fe % - oe cial a : cod » as —_ . ot Poy ‘ se . . . i ie = . : ote a 7 (2 am oy 7 _ _ - % THE QUARTERLY JOURNAL -OF SCIENCE, LITERATURE, AND THE AE VOLUME XI. LONDON : JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE-STREET. 1821. LONDON; PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES, Northumberland-court. 4 >, ae CRaAL yi CONTENTS OF THE QUARTERLY JOURNAL, N°. XXI. ART. PAGE I. Own the Forms of Mineralogical Hammers. By J. Mac Cuutocn, M.D., F.R.S., (with Wood-Cuts)........ 1 II. Geological Description of Barbadoes, with a Coloured Map of the Island. By James D. Maycocx,M.D. 10 III. Account of the Remains of a Mammoth, found near _ Rochester ; with some general Observations connected with the Subject. By Caprain Vertcu, of the ee Engineers, M.G.S., with a Plate,.....ccvsaseccsee 20 IV. Observations on the Solar Eclipse, Sept. 7, 1820, By J. L. Memes, Esq., with Plates ...... Sr iat OE a 3) V. Account of a Coloured Circle surrounding the Zenith. By Mr. Tuomas Tayrtor, Jun. ...... Adelie alge tb, ole) - 40 VI. Some additional Observations relating to the Secreting Power of Animals, in a Letter to the Editor. By A. P. Witson Pururp, M.D., F.R.S:E., &c. ...... ib. VII. Observations on the Effect of Dividing the Eighth Pair of Nerves, in a Letter to the Editor. By Cuar.es Hastryes, M.D., Physician to the WorcesterInfirmary 45 VIII. On Jasper. By Dr. Mac CuLtocn .......... 63 IX. A Translation of Rry’s Essays on the Calcination of Metals. Communicated by Joun Grorce Cuit- WEES, “ESq:, PH. See en SO lh. Sct eek rn¥2 X. Remarks on the Depression of Mercury in Glass Tubes. 83 XI. Additional Observations respecting the Oil Question. By Samvuer Parxes, Esq., F.L.S., &c. ....--22.. 86 XII. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London ...... 118 XII. Anatysis of Screntiric Books. i. A System of Chemistry, in Four Volumes. By Txo- mas Tuomson, M.D.; the Sixth Edition.........-... 119 XIV. AstronomicaL & Nauticau Cotiections, No. V. i. M. DevamsBre’s direct Method of computing the La- titude from Two Observations of the Sun’s Altitude, and the Time elapsed between them........ ..... a Gye ii. Computation of Effect of terrestrial Refraction, in the actual Condition of the Atmosphere ......00+e+esse00. 174 il CONTENTS. ART. PAGE ili. Note respecting the Connazssance des Tems ...+.+++ 176 iv. An Essay on the easiest and most convenient Method of calculating the Orbit of a Comet from Observations. By Wit Tran, OLBERS Veale ini vehsretete conte mcreeteieie eee Pea a Ar v. Further Remark on the Transit of the Comet of 1819 over the Sun. By Dr. OLBERs.—Bopke’s Jahrb, 1823.... 182 vi. Errors of the Tables of the Planets, with other Notes, from BopE and ZACH ..,..ccsecsecees seccses. 182 vii. Danish Standard of Length. Communicated oF Professor SCHUMACHIER cls sitet) ba. cletes siete ea este smictersee/eie LOA: XV. Corrections in Right Ascension of Thirty-six prin- cipal fixed Stars toevery Day ofthe Year. By James Sourn, F.R.S., Honorary Member of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, and Member of the Astronomi- cal Society of London ,.... ety TR Leee Th ee XVI. MiscELLANEOUS INTELLIGENCE...ccccsccccsves 199 I. MecuanicaL SCIENCE. § 1.. Agriculture, Optics, Astronomy, &c. i ene for Shewing the Double Refraction of Mine- rals. 2. Diving Machine. 3. Astronomical Prize Question, 199 I]. Cuemicay Science. § 2. Chemistry, Electricity, &c. 1. Oxides of Manganese. 2. Dissection of Crystals. . 3. Solution of Lime. 4. Lithia in Lepidolite. 5. Sponta- neous Combustion. 6. Polishing Powder from Charcoal. 7. On the Colouring Matter of the Lobster. 8. Vegetable Alkali, Daturium. 9. Vegetable Alkalis, Atropia, and Hyoscyamia. 10. Lupulin, or the active Principle of the Hop. 11. Analysis of Indian Corn. 12. Bohnenbergens’ Electrometer. 13. On the Composition of the Prussiates, or Ferruginous Hydrocyanates. 14. Action of Heat on thie Hiydroeyancitest sss cae valde stessialsis 0,» ” __ =e ecm the eal- sin (A"—c’) sin (A‘—a’) Astronomical and Nautical Collections. 18] culation of the values of c’ and y” becomes unnecessary. [For in this case the projection of the revolving radius of the comet will coincide with that of the line of the direction in the second observation, the same point representing both the earth and the sun.] If we now call the projected ‘distance in the first ob- servation 4, and in the third N 0, we shall have, since the pro- jected chords are here also divided in the proportion of the t’ sin (b’—8’) as Now TA = a ET a f sin (6 —b") oe eins sttaslte , and o”=M,'= Sad nia ‘consequently sin(A’—«’) sin (A”—«’'") _ cos 6” sin (A”—«a’) sin(b"—b') t! ~ cos 6 sin (A’—a@”) sin ("—b’) tt sin (A’—a') (tang ’—tang b') t _ sin (A“—w”) (tang 6” —tang 6") ¢’ (tang @” sin (A”—e’) — tang 6’ sin [A”—e"]) t’> Gang 6” sin (A =o") tang # sin [A” =a" ]) & a very convenient expression for M; which, however, may be rendered more immediately applicable to calculation in the form M= (m sin (A”—a’)—tang f’) t” tang 6” ee I JR (tang 8B —msin {A —ea rz sin (A‘’—a’) [Note communicated by the Author. It must here be observed, that the two expressions M =) 4 uy / u 4 “a ’ U Ul sin (c’—a’) ¢ wav ay 2 (m sin (A”—a’) -- tang f’) ¢ A Te 7 F voting, ae sin (a —c’) ¢ (tang p’’—m sin (A”— a’) t identical, and may be derived from each other. For since tape R,. .: : m= ge is the tangent of the angle formed with the sin (A”—a’) ecliptic, by a great circle drawn through the place of the comet and of the sun in the middle observation, we obtain, by means of a well-known. property of great circles, already mentioned in § 30, the two equations tang y sin («‘”—«') —tang f’ sin (a’’—c’) —6"" sin (c’'— a’)=0 tang y sin (¢’”—a/) —m sin (A” —a’) sin (a” —c”)—msin (A” — a”) sin (c” —a’) = 0 sin(c’—a’) _. msin (A” — a’) — tang @ J consequently “sin (a 0" = tang @” —m sin (A°— a” 182 Astronomical and Nautical Collections. § 39. Such, therefore, is the proportion of the curtate distances of the comet from the earth in the first and third observations, In order to find the distances themselves, we must determine from them the chord and the two extreme distances AC, SA, SC, § 34, and, compare the area of the sector with the time intervening. Now the two distances ofthe earth from the sun, Sa, Sc, being R’ and R’’, and the distances of the comet from the sun, SA, SC, r° and r’”, we have 7? = R?— 2 Re’ cos (A’—a’) + ¢? sec, and r*= R”*—2R" Me’ cos (A’” — a”) + M?¢'’ sec 72". [To be continued. } v. Further Remarks on the Transit of the Comet of 1819 over the Sun. By Dr. OrzeRrs.—Bope’s Jahrb., 1823. The authority of the observation of General Von Lindener, ia favour of the invisibility of the comet in its transit, 1s con- siderably diminished by the testimony of other observers, par- ticularly Professor Schumacher and Professor Brandes, who agree in declaring, that the sun was by no means free from spots on the day of the transit, as it appeared to General Von Lin- dener: and on the other hand, Dr. Gruithuisen and Professor Wildt agree in describing a small spot near the middle of the sun’s disc, which might possibly have been the comet, though certainly not so distinctly defined as a planet would have been. vi. Errors of the Tables of the Planets, with other Notes, from Bop and Zacu. The German observations of Jupiter and Saturn, as recorded by Bode, do not agree quite well enough to settle the question of the accuracy of the tables of their motions, without a re- ference to the Greenwich Observations. They. appear, however, to prove, that Bouvard’s tables of both planets are considerably more accurate than Delambre’s. The mean error of Bouvard in the H. longitude of 2%, about the time of opposition in 1819, Astronomical and Nautical Collections. 183 was + 5.7 or — 10” in the latitude + 3’.2 or— 1”, accord- ing to Sniadecki and Derfflinger: in the HK. longitude of % — 6".8 or + 23”, and in the latitude + 7” or +6”. De- Jambre's tables of 2{ gave the longitude — 21“.1,—19", —26” er + 12”, and the latitude + 1.7, +.2,” — 2”, or as 4, ac- cording to Sniadecki, Bittner, Biirg, and Derfflinger. For Sa- turn’s longitude, + 63’.1, 4-87”, and + 87”, latitude, 0”, + 12”, and + 14”, according to Sniadecki, Bittner, and Der- filinger respectively.— Bode, 1823, p. 119, 120, 181, 132, 144, 174, 175. We find in the Correspondance Astronomique, for Bitiaty, 1820, above thirty observations of the lunar distances from Venus, made at Toulon, for the purpose of ascertaining the accuracy of Inghirami’s tables published in that work, and partly copied inte these Collections< the greatest error does not exceed 11’ of longitude; and the mean error is much less. ‘There are also thirteen observations of the distance of Jupiter, in which the mean error is still less, and the greatest about 9’. With respect to the comparative facility of obserying lunar occultations, it is remarkable, that of thirty-five conjunctions of fixed stars with the moon, announced in the Berlin almanack for 1819, nine ouly were occultations visible at Berlin, and Professor Bode was unable, on account of the weather, to observe any one of these. Professor Hansteen of Christiania, so well known for the accuracy of his magnetical researches, has announced to the Baron von Zach as an important diseovery, that polarity is by no means confined to iron; but that the wall ofa house, a tree, and the mast of a ship, are capable of producing the effects of a north pole below, and asouth pole above. It is well known, that the late M. Coulomb once fancied that he had discovered some magnetic properties in various substances, independently of any iron contained in them: but his experiments were re- peated at the Royal Institution without success, and he was afterwards obliged to abandon the opinion. It is said that Pro- fessor Hansteen was once a believer in animal magnetism: a circumstance which does not give much weight to his evidence 184 _ Astronomical and Nautical Collections. on this occasion. The subject deserves, however, to be care~. fully re-examined with respect to this induced polarity, which, if its existence were confirmed, would tend to remove some difficulties in the theory ofa ship’s attraction.—See Astronomi- cal Collections, No. Ill. sad The planet Vesta was in opposition, 13th January, 1821. For 3d April, midnight at Paris, M.T., her AR. will be 111°. 9 =Decl. 27°. 9'N. Log.Dist. fr. .33 + April 7. 112°. 5’ 26°. 3 134 A UI he 25°. 56’ 135 Encke, in Bode, p. 225. Juno will be in 3 24th July, 1821. Her place at midnight, M.T., at Manheim, will be AR. Decl. Log. Dist. May 5. 204 20M 345 5°. 46S, 421 June 2. 20.27 57 3-47 347 July 4. 20.15 48 3) 20 274 Aug. 1. 19. 52 23: 5 17 247 Sept. 2. 19 33 10 Qisned 274 Oct. 4. 19. 39°17 12 30 -334 Nicolai, in Bode, p. 226. Place of Pallas. Midnight at Gottingen, M. T. AR i Decl. - Log. Dist. 8 April1. 252° 8’ 16° 21’ N. .360 May 3. 249 32 23 22 .338 June 4... 243 3. 26 ll 1354 July 2. 238 46 24 16 1394 30,. ; 238. 22 19 54 446 Von Staudt, in Bode, p. 227. vii. Danish Standard of Length. Communicated by Professor ScHUMACHER. The length of a pendulum vibrating seconds of mean solar Astronomical and Nautical Collections. 185 time in 45° N. latitude on the meridian of Skagen, on the level of the sea, and in a vacuum, is to be divided, according toa “new Royal decree, into 38 equal parts, each of which is to be a Danish inch, and 12 inches a foot. All other standards are hereafter to be considered’as merely subsidiary to this determi- nation, and to have no authority any further than as they agree with it. The weight of a cubic foot of water is to be hereafter de- termined by Professor Oerstedt. The Senate of Hamburg has also adopted the same standard. CORRECTION. The example of a lunar distance, copied into the Third Num- ber of these Collections, from the Appendix to the Requisite Tables, contain§ an error in the tabular logarithmic difference, which was not suspected, and which therefoye pervades the other computations, in which that logarithm is employed. This is the true cause of the apparent inaccuracy of the great tables, which, as well as the scales depending on them, are thus vin- dicated from a groundless imputation. There is also an inaccuracy in some of the numbers of the example of all the minute corrections, which has tended to exaggerate, in some degree, the importance of these corrections, since they really amount, in the case computed, to about half a minute only, instead of a minute, or to fifteen miles of lon- gitude, instead of thirty: the general tendency of the example is, however, not affected by this error. 186 Art. XIV. Corrections in Right Ascension of Thirty-Sixz principal Fixed Stars to every Day of the Year. By James Soutn, FR.S., F.L.S., Honorary Member of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, and Member of the Astronomical Society of London. [Concluded from Vol. X. p. 444.] A Mr. James Groosy having published in the Philosophical Magazine of February last, the Apparent Right Ascension of Dr. Maskelyne’s thirty-six Stars, for every day of the months of March and April, curiosity has naturally induced me to exa- mine how far the corrections given by me in the last'Number of this Journal, would afford similar results; and, upon mature consideration, I would recommend Mr. Grooby, in his next communication, to revise the preface to his labours of the 12th of February last; substituting incautiously for “ carefully,” pur- Joined for “calculated,” and Mr. James South's for “Dr. Maskelyne’s;” perhaps, too, the sentence might be improved, were he to add “ found by me in Mr. Brande’s Journal of Ja- nuary last.” The paragraph will then run thus. ‘ The mean places, (Right Ascensions, Mr. Grooby, I presume, means,) were deduced from Mr. Pond’s table, annexed to the Nautical Almanac for 1823, and the corrections incautiously purloined from Mr, James South’s own tables, found by me in Mr, Brande’s Journal of January last.” _ Signed (James Grooby.) To be serious, however, should the proposed alteration sound unmusical in Mr. Grooby’s ears, I can assure him it will afford me great pleasure to retract the sentiments it conveys, on his proving that they are unfounded ; and for this purpose, all that is necessary will be for Mr. Grooby to do again, but in the presence of mutual friends, what he would have the world believe he has already done, a thing; which he must acknowledge to be nec asperum, nec difficile. JAMES Sourn. Blackman-Street, March 24th, 1821, , Thirty-Six Principal Stars. 187 y Pegasi- aArietis. | @ Ceti. |Aldebaran.| Capella, Rigel. B Tauri. ja Orionis. Sirius. u“ Mu “ “ “ “ M“ a“ “ +2,02 | + 1,46 | + 1,23 | +.0,99 | + 0,96 | + 0,65 | + 0,96 | + 0,78 | +0,31 06 26 1,01 80 33 09 29 04 82 34 12 32 06 84 35 15 35 09 36 18 38 Ar 11 37 »Q2 41 14 39 25 44 17 4 ‘ 40 28 47 19 31 50 22 34 53 24 37 56 27 40 59 30 >i. “4s 62 32 46 65 35 50 68 38 53 71 41 56 74 44 59 77 47 62 80 50 65 83 53 638 86 56 71 90 59 74 93 62 77 96 65 80 99 68 83 +2,03 71 36 06 74 89 09 77 gl 12 80 94 15 83 96 } | 18 86 + 3,00 21 89 02 24 92 05 27 95 07 30 98 09 + 2,02 11 37 05 14 0s 16 1 18 14 20 17 22 20 24 23 27 27 30 31 33 36 35 39 37 42 45 41 48 51 54 57 61 64 67 70 i 94 77 188 Corrections in Right Ascension of t ij | Castor. | Procyon. } Pollux. | 4 Hydre.{ Regulus. B Leonis. nef Virginis.|Spica Virg.| Arcturus. | “ " “ ““ “ “ 7] “ “ +.1,07 | +0,75 |+1,05 |-+0,34 | +1,34 | -+1,82 | +1,74 | +2,18 | +9,52 July 1 2 08 76 05 84 34 81 74 17 51 3 09 77 06 84 34}- 81 73 16 50 4 09 77-| +. 07 84 34 80 72 16 49 5 10 78 08 84 34 79 2 13 e147 6 11 79 09 84 33 79 71 14 46 7 12 80 10 84 33 78 71 13 45 8 13 81 11] 84 32 cf 70 12 44 9 14 82 12 84 32 76 70 il 43 10 15 83 13 84 32 76 69 10 42 11 17 84 14 84 31 75 68 09 41 12 18 86 16 34 31 74 68 os 40 13 20 87 17 84 31 73 67 07 39 14 21 39 18 84 31 73 66 06 38 15 23 90 20 84 31 72 65 05 37 W]< 25 91 21 84 31 71 64 04 36 17 27 93 23 84 3! 70 64 03 35 18 29 94 24 $4 30 69 63 02 34 19 31 95 25 834 30 68 62 ol 33 20 33 96 27 84 30 67 61 00 32 21 35 97 28 85 30 66 61 | +1,99 30 22 37 99 30 85 30 66 60 98 29 23 39 | +1,00 31 86 30 65 60 97 27 24 40 01 33 86 31 64 59 96 26 95 |< ao 03 35 37 3) 63 59 95 25 26 44 04 37 87 31 63]' 58 g4 23 27 46 06 39 87 32 62 58 g3 29 28}. 48 os 40 88 32 62 57 92 20 29 50 09 42 8s 32 61 57 gl 19 30 52 11 44 89 33 61 56 go 1s e, 31 54 12 46 89 33 60 56 89 16 Aug: 1 57 14 48 90 33 60 56 88 1S 2 59 16 50 91 34 59 55 87 13 3 61 18 52 g2 34 59 55 86 12 4 64 20 54 93 35 58 54 85 11 5 66 22 56 94 35 57 54 84 10 6 68 24 58 95 35 56 53 83 09 7 70 25 60 96 36 56 53 82]. 07 8 72 27 62 96 36 55 52 81 06 9 74 29 64 07 36 55 52 80 05. 10 a7; 31 67 98 37 54 51 79 03 11 79 33 69 99 37 54 51 78 02 12 82 35 72 | +1,00 38 54 51 78 00 13 84 38 74 01 38 54 51 77 | +1,99 14 87 40 76 02 39 53 50 76) ° 97 15 89 42 78 03 39 53 50 75 96 16 92 44 $1 04 40 53 50]: 74 94 17 g5 46 83 05 4l 53 49 73 93 18 07 48 86 06 42 53 49 72 gl 19 | +2,00 51 88 07 43 53 49 71 90 20 03 53 91 038 44 53 438 71 8s 21 06 55 93 10 45 53 47 79 87 22 os 57 96 11 46 53 46 69 85 23 11 59 98 12 47 53 45 69 84 24 14 62 | +2,00 13 48 52 43 68 83 25 16 64 03 14 49 52 42 67 sz 26 19 66 05 16 50 52 41 66 $1 27 22 68 0s 17 51 52 40 65 79 28 25 70 10 18 52 52 40 64 78 29 28 72 13 19 53 52 41 63 77 30 31 75 16 21 54 52 42 62 76 31 34 77 19 22 56 53 43 60 75 ei ” Thirty»Sia-Principal' Stars: 189 a@ Libre. | Cor. Bor {a Serpent.| Antarcs. [aHerculis.|2Ophiuchi.| & Lyre. | Aquile. |@ Aquile. 09 | + 1,99 26 02 57 70 190 Corrections in Right Ascension of BAquile. @Capricor,| & Cygni. |4Aquarii. /Fomalhaut} @Pegasi. |@ Androm. July 1 |+3,14 | 45,47 | +3,89 | +2,85 | +3,18 | +9,96 | +1,91 15 | 49 61 37 21 39 94 17 51 63 go 25 42 98 |} 18 52 65 g2 28 45 | +2,01 20 | 54 67 95 ‘31 48 05 21 56 69 97 34 51 08 23/ 58 71 | +300 37 54 12 24 60 78 02 41 57 16 26 62 75 05 44 60 19 27 63 77 07 47 63 22 a9 | 65 79 09 51 66 26 30 66 80 12 55 69 Q 32.) 68 82 14 53 71 32 33 69 84 17 61 74 35 35 71 85 19 65 77 39 36 73 $7|- 22 68 79 42 37 74 88 24 71 $2 45 38 76 39 27 75 84 48 39 77 go 29 78 87 51 40 78 91 31 80 89 54 41 79 Q 33 833 gl 57 42 80 92 34 85 94 60 43 81 93 36 87 96} — 63 43 82 94 38 89 98 66 44 83 95 40 g1 | +3,00 69 44 84 96 42 94 02 72 45 85 96 44 96 05 74 45 86 97 46 98 07 77 46 87 98 48 | +4,00 09 80 46 88 98 49 02 12 83 47 89 99 51 05 14 36 47. 89 99 53 07 16 89 48 go | +3,00 55 09 18 2 48 91 00 56 11 21 94 49 92 01 58 13 23 97 49 9 01 59 15 25 | +3,00 50 93 01 61 17 27 03 50 93 o2 62 19 29 05 50 g4 02 64 21 31 0s 50 94 02 65 23 33 10 50 94 01 66 24 35 12 49 94 01 67 26 37 15 49 95 01 638 28 38 17 49 Q5 01 69 30 40 20 49 95 00 70 32 49 22 49 95 00 71 34 43 24 48 96 00 72 36 45 27 48 96 | +2,99 73 37 46 29 48 96 99 74 39 4s 31 4s 96 98 75 40 50 33 48 96 98 76 42 51 35 47 96 98 77 43 52 37 47 95 97 77 45 53 39 46 95 96 78 46 54 41 45 95 95 79 47 56 43 45 94 94 79 48 57 5 44 94 94 80 50 58 47 44 93 93 80 51 59 49 438 93 92 81 52 60 51 42 g2 gl 81 53 61 52 41 92 90 81 54 62 54 41 gl 89 82 54 63 56 - Polaris. H. M. S. 0.57+3511 3579 4,46 5,13 5,85 6,60 7,40 8,23 9,08 9,91 10,74 11,52 12,28 12,97 13,64 14,29 14,94 15,62 16,31 17,04 17,81 18,60 19,41 20,20 20,98 21,71 22,40 23,04 23,67 24,06 24,84 25,46 26. 10 26,79 27’ 50 28° (23 28 ‘96 29, 68 30°38 31,02 31,62 32,16 32,69 | 33,20 33,71 34,24 34,81 35,42 36,07 36,71 37,33 37,95 38,54 39,09 39,56 40,00 40,41 40,83 41,26 41,68 42,14 42,67 ae Thirty-Six Principal Stars. 191 y Vegasi. @ Arietis.| & Ceti. |Aldebaran- Capella. | Rigel. B Muri. a@ Orionis.| Sirius. “ “ “ “ “ “ “ “4 . ae Sep. 1| +3,63 |+ 3,43 |+ 3,10 |+ 2,93 | + 3,30] +2,26 |+ 2,85 |+ 2,82 |+ 1,53 2 64 45 13 837 34 238 83 35 56 3 65 48 16 gi 39 31] 91 38 59 4 67 50 19 4 43 34 95 41 62 5 68 53 22 97 47 37 98 44 65 6 79 55 24 |+ 3,00 52 40 |+ 3,02 47 68 7 71 58 27 03 56 43 06 50 71 8 72 60 30 06 61 46 09. 53 74 9 73 63 32 09 65 49 13 56 76 10 74 66 34 12 70 52 16 59 79 11 95 68 36 15 74 55 20 62 82 12 76 71 38 18 79 58 23 65 85 13 77 73 41 21 83 61 26 68 88 14 78 75 43 24 87 64 30 71 91 15 79 78 45 27 92 66 33 74 4 16 80 80 47 30 96 69 37 77 96 17 81 8y 49 33 | +4,00 72 40 80 99 18 82 84 51 36 05 75 44 83 |+ 2,09 19 83 36 54 39 09 78 47 86 05 20 $4 88 56 42 14 80 51 89 07 Q1 85 g0 59 45 18 83 54 g2 10 22 85 92} 61 48 22 86 57 95 ve 23 86 95 64 51 2) 89 61 98 16 24 87 97 66 54 31 92 64 | + 3,01 19 25 38 99 69 57 35 95 68 04 20 26} ss |+4,01 71 60 40 98 71 07 25 27 89 03 TA 63 44 | +3,00 75 10 28 28 89 95 76 66 43 04 78 13 31 29 90 07 79 69 52 07 81 16 34 30 90 09 81 72 56 10 85 19 37 Oct. 1 9! 11 83 75 60 12 88 23 40 2 91 12 84 77 64 15 91 Q5 42 3 92 14 86 80 68 18 94 28 45 4 g2 15 88 83 72 20 97 31 48 5 92 16 90 86 76 23 | +4,01 34 51 6 93 18 92 88 80 25 04 37 54 7 93 19 94 91 84 28 07 40 57 8 93 20 96 94 38 31 11 43 60 9 93 22 97} 96 g2 33 14 46 63 10 93 23 99 99 05 36 17 49 66 11 93 25 |+4,00 | + 4,01 99 39 21} ° 52 69 12 93 26 02 04) +5,03 42 24 55 72 13 93 28 04 07 07 45 27 58 75 14 93 Q 05 09 11 47 SIM, Gl 78 15 93 31 07 12 15 50 34 64 81 16 93 32 08 15 19 52 37 67 84 17 93 33 10 18 23 55 40 70 87 18 93 34 12 20 27 57 43 73 90 192 Corrections in Right Ascension of Castor. | Procyon. Pollux. | @ Hydre.} Regulus. B Leonis B Virgin. Spica Vir. | Arcturus. et be ee, Se Q 40 82 24 $5 59 53 45 57 73 3 43 85 27 27 60 53 46 55 72 4 46 88 30 28 61 54 47 53 71 5 4y 90 33 30 63 54 49 5¢ 70 6 53 93 36 32 64 54 50 51 69 7 56 95 39 34 66 55 51 50 68 Ss 59 98 42 36 67 55 52 49 67 9 62 |+ 2,01 45 38 69 56 53 50 66 10 65 04 48 3g 70}. 56 54 50 65° 11 68 06 51 4) 72 57 55 |, 51 64 lo 71 09 54 43 73 57 55 51 63 13 75 13 57 45 75 58 55 52 61 14 78 14 60 47 76 58 56 52 60 15 81 17 63 49 78 59 56 53 59 16 84 19 66 51 79 59 57 53 58 17 87 22 70 ‘53 81 60 57 54 57 18 91 25 73 59 83 61 58 54 56 19 g4 27 76 57 85 62 59 54 55 20 97 30 79 59 87 63 59 54 55 21]+ 3,01 33 82 61 89 64 60 54 54 vo 04 36 85 63 gi] 64 61 54 53 23 08 39 89 65 93 65 62 54 52 24 11 42 2 67 95 66 63 54 51 25 14 45 95 70 97 67 63 54 51 26 18 47 98 72 99 68 64 54 50 27 21 50 | +3,01 74 |+ 2,01 69 65 54 49 28 25 53 04 vip 03 70 66 54 49 20 28 56 08 79 05 71 67 54 48 30 ag 58 11 81 07 73 68 54 48 Oct. 1 36 61 15 84 09 74 70 54 48 2 39 64 18 86 11 75 71 54 48 3 43 67 22 89 13 76 73 55 47 4 46 70 95 gl 15 77 74 5 47 5 50 738 28 93 17 79 75 55 47 6 54 76 32 g6 19 80 77 55 47 7 57 79 35 98 21 81 78 56 46 8 61 82 38 |+ 2,00 23 83 80 56 46 9 64 85 42 03 26 84 81 57 46 10 68 88 45 05 28 86 83 58} _ 46 11 71 gl 49 08 31 87 84. 59 46 Ig 74 Q4 52 10 33 89 86 59 46 13 78 97 56 13 36 91 83 60 47 14 82|+ 3,00 59 15 39 93 89 61 47 15 86 04 63 18 42 95 91 62 47 16 90 07 66 20 44 96 93 68 47 17 94 10 70 22 47 98 95 64 47 18 98 13 73 26 50 | +2,00 97 65 47 19 |+ 4,01 16 77 29 52 02 99 66 48 20 05 19 80 32 55 04 | +2,01 67, 438 21 08 22 84 35 58 06 03 68 49 22 12 25 87 38 61 07 05 69 49 23 16 28 91 41 64 09 07 Fi 49 24 19 31 94 44 67 1} 09 72 50 25 23 35 98 47 70 13 11 74 50 26 27 38 |+ 4,01 50 73 15 13 75 51 27 31 41 05 53 76 17 15 76 51 Qs 34 44 0s 56 79 19 17 77 52 29 38 47 12 59 82 22 20 79 53 30 4) 50 15 62 85 24 22 so 54 31 45 53 19 65 88 Q 24 82 55 Thirty-Six Principal Stars. 193 @ Libre. |¢ Cor. Bor.|@ Serpent.! Antares. |aHerculis, 20Phiuch.| & Lyre. | 7 Aquile. @ Aquilz, u“ 7] u“ u 4 “ “ “ “is Sep. 1] + 2,08 | +1,97 | +9,95 | +3,00 | +2,56 + 2,69 | +2,44 | +3,29 | +3,36 6 "Vou, XI. 07 06 05 04 03, 954 93 91 90 8s 55 194 Corrections in Right Ascension of BAquile. aCapricor.| & Cygni. | ¢ Aquarii.|/Fomalhaut| a Pegasi. \¢ Androm. Polaris. ; 4 y i ¥ 4 5, , H.M. S. Sep. 1 | +3,40 | + 3,90 | +2,88|+ 3,82 |+ 4,55 }+ 3,64 |+ 3,58 | 0.57.43,18 2 39 90 87 83 56 65 59 43,73 3 39 89 86 33° 57 66 61 44,24 4 38 38 85 83 58 , 67 62 44,72 5 37 88 84 84 59 68 64 45,18 6 36 87 82 $4 60 69 65 45,58 7 35 87 31 85 61 79 67 45,94 8 34 87 79 85 61 70 68 46,24 9 33 86 78 85 62 71 70 46,52 10 32 85 76 85 62 71 71 46,81 ll 31 84 74 84 62 7} 2 47,12 12 30 83 73 84 62 71 73 47,46 13 28 82 71 84 63 2 74 47,80 14 27 81 69 84 63 72 75 48,19 15 26 80 67 83 63 72 76 48,00 16 24 79 66 83 64 73 77 49,00 17 23 78 64 83 64 73 78 49,40 18 22 77 62 83 64 73 79 49,73 19 21 75 60 82 64 78 30 50,02 20 20 74 58 32 64 73 81 50,27 21 18 73 56 82 64 73 81 50,48 22 17 72 54 31 64 73 82 | 50,66 23 15 70 52 gl 64 73 83 50,79 24 14 69 49 30 64 73 83 50,94 25 12 68 47 80 64 73 34 51,10 26 11 66 45 g0 64 73 85 51,29 27 10 65 43 79 64 73 85 51,52 28 08 64 4a 79 63 73 86 51:76 29 07 62 38 78 63 72> 36 52,01 30 05 61 36 77 63 72 87 52,27 Oct. 1 04 60 34 76 62 71 87 52,50 2 02 59 32 76 62 71 $7 52571 3 00 57 30 75 61 71 87 52,84 4] +2,99 56 27 74 61 70 87 52,92 5 97 54 25 73 60 7 88 52,06 6 96 53 22 72 60 69 88 52,98 7 94 51 20 71 59 69 88 53,00 8 g2 50 18 70 58 68 88 52,98 9 gl 48 15 69 57 68 89 52,99 10 89 47 13 68 | 57 68 89 53,038 i 88 a6 11 67 56 67 89 53 12 12 86 45 09 67 56 67 8y 53,25 13 84 43 07 66 55 66 89 53534 14 83 42 05 65 54 66 89 53,41 15 81 40. 03 64 54 65 39 53,48 16 80 39 00 63 53 65 89 53,51 17 78 37 | + 1,98 62 52 64 89 53,51 18 76 36 95 61 51 63 89 53,40 19 75 35 93 60 50 63 88 53,26 20 74 33 go 59 49 62 83 53,11 21 73 39 88 58 48 61 ‘87 52,97 23 7t 30 85 57 47 60 87 52,83 23 69_ 28 82 55 45 6u 36 52,68 24 68 27° 30 54 44 59 386 52,57 25 66 25 77 53 43 58 85 52,51 26 65 24 75 51 42 58 85 52,46 27 63 22 72 50 41 57 34 52,42 28 62 21 69 49 40 56 84 52,33 2 60 19 67 48 39 55 83 52,22 30 59 18 604 47 33 54 83 52,07 31 57 16 62 46 37 53 82 51,87 Thirty-Six Principal Stars. 195 » Pegasi. aArietis.| @ Ceti. /Aldebaran.| Capella. Rigel. B Tauri. @ Orionis. Sirius, “ “ “ 7] 7] “ “ u “ + 3,90 | +4345 | +4,33 | +4,53 | +5,76.| + 3,92 | + 4,85 | + 4,11 | +3,29 46 34 55 80 94 14 32 47 835 57 83 96 17 35 4s 36 59 87 99 20 38 49 37 61 90 22 41 50 38 63 04 95 44 50 39 65 97 27 47 51 40 67 | +:6,00 30 49 51 40 69 02 32 52 51 41 71 05 35 55 51 42 73 08 37 57 52 43 75 11 39 60 52 44 77 14 4° 52 44 79 17 44 53 45 81 20 47 53 46 83 23 P 49 53 46 85 52 54 47 86 54 48 54 48 54 49 55 50 55 50 55 51 55 52 55 52 55 53 54 53 54 53 53 53 53 53 52 54 54 54 54 54 54 54 54 54 53 53 53 53 53 53 53 52 52 51 51 50 50 196 Nov. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 — = OO Castor. Corrections in Right Ascension of Procyon. | Pollux. a Hydre. Regulus. | 8 Leonis. | Virginis.|Spica Virg.| Arcturus. fa | Et EI Ne ee | ee le A ee “ a“ i “ ““ Mu“ “ “ Ui “ +4,48 | +3,56 | + 4,22 | +2,68 | + 2,91 | +2,30 | +2,26 | +1,83 | + 1,56 52 56 60 63 59 26 62 30 65 33 68 37 71 40 74 44 77 45 80 51 83 35 86 53 89 62 92 65 95 69 93 73 +4,01 76 04 80 07 83 10 87 13 90 16 93 19 96 22 | +5,00 25 03 28 06 31 09 34 1g 37 15 39 18 42 21 44 Q4 47 27 49 30 52 33 54 36 57 39 59 42 62 45 64 48 67 51 69 54 72 57 74 60 75 63 79 65 81 68 83 70 85 72 87 75 89 Th 91 80 93 82 95 S4 97 87 99 89 +5,01 g1 03 93 05 95 06 97 08 99 10 | + 6,01 7l 32 35 37 40 43 46 48 51 54 57 60. 63, 66) 68, 71) 74 77 80 83 86) 89 92) 95, 98 + 3,0] 04 07) 10 13 16 Qn 23 26 30 33 36 40 . 43 47 50 54 57 61 65 68 71 75 78 82 85 89 92 95 98 + 4,02 06 09 13 16 19 85 Thirty-Six Principal Stars. 197 i Libre. |a Cor.Bor. Ae Antares. |[@ Herculis.J¢ Ophiuch.| a Lyra. y Aquile. | @ Aquila. | “ “ 4 “ “ “ 7 Mu “ Noy. 1] +1,84 | + 1,99 | +1,71 | +2,34 | +1,67 | +1,78 | + 1,07 | +2,39 | +2,49 2 85 29 71 34 66 77 05 37 48 3 86 Q 71 34 65 76 038 36 46 4 87 29 71 34 65 75 01 35 45 5 88 29 71 34 64 74 | +0,99 34 44 6 89 29 71 34 63 73 07 32 43 7 90 30 72 34 63 73 05 31 42 8 92 30 72 34 62 72 g4 30 417° 9 93 31 73 34 62 72 2 29 40 10 g4 31 73 34 62 71 90 28 39 11" 95 32 74 34 62 71 89 27 38 12 97 33 75 35 61 70 87 26 37 13 98 33 75 35 61 70 85 25 36 14 99 34 76 30 61 69 83 24] 35 15 | +2,01 34 77 36 60 69 82 23 34 16 02 35 78 37 6o 69 80 22 33 17 04 36 79 38 60 69 79 21 32 18 05 37 80 39 60 69 78 20 30 19 07 38 82 39 61 69 76 19 29 20 09 39 83 40 61}, 69 75 18 | 28 21 11 40 84 41 61 69 74 17 28 22 13 42 85 42 61 69 73 16 27 23 15 43 86 43 61 69 72 15 26 24 17 44 88 44 62 69 71 14 25 25 19 45 89 45 62 69 70 13 24 26 21 47 91 46 62 69 69 12 23 27 23 48 92 47 62 69 68 11 23 28 25 50 94 49 63 70 67 1 29 29 27 51] 95 50 63 70 67 10 22 30 29 53 97 51 64 70 66 09 21 Dec. 1 31 54 ge 52 64 70 65 09 20 2 34 56 99 54 65 71 64 08 19 3 36 57 | +2,01 55 65 71 63 07 Is 4 39 59 os 56 66 72 63 06 18 5 41 60 04 53 67 73 62 06 17 6 43 62 06 60 68 73 61 05 17 7 45 64 08 62 69 74 61 05 17 8 48 66 10 64 70 75 61 05 16 9 50 68 12 66 71 75 61 05 16 10 53 70 14 68 72 76 61 05 16 11 56 72 16 70 78 77 61 05 16 12 59 74 18 72 75 78 61 04 15 13 61 76 20 74 76 79 61 04 15 14 64 78 22 76 77 80 60 04" 15 15 67 80 24 78 78 §1 60 08 14 16 69 83 26 30 50 82 60 03 14 17 72 85 28 82 81 83 60 03 14 18 75 88 31 84 83 84 60 03 14 19 78 90 33 87 84 86 60 03 14 20 81 93 35 89 86 87 60 03 14 2) 84 95 37 91 87 89 60 08 14 22 87 97 40 | y4 39 90 6) 04 15 23 90 | + 2,00 42 96 90 92 61 04 15 24 93 02 44 | 99 92 93 61 04 15 25 96 05 | 47. +3,01 93 - 95 62 05 15 26 99 07 49 03 95 96 62 05 15 27 | +3,02 10 52 06], 97 98 62 05 15 23 05 13 54 03 99 99 63 06 16 29). 08 15 57 11 | 4+2,01 | +2,01 63 06 16 30 11 18 59 13 03 02 64 07 17 3) 14 21 62 16 05 04 64 07 17 198 Correetions in Right Ascension. B Aguile. }4 Capricor| a Cygni. Fomalhaut] @ Pegasi. |@ Androm, Polaris. H. M. 5S. “ 7 “ “ a “ Nov. 1 | +2,56 | +3,15 | +1,59 | +3,45 | +4,36 | +3,52] +3,82] 0.57.51,63 2 55 35 51 81 51,31 3 54 34 50 80 50,98 a 52 33 49 80 50,66 5 51 32 43 79 50,37 6 49 3] 47 79 50,11 7 48 30 46 77 409,84 8 47 28 45 76 409,62 9 46 Q7 43 75 49,41 10 45 25 42 75 49 21 11 44 24 41 74 49,00 1g 43 23 40 73 48,69 13 42 21 39 73 48,36 14 41 20 38 72 47,98 15 40 19 37 71 47,58 16 39 18 36 70 47,13 17 38 17 35 69 |. 46,64 18 37 15 34 68 46,17 19 36 14 33 67 45,72 20 35 12 32 66 45,31 21 35 1) 31 65 44,94 22 34 10 30 64 44,56 23 33 08 29 63 44,20 24 32 07 27 62 43,84 25 31 - 05 26 61 43,46 26 30. 04 25 60 43,03 27 29 03 24 59 42,54 28 28 01 22 57 41,99 29 28 00 21 56 41,41 30 27 + 3,98 20 55 40,81 Dec. 1 26 97 19 54 40,22 2 25 95 17 53 39,60 3 24 94 16 52 39,01 4 24 92 15 51 38,47 5 24 gl 13 49 37,97 6 23 90 192 4s 37,49 7 23 89 11 47 36,99 ) 22 88 10 45 36,49 9 22 ey i 09 44 35,95 10 22 86 os 43 35,38 11 22 85 07 42 34,77 12 21 84 06 41 34,09 13 $1 83 05 40 33539 14 21 81 03 39 32,67 15 20 80 02 37 31595 16 20 79 01 36 31,97 17 20 78 00 35 3058 18 20 76 | +2,99 33 29994 19 20 75 98 32 2934 20 20 74 97 30 2876 21 20 73 96 29 28918 22 Q1 72 94 28 27957 23 21 71 93 27 2693 04 9) 70 92 26 26,26 25 21 68 g1 24 25955 26 21 67 90 23 24,79 27 21 66 89 22 24,01 28 21 65 88 20 23,20 Q 22 64 87 19 22,42 30 22 63 86 17 21,66 31 22 62 85 16 20,94 199 Art. XVI. Miscellaneous Intelligence. I. MECHANICAL SCIENCE. § 1. AGricuLTuRE, Orrics, Astronomy, &c. 1. Apparatus for shewing the double Refraction of Minerals.— In the Journal of Science, Vol. X., p. 168, two methods of find- ing the double refraction of minerals have been quoted from M. Soret, in the Journal de Physique, Tom. XC., p. 353; and lest the public should be led by that notice to ascribe the invention of them to him, M. Soret has thought it of sufficient importance to declare, in a letter to the editor, ‘‘ That the apparatus are not of his invention, but szELone to M. Biot.” M. Soret must certainly have misunderstood M. Biot, for he has undoubtedly no claim whatever to the invention of these two kinds of apparatus. Dr. Brewster was the first person’ who em- ployed the apparatus of two plates of a singly refratting crystal, placed transversely : the crystal which he used was Agate. A long time afterwards M. Biot discovered an analogous property in the Tourmaline, and substituted it in place of the agate, but the apparatus did not on this account become of his invention. Dr. Brewster was also the first who used Agate Microscopes, consisting chiefly of thin plates cemented on plano-convex lenses, and he has since constructed similar apparatus by converting calcareous spar and artificial salts into singly-refracting plates, (See Philosophical Transactions, 1819, p. 149,) and has. also re- peatedly used analogous apparatus, consisting of transverse parcels of films of glass blown to extreme thinness, and films of mica arranged in a particular manner. The merit which belongs to M. Biot is that of having discovered that Tourma- line has the singly refracting and polarising property of Agate. M. Soret must have ascribed the second apparatus to M. Biot, solely because he had exhibited to him the experiment. Itbelongs exclusively to Dr. Brewster, who shewed the experiments to Major Petersen in 1816 and 1817, and to Count Breunner, and Professor Mohs in 1818. (See the Philosophical Transactions, 1819, p. 11., and the Journal de Physique, Mars, 1820, Tom. XC., p. 177, the same volume in which M. Soret ascribes the invention to M. Biot.) 200 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 2. Diving Machine.—A new diving machine, called a Dolphin, has been invented by M. F. Farkas, an Hungarian. The conti- nental papers have described some of the advantages of the in- strument, but notits construction. An experiment was made with it at Vienna in the military swimming-school at the Prater. Count Joseph Esterhazy de Galanthy, Count Fergas de Ghymes, the acting Chamberlain Nemes Slagod, and several Englishmen and persons of distinction were present. The servant of the in- ventor plunged with the Dolphin in twenty-four feet water, and walked upon the bottom over the whole square of the swimming- school. To prove that there could be no want of light, the inventor sent down a lantern, and when it was taken up again the light was. still burning. Afterthe man had remained one hour under water, he returned to the surface without assistance ; ~ not because he wanted air, but because all who were present were satisfied with the success of the experiment, and directed that the man might ascend. 3. Astronomical Prize Question —The Astronomical Society of London have offered their gold medal and twenty guineas “« For the best paper on the theory of the motions and pertur- bation of the satellites of Saturn. The investigation to be so conducted as to take expressly into consideration the influence of the rings and the figure of the planet as modified by the at- traction of the rings on the motions of the satellites: to furnish formula adapted to the determination of the elements of their orbits and the constant co-efficients of their periodical and secular equations from observation: likewise to point out the observations best adapted to lead to a knowledge of such determination. The papers to be sent to the Society on or before February 1, 1823.” : Each memoir is to bear a motto atid be accompanied by a sealed paper with the same motto and the author’s name. The successful paper is to be left with the society, and published as they may direct. 201 II. CHEemican Science. § Curemistry, Exvectricity, Sc. 1. Oxides of Mangunese,—Dr. Forchhammer, in addition to his remarks on the acids of manganese, has published an ac- count and analysis of the different oxides, the preparation and composition of which will be briefly noticed below. The manganese was obtained free from other metals, by heat- ing the black oxide with sulphuric acid till all excess of acid was driven off, by making a solution, and then by precipitating the copper and iron from that solution by hydro-sulphuret of ammonia, they fall down of a black colour ; when the precipi- tate becomes grey, the solution is to be heated to the boiling point, and, if sufficient hydro-sulphuret has been added, will precipitate white witha farther addition of it. From the solu- tion thus precipitated the carbonate is obtained, and from that the other preparations of manganese. Another process for preparing pure manganese may be found at page 358, vol. VI. of this Journal. Dr. F. obtained protoxide of manganese by heating the deut- oxide very gently in a glass tube, and at the same time passing a current of hydrogen gas over it. The brown powder became ofa light yellow colour, and whilst cooling, white: the cold oxide was of a beautiful light green colour ; by mere exposure to the air it absorbed oxygen, and began to turn grey. Several analyses of this oxide were made, one from among the rest gives its composition as 100 manganese + 30.24 oxygen, and Dr. F. thinks that the true quantity of oxygen, combined with 100 of manganese, is between 30.18 and 31.29, The deutoxide of manganese is prepared by heating pure protoxide in the air, at a temperature between the boiling point of water and of mercury, it takes fire and burns slowly with a réddish light, into deutoxide. The composition of this oxide is 100 manganese with 42.04 oxygen. When this deutoxide is boiled in dilute nitric acid a part is dis- solved, and an insoluble peroxide remains. It is black, and inso- luble in acids or alkalies. The latter when slightly heated with it form deutoxide and manganeseous acid, the latter being dis- solved. It is a conductor of electricity. It may be formed, also, by exposing carbonate of manganese to air, at a temperature of 500° Fahr., and, washing it with weak cold muriatic acid, its composition is 63.749 manganese + 36.351 oxygen when dry, but itis when prepared as above, always a hydrate, and con- tains manganese 30 + oxygen, 16 + water 9. The oxide obtained, by exposing the nitrate to moderate heat, 202 Miscellaneous Inielligence. and which Berzelius considers as the deutoxide, is, according to Dr. F. a compound of 1 atom of peroxide = 22.323 and 1 atom of deutoxide = 77.677.—Annals of Phil. I., p. 50. 2. Dissection of Crystals—Those specimens of sulphuret of antimony which are crystallized in large crystals, crossing each other, admirably illustrate Mr. Daniell’s mode of dis- playing crystalline texture by dissection. On introducing such a piece of sulphuret into a portion of fused sulphuret and continuing the heat, it begins to melt down; but so far from this taking place uniformly at the surface, crystals will sometimes be left more than half an inch long projecting from it ; and in other places the cavities left by fused crystals will be so large and have such perfect surfaces, that the angles they form with each other may be readily ascertained. In order to observe these effects it is only necessary to remove the half-fused piece of sul- phuret from its hot bath, and allow it to cool. . M.F. 3. Solution of Iime.—Mr. Dalton formerly shewed that lime was more soluble in cold water than in hot water, and gave a table of quantities, from which he concluded, that the quantity held in solution by water of 32° Fahr., was nearly twice that retained by water of 212°. Mr. Phillips has lately taken up the subject, and after ascertaining the accuracy of Mr. Dalton’s experiments and conclusions, proceeds to experiment and remark upon the cause of the phenomenon, and considers its resulting ‘ from the effect which heat sometimes produces of increasing instead of diminishing the attraction of cohesion. The affinities which are brought into play, are the attraction of aggregation of the particles of lime for each other, the attraction of the lime to form a hydrate with a small portion of water, and the mutual affinity existing between that hydrate and the water of solution,” and at the high temperature, Mr. Phillips thinks that the two former affinities may be heightened so as to overpower the latter. Mr, P. found, that by heating cold saturated lime-water a crystalline deposition of hydrate of lime was thrown down, but the crystals were so minute that their form could not be ascer- tained. 10.000 gr. of water at 212° dissolve 7.8 er: of lime. 10.000 gr. of water at 32° dissolve 15.2 gr. of lime. Annals of Phil. I. p. 107. 4. Lithia in Lepidolite.—Professor Gmelin has detected li- thia in two specimens of lepidolite ; one being Swedish, and the other from Moravia. He endeavoured, without success, to form alum with this alkali and the super-sulphate of alumine. Chemical Science. 208 5. Spontaneous Combustions.—The following case of spon- taneous combustion has been described by Mr. James Gullan, of Glasgow, see Edin. Phil. Journal, vol. vii. p. 219. Having sold a respectable spirit-dealer a parcel of sample-bottles, I sent them to him packed in an old basket, the bottom of which was much broken; to prevent the bottles from falling through, I put across the bottom of the basket a piece of old packing- sheet, which had lain long about an oil and colour ware- house, and was besmeared with different kinds of vegetable oil. About six or eight weeks after, the gentleman informed me that my oily-cloth and basket had almostset his ware- house on fire. The basket and cloth had been thrown be- hind some spirit casks pretty much confined from the air, and about mid-day he was alarmed by a smell of fire. Having moved away the casks in the direction where the smoke issued, he saw the basket and cloth ina blaze. This fact may give a useful hint to persons in public works, where galipoli, rapeseed, or linseed oils are used in their manufactures; as it is an esta- blished fact (though not generally known), that these vegetable oils used in cloths, yarn, or wool, in the process of dyeing, and confined for a time from the open air, are very apt to occasion spontaneous fire. ; 6. Polishing Powder from Charcoal—Mr. J. Thomson, of Glasgow, has lately turned his attention to the property possessed by charcoal of giving a fine polish when rubbed on metals. This property is not possessed by charcoal in general, but has been found to belong only to particular pieces ; no means were known by which such charcoal could be distinguished, except actual trial, nor was the cause of the superiority of some pieces over others at all understood. Mr. Thomson, in consequence of information he received from Messrs. Harts that the Dutch rush used in polishing wood, owed its powers to silex, was induced to sup- pose that charcoal made from wood growing on sandy soils would have the property required, and on trial this was found to be the case. It frequently happens that turners meet with wood which very rapidly destroys the edges of their tools. Mr. Thom- son procured some of this wood, and having converted it into charcoal, tried its polishing powers. . They gave great satisfac- tion; and hence Mr. T. recommends, that turners, cabinet- makers, &c., should lay aside such wood when they meet with it, as a source of charcoal for the copper-plate workers, &c., to whom it is of more value than to the former, and who are con- stantly in want of polishing charcoal-powder. 7. Onthe colouring Matter of the Lobster.—M. Lassaigne , has lately examined the colouring matter of the lobster. He ob- tained it by separating the shell of the animal from all other 204 Miscellaneous Intelligence. substanees, and digesting it in alcohol, using the same portion to different quantities of the shell. The pieces thus treated gradually parted with their colouring matter, and were incapable of becoming red when boiled. The solution collected and eva- porated afforded a red matter, having the appearance of fat. This substance is insipid and inodorous; is insoluble in water, but is easily dissolved in sulphuric acid, or concentrated alco- hol. Its solution is of a scarlet colour, and does not become turbid by the addition of water, so that it is not analogous to fat. Potash, soda, or ammonia, do not alter its colour. Dilute mineral acids have no effect upon it; but, when concentrated, they destroy and change it into a dull yellow substance. Salts of tin, lead, iron and copper, do not precipitate this sub- stance from a solution of alcohol. M. Lassaigne states that this substance is contained in a membrane which adheres strongly to the calcareous envelope when the animal is young; but that it is easily separated from those at the full growth. The mem- brane is very thin, and is of a violet colour in reflected light ; but of a purple hue in transmitted light.—Journal de Phar- macie, vi. p. 174. 8. Vegetable Alcali: Daturium.—A substance, supposed to be a new vegetable alkali, has been obtained from the seeds of the daturium stramonium by M, R. Brandes, and distinguished by the name Daturium. It is combined in the seeds with malic acid, and is obtained in the usual way. It is nearly insoluble in water and cold alcohol, but is soluble in hot alcohol from which it pre- cipitates on cooling in flocculi. It has been obtained with diffi- culty in crystals, which were quadrangular needles. It neu- tralizes acids, but requires to be added in large quantity. Its sulphate is crystallizable, soluble in water, efflorescent, and decomposed by fixed alkalies. Its muriate forms square plates, readily soluble in water. Its nitrate is crystalline and soluble. Its acetate is deliquescent. It acts on iodine as other alkalies do, though feebly.—Journal de Physique, xci. p. 144. 9. Atropia.—Another of these substances found by the same philosopher in the Bella donna Atrepia, and which gives to that plant its particular properties, is aéropza; it is white, shining, crystallizable in long needles, insipid, and little so- Iuble in water or alcohol ; it forms regular salts with the acids, and is capable of neutralizing a considerable quantity of them. Its sulphate contains Atropiayy. 2eeeg 2.24 «» 38.93 Sulphuric acid.. ..... 36.52 W-aternye. SO% Sa oar Wee 24.55 100 =e Chemical Science. 205 When atropia and potassa are mixed and raised to a red heat, the ashes (solution?) mingled with muriate of iron, pro- duces a brilliant red colour. Hyoscyamia is extracted from the hyoscyamus niger, and is not easily altered even at a red heat. It crystallizes in long prisms, and when saturate with sulphuric acid or nitric acid, forms very characteristic salts. In examining the constituent alkaline principles of narcotic plants, much care must be taken, as the venomous properties of the plants are concentrated in them. The vapour is very in- jurious to the eyes, and the smallest fragment placed onthe tongue is extremely dangerous—Jour. de Phys. XCI. p. 239. 10. Lupulin, or the active Principle of the Hop.—Dr. A.W. Ives, of New York, has lately made experiments on the hop, which prove that its characteristic properties reside in a substance forming not more than one-sixth part of the weight of the hop, and easily separable from it. It was observed, that on re- moving some hops from a bag in which they had been pre- served for three years, an impalpable yellow powder was left behind which, when sifted, appeared quite pure; this has been called dupulin, it is peculiar to the female plant, and is -probably secreted by the nectaria. From various experiments made on it, Dr. Ives inferred that lupulin contains a very subtle aroma which is yielded to water and to alcohol, and which is rapidly dissipated at a high heat ; that no essential oil canbe detected by distillation in any portion of the hop; that the lupulin contains an extractive matter which is soluble only in water; that-it contains tannin, gallic acid, and a bitter principle which are soluble in alcohol and water; that it contains resin which is soluble in alcohol and ether, and wax which is soluble only in alkalies and boiling ether ; that it contains neither mucilage, gum, nor gum resin; that the aromatic and bitter properties of the lupulin are more readily and completely imbibed by alcohol than by water, -and much sooner by both when hot than when cold; that about five-eighths of the whole substance is soluble in water, alcohol, and ether, there being about three-eighths of it vegetable fibrous matter; 120 grains of lupulin contain about PARNO iw aapcade oie ws AEE Extractive matter.... 10 Bitter principle...... 11 Wax caceeccareesss 12 Resins. .ciccigececces dO Lignin. oecresceeeee 46 Hops from which all the lupulin had been separated when acted upon by water, alcohol, &c. gave a portion of extract 206 Miscellaneous Intelligence. which, however, possessed none of the characteristic properties of the hop. Having ascertained that the lupulin was the only important part of the hop as regarded brewing, Dr. Ives next endea- voured to ascertain the quantity afforded by a given weight of hops: 6lbs. of hops from the centre of a bag were put into a light bag, and by thrashing, rubbing, and sifting,’ 14 ounces of lupulin were separated. It is supposed, therefore, that dry -hops would yield about a sixth part of their weight of this sub- stance. - Two barrels of beer were then made, in which 9 oz. of lupulin were substituted for 5 lbs. (the ordinary quantity) of hops. The result confirmed every expectation. Though the quantity of lupulin was less than usually enters into the same quantity of wort, and though the weather during June was upusually warm, and therefore unfavourable to the beer, still, at the end of five weeks, it was very fine. As a further ex- periment,—equal quantities of the beer were exposed in open phials to the sun, and a scruple of lupulin was added to one of them; this was unchanged at the end of fifteen days; the other became mouldy and sour in ten days. The advantages which promise to result from the discovery that lupulin may replace the white hop in brewing, are, the di- minished expenses of conveyance and storage, the facility of perserving it from the air, the non-absorption of wort by the hops, and the absence of an useless nauseous extractive matter which remains in the leaves. It remains to be seen, whether practice will establish the truth of the foregoing deductions and advantages.—Annals of Philosophy, p. 194. 11. Analysis of Indian Corn.—Indian corn, either alone or mixed with the flour of wheat or of rye, constitutes a considerable article in the food of the inhabitants of the United States. In consequence of the importance which thus belonged to it, Dr. John Gorham of Harvard University, Cambridge, U.S., was induced to examine it chemically, with great attentior. His experiments were made upon two varieties of maize, that producing small yellow grain, and the large, flat and white kind, commonly known by the name of Virginian corn; but the results were so similar, that those only belonging to the former kind have been given. One hundred grains powdered, when macerated and tri- turated with great precaution in water, gave a clear filtered solution, which, on evaporation, afforded 4 grains of greyish semi-transparent substance, disposed in lamine. Of this, when acted upon by alcohol, 1.75 grains were insoluble, and resembled gum; the 2.25 grains that were soluble, were separated: from the alcohol by evaporation, and dissolved in Chemical Science. 207 water, then being acted on by acetate of lead and sulphuretted hydrogen, .8 of a grain of extractive matter was obtained, and 1.45 grains of a saccharine matter remained. Another portion of the mixed gummy and saccharine matter was obtained; a drop of sulphuric acid was added to a part of it and liberated acetic acid, and quick-lime being added to another part, a small quantity of ammonia was liberated. Hence it appears to contain acetate of ammonia. It also afforded a portion of phosphate of lime. The portion unacted on by water, and left on the filter, was digested for twenty-four hours in alcohol, and the clear solution evaporated; a yellow substance was then obtained, resembling beeswax in appearance. It was soft, ductile, tenacious, elastic, insipid, nearly imodorous, and _ heavier than water. When heated, it swelled, became brown, exaled the odour of burning bread, melted with the smell of animal matter, and left a voluminous charcoal. It burnt in the flame of a lamp, but not rapidly. When distilled, no ammonia - seemed formed. It was insoluble in water, but soluble in alcohol, oil of turpentine, and sulphuric ether, and sparingly in mineral acids, and caustic alkalies. It was insoluble in fixed oils, but mixed with resin. The quantity obtained from 100 grains, was 3 grains. This substance appears to differ from all known vegetable bodies, and has been called zeine by Dr. Gorham, It re- sembles gluten in some circumstances, but differs from it in containing no azote, in its great solubility in alcohol, and in its permanency, not undergoing any obvious change in six weeks. On the other hand, it is analogous to the resins in its solu- bility in alcohol, essential oils, alkalies, and partial solubility in acids. It is inflammable, and probably composed of oxygen, hy- drogen, and carbon. It may easily be obtained by digesting a few ounces of the meal from the yellow corn in a flask with warm alcohol, allowing it to rest for some hours, then filtering and evaporating. After the action of alcohol on the 100 grains it was boiled in successive portions of water, a large quantity of starch was thus dissolved, leaving 14.25 grains of a substance, which, when boiled with weak sulphuric acid, was reduced to 3.75 grains. The acid solution, when concentrated, deposited 2.25 grains of what was considered albumen, and it appeared that about 8 grains of starch had also been taken up by the acid. The 3.75 grains of solid matter were then heated with potassa, and re- duced to 3 grains of ligneous matter and cuticle containing a little phosphate of lime ; the portion dissolved appeared to be albumen. According to this analysis the constituents of yellow Indian corn, in the common and the dry state, will be as follow: 208 Miscellaneous Intelligence. Common state. Dry state. Water stonst owibhrte Miarch: .<.ijsenwite 2seel Sci eee® 84.599 Pine 0g died Vous baetde ets Yeo 3.296 Albumen 2.747 dado ete tet ato & Gummy matter . . . . . . 4.75 1.922 Saccharine matter . . . 1.45 1.593 Extraetieimatter cviceos iivisds 8 .879 Cuticle and ligneous fibre, . . 3.0 3.296 Phosp. carb. sul. of lime, and loss 1.5 1.648 ne 100. 99.980 The powder of the corn is hygrometric, and the quantity of water in it varies with the state of the atmosphere. Sometimes it would lose 12 per cent. on drying, at other times not more than half that quantity. In some experiments on the colouring matter of the different coloured varieties of Indian corn, it was found to be soluble in both water and alcohol, and to become green by alcalies, and red by acids. A spirituous liquor may be obtained from Indian corn, in con- sequence of the changes which take place in its saccharine matter. 12. Bohnenbergen’s Electrometer.—This instrument is intended to. indicate at once the nature, as well as presence, of electricity. The exterior is formed of a cylinder of glass, about two inches and a half wide, and three inches and a halfhigh: it is closed at top by a brass plate, from which descend two of De Luc’s electric columns, each containing about 400 discs of gilt and silyered paper about three lines in diameter, and terminated below by brass rings; these tubes are one inch and a half distant from each other, and between them is placed a tube of glass, which, passing through the cover in the manner of Singer’s insulation, supports a wire terminated below by two gold leaves, and above by a metallic plate. It is easy, from this disposition, to perceive that when the leaves are unelectrified they will hang midway be- tween the tubes ; but when affected by the approach of elec- trified bodies, they will diverge and indicate by the attraction of the leaf on the one side, on the other the nature of the charge. 13. On the Composition of the Prussiates or Ferruginous Hydro- cyanates.—These compounds which have drawn the attention of a great number of chemists to their examination, frequently without much success, have lately been investigated with great ability by M. Bexzelius, and a number of very interesting points with regard to them established. Without tracing what had — Chemical Science. 209 previously been done by others, and which is well known to the scientific world, an attempt will be made in the following lines to present to view the result of M. Berzelius’ labours. The first object was, to ascertain the proportion of the iron to the other base in the ferro-prussiates. The salt with base of potash was first examined ; it was purified by fusion, solution, and crystallization, after which it lost nothing by exposure to air for two days, but at a temperature of 140° Fahr. effloresced and diminished between 12.9 and 12.4 per cent. ; it did not then lose weight by a heat above that of boiling water: two grammes (30.89 gr.) of this salt thus dried, were mixed with sulphuric acid ; it heated a little, but suffered no further change till its temperature was raised by a spirit-lamp, when sul- phurous acid and hydrocyanic acid were liberated. The heat was continued till all excess of sulphuric acid was driven off and the mixture then. dissolved in warm water containing a little muriatic acid ; the solution was precipitated by ammonia and the oxide of iron, collected, washed, and dried ; it weighed . indifferent experiments between .4and .43 of a gramme (6.41 gr.). The solution was then evaporated, and the sulphate of am- monia separated by heat, in which operation it was found advantageous to introduce a small piece of carbonate of am- monia in a spoon into the covered crucible: in this way 1.894 gramme (28.25 gr.) of sulphate of potassa were obtained. The mean result of several experiments similar to the above, gave the following proportions for some of the elements of the pure prussiate of potassa : Potassa........ 44.62 containing 7. of oxygen. 7.532 Protoxide of iron 16.64 3.799 =1 WidteE~. caves sce e 2 2et ——, li =32 WOBSie.s senisisle's «fo, 20:04. from which it results that the potassa contains twice as much, and the water thrice as much oxygen as the iron in the state of protoxide. The ferro-prussiate of baryta was prepared from prussian blue and the hydrate of baryta. When heated, and the residue analyzed, it gave Baryta.......... 51.273 containing 5.38 = 2 of oxygen. Protoxide of iron 11.865 DANG (RTT aa We Gage at RVALED sc%s vcs d's 16,00 an | 14,92 = 5.5 me NOME 5 deveae'e0v'a) 20,002 Here also the proportion between the oxygen of the baryta and that of the protoxide of iron is as 2 to 1. The ferro-prussiate of lime, prepared in the same manner as the former salt, was obtained in crystals, of which 100 parts gave, ee is Vor. XI. P 210 Miscellaneous Intelligence. Lime... 1.2.4. 22.45 containing 6.20 = 2of oxygen, Protoxide of iron 13.69 Se Wiatersid.s...5<2 3O-0L Joel 1 Teo "The ferro-prussiate of lead was prepared, by adding solution of nitrate of lead to ferro-prussiate of potassa, the latter being in excess, the precipitate was then washed and dried. In conseguence of the vicinity of the point of perfect dryness to that at which the salt began to effloresce, it was difficult to ascertain the quantity of water, but Mr. Berzelius is inclined to consider that, as with the ferro-prussiate of potassa, so also the water in this salt contains as much oxygen as is contained in both the bases together. On analysis 100 parts gave, Oxide of lead .. 70 containing 5.09 = 2 of oxygen, Protoxide of iron 11.9 2.57.25 (0 LOSS js ale RTT These analyses of compounds taken from the three classes of bases, suffice to prove, that whatever be the state of the iron in those salts, it requires in the state of protoxide half as much oxygen as the radical of the other base. The second section of M. Berzelius’ Memoir contains an ac- count of experiments on the acid of these salts. The first exe periments, in which sulphuretted hydrogen, and fused boracie acid were made to act on the salt, accorded with the opinion advanced by Mr. Porret, that the iron existed in the metallic state ; but not considering them as decisive, the investigation was carried on still further. A portion of the anhydrous ferro- prussiate of potassa was heated with peroxide of copper, and this gas collected over mercury, it was a mixture of carbonic acid and nitrogen, in the proportion of three volumes of the former to two volumes of the latter, and no water was pro- duced; when the experiment was repeated at a higher tem- perature, the same result was obtained; when the residue was digested in water an alcaline solution was obtained which precipitated carbonate of lime with lime-water. As these pro- portions differ from those of Mr. Porret and Doctor Thomson, the apparatus was tested by analyzing the cyanuret of mercury in it; the carbonic acid then exactly doubled the azote in volume, and by other trials the mode of operating was found to be perfectly efficient and correct. The analysis was repeated with the ferro-prussiate of baryta, and the volumes of gases were again as 3 ; 2. It now became of importance to ascertain how much carbonic acid was retained by the bases of the salts. analyzed, and whether these bases remained in the state of. common car- bonates, or were in some other state. To determine this point, carbonate of potassa was heated with six times its weight of ox- ide of copper, and at a red heat, carbonic acid gas was liberated ; so that it appears, the oxide of copper has the power of ‘ Chemical Science. 211 driving off a portion of the carbonic acid, and forming a kind of double salt in which it may be presumed + of the potassa is combined with the oxide of copper, and % with the carbonic acid. Water decomposes this combination, dissolving the caustic and carbonated alkali, and leaving the oxide of copper free. Hence it became necessary to analyze a salt, the base of which would not retain carbonic acid, and that formed by lead was selected for the purpose. A certain quantity of this salt was heated with twenty-five times as much peroxide of copper, and yielded a mixture of 2 volumes of carbonic acid, and 1 volume of nitrogen. The quantities of the gases were such, as to give for 100 parts of the salt 11.05 of carbon, and 12.84 of nitrogen, or together 23.89 of cyanogen. This added to the weight of the other elements of the salt employed, surpasses the whole weight by 6.19, supposing the bases are in the state of oxide ; but, if the prussiate be considered as composed of ‘1 atom of cyanuret of iron, with 2 atoms of cyanuret of lead, then the weight of the cyanogen, the iron, and the lead, would be almost exactly what it ought to be. ; To prove that, in this compound, the metals were not in the state of oxides, sulphuretted hydrogen was passed over it in the heated state; no water was formed but hydrocyanic acid, protosulphuret of iron, and sulphuret of lead, were produced ; and the weights of the products agreed as exactly as possible be the theoretical view taken of its composition, which is as ollows : By experiment. By calculation. Fron st 8 48.81 8.68 Lead. . . . 65.91 66.18 Carbon) 24/38 11.05 11.55 Nitrogen . . 12.84 13.59 98.61 100 The composition of the ferro-prussiate of potassa will be 1 proportion or atom of cyanuret of iron, 2 of cyanuret of potassium, and 6 of water, or, Iron . . 12.85 = Protoxide of iron . . 16.54 Potassium 37.11 = Potassa .... . 44.68 Cyanogen 37.22 Water... 12.82 The composition of the other two salts is exactly analogous, the quantity of water only varying. , These experiments prove, that the salts called prussiates, or ferruginous hydrocyanates, are really cyanurets, composed of 1 atom of cyanuret of iron, and 2 atoms of cyanuret of the P 2 212 Miscellaneous Intelligence. other metal. As for the water which appears to be combined with them, M. Berzelius, for various theoretical reasons, con- siders it as existing in the state of water of crystallization, and not as converting the cyanurets into hydrocyanates. It then became interesting to ascertain how far the ferro- prussiate of ammonia resembled in its habitude and com- position, the salts already analyzed; and hopes were enter- tained that it might be reduced to the state of a double cyanuret, but all attempts to deprive it entirely of water were vain; when heated, it was decomposed, and gave hydrocyanate of ain- monia, cyanuret of iron, and water. A singular phenomenon occurs in this decomposition, for when the mass has been heated until cyanuret of iron only remains in the retort, if the heat be then raised, the mass suddenly takes fire, and burns vividly, as if oxygen gas had been introduced, though in fact, azote is disengaged at the moment. A quadricarburet of iron remains in the retort, which, when heated in the air, takes fire, and burns like tinder, being converted into peroxide of iron, with scarcely any change in weight. Hence this salt appears to be a compound of hydrocyanate of iron with hydrocyanate of ammonia. In examining the nature of prussian blue, M. Berzelius first describes some of it properties. It is very hygrometric, so that it cannot be perfectly dried by sulphuric acid in a vacuum. When dried by heat, and inflamed at one edge, it burns like tinder, liberating carbonate of ammonia, and leaving perox- ide of iron. When obtained in the pure state, by adding muriate of iron to the ferro-prussiate of potassa, and repeatedly washing, it becomes soluble in water; and, when dried in this state, appears like extractive matter. Its solution is pre- cipitated by any other salt, or by an acid. Some prussian blue was prepared by adding neutral muriate of iron to ferro-prussiate of potassa, and a portion of thiis was then decomposed, by acting first with caustic potassa in excess, separating the iron thrown down, and then acting on the solution hy corrosive sublimate, by which the second portion of iron was separated. The oxide separated by the potassa, was to the latter portion as 30 to 22. By further analytical experiments, it was decisively proved, that in prussian blue thus prepared, the peroxide of iron contained twice the oxygen of the protoxide, and that, consequently, its composition is en- tirely analogous to that of the other cyanurets that have been examined. At the same time it is to be observed, that experiments on the combustion of the prussian blue with oxide of copper, gave results which did not indicate the same proportion between the cyanogen and the iron, so that uncertainty still rests on the true nature of this substance. Some pure prussian blue was diffused in water, and sulphuretted Chemical Science. 213 hydrogen passed through it; when the substances had acted on each other for some time, the pigment became of a dull white co- lour, whilst the fluid became opalescent from the deposition of sul- hur. The liquid was separated from the solid matter, and the sulphuretted hydrogen separated by exposure to air ; it was then acid and precipitated salts of iron blue, so that, at the same time that the gas reduced the deutoxide of iron to protoxide, the excess of acid required for its neutralization in that state was liberated as ferro-prussic acid. The whole mass exposed to the air became blue, and at the same time partly soluble in water ; but when again treated with sulphuretted hydrogen, the solution did not become acid, nor did it precipitate salts of iron blue, and the insoluble part became black : so that there are evidently two blue combinations, the one composed of three atoms of hydro- cyanate of protoxide, and four atoms of hydrocyanate of deutox- ide, in which the‘acid and oxygen of the second part is double that of the first ; and another apparently composed of one atom of hydrocyanate of protoxide and two atoms of hydrocyanate of deutoxide. “« It appears,” says M. Berzelius, ‘‘ from the experiments men- tioned, that the cyanurets of highly electro-positive radicals, as the alcaline metals, do not decompose water, or form hydro- cyanates. The more feeble bases, as glucine, ammonia, and most of the metallic oxides, on the contrary, produce hydro- cyanates, which, when heated, either do not produce cyanu- rets, or, in producing them, are in part decomposed by the action of the oxygen of the bases on the cyanogen, and the forma- tion of carbonic acid, ammonia, and metallic carburets. With the exception of the hydrocyanate of iron and ammonia, it ap- pears, that when one base is in the state of hydrocyanate, the other is also, so that there is no combination of a cyanuret with a hydrocyanate. When the cyanurets combine with an addi- tional quantity of base, they appear to be changed into hydro- cyanates, and the whole become sub-hydrocyanates; such is pro- bably the state of the combination of cyanuret of mercury with oxide of mercury.” M. Berzelius then speaks of the nature of the ferro-prussic acid. This combination is produced by the action of a strong acid on the second base of the ferro-prussiates, which being re- moved by it, all the hydrocyanic acid unites with the protoxide of iron, so that it is combined with thrice as much acid as in the neutral compound. This substance was prepared by dif- fusing the moist cyanuret of iron and lead through water, passing sulphuretted hydrogen gas through, decomposing what portion of that gas remained in solution by adding a small quantity more of the salt, filtering, and evaporating under the air-pump-receiver, It left a white opaque uncrystallizable sub- ZA” Miscellaneous Intelligence. stance, having the following properties: solubility in water, the solution having a pure acid taste, followed by one slightly astringent; exposed to the air it deposited prussian blue, and became green ; it has no odour previous to decomposition, but, when boiled, hydrocyanic acid is evolved, and a white powder is deposited, which becomes blue in the air. If cold water be saturated with the dry super-hydrocyarate, and the solution be left, small colourless transparent crystals form in it in groups. They appear to contain water, and the conjecture is hazarded, that in these the water replaces the second base of the ferro- prussiates. The white substance previously spoken of appears to contain no water, but to be a dry super-hydrocyanate of pro- toxide ofiron. It may be preserved in vessels well closed, but in the air is gradually changed into prussian blue. The double cyanurets of iron with potassium, barium, and cal- cium, when heated, evolve nitrogen, and the cooled mass, when dissolved in water, separates into quadricarburet of iron, and hy- drocyanates of the other bases; so that the cyanuret of iron only has been decomposed, its nitrogen separated, and the other elements left combined in the carburet. When the dry cyanuret of iron and lead is decomposed by heat, it evolves nitrogen, and a double carburet of iron and lead is left, containing one atom quadricarburet of iron, two atoms quadricarburet of lead. If the salt be moist, the carburet of lead is in part decomposed, and carbonic acid formed. Prussian blue gives, on distillation, water, hydrocyanate of ammonia and carbonate of ammonia, water appearing the whole of the time. After these substances had come over the retort was heated red, and the matter within heated and glowed brilliantly, as with the ferro-prussiate of am- monia. The substance lefi is a tri-carburet of iron. Ferro- prussiate of copper produces, on distillation, water, nitrogen and carbonate and hydrocyanate of ammonia; the substance left is a compound of one atom quadricarburet of iron and two atoms bi-carburet of copper. Ferro-prussiate of cobalt yields, by dis- tillation, nitrogen and carburets of the metals. The cyanuret of iron and silver is a true cyanuret; when distilled it yields cyanogen, nitrogen, silver, and quadricarburet of iron. M. Berzelius draws the following conclusions from these experiments :—1. That the cyanurets of the alcaline metals retain their cyanogen at high temperatures, but that the cya- nuret of iron combined with them is decomposed, producing - nitrogen and quadricarburet of iron. 2. The cyanurets of the other and more reducible metals are decomposed by a high temperature. Those which may be obtained perfectly free from water yield nitrogen and double quadricarburets ; those which preserve their water until the moment of decomposition lose a certain quantity of carbon, so that though the iron remains as Chemical Science. 21 5 quadricarburet, the other metal remains combined with carbon in an inferior degree as a tri or bi-carburet. 3, The reducible metals lose their cyanogen, and retain no carbon, M. Berzelius then remarks on the nature of these new car- burets of the metals, which, containing four, three, and two proportions of carbon, present a class of bodies analogous to the sulphurets, arseniurets, gc. ; he considers the decomposition of the cyanogen in the cyanurets as due to the affinity of the metals of the carbon; and observes, that in distilling vegetable metallic salts the residues which are obtained, and which till now have been considered as mixtures of carbon and the metal, are true compounds. The observations which then follow on the phenomenon of ignition, observed in many of these experiments with the quadri- carburets, §c., are highly interesting, but we must refer the reader to the original paper for them; the great length of this abstract prevents us from noticing any thing but matter imme- diately connected with the object “of the paper. The cyanurets with concentrated sulphuric acid are more or less dissolved without decomposition; those of iron and po- tassa, of iron and baryta, dissolve entirely, yielding a colour- less solution, which is not decomposed at 212° Fahr., others dissolve in small quantity, whilst the greater proportion remain undissolved in combination with the acid. When the acid is poured into the powdered cyanurets, the mixture heats, swells, becomes pulpy, and if soluble, gradually dissolves, though a great quantity of sulphuric acid is required for this effect. The addition of a little water troubles the solution, and part of the acid compound falls, but if much water be added decom- position takes place, super-hydrocyanate of iron and super- sulphate of the other base are produced, or if the cyanuret is insoluble it re-appears with its common characters. If the acid solution be heated at a certain temperature, the cyanuret is decomposed, sulphurous and carbonic acids with nitrogen are disengaged, and super-sulphates of ammonia and of ‘the bases employed, remain. M. Berzelius could not succeed in producing the new gas, which Dr. Thomson says is fouad on those occasions, nor does there appear to be any reason to believe in its existence. M. Berzelius describes the action of sulphuric acid on several of the double cyanurets, and con- cludes this part of his paper, by expressing his opinion, that ‘they should be considered as double acid. salts, where two bases are combined at the same time with excess of the two acids. M. Berzelius concludes this very importaut paper by some ob- servations on the preparation of alkaline cyanurets from prus- sian blue; if prussian blue of commerce and potassa in excess be made to act on each other, and the solution be made by 216 Miscellaneous Intelligence. crystallization to yield the ferro-prussiate of potassa, a mother liquor remains which will not crystallize; but, by slow evapora- tion effloresces in greenish vegetations. This is a particular modification of the cyanuret of iron and potassium, which is so- luble in water, and on exposure to a moist air, becomes brown. Its solution, when evaporated, yields small green scales ; and these, when analyzed, so closely resemble in composition, the yellow salt, that no conclusion can be drawn from the ex- periment. : This salt may be converted into the yellow salt, by being carefully fused in a close crucible; and when cold, dissolved in water, the fluid will contain cyanuret of iron and potassa, hydro- cyanate of potassa, and carbonate of potassa. Acetic acid will decompose the two last salts, the solution is to be evaporated and acted on by alcohol, the double cyanuret is then thrown down ; it may be collected, dissolved, and crystallized. Barytes, by acting on prussian blue, also forms the green com- pound. Lime produces very little of it, but ammonia forms it in such abundance, that sometimes nothing else is obtained. It then crystallizes in small green needles. _Its solution is prect- pitated by alcohol as a sirup; during evaporation, it deposits a green powder, and by long exposure to the air, is in a great measure decomposed. Annales de Chimie, xv. pp. 144, 225. 14. Ure’s Chemical Dictionary.—Dr. Andrew Ure, of Glasgow, has just published ‘‘ A Dictionary of Chemistry, on the basis of Mr. Nicholson’s ; in which the principles of the science are investigated anew, and its applications to the phenomena of Na- ture, Medicine, Mineralogy, Agriculture, and Manufactures, de- tailed.’ We regret that the length of our observations on Dr. Thomson’s System of Chemistry have prevented an extended notice of this work, in its proper place, and which we are obliged to reserve for a future Number. It is a work which displays considerable diligence, and equal knowledge of the subjects of which it treats, and will prove a valuable addition to the stu- dent’s library. III. Natura History. §. Grotocy, MineraLocy, MetTEoroLocy, fe. 1, Avery valuable work has just been published by Dr. Mac Culloch, entitled, ““ A Geological Classification of Rocks, with descriptive Synopses of the Species and Varieties, comprising the Elements of Practical Geology.” Upon a future occasion we propose to discuss the merits of this book more at length, and shall therefore confine this notice to a bare sketch of its contents, from which, however, our geological readers will be able to draw some conclusions respecting” its interest and Natural History. peli importance. We have indeed regretted that Dr. Mac Culloch has so long withheld his practical information on systematic geology, since we perused his work on the western isles of Scotland, a work which displays attainments peculiarly fitting him for the task which he has now undertaken. After some introductory remarks on the methods of arranging rocks, which have been adopted by different mineralogists, and on the plan of this arrangement and nomenclature, Dr. Mac Cul- loch gives the following general catalogue of rocks, succeeded by some remarks on their order of succession in nature : PRIMARY CLASS. - SECONDARY CLASS. Unstratified. Stratified. Granite Lowest (red) Sandstone Serpentine Superior Sandstones Stratified. Limestone Gneiss } Shale Micaceous Schist Unstratified. Chlorite Schist Overlying (and venous) Rocks Talcose Schist Pitchstone Hornblende Schist OCCASIONAL ROCKS. Actinolite Schist Jasper Quartz Rock Siliceous Schist Red Sandstone Chert Argillaceous Schist Gypsum Primary Limestone Conglomerate Rocks Compact Feldspar Veinstones AppenpDix I, Volcanic Rocks. AprEnpix II. Clay, Marl and Sand Alluvia Coal Lignite and Peat. Dr. Mac Culloch apologizes for the introduction of coal and peat into this list; but the connexion of the former with the strata in which it lies, and the important illustrations of its history afforded by the latter, amply justify their insertion. With respect to the order of succession of the primary class, the claim of granite to the lowest place is unquestioned, but after it no certainty can be obtained, for the others are all found in its occasional contact and in uncertain order; to illustrate this fact, the author inserts a table shewing the irregular order of succession in rocks, in several parts of Britain. The 7th, 8th, and 9th chapters relate to the aspect and structure of rocks, and in the 10th their composition is dis- cussed, illustrated by a valuable catalogue of their component minerals. * Dr. Mac Culloch then proceeds to what we consider as a highly important part of geological science, though hitherto a 218 Miscellaneous Intelligence. very unscientifically treated; we mean, the transition which so often occurs in rocks, not only between the several varieties of each family, but even between the families themselves, in consequence either of their gradual variation of character, or of the loss of one or more of the ingredients, which constitute the distinction. Upon these subjects, our author has some excellent remarks ; they have generally been slurred over by modern geologists, in consequence of the difficulties in which they involve the theorist ; but Dr. Mac Culloch, who is purely practical, and, strange to say, neither Vulcanist nor Neptunist, gives them their due im- portance and appropriate description. The 13th chapter contains a synoptic view of the general characters of the families of rocks included in the arrangement before us. To describe the characters of rocks so as to enable the student to recognise them in mass, as well as in hand speci- , mens, is a task of no small difficulty, and one which we do not hesitate to say, Dr. Mac Culloch has performed in a very superior manner; unlike some modern geological writers, who have aimed rather at obstructing the progress of the student, by throwing an accumulation of difficulties into his path, without giving any clue to their solution, he has succinctly, but clearly announced the obstacles, and, in the greater number of instances, has succeeded in their removal. On the whole, the science of geology,.if so it may be called, is much indebted to Dr. Mac Culloch. In his various papers in the Geological Transactions, and in his book on the Western Isles, he has shewn himself an indefatigable collector of facts, and a most observant traveller; in the work before us he appears equally successful as an elementary and systematic writer. We are indebted to him for the following notice of two new minerals, which ought to have appeared in our Number. 2. A new mineral, to which I gave the name of Conite, was described in my work on the Western Islands, ‘as found in Mull and in Glen Farg. It was subsequently mentioned to have been found in the Kilpatrick-hills, and I must now add, to increase the list of its localities, that I have since found it in Sky, in similar situations, namely, investing or filling cavities in trap rocks, and accompanying different mem- bers of the zeolite family. It happened that Professor Schumacher had, about the same time, applied the same name to a variety of limestone, deriving his term from the Greek, xova or xovsc, as applied to chalk or lime. The inconvenience of this was, of course, immediately apparent; and although it is not likely that the term conite, thus used, will long maintain its place in our catalogues of minerals, since, like lucullite, and many others, it only serves to encumber the science with a catalogue of useless names, J have ey Natural History. 219 been induced to change the name of the mineral which I have described, and to request you to give it circulation through the medium of your Journal. The name having been suggested from the powdery form in which this mineral has alone yet been found, the Greek word xos, as applied generally to powder, may as easily be used in compounding the term Konirire, It is not cacophonous, and answers the purpose of describing the most remarkable character of this mineral ; while it avoids any colli- sion with the term to which I have alluded. 3. Native Oxide of Chrome.—A new Mineral.—The com- binations of this metal with two others, namely, lead and iron, under different forms,’ have for some time found a place in our catalogues of minerals. A place must now also be made for Chrome itself, in that division of mineralo- gical systems which is allotted to the metals. I am not aware at least, that the oxide of chrome has yet been found by any One in a native state; certainly it has not been enumerated in any system of Mineralogy. I have recently discovered it here in Shetland, in the island of Unst. It is found in cavities in the chromate of iron, which abounds in this island, so as, for the space of many miles, to be scattered over the surface of the ground, and even to be used in common with the loose stones which it accompanies in the building of dykes. This oxide is easily recognised by its beautiful green colour, and does not seem to differ from the green oxide produced in our laboratories by the action of heat. In some places it is merely diffused through the fissures of the ore; in others it occupies cavities resembling those of the amygdaloids. It is sometimes found in a powdery form; but at others it is com- pacted into a solid substance, bearing the marks of a crystal- line structure, and somewhat translucent. Although it appears to be in abundance, when the specimens that contain it are broken, that effect is only the consequence of the brilliancy and contrast of its colour with the black and dark grey of the sur- rounding chromate of iron. It would be very difficult to collect many grains of it in a separate state from any of the fragments of the black ore which I examined. The green oxide is accompanied by a yellow oxide of chrome, in cavities generally distinct from it, but sometimes intermixed, and in somewhat less abundance. This latter is more generally in the form of powder than the green. As the green oxide of chrome changes to yellow by heating it, M. Vauquelin appears to think that these are distinct oxides; but this point does not seem to have as yet been very satisfactorily examined. For the present purposes, it will, at any rate, be more conve- nient to consider them merely as varieties of one mineral 220 Miscellaneous Intelligence. species. Those mineralogical writers who are desirous of in- creasing the number of species may easily follow a different course. The mineral distinction of the oxide of chrome may be com- prised in the following terms : OxiprE or Crome.—This mineral is of a bright grass green colour, or else pale yellow; and is found either in a powdery or acompact form. In the former case, the aspect is dull; in the latter, the lustre resembles that of compactly crystallized lime- stone, or marble. It either invests surfaces, or fills cavities in chromate of iron. Its specific gravity hgs not been examined. It is soluble by boiling in the alkalies, and communicates to them a green colour; but the solution is decomposed by further boiling, and the oxide is precipitated. By this character, and by its com- municating a green tinge to glass, before/the blow-pipe, it may be recognised and distinguished. It occurs in Unst, one of the Shetland Isles. Lest your readers should conceive that I had fallen into an error, in describing this mineral as new, I ought to add to this communication, that the oxide of chrome, described in Mon- sieur Lucas’s arrangement of minerals, is a very different sub- stance, and, I may add, improperly named. I need not quote from a book which is in the hands of many mineralogists. It is sufficient to remark, that his mineral is a compound substance, into which the oxide in question enters only as an ingredient. It would be proper that its name should be changed, to prevent confusion; the right of possession is clearly in the present substance.—I am, yours, &c. Shetland, August, 1820. J. Mac Curtocn. 4. On Fullers’ Earth in Chalk, by the Rey. C. P. N. Wilton, Gloucester.—The situation of the chalk-pit, in which the fullers’ earth is found, is upon the side of a hill, forming part of the range of the South Downs, in Sussex, immediately above the village of Bepton, from whence that portion of the downs derives the name of Bepton-hill. It is distant three miles and a half, south, from the town of Midhurst. The elevation of that part of the hill, where the chalk is situated, above the level of the village, is about 400 feet. Upon my first entering the pit, in the month of May, 1820, I was struck with the appearance of an horizontal layer, consisting of a greenish brown earth, passing into yellowish white and brown; which, upon examination, was found to contain the characteristic qualities of fullers’ earth. The layer varied from three to four inches in thickness; and was about a foot below the surface of the hill, having the chalk, which is of the upper formation, as well above as below it. The pit abounds with beautiful chalk specimens of different Natural History. 221 varieties of zoophytes; and is remarkable, for containing near its summit, stalactites in the interstices of the chalk. The only flints I observed in the pit, were a few detached pieces, both angular and rounded, interspersed throughout the chalk. This pit having been worked but a few feet below the surface, no horizontal layers of flints present themselves; though in - others, in the neighbourhood of this pit, worked to a greater depth, in the same range of the downs, and in the same chalk formation, they abundantly occur. 5. Discovery of Retinasphaltum in the Independent Coal é Formation. Dear Sir,—In pursuance of your request, I send you the following account of the Retinasphaltum in this vicinity. It occurs in the Independent Coal Formation, of the south part of Staffordshire. I found the first specimen about two years ago, near a village called Rowley; and have since perceived it at Oldbury, West Bromwich, and Tipton, but not in large quan- tities, as it is by no means a common mineral. The coal in which itis found, is chiefly composed of mineral charcoal, or car- bonized wood, and the presence of retinasphaltum in it strength- ens the idea, that some of the older species of coal owe their origin, at least partially, to ancient forests. Retinasphaltum has been hitherto considered as peculiar to the very recent forma- tion of wood coal, at Bovey, near Chudleigh, in Devonshire ;~ but this affords an instance of it in a very different geological situation. I have deposited specimens of it, and some other local fossils, in the collection of minerals belonging to the Bir- mingham Philosophical Institution, where they may be seen. The following appear to me to be its characters, but as it has been subjected to chemical analysis by Professor Brande, per- haps that gentleman will give any farther description that may be required. It forms thin layers, about one-sixteenth of an inch in thickness, parallel with the lamina of the coal; its colour is blackish brown and brownish yellow; on rubbing it becomes very light brown; it is very brittle and light. On applying the flame of a candle, it takes fire with great rapidity, emitting bright white sparks and flame, and an aromatic smell. It is par- tially soluble in alcohol.—I have the honour to be, Sir, Your most faithful and obedient servant, Joun Fincu, Birmingham, March 15, 1821. To Charles Hatchett, Esq., Belle-Vue House, Chelsea. I have examined this substance, now discovered by Mr. Finch for the first time, associated with ordinary coal, and find that it, in all respects, resembles the retinasphaltum, as described by Mr. Hatchett, in the Philosophical Transactions. at fu 222 \ 6. Meteorological Observations at Melville Island. Abstract of the Register of the Thermometer and Barometer during ten months, at Winter Harbour, Melville Island, North Georgia, 1819 and 1820. Latitude 74° 47’ 18”, Longitude 110° 48’ 30” W. THERMOMETER. BAROMETER. ini- “3 Mini- Mini-| yyean, | Range,| M&z* in| stem [ane ° fo} fo) inches. inches.| inches 1819. October. 51-28 |— 3.46 5 || 30.32 | 29.1 | 29.813 November -47 |—20.6 30.32 | 29.63 | 29.945 December -—43 |—21.79 30.755] 29.1 | 29.865 1820. January —47 |—30.09 30.77 | 29.59 | 30.078 February —50 |—32.19 30.15 | 29.32 | 29.769 March . —40 |—18.1 30.26 | 29. 29.803 April .. —32 |— 8.37 30.86 | 29.4 | 29.978 AY s+ « — 4 |+16.66 30.48 | 29.25 | 30.109 June_:. +28 1|+36.24 30.13 | 29.5 | 29.823 July alee +32 |+42.4 30.01 | 29.13 | 29.668 Remarks.—The thermometer was fixed, during the winter, on the south side of a david projecting from the ship’s side, and was usually from 3° to 6° higher than one suspended freely in the air at a distance from the ship. This difference increased as the summer advanced, and the sun rose sufli- ciently above the horizon to heat the ship, amounting latterly to 15° or even 20° about noon. The thermometer was, of course, always shifted to the shaded side of the ship or david. Pe ete Sie SOBRSOHN On the 15thof February, at 6 P.M., a thermometer suspended freely in the air ata distance from the ship stood at — 55°, be- ing the lowest degree registered during the winter. The very low temperatures were invariably in calm and clear weather; the rise of the Thermometer being the immediate con- sequence of a breeze springing up, and being proportioned to its strength. The Barometer rose with northerly and westerly, and fell with southerly and easterly winds, but it was not so decided that the indications preceded the changes as itis stated to be in more southern climates. We are indebted for the above abstract to Captain Edward Sabine, and much regret that an opportunity has not been af- forded us of communicating to our readers a similar abstract of a variety of important and interesting experiments and observa- tions made by that gentleman during the Polar expedition. We shall anxiously look for them in Captain Parry’s narrative about to be published. 7. Chromate of Tron in the Island of Unst. To the Eprror. _ Sir,—The paragraph respecting the discovery of chromate of iron in Shetland, which appeared in a late Number of your ————————_———_-~-—:-::ti (ast a Miscellaneous Intelligence. 223 Journal, escaped my observation, until pointed out tome by a friend. That I found the chromate of iron, in the island of Unst, in the year 1803, as stated in your Journal, is true; but, having mistaken it for another mineral, and not having published any subsequent notice of it when I ascertained its nature, the honour of that discovery is justly due to Dr. Hibbert. As far as I recollect, there has appeared no notice of my visit to Shet- land, except what is contained in my hasty letter to Mr. Neill; ‘and I owe it to the public, to explain how my name has been connected with the discovery. _ During my only visit to Unst, I found a substance which, at first, 1 conjectured to be horn-blende; but its great specific gravity induced me to consider it as an ore of iron. It is thus ‘noticed in my original notes, taken on the spot, and still in my possession: ‘‘In the serpentine, find some veins of micaceous tron-ore?” On comparing it with mineralogical descriptions, I was unable to assign it a place in my collection, until several years afterwards, when the sight of some specimens of chromate of iron, from America, led me to examine the mineral from Unst; and | became satisfied of their being of the same nature. Since that time, it has been arranged in my collection (now depo- sited in our Royal Institution), as a specimen of chromate of © iron from Shetland; and as such it has been shewn in my lectures. But as I consider priority of publication the fairest claim to the merit of discovery, I regard Dr. Hibbert as entitled to the honour of having added an article of considerable import- ance in the arts to the native productions of our common country.—I have the honour to be, Sir, Your most obedient Servant, Tuomas STEWART TRAILL. Liverpool, March 14, 1821. IV. Genera LiTERaTuRE, &c. 1. Recent Discovery of a Fragment of Art in Newfoundland.— A discovery has been made in Newfoundland, during the last summer, which, trifling as the object is, has not a little exer- cised the conjectures of the antiquarians of that island. About half a mile from the shores of Gander Bay, there was found a fragment of a small pillar of white marble. This fragment is octangular; about 18 inches long, and 10 inches in diameter. Its surface is as much corroded by the effects of the weather, as those parts of the statues of the Parthenon which have suf- fered most. It is probable, consequently, that it has lain there for a considerable time. It cannot have been left in ballast, because it is half a mile inland, and because no ships can come within three-quarters of a mile of the shore of this place. This part of the country 224 Natural EHistory. is not inhabited, and no similar stones, or works of art, could be found on searching in the same neighbourhood. I must also observe, that the texture of this marble is very remark- able, resembling none that I have ever seen, and perfectly different from any of those used in sculpture or architecture. It is of a yellowish white colour. The texture is in some places crystalline granular, of a large grain; but there are every where intermixed with it parts of very complicated curvatures; capa- ble of being separated in succession, in parallel curved lamine as thin as paper. These scaly concretions are sometimes an inch or more in dimension. Besides this, there are found dis- tinct irregular lamine of hard calcareous clay, or very argil- laceous earthy limestone dispersed through the stone. If the Newfoundland antiquaries cannot settle this obscure point, it must be left to the ingenuity of those who have reasoned so ably on the works of ancient art, found in many parts of America. In tracing the migration of Asiatic nations thither, it is easy to settle a colony, and build a city, in Newfoundland. J. M. 2. Consumption of Food in Paris, for 1819. Wine............hectolitres, 805,499 or 21265173.6 galls. Brandy 8 suave ditto 43,849 1157413.6 Cider and perry... .ditto 15,919 420261.6 BEST Me Otiietelnotanee ditto 71,896 1898054.4 Vinegar..........ditto 20,756 547958.4 Oxtn 260. us & heady 70,819 Cows ..... Pere eeatto 3,561 Ditto, milch ......ditto 2,918 Calves ...... «ditto 67,719 SRECP, eos. sess .. ditto 329,070 HOGS Ss). 6k gg ine Gitto 64,822 Oysters ......+...ditto 821,618 34,234 Fresh-water fish. . . .ditto 502,780 20,949 Poultry and game . .ditto 7,161,402 298,392 TRQEEL. |. sa cn siece © epORtLO 7,105,533 296,064 PIPES. 5s one ah e.e vs SAEtO 3,676,502 153,187 Hay. .ccsceoss o>» trusses 7,822,640 Slaw seve a cees om Clik 11,054,371 Oats.....e0..+00--hectolitres 923,022 24,367,781 gall, SELECT LIST OF NEW PUBLICATIONS, DURING THE LAST THREE MONTHS. AGRICULTURE, RuraL, anp Domtstic Economy. A Description of a new Agricultural Instrument, which, by the power of one Horse, performs a variety of operations in cultiva- tion, at the rate of three acres per day ; by Major-General Alex. Beatson, 8vo. The Farmer’s and Grazier’s Guide, by L. Towne, 8vo. 10s. The Miller’s Guide; or a Treatise on the Manufacture of Flour, and on the Milling Business. By John Miller, 8vo. 10s. 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The combustion of smoke is another branch of this in- quiry, and, although but lightly touched upon in the following paper, shall not be forgotten. The absurdities which have of late been authoritatively thrust upon the public in relation to it, are so gross, as to merit more serious and extended notice than it is in our power to bestow upon them ; but we shall humbly contribute whatever is within our reach to rectify the errors that have been diffused, and to show the inanity of the promises, with which this subject has lately been ushered into notice. ] THE action of the sun’s rays on the surface of the earth, and the consequent accumulation of sensible heat is a most in- structive lesson, for the best mode of applying artificial heat for warming buildings; and our best ideas of ventilation are derived from those mechanical changes in the atmosphere occa- sioned by the rarefaction of the air, from the heat it acquires in contact with the earth’s surface. If the earth were perfectly transparent, or had a surface capable of perfect reflection, it would not be at all heated by the sun’s rays; and our atmo- sphere, supposing it to exist under such circumstances, would be destitute of those changes which are daily evinced in an Vox, XI. R 230 On Warming and Ventilating infinite variety of currents. If the substance of the earth were a much better conductor of heat, we should experience less extremes of heat and cold upon its surface. The summer-heat would be more rapidly absorbed by the earth, and the rigour of winter would be much diminished by the heat derived from the earth in the sun’s absence. The nature of soils, as regards their conducting power, has doubtless a great influence in limiting the extremes of temperature in winter and summer. The heat produced on any part of the earth’s surface, will be the greatest where the rays of the sun are vertical, and the surface of such a nature as to receive the rays with the greatest fa- cility, its substratum being, at the same time, the worst con- ductor of heat. The air immediately in contact with this sur- face becomes heated, and specifically lighter than its super- stratum. This causes, im the first instance, two simultaneous currents; one perpendicularly upwards, and the other, a lateral one from all the surrounding parts towards the centre of the heated surface. After the ascending current has attained a certain altitude, it progressively assumes an oblique and ulti- mately a lateral direction, but in an inverse order to that of the lower stratum. By this beautiful. provision of natural eco- nomy, the heated air of the torrid zone, and the chilling cur- rents from the polar regions mutually contribute to the preven- tion of those extremes of heat and cold, which would otherwise be fatal to every class of animated beings. : To form some idea of the effect which would result from a vertical sun upon a good reflecting surface, such as a black soil, unattended by the currents of air above alluded to, we have only to observe the heat generated in hot-houses ; in which case the heated air is to a certain degree prevented from as- cending, and consequently the lateral current from coming in. The heat produced by these means, therefore, will be greater in proportion to the blackness and lightness of the soil, to the tightness of the surrounding walls and windows, and the per- pendicularity of the sun’s rays. Hence we see the importance of\our atmosphere independently of its agency in respiration. Without it, bodies would receive their heat on those parts only Houses and other Buildings. 231 which are exposed to the direct rays, and would become un- equally heated in the inverse ratio of their conducting power. When bodies are immersed in a heated medium, such as in air or water, they receive their heat on every side; and it has been found by experience, that this mode of applying heat is of particular importance in the economy of animals and vegetables. Nothing can be more unphilosophical than the common mode of warming ordinary rooms by open grates. To put an ex- treme case of this mode of warming, we have only to instance the effect of making a fire in the open air. In this instance, there is free access for the ascent of the rarefied current, and the lateral current rushing towards the fire is felt on every side, supposing no natural breeze prevailed. The effect of this cold current is so conspicuous on the human body, that few unac- customed to such exposure would escape some variety of those affections called colds. Our common dwellings approach this extreme case in pro- portion to the size of the fire, the width of the chimney, and the access of cold air by the doors and windows. In every case, as much cold air must be admitted as will effect the combustion of the fuel, and supply the demands of respiration. The air which would be barely sufficient for these purposes, ‘coming immediately from a cold atmosphere into rooms with grates even of the best construction, will ever be a barrier to that comfort which we ought to experience, and which by the aid of other means can be easily attained. Notwithstanding the absolute necessity of admitting a certain portion of fresh air into every room, it is a common practice with builders to make doors and windows so tight as frequently to be the sole cause of a smoky chimney. To obviate this evil, some have let in a certain quantity of atmospheric air under or near to the fire grate. By this expedient, those sitting around the fire are not annoyed by the cold current, but an inconve- nience arises from this contrivance, which more than counterba- lances its benefits. The air entering the room so near the fire immediately supplies the current up the chimney without chang- ing the air of the room. A crowded room, and the presence of R 2 232 On Warming and Ventilating a number of lights, would, under such an arrangement, soon render the air unfit to breathe. Hence will appear the necessity for two currents into aroom. The inlet for fresh air should be ina situation not liable to annoy those sitting in the room ; the outlet is generally provided for in the chimney, which is commonly suf- ficient for rooms of ordinary size, but is mostly too small for large public rooms. It will be evident from what has been observed, that in order to render rooms comfortable and wholesome, two objects are required. The one is, to keep up an uniform and agreeable tempe- rature; the other to provide for a change of the air sufficient to preserve that degree of purity essential to health, and which per- sons under certain pulmonary affections can so nicely appreciate. It is evident that the former of these objects can never be at- tained by radiant heat; and yet, an open fire, which scarcely affords any other than radiant heat, is so connected with our domestic habits that it will be very long before the open grate will be entirely set aside. Under these circumstances, it has been found most expedient to use the combined effect of radiant heat with a constant supply of fresh air, raised to an agreeable temperature in the winter; and which, in certain cases may be cooled during the excessive heat of summer. Great difficulties have been experienced in most of the means hitherto employed for warming air. In the first place, from what has been previously observed concerning the action of the solar rays on the earth, the air cannot be warmed by radiant heat passing through it ; therefore we can only give heat to a trans- parent fluid by bringing its particles in contact with a heated surface, and, in proportion as elastic fluids are more expansible, they are heated with more difficulty. There are a number of properties which a body should possess, to afford a surface proper for heating air intended to warm and ventilate rooms. For the sake of economy it should be agood conductor of heat, in order that the radiant heat which it receives on one surface may be freely transmitted to the other, The surface to be heated should be clean, that is, free from any foreign matter, but not polished; and when the temperature Houses and other Buildings. O33 can be limited, it should never, under any circumstances be allowed to exceed 300°. Metals appear to be the best substan- ces for heating air. The temperature is limited to 300° because the animal and vegetable matter, which is found mechanically mixed with the air at all times, will be decomposed if the tem- perature be raised a little higher. When this decomposition takes place, as is very observable when the heated surface is red hot, certain elastic fluids and vapours are produced, which give to the air a peculiar odour, and a deleterious quality which never fails to affect the health of those who inhale it for a length of time. This oppressive sensation has been mostly felt in churches and other places where large iron stoves are used and are sometimes heated to redness. The peculiar odour accompany- ing it has been erroneously attributed to the iron; and on this account, earthen ware or stone has been employed to form the exterior surface of the stove. It will, however, be found that whatever be the material, if the temperature at all approaches a red heat, the same smell will be perceived; as it arises entirely from the decomposition of the matter which is in the air, and not from the heating body. This matter is very visible to the naked eye, in a sunbeam let into a dark room. ~ When earthen ware or stone has been employed for stoves, its inferior conducting power has seldom allowed the exterior surface to get sufficiently hot, to produce the effect on the air above alluded to. And hence it has been less objectionable as affecting the purity of the air. It must however be admitted, that if the body used for heat- ing the air, does not undergo any change, a metal from its being a good conductor must be preferred to any other substance. Silver or platina, if it were not for the expense, would set aside every prejudice. But long experience has shown that iron possesses every essential property. The slightly oxydated sur-. face which is common to all iron coming from the forge or the mould in casting, is well fitted for receiving radiant heat. And if its temperature be kept below a red heat, there does not appear to be any limit to its durability. The latter point, there- 234 On Warming and Ventilating fore, is put out of all doubt, since it is essential, that the iron shall not be heated to a degree capable of decomposing animal and vegetable matter, in order to preserve the purity of the air which is warmed in contact with its surface. With a view to ensure the above objects, it will be necessary to dispose of the heat as itis produced from the combustion of the fuel, in such a way, that an extensive surface of iron shall be heated uniformly without the risk of attaining a much higher temperature than 300°. This can be accomplished by making the fire of a size proportionate to the interior surface of * an iron vessel, and it is found that radiant heat is much more efficacious than the heat produced by flame and conducting flues. Having heated the interior surface of an iron vessel it may be conceived that the exterior surface will quickly attain the same degree, and that whatever heat may be carried off from the exterior will be as quickly given from the interior, and in- stantly replaced by the radiant fire. The next material object is the means of disposing of the heat from the exterior surface. If it be surrounded by an open space, and that be connected with a flue or tunnel of a certain height, supposing there to be no inlet at the bottom, or outlet at the top, the air will commence a ‘circulation; that on the heated surface ‘would ascend, and its place be as constantly supplied by the surrounding air. In this way two currents will be established ; one ascending from the heated surface, and the other descending on the outside of the tunnel ; and these currents will go on, as long as any difference of density exists in the air of the different parts of the surrounding space. If now an opening be made in the bottom of this tunn.! and another at the top, an ascending current will be kept up ; which will be as the differ- ence of density between external air and that of the heated column, and as the square root of the height of the tunnel. Let D be the density of the external air ; d, that in the tunnel, which will be inversely as the heat supplied. V =the yelocity which a heavy body would acquire by i on Houses and other Buildings. 235 falling through the height of the tunnel; and v =the velocity of the ascending air. Then ee | This equally applies to chimneys, d being the density of the smoke. The mere exposure of the heated surface in an open space, such as a small room, is not sufficient to produce the greatest effect. This is, however, the method at present used by sugat-bakers for heating the rooms in which they expose their sugars. The vessel so employed is of cast iron, and is called a cockle. Various modifications of this method of heating air have been employed. The wal] surrounding the heated vessel has been placed at various distances, in order to find the maximum of effect of a given fire. It was considered a great improve- ment, to place the wall at a distance, to admit of a sufficient quantity of air, and make a number of apertures in the wall, about two and a half inches square, with a view to compel the air to blow upon the heated surface. This method was em- ployed more than thirty years ago, by William Strutt, Esq., of Derby, in his cotton-works. He afterwards made a great improvement on this plan, by inserting tubes in the apertures in the wall reaching near to the heated surface. By these means, the air is prevented from ascending before it comes in contact with the heated surface. A further improvement was made in this apparatus, by inserting similar tubes over the surface of the cockle, the shape of which was a square prism with a groined top. The cold air was made to pass through one _ half of the tubes; and the air so heated, became still more heated by being compelled to pass in a contrary order through the other half, into a chamber above, called the air-chamber. The stove, thus improved, has been employed by Messrs. Strutts in their works ever since, with complete success, and is simi- lar to that by which the Derbyshire General Infirmary is warmed. This stove has been fixed in different parts of the country and in London, sometimes with success; but so many circumstances besides the stove itself interfere, in arrange- 236 On Warming and Ventilating ments of this kind, that the plan has failed in many instances. And such will ever be the case with the best inventions, in the hands of men who are unacquainted with the principles on which they are founded. Nothing can be more obvious, than the decided advantage which this stove possesses over all others, and nothing re- mained for its improvement but to give its different parts their proper proportions, and to vary its construction, so as to admit of its easy management in domestic use. By the former im- provement, a larger quantity of air is admitted in proportion to the fuel consumed, and of course at a lower temperature. The advantages which result from this improvement will be ob- vious. The ventilation of the rooms warmed by it, is much more complete from a greater quantity of air being admitted ; the temperature is more uniform, from the air being more dis- persed; and, lastly, from the air being heated bya greater surface at a lower temperature, the apparatus is not in the least degree injured by the fire, and hence there does not appear to be any limit to its durability. Nothing can be more vague and uncertain, than the opinions which have been forméd of the different apparatus used for warming rooms by heated air. It has in consequence appeared to me a desideratum in inquiries of this nature, to be able to ascertain the power and merits of a stove, as we do those of an engine. For this purpose, my first object was to get an in- strument capable of measuring the velocity of currents. After trying a variety of methods, I have found one with which I am perfectly satisfied. It consists of a very light brass wheel, in the form of that for the first motion of a smoke-jack. An end- less screw upon the same axis gives motion to a wheel of fifty teeth, on the axis of which is an index, which is watched by the eye, when the instrument is exposed to the current. The wheel acted on by the current, is about two and a half inches in diameter, and the vanes or sails are eight in number, and fill up the whole circle, when their faces are parallel to the plane of their motion, and they are adjusted to an angle of 45°, Under these circumstances, I have found that fifty re- Houses and other Buildings. 237 volutions of the first motion take place, while the current causing those revolutions moves through forty-six feet. In order to ascertain the power and merits of a stove, I ge- nerally take a period of twelve hours, beginning with a good fire, and leaving off with the same. During this time, the velo- city and temperature in the main warm air-flue should be taken every half hour, and then the average of each taken, keeping an account of the coal consumed in the same time. The tem- perature of the outer air being also known, the excess of the average temperature above the atmosphere is the datum required. From the average velocity, the number of cubic feet of air passing through the flue in the twelve hours may be known. Put A= The number of pounds of air heated in twelve hours, allowing 14 cubic feet of air to 1b. T = The excess of temperature above that of the atmos- phere. W = The weight in pounds of coal consumed in the same time. : E = The effect of the stove, which, in stoves of all sizes on the same construction, should be generally a con- stant quantity: Since A the quantity, and T the excess of temperature, are advantages to be pro- duced by W the weight of coal. E, the effect, will be directly as A and T, and inversely as W.. Therefore, E = hove W To give an example in practice :—A stove which is capable of warming 100,000 cubic feet of space to 60° in the coldest season, when placed at the depth of nine feet below the level at which the warm air is discharged, will furnish about 45 cubic feet every second, raised 60 degrees above the tempe- rature of the atmosphere. To keep up this current and excess of temperature for twelve hours, it will consume not more than three bushels of coals, or 252]bs. Jn this case, 49 cubic feet of air in each second will be 1,944,000 in twelve hours, equal 138,857 x 60 | to 138,857 lbs. Hence E = a pe 32,930. This 5 238 On Warming and Ventilating number may be taken as a constant quantity, expressive of the power of any stove; but it also expresses the weight of air in pounds, which one pound of Newcastle coal heats one degree of Fahrenheit’s thermometer. This number will not be strictly a constant quantity, as small stoves will not act quite to the same advantage as larger ones ; and local and other circumstances will in some degree alter the result of experiments made in the manner above stated. This is more especially the case, when the admission of cold air and the discharge of foul air, are in any degree influenced by the wind. The cold air is generally brought directly from the atmo- sphere; and, therefore, as its progress along this channel is af- fected by the wind, a greater or less quantity will pass through the stove. If the air be deficient, less heat is carried off from the heating surface, and a greater proportion goes up the chim- ney ; on the contrary, when the wind blows into the cold air-flue, the two forces conspire, more air is admitted, more heat is car- ried off with the air, and of course less is wasted up the smoke-flue. In all situations where it is practicable, I use an effectual means of regulating the admission of cold and the escape of foul air, by placing at the commencement and termination of these apertures a turn-cap or cowl, im which the vanes are so fixed as to let the wind blowinto the one, and assist the escape of air from the other. Although this contrivance will always pre- vent a counter current, which without its use is sometimes the case; it does not prevent unequal quantities of air from enter- ing, according to the strength of the wind. This is not found in practice to be a great inconvenience ; for during the most per- fect calm, the air admitted by the power of the stove alone, is sufficient for every purpose of warmth and ventilation: whilst with a tolerable fire in the stove when the wind is considerable, the air comes into the rooms at a higher temperature than the rooms require which is at least erring on the desirable side. If the quantity of air admitted under all states of the wind were required to be uniform, the aperture in the turn-cap for cold air Houses and other Buildings. 239 might contain a self-adjustment, by the action of which its area would always be in the inverse ratio of the velocity of the wind ; by which means equal quantities of air would always be admitted in equal times. The turn-cap for the escape of foul air is placed at the top of the building, and is made common to the roof. Under this ar- rangement all the rooms into which the warm air is admitted have each a foul air flue terminating in the cayity of the roof. The contents of all the foul-air flues are therefore ultimately discharged at the turn-cap. This arrangement is adopted at the Derbyshire General Infirmary, and at the Wakefield Lunatic Asylum. In the summer season, when the stove is not in action, the ventilation will depend on the wind, which at some periods may not be adequate to that change of air re- quired in hospitals. In such cases I have adopted an addi- tional means of ventilation. Instead of making the foul-air turn-cap common to the roof, I have placed it at the top of a cylindrical cavity built in the roof. Into this cavity I bring all the foul-air flues, which also in this case may be smoke- flues, if constructed with brick. I also connect with the same cavity, the stove chimney, and, if possible all the other smoke- flues in the building, By this means, it may be expected, that some degree of rarefaction in the cylindrical cavity in the roof will be constantly going on, and that hence a perpetual current will be established from every room towards the general outlet. It would be difficult to adapt such an arrangement to old buildings, without great alteration in the roof. But it would be easily introduced into new houses. The advantages derived from it in ordinary dwellings.would be very great. In the first place, there could not be an instance of a smoky chimney ; in the next, a down current in an unoccupied chimney could not occur, and therefore the passage of the smoke of one chimney down another would always be prevented ; and lastly, by having only one outlet for smoke in every house, and that an object which may be made ornamental, we should ultimately get rid of the great deformity which arises from the present ap- pearance of chimneys in buildings. 240 On the Height of the In all situations where it is practicable to make a cold air flue, of considerable length under ground, the advantage is well worth securing. I have found by experience that a cold air-flue of 50 yards in length is capable of cooling the air in summer to about an arithmetical mean between the temperature of the air and the earth, and a similar advantage is produced by the earth warming the air in the winter season. The shape of the cold air-flue should be such as to present the greatest possible surface ; the very contrary being essential to the best construction of flues for the warm air. These facts will successfully lead to the means of cooling buildings in the tropical climates, and of warming the air when the winter’s cold is much below the temperature of the earth. Great Russel-street, Bloomsbury, May, 1821. Art. II. On the Height of the Dhawalagiri, the White Mountain of Himalaya. By H. T. Coreprooke, Esq. [Communicated by the Author. ] In an essay on the height of the Himdlaya Mountains, which was inserted in the 12th volume of Researches of the Asiatic Society, I offered reasons for the opinion of their great eleva- tion: relying especially on the measurement of the White Mountain, emphatically so named, which towers above the rest of the snowy peaks seen from the plains of Hindustan. Its height was computed, from three sets of observations, taken by Captain Webb, at 27,551 feet above the observer’s stations in Gorakhpir ; or 27,677 feet, making that allowance for refraction, which was found to bring the result of the several observations nearest to agreement. Even assuming all errors to be onone side, and in the extreme, it would appear to be 26,862 feet at the lowest computation. But such extremity of errors is hardly presumable ; and considering the supposition of compensation of errors, and ordinary rather than extraordinary refraction, to be more likely correct, the inference was that the White Moun- tain may be about 27,600 feet above Gorakhpir, or nearly 28,000 feet above the level of the sea. White Mountain of Himalaya. 241 Arguments were likewise deduced from observations of Colonel R. Hyde Colebrooke and Colonel Crawford, for the alti- tude of other lofty peaks; many exceeding 22,000 feet, and some rising to 24,000, and even 25,000 feet. These calculations and estimates of elevation were exhibited as a mere approach towards a determination of the true height, yet substantiating the general position that the Himdlaya is the loftiest known range of mountains; its most elevated peaks greatly exceeding the highest of the Andes. That position, as well as the approximated determination of heights on which it was grounded, has been controverted. But the course of political events having since afforded facility of access which was before denied by the jealousy of the Gurkhdlt Mountaineers, accurate measurements, both barometric and trigonometric, of a great number of points, in the vicinity of the upper Ganges, Jumna, and Setlej rivers, have been carefully taken by different Surveyors, which irrefragably establish the general position of the transcendent altitude of the Humdlaya: and a great multitude of peaks have been determined, which exceed 22,000 feet; a few rising above 23,000; and one mea- sured by Captain Webb, no less than 25,669 feet. These however do not equal the stupendous altitude of Dhawalagiri, or the White Mountain; also named Gésékéti. The routes of travels and surveys have not hitherto been di- rected to its vicinity. Their direction has been towards the upper Ganges and the Se¢lej. The more easterly mountains, toward the sources of the great Gandhac, have not been ap- proached; and the measurement of the White Mountain, taken from the plains of Gorakhpiir, is yet to be confirmed by obser- vations from nearer stations. Previously, however, to the occurrence of those events, which have beenalluded toas having laid open the mountainous confines of Hindustan to research, observations had been again made in the plains of Gorakhpur to determine the elevation of Dhawala- giri, on the same principle on which Captain Webb proceeded during his previous survey in that province, Captain Blake, to whose labours these further observations are due, has been so 242 On the Height of the good as to communicate to me the particulars of them: I subjoin his letter. The height of Dhawalagirt and four contiguous mountains has been computed from the data furnished by Captain Blake’s survey; using the formula which I gave in the 12th volume of Asiatic Researches; and taking terrestrial refraction at one eleventh of the contained arc, which is the estimated mean quantity of ordinary refraction. The elements of the compu- tation are exhibited in a tabular form accompanying. The elevation of Dhawalagiri, taking the mean of three sets of observations, is thus found to be 27,615 feet above the plains of Gérakhpir, or 28,015 above the sea; differing only 64 feet from the computation founded on Captain Webb’s survey. Or allowing for terrestrial refraction one twelfth of the base; which was the rate that appeared to bring the result of the different observations taken by Captain Webb, nearest to agree- ment; the elevation of Dhawalagiri, deducible from the later survey, is 27,704 feet above Gorakhpir, or 28,104 above the sea; differing from that deduced from the former survey by no more than 27 feet. This near coincidence authorizes an expectation, that the true height of Dhawalagiri, when it shall be accurately deter- _ mined, will be found very little wide of 28,000 feet. Captain Blake’s survey determines likewise the positions and altitudes of four other conspicuous mountains in the vi- cinity of Dhawalagiri. About thirty-six miles east of it, and equally distant from the plain, is a mountain which rises to the height of 23,708 feet above Gorakhpir, or 24,108 feet above the sea. Nearly midway between them, but somewhat less remote, is situated a mountain called Set-ghar* or Nepal; its position, as the last mentioned name implies, is near to Nepal proper. The elevation of the summit is 24,861 feet above the level of Gorakhpir, or 25,261 feet above that of the sea. Twenty miles west of Dhawalagiri, but less remote from the * Probably Swétaghar, or the White Tower. White Mountain of Himalaya. 243 plains, are two peaks, rising from the same mountain mass, for they are but four and a half miles asunder. The highest of the two is Chandragiri, or Mountain of the Moon, a name common to many others. Its elevation is 22,607 feet; that of the con- tiguous lower peak is 21,535 feet above Gérakhpér ;.or'23,007 feet and 21,935 feet respectively, above the sea. These altitudes, though much short of Dhawalagiri, tend to corroborate the estimate of its great elevation: for it may be seen in Captain Blake’s sketch of the appearance of this por- tion of the snowy range, how greatly Dhawalagiri overtops the rest, lofty as they are. It is to be hoped that some traveller may be induced to visit the Himdlaya in that quarter, and explore the great Gandhaki river to its source at the foot of Dhawalagiri, and de- termine the elevation of the mountain by observations at the nearest accessible heights. Besides other subjects of research, it presents one of much interest in the abundance of organic remains there found: for it is thence that devout Hindus are supplied with Ammonites, an object of their idolatrous worship, under the appellation of Sdlagraéma. fe yee To H. T. Colebrooke, Esq. &c. §c. Se. Dear Sir, Having been appointed, by the Government of Bengal, in the year 1812, to survey the extensive province of Gorakhpir; that year, the whole of 1813, and part of 1814, were occupied in surveying the southern portion, or that division of the pro- vince, lying south of the Gograh, or Great Saryt. River. Proceeding northward, at the subsidence of the rains, in 1814, Ihad on the Ist of November near the village of Urwéra a distinct view of the snowy summits of the Himdlaya moun- tains; and from this station I took, with one of Troughton’s theodolites (of six inches radius), the bearings and elevations of five of the snowy peaks, being those that were most remark- able; of which three possess names, and two are anonymous : the former are well known to the inhabitants of the subjacent 244 On the Height of the champaign (situate southwest of the mountains from 60 to 140 miles) under the appellation of Chandragirt; Dhawalagzri, (or Gasah Kotee); and S¢égar, (or Nypal.) At this station, although distant nearly one hundred and forty miles, these mountains have on the whole the most sublime aspect: this may be at- tributed to the smaller range of dark hills being lost at that distance in the perspective, for upon a subsequent and nearer view, at the station of Maha deva diuriya, the smaller hills in- tercept a refracted portion of the great chain; I say refracted, for aright line drawn from the first station to the base of the snowy peaks, would (owing to the spherical figure of the earth) at that distance, pass far below the base of the smaller range. From this first station the bearings of the five snowy peaks (corrected for magnetic variation of 2° 13’ 39” East) are as follows, viz. Peak A. bearing N. 8° 23’ 39’ E., and elevation 1° 5’ B, or Chandragiri, N.10° 5’ 39’ E., and elevation 1° 7’ C, or Dhawalagirz, N.17° 13' 39" E., and elevation 1° 18’ D, or Seitgur (Nypal.) N. 26° 13’ 39’ E., and elevation 1° 15’ E, bearing N, 34° 43’ 39" E., and elevation 1° 6’. From station No. 1, I proceeded to the north side of the town of Bansi, which I shall call station No. 2, the latter station bearing from the former (allowing for magnetic variation) N. 14° 30’ E., and distant as inferred from survey (protracted on a scale of two miles to the inch) 25,3, British statute miles. From hence the bearings (allowance being made for magnetic variation as before) and elevations are as follows, viz. : A, bearing N. 6° 46’ 39’ E., and elevation 1° 41’ 15” B, N. 9° 3°39” E., and elevation 1° 45’ C, N. 18° 1’ 39” E., and elevation 1° 56’ 30’ D, 29° 3’ 39” and elevation 1° 53’ E. N. 36° 47’ 39” E., and elevation 1° 33’. At this station (No. 2,) on the 3rd November at day-break, the Himdlaya displayed an exceeding white appearance, and the sun’s rays passing through a red cumulo-stratus cloud, coloured White Mountain of Himalaya. 245 the snowy peaks on their prominent parts only, with a most beautiful pink tint. This took place a long time before the sun rose with us. | The first aggressions of the Goorkahs commenced in this pro- vince, by murdering some of the police, a T’hanadar and two or three others, who had been but a short time previous to the catastrophe in attendance, with me, to point out the boundaries of their respective districts. The Goorkahs were at this period posted near to our route, in defiance of the division of the army, which had been some time assembled under thé com- mand of General Sulivan Wood at Gorrukpoor; the alarm created among my people, owing to our vicinity to the enemy, was so great, that it was scarcely conquerable by the utmost persuasion. A curious instance of the audacity, as well as Superstition of the enemy was current here, said to have occurred in this neighbourhood within amonth, A part of the Goorkah force came to the banks of the Répéi river (which runs close by this station) and sacrificed a pig, as a propitiatory offering for success in the existing war ; and on relating it to Co- lonel Fagan the adjutant-general of the army, he informed me, that upon the determination of the Goorkahs to war with us, they, horrid to relate, sacrificed in the mountains, a human being, as an offering for success to their arms. From the station No, 2, still proceeding northward, I arrived at station No. 3, (situate near to the village of Maha-Déva- Ditiriya,) bearing from No. 2 (corrected for magnetic variation), N. 8° E., and distant from the same (as inferred from survey) 16 British statute miles. From hence the snowy peaks bear and elevate as follows, viz. : A. N. 6° 48’ 39” E. elevation 2° 13’ 30’ B. N. 9° 22’ 39’E. elevation 2° 16’ C. N. 20° 47’ 39” E. elevation 2° 32’ D. ON. 32° 32’ 39” E. elevation 2° 26’ E. N. 41° 16’ 39” E. elevation 2° 1’ 246 Onthe Height of the At this station was distinctly heard the evening and morning guns of the Goorkah forces in the neighbourhood ; and the alarm created among my people increasing, in- duced me to bend my course westward, for a base line pa- rallel to the mountains, to ascertain their horizontal distance ; which, in three days, brought us to the village of Biskur, or station No. 4, bearing from station No. 3, (corrected for varia- tion as before), S$ 77° 46’ 21” W., and distant 242 British statute miles. From this station No. 4, the snowy peaks, corrected for variation, bear as follows: A. _N.20° 43’ 39” E, B. N.23° 5'39’E. C. _N.31° 55’ 39’E. D. N.42° 26’ 39” E. E. N.49° 13’ 39’E, The distances of the aforementioned five peaks resulting from trigonometrical measurements, (and contained in a former paper, which I had the honour of presenting to you,) approxi- mate to those distances, which result from the intersection of rhumb lines of the bearings of the peaks from the stations Nos. 3 and 4. I remain, &c, B. Brake. 247 White Mountain of Himalaya. OVLES | € sodee TOTES | 02 6076 E6696 | SV 198PZ5| G8LV% | VP OLGPS | OV TOL8% | OF GI9LGs| OEFLZ | OF SGCLG | OL 66966 L09GG}| 989ZG | GE GEPSS | EE SEIT GEST%)| BFPIZ% O0Z9 1% "yay *po.uajur uoeAalsy OD AFRNRARNRQAAMARANRQAARNR *pepuajqus asuy a *mOnoeAyox Jog paj2as109 “a ‘ CCF NORA RANT HNO R OM AHN SB BARS BRS SHAQ HABA *paatasqo apnjinyy oO st oO Co] [I Be Be Be Be Be BO) ce Be Be Bl oe ee “a “ ‘ ‘Oak pauTe}U0g OtL2e¢ | 66 0866¢ | FEIT O8fIZL | 29e1 OPPrSP | $16 orgege | F001 000869 | FIST OFFLIS | 86 009009 | FEIT O%6EEL | GEL oogcgr | tg oorsre | fol OSL189 | T6ZI O9LZSF | #S8 ozsses | F101 0FZ699 | £931 “jooy *so[lur “AONVISIC ‘surmjunoyy 2430 pun rubojomnyg fo qybrazy yz fo uornjndwoy MAMMA AMMMGHNANDMMAAMMDAAM “u0nerg ea. * + qedan Jo ‘1eySeyag 1]90-eseyyy fo ‘ImsepeaMeyq * wiserpueyo "NIVINDOWN af S$ 2 248 Remarks on Marine Arr. III. Remarks on Marine Luminous Animals. By J. Mac Cuttocn, M.D., F.RS , &c. [Communicated by the Author.] In my work on the Western Islands of Scotland, I had occa- sion to take notice of the causes which produce that beautiful appearance of light in sea water, so well known to seamen, and to all indeed who have been in the least conversant with the sea during the darkness of night. . I there attempted to prove, that if, in every case it did not arise from the action and pro- perties of living animals, but was sometimes owing to the lumin- ous matter of fish dispersed through the water, yet that all the most conspicuous appearances of this nature were produced by these, and that the brilliant sparks of light, in particular, were always to be traced to some of the vermes or insects, which abound in the waters of the sea. Ihave also given alist of such of these animals as had, by various naturalists, been found to possess this remarkable pro- perty; and had occasion to lament how circumscribed it was ; partly owing to the deficiency of observers in this department of Natural History, and partly owing to unfounded theories re- specting the nature and causes of-the light of the ocean; in consequence of which, those who possessed the opportunities of extending this examination, had neglected it. Ihave also observed that many animals either very minute, or absolutely microscopic, and invisible without the use of a lens, existed in the sea; and that the neglect of these more obscure creatures, had probably been one reason why the property of emitting light was referred to the water itself, when it was, in fact, owing to these unsuspected animals existing in it. The further investigation of this department of Natural His- tory, was, in that essay, recommended to those who might have opportunities of pursuing it, as the subject had not at that time practically engaged much of my time, being occupied by geolo- gical pursuits requiring undivided attention, and every leisure moment of the night being employed in registering the obser- vations of the day. But as itis not often that observers feel 1 Luminous Animals. 249 much interest in pursuing a track which has been laid down by their predecessors, unless perhaps for the purpose of controvert- ing or disputing the principles or facts on which it has been grounded, I thought it right to make use of such further oppor- tunities as might occur towards the accumulation of new matter on this subject, and towards confirming the opinions stated in the paper to which I have alluded. A voyage to the Shetland and Orkney Islands afforded these opportunities; and the result has been to confirm the former views, by a series of observations carried on daily for many weeks. By these a large addition has been made to the list of luminous animals which was given in that essay ; and it has been, in particular, proved, that the sea is very often crowded with worms and insects, often nearly invisible ; and that the Juminous property of the water, not only bears a relation to the existence and numbers of these at any time, but may almost always be traced to the individuals by which it is caused. Those who are acquainted with this obscure and much neglected department of Natural History, will not be sur- prised to hear that I cannot at present give names to the numerous individuals which I examined for this purpose. Among them are many objects, of which, not only the names are doubtful, but the very genera, and even the analogies, ob- ‘scure or uncertain. Many are absolutely unknown, and con- stitute new species which it will be my business to describe hereafter, when all the requisite comparisons have been made. - For the present purpose, it is as unnecessary, a3 it would be im- possible, to enter into details of so extensive a nature as would be required for assigning the names of the various animals in which I have now observed the property of emitting light, in addi- tion to that list which was given in the essay to which I have here referred. ; It will not be useless to those who may be inclined to pursue the same train of investigation, to describe the means which I adopted for examining the animals in question; while it will further the purpose of explaining the species of evidence by which I was satisfied respecting the nature of the objects which 250: Remarks on Marine were examined, and more particularly respecting their powers. of yielding light. Ifthere is any deficiency in the nature of this proof, as it relates to some of the more minute animals, there will still remain a considerable number to add to the list formerly given. It must in the first place be remarked, that the whole of these observations were confined to spaces in the sea never extending above 8 or 10 miles from land; and that they were very generally made in harbours. They cannot in fact be made at sea; at least in a small ship, unless it is smooth water: as the agitation of the water under examination, no less than that of the ob- Seryer’s person, renders it absolutely impossible to catch and detain the objects before a lens in such a manner as to examine or delineate them. At all times, even in harbour, it is suffi- ciently difficult from the motions of the animals themselves, to obtain’ ach views of them as to satisfy ourselves respecting the nature and characters of those which are minute, and of which the greater number are exceedingly restless and rapid in their movements. Although a great many of the animals which fell under my notice, were found at the distances from land which I have just mentioned, many were only discovered in harbours, and, nearly at all times they were far more abundant in these situations than in the open sea. Some of them, it is true, seem to disregard boisterous weather; but there were many which almost invari- ably disappeared on the coming in of a fresh gale, and only re-ap- peared when the weather moderated. Other changes of weather or wind, often caused them in the same manner to disappear in the course ‘fa few hours. It is probable that these animals, like the leech, are very sensible to atmospheric changes, and that they retire to deeper water to avoid that agitation, which, to many of the larger, would be fatal, from the tenderness of their texture and from their bulk. Many are probably destroyed by the violence of the sea at the surface. These are hints which may be of use to any naturalist inclined to enter on this de- partment of his pursuit, while they assist in explaining the variations to which the luminous property of the ocean is sub- Luminous Animals. 251 ject; and the addition of a few more will not be misplaced to those who have not hadany experience in these investigations. These animals always abound most, with few exceptions, in the smallest harbours, and, more particularly, in narrow creeks, among rocks or under high cliffs, where the water is sheltered from the sea and wind, and where it is consequently seldom so much disturbed as in more open places. A large proportion. of them indeed seems to be exclusively limited to situations of this nature, being never found in the open sea nor far from shore. Many of the minute marine animals also appear to affect exclu- sively those shallow and rocky situations where sea weeds abound, and which are equally the favourite haunts of many larger species, such as nearly the whole tribe of crabs, and many others which it is unnecessary to enumerate. It is in such places then, and at such times, that is, in narrow and rocky creeks or weedy shoals, and in calm weather, that the naturalist will meet with most success; and it is in such circumstances also that the water will be found most luminous. That it does not always appear luminous in calm weather, and when the vessel is quiet at anchor, is however certain; and it is this which has conduced to mislead observers respecting the causes of the light, as well as to lay the foundation of fal- lacious prognostics regarding the weather. It requires agi- tation to elicit the light of these animals in abundance; and as this naturally happens in troubled water, they have been sup- posed to abound in gales of wind and ina breaking sea, when they are, in fact, comparatively scarce. In calm weather, crowds of meduse or other very luminous species, will often be ~ floating around, yet betraying themselves only by an occasional twinkle ; when any disturbance communicated to the water is sufficient to involve the whole in a blaze of light. I formerly remarked, that the luminous action was voluntary ; and this opinion has been amply confirmed by further attention to the animals possessed of this property. Among millions of these, of numerous species, the usual actions of locomotion will be performed for hours, or for a whole night, without the slightest indication of their presence; or perhaps some individual will 252° Remarks on Marine give an occasional spark as it passes by, when the dipping of an oar, or the drawing of a bucket of water, is sufficient to render the whole around luminous. It is by such a test as this, therefore, that a naturalist will be guided in his pursuit after these animals. But it is proper to remark that it is often very difficult to take them, even when we are certain that they abound in the water; and this cause, like others, has often made it to be supposed that the water itself pos- sessed a luminous property, because no animals appeared ina bucket when filled with it. A few bright lights produce a con- siderable effect in the night, so as to make the sea appear much fuller of sparks than it really is; and it is easy for a body so small as the ship’s bucket to miss the animals by which they are produced. Moreover, as many of these creatures, and particu- larly the medusee, swim near to the surface, they are apt to slip out with the wave which is produced by lifting the bucket out of the water; so that it sometimes requires many attempts before one can be secured. There is another circumstance which is also an occasional source of error respecting the existence of these animals in the water when brought up; even when it is highly luminous along- side the vessel. Whether from fatigue, or from caprice, or from some voluntary efforts for an unknown purpose, they often refuse to show their light, even when violently agitated or injured ; and, in all cases, when they have been compelled to shew it for a few seconds by violence, they again become dark and refuse to shine any longer. It is not unlikely that this is the effect of exhaustion; because after a repose of some little time, a fresh disturbance often causes them to give light again. A natu- ralist, unaware of this circumstance, may often imagine that he has failed in procuring specimens, even when the bucket is crowded with them. Another circumstance leads to deceptions in these cases. In many of the luminous worms and insects, the spot of light ap- pears much larger, if it is not really so, than the body of the animal; and very often a species which is invisible under ordi- nary circumstances, or only to be seen by bringing it opposite ¢ Luminous Animals. 253 to a bright light in a glass of water, will yield a very brilliant and large spark. Thus, in a ship’s bucket, or a basin, it would not be conjectured that any animal existed, when many thou- sands are present; and, of these, perhaps the greater number, if not all, highly luminous. It is, lastly, necessary to remark, respecting the size of these animals, as just mentioned, that many of the luminous species are absolutely, and under all circumstances, except when in the act of emitting light, invisible to the naked eye. This effect arises in some measure from the actual minuteness of many, their size not equalling the 100th of an inch; but in many others which subtend a visible angle, it proceeds from their. transparency. Even under favourable circumstances, as when placed in a glass of water, where the vision is aided by the mag- nifying power of this species of lens, they cannot easily be discovered ; owing to the water in which they abound being invariably muddy. Those only come into view which ap- proach so near to the fore part of the glass as materially to diminish the column of water between them and the eye; and thus also they often escape observation, and the spectator is surprised to find that he can discover nothing in the light, when the water, in the dark, has abounded in luminous sparks. If the lens is used, it is still only in the observer’s power to get sight of those which pass across its focus; so that he is, in this case also, apt to underrate their numbers, or, if rare, to doubt their existence. It is fruitless to attempt to bring them under the eye by using a small drop of water in the manner adopted in microscopic observations; as, even where most crowded, they bear so small a proportion to the water in which they swim, that such a drop may not possibly contain one. These then are the most important circumstances which the naturalist should have in view in investigating the water of the sea for the purpose of discovering the minute animals which exist in it; whether for the purpose of ascertaining their lumin- ous quality, or of examining their nature and structure. An attention to these cautions will probably assist others, as it did myself in these examinations; and induce them to believe what 254° Remarks on Marine seems to me fully ascertained, namely, that luminous animals abound in the water of the ocean even when they are least sus- pected, and that the property of emitting light is probably granted to every one of these neglected inhabitants of the deep: When the numbers of these animals are considered, it will appear less extraordinary that the water of the sea should be so generally luminous ; and, when we attend to their minuteness, it is as little cause of surprise that they should escape ordinary observation. Having necessarily reserved the description and names of the species for future communications, partly for the reasons already stated, and partly because they could not be rendered intelligible without drawings; I shall not enter on this part of the subject, but merely attempt to convey an idea of the numbers of some of the most remarkable individuals which were examined. In proceeding from the Mull of Cantyre to Shetland, with beating winds nearly the whole way, it is easy to under- stand that an immense tract of water must have been passed over. Those whose memory can so easily refer to the map of Scotland need not be told of the number of square miles which a vessel must traverse in this navigation. With very little exception throughout all this space, and in every one of the harbours of Shetland and Orkney, the water was full of one species, in particular, of an animal which I think is not yet described. It scarcely ever quitted the vessel, although more abundant in some seas than in others. On a very moderate computation’a cubic inch did not contain less than an hundred individuals ; and as they were brought up from all depths to which the bucket could be sent, it is useless to attempt a state- ment even of those which must have been contained in a few -cubic feet, much less in the enormous mass of water thus ex- amined. ‘Their numbers, even in a superficial mile, supposing its depth not to exceed a few inches, baffles all imagination. This species was barely visible by the naked eye, when viewed in a glass against the light of the candle or of a moderated sunbeam. Luminous Animals. 255 In the same seas, and nearly at all times, the-water was found filled with several different species, resembling in size some of the infusoria, and invisible without the lens. To estimate their numbers is equally impossible, but no body of water so small could be brought into a proper situation without being found filled with them. Other animals of larger dimensions, and of many species were equally constant ; and, if less numerous, yet ten or twenty were always to be found within the space of a common tumbler glass. In all these cases the water was luminous; and, that it was rendered luminous by these animals, admitted of no doubt, because the larger individuals could be taken out on a dry body, shining at the very moment of their removal, and then replaced for examination in water; while the light of the whole of these species disappeared when they died, either from keeping the water too long, from warming it, or from the addition of spirits. The facility with which the luminous quality of sea water is destroyed by:those means which kill its inhabitants, is in itself a sufficient proof that the cause of this property resides in these. I must further add, that it is perfectly easy to distinguish the different sparks of light given by different animals; that is, as ‘far as they differ in dimensions; as the bright spot is quite distinct in the larger kinds, in which it also often varies in colour; while, in the smaller, agitation produces a general luminous appearance, in which separate spots, or the distinct action of individuals, is not to be recognised; it is probably therefore rather from this source, namely, the crowd of micro- scopic worm and insects, that the general luminous track produced by a fishing line, or the faint sheet of light elicited by the dash of an oar, is caused, than by the detached secretions of fishes, or by decomposing animal matter diffused through the water; while the brighter separate sparks arise from the larger kinds, to the size of which they are more or less proportioned. It will in the same way, be found, that the predominance of bright sparks in the vicinity of sea weed, or near rocks, arises from the great number of species, Squille, Scolopendre, 256 Remarks on Marine Nereides, and many others, which make these places their ex- clusive residence. It is now necessary to point out the method used in examining these animals, and deciding on their luminous powers. With respect to the larger kinds, there is no difficulty; the smaller require many more trials; and where more than one Species persist in occurring together, some uncertainty must alwaysremain. Yet where a property is, in so many instances, ascertained to exist, and where it has probably been conferred for the specific purposes formerly noticed in the essay to which this communication must be considered as an appendix, it is not a rash conclusion to consider that no species is exempt from the general law or deprived of this power; since in the most essential circumstances, the habits of all are the same. These animals, whether the smaller vermes or insects, are very rarely found in clear water, and wherever they are abun- dant it is muddy, or rather fouled with some animal matter which communicates to it a slight milky hue; although they are not, on the contrary, necessarily present when the water is in that state. It is preferable to examine the water by candle- light, as ordinary day-light is not sufficient for the purpose; and the light of the sun cannot easily be received in such a manner as to be endured by the eye, and, at the same time, to serve the ° purpose of illuminating the objects. It is desirable to use more than one candle, as it is convenient to have more than one lu- minous spot under command; the rapidity of the motions of most of these animals, carrying them so quickly beyond the limits of one spot, as to cause considerable trouble to the observer, who has many things to distract his attention at the same time. Some of them are better examined in the brightest light; others at its borders; and, very often, it is necessary to examine the same object in different lights before a just idea of its form can be obtained. A separate light is also required to illuminate the paper on which they are to be drawn; the eye being so far paralyzed by the excess of light required to view them, as not to see in a moderate degree of illumination, and it being abso- lutely necessary to draw them, without losing the least prac- Luminous Animats. 257 ticable interval of time after viewing them through the lens, A few seconds are sufficient to cause the observer to forget the exact figure of the parts. which he is to delineate. The most convenient receptacle in which they can be placed for examination is a rummer or conoidal glass, of such dimen- sions as to contain halfa pint. It is, in the first place, quite necessary that they should be at liberty: as it is only when in motion that many of them can at all be discovered, and as the peculiar natare of their motions, which, in all, are very different and highly characteristic, is of great use in discriminating individuals otherwise much resembling each other. [It is true, that this is productive of great inconvenience, from their pass- ing so quickly out of the field of view; and thus it often requires a long time and patiently repeated examinations, to ascertain the exact figure of one individual. But it is impos- sible to confine them in a drop of water, unless when absolutely microscopic, without losing sight of their forms. In this case, they come to a state of rest; and their fins, legs, antenne, or other fine parts, become invisible, generally collapsing close to the body. Moreover the affection of light produced by the con- tact of the animal with the surface or edge of the drop, or of that of the drop with the glass on which it stands, totally destroys distinct vision, and renders their forms quite unintelligi- ble. A glass of smaller dimensions, such as a wine glass, is far less convenient than that abovementioned; as the smallness of the convexity produces a much less useful spot of light. In many cases, where, from excessive activity, it is difficult to catch these objects in the field of view for a sufficient time to study their parts, I have found it useful to diminish their powers of motion. This may be done by slightly warming the water, by suffering it to stand for a few hours in the glass, or by the addition of a small quantity of spirits, and probably of other substances. But slight injuries are sufficient to kill them ; and, as they then become inyisible, the observer must be on his guard not to exceed in the application of these means. From the necessity of using a large glass, and the freedom of motion thence allowed, itis evident that a high magnifying 258 Remarks on Marine power cannot be applied. It is scarcely possible indeed to make effective use of one greater than that produced by a sim- ple lens of half an inch focal distance; and as, with this power the field of view is very contracted, it is often convenient to have two other lenses at hand of one inch and of two inches in focal distance. The very minute ones may be occasionally secured in a single drop of water under a compound micro- scope; but the observer will be disappointed much oftener than he will succeed in his attempts to examine them in this way; partly from the chance of his failing to find any in many suc- cessive small portions of water thus separated, and partly for the reasons just stated. I have already mentioned almost all that occurs on the me- thod-used in determining those species which were luminous. Of the larger kinds, it seldom happened that more than two or three, sometimes not more than one, was contained in a tumbler. Being placed in the dark, and stirred with the finger, the same number of sparks were produced; and whatever failure might here have occurred in one trial, was removed by others made at different times. With regard to the smaller species, it some- times happened that only one was found on a particular occasion, and the luminous state of that water on agitation proved the property to exist in that individual species. Re- specting some of these species, however, doubts may remain ; as in some cases no one of them was found alone. But these doubts are of little consequence; since if among so many animals resembling each other in their general characters, and often indeed apparently belonging to the same genus, the lumi- nous property was certainly proved to exist in some, it probably existed equally in all; as there seems no reason to exclude any, or to suppose it especially possessed by one. On this subject, however, other naturalists must be allowed to judge for them- selves ; and those who are inclined to pursue the same train of investigation will probably complete the evidence respecting some where it is here left doubtful. I may now therefore conclude this subject by remarking, that, from the investigation of last summer, I have added upwards Se Luminous Animals. 259 of 190 species to the list of luminous marine animals. I have already stated the reasons why I cannot as yet give even the names of many of these, of which a considerable number are certainly new, or nondescript animals. That subject must be reserved for a different species of communication; but I shall here add at least the generic names of those possessed of lu- minous properties, of which the genera are known; since, even in these, some of the species are still unsettled and many are new. Among these, the most conspicuous are about twenty small species of Medusa, in addition to those already known to be lu- minous. In the ancient genus Cancer, a considerable number of Squillee were also found possessed of this property. In the genera Scolopendra and Nereis five or six were luminous, being all the species that came under my observation. Of the remaining known genera in which, luminous species were ob- served, I shall forbear to give any numerical account, but simply add that they consisted of Phalangium, Monoculus, Oniscus, Iulus, Vorticella, Cercaria, Vibria, Volvox.. To these I may also add, among the fishes, a new species of Leptocephalus. The rest consisted of new genera, or, at least, of animals which, for want of correct descriptions and of figures, cannot be re- ferred to any as yet to be found in authors, and of which I trust at some future period to give those drawings and descrip- tions which are in my possession. _It is sufficient for the present purpose to have shewn that the list of luminous animals is very extensive, and to have given this notice of the means used in investigating this object, together with such hints as may be useful to others; little doubting that their labours will ultimately prove this beautiful and remarkable property to be possessed by every one of the inhabitants of the ocean. But I must not conclude this paper without noticing a cir- cumstance which confirms the opinion stated in the former essay respecting the residence of many fish in depths which, according -to Mr. Bouguer’s observations, must be supposed inaccessible to the light of the sun; and in which, without that afforded by their prey, it is difficult to understand how they 260 On Marine Luminous Animals. can find their food. It is remarked by the Shetland fishermen, that the ling invariably inhabits the deep valleys of the sea; whereas the cod is always found on the hills, general known by the name of banks. In one of the most productive spots for the ling fishery, the valley which they inhabit is not only very deep, but is bounded by abrupt land or submarine hills nearly precipitous; the water suddenly deepening from 20 and 30 to 200 fathoms. In this, as well as in other valleys in which this fishery is carried on, always very far from the shore, it is found that the best fishing exists at the greatest depths, and it is not unusual to sink the long lines in water of 250 fathoms depth. The time required in setting and in drawing up from this depth, the length of line used, which amounts in some cases even to seven miles, is such as to prevent the fishermen from making any attempts in deeper water; but they are all of opinion that this fish abounds most in the, deepest places, and might advan- tageously be fished for at much greater depths. Now allowing even 1000 feet instead of Mr. Bouguer’s calculation of 723, it is plain that no light canexist in these valleys, and that the ling, like other fish which prey in the deep seas, must have some means of seeing his food, as well as of pursuing his social avocations of whatever nature these may be. This can only be effected by the luminous property, either of his prey, or of the animals which abound in the sea, or else by that elicited from his own body. J. Mac CuLtocnu. Shetland, August, 1820. Art. IV. A Translation of Rey’s Essays on-the Calci- nation of Metals, &c. [Communicated by Joun Grorce Cuitpren, Esq., F.R.S., §c.) Continued from Page 83. Essay IV. Air and Fire have weight, and naturally descend. Hap we as free a commerce with the elements of fire, as we have with the air, we should doubtless, be furnished with ex- periments, to confirm our assertion. True it is, that those Translation of Rey’s Essays. 261 which we shall produce with regard to the latter, will be con- clusive as to the former, from the proximity of their nature*. Now since it is agreed, that whatever falls downwards of its own accord, has weight, whence that motion proceeds, who is he, that shall deny this quality to air, seeing that we no sooner pull a stake out of the ground, than the air rushes into the hole, and fills it; and that we cannot dig a well so deep, that it does not immediately descend into it, without any external effort or violence? I say more: that, if there were a tube from the centre of the earth to the region of fire, open at both ends, and filled with the four elements, each in its usual position, if the earth were drawn downwards, water would descend and occupy its place, leaving its own to the air, and the air its place to fire. Then, taking away the water from this station, the air will come and fill it, and that again being taken away, fire will go into it, and fill the whole tube, descending to the very centre, merely by being deprived of that, which prevented it from doing so. They who shall say, that this happens, that a vacuum may be avoided, will not say much; they will shew us the final cause, whilst we are talking about the efficient, which cannot be a vacuum. For it is quite certain, that in the boundaries of nature, a vacuum, which is nothing, can have no place, There is no power in nature of nothing to have made the uni- verse, nor to reduce it to nothing, which requires equal force. But the case would be otherwise, were there a vacuum, for if it could be here, it might be there, and if here and there, why not elsewhere? Why not everywhere? So might the universe fall into nothing, by its own power: but to Him only, who had power to make it, is the glory of the power to annihilate it due. But if a vacuum can find no existence, how can air and fire descend, full against the course of their nature? Does not a positive effect, always proceed from a positively existing cause? we truly affirm then, that it is weight which carries these bodies downward, in order to unite all their particles closely, and consequently shut all the avenues to a vacuum. se EDEN I EnR AEE REET ERR EERnneeennnne nena * Literal. Vou. XI. T 262 Translation of Rey’s Isssays. Essay V. It is demonstrated that air and fire have weight, by the greater i celerity with which heavy bodies move, toward the end, than at the beginning of their motion. An error, however small, committed in the beginning of any doctrine, increases as we proceed, and most commonly leads to very * serious difficulties. We experience it in regard to this subject, for philosophers, having gone astray, almost on the very threshold of natural science, ascribing levity and upward motion to the two superior elements, saw themselves afterwards much troubled to account for the natural descent of heavy bodies being quicker towards the end than at its commence- ment. The variety of opinions that we find in authors on this question, sufficiently demonstrates their perplexity; I, who study brevity, have no intention to bring them forward ; they who like it, may read a good number of them, in the “Natural Principles” of Pereriust, a judicious philosopher, in which, after having quoted, he learnedly refutes them, and embraces one that he professes to acquiesce in, till he finds a better: of this I shall say something hereafter, as we go along, to shew that it is not so true as itis plausible. I now present my own, which I have with much study devised, in support of the preceding demonstrations. The quickness of motion of a heavy body increases from the beginning to the end, by the increase of elementary matter which presses on it, and by the continual multiplication of the impulse which it gives it in its descent. A figure will make my assertion clearer, (see fig. 1.) Let A A be the heavens; BB the earth; C its centre; D an iron ball, descending towards the earth; E the same descending lower; F the same again, in the middle of its descent; G the same, near the end of it; HH two lines, drawn from the centre of the earth, to the heavens, and touching the ball at D in the two extremities of its diame- ter; I I two similar lines, touching the ball at E; K K, two * Literally “‘thorny,’’ ‘‘ espineuses.”’ + Benedicti Pererii de communibus omnium rerum naturalium prin- cipiis et affectionibus. Zibri XV.in 4to. Parisiis, 1589. Translation of Rey’s Essays. 263 others touching it at F; and L L, two others touching it at G. it is obvious, that the ball being at D, has upon it, besides its own internal weight, the matter of the elements of air and fire, contained. between the lines H H; but when at E, there is all the matter contained between the lines I I, which increases at F by the greater quantity contained between the lines in KK; and when at G the weight of the whole, contained between the iz 264 Translation of Rey’s Essays. lines L L presses on it, whence the quickness of its motion must increase; to which is to be added the impulse which this matter is continually giving it, as it still keeps falling down on the ball. The opinion of Pererius somewhat resembles this idea of an impulse; for he thinks that the air which follows pushes the ball; but he is mistaken in this, that air being- light, and naturally tending upwards, cannot push the ball downwards, any more than a boat, towed against the stream is impelled up the river by the water, which meeting the prow, divides, and passing the sides runs continually downwards ; for how can it, following this course, strike the* stern above? The other part of his assertion is no better, con- tending that the air, agitated by the motion, yields more readily to the thing moved. It is just the reverse, for air and water, when agitated, are capable of supporting larger weights. Ashes are suspended in water, and feathers in the air, when they are agitated, and fall down when the fluids are at rest. Surely, according to this reasoning, the motion should be slower towards the end, the agitation being then greater. Essay VI. + Gravity is so intimately united to the first matter of the elements, that when they change from one into another, they always re- tain the same weight. My principal object, hitherto, has been to fix in the minds of all, the persuasion that air has in itself a principle of gravity, since it is from this that I purpose to derive the increased weight of tin and lead when they are calcined. But before I shew how that happens, I must extend my observation, and add, that the weight of any body is examined in two ways, by reason or by the balance, It is by reason that I have found weight in all the elements; it is reason which now induces me to deny that erroneous maxim, which has obtained from the birth of —— OF COCO rll ee * Frapper en haut la pouppe. + Pesanteur, I have translated this word by the term gravity, though T believe it was not used-in this sense before the time of Newton; in like manner peser, is generally rendered gravitate. Translation of Rey’s Essays. 265 philosophy, that the elements, by mutual conversion from one into another, lose or gain weight, in proportion as they are rarefied or condensed, in the change. Armed with this reason, I boldly enter the lists, to combat the error; and I maintain that gravity is so united to the first matter of the elements, that it cannot be deprived of it. The weight that each portion re- ceives in its cradle, it carries to its coffin. In whatever place, under whatever form, to whatever volume it be reduced, always one same weight. But not presuming that my assertions will rank with those of Pythagoras, and that it will be sufficient to have advanced them, I support them by a proof in which I think all liberal minds will acquiesce. Take a portion of earth possessing the least possible weight that can be con- ceived; let this earth be converted into water, by the means known and practised by nature, it is evident that this water will have weight, because all water must have it: now it will be greater or less, or equal to that in the earth. Greater, they will not say it is, (for they profess the contrary,) and I also deny it; less it cannot be, seeing that we have taken the least possible quantity : it remains therefore that it must be equal to it, which is what I intended to prove. What is demonstrated of this portion is demonstrable of two, three, or any, however great number, in short of the whole element, which is composed of nothing else, and is equally referable to the conversion of water into air, and air into fire, and vice versd of these last into the others. Essay VII. How to ascertain to what volume of air, a certain quantity of water is reduced. Philosophers have often talked of the extension which a solid element acquires, by conversion into one more rare, and have attempted to assign its proportion: but I do not remember to have read any thing supported by sownd reasoning or experi- ment. Now since in the preceding essay, I have spoken of this enlargement, the knowledge of which opens the door to many beautiful and admirable devices, I will not deprive the curious reader of a means, which I have thought of, to make 266 ‘Translation of Rey’s Essays. the trial, and accurately ascertain to what volume a certaiit quantity of water can dilate itself, by transmutation into air; ‘which experiment may serve for, and be proportionably referred to other elements. Make a brass tube of convenient size, well polished within, open at one end, and closed at the other, ex- cept a very small hole in the middle; place on the inside a piston or stopper, like that of a syringe, that may slide easily through every part, and be so correctly fitted, that no air can escape; the piston being slided to the bottom, let the tube of an eolipile, or philosophical bellows, be applied, and closely fixed to the small hole. Fil] the eolipile with water, and set it on the fire; then the water becom- ing rarefied, and converted into air, will pass out through the little hole, and entering into the tube, in search of its liberty, push the piston by degrees, till all the water is converted into air. The capacity of the tube and zolipile, . which will both be filled with it, will shew the increased bulk which this matter has acquired. Whoever wishes to know the same more easily but not so accurately, may take the intestine of a pig or other animal, and having well cleaned and flattened it, and emptied it of air, let him put it into a vessel full of water, accurately closed by a lid, having a small hole above, to let the water run out: let one end of the intestine, project- ing out of the vessel by a hole on one side, be fastened to the tube of the woli- pile, which, filled with water and placed on the fire, will blow into it the air, into which the water will be converted Pani proportion as the intestine swells up, the water of the vessel will flow out, by the little hole in the lid, which, when col- Translation of Rey’s Essays. 267 lected, will show the dilatation of the air in the intestine, to which the capacity of the zolipile being added, the question is solved. To these well-ascertained methods, I add the following, not un- plausible one, for converting air into water, and ascertaining the diminution of volume. Let the hole of the before-men- tioned tube, be closed, and the piston pushed down with great force, as far as the compression of the enclosed air will permit, and stopping it at that point, so that it cannot fly back, expose the apparatus to a frosty air, for a whole night; the air com- pressed on the inside, will freeze, or be converted into water, leaving only that space occupied by the air, which may remain free, (z. e., unfrozen.) The measure of the water, or the ice, will give the loss of volume. I have not made this experiment: if any curious person is beforehand with me,I request he will give me an account of the result, as all the reward I ask for having taught him the method, and to the end that I may be spared the trouble. A the eolipile; B its tube, entering the brass tube; C the brass tube; D its piston; E the piston rod. Essay VIII. No element gravitates in itself, and why? I resume my argument, and say, that the examination of weights by the balance differs greatly from that by reason. The latter is only employed by the man of judgment, the rudest clown practises the former. This is always just, that is gene- rally} deceitful ; this is attached to no circumstance of place ; that commonly exercised in air, and sometimes, though difh- cultly, in water. It is hence, that the error which I have com- bated, (that air has no weight,) derives an argument capable of dazzling weak eyes, but not the clear-sighted. For weighing air in itself, and not finding it to gravitate, they have concluded that it has no weight. But let them weigh water, (which they believe to have weight,) in water itself, and they will find it equally void of it, it being most true, that no element gravitates in itself. "Whatever gravitates in air, whatever gravitates in water, must contain more weight in an equal volume (in conse- quence of there being more matter) than the air or water, in 268 Translation of Rey’s Essays. which the weighing is performed. I proceed to deduce the cause Of this, which few persons have discovered. Whatever gravitates in air (the same may be said of water) divides it, pushes it aside, and makes it give place, in order to sink to the bottom of it. This is called exercising its force and action in air. Now it is a fact, that no agent acts in its like, all ac- tion presupposing some difference. One hot body has no action in another equally hot, but rather the two will embrace and unite their actions, and by this union will no longer be two agents but only one. But if a very hot body acts in that which is less so, itis because in this case there is a dissimilitude, and in some respects an opposition; the less hot claiming thetitle of cold, with reference to the hotter. Thus air cannot act by its weight in air equally heavy, the two airs rather unite, and make one same weight. But whatever is heavier than air, by the dissimi- litude and opposition, arising from this greater or less, will act in it, dividing, pushing it aside, and making itself a way through it to get to the bottom. But if air evince not its weight in air itself, on account of the equality of their weights, it follows @ fortiori that it will not evince it in water, which is heavier. For evenif it be placed below, it will descend no lower, the weight of the water above it only serving to compel it to seek a higher place, not allowing it a station under itself. Essay IX. Air is rendered heavy by the mixture of some matter heavier than itself. I purpose to shew that it is the air, which mixing with the calces of tin and lead, when they are calcined, increases their weight; which it would be impossible for me to do, without re- moving a no small difficulty that presents itself in this place. For I may be asked, how can this that I assert be, since the examination of this weight is effected by the balance, and in air, where air can have no weight, according to the doctrine of the preceding essay? To clear up this doubt, I say, that portions of the air may be changed and increased in weight, so that these portions, so altered and made heavier, being weighed in pure air, will afford evidence of their weight. But what is this Translation of Rey’s Essays. 269 change which causes it to become heavier? I remark, that it may happen in three different ways; either by the mixture of some heavier foreign matter; by the compression of its parts ; or by the separation of its lighter portions. Let us speak, first, of the first, and then of the two others. It is certain that the air is capable of containing many matters heavier than itself; such are the vapours and exhalations which rise from the water, or the earth. A portion of air imbibed with these matters, will weigh more than an equal portion of another air containing nothing of the kind; like as sea-water is heavier than the water of fresh rivers; the former containing much salt, which the latter is free from. Observe, I pray you, how, in cloudy weather, at first opening your high windows, the air enters your chamber loaded with fog! Do you not conclude that this weighs more than the other, since it cleaves it and falls down in it? Fill a balloon with this cloudy air, it will weigh more than the same filled with pure unmixed air. Reason accords with this experiment, saying thus; if to two equal weights, we add two unequal weights, the two weights will be unequal, and that will-be the greatest, to which the greatest weight has been added. If we take, for instance, two portions of the same air, each equal to ten cubic inches, and add to one of them two inches of water, and to the other two inches of air, who but perceives that these two portions will be very equal in volume, but unequal in weight, and that the one containing the water will be the heaviest? This is so manifest, that I abstain from saying any thing more about it, especially as this mode of in- creasing weight, has not much to do with our subject. Proceed we, therefore, to the others. Essay X. Air is rendered heavy by the compression of its parts. The second mode by which air increases in weight, is by the compression of its parts; for nature has willed, for reasons known to herself, that the elements should dilate and contract, within certain limits, which she has prescribed to them. Within this space, we see a portion of an element now narrowly contracted, now widely distended. Observe the pot, half full 270 Translation of Rey’s Essays. of water, under which the cook is about to make a large fire. The water will dilate till it runs over the brim: but if the fire be extinguished, it will contract and-return to its original bulk. Take this syringe in which the piston is pushed half way down, and the opening‘in front well closed; push it forcibly, you will reduce the enclosed air to a small compass. Draw back the piston towards you, and though you do not pull it out, yet you will cause the air to dilate to more ample dimensions than it had before. The air being thus compressed, do you doubt that it will have sensible weight in a free air, since it contains more matter in an equal space? Ifthe reasons already given in the eighth essay be not sufficient for you, make the experiment. Fill a balloon with air, strongly compressed by means of a pair of bellows, you will find it weighs heavier when full, than empty. And by how much? By so much as the additional quantity of air in the balloon, weighs, in proportion more than that which is free, under an equal volume. Many have indeed remarked the greater weight of the balloon when full than when empty ; but it has not come within my observation, that any one, hitherto, has known the cause of it. Leaving aside persons of low ac- count, Dr. Scaliger who possesses the true genius of Aristotle, did not understand it; for in the hundred and twenty-first exercitation against Cardan, he follows the beaten track, holding that pure air is light, and that the balloon gains weight because the air which is next the surface of the earth, such as is forced into the balloon by the bellows, is mixed with vapours, and those little terrestrial bodies clearly discernible in the sun’s rays*. But alas! what good does this mixture do him? since the experiment is made in an air perfectly similar: certainly it could evince no weight in it unless compressed. If the bal- loon were forcibly filled with the purest air in nature, or even with elementary fire, reason says it still must have weight, if balanced, in the first instance, in the same, and in the second, * “Purum aérem levem esse. Inflatt utrem plenii esse aéris impuri : «« sive ab homine sufflatus sit: udi enim multi vehit secu: sive a folle, «< Satis enim patet, aérem hic, qui circa terre est superficiem, vaporibus “« atque terrestribus corpusculis mistum esse: quz in solis radiis apparent «¢ manifestd.” Jvl: Caes: Scalig: de Svbtil: ad Hier: Caurdan, Ewxercit : CXXIE.'p. 181.. Lutetiz, M. D. LVI. Translation of Rey’s Essays. 271 in fire itself. This compression of air, is a fertile field in which ingenious minds will collect rare devices. From hence the Sieur Marin, Citizen of Lisieux, has derived his Arquebuss, which I discovered many years since, before the Sieur Flurance had described it*, but which far excels that of Marin, (I say it without vanity,) in having much greater force. I could ac- quaint the reader with another elegant and profitable invention, which I have derived from the same source, but I am purposely silent concerning it; hoping one day to have the happiness of presenting a most humble petition to his Majesty, that he will honour me with the privilege of the exclusive use of it, for a certain time, in order somewhat to reimburse me for the ex- pense I must be at in bringing the said invention, as well as some others which till that time I keep secret, into use. [ To be continued.] * This relates to an air-gun invented by Jean Rey. He quotes the work of David Rivault, Sieur de Flurance, a native of Laval on the Maine, but descended from an ancient family in Britanny, a counsellor of state, and preceptor to Louis XIII. The work is called Elements of Artillery, &c. Svo. Paris, Adrien Denis, 1608. It is dedicated to the Duc de Sully, and the preface contains the history of the invention and first use of fire- arms, ancient and modern. Flurance left the service of Louis XIJI, in consequence of a blow he received from the king, for having kicked-a favourite dog, which was troublesome to him, whilst giving the prince a lesson, He was afterwards recalled to court, and died at Tours, in January 1616, at the age of 45. The Editor of the reprint of Rey’s essays, adds, that air-guus were discovered in France, by the Sieur Marin Bourgeois, an inhabitant of Lisieux in Normandy, whom Flurance calls “‘a man of most rare judgment *‘in all sorts of inventions, of the most artful imagination, and of con- “ summate dexterity in handling the tools of every art known in Europe, “ without having learnt of auy master. He is an excellent painter, statu- “ary, musician aud astronomer, and works more delicately in iron and “ copper than any other artist that I know. The king, Louis XJII, has “ "drs \mpdr mp dr * mp* dr mp?dr € ddv\ dv g de® {tee ane a ar * mp dr vdr re (mp © vmp® * mp* | It is obvious, that since 2 S.) : -f co v, the quan- es v mpsz = mpsz tity ¢”, must be derived from it by taking the fluxion with respect to v only, and must be equal to = peel which is the dr? vdr product of the second and third coefficients. The fluxion of this quantity, df” is also capable of a simpler expression ; for d’ Ul d y since ¢’ will in general be divisible by v, €”, = 2s 5 = a Hp and ae = ‘a aN St ; whence a2 pes Be WR pitt dr v dr vdr dr w dr Srdio oe os Ce oF a d’v 24 vr dv | ¢ dv v dr? v dr wodr wv dr v dr v dar an hes ee Consequently d’v te No dato : d : d 2 5 a (Es. he pas pwebeage les ee dr> mp dr * vmp dr?" vmp? dr * ump? ‘dr mp dv hy bse ae ddv dv dv” (2¢" 4¢' at dr " vmp* dr?) dr dy? \ mp “ vmp* mp dv? ( 3C” 6f' 6¢ cs ¢)\ sade ar faa ™p 1c ump” = = ccs ey r A) ae 6. We may next proceed to substitute, in these general ex- On Atmospherical Refraction. © 357 . , . . . pressions, the values derived from the various laws which may be supposed to govern the variations of temperature :. observing first, that in general m= 766, p = .000 2825 = + ee whence 3540 1 1 1 1 — = 4.621, —— = 21.3536, —, — 16358, — = mp mp? mp? mp TANS, 2 l —, = 57 907 320. mp 7. (A) If the temperature were eae we should have and when s=1, 3.621. d?y bP dr? mp's? d°v 1 1 Qu? dr ~ mp*s* ps ° Teo or if 2=0; 16358 x 3.621. Say 2 = e- i) =, +4 eo i) a= 3.621 (6 x 57907320 x 3.621 4+ tease = 5524050000; ~4, of which is 7672300. Hence, for s=1, we have the equation .0002825 = 1.8105 r? + 2467 r* + 7672300 7° + ..., in which, if we put r?= _.000130, we shall have .0002825= .0002939 + ...; whichis too much: then taking r? = .000120, we have .0002825= -00021726 + .00003552 + .00001325 + [.00001647]: and this is somewhat too great a remainder ; for the quotients of the terms being 6, 3..., the remainder ought not to exceed the last term; so that r? must be about .000121, andr = .0110, or 37'50’, which is too great by about oneninth By the assist- ance of this series we might easily compute the refraction upon the hypothesis of Professor Bessel, who supposes the variation of density to follow the same law as if the temperature were uniform, but alters the value of m, so as to accommodate it to the actual magnitude of the refraction in low altitudes. (B) In Professr Leslie’s hypothesis, we have 45 n=. 500 Vor, XI. 2B = .09 358 Astronomical and Nautical Collections. C= cs a: myy +55 the initial value 2’= 1 +2n=1.18 z z “ea nyy , 3nyy\ vg /l | 2ny Qny ts ae ae aes ie 26 4d z hl Ze rg UD papa: 3 g ten (l—f)= = (Qn + 8n*) dw 1 + 2n — (2n + 8n’) ho ¥ 1—8n? ‘dr? mp?s? iy mp’s* Lat dv a dy ae de | at’ a Cae dat aesile "ade abit sles dni ic dibeee Vv. 1 MCS do 2 adel € [1425 Ecchi ales eli, = Ca -s] ibs MOE be aN ae r v= eS ey ps a ta ae dz z ps ae ac 4 p Dads tw —tv “3 = sip pit Q+ 14m) += isa} — (1+4n) (Qn+ 81") eS —C(1+8n) + 0? , hy Wa (1+8n) +2n+ 16n? ae — 2 (—1-8n—2n— 161? 4-4 16n?+ 160 +24 142—1—8n —2n—16n?+2n-+ 16n?+ 32n°) = wv (48n*) ps dep” 1 {- Qn nn) (12 _,) +e - dr? ——mp’s* mps mops 4 2 _(48n*§—(4n + 16x") +2440) mp s are : 2+16n+48n? mp’s* \ mps mp*s* 5 v SE ate 8 spgy (144n? — 120 — 4808 $6412n) +(1t2" dr* mp mp Soy dasa = ae ee i) 1 mp* p p ) \ mp | mp: 2 Bs ded 2\2 (6—482? + 144n) + (E* oo -1} ( 7 =) mp mp On Atmospherical Refraction. 359 We have then, for the case of horizontal refraction, d dy .9352 i nd a . — = es L — — dp = 4453 = 2 x 2.2265; st dag x 4.453 = 68112 = de 24 x 2838, and =~ = (4.453)* x 57907520 x 5.7162 + 4.453 x 15296°= 7657200 000 = 720 x 10635000: consequently, 0002825 = 2.2265 r* + 2838 r* + 10635000 7°; now if 7? = -0001,we have .0002825= .00022265 + .00002838 + .000010635 [+ .000020935]: consequently, .0001 is too little for r*, and we may try .00011, giving .0002825 = .00024491 + .00003434 + 00001420 [— .00001095]. But in order to keep up the proba- ble sequence of the progression, the remainder should be about equal to the last term, or about .000011, and .0000209 should have been diminished by about .00001 instead of .0000318; so that we must take .000103 as the true value of 7? on this hypo- thesis, and r = 34’53”, which is exactly] too great by about 1’; a difference by far too considerable to be attributed to the errors of observation only; and we must infer, that the law of temperature, obtained from the height of the line of congelation, is not correctly true, if applied to elevations remote from the earth’s surface. [If indeed this law were fully established, and capable of being applied, with any little modification, to the exact computation of the refraction, it would be necessary, for the lowest altitudes, either to compute a greater number of the fluxional coefficients, or to divide the refraction into two or more parts, and determine the successive changes of density required for each of them. We should also have] for finding, on this hypothesis, the height x, corresponding to the pressure y and the density z, the expression mz —m= 1 — = + ms hl Qzz + gy (1 —2z), ; — aa hes ar. Fz — qy —2)’ y being = ae ite’ and g= 1 + 4n°[: and the actual state of the atmosphere would probably be very well represented by this formula, taking n= .1 or .11, rather than .09. (C) ]Professor Bessel’s hypothesis is also found to make the horizontal refraction too great. Mr. Laplace’s formula, which 2B2 360 Astronomical and Nautical Collections. affords a very correct determination of the refraction, is said to agree sufficiently well with direct observation also; but, in fact, this formula gives a depression considerably greater than was observed by Gay Lussac, in the only case which is adduced in its support; and the progressive depression follows a law which appears to be opposite to that of nature, the temperature vary- ~ ing less rapidly at greater than at smaller heights, while the observations of Humboldt and others seem to prove that in nature they vary more rapidly. Notwithstanding, therefore, the ingenuity, and even utility of Mr. Laplace’s formula, it can only be considered as an optical hypothesis, and we are equally at liberty to employ any other hypothesis which represents the results with equal accuracy; or even to correct our formulas by comparison with astronomical observations only, without assigning the precise law of temperature implied by them. [D. We may compute the effect of a temperature supposed to vary uniformly with the height, by making z=y (1+ta—?), d or =yz', we have then—=1+t2—t, or x‘, and Fiat o y YoY =tdz, or =¢2*"dwx, which are initially the same. But tda= ar and iad pt whence earns bea Pela and mz y yy mz dy y mz MYz dy =(——_"* _, consequently df= melon TS 2myz. dz mzz— tyy mzz— tyy mzdz— tydy Le “- m-+-mE oe tyF and initially (= ? and & =d—— oe —itl 12 ‘ eet See) 2 2 2 2 om hoe =(+¢-26+ =) me or +20". mine are sat ¢-n}st=fer—o Ger » = ¢ (€—1). Cn Jona Now, if we suppose the tem- 1 1 500 * 300 ~ 150000 for the variation of density depending on temperature in ] 20900000 ps perature to vary 1° in 300 feet, we have —— of the earth’s radius x; hence ¢ should be 139, and £ On Atmospherical Refraction. 361 766 4 Vo th = 766-130 — 1.26, whence aR a 5.822. while the pheno- mena of refraction require this quantity to be about 6. Thus, P Y idea s in Bradley’s approximation, we first take r = ee and then r v Ops s 3ps ss ps = pta (ZD-— —]| = p'|— — eae =f pta ( . ) P e Welle +5) very nearly, or 7 - 3p*s 3 ps3 3r* ; : eee? Le , and vr = ps — — — 37’s, or, while s remains v vv s 2 Fea 5 2 a small, ps=.r+3 a which is sufficiently accurate near the » zenith. If we make = 6, we shall have €= 1.3, and t= 176, Which is equivalent to a depression of a degree of Fahrenheit in 227 feet: we shall then have, for ¢’, d*v —1.3%.3x 1.6 — = 24—~.624 —., and ps ps ets = .676 SN350); [Tab. IT. + log. var.4log.tan. Z.D.=log.R’. R’—Tab. 2.=Refr.] Exampre. Z.D. 71°26’. Bar. 29.76i. Ther. 43°. Log. Tab. II. 0.2965 Appr. Refr. 1754 Log. bar. 1.4736 Tab. 2. 2 ,0 Log. tan. 71°26 0.4738 Refr, 173 ,4=2'53",4 Log. appr. R.175",4 2.2439 370 Astronomical and Nautical Collections. [The same Example by the Nautical Almanac.] Alt. 18° 34’ Alt.19° Refr. 2’.47’,7 Diff. Alt. 16 B.5,61 Th. ,34 + 5,2—26’=+4,16 .24,—1,34 7°,42,38 252.9 1,34 2.53,4 1,04 Difference Bs] iii. Observations on M. Delambre’s Remarks, relative to the Problem of finding the Latitude from two Altitudes, and the Time between. By the Rev. Joun Brink ey, D.D., Profes- sor of Astronomy in the University of Dublin. In giving, in the last number of the Astronomical and Nautical Collections, M. Delambre’s method of finding the latitude from two altitudes of the sun and the time between, a remark of his was inserted, containing a fundamental objection against the method of Douwes. It appears, however, that M. Delambre, in his Nouvelles Réflerions, Conn. des Tems, 1822, p. 316, has pursued an erroneous line of reasoning, a circumstance rare indeed as to that learned and illustrious astronomer. That objection to the indirect method of solving the problem is not founded. a M. Delambre has the equation (p. 317), [= cos. H—tan. yp sin. H, W being a small are. He assumes a value for H, and computes both ~ and (H + ¥) from this same equation, and finds (H + ¥) — PY =H. This surely could not be otherwise. It is singular that it escaped M. Delambre, that the interval between the observations disappears from his equation. Another point of view shows, that what he has done is not relative to the method of Douwes. It is not an impossible supposition to make the declinations exactly equal, and then his method of computation, page 321, concludes nothing, in- stead of becoming the method of Douwes. The usual objections to the method of Douwes are, 1. Not allowing for the change of declination. This can occasion no Problem of finding the Latitude. . SIAL error of consequence to the navigator. But in fact, if great accuracy be desired, the change of declination may be easily allowed for in practising the method of Douwes, as stated below. 2. That, except under great limitations, the latitude computed may be further from the truth than that by the reckoning. But Dr. Brinkley’s method entirely obviates this objection. His method is intended to correct and extend the results obtained by the original method of Douwes, even for cases where it would otherwise be quite useless. 3. The length of the computation has also been objected to, but unless it be repeated two or three times, it is shorter than the direct can be made, and it possesses no ambiguity embarrassing to those not conversant in spherical trigonometry. By Dr. Brink- ley’s method it rarely indeed happens that two operations are necessary. Dr. Brinkley has given the following method of allowing for the change of declination. Having computed the middle time by the method in the re- quisite tables, or by the common log. tables, add to it half the interval to get the time furthest from noon. Or use the esti- mated time when the observation furthest from noon was made ; add together (three places of log. are sufficient), the sine of time furthest from noon, the secant of the altitude belonging to this time, and the cosine of the lat. by account; look for the sum among the log. sines, and take out the corresponding cosine, which is to be added to the log. of the change of declination in minutes. The sum is log. of the correction of the altitude furthest from noon. This is to be added to that altitude when the sun at the other observation is nearer the elevated pole; otherwise subtracted. The altitude so corrected is to be used instead of that observed, and the declination to be used is that at the observation nearest noon. The computed latitude found is to be corrected by Dr. Brinkley’s rules in the Nautical Al- manac 1822. It will rarely occur that the time is not known with sufficient exactness for this correction of the altitude made to obviate the effect of the change of declination. Thus the correction will be easily had for the direct method. 372 Astronomical and Nautical Collections. M. Delambre’s example, thus computed, will afford an in- stance of the indirect method leading to a true result, when exactly computed; contrary to the opinion of M. Delambre. EXAMPLE. Ist. Ob. PM. alt. 42° 14/,1 Interval Decl. 89.15’ N. Lat. by reckoning 2 Ob. PM.alt.16 5,8 3h=45° Increase of declin.=3! 489,45’ N, = nat sin. 42 14,1 67217 log. 3° 0.477 Sec. 80.15’ .. . . 10.0452 16 5,3 27726 ag ge Sec. 48.45... . . 10.18089 z 4.69897 39491 log. 4.59649 2',3. 0.352 ——— 0.41716 165.8 A 4.88438 A 4.88438 z AC sin 22° 30’ 0.41716 : _— 39555 log 4.59720 med. time 529.15’ sin 9,89803 ae ae SER i 22. 30 med. t. 52022',5 sin 9.89874 ! 22 30 t. fur. from noon 74.45 sin 9.984 —_ 16. 6 sec 10.017 t.n.noon29 52,5 net sin 4214,1 67217 48.45 cos 9.819 i 27665 Wo? dn, oaitio™ = OA ae ae 2 39555 se cos 9.875 8.82238 A 4.88438 | 8670 log 3.93800 cot 48945 9.993 tan 520.22 10.113 ; 67217 tan 8 15 9.161 cot. 14.56 10.574 7 75887 sin 499.21/,8 : 2)19.104 2)20.687 nh peER P sin 9.552 Q stan 10.343 40 38,2 —. 8 15 + Leos 9.970 sec tan 10.293 — a, 10.146 ; 150 lat. compd. 48 53,2 149.56’ sin 9.411 lat. by acc. 48 45 —Stan 10.116 -- 9.854 +D 8,2 log 0.914 —Csec 10.216 20.000 9.558 2 _ -__ —T 10.146 Corr. lat. —3,0 0-482 0.43-2 4853, 2 ees A.C. 9.568 Lat. 48.50,2 Had the estimated time been used, the enclosed part would have been unnecessary. Taking 48° 55 for the lat. by account, the second supposition of Delambre, the com- puted lat. will be 48° oi? 48 55° —D 7,8 log. 0.892 9.568 0.460 Corr. lat. + 2',9 47,2 Lat. 48 50,1 ——————_—_——_—_———— Supposing lat. by reckoning 479,50’ This lat. is inexact only by 1’, Tae coumaatel will be 49 23,6 although the lat. by account oe was inexact by 19. 1 33,6= +D 93,6 log 1.971 9.568 Corr? lat. 34,6 1.539 49 23,6 Lat. 48 49,0 373 iv. Vindication of the Connaissance des Tems, for 1812. It appears from an Article in the Annales de Chimie for April, that the error of the Table of Corrections of the places of the stars, in the Connaissance des Tems for 1812, consists only in the omission of the character © at the head of the second column. ‘This omission had led two astronomers of considerable reputation in London to point out the whole table to the Editor of these Collections as erroneous; and he is obliged to confess, that although he suspected the nature of the error, he had nor the sagacity to discover how simply it might be remedied, as perhaps he ought to have done. He had himself been put to great trouble and inconvenience for want of the errata page of the Connaissance des Tems for 1823, having received the volume without it: and he thought it due to the Editors to endeavour to supply the deficiency of their Booksellers or their Binders: never imagining that they could have supposed him so mean spirited, as to mention the circum- stance from jealousy or ill nature, or that they could have attri- - buted to him the silly vanity of seeking to claim reputation from having been the humble instrument of correcting a few errors of the press, That he was not deficient in sincere respect for the atithor of the table, or in gratitude for the labours of the French Astronomers, is sufficiently demonstrated by his remarks subjoined to the Lunar Observations computed and compared: and the many marks of friendship and kindness, which he has received from the Editors of the Annales de Chimie, have rendered it im- possible that he should voluntarily have made any observations, that he could have supposed likely to wound their feelings un- necessarily. He might indeed have fancied, that he had some little reason to complain, that no acknowledgment was made, in the errata page in question, of the source from which it had been derived: and still more that no return had been made for the com- munication, by a private indication of a similar nature. He has now, however, for the first time, to acknowledge a favour of this kind, in a public denunciation of no less than ‘“ 60 errors’? at once; to which he must himself add, extempore, 180 Vou. XI. 2C 374 Astronomical and Nautical Collections. more, of equal magnitude, beginning with the year 1821; the English computers having always neglected to attend to the observation of Mr. Burckhardt, contained in a note at the end of his Tables, that the Supplement of the node is to be diminished by 7’ whenever it is to be inserted in an Almanac. It may, however, be remarked, that this omission can never have a sensible effect in any computations, for which. the mean place of the node, as set down in the Almanac, is employed ; and that both these misconceptions might have been easily avoided, if the learned author of the tables had condescended to give a single example, of the manner in which a computer is to proceed, in employing every part of them. But it must be confessed, that it is difficult for a real mathematician to be aware of all the precautions, that are required, for avoiding the occurrence of errors of this sort in the hands of mere me- chanical labourers. v. The Force of Magnetism, compared with the Dip. Extracted from Captain Sazrne’s Appendix to Captain Parry’s Journal. 4to. London, 1821, p. exxxvill. ‘“‘ Having detailed the Observations on the intensity of the Magnetic Force, it may not be uninteresting briefly to examine, how far the results are consistent with the ratio in which it was expected that the magnetic force would be found to vary under different dips of the needle. “In the Rules and Tables for clearing the Compass from the regular Effect of the Ship’s Attraction, printed in 1819 by order of the Commissioners of Longitude, and published, with some alterations and additions, in the Journal of the Royal In- stitution for October, 1820, the magnetic force in the direction of the dipping needle is considered to vary, inversely, as the square root of four diminished by three times the square of the sine of the dip; and the force acting on a needle limited to a horizontal motion, inversely, as the square root of three increased by the square of the secant of the dip. “The Observations at Melville Island are entitled to principal On the Force of Magnetism. 875 consideration, as having been made under more favourable cir- cumstances than were presented by the other opportuiities of the voyage; they are, therefore, to be compared with those which were made in England. ‘