig. 21, that subdivision took place at various ages of
the plant; I subsequently found, however, that this must
have been a plant of C. Thwaitsii, which I obtained in the
spring of 1852, in a neighbouring locality, in great activity of
division and swarming motion; and in the same autumn I
found sporangia of two species, which would lead me to sup-
pose fig. 22 a full-grown form. (See figs. 25 and 28.)
All the species of Cosmarium do not appear to have the
habit of casting off their envelopes; for in fig. 19, which I
found in great abundance, both subdividing and forming
sporangia, no loose vesicles were left from the former process,
though in the latter the empty cases were abundant and per-
manent.. Being greatly disappointed at not being able to
prove the use of the moving granules, I watched as minutely
as I could the formation and subsequent development of the
sporangia. The contents of the ball, as in the division of the
plant, were at first light in colour, and containmg few gran-
ules; they subsequently became darker green, and then a
reddish-brown, as in figs. 25, 26, 27, or as in figs. 23, 24;
‘and at the same time the coats became more numerous.
_ In the month of April 1853, I was delighted to find in the
bottle containing the sporangia of Cosmarium, fig. 24, a
‘Mmany-coated ball filled with granules in the same rapid
otion as observed in the full-grown Cosmarium. 'The simi-
wity of the movement attracted my attention; and I also
‘saw that in one part the enclosing membrane appeared thinner,
‘as if giving way at that spot. On the third morning the
Membrane had broken, and the granules escaped, leaving the
nearly-emptied case as represented at fig. 29. See alsu
Twill now speak of the changes visible to the naked eye,
while preserving in bottles water in which Cosmarium margari-
36 Observations on Cosmarium Margaritiferum. j
tiferum and others of the same family were very numerous. —
During the summer and autumn, the masses of green matter —
would float to the surface, rapidly disengaging oxygen as the
sun shone upon them, and sinking again to the bottom with —
the coolness of the evening, Later in the year, masses would —
adhere to the inner surface of the bottle in the form of a thin —
pellicle, or collect in slimy masses, which appeared to dis-—
solve with the warmth of the coming spring. The green —
colour changed to that of a reddish- -yellow, and it might have
been thought that all was dead, did not the microscope show
the same beautiful green both in young and full-grown plants,
together with much bright red and brown, apparently the
casings of the sporangia, which gave their colour to the
wheel-animalcules that had evidently feasted on their remains,
and thriven on them. Large Cosmaria, still in active motion
(the remains of the mature growth of the preceding summer),
lay imbedded in the mass, when a small portion was sepa-
rated for microscopic observation, as well as clusters of young
ones, figured at figs. 31, 32, 33. When the bottles had re
mained more than a year untouched, except for change of
water, these masses increased in leathery hardness: green life
was not extinct, but became feeble in colour, and too much
changed to warrant further observations ; while a small por-
tion, placed in another bottle and more freely exposed to the’
light, multiplied with great rapidity. Further observations
were stopped by the declining strength of the plants.
From the observations of the Rev. Mr. Osborne, on Closte=
rium lunula, published in the ‘ Quarterly Journal of Micro-
scopical Science,’ I should feel no doubt that the advancing
motion in Cosmarium was also caused by cilia, the two families”
bearing a close resemblance to each other in their habits,
Many careful observations made on Closteriwm, as detailed in
the ‘ Annales des Sciences Naturelles,’ vol. v., 1836, have been
verified here in Cosmarium, though I am inclined to differ on
the subject of the development of the sporangium. This bo
would appear to me to be the winter-casing of a large number of
young plants, which escape from it by rapidly knocking against
its walls when these have been loosened by spring ae
or which grow up as the walls gradually decay in the midst 0:
those gelatinous masses previously described. In proof of
this opinion, | would adduce the immense increase in the
number of the plants in the springs of 1852 and 1853, in
some measure to be attributed to subdivision, as could
seen by the empty double cases figs. 14 and 21, but
trifling as compared with the masses, of which figs. 31, 3
and 33, give only a faint idea) Why should such rapi
Address of the President at the Annual Meeting. 37
“motion be observed in the full-grown plant, unless for the
purpose of reproduction? for the cells of higher plants show
such powerful mechanism merely for the vegetative processes.
If these moving granules are zoospores, capable, when set
free, of developing into perfect plants, then it seems to follow
that the sporangium (which is the product of two such plants)
may also contain these zoospores, capable, when their fitting
time comes, of filling the waters with their countless progeny.
And if, as I fully believe, fig. 29 is the sporangium of a
Cosmarium, its growth by zoospores seems evident.
~
Appress of the Presipent at the ANNuAL MEETING of the
MicroscopicaL Society, February 28, 1855.
GENTLEMEN,
Tue Report of your Council cannot, I think, be other-
wise than satisfactory, as regards both the progress of our
Society in number of Members, and the state of our finances.
Including the elections which we have made this evening, we
have added twenty-five new names to our list, whilst we have
lost five by death and five by resignation ; making an addition
of fifteen to our total. ‘The number of nominal Members,
however, has been considerably reduced by the stringent mea-
Sures which your Council had thought it right to adopt, in
regard to those individuals from whom long arrears of sub-
scriptions are due. Of these, four have been taken off the list,
as never having performed the first condition of membership,
namely, payment of the entrance-fee and first subscription ;
whilst eight more who had become entitled to membership,
have been expelled, after ample notice had been given to them
of the penalty which they incurred. I am quite sure that you
will not regret the loss of those who have shown themselves so
unworthy of the advantages which membership confers ; and
that the vitality of our trunk will be increased by thus getting
rid of all our dead branches.
’ The financial condition of the Society affords matter for
much congratulation ; since we have been able to afford con-
‘siderable additions to our expenditure, without more than such
trifling reduction of our floating balance, as we may expect
be soon made up by that increase of contributions which is
€ontinually going on, whilst our reserve fund has considerably
increased. Thus, we have paid to the editors of the ‘ Quarterly
Microscopical Journal of Science ’ a much larger sum than has
ever been before expended in any one year for the printing of
ur Transactions; whereby each of our Members becomes
<> 1.2 qa le
38 Address of the President at the Annual Meeting.
entitled to receive the Journal free of cost, thus getting back —
more than three-fourths of the amount of his’ subscription, —
We have borne the increased rent charged to us by the
Horticultural Society ; and we have, in addition, felt justi-_
fied in laying upon the Society’s funds the cost of the tea
furnished at the evening meetings, which had been previously
defrayed by private subscription.
Among the Members whom we have had the misfortune to —
lose by death during the past year—namely, the Rev. J. P.—
Bean, Professor E. Forbes, Mr. Finch, Mr. Ingpen, and Dr.
Soulby—there is one whose high scientific eminence claims a
special tribute on this occasion; a tribute which, from my
own long personal friendship with him, I feel it a privilege to
have this opportunity of paying to his memory.
The unexpected death of Professor Edward Forbes, on the
18th of November, at the age of thirty-nine years, excited but
one feeling of the deepest regret, not only in the: scientific
community of which he was so distinguished a member, but
also throughout a far wider circle of personal friends than it
falls to the lot of most men to possess. It was my good
fortune to have first become acquainted with him at the time
when we were fellow-students, nineteen years since, m the
University of Edinburgh; where he went through the full
curriculum of medical study, but did not take his degree;
having, during his sojourn there, determined to abandon the
pursuit of Medicine as a profession, in order to devote himself
to the study and teaching of Natural History, for which he
had very early shown a strong bias and a remarkable aptitude,
The enlarged and philosophic spirit in which he pursued this
science, is too widely known and too generally appreciated, for
it to be necessary for me to dwell upon it here. His admir-
able monograph on the ‘“ British Starfishes,’ published in
1840-1, was the first work by which he became generally
known as a Naturalist; and very shortly after its appearanee,
he commenced those laborious researches in the Aigean Sea,
on the distribution of marine life at different depths, which
first brought him prominently into notice among the eminent
cultivators of geological science of this and other countries,
by whom his investigations were most highly estimated. From
that time his scientific career was one of increasing honour to
himself, and of the most eminent service to the sciences of
zoology and geology, which he was continually enriching by
original contributions of the greatest value. off,
He was successively appointed to the Professorship of
Botany in King’s College, to the office of Palzeontologist to the:
Geological Survey, and to the distinguished post of President
:
of the Geological Society ; all of which he resigned last spring,:
on being chosen to succeed. the late Professor Jameson in the
Chair of Natural History in the University of Edinburgh,
which he had long regarded as the summit of his ambition,
‘but: upon the duties of which he had scarcely entered, ere his
life was ‘cut: short by the development of a disease, which (as
the event proved) must long have been pursuing its. fatal course
Without:any external indication.
-| To know-the Professor. was to know but little of Edward
Forbes: Probably no. man of his generation was so many-
sided, » Not only science, but literature and art, found in him
avhearty appreciation of all that was excellent. No clique
‘could claim him as its own, for his sympathies were universal ;
no man was more unselfish, or used his influence more gene-
rously for the advancement even of those who might be in some
sort his rivals, than Edward Forbes. Hence no one. could
know him, without not only admiring, but loving him; and to
every one who was worthy of his regard, he freely extended it,
His genial humour and good-natured wit, joined to his other
high qualifications, caused him to be universally welcomed as
acompanion; yet, however ‘‘ petted,” he was never “ spoiled”
by the attentions he received, but remained the same genuinely-
good fellow, when he had climbed to the top of the tree, as he
was when, in the days of his studentship, he exercised that
wonderful power of attaching others to him, which would have
doubtless been exerted to the great advantage of his University
and of science, had it been the will of Providence that his
labours should have been prolonged in the new sphere on
which he had so recently entered.
» Turning, now, to our own proceedings during the _ last
twelvemonth, I cannot but feel some regret at not being able
to speak in a more congratulatory tone, as to the number and
importance of the communications which have been brought
before us. Considering the great number of individuals who
are occupied in microscopic research, and the large amount
of novel facts which they must be continually encountering, it
is to me a matter of surprise, as well as of regret, that so few
of these should be made public through our instrumentality.
Some of the best contributors to our former meetings haye, I
am aware, been kept back during the last year by the pressure
of other engagements ; whilst others have entered with such
zeal into the study and practice of the Photographic art, as to
have been led away by its fascinations from their former alle-
giance. Moreover, during the latter part of the last session,
Lunderstand that a dearth of papers was an epidemic disease
by which almost every scientific society in London was more
Address of the President at the Annual Meeting. 39
pA
40 Address of the President at the Annual Meeting. |
or less affected ; so that we were thus suffering (if this be re-
garded as any alleviation of our trouble) im the good company ©
of the Royal, the Linnean, and other first-rate associations. —
I would urge upon our Members, however, that the interest of ©
our meetings can only be sustained by themselves ; we have no”
right to look for extraneous assistance ; and there is; | am/con-~
fident, no lack of power amongst us, if it be only rightly directed, —
—a point on which I shall by-and-by dwell more at large.”
But I would also suggest to those distant friends to micro-/
scopic inquiry, who are in the habit of forwarding their valuable”
communications direct to the Journal, that it would much serve ©
us, and would give to their discoveries a more immediate and”
a wider publicity, if they would communicate them in the”
first instance to the Microscopical Society (which they cam |
always do through some Member, or through the editors of)
the Journal), so as to be read and discussed at our meetings. ©
The only communication we have received, having reference’)
to the improvements of the microscope, or of any of its adjuncts, ©
is Mr. Wenham’s valuable paper on Microscopic Photography 3°,
which will, I doubt not, give a new impulse to the practice of
this most interesting art. Having myself been one of the”
earliest labourers in this field, although circumstances have!)
prevented me from continuing to cultivate it, I can fully con=0
firm what he says with regard to the superiority of solar light)
over any ordinary kind of artificial light. With low powers,”
indeed, and a sufficiently large condenser, I have found diffused”
daylight much superior to the direct rays of the sun: of course,”
a longer time is required for the production of a good picture 3’
but no adjustment is necessary for the change of the sun’s”
place; and the picture itself is much superior in tone to most®
of those taken by direct sunlight. It is much to be desired!
that the experiment should be tried, how far ‘the electric light”
possesses such an amount of actinic power, as may make it:
efficient substitute for the solar rays; the result of M
Wenliam’s experiments upon the effect of an intermitting di
charge of a small Leyden jar, being sufficiently encouraging”
to render the trial of it highly desirable. i
Before passing to the review of that portion of our proceed=
ings which will lead us to considerations of a very diffe
order, I think it not inappropriate to make a few remarks up
certain tendencies which I observe at present among some
those who are most zealously devuted to microscopic resear
and which seem to me to be likely to exert an injurious influ
ence upon the progress of science, if they be not kept withi
due bounds, I refer especially to that rage, if I may so des
nate it, for object-glasses of the largest possible apertur
Address of the President at the Annual Meeting. 41
which causes our best makers to aim at its augmentation, as if
t were the one thing needful. Now if we examine into the
somparative advantages and disadvantages of such glasses, we
ball find, I think, that forall ordinary ‘y purposes, the latter
lecidedly’ predominate. The objects which can be seen de-
jyidedly better with lenses of very large, than with those of
noderate aperture, are comparatively few in number, and of a
very limited kind ; being such as are marked with very close
ines, strie, spots, or other like inequalities of surface. For
Mhe resolution of these, it is well known that a large angular
Hiperture is essential ; so that of two lenses whose performance
nay be equally good for all ordinary purposes, that which has
Whe wider angle shall here surpass the other, and this in exact
oroportion to Wider excess, But this superiority is obtained at
he expense of other advantages. For even granting that there
s no sacrifice of that most important element, defining power
which can only be obtained, with a very wide angle, by the
Mitmost perfection in all the corrections), yet the adequate
»erformance of such a lens can only be secured by the greatest
sactness in the adjustments. Only that portion of the object
yhich is precisely in focus, can be seen with an approach to
/listinctness, everything that is in the least degree out of it
eing imbedded (so to speak) in a thick fog; it is requisite,
00, that the adjustment for the thickness of the glass that
Proyers the object, exactly neutralize the effect of its refraction ;
md the arrangement of the mirror and condenser must. be such
0 give to the object the best possible illumination. If there
e any failure in these conditions, the performance of a lens
# very wide angular aperture is very much inferior to that of
lens of moderate aperture; and except in very experienced
ands, this is likely to be generally the case. Now to the
orking microscopist, unless he be studying the particular
‘lass of objects which expressly require this condition, it is a
ource of great inconvenience and loss of time, to be obliged to
e continually making these adjustments ; and a lens, which, .
vhen adjusted for a thickness of glass of 1-100”, will perform
fithout much sensible deterioration with a thickness either of
-80” or of 1-120", is practically the best for all ordinary
urposes. Moreover, a lens of moderate aperture has. this
ery great advantage, that the parts of the object which are
ess perfectly in focus can be much better seen; and therefore
hat the relation of that which is most distinctly discerned to
Il the rest of the object, is rendered far more apparent. Had
jot the term ‘ penetration’ been already applied in a different,
nd I think far less appropriate sense, I should have said that
nm objective of moderate angular aperture has far more pene-
42 Address of the President dt the Annual Meeting.
trating power, enabling us to see much) more:into an obj
than one of a very wide angle; and skrecraghe peal i ql
definition will also be found superior. d lo 2esla
Let me remind you, further, that almost all. the grea
achievements of microscopic research have been made by d
instrumentality of such objectives as I am -recommendin
There can be no question about the large proportion of | the
results which continental microscopists ‘may claim,dn ° uearlyp
all departments of minute anatomical, physiological; botani a
or zoological research, since the introduction of this imvalual
auxiliary ; and it is well known that the great majority of thei
instruments are of extremely simple construction, and»
their objectives are generally of very moderate angular a
ture. Moreover, if we look at the date of some of the pri
cipal contributions which this country has furnished to:
common stock, such as the ‘‘Odontography” of Profess
Owen, the “ Researches into the Structure of Shell? carriedio
by Mr. Bowerbank and myself, the “ Physiological eich
of Messrs. Todd and Bowman, the first volume of the ‘His
tological Catalogue,” by Professor Quekett, and the “ British
Desmidez” of Mr. Ralfs, we find sure reason to conclude that
these researches must have been made with the instr aly
of lenses, which would in the present day be regarded as.
very limited capacity. si
I hope that in these remarks I shall not be understood as im
any way desirous to damp the zeal of those, who are applying}
themselves to the perfectionizing of achromatic objectives. ~ Jd
regard it as a fortunate thing for the progress of science, tha
there are individuals whose ‘tastes lead. them to the adoptior on
of this pursuit; who stimulate our instrument-makers to go ol
from one range to another, until they have conquered the dij
ficulties which previously baffled them, and then apply them:
selves to find out some new tests which shall offer a fresh
difficulty to be overcome. But it is not the only, nor can J
regard it as the chief work of the microscope, to resolve
markings upon the Diatomacez, or tests of the like difficulty
and although I should consider. this as the highest object
ambition to our makers, if the performance of such lense
with test-objects were any fair measure of their general utility,
yet as I think that I have demonstrated that the very conditiell 5
of their construction render them inferior in this respect
the purposes of ordinary microscopic research, I would m
rather hold out the reward of high appreciation (awe have m
other to give) to him who should produce the best work
microscope, adapted to all ordinary requirements, at the lowe
cost. It does not seem to me an unapt simile, to compare thi
|
Address of the\ President tat the Annual Meeting. 43
levotees of large angular apertures to the gentlemen of the
‘turf’ Its, I believe, generally admitted, that the breeding
He class of horses distinguished by speed and ‘blood,’ which is
. 1 Leno. - Se =. aes SS UE CLS LS
et — OY
a
Address of the President at the Annual Meeting. 53
in deep obscurity ; for it can scarcely be doubted that many of
the animalcule-like bodies, such as the Volvocine, whose
vegetable nature has been made known to us by observation
of certain stages in the history of their lives, are but the
motile forms (zoospores) of some other plants, whose relation to
them is at present unknown. Hitherto it has been commonly
thought sufficient to trace the history of any of these bodies
from their first production by binary subdivision, or some
essentially-equivalent process (gemmation), to the repetition
of the same process by themselves, which was considered as
terminating their life as individuals; and neither was any
departure from this simple plan of reproduction, nor the
origination of a new and dissimilar form in any part of the
series, at all anticipated. But now that we have juster views
of the real analogies (or, more properly, homologies) of these
simple plants, it becomes evident that the multiplication of
cells by binary subdivision, or by any kind of outgrowth,
really corresponds with the multiplication of elementary parts
in the embryo of any one of the higher plants or animals ;
and that the almost indefinite increase which may thus take
place, is really the growth of the individual, which will at last
take on a new phase, sexual organs being evolved, and a true
process of generation (essentially consisting in the reunion of
the contents of two cells, by conjugation, or some equivalent
act) being performed by their instrumentality. The life of
the individual, as I long since maintained, and as is now coming
to be generally admitted, includes the whole series of pheno-
mena which intervene between one act of generation and
another ; and this series of phenomena may include the pro-
duction of two or three very distinct and apparently unrelated
forms. Hence until we have traced out this history in regard
to every distinct type of animal and vegetable life, we must
not only consider our knowledge of it to be essentially incom-
plete, but we must also admit the probability that a vast
number of our reputed species have no real existence. Many
distinguished German and French observers* have recently
been devoting themselves to this kind of inquiry, singling out
a few specific forms, and endeavouring to trace these through
all their phases of development; and the success which has
already attended their endeavours, is the best encouragement
to more extended labours in the same direction.
* See especially the Memoirs of Professor Stein, in ‘ Weigmann’s
Archiv.,’ and in ‘ Siebold and Kolliker’s Zeitschrift,’ and his recently-
published work, ‘Die Infusionsthiere,’ which embodies the preceding ;
also M. Jules Haime, on Trichoda lynceus, in ‘ Ann. des Sci. Nat.,’ 3° Sér.,
Zool., tom. xix.
54 Address of the President at the Annual Meeting.
In this work I am extremely anxious to engage the active
co-operation of the Members of our Society. I cannot but —
feel that a great deal of excellent microscope power, if I may
use the expression, is running to waste. Of the excellence
of our instruments, it is quite unnecessary for me to speak. Of
the acute powers of observation of a large proportion of the
possessors of these instruments, [ am equally well assured.
Yet if we look at the comparative products of England and
Germany, in the field of sound microscopic observation, we
cannot but feel that there is some ground for the sarcastic
observation of Professor Schleiden, that the English cannot
possess good microscopes, since their contributions to minute
botanical research have been so trifling. I would not be thought
unmindful of the many admirable memoirs and monographs,
which may challenge comparison with those of any other
country ; they are excellent as far as they go; but I am san-
guine enough to believe that these could easily be multiplied
tenfold, if those who spend their time in desultory observa-
tions, and in merely looking at some favourite objects over
and over again, would but concentrate their attention upon
some particular topic, and work out this with patience and
perseverance 3 and I am not, I think, too ambitious for the
honour of our country, or too eager for the promotion of true
Science, in urging the Members of this Society, that they should,
both individually and collectively, aim at so worthy an object.
I would assure you from my own somewhat lengthened expe-
rience, that the microscopist who applies himself to work out
some particular class of observations, on which he concentrates
his chief attention, finds it gradually become to him an object
of such attractive interest, that he experiences a zest in the
pursuit, to which the mere dilettante is an entire stranger; and
I feel confident that it is only by the assumption of some
systematic guidance as to what and how to observe, that the
influence of our Society will be most beneficially exerted in
the promotion of microscopic research, and its own highest
prosperity be most effectually secured. "
Machine for Microscopic Writing. dd
An Account of Mr. Peters’s Macnine for Microscopic
Writine. By R. J. Farrants, Esq., F.R.CS.
(Read April 25th, 1855.)
Mosr of the Members of the Microscopical Society are un-
doubtedly acquainted with Nobert’s lines, and have probably
considered with astonishment the wonderfully-minute move-
ments which must have been effected in producing them.
Very beautiful specimens of microscopic writing, also by a
foreigner, Froment, of Paris, have, I believe, also been exhi-
bited inthisroom. I am not aware that any account has been
published of the manner in which the results are attained.
It is satisfactory to be able to state that these interesting
productions of our continental neighbours have been at least
equalled by means of a machine, entirely contrived and prin-
cipally constructed by a gentleman of our own country, Mr.
Peters, the banker, who is also a distinguished member of the
Microscopical Society: he makes no secret of the manner in
which his marvellous specimens are produced: on asking
leave to lay before this Society an account of his wonder-
working machine, and the manner of using it, permission was
at once most liberally given; and that the description may be
the more intelligible, he has kindly allowed the machine itself
to be placed on the table. Being thus enabled to point to
the machine, the need for accurate drawings of it, is in a great
‘measure superseded ; still, some figures have been prepared
with a view to render the details of its construction more easy
of comprehension: these, however, are diagrams merely, and
have no pretension to be considered drawings of the instru-
“ment.
- The machine had its origin in the following circumstance :
Mr. Peters, having been shown some microscopic writing,
executed, I believe, by Froment, of Paris, expressed his belief
that he could produce writing as small: this opinion was re-
ceived with extreme incredulity ; Mr. Peters, however, feeling
confident of the sufficiency of his plan, determined to test it
by actual trial: the result is a machine capable of executing
and recording movements of almost inconceivable minuteness :
‘with it, in its present condition, Mr, Peters has written “ The
- Lord’s Prayer,’’ (in the ordinary writing character without
abbreviation or contraction of any kind) in a space not exceed-
‘ing the one hundred and fifty thousandth, 1-150,000th of a
‘square inch. ‘There are in this specimen six lines ‘of writing ;
the length of the sides of a parallelogram, to include the whole,
“would be 1-250th and 1-600th of an inch linear: the area so
‘included is (1-250 x 1-600 =) 1-150,000th of a square inch :
56 Machine for Microscopic Writing.
the height of the letters is 1-10,000 of a linear inch, so that
the space occupied by the letters a or n, or such as are about
as wide as they are high, is no more than 1-100,000,000th,
the hundred millionth of a square inch.
In examining the construction of the machine, it will be
convenient to consider, first, The Frame or Stand, and then
THE MEcHANISM; referring in succession to (1) the arrange-
ments for transmitting and diminishing motion; (2) those for
controlling and directing the movements; (3) and lastly, the
contrivances for preserving traces of those movements which it
is wished to record, so that they may be viewed with the
microscope.
The Stand. A rectangular table of mahogany, 18 in. by
10 in. superfices, and about an inch thick, constitutes the base
(A); to the surface of this is fastened a stout plate of brass,
of nearly the same size (B); near each corner of this is fixed
a brass column (C’), a little more than an inch diameter, and
31 inches high. The four columns support a stout brass plate
(D), 15 in. by 74 in., on which stand four smaller columns 12
inches high (£), they support another stage (#’) 10 in. by 4
in., to which the principal part of the mechanism is attached.
The Mechanism: First Machine constructed in 1852. In
the simplest form of the machine, a vertical rod connected
near its superior extremity (G, fig. 1), with the upper brass
plate (F, fig. 1), and extending from it nearly to the base,
constitutes a simple lever of the first kind (@ H, fig. 1),
whose arms are in the ratio of 1: 125 nearly. The rod tapers
downwards, its diameter diminishing from an inch to a quarter
of an inch, or thereabouts: this form of rod has been found
the most steady and least liable to tremor. It is connected
with the upper stage (#’) by means of two concentric rings
the outer one (J) is firmly fixed to the brass plate: the inner
one (J) is connected by horizontal pivots with the outer ring,
and with the vertical rod (G@); the axes of the two pairs of
pivots being at right angles to one another: by this connexion
rectilinear motion in one direction is permitted by the move-
ment of the rod (G) on the pivots of the inner ring (J), a
similar motion at right angles to this is effected by the move-
ment of the inner ring (J) on the pivots of the outer one (J);
by a combination of movements determined by the two axes,
motion in any direction, rectilinear or curved, is attainable.
Every movement of the lower end of the rod (H) i is repeated
by the other end (G@), diminished in extent, and reversed in
direction. With a machine thus constructed, the diminishing
power is about 125 times, linear ; that is to say, a line one inch
in length traced by the lower end of the rod, will give at the
Machine for Microscopic Writing. 57
j other end a line only 1-125th of an inch long, so that the
space occupied by any writing executed with this machine
) will be 125? or 15,625 times less than that in which the writing
is traced by the hand.
Fig. 1.
“In the present form of the machine, its power is much in-
creased by the substitution of a compound lever (G@ H, fig. 2)
for the simple one just described. This is done in the following
anner :—The original rod having been cut through a little
bove the first stage, the lower portion is attached by its upper
58 Machine for Microscopic Writing. 4
end (K) to the brass plate (D) by two concentric rings (LM)
in the way already described ; the upper portion (G) remains
attached to the upper stage (F ) as at first, but is shortened by
cutting off a piece from its lower end (JV) : into the space thus
caused between the two parts (IV K) of the original rod, there
is introduced a piece composed of two short rods (P O and
O Q), united by a universal joint (QO), similar to those by
which the two portions of the vertical rod are connected wi
the two stages. Each of the free ends (P and Q) of this
jointed member is made to slide truly and smoothly in bear-
ings supplied to the cut ends (K and JV) of the divided r
so that the position of the joint (O) may be varied at will: its
place having been determined, it is fixed by means of a screw
(#), the end of which is madeds press against one of the
sliding-pieces (O Q); and now, instead of a “single lever con-§
sisting of a simple vertical rod (G H, fig. 1), there are two#
levers (G O and O H, fig. 2) united by a moveable joint (OQ).
The first lever, extending from the base of the stand to theg
joint, has all that por tion below the pivots on which it is sus-§
pended for its long arm (K H), while its short arm (K O}
extends from the same pivots to the joint (Q), and varies there-§j
fore in length, which is determined by the position of the}
joint. The second lever, extending from the joint (Q) to the
upper end of the combination (Z), has for its short arm all
above the pivots connecting it with the upper stage ; its lo ng
and the moveable joint (QO), the position of which determi ‘
the length of that arm. Thus it is seen that the short arm
vary in length with different positions of the moveable jo int
while the effect of their altered relations is always in the same
direction. 3
With this combination, any movements of the lower end oj§
the rod (/7, fig. 2) are repeated, the direction reversed, and the
extent diminished, at the end of the short arm of the firs!
lever (QO), that is at the joint; the motion is there transferrec
to the long arm of the second lever, at the end of the shor
arm of which (Z ), the direction is again changed, and the ex
tent a second time diminished.
The amount of diminution which the machine is capable 0
effecting, ranges from 110 to 6,250 times linear: these limit
are determined by actual trial ; thus, if a square be drawn, th
sides of which are 5 inches long, the length may be reduce¢
to the 122-nd of an inch, that is 110 times, or it may be dimb
nished to 1-1250th of an inch, or 6-250 times. An arrang
ment of the levers, such that the arms are in the ratio of 12 |
Machine for Microscopie Writing. 59
for the first (H K : K O),and 9:1 for the second (O G: G Z),
will diminish 108 times linear; an arrangement in which the
arms of the first lever are in the ratio of 500: 1, and those of
the second as 12: 1, will have the power of diminishing 6,000
times linear; and though it is not easy to determine exactly by
Seedsnrement the effective length of the different members of
the combination, it is believed that these proportions are not
far from the truth. By these adaptations, the transmission
and diminution of motion are provided for.
Contrivances for controlling and directing the movements, are
next to be noticed. It is manifest that the free end (#) of a
lever suspended in the way described would move in the are
of a circle: to obviate the inconvenience of writing on a con-
eave surface, and at the same time to provide for a greater
) freedom of motion to the pen or pencil, the lever is continued
to the surface of the base of the stand by means of a rod (S),
) which passes into the lower end of the suspended tube (H ),
and is connected with a second short rod (Z’ U) by two pairs
Hof rings (V), each pair joined together in one plane, and all
moving on horizontal pivots, so as to maintain exact parallelism
Hof the two rods, while the second one (TJ' U) is allowed to
move freely in a vertical direction: the second rod has at its
lower end a joint (U), connecting it with a short arm which
carries a split tube (W) for holding a pen (X ) or pencil ; by
j means of this joint the pen may be made to have any inclina-
tion from the perpendicular ; an adjustment in azimuth et
be made by turning the rod (S) in the vertical tube (7):
may be fixed in any position by a screw (J) brought to ie
' against it: this arrangement allows the pencil to move freely
Over every part of a surface of about 5 inches square, within
which space it is perfectly under control, and on the surface of
which any writing or design may be conveniently traced.
A brass frame about 5 inches square is attached to the centre
of the plate which covers the base of the stand, by four screws
with milled heads, one at each corner; after loosening these
screws, a card may be placed: under the frame, and the screws
being then tightened, it is held firmly in its place without any
— attention on the part of the person using the machine,
Registry of the diminished design. —Tracings of the dimi-
ished movements are received on glass, that material afford-
ing the greatest facilities for the use of the microscope in
®examining them. The distal extremity of the combined levers
is therefore armed with a diamond point, and in order that it
may act upon the upper surface of the glass, the vertical rod
is connected with one end of a horizontal arm (A), from the
other end of which a piece (p) at right angles to it rises to
60 Machine for Microscopic Writing.
the height of about 3 inches; the upper end of this piece is
split to receive another horizontal arm (a), at the free end of}
which is the diamond (d), with the point downwards, and so |
adjusted that it is in the axis
of the combined levers. |
As, however, the end to
be attained is the registering 9
(not of all the movements
made, but) of those move-}
ments only which form the
writing or design, the opera-§j
tor is provided with the}
means of suspending, resum-|
ing, or continuing the action}
of the diamond at pleasure. |
Two uprights (1, fig. 3 and®
fig. 4) are fixed near opposite}
edges of the upper stage)
(F’), each having a horizon-\§
tal pivot (or they may be}
connected by a_horizontalf
piece with a knife edge up-
wards): on the pivots (2),
(or the knife edge) is hung
a thin flat plate of brass (8))
of sufficient size to hold al
glass slip of the ordinary)
dimensions, 3 in. by 1 in. ; to}
one of its ends is fixed a
steel wire (4) with a screw
cut upon it, on which a small}
brass weight (5) with an in-
terior screw is placed: near}
one of the lateral edges off
the plate two small pins (6,)
fig. 4) project a little above
its surface : near the opposite}
edge is a spring (7, fig. 4),
which presses the glass slide}
against the two projecting
pins, while one of its ends
comes up to the extremity
of a screw (8), which can be adjusted so that the centre of the!
glass be brought under the diamond point (Z): when the slide
has been placed on the holder and properly adjusted, the weight)
(5) is to be moved on the screw till it accurately balances they
a
Machine for Microscopic Writing. 61
f
|
glass, which should just touch, but not be pressed against the
diamond. Under the glass holder (3) is a weak spring (9)
attached toa short arm (10), which is connected by a hinge with
,a little pillar (11) fixed to the upper stage (F’); under this arm
jis another shorter but stronger spring (12), which, yielding to
the action of any force depressing the arm (10), restores it to
jits place on the action of the force being discontinued. From
))the free extremity of this arm a wire (12) proceeds to the base
of the stand, where it is fastened to a lever (14), which is at-
tached to the lowest brass plate (B) by a hinge (15), which
llows of motion only in a vertical direction: when the end of
his lever (14) is pressed down, it draws down the extremity
)f the arm (10), carrying the spring (9) which is then brought
)o0 act upon the glass holder (3), pressing the glass upward
) \gainst the point of the diamond (Z); a spring (16) under
she lower lever (14) causes it to return to its position when
)jhe pressure is removed. Two screws (17, 18) pass through
jhis lever, by means of which the extent of its movements,
ind consequently the pressure of the spring (9) under the glass
holder (3) are regulated. One of these screws (18) serves to
62 Machine for Microscopie Writing.
means of a moveable nut (19). above the arm, which can
be placed in any required position; the other screw (17) is:
for regulating the pressure against the diamond ; it admits 7
its end (20) being fixed at such a distance from the brass plat
(B), as to allow of any required extent of depression of the
lever: it is obvious that the more this is depressed, the low
does it draw down the arm (10), carrying the spring (9),
the stronger therefore is the pressure of the spring against th
glass. By connecting a second lever with the spring, and
allowing one to be depressed more than the other, two different
degrees of pressure against the glass may be secured, and the
diamond may thus be made to give marks of different depth’ |
and thickness, so that writing may be produced with fine up:
strokes and thick down-strokes, as in writing with a pen. |
It is unnecessary to do more than allude to the excellence §
of the work, and the perfect action of the mechanism. The se
are manifested by the fidelity with which the smallest move-
ments are transmitted and recorded, every such movement, it
will be remembered, having to be transmitted through three
joints with two sliding-pieces; each of these joints must
admit of free and easy motion in every direction, while al
tremor, or other movements than those directed by the will of
the operator, must be precluded. How completely th
object is accomplished is within the personal knowledge o'
many gentlemen present who have themselves had the oppor
tunity of testing the capabilities of the machine. Were other
evidence necessary, reference could be made to the eminent
President of this Society (Dr. Carpenter), who, on a first trial
of the machine, produced an inscription of three lines in less
than the 1-10,000th of a square inch. Of this space the
signature takes up not more than one-third, or less than
1-30,000th of an inch; the small letters of the writing arel
but 1-1150th of an inch high; yet, notwithstanding i
minuteness, the characteristic peculiarities of the autograph
are unmistakable,
The securing of a good diamond point is a matter of first
importance: preference is given to a turned point, as a nature
splinter, though it gives fine strokes, does not mark equally
well in all directions. These points Mr. Peters prepares
himself with the same skill and delicacy of touch shown
the construction of the other parts of the machine.
In using the machine both hands have to be employet
While the right hand guides the pencil (X), the other is en
gaged in managing the lever (14) by which the action of the
diamond is governed. Attention is necessary to insure th
limit the upward movement of. the lever: this is effected =
ae
h
Illumination of Objects by Polarized Light. 63
requisite pressure when any movement is to be registered, and
to withdraw it while any other movements are in progress ;
for it must be remembered that all movements made by the
pencil, whether there be corresponding marks on the card or
not, are traced on the glass so long as it is pressed against the
diamond ; and, on the other hand, though the design be care-
fully and accurately marked on the card, there will be no
trace of it on the glass unless the lever has been properly
employed.
The object of this paper is to give a brief, but it is hoped,
an intelligible account of the construction and manner of
using a machine which has excited much interest, and not to
sonsider the purposes to which its ingenious adaptations may
be applied. At present the machine has been used almost
solely for microscopic writing; it is not, however, to be con-
luded that it can be used for nothing else. If, for example,
the pencil, instead of being guided by the hand only, were
irected and restrained by mechanical appliances, and the
amount of the movements regulated by a screw or otherwise,
there seems no reason why the productions of Nobert should
not be rivalled. There would be little practical difficulty in
causing the pencil to trace straight and parallel lines: regular
distances of 1-100th of an inch are attainable. The power of
the machine would diminish these intervals 6,000 times, so
that a series of lines 1-600,000th of an inch apart would be
attainable. Whether a point could be got sufficiently fine to
race lines so close together, or any surface to receive them,
may be questioned. If, however, such close ruling as this is
impracticable, the limit would seem to be supplied by the
want of a material to receive the tracings, and not to result
rom the insufliciency of the machine to execute the movements.
Perhaps the machine might be made subservient to accurate
dividing in the preparation of micrometers, &c., as by its
leans, errors or inequalities admit of being almost indefinitely
diminished.
the Ittumination of Oxsects by Porarizep Lieut on a
Dark Fiero. By Joun Furze.
dai (Read April 24th, 1855.)
ALLow me to call the attention of the Society to a method of
viewing objects with the microscope, which is, I believe, novel
in its arrangement, and no doubt admits of greater improve-
gent than it has yet received at my hands, from the want of
ufficient time and opportunity to devote to that purpose.
Phe phenomena of polarized light have long added a charm
64 Iilumination of Objects by Polarized Light.
to the ordinary developments of the microscope; and the
brilliancy of colour resulting from its action has fixed the
appearance of many an object in the mind of the observer,
which, by ordinary light, would have made scarcely any mental
impression at all.
But with the advantage of attractive appearance two great
defects were constantly perceptible: one, the impossibility of
transmitting the light through structures of more than a cer-
tain density ; the other, that although the differing densities
of structure were separated by it, the definition of these were
disfigured in some cases, and (ost in others.
t therefore became obvious that if objects could be illu-
minated by polarized light, in such a manner as to give the
structure a stereoscopic effect, by a due contrast of light and §
shadow, causing the object to appear as if in relief, great §
benefit would result from the application, as giving a clearer
development of the form and constitution than had before been
obtained. This expression at once suggests the dark-ground
illumination, which some of our Members have so largely im-
proved by various useful adaptations. I have found it pre-
ferable to use for this purpose a plano-convex lens, three-fourths
of an inch in diameter. This fitting is of so small a size that it
can be adapted to almost any instrument. An illuminating lens
thus constructed will show intended objects on a black ground:
through the low powers, and should be arranged with a @
system of both central and external stop, each revolving on a
separate axis, as generally supplied. If we now put an ad=
justable cap on to the top of the lens, containing a crystal of
Herapathite mounted between thin glass, and a plate of Selenite
(also mounted on thin glass) above it, we shall find that ob-
jects of too great density for transmitted light, will appear,
under this illumination, as if in relief; and not only will the
varying density of the structure be most beautifully displayed,
but the definition of the different parts will be so accurately
given as to constitute a perfect method of viewing the object.
I do not profess to write a long article to engage your
attention here; but I would fain occupy some portion of you
time at home in perfecting this arrangement, which, in m
opinion, is most conducive to truth in microscopic analysis,
and which will amply reward (as well in the highest as in
the lowest sense) the careful labours of those who sympathise
with me in the delights arising from those researches which it
is the peculiar province of this Society to encourage and to
stimulate. a)
+
i
So
Or
wa
REPORT
OF
» THE FIFTEENTH ANNUAL MEETING
OF THE
MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY.
fue Microscopical Society of London held their Fifteenth
BAnnual Meeting, February 28th, 1855,—Dr. Carpenter,
President, in the Chair. The Assistant Secretary read the
usual Reports of the Council and Auditors, which showed
the Society to be in a very satisfactory state of progress: the
Re-elected.
President . . . . Dr. CARPENTER.
@reasurer. 2)»: «i N. B. Warp, Esq.
Secretary . . . . J. QueKert, Esq.
New Members of Council.
J. N. Furze, Esq.
H. Periear, Jun., Esq.
Rev. J. B. Reape.
J. B. Stwonps, Esq.
In the place of
G. Buenxins, Esq.
Dr. LANKEsTER.
G. Suapsovrt, Esq.
J. Incren, Esq. (deceased).
at page 37.
) von, m1. £
by.
real Soci
croscopica
t
Fifteenth Report of the Mi
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TRANSACTIONS OF MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY.
EXPLANATION OF PLATES III. AND IV.
N.B.—AIl the figures are drawn under the same magnifying power,
save 2, 3, 4, and 9, which are much more highly amplified.
Fig.
1, (Plate III.)—One of. the vitelline spheres or ova (there being then no
perceptible difference between them) from a newly -formed capsule.
2.—A small portion of the vitelline substance highly magnified.
3.—Vesicula directrix, apparently single.
4,—Vesicula directrix, double.
5.—Segmentation of vitelline spheres ; a, b, c, d, e, successive stages.
6.—Segmentation of vitellus of true ova; a, b, c, successive stages.
7. (Plate IV.)—Mass of vitelline segments beginning to coalesce, but
torn apart so as to show an embryo, a, in the interior ; on either
side are embryos in various stages of development, found in the
same capsule, but not imbedded in the conglomerate mass.
8. (Plate I1I.)—Early stages of development of embryo, up to the forma-
tion of the mouth and cesophagus.
9.—Ciliated mouth, as seen laterally at a, and from above at b,
10.—Conglomerate vitellus, with attached embryos drawing-in its com-
ponent particles.
11. (Plate IV.)—Portion of a similar mass, with embryos, a, J, ¢, d,
attached, and others, e, f, detached, from the same capsule, of very
different sizes.
-12.—Embryo having its transparent peripheral membrane speckled by
. small adherent particles, resembling the vitelline particles in fig. 2
This appearance is not at all uncommon.
_13.—Three embryos, a, 5, c, of larger size; their ciliated lobes obliterated
- by distention.
“14.—An embryo of unusually large size, with portion of conglomerate
4 vitellus still adherent.
15, 16.—More advanced embryo, with ciliated lobes and foot fully deve-
loped, and the newly-appropriated vitellus in process of conversion
into other organs.
iW. —A small embryo, which has apparently only just began to ingest
its supplemental vitellus ; this being superposed upon the original
yolk-mass.
,
fe
bi
Gris Mba, bo-VlH LM
TRANSACTIONS OF MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY.
DESCRIPTION OF PLATE V.
Illustratmg Mrs. Herbert Thomas’s Paper on Cosmarium
margaritiferum.
_ Figs. 1 to 33, illustrating various stages in the growth and development
of Cosmarium margaritiferum.
#
a
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INDEX
» TO THE
MOST IMPORTANT SUBJECTS CONTAINED IN THIS CATALOGUE.
f= Those not paged refer to the Department of Medicine, Anatomy, &c.,
from page 1 to page 22.
Abdomen.—Guthrie.
Acoustics.—Chladin, 23.
Bones.—¥lourens; Miescher ; Piorry; Richter;
Stanski.
Agricultwre.—Bouchardat, 23 ; Boussingault, 23; | Botany.—In addition to those under this head,
Girardin, 23; Girardin et Dubreuil, 24; Kemp,
24; Low, 25 ; Mangon, 25; Payen et Richard, 25.
Air (compressed).—Pravaz.
Air passages.—Piorry.
Alga.—Popular, 8; Agardh, 86-7; Harvey, 87 ;
Hassell, 87 ; Ralf, 38. (See also Botany, page 36.)
Algebra.—Boucharlat, 40; Bourdon, 40 ; Colenzo,
41; Tate, 43; Young, 43.
Analysis.—Duhamel, 41 ; Leroy, 41 ; Monge, 42.
Anatomy (pathological).—Cruveilhier ; Vogel,
Gluge ; Money; Morgagni; Petrequin; Piro-
goff; Robin; Thibert.
Anatomy (general, descriptive, &c.)—Albinus ;
Arnold; Beclard; Bell; Blandin; Blasius;
Bleuland ; Bonamy and Beau; Bourgery ; Clo-
quet; Cruikshanks; Encyclopédie Anatomi-
que; Feigel; Flourens; Geoffroy; Gerber ;
Giraldi; Guillot; Haller; Hamilton; Henle;
Lebaudy ; Mascagni; Masse; Nuhn; Portal;
Robin; Sappey ; Scarpa; Serres; Semering ;
Todd; Velpeau; Walters; Weber.
Anatomy (comparative).—Blainville ; Carus;
Cuvier; Goethe; Grant; Homer; Meckel;
Owen; Rousseau; Blainville, 27; Lawrence,
80; Strauss Durckheim, 81; Vrolick.
Anatomy of the Skin.—Flourens.
— of the Liver.—Favre.
Arboriculture.—Dubreuil, 23; Selby, 31.’
Architecture.—Bland, 40 ; Claudel, 41 ; Moseley,
42; Wightwick; Barrett, 44; Billings, 44;
Brown, 45; Carter, 45; Gailhabaud, 48; Gal-
lerie de Toscane, 48; Gartner, 48; Gisors, 48;
Gwilt, 48; Hearns, 49; Hittorff, 49 ; Jenkins,
50; Labasco, 50; Laborde, 50; Ledoux, 50;
— Vaticano, 51; Popp, 52; Pugh, 52. (See
also Illustrated Works.)
Arithmetic.—Barlet, 40; Bourdon, 40; Colenso,
41; Gauss, 41; Lacroix, 41; Tate, 43.
Arts and Sciences.—Aiken ; Crabb, 23; Fran-
cceur, 23.
Art-Manufactures.—(See Illustrated Works.)
Arteries and Veins.—Dubreuille; Gendrin;
Lee; Manec; Scarpa; Tiedemann.
Astronomy.—Airy; Grant, 24; Herschel, 24;
Schedeler ; Arago, 27, 40, Astronomical Obser-
vations, 40; Bailly, 40; Bode, 40; Bernouille,
40; Biot, 40; Cagnoli, 40; Damoiseau, 41;
Daru, 41; Dupuis, 41; Emmanuel, 41; Fran-
cour, 41; Fuss, 41; Guynemer, 41; Laplace,
41; Pontecoulant, 42 ; Struve, 42 ; Nichol, 52.
Atmosphere.—26.
Auscultation.—Andry ; Barth and Roger; De-
paul; Fournet; Laennec, (See Consumption.)
Bandages.—Mayor ; Sedillot.
Bathing (Sea),—Pouget.
a Rendus; Segond.
Blood.—Piorry.
Blowpipe.—Laurent, 25; Muspratt, 25; Platt-
ner, 26,
pages 36, 37, 88, see Raspail, 26; Voight, 26;
Brongniart, 275 Exploration de l’Algerie, 29 ;
Popular Field, 31; Schimper, 81; Balfour, 47.
Botany (medical).—Lindley, 38.
Brain.—Foville; Magendie; Mayo; Pinel; Tie-
demann; Solly; Vicq d’Azyr.
Brain (Softening of ).—Rostan; Rowland.
Brazil (Climate of ).—Sigaud.
Ereast.—Mericour.
Bridges.—Clark, 40; Dempsey, 41; Tate, 48.
(See Engineering).
Calculus (Integrat).—Lacroix, 41; Tate, 43.
Calculus (Diferential)—Berard, 40; Lacroix,
41; Tate, 43; Young, 48. _
Cancerous Diseases.—Devay, Lebert, Mericour,
Robert.
Chemistry.—Annuaire, 22 ; Baudrimont,22 ; Ber-
zelius, 23; Campbell, 23; Cavendish Society,
23; Gmelin, 23; Lehman, 23; Chemist, 23; .
Dumas and Boussingault, 23; Dumas, 23;
Fownes, 23; Gerhardt, 24; Graham, 24; Gre-
,gory, 24; Griffin, 24; Hoefer, 24; Kane, 24;
Lassaigne, 25 ; Liebig, 25 ; Low, 25; Mitchell,
25; Mulder, 25; Payen, 25; Pelouze et Fremy,
25; Raspail, 26; Regnault, 26; Thompson, 26;
Turner, 26; Tate, 43. :
Chemical Analysis.—Fresenius, 24; Galloway,
24; Gerhardt, 24; Normandy, 25; Parnell,
Pelouze et Fremy, 25; Rose, 26; Violette, et
Archambault, 26. :
Chemistry (Animal).—Matteucci, 25 ; Thomson,
26
Chemistry applied to the Arts.—Franceur, 28 ;
Knapp, 24; Payen, 25; Persoz, 25.
Chemistry (Medical).—Jongh ; Lheritier ; Biot,
28, ‘
Chemistry (Pathological).—theritier.
Chemistry (Rural).—Solly, 26.
Chemistry (History of).—Thomson, 26.
Children (Diseases of ).—Barrier, Berton, Bou-
chat, Braschet, Delabarre, ‘Donne, Duchesne,
Duparce, Legendre, Richard, Valleix.
—— (Homeopathic)—Leadham, Teste.
Chloroform and Ether.—Buisson.
Cholera.—Briguet, Pirogoff, Tardieu.
— (Homeopathic).—Jahr, Russell, Tessier.
Coléopterés.—Chenu, Encyclopedie, 29. (See
Entomology.)
Commercial Matters.—Methode de verifier les
comptes courans, 42; Oates’ Tables of Ix-
change, 42; McCulluch’s Dict., 51.
Consumption, Chest, &c.—Bright, Davies, Has-
tings, Louis, Maddock, Portal, Parola.
Conchology.—urton, 82. (See pages 88-84.)
Cretiniame et Goitre.—Niepce.
Cristollography.—Laurent, 25; Regnault, 26.
Orustacea.—Cuvier, 28.
Death (Philosophy and Signs of ).—Bichat, Bou.
Eee
—~— —
ie
ia
#
‘
¥
Ei
bs
INDEX.
chat, Deschamps, Lauvergie, Magendie, Mat- ; IWustrated Works.
teucci.
Dentistry.—Delabarre, Manry.
Diagnostic.—Bouillaud, Broussais, Raciborskt.
Dictionary of Medicine.—Hooper, Mérat et De-
lens; Nysten, Valleix. (See also page 1.)
me maire deg Sciences Naturelles,—Pages
Dissection.—Bell, Holden.
Distilling.—Le Normand, 25.
Drawing.—Etex, 48. (See Llustrated Books.)
sentery.—Theses.
#ar.—Deleau, Hard, Kramer, Saunders, Sem-
mering.
&
EBlectri Medical).—Bird, Froriep, Lawrence
Mattoneacas * Bs ;
Zpilepsie.—Herpin.
Ethnology, Philology, &c.—Eliis, 29 ; Eusebe, 29;
Knox, 30; Latham, 30; Lawrence, 30; Martin,
380; Pickering, 31; Prichard, 31; Burton, 45;
Latham, 50; Stoddart, 47; Parrat, 52; Roget,
53; Thorpe, 54.
cy, 41; Legendre, 41; Leroy, 42; Monge, 42;
Tate, 43; Young, 43. Tere fae |
Gravitation—Airy. ,
Harbours.—Rennie, 42,
Head.— Guthrie.
Heart (Diseases of).—Bouillaud, Davies, Gen-
drin, Latham, Piorry.
Heat.—Peclet, 25; Thomson, 26.
Hernia.—Guthrie, Hesselbac, Lionet, Verdier,
YL eNieates —D’Aubuisson, 41; Peacocke, 42.
ee ee
ygiene (Ann. de).—Becquerel, Celle, Chassinat,
Foy, Lauvergne, Lévy, Marchal, Mayer, Mont-
falcon, Parent-Duchatelet, seg sur la Peste,
en on Plague, Tardieu, Guenon, 24; Tar-
a, ave
(Those marked with a * contain Designs and
Ornaments for Upholsterers, Painters, Archi-
tects, &c., &c.)
Page 44.
Album des Bords de la Loire.
de Exposition.
* Arundale, Examples of Verandahs,
* Ashpitel on Hand Rails.
Autour de la Table.
* Barrett, Gothic Ornaments.
Beatties, Switzerland.
Bégin, Voyage en Suisse.
Béranger, (Euvres.
Bernard, &c., Jardin des Plantes.
Page 45.
* Billings, Geometric Tracery.
Blanc, Histoire des Peintres.
Blanchard, Buffon de la Jeunesse.
Bossuet, Histoire de Jésus-Christ.
Botta, Monument de Ninive.
Brederlau, Der Harz.
Briffault, Le Secret de Rome.
British Museum.
Brown, Sacred Architecture.
Bruyéres, La Phrénologie.
Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress.
* Carter, Specimens of Gothic Architecture.
* Cennini on Fresco.
Champagnac. Voyageur de la Jeunesse,
Chevalier, Etats-Unis.
Chezy and Schmidt, Bilder Gallerie.
* Claude, Watteau et Canalette.
Page 46.
Consulat et Empire, vignettes.
Cooke, Drawings of Animals,
Court Album.
Cunningham, Gallery of Portraits.
Dash, Keepsake.
De Bart, Merveilles du Génie de 1Homme,
* De Clinchamp, Traité de Perspective,
Delamare, Archéologie de l’ Algérie.
* De la Motte, Art- Workmanship.
De Saillet, Confessions d’un Ecolier,
Dessin Linéaire, cours complet.
Diable a Paris.
Dumas, Monte pag A 47.
age 48.
Engrayings after the Best Masters,
Etex, Cours de Dessin.
Fau, Anatomy for Artists.
Foster, Christmas with the Poets.
Flowers of Loveliness.
Gailhabaud, l’ Architecture.
Galleria de Toscano.
* Gartner, Architecktonische Entwiirfe,
Gayarni, Tiroir du Diable. ~
(Euvres choisies.
* Gehrke, Bau und Meublezeichnungen,
Gisors, Palais du Luxembourg.
Godescard, Vie des Péres, &e.
Page 49.
Gonin, l’Egypte.
Grandeville, les Animaux.
* Gwilt, Encyclopedia of Architecture.
Hall, Gems of European Art.
Hay, Beauty of Human Figure.
Hearne, Antiquities of Great Britain,
Heath, The Holy Gospels.
* Heideloff, Ornements du Moyen Age.
Hewell’s Misereres in Exeter Cathedral,
Histoire des Peintres,
‘Historic Illustrations of the Bible. \
Hittorff, Antigqnités de l’Attique.
Hogarth’s Works.
e 50.
Pagi
* Jacob, Livre d’Or des Métiers.
* Jenkins and Hoskings, Architect. Ornaments,
* Journal of Design.
Jules Janin’s Works.
Karr, Voyage autour de mon Jardin,
Kitto, Cyclopedia of Biblical Literature,
INDEX.
Labacco, Collection of Architectural Plates,
Laborde, Versailles,
Lafontaine, Fables.
Lamartine, Girondins,
Laurent, Histoire de Napoléon.
Layallée, Histoire des Frangais.
Ledoux, Architecture.
Le Monde a Vol d’Oiseau.
Le Roux, la Ville de Paris.
Le Sage, Gil Blas, Diable Boiteux.
* Limner, Suggestions in Design.
Page 5L
Livre d’Or.
Lodge’s Portraits.
London and its Vicinity.
Lurine, Rues de Paris.
* Luther, Chambre de.
Memorie del Vaticano.
* Metzger, Zimmerwerkkunde.
Mexico Illustrated.
Miller, Language of Flowers.
Mithra, Recherches sur le Culte de.
Moore, Lallah Rookh,
Moore’s Melodies.
Mosaique, Magasin Pittoresque.
Moyen Age.
Page 52.
Murphy, Church of Batalha.
Musée dans un Fautenil.
Nodier et Lurine, Environs de Paris,
* Page’s Decorator.
* Acanthus.
Paris Comique.
Pascal, Eglises de Paris.
Perrault, Contes des Fées.
* Phillips, Curvilinear Design,
Pictorial Animated Nature.
Pitre Chevalier, la Bretagne.
* Popp, Architectur.
* Pugin, Pointed Architecture.
Raphaél, les Vierges de.
Page 53.
* Richardson’s Ornaments.
Richomme.
Romans Illustrés,
Romberg, Der Stradtbau.
* Rothman, Ornamente.
Sacy, les Evangiles.
Schimmelpenninck, Beauty and Deformity.
Schinkel, Baukunst,
Schmid, Contes.
Silvio Pellico.
* Skidmore, Designs for Rails, &c.
Page 54.
Stein, Krankenhaus in Berlin.
Stebbing, Christian Graces.
* Thierry, Escaliers en Pierre.
* Thomas, Designs for Monuments.
Toulmin, Lays and Legends.
* Trendall, Monuments, Tombs, &c.
Triumphal Arch of Augustus.
Twining, Symbols of the Art.
Varin, Empire des Légumes.
Vénus, Culte de.
Versailles, Chateau de.
Vie des Saints.
Village Queen.
Voucand, Artisans Illustres.
Voyage Pittoresque en Espagne.
Page 55.
Westwvoods’ Illuminated Bible.
Wightwick’s Palace of Architecture.
Wilson on Light and Shade.
Wright, Gallery of Engravings.
Wyatt's Industrial Arts of the 19th Century.
Indigestion.—Philip, Piorry.
infection ( purulent) —Sedillot.
Inflammations —Broussais,
Instinct.—Smee, 26 ; Lesson, 30
Jron Structures (Roofs, &e.).—Dempsey, 41
Dupuy de Lome, 41! St. Ange, 42; Simpso
42 4 Tate, 43: Tredgold, 43; Valérius, 43. ie
Italy (Climate of ).—Carriére.
dich (Gaile), Bourguignon,
Jamaica (Natural History of).—Gosse, 29.
Joints (Articulations, &c.).—Bonnet, Piorry,
Robert, Syme.
Kidney.—Miller, Johnson.
Laryne.—Ehrmann. ‘ -
Light —Hunt, 24; Woodward, 26.
Liver. — Favre, Fauconnean, Dufresne, Piorry,
Portal, Semanas.,
Logarithms.—Y éga, 43.
Inexations Humbert, Malgaigne, Pravaz.
Machinery. — Dempsey, 41; Progress of, 42;
Rennie, 42; Taffe, 43; Tredgold, 43. (See En-
gineering, Iron, &c.)
Magnetism —Becquerel, 32. (See Electricity )
Mammalia.— Cuvier, 28; Desmarest, 28; Popu-
lar, 31; Temminck, 32; Waterhouse, 32;
White, 32.
Manuals, Compendiums, Formularies, &e.—
Bossu, Druitt, Foy, Langlebert, Raspail, Tar-
dieu, Velpeau, Manual of Scientific Enquiry,
Herschell, Trousseau, Homeopathic, Griesselich,
Haas, Jahr.
Marine.—Bonnefoux, 40.
Marriage.—Mayer, Ryan.
Materia Medica.—Chapman, Dierbach, Dien,
Foy, Neligan, Pereira, Trousseau, Pidoux.
— (Homeopathic), — Dudgeon, Dunsford,
Flora Homeeopathica, Hahnemann, Lafitte.
Mathematics.—Bossut, 40; Cahiers de, 40; Cour-
not, 4].
Mechanics.—Delannay, 41 ; Duhamel, 41; Good-
win, 41; Moseley, 42; Poisson, 42; Taffe, 42;
Tate, 43; Weisbach, 43; Willis, 43; Young, 43.
Medical Biography and Statistics. — Pariset,
Sachaite. :
— Homeopathic.—Croserio, Russell.
Nawrat History.—Richard.
Zoology—Brandt and Ratzeburg.
Medicine (Dictionaries, Encyclo.).—8ee page 1,
also Hooper, Merat et Delens, Mysten, Valleix.
Doctrines of Chauffard.
Domestic, Homeopathic.—Bertholdi, Chep-
mell, Curie, Hamilton, Henriques, Hering,
Laurie, Mure, Newman.
(History of ).—Renouard, Renzi, Sprengel.
Légale.—Devergie, Orfila. .
Miscellaneous.—Debreyne, Haller, Histo-
tia Morborum, Harvey Opera, Hippocrate
nyres and Works of, Jenner (Life of ), Oribase,
Patin, Ploucquet, Rostan, Toltenyi.
—— Homeopathic—Curie, Dessaix, Dunsford,
Evarest, Gueyrard, Guyart, Hahnemann, Zeit-
schrift fur, Mure, Nivelet, Perrussell, Rosenstein,
Roth, Simpson.
(Practice of ).—Burserius, Chomel, Frank,
Gendrin, Laberge et Fleury, Langlebert, Roche
et Sanson, Valleix.
— Homaopathic—Beauvais, Bibliothéque ho-
meopathique, Curie, Espanet, Hahnemann,
Hartmann, Jahr, Simon.
Médecins Numismatistes.—Renauldin.
Menstruation.—Briere de Boismont.
Mental Discases, Psychology, Insanity, §¢—
Belhomme, Brachet, Briere de Boismont,
Broussais, Calmeil, Cazeanvielb, Chardel de
Montallegry, Descuret, Esquirol, Ferrus, Gau-
tier, Laporte, Leuret, Mare (Legal), chea,
Morel, Niepce, Parchappe (Asylums), Pinel,
Seguin (Idiots), Selection of Papers on, &e. *
Mensuration, --Deider, 41; Tate, 42.
Dfesmerism—Parth, Cahagnet, Capern, Deleuze,
Dupotet, Early Magnetism, Gautier, Teste,
Townsend, Zoist, Reichenbach, 26; Maddock,
51; Mayo, 51; Ritter, 53.
Metallurgy —St. Ange, 42 ; Berthier, 23; Mitchell,
25; Philipps, 47.
Metcorology—Annuaire, 22; Kaemtz, 24; Miller,
25; Peltier, 25. ;
INDEX.
Microscope —Bourgery, Donné, Gerber, Gliebe,
Hassall, Langenbeck, Mandl, Robin, Chevalier,
28; Mandl, 80; Quekett, 31.
Hilitary Tactics.—Melfort. 42; Sellon, 42.
Surgery.— Begin.
Mineralogy. Mining, 4c—Combes, 23: Hedley,
24; Popular, 81. (See pages 35, 36.)
Mollusca.—Cuvier, 28; Deshayes (Algérie), 29;
Eamarek (Animaux sans yertébres), 30; Popu-
far, 31.
Mouvement (Cure of Diseases by).—Roth.
Natural History and Natural Sciences.—Archives,
27; Boué, 27; Broderip, 27; Buchoz, 27; Buf-
fon, 28; Cuvier, 28; Dictionnaire classique, 28;
Dictionnaire des Sciences Naturelles, 28 ; Dic-
tionnaire universelle, 29; Garner, 29; Gilbert,
29; Gosse (Jamaica), 29; Jenyns, 30; Jourdan,
30; Lemonnier, 30; Lesson, 30; Milner, 31;
Naturalists’ Miscellany, 81; Oken, 31; Pliny,
31; Salacroux, 31 ; Thompson (Passions of
Animals), 32; Tschudi (fauna peruana), 32;
Waldhein, 32.
Navigation.—Moore, 42.
Werves.—Baradue, Barras, Brachet, Cerise, Valen-
tin (see Encyclopédie anatomique), Fischer,
Flourens, Foyille, Guillot, Hall, Leuret, Lob-
stein, Ludovic, Hirschweld, Miller, Piorry,
Sandras, Scarpa, Swan, Valleix.
Neuralgia Hunt.
Naval Gunnery —Douglas, 41.
Obstetrics —Andrieux, Baudeloque, Boivin, Ca-
zeaux, Chailly, Churchill, Crosse, Deventer,
Duges, Feigel, Hamilton, Jacquemier, Leake,
Lee, Maygrier, Mohrenheim, Moreau, Ritgen,
Seiter.
— Homeopathic.—Croserio.
Odontography.—Owen, Rousseau.
Ornithology. —Cuver, 28 ; Malherbe, 20; Popular,
31. (See page 25.)
Ornithorhynchi—Meckelio, 30.
Osteography —Blainville, 27.
Osteology.—Maclise, Brandt, 27.
Optics.— Biot, 23; Moigno, 25; Hopkins, 41:
Moigno, 42.
Ovaria.—Lizars, Piorry, Tilt.
Paleontology —Bilainville, 27 ; Brandt, 27; Brown,
27; Descriptive Catalogue of British Museum,
28; D’Orbigny, 29; Gervais, 29 ; Hawkins
{iea-Dragons), 29; Koninck, 30; Middendorff,
Pathology —aAndral, Blondlot, Boucher, Broussais,
Chomel, Gerdy, Gliebe, Grisolle, Handy, Icono-
graphie Pathologique, Lebert, Nelaton, Piorry,
Raimann, Roche, Sanson et Lenoir, Theses,
Vidal.
Parturition —Murphy.
Pelvis.—Guthrie.
Percussion—Piorry, Skoda.
Pharmacie.—Geebel, 24; Guibourt, 24; Kunze.
25; Normandy, 25; Répertoir®, 26 ; Soubeiran.
Pharmacopeia.—Neyins, Phillips, Richard, Codex,
23; Jourdain, 24; Pharmacopceia, 25.
—— Homeopathic.—Jahr, Spillman. -
Philosophy, Metaphysics, Logic.—Amardh, 44;
André, 44; Arnanlt, 44: Bailey, 44; Balmes,
44; Barni, 44; Bartholmess, 44; Bayres, 44:
Begbie, 44; Bell, 44; Bersot, 44; Blakey, 44;
Bonald, 45; Bonnetain, 45; Buffier, 45; Caba-
nis, 45; Carlile, 45; Collin de Planey, 45; Col-
lineau, 46; Comte, 46; Cournot, 46; Cousin,
46 ; Cox, 46; Destutt de Tracy, 46; Dudley, 47;
Dufour, 47; Eclipse of Faith, 47 ; Encyclopédie
des gens du monde, 47 ; Evening Thoughts, 48;
Existence del., 48; Ferrier, 48; Fichte, 48;
Fregier, 48; Fourrier, 48; Fox, 48; Garnier,
48; Gauthier, 48; Genoude 48; Genoulhac, 48 ;
Greg, 49; Gruyer, 49; Guizot, 49; Hamilton,
49; Hare, 49; Haureau, 49; Hugenius, 49;
Humboldt, 49; Hunt, 49; Javari, 80; Leroux,
50; Lewis, 50; Legend, 50; Coleridge, 47;
Whately, 47; Maurice, 47; Littr6é, 51; Lucas,
51; Mackay, 51; Marmier, 51 ; Marquot-Vasse-
let, 51; Martineau, 51; Matthias, 51; Mayer,
51; Mayo, 51; Montaigne, 51; Moralistes fran-
gais, 51; Morrell, 51; Moseley, 51; Newman,
52; Nourrisson, 52; Ouvaroff, 52; Pascal, 52,
Peschiers, 52; Piault, 52; Platon, 52; Plisson,
52; Pococke, 52; Proudhon, 52; Quinet, 52;
Radcliffe, 52; Reghellini, 53; Reid, 53: Remi
niscences of Thought and Feeling, 53 ; Rémusat,
53; Renouard, 53; Reybaud, 53; Ritter, 53;
Rittiez, 53; Robert, 53; Roget, 53; Romieu, 53;
Rousselot, 53; Ryan, 53; Salverte, 53; Sedg
wick, 53; Smee, 53; Smith, 54; Southey, 54;
Spencer, 54; Stars and the Earth, 54; State of
Man, 54; Stewart, 54; Thorpe, 54; Thurot, 54;
Tiberghein, 54; Tissot, 54; Tremadeure, 54;
Troplong, 54; Truth and Error, 54; Vericour,
54; Vestiges of Civilization, 545 Vico, 54;
Volney, 54; Waddington-Kastus, 55; Whevwell,
55; Wiglesworth, 55; Willm, 55; Wiseman, 55.
Photography. Blancquart, 23; Chevallier, 23:
Claudel, 23; Gros, Hunt, 24; Legray, 25; Lere-
bours, 25; Ville, 26.
Phrénologie,—Broussais, Carus, Cerise, Bruyéres,
45,
Physics.—Bouchardat, Bird, 23; Grove, 24; Mul-
ler, 25; Peclet, 25; Pouillet, 26; Regnault, 26,
Reichenbach, 26; Schcedler, 26; Soubeiran, 26,
Exploration d’Algérie, 29; McGauley, 51.
Physical and Historical Geography.—Ansted snd
Nicolay, Exploration d’Algérie, Gower, 29;
Hughes, 30; Humbold, 30; Johnston, 30; Klee,
30; Ludde, 30; Masselin (Dict.), 30.
Physiology —Bérard, Bernard, Bremser, Breschet,
Broussais, Burdach, Carpenter, Dutrochet, Fo-
ville, Flourens, Geoffroy, Guillot, Hall, Haller,
Lebert, Longet, Magendie. Mattencci, Miiller,
Nuhn, Owen, Robin, Rudolph, S@mmering,
Tiedeman, Todd, Todd and Bowman, Vicq
d@’Azyr, Walter, Dumas and Boussingault, 23 ;
Raspail, 26; Blainyille, 27; Blanchard, 27;
Boucher, 27; Delalande, 27; Mirbel, 38; Bour
don, 45. ,
Poisons and Toxicology.—Adams, Chaussier,
Orfila,
Political Economy.—Anunuaire, 44; De Villeneu-
ve, 48; Dictionnaire, 46; Moseley, 51; New-
man, 52; Senior, 47.
Probabilities.—Cournot, 41; Lacroix, 41; Lapla-
ce, 41.
Prostitution —Parent-Duchatelet, Dufour.
Quadrumana.—Chenw’s Cyclopedia, 29.
Quadrupeds.—Bell, 27.
Reptiles —Bell, 27; Catalogue, 28; Cuvier, 28;
Funk, 29.
Rotation des Corps.—Poinsot, 42.
Rural Economy.—Bouchardat, 23; Boussingault,
23; Girardin, 23; Guenon, 24; Solly, 26; Sheep,
31; Vasey, 32.
Scarlatina—Miller. :
Scientific Discoveries.—Figuiers, 23.
Scorbut.—Theses.
Scrofula—Lebert, Phillips.
Ship Building. —Bonnefoux, 40; Jal, 41.
Skin (Diseases of ).—Baumes, Cazenave, Daniel-
son, Flourens, Innis, Piorry, Rayer, Schedel and
Cazenaye, Willis.
— Homeopathic.—Jahr, Buckert.
Smell.—Scemmering.
Smoke (Art of controlling).—Fournel.
Spécificité—Requin.
Spermatorrhea.—Lallemand.
Spine —Bernard, Magendie, Mayo.
Statics.—Poinsot, 42.
Stcam Engine.—Artizan Club, 40; Bazaine, 40:
Bonnefoux, 40; Bourne, 40; Hodge, 41; Lard-
ner, 41; Pambour, 42; Paris, 42; Tredgold,
43. (See Engineering.)
Stereotomy —Leroy, 42.
Stomach.—Prout. ,
Stone and Gravel—Curale, Deschamps.
Storms (Law of ).—Reid, 42.
Strictures of the Urethra —Courtenay, Perreve.
INDEX.
Sugar. Baudrimont, 22; Kerr, 24; Knapp, 24;
Spier, 26.
Surgery Auvert, Bell, Bernard et Huette, Bulle-
tin de la Société de Chirurgie, Boyer, Callisen,
Chelius, Chirurgische Kupfertafeln; Cooper,
Druitt, Dupuytren, Ferguson, Guthrie, Heister,
Holden, Humbert, Jobert, Larrey, Lebaudy,
Lisfrane, Malgaigne, Miller, Nélaton, Paré, Pe-
trequin, Piorry, Roux, Sabatier, Scarpa, Scrive,
Sédillot, Skey, Syme, Theses, Velpeau, Vidal.
Military. Begin, Larrey, Plaies d’armes a
feu.
Surveying. Recueil Polytechnique, 42; Tate,
42.
Syphilis. > Duvyergier, Ducros.
Taste. Scemmering.
Taxidermy. Brown, 27; Lecoq, 30; Lee, 30.
Technology. Francceur, 23; Knapp, 24; Payen,
25; Persoz, 25.
Telegraph. Moigno, 25.
Therapeutics. Annales de, Bayle, Bouchardat,
Debreyne, Trousseau et Pidoux.
— Homeopathic. Bonninghausen, Fredault,
Hartman.
Tic Douloureux. Hunt.
Tongue. Froriep, Schroter.
Topography. Marie, 41.
| Zoophytes.
Trigonometry, Cagnoli, 40; Colenso, 41,
Ulcers. Pichard.
Urine and Urinary Organs. Acton, Beequerel,
Civiale, Courtenay, Heisch, Johnson, Moreschi,
Perreye, Piorry, Rayer, Venables.
Uterus. Boivin, Duparque, Jenty, Lee, Lisfrane,
Rederer, Safford.
Vaccination. Bousquet, Heim.
Venereal, Bertherand, Devergie, Ducros, Lebert,
Heisch, Hunter, Ricord.
Veterinary. Blaine, Bouchardat, Delafond, Hur-
trel, D’Arboval, Leblanc et Trousseau, Rey,
Rigot. Spooner, Percival, 31.
— Homeopathic, Gunther.
Voyages. Page 32.
Warming and Ventilation. Richardson, 26,
Weaving. White, 43.
Women (Diseases of). Batin et Nivet, Briere ds
Boismont, Boivin, Dupareque, Imbert, Jenty
Johnson, Menyille, Murphy, Naegele, Pichard
Theses, Tilt.
— Homeopathic, Leadam.
Worms (Intestinal). Bremser.
Zoology. Brandt and Ratzeburg, Agassiz, M
Edwards, 29; De Quaterfagnes, 29; Gervais
29; Kock, 30; Middendorff, 30.
Cuvier, 28. (See Zoology, page 32.3
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Bernard (C.) Traité de Physlalocta EixpGohaventale comprenant les Applications a la
Pathologie, par le Dr. Clande Bernard, Professeur d’Anatomie et de ee ne
mentale. 2 vols. 8vo. avec Figures intercalées dans le Texte. (In the Press.)
Bertherand. Unprécis des maladies a de leur doctrine et de leur traitement.
8yvo.- Paris, 1852 ; -
Berton. Traité pratiqne des eaten deg enfans, deen la naissance » jusqu’a ia puiliarté,
fondé sur de nombreuses observations cliniques, et sur examen et l’analysé des travaux
des auteurs qui se sont occupés de cette partie de la médecine, avec des notes de M. le
docteur Baron, médecin de ’hépital des Enfants-Trouvés, &c. Deuxieme édition entiére-
ment refondue. Paris, 1842, in-8 de 820 pages :
Bichat (X.) or soca sur be vie = la mort; nouvelle “€dition, Paris 1852. etree
with Plates
Bird (G.) Lectures on | Elecriity and ity ina in their Physiologial and Therapentical
Relations. 12mo. cloth
Bischof (T. L. G,) Traité tet développement de ithusttaata et ded iaasetfiere stityt
@une histoire du dévelappement de Vuf du lapin, traduit de Vallemand Lp J.L.
Jourdan. Paris, 1843, in-8, et atlas de 16 planches in-4 :
Entwicklungsgeschichte des Hunde-Eies. Ato. with 15 plates.
, Brunswick, 1845
Blaine (B.) Outlines of the Nelerinary Art: or a a Treating on the Anatomy, Physiology
and Curative Treatment of the Horse.* With Plates. 8yo. cloth C
Blainvilile (Ducrotay.) De Vorganisation des animaux, ou principes Ponders
comparée, 1823, tome premier, in-8. (All published.) Scarce - :
a . BP.) Nouveauxelements d’anatomie descriptive. Paris, 1858, 2 ) forts vel.
TOet ouvrage est adopté pour les dissections dans les amphithéatres danatomie de
Pécole pratique de la Faculté de médecine de Paris et par le ministre de la guerre pour les
éléves des hépitaux militaires.
Blasius (G.) Anatome anamalium, terrestrium, variorum, yilatianiy, equalioes ser-
pentium, insectorum, ovyorumque. 4to. Amstetodami, 1781 .
Blatin et Nivet. Traité des maladies des femmes qui die manen des fleurs Blenahes
des leucorrhées ou tout autre écoulement utéro-vaginal. Paris, 1$42, in-8 7
Bleuland (J.) Icones Anatomico-Physiologice. Colored plates. 4to.
Blondlot. Traité analytique de la digestion considerée ae dans Vhomene
“et les animaux vertébrés. Nancy, 1843, in-8
' Boucher (C. J.) Recherches sur la structure des organes de Vhomme et des animaux
les plus connus. 104 figures. Svo. Paris, 1848 S
Boerhaave. Des maladies des yeux. Paris, 1749,in-12 .
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Paris, onvrage adopté comme classique pour ‘les éléves de la Maison d’accouchement de
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uveilhier.
175
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in-12 de 620 pages 12
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yelles sur l’anatomie et la physiologie de cet organe. Deuxiéme édition augmentée.
Paris, 1841, 2 vol. in-8. fig. ‘ - ; : : - 400
Bourgery et Jacob. Traité complet de Anatomie de Homme; comprenant la
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Boyer (A.) Traité des maladies chirurgicales, et des opérations_ qui leur conviennent, cin-
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— Traité pratique des ‘convulsions dans Venfance, Qe édition, angmentée, Paris, 1887, f
in-8 . vy
——— Traité complet de Thypochondrie, couronné par PAcadémie royale de médecine.
Paris, 1844, in-8 fe ee
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Breschet (Mi. 3.) Histoire Soetores et Eayetaentee un xii seal dbectivedt dans
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n-S . A
Des hallucinations, ou Histoire raisonnée des apparitions, des visions, des cs: de
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Bright (James). A Practical Synopsis of Diseases of the Chest and Air-passageas witha
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Briquet (P.) et Migmot(A.) .Traité Pratique et Analytique DU CHOLERA-MORBUS
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physique et da moral sont établis sur les bases de la médecine phy mR an, deuxiéme
dition, entiérement refondue. Paris, 1839, 2 vol. in-S ‘ - 8
-—-—— Examen des doctrines médicales et des systémes de nosologie, réc6d6 de propositions
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Broussais (F. em e WV.) Traité de phypldlagie spphianée ala pathalozie, deuxiéme édition.
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Bulietin de la Seciete de Chirurgie de Paris, anda ic eanées 1848-49-
60. Vol. I. Syo. Paris, 1851 (Zo be continued annually.) 5
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tions par MM. les professeurs “Baer, Moser, Meyer, J. Muller, Rathke, Sicbold, Valentin,
Wagner, traduit de l’allemand, sur la deuxiéme édition, par A. J. L. Jourdan. Paris, 1837-
41, 9 vol. in- -8, fig.
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sophe digne de V’école qui s’enorgueillit d’ayoir produit Kant, il rapporte, examine,
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Burserius (J. B.) Institutions of the Practice of Medicine. lage by Wa G.
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siécle ; description des grandes épidémies de délire simple ou compliqué qui ont atteint
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Capern (fhomas.) The Meaty Curative Powers of Mesmerism Leer ina Hendred
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Carpenter (W. B.) Principles of Physiology, Genco and Comparative ail 821
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Carus (C.G.) Traiié élémentaire d’anatomie comparée et recherches d’anatomie philoso-
phique ou transcendante sur les parties primaires du systeme nerveux et du squelette in-
» térieur et extérieur, traduit de l’allemand sur la deuxiéme édition, et précédé d’une
Esquisse historique "et biblio aphique de Anatomie comparée, = A. J. L. Jourdan,
accompagné d’un Atlas de or palsviohien in-4 grayées. Paris, 1835, 3 forts vol. in-S, atlas
in-t
[Dans cet onvrage Vauteur expliqne successivement les différents organes et systémes
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Ja représentat::.. fidéle des formes les plus importantes du régne animal. Tl contient aussi
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organisés; elles servent a Jl’intelligence du troisiéme yolume, ou l’auteur expose ses
théories sur l’anatomie philosophique. ]
Carus (C.G.) Erlinterungstafeln zur yergleichenden Anatomie. Folio. Leipzig, 1843
Catalogue of the Contents of the Museum sa the a lecrn Coser
of Surgeons, im London. dSvyols.4to. .
Cazauvieilh. Du suicide, de l’aliénation mentale, et des crimes Gone les pationties
comparés dans leurs rapports réciproques. Recherches sur ce pre Li meas chez Jes
habitants descampagnes. Paris, 1840, in-8 A .
Cazeaux. Traité théorique et pratique des accouchements. 8e édit: 1851, avec splandhes
OGazenave (A.) Lecons sur les maladies dela pean, professées a l’Ecole de Médecine.
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Traité des maladies du Cuir Chevelu, suivi a ace’ hygiéniques sur ie soins a
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Cerise ea datioenee de Védueation physaue et morale sur le vy stéme nerveux. to, Paris,
1840
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des maladies de ces contrées. Paris, 1848, 1 vol. in-3 * %
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Chapman (E.) Manual of Materia Medica, Pharmacology, Toxicology, &. 12mo. cloth
Chardel (ci) pia de payekologie aioe troisiéme édition oo Paris,
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8vo. Paris, 1818 P 4 5 ° . 5 . :
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you Praparaten, Instrumenten und Bandagen, &. 47 Parts 4to. Innumerable plates and
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Kequin et Sestié. Paris, 183440, 3 vol. in-8 S . .
Eléments de pathologie générale, troisiéme édit. Paris, 1841, in-8 ° «
Churchill. Essays on the Puerperal Fever and other Diseases peculiar to Women.
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Churchill (F.) Researches on Operative Midwifery, &c. With Plates, Syo. cloth ‘
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Cloquet (H.) Traité complet de l’anatomie de Vhomme, comparée dans ses points les
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Comptes Rendus des Seances et Memoires de la Societe de
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Courtemay. Pathology and Rational Treatment of Stricture of the Urethra in all its
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Crosse i ae G.) Cases in Midwifery, with Introduction and Remarks, by E. Copeman, M.D.
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Cruikshank (W.) The Anatomy of the Absorbing Vessels of the Human Body. 2nd
Edition. 4to. Plates . .
Cruveilhier. Anatomie descriptive. Deuxiéme édit. Paris, 1843-45, 4 vol. in-8 =
Cruveilhier (J.) Anatomie pathologique du corps humain, ou description, avec figures
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Traité d’anatomie pathologique générale. Paris, 1849. t. 1, 1 vol. in-8 de 700 pag.
Le 2e volume, sous presse ° : . . :
Cruveilhicrand Bonamy. Atlasof the Descriptive Anatomy of the Human Body.
By J. Cruveilhier, Professor of Anatomy to the Faculty of Medicine, Paris. With Expla-
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4to. London, 1844. Plain, (Colored, $22) ‘ 5 . 4
Appareil de la circulation. Complete in 64 Plates. Plain, (Colored, $16) .
Cuvier (G.) Legons d’anatomie comparée, publiées par Duméril, Laurillard et Duyernoy,
deuxiéme édit. Paris, 1885-1845, 9 vol. in-8 é " .
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in-folio de 24 planches dessinées et coloriées d’aprés nature, . ° .
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1851 ° 3 . ; ; . s 2 a
Debreyne. Thérapentique appliquée, ou Traitements Spéciaux de la plapart des Mala-
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Delabarre. Des accidents de Dentition chez les enfants, &c. 8vo. Paris, 1851 F
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Deleau. Recherches pratiques sur les mmabaiiss de "Yoreille * sur le develan geal da
louie et de la parole chez les sourds-muets, i eects Maladie de Voreille
mroyenne. Paris, 1838, in-8. - - :
Deleuze. Histoire re du Misabtlbens sharia Nouvelle eatin, Paris, 1819,
2 vol. in-8, br. ° 3
Instructions — sur ig Maeniehinateh Paris, 1846, in-12
De Montallegry. Hypochondrie- spleen, ou neyroses trisplanchniques. Observations
relatives 4 ces maladies et leur traitement radical. Svo. Paris, 1841 A
wera (J. A. EH.) Traité théorique et Mote @auscultation obstetrical, Paris,
1847, in-8 .
Deschamps (Pe J.) Traité hist torique et aggedentes de ig taille, ayec un supplément
résentant le résumé de tous les resi eal Bai ce dace par L, J. Bégin.
aris, 1826, 4 vol. in-8, fig. : .
Deschamps (3H. Hi.) Du Signe certain aie la cites 8vo. Paris, 1852
Descuret. La médecine des Passions, ou les passions considérées dans leurs rapports
avec les maladies, les lois et la religion, deuxiéme édition augmentée. Paris, 1843, in-8 .
Desmarres (i. A.) Traité des Maladies des bees avec 78 figures intercalées dans le
Texte. Thick 8vo. Paris, 1847 ri
Deval. Chirurgie Oculaire, ou Traité des Gnérations Chir areenien se pratiquent sur
lGail et ses Annexes, §Svo. avec planches. Paris, 1844 °
Traité de PAmaurose ou de la Goutte Sereine. 8vo. A -
Devay. Recherches sur les Maladies cancereuses. 8vo. A . .
Beventer. Observations importantes sur le Manuel des cngia sete traduit du latin.
Paris, 1733, in-4, fig. = .
Devergie (P. N.) Clinique de la maladie eyphiliique, mace Wabser piienne communi-
quées par MM. Cullerier (oncle et neveu), Gard, Gama, &., owwrage complet, pple en
25 livr. Paris, 1853, 2 vol. in-4, dont 1 de 126 pl. gr. in-4 color. . 25 00
Devergie (Alph.) Médecine légale, théorique et pratique, avec le texte et Vinterpréta-
‘on des lois relatives a la médecine Jlégale, reyus et annotés par J. B. Dehaussy, con-
a, a la Cour de Cassation. TZvroisiéme siento entierément iia Pos 1852,
3 vol. in-8 Z -
Ss a « Hi.) Die Seen Bntdecknngen in dat Materia Medics: Sv Heidel-
erg, 1
Bieu (S.) Traité de soauiars Médical et de Pherepontins, geceede de eausticrekions ane
ey sur la zoologie, et suiyi de l’Histoire des eaux naturelles. ats 1847-1851,
vol. in-8 2
Bomme (A.) Conseils aux Merce sur PAllaitement et sur la Maniére @élever 3s Enfants
Nouyeau-Nés, 2éme édition augmentée. 12mo. Paris, 1846
Cours de Microscopie Complémentaire des Etudes Médicales. Svyo. 1844 ‘
— Atlas du Cours de Microscopie de 20 planches. Paris, 1845
Druitt (J.) The Surgeon’s Vade idee illustrated with one Hundred aad Seventy
Wood Cuts. 12mo. cloth. ‘
Dubrwueil. Des anomalies artérielles, constdérées dans leurs rapports avec la pathologie
et les opérations chirurgicales, par le docteur J.-M. DvusrRveEtL, eee @anatomlie a la
Faculté de médecine de Montpellier, &e. Paris, het 1 1 in-8, avec atlas in-4 de
17 planches col. S
Duchesne-DPuparc. "Traité ites gourmes Pence 1és anfuts.” Paris, 1842, in-8.
Ducros (L.) Guide pratique PS étude et le traitement des maladies eyphiitiquer:
12mo. Paris, 1841 -
Duges. Manuel Wobstétrique, ou Traité aa la science et ae Vart des accouchements;
i ae Vexposé des maladies de la femme et de l’enfant nouveau-né, et suivi d’un
précis sur la saignée et la vaccination; troisiéme dition revue par V Allemand et Franc,
avec 48 fig. gravées. Paris, 1840, in- 8 F x
Duparcque. Maladies de la matrice, Sonipronsnt: 1° altérations organtques simples et
cancéreuses ; 2° histoire complete des ruptures et des déchirures de Puterus, du vagin
et du périnée, Paris, 1839, 2 vol. in-S : m ‘
Dupotet. Course du magnétisme animal. 2d edition: 8yo. Pile 1840 F ‘
Dupuytren. Lecons orales de clinique chirurgicale faites a l’H6tel-Dieu de Paris, re-
cueillies et publiées par les docteurs Brierre de Boismont et Marx, deuwiime eaition,
entiérement refondue. Paris, 1839, 6 vol. in-8
[Wota., Les tomes 5 et 6 ‘contiennent le Zraité des blesswres par armes de guerre,
séparément] . 3 é
Durand-Fardel. Des Eaux de Vichy 8yo. Paris, 1851 , f ;
Dutrochet. Mémoires pour servir a V’histoire anatomique et physiologique des végé-
taux et des animaux atlas in-4 de 17 planches
2° TRAITE DE MYOLOGIE ET D’ANGEIOLOGIE, par F.-G. Theile, 1 vol. in-8 :
89 TRAITE DE NEVROLOGIE, par G. Valentin, 1 vol. in-8, avec figures 5
4° TRAITE D’ANATOMIE GENERALE, ou Histoire des tissus et de la composition
chimique du corps humain, par Henle, 2 yol. in- -8, avec 5 planches gravées : ,
5° TRAITE DU DEVELOPPEMENT DE L’HOMME et des Mammiféres; snivi dune
Histoire du développement de Veuf de lapin, par le docteur T.-L.-G. Aisehal 1 vol.
in-8, avec un atlas in-4 de 16 planches - .
69 TRAIT DE SPLANCHNOLOGIE ET DES ORGANES DES SENS, par E. Husebke
1 yol. in-8 de 870 pages, avec 5 pl. 5
7? ANATOMIE PATHOLOGIQUE GENERALE, aa Nagel Paris, 1247, 1 ey in-8
[Cette Encyclopédie anatomique, réunie aux Traitées de “Physiologie de Burdach et de
J. Muller, forme un ensemble complet des deux sciences sur lesquelles repose l’édifice
entier de la médecine. ]
Esquirol. Des maladies mentales, considérées sous les rapports médical, hygiénique et
médico-légal. Paris, 1838, 2 forts volumes in-8, avec un atlas de 27 planches grayées
[Lvouvrage que j’offre au public est le résulat de quarante ans d’études et d’observations.
J’ai observé les symptémes de la folie et j’ai essayé les meilleures méthodes de traite-
ment; j’ai étudié les meeurs, les habitudes et les besoins des aliénés, au milien desquels,
jai passé ma vie; m attachant aux faits, je les ai rapprochés par les affinités, je les raconte
tels que je les ai vus. J’ai rarement cherché 4 les expliquer, et je me suis arrété devant
les systémes qui m’ont toujours paru plus séduisants par leur €clat qu’utiles par leur
application.” Lxtrait de la préface de Vauteur.]
Fabre. Bibliothéque — see page ]. e
Farre (J. &.) The Morbid ee of the Liver and Tumours. 2 pa 4to. Colored
plates. London, 1812 :
Fauconneau-Duiresne. Traité de Affection Galonlensa du fie, avec 5 planches.
12mo. Paris, 1851 ‘
Feigei (T. A.) ‘Anhang vom Handbudhe ‘der ‘Knatomie, By. and folio Plates Wiirz-
burg, 1837 ; =
Vollstindiges Haidtush idee Aste aut ihrem jetaizen Standpunkte, Mit
Atlas. 8vo. Wiirzburg, 1837
Visage der pibaeeattchey Abbildimgen. Byo-text i. sto-plates, Wiirsburs,
18AL J
Ferguson (Dr. WW.) System of Pewbbien! daiwary: With Tilasteationa 12mo. cloth.
Ferrus. Mémoire sur le Goitre et le Crétinisme, avéc 5 planches. &vo. Paris, 1851 -
Fischer (3...) Descriptio Anatomica Nervorum Lumbalium Pecraliniy et Extremita-
tum Inferiorum. Atlas folio, 4 plates. Lipsi, 1791 ;
Forget. Traité de l’entérite folliculense (fiévre typhoide). Paris, 1841, in-8 de ‘856 pages
Fournet, f[echerches cliniques sur Vauscultation des organes respiratoires, et sur la
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Foville. Déformation du crane résultant de la méthode la joe aret en de couvrir la téte
des enfants. Paris, 1854, in-8, fig. é
Traité complet de Yanatomie, de la physiologia et ae la pathologie da systéme
nerveux cérébro-spinal. Paris, 1844, t. L., Anatomie, in-8, et atlas de 23 planches, in-4
Foy. Traité de maticre médicale et de ereveniis ere: a chaque maladie en parti-
culier. Paris, 1843, 2 vol. in-8 5 é F ‘
Manuel d’hygiéne. Paris, 1245, in-18 - . e
——— Nouveau formulaire des praticiens, contenant les donmunton ie hépitaux civils et
militaires de Paris, de France, d’Italie, d’Allemagne, d’Angleterre, de Pologne, &e.; pré-
cédé d'un Mémorial thérapeutique, et suivi de Secours a donner aux empoissonnés et aux
asphyxiés. Quatriome edition angmentée. Paris, 1844, 1 vol. in-1S é :
Pieurcns (P.) Théorie i de la Formation des Os. 8vo. with 7 plates.
aris, 1847
Anstonite Générale de la Pean et des Membranes Muinierises, Ato. ayec 6 planches
coloriées. Paris, 1843 A . . ’
“aiming d@ Anatomie et ie Pystologie coumasiiens 4to. avec 8 sun Paris
Cours sur la einige lmdaale oe Vembryologie fait en 1836, au akuesum dhis-
toire naturelle, recueilli et publié par Deschamps. Paris, 1 vol. in-4, avec 10 al .
1844
5 00
6 50
8 50
0 75
2 00
2 25
2 00
0 75
7 00
1 00
2 00
5 00
5 00
150
STANDARD SCIENTIFIC WORKS. 9
‘ a
EFlourens (P.) Recherches sur les fonctions et les propriétés du Systeme netyenx
dans les animaux vertébrés. Deuxiéme édition, entiérement refondue et considérable-
ment augmentée. Paris, 1842, in-S de 516 pages . 3 i eis 2 - 200
Frank (J. RP.) Traité de médecine pratique de J.-P. Frank, traduit du latin par
J.-M.-G. Goudareau, D.M. Nouvelle édition, revue et corrigée, angmentée des observa-
tions et réflexions pratiques contenues dans les Interpretationes clinice de J.-P. Frank,
et précédée d’une introduction par J.-F. Double, membre de l'Institut et de ’ Académie
de Médecine. Paris, 1842, 2 forts vol. grand in-8 a deux colonnes, sur papier jésus vélin 5 50
Feviile. Traité complet de l’anatomie, de la physiologie et de la pathologie du systéme
neryeux cérebro-spinal. Paris, 1844, t. 1, Anatomie, in-8, et atlas de 23 pl, in-4 . 650
Froriep. De Lingua Anatomica quedam et Semiolica. 4to. Colored plates. Bonn, 1828 1 50
Froriep (R.) On the Therapeutic Application of Electro-Magnetism. Translated by
Rh. M. Lawrance, M.D. 8yo. cloth ; = p , ; wl to
Gautier (Aubin.) Histoire du somnambulisme chez tous les peuples, sous les noms
divers d’extases, songes, oracles, &c., sur ses causes, les effets, les abus, les avantages et
Putilité de son concours avec la médecine. Paris, 1842, 2 vol. in-8 - P - 250
Gemdyrin (A.N.) Legons sur les maladies du cur et des grosses artéres, recnillies et
publiées par E. Colson et Dubreui! Hélion. Paris, 1842, tome I, in-8 : Pia lho 05,
Traité philosophique de médecine pratique. Paris, 1888-42, 3 vols. in-8 - 525
Geoffroy-Saint=Hilaire. Philosophie anatomique. Tome I, des Organs respira-
toires; tome IJ, Monstruosités humaines. Paris, 1818-1823, 2 vol. in-8 et 2 atlas in-4 - 650
—— Histoire générale et particuliére des Anomalies de l’organisation chez ’homme et
les animaux, ouvrage comprenant des recherches sur les caractéres, la classification, l’in-
fluence physiologique et pathologique, les rapports généraux, les lois et les causes des
monstrnosités, des variétes et vices de conformation, ou Traité de tératologie. Paris,
1832-1836, 3 forts vol. in-8 et atlas de 20 planchies . 4 - . - 700
———_——. Séparément les tomes I, II, in-8, atlas , c - £00
Vie, travaux €@t doctrines scientifiques d’Etienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire. Paris,
1847, in-12 5 : = Beer s r - “ - 100
Gerber and Gulliver. Elements ofthe General and Minute Anatomy of Man and
the Mammalia; chiefly after Original Researches. To which is added an Appendix, com-
prising Researches on the Anatomy of the Blood, Chyle, Lymph, Thymous, Fluid,
Tubercle, and Additions, by C. Gulliver, F.R.S. In 1 vol. Svo. ‘Text, and an Atlas of
34 Plates, engraved by L. Aldous. 2 vols. 8yo. Cloth boards : 4 6 00
Gerdy (P.N.) Pathologie Générale Médico-Chirurgicale. Syo. ; - 200
Gibert. Manuel pratique des maladies vénériennes. Paris, 1837, in-18 c Pome 24511)
Giraldi (%1.) Anatomici Sammi Septemdecim Tabula, 4to. Pl. Parma, 177 - 200
Gliebe (G.) Pathologische Histologic. 4to. Jena, 1850 . = S25
Gluge. Atlas der pathologischen Anatomie der Organe des menschlichen Kérpers. Mit
color. Kupfertafeln u. Text. 21 parts Fotio : c . . 80 00
Gethe (J. W.de) Cunvres Vhistoire naturelle, comprenant les Mémoires scientifiques
sur l’anatomie comparée, la botanique et la géologie; traduit de l’allemand par Martins.
Paris, 1837, in-8 et atlas in-fol. . 5 : ‘ “ ; 8 75
Grant. Outlines of Comparative Anatomy. 8yo. MIlustrated with 148 Woodcuts, boards.
London, 1833-1841 f ‘ © 7 00
Grimaux de Caux et Martin Saimt-Amge. Ilistoire de la Génération de
Vhomme précédée de l'étude comparative de cette fonction dans les divisions principales
du régne animal, 1 vol. in-4, accompagné d’un magnifique atlas de planches . - £00
Grisoile. ‘Traité élémentaire et pratique de pathologie interne. 4e édit. Paris, 1850,
2 vol. in-8. (or half calf $5 50) . = é - ke - £25
Gwillot (N.) La Lesion la maladie. Syo. Paris, 1851 : ‘ ' - 075
—— Exposition anatomique de I’organisation du centre nerveux dans les quatre classes
d@animaux vertébrés, ouvrage couronné par l’Académie royale des sciences de Bruxelles.
Paris, 1844, in-4 avee 18 pl. ‘ : . 400
Guthrie (G. J.) On the Injuries of the Mead and on Hernia. 8yo. cl. London, 1847 1 75
—— On Wounds and Injuries of the Abdomen and the Pelyis, 8yo. cloth - 090
Guthrie (C.G.) On Cataract and its Appropriate Treatment by Operation adopted for
each peculiar case. 8Wo. cloth 7 ; : a
Hall (Warshall.) On the Diseases and Derangements of the Nervous System, in their
Primary Forms, and in their modifications by Age, Sex, Constitution, Hereditary Predis-
osition, Excesses, General Disorder and Organic Disease. Syo. with 8 engraved Plates,
London, 1841 - z F “ . - 400
New Memoir on the Nervous System; true Spinal Marrow, and its Anatomy,
Physiology, Pathology, and Therapeutics. Ato. with 5 engraved Plates, London, 183°. 5 00
Haller. Elementa physiologiw corporis humani. Lausanne, 1757, 9 vol. in-4. Half ef, - 15 00
Opera minora, Lausanne, 1762-1768, 3 yol.in-4. Half ef. , 7 - 500
HMialler (A.) Ilistoria morborum qui Annis 1699, 1700, 1701, and 1702. Bd. in vellum
ex, Geneva, 1746 : . . F é i
Wamilton (A.) Anatomical Fables, ana an Abridgment of the Practice of Midwifery.
With Illustrations, Atlas fol. Edinburgh,1787 . . a
Baardy et Behier. Traité élémentaire de Pathologie interne. Paris, 1844, tomes I
et Il, in-8. L’ouvrage aura 3 yol. Prix de chaquo * : F 175
10 . STANDARD SCIENTIFIC WORKS.
Harveii. ater rig) Opera Omnia; a Collegio Medicorum os em 1766. Fol.
bound in russ °
Hassall. The Microscopic Anatomy of “the Human Body in Health and Disease.
Illustrated with upwards of 400 Original Drawings, eet of them ae ape 2 vols. 8vo.
Hartfort, 1850 ; S
Hastings (J.) Pulmonary Cengeambont silenoeatully ineatad Sh ayant with an
appendix showing the utility of puncturing tuberculous cavities as an adjuvant in the
Cure of Phthisis. 8yo. London, 1845 : .
Heidenhain et Ehrenberg. Exposition des mbenedtes hydriatiques de Priesnitz
dans les diverses espéces de ma adies, considérées en elles-mémes et pie ead avec
celles de la médecine allopathique. ‘Paris, 1842, in-18 . °
Weim (J.) Historisch-kritische Beleuchtung der Pockenseuchen des eee Impf-
und Revaccinnationswesens im Kénigreiche Wiirttemberg. 8vo. Stuttgart, 1838 4
Heisch (Ff. A.) Du traitement sans mercure des différentes affections des asl géni-
tales. 4to. Strasbourg, 1835 2 .
Meisteri (D. LL.) Institutiones iGnamneras! 2 vole 4to. ef, tarantaueiaee! 1739
Henle (5.) Anatomie générale, ou Histoire des tissus et de la composition chimique du
corps humain, traduit de allemand, par A.-J.-L. Jourdan. ae pay) 2 vol. in-8, avec
5 pl. gravées. (Voy. Encyclopédie "Anatomique. ) .
Werpin (N.) Du Pronostie et du Traitement Curatif de VEpilepsie, enyniee couconae
par l'Institut. Svo 5 . .
Eiesselbac. Disquisitiones siniehito® -pathologiew de ortu et progress hema ingui-
nalium et cruralium. Wisseburgi, 1816, in-4 avec 17 pl... . .
Wimly. Die Krankheiten und Missbildungen des menschlichen ABeeS und deren Hei-
lung. 9 pts. 4to. Nordhausen, 1243 . :
Hippocrates. The genuine works of, translated fom the eres by J. hone L.L.D.
2 vols. 8vo. Sydenham Society. London, 1849 3 . .
Hiippocrate (Cuvres complétes d’), traduction nouvelle, avec le teste grec en regard,
collationné sur les manuscrits et toutes les éditions; accompagnées d’une introduction, de
commentaires médicaux, de variantes et de notes philologiques ; suivies d’une table géné-
rale des matiéres; par E. Littré, membre de l'Institut. “Paris, 1889-1849. — Cet oS
formera 9 forts vol. in-8 de 600 4 700 pages chacun. Prix de chaque yolume
Wiering. Recherches sur la nature et le siége de la Cataracte. Extrait des Annie
@Oculistique. 8vo. Brussels, 1843 5 5 :
Woldem (.) A Manual of the Dissection of the Honea Body. Syo. London, 1851
Wome (Sir FE.) Lectures on Comparative Anatomy, in which are explained the prepa-
rations in the Hunterian Collection. 4 vols. 4to. and Atlas. London, 1814-1828 .
Hiooper (B.) Medical Dictionary, revised, corrected, and improved, by Dr. Grant. One
thick vol. 8vo. cloth . : 4 5 ; 3 ° :
Humbert et Jacquier. Essai ct observations sur la maniére de réduire les luxations
spontanées ou symptomatiques de l’articulation ilio-fémorale, méthode applicable aux
luxations congénitales et aux luxations anciennes Pe causes externes. Paris, aie
atlas de 30 pl. in-4 a .
Hiunt (H.) On the Nature and ronunent of Tic Dynloerei: Béiation bad other Nennalgi
Disorders. S8vyo. cloth
Hunter (J3.) Traité do la path eiehenues uriait de Panglais pee Richelot, ayec den
Notes et Additions par Ricord. 8yo. Paris, 1852 . - 5 < °
Hurtrel @’Arboval. Dictionnaire de médecine, de chirurgie et dhygiéne vétéri-
naires. Ouyrage utile aux vétérinaires, aux ofliciers de cayalerie, aux propriétaires, aux fer-
miers, aux cultivateurs et a toutes les personnes chargées du soin et du gouvernement des
animaux domestiques. Deuxiéme dition, entiérement refondue. Paris, 1838-1839,
6 forts vol. in-8 : <
Iconographie pathologique. Folio plates 2. ityraisons 5 5 .
Ennis (@.) The Skin, in Health and Disease; a concise manual, treating in a popular
form, on the preseryation of the skin in a healthy condition, and on the treatment of the
Diseases to which it is liable. With cases and col. plates. 8yo. cloth > °
Imbert (£.) Nouveau tratté des maladies des femmes. Paris, 1838, in-8 .
Itard. ‘Traité des maladies de'loreille et de laudition. Nouvelle édit, augmentée,
publiée par les soins de l’Académie nationale de médecine. Paris, 1842, 2 vol. in-8, fig.
Jacquemier (.) Manuel des /accouchements et des maladies des ieee grosses et
accouchées, contenant les soins & donner aux nouveaux-nés. Paris, 1846, 2 vol. in-12,
avec 66 fig. " .
Jenner, Wi.D. (Edward), Life of. Physician to Wis Majesty George IV. With
Illustrations of his Doctrines, and Selections prea, his seta aaa by Dr, John
Baron# 2 vols. 8yo. cloth ° . .
Jenty (C. N.) Demonstratio Uteri. Folio, Niirnborg, 1761 3
Jobert. Traité de Chirurgie plastique. Paris, 1849, 2 vol. in-8, et atlas de 18 at in folio,
gravées et col.
[Afin de faire comprendre la hante portée chirur cicale de Vouvrage de M. Jobert, il
suifit d’indiquer les sujets qui y sont traités; savoir: “Des cas qui réclament l’autoplastie,
des préparations auxquelles il convient de Soumettre les parties intéressées dans Vopéra-
tion. — Des parties qui doivent entrer dans la composition du lambeau et des tissus
propres a le former. — Des méthodes autoplastiques — APPLICATION PRATIQUE. Auto-
plastic srdnienne, faciale et de l'appareil de la vision, — De la rhinoplastie ou réparation
$c.
8 00
8 00
175
1 00
2 00
0 50
2 00°
375
2 00
2 00
7 00
5 50
STANDARD SCIENTIFIC WORKS.
ii
da nez, de la réparation des jones, de la bouche (stomatoplatie). — De Ja trachéoplastie,
de la thoracoplastie. — Autoplastie des membres supérieurs. — Autoplastie du canal in-
testinal et dans les hernies. — Autoplastie des organes génitaux de "homme (testicule,
fistule urinaire, périnée). — Autoplastie des organes génito-urinaires de la femme, vices
de conformation des grandes et petites léyres, oblitération de la vulve et du vagin. —
Autoplastie de l’urétre et de la vessie chez la femme; fistule vésico-vaginale; chapitre
important qui oecupe plus de 400 pages.]
Johnson (W.) An Essay on the Diseases of Young Women. Syo. cloth - :
s a ee J~) Clinical Observations on Diseases of the Genito-Urinary Organs.
vo. clot . - Fy
sd srk (@. W.) The principles and practice of Ophthalmic Medicine and Surgery. 12mo.
clo ; : - = : - A 2 :
Jongh (L. J.) Disquisitio comparativa chemico medica de tribus olei jecoris aselli
speciebus. Utrecht, 1843,in-8 . : - . . : .
Jourdan (A. J. LL.) Dictionnaire raisonné, étymologique, synonymique et, polyglotte
des termes usités dans les sciences naturelles, ecomprenant l’anatomie, Vhistoire naturelle
de la physiologie générale, l’astronomie, la botanique, la chimie, la géographie physique,
la géclogie, la minéralogie, la physique, la zoologie. Paris, 1834, 2 forts vol. in-8, petit
texte Adeuxcolonnes . : é - . 3 = *
Kramer (G.) Traité pratique des maladies de Voreille, traduit de Vallemand avec des
notes et des additions nombreuses, par le ddcteur Meniére. Paris, 1848,in-8. -
Laberge, Monneret et Fleury. Compendium de médecine pratique, ou Exposé
analytique et raisonné des trayaux contenus dans les principaux traités de pathologie in-
terne. Paris, 1836-1846; 8 vol. gr. in-8, publié en 31 livraisons in-8. Prix . :
Laennec. A Treatise on the Mediate Auscultation, and on Diseases of the Lungs and
Heart. With Notes and Additions by M. Laennec and M. Andral. With Practical Notes,
by F. H. Ramadge, M.D., Oxon. 8yo. with Plates. London, 1846 . - -
Lallemand. Des pertes séminales inyolontaires, Paris, 1836-1842, 3 vol. in-8 P
1 50
3 50
8 50
1 50
4 50
1 75
25 00
6 25
gcse} rele (Ce J. We) Mikroskopisch-Anatomische Abbildungen. 4to, half cl. Pag
Langlebert (E.) Guide pratique et méthodique de létudiant en médecine, ou Con-
seils aux éléyes sur la direction qu’ils doivent donner a leurs études. Paris, 1852, in-12
Laporte (J. LL.) Quelques Considérations sur la Phrénésie: Présentées et Publique-
a soutentes a la Faculte de Médecine de Montpellier, le 9 Mai, 1815. 4to, cf Mont.
Bes é =
Larrey. Clinique chirurgicale exercée particuliérement dans les camps et les hépitaux
0 50
militaires depuis 1792 jusqu’en 1836. Paris, 1830-1836, 5 forts vol. in-8, atlas de 47 pl. . 10 00
Latham (P. MW.) Lectures on subjects connected with Clinical Medicine, comprising
Diseases of the Heart. 2 vols. 12mo. London, 1846 : : = =
Lauvergne. Les forcats considérés sous le rapport physiologique, moral et intellectuel,
obseryés au bagne de Toulon, par H. Lauvergne, médecin en chef de la marine royale et
de Vhépital des forcats de Toulon. Paris, 1841, in-8 : : . .
[Cet ouvrage est divisé en neuf chapitres qui comprennent: 1° Phrénologie et phy-
siognomie du forcat.— 22 Des meurtriers, études morales sur cette classe de forcats. —
8° De la Corse intérieure. De la Vendetta. — 4° Des différentes classes d’assassins et de
leur psychologie. — 5° Du yol, des grands et petits voleurs, moeurs au bagné. — 6° Faus-
saires, faux-monnayeurs, forgats lettrés. — 7° Des forgats condamnés pour viol. — 8° Légis-
lation des bagnes, réglement intérieur. — 9° Statistique des bagnes de France. Les bagnes
‘1 sont-ils nécessaires?]
— De l’agonie et de la mort dans les différentes classes de la société, considérées sous
les rapports humanitaires, philosophiques et religieux. Paris, 1842,2 vol.in-8 . -
Lawramncee on the Therapentic Application’ of Electro-Magnetism in the treatment of
Rheumatic and Paralytie Affections. 8yvo, cloth . .
Leake (John.) Lecture on the Theory and Practice of Midwifery. 4to, half calf.
London, 1775 . A ; P ‘ 3 : : ;
Lebaudy. The Anatomy of the Regions interested in the Surgical Operations performed
upon the Human Body ; with Occasional Views of the Pathological Condition, which render
the interference of the Surgeon necessary. In a series of 24 plates, the size of Life.
Folio. London, 1845 . : * * - 4 s F
Lebert (Hi.) Physiologie pathologique, ou Recherches cliniques, microscopiques et ex-
périmentales sur l’inflammation, la tuberculisation, les tumeurs et les autres tissus acci-
dentels. Paris, 1845, 2 vol. in-8, avec atlas de 22 planches gravées, gr. in-8 “ °
——., Traité pratique des maladies Scrofuleuses et Tuberculeuses, ou Recherches ana-
tomiques, pathologiques et thérapeutiques sur les serofules et les tuberenles. Ouvrage
couronné par l’Académie nationale de médecine. Paris, 1849, 1 fort vol. in-8. F
Traité pratique des maladies cancereuses et des affections curables confondues
avec le cancer. 8yo. Paris, 1851. ‘ 2 . ° ° .
Leblanc et Trousseau. Anatomie chirurgicale des principaux animaux domes-
tiques, ou Recueil de planches représentant: 1° l’Anatomie des régions du cheval, du beeuf,
du mouton, sur lone on pratique les opérations les plus graves; 2° les divers états
des dents du cheval, du beeuf, du mouton, du chien, indiquant l’dge de ces animaux:
8° les instruments de chirurgie vétérinaire; avec un texte explicatif. Paris, 1828, 1 vol.
475
1 73
75
175
5 00
6 00
5 75
5 75
2 25
grand in-folio avec 30 pl. gravées, dont 15 coloriées . F i . 10 00
Lee (H.) On the origin of Inflammation of the Veins, and on the Causes, Consequences and
Treatment of Purulent Deposits. 8yvo. London, 1850 “ F
Lee (R.) Lectures on the Theory and Practice of Midwifery. 8vo. London, 1844 F
1 75
4 50
12 STANDARD SCIENTIFIC WORKS,
Lee (Robt.) On the Ganglia and the other Neryons Structures of the Uterus. 4to, boards,
London, 1842 . 4 - 5 d 3 ve F 6,
Legendre (fF. LE.) Recherches Anatomo-Pathologiques et Cliniques sur quelques mala-
ies de ’Enfance, Paris, 1846, in-8 X . . ‘ °
Leuret (E.) Du traitement moral de Ia folie. Paris, 1840, in-8 3 2
Fragments psychologiques sur la folie. Paris, 1834, in-8 . A
——- Anatomie comparée du Systéme nerveux, dans ses rapports avec l’intelligence,
comprenant la description de l’encéphale et de la moélle rachidienne; et l’expose de la
relation qui existe entre Ja perfection progressive de ces centres nerveux et ]’etat des
facultés instinctives, intellectuelles et morales. Paris, 1839. Tome I, in-8, acompagnés
d@’un magnifique atlas de 16 planches in-folio. (Deux livraisons sont publiées.)
Prix de chaque livraison 8 . ° anh
Levy (Michel.) Traité d’hygiéne publique-et privée. Paris, 1844-1845. 2 vol. in-8
[Cet ouvrage embrasse dans son ensemble toutes les notions positives, tous les résultats
@expérimentation, tous les documents qui se rapportent aux nombreuses et difficiles
questions @’hygiéne publique et privée. C’est un livre marqué au coin de l’obseryation,
rempli @idées et d’apercus nouveaux, écrit avec cette €lézance et cette pureté de style;
qui rit. longtemps ont placé l’auteur parmi les écrivains les plus distingués de l’epoque
actuelle.
Gheritier. Traité de chimie pathologique, ou Recherches chimiques sur les solides et les
liquides du corps humain, dans leurs rapports ayec la physiologie et la pathologie. Paris,
1842, in-8, avec 1 pl. : : P : ; 3 5
Lionet (P. E.) Del’Origine des Hernies et de quelques Affections de la Matrice. Paris,
1847, 1 vol. in-8, avec 1 pl. 5 4 : s -
manrrhs aA (J-) Lecons cliniques sur les maladies de l’utérus, publiées par Pauly. Paris,
1836, in- : : é “ 2 C .
Clinique chirurgicale de l’hépital de la Pitié. Paris, 1841-1843, 3 vol. in-8
Précis de médecine opératoire. Paris, 1846-1847, tome I, II, et 1 et 2 livraisons
du tome III, in-8 - Fs ; a : 5 ‘ E
—s (§mo.) Observations on Extraction of Diseased Ovaria. Fol., bds. Edinburgh,
oh ary 3
Longet. Traité de Physiologie. Paris, 1850-1851, 2 forts volumes grand in-8 compactes,
avec figures dans le texte et planches en tailledouce noires et coloriées . "
Lobstein. De neryisympathici humani fabrica, usu et morbis commentatio anatomica,
Folio-plates. . : : 5 5 A
a
Louis (P. C. A.) Recherches anatomiques, pathologiques et thérapeutiques sur la
Maladie connue sous les noms de Fiévre typhoide, putride, adynamique, ataxique, bilieuse,
muqueuse, gastro-entérite, dothinentérie, &e., comparée avec les Maladies aigués les plus
ordinaires Deumitme édition, considérablement augmentée. Paris, 1841,2vol.in-8 .
Louis. Recherches anatomiques, pathologiques, et thérapeutiques sur la phthisie. Deu-
xiéme édition, 8vo. Paris, 1348. : 5 5 - : 4
Lucas (P. B.) Traité philosophique et physiologique de Vhérédité naturelle dans les
états de santé, et de maladie du systéme nerveux, avec l’application méthodique des lois
de la procréation-au traitement général des affections dont elle est le principe Ouvrage
ou la question est considérée dans ses rapports avec les lois primordiales, les théories de
la generation, les causes déterminantes de la sexualité, les modifications acquises de la
nature originelle des étres, et les diverses formes de néyropathie et d’alienation mentale.
Paris, 1847-1249, 2 vol. in-8 : 5 9 5 5 : 4
Ludovic-Hirschweld et Leveille. La Névrologie, ou Description et Teonogra-
phie du Systéme Nerveux et des Organes des sens de Homme, avec leur’ mode de prepa-
rations, par M. le Docteur Ludovic-Hirschweld et M. J. B. Léveillé, dessinateur.
[Cet ouvrage sera composé de 90 planches, 4to dessinées d’aprés nature et lithographiées
ar M Léveillé. Ilsera publié en dix livraisons, chacune de 9 planches, avec texte des-
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Mractise (J.) Comparative Osteology, being Morpho-logical studies to demonstrate the
Architype Skeleton of Vertebrated Animals. Folio. London, 1847. 5
JWiadd ck (A. #8.) Practical Observations on the efficacy of Medicated Inhalations in
the Treatment of Pulmonary Consumption. With col. plates. 8vo, cloth : :
Magendie. Précis élémentaire de Physiologie. Quatritme édition. Paris, 1836, 2 vol.
in-8 . .
—— Phénoménes physiques de la vie; legons professées au Collége de France. Paris,
1842, 4 vol. in-8., ; F j § , ; ; a
techerches physiologiques et cliniques sur le liquide céphalo-rachidien, ou
cérébro-spinal, Paris, 1842, in-4, et atlas de 8 planches in-fol. ; . .
mat ae Traité d’Anatomie chirurgicale et de Chirurgie expérimentale. Paris,
1838, 2 vol. in-8 ‘ °
— Manuel de Médecine opératiore, fondée sur l’Anatomie pathologique et l’Anatomie
normale Cinguiéme édition, Paris 1849, in-18. = Fi
——__—— Traité des fractures et des luxations; premiére partie: des Fractures,
1847, t. I, in-8, et atlas de 16 planches in-folio, Le tome deuxiéme est sous presse.
Paris,
3 09
8 75
2 25
075
3 15
roe
Se
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STANDARD SCIENTIFIC WORKS. 13
$c.
Mandl. Anatomie microscopique, par le docteur L. Mandl, professeur de microseopie.
Paris, 1838-1848. — Cet ouvrage formera deux volumes in-folio.
Le tome I, comprenant !’Histotoere, et divisé en deux séries: Tissus et organes, —
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Les XXVI livraisons du tome I comprennent: Premizre : série, 1° Muscles; 2° et 3°
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18° Structure de la peau; 19° Membrane muqueuse et Structure de la pean; 20° et 21° Or-
ganes des sens. — Deuwieme série. 1° Sang; 2° Pus et Mucus; 3° Lait et Urine; 4° et
5° Sperme. — Prix de chaque livraison . 1 50
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Manuel d’anatomie peneads appliqnée a lg Physiologie et la pathologie, ak
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In-8ayec 14 pl. Paris, 1830. 2 00
Miamec. Traité théorique et pratique de la ieaeers des nae Paris, 1832 te. aes 4 50
Miare. De la folie considérée dans ses mEpoNP avec - eee médicojudiiaires, Paris,
1840, 2 yol. in-8. 3 B . 8
Miarchal. Des Epidémies. 8yo. ne 1352. 3 é 2 . 075
Mascagni (Pauli). Anatomia Universa; XLIV tabulis eneis juxta eae ho-
ininis adulti. 9 parts, folio, and large folio plates. Pisa, 1823-30. > - 40 00
' seers ialuaa Prodromo della cman anolomia, Folio text and large foio-pates. sapere
: 1819,
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compléter tous les traités d’anatomie Coneplniine, 8éme. édition. 12mo, 112 plstasy plain.
Paris, 1846. (Coloured $9,00.) . - 500
Mateucci. Lecons sur les eitspraines physiques = chiatric des corps Ss Paris,
846, in-18. - : - 100
Maury. Traité complet ae Part ta dentisto: troisiéme edition, eeneice et mise au cou-
rant de Ja science au Site dun grand nombre de notes, ar Paul Gresset. 8yo., 40
plates. Paris, 1841. 5 3 00
Mayer (A.) Des janpol conjugaux, eankideren sous ip dubia point a yue ae Thygiane
et de la morale publique.’ Paris, 1848, in-8 de 32 pag. - 050
Miaygrier. Nouvelles démonstrations d’acconchements, papueaeeeee dun texte raison-
né propre a en faciliter ’explication ; denxiéme yar augmentée Dae M. Halma-Grand.
Paris, 1840, in-8, et atlas de 20 pl. in-fol. ‘ = - 10 00
Mayo (Hi.) Series of Engravings of the Brain and Spinal Cord i in Man. Fol. 1827. - 200
Mayor. Bandages et appareils 4 pansements, ou nouyeau systéme de déligation chirurgi-
cale; troisieme edition, augmentée. Paris, 1838, in-8, avec atlas de 16 pl. in-4. avk %
Mieckel (F.) Traité générale d’anatomie comparée, sien de Vallamane par Riester et A.
Sanson. Paris, 1829-1838, 10 vol. in-8. ; 2 <, oo
Menville. Histoire médicale et philosophique de ie ra See dans toutes les
€poques principales de sa vie. Paris, 1845, 3 vol. in-8. . ° - 5 50
—— De l’age critique chez les femmes, des maladies qui peuvent survenir a cette 6 épo-
que de la vie, et des moyens de les combattre et de les prevenir. Paris, 1840, in-8. - 150
Memoires de VAcademie Nationa‘e de Wedecine. T. I, Paris, 1828—T.
IL, Paris, 1#32.—T III, Paris, 1833.—T. LV, 1835 —T. V, 1836 —T.. VI, 1887 —T. VIL, 1838.
—T VIII, 1-40.—T. TX, 1241.—T. X, 1843 —T. XL 1815.—T. XII, 1246,—T. XIII, 1848,
—T XIV. 1849.—T. XY, 1850.—T XVI, 1852. 16 forts vol. in- -4, avee planches. Prix de
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Memoires de la Socicte Medicale Pe ation. 1837-43. 2 Ae. in-8. . 175
Memoires et Prix de Académie Royale de Chirurgie. Paris, 1747-1797, 10 vol in-4, fig. 20 00
Merat et Delems. Dictionnaire universel de matiére médicale et de thérapeutique gé-
nérale, contenant Vindication, la description et l'emploi de tous les médicaments connus x
dans les diverses parties du globe. Paris, 1830-1846. Ouvrage ie 7 forts vol. in-8. . 9 00
Supplément, ou tome VII, Paris, 1846, in-8 de 800 pages. 2 00
Mericour (J.C.) Traité des maladies du sein, Saamaeeeaent les affections simples et oie
céreuses. 8vo. Paris, 1845. é ‘ 1 2
Michaux. Mémoire sur les causes de la fieyre j pean 12mo. Paris, 1852, " 0 25
Michea (Ce a Traité dagrecanarid ree et critique del’ rent > 1845,
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Ag (E.) De inflammistione ossium. 4to., plates. Berlin, 1836, FS 8 00
Miller (James). The pier of the kidney in Scarlatina, Illustrated by cases.
8vo, cloth . “ . . : ° - 250
14 STANDARD SCIENTIFIC WORKS.
Miller (James). The Practice of Surgery. 12mo, cloth. - F . 262
Mohrenheim (5. meee Abhandlung iiber die athe ee Folio, Leas hf
ef. Leipsic, 1803,
Mioney (W.) A ienapeenceaen of marbid natin ‘Baysl = piste 1843, - £00
Montfalcon et Polimiére. Traité de la Salubrité dans les Seatulee villes. gis:
1846, in-8. : : 2 00
Moreau, professor. TTeories Obstetrice ; a Sarias of 60 Plates and Text, Illustrative of
the Art and Science of Midwifery in all its Branches. By Moreau, Professor of Midwifery
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Worel. Etudes cliniques sur les maladies mentales. 8vo., Paris, 1852. Liv. 1to4,each . 1 00
Hinen (Alex.) Commentarium de Urethre perpen Siendioe Structura. Folio,
hf. cl. Mediolani, 1817.
ersten (J. B.) The Seats aa Causes of Diseaies investigated by Anatomy. 3 vols.
to., cf. London, 1769.
aes (J.) Manvel de Physiolozie, traduit de Vallemand sur la quatrigme 6dition 1844,
avec des annotations, par le docteur A. J. L. Jourdan, 2e. édition revue et annotée par E.
Littré, Paris, 1852, 2 vol. grand in-8, de chacun S00 pages, avec 320 figures intercalées dans
le'texte et 4 ’planches g gravées. (Or ‘in be, cf $6, 00.) 5 00
[Cet ouvrage doit son immense succés, moins a la haute position scientifique de auteur
qu’a ce que M. Muller, tout en se renfermant dans un cadre assez resserré, a su y faire en-
trer, non-seulement les vérités de tous les temps et de tous les pays, la plupart vérifiées et
confirmées par ses propres recherches et ses propres expériences, mais encore une foule de
faits nouveaux, tels qu’on devait en attendre d’un des hommes qui ont le plus contribué, de
nos jours, aux progres positifs de l’anatomie, de la physiologie et de la zoologie comparées.
Il nous suffira de citer icises recherches sur la structure des glandes, la composition du sang
et la formation de la couenne inflammatoire, ses exp€riences sur la vision, sur la voix et sur
Vaudition, ses nombreuses recherches sur la structure et les fonctions des diverses parties da
systéme nerveux, &c.—Cette nouvelle édition de M. Littré le place au premier rang des
ouvrages de Physiologie. |
Physiologie du systéme nerveux, ou Recherches et expériences sur les diverses
classes (appareils nerveux, les mouyements, la voix, la parole, les sens et les facultés in-
tellectuelles, traduit de Vallemand, par A. J. L. Jourdan. Paris, 1840, 2 vol. in-8. - 400
Murphy (E. W.) Lectures on natural and difficult parturition. 8vo. London, 1845. . 2 25
Newgeie (EF. Cia.) Des principaux vices de conformation du Bassin, et spécialement da ré-
trécissement oils, traduit de l’allemand, avec des notes, par A. C. Danyan, professeur et
chirurgien adjoint de Eposplee de la Maternité. Paris, 1840. 1 vol. grand in-8, avec 16
planches. : 290
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Nelaton. Eléments de Pathologie chirurgicale Paris, iste, tomesI et II, sai-Be L’ou-
yrage aura 3 on 4 vol. in-8. (Ori in hf. ef. "$5,00.)
Neligan (J. Wi.) Medicines, their uses and mode of adehisleteatton’ including a cones
conspectus of the three British Pharmacopeeias, an account of all the new remedies, and an
appendix of formule. 8yo., clo. : : . - 450
‘Nevins (Myr. J.) A translation of the new conaan pane Mitta including the new
Dublin and Edinburgh Pharmacopeeias, forming a complete Materia Medica. “8yo. clo. . 500 r
Niepee. Traité du goitre et de Crétinisme, suivi de statistique, &c, Paris, 1851. Syo. . 150
Wysten. Dictionnaire des termes de médecine, de chirurgie, de pharmacie, des sciences ac-
cessoires et de l'art vétérinaire, de P. H. Ny: sten; reyu successivement et considérable-
ment augmenté en 1824, 1233, 1339 et 1841, par MM. Bricheteau, O. Henry et J. Briand —
Neuviéme édition revue de nouveau par le docteur A. J. L. J ourdan, membre de |’ Acadé- ‘
mie de Médecine. Bans 1845, in-8 de 860 =e a2 ees avec 107 figures intercalées
dans le texte.
~~
ou
Nubn (A.) Citentaitreien all a aus dem Gebiete der ese sss er
logie, &c. Part 1, with T plates.
Orfila. Traité de médecine légale, quatriéme aes augmentée et suivie du Traité dis
exhumations juridiques. Paris, 1248. 4 vol. in-8, fi .
Toxicologie générale, Cinquiéme édition, revue, corrigée et considérablemmant aug-
mentée. 2 vol. 8vo. Paris, 1852. : 3 5 ; ; 5 00
Oribase (BD’) Hnyres. Texte grec et francais en grande partie inédit, avec une introduc-
tion, des notes, des tables, et des ne par les docteurs a aa et agri
Vol. 1, Paris, 1851. ; = 8 00
Owen ( pears). pisces or, a Treatise on the comparativo Anatomy of the
Teeth, their physiological Relations, Mode of Dev elopment, and Microscopical Structure in
the Vertebrate Animals, 2 ees royal 8vo. containing 168 plates, half-bound russia.
London, 1840-45. . : : é - 36 00
—— On the Nature of Limbs. "Plates, 8yo, clos. - 8 60
—— Lectures on the Comparative Anatomy and Physiolog y of the Vertebrate Animals,
Numerous wood-cuts, *2 vols. 8vo. (Vol. 1 veryscarce.) . - 850
—— On the Architype and Homologies of the Vertebrate Skeleton. 8yo. Plates. » 300
———_—— On Parthenogenesis, or pe successive age of procreating ar from a
single ovum. 8Syo., Plates. ¢
Epzchappe (Max). Des iio a snivre dans tn arsiaitiis etla costes des asiles
@alién Avec planches, (To be completed in 5 parts.) Per part. . . - 0%
STANDARD SCIENTIFIC WORKS. 15
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Parchappe (Max). Traité théorique et prolate de la folie. Observations et documents
nécroscopiques. Paris, 1841, in-8. - .
Pare (Ambroise). (Euvres complétes, revues et ecollationnées sur totes les éditions,
avee les variantes; ornées de 217 planches et du portrait de l’auteur, accompagnées de
notes historiques e% critiques, et préeédées d’une Introduction sur Vorigine et les progrés
de la chirurgie en Occident du Vie. au XVie. siécle, et sur la vie et les ouyrages d’Am-
broise Paré, par J. F. Malgaigne, chirurgien de l’hépital St-Louis, &c. Paris, 1840, 3 vol.
gr. in-8 a deux colonnes, avec un grand nombre de figures intercalées dans le texte.
[A. Paré est avec raison considéré comme le pére de la chirurgie francaise. On a repro-
duit dans le texte toutes les planches qu’il était important de conserver; cette belle édi-
tion doit trouver place dans la bibliothéque de tous les chirurgiens.]
Parent-Duchatelet. Dela Prostitution dans la ville de Paris, considérée sous les rap-
ports de V’hygiéne publique, de la morale et de administration, ouvrage appuyé de docu-
ments statistiques puisés dans les archives de la Préfecture de police, avec caries et ta-
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1837. 2forts yol.in-& . = ‘ F - £00
———— Hygiene publique, ou Mémoires sur les Eee les plus aes ah de V’hy-
giéne, appliquée aux professions et aux travaux d’utilité pybilaye. Paris, 1836, 2 forts vol.
in-8, avec 18 pl. 2 - 400
Pariset (E.) Histoire des pues de V' Académie nasal a Médonusi ou Recueil des
éloges lus dans les séances publiques de Académie de Médecine. Paris, 1845. 2 vol.
grand ID=1Be) «ie 175
Cet ouyrage comprend : :—Discours d’ouverture de l’Académie de médecine. —Eloges de
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Vauquelin.—G. Cuvier.—Portal.—Chaussier.—Dupuytren.—Scarpa.—Desgenettes.—_Laén-
nec.—Tessier.— Huzard.—Mare —Lodibert.—Bourdois de la Motte. —Esquirol.—Lerminier.
—A. Dubois.—Alibert.—Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire.—A. Paré. —Broussais —Bichat.
Parola (B.) Della Tubercolosi in genere e della Tisi Polmonare in specie, 3 paris, 4to,
Torino, 1849. - 500
Patin. Lettres its Gui Pate: veal Edition, snemenitée ab lettres inédites, "préebdée
d'une notice biographique, accompag gnée de remarques scientifiques, historiques, philoso-
phiques et littéraires, par Réveillé- ~Parise, membre de l’Académie nationale de médecine.
8 vol. Svo., avec le portrait et le fac-simile de Gui Patin. Paris, 1846. . r
Pereira (J.) The Elements of Materia Medica and Therapeutics. Third edition enlarged.
- Vol. I, and vol. I, part 1, cloth. London, 1850-51. . - . 10 06
Perréve (V.) Traité des rétrécissements organiques de Vurétre. Emploi méthodiqe
des dilatateurs mécaniques dans le traitement de ces maladies. [Ouyrage placé au premier
rang pour le prix d’Argentenil sur le rapport d’une commission de l’Académie nationale de
médecine.] Paris, 1847, in-8, avec 3 pl. et 32 fig. intercalées dans le texte. - - 2
Petrequin (J. EE.) Traité d’anatomie médico-chirurgicale et topographique, considérée
spécialement dans les applications a la patholvels, la médecine legale, Vobstétricie et la mé-
decine opératoire. Paris, 1843, in-8. 2 00
ee xune) ef the King and Queen Ss Gdllege of "Physilans in Ireland, 1850,
8vo., clot :
Phillips (C.) de Liége. ‘Da Sirahiene = Pit - x a0) 50
Phillips (R.) Translation of the Pharmacopeia of the Ror College of Phydelans of
London. 8yo. London,18l. . 2 8 75
Phillips. Scrofula: its Nature, its Prevalence, its sip a the Principles ‘of Treat-
ment. By Benjamin Phillips, FR. §., Surgeon and Lecturer on Baraery to the Westmin-
ster Hospital. 8vo., with an engraved plate. London, 1846. . 300
3 50
Philip (A.P. WV.) Treatise on protracted indigestion and its canseanianees. Byo, clo. .
Pichard (3.B.) Maladies des femmes. Des ulcérations et des ulcéres du col de la ma-
trice, et de leur traitement. Paris, 1848, in-8, avec 8 planches. : - 200
Pimel (8.) Traité de pathologie cérébrale on des maladies du cerveau. Nouvelles recher-
ches sur sa structure, ses fonctions, ses altérations et sur leur traitement Niniietaienins mo-
ral et hygiénique. Paris, 1844, in- 8) 1 75
Piorry. Traité de médecine pratique, et de inhalants iatrique et aihitonie BS a 7.
aS té de médecine de Paris. Paris, 1841-1848, 8 vol. in-8,
T. L—Généralités ou polygraphies. Paris, 1841, in-8. 2 00
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mopathies). Paris, 1842, in-8. - 200
T. Il1L.—2°? Altérations du sang (Anomohémies ou Anomémies). 1847, in-8 ‘ - 200
T. IV.—3° Maladies des conduits de air (Angiairopathies). Paris, 1843, in- 8 » 200
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T. VI.—5° Maladies de la rate, fiévyres intermittentes, - maladies des yoies urinaires, des or-
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T. VII.—6° Maladies de l’ovaire de la matrice, du péritoine, du tesa cellulaire, de la pean
Angiovies, péritonies, Ethmoies, dermopathiés), 1848, in-8.
T, VIII.—7° Maladies des centres hessiishnttes des TanEales, des 0 os et des articulations, 1849,
in-& a 2 00
Dela percussion médiate, et des signes obtenns par ce nouyean_ moyen Wexplora-
tion dans les maladies des org&nes thoraciques et abdominaux. Paris, 1828, in-S, fig. Te oP
Pirogofé. Anatomie pesholpaiage du camila be Folio. mers pete. St-Pe-
tersbourg, 1849. .
Pirrie. Principles and Practice of Surgery: 8yo., dio! London; 1852. . ‘ . 600
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Tis : : :
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Pravaz (C.) Essai sur |’emploi médical de air comprimé. Syo. Lyon, 1850. - 12
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Prout. On Stomach Diseases. 8yo. London. - 5 - 500
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&e. Paris, ic37,in-18 ; " : : ; . ek a
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Baspail. Manuel de lasanté. 12mo. Paris. = : G - 050
Rayer (P.) Traité des maladies des reins et des altérations de la s€crétion urinaire, étu-
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Ta prostate, de Purétre, &c. Paris, 1839-1841. 8 forts vol. in-&. ‘ - 600
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DIVISION DE L’ATLAS DE CE BEL OUVRAGE.
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29, 30.—7°. Anémie, Hyperémie, Atrophie, Hypertrophie des reins et de la vessie. Pl. 31,
82, 38, 84, 35.—8°. Hypertrophie, vices de conformation des reins et des uretéres, P1.'36,
87, 38, 39, 40.—9° Tubercules, Mélanoses des reins. Pl. 41, 42, 48, 44, 45.—10° Cancer des
reins, maladies des veines rénales. Pl. 46, 47, 48, 49, 50.—11°. Maladies des tissus €lémen-
taires des reins et de leurs conduits excréteurs, Pl. 51, 52, 53 ,54, 55.—12°. Maladies des
capsules surrénales. PI. 56, 57, 58, 59, 60.
———— A Theoretical and Practical Treatise on the Diseases of the Skin. Translated by
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Hartman (Fr.) Thérapeutique hémeopathique des maladies Aignés et des maladies
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edition, revised and considerably enlarged by the author. Translated, with additions, and
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Wenmriques (A.) Tho Homeopathic Medical Dictionary, and Home Guide. 12mo. clo.
’ Hering (C.) Médecine homeopathique domeptiane, avee additions BN les Drs. Sonllons
Gross, et Staff. 12mo. Paris, 1850.
~ ssysiey lanier coer richiecke Zeitschrift fir) 8yo. Pyles 1244 to 1848, Vol.
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Lafitte (P. J.) Symptomatologie homcopathique, on Tableau synoptique de toute la ma-
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Elements of feststandtnis Preaine of Physié. 8yo. "p47. - = .
Homceopathic Domestic Medicine. 6th edition. Svo. London, 1851. . °
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London, 1849. . : :
Leadam (T. R.) Homies as applied to the eae of Rutiihies and the most im-
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Newman (George). Hom opathic Family Assistant. 2d edition,18mo. 1847. J
Nivelet. L’homeopathie, ses raisons et ses erreurs. Paris, 1840, In-8 : Fy
Perrussel. Lettres sur ’homeopathie, suivies de plusieurs guérisons ventana obte-
nues a l’aide de ces procédés, Paris, 1838. Ins. . . .
BRapou. De la Fiévre Typhoide et de son traitement neta Dh Svo. Paris, 1852.
Rosenstein (3. G.) The Comparative Merits of Allopathy, the old Medical higae-n *
and Homeopathy, the reformed Medical Practice. Svo. Montreal, 1846. i
Roth. Histoire dela musculation irrésistible, ou de la chorée anormale. 8yo. Paris, 1880.
Cure of Chronic Diseases by movements. 8vo London, 1852. : .
Ruckert. Traitement homcopathique des maladies de la peau, considérées sous le rap-
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Russell. ° 4 : a °
Raspa2il (fF. WV.) Nouveau systéme de Chimie organique, fondé sur de nouvelles métho-
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Regmawit. Cours élémentaire de Physique. 4 vol. in-18 anglais, avec figures dans le
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—— An elementary Treatise on Crystallography, Dlustrated with 108 Wood Engrayings,
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Rebertson (H.) A general view of the Natural History of the Atmosphere, &e. 2 vols.
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Shier (Jolam). . Directions for Testing Cauc-Juice. 12mo. clo. 4 : °
Smee (A.) Instinct and Reason; deduced from Electro-Biology. S8vyo. clo. . -
Elements of Electro-Metallurgy. Illustrated with Woodcuts. S8vyo. clo. .
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—— Précis élémentaire de Physique. 2e édit. augmentée. Paris, 1844. 1 vol. in-8,
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Tardieu (A.) Voiries et cimetiéres. In-& Paris, 1852. = ° . .
Thomson (Thomas). Chemistry of Organic Bodies—Vegetables. 1 large vol. Syo.
pp. 1092, boards. London, 1838 . . ° : .
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don, 1339. ‘
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History of Chemistry, 2 vols. 12mo. Scarce. ‘ ° . .
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Turner (E.) Elements of Chemistry, including the actual State and prevalent Doctrines
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wie . . . . . . . . .
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don, 1843. : .
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Dillenii. Historia muscorum in qua circiter sexcente sr lips yeteres et nove ab sua ge-
nera relatz describuntur. 4to. Oxonii, 1811. :
Delwynn (a. W.) Descriptive catalogue of Recent Shells, lari according to the
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Dupuy (Vabbe D-)- Histoire naturelle des Mollusques terrestres et d’eau douce qui
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Ferussac. Histoire Naturelle des Aplysiens, par M. Sander-Rang, membre de plusieurs
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Ferussac et Deshayes. Histoire naturelle générale et particuliére des Mollusques
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de ces mollusques, des détails sur leur organisation, leurs moeurs, leurs habitudes et Phis-
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Miarvey (W. I.) The Sea Side Book ; being an Introduction to the Natural History of
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Johnston (G.) Introduction to Conchology or, Elements. of the Natural History of
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45 00
6%
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150
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Macguart. Facultés intérieures des animaux invertébrés, Byo, Lille, 1850. . ‘
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Pictet. Description des Mollusques fossiles qui se trouvent dans les grés yerts des environs
de Genéye. 2 yol.4to. Genéve, 1847-49. . 5 : <
Potiez et Michaud. Galerie des Mollusques, ou Catalogue méthodique, descriptif et
raisonné des Mollusques, &e. 2 vols. and 2 atlases. . A“ - : :
Rang et Souleyet. Histoire Naturelle des Mollusques Pléropodes, avec 5 pl. col. Pa-
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Entomology.
peach m Entomologie francaise. Rhynchotes, hémiptéres, &c. Paris, 1848, In-8, avec
5 planches. . . . : , : : ° <
Dejean, BoisDuval et Aube. Iconographie et Histoire Naturelle des Coléoptéres
d'Europe. Paris, 1829-1836, 5 vol. in-8, avee 269 pl. col. (publiés en 56 liv.) Prix, . 83
Dufour (YI. L.) Recherches Anatomiques et Physiologiques sur les Hémiptéres. In-4,
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Gaubil. Catalogue synonymique des Coléoptéres d’Europe et d’Algérie. In-8. Paris, 1849. 3 50
Godard et Dupenchel. Histoire Naturelle des Lépidoptéres ou Papillons d’Europe,
ouyrage basé sur la méthode de M. Latreille, modifié d’aprés les Progrés de la Science,
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chel. 2 vol. in-8, avec 92 planches coloriées, Paris, 1846. Published at 93 fr., now re-
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de rectification a l’Histoire Naturelle des Lépidoptéres de France, deyenue celle des Lépi-
doptéres d’Europe par les suppléments qu’on y a ajoutés. Paris, 1844. In-8. . . 875
Gory et Percheron. Monographie des Cétoines et genres voisins formant, dans les fa-
milles de Latreille, la division des scarabées mélitophiles. Paris, 183371 836, Ce bel ou
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Gravenhorst. Ichneumonologia Europea. 38 vols.8yo. Breslau. . A - 10 00
Guérin (E.) et A. Percheron. Genera des insectes, ou Exposition détaillée de tous
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avec 60 pl. col. : $ 3 - ° . 3 - 450
Lindenberg (S.B.J.) Species Hepathicarum. 7 parts, folio, col. pl. Bonne, 1840.
Mounio- Tandon. Monographie de la famille des Hirudinées, nouvelle édition consi-
érablement augmentée, ae 1846, In-8, de 450 pages, avec atlas de 14 pl. gravées et 8%
11 25
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aiscourg (J.'E. C.) Die Forstinsecten oder Abbildung und Beschreibung der in den
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denen Insecten. Berlin, 1839-1840. 8 vol. in-4, avec 38 pl. col. . ° .
Walkers. Insecta Britannica, Diptera, vol. I. Svo, London, 1852. . - 750
STANDARD SCIENTIFIC WORKS. 35
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1840, 4 vol. in-S. : - é *
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Geology and Mineralogy, Mining, &c.
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Buckland (Rev. W.) Geology and Mineralogy considered with reference to Natural
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Burat,. Description des terrains voleaniques de la France centrale. ‘Paris, 1888, Ind,
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Géologie appliquée, ou Traité de la seshiirctan et de Hexpletiogion dese minéraux
utiles; 2e édition. Paris, 1846. In-8, fig. . .
Chapman. Practical Mineralogy; or,a Comspetliaes of the distineuishing Character of
inerals: by which the Name of any Species or Variety in the Mineral Kingdom may be .
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Landyrim. Dictionnaire de Minéralogie. 12mo. 1852. - ° - 100
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Edinburgh, 1849. - 8 50.
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ticle. 4to., hf russia. London, 1797. 4 : . - 10 00
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2 00
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Sowerby (HM.) Popular Mineralogy; comprising a Familiar Account of — we
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Walcott (Johm). Descriptions and Figures of quran found in the SO
Grayelpits, &c., near Bath. 8vo., bound. Bas .
Wiebel (K. Ww. Wi.) Die Insel Helgoland, Untersuchungen liber Beri Grésse in Vor-
zeit und Gegenwart. 4to., charts. Hamburg, 1848. ° . - 400
Botany.
Agardh. Icones algarum europmarum. Représentation d’algues européennes, suivies de
celle d’espéces exotiques les plus apes 54 igre or découvertes. Lelpalg, wae
; 1835, in-8, avec 40 planches coloriées. . . 7 00
Systema algarum. Lunda, 1824. In: ie |W . 3 . - 200
¢ Tcones algarum inedite. Tolmim, 1821. 2 fase., in-4, avec 20 planches. . 850
0%
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Agassiz. Systéme glaciaire, ou Recherches sur les glaciers, lear mécanisme, leur ancienne
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et Desor. tre partie, nouvelles études et expériences sur les glaciers Seige leur stfue-
ture, leur progression et leur action sur le sel; par L. Agassiz. Paris, 1847. i vol. grand
in-8, avec un atlas de 3 cartes et 9 planches en "partie coloriées, . ,
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Berlése. Iconographie du Régne Camélia, ou description et figures des Camélias les plus
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Half bound. . it
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——_—— Synopsis analytique de la Flore des environs de Eevee ou —— aernee des
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Ze.
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naturelle, et de art de décrire et d’etudier les yégétaux, troisiéme édition. cue 1844,
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Delalande (L. J.) Traité €lémentaire de Physiologie végétale, Svo. Paris, 1845. .
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Paris, 1804. . 4 : a : : . . °
Lasegue (A.) Musée Botanique de M. Benjamin Delessert.—Notices sur les collections de
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principaux. herbiers d’Kurope, et exposé des voyages entrepris dans l’intéret de la bota-
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———_ Eléments histoire naturelle médicale. pins roe pb Ni Paris, sian 3 vol.
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Woodville (W.) Medical Botany, containing systematic and general descriptions, with
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Walpers (G.G.) Repertorium botanices systematice. Lipsie, 1842-1848. 6 vol. in-8, 32 00
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